.'- 
 
 BR 759 ,C59 1839 
 Coleridge, Samuel Taylor 
 1772-1834 y ' 
 
 On the constitution of the 
 
 ""~ U ~ •*» -O ~ ■*- «. -U ^ 
 
fap7.Jiu. 
 
 
 ON THE 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF CHURCH AND STATE 
 
 [THIRD EDITION] 
 
 LAY SERMONS 
 
 [SECOND EDITION] 
 
 BY S. T. COLERIDGE 
 
I 
 
 ON THE CONSTITUTION OF THE 
 
 C HURCH AND STATE 
 
 ACCORDING TO THE IDEA 
 OF EACH 
 
 II 
 LAY SERMONS 
 
 I. THE STATESMAN'S MANUAL 
 
 II. " BLESSED ARE YE THAT SOW BESIDE 
 
 ALL WATERS" 
 
 BY SAMUEL TAYLOR COLERIDGE 
 
 EDITED FROM THE AUTHOR'S CORRECTED COPIES WITH M)TE> 
 BY HENRY NELSON COLERIDGE ESQ. II. A. 
 
 LONDON 
 
 WILLIAM PICKERING 
 1839 
 
" O that, our Clergy did but know and see that their tithes 
 and glebes belong to them as officers and functionaries of the 
 Nationalty, — as clerks, and not exclusively as theologians, and 
 not at all as ministers of the Gospel;— but that they are like- 
 wise ministers of the Church of Christ, and that their claims 
 and the powers of that Church are no more alienated or affected 
 by their being at the same time the Established Clergy, than 
 by the common coincidence of their being justices of the peace, 
 or heirs to an estate, or stock-holders ! The Romish divines 
 placed the Church above the Scriptures: our present divines 
 give it no place at all. 
 
 " But Donne and his great contemporaries had not yet learnt 
 to be afraid of announcing and enforcing the claims of the 
 Church, distinct from, and coordinate with, the Scriptures. This 
 is one evil consequence, though most unnecessarily so, of the 
 union of the Church of Christ with the National Church, and 
 of the claims of the Christian pastor and preacher with the 
 legal and constitutional rights and revenues of the officers of 
 the National Clerisy. Our Clergymen, in thinking of their legal 
 rights, forget those rights of theirs which depend on no human 
 law at all." — Literary Remains, vol. iii. p. 119. 
 
 WHlVfiXGHAM, TUOKS COURT, CHANCERY I A \ K. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 Page 
 Preface ... > ix 
 
 Advertisement i 
 
 Church and State, Part 1 7 
 
 Church of Christ 121 
 
 Church of Antichrist 141 
 
 Church and State, Part II 157 
 
 Notes on the History of Enthusiasm 176 
 
 Demosius and Mystes 184 
 
 Statesman's Manual 201 
 
 Appendix (A.) 257 
 
 (B.) 258 
 
 (C.) 284 
 
 (D.) 286 
 
 (E.) 292 
 
 " Blessed are ye that sow beside all Waters" 303 
 
 Introduction 305 
 
 
 '- 
 
 BTOH 
 
 ... 
 
. 
 
 
 » ■• 
 
 PREFACE - 
 
 TO THE CHURCH AND STATE. 
 
 A recollection of the value set upon the fol- 
 lowing little work by its Author,* combined with 
 a deep sense of the wisdom and importance of the 
 positions laid down in it, will, it is hoped, be 
 thought to justify the publication of a few preli- 
 minary remarks, designed principally to remove 
 formal difficulties out of the path of a reader not 
 previously acquainted with Mr. Coleridge's writ- 
 ings, nor conversant with the principles of his 
 philosophy. The truth is that, although the Au- 
 thor's plan is well defined and the treatment strictly 
 progressive, there is in some parts a want of de- 
 tailed illustration and express connexion, which 
 weakens the impression of the entire work on the 
 generality of readers. " If," says Mr. Maurice, 
 " I were addressing a student who was seeking to 
 make up his mind on the question, without being 
 previously biassed by the views of any particular 
 party, I could save myself this trouble by merely 
 referring him to the work of Mr. Coleridge, on 
 the Idea of Church and State, published shortly 
 
 * See Table Talk, 2nd edit. p. 5, note. 
 
X PREFACE TO THE 
 
 after the passing of the Roman Catholic Bill. The 
 hints respecting- the nature of the Christian Church 
 which are thrown out in that work are only suffi- 
 cient to make us wish that the Author had deve- 
 loped his views more fully ; but the portion of it 
 which refers to the State seems to me in the 
 highest degree satisfactory. When I use the word 
 satisfactory, I do not mean that it will satisfy the 
 wishes of any person who thinks that the epithets 
 teres atque rotundus are the highest that can be 
 applied to a scientific work ; who expects an author 
 to furnish him with a complete system which he 
 can carry away in his memory, and, after it has 
 received a few improvements from himself, can 
 hawk it about to the public or to a set of admiring 
 disciples. Men of this description would regard 
 Mr. Coleridge's book as disorderly and fragmen- 
 tary ; but those who have some notion of what 
 Butler meant when he said, that the best writer 
 would be he who merely stated his premisses, and 
 left his readers to work out the conclusions for 
 themselves; — those who feel that they want just 
 the assistance which Socrates offered to his scho- 
 lars — assistance, not in providing them with 
 thoughts, but in bringing forth into the light 
 thoughts which they had within them before ; — 
 these will acknowledge that Mr. Coleridge has 
 only deserted the common high way of exposition, 
 that he might follow more closely the turnings and 
 windings which the mind of an earnest thinker 
 makes when it is groping after the truth to which 
 
CHURCH AND STATE. XI 
 
 he wishes to conduct it. To them, therefore, the 
 book is satisfactory by reason of those very quali- 
 ties which make it alike unpleasant to the formal 
 schoolman and to the man of the world. And, 
 accordingly, scarcely any book, published so re- 
 cently and producing- so little apparent effect, has 
 really exercised a more decided influence over the 
 thoughts and feelings of men who ultimately rule 
 the mass of their countrymen."* 
 
 Under these circumstances, the following argu- 
 ment or summary of the fundamental and more 
 complicated portion of the work may be service- 
 able to the ingenuous but less experienced reader. 
 
 I. The constitution of the State and the Church 
 is treated according to the Idea of each. By the 
 Idea of the State or Church is here meant that 
 conception, which is not abstracted from any par- 
 ticular form or mode in which either may happen 
 to exist at any given time, nor yet generalized 
 from any number or succession of such forms or 
 modes, but which is produced by a knowledge or 
 sense of the ultimate aim of each. This idea, or 
 sense of the ultimate aim, may exist, and power- 
 fully influence a man's thoughts and actions, with- 
 out his being able to express it in definite words, 
 and even without his being distinctly conscious of 
 its indwelling. A few may possess ideas in this 
 
 * Kingdom of Christ, vol. iii. p. 2. A work of singular 
 originality and power. 
 
Xll PREFACE TO THE 
 
 meaning- ; — the generality of mankind are pos- 
 sessed by them. In either case an idea, so under- 
 stood, is in order of thought always and of necessity 
 contemplated as antecedent, — a mere conception, 
 strictly defined as an abstraction or generalization 
 from one or more particular forms or modes, is ne- 
 cessarily posterior, — in order of thought to the thing 
 thus conceived. And though the idea is in its nature 
 a prophecy, yet it must be carefully remembered 
 that the particular form, construction, or model, 
 best fitted to render the idea intelligible to a third 
 person, is not necessarily — perhaps, not most com- 
 monly — the mode or form in which it actually 
 arrives at realization. For in consequence of the 
 imperfection of means and materials in all the 
 works of man, a law of compensation and a prin- 
 ciple of compromise are perpetually active ; and it 
 is the first condition of a sound philosophy of State 
 to recognize the wide extent of the one, the ne- 
 cessity of the other, and the frequent occurrence 
 of both. 
 
 II. The word State is used in two senses, — a 
 larger, in which it comprises, and a narrower, in 
 which it is opposed to, the National Church. A 
 Constitution is the ideal attribute of a State in the 
 larger sense, as a body politic having the principle 
 of its unity within itself; and it is the law or 
 principle which prescribes the means and condi- 
 tions by and under which that unity is established 
 and preserved. The Constitution, therefore, of 
 this Nation comprises the idea of a Church and a 
 
CHURCH AND STATE. Xlll 
 
 State in the narrower sense, placed in simple an- 
 tithesis one to another. The unity of the State, 
 in this latter sense, results from the equipoise and 
 interdependence of the two great opposite interests 
 of every such State, its Permanence and its Pro- 
 gression. The permanence of a State is connected 
 with the land ; its progression with the mercan- 
 tile, manufacturing, distributive, and professional 
 classes. The first class is subdivided into what our 
 law books have called Major and Minor Barons ; — 
 both of these subdivisions, as such, being opposed 
 to the representatives of the progressive interest 
 of the nation, yet the latter of them drawing more 
 nearly to the antagonist order than the former. 
 Upon these facts the principle of the Constitution 
 of the State, in its narrower sense, was established. 
 The balance of permanence and progression was 
 secured by a legislature of two Houses ; the first, 
 consisting wholly of the Major Barons or land- 
 holders ; the second, of the Minor Barons or 
 knights, as the representatives of the remaining 
 landed community, together with the Burgesses, 
 as representing* the commercial, manufacturing^ 
 distributive, and professional classes — the latter 
 constituting the effectual majority in number. The 
 King", in whom the executive power was vested, 
 was in regard to the interests of the State, in its 
 antithetic sense, the beam of the scales. 
 
 This is the Idea of that State, not its history ; 
 it has been the standard or aim, the Lex Legum, 
 which, in the very first law of State ever promul- 
 
XIV PREFACE TO THE 
 
 gated in the land, was pre-supposed as the ground 
 of that first law. 
 
 III. But the English Constitution results from 
 the harmonious opposition of two institutions, the 
 State, in the narrower sense, and the Church. 
 For as by the composition of the one provision was 
 alike made for permanence, and progression in 
 wealth and personal freedom ; to the other wa. 
 committed the only remaining interest of the State 
 in its larger sense, that of maintaining and ad- 
 vancing the moral cultivation of the people them- 
 selves, without which neither of the former could 
 continue to exist. 
 
 IV. It was common, at least to the Scandinavian, 
 Keltic, and Gothic, with the Semitic tribes, if not 
 universal in all the primitive races, that in taking 
 possession of a new country, and in the divisioi 
 of the land into heritable estates among the indi 
 vidual warriors or heads of families, a Reserve 
 should be made for the Nation itself. The sum 
 total of these heritable portions is called the Pro- 
 priety, the Reserve the Nationalty. These wen 
 constituent factors of the commonwealth ; the ex- 
 istence of the one being the condition of the right 
 fulness of the other. But the wealth appropriatec 
 was not so entirely a property as not to remain 
 to a certain extent, national ; nor was the wealth 
 reserved so exclusively national as not to admit 
 an individual tenure. The settlement of the Na- 
 tionalty in one tribe only of the Hebrew confede- 
 racy, subservient as it was to a higher purpose, 
 
CHURCH AND STATE. XV 
 
 was in itself a deviation from the idea, and a main 
 cause of the comparatively little effect which the 
 Levitical establishment produced on the moral and 
 intellectual character of the Jewish people during 
 whole period of their existence as an inde- 
 pendent state. 
 
 V. The Nationalty was reserved for the main- 
 tenance of a permanent class or order, the Clerisy, 
 Clerks, Clergy, or Church of the Nation. This 
 class comprised the learned of all denominations, 
 the professors of all those arts and sciences, the 
 possession and application of which constitute the 
 civilization of a country. Theology formed only 
 a part of the objects of the National Church. The 
 theologians took the lead, indeed, and deservedly 
 so ; — not because they were priests, but because 
 under the name of theology were contained the 
 stu' > r of languages, history, logic, ethics, and a 
 phn sophy of ideas; because the science of the- 
 ology itself was the root of the knowledges that 
 civilize man, and gave unity and the circulating 
 sap of life to all other sciences; and because, 
 under the same name were comprised all the main 
 aids, instruments, and materials of National Educa- 
 tion Accordingly, a certain smaller portion of the 
 functionaries of the Clerisy were to remain at the 
 re ' ain heads of the humanities, cultivating and 
 enla.ging the knowledge already possessed, watch- 
 ing over the interests of physical and moral science, 
 and the instructors of all the remaining more nu- 
 merous classes of the order. These last were to 
 
XVI PREFACE TO THE 
 
 be distributed throughout the country, so as not to 
 leave even the smallest integral division without 
 a resident guide, guardian, and teacher, diffusing 
 through the whole community the knowledge in- 
 dispensable for the understanding of its rights, 
 and for the performance of the correspondent 
 duties. But neither Christianity, nor a fortiori, 
 any particular scheme of theology supposed to be 
 deduced from it, forms any essential part of the 
 being of a National Church, however conducive it 
 may be to its well being. A National Church may 
 exist, and has existed, without, because before, the 
 institution of the Christian Church, as the Levi- 
 tical Church in the Hebrew, and the Druidical 
 in the Keltic, constitutions may prove. 
 
 VI. But two distinct functions do not necessa- 
 rily imply or require two different functionaries : 
 on the contrary, the perfection of each may require 
 the union of both in the same person. And in the 
 instance now in question, as great and grievous 
 errors have arisen from confounding the functions 
 of the National Church with those of the Church 
 of Christ, so fearfully great and grievous will be 
 the evils from the success of an attempt to separate 
 them. 
 
 VII. In process of time, however, and as a na- 
 tural consequence of the expansion of the mercan- 
 tile and commercial order, the students and pro- 
 fessors of those sciences and sorts of learning, the 
 use and necessity of which were perpetual to the 
 Nation, but only occasional to the Individuals, gra- 
 
CHURCH AND STATE. XVH 
 
 dually detached themselves from the National Cle- 
 risy, and passed over, as it were, to that order, 
 with the growth and thriving* condition of which 
 their particular emoluments were found to increase 
 in equal proportion. And hence by slow degrees 
 the learned in the several departments of law, me- 
 dicine, architecture and the like, contributed to 
 form under the common name of Professional, an 
 intermediate link between the national clerisy and 
 the simple burgesses. 
 
 VIII. But this circumstance cannot alter the 
 tenure, or annul the rights, of those who remained, 
 and who, as members of the permanent learned 
 class, were planted throughout the realm as the 
 immediate agents and instruments in the work of 
 increasing and perpetuating the civilization of the 
 nation ; and who, thus fulfilling the purposes for 
 which the Nationalty was reserved, are entitled to 
 remain its usufructuary trustees. The proceeds of 
 the Nationalty might, indeed, in strictness, if it 
 coulu ever be expedient, be rightfully transferred 
 to functionaries other than such as are also minis- 
 ters of the Church of Christ. But the Nationalty 
 itself cannot, without foul wrong to the nation, be 
 alienated from its original purposes ; and those who 
 being duly appointed thereto, exercise the func- 
 tions and perform the duties attached to the Na- 
 tionalty, possess a right to the same by a title to 
 which the thunders from Mount Sinai might give 
 greater authority, but not additional evidence. 
 
 IX. Previously to the sixteenth century, large 
 
 b 
 
XV111 PREFACE TO THE 
 
 masses were alienated from the heritable proprieties 
 of the realm, and confounded with the National ty 
 under the common name of Church property. At 
 the period of the Reformation a re-transfer of these 
 took place, and rightfully so : but together with, 
 and under pretext of, this restoration to the State 
 of what properly belonged to it, a wholesale usur- 
 pation took place of a very large portion of that 
 which belonged to the Church. This was a sacri- 
 legious robbery on the Nation, and a deadly wound 
 on the constitution of the State at large. The 
 balance of the reserved and appropriated wealth of 
 the Nation was deranged, and thus the former be- 
 came unequal to the support of the entire burthen 
 of popular civilization originally intended to be 
 borne by it.* Barely enough — indeed, less than 
 enough — was left for the effectual maintenance of 
 that primary class of the Clerisy, which had not 
 fallen off into separate professions, but continued 
 to be the proper servants of the public in producing 
 
 * " Give back to the Church what the Nation originally 
 consecrated to its use, and it ought then to be charged with 
 the education of the people ; but half of the original revenue 
 has been already taken by force from her, or lost to her 
 through desuetude, legal decision, or public opinion : and 
 are those whose very houses and parks are part and parcel 
 of what the Nation designed for the general purposes of the 
 Clergy, to be heard, when they argue for making the Church 
 support, out of her diminished revenues, institutions, the in- 
 tended means for maintaining which they themselves hold 
 under the sanction of legal robbery ?" Table Talk, Pref. p. 
 xvi. 2nd edit. 
 
CHURCH AND STATE. xix 
 
 and reproducing', in preserving, promoting and per- 
 fecting all the necessary sources and conditions of 
 the civilization of the Nation itself.* 
 
 X. Though many things may detract from the 
 comparative fitness of individuals, or of particular 
 classes, for the trust and functions of the Nation- 
 alty, there are only two absolute disqualifications; 
 — allegiance to a foreign power, or the acknow- 
 ledgment of any other visible head of the National 
 Church but the King ; — and compulsory celibacy, 
 in connection with, and dependence on, a foreign 
 and extra-national head. 
 
 XI. The legitimate objects of the power of the 
 King and the two Houses of Parliament, as consti- 
 tuting the State, in its special and antithetic sense, 
 comprise, according to the idea, all the interests 
 and concerns of the Propriety, and rightfully those 
 alone. 
 
 XII. The King, again, is the Head of the Na- 
 tional Clerisy, and the supreme trustee of the 
 Nationalty ; the power of which in relation to its 
 proper objects is rightfully exercised, according to 
 the idea, by the King and the two Houses of Con- 
 vocation, and by them alone. The proper objects 
 of this power are mentioned in No. V. 
 
 XIII. The Coronation Oath neither does, nor 
 can, bind the conscience of the King in matters of 
 
 * See an approach to an expression of the Author's idea 
 of the National Church thus regarded, in the Bishop of 
 London's late Charge, Oct. 1838, p. 2, &c. 
 
XX PREFACE TO THE 
 
 faith. But it binds him to refuse his consent 
 (without which no change in the existing law can 
 be effected) to any measure subverting* or tending 
 to subvert the safety and independence of the Na- 
 tional Church, or which may expose the realm to 
 the danger of a return of that foreign Usurper, mis- 
 named spiritual, from which it has with so many 
 sacrifices emancipated itself. And previously to 
 the ceremonial act which announces the King the 
 only lawful and sovereign head of both the Church 
 and the State, this oath is administered to him re- 
 ligiously as the representative person and crowned 
 majesty of the Nation ; — religiously ; — for the mind 
 of the Nation, existing only as an idea, can act 
 distinguishably on the ideal powers alone, — that 
 is, on the reason and conscience. 
 
 The several other points comprised in the re- 
 mainder of this work, though of great interest and 
 importance, require neither analysis nor comment 
 for their perfect comprehension. But it will na- 
 turally occur to the reader to consider how far the 
 idea of the Church and of its relation to the State 
 presented in these pages coincides with either of 
 the two celebrated systems, those of Hooker and 
 War burton, which, under one shape or another, 
 have divided the opinions of thinking persons up to 
 the present day. 
 
 According to Hooker, the Church is one body, 
 — the essential unity of which consists in, and 
 
CHURCH AND STATE. XXI 
 
 t 
 
 is known by, an external profession of Chris- 
 tianity, without regard in any respect had to the 
 moral virtues or spiritual graces of any member 
 of that body. "If by external profession they 
 be Christians, then are they of the visible Church 
 of Christ : and Christians by external profession 
 they are all, whose mark of recognizance hath in 
 it those things which we have mentioned, yea, 
 although they be impious idolaters, wicked he- 
 retics, persons excommunicable, yea, and cast out 
 for notorious improbity. Such withal we deny not 
 to be the imps and limbs of Satan, even as long as 
 they continue such." (E. P. III. c. i. s. 7. Kebles 
 edit. vol. i. p. 431.) 
 
 With this Warburton and Coleridge in general 
 terms agree. (Alliance, &c. II. c. ii. s. 2. — Church 
 and State, p. 139.) And the words of the nineteenth 
 Article, though apparently of a more restricted 
 import, may be presumed not to mean less. 
 
 But, further, Hooker insists that the Church, 
 existing in any particular country, and the State 
 are one and the same society, contemplated in two 
 different relations, " A Commonwealth we name 
 it simply in regard of some regiment or policy 
 under which men live ; a Church for the truth of 
 that religion which they profess. * * * When we 
 oppose the Church, therefore, and the Common- 
 wealth in a Christian society, we mean by the 
 Commonwealth that society with relation unto all 
 the public affairs thereof, only the matter of true 
 religion excepted ; by the Church, the same society 
 
XX11 PREFACE TO THE 
 
 with only reference unto the matter of true reli- 
 gion, without any other affairs besides : when that 
 society, which is both a Church and a Common- 
 wealth, doth flourish in those things which belong 
 unto it as a Commonwealth, we then say, ' the 
 Commonwealth doth flourish ;' when in those things 
 which concern it as a Church, ' the Church doth 
 flourish;' when in both, then 'the Church and 
 Commonwealth flourish together." (E. P. VIII. 
 c. i. s. 5. vol. iii. p. 420 — ].) 
 
 To this view Warburton, as is well known, is 
 directly opposed. He argues that, although two 
 societies may be so closely related to each other 
 as to have one common sujjpositmn, — that is, the 
 same natural persons being exclusively members 
 of each, — the societies themselves, as such, are 
 factitious bodies, and each of them must therefore 
 of necessity be distinct in personality and will from 
 the other. " The artificial man, society, is much 
 unlike the natural ; who being created for several 
 ends hath several interests to pursue, and several 
 relations to consult, and may therefore be consi- 
 dered under several capacities, as a religious, a 
 civil, and a rational animal ; and yet they all make 
 but one and the same man. But one and the same 
 political society cannot be considered in one view, 
 as a religious — in another, as a civil — and in 
 another, as a literary — community. One society 
 can be precisely but one of these communities." 
 (Alliance, &c. ii. c. v.) Accordingly Warburton 
 insists, in opposition to Hooker, that the Puritan 
 
CHURCH AND STATE. XX111 
 
 premiss, — that the Church and the State are distinct 
 and originally independent societies, — was and is 
 the truth ; but he denies the Puritan inference, that 
 such independency must therefore be perpetual ; — 
 affirming: the existence of an alliance between these 
 two societies upon certain terms ; and a resulting mu- 
 tual inter-dependency of one on the other; whereby 
 the consequence from the position of the Puritans — 
 an imperium in imperio, or subjugation of the State 
 to the Church, — and the consequence from the 
 position of Hooker — the enslavement of the Church 
 by the State — are equally precluded. The Church 
 subordinates itself to the State upon faith of cer- 
 tain stipulations for support by the latter ; and if 
 the State violates, or withdraws from the fulfill- 
 ment of, those stipulations, the Church is thereby 
 remitted to her original independence.* 
 
 Now so far as the distinct inter-dependency of 
 the State and the Church is in question, Coleridge 
 agrees with Warburton. But the peculiarity of 
 his system, as expressly laid down in this work 
 and incidentally mentioned in many of his other 
 writings, — a peculiarity fruitful in the most im- 
 
 * It is worthy of remark that, if Warburton had lived in 
 these days, and had adhered to the principles advocated by 
 him in this treatise, he must several years ago have declared 
 the terms of convention between the Church and State in 
 this country violated by the latter, and the alliance of the 
 two at an end. See his third book, and especially the se- 
 cond chapter. It is to be observed, also, that Warburton 
 confounds the Christian with the Established Church as 
 much as Hooker. See B. II. c. hi. 3. 
 
XXIV PREFACE TO THE 
 
 portant consequences — is grounded on a distinction 
 taken between the visible Church of Christ, as 
 localized in any Christian country, and the National 
 or Established Church of that country. Distinc- 
 tion, be it observed, not separation, — for the two 
 ideas 
 
 — bene conveniunt, et in una sede morantur ; 
 
 they not only may co-exist in the same suppositum, 
 but may require an identity of subject in order to 
 the complete development of the perfections of 
 either. According" to Coleridge, then, the Chris- 
 tian Church is not a kingdom or realm of this 
 world, nor a member of any such kingdom or 
 realm ; it is not opposed to any particular State in 
 the large or narrow sense of the word ; it is in no 
 land national, and the national Reserve is not en- 
 trusted to its charge. It is, on the contrary, the 
 opposite to the World only ; the counterforce to 
 the evils and defects of States, as such, in the 
 abstract, — asking of any particular State neither 
 wages nor dignities, but demanding protection, 
 that is, to be let alone. 
 
 With so much therefore of the preceding and all 
 other theories as considers any branch of the 
 Church of Christ, as such, in the character of a 
 National Establishment, and arrogates to it, as 
 such, upon any ground, worldly riches, rank or 
 power — Coleridge is directly at variance. But we 
 have already seen (v. vi. vn. vin.) that there 
 is, nevertheless, in this and in almost every other 
 
CHURCH AND STATE. XXV 
 
 country raised above the level of barbarism a 
 Church, which is strictly and indefeasibly National; 
 and in the ideal history herein presented of its ori- 
 gin and primary elements, its endowment, its uses, 
 duties, ends, and objects, its relation to the State, 
 and its present representatives, a solemn warning 
 is recorded of the fatal consequences of either con- 
 founding it with, or separating it from, the visible 
 Church of Christ. 
 
 The Christian Church is a public and visible 
 community, having ministers of its own, whom the 
 State can neither constitute nor degrade, and whose 
 maintenance amongst Christians is as secure as 
 the command of Christ can make it : for so hath 
 the Lord ordained that they which preach the 
 Gospel should live of the Gospel. (I. Cor. ix. 
 14.) The National Church is a public and visible 
 community, having ministers whom the Nation, 
 through the agency of a Constitution, hath created 
 trustees of a reserved national fund, upon fixed 
 terms and with defined duties, and whom, in case 
 of breach of those terms or dereliction of those 
 duties, the Nation, through the same agency, may 
 discharge. " If the former be Ecclesia, the com- 
 munion of such as are called out of the World, 
 that is, in reference to the especial ends and pur- 
 poses of that communion ; the latter might more 
 expressively have been called Enclesia, or an 
 order of men chosen in and of the realm, and con- 
 stituting an estate of the realm." 
 
 Now there is no reason why the ministers of the 
 
XXVI PREFACE TO THE 
 
 one Church may not also be ministers of the other : 
 there are many reasons why they should be. 
 
 When therefore it is objected that Christ's king- 
 dom is not of this world, it is admitted to be true ; 
 but the text is shown to have no application in the 
 way of impeachment of the titles, emoluments or 
 authorities, of an institution which rightfully is of 
 this world, and would not answer the end of its 
 constitution if it ceased to belong to, and in a cer- 
 tain sense to sympathize with, the world. When 
 again it is alleged that " the best service which men 
 of power can do to Christ is without any more cere- 
 mony to sweep all and leave the Church as bare 
 as in the day it was first born" — " that if we give 
 God our hearts and affections, our goods are better 
 bestowed otherwise," * the spirit and reason of 
 that allegation are humbly submitted to God's own 
 judgment ; but it is at the same time confidently 
 charged in reply, that the notion of the Church, 
 as the established instructress of the people, being 
 improved in efficiency by the reduction of its mi- 
 nisters to a state bordering on mendicancy — can 
 in its flagrant folly be alone attributed to that 
 meanness of thought, which is at once the fruit 
 and the punishment of minds enslaved to party and 
 the world, and rendered indifferent to all truth by 
 an affected toleration of every form of error. When 
 further it is said that the Bishops of the Church of 
 Christ have no vocation to interfere in the legisla- 
 
 * Hooker, B. V. lxxiv. 3 7. 
 
CHURCH AXD STATE. XXV11 
 
 tion of the country, it is granted ; but with this 
 parallel assertion, that the Prelates of a National 
 Establishment, charged with the vast and awful task 
 of preserving, increasing and perpetuating the 
 moral culture of the people, have a call to be pre- 
 sent, advise, and vote in the National Council, 
 which can only cease to be a right when the re- 
 presentatives of the dearest national interest are 
 denied a voice in the national assembly ; and which 
 is no more impaired by the fact of those Prelates 
 sustaining in their individual persons another and 
 still more sacred character than by their being 
 members of a literary club or a botanical society. 
 When, finally, it is insisted to be contrary to jus- 
 tice to compel those who dissent from a religious 
 system either as to its doctrines or its forms of 
 worship, to contribute to the maintenance of its 
 priests and ministers, it is not denied ; but it is 
 withal maintained, that a national dedication of 
 funds for the support of a determinate class of men, 
 with the duty of national civilization to perform, 
 can no more be vacated or qualified by reason 
 of the voluntary secession of such dissenters from 
 that religious system, because the seceders under- 
 stand the character and obligation of that duty in 
 a way of their own, than the rights of Parliament 
 to levy taxes for the protection of our independence 
 from foreign aggression can be affected by the 
 dogma of rich philanthropists that war is unlawful, 
 and to pay a shilling towards its support an offence 
 against God. 
 
XXV111 PREFACE TO THE 
 
 But after all, it is urged, the funds set apart by 
 the Nation for the support of the National Church 
 are now in fact received by the ministers of the 
 Church of Christ in this country ! True ; but, ac- 
 cording- to the idea, — and that idea involves a his- 
 tory and a prophecy of the truth — it is not because 
 they are such ministers that they receive those 
 funds, but because, being* now the only representa- 
 tives, as formerly the principal constituents, of the 
 National Clerisy or Church, they alone have a 
 commission to carry on the work of national culti- 
 vation on national grounds — transmuting and in- 
 tegrating all that the separate professions have 
 achieved in science or art — but, with a range tran- 
 scending the limits of professional views, or local or 
 temporary interests, applying the product simple 
 and defecated, to the strengthening and subliming 
 of the moral life of the Nation itself. 
 
 Such a Church is a principal instrument of the 
 divine providence in the institution and govern- 
 ment of human society. But it is not that Church 
 against which we know that Hell shall not pre- 
 vail. 
 
 For when the Nation, fatigued with the weight 
 of dear and glorious recollections, shall resolve to 
 repudiate its corporate existence and character, and 
 to resolve its mystic unity into the breathing 
 atoms that crowd the surface of the land, — then 
 the national and ancestral Church of England will 
 have an end. But it cannot be destroyed before. 
 It lies within the folds of that marvellous Consti- 
 
CHURCH AND STATE. XXIX 
 
 tution, which patriots have out -watched the stars to 
 develope and to protect, and is not separable from it. 
 The time may come when it may seem fit to God 
 that both shall perish, for ever, or for a season ; — 
 and the sure token of that time will be, when the 
 divorce of scientific from religious education shall 
 have had its full work throughout the length and 
 the breadth of the land. Then although the Church 
 of England may fall, the Church of Christ in En- 
 gland will stand erect ; and the distinction, lost now 
 in a common splendour, will be better seen and 
 more poignantly felt by that darkening World to 
 which the Christian Church must become a more 
 conspicuous opposite. 
 
 ov y a p viv vvara 
 
 <pixng dvspojv ZnicTtv, ovok 
 fij'jv irore \&9a KaraKOi^icKTEL' 
 [ifyag iu r av ry 0£Q?, 
 ovie yqpdcrKti. 
 
 Lincoln's Inn, 
 
 Nov. 29, 1838. 
 
ON THE 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF THE CHURCH 
 AND STATE 
 
 ACCORDING TO THE IDEA OF EACH 
 
ADVERTISEMENT.* 
 
 The occasion of this little work will be sufficiently 
 explained by an extract from a letter addressed 
 by me to a friend a few years ago : — " You ex- 
 press your wonder that I, who have so often avowed 
 my dislike to the introduction even of the word, 
 religion, in any special sense, in Parliament, or 
 from the mouth of lawyer or statesman, speaking 
 as such ; who have so earnestly contended that 
 religion cannot take on itself the character of law 
 without ipso facto ceasing to be religion, and that 
 law could neither recognize the obligations of re- 
 ligion for its principles, nor become the pretended 
 guardian and protector of the Faith, without de- 
 generating into inquisitorial tyranny ; — that 1, who 
 have avowed my belief, that if Sir Matthew Hale's 
 doctrine, f that the Bible was a part of the law of 
 
 * To the first edition. — Ed. 
 t Hale's expression was '-' that Christianity is part of 
 
 ; b 
 
ADVERTISEMENT. 
 
 the land, had been uttered by a Puritan divine 
 instead of a Puritan judge, it would have been 
 quoted at this day, as a specimen of Puritanical 
 nonsense and bigotry ; — you express your wonder 
 that I, with all these heresies on my head, should 
 yet withstand the measure of Roman Catholic 
 emancipation, as it is called, and join in opposing 
 Sir Francis Burdett's intended Bill for the repeal 
 of the disqualifying statutes ! And you conclude 
 by asking : but is this true ? 
 
 " My answer is : Here are two questions. To 
 the first, namely, is it true that I am unfriendly to 
 what you call Catholic emancipation ? — I reply ; 
 No, the contrary is the truth. There is no incon- 
 sistency, however, in approving the thing, and 
 yet having my doubts respecting the manner ; in 
 desiring the same end, and yet scrupling the means 
 proposed for its attainment. When you are called 
 in to a consultation, you may perfectly agree with 
 another physician respecting the existence of the 
 malady and the expedience of its removal, and yet 
 
 the laws of England ; and therefore to reproach the Christian 
 religion, is to speak in subversion of the law." The King 
 v. Taylor. Ventr. 293, Keble, 607. But Sir Edward Coke 
 had many years before said that. " Christianity is part and 
 parcel of the Common Law.'' — Ed. 
 
ADVERTISEMENT. 
 
 differ respecting* the medicines and the method of 
 cure. To your second question, namely, am I un- 
 friendly to the present measure ? — 1 shall return an 
 answer no less explicit. Why I cannot return as 
 brief a one, you will learn from the following- pages 
 transcribed, for the greater part, from a paper drawn 
 up by me some years ago, at the request of a 
 gentleman* — (that I have been permitted to call 
 him my friend, I place among the highest honours 
 of my life), — an old and intimate acquaintance of 
 the late Mr. Canning's ; and which paper, had it 
 been finished before he left England, it was his 
 intention to have laid before the late Lord Liver- 
 pool. 
 
 " From the period of the Union with Ireland, 
 to the present hour, I have neglected no oppor- 
 tunity of obtaining correct information from books 
 and from men respecting the facts that bear on 
 the question, whether they regard the existing 
 state of things, or the causes and occasions of it ; 
 nor, during this time, has there been a single 
 speech of any note, on either side, delivered, or re- 
 ported as delivered, in either House of Parliament, 
 which I have not needfully and thoughtfully pe- 
 
 * The Ptigrht Honorable John Hookham Frere. — Ed. 
 
4 ADVERTISEMENT. 
 
 rused, abstracting and noting down every argu 
 ment that was not already on my list, which, I 
 need not say, has for many years past had but few 
 accessions to number. Lastly, my conclusion I 
 have subjected, year after year, to a fresh revisal, 
 conscious but of one influence likely to warp my 
 judgment : and this is the pain, I might with 
 truth add the humiliation, of differing from men 
 whom I loved and revered, and whose superior 
 competence to judge aright in this momentous 
 cause I knew and delighted to know ; and this 
 aggravated by the reflection, that in receding from 
 the Burkes, Cannings, and Lansdownes, I did not 
 move a step nearer to the feelings and opinions of 
 their antagonists. With this exception, it is 
 scarcely possible, I think, to conceive an individual 
 less under the influences of the ordinary disturbing 
 forces of the judgment than your poor friend ; or 
 from situation, pursuits, and habits of thinking, 
 from age, state of health and temperament, less 
 likely to be drawn out of his course by the under- 
 currents of hope, or fear, of expectation or wish. 
 But least of all, by predilection for any particular 
 sect or party : for wherever I look, in religion or 
 in politics, I seem to see a world of power and 
 talent wasted on the support of half truths, too 
 often the most mischievous, because least sus- 
 
ADVERTISEMENT. 5 
 
 pected, of errors. This may result from the spirit 
 and habit of partizanship, the supposed inseparable 
 accompaniment of a free state, which pervades all 
 ranks, and is carried into all subjects. But what- 
 ever may be its origin, one consequence seems to 
 be, that every man is in a bustle, and, except 
 under the sting of excited or alarmed self-interest, 
 scarcely any one in earnest." 
 
 I had collected materials for a third part under 
 the title of " What is to be done now?" — con- 
 sisting- of illustrations, from the history of the 
 English and Scottish Churches, of the consequences 
 of the ignorance or contravention of the principles, 
 which I have attempted to establish in the first 
 part of this work ; and of practical deductions 
 from these principles, addressed chiefly to the 
 English clergy. But I felt the embers glowing 
 under the white ashes ; and, on reflection, I have 
 considered it more expedient that the contents 
 )f this volume should be altogether in strict 
 conformity with the title ; that they should be, 
 md profess to be, no more and no other than 
 ideas of the constitution in Church and State. 
 And thus I may without inconsistency entreat 
 the friendly reader to bear in mind the dis- 
 tinction enforced in these pages, between the 
 exhibition of an idea, and the way of acting on 
 
6 ADVERTISEMENT. 
 
 the same ; and that the scheme or diagram best 
 suited to make the idea clearly understood may 
 be very different from the form in which it is or 
 may be most adequately realized. And if the 
 reasoning-s of this work should lead him to think 
 that a strenuous opponent of the former attempts 
 in Parliament may have given his support to the 
 Bill lately passed into law without inconsistency, 
 and without meriting the name of apostate, it may 
 be to the improvement of his charity and good 
 temper, and not detract a tittle from his good sense 
 or political penetration. 
 
PART I. 
 
 ON THE 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF THE CHURCH 
 
 AND STATE, 
 
 ACCORDING TO THE IDEA OF EACH. 
 
THERE IS A MYSTERY IN THE SOUL OF STATE, 
 
 WHICH HATH AN OPERATION MORE DIVINE 
 
 THAN OUR MERE CHRONICLERS DARE MEDDLE WITH. 
 
 (Troil. and Cress, act iv. sc. 3. altered. — Ed.) 
 
ON THE 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF THE CHURCH 
 AND STATE, 
 
 ACCORDING TO THE IDEA OF EACH. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 Prefatory remarks on the true import of the 
 word, Idea; and what the Author means by 
 the expression, " according to the idea." 
 
 The Act lately passed for the admission of Roman 
 Catholics into the Legislature* comes so near the 
 mark to which my convictions and wishes have 
 through my whole life, since earliest manhood, 
 unwaveringly pointed, and has so agreeably dis- 
 appointed my fears, that my first impulse was to 
 suppress the pages, which I had written while the 
 particulars of the Bill were yet unknown, in com- 
 pliance with the request of an absent friend, who 
 had expressed an anxiety " to learn from myself 
 the nature and grounds of my apprehension, that 
 
 * 10. G. IV. c. 7. " An Act for the relief of His Ma- 
 jesty's Roman Catholic subjects." — Ed. 
 
10 CONSTITUTION OF 
 
 the measure would fail to effect the object imme- 
 diately intended by its authors." 
 
 In answer to this I reply that the main ground 
 of that apprehension is certainly much narrowed ; 
 but as certainly not altogether removed. I refer 
 to the securities. And, let it be understood, that 
 in calling a certain provision hereafter specified, a 
 security, I use the word comparatively, and mean 
 no more, than that it has at least an equal claim 
 to be so called, with any of those that have been 
 hitherto proposed as such. Whether either one or 
 the other deserve the name ; whether the thing 
 itself is possible ; I leave undetermined. This 
 premised, I resume my subject, and repeat that 
 the main objection, from which my fears as to the 
 practical results of the proposed Bill were derived, 
 applies with nearly the same force to the Act it- 
 self; though the fears themselves have, by the 
 spirit and general character of the clauses, been 
 considerably mitigated. The principle, the solemn 
 recognition of which 1 deem indispensable as a 
 security, and should be willing to receive as the 
 only security — superseding the necessity, though 
 possibly not the expediency, of any other, but 
 itself by no other superseded — this principle is not 
 formally recognized. It may perhaps be implied 
 in one of the clauses (that which forbids the as- 
 sumption of local titles by the Romish bishops*) ; 
 
 * See ss. 24-5-6, prohibiting under a penalty the as- 
 sumption of the titles of the bishoprics and other ecclesiastical 
 
CHURCH AND STATE. 11 
 
 but this implication, even if really contained in the 
 clause, and actually intended by its frame rs, is not 
 calculated to answer the ends, and utterly inade- 
 quate to supply the place, of the solemn and formal 
 declaration which I had required, and which, with 
 my motives and reasons for the same, it will be the 
 object of the following- pages to set forth. 
 
 But to enable the reader fully to understand, 
 and fairly to appreciate, my arguments, I must 
 previously state (what I at least judge to be) the 
 true idea of a Constitution, and, likewise, of a 
 national Church. And in giving the essential 
 character of the latter, I shall briefly specify its 
 distinction from the Church of Christ, and its 
 contra-distinction from a third form, which is 
 neither national nor Christian, but irreconcileable 
 with, and subversive of, both. By an idea 1 
 mean (in this instance) that conception of a thing, 
 which is not abstracted from any particular state, 
 form, or mode, in which the thing" may happen to 
 exist at this or at that time ; nor yet generalized 
 from any number or succession of such forms or 
 modes ; but which is given by the knowledge of 
 its ultimate aim. 
 
 Only one observation I must be allowed to add ; 
 
 dignities and offices ; the exhibition of the insignia of Romish 
 priesthood, and the performance of any part of Romish 
 worship or religious service, elsewhere than in the usual 
 chapels. These enactments have been openly violated with 
 impunity from the passing of the Relief Act to this day. 
 —Ed. 
 
12 CONSTITUTION OF 
 
 that this knowledge, or sense, may very well exist, 
 aye, and powerfully influence a man's thoughts and 
 actions, without his being distinctly conscious of 
 the same, much more without his being competent 
 to express it in definite words. This, indeed, is 
 one of the points which distinguish ideas from con- 
 ceptions, both terms being used in their strict and 
 proper significations. The latter, that is, a con- 
 ception, consists in a conscious act of the under- 
 standing, bringing any given object or impression 
 into the same class with any number of other ob- 
 jects or impressions by means of some character 
 or characters common to them all. Concipimus, 
 id est, capimus hoc cum ilto ; — we take hold of 
 both at once, we comprehend a thing, when we 
 have learned to comprise it in a known class. On 
 the other hand, it is the privilege of the few to 
 possess an idea : of the generality of men, it might 
 be more truly affirmed that they are possessed 
 by it. 
 
 What is here said, will, I hope, suffice as a 
 popular explanation. For some of my readers, 
 however, the following definition may not, perhaps, 
 be useless or unacceptable. That which, contem- 
 plated objectively (that is, as existing externally 
 to the mind), we call a law ; the same contemplated 
 subjectively (that is, as existing in a subject or 
 mind), is an idea. Hence Plato often names ideas 
 laws ; and Lord Bacon, the British Plato, describes 
 the laws of the material universe as the ideas in 
 
CHURCH AND STATE. 13 
 
 nature.* Quod in natura naturata lex, in na- 
 tura naturante idea, dicitur. By way of illus- 
 tration take the following. Every reader of Rous- 
 seau, or of Hume's Essays, will understand me 
 when I refer to the original social contract, as- 
 sumed by Rousseau, and by other and wiser men 
 before him, as the basis of all legitimate govern- 
 ment. Now, if this be taken as the assertion of 
 an historical fact, or as the application of a con- 
 ception, generalized from ordinary compacts be- 
 tween man and man, or nation and nation, to an 
 alleged actual occurrence in the first ages of the 
 world ; namely, the formation of a first contract, 
 in which men should have covenanted with each 
 other to associate, or in which a multitude should 
 have entered into a compact with a few, the one 
 to be governed and the other to govern under 
 certain declared conditions; I shall run little 
 hazard at this time of day in declaring the pre- 
 tended fact a pure fiction, and the conception of 
 such a fact an idle fancy. It is at once false and 
 foolish. f For what if an original contract had 
 
 * Hce autem (divine? mentis idee) sunt vera signacula 
 Creatoris super creaturas, front in materie per lineas veras et 
 exquisitas imprimuntur et terminantur . Nov. Org. P. II. 124. 
 — Ed. 
 
 t I am not indeed certain that some operatical farce, 
 under the name of a social contract or compact, may not 
 have been acted by the Illuminati and constitution-manu- 
 facturers at the close of the eighteenth century ; a period 
 which how far it deserved the name, so complacently affixed 
 
14 CONSTITUTION OF 
 
 actually been entered into and formally recorded '( 
 Still I cannot see what addition of moral force 
 would be gained by the fact. The same sense of 
 moral obligation which binds us to keep it, must- 
 have pre-existed in the same force and in relation 
 to the same duties, impelling our ancestors to make 
 it. For what could it do more than bind the con- 
 tracting parties to act for the general good, ac- 
 cording to their best lights and opportunities ? 
 It is evident that no specific scheme or consti- 
 tution can derive any other claim to our reverence, 
 than that which the presumption of its necessity 
 or fitness for the general good shall give it ; and 
 which claim of course ceases, or rather is reversed, 
 as soon as this general presumption of its utility 
 has given place to as general a conviction of the 
 contrary. It is true, indeed, that from duties 
 anterior to the formation of the contract, because 
 they arise out of the very constitution of our hu- 
 manity, which supposes the social state — it is true, 
 that in order to a rightful removal of the institution 
 or law thus agreed on, it is required that the con- 
 viction of its inexpediency shall be as general as 
 the presumption of its fitness was at the time of 
 its establishment. This, the first of the two great 
 paramount interests of the social state, that of 
 permanence, demands ; but to attribute more than 
 
 to it by contemporaries, of ,l this enlightened age," may be 
 doubted. That it was an age of enlighteners no man will 
 deny. 
 
CHURCH AND STATE. 15 
 
 this to any fundamental articles, passed into law 
 by .my assemblage of individuals, is an injustice 
 to their successors, and a high offence against the 
 other great interest of the social state, namely, 
 its progressive improvement. The conception, 
 therefore, of an original contract, is, I repeat, 
 incapable of historic proof as a fact, and it is 
 senseless as a theory. 
 
 But if instead of the conception or theory of an 
 original social contract, we say the idea of an 
 ever-originating social contract, this is so certain 
 and so indispensable, that it constitutes the whole 
 ground of the difference between subject and serf, 
 between a commonwealth and a slave-plantation. 
 And this, again, is evolved out of the yet higher 
 idea of person in contra-distinction to thing ; all 
 social law and justice being grounded on the prin- 
 ciple that a person can never, but by his own 
 fault, become a thing, or, without grievous wrong, 
 be treated as such ; and the distinction consisting 
 in this, that a thing may be used altogether and 
 merely as the means to an end ; but the person 
 must always be included in the end : his interest 
 must form a part of the object, a mean to which 
 he by consent, that is, by his own act, makes 
 himself. We plant a tree and we fell it ; we 
 breed the sheep and we shear or we kill it ; in 
 both cases wholly as means to our ends; for 
 trees and animals are things. The wood-cutter 
 and the hind are likewise employed as means, but 
 on agreement, and that too an agreement of reci- 
 
16 CONSTITUTION OF 
 
 procal advantage, which includes them as well as 
 their employer in the end ; for they are persons. 
 And the government, under which the contrary 
 takes place, is not worthy to be called a state, if, 
 as in the kingdom of Dahomey, it be unprogres- 
 sive ; or only by anticipation, where, as in Russia, 
 it is in advance to a better and more man-worthy 
 order of things. Now, notwithstanding the late 
 wonderful spread of learning through the commu- 
 nity, and though the schoolmaster and the lecturer 
 are abroad, the hind and the woodman may, very 
 conceivably, pass from cradle to coffin without 
 having once contemplated this idea, so as to be 
 conscious of the same. And there would be even 
 an improbability in the supposition that they pos- 
 sessed the power of presenting this idea to the 
 minds of others, or even to their own thoughts, 
 verbally as a distinct proposition. But no man, 
 who has ever listened to laborers of this rank, in 
 any alehouse, over the Saturday night's jug of 
 beer, discussing the injustice of the present rate 
 of wages, and the iniquity of their being paid in 
 part out of the parish poor-rates, will doubt for a 
 moment that they are fully possessed by the idea. 
 In close, though not perhaps obvious, connec- 
 tion with this is the idea of moral freedom, as the 
 ground of our proper responsibility. Speak to a 
 young Liberal, fresh from Edinburgh or Hackney 
 or the hospitals, of free-will as implied in free- 
 agency, he will perhaps confess with a smile that 
 he is a necessitarian, — proceed to assure his hearer 
 
CHURCH AND STATE. 17 
 
 that the liberty of the will is an impossible concep- 
 tion, a contradiction in terms,* and finish by re- 
 commending a perusal of the works of Jonathan 
 Edwards or Dr. Crombie ; or as it may happen 
 he may declare the will itself a mere delusion, a 
 non-entity, and advise the study of Mr. Lawrence's 
 Lectures. Converse on the same subject with a 
 plain, single-minded, yet reflecting, neighbour, 
 and he may probably say, (as St. Augustine had 
 said long before him, in reply to the question, 
 What is time ?)■ " I know it well enough when 
 you do not ask me." But alike with both the 
 supposed parties, the self-complacent student, just 
 as certainly as with our less positive neighbour; 
 if we attend to their actions, their feelings, and 
 even to their words, we shall be in ill luck, if ten 
 minutes pass without having full and satisfactory 
 proof that the idea of man's moral freedom pos- 
 sesses and modifies their whole practical being, in 
 all they say, in all they fee], in all they do and are 
 done to ; even as the spirit of life, which is con- 
 tained in no vessel, because it permeates all. 
 Just so is it with the Constitution. f Ask any 
 
 * In fact, this is one of the distinguishing characters of 
 ideas, and marks at once the difference between an idea (a 
 truth-power of the reason) and a conception of the under- 
 standing ; namely, that the former, as expressed in words, 
 is always, and necessarily, a contradiction in terms. — See 
 Aids to Reflection. 3rd edit. p. 206. — Ed. 
 
 f I do not say, with the idea: for the constitution itself 
 is an idea. This will sound like a paradox or a sneer to 
 
 C 
 
18 CONSTITUTION OF 
 
 of our politicians what is meant by the Constitution, 
 and it is ten to one that he will give a false expla- 
 nation ; as for example, that it is the body of our 
 laws, or that it is the Bill of Rights ; or perhaps, 
 if he have read Thomas Payne, he may say that 
 we do not yet possess one ; and yet not an hour may 
 have elapsed, since we heard the same individual 
 denouncing", and possibly with good reason, this or 
 that code of laws, the excise and revenue laws, 
 or those for including* pheasants, or those for ex- 
 cluding* Roman Catholics, as altogether unconsti- 
 tutional ; and such and such acts of Parliament as 
 gross outrages on the Constitution. Mr. Peel, 
 who is rather remarkable for groundless and un- 
 lucky concessions, owned that the late Act broke 
 in on the Constitution of 1688 : whilst in 1689 a very 
 imposing* minority of the then House of Lords, 
 with a decisive majority in the Lower House of 
 Convocation, denounced this very Constitution of 
 1688, as breaking in on the English Constitution. 
 But a Constitution is an idea arising out of the 
 idea of a State ; and because our whole history 
 from Alfred onwards demonstrates the continued 
 influence of such an idea, or ultimate aim, on 
 the minds of our fore-fathers, in their characters 
 and functions as public men, alike in what they 
 
 those witli whom an idea is but another word for a fancy, 
 a something unreal ; but not to those who in the ideas con- 
 template the most real of all realities, and of all operative 
 powers the most actual. 
 
CHURCH AND STATE. 19 
 
 resisted and in what they claimed ; in the institu- 
 tions and forms of polity which they established, 
 and with regard to those, against which they more 
 or less successfully contended ; and because the 
 result has been a progressive, though not always 
 a director equable, advance in the gradual realiza- 
 tion of the idea ; and because it is actually, though 
 even because it is an idea not adequately, repre- 
 sented in a correspondent scheme of means really 
 existing; we speak, and have a right to speak, of 
 the idea itself, as actually existing, that is, as a 
 principle existing in the only way in which a 
 principle can exist, — in the minds and consciences 
 of the persons whose duties it prescribes, and 
 whose rights it determines. In the same sense 
 that the sciences of arithmetic and of geometry, 
 that mind, that life itself, have reality ; the Con- 
 stitution has real existence, and does not the less 
 exist in reality, because it both is, and exists as, 
 an idea. 
 
 There is yet another ground for the affirmation 
 of its reality ; that, as the fundamental idea, it is 
 at the same time the final criterion by which all 
 particular frames of government must be tried : 
 for here only can we find the great constructive 
 principles of our representative system — (I use the 
 term in its widest sense, in which the crown itself 
 is included as representing the unity of the people, 
 the true and primary sense of the word majesty) ; 
 — those principles, I say, in the light of which it 
 can alone be ascertained what are excrescences, 
 
20 CONSTITUTION OF 
 
 symptoms of distemperature, and marks of degene- 
 ration ; and what are native growths, or changes 
 naturally attendant on the progressive develop- 
 ment of the original germ, symptoms of immatu- 
 rity perhaps, but not of disease ; or at worst, mo- 
 difications of the growth by the defective or faulty, 
 but remediless, or only gradually remediable, qual- 
 ities of the soil and surrounding elements. 
 
 There are two other characters, distinguishing 
 the class of substantive truths, or truth-powers 
 here spoken of, that will, I trust, indemnify the 
 reader for the delay of the two or three short sen- 
 tences required for their explanation. The first 
 is, that in distinction from the conception of a 
 thing, — which being abstracted or generalized 
 from one or more particular states, or modes, is 
 necessarily posterior in order of thought to the 
 thing thus conceived, — an idea, on the contrary, 
 is in order of thought always and of necessity con- 
 templated as antecedent. In the idea or principle, 
 life, for instance, the vital functions are the result 
 of the organization ; but this organization supposes 
 and pre-supposes the vital principle. The bearings 
 of the planets on the sun are determined by the 
 ponderable matter of which they consist ; but the 
 principle of gravity, the law in the material crea- 
 tion, the idea of the Creator, is pre-supposed in 
 order to the existence, yea, to the very conception 
 of the existence, of matter itself. 
 
 This is the first. The other distinctive mark 
 may be most conveniently given in the form of a 
 
CHURCH AND STATE. 21 
 
 caution. We should be made aware, namely, that 
 the particular form, construction, or model, that 
 may be best fitted to render the idea intelligible, 
 and most effectually serve the purpose of an in 
 structive diagram, is not necessarily the mode or 
 form in which it actually arrives at realization. 
 In the works both of man and of nature — in the 
 one by the imperfection of the means and mate- 
 rials, in the other by the multitude and complexity 
 of simultaneous purposes — the fact is most often 
 otherwise. A naturalist, (in the infancy of physio- 
 logy, we will suppose, and before the first attempts 
 at comparative anatomy,) — whose knowledge had 
 been confined exclusively to the human frame, or 
 to that of animals similarly organized, and who by 
 this experience had been led inductively to the idea 
 of respiration, as the copula and mediator of the 
 vascular and the nervous systems, — might, very pro- 
 bably, have regarded the lungs, with their appur- 
 tenances, as the only form in which this idea, or 
 ultimate aim, was realizable. Ignorant of the 
 functions of the spiracula in insects, and of the 
 gills of fish, he would, perhaps, with great confi- 
 dence degrade both to the class of non-respirants. 
 But alike in the works of nature and the institu- 
 tions of man, there is no more effectual preserva- 
 tive against pedantry and the positiveness of scio- 
 lism, than to meditate on the law of compensation 
 and the principle of compromise ; and to be fully 
 impressed with the wide extent of the one, the 
 necessity of the other, and the frequent occur- 
 rence of both. 
 
22 CONSTITUTION OF CHURCH AND STATE. 
 
 Having- (more than sufficiently, I fear,) exercised 
 my reader's patience with these preparatory re- 
 marks, for which the anxiety to be fully understood 
 is my best excuse, though in a moment of less ex- 
 citement they might not have been without some 
 claim to attention for their own sake, I return to 
 the idea which forms the present subject, the 
 English Constitution, which an old writer calls, 
 " lex sacra, mater legum, than which nothing- 
 can be proposed more certain in its grounds, more 
 pregnant in its consequences, or that hath more 
 harmonical reason within itself: and which is so 
 connatural and essential to the genius and innate 
 disposition of this nation, it being formed (silk- 
 worm-like) as that no other law can possibly regu- 
 late it; a law not to be derived from Alured, or 
 Alfred, or Canute, or other elder or later promul- 
 gators of particular laws, but which might say of 
 itself, — When reason and the laws of God first 
 came, then came 1 with them." 
 
 As according to an old saying, ' an ill foreknown 
 is half disarmed,' I will here notice an inconveni- 
 ence in our language, which, without a greater 
 inconvenience, I could not avoid, in the use of the 
 term ' State' in a double sense ; a larger, in which 
 it is equivalent to realm and includes the Church, 
 and a narrower, in which it is distinguished quasi 
 per an tit he sin from the Church, as in the phrase, 
 Church and State. But the context, I trust, will 
 in every instance prevent ambiguity. 
 
IDEA OF A STATE. 23 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 The Idea of a State in the larger sense of the 
 term, introductory to the constitution of the 
 State in the narrower sense, as it exists in 
 this country. 
 
 A Constitution is the attribute of a State, that 
 is, of a body politic having the principle of its 
 unity within itself, whether by concentration of its 
 forces, as a constitutional pure monarchy, which, 
 however, has hitherto continued to be ens ratio- 
 nale, unknown in history ;* or, with which we are 
 alone concerned, by equipoise andinterdependency ; 
 — the lex equilibriij the principle prescribing* the 
 means and conditions by and under which this ba- 
 lance is to be established and preserved, being the 
 constitution of the State. It is the chief of many 
 blessings derived from the insular character and 
 circumstances of our county, that our social insti- 
 tutions have formed themselves out of our proper 
 needs and interests ; that long and fierce as the 
 birth-struggle and 'the growing pains have been, the 
 antagonist powers have been of our own system, 
 
 * Spinozee Tract. Pol. cap. vi. De Monorchia ex rationis 
 pncscripto. 
 
 y 
 
24 IDEA OF 
 
 and have been allowed to work out their final ba- 
 lance with less disturbance from external forces, 
 than was possible in the continental states. 
 
 Not yet enslaved, not wholly vile, 
 
 O Albion ! O my mother Isle ! 
 
 Thy valleys, fair as Eden's bowers, 
 
 Glitter green with sunny showers ; 
 
 Thy grassy uplands' gentle swells 
 
 Echo to the bleat of flocks ; 
 
 (Those grassy hills, those glittering dells, 
 
 Proudly ramparted with rocks ;) 
 
 And Ocean mid his uproar wild 
 
 Speaks safety to his Island-child ! 
 
 Hence for many a fearless age 
 
 Has social freedom loved the quiet shore, 
 
 Nor ever proud invader's rage 
 
 Or sack'd thy towers, or stain'd thy fields with gore.* 
 
 Now, in every country of civilized men, acknow- 
 ledging the rights of property, and by means of 
 determined boundaries and common laws united 
 into one people or nation, the two antagonist 
 powers or opposite interests of the State, under 
 which all other state interests are comprised, are 
 those of permanence and of progression. f 
 
 * Ode to the Departing Year. Poet. Works, vol. i. p. 
 126.— Ed. 
 
 t Let me call attention to the essential difference between 
 ' opposite' and ' contrary.' Opposite powers are always of 
 the same kind, and tend to union, either by equipoise or by 
 a common product. Thus the + and — poles of the mag- 
 net, thus positive and negative electricity, are opposites. 
 Sweet and sour are opposites ; sweet and bitter are contra- 
 
A STATE. 25 
 
 It will not be necessary to enumerate the several 
 causes that combine to connect the permanence of 
 a state with the land and the landed property. 
 To found a family, and to convert his wealth into 
 land, are twin thoughts, births of the same mo- 
 ment, in the mind of the opulent merchant, when 
 he thinks of reposing from his labours. From the 
 class of the novi homines he redeems himself by 
 becoming the staple ring of the chain, by which the 
 present will become connected with the past, and 
 
 ries. The feminine character is opposed to the masculine ; 
 but the effeminate is its contrary. Even so in the present 
 instance, the interest of permanence is opposed to that of 
 progressiveness ; but so far from being contrary interests, 
 they, like the magnetic forces, suppose and require each 
 other. Even the most mobile of creatures, the serpent, 
 makes a rest of its own body, and, drawing up its volumi- 
 nous train from behind, on this fulcrum propels itself on- 
 ward. On the other hand, it is a proverb in all languages, 
 that (relatively to man at least) what would stand still must 
 in fact be retrograde. 
 
 Many years ago, in conversing with a friend, I expressed 
 my belief that in no instance had the false use of a word 
 become current without some practical ill consequence, of 
 far greater moment than would primo aspect u have been 
 thought possible. That friend, very lately referring to this 
 remark, assured me that not a month had passed since then, 
 without some instance in proof of its truth having occurred 
 in his own experience ; and added, with a smile, that he 
 had more than once amused himself with the thought of a 
 verbarian Attorney- General, authorized to bring informa- 
 tions ex officio against the writer or editor of any work in 
 extensive circulation, who, after due notice issued, should 
 persevere in misusing a word. 
 
26 IDEA OF 
 
 the test and evidence of permanency be afforded. 
 To the same principle appertain primogeniture 
 and hereditary titles, and the influence which 
 these exert in accumulating large masses of pro- 
 perty, and in counteracting* the antagonist and 
 dispersive forces, which the follies, the vices, and 
 misfortunes of individuals can scarcely fail to sup- 
 ply. To this, likewise, tends the proverbial ob- 
 duracy of prejudices characteristic of the humbler 
 tillers of the soil, and their aversion even to benefits 
 that are offered in the form of innovations. But 
 why need I attempt to explain a fact which no 
 thinking man will deny, and where the admission 
 of the fact is all that my argument requires ? 
 
 On the other hand, with as little chance of con- 
 tradiction, I may assert that the progression of a 
 State in the arts and comforts of life, in the diffu- 
 sion of the information and knowledge, useful or 
 necessary for all ; in short, all advances in civili- 
 zation, and the rights and privileges of citizens, 
 are especially connected with, and derived from, 
 the four classes, the mercantile, the manufacturing, 
 the distributive, and the professional. To early 
 Rome, war and conquest were the substitutes for 
 trade and commerce. War was their trade.* As 
 
 * " War in republican Rome was the offspring of its in- 
 tense aristocracy of spirit, and stood to the state in lieu of 
 trade. As long as there was any thing ab extra to conquer, 
 the state advanced : when nothing remained but what was 
 Roman, then, as a matter of course, civil war began." — Ta- 
 ble Talk, 2nd edit. 169. — Ed. 
 
A STATE. 27 
 
 these wars became more frequent, on a larger 
 scale, and with fewer interruptions, the liberties of 
 the plebeians continued increasing" : for even the 
 sugar plantations of Jamaica would (in their pre- 
 sent state, at least), present a softened picture of 
 the hard and servile relation, in which the plebeians 
 at one time stood to their patrician superiors. 
 
 Italy is supposed at present to maintain a larger 
 number of inhabitants than in the days of Trajan 
 or in the best and most prosperous of the Roman 
 empire. With the single exception of the Eccle- 
 siastical State, the whole country is cultivated like 
 a garden. You may find there every gift of God 
 — only not freedom. It is a country rich in the 
 proudest recoids of liberty, illustrious with the 
 names of heroes, statesmen, legislators, philoso- 
 phers. It hath a history all alive with the virtues 
 and crimes of hostile parties, when the glories and 
 the struggles of ancient Greece were acted over 
 again in the proud republics of Venice, Genoa, 
 and Florence. The life of every eminent citizen 
 was in constant hazard from the furious factions 
 of his native city, and yet life had no charm out of 
 its dear and honored walls. All the splendors of 
 the hospitable palace, and the favor of princes, could 
 not soothe the pining of Dante or Machiavel, 
 exiles from their free, their beautiful Florence. 
 But scarcely a pulse of true liberty survives. It 
 was the profound policy of the Spanish and 
 Austrian courts to degrade by every possible means 
 the profession of trade; and even in Pisa and 
 
28 IDEA OF 
 
 Florence themselves to introduce the feudal pride 
 and prejudice of less happy, less enlightened, coun- 
 tries. Agriculture, meanwhile, with its attendant 
 population and plenty, was cultivated with increa- 
 sing- success ; but from the Alps to the Straits of 
 Messina the Italians became slaves. 
 
 I have thus divided the subjects of the State 
 into two orders, the agricultural or possessors of 
 land ; and the mercantile, manufacturing, dis- 
 tributive, and professional bodies, under the com- 
 mon name of citizens. And I have now to add 
 that by the nature of things common to every 
 civilized country, at all events by the course of 
 events in this country, the first order is subdivided 
 into two classes, which, in imitation of our old 
 law books, we may call the Major and Minor 
 Barons; both these, either by their interests or by 
 the very effect of their situation, circumstances, 
 and the nature of their employment, vitally con- 
 nected with the permanency of the State, its in- 
 stitutions, rights, customs, manners, privileges, 
 and as such, opposed to the second order, the 
 inhabitants of ports, towns, and cities, who are in 
 like manner and from like causes more especially 
 connected with its progression. I scarcely need 
 say, that in a very advanced stage of civilization, 
 the two orders of society will more and more 
 modify and leaven each other, yet never so com- 
 pletely but that the distinct character will remain 
 legible, and to use the words of the Roman Em- 
 peror, even in what is struck out the erasure will 
 
A STATE. 29 
 
 be manifest. At all times the Franklins, or the 
 lower of the two ranks of which the first order 
 consists, will, in their political sympathies, draw 
 more nearly to the antagonist order than the first 
 rank. On these facts, which must at all times 
 have existed, though in very different degrees 
 of prominence or maturity, the principle of our 
 Constitution was established. The total interests 
 of the country, the interests of the State, were 
 entrusted to a great Council or Parliament, com- 
 posed of two Houses. The first consisted exclu- 
 sively of the Major Barons, who at once stood as 
 the guardians and sentinels of their several estates 
 and privileges, and the representatives of the com- 
 mon weal. The Minor Barons, or Franklins, too 
 numerous, and indeed individually too weak, to 
 sit and maintain their rights in person, were to 
 choose among the worthiest of their own body 
 representatives, and these in such number as to 
 form an important though minor proportion of a 
 second House, the majority of which was formed 
 by the representatives of the second order chosen 
 by the cities, ports, and boroughs ; which repre- 
 sentatives ought on principle to have been elected 
 not only by, but from among, the members of the 
 manufacturing, mercantile, distributive, and pro- 
 fessional classes. 
 
 These four last mentioned classes, by an arbi- 
 trary but convenient use of the phrase, I will 
 designate by the name of the Personal Interest, 
 as the exponent of all moveable and personal 
 
30 IDEA OF 
 
 possessions, including- skill and acquired know- 
 ledge, the moral and intellectual stock in trade of 
 the professional man and the artist, no less than 
 the raw materials, and the means of elaborating-, 
 transporting, and distributing them. 
 
 Thus in the theory of the Constitution it was pro- 
 vided that even though both divisions of the 
 Landed Interest should combine in any legislative 
 attempt to encroach on the rights and privileges 
 of the Personal Interest, yet the representatives 
 of the latter forming the clear and effectual ma- 
 jority of the lower House, the attempt must be 
 abortive ; the majority of votes in both Houses 
 being indispensable in order to the presentation of 
 a bill for the completory act, — that is, to make it 
 a law of the land. By force of the same me- 
 chanism must every attack be bafHed that should 
 be made by the representatives of the minor land- 
 holders, in concert with the burgesses, on the ex- 
 isting rights and privileges of the peerage, and of 
 the hereditary aristocracy, of which the peerage 
 is the summit and the natural protector. Lastly, 
 should the nobles join to invade the rights and 
 franchises of the Franklins and the Yeomanry, 
 the sympathy of interest, by which the inhabitants 
 of cities, towns, and sea-ports are linked to the 
 great body of their agricultural fellow-commoners, 
 who supply their markets and form their principal 
 customers, could not fail to secure a united and 
 successful resistance. Nor would this affinity of 
 interest find a slight support in the sympathy of 
 
A STATE. 31 
 
 feeling- between the burgess senators and the county 
 representatives, as members of the same House ; 
 and in the consciousness which the former have of 
 the dignity conferred on them by the latter. For 
 the notion of superior dignity will always be at- 
 tached in the minds of men to that kind of property 
 with which they have most associated the idea of 
 permanence : and the land is the synonyme of 
 country. 
 
 That the burgesses Avere not bound to elect repre- 
 sentatives from among their own order, individuals 
 bona fide belonging to one or other of the four 
 divisions above enumerated ; that the elective fran- 
 chise of the cities, towns, and ports, first invested 
 with borough-rights, was not made conditional, 
 and to a certain extent at least dependent, on 
 their retaining the same comparative wealth and 
 independence, and rendered subject to a periodical 
 revisal and re-adjustment ; that, in consequence 
 of these and other causes, the very weights in- 
 tended for the effectual counterpoise of the great 
 land-holders, have, in the course of events, been 
 shifted into the opposite scale ; that they now 
 constitute a large proportion of the political power 
 and influence of the very class of men whose 
 personal cupidity and whose partial views of the 
 Landed Interest at large they were meant to keep 
 in check ; — these things are no part of the Con- 
 stitution, no essential ingredients in the idea, but 
 apparent defects and imperfections in its reali- 
 zation ; which, however, we need neither regret 
 
32 IDEA OF 
 
 nor set about amending-, till we have seen whether 
 an equivalent force has not arisen to supply the 
 deficiency ; — a force great enough to have de- 
 stroyed the equilibrium, , had not such a transfer 
 taken place previously to, or at the same time with, 
 the operation of the new forces. Roads, canals, 
 machinery, the press, the periodical and daily 
 press, the might of public opinion, the consequent 
 increasing desire of popularity among* public men 
 and functionaries of every description, and the 
 increasing necessity of public character, as the 
 means or condition of political influence ; — I need 
 but mention these to stand acquitted of having 
 started a vague and naked possibility in extenuation 
 of an evident and palpable abuse. 
 
 But whether this conjecture be well or ill 
 grounded, the principle of the Constitution remains 
 the same. That harmonious balance of the two 
 great correspondent, at once supporting and 
 counterpoising, interests of the State, its perma- 
 nence, and its progression ; that balance of the 
 Landed and the Personal Interests was to be secured 
 by a legislature of two Houses ; the first consisting 
 wholly of barons or landholders, permanent and 
 hereditary senators ; the second of the knights or 
 minor barons, elected by, and as the representatives 
 of, the remaining landed community, together with 
 the burgesses, the representatives of the commer- 
 cial, manufacturing, distributive, and professional 
 classes, — the latter (the elected burgesses) consti- 
 tuting the major number. The King, meanwhile, 
 
A STATE. 33 
 
 in whom the executive power is vested, it will suf- 
 fice at present to consider as the beam of the con- 
 stitutional scales. A more comprehensive view of 
 the kingly office must be deferred, till the remain- 
 ing" problem (the idea of a national Church) has been 
 solved. 
 
 I here again entreat the reader to bear in mind 
 what I have before endeavoured to impress on him, 
 that I am not g-ivins: an historical account of the 
 legislative body ; nor can I be supposed to assert 
 that such was the earliest mode or form in which 
 the national council was constructed. My asser- 
 tion is simply this, that its formation has advanced 
 in this direction. The line of evolution, however 
 sinuous, has still tended to this point, sometimes 
 with, sometimes without, not seldom, perhaps, 
 against, the intention of the individual actors, but 
 always as if a power, greater and better than the 
 men themselves, had intended it for them. Nor 
 let it be forgotten that every new growth, every 
 power and privilege, bought or extorted, has uni- 
 formly been claimed by an antecedent right ; not 
 acknowledged as a boon conferred, but both de- 
 manded and received as what had always belonged 
 to them, though withholden by violence and the in- 
 jury of the times : and this too, in cases, where, 
 if documents and historical records, or even consis- 
 tent traditions, had been required in evidence, the 
 monarch would have had the better of the argument. 
 But, in truth, it was no more than a practical way 
 of saving : " this or that is contained in the idea of 
 
 D 
 
34 IDEA OF 
 
 our government, and it is a consequence of the 
 lex, mater legum, which, in the very first law of 
 state ever promulgated in the land, was pre-sup- 
 posed as the ground of that first law." 
 
 Before I conclude this part of my subject, I must 
 press on the reader's attention, that the preceding 
 is offered only as the constitutional idea of the State. 
 In order to correct views respecting the constitu- 
 tion, in the more enlarged sense of the term, namely, 
 the constitution of the nation, we must, in addi- 
 tion to a grounded knowledge of the State, have the 
 right idea of the national Church. These are two 
 poles of the same magnet; the magnet itself, 
 which is constituted by them, is the constitution 
 of the nation. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 On the National Church. 
 
 The reading of histories may dispose a man to 
 satire ; but the science of history, history studied 
 in the light of philosophy, as the great drama of 
 an ever unfolding Providence, has a very dfferent 
 effect. It infuses hope and reverential thoughts of 
 man and his destination. It will, therefore, I trust, 
 be no unwelcome result, if it should be made appear 
 
THE NATIONAL CHURCH. 35 
 
 that something 1 deeper and better than priestcraft 
 and priest-ridden ignorance was at the bottom of 
 the phrase, Church and State, and entitled it to be 
 the form in which so many thousands of the men 
 of England clothed the wish for their country's weal. 
 But many things have conspired to draw off atten- 
 tion from its true origin and import, and have lead 
 us to seek the reasons for thus connecting the two 
 words in facts and motives that lie nearer the sur- 
 face. I will mention one only, because, though 
 less obvious than many other causes that have 
 favoured the general misconception on this point, 
 and though its action is indirect and negative, it 
 is by no means the least operative. The imme- 
 diate effect, indeed, may be confined to the men of 
 education. But what influences these will finally 
 influence all. I am referring to the noticeable fact 
 arising 1 out of the system of instruction pursued in 
 all our classical schools and universities, that the 
 annals of ancient Greece, and of republican and 
 imperial Rome, though they are, in truth, but bril- 
 liant exceptions from history generally, do yet, partly 
 from the depth and intensity of all early impressions, 
 and in part from the number and splendour of in- 
 dividual characters and particular events and ex- 
 ploits, so fill the imagination as almost to be, — 
 during the period when the groundwork of our 
 minds is principally formed, and the direction given 
 to our modes of thinking, — what we mean by 
 history. Hence things, of which no instance or 
 analogy is recollected in the customs, policy, and 
 
36 IDEA OF 
 
 jurisprudence of Greece and Rome, lay little hole 
 on our attention. Among- these, I know not one 
 more worthy of notice than the principle of the 
 division of property, which, if not, as I however 
 think, universal in the earliest ages, was, at all 
 events, common to the Scandinavian, Keltic, and 
 Gothic tribes with the Semitic, or the tribes de- 
 scended from Shem. 
 
 It is not the least among the obligations which 
 the antiquarian and the philosophic statist owe to 
 a tribe of the last-mentioned race, the Hebrew, 
 that in the institutes of their great legislator, 
 who first formed them into a state or nation, they 
 have preserved for us a practical illustration of the 
 principle in question, which was by no means pe- 
 culiar to the Hebrew people, though in their case 
 it received a peculiar sanction. 
 
 To confound the inspiring spirit with the inform- 
 ing word, and both with the dictation of sentences 
 and formal propositions ; and to confine the office 
 and purpose of inspiration to the miraculous immis- 
 sion or infusion of novelties, res nusquam prius 
 tisce vel auditce, — these, alas ! are the current errors 
 of Protestants without learning, and of bigots in 
 spite of it ; but which I should have left unnoticed, 
 but for the injurious influence which certain notions 
 in close connexion with these errors have had on 
 the present subject. The notion, I mean, that the 
 Levitical institution was not only enacted by an 
 inspired law-giver, not only a work of revealed 
 wisdom, (which who denies ?) but that it was a part 
 of revealed religion, having its origin in this par- 
 
THE NATIONAL CHURCH. 37 
 
 ticular revelation, as a something- which could not 
 have existed otherwise ; yet, on the other hand, a 
 part of the religion that had been abolished by 
 Christianity. Had these reasoners contented them- 
 selves with asserting- that it did not belong to the 
 Christian religion, they would have said nothing 
 more than the truth ; and for this plain reason, 
 that it forms no part of religion at all in the 
 Gospel sense of the word, — that is, religion as 
 contra-distinguished from law ; the spiritual as 
 contra-distinguished from the temporal or political. 
 In answer to all these notions, it is enough to 
 say that not the principle itself, but the superior 
 wisdom with which the principle was carried into 
 effect, the greater perfection of the machinery, 
 forms the true distinction, the peculiar worth, of 
 the Hebrew constitution. The principle itself was 
 common to Goth and Kelt, or rather, I would say, 
 to all the tribes that had not fallen off to either of 
 the two aphelia, or extreme distances from the 
 generic character of man, the wild or the bar- 
 barous state ; but who remained either constituent 
 parts or appendages of the stirps generosa seu 
 historica, as a philosophic friend has named that 
 portion of the Semitic and Japetic races which had 
 not degenerated below the conditions of pro- 
 gressive civilization : — it was, I say, common to all 
 the primitive races, that in taking possession of a 
 new country, and in the division of the land into 
 heritable estates among the individual warriors or 
 heads of families, a reserve should be made for the 
 nation itself. 
 
33 idea or 
 
 The sum total of these heritable portions, ap- 
 propriated each to an individual lineage, I take 
 leave to name the Propriety ; and to call the reserve 
 above-mentioned the Nationalty ; and likewise to 
 employ the term wealth in that primary and wide 
 sense which it retains in the term, commonwealth. 
 In the establishment, then, of the landed pro- 
 prieties, a nationalty was at the same time consti- 
 tuted ; as a wealth not consisting 1 of lands, but yet 
 derivative from the land, and rightfully inseparable 
 from the same. These, the Propriety and the Na- 
 tionalty, were the two constituent factors, the op- 
 posite, but correspondent and reciprocally sup- 
 porting, counterweights of the commonwealth ; 
 the existence of the one being the condition and 
 the perfecting of the rightfulness of the other. 
 Now as all polar forces, — that is, opposite, not con- 
 trary, powers, — are necessarily unius generis, ho- 
 mogeneous, so in the present instance each is 
 that which it is called, relatively, by predominance 
 of the one character or quality, not by the absolute 
 exclusion of the other. The wealth appropriated 
 was not so entirely a property as not to remain, to 
 a certain extent, national ; nor was the wealth re- 
 served so exclusively national as not to admit of 
 individual tenure. It was only necessary that the 
 mode and origin of the tenure should be different, 
 and, as it were, in antithesi. If the one be he- 
 reditary, the other must be elective ; if the one 
 be lineal, the other must be circulative. 
 
TflE HEBREW COMMONWEALTH. 39 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 Illustration of the preceding Chapter from his- 
 tory, and principally from that of the Hebrew 
 Commonwealth . 
 
 In the unfolding and exposition of any idea we 
 naturally seek assistance and the means of illus- 
 tration from the historical instance, in which it has 
 been most nearly realized, or of which we possess 
 the most exact and satisfactory records. Both of 
 these recommendations are found in the formation 
 of the Hebrew Commonwealth. But in availing 
 ourselves of examples from history there is always 
 danger lest that which was to assist us in at- 
 taining a clear insight into truth should be the 
 means of disturbing or falsifying it, so that we at- 
 tribute to the object what was but the effect of 
 flaws or other accidents in the glass, through 
 which we looked at it. To secure ourselves from 
 this danger, we must constantly bear in mind that 
 in the actual realization of every great idea or 
 principle there will always exist disturbing forces, 
 modifying the product, either from the imperfec- 
 tion of the agents, or from especial circumstances 
 overruling them ; or from the defect of the ma- 
 terials ; or lastly, and which most particularly ap- 
 
40 IDEA OF 
 
 plies to the instances I have here in view, from 
 the co-existence of some yet greater idea, some 
 yet more important purpose, with which the former 
 must be combined, but likewise subordinated. 
 Nevertheless, these are no essentials of the idea, 
 jio exemplary parts in the particular construction 
 adduced for its illustration. On the contrary, they 
 are deviations from the idea, which we must ab- 
 stract and put aside before we can make a safe 
 and fearless use of the example. 
 
 Such, for instance, was the settlement of the 
 nationalty in one tribe, which, to the exclusion of 
 the other eleven divisions of the Hebrew confe- 
 deracy, was to be invested with its rights, and to 
 be alone capable of discharging its duties. This 
 was, indeed, in some measure, corrected by the 
 institution of the Nabim, or Prophets, who might 
 be of any tribe, and who formed a numerous body, 
 uniting the functions and three-fold character of 
 the Roman Censors, the Tribunes of the people, 
 and the sacred college of Augurs ; protectors of 
 the nation and privileged state-moralists, whom 
 Milton has already compared to the orators of the 
 Greek democracies.* Still the most satisfactory 
 
 * The lines which our sage and learned poet puts in the 
 Saviour's mouth, both from their truth and from their appo- 
 siteness to the present subject, well deserve to be quoted : — 
 
 " Their orators thou then extoll'st, as those 
 The top of eloquence : — Statists indeed 
 And lovers of their country as may seem ; 
 But herein to our prophets far beneath, 
 
THE HEBREW COMMONWEALTH. 41 
 
 justification of this exclusive policy is to be found, 
 I think, in the fact, that the Jewish theocracy 
 itself was but a mean to a further and greater end; 
 and that the effects of the policy were subordinated 
 to an interest far more momentous than that of 
 any single kingdom or commonwealth could be. 
 The unfitness and insufficiency of the Jewish cha- 
 racter for the reception and execution of the great 
 legislator's scheme were not less important parts 
 of the sublime purpose of Providence, in the sepa- 
 ration of the chosen people, than their characte- 
 ristic virtues. Their frequent relapses, and the 
 never-failing return of a certain number to the na- 
 tional faith and customs, were alike subservient to 
 the ultimate object, the final cause, of the Mosaic 
 dispensation. Without pain or reluctance, there- 
 fore, I should state this provision, by which a par- 
 ticular lineage was made a necessary qualification 
 for the trustees and functionaries of the reserved 
 nationalty, as the main cause of the comparatively 
 little effect, which the Levitical establishment pro- 
 duced on the moral and intellectual character of 
 the Jewish people during the whole period of their 
 existence as an independent state. 
 
 As men divinely taught and better teaching 
 
 The solid rules of civil government, 
 
 In their majestic, unaffected style, 
 
 Than all the oratory of Greece and Rome. 
 
 In them is plainest taught and easiest learnt 
 
 "What mates a nation happy, and keeps it so.'' 
 
 Par. Reg. B. iv.' 
 
42 IDEA OF 
 
 With this exception, however, the scheme of the 
 Hebrew polity may be profitably used as the diagram 
 or illustrative model of a principle which actuated 
 the primitive races generally under similar circum- 
 stances. With this and one other exception, 
 likewise arising- out of the peculiar purpose of 
 Providence, namely, the discouragement of trade 
 and commerce in the Hebrew policy, — a principle 
 so inwoven in the whole fabric, that the revolution 
 in this respect effected by Solomon had, perhaps, 
 no small share in the quickly succeeding disso- 
 lution of the confederacy, — it may be profitably 
 considered even under existing circumstances. 
 
 And first let me observe that with the Keltic, 
 Gothic, and Scandinavian, equally as with the 
 Hebrew, tribes property by absolute right existed 
 only in a tolerated alien ; and that there was 
 everywhere a prejudice against the occupation ex- 
 pressly directed to its acquirement, namely, the 
 trafficking with the current representatives of wealth. 
 Even in that species of possession, in which the 
 right of the individual was the prominent relative 
 character, the institution of the Jubilee provided 
 against its degenerating into the merely personal ; 
 reclaimed it for the State, that is, for the line, the 
 heritage, as one of the permanent units or integral 
 parts, the aggregate of which constitutes the State, 
 in that narrower and especial sense in which it has 
 been distinguished from the nation. And to these 
 permanent units the calculating and governing 
 
THE HEBREW COMMONWEALTH. 4o 
 
 mind of the State directs its attention, even as it is 
 the depths, breadths, bays, and windings or reaches 
 of a river that are the subject of the hydrographer, 
 not the water-drops that at any one moment con- 
 stitute the stream. And on this point the greatest 
 stress should be laid ; this should be deeply im- 
 pressed, and carefully borne in mind, that the 
 abiding interests, the estates, and ostensible tangible 
 properties, not the persons as persons, are the 
 proper subjects of the State in this sense, or of the 
 power of the parliament or supreme council, as the 
 representatives and plenipotentiaries of the State, 
 that is, of the Propriety, and in distinction from the 
 commonwealth, in which I comprise both the Pro- 
 priety and the Nationalty. 
 
 And here let me farther remark that the records 
 of the Hebrew polity are rendered far less instruc- 
 tive as lessons of political wisdom by the disposition 
 to regard the Jehovah in that universal and spiritual 
 acceptation, in which we use the word as Chris- 
 tians. For relatively to the Jewish polity the 
 Jehovah was their covenanted king : and if we 
 draw any inference from the former or Christian 
 sense of the term, it should be this; — that God is 
 the unity of every nation ; that the convictions and 
 the will, which are one, the same, and simulta- 
 neously acting in a multitude of individual agents, 
 are not the birth of any individual ; that when the 
 people speak loudly and unanimously, it is from 
 their being strongly impressed by the godhead or 
 
44 IDEA OF 
 
 the demon. Only exclude the (by no means ex- 
 travagant) supposition of a demoniac possession, 
 and then vox populi vox Dei.* So thought Sir 
 Philip Sidney, who in the great revolution of the 
 Netherlands considered the universal and simulta- 
 neous adoption of the same principles as a proof 
 of the divine presence ; and on that belief, and on 
 that alone, grounded his assurance of its successful 
 result. And that 1 may apply this to the present 
 subject, it was in the character of the king, as the 
 majesty or symbolic unity of the whole nation, 
 both of the State and of the persons ; it was in the 
 name of the king, in whom both the Propriety and 
 the National ty ideally centered, and from whom, 
 as from a fountain, they are ideally supposed to 
 flow ; it was in the name of the king, that the pro- 
 clamation throughout the land, by sound of trumpet, 
 was made to all possessors : The land is not yours, 
 saith the Lord, the land is mine. To you I lent 
 it. The voice of the trumpets is not, indeed, heard 
 in this country. But no less intelligibly is it 
 declared by the spirit and history of our laws that 
 the possession of a property, not connected with 
 
 * " I never said that the vox populi was of course the vox 
 Dei. It may be ; but it may be, and with equal probability 
 a priori, vox Diaboli. That the voice of ten millions of men 
 calling for the same thing is a spirit, 1 believe ; but whether 
 that be a spirit of Heaven or Hell, I can only know by trying 
 the thing called for by the prescript of reason and God's 
 will." Table Talk, 2nd edit. p. 163. — £d. 
 
THE NATIONAL CHURCH. 45 
 
 especial duties, a property not fiduciary or official, 
 but arbitrary and unconditional, was in the sig-ht 
 of our forefathers the brand of a Jew and an alien ; 
 not the distinction, nor the right, nor the honour, 
 of an English baron or gentleman. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 Of the Church of England, or National Clergy, 
 according to the Constitution; its characteristic 
 ends, purposes and functions ; and of the per - 
 so?is comprehended under the Clergy, or the 
 functionaries of the National Church. 
 
 After these introductory preparations, I can have 
 no difficulty in setting- forth the right idea of a 
 national Church as in the language of Queen 
 Elizabeth the third great venerable estate of the 
 realm ; the first being the estate of the land-owners 
 or possessors of fixed property, consisting of the 
 two classes of the Barons and the Franklins ; and 
 the second comprising the merchants, the manu- 
 facturers, free artizans, and the distributive class. 
 To comprehend, therefore, the true character of 
 this third estate, in which the reserved Nationally 
 was vested, we must first ascertain the end or 
 national purpose, for which such reservation was 
 made. 
 
46 IDEA OF 
 
 Now, as in the first estate the permanency of 
 the nation was provided for ; and in the second 
 estate its progTessiveness and personal freedom ; 
 while in the king the cohesion by interdependence, 
 and the unity of the country, were established ; 
 there remains for the third estate only that interest 
 which is the ground, the necessary antecedent 
 condition, of both the former. These depend on 
 a continuing 1 and progressive civilization. But 
 civilization is itself but a mixed good, if not far 
 more a corrupting influence, the hectic of disease, 
 not the bloom of health, and a nation so distin- 
 guished more fitly to be called a varnished than a 
 polished people, where this civilization is not 
 grounded in cultivation, in the harmonious deve- 
 lopement of those qualities and faculties that cha- 
 racterize our humanity. We must be men in order 
 to be citizens. 
 
 The Nationalty, therefore, was reserved for the 
 support and maintenance of a permanent class or 
 order with the following duties. A certain smaller 
 number were to remain at the fountain heads of 
 the humanities, in cultivating and enlarging the 
 knowledge already possessed, and in watching 
 over the interests of physical and moral science ; 
 being, likewise, the instructors of such as consti- 
 tuted, or were to constitute, the remaining more 
 numerous classes of the order. The members of 
 this latter and far more numerous body were to be 
 distributed throughout the country, so as not to 
 leave even the smallest integral part or division 
 
THE NATIONAL CHURCH. 47 
 
 without a resident guide, guardian, and instructor ; 
 the objects and final intention of the whole order 
 being- these — to preserve the stores and to guard the 
 treasures of past civilization, and thus to bind the 
 present with the past ; to perfect and add to the 
 same, and thus to connect the present with the 
 future ; but especially to diffuse through the whole 
 community and to every native entitled to its laws 
 and rights that quantity and quality of knowledge 
 which was indispensable both for the understanding 
 of those rights, and for the performance of the duties 
 correspondent : finally, to secure for the nation, if 
 not a superiority over the neighbouring states, yet 
 an equality at least, in that character of general 
 civilization, which equally with, or rather more than, 
 fleets, armies, and revenue, forms the ground of its 
 defensive and offensive power. The object of the 
 two former estates of the realm, which conjointly form 
 the State, was to reconcile the interests of perma- 
 nence with that of progression — law with liberty. 
 The object of the national Church, the third re- 
 maining estate of the realm, was to secure and 
 improve that civilization, without which the nation 
 could be neither permanent nor progressive. 
 
 That, in all ages, individuals who have directed 
 their meditations and their studies to the nobler 
 characters of our nature, to the cultivation of those 
 powers and instincts which constitute the man, at 
 least separate him from the animal, and distinguish 
 the nobler from the animal part of his own being, 
 will be led by the supernatural in themselves to the 
 
48 IDEA OF 
 
 contemplation of a power which is likewise super- 
 human ; that science, and especially moral science, 
 will lead to religion, and remain blended with it, — 
 this, I say, will in all ages be the course of things. 
 That in the earlier ages, and in the dawn of 
 civility, there will be a twilight in which science 
 and religion give light, but a light refracted through 
 the dense and the dark, a superstition ; — this is 
 what we learn from history, and what philosophy 
 would have taught us to expect. But I affirm 
 that in the spiritual purpose of the word, and as 
 understood in reference to a future state, and to 
 the abiding essential interest of the individual as a 
 person, and not as the citizen, neighbour, orsubject, 
 religion may be an indispensable ally, but is not 
 the essential constitutive end, of that national in- 
 stitute, which is unfortunately, at least improperly, 
 styled the Church ; a name which in its best sense 
 is exclusively appropriate to the Church of Christ. 
 If this latter be ecclesia, the communion of such 
 as are called out of the world, that is, in reference 
 to the especial ends and purposes of that commu- 
 nion ; this other might more expressively have 
 been entitled enclesia, or an order of men chosen 
 in and of the realm, and constituting an estate of 
 that realm. And in fact, such was the original 
 and proper sense of the more appropriately named 
 clergy. It comprehended the learned of all names, 
 and the clerk was the synonyme of the man of 
 learning. Nor can any fact more strikingly illus- 
 trate the conviction entertained by our ancestors 
 
THE NATIONAL CHURCH. 49 
 
 respecting the intimate connexion of this clergy 
 with the peace and weal of the nation, than the 
 privilege formerly recognized by our laws, in the 
 well-known phrase, " benefit of clergy." 
 
 Deeply do I feel, for clearly do I see, the im- 
 portance of my theme. And had I equal confi- 
 dence in my ability to awaken the same interest in 
 the minds of others, I should dismiss as affronting 
 to my readers all apprehension of being charged 
 with prolixity, while I am labouring to compress 
 in two or three brief chapters the principal sides 
 and aspects of a subject so large and multilateral 
 as to require a volume for its full exposition ; — 
 with what success will be seen in what follows, 
 commencing with the Churchmen, or (a far apter 
 and less objectionable designation,) the national 
 Clerisy. 
 
 The Clerisy of the nation, or national Church, 
 in its primary acceptation and original intention, 
 comprehended the learned of all denominations, 
 the sages and professors of the law and jurispru- 
 dence, of medicine and physiology, of music, of 
 military and civil architecture, of the physical 
 sciences, with the mathematical as the common 
 organ of the preceding ; in short, all the so called 
 liberal arts and sciences, the possession and appli- 
 cation of which constitute the civilization of a 
 country, as well as the theological. The last was, 
 indeed, placed at the head of all; and of good 
 right did it claim the precedence. But why ? 
 Because under the name of theology or divinity 
 
 E 
 
50 IDEA OF 
 
 were contained the interpretation of languages, 
 the conservation and tradition of past events, the 
 momentous epochs and revolutions of the race 
 and nation, the continuation of the records, logic, 
 ethics, and the determination of ethical science, in 
 application to the rights and duties of men in all 
 their various relations, social and civil ; and lastly, 
 the ground-knowledge, the prima scientia as it 
 was named, — philosophy, or the doctrine and dis- 
 cipline of ideas.* 
 
 Theology formed only a part of the objects, the 
 
 * That is, of knowledges immediate, yet real, and herein 
 distinguished in kind from logical and mathematical truths, 
 which express not realities, hut only the necessary forms of 
 conceiving and perceiving, and are therefore named the formal 
 or abstract sciences. Ideas, on the other hand, or the truths 
 of philosophy, properly so called, correspond to substantial 
 beings, to objects the actual subsistence of which is implied 
 in their idea, though only by the idearevealable. To adopt 
 the language of the great philosophic Apostle, they are spiri- 
 tual realities that can only spiritually be discerned, and the in- 
 herent aptitude and moral preconfiguration to which consti- 
 tutes what we mean by ideas, and by the presence of ideal 
 truth and of ideal power, in the human being. They, in 
 fact, constitute his humanity. For try to conceive a man 
 without the ideas of God, eternity, freedom, will, absolute 
 truth, of the good, the true, the beautiful, the infinite. An 
 animal endowed with a memory of appearances and of facts 
 might remain. But the man will have vanished, and you 
 have instead a creature, mare subtle than any beast of the field, 
 but likewise cursed above every beast of the field ; upon the belly 
 must it go and dust must it eat all the days of its life. But I 
 recal myself from a train of thoughts little likely to find fa- 
 vour in this age of sense and selfishness. 
 
THE NATIONAL CHURCH. 61 
 
 theologians formed only a portion of the clerks 
 or clergy, of the national Church. The theo- 
 logical order had precedency indeed, and de- 
 servedly ; but not because its members were 
 priests, whose office was to conciliate the invisible 
 powers, and to superintend the interests that sur- 
 vive the grave ; nor as being exclusively, or even 
 principally, sacerdotal or templar, which, when it 
 did occur, is to be considered as an accident of the 
 age, a mis-growth of ignorance and oppression, 
 a falsification of the constitutive principle, not a 
 constituent part of the same. No, the theologians 
 took the lead, because the science of theology was 
 the root and the trunk of the knowledges that 
 civilized man, because it gave unity and the cir- 
 culating sap of life to all other sciences, by virtue 
 of which alone they could be contemplated as 
 forming, collectively, the living tree of knowledge. 
 It had the precedency because, under the name 
 theology, were comprised all the main aids, in- 
 struments, and materials of national education, 
 the nisus formativus of the body politic, the 
 shaping and informing spirit, which, educing or 
 eliciting the latent man in all the natives of the 
 soil, trains them up to be citizens of the country, 
 free subjects of the realm. And lastly, because 
 to divinity belong those fundamental truths, which 
 are the common ground-work of our civil and our 
 religious duties, not less indispensable to a right 
 view of our temporal concerns, than to a rational 
 faith respecting our immortal well-being. Not 
 
52 IDEA OF 
 
 without celestial observations can even terrestrial 
 charts be accurately constructed. And of especial 
 importance is it to the objects here contemplated, 
 that only by the vital warmth diffused by these 
 truths throughout the many, and by the guiding 
 light from the philosophy, which is the basis of 
 divinity, possessed by the few, can either the 
 community or its rulers fully comprehend, or 
 rightly appreciate, the permanent distinction and 
 the occasional contrast between cultivation and 
 civilization ; or be made to understand this most 
 valuable of the lessons taught by history, and 
 exemplified alike in her oldest and her most recent 
 records — that a nation can never be a too cultivated, 
 hut may easily become an over-civilized, race. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 Secessions or offsets from the National Clerisy. 
 Usurpations and abuses previous to the Refor- 
 mation. Henry VIII. What he might and 
 should have done. The main end and final 
 cause of the Nationalty ; and the duties, 
 which the State may demand of the National 
 Clerisy. A question, and the answer to it. 
 
 As a natural consequence of the full developement 
 and expansion of the mercantile and commercial 
 order, which in the earlier epochs of the constitu- 
 
 
THE NATIONAL CHURCH. 53 
 
 tion only existed, as it were, potentially and in the 
 bud ; the students and possessors of those sciences, 
 and those sorts of learning*, the use and necessity of 
 which were indeed constant and perpetual to the 
 nation, but only accidental and occasional to indi- 
 viduals, gradually detached themselves from the 
 Nationalty and the national clergy, and passed to 
 the order, with the growth and thriving- condition 
 of which their emoluments were found to increase 
 in equal proportion. Rather, perhaps, it should 
 be said that under the common name of profes- 
 sional, the learned in the departments of law, 
 medicine, and the like, formed an intermediate 
 link between the established clergy and the bur- 
 gesses. 
 
 This circumstance, however, can in no way 
 affect the principle, nor alter the tenure, nor annul 
 the rights, of those who remained, and who, as 
 members of the permanent learned class, were 
 planted throughout the realm, each in his ap- 
 pointed place, as the immediate agents and in- 
 struments in the great and indispensable work of 
 perpetuating, promoting, and increasing the civi- 
 lization of the nation, and who thus fulfilling the 
 purposes for which the determinate portion of the 
 total wealth from the land had been reserved, are 
 entitled to remain its trustees and usufructuary 
 proprietors. But I do not assert that the proceeds 
 from the Nationalty cannot be rightfully vested, 
 except in what we now mean by clergymen and 
 the established cler°-v. I have every where im- 
 
54 IDEA OF 
 
 plied the contrary. But I do assert, that the Na- 
 tionalty cannot rightfully, and that without foul 
 wrong to the nation it never has been, alienated 
 from its original purposes. I assert that those 
 who, being duly elected and appointed thereto, 
 exercise the functions, and perform the duties, 
 attached to the Nationalty possess collectively an 
 inalienable, indefeasible, title to the same ; and 
 this by a jus divinum, to which the thunders from 
 Mount Sinai might give additional authority, but 
 not additional evidence. 
 
 Corollary. — During the dark times, when 
 the incubus of superstition lay heavy across the 
 breast of the living and the dying ; and when all 
 the familiar tricksy spirits in the service of an 
 alien, self-expatriated and anti-national priesthood 
 were at work in all forms and in all directions to 
 aggrandize and enrich a kingdom of this world ; 
 large masses were alienated from the heritable pro- 
 prieties of the realm, and confounded with the 
 Nationalty under the common name of Church 
 property. Had every rood, eveiy pepper-corn, 
 every stone, brick, and beam been re-transferred 
 and made heritable at the Reformation, no right 
 would have been invaded, no principle of justice 
 violated. What the State by law — that is, by the 
 collective will of its functionaries at any one time 
 assembled — can do or suffer to be done; that the 
 State by law can undo or inhibit. And in prin- 
 ciple, such bequests and donations were vicious ab 
 initio, implying in the donor an absolute property 
 
THE NATIONAL CHURCH. 55 
 
 in land, unknown to the constitution of the realm, 
 and in defeasance of that immutable reason which, 
 in the name of the nation and the national majesty, 
 proclaims : — " The land is not yours ; it was vested 
 in your lineage in trust for the nation." And 
 though, in change of times and circumstances, 
 the interest of progression, with the means and 
 motives for the same — hope, industry, enterprise 
 — mav render it the wisdom of the State to facili- 
 tate the transfer from line to line, still it must be 
 within the same scale and with preservation of the 
 balance. The most honest of our English his- 
 torians, and with no superior in industry and re- 
 search, Mr. Sharon Turner, has labored success- 
 fully in detaching from the portrait of our first 
 Protestant king the layers of soot and blood, with 
 which pseudo-Catholic hate and pseudo-Protestant 
 candour had coated it. But the name of Henry 
 VIII. would haveoutshone thatof Alfred, and with a 
 splendor which not even the omnious shadow of 
 his declining life would have eclipsed, had he re- 
 tained the will and possessed the power of effecting, 
 what in part he promised and proposed to do ; that 
 is, if he had availed himself of the wealth and landed 
 masses that had been unconstitutionally alienated 
 from the State, namely, transferred from the scale 
 of heritable lands and revenues, to purchase and 
 win back whatever had been alienated from the 
 opposite scale of the Nationalty; — wrongfully 
 alienated ; for it was a possession, in which every 
 free subject in the nation has a living interest, a 
 
56 IDEA OF 
 
 permanent, and likewise a possible personal and 
 reversionary, interest ; — sacrilegiously alienated ; 
 for it had been consecrated ro~> deco oIkeiu), to the 
 potential divinity in every man, which is the 
 ground and condition of his civil existence, that 
 without which a man can be neither free nor 
 obliged, and by which alone, therefore, he is ca- 
 pable of being a free subject or a citizen : and if, 
 I say, having thus righted the balance on both 
 sides, Henry had then directed the Nationalty to 
 its true national purposes, (in order to which, 
 however, a different division and sub-division of 
 the kingdom must have superseded the present 
 barbarism, which forms an obstacle to, the improve- 
 ment of the country, of much greater magnitude 
 than men are generally aware) ; and the Nationalty 
 had been distributed in proportionate channels to 
 the maintenance ; — 1, of the universities and great 
 schools of liberal learning ; — 2, of a pastor, pres- 
 byter, or parson* in every parish ; — 3, of a school- 
 
 * Persona jcar' k^o\r]v ; persona exemplaris ; the represen- 
 tative and exemplar of the personal character of the commu- 
 nity or parish ; of their duties and rights, of their hopes> 
 privileges and requisite qualifications, as moral persons, and 
 not merely living things. But this the pastoral clergy can- 
 not be other than imperfectly ; they cannot be that which it 
 is the paramount end and object of their establishment and 
 distribution throughout the country that they should be — 
 each in his sphere the germ and nucleus of the progressive 
 civilization — unless they are in the rule married men and 
 heads of families. This, however, is adduced only as an 
 accessory to the great principle stated in a following page, 
 
THE NATIONAL CHURCH. 57 
 
 master in every parish, who in due time, and 
 under condition of a faithful performance of his 
 arduous duties, should succeed to the pastorate ; 
 so that both should be labourers in different com- 
 partments of the same field, workmen engaged in 
 different stages of the same process, with such 
 difference of rank, as might be suggested in the 
 names pastor and sub-pastor, or as now exists be- 
 tween rector and curate, elder and deacon. Both 
 alike, I say, being members and ministers of the na- 
 tional Clerisy or Church, working to the same end, 
 and determined in the choice of their means and 
 the direction of their labours by one and the same 
 object — namely, the production and reproduction, 
 the preservation, continuance, and perfection, of 
 the necessary sources and conditions of national 
 civilization ; this being itself an indispensable 
 condition of national safety, power and welfare, 
 the strongest security and the surest provision, 
 both for the permanence and the progressive ad- 
 vance of whatever as laws, institutions, tenures, 
 rights, privileges, freedoms, obligations, and the 
 like, constitutes the public weal : — these parochial 
 clerks being the great majority of the national 
 clergy, the comparatively small remainder being- 
 principally* in or dine ad hos, Cleri doctor es ut 
 Clerus populi. 
 
 as an instance of its beneficial consequences, not as the 
 grounds of its validity. 
 
 * Considered, I mean, in their national relations, and in 
 that which forms their ordinary, their most conspicuous 
 
58 IDEA OF 
 
 I may be allowed, therefore, to express the final 
 cause of the whole by the office and purpose of 
 the greater part ; and this is, to form and train up 
 the people of the country to be obedient, free, 
 useful, organizable subjects, citizens, and patriots, 
 living" to the benefit of the State, and prepared to 
 die for its defence. The proper object and end of 
 the national Church is civilization with freedom ; 
 and the duty of its ministers, could they be con- 
 templated merely and exclusively as officiaries of 
 the national Church, would be fulfilled in the 
 communication of that degree and kind of know- 
 ledge to all, the possession of which is necessary 
 for all in order to their civility. By civility I 
 mean all the qualities essential to a citizen, and 
 devoid of which no people or class of the people 
 can be. calculated on by the rulers and leaders of 
 the State for the conservation or promotion of its 
 essential interests. 
 
 It follows, therefore, that in regard to the grounds 
 and principles of action and conduct, the State 
 has a right to demand of the national Church that 
 its instructions should be fitted to diffuse through- 
 out the people legality, that is, the obligations of 
 a well calculated self-interest, under the conditions 
 of a common interest determined by common laws. 
 
 purpose and utility ; for God forbid, I should deny or forget 
 that the sciences, and not only the sciences both abstract 
 and experimental, but the litem, humaniores, the products of 
 genial power, of whatever name, have an immediate and 
 positive value even in their bearings on the national inte- 
 rests. 
 
THE NATIONAL CHURCH. 59 
 
 At least, whatever of higher origin and nobler and 
 wider aim the ministers of the national Church, 
 in some other capacity, and in the performance of 
 other duties, might labour to implant and cultivate 
 in the minds and hearts of their congregations 
 and seminaries, should include the practical conse- 
 quences of the legality above mentioned. The 
 State requires that the basin should be kept full, 
 and that the stream which supplies the hamlet and 
 turns the mill, and waters the meadow-fields, should 
 be fed and kept flowing. If this be done the 
 State is content, indifferent for the rest, whether 
 the basin be filled by the spring in its first ascent, 
 and rising but a hand's-breadth above the bed ; or 
 whether drawn from a more elevated source, 
 shooting aloft in a stately column, that reflects the 
 light of heaven from its shaft, and bears the Iris, 
 coeli decus, promissumque Jovis lucidum on" its 
 spray, it fills the basin in its descent. 
 
 " In what relation then do you place Christianity 
 to the national Church ?" Though unwilling to 
 anticipate what belongs to a part of my subject 
 yet to come, namely, the idea of the Catholic or 
 Christian Church, I am still more averse to leave 
 this question, even for a moment, unanswered. 
 And this is my answer. 
 
 In relation to the national Church, Christianity, 
 or the Church of Christ, is a blessed accident,* 
 a providential boon, a grace of God, a mighty and 
 
 • Let not the religious reader be offended with this phrase. 
 I mean only that Christianity is an aid and instrument 
 
60 IDEA OF 
 
 faithful friend, the envoy indeed and liege subject 
 of another State, but which can neither administer 
 the laws nor promote the ends of this other State, 
 which is not of the world, without advantage, di- 
 rect and indirect, to the true interests of the States, 
 the aggregate of which is what we mean by the 
 world, that is, the civilized world. As the olive 
 tree is said in its growth to fertilize the surround- 
 ing soil, to invigorate the roots of the vines in 
 its immediate neighbourhood, and to improve the 
 strength and flavour of the wines ; such is the re- 
 lation of the Christian and the national Church. 
 But as the olive is not the same plant with the 
 vine, or with the elm or poplar, (that is, the 
 State) with which the vine is wedded ; and as 
 the vine with its prop may exist, though in less 
 perfection, without the olive, or previously to its im- 
 plantation ; — even so is Christianity, and a fortiori 
 any particular scheme of theology derived and sup- 
 posed by its partizans to be deduced from Christi- 
 anity, no essential part of the being of the national 
 Church, however conducive or even indispensable 
 it may be to its well being. And even so a na- 
 tional Church might exist, and has existed, with- 
 out, because before the institution of, the Christian 
 Church ; — as the Levitical Church in the Hebrew 
 constitution, and the Druidical in the Keltic, would 
 suffice to prove. 
 
 which no State or realm could have produced out of its own 
 ■elements, which no State had a right to expect. It was, most 
 viwefully, a God-send ! 
 
THE NATIONAL CHURCH. 61 
 
 But here I earnestly entreat that two things 
 may be remembered — first, that it is my object to 
 present the Idea of a national Church, as the only 
 safe criterion by which the judgment can decide 
 on the existing state of things ; for when we are in 
 full and clear possession of the ultimate aim of an 
 institution, it is comparatively easy to ascertain 
 in what respects this aim has been attained in 
 other ways arising out of the growth of the nation, 
 and the gradual and successive expansion of its 
 germs ; in what respects the aim has been frus- 
 trated by errors and diseases in the body politic ; 
 and in what respects the existing institution still 
 answers the original purpose, and continues to be a 
 mean to necessary or most important ends, for 
 which no adequate substitute can be found. First, 
 I say, let it be borne in mind that my object has 
 been to present the idea of a national Church, 
 not the history of the Church established in this 
 nation. Secondly, that two distinct functions do 
 not necessarily imply or require two different 
 functionaries : nay, the perfection of each may 
 require the union of both in the same person. 
 And in the instance now in question, great and 
 grievous errors have arisen from confounding the 
 functions ; and fearfully great and grievous will 
 be the evils from the success of an attempt to se- 
 parate them — an attempt long and passionately 
 pursued, in many forms, and through many va- 
 rious channels, by a numerous party which has 
 already the ascendancy in the State ; and which, 
 unless far other minds and far other principles 
 
62 IDEA OF 
 
 than those which the opponents of this party have 
 hitherto allied with their cause, are called into 
 action, will obtain the ascendancy in the nation. 
 
 I have already said that the subjects, which lie 
 right and left of my road, or even jut into it, are 
 so many and so important that I offer these pages 
 but as a catalogue of texts and theses, which will 
 have answered their purpose if they excite a cer- 
 tain class of readers to desire or to supply the com- 
 mentary. But there will not be wanting among 
 my readers men who are no strangers to the ways 
 in which my thoughts travel : and the jointless 
 sentences that make up the following chapter or 
 inventory of regrets and apprehensions will suffice 
 to possess them of the chief points that press on 
 my mind. 
 
 The commanding knowledge, the power of truth, 
 given or obtained by contemplating the subject in 
 the fontal mirror of the idea, is in Scripture ordi- 
 narily expressed by vision : and no dissimilar gift, 
 if not rather in its essential characters the same, 
 does a great living poet speak of, as 
 
 The vision and the faculty divine. 
 
 Indeed of the many political ground-truths con- 
 tained in the Old Testament, I cannot recall one 
 more worthy to be selected as the moral and Ven- 
 voy of a Universal History, than the text in Pro- 
 verbs,* Where no vision is, the people perisheth. 
 
 * xxix. 18. 
 
THE NATIONAL CHURCH. 63 
 
 It is now thirty years since the diversity of 
 reason and the understanding, of an idea and a con- 
 ception, and the practical importance of distin- 
 guishing the one from the other, were first made 
 evident to me. And scarcely a month has passed 
 during this long interval in which either books, or 
 conversation, or the experience of life, have not 
 supplied or suggested some fresh proof and instance 
 of the mischiefs and mistakes derived from that 
 ignorance of this truth, which I have elsewhere 
 called the queen-bee in the hive of error. 
 
 Well and truly has the understanding been de- 
 fined — -facultas mediata et mediorum — the faculty 
 of means to medial ends, that is, to such purposes 
 or ends as are themselves but means to some 
 ulterior end. 
 
 My eye at this moment rests on a volume newly 
 read by me, containing a well-written history of 
 the inventions, discoveries, public improvements, 
 docks, rail-ways, canals, and the like, for about 
 the same period, in England and Scotland. I 
 closed it under the strongest impressions of awe, 
 and admiration akin to wonder. We live, I ex- 
 claimed, under the dynasty of the understanding : 
 and this is its golden age. 
 
 It is the faculty of means to medial ends. With 
 these the age, this favoured land, teems : they 
 spring up, the armed host, — seges clypeata — from 
 the serpent's teeth sown by Cadmus : — 
 
 mortalia semina, dentes. 
 
 In every direction they advance, conquering and 
 
64 IDEA OF 
 
 to conquer. Sea and land, rock, mountain, lake 
 and moor, yea nature and all her elements, sink 
 before them, or yield themselves captive ! But 
 the ultimate ends ? Where shall I seek for infor- 
 mation concerning these ? By what name shall I 
 seek for the historiographer of reason ? Where 
 shall I find the annals of her recent campaigns ? the 
 records of her conquests ? In the facts disclosed by 
 the Mendicity Society ? In the reports on the in- 
 crease of crimes, commitments ? In the proceed- 
 ings of the Police ? Or in the accumulating volumes 
 on the horrors and perils of population ? 
 
 O voice, once heard 
 Delightfully, increase and multiply ! 
 Now death to hear ! For what can we increase 
 Or multiply,* but woe, crime, penury. 
 
 Alas ! for a certain class, the following chapter 
 will, I fear, but too vividly shew the burden of 
 the valley of vision, — even the burden upon 
 the crowned isle, whose merchants are princes, 
 whose traffickers are the honourable of the earth ; 
 — who stretcheth out her hand over the sea, — 
 and she is the mart of nations !f 
 
 * P. L. x. 729. — Ed. t Isaiah, xxii. xxiii. 
 
THE NATIONAL CHURCH. 65 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 Regrets and Apprehensions. 
 
 The National Church was deemed in the dark age 
 of Queen Elizabeth, in the unenlightened times of 
 Burleigh, Hooker, Spenser, Shakspeare, and Lord 
 Bacon, a great venerable estate of the realm ; but 
 now by all the intellect of the kingdom it has been 
 determined to be one of the many theological sects 
 or communities established in the realm ; yet dis- 
 tinguished from the rest by having its priesthood 
 endowed, durante beneplacito, by favour of the Le- 
 gislature, that is, of the majority, for the time being, 
 of the two Houses of Parliament. The Church 
 being thus reduced to a religion, religion in genere 
 is consequently separated from the Church, and 
 made a subject of Parliamentary determination, 
 independently of this Church. The poor are with- 
 drawn from the discipline of the Church. The 
 education of the people is detached from the min- 
 istry of the Church. Religion becomes a noun of 
 multitude, or nomen collectivum, expressing the 
 aggregate of all the different groups of notions and 
 ceremonies connected with the invisible and su- 
 pernatural. On the plausible (and in this sense 
 of the word unanswerable) pretext of the multi- 
 tude and variety of religions, and for the suppres- 
 
 F 
 
66 REGRETS AND 
 
 sion of bigotry and negative persecution, national 
 education is to be finally sundered from all religion, 
 but speedily and decisively emancipated from the 
 superintendence of the national Clergy. Educa- 
 tion is to be reformed, and defined as synonymous 
 with instruction. The axiom of education so de- 
 fined is — knowledge being power, those attain- 
 ments, which give a man the power of doing what 
 he wishes in order to obtain what he desires, are 
 alone to be considered as knowledge, or to be 
 admitted into the scheme of national education. 
 The subjects to be taught in the national schools 
 are to be, reading, writing, arithmetic, the me- 
 chanic arts, elements and results of physical science, 
 but to be taught, as much as possible, empirically. 
 For all knowledge being derived from the senses, 
 the closer men are kept to the fountain head, the 
 more knowing they must become. 
 
 Popular ethics consist of a digest of the criminal 
 laws, and the evidence requisite for conviction 
 under the same : lectures on diet, on digestion, 
 on infection, and the nature and effects of a spe- 
 cific virus incidental to and communicable by 
 living bodies in the intercourse of society. And 
 note, that in order to balance the interests of indi- 
 viduals and the interests of the State, the dietetic 
 and peptic text books are to be under the censor- 
 ship of the Board of Excise. 
 
 Then we have game laws, corn laws, cotton 
 factories, Spitalfields, the tillers of the land paid 
 by poor rates, and the remainder of the population 
 
APPREHENSIONS. 67 
 
 mechanized into engines for the manufactoiy of 
 new rich men ; — yea, the machinery of the wealth 
 of the nation made up of the wretchedness, disease 
 and depravity of those who should constitute the 
 strength of the nation ! Disease, I say, and vice, 
 while the wheels are in full motion ; but at the 
 first stop the magic wealth-machine is converted 
 into an intolerable weight of pauperism. But 
 this partakes of history. The head and neck of 
 the huge serpent are out of the den : the volumi- 
 nous train is to come. What next ? May I not 
 whisper as a fear, what senators have promised to 
 demand as a right ? Yes ! the next in my filial 
 bodings is spoliation ; — spoliation of the Nationalty, 
 half thereof to be distributed among the land- 
 owners, and the other half among the stock-bro- 
 kers, and stock-owners, who are to receive it in 
 lieu of the interest formerly due to them. 
 
 But .enough. I will ask only one question. 
 Has the national welfare, have the weal and hap- 
 piness of the people, advanced with the increase 
 of the circumstantial prosperity ? Is the increasing 
 number of wealthy individuals that which ought to ' 
 be understood by the wealth of the nation ? In 
 answer to this, permit me to annex the following 
 chapter of contents of the moral history of the 
 last 130 years. 
 
 A. A declarative act respecting certain parts of 
 the Constitution, with provisions against further 
 violation of the same, erroneously intituled, The 
 Revolution of 1688. 
 
68 REGRETS AND 
 
 B. The mechanico- corpuscular theory raised to 
 the title of the mechanic philosophy, and espoused 
 as a revolution in philosophy, by the actors and 
 partizans of the (so called) Revolution in the 
 State. 
 
 C. Result illustrated, in the remarkable con- 
 trast between the acceptation of the word, idea, 
 before the Restoration, and the present use of the 
 same word. Before 1660, the magnificent Son of 
 Cosmo was wont to discourse with Ficini, Poli- 
 tian and the princely Mirandula on the ideas of will, 
 God, freedom. Sir Philip Sidney, the star of se- 
 renest brilliance in the glorious constellation of 
 Elizabeth's court, communed with Spenser on the 
 idea of the beautiful ; and the younger Algernon 
 — soldier, patriot, and statesman — with Harrington, 
 Milton, and Nevil on the idea of the State : and 
 in what sense it may be more truly affirmed, that 
 the People, that is, the component particles of the 
 body politic, at any moment existing as such, are 
 in order to the State, than that the State exists 
 for the sake of the People. 
 
 As to the present use of the word. 
 
 Dr. Holofernes, in a lecture on metaphysics, 
 delivered at one of the Mechanics' Institutions, 
 explodes all ideas but those of sensation ; and his 
 friend, Deputy Costard, has no idea of a better 
 flavored haunch of venison than he dined off at the 
 London Tavern last week. He admits, (for the 
 Deputy has travelled) that the French have an 
 excellent idea of cooking in general ; but holds 
 
APPREHENSIONS. 69 
 
 that their most accomplished maitres de cuisine 
 have no more idea of dressing a turtle than the 
 Parisian gourmands themselves have any real idea 
 of the true taste and colour of the fat. 
 
 D. Consequences exemplified. A state of na- 
 ture, or the Ouran Outang theology of the origin 
 of the human race, substituted for the first ten 
 chapters of the Book of Genesis ; rights of nature 
 for the duties and privileges of citizens ; idealess 
 facts, misnamed proofs from history, grounds of 
 experience, and the like, for principles and the 
 insight derived from them. Our state-policy a Cy- 
 clops with one eye, and that in the back of the 
 head ; our measures become either a series of ana- 
 chronisms, or a truckling to events instead of the 
 science, that should command them ; for all true 
 insight is foresight. (Take as documents, the 
 measures of the British Cabinet from the Boston 
 Port-Bill, March, 1774 ; but particularly from 1789, 
 to the Union with Ireland, and the Peate of 
 Amiens.) Mean time, behold the true historical 
 feeling, the immortal life of the nation, generation 
 linked to generation by faith, freedom, heraldry, 
 and ancestral fame, languishing, and giving place 
 to the superstitions of wealth and newspaper re- 
 putation. 
 
 E. Talents without genius : a swarm of clever, 
 well-informed men : an anarchy of minds, a des- 
 potism of maxims. Hence despotism of finance 
 in government and legislation — of vanity and 
 sciolism in the intercourse of life — of presump- 
 
70 REGRETS AND 
 
 tion, temerity, and hardness of heart in political 
 economy. 
 
 F. The guess-work of general consequences 
 substituted for moral and political philosophy, and 
 its most familiar exposition adopted as a text book 
 in one of the Universities, and cited as autho- 
 rity in the Legislature. Hence plebs pro senatu 
 populoque; and the wealth of the nation (that is, 
 of the wealthy individuals thereof,) and the mag- 
 nitude of the revenue mistaken for the well-being 
 of the people. 
 
 G. Gin consumed by paupers to the value of 
 about eighteen millions yearly : government by 
 clubs of journeymen ; by saint and sinner societies, 
 committees, institutions; by reviews, magazines, 
 and above all by newspapers : lastly, crimes qua- 
 drupled for the whole country, and in some coun- 
 ties decupled. 
 
 Concluding address to the Parliamentary leaders 
 of the Liberalists and Utilitarians. 
 
 I respect the talents of many, and the motives 
 and character of some, among you too sincerely to 
 court the scorn which I anticipate. But neither 
 shall the fear of it prevent me from declaring 
 aloud, and as a truth which I hold it the disgrace 
 and calamity of a professed statesman not to know 
 and acknowledge, that a permanent, nationalized, 
 learned order, a national clerisy or Church is an 
 essential element of a rightly constituted nation, 
 without which it wants the best security alike for 
 its permanence and its progression ; and for which 
 
APPREHENSIONS. 71 
 
 neither tract societies nor conventicles, nor Lan- 
 casterian schools, nor mechanics' institutions, nor 
 lecture bazaars under the absurd name of univer- 
 sities, nor all these collectively, can be a substitute. 
 For they are all marked with the same asterisk of 
 spuriousness, shew the same distemper-spot on the 
 front, that they are empirical specifics for morbid 
 symptoms that help to feed and continue the dis- 
 ease. 
 
 But you wish for general illumination : you 
 would spur-arm the toes of society : you would 
 enlighten the higher ranks per ascensum ah imis. 
 You begin, therefore, with the attempt to popu- 
 larize science : but you w r ill only effect its piebifi- 
 cation. It is folly to think of making all, or the 
 many, philosophers, or even men of science and 
 systematic knowledge. But it is duty and wisdom 
 to aim at making as many as possible soberly and 
 steadily religious ; inasmuch as the morality which 
 the State requires in its citizens for its own well- 
 being and ideal immortality, and without reference 
 to their spiritual interest as individuals, can only 
 exist for the people in the form of religion. But 
 the existence of a true philosophy, or the power 
 and habit of contemplating particulars in the unity 
 and fontal mirror of the idea, — this in the rulers 
 and teachers of a nation is indispensable to a sound 
 state of religion in all classes. In fine, religion, 
 true or false, is and ever has been the centre of 
 gravity in a realm, to which all other things must 
 and will accommodate themselves. 
 
72 PAST BENEFITS OF 
 
 CHAPTER VIIL 
 
 The subject resumed, namely, the proper aims 
 and characteristic directions and channels of 
 the Nationalty . The benefits of the National 
 Church in time past. The present beneficial 
 influences and workings of the same. 
 
 The deep interest which, during the far larger 
 portion of my life since early manhood, I have 
 attached to these convictions has, I perceive, 
 hurried me onwards as in a rush from the letting 
 forth of accumulated waters hy the sudden opening 
 of the sluice gates. It is high time that I should 
 return to my subject. And I have no better way 
 of taking up the thread of my argument than by 
 re-stating my opinion, that our eighth Henry 
 would have acted in correspondence with the great 
 principles of our constitution, if, having restored 
 the original balance on both sides, he had deter- 
 mined the Nationalty to the following objects : 
 1st. to the maintenance of the Universities and 
 the great liberal schools : 2ndly. to the main- 
 tenance of a pastor and schoolmaster in every 
 parish : 3rdly. to the raising and keeping in repair 
 of the churches, schools, and other buildings of 
 
THE NATIONAL CHURCH. 73 
 
 that kind ; and, lastly, to the maintenance of the 
 proper, that is, the infirm, poor whether from age 
 or sickness : one of the original purposes of the 
 national reserve being the alleviation of those evils, 
 which in the best forms of worldly States must 
 arise, and must have been foreseen as arising, from 
 the institution of individual properties and primo- 
 geniture. If these duties were efficiently performed, 
 and these purposes adequately fulfilled, the very 
 increase of the population (which would, however, 
 by these very means have been prevented from 
 becoming a vicious population,) would have more 
 than counterbalanced those savings in the expen- 
 diture of the Nationalty occasioned by the de- 
 tachment of the practitioners of Law, Medicine, 
 and the like from the national clergy. That this 
 transfer of the national reserve from what had 
 become national evils to its original and inherent 
 purpose of national benefits, instead of the sa- 
 crilegious alienation which actually took place — 
 that this was impracticable, is historically true : 
 but no less true is it philosophically, that this im- 
 practicability, — arising wholly from moral causes, 
 that is, from loose manners and corrupt principles 
 — does not rescue this wholesale sacrilege from 
 deserving the character of the first and deadliest 
 wound inflicted on the constitution of the kino-- 
 dom : which term, constitution, in the body politic, 
 as in bodies natural, expresses not only what has 
 been actually evolved from, but likewise whatever is 
 potentially contained in, the seminal principle of 
 
74 PAST BENEFITS OF 
 
 the particular body, and would in its due time have 
 appeared but for emasculation or disease. Other 
 wounds, by which indeed the constitution of the 
 nation has suffered, but which much more imme- 
 diately concern the constitution of the Church, I 
 shall perhaps find another place to mention. 
 
 The mercantile and commercial class, in which 
 I here comprise all the four classes that I have put 
 in antithesis to the landed order, the guardian 
 and depository of the permanence of the realm, as 
 more characteristically conspiring to the interests 
 of its progression, the improvement and general 
 freedom of the country — this class, as I have 
 already remarked, in the earlier states of the con- 
 stitution existed but as in the bud. Yet during all 
 this period of potential existence, or what we may 
 call the minority of the burgess order, the National 
 Church was the substitute for the most important 
 national benefits resulting from the same. The 
 National Church presented the only breathing hole 
 of hope. The Church alone relaxed the iron fate 
 by which feudal dependency, primogeniture, and 
 entail would otherwise have predestined every 
 native of the realm to be lord or vassal. To the 
 Church alone could the nation look for the benefits 
 of existing knowledge, and for the means of future 
 civilization. Lastly, let it never be forgotten, 
 that under the fostering wing of the Church the 
 class of free citizens and burghers were reared. 
 To the feudal system we owe the forms, to the 
 Church the substance, of our liberty. I mention 
 
THE NATIONAL CHURCH. 75 
 
 only two of many facts that would form the proof 
 and comment of the above ; first, the origin of 
 towns and cities in the privileges attached to the 
 vicinity of churches and monasteries, and which, 
 preparing an asylum for the fugitive vassal and 
 oppressed franklin, thus laid the first foundation 
 of a class of freemen detached from the land ; — 
 secondly, the holy war, which the national clergy, 
 in this instance faithful to their national duties, 
 waged against slavery and villenage, and with such 
 success, that in the reign of Charles II., the law* 
 which declared every native of the realm free by 
 birth had merely to sanction an opus jam con- 
 summatum. Our Maker has distinguished man 
 from the brute that perishes, by making hope first 
 an instinct of his nature, and, secondly, an indis- 
 pensable condition of his moral and intellectual 
 progression : 
 
 For every gift of noble origin 
 
 Is breathed upon by Hope's perpetual breath. 
 
 Wordsworth. 
 
 But a natural instinct constitutes a right, as far 
 
 * The Author means the Act passed at the Restoration, 
 12 C. II. c. 24. " Andthese encroachments grew to be so 
 universal, that when tenure in villenage was virtually abol- 
 ished (though copyholds were preserved) by the statute of 
 Charles II., there was hardly a pure villein left in the nation," 
 &c. Blackstone II. c . 6. 96.— Ed. 
 
76 PAST BENEFITS OF 
 
 as its gratification is compatible with the equal 
 rights of others. And this principle may be 
 expanded and applied to the idea of the National 
 Church. 
 
 Among the primary ends of a State (in that 
 highest sense of the word, in which it is equivalent 
 to the nation, considered as one body politic, and 
 therefore including* the National Church), there are 
 two, of which the National Church (according to its 
 idea) is the especial and constitutional organ and 
 means. The one is, to secure to the subjects of the 
 realm, generally, the hope, the chance of bettering 
 their own or their children's condition. And 
 though during the last three or four centuries, the 
 National Church has found a most powerful surro- 
 gate and ally for the effectuation of this great 
 purpose in her former wards and foster-children, 
 that is, in trade, commerce, free industry, and the 
 arts ; yet still the Nationalty, under all its defal- 
 cations, continues to feed the higher ranks by 
 drawing up whatever is worthiest from below, and 
 thus maintains the principle of hope in the humblest 
 families, while it secures the possessions of the rich 
 and noble. This is one of the two ends. The 
 other is, to develope in every native of the country 
 those faculties, and to provide for every native that 
 knowledge and those attainments, which are neces- 
 sary to qualify him for a member of the State, the 
 free subject of a civilized realm. I do not mean 
 those degrees of moral and intellectual cultivation 
 which distinguish man from man in the same 
 
THE NATIONAL CHURCH. 77 
 
 civilized society, much less those that separate the 
 Christian from the this-worldian ; but those only 
 that constitute the civilized man in contra-dis- 
 tinction from the barbarian, the savage, and the 
 animal. 
 
 I have now brought tog-ether all that seemed 
 requisite to put the intelligent reader in full pos- 
 session of (what I believe to be) the right idea of 
 the National Clergy, as an estate of the realm. 
 But I cannot think my task finished without an 
 attempt to rectify the too frequent false feeling 
 on this subject, and to remove certain vulgar errors 
 — errors, alas ! not confined to those whom the 
 world call the vulvar. Ma nel mondo non e se non 
 volgo, says Machiavel. I shall make no apology, 
 therefore, for interposing between the preceding 
 statements and the practical conclusion from them 
 the following paragraph extracted from a work long 
 out of print,* and of such very limited circulation 
 that I might have stolen from myself with little risk 
 of detection, had it not been my wish to shew that 
 the convictions expressed in the preceding pages 
 are not the offspring of the moment, brought forth 
 for the present occasion ; but an expansion of 
 sentiments and principles publicly avowed in the 
 year 1817. 
 
 Among the numerous blessings of the English 
 Constitution, the introduction of an established 
 Church makes an especial claim on the gratitude 
 
 * Bio*. Lit. Vol. I.— Erf. 
 
78 PRESENT BENEFITS OF 
 
 of scholars and philosophers ; in England, at least, 
 where the principles of Protestantism have con- 
 spired with the freedom of the government to 
 double all its salutary powers by the removal of its 
 abuses. 
 
 That the maxims of a pure morality, and those 
 sublime truths of the divine unity and attributes, 
 which a Plato found hard to learn and more diffi- 
 cult to reveal ; that these should have become the 
 almost hereditary property of childhood and poverty, 
 of the hovel and the workshop ; that even to the 
 unlettered they sound as common place ; this is a 
 fact which must withhold all but minds of the 
 most vulgar cast from undervaluing the services 
 even of the pulpit and the reading desk. Yet he 
 who should confine the efficiency of an established 
 Church to these can hardly be placed in a much 
 higher rank of intellect. That to every parish 
 throughout the kingdom there is transplanted a 
 germ of civilization ; that in the remotest villages 
 there is a nucleus, round which the capabilities of 
 the place may crystallize and brighten ; a model 
 sufficiently superior to excite, yet sufficiently near 
 to encourage and facilitate, imitation ; this inob- 
 trusive, continuous agency of a Protestant Church 
 Establishment, this it is which the patriot and the 
 philanthropist, who would fain unite the love of 
 peace with a faith in the progressive amelioration 
 of mankind, cannot estimate at too high a price. 
 It cannot be valued with the gold of Ophir, 
 with the precious onyx, or the sapphire. No 
 
THE NATIONAL CHURCH. 79 
 
 mention shall be made of coral or of pearls ; for 
 the price of wisdom is above rubies. The clergy- 
 man is with his parishioners and among- them ; he 
 is neither in the cloistered cell, nor in the wilder- 
 ness, but a neighbour and family-man, whose edu- 
 cation and rank admit him to the mansion of the 
 rich-landholder while his duties make him the 
 frequent visiter of the farm-house and the cottage. 
 He is, or he may become, connected with the 
 families of his parish or its vicinity by marriage. 
 And among the instances of the blindness or at best 
 of the short-sightedness, which it is the nature of 
 cupidity to inflict, I know few more striking than 
 the clamours of the farmers against Church property. 
 Whatever was not paid to the clergymen would 
 inevitably at the next renewal of the lease be paid 
 to the landholder, while, as the case at present 
 stands, the revenues of the Church are in some 
 sort the reversionary property of every family that 
 may have a member educated for the Church or a 
 daughter that may many a clergyman. Instead 
 of being foreclosed and immoveable, it is, in fact, 
 the only species of landed property that is essentially 
 moving and circulative. That their exist no incon- 
 veniences, who will pretend to assert? But I 
 have yet to expect the proof that the inconveniences 
 are greater in this than in any other species ; or 
 that either the farmers or the clergy would be 
 benefited by forcing the latter to become either 
 Trullibers or salaried placemen. Nay, I do not 
 hesitate to declare my firm persuasion that what- 
 
80 DISQUALIFICATIONS FOR 
 
 ever reason of discontent the farmers may assign, 
 the true cause is that they may cheat the parson 
 but cannot cheat the steward : and that they are 
 disappointed if they should have been able to with- 
 hold only two pounds less than the legal claim, 
 having expected to withhold five. 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 Practical Conclusion : What unfits for, and what 
 excludes from, the National Church. 
 
 The Clerisy, or National Church, being* an estate 
 of the realm, the Church and State, with the King 
 as the sovereign head of both, constituting the body 
 politic, the State in the larger sense of the word, or 
 the nation dynamically considered {kv ^wcijiel Kara 
 7rv£i>[xa, that is, as an ideal, but not the less actual 
 and abiding, unity) ; and in like manner, the Na- 
 tionalty being one of the two constitutional modes 
 or species, of which the common wealth of the 
 nation consists ; it follows by immediate conse- 
 quence, that of the qualifications and preconditions 
 for the trusteeship, absolutely to be required of 
 the order collectively, and of every individual 
 person as the conditions of his admission into this 
 order, and of his capability of the usufruct or life- 
 
THE NATIONAL CHURCH. 
 
 interest of any part or parcel of the Nationalty, the 
 first and most indispensable, that without which all 
 others are null and void, is, that the national Clergy 
 and every member of the same from the highest 
 to the lowest, shall be fully and exclusively citi- 
 zens of the State, neither acknowledging the au- 
 thority, nor Avithin the influence, of any other state 
 in the world ; — full and undistracted subjects of 
 this kingdom, and in no capacity, and under no 
 pretences, owning any other earthly sovereign or 
 visible head but the King, in whom alone the 
 majesty of the nation is apparent, and by whom 
 alone the unity of the nation in will and in deed 
 is symbolically expressed and impersonated. 
 
 The full extent of this first and absolutely ne- 
 cessary qualification will be best seen in statins 
 the contrary, that is, the absolute disqualifications] 
 the existence of which in any individual, and in 
 any class or order of men, constitutionally inca- 
 pacitates such individual and class or order from 
 being inducted into the national trust : and this on 
 a principle so vitally concerning the health and 
 integrity of the body politic, as to render the vo- 
 luntary transfer of the Nationalty, whole or in part, 
 direct or indirect, to an order notoriously thus 
 disqualified, a foul treason against the most funda- 
 mental rights and interests of the realm, and of all 
 classes of its citizens and free subjects, the indi- 
 viduals of the very order itself, as citizens and 
 subjects, not excepted. Now there are two things, 
 and but two, which evidently and predeterminabiy 
 
82 DISQUALIFICATIONS FOR 
 
 disqualify for this great trust : the first absolutely ; 
 and the second, — which in its collective operation, 
 and as an attribute of the whole class, would, of 
 itself, constitute the greatest possible unfitness for 
 the proper ends and purposes of the National 
 Church, as explained and specified in the pre- 
 ceding paragraphs, and the heaviest drawback 
 from the civilizing influence of the national Clergy 
 in their pastoral and parochial character — the 
 second, I say, by implying the former, becomes 
 likewise an absolute ground of disqualification. 
 It is scarcely necessary to add, what the reader 
 will have anticipated, that the first absolute dis- 
 qualification is allegiance to a foreign power : the 
 second, the abjuration — under the command and 
 authority of this power, and as by the rule of 
 their order its professed lieges (alligati) — of that 
 bond, which more than all other ties connects 
 the citizen with his country ; which beyond all 
 other securities affords the surest pledge, to the 
 State for the fealty of its citizens, and that which 
 (when the rule is applied to any body or class of 
 men, under whatever name united, where the 
 number is sufficiently great to neutralize the acci- 
 dents of individual temperament and circumstances,) 
 enables the State to calculate on their constant 
 adhesion to its interests, and to rely on their faith 
 and singleness of heart in the due execution oft 
 whatever public or national trust may be as- 
 signed to them. 
 
 But I shall, perhaps, express the nature of this 
 
THE NATIONAL CHURCH. 83 
 
 security more adequately by the negative. The 
 marriage tie is a bond the preclusion of which by 
 an antecedent obligation, that overrules the acci- 
 dents of individual character and is common to the 
 whole order, deprives the State of a security with 
 which it cannot dispense. I will not say that it is 
 a security which the State may rightfully demand 
 of all its adult citizens, competently circumstanced, 
 by positive enactment: though I might shelter 
 the position under the authority of the great 
 publicists and state lawyers of the Augustanage, 
 who, in the Lex Papia Poppcea* enforced anew 
 a principle common to the old Roman Constitution 
 with that of Sparta. But without the least fear 
 of confutation, though in the full foresight of 
 vehement contradiction, I do assert that the^ State 
 may rightfully demand of any number of its sub- 
 jects united in one body or order the absence of all 
 customs, initiative vows, covenants and by-laws in 
 that order, precluding the members of such body 
 collectively and individually from affording this 
 security. In strictness of principle, I might here 
 conclude the sentence, though as it now stands it 
 would involve the assertion of a right in the State 
 to suppress any order confederated under laws so 
 anti-civic. But I am no friend to any rights that 
 can be disjoined from the duty of enforcing them. 
 
 A.U.C. ?62.—inditi custodes, et lege Papia Poppcea prce- 
 mminducti, ut, siaprivilegiisparentum cessaretur.vetut parent 
 omnium populus vacantia teneret. Tac. Ana. III. 28.— Ed. 
 
84 DISQUALIFICATIONS FOR 
 
 I therefore at once confine and complete the sen- 
 tence thus : — The State not only possesses the 
 right of demanding-, but is in duty bound to demand, 
 the above as a necessary condition of its entrusting 
 to any order of men, and to any individual as a 
 member of a known order, the titles, functions, and 
 investments of the National Church. 
 
 But if any doubt could attach to the proposition, 
 whether thus stated or in the perfectly equivalent 
 converse, that is, that the existence and known 
 enforcement of the injunction or prohibitory by- 
 law, before described, in any order or incorporation 
 constitutes an a priori disqualification for the 
 trusteeship of the Nationalty, and an insuperable 
 obstacle to the establishment of such an order or 
 of any members of the same as a national Clergy, 
 — such doubt would be removed, as soon as this 
 injunction, or vow exacted and given, or what- 
 ever else it may be, by which the members of 
 the order, collectively and as such, incapacitate 
 themselves from affording this security for their 
 full, faithful, and unbiassed application of a na- 
 tional trust to its proper and national purposes, is 
 found in conjunction with, and aggravated by, the 
 three following circumstances. First, that this 
 incapacitation originates in, and forms part of, the 
 allegiance of the order to a foreign sovereignty : 
 secondly, that it is notorious that the canon or 
 prescript, on which it is grounded, was first en- 
 forced on the secular clergy universally, after 
 long and obstinate reluctation on their side, and on 
 
THE NATIONAL CHURCH. 85 
 
 that of their natural sovereigns in the several 
 realms, to which as subjects they belonged ; and 
 that it is still retained in force, and its revocation 
 inflexibly refused, as the direct and only adequate 
 means of supporting that usurped and foreign 
 sovereignty, and of securing by virtue of the ex- 
 patriating and insulating effect of its operation 
 the devotion and allegiance of the order* to their 
 visible head and sovereign : and thirdly, that the 
 operation of the interdict precludes one of the most 
 constant and influential ways and means of pro- 
 moting the great paramount end of a National 
 Church, the progressive civilization of the com- 
 munity. 
 
 Emollit mores, nee sinit esseferos. 
 
 And now let me conclude these preparatory 
 notices by compressing the sum and substance of 
 my argument into this one sentence. Though 
 many things may detract from the comparative 
 
 * For the fullest and ablest exposition of this point, I 
 refer to the Rev. Joseph Blanco White's " Practical and 
 Internal Evidence against Catholicism," and to that ad- 
 mirable work, " Riforma d' Italia," written by a professed 
 and apparently sincere Roman Catholic, a work which well 
 merits translation. I know no work so well fitted to soften 
 the prejudices against the theoretical doctrines of the Latin 
 Church, and to deepen our reprobation of what it actually, 
 and practically is in all countries where the expediency of 
 keeping up appearances, as in Protestant neighbourhoods, 
 does not operate. 
 
86 IDEA OF THE KING 
 
 fitness of individuals or of particular classes for 
 the trust and functions of the Nationalty, there 
 are only two absolute disqualifications : and these 
 are, allegiance to a foreign power, or the ac- 
 knowledgement of any other visible head of the 
 Church, but our sovereign lord the King: and 
 compulsory celibacy in connection with, and in 
 dependence on, a foreign and extra-national 
 head. 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 On the King and the Nation. 
 
 A treatise ? why, the subjects might, T own, ex- 
 cite some apprehension of the sort. But it will 
 be found like sundry Greek treatises among the 
 tinder-rolls of Herculaneum, with titles of as large 
 promise, somewhat largely and irregularly abbre- 
 viated in the process of unrolling. In fact, neither 
 my purpose nor my limits permit more than a few 
 hints which may prepare the reader for some of 
 the positions assumed in the second part of this 
 volume. 
 
 Of the King with the two Houses of Parliament, 
 as constituting the State (in the especial and an- 
 tithetic sense of the word) I have already spoken: 
 and what remains is only to determine the proper and 
 
AND THE NATION. 87 
 
 legitimate objects of its superintendence and con- 
 trol. On what is the power of the State rightfully 
 exercised ? Now, I am not arguing in a court of 
 law ; and my purpose would be grievously misun- 
 derstood if what I say should be taken as intended 
 for an assertion of the fact. Neither of facts, nor 
 of statutory and demandable rights do I speak : but 
 exclusively of the State according to the idea. 
 And in accordance with the idea of the State, I do 
 not hesitate to answer that the legitimate objects 
 of its power comprise all the interests and concerns 
 of the proprietage, both landed and personal, and 
 whether inheritably vested in the lineage or in the 
 individual citizen ; and these alone. Even in the 
 lives and limbs of the lieges the King, as the head 
 and arm of the State, has an interest of property : 
 and in any trespass against them the King appears 
 as plaintiff. 
 
 The chief object, for which men, who from the 
 beginning existed as a social bond, first formed 
 themselves into a state and on the social super- 
 induced the political relation, was not the protec- 
 tion of their lives but of their property. The 
 natural man is too proud an animal to admit that 
 he needs any other protection for his life than what 
 his own courage and that of his clan can bestow. 
 Where the nature of the soil and climate has pre- 
 cluded all property but personal, and admitted that 
 only in its simplest forms, as in Greenland for 
 instance, — there men remain in the domestic state 
 and form neighbourhoods, not governments. And 
 
88 IDEA OF THE KING 
 
 in North America the chiefs appear to exercise 
 government in those tribes only which possess in- 
 dividual landed property. Among the rest the 
 chief is the general, a leader in war ; not a magis- 
 trate. To property and to its necessary inequalities 
 must be referred all human laws, that would not be 
 laws without and independent of any conventional 
 enactment ; that is, all State-legislation.* 
 
 Next comes the King, as the head of the National 
 Church or Clerisy, and the protector and supreme 
 trustee of the Nationalty : the power of the same 
 in relation to its proper objects being exercised by 
 the King and the Houses of Convocation, of which, 
 as before of the State, the King is the head and arm. 
 And here if it had been my purpose to enter at 
 once on the developement of this position, together 
 with the conclusions to be drawn from it, I should 
 need with increased earnestness remind the reader 
 that I am neither describing what the National 
 Church now is, nor determining what it ought to 
 be. My statements respect the idea alone as 
 deduced from its original purpose and ultimate 
 aim : and of the idea only must my assertions be 
 understood. But the full exposition of this point 
 is not necessary for the appreciation of the late 
 Bill which is the subject of the following part 
 of the volume. It belongs indeed to the chapter 
 with which I had intended to conclude this volume, 
 and which, should my health permit, and the cir- 
 
 * See the Friend, i. p. 274. 3rd edit.— Ed. 
 
AND THE NATION'. 89 
 
 cumstances warrant it, it is still my intention to 
 let follow the present work — namely, my humble 
 contribution towards an answer to the question, 
 What is to be done now ? For the present, there- 
 fore, it will be sufficient, if I recall to the reader's 
 recollection that formerly the national Clerisy, in 
 the two Houses of Convocation duly assembled and 
 represented, taxed themselves. But as to the pro- 
 per objects, on which the authority of the Convo- 
 cation with the King as its head was to be exercised , 
 — these the reader will himself without difficulty 
 decypher by referring to what has been already 
 said respecting the proper and distinguishing ends 
 and purposes of a National Church. 
 
 I pass, therefore, at once to the relations of the 
 Nation, or the State in the larger sense of the 
 word, to the State especially so named, and to the 
 Crown. And on this subject again I shall confine 
 myself to a few important, yet, I trust, not common 
 nor obvious, remarks respecting the conditions 
 requisite or especially favourable to the health and 
 vigour of the realm. From these again I separate 
 those, the nature and importance of which cannot 
 be adequately exhibited but by adverting to the 
 consequences which have followed their neglect or 
 inobservance, reserving them for another place : 
 while for the present occasion I select two only ; 
 but these, I dare believe, not unworthy the name of 
 political principles, or maxims, that is, regulce qua 
 inter maximas numerari merentur. And both of 
 them forcibly confirm and exemplify a remark, 
 
90 IDEA OF THE KING 
 
 often and in various ways suggested to my mind, 
 that with, perhaps, one* exception, it would be 
 difficult in the whole compass of language to find 
 a metaphor so commensurate, so pregnant, or 
 suggesting so many points of elucidation, as that 
 of body politic, as the exponent of a State or Realm. 
 I have little admiration for the many-jointed simi- 
 litudes of Flavel, and other finders of moral and 
 spiritual meanings in the works of art and nature, 
 where the proportion of the likeness to the differ- 
 ence not seldom reminds me of the celebrated com- 
 parison of the morning twilight to a boiled lobster, f 
 But the correspondence between the body politic 
 and the body natural holds even in the detail of 
 application. Let it not however be supposed that 
 I expect to derive any proof of my positions from 
 this analogy. My object in thus prefacing them 
 is answered, if I have shown cause for the use of 
 the physiological terms by which I have sought to 
 render my meaning intelligible. 
 
 The first condition then required, in order to a 
 sound constitution of the body politic, is a due pro- 
 portion of the free and permeative life and energy 
 of the nation to the organized powers brought within 
 containing channels. What those vital forces that 
 seem to bear an analogy to the imponderable agents, 
 magnetic, or galvanic, inbodies inorganic, if indeed, 
 
 * That namely of the Word (John, i. 1.) for the Divine 
 Alterity ; the Deus Alter et Idem of Philo; Deltas Objectiva. 
 
 t Hudibras Pt. II. c. 2 v. 29.— Ed. 
 
AND THE NATION. 91 
 
 they are not the same in a higher energy and un- 
 der a different law of action — what these, I say, 
 are in the living body in distinction from the fluids 
 in the glands and vessels — the same, or at least 
 holding a like relation, are the indeterminable, but 
 yet actual, influences of intellect, information, pre- 
 vailing principles and tendencies, (to which we 
 must add the influence of property, or income, 
 where it exists without right of suffrage attached 
 thereto), to the regular, definite, and legally recog- 
 nized powers in the body politic. But as no simile 
 runs on all four legs (nihil simile est idem), so 
 here the difference in respect of the body politic is, 
 that in sundry instances the former, that is, the 
 permeative, species of force is capable of being 1 
 converted into the latter, of being as it were or- 
 ganized and rendered a part of the vascular system, 
 by attaching a measured and determinate political 
 right or privilege thereto. 
 
 What the exact proportion, however, of the two 
 kinds of force should be, it is impossible to prede- 
 termine. But the existence of a disproportion is 
 sure to be detected sooner or later by the effects. 
 Thus : the ancient Greek democracies, the hot-beds 
 of art, science, genius, and civilization, fell into 
 dissolution from the excess of the former, the per- 
 meative power deranging the functions, and by 
 explosions shattering the organic structures, which 
 they should have enlivened. On the contrary, the 
 Republic of Venice fell by the contrary extremes. 
 For there all political power was confined to the 
 
92 IDEA OF THE KING 
 
 determinate vessels, and these becoming more and 
 more rigid, even to an ossification of the arteries, 
 the State, in which the people were nothing", lost 
 all power of resistance ad extra. 
 
 Under this head, in short, there are three possi- 
 ble sorts of malformation to be noticed. The first 
 is, the adjunction or concession of direct political 
 power to personal force and influence, whether 
 physical or intellectual, existing in classes or ag- 
 gregates of individuals, without those fixed or tan- 
 gible possessions, freehold, copyhold, or leasehold, 
 in land, house, or stock. The power resulting 
 from the acquisition of knowledge or skill, and 
 from the superior developement of the understand- 
 ing is, doubtless, of a far nobler kind than mere 
 physical strength and fierceness ; the one being 
 peculiar to the animal man, the other common to 
 him with the bear, the buffalo, and the mastiff. 
 And if superior talents, and the mere possession of 
 knowledges, such as can be learned at Mechanics' 
 Institutions, were regularly accompanied with a 
 will in harmony with the reason, and a consequent 
 subordination of the appetites and passions to the 
 ultimate ends of our being ; — if intellectual gifts 
 and attainments were infallible signs of wisdom 
 and goodness in the same proportion, and the 
 knowing and clever were always rational ; — if the 
 mere facts of science conferred or superseded the 
 softening humanizing influences of the moral world, 
 that habitual presence of the beautiful or the seemly, 
 and that exemption from all familiarity with the 
 
AND THE NATION. 93 
 
 gross, the mean, and the disorderly, whether in 
 look or language, or in the surrounding objects, 
 in which the main efficacy of a liberal education 
 consists ; — and if, lastly, these acquirements and 
 powers of the understanding could be shared equally 
 by the whole class, and did not, as by a necessity 
 of nature they ever must do, fall to the lot of two 
 or three in each several group, club, or neighbour- 
 hood ; — then, indeed, by an enlargement of the 
 Chinese system, political power might not unwisely 
 be conferred as the honorarium or privilege on 
 having passed through all the forms in the national 
 schools, without the security of political ties, with- 
 out those fastenings and radical fibres of a collec- 
 tive and registrable property, by which the citizen 
 inheres in and belongs to the commonwealth, as a 
 constituent part either of the Proprietage, or of 
 the National ty ; either of the State or of the National 
 Church. But as the contrary of all these suppo- 
 sitions may be more safely assumed, the practical 
 conclusion will be — not that the requisite means of 
 intellectual developement and growth should be 
 withholden from any native of the soil, which it was 
 at all times wicked to wish, and which it would be 
 now silly to attempt; but that the gifts of the under- 
 standing whether the boon of a genial nature, or the 
 reward of more persistent application, should be al- 
 lowed fair play in the acquiring of that proprietor- 
 ship, to which a certain portion of political power be- 
 longs as its proper function. For in this way there is 
 at least a strong probability that intellectual power 
 
94 IDEA OF THE KING 
 
 will be armed with political power, only where it 
 has previously been combined with and guarded 
 by the moral qualities of prudence, industry, and 
 self-control. And this is the first of the three kinds 
 of mal-organization in a state ; — namely, direct 
 political power without cognizable possession. 
 
 The second is, the exclusion of any class or nu- 
 merous body of individuals, who have notoriously 
 risen into possession, and the influence inevitably 
 connected with known possession, under pretence 
 of impediments that do not directly or essentially 
 affect the character of the individuals as citizens, 
 or absolutely disqualify them for the performance 
 of civic duties. Imperfect, yet oppressive and ir- 
 ritating, ligatures these that peril the trunk, the 
 circulating current of which they would withhold, 
 even more than the limb which they would fain 
 excommunicate. 
 
 The third and last is, a gross incorrespondency, 
 in relation to our own country, of the proportion 
 of the antagonist interests of the body politic in 
 the representative body, in the two Houses of Par- 
 liament, to the actual proportion of the same in- 
 terests and of the public influence exerted by the 
 same in the nation at large. Whether in conse- 
 quence of the gradual revolution which has trans- 
 ferred to the magnates of the landed interest so 
 large a portion of that borough representation which 
 was to have been its counterbalance ; whether the 
 same causes which have deranged the equilibrium 
 
AND THE NATION. 95 
 
 of the landed and the* monied interests in the Le- 
 gislature have not likewise deranged the balance 
 between the two unequal divisions of the landed 
 interest itself, namely, the Major Barons, or great 
 land-owners, with or without title, and the great 
 body of the agricultural community, and thus given 
 
 * Monied, used arbitrarily, as in preceding pages the words, 
 Personal and Independent, from my inability to find any one 
 self-interpreting word, that would serve for the generic name 
 of the four classes, on which I have stated the interest of 
 progression more especially to depend, and with it the free- 
 dom which is the indispensable condition and propelling 
 force of all national progress : even as the counter-pole, the 
 other great interest of the body politic, its permanency, is 
 more especially committed to the landed order, as its natural 
 guardian and depository. I have therefore had recourse to 
 the convenient figure of speech, bv which a conspicuous 
 part or feature of a subject is used to express the whole ; and 
 the reader will be so good as to understand, that the monied 
 order in this place comprehends and stands for the com- 
 mercial, manufacturing, distributive, and professional classes 
 of the community. 
 
 Only a few days ago, an accident placed in my hand a 
 work of which, from my very limited opportunities of see- 
 ing new publications, I had never before heard, — Mr. 
 Crawfurd's History of the Indian Archipelago — the work of 
 a wise as well as of an able and well-informed man. Need 
 I add that it was no ordinary gratification to find that in 
 respect of certain prominent positions, maintained in this 
 volume, I had unconsciously been fighting behind the shield 
 of one whom 1 deem it an honour to follow. But the sheets 
 containing the passages having been printed off, I avail 
 myself of this note to insert the sentences from Mr. Craw- 
 furd's History, rather than lose the confirmation which a 
 
96 IDEA OF THE KING 
 
 to the real or imagined interests of the compa- 
 ratively few the imposing name of the interest of 
 the whole, the landed interest; — these are questions, 
 to which the obdurate adherence to the jail- 
 crowding game laws, (which during the reading of 
 the Litany, I have sometimes been tempted to 
 
 coincidence with so high an authority has produced on my 
 own mind, and the additional weight which my sentiments 
 will receive in the judgment of others. The first of the two 
 extracts the reader will consider as annexed to pp. 25 — 27. 
 of this volume ; the second to the paragraph (p. 87.) on the 
 protection of property, as the end chiefly proposed in the 
 formation of a fixed government, quoted from a work of my 
 own, published ten or eleven years before the appearance of 
 Mr. Crawfurd's History, which I notice in order to give the 
 principle in question that probability of its being grounded 
 in fact, which is derived from the agreement of two inde- 
 pendent minds. The first extract Mr. Crawfurd introduces 
 by the remark that the possession of wealth, derived from 
 a fertile soil, encouraged the progress of absolute power in 
 Java. He then proceeds — 
 
 Extract I. 
 The devotion of a people to agricultural industry, by ren- 
 dering themselves more tame and their property more tan- 
 gible, went still farther towards it : for wherever agriculture 
 is the principal pursuit, there it may certainly be reckoned, 
 that the people will be found living under an absolute go- 
 vernment. — Vol. iii. p. 24. 
 
 Extract II. 
 In cases of murder, no distinction is made (in the ancient 
 laws of the Indian Islanders) between wilful murder and 
 chance-medley. It is the loss, which the family or tribe 
 sustains, that is oonsidered, and the pecuniary compensation 
 was calculated to make up that loss. — lb. p. 123. 
 
AND THE NATION. 97 
 
 include, by a sort of sub vitelline, in the petitions 
 — from envy, hatred, and malice, and all uncha- 
 ritableness ; from battle, murder, and sudden 
 death, Good Lojrd, deliver us !) to which the old 
 corn laws, and the exclusion of the produce of our 
 own colonies from our distilleries, during the war, 
 against the earnest recommendation of the govern- 
 ment, the retention of the statutes against usury, 
 and other points of minor importance or of less safe 
 handling, may seem at a first view to suggest an 
 answer in the affirmative ; but which, for reasons 
 before assigned, I shall leave unresolved, content 
 if only I have made the principle itself intelligible. 
 The following anecdote, for I have no means of 
 ascertaining its truth, and no warrant to offer for 
 its accuracy, I give not as a fact in proof of an 
 overbalance of the landed interest, but as an in- 
 distinctly remembered hearsay, in elucidation of 
 what is meant by the words. Some eighteen or 
 twenty years ago — for so long I think it must have 
 been, since the circumstance was first related to 
 me — my illustrious (alas ! I must add, I fear, my 
 late) friend, Sir Humphrey Davy, at Sir Joseph 
 Banks's request, analyzed a portion of an East In- 
 dian import, known by the Barnes of cutch, and 
 terra Japonica ; but which he ascertained to be a 
 vegetable extract, consisting almost wholly of 
 pure tannin : and further trials, with less pure spe- 
 cimens, still led to the conclusion that the average 
 product would be seven parts in ten of the tanning 
 
 H 
 
93 IDEA OF THE KING 
 
 principle. This discovery was* communicated to 
 the trade ; and on inquiry made at the India House, 
 
 * And, (if I recollect right, though it was not from him, 
 that I received the anecdote) by a friend of Sir Humphrey's, 
 whom I am proud to think my friend likewise, and by an 
 elder claim : J — a man whom I have seen now in his harvest 
 field, or the market, now in a committee-room with the Rick- 
 mans and Ricardos of the age ; at another time with Davy, 
 Wollaston, and the Wedgewoods ; now with Wordsworth, 
 Southey, and other friends not unheard of in the republic of 
 letters; now in the drawing-rooms of the rich and the noble, 
 and now presiding at the annual dinner of a village benefit 
 society ; and in each seeming to be in the very place he was 
 intended for, and taking the part to which his tastes, talents, 
 and attainments gave him an admitted right. And yet this 
 is not the most remarkable, not the individualizing, trait of 
 my friend's character. It is almost overlooked in the ori- 
 ginality and raciness of his intellect ; in the life, freshness 
 and practical value of his remarks and notices, truths plucked 
 as they are growing, and delivered to you with the dew on 
 them, the fair earnings of an observing eye, armed and kept 
 on the watch by thought and meditation ; and above all, in 
 the integrity or entireness of his being, (integrum et sine cera 
 vas), the steadiness of his attachments, and the activity and 
 persistency of a benevolence, which so graciously presses a 
 warm temper into the service of a yet warmer heart, and so 
 lights up the little flaws and imperfections, incident to hu- 
 manity in its choicest specimens, that were their removal at 
 the option of his friends, (and few have, or deserve to have 
 so many) not a man among them but would vote for leaving 
 him as he is. 
 
 This is a note digressive ; but, as the height of the offence 
 is, that the garnish is too good for the dish, I shall confine 
 my apology to a confession of the fault. 
 
 1 The late excellent Thomas Poole of Nether Stowey, So- 
 merset. — Ed. 
 
AND THE NATION. 99 
 
 it was found that this cutch could be prepared in 
 large quantities, and imported at a price which, 
 after an ample profit to the importers, it would very 
 well answer the purposes of the tanners to give. 
 The trade itself, too, was likely to be greatly be- 
 nefitted and enlarged by being rendered less de- 
 pendent on particular situations ; while the reduc- 
 tion of the price at which it could be offered to the 
 foreign consumer, acting in conjunction with the 
 universally admitted superiority of the English 
 leather, might be reasonably calculated on as en- 
 abling us to undersell our foreign rivals in their 
 own markets. Accordingly, an offer was made on 
 the part of the principal persons interested in the 
 leather trade to purchase, at any price below the 
 sum that had been stated to them as the highest 
 or extreme price, as large a quantity as it was pro- 
 bable that the Company would find it feasible or 
 convenient to import in the first instance. Well ! 
 the ships went out, and the ships returned, again 
 and again : and no increase in the amount of the 
 said desideratum appearing among the imports, 
 enough only being imported to meet the former 
 demand of the druggists, and (it is whispered) of 
 certain ingenious transmuters of Bohea into Hyson, 
 — my memory does not enable me to determine 
 whether the inquiry into the occasion of this dis- 
 appointment was made, or whether it was anti- 
 cipated by a discovery that it would be useless. 
 But it was generally understood that the tanners 
 had not been the only persons, whose attention had 
 
100 THE OMNIPOTENCE 
 
 been drawn to the qualities of the article, and the 
 consequences of its importation ; and that a very 
 intelligible hint had been given to persons of known 
 influence in Leadenhall-street, that in case any such 
 importation were allowed, the East- India Com- 
 pany must not expect any support from the landed 
 interest in Parliament at the next renewal, or 
 'motion for the renewal of their Charter. The East 
 India Company might reduce the price of bark, 
 one half or more ; and the British navy, and the 
 grandsons of our present senators, might thank 
 them for thousands and myriads of noble oaks, left 
 unstript in consequence — this may be true ; but no 
 less true is it, that the free merchants would soon 
 reduce the price of good tea in the same proportion, 
 and monopolists ought to have a feeling for each 
 other. 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 The relations of the potential to the actual. The 
 omnipotence of Parliament ; — of what kind. 
 
 So much in explanation of the first of the two con- 
 ditions* of the health and vigour of a body politic : 
 and far more, I must confess, than I had myself 
 reckoned on. I will endeavour to indemnify the 
 
 * See ante, p. 90. — Ed. 
 
OF PARLIAMENT. 101 
 
 reader by despatching the second in a few sen- 
 tences, which could not so easily have been ac- 
 complished without the explanations given in the 
 preceding paragraphs. For as we have found the 
 first condition in the due proportion of the free 
 and permeative life of the State to the powers or- 
 ganized, and severally determined by their appro- 
 priate containing or conducting nerves, or vessels ; 
 the second condition is a due proportion of the 
 potential, that is, latent or dormant power to the 
 actual power. In the first condition, both powers 
 alike are awake and in act. The balance is pro- 
 duced by the polarization of the actual power, 
 that is, the opposition of the actual power organ- 
 ized to the actual power free and permeating the 
 organs. In the second, the actual power, in toto, 
 is opposed to the potential. It has been frequently 
 and truly observed that in England, where the 
 ground plan, the skeleton, as it were, of the go- 
 vernment is a monarchy, at once buttressed and 
 limited by the aristocracy, (the assertions of its 
 popular character finding a better support in the 
 harangues and theories of popular men, than in 
 state-documents and the records of clear history,) 
 a far greater degree of liberty is, and long has 
 been, enjoyed than ever existed in the ostensibly 
 freest, that is, most democratic, commonwealths 
 of ancient or of modern times; — greater, indeed, 
 and with a more decisive predominance of the 
 spirit of freedom than the wisest and most philan- 
 thropic statesmen of antiquity, or than the great 
 
102 THE OMNIPOTENCE 
 
 Commonwealth's-men, (the stars of that narrow 
 interspace of blue sky between the black clouds of 
 the first and second Charles's reigns) believed 
 compatible, the one with the safety of the State, 
 the other with the interests of morality. 
 
 Yes ! for little less than a century and a half 
 Englishmen have collectively and individually lived 
 and acted with fewer restraints on their free-agency 
 than the citizens of any known* republic, past or 
 present. The fact is certain. It has been often 
 boasted of, but never, I think, clearly explained. 
 The solution must, it is obvious, be sought for in 
 the combination of circumstances, to which we 
 owe the insular privilege of a self-evolving Con- 
 stitution : and the following will, I think, be found 
 the main cause of the fact in question. Extremes 
 meet — an adage of inexhaustible exemplification. 
 A democratic republic and an absolute monarchy 
 agree in this ; that, in both alike, the nation or 
 people delegates its whole power. Nothing is left 
 obscure, nothing suffered to remain in the idea, 
 
 * It will be thought, perhaps, that the United States of 
 North America should have been excepted. But the iden- 
 tity of stock, language, customs, manners and laws scarcely 
 allows me to consider this an exception : even though it were 
 quite certain both that it is and that it will continue such. 
 It was, at all events, a remark worth remembering, which 
 1 once heard from a traveller (a prejudiced one I must ad- 
 mit), that where every man may take liberties, there is little 
 liberty for any man ; — or, that where every man takes liber- 
 ties, no man can enjoy any. 
 
OF PARLIAMENT. 103 
 
 unevolved and only acknowledged as an existing-, 
 yet indeterminable right. A Constitution such 
 states can scarcely be said to possess. The whole 
 will of the body politic is in act at every moment. 
 But in the constitution of England according to 
 the idea, (which in this instance has demonstrated 
 its actuality by its practical influence, and this 
 too though counter-worked by fashionable errors 
 and maxims, that left their validity behind in the 
 law-courts, from which they were borrowed) the 
 nation has delegated its power, not without mea- 
 sure and circumscription, whether in respect of 
 the duration of the trust, or of the particular inte- 
 rests entrusted. 
 
 The omnipotence of Parliament, in the mouth 
 of a lawyer, and understood exclusively of the re- 
 straints and remedies within the competence of 
 our law-courts, is objectionable only as bombast. 
 It is but a puffing pompous way of stating a plain 
 matter of fact. Yet in the times preceding the 
 Restoration even this was not universally admitted. 
 And it is not without a fair show of reason that 
 the shrewd and learned author of " The Royalist's 
 Defence," printed in the year 1648, (a tract of 172 
 pages, small quarto, from which I now transcribe) 
 thus sums up his argument and evidences : 
 
 " Upon the whole matter clear it is, the Parlia- 
 ment itself (that is, the King, the Lords, and 
 Commons) although unanimously consenting, are 
 not boundless : the Judges of the realm by the 
 fundamental law of England have power to deter- 
 
104 THE OMNIPOTENCE 
 
 mine which Acts of Parliaments are binding 1 and 
 which void." p. 48. — That a unanimous declaration 
 of the judges of the realm that any given Act of 
 Parliament was against right reason and the fun- 
 damental law of the land (that is, the constitution 
 of the realm), would render such Act null and 
 void, was a principle that did not want defenders 
 among the lawyers of elder times. And in a state 
 of society in which the competently informed and 
 influential members of the community, (the national 
 Clerisy not included), scarcely perhaps trebled the 
 number of the members of the two Houses, and 
 Parliaments were so often tumultuary congresses 
 of a victorious party rather than representatives 
 of the State, the right and power here asserted 
 might have been wisely vested in the judges of the 
 realm : and with at least equal wisdom, under 
 change of circumstances, has the right been suf- 
 fered to fall into abeyance. " Therefore let the 
 potency of Parliament be that highest and utter- 
 most, beyond which a court of law looketh not : 
 and within the sphere of the Courts quicquid Rex 
 cum Parliamento voluit , fatum sit!" 
 
 But if the strutting phrase be taken, as from 
 sundry recent speeches respecting the fundamental 
 institutions of the realm it may be reasonably in- 
 ferred that it has been taken, that is, absolutely, 
 and in reference, not to our courts of law exclu- 
 sively, but to the nation, to England with all her 
 venerable heir-looms, and with all her germs of 
 reversionary wealth, — thus used and understood, 
 
OF PARLIAMENT. 105 
 
 the omnipotence of Parliament is an hyperbole 
 that would contain mischief in it, were it only 
 that it tends to provoke a detailed analysis of the 
 materials of the joint-stock company, to which so 
 terrific an attribute belongs, and the competence 
 of the shareholders in this earthly omnipotence to 
 exercise the same. And on this head the obser- 
 vations and descriptive statements given in the 
 fifth chapter of the old tract, just cited, retain all 
 their force ; or if any have fallen off, their place 
 has been abundantly filled up by new growths. 
 The degree and sort of knowledge, talent, probity, 
 and prescience, which it would be only too easy, 
 were it not too invidious, to prove from acts and 
 measures presented by the history of the last half 
 century, are but scant measure even when ex- 
 erted within the sphere and circumscription of the 
 constitution, and on the matters properly and pe- 
 culiarly appertaining to the State according to the 
 idea ; — this portion of moral and mental endowment 
 placed by the side of the jo/ws^wam-gigantic height 
 and amplitude of power, implied in the unqualified 
 use of the phrase, omnipotence of Parliament, and 
 with its dwarfdom intensified by the contrast, 
 would threaten to distort the countenance of truth 
 itself with the sardonic laugh of irony.* 
 
 * I have not in my possession the morning- paper in -which 
 I read it, or I should with great pleasure transcribe an ad- 
 mirable passage from the present King of Sweden's Address 
 to the Storthing, or Parliament of Norway, on the necessary 
 limits of Parliamentary power, consistently with the exis- 
 
106 THE OMNIPOTENCE 
 
 The non-resistance of successive generations 
 has ever been, and with evident reason, deemed 
 equivalent to a tacit consent, on the part of the 
 nation, and as finally legitimating the act thus ac- 
 quiesced in, however great the dereliction of prin- 
 ciple, and breach of trust, the original enactment 
 may have been. I hope, therefore, that without 
 offence I may venture to designate the Septennial 
 Act as an act of usurpation, tenfold more dangerous 
 to the true liberty of the nation than the pretext for 
 the measure, namely, the apprehended Jacobite 
 leaven from a new election, was at all likely to 
 have proved : and I repeat the conviction which I 
 have expressed in reference to the practical sup- 
 pression of the Convocation, that no great principle 
 was ever invaded or trampled on, that did not 
 sooner or later avenge itself on the country, and 
 even on the governing classes themselves, by the 
 consequences of the precedent. The statesman 
 who has not learned this from history has missed 
 its most valuable result, and might in my opinion 
 as profitably, and far more delightfully, have 
 devoted his hours of study to Sir Walter Scott's 
 Novels.* 
 
 tence of a constitution. But I can with confidence refer 
 the reader to the speech, as worthy of an Alfred. Every 
 thing indeed that I have heard or read of this sovereign, 
 has contributed to the impression on my mind, that he is a 
 good and a wise man, and worthy to be the king of a virtuous 
 people, the purest specimen of the Gothic race. 
 
 * This would not be the first time that these fascinating 
 volumes had been recommended as a substitute for history 
 
OF PARLIAMENT. 107 
 
 But I must draw in my reins. Neither my limits 
 permit, nor does my present purpose require, that 
 I should do more than exemplify the limitation 
 resulting from that latent or potential power, a due 
 proportion of which to the actual powers I have 
 stated as the second condition of the health and 
 vigor of a body politic, by an instance bearing 
 directly on the measure which in the following 
 section I am to aid in appreciating, and which was 
 the occasion of the whole work. The principle 
 itself, — which, as not contained within the rule 
 and compass of law, its practical manifestations 
 being indeterminable and inappreciable a priori, 
 and then only to be recorded as having manifested 
 itself, when the predisposing causes and the en- 
 during effects prove the unific mind and energy of 
 the. nation to have been in travail ; when they have 
 made audible to the historian that voice of the 
 people which is the voice of God ; — this principle, 
 I say, (or the power, that is the subject of it) which 
 by its very essence existing and working as an 
 idea only, except in the rare and predestined 
 epochs of growth and reparation, might seem to 
 many fitter matter for verse than for sober argu- 
 ment, — I will, by way of compromise, and for the 
 amusement of the reader, sum up in the rhyming 
 
 — a ground of recommendation, to which I could not con- 
 scientiously accede; though some half dozen of these 
 Novels, with a perfect recollection of the contents of every 
 page, I read over more often in the course of a year than I 
 can honestly put down to my own credit. 
 
103 THE OMNIPOTENCE 
 
 prose of an old Puritan poet, consigned to contempt 
 by Mr. Pope, but whose writings, with all their 
 barren flats and dribbling common-place, contain 
 nobler principles, profounder truths, and more that 
 is properly and peculiarly poetic, than are to be 
 found in his own works.* The passage in question, 
 however, I found occupying the last page on a 
 flying-sheet of four leaves., entitled England's 
 Misery and Remedy, in a judicious Letter from 
 an Utter- Barrister to his Special Friend, con- 
 cerning Lieut-Col. Lilburne's Imprisonment in 
 Newgate ; and I beg leave to borrow the intro- 
 duction, together with the extract, or that part at 
 least, which suited my purpose. 
 
 " Christian Reader, having a vacant place for 
 some few lines, I have made bold to use some of 
 Major George Withers his verses out of Vox 
 Pacifica, page 199. 
 
 * If it were asked whether I consider the works of the 
 one of equal value with those of the other, or hold George 
 Withers to be as great a writer as Alexander Pope, — my 
 answer would he that I am as little likely to do so, as the 
 querist would be to put no greater value on a highly 
 wrought vase of pure silver from the hand of a master, than 
 on an equal weight of copper ore that contained a small 
 per centage of separable gold scattered through it. The 
 reader will be pleased to observe that in the passage here 
 cited, the " State" is used in the largest sense, and as sy- 
 nonymous with the realm, or entire body politic, including 
 Church and State in the narrower and special sense of the 
 latter term. 
 
OF PARLIAMENT. 109 
 
 " Let not your King and Parliament in one, 
 Much less apart, mistake themselves for that 
 Which is most worthy to be thought upon : 
 Nor think they are, essentially, the State. 
 Let them not fancy, that th' authority 
 And privileges upon them bestown, 
 Conferral are to set up a majesty, 
 A power, or a glory, of their own ! 
 But let them know, 'twas for a deeper life, 
 
 Which they but represent 
 
 That there's on earth a yet auguster thing, 
 Veil'd tho' it be, than Parliament and King." 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 The preceding position exemplified. The origin 
 and meaning of the Coronation Oath, in respect 
 of the National Church. In what its moral 
 obligation consists. Recapitulation. 
 
 And here again the " Royalist's Defence" furnishes 
 me with the introductory paragTaph : and I am 
 always glad to find in the words of an elder writer, 
 what I must otherwise have said in my own person 
 — otium simul et auctoritatem. 
 
 " All Englishmen grant, that arbitrary power 
 is destructive of the best purposes for which power 
 is conferred : and in the preceding chapter it has 
 been shown, that to give an unlimited authority 
 over the fundamental laws and rights of the nation, 
 
110 OBLIGATION OF THE CORONATION OATH 
 
 even to the King- and two Houses of Parliament 
 jointly, though nothing so bad as to have this 
 boundless power in the King alone, or in the 
 Parliament alone, were nevertheless to deprive 
 Englishmen of the security from arbitrary power, 
 which is their birth right. 
 
 " Upon perusal of former statutes it appears, 
 that the members of both Houses have been 
 frequently drawn to consent, not only to things 
 prejudicial to the Commonwealth, but, (even in 
 matters of greatest weight) to alter and contradict 
 what formerly themselves had agreed to, and that, 
 as it happened to please the fancy of the present 
 Prince, or to suit the passions and interests of a 
 prevailing faction. Witness the statute by which 
 it was enacted that the proclamation of King- 
 Henry VIII. should be equivalent to an Act of 
 Parliament ; another declaring both Mary and 
 Elizabeth bastards ; and a third statute empower- 
 ing the King to dispose of the Crown of England 
 by will and testament. Add to these the several 
 statutes in the times of King Henry VIII. Edward 
 VI. Queen Mary, and Queen Elizabeth, setting 
 up and pulling down each other's religion, every 
 one of them condemning even to death the profes- 
 sion of the one before established." — Royalist's 
 Defence, p. 41. 
 
 So far my anonymous author, evidently an old 
 Tory lawyer of the genuine breed, too enlightened 
 to obfuscate and incense-blacken the shrine, 
 through which the kingly idea should be translu- 
 
IN RESPECT OF THE NATIONAL CHURCH. Ill 
 
 cent, into an idol to be worshipped in its own right ; 
 but who, considering both the reigning Sovereign 
 and the Houses, as limited and representative 
 functionaries, thought he saw reason, in some few 
 cases, to place more confidence in the former than 
 in the latter ; while there were points, which he 
 wished as little as possible to trust to either. With 
 this experience, however, as above stated, (and it 
 would not be difficult to increase the catalogue,) 
 can we wonder that the nation grew sick of Par- 
 liamentary religions ; — or that the idea should at 
 last awake and become operative, that what virtually 
 concerned their humanity and involved yet higher 
 relations than those of the citizen to the State, 
 duties more aweful, and more precious privileges, 
 while yet it stood in closest connection with all 
 their civil duties and rights, as their indispensable 
 condition and only secure ground — that this was 
 not a matter to be voted up or down, off or on, by 
 fluctuating majorities ; — that it was too precious an 
 inheritance to be left at the discretion of an om- 
 nipotency which had so little claim to omnis- 
 cience ? No interest this of a single generation, 
 but an entailed boon too sacred, too momentous, 
 to be shaped and twisted, pared down or plumped 
 up, by any assemblage of Lords, Knights, and 
 Burgesses for the time being ; — men perfectly 
 competent, it may be, to the protection and manage- 
 ment of those interests in which, as having so 
 large a stake, they may be reasonably presumed to 
 feel a sincere and lively concern, but who, the ex- 
 
112 OBLIGATION OF THE CORONATION OATH 
 
 perience of ages might teach us, are not the class 
 of persons most likely to study or feel a deep con- 
 cern in the interests here spoken of, in either sense 
 of the term Church ; — that is, whether the interests 
 be of a kingdom not of the world, or those of an 
 estate of the realm, and a constituent part, there- 
 fore, of the same system with the State, though as 
 the opposite pole. The results at all events have 
 been such, whenever the representatives of the one 
 interest have assumed the direct control of the 
 other, as gave occasion long ago to the rhyming 
 couplet, quoted as proverbial by Luther : 
 
 Cum mare siccatur, cum Daemon ad astra levatur, 
 Tunc clero laicusjidus amicus erit. 
 
 But if the nation willed to withdraw the religion 
 of the realm from the changes and revolutions in- 
 cident to whatever is subjected to the suffrages of 
 the representative assemblies, whether of the State 
 or of the Church, the trustees of the Proprietage 
 or those of the National ty, the first question is, 
 how this reservation is to be declared and by what 
 means to be effected. These means, the security 
 for the permanence of the established religion, 
 must, it may be foreseen, be imperfect ; for what 
 can be otherwise that depends on human will ? 
 but yet it may be abundantly sufficient to declare 
 the aim and intention of the provision. Our 
 ancestors did the best it was in their power to do. 
 Knowing by recent experience that multitudes 
 never blush, that numerous assemblies, however 
 
IN RESPECT TO THE NATIONAL CHURCH. 113 
 
 respectably composed, are not exempt from tem- 
 porary hallucinations and the influences of party 
 passion ; that there are things, for the conservation 
 of which — 
 
 Men safelier trust to heaven, than to themselves, 
 When least themselves, in storms of loud debate, 
 Where folly is contagious, and too oft 
 Even wise men leave their better sense at home 
 To chide and wonder at them, when return'd.* 
 
 Knowing- this, our ancestors chose to place their 
 reliance on the honour and conscience of an indi- 
 vidual, whose comparative height, it was believed, 
 would exempt him from the gusts and shifting 
 currents that agitate the lower region of the poli- 
 tical atmosphere. Accordingly, on a change of 
 dynasty they bound the person, who had accepted 
 the crown in trust, — bound him for himself and 
 his successors by an oath to refuse his consent 
 (without which no change in the existing law can 
 be effected,) to any measure subverting or tending 
 to subvert the safety and independence of the Na- 
 tional Church, or which exposed the realm to the 
 danger of a return of that foreign usurper, mis- 
 named spiritual, from which it had with so many 
 sacrifices emancipated itself. However uncon- 
 stitutional therefore the royal veto on a Bill pre- 
 sented by the Lords and Commons may be deemed 
 
 * Poet. Works, Vol. a. p. 258.— Ed. 
 I 
 
114 OBLIGATION OF THE CORONATION OATH 
 
 in all ordinary cases, this is clearly an exception. 
 For it is no additional power conferred on the 
 King- ; hut a limit imposed on him hy the consti- 
 tution itself for its own safety. Previously to the 
 ceremonial act, which announces him the only 
 lawful and sovereign head of both the Church and 
 the State, the oath is administered to him religiously 
 as the representative person and crowned majesty 
 of the nation. Religiously, I say; — for the mind 
 of the nation, existing- only as an idea, can act 
 distinguishably on the ideal powers alone — that is, 
 on the reason and conscience. 
 
 It only remains then to determine what it is to 
 which the Coronation oath obliges the conscience 
 of the King. And this may be best done by con- 
 sidering- what in reason and in conscience the 
 nation had a right to impose. Now' that the 
 nation had a right to decide for the King's con- 
 science and reason, and for the reason and con- 
 science of all his successors, and of his and their 
 counsellors and ministers, laic and ecclesiastic, 
 on questions of theology, and controversies of 
 faith, — for example, that it is not allowable in 
 directing our thoughts to a departed Saint, the 
 Virgin Mary for instance, to say Ora pro nobis, 
 beata Virgo, though there might, peradventure, be 
 no harm in saying, Oret pro nobis, precor, beata 
 Virgo ; whether certain books are to be holden 
 canonical; whether the text, They shall be saved 
 as through fire, refers to a purgatorial process in 
 the body, or during the interval between its dis- 
 
IN RESPECT TO THE NATIONAL CHURCH. 115 
 
 solution and the day of judgment; whether the 
 words, This is my body, are to be understood 
 literally, and if so, whether it is by consubstan- 
 tiation with, or transubstantiation of, bread and 
 wine ; and that the members of both Houses of 
 Parliament, together with the Privy Councillors 
 and all the Clergy shall abjure and denounce the 
 theory last mentioned — this I utterly deny. And 
 if this were the whole and sole object and intention 
 of the oath, however large the number might be of 
 the persons who imposed or were notoriously fa- 
 vourable to the imposition, so far from recognizing 
 the nation in their collective number, I should 
 regard them as no other than an aggregate of 
 intolerant mortals, from bigotry and presumption 
 forgetful of their fallibility, and not less ignorant 
 of their own rights than callous to those of suc- 
 ceeding generations. If the articles of faith 
 therein disclaimed and denounced were the sub- 
 stance and proper intention of the oath, and not to 
 be understood, as in all common sense they ought 
 to be, as temporary marks, because the known ac- 
 companiments, of other and legitimate grounds of 
 disqualification ; and which only in reference to 
 these, and only as long as they implied their ex- 
 istence, were fit objects of political interference ; 
 it would be as impossible for me, as for the late 
 Mr. Canning, to attach any such sanctity to the 
 Coronation oath as should prevent it from being 
 superannuated in times of clearer light and less 
 heat. But that these theological articles, and the 
 
116 OBLIGATION OF THE CORONATION OATH. 
 
 open profession of the same by a portion of the 
 King's subjects as parts of their creed, are not the 
 evils which it is the true and legitimate purpose of 
 the oath to preclude, and which constitute and 
 define its obligation on the royal conscience ; and 
 what the real evils are, that do indeed disqualify 
 for offices of national trust, and give the permanent 
 obligatory character to the engagement — this, — 
 in which I include the exposition of the essential 
 characters of the Christian or Catholic Church ; 
 and of a very different Church, which assumes the 
 name ; and the application of the premisses to an 
 appreciation on principle of the late Bill, now the 
 law of the land, — will occupy the remaining portion 
 of the volume. 
 
 And now I may be permitted to look back on 
 the road we have passed : in the course of which, 
 I have placed before the reader a small part indeed 
 of what might, on a suitable occasion, be profitably 
 said ; but it is all that for my present purpose I 
 deem it necessary to say respecting three out of 
 the five themes that were to form the subjects of 
 the first part of this little work. But let me avail 
 myself of the pause to repeat my apology to the 
 reader for any extra trouble I may have imposed 
 on him, by employing the same term, the State, 
 in two senses ; though I flatter myself I have in 
 each instance so guarded it as to leave scarcely the 
 possibility that a moderately attentive reader should 
 understand the word in one sense, when I had 
 meant it in the other, or confound the State as a 
 
RECAPITULATION. 117 
 
 whole and comprehending the Church, with the 
 State as one of the two constituent parts, and in 
 contradistinction from the Church. 
 
 Brief Recapitulation. 
 
 First then, I have given briefly but, I trust, 
 with sufficient clearness, the right idea of a State, 
 or body politic ; the word State being here synony- 
 mous with a constituted realm, kingdom, common- 
 wealth, or nation ; that is, where the integral parts, 
 classes, or orders are so balanced, or interdependent, 
 as to constitute, more or less, a moral unit, an or- 
 ganic whole ; and as arising out of the idea of a 
 State I have added the idea of a Constitution, as the 
 informing principle of its coherence and unity. 
 But in applying the above to our own kingdom 
 (and with this qualification the reader is requested 
 to understand me as speaking in all the following 
 remarks), it was necessary to observe, and I 
 willingly avail myself of this opportunity to repeat 
 the observation, — that the Constitution, in its widest 
 sense as the constitution of the realm, arose out of, 
 and in fact consisted in, the co-existence of the 
 constitutional State (in the second acceptation of 
 the term) with the King as its head, and of the 
 Church, that is, the National Church, with the 
 King likewise as its head ; and lastly of the 
 King, as the head and majesty of the whole nation. 
 The reader was cautioned therefore not to confound 
 
1 1 8 REC APITUL AT I ON . 
 
 it with either of its constituent parts ; that he 
 must first master the true idea of each of these 
 severally ; and that in the synopsis or conjunction 
 of the three the idea of the English constitution, 
 the constitution of the realm, will rise of itself 
 before him. And in aid of this purpose and fol- 
 lowing- this order, I have given according to my 
 best judgment, first, the idea of the State in the 
 second or special sense of the term ; of the State- 
 legislature ; and of the two constituent orders, 
 the Landed, with its two classes, the Major Barons, 
 and the Franklins ; and the Personal, consisting- 
 of the mercantile, or commercial, the manufac- 
 turing, the distributive and the professional ; these 
 two orders corresponding to the two great all-inclu- 
 ding interests of theState, — the Landed, namely, to 
 the permanence, — the Personal to the progression. 
 The possessions of both orders, taken collectively, 
 form the* Proprietage of the realm. In contradis- 
 tinction from this and as my second theme, I have 
 explained (and it being the principal object of this 
 work, more diffusely) the Nationally, its nature and 
 
 * To convey his meaning precisely is a debt which an 
 Author owes to his readers. He therefore who, to escape 
 the charge of pedantry, will rather be misunderstood than 
 startle a fastidious critic with an unusual term, may be com- 
 pared to the man who should pay his creditor in base or 
 counterfeit coin, when he had gold or silver ingots in his 
 possession, to the precise amount of the debt ; and this under 
 the pretence of their unshapeliness and want of the mint 
 impression. 
 
RECAPITULATION. 119 
 
 purposes, and the duties and qualifications of its 
 trustees and functionaries. In the same sense in 
 which I at once oppose and conjoin the Nationally 
 to the Proprietage ; in the same antithssis and 
 conjunction I use and understand the phrase, 
 Church and State. Lastly, I have essayed to 
 determine the constitutional idea of the Crown, 
 and its relations to the nation, to which I have 
 added a few sentences on the relations of the nation 
 to the State. 
 
 To the completion of this first part of my under- 
 taking-, two subjects still remain to be treated of — 
 and to each of these I shall devote a small section ; 
 the title of the first being, " On the idea of 
 the Christian Church;" that of the other, " On a 
 third Church :" the name of which I withhold for 
 the present, in the expectation of deducing it by 
 contrast from the contradistinguishing characters 
 of the former. 
 
IDEA OF THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 
 
" We, (said Luther), tell our Lord God plainly: If he 
 will have his Church, then he must look how to maintain 
 and defend it ; for we can neither uphold nor protect it. 
 And well for us, that it is so! For in case we could, or 
 were able to defend it, we should become the proudest 
 asses under heaven. Who is the Church's protector, that 
 hath promised to be with her to the end, and the gates of 
 hell shall not prevail against her 1 Kings, Diets, Parlia- 
 ments, Lawyers'? Marry no such cattle." — Luther s Table 
 Talk with additions. — Ed. 
 
IDEA OF THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 
 
 The practical conclusion from our inquiries respect- 
 ing the origin and idea of the National Church, the 
 paramount end and purpose of which is the con- 
 tinued and progressive civilization of the commu- 
 nity, (emollit mores nee sinit esseferos), was this : 
 that though many things may be conceived of a 
 tendency to diminish the fitness of particular men, 
 or of a particular class, to be chosen as trustees 
 and functionaries of the same ; though there may 
 be many points more or less adverse to the perfec- 
 tion of the establishment ; there are yet but two 
 absolute disqualifications : namely, allegiance to 
 a foreign power, or an acknowledgment of any 
 other visible head of the Church but our sovereign 
 lord the King ; and compulsory celibacy in con- 
 nection with, and dependence on, a foreign and 
 extra-national head. I now call the reader to a 
 different contemplation, to the idea of the Christian 
 Church. 
 
 Of the Christian Church, I say, not of Chris- 
 tianity. To the ascertainment and enucleation of the 
 latter, of the great redemptive process which began 
 in the separation of light from Chaos (Hades, or 
 
124 IDEA OF 
 
 the indistinction), and has its end in the union of 
 life with God, the whole summer and autumn and 
 now commenced winter of my life have been dedi- 
 cated. Hie labor, hoc opus est, on which alone 
 I rest my hope that I shall be found not to have 
 lived altogether in vain. Of the Christian Church 
 only, and of this no further than is necessary for 
 the distinct understanding of the National Church, 
 it is my purpose now to speak : and for this pur- 
 pose it will be sufficient to enumerate the essential 
 characters by which the Christian Church is dis- 
 tinguished. 
 
 I. — The Christian Church is not a kingdom, 
 realm, (royaume), or state, (sensu latiori) of 
 the world, that is, of the aggregate or total number 
 of the kingdoms, states, realms, or bodies politic, 
 (these words being, as far as the present argument 
 is concerned, perfectly synonymous), into which ci- 
 vilized man is distributed ; and which, collectively 
 taken, constitute the civilized world. The Chris- 
 tian Church, I say, is no state, kingdom, or realm 
 of this world ; nor is it an estate of any such realm, 
 kingdom or state ; but it is the appointed opposite to 
 them all collectively — the sustaining, correcting, be- 
 friending opposite of the World; the compensating 
 counterforce to the inherent* and inevitable evils 
 
 * It is not without pain that I have advanced this posi- 
 tion, without the accompanying proofs and documents which 
 it may be thought to require, and without the elucidations 
 which T am sure it deserves ; but which are precluded alike 
 by the purpose and the limits of the present work. I will, 
 
THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 125 
 
 and defects of the State, as a State, and without 
 reference to its better or worse construction as a 
 particular state ; while whatever is beneficent and 
 humanizing in the aims, tendencies, and proper ob- 
 jects of the State, the Christian Church collects in 
 itself as in a focus, to radiate them back in a higher 
 quality; or to change the metaphor, it completes and 
 strengthens the edifice of the State, without interfer- 
 ence or commixture, in the mere act of laying and 
 securing its own foundations. And for these services 
 the Church of Christ asks of the State neither 
 wages nor dignities. She asks only protection 
 and to be let alone. These indeed she demands ; 
 but even these only on the ground that there is no- 
 thing in her constitution or in her discipline incon- 
 sistent with the interests of the State, nothing re- 
 sistant or impedimental to the State in the exercise 
 of its rightful powers, in the fulfilment of its ap- 
 propriate duties, or in the effectuation of its legi- 
 timate objects. It is a fundamental principle of 
 all legislation, that the State shall leave the largest 
 portion of personal free agency to each of its citi- 
 zens, that is compatible with the free agency of all, 
 
 however, take this opportunity of earnestly recommending to 
 such of my readers as understand German, Lessing's Ernst 
 unci Falk : Gespruchefur Freym'durer. They will find it in 
 Vol. vii. of the Leipsic edition of Lessing's Works. I know 
 no finer example of the point, elegance, and exquisite, yet 
 effortless, precision and conciseness of Lessing's philosophic 
 and controversial writings. I remember nothing that is at 
 once like them, and equal to them ,but the Provincial Letters 
 of Pascal. 
 
126 IDEA OF 
 
 and not subversive of the ends of its own existence 
 as a state. And though a negative, it is a most 
 important distinctive, character of the Church of 
 Christ, that she asks nothing- for her members as 
 Christians, which they are not already entitled to 
 demand as citizens and subjects. 
 
 II. — The Christian Church is not a secret com- 
 munity. In the once current (and well worthy to 
 be re-issued) terminology of our elder divines, it 
 is objective in its nature and purpose, not mystic 
 or subjective, that is, not like reason or the court 
 of conscience, existing only in and for the indivi- 
 dual. Consequently the Church here spoken of 
 is not the kingdom of God which is within, and 
 which cometh not with observation,* but is most 
 observable, — a city built on a hill, and not to be 
 hid — an institution consisting of visible and public 
 communities. In one sentence it is the Church 
 visible and militant under Christ. And this visi- 
 bility, this publicity, is its second distinctive cha- 
 racter. 
 
 III. — The third character reconciles the two pre- 
 ceding and gives the condition, under which their 
 co-existence in the same subject becomes possible. 
 Antagonist forces are necessarily of the same kind. 
 It is an old rule of logic, that only concerning two 
 subjects of the same kind can it be properly said 
 that they are opposites. Inter res heterogeneas 
 non datur oppositio ; that is, contraries cannot be 
 
 * Luke xvii. 21—20. See ib. xxi. 28. 31.— Ed. 
 
THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 127 
 
 opposites. Alike in the primary and the metaphorical 
 use of the word, rivals (rivales) are those only who 
 inhabit the opposite banks of the same stream. 
 
 Now, in conformity to the first character, the 
 Christian Church is not to be considered as a coun- 
 terpole to any particular State, the word being here 
 taken in the largest sense. Still less can it, like 
 the National Clerisy, be opposed to the State in the 
 narrower sense. The Christian Church, as such, 
 has no Nationalty entrusted to its charge. It 
 forms no counter-balance to the collective Heritage 
 of the realm. The phrase, Church and State, has 
 a sense and a propriety in reference to the National 
 Church alone. The Church of Christ cannot be 
 placed in this conjunction and antithesis without 
 forfeiting the very name of Christian. The true 
 and only contra-position of the Christian Church is 
 to the World. Her paramount aim and object, in- 
 deed, is another world, not a world to come exclu- 
 sively, but likewise another world that now is,* and 
 to the concerns of which alone the epithet spiritual 
 can, without a mischievous abuse of the word, be 
 applied. But as the necessary consequence and 
 accompaniments of the means by which she seeks 
 to attain this especial end, and as a collateral ob- 
 ject, it is her office to counteract the evils that re- 
 sult by a common necessity from all bodies politic, 
 the system or aggregate of which is the world. 
 And observe that the nisus, or counter-agency, of 
 
 * See Appendix to this Treatise. — Ed. 
 
128 IDEA OF 
 
 the Christian Church is against the evil results 
 only, and not (directly, at least, or by primary in- 
 tention) against the defective institutions that may 
 have caused or aggravated them. 
 
 But on the other hand, by virtue of the second 
 character, the Christian Church is to exist in every 
 kingdom and state of the world, in the form of 
 public communities, and is to exist as a real and 
 ostensible power. The consistency of the first and 
 second character depends on, and is fully effected 
 by, the third character of the Church of Christ ; 
 namely, — 
 
 The absence of any visible head or sovereign, 
 and by the non-existence, nay the utter preclu- 
 sion, of any local or personal centre of unity, of 
 any single source of universal power. This fact 
 may be thus illustrated. Kepler and Newton, sub- 
 stituting the idea of the infinite for the conception 
 of a finite and determined world, assumed in the 
 Ptolemaic astronomy, superseded and drove out 
 the notion of a one central point or body of the 
 universe. Finding a centre in every point of matter 
 and an absolute circumference no where, they ex- 
 plained at once the unity and the distinction that 
 co-exist throughout the creation by focal instead 
 of central bodies : the attractive and restraining 
 power of the sun or focal orb, in each particular 
 system, supposing and resulting from an actual 
 power, present in all and over all, throughout an 
 indeterminable multitude of systems. And this, 
 demonstrated as it has been by science, and verified 
 
THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 129 
 
 by observation, we rightly name the true system 
 of the heavens. And even such is the scheme and 
 true idea of the Christian Church. In the primi- 
 tive times, and as long as the churches retained 
 the form given them by the Apostles and Apostolic- 
 men, every community, or in the words of a Father 
 of the second century, (for the pernicious fashion 
 of assimilating the Christian to the Jewish, as 
 afterwards to the Pagan, ritual by false analogies 
 was almost coeval with the Church itself,) every 
 altar had its own bishop, every flock its own pastor, 
 who derived his authority immediately from Christ, 
 the universal Shepherd, and acknowledged no 
 other superior than the same Christ, speaking by 
 his spirit in the unanimous decision of any number 
 of bishops or elders, according to his promise, 
 Where two or three are gathered together in my 
 name, there am I in the midst of them* 
 
 * Questions of dogmatic divinity do not enter into the 
 purpose of this work ; and I am even anxious not to give it 
 a theological character. It is, however, within the scope of 
 my argument to observe that, as may he incontrovertibly 
 proved by other equivalent declarations of our Lord, this 
 promise is not confined to houses of worship and prayer- 
 meetings exclusively. And though I cannot offer the same 
 justification for what follows, yet the interest and importance 
 of the subject will, I trust, excuse me if I remark that, even 
 in reference to meetings for divine worship, the true import 
 of these gracious, soul-awing, words is too generally over- 
 looked. It is not the comments or harangues of unlearned 
 and fanatical preachers that I have in my mind, but sermons 
 of great and deserved celebrity, and divines whose learning, 
 well-regulated zeal, and sound Scriptural views are as ho- 
 lt 
 
130 IDEA OF 
 
 Hence the unitive relation of the churches to 
 each other, and of each to all, heing- equally actual 
 
 nourable to the Church, as their piety, beneficence, and 
 blameless life, are to the Christian name, when I say that 
 passages occur which might almost lead one to conjecture 
 that the authors had found the words, " 1 will come and join 
 you," instead of, I am in the midst of you, — passages from 
 which it is at least difficult not to infer that they had inter- 
 preted the promise, as of a corporal co-presence, instead of 
 a spiritual immanence (oTifisvti iv ijfuv) as of an individual 
 coming in or down, and taking a place, as soon as the required 
 number of petitioners was completed ; as if, in short, this pre- 
 sence, this actuation of the I AM, (ti/u iv fiecrqjavrojv) were 
 an after-consequence, an accidental and separate result and 
 reward of the contemporaneous and contiguous worshipping 
 — and not the total act itself, of which the spiritual Christ, 
 one and the same in all the faithful, is the originating and per- 
 fective focal unity. Even as the physical life is in each limb 
 and organ of the body, all in every part ; but is manifested as 
 life, by being one in all and thus making all one : even so with 
 Christ, our spiritual life. He is in each true believer, in his 
 solitary prayer and during his silent communion in the 
 watches of the night, no less than in the congregation of the 
 faithful ; but he manifests his indwelling presence more cha- 
 racteristically, with especial evidence, when many, convened 
 in his name, whether for prayer or for council, do through 
 him become one. 
 
 I would that these preceding observations were as little 
 connected with the main subject of this volume, as to some 
 they will appear to be. But as the mistaking of symbols 
 and analogies for metaphors has been a main occasion and 
 support of the worst errors in Protestantism ; so the under- 
 standing the same symbols in a literal or phenomenal sense, 
 notwithstanding the most earnest warnings against it, the 
 most express declarations of the folly and danger of inter- 
 preting sensually what was delivered of objects super- 
 
THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 131 
 
 indeed, but likewise equally ideal, that is, mystic 
 and supersensual, as the relation of the whole 
 
 sensual — this was the rank wilding, on which the prince of 
 this world, the lust of power and worldly aggrandizement, 
 was enabled to graft, one by one, the whole branchery of 
 Papal superstition and imposture. A truth not less im- 
 portant might be conveyed by reversing the image ; — by 
 representing the Papal monarchy as the stem or trunk cir- 
 culating a poison-snap through the branches successively 
 grafted thereon, the previous and natural fruit of which was 
 at worst only mawkish and innutritious. Yet among the 
 dogmas or articles of belief that contra- distinguish the Roman 
 from the Reformed Churches, the most important and, in 
 their practical effects and consequences, the most pernicious 
 I cannot but regard as refracted and distorted truths, pro- 
 found ideas sensualized into idols, or at the lowest rate lofty . 
 and affecting imaginations, safe while they remained general 
 and indefinite, but debased and rendered noxious by their 
 application in detail : for example, the doctrine of the Com- 
 munion of Saints, or the sympathy between all the members 
 of the universal Church, which death itself doth not interrupt, 
 exemplified in St. Anthony and the cure of sore eyes, St. 
 Boniface and success in brewing, and other such follies. 
 What the same doctrines now are, used as the pretexts and 
 shaped into the means and implements of priestly power and 
 revenue : or rather, what the whole scheme is of Romish rites, 
 doctrines, institutions, and practices in their combined and 
 full operation, where it exists in undisputed sovereignty, 
 neither repressed by the prevalence, nor modified by the 
 light, of a purer faith, nor holden in check by the consci- 
 ousness of Protestant neighbours and lookers-on ; — this is 
 a question which cannot be kept too distinct from the former. 
 And, as at the risk of passing for a secret favourer of super- 
 annuated superstitions, I have spoken out my thoughts of 
 the Roman theology, so, and at a far more serious risk of 
 being denounced as an intolerant bigot, I will declare what, 
 
132 IDEA OF 
 
 Church to its one invisible Head, the Church 
 with and under Christ, as a one kingdom or state, 
 
 after a two years' residence in exclusively Popish countries, 
 and in situations and under circumstances that afforded more 
 than ordinary means of acquainting myself with the workings 
 and the proceeds of the machinery, was the impression left 
 on my mind as to the effects and influences of the Romish 
 (most un-Catholic) religion, — not as even according to its 
 own canons and authorized decisions it ought to be ; but, 
 as it actually and practically exists. This impression, and 
 the convictions grounded thereon, which have assuredly not 
 been weakened by the perusal of Mr. Blanco White's most 
 affecting statements, and by the recent history of Spain and 
 Portugal, I cannot convey more satisfactorily to myself than 
 by repeating the answer, which I long since returned to the 
 same question put by a friend, that is to say, — 
 
 When I contemplate the whole system, as it affects the 
 great fundamental principles of morality, the terra firma, as 
 it were, of our humanity ; then trace its operation on the 
 sources and conditions of national strength and well-being ; 
 and lastly, consider its woeful influences on the innocence 
 and sanctity of the female mind and imagination, on the faith 
 and happiness, the gentle fragrancy and unnoticed ever- 
 present verdure of domestic life, — I can with difficulty avoid 
 applying to it what the Rabbins fable of the fratricide Cain, 
 after the curse : that the firm earth trembled wherever he strode, 
 and the grass turned black beneath his feet. 
 
 Indeed, if my memory does not cheat me, some of the 
 mystic divines, in their fond humour of allegorizing, tell us 
 that in Gen. iv. 3—8. is correctly narrated the history of the 
 first apostate Church, that began by sacrificing amiss, impro- 
 priating the fruit of the ground or temporal possessions under 
 spiritual pretexts ; and ended in slaying the shepherd bro- 
 ther who brought the firstlings of his fold, holy and without 
 blemish, to the Great Shepherd, and presented them as new 
 creatures, before the Lord and Owner of the flocks. 
 
THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 133 
 
 is hidden : while in all its several component 
 monads, (the particular visible churches I mean,) 
 Caesar receiving the things that are Caesar's, and 
 confronted by no rival Caesar, by no authority, 
 which existing locally, temporally, and in the 
 person of a fellow mortal, must be essentially of 
 the same kind with his own, notwithstanding any 
 attempt to belie its true nature under the perverted 
 and contradictory name of spiritual, sees only so 
 many loyal groups, who, claiming no peculiar 
 rights, make themselves known to him as Chris- 
 tians, only by the more scrupulous and exemplary 
 performance of their duties as citizens and subjects. 
 And here let me add a few sentences on the use, 
 abuse, and misuse of the phrase, spiritual power. 
 In the only appropriate sense of the words, spiri- 
 tual power is a power that acts on the spirits of 
 men. Now the spirit of a man, or the spiritual 
 part of our being, is the intelligent will : or (to 
 speak less abstractly) it is the capability, with 
 which the Father of Spirits hath endowed man of 
 being determined to action by the ultimate ends, 
 which the reason alone can present. The under- 
 standing, which derives all its materials from the 
 senses, can dictate purposes only, that is, such 
 ends as are in their turn means to other ends. The 
 ultimate ends, by which the will is to be deter- 
 mined, and by which alone the will, not corrupted, 
 the spirit made perfect, would be determined, are 
 called, in relation to the reason, moral ideas. Such 
 are the ideas of the eternal, the good, the true, the 
 
134 IDEA OF 
 
 holy, the idea of God as the absoluteness and re- 
 ality (or real ground) of all these, or as the Supreme 
 Spirit in which all these substantially are, and are 
 one : lastly, the idea of the responsible will itself; 
 of duty, of guilt, or evil in itself without reference 
 to its outward and separable consequences. 
 
 A power, therefore, that acts on the appetites 
 and passions, which we possess in common with 
 the beasts, by motives derived from the senses and 
 sensations has no pretence to the name ; nor can 
 it without the grossest abuse of the word be called 
 a spiritual power. Whether the man expects the 
 auto de fe, the fire and faggots, with which he is 
 threatened, to take place at Lisbon or Smithfield, 
 or in some dungeon in the centre of the earth, 
 makes no difference in the kind of motive by which 
 he is influenced ; nor of course in the nature of 
 the power which acts on his passions by means of 
 it. It would be strange indeed if ignorance and 
 superstition, the dense and rank fogs that most 
 strangle and suffocate the light of the spirit in man, 
 should constitute a spirituality in the power which 
 takes advantage of them ! 
 
 This is a gross abuse of the term, spiritual. The 
 following, sanctioned as it is by custom and sta- 
 tute, yet (speaking exclusively as a philologist and 
 without questioning its legality) I venture to point 
 out as a misuse of the term. Our great Church 
 dignitaries sit in the Upper House of the Convo- 
 cation as Prelates of the National Church : and as 
 Prelates may exercise ecclesiastical power. In 
 
THE CHRISTIAN* CHURCH. 135 
 
 the House of Lords they sit as Barons and by 
 virtue of the baronies which, much against the will 
 of those haughty prelates, our Kings forced upon 
 them : and as such, they exercise a Parliamentary 
 power. As Bishops of the Church of Christ only 
 can they possess, or exercise (and God forbid ! I 
 should doubt, that as such, many of them do faith- 
 fully exercise) a spiritual power, which neither 
 King can give, nor King and Parliament take 
 away. As Christian Bishops, they are spiritual 
 pastors, by power of the spirits ruling the flocks 
 committed to their charge ; but they are temporal 
 Peers and Prelates. 
 
 The Fourth Character of the Christian Church, 
 and a necessary consequence of the first and third, 
 is its universality. It is neither Anglican, Gal- 
 lican, nor Roman, neither Latin nor Greek. Even 
 the Catholic and Apostolic Church of England is 
 a less safe expression than the Church of Christ 
 in England : though the Catholic Church in 
 England, or (what would be still better,) the Ca- 
 tholic Church under Christ throughout Great Bri- 
 tain and Ireland is justifiable and appropriate : for 
 through the presence of its only Head and Sove- 
 reign, entire in each and one in all, the Church 
 Universal is spiritually perfect in every true 
 Church, and of course in any number of such 
 Churches, of which from circumstance of place, or 
 the community of country or of language, we have 
 occasion to speak collectively. I have already, 
 here and elsewhere, observed, and scarcely a day 
 
136 IDEA OF 
 
 passes without some occasion to repeat the obser- 
 vation, that an equivocal term, or a word with two 
 or more different meanings, is never quite harm- 
 less. Thus, it is at least an inconvenience in our 
 language that the term church, instead of being 
 confined to its proper sense, kirk, cedes Kyriacce, 
 or the Lord's house, should likewise be the word 
 by which our forefathers rendered the Ecclesia, or 
 the ekkXhjtoi, or evocati, the called out of the world, 
 named collectively ; and likewise our term for the 
 clerical establishment. To the Called at Rome — 
 to the Church of Christ at Corinth, or in Philippi 
 — such was the language of the Apostolic age ; and 
 the change since then has been no improvement. 
 The true Church of England is the National Church 
 or Clerisy. There exists, God be thanked ! a Ca- 
 tholic and Apostolic Church in England : and I 
 thank God also for the constitutional and ancestral 
 Church of England. 
 
 These are the four distinctions, or peculiar and 
 essential marks, by which the Church with Christ 
 as its head is distinguished from the National 
 Church, and separated from every possible coun- 
 terfeit, that has, or shall have, usurped its name. 
 And as an important comment on the same, and in 
 confirmation of the principle which I have attempted 
 to establish, I earnestly recommend for the reader's 
 perusal the following transcript from Henry More's 
 Modest Inquiry, or True Idea of Antichristianism. 
 
 " We will suppose some one prelate, who had 
 got the start of the rest, to put in for the title and 
 
THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 137 
 
 authority of Universal Bishop : and for the obtain- 
 ing* of this sovereignty, he will first pretend that 
 it is unfit that the visible Catholic Church, being- 
 one, should not be united under one visible head, 
 which reasoning, though it makes a pretty shew 
 at first sight, will yet, being closely looked into, 
 vanish into smoke. For this is but a quaint con- 
 cinnity urged in behalf of an impossibility. For 
 the erecting such an office for one man, which no 
 one man in the world is able to perform, implies 
 that to be possible which is indeed impossible. 
 Whence it is plain that the head will be too little 
 for the body ; which therefore will be a piece of 
 mischievous asymmetry or inconcinnity also. No 
 one mortal can be a competent head for that 
 Church which has a right to be Catholic, and to 
 overspread the face of the whole earth. There can 
 be no such head but Christ, who is not mere man, 
 but God in the Divine humanity, and therefore 
 present with every part of the Church, and every 
 member thereof, at what distance soever. But to 
 set some one mortal Bishop over the whole Church, 
 were to suppose that great Bishop of our spirit ab- 
 sent from it, who has promised that he will be with 
 her to the end of the world. Nor does the Church 
 Catholic on earth lose her unity thereby. For ra- 
 ther hereby only is or can she be one.* 
 
 * As rationally might it be pretended that it is not the 
 life, the rector spiritus prasens per totum et in omni parte, but 
 the crown of the skull, or some one convolute of the brain, 
 that causes and preserves the unity of the body natural. 
 
138 IDEA OF 
 
 " Such and so futile is the first pretence. But if 
 this will not serve the turn, there is another in 
 reserve. And notwithstanding 1 the demonstrated 
 impossibility of the thing-, still there must be one 
 visible head of the Church universal, the successor 
 and vicar of Christ, for the slaking of controver- 
 sies, for the determination of disputed points ! 
 We will not stop here to expose the weakness of 
 the argument (not alas ! peculiar to the sophists 
 of Rome, nor employed in support of Papal infal- 
 libility only), that this or that must be, and con- 
 sequently is, because sundry inconveniences would 
 result from the want of it ; and this without con- 
 sidering whether these inconveniences have been 
 prevented or removed by its alleged presence ; 
 whether they do not continue in spite of this pre- 
 tended remedy or antidote ; whether these incon- 
 veniences were intended by Providence to be pre- 
 cluded, and not rather for wise purposes permitted 
 to continue ; and lastly, whether the remedy may 
 not be worse than the disease, like the sugar of 
 lead administered by the empiric, who cured a fever 
 fit by exchanging it for the dead palsy. Passing 
 by this sophism, therefore, it is sufficient to reply 
 that all points necessary are so plain and so widely 
 known, that it is impossible that a Christian, who 
 seeks those aids which the true Head of the Church 
 has promised shall never be sought in vain, should 
 err therein from lack of knowing better. And 
 those who, from defects of head or heart, are blind 
 to this widely diffused light, and who neither seek 
 nor wish those aids, are still less likely to be in- 
 
THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 139 
 
 fluenced by a minor and derivative authority. But 
 for other things, whether ceremonies or conceits, 
 whether matters of discipline or of opinion, their 
 diversity does not at all break the unity of the out- 
 ward and visible Church, as long as they do not 
 subvert the fundamental laws of Christ's kingdom 
 nor contradict the terms of admission into his 
 Church, nor contravene the essential characters 
 by which it subsists and is distinguished as the 
 Christian Catholic Church." 
 
 To these sentiments, borrowed from one of the 
 most philosophical of our learned elder divines, I 
 have only to add an observation as suggested by 
 them ; — that as many and fearful mischiefs have 
 ensued from the confusion of the Christian with 
 the National Church, so have many and grievous 
 practical errors, and much un-Christian intolerance, 
 arisen from confounding the outward and visible 
 Church of Christ with the spiritual and invisible 
 Church, known only to the Father of all Spirits. 
 The perfection of the former is to afford every op- 
 portunity, and to present no obstacle, to a gradual 
 advancement of the latter. The different degrees 
 of progress, the imperfections, errors and accidents 
 of false perspective, which lessen indeed with our 
 advance — our spiritual advance — but to a greater 
 or lesser amount are inseparable from all progres- 
 sion ; these, the interpolated half-truths of the 
 twilight, through which every soul must pass from 
 darkness to the spiritual sunrise, belong to the 
 visible Church as objects of hope, patience, and 
 charity alone. 
 
ON THE 
 
 THIRD POSSIBLE CHURCH, 
 
 OR THE 
 
 CHURCH OF ANTICHRIST. 
 
 Ecclesia Cattolica non, ma il Papismo denunciamo, perche 
 auggerito dat inter esse, perche fortijicato dalla menzogna, perdu 
 radicato dal piu abbominevole despotismo, perche contrarioal di- 
 ritto e ai titoli incommunicabili di Crista, ed alia tranquillita 
 d'ogni Chiesa e d'o£-7ii Stato, — Spanzotti. 
 
Thus, on the depluming of the Pope, every bird had his 
 own feather : in the partage w hereof, what he had gotten by 
 sacrilege, was restored to Christ ; what by usurpation, was 
 given to the King, the (National) Church and the State ; 
 what by oppression, was remitted to each particular Chris- 
 tian. — Fuller's Church History of Britain, Book v. 
 
143 
 
 ON THE CHURCH, 
 
 NEITHER NATIONAL NOR UNIVERSAL. 
 
 If our forefathers were annoyed with the cant of 
 over-boiling- zeal, arising- out of the belief, that the 
 Pope is Antichrist, and likewise (sexu mutato) 
 the Harlot of Babylon : we are more endangered 
 by the twaddle of humid charity, which (some 
 years ago at least) used to drizzle, a something* 
 between mist and small rain, from the higher re- 
 gion of our Church atmosphere. It was sanctioned, 
 I mean, both in the pulpit and the senate by sun- 
 dry dignitaries, whose horror of Jacobinism during 
 the then panic of property led them to adopt the 
 principles and language of Laud and his faction. 
 And once more the Church of Rome, in contrast 
 with Protestant dissenters, became " a right dear, 
 though erring sister." And the heaviest charge 
 asrainst the Romish Pontificate was, that the Italian 
 politics and nepotism of a series of Popes had 
 converted so great a good into an intolerable 
 grievance. We were reminded that Grotius and 
 Leibnitz had regarded a visible head of the Catho- 
 lic Church as most desirable ; that they, and with 
 them more than one Primate of our own Church, 
 yearned for a conciliating settlement of the differ- 
 
144 ON THE CHURCH, 
 
 ences between the Romish and Protestant Churches ; 
 and mainly in order that there might exist really, 
 as well as nominally, a visible head of the Church 
 Universal, a fixt centre of unity. Of course the 
 tenet that the Pope was in any sense the Anti- 
 christ predicted by Paul was decried as fanatical 
 and Puritanical cant. 
 
 Now it is a duty of Christian charity to presume 
 that the men, who in the present day employ this 
 language, are, or believe themselves to be, Chris- 
 tians ; and that they do not privately think that 
 St. Paul, in the two celebrated passages of his First 
 and Second Epistles to the Church at Thessalo- 
 nica, (1. iv., 13 — 18 ; 11. ii. 1 — 12), practised a ruse 
 de guerre, and meant only by throwing the fulfil- 
 ment beyond the life of the present generation, 
 and by a terrific detail of the horrors and calami- 
 ties that were to precede it, to damp the impa- 
 tience, and silence the objections, excited by the ex- 
 pectation and the delay of our Lord's personal re -ap- 
 pearance. Again : as the persons, of whom I have 
 been speaking, are well educated men and men of 
 sober minds, it may be safely taken for granted 
 that they do not understand by Antichrist any 
 nondescript monster, or suppose it to be the pro- 
 per name or designation of some one individual 
 man or devil exclusively. The Christians of the 
 second century, sharing in a delusion that prevailed 
 over the whole Roman Empire, believed that 
 Nero would come to life again, and be Antichrist: 
 and I have been informed that a learned clergy- 
 
NEITHER NATIONAL NOR UNIVERSAL. 145 
 
 man of our own times, endowed with the gift of 
 prophecy by assiduous study of the Book of Daniel 
 and the Apocalypse, asserts the same thing- of 
 Napoleon Buonaparte. 
 
 But, as before said, it would be calumnious to 
 attribute such pitiable fanaticism to the parties 
 here in question. And to them I venture to affirm 
 that if by Antichrist be meant — what alone can 
 rationally be meant — a power in the Christian 
 Church, which in the name of Christ, and at once 
 pretending- and usurping his authority, is systema- 
 tically subversive of the essential and distinguish- 
 ing characters and purposes of the Christian 
 Church : then, if the Papacy, and the Romish 
 hierarchy as far as it is Papal, be not Antichrist, 
 the guilt of- schism in its most aggravated form 
 lies on the authors of the Reformation. For no- 
 thing less than this could have justified so tre- 
 mendous a rent in the Catholic Church with all its 
 foreseen most calamitous consequences. And so 
 Luther himself thought ; and so thought Wicliff be- 
 fore him. Only in the conviction that Christianity 
 itself was at stake, — that the cause was that of 
 Christ in conflict with Antichrist, — could, or did, 
 even the lion-hearted Luther with unquailed spirit 
 avow to himself; — I bring not peace, but a sword 
 into the world. 
 
 It is my full conviction, a conviction formed 
 after a long and patient study of the subject in 
 detail ; — and if in support of this competence I 
 only add that I have read, and with care, the 
 
 L 
 
146 ON THE CHURCH 
 
 Summa Theologia of Aquinas, and compared the 
 system with the statements of Arnauld and Bossuet, 
 the number of those who in the present much- 
 reading, but not very hard-reading, age would 
 feel themselves entitled to dispute my claim, will 
 not, perhaps, be very formidable ; — it is, I repeat, 
 my full conviction that the rights and doctrines, 
 the agenda et credenda, of the Roman Catholics, 
 could we separate them from the adulterating in- 
 gredients combined with, and the use made of, 
 them by the sacerdotal Mamelukes of the Romish 
 monarchy, for the support of the Papacy and Pa- 
 pal hierarchy, would neither have brought about, 
 nor have sufficed to justify, the convulsive separa- 
 tion under Leo X. Nay, that if they were fairly, 
 and in the light of a sound philosophy, compared 
 with either of the two main divisions of Protestan- 
 tism, as it now exists in this country, that is, with 
 the fashionable doctrines and interpretations of the 
 Arminian and Grotian school on the one hand, and 
 with the tenets and language of the modern Cal- 
 vinists on the other, an enlightened disciple of 
 John and of Paul would be perplexed which of 
 the three to prefer as the least unlike the profound 
 and sublime system he had learned from his great 
 masters. And in this comparison I leave out of 
 view the extreme sects of Protestantism, whether 
 of the frigid or of the torrid zone, Socinian or 
 fanatic. 
 
 During the summer of last year, I made the 
 tour of Holland, Flanders, and up the Rhine as 
 
NEITHER NATIONAL NOR UNIVERSAL. 147 
 
 far as Berg-en, and among" the few notes then 
 taken, I find the following: — " Every fresh op- 
 portunity of examining the Roman Catholic reli- 
 gion on the spot, every new fact that presents it- 
 self to my notice, increases my conviction that its 
 immediate basis and the true grounds of its con- 
 tinuance are to be found in the wickedness, igno- 
 rance, and wretchedness of the many ; and that 
 the producing and continuing cause of this deplo- 
 rable state is, that it is the interest of the Romish 
 priesthood that so it should remain, as the surest, 
 and, in fact, only support of the Papal sovereignty 
 and influence against the civil powers, and the re- 
 forms wished for by the more enlightened govern- 
 ments, as well as by all the better informed and 
 wealthier class of Roman Catholics generally. 
 And as parts of the same policy, and equally in- 
 dispensable to the interests of the Papal Crown, 
 are the ignorance, grossness, excessive number 
 and poverty of the lower ecclesiastics themselves, 
 the religious orders included. When I say the 
 Pope, I understand the Papal hierarchy, which is, 
 in truth, the dilated Pope : and in this sense only, 
 and not of the individual priest or friar at Rome, 
 can a wise man be supposed to use the word." — 
 Cologne, July 2, 1828. 
 
 I feel it as no small comfort and confirmation to 
 know that the same view of the subject is taken, 
 the same conviction entertained, by a large and 
 increasing number in the Roman Catholic com- 
 munion itself, in Germany, France, Italy, and 
 
148 ON THE CHURCH 
 
 even in Spain ; and that no inconsiderable portion 
 of this number consists of men who are not only- 
 pious as Christians, but zealous as Roman Catho- 
 lics ; and who would contemplate with as much 
 horror a reform from their Church, as they look 
 with earnest aspirations and desires towards a re- 
 form in the Church. Proof of this may be found 
 in the learned work intituled Disordini morali e 
 politici delta Corte di Roma — evidently the work 
 of a zealous Romanist and from the ecclesiastical 
 erudition displayed in the volumes, probably a priest. 
 Nay, from the angry aversion with which the foul 
 heresies of those sons of perdition, Luther and Cal- 
 vin, are mentioned, and his very faint and qualified 
 censure of the persecution of the Albigenses and 
 Waldenses, I am obliged to infer that the writer's 
 attachment to his communion was zealous even to 
 bigotry. 
 
 The disorders denounced by him are : — 
 
 1. The pretension of the Papacy to temporal 
 power and sovereignty, directly or as the pretended 
 consequence of spiritual dominion ; and as furnish- 
 ing occasion to this, even the retention of the pri- 
 macy in honour over all other Bishops, after Rome 
 had ceased to be the metropolis of Christendom, is 
 noticed as a subject of regret. 
 
 2. The boast of Papal infallibility. 
 
 3. The derivation of the Episcopal power from 
 the Papal, and the dependence of Bishops on the 
 Pope, rightly named the evil of a false centre. 
 
 4. The right of exercising authority in other 
 dioceses besides that of Rome. 
 
NEITHER NATIONAL NOR UNIVERSAL. 149 
 
 5. The privilege of reserving* to himself the 
 greater causes — le cause maggiori. 
 
 6, 7, 8, 9, 10. Of conferring any and every 
 benefice in the territory of other Bishops ; of ex- 
 acting the Annates, or First Fruits ; of receiving 
 appeals ; with the power of subjecting all churches 
 in all parts, to the ecclesiastical discipline of the 
 church of Rome ; and lastly, the dispensing power 
 of the Pope. 
 
 11. The Pope's pretended superiority to an Ecu- 
 menical Council. 
 
 12. The exclusive power of canonizing Saints. 
 Now, of the twelve abuses here enumerated, it 
 
 is remarkable that ten, if not eleven, are but ex- 
 pansions of the one grievance — the Papal power 
 as the centre, and the Pope as the one visible head 
 and sovereign of the Christian Church. 
 
 The writer next enumerates the personal instru- 
 ments of these abuses : — 1. The Cardinals. 2. 
 The excessive number of the priests and other 
 ecclesiastics. 3. The Regulars, Mendicant Or- 
 ders, Jesuits, and the rest. Lastly, the means em- 
 ployed by the Papacy to found and preserve its 
 usurped power, namely : — 
 
 1. The institution of a Chair of Canon Law, in 
 the University of Bologna, the introduction of 
 Gratian's Canons, and the forged decisions. 2. 
 The prohibition of books, wherever published. 3. 
 The Inquisition ; and 4. The tremendous power of 
 excommunication ; — the last two in their temporal 
 inflictions and consequences equalling, or rather 
 greatly exceeding, the utmost extent of the puni- 
 
150 ON THE CI1UIICH 
 
 tive power exercised by the temporal sovereign and 
 the civil magistrate, armed with the sword of the 
 criminal law. 
 
 It is observable that the most efficient of all the 
 means adopted by the Roman Pontiffs, namely, 
 the celibacy of the clergy, is omitted by this wri- 
 ter ; — a sufficient proof that he was neither a Pro- 
 testant nor a philosopher, which in the Italian 
 states, and, indeed, in most Romish Catholic coun- 
 tries, is the name of courtesy for an infidel. 
 
 One other remark in justification of the tenet 
 avowed in this chapter, and I shall have said all I 
 deem it necessary to say on the third form of a 
 Church. That erection of a temporal monarch 
 under the pretence of a spiritual authority, which 
 was not possible in Christendom but by the extinc- 
 tion or entrancement of the spirit of Christianity, 
 and which has therefore been only partially attained 
 by the Papacy — this was effected in full by Mo- 
 hammed, to the establishment of the most extensive 
 and complete despotism, that ever warred against 
 civilization and the interests of humanity. And had 
 Mohammed retained the name of Christianity, had 
 he deduced his authority from Christ as his prin- 
 cipal, and described his own Khalifate and that of 
 his successors as vicarious, there can be no doubt 
 that to the Mussulman theocracy, embodied in the 
 different Mohammedan dynasties, would belong the 
 name and attributes of Antichrist. But the Pro- 
 phet of Arabia started out of Paganism an unbap- 
 tized Pagan. He was no traitor in the Church, 
 but an enemy from without, who levied war ag-ainst 
 
NEITHER NATIONAL NOR UNIVERSAL. 151 
 
 its outward and formal existence, and is, therefore, 
 not chargeable with apostasy from a faith which 
 he had never acknowledged, or from a Church to 
 which he had never appertained. Neither in the 
 Prophet nor in his system, therefore, can we find 
 the predicted Antichrist, that is, a usurped power 
 in the Church itself, which, in the name of Christ, 
 and pretending his authority, systematically sub- 
 verts or counteracts the peculiar aims and purposes 
 of Christ's mission ; and which, vesting in a mortal 
 his incommunicable headship, destroys and ex- 
 changes for the contrary the essential contra-dis- 
 tino-uishino; marks or characters of his kingdom 
 on earth. But apply it, as Wicliff, Luther,* and 
 indeed all the first Reformers did to the Papacy, 
 and Papal hierarchy ; and we understand at once 
 
 * And (be it observed) without any reference to the 
 Apocalypse, the canonical character of which Luther at first 
 rejected, and never cordially received. And without the 
 least sympathy with Luther's suspicions on this head, but 
 on the contrary receiving this sublime poem as the undoubted 
 work of the Apostolic age, and admiring in it the most per- 
 fect specimen of symbolic poetry, I am as little disposed to 
 cite it on the present occasion ; — convinced as I am and hope 
 shortly to convince others, that in the whole series of its 
 magnificent imagery there is not a single symbol, that can 
 be even plausibly interpreted of either the Pope, the Turks, 
 or Napoleon Buonaparte. Of charges not attaching to the 
 moral character, there are few, if anv, that I should be more 
 anxious to avoid than that of being an afFecter of paradoxes. 
 But the dread of other men's thoughts shall not tempt me to 
 withhold a truth, which the strange errors grounded on the 
 contrary assumption render important. And in the thorough 
 assurance of its truth I make the assertion, that the per- 
 
152 ON THE CHURCH 
 
 the grounds of the great Apostle's premonition, 
 that this Antichrist could not appear till after the 
 
 spicuity, and (with singularly few exceptions even for us) 
 the uniform intelligibility, and close consecutive meaning, 
 verse by verse, with the simplicity and grandeur of the plan, 
 and the admirable ordonnance of the parts, are among the 
 prominent beauties of the Apocalypse. Nor do I doubt that 
 the substance and main argument of this drama sui generis 
 (the Prometheus of Eschylus comes the nearest to the kind) 
 were supplied by John the Evangelist: though I incline 
 with Eusebius to find the poet himself in John, an Elder of 
 the Church of Ephesus. 
 
 It may remove, or at least mitigate, the objections to the 
 palliative language in which I have spoken of the doc- 
 trines of the Roman Catholic Church, if I remind the rea- 
 der that that Church dates its true origin from the Council 
 of Trent. Widely differing from my valued and affection- 
 ately respected friend, the Rev. Edward Irving, in his in- 
 terpretations of the Apocalypse and the Book of Daniel, and 
 no less in his estimation of the latter, and while I honour 
 his courage as a Christian minister, almost as much as I 
 admire his eloquence as a writer, yet protesting against his 
 somewhat too adventurous speculations on the Persons of 
 the Trinity and the Body of our Lord, — I have great delight 
 in extracting from his "Sermons, Lectures, and Discotirses," 
 vol. iii. p. 870, and declaring my cordial assent to the follow- 
 ing just observations: namely, — " that after the Reforma- 
 tion had taken firmer root, and when God had provided a 
 purer Church, the Council of Trent did corroborate and 
 decree into unalterable laws and constitutions of the Church 
 all those impostures and innovations of the Roman See, 
 which had been in a state of uncertainty, perhaps of permis- 
 sion or even of custom ; but which every man till then had 
 been free to testify against, and against which, in fact, there 
 never wanted those in each successive generation who did 
 testify. The Council of Trent ossified all those ulcers and 
 blotches which had deformed the Church, and stamped the 
 
NEITHER NATIONAL NOR UNIVERSAL. 153 
 
 dissolution of the Latin empire, and the extinction 
 of the Imperial power in Rome — and the cause 
 
 hitherto much doubted and controverted prerogative of the 
 Pope with the highest authority recognized in the Church." 
 Then first was the Catholic converted and particularized into 
 the Romish Church, the Church of the Papacy. 
 
 Not less cordially do I concur with Air Irving in his re- 
 mark in the following page. For I too, " am free to confess 
 and avow moreover, that I believe the soil of the Catholic 
 Church, when Luther arose, was of a stronger mould, fitted 
 to bear forest trees and cedars of God, than the soil of the 
 Protestant Church in the times of Whitfield and Wesley, 
 which (though sown tcith the same word) hath brought forth 
 only stunted undergrowths, and creeping brushwood." I 
 too, "believe, that the faith of the Protestant Church in 
 Britain had come to a lower ebb, and that it is even now at 
 a lower ebb, than was the faith of the Papal Church when 
 the Spirit of the Lord was able to quicken in it and draw 
 forth out of it such men as Luther, and Melancthon, and Bul- 
 linger, Calvin, Bucer, and Latimer, and Ridley, and a 
 score others whom I might name." 
 
 And now, as the conclusion of this long note, let me be 
 permitted to add a word or two of Edward Irving himself. 
 That he possesses my unqualified esteem as a man, is onlv 
 saying that I know him, and am neither blinded by envy nor 
 bigotry. But my name has been brought into connexion with 
 his on points that regard his public ministry ; and he him- 
 self has publicly distinguished me as his friend on public 
 grounds ; and in proof of my confidence in his regard, I have 
 not the least apprehension of forfeiting it by a frank decla- 
 ration of what I think. Well, then ! I have no faith in his 
 prophesvings ; small sympathy with his fulminations ; and 
 in certain peculiarities of his theological system as distinct 
 from his religious principles I cannot see my way. But I 
 hold withal, and not the less firmly for these discrepancies 
 in our moods and judgments, that Edward Irving possesses 
 more of the spirit and purposes of the first Reformers ; that 
 
154 ON THE CHURCH 
 
 why the Bishop of Constantinople, with all imagi- 
 nable good wishes and disposition to do the same, 
 
 lie has more of the head and heart, the life, the unction, and 
 the genial power of Martin Luther than any man now alive ; 
 yea, than any man of this and the last century. I see in 
 Edward Irving a minister of Christ after the order of Paul ; 
 and if the points, in which I think him either erroneous, or ex- 
 cessive and out ofbounds, have been at anytime a subject of 
 serious regret with me, this regret has arisen principally or 
 altogether from the apprehension of their narrowing the 
 sphere of his influence, from the too great probability that 
 they may furnish occasion or pretext for withholding or with- 
 drawing many from those momentous truths, which the age 
 especially needs, and for the enforcement of which he hath 
 been so highly and especially gifted. Finally, my friend's 
 intellect is too instinct with life, too potential, to remain 
 stationary : and assuming, as every satisfied believer must 
 be supposed to do, the truth of my own views, I look forward 
 with confident hope to a time when his soul shall have per- 
 fected her victory over the dead letter of the senses and its 
 apparitions in the sensuous understanding ; when the hal- 
 cyon Ideas shall have alit on the surging sea of* his concep- 
 tions, 
 
 Which then shall quite forget to rave, 
 While birds of calm sit brooding on the charmed wave. 
 
 But to return from the personal, for which I have little 
 taste at any time, and the contrary when it stands in any 
 connection with myself; — in orderto the removal of one main 
 impediment to the spiritual resuscitation of the Church 
 it seems to me indispensable that in freedom and unfearing 
 faith, with that courage which cannot but flow from the in- 
 ward and life-like assurance, that neither death, nor things 
 jrresent, nor things to come, nor height, nor depth, nor any other 
 creature , shall he able to separate tisfrom the love of God, which 
 is in Christ Jesns our Lord, the rulers of our Church and our 
 teachers of theology should meditate and draw the obvious, 
 
NEITHER NATIONAL NOR UNIVERSAL. 150 
 
 could never raise the Patriarchate of the Greek 
 empire into a Papacy. The Bishops of the other 
 Rome became the slaves of the Ottoman, the 
 moment they ceased to be the subjects of the 
 Emperor. 
 
 I will now proceed to the Second Part, intended 
 as a humble aid to ajust appreciation of the measure, 
 which under the auspices of Mr. Peel and the Duke 
 of Wellington is now the law of the land. This 
 portion of the volume was written while the mea- 
 
 tliough perhaps unpalatable, inferences from the following 
 two or three plain trutbs • — First, that Christ, the Spirit of 
 Truth, has promised to be with his Church even to the end : — 
 secondly, — that Christianity was described as a tree to be 
 raised from the seed, so described by Him who brought the 
 seed from Heaven and first sowed it: — lastly, — that in the 
 process of evolution there are in every plant growths of 
 transitory use and duration. " The integuments of the seed, 
 having fulfilled their destined office of protection, burst and 
 decav. After the leaves have unfolded, the cotyledons, that 
 had performed their functions, wither and drop off."* The 
 husk is a genuine growth of the staff of life ; yet we must 
 separate it from the grain. It is, therefore, the cowardice 
 of faithless superstition, if we stand in greater awe of the 
 palpable interpolations of vermin ; if we shrink from the 
 removal of excrescences that contain nothing of nobler 
 parentage than maggots of moth or chafer. Let us cease to 
 confound oak-apples with acorns ; still less, though gilded 
 bv the fashion of the day, let us mistake them for golden 
 pippins or renates.f 
 
 * Smith's Introduction to Botany. 
 
 t The fruit from a pippin grafted on a pippin, is called a 
 rennet, that is, renate (re-iiatus) or twice-born. 
 
156 ON THE CHURCH, ETC. 
 
 sure was yet in prospectu ; before even the par- 
 ticular clauses of the Bill were made public. It 
 was written to explain and vindicate my refusal 
 to sign a petition against any change in the scheme 
 of law and policy established at the Revolution. 
 But as the arguments are in no respect affected by 
 this circumstance ; nay, as their constant reference 
 to, and dependence on, one fixed general principle, 
 which will at once explain both why I find the 
 actual Bill so much less objectionable than I had 
 feared, and yet so much less complete and satis- 
 factory than I had wished, will be rendered more 
 striking by the reader's consciousness that the 
 arguments were suggested by no wish or purpose 
 either of attacking or supporting any particular 
 measure ; it has not been thought necessary or 
 advisable to alter the form. Nay, if I am right in 
 my judgment that the Act lately passed, if charac- 
 terized by its own contents and capabilities, really 
 is — with or without any such intention on the part 
 of its framers — a stepping-stone, and nothing- 
 more ; whether to the subversion or to the more 
 perfect establishment of the Constitution in Church 
 and State, must be determined by other causes ; — 
 the Act in itself being equally fit for either, — and 
 offering the same facilities of transit to both friend 
 and foe, though with a foreclosure to the first 
 comer ; — if this be a right, as it is my sincere judg- 
 ment and belief, there is a propriety in retaining the 
 language of anticipation. Mons adhuc parturit : 
 the ridiculus mus was but an omen. 
 
PART II. 
 
 OR, AIDS TO A RIGHT APPRECIATION 
 OF THE ACT 
 
 ADMITTING ROMAN CATHOLICS TO SIT IN BOTH 
 HOUSES OF PARLIAMENT. 
 
'AfieXsi, fid Toy At' ouk evaGTUOuHTOfxai' 
 \e£o> 8' v7rep JLT£poyvu)/j.6vwv, a fioi SoksI' 
 Kai tol SeSoLKa iroXXd- tous te yap Tpoirovs 
 tous ^v/ulttoXltcov oI<5a yaipovTa.'i <T(poopa, 
 kdv ti<s aiiToi/s svXoyfj Kai tt\v itoXiv, 
 dv>}p dXa^iov, Kai SiKaia KqSiKa' 
 KavTavda Xavddvova' dirt^.TroXu>fievoi.. 
 
 Aristoph. Acharn. 367. #c. (leviter mutata.) 
 
I estimate the beauty and benefit of what is called 
 " a harmony in fundamentals, and a conspiration 
 in the constituent parts of the body politic," as 
 highly as any one. If I met a man who should 
 deny that an imperium in imperio was in itself an 
 evil, I would not attempt to reason with him : he 
 is too ignorant. Or if, conceding 1 this, he should 
 deny that the Romish Priesthood in Ireland does 
 in fact constitute an imperium in Imperio, I yet 
 would not argue the matter with him : for he must 
 be a bigot. But my objection to the argument is, 
 that it is nothing to the purpose. And even so 
 with regard to the arguments grounded on the dan- 
 gerous errors and superstitions of the Romish 
 Church. They may be all very true ; but they are 
 nothing- to the purpose. Without any loss they 
 might pair off with " the heroes of Trafalgar and 
 Waterloo," and " our Catholic ancestors, to whom 
 we owe our Magna Charta," on the other side. If 
 the prevention of an evil were the point in question, 
 then indeed ! But the day of prevention has long 
 passed by. The evil exists : and neither rope, sword, 
 nor sermon, neither suppression nor conversion, can 
 remove it. Not that I think slightingly of the last ; 
 but even those who hope more sanguinely than I 
 can pretend to do respecting the effects ultimately 
 to result from the labours of missionaries, the dis- 
 
160 AIDS TO A RIGHT APPRECIATION 
 
 persion of controversial tracts, and whatever other 
 lawful means and implements it may be in our 
 power to employ — even these must admit that if 
 the remedy could cope with the magnitude and 
 inveteracy of the disease, it is wholly inadequate 
 to the urgency of the symptoms. In this instance 
 it would be no easy matter to take the horse to the 
 water; and the rest of the proverb you know. 
 But why do I waste words ? There is and can be 
 but one question : and there is and can be but one 
 way of stating it. A great numerical majority of 
 the inhabitants of one integral part of the realm 
 profess a religion hostile to that professed by the 
 majority of the whole realm : and a religion, too, 
 which the latter regard, and have had <rood reason 
 to regard, as equally hostile to liberty and the sa- 
 cred rights of conscience generally. In fewer 
 words, three-fourths of his Majesty's Irish subjects 
 are Roman Catholics, with a Popish priesthood, 
 while three-fourths of the sum total of his Ma- 
 jesty's subjects are Protestants. This with its 
 causes and consequences is the evil. It is not in 
 our power, by any immediate or direct means, to 
 effect its removal. The point, therefore, to be de- 
 termined is : Will the measures now in contempla- 
 tion be likely to diminish or to aggravate it ? And 
 to the determination of this point on the proba- 
 bilities suggested by reason and experience I would 
 gladly be aidant, as far as my poor mite of judg- 
 ment will enable me. 
 
 Let us, however, first discharge what may well 
 
OF THE ROMAN CATHOLIC ACT. 161 
 
 be deemed a debt of justice from every well edu- 
 cated Englishman to his Roman Catholic fellow- 
 subjects of the Sister Island. At least, let us our- 
 selves understand the true cause of the evil as it 
 now exists. To what and to whom is the present 
 state of Ireland mainly to be attributed ? This 
 should be the question : and to this I answer aloud, 
 that it is mainly attributable to those, who during 
 a period of little less than a whole century used as 
 a substitute what Providence had given into their 
 hand as an opportunity ; who chose to consider as 
 superseding the most sacred duty a code of law, 
 which could have been excused only on the plea 
 that it enabled them to perform it. To the sloth 
 and improvidence, the weakness and wickedness, 
 of the gentry, clergy, and governors of Ireland, 
 who persevered ^n preferring intrigue, violence, 
 and selfish expats xdtion to a system of preventive 
 and remedial measures, the efficacy of which had 
 been warranted for them, alike by the whole pro- 
 vincial history of ancient Rome, cui pacare sub- 
 actos summa erat sapientia ; and by the happy re- 
 sults of the few exceptions to the contrary scheme 
 unhappily pursued by their and our ancestors. 
 
 I can imagine no work of genius that would 
 more appropriately decorate the dome or wall of a 
 Senate house, than an abstract of Irish history 
 from the landing of Strongbow to the battle of the 
 Boyne, or to a yet later period, embodied in intel- 
 ligible emblems — an allegorical history-piece de- 
 signed in the spirit of a Rubens or a Buonarroti, 
 
 M 
 
J 62 AIDS TO A RIGHT APPRECIATION 
 
 and with the wild lights, portentous shades, and 
 saturated colours of a Rembrandt, Caravaggio, and 
 Spagnoletti. To complete the great moral and po- 
 litical lesson by the historic contrast, nothing more 
 would be required, than by some equally effective 
 means to possess the mind of the spectator with 
 the state and condition of ancient Spain, at less 
 than half a century from the final conclusion of an 
 obstinate and almost unremitting conflict of two 
 hundred years by Agrippa's subjugation of the 
 Cantabrians, omnibus Hispanice populis devictis 
 et pacatis. At the breaking up of the Empire the 
 West Goths conquered the country and made divi- 
 sion of the lands. Then came eight centuries of 
 Moorish domination. Yet so deeply had Roman 
 wisdom impressed the fairest characters of the Ro- 
 man mind, that at this very hour, if we except a 
 comparatively insignificant portion of Arabic deri- 
 vatives, the natives throughout the whole Peninsula 
 speak a language less differing from the Romana 
 rustica or provincial Latin of the times of Lucan 
 and Seneca, than any two of its dialects from each 
 other. The time approaches, I trust, when our po- 
 litical economists may study the science of the pro- 
 vincial policy of the ancients in detail, under the 
 auspices of hope, for immediate and practical pur- 
 poses. 
 
 In my own mind I am persuaded that the ne- 
 cessity of the penal and precautionary statutes, 
 passed under Elizabeth and the three succeeding 
 reigns, is to be found as much in the passions and 
 
OF THE ROMAN CATHOLIC ACT. 163 
 
 prejudices of the one party as in the dangerous 
 dispositions of the other. The best excuse for this 
 cruel code is the imperfect knowledge and mistaken 
 maxims common to both parties. It is only to a 
 limited extent that laws can be wiser than the na- 
 tion for which they are enacted. The annals of 
 the first five or six centuries of the Hebrew nation 
 in Palestine present an almost continued history 
 of disobedience, of laws broken or utterly forgotten, 
 of maxims violated, and schemes of consummate 
 wisdom left unfulfilled. Even a yet diviner seed 
 must be buried and undergo an apparent corruption 
 before — at a late period— it shot up and could ap- 
 pear in its own kind. In our judgments respecting 
 actions we must be guided by the idea, but in ap- 
 plying the rule to the agents by comparison. To 
 speak gently of our forefathers is at once piety and 
 policy. Nor let it be forgotten that only by making 
 the detection of their errors the occasion of our 
 own wisdom do we acquire a right to censure them 
 at all. 
 
 Whatever may be thought of the settlement that 
 followed the battle of the Boyne and the extinction 
 of the war in Ireland, yet when this had been 
 made and submitted to, it would have been the far 
 wiser policy, I doubt not, to have provided for the 
 safety of the Constitution by improving the quality 
 of the elective franchise, leaving the eligibility 
 open, or like the former limited only by consider- 
 ations of property. Still, however, the scheme of 
 exclusion and disqualification had its plausible side. 
 
164 AIDS TO A RIGHT APPRECIATION 
 
 The ink was scarcely dry on the parchment-rolls 
 and proscription-lists of the Popish Parliament. 
 The crimes of the man were generalized into at- 
 tributes of his faith ; and the Irish Roman Catho- 
 lics collectively were considered accomplices in the 
 perfidy and baseness of King James. Alas ! his 
 immediate adherents had afforded too great colour 
 to the charge. The Irish massacre was in the 
 mouth of every Protestant, not as an event to be 
 remembered, but as a thing of recent expectation, 
 fear still blending with the sense of deliverance. 
 At no time, therefore, could the disqualifying sys- 
 tem have been enforced with so little reclamation 
 of the conquered party, or with so little outrage 
 on the general feeling of the country. There 
 was no time, when it was so capable of being in- 
 directly useful as a sedative in order to the appli- 
 cation of the remedies directly indicated, or as a 
 counter-power reducing to inactivity whatever dis- 
 turbing forces might have interfered with their 
 operation. And had this use been made of these 
 exclusive laws, and had they been enforced as the 
 precursors and negative conditions, but above all 
 as bona fide accompaniments of a process of eman- 
 cipation, properly and worthily so named, the code 
 would at this day have been remembered in Ireland 
 only as when recalling a dangerous fever of our 
 boyhood we think of the nauseous drugs and 
 drenching-horn, and congratulate ourselves that 
 our doctors now-a-days know how to manage these 
 things less coarsely. But this angry code was 
 
OF THE ROMAN CATHOLIC ACT. 165 
 
 neglected as an opportunity, and mistaken for a 
 substitute : et June illce lacrymce ! 
 
 And at this point I find myself placed again in 
 connection with the main, and which I contend to 
 be the pertinent, question ; namely, the evil being 
 admitted, and its immediate removal impossible, is 
 the admission of Roman Catholics into both Houses 
 of the Legislature likely to mitigate or to aggravate 
 it ? And here the problem is greatly narrowed by 
 the fact that no man pretends to regard this admis- 
 sibility as a direct remedy or specific antidote for 
 the diseases under which Ireland labours. No ! it 
 is to act, we are told, as introductory to the direct 
 remedies. In short, this emancipation is to be, like 
 the penal code which it repeals, a sedative, though 
 in the opposite form of an anodyne cordial, that 
 will itself be entitled to the name of a remedial 
 measure in proportion as it shall be found to render 
 the body susceptible of the more direct remedies 
 that are to follow. Its object is to tranquillize 
 Ireland. Safety, peace, and good neighbourhood, 
 influx of capital, diminution of absenteeism, indus- 
 trious habits and a long train of blessings will fol- 
 low. But the indispensable condition, the causa 
 causarum et causatorum, is general tranquillity. 
 Such is the language held by all the more intel- 
 ligent advocates and encomiasts of emancipation. 
 The sense of the question therefore is, will the 
 measure tend to produce tranquillity ? 
 
 Now it is evident that there are two parties to 
 be satisfied, and that the measure is likely to effect 
 
1G6 AIDS TO A RIGHT APPRECIATION 
 
 this purpose accordingly as it is calculated to 
 satisfy reasonable men of both. Reasonable men 
 are easily satisfied : would they were as numerous 
 as they are pacable ! We must, however, under- 
 stand the word comparatively as including" all those 
 on both sides, who by their superior information, 
 talents, or property, are least likely to be under 
 the dominion of vulgar antipathies, and who may 
 be rationally expected to influence (and in certain 
 cases, and in alliance with a vigorous government, 
 to over-rule) the feelings and sentiments of the 
 rest. 
 
 Now the two indispensable conditions under 
 which alone the measure can permanently satisfy 
 the reasonable, that is, the satisfiable, of both 
 parties, upon the supposition that in both parties 
 such men exist and that they form the influencive 
 class in both, are these : first, that the Act for 
 the repeal of the exclusive statutes and the admis- 
 sion of Roman Catholics to the full privileges of 
 British subjects shall be grounded on some de- 
 terminate principle, which involving interests and 
 duties common to both parties as British subjects, 
 both parties may be expected to recognize, and 
 required to maintain inviolable : second, that this 
 principle shall contain in itself an evident definite 
 and unchangeable. boundary, a line of demarcation, 
 a ve j)lus ultra, which in all reasonable men and 
 lovers of their country shall preclude the wish to 
 pass beyond it, and extinguish the hope of so doing; 
 in such as are neither. 
 
OF THE ROMAN CATHOLIC ACT. 167 
 
 But though the measure should be such as to 
 satisfy all reasonable men, still it is possible that 
 the number and influence of these may not be suf- 
 ficient to leaven the mass, or to over-rule the agi- 
 tators. I admit this ; but instead of weakening 
 what I have here said, it affords an additional ar- 
 gument in its favour. For if an argument satis- 
 factory to the reasonable part should nevertheless 
 fail in securing tranquillity, still less can the re- 
 sult be expected from an arbitrary adjustment that 
 can satisfy no part. If a measure grounded on 
 principle, and possessing the character of an ultima- 
 tum should still, through the prejudices and pas- 
 sions of one or of both of the parties, fail of success, 
 it would be folly to expect it from a measure that 
 left full scope and sphere to those passions ; which 
 kept alive the fears of the one party, while it 
 sharpened the cupidity of the other. With confi- 
 dence, therefore, I re-assert that only by reference 
 to a principle, possessing the characters above enu- 
 merated, can any satisfactory measure be framed, 
 and that if this should fail in producing the tran- 
 quillity aimed at, it will be in vain sought in any 
 other. 
 
 Again, it is evident that no principle can be ap- 
 propriate to such a measure, which does not bear 
 directly on the evil to be removed or mitigated. 
 Consequently, it should be our first business to 
 discover in what this evil truly and essentially con- 
 sists. It is, we know, a compound of many ingre- 
 dients. But we want to ascertain what the base 
 
168 AIDS TO A RIGHT APPRECIATION 
 
 is that communicates the quality of evil, of poli- 
 tical evil, of evil which it is the duty of a states- 
 man to guard against, to various other ingredients, 
 which without the base would have been innox- 
 ious ; or though evils in themselves, yet evils of 
 such a kind as to be counted by all wise statesmen 
 among the tares, which must be suffered to grow 
 up with the wheat to the close of the harvest, and 
 left for the Lord of the harvest to separate. 
 
 Further : the principle, the grounding and direct- 
 ing principle of an effectual enactment, must be one 
 on which a Roman Catholic might consistently 
 vindicate and recommend the measure to Roman 
 Catholics. It must therefore be independent of all 
 differences purely theological. And the facts and 
 documents, by which the truth and practical import- 
 ance of the principle are to be proved or illustrated, 
 should be taken by preference from periods anterior 
 to the division of the Latin Church into Romish 
 and Protestant. It should be such, in short, that 
 an orator might with strict historical propriety intro- 
 duce the framers and extorters of Magna Charta 
 pleading to their Roman Catholic descendants in 
 behalf of the measure grounded on such a prin- 
 ciple, and invoking them in the name of the Con- 
 stitution, over the growth of which they had kept 
 armed watch, and by the sacred obligation to 
 maintain it which they had entailed on their 
 posterity. 
 
 This is the condition under which alone I could 
 conscientiously vote, and which being fulfilled, I 
 
OF THE ROMAN CATHOLIC ACT. 169 
 
 should most zealously vote for the admission of lay 
 Roman Catholics, not only to both houses of the 
 Legislature, but to all other offices below the Crown 
 without any exception. Moreover, in the fulfil- 
 ment of this condition, in the solemn recognition 
 and establishment of a principle having- the charac- 
 ters here specified, I find the only necessary secu- 
 rity — convinced that this, if acceded to by the Ro- 
 man Catholic community, would in effect be such, 
 and that any other security will either be hollow, 
 or frustrate the purpose of the Law. 
 
 Now this condition would be fulfilled, the re- 
 quired principle would be given, provided that the 
 law for the repeal of the sundry statutes affecting 
 the Roman Catholics were introduced by, and 
 grounded on, a declaration, to which every possible 
 character of solemnity should be given, that at no 
 time and under no circumstances has it ever been, 
 nor can it ever be, compatible with the spirit or 
 consistent with the safety of the British Constitu- 
 tion to recognize in the Roman Catholic priesthood, 
 as now constituted, a component Estate of the 
 realm, or persons capable, individually or collec- 
 tively, of becoming the trustees and usufructuary 
 proprietors of that elective and circulative property, 
 originally reserved for the permanent maintenance 
 of the National Church. And further, it is expe- 
 dient that the preamble of the Act should expressly 
 declare and set forth that this exclusion of the 
 members of the Romish Priesthood (comprehending 
 all under oaths of canonical obedience to the Pope 
 
170 AIDS TO A RIGHT APPRECIATION 
 
 as their ecclesiastical sovereign) from the trusts and 
 offices of the National Church, and from all parti- 
 cipation in the proceeds of the Nationalty, is en- 
 acted and established on grounds wholly irrelative 
 to any doctrines received and taught by the Romish 
 Church as articles of faith, and protested against 
 as such by the Churches of the Reformation ; but 
 that it is enacted on grounds derived and inherited 
 from our ancestors before the Reformation, and by 
 them maintained and enforced to the fullest ex- 
 tent that the circumstances of the times permitted, 
 with no other exceptions and interruptions than 
 those effected by fraud, or usurpation, or foreign 
 force, or the temporary fanaticism of the meaner 
 sort. 
 
 In what manner the enactment of this principle 
 should be effected is of comparatively small impor- 
 tance, provided it be distinctly set forth as that 
 great constitutional security, the known existence 
 of which is the ground and condition of the light 
 of the Legislature to dispense with other less essen- 
 tial safe-guards of the constitution, notunnecessary, 
 perhaps, at the time of their enactment, but of 
 temporary and accidental necessity. The form, I 
 repeat, the particular mode in which the principle 
 should be recognized, the security established, is 
 comparatively indifferent. Let it only be under- 
 stood first, as the provision, by the retention of 
 which the Legislature possesses a moral and consti- 
 tutional right to make the change in question ; as 
 that, the known existence of which permits the 
 law to ignore the Roman Catholics under any other 
 
Or THE ROMAN CATHOLIC ACT. 171 
 
 name than that of British subjects ; and secondly, 
 as the express condition, the basis of a virtual 
 compact between the claimants and the nation, 
 which condition cannot be broken or evaded with- 
 out subverting- (morally) the articles and clauses 
 founded thereon. 
 
 I do not assert that the provision here stated is 
 an absolute security. My positions are, — first, that 
 it may with better reason and more probability be 
 proposed as such, than any other hitherto devised ; 
 secondly, that no other securities can supersede 
 the expediency and necessity of this, but that this 
 will greatly diminish or altogether remove the ne- 
 cessity of any other : further, that without this the 
 present measure cannot be rationally expected to 
 produce that tranquillity, which it is the aim and 
 object of the framers to bring about ; and lastly, 
 that the necessity of the declaration, as above given, 
 formally and solemnly to be made and recorded, is 
 not evacuated by this pretext, that no one intends 
 to transfer the Church Establishment to the Ro- 
 mish priesthood, or to divide it with them. 
 
 One thing, however, it is of importance that I 
 should mention, namely, that the existing- state of 
 the elective franchise* in Ireland, in reference to 
 
 * Although, since the text was written, the forty shilling- 
 freeholders no longer possess the elective franchise, yet as 
 this particular clause of the Act already has been, and may 
 hereafter be, made a pretext for agitation, the paragraph has 
 been retained, in the belief that its moral uses have not been 
 altogether superseded bv the retraction of this most unhappy 
 boon. 
 
172 AIDS TO A RIGHT APPRECIATION 
 
 the fatal present of the Union ministry to the 
 landed interest, that true Deianira shirt of the 
 Irish Hercules, is altogether excluded from the 
 theme and purpose of this disquisition. It ought 
 to be considered by the Legislature, abstracted 
 from the creed professed by the great majority of 
 these nominal freeholders. The recent abuse of 
 the influence resulting from this profession should 
 be regarded as an accidental aggravation of the 
 mischief, which displayed rather than constituted 
 its malignity. It is even desirable that it should 
 be preserved separate from the Roman Catholic 
 Question, and in no necessary dependence on the 
 fate of the Bill now on the eve of presentation to 
 Parliament. Whether this be carried or be lost, 
 it will still remain a momentous question, urgently 
 calling for the decision of the Legislature — whether 
 the said extension of the elective franchise has 
 not introduced an uncombining and wholly incon- 
 gruous ingredient into the representative system, 
 irreconcilable with the true principle of election, 
 and virtually disfranchising the class, to whom, on 
 every ground of justice and of policy, the right un- 
 questionably belongs ; — under any circumstances 
 overwhelming the voices of the rest of the commu- 
 nity ; in ordinary times concentering in the great 
 land-owners a virtual monopoly of the elective 
 power ; and in times of factious excitement depri- 
 ving them even of their natural and rightful influ- 
 ence. 
 
 These few suggestions on the expediency of re- 
 
OF THE ROMAN CATHOLIC ACT. 173 
 
 vising the state of the representation in Ireland are, 
 I am aware, but a digression from the main subject 
 of the Chapter. But this in fact is already com- 
 pleted, as far as my purpose is concerned. The 
 reasons, on which the necessity of the proposed de- 
 claration is grounded, have been given at large in 
 the former part of the volume. Here, therefore, 1 
 should end ; but that I anticipate two objections 
 of sufficient force to deserve a comment and form 
 the matter of a concluding paragraph. 
 
 First, it may be objected that, after abstracting 
 the portion of evil which may be plausibly attributed 
 to the peculiar state of landed property in Ireland, 
 there are evils directly resulting from the Romanism 
 of the most numerous class of the inhabitants, be- 
 sides that of an extra-national priesthood, and 
 against the political consequences of which the 
 above declaration provides no security. To this I 
 reply, that as no bridge ever did or can possess the 
 demonstrable perfections of the mathematical arch, 
 so can no existing State adequately correspond to 
 the idea of a State. In nations and governments 
 the most happily constituted there will be deformi- 
 ties and obstructions, peccant humours and irregu- 
 lar actions, which affect indeed the perfection of 
 the State, but not its essential forms ; which retard, 
 but do not necessarily prevent, its progress ; — ca- 
 sual disorders which, though they aggravate the 
 growing pains of a nation, may yet, by the vigo- 
 rous counteraction which they excite, even promote 
 its growth. Inflammations in the extremities and 
 
174 AIDS TO A RIGHT APPRECIATION 
 
 unseemly boils on the surface must not be con- 
 founded with exhaustive misgrowths, or the poison 
 of a false life in the vital organs. Nay, — and this 
 remark is of special pertinency to the present pur- 
 pose — even where the former derive a malignant 
 character from their co-existence with the latter, 
 yet the wise physician will direct his whole atten- 
 tion to the constitutional ailments, knowing- that 
 when the source, the fons et fomes, veneni is 
 sealed up, the accessories will either dry up of 
 themselves, or, returning to their natural character 
 rank among the infirmities which flesh is heir to ; 
 and either admit of a gradual remedy, or where 
 this is impracticable, or when the medicine would 
 be worse than the disease, are to be endured as 
 tolerabiles ineptice, trials of patience, and occasions 
 of charity. I have here had the State chiefly in 
 view ; but a member of the Church in England will 
 to little purpose have availed himself of his free ac- 
 cess to the Scriptures, will have read at least the 
 Epistles of St. Paul with a very unthinking spirit, 
 who does not apply the same maxims to the Church 
 of Christ ; who has yet to learn that the Church 
 militant is a Jioor whereon wheat and chaff are 
 mingled together; that even grievous evils and 
 errors may exist that do not concern the nature or 
 being of a Church, and that they may even prevail 
 in the particular Church, to w r hich we belong, with- 
 out justifying a separation from the same, and with- 
 out invalidating its claims on our affection as a true 
 and living part of the Church Universal. And with 
 
OF THE ROMAN CATHOLIC ACT. 175 
 
 regard to such evils we must adopt the advice that 
 Augustine (a man not apt to offend by any excess of 
 charity) gave to the complainers of his day— ut 
 misericorditer corripiant quod possunt, quod non 
 possunt patienter ferant, et cum delectione lu- 
 geant, donee aut emendet Deus, aut in messe era- 
 dicet zizania et paleas ventilet. 
 
 Secondly, it may be objected that the declaration, 
 so peremptorily by me required, is altogether un- 
 necessary ; that no one thinks of alienating the 
 Church property, directly or indirectly * that there 
 is no intention of recognizing the Romish Priests 
 in law, by entitling them as such to national 
 maintenance, or in the language of the day by 
 taking them into the pay of the State : in short, that 
 the National Church is no more in danger than the 
 Christian. And is this the opinion, the settled 
 judgment, of one who has studied the signs of 
 the times ? Can the person who makes these asser- 
 tions, have ever read a certain pamphlet by Mr. 
 Croker ? — or the surveys of the counties, published 
 under the authority of the now extinct Board of 
 Agriculture ? Or 'has he heard, or attentively 
 perused, the successive debates in both Houses 
 during the late agitation of the Roman Catholic 
 question ? If he have — why then, relatively to the 
 objector, and to as many as entertain the same 
 opinions, my reply is : — the objection is unanswer- 
 able. 
 
GLOSSARY TO THE APPENDED DIALOGUE. 
 
 As all my readers are not bound to understand 
 Greek, and yet, according to my deepest convic- 
 tions, the truths set forth in the following com- 
 bat of wit between the man of reason and the man 
 of the senses have an interest for all, I have been 
 induced to prefix the explanations of the few 
 Greek words, and words minted from the Greek : 
 
 Cosmos — world. Toutos* cosmos — this world. 
 Heteros — the other, in the sense of opposition to, 
 or discrepancy with, some former; as heterodoxy, 
 in opposition to orthodoxy. Alios — an other sim- 
 ply and without precluding or superseding the one 
 before mentioned. Allocosmite — a denizen of an- 
 other world. 
 
 Mystes, from the Greek jjlvu) — one who muses 
 with closed lips, as meditating on ideas which may 
 indeed be suggested and awakened, but cannot, 
 like the images of sense and the conceptions of 
 the understanding, be adequately expressed by 
 words. 
 
 Where a person mistakes the anomalous mis- 
 growths of his own individuality for ideas or 
 truths of universal reason, he may, without impro- 
 priety, be called a mystic, in the abusive sense of 
 
 * EuphonicE gratia, — Ed. 
 
GLOSSARY TO THE APPENDED DIALOGUE. 177 
 
 the term ; though pseudo-mystic or phantast would 
 be the more proper designation. Heraclitus, Plato, 
 Bacon, Leibnitz, were mystics in the primary sense 
 of the term; Iamblichus and his successors, phan- 
 tasts. 
 
 "E7T£a L,ioov-a — living words. — The following- 
 words from Plato may be Englished ; — " the com- 
 mune and the dialect of Gods with or toward men ;" 
 and those attributed to Pythagoras ; — " the verily 
 subsistent numbers or powers, the most prescient 
 (or provident) principles of the earth and the hea- 
 vens." 
 
 And here, though not falling under the leading 
 title, Glossary, yet, as tending to the same object 
 of fore-arming the reader for the following dia- 
 logue, I transcribe two or three annotations, which 
 I had pencilled, (for the book was lent to me by a 
 friend who had himself borrowed it) on the mar- 
 gins of a volume, recently published, and intituled, 
 " The Natural History of Enthusiasm." They 
 will, at least, remind some of my old school-fellows 
 of the habit for which I was even then noted : and 
 for others they may serve, as a specimen of the 
 Marginalia, which, if brought together from the 
 various books, my own and those of a score others, 
 would go near to form as bulky a volume as most 
 of those old folios, through which the larger por- 
 tion of them are dispersed.* 
 
 * See the Author's Literary Remains. — Ed. 
 
 N 
 
178 NOTES ON ISAAC TAYLOR'g 
 
 History or Enthusiasm. 
 
 I. 
 
 " Whatever is practically important on religion 
 or morals, may at all times be advanced and argued 
 in the simplest terms of colloquial expression."— 
 p. 21* 
 
 NOTE. 
 
 T do not believe this. Be it so, however. But 
 why? Simply, because, the terms and phrases of 
 the theological schools have, by their continual 
 iteration from the pulpit, become colloquial. The 
 science of one age becomes the common sense of a 
 succeeding. The author adds — " from the pulpit, 
 perhaps, no other style should at any time be 
 heard." Now I can conceive no more direct means 
 of depriving Christianity of one of its peculiar at- 
 tributes, that of enriching and enlarging the mind, 
 while it purifies and in the very act of purifying 
 the will and affections, than the maxim here pre- 
 scribed by the historian of enthusiasm. From the 
 intensity of commercial life in this country, and 
 from some other less creditable causes, there is 
 found even among our better educated men a 
 vagueness in the use of words, which presents, in- 
 deed, no obstacle to the intercourse of the market, 
 but is absolutely incompatible with the attainment 
 or communication of distinct and precise concep- 
 tions. Hence in every department of exact know- 
 
 * 7th edit. 
 
HISTORY OF ENTHUSIASM. 179 
 
 ledge a peculiar nomenclature is indispensable. 
 The anatomist, chemist, botanist, mineralogist, 
 vea, even the common artizan and the rude sailor 
 discover that " the terms of colloquial expression," 
 are too general and too lax to answer their pur- 
 poses : and on what grounds can the science of 
 self-knowledge, and of our relations to God and our 
 own spirits, be presumed to form an exception ? 
 Every new term expressing a fact, or a difference, 
 not precisely and adequately expressed by any 
 other word in the same language, is a new organ 
 of thought for the mind that has learned it. 
 
 II. 
 
 "The region of abstract conceptions, of lofty 
 reasonings, of magnificent images, has an atmos- 
 phere too subtle* to support the health of true piety. 
 * * * In accordance with this, the Supreme * 
 in his word reveals barely a glimpse of his essential 
 glories. By some naked affirmations we are, in- 
 deed, secured against o-rovelling' notions of the 
 divine nature ; but these hints are incidental, and 
 so scanty, that every excursive mind goes far be- 
 yond them in its conception of the infinite attri- 
 butes." — p. 26. 
 
 NOTE. 
 
 By " abstract conceptions " the Author means 
 what I should call ideas, which as such I contra- 
 distinguish from conceptions, whether abstracted 
 or generalized. But it is with his meaning, not 
 with his terms, that I am at present concerned. 
 
1'80 ■ NOTES ON ISAAC TAYLOR'S 
 
 Now that the personeity of God, the idea of God 
 as the I am, is presented more prominently in 
 Scripture than the (so called) physical attributes, 
 is most true ; and forms one of the distinctive 
 characters of its superior worth and value. It was 
 by dwelling too exclusively on the infinites that 
 the ancient Greek philosophers, Plato excepted, 
 fell into pantheism, as in later times did Spinoza. 
 " I forbid you," says Plato, " to call God the in- 
 finite ! If you dare name him at all, say rather 
 the measure of infinity." Nevertheless, it would 
 be easy to place in synopsi before the Author such 
 a series of Scripture passages as would incline him 
 to retract his assertion. The Eternal, the Omni- 
 present, the Omniscient, the one absolute Good, 
 the Holy, the Living, the Creator as well as Former 
 of the Universe, the Father of Spirits — can the 
 Author's mind go far beyond these ? Yet these 
 are all clearly affirmed of the Supreme One in the 
 Scriptures. 
 
 III. 
 
 The following pages from p. 26 to p. 36 contain 
 a succession of eloquent and splendid paragraphs 
 on the celestial orders, and the expediency or ne- 
 cessity of their being concealed from us, lest we 
 should receive such overwhelming conceptions of 
 the divine greatness as to render us incapable of 
 devotion and prayer on the Scripture model. 
 " Were it," says the eloquent writer, " indeed 
 permitted to man to gaze upwards from step to 
 
HISTORY OF ENTHUSIASM. 181 
 
 step, and from range to range, of these celestial 
 hierarchies, to the lowest steps of the Eternal 
 Throne, what liberty of heart would afterwards be 
 left him in drawing- near to the Father of Spirits ?" 
 But the substance of these pages will be found 
 implied in the following reply to them. 
 
 NOTE. 
 
 More weight with me than all this Pelion upon 
 Ossa of imaginary hierarchies has the single remark 
 of Augustine, that there neither are nor can be but 
 three essential differences of being, namely, the 
 absolute, the rational finite, and the finite irrational ; 
 that is, God, man, and brute. Besides, the whole 
 scheme is un-Scriptural, if not contra-Scriptural. 
 Pile up winged hierarchies on hierarchies, and 
 outblaze the Cabalists, and Dionysius the Areopa- 
 gite ; yet what a gaudy vapor for a healthful mind 
 is the whole conception (or rather phantasm) 
 compared with the awful hope holden forth in the 
 Gospel, to be one with God in and through the 
 Mediator Christ, even the living, co-eternal Word 
 and Son of God ! 
 
 But through the whole of this eloquent decla- 
 mation I find two errors predominate, and both, it 
 appears to me, dangerous errors. First, that the 
 rational and consequently the only true ideas of 
 the Supreme Being are incompatible with the spirit 
 of prayer and petitionary pleading taught and ex- 
 emplified in the Scriptures. Second, that this 
 being the case, and " supplication with arguments 
 
182 NOTES ON ISAAC TAYLOR'S 
 
 and importunate requests " being* irrational and 
 known by the supplicant to be such, it is never- 
 theless a duty to pray in this fashion. In other 
 words, it is asserted that the Supreme Being- re- 
 quires of his rational creatures, as the condition of 
 their offering acceptable worship to him, that they 
 should wilfully blind themselves to the lig'ht, which 
 he had himself given them, as the contradistin- 
 guishing character of their humanity, without 
 which they could not pray to him at all ; and that 
 drugging their sense of the truth into a temporary- 
 doze, they should make believe that they know no 
 better ! As if the God of Truth and Father of all 
 lights resembled an oriental or African despot, whose 
 courtiers, even those whom he had himself en- 
 riched and placed in the highest rank, are com- 
 manded to approach him only in beggars' rags and 
 with a beggarly whine ! 
 
 I on the contrary find " the Scripture model of 
 devotion," the prayers and thanksgiving of the 
 Psalmist, and in the main of our own Church Li- 
 turgy, perfectly conformable to the highest and 
 clearest convictions of my reason. (I use the word 
 in its most comprehensive sense, as comprising 
 both the practical and the intellective, not only as 
 the light but likewise as the life which is the light 
 of man. John i. 3.) And I do not hesitate to at- 
 tribute the contrary persuasion principally to the 
 three following oversights. First (and this is the 
 queen bee in the hive of error), the identification 
 of the universal reason with each man's individual 
 understanding, subjects not only different but di- 
 
HISTORY OF ENTHUSIASM. 183 
 
 verse, not only aZ/ogeneous but Zieterogeneous. 
 Second, the substitution of the idea of the infinite 
 for that of the absolute. Third and lastly, the 
 habit of using- the former as a sort of superlative 
 synonyme of the vast or indefinitely great. Now 
 the practical difference between my scheme and 
 that of the Essayist, for whose talents and inten- 
 tions I feel sincere respect, may perhaps be stated 
 thus . 
 
 The Essayist would bring down his understand- 
 ing to his religion : I would raise up my under- 
 standing to my reason, and find my religion in the 
 focus resulting from their convergence. We both 
 alike use the same penitential, deprecative and 
 petitionary prayers ; I in the full assurance of their 
 congruity with my reason, he in a factitious oblivion 
 of their being the contrary. 
 
 The name of the author* of the Natural History 
 of Enthusiasm is unknown to me and unconjec- 
 tured. It is evidently the work of a mind at once 
 observant and meditative. And should these notes 
 meet the Author's eye, let him be assured that I 
 willingly give to his genius that respect which his 
 intentions without it would secure for him in the 
 breast of every good man. But in the present 
 state of things, infidelity having fallen into disre- 
 pute even on the score of intellect, yet the obliga- 
 tion to shew a reason for our faith having become 
 more generally recognized, as reading and the taste 
 for serious conversation have increased, there is a 
 
 * Mr. Isaac Tavlor. — Ed. 
 
184 DIALOGUE BETWEEN 
 
 large class of my countrymen disposed to receive, 
 with especial favour, any opinions that will enable 
 them to make a compromise between their new 
 knowledge and their old belief. And with these 
 men the Author's evident abilities will probably 
 render the work a high authority. Now it is the 
 very purpose of my life to impress the contrary 
 sentiments. Hence these notes. 
 
 DIALOGUE BETWEEN DEMOSIUS 
 AND MYSTES.* 
 
 MY DEAR 
 
 In emptying a drawer of rose-leaf bags, old (but, 
 too many of them) unopened letters, and paper 
 scraps, or brain fritters, I had my attention di- 
 rected to a sere and ragged half-sheet by a gust of 
 wind, which had separated it from its companions, 
 and whisked it out of the window into the garden. 
 — Not that I went after it. I have too much res- 
 pect for the numerous tribe, to which it belonged, 
 to lay any restraint on their movements, or to put 
 the Vagrant Act in force against them. But it so 
 chanced that some after-breeze had stuck it on a 
 standard rose-tree, and there I found it, as I was 
 pacing my evening walk alongside the lower ivy- 
 wall, the bristled runners from which threaten to 
 
 * See ante p. 127.— Ed. 
 
DEM0S1US AND MTSTES. 185 
 
 entrap the top branch of the cherry tree in our 
 neighbour's kitchen garden. I had been medi- 
 tating a letter to you, and as I ran my eye over 
 this fly-away tag-rag and bob-tail, and bethought 
 me that it was a by-blow of my own, I felt a sort 
 of fatherly remorse, and yearning towards it, and 
 
 exclaimed, " If I had a frank for , this should 
 
 help to make up the ounce." It was far too de- 
 crepit to travel per se — besides that the seal would 
 have looked like a single pin on a beggar's coat 
 of tatters — and yet one does not like to be stopped 
 in a kind feeling, which my conscience interpreted 
 as a sort of promise to the said scrap, and there- 
 fore, (frank or no frank), I will transcribe it. A 
 dog's leaf at the top was worn off, which must 
 have contained I presume, the syllable Ve — 
 
 " Rily," q uot h Dejiiosins of 
 
 Toutoscosmos, Gentleman, to Mystes the Allocos- 
 mite, " thou seemest to me like an out-of-door 
 patient of St. Luke's wandering about in the rain 
 without cap, hat, or bonnet, poring on the elevation 
 of a palace, not the house that Jack built, but the 
 house that is to be built for Jack, in the suburbs of 
 the city, which his cousin-german, the lynx-eyed 
 Dr. Gruithuisen has lately discovered in the moon. 
 But through a foolish kindness for that face of 
 thine, which whilome belonged to an old school- 
 fellow of the same name with thee, I would get 
 thee shipped off under the Alien Act, as a non ens, 
 or pre-existent of the other world to come." — 
 To whom Mystes retorted ; — " Verily, friend De- 
 
186 DIALOGUE BETWEEN 
 
 mosius, thou art too fantastic for a genuine Tou- 
 toscosmos man ; and it needs only a fit of dyspepsy, 
 or a cross in love to make a Heterocosmite of thee ; 
 this same Heteroscosmos being- in fact the endless 
 shadow which the Toutoscosmos casts at sun-set. 
 But not to alarm or affront thee, as if I insinuated 
 that thou wert in danger of becoming an Allocos- 
 mite, I let the whole of thy courteous address to 
 me pass without comment or objection, save only 
 the two concluding monosyllables and the preposi- 
 tion (pre) which anticipates them. The world in 
 which I exist is another world indeed, but not to 
 come. It is as present as (if that be at all) the 
 magnetic planet, of which, according to the as- 
 tronomer Halley, the visible globe which we in- 
 verminate is the case or travelling- trunk ; — a neat 
 little world where light still exists in statu perfuso, 
 as on the third day of the creation, before it was 
 polarized into outward and inward, that is, while 
 light and life were one and the same, neither ex- 
 isting formally, yet both eminenter : and when 
 herb, flower, and forest rose as a vision, inproprio 
 lucido, the ancestor and unseen yesterday of the 
 sun and moon. Now, whether there really is such 
 an Elysian mundus mundulus incased in the ma- 
 crocosm, or great world, below the adamantine 
 vault that supports the mother waters, which sup- 
 port the coating crust of that mundus immundus 
 on which we and others less scantily furnished from 
 nature's storehouse crawl, delve, and nestle — (or, 
 shall T say the Lyceum, where walkoi rovrov Koafxov 
 
DEMOSIUS AND MYSTES. 187 
 
 (pi\6(To<poi) — Dr. Halley may, perhaps, by this time 
 have ascertained : and to him and the philosophic 
 ghosts, his compeers, I leave it. But that another 
 world is inshrined in the microcosm I not only be- 
 lieve, but at certain depths of my being-, during the 
 more solemn Sabbaths of the spirit, I have holden 
 commune therewith, in the power of that faith, 
 which is the substance of the things hoped for, the 
 living stem that will itself expand into the flower, 
 which it now foreshews. How should it not be so, 
 even on grounds of natural reason, and the analogy 
 of inferior life ? Is not nature prophetic up the 
 whole vast pyramid of organic being? And in which 
 of her numberless predictions has nature been con- 
 victed of a lie ? Is not every organ announced by 
 a previous instinct or act ? The larva of the stag- 
 beetle lies in its chrysalis like an infant in the 
 coffin of an adult, having left an empty space half 
 the length it occupies ; and this space is the exact 
 length of the horn which distinguishes the perfect 
 animal, but which, when it constructed its tem- 
 porary sarcophagus, was not yet in existence. Do 
 not the eyes, ears, lungs of the unborn babe give 
 notice and furnish proof of a transuterine, visible, 
 audible, atmospheric world ? We have eyes, ears, 
 touch, taste, smell ; and have we not an answering 
 world of shapes, colours, sounds, and sapid and 
 odorous bodies ? But likewise — (alas ! for the man 
 for whom the one has not the same evidence of 
 fact as the other) — the Creator has given us spi- 
 ritual senses, and sense-organs — ideas I mean — 
 
188 DIALOGUE BETWEEN 
 
 the idea of the good, the idea of the beautiful, 
 ideas of eternity, immortality, freedom, and of that 
 which contemplated relatively to will is holiness, 
 in relation to life is bliss. And must not these too 
 infer the existence of a world correspondent to 
 them ? There is a light, said the Hebrew sage, 
 compared with which the glory of the sun is but 
 \i a cloudy veil : and is it an ignKs fatuus given to 
 mock us and lead us astray? And from a yet 
 higher authority we know, that it is a light that 
 lighteth every man that cometh into the world. 
 And are there no objects to reflect it ? Or must 
 we seek its analogon in the light of the glow- 
 worm, that simply serves to distinguish one reptile 
 from all the rest, and lighting, inch by inch, its 
 mazy path through weeds and grass, leaves all else 
 before, and behind, and around it in darkness ? 
 No ! Another and answerable world there is ; and 
 if any man discern it not, let him not, whether 
 sincerely or in contemptuous irony, pretend a de- 
 fect of faculty as the cause. The sense, the light, 
 and the conformed objects are all there and for all 
 men. The difference between man and man in 
 relation thereto results from no difference in their 
 several gifts and powers of intellect, but in the 
 will. As certainly as the individual is a man, so 
 certainly should this other world be present to him : 
 yea, it is his proper home. But he is an absentee 
 and chooses to live abroad. His freedom and 
 whatever else he possesses which the dog and the 
 ape do not possess, yea, the whole revenue of his 
 
DEMOSIUS AND MYSTES. 189 
 
 humanity, is derived from this ; — but with the 
 Irish land-owner in the theatres, gaming-houses, 
 and maitresseries of Paris, so with him. He is a 
 voluntary absentee. I repeat it again and again, — 
 the cause is altogether in the will : and the defect 
 of intellectual power, and " the having no turn or 
 taste for subjects of this sort," are effects and con- 
 sequences of the alienation of the will, that is, of 
 the man himself. There may be a defect, but 
 there was not a deficiency, of the intellect. I 
 appeal to facts for the proof. Take the science of 
 political economy. No two professors understand 
 each other ; — and often have I been present where 
 the subject has been discussed in a room full of 
 merchants and manufacturers, sensible and well- 
 informed men : and the conversation has ended in 
 a confession that the matter was beyond their com- 
 prehension. And yet the science professes to give 
 light on rents, taxes, income, capital, the principles 
 of trade, commerce, agriculture, on wealth, and 
 the ways of acquiring and increasing it, in short 
 on all that most passionately excites and interests 
 the Toutoscosmos men. But it was avowed that 
 to arrive at any understanding of these matters 
 requires a mind gigantic in its comprehension, and 
 microscopic in its accuracy of detail. Now com- 
 pare this with the effect produced on promiscuous 
 crowds by a Whitfield, or a Wesley; — or rather 
 compare with it the shaking of every leaf of the 
 vast forest to the first blast of Luther's trumpet. 
 Was it only of the world to come that Luther and 
 
190 DIALOGUE BETWEEN 
 
 his compeers preached ? Turn to Luther's Table 
 Talk, and see if the larger part be not of that other 
 world which now is, and without the being and 
 working of which the world to come would be 
 either as unintelligible as Abracadabra, or a mere 
 reflection and elongation of the world of sense — 
 Jack Robinson between two looking-glasses, with 
 a series of Jack Robinsons in scecula sceculorum." 
 
 " Well, but what is this new and yet other world ? 
 The brain of a man that is out of his senses ? A 
 world fraught with castles in the air, well worthy 
 the attention of any gentleman inclined to idealize 
 a large property?" 
 
 " The sneer on that lip, and the arch shine of 
 that eye, friend Demosius, would almost justify 
 me, though I should answer that question by re- 
 torting it in a parody. What, quoth the owlet, 
 peeping out of his ivy-bush at noon, with his blue 
 fringed eye-curtains dropped, what is this light 
 which is said to exist together with this warmth 
 we feel, and yet is something else ? But I read 
 likewise in that same face, when thou wast be- 
 ginning to prepare that question, a sort of mis- 
 giving from within, as if thou wert more positive 
 than sure that the reply, with which you would 
 accommodate me, is as wise as it is witty. There- 
 fore, though I cannot answer your question, I will 
 give you a hint how you may answer it for yourself. 
 Learn the art and acquire the habit of contem- 
 plating things abstractedly from their relations. 
 
DEMOSIUS AND MYSTES. 191 
 
 I will explain myself by an instance. Suppose a 
 body floating at a certain height in the air, and 
 receiving the light so equally on all sides as not 
 to occasion the eye to conjecture any solid con- 
 tents. And now let six or seven persons see it at 
 different distances and from different points of view. 
 For A it will be a square ; for B a triangle ; for 
 C two rio-ht-ano;led triangles attached to each 
 other ; for D two unequal triangles ; for E it will 
 be a triangle with a trapezium hung on to it ; for 
 F it will be a square with a cross in it [x] ; for 
 
 G it will be an oblong quadrangle with three tri- 
 angles in it j\/ ; ; and for H three unequal tri- 
 angles. 
 
 Now it is evident that not one of all these is the 
 figure itself, (which in this instance is a four-sided 
 pyramid), but the contingent relations of the figure. 
 Now transfer this from geometry to the subjects 
 of the real (that is, not merely formal or abstract) 
 sciences, — to substances and bodies, the materia 
 subjecta of the chemist, physiologist and naturalist, 
 and you will gradually (that is, if you choose and 
 sincerely will it) acquire the power and the dis- 
 position of contemplating your own imaginations, 
 wants, appetites, passions, and opinions, on the 
 same principles, and distinguish that which alone 
 is and abides from the accidental and imperma- 
 nent relations arising out of its co-existence with 
 other things or beings. 
 
 My second rule or maxim requires its prolego- 
 mena. In the several classes and orders that mark 
 
192 DIALOGUE BETWEEN 
 
 the scale of organic nature, from the plant to the 
 highest order of animals, each higher implies a 
 lower as the condition of its actual existence ; — 
 and the same position holds good equally of the 
 vital and organic powers. Thus, without the first 
 power, that of growth, or what Bichat and others 
 name the vegetive life or productivity, the second 
 power, that of totality and locomotion (commonly 
 but most infelicitously called irritability) could not 
 exist, that is, manifest its being. Productivity 
 is the necessary antecedent of irritability, and in 
 like manner irritability of sensibility. But it is 
 no less true that in the idea of each power the 
 lower derives its intelligibility from the higher : 
 and the highest must be presumed to inhere latently 
 or potentially in the lowest, or this latter will be 
 wholly unintelligible, inconceivable ; — you can 
 have no conception of it. Thus in sensibility we 
 see a power that in every instant goes out of itself, 
 and in the same instant retracts and falls back on 
 itself: which the great fountains of pure Mathesis, 
 the Pythagorean and Platonic geometricians, il- 
 lustrated in the production or self-evolution of the 
 point into the circle. Imagine the going-forth 
 and the retraction as two successive acts, the re- 
 sult would be an infinity of angles, a growth of 
 zig-zag. In order to the imaginability of a cir- 
 cular line, the extroitive and the retroitive must 
 co-exist in one and the same act and moment, the 
 curve line being the product. Now what is ideally 
 true in the generations or productive acts of the 
 
DEMOSIUS AND MYSTES. 193 
 
 intuitive faculty (of the pure sense, I mean, or 
 inward vision — the reine Anschauung of the Ger- 
 man philosophers) must be assumed as truth of 
 fact in all living- growth, or wherein would the 
 growth of a plant differ from that of a crystal ? 
 The latter is formed wholly by apposition ah extra : 
 in the former the movement ah extra is in order 
 of thought consequent on, and yet coinstantaneous 
 with, the movement ab intra. Thus, the specific 
 character of sensibility, the highest of the three 
 powers, is found to be the general character of 
 life, and supplies the only way of conceiving*, the 
 only insight into the possibility of, the first and 
 lowest power. And yet, even thus, growth taken 
 as separate from, and exclusive of, sensibility 
 would be unintelligible, nay, contradictory. For 
 it would be an act of the life, or productive form 
 of the plant, having the life itself as its source, 
 (since it is a going forth from the life), and like- 
 wise having the life itself as its object, for in the 
 same instant it is retracted : and yet the product 
 (that is, the plant) exists not for itself, by the hy- 
 pothesis that has excluded sensibility. For all 
 sensibility is a self-finding ; whence the German 
 word for sensation or feeling is Empjindung, that 
 is, an inward finding. Therefore sensibility cannot 
 be excluded : and as it does not exist actually, it 
 must be involved potentially. Life does not yet 
 manifest itself in its highest dignity, as a self- 
 finding ; but in an evident tendency thereto, or a 
 self-seeking; — and this has two epochs or intensi- 
 
 o 
 
194 DIALOGUE BETWEEN 
 
 ties. Potential sensibility in its first epoch, or 
 lowest intensity, appears as growth : in its second 
 epoch, it shews itself as irritability or vital in- 
 stinct. In both, however, the sensibility must 
 have pre-existed, or rather pre-inhered, though 
 as latent : or how could the irritability have been 
 evolved out of the growth, (as in the stamina of 
 the plant during the act of impregnating the ger- 
 men) : — or the sensibility out of the irritability, 
 — as in the first appearance of nerves and nervous 
 bulbs in the lower orders of the insect realm ? But, 
 indeed, evolution as contradistinguished from ap- 
 position, or superinduction ab aliunde, is implied 
 in the conception of life : and is that which es- 
 sentially differences a living fibre from a thread of 
 asbestos, the floscule or any other of the moving 
 fairy shapes of animalcular life from the frost- 
 plumes on a window pane. 
 
 Again : what has been said of the lowest power 
 of life relatively to its highest power — growth to 
 sensibility, the plant to the animal — applies equally 
 to life itself relatively to mind. Without the latter 
 the former would be unintelligible, and the idea 
 would contradict itself. If there had been no 
 self-retaining power, a self-finding would be a per- 
 petual self-losing. Divide a second into a thou- 
 sand, or if you please, a million of parts, yet if 
 there be an absolute chasm separating one moment 
 of self-finding from another, the chasm of a millionth 
 of a second would be equal to all time. A being 
 that existed for itself only in moments, each in- 
 finitely small and yet absolutely divided from the 
 
DEMOSIUS AND MYSTES. 195 
 
 preceding- and following, would not exist for itself 
 at all. And if all beings were the same, or yet 
 lower, it could not be said to exist in any sense, 
 any more than light would exist as light, if there 
 were no eyes or visual power : and the whole con- 
 ception would break up into contradictory posi- 
 tions — an intestine conflict more destructive than 
 even that between the two cats, where one tail 
 alone is said to have survived the battle. The 
 conflicting factors of our conception would eat each 
 other up, tails and all. Ergo : the mind, as a 
 self-retaining* power, is not less indispensable to 
 the intelligibility of life as a self-finding power, 
 than a self-finding power, that is, sensibility, to a 
 self-seeking power, that is, growth. Again : a 
 self-retaining mind — that is, memory, (which is 
 the primary sense of mind, and the common people 
 in several of our provinces still use the word in this 
 sense) — a self-retaining power supposes a self- 
 containing power, a self-conscious being. And 
 this is the definition of mind in its proper and dis- 
 tinctive sense, a subject that is its own object, — 
 or where A contemplant is one and the same sub- 
 ject with A contemplated. Lastly, — (that I may 
 complete the ascent of powers for my own satis- 
 faction, and not as expecting, or in the present 
 habit of your thoughts even wishing you to follow 
 me to a height, dizzy for the strongest spirit, it 
 being the apex of all human, perhaps of angelic, 
 knowledge to know that it must be : since absolute 
 ultimates can only be seen by a light thrown back- 
 ward from the penultimate ; John i. 18.) — lastly, 
 
196 DIALOGUE BETWEEN 
 
 I say, the self-containing- power supposes a self- 
 causing power ; causa sui, curia v7repovcriog. Here 
 alone we find a problem which in its very state- 
 ment contains its own solution — the one self-solving 
 power, beyond which no question is possible. Yet 
 short of this we dare not rest ; for even O £2N, the 
 Supreme Being-, if contemplated abstractly from 
 the Absolute Will, whose essence it is to be causa- 
 tive of all being*, would sink into a Spinozistic 
 deity. That this is not evident to us arises from 
 the false notion of reason as a quality, property, 
 or faculty of the real : whereas reason is the su- 
 preme reality, the only true being in all things 
 visible and invisible ; the plero?na, in whom alone 
 God loveth the world ! Even in man will is deeper 
 than mind : for mind does not cease to be mind by 
 having an antecedent ; but will is either the first 
 (to a.e.1 TrpoTrpwrov, to nunquam positum. semper 
 supponendum) , or it is not will at all. 
 
 And now for the practical rules which I pro- 
 mised, or the means by which you may educate in 
 yourself that state of mind which is most favourable 
 to a true knowledge of both the worlds that now 
 are, and to a right faith in the world to come. 
 
 I. Remember that whatever is, lives. A thing 
 absolutely lifeless is inconceivable, except as a 
 thought, image, or fancy, in some other being. 
 > II. In every living form, the conditions of its 
 existence are to be sought for in that which is 
 below it; the grounds of its intelligibility in that 
 which is above it. 
 
 III. Accustom your mind to distinguish the 
 
DEMOSIUS AND MYSTES. 197 
 
 relations of things from the things themselves. 
 Think often of the latter as independent of the 
 former, in order that you may never think of the 
 former apart from the latter, that is, mistake mere 
 relations for true and enduring realities : and with 
 regard to these seek the solution of each in some 
 higher reality. The contrary process leads de- 
 monstrably to atheism, and though you may not 
 get quite so far, it is not well to be seen travelling 
 on the road with your face towards it. 
 
 I might add a fourth rule : Learn to distinguish 
 permanent from accidental relations. But I am 
 willing that you should for a time take permanent 
 relations as real things — confident that you will 
 soon feel the necessity of reducing what you now 
 call things into relations, which immediately arising 
 out of a somewhat else may properly be contem- 
 plated as the products of that somewhat else, and 
 as the means by which its existence is made known 
 to you. But known as what? not as a product ; 
 for it is the somewhat else, to which the product 
 stands in the same relation as the words which 
 you are now hearing bear to my living soul. But 
 if not as products, then as productive powers : 
 and the result will be that what you have hitherto 
 called things will be regarded as only more or less 
 permanent relations of things, having their deriva 
 tive reality greater or less in proportion as they 
 are regular or accidental relations ; determined by 
 the pre-established fitness of the true thing to the 
 organ and faculty of the percipient, or resulting 
 from some defect or anomaly in the latter. 
 
198 DIALOGUE, ETC. 
 
 With these convictions matured into a habit of 
 mind, the man no longer seeks, or believes himself 
 to find, true reality except in the powers of nature ; 
 which living and actuating powers are made known 
 to him, and their kinds determined, and their forces 
 measured, by their proper products. In other 
 words, he thinks of the products in reference to 
 the productive powers, rdlg ovrojg vTrapypvmv 
 apiOfxoig }/ dvi'a/JLEffi, wg ralg TTpOfiaQeaTciTaLg apycug 
 tov ttcivtoq ovpavov km. yrjg, and thus gives to the 
 former (to the products, I mean) a true reality, a 
 life, a beauty, and a physiognomic expression. For 
 him they are the eVt a 4 ojovra, ofj,i\(a /cat rj cioXektoq 
 deutv 7rp6g avQpojirovQ. The Allocosmite, therefore, 
 (though he does not bark at the image in the glass, 
 because he knows what it is), possesses the same 
 world with the Toutocosmites ; and has, besides, 
 in present possession another and better world, to 
 which he can transport himself by a swifter vehicle 
 than Fortunatus's wishing cap. 
 
 Finally, what is reason ? You have often asked 
 me ; and this is my answer ; 
 
 Whene'er the mist, that stands 'twixt God and thee 
 Defecates to a pure transparency, 
 That intercepts no light and adds no stain — 
 There reason is, and there begins her reign ! 
 
 But, alas ! 
 
 tu stesso tifai grosso 
 
 Col f also immaginar, si che non vedi 
 Cib che vedresti se Vavessi scosso. 
 
 Dante, Par. Canto I. 88. 
 
 THE END. 
 
THE 
 
 STATESMAN'S MANUAL; 
 
 or, the bible the best guide to political skill and 
 
 foresight: a lay sermon, addressed to 
 
 the higher classes of society, 
 
 WITH AN APPENDIX, 
 
 CONTAINING COMMENTS AND ESSAYS CONNECTED WITH THE 
 STUDY OF THE INSPIRED WRITINGS. 
 
 BY SAMUEL TAYLOR COLERIDGE, 
 sreconfc Litton : 
 
 WITH THE AUTHOR'S LAST CORRECTIONS AND NOTES, 
 BY 
 HENRY NELSON COLERIDGE, ESQ. M.A. 
 
Ad isthac qurESo vos, qualiacuvqve primo videantur aspectu , 
 attendite, ut qui vobis forsan insanire videar, saltern quibv.. 
 insaniam rationibus cognoscatis. — Giokdano Bruno. 
 
A LAY SERMON, 
 
 ETC. 
 
 For he established a testimony in Jacob and ap- 
 pointed a law in Israel ; which he commanded 
 our fathers, that they should make them 
 known to their children : that the generation 
 to come might know them, even the children 
 which should be born ; who should arise and 
 declare them to their children : that they 
 might set their hope in God, and not forget 
 the works of God. — Psalm lxxviii. 5, 6, 7. 
 
 If our whole knowledge and information concern- 
 ing the Bible had been confined to the one fact of 
 its immediate derivation from God, we should still 
 presume that it contained rules and assistances 
 for all conditions of men under all circumstances ; 
 and therefore for communities no less than for in- 
 dividuals. The contents of every work must cor- 
 respond to the character and designs of the work- 
 master; and the inference in the present case is 
 too obvious to be overlooked, too plain to be 
 resisted. It requires, indeed, all the might of 
 
204 THE BIBLE 
 
 superstition to conceal from a man of common 
 understanding the further truth, that the interment 
 of such a treasure in a dead language must needs 
 be contrary to the intentions of the gracious Donor. 
 Apostasy itself dared not question the premisses : 
 and that the practical consequence did not follow, 
 is conceivable only under a complete system of 
 delusion, which from the cradle to the death-bed 
 ceases not to over-awe the will by obscure fears, 
 while it preoccupies the senses by vivid imagery 
 and ritual pantomime. But to such a scheme all 
 forms of sophistry are native. The very excel- 
 lence of the Giver has been made a reason for 
 withholding the gift ; nay the transcendant value 
 of the gift itself assigned as the motive of its de- 
 tention. We may be shocked at the presumption, 
 but need not be surprised at the fact, that a jealous 
 priesthood should have ventured to represent the 
 applicability of the Bible to all the wants and oc- 
 casions of men as a wax-like pliancy to all their 
 fancies and prepossessions. Faithful guardians of 
 Holy Writ, they are constrained to make it useless 
 in order to guard it from profanation ; and those, 
 whom they have most defrauded, are the readiest 
 to justify the fraud. For imposture, organized into 
 a comprehensive and self-consistent whole, forms 
 a world of its own, in which inversion becomes the 
 order of nature. 
 
 Let it not be forgotten, however, (and I recom- 
 mend the fact to the especial attention of those 
 among ourselves, who are disposed to rest con- 
 
OPEN TO ALL. 205 
 
 tented with an implicit faith and passive acqui- 
 escence) that the Church of Rome never ceased 
 to avow the profoundest reverence for the Scrip- 
 tures themselves, and what it forbids its vassals 
 to ascertain, it not onl) r permits, but commands 
 them to take for granted. 
 
 Whether, and to what extent, this suspension 
 of the rational functions, this spiritual slumber, 
 Avill be imputed as a sin to the souls who are still 
 under chains of Papal darkness, Ave are neither 
 enabled or authorized to determine. It is enough 
 for us to know that the land, in which we abide, 
 has like another Goshen been severed from the 
 plague, and that we have light in our dwellings. 
 The road of salvation for us is a high road, and the 
 wayfarers, though simple, need not err therein. 
 The Gospel lies open in the market-place and on 
 every window seat, so that (virtually at least) the 
 deaf may hear the words of the book. It is 
 preached at every turning 1 , so that the blind may 
 see them. (Isai. xxix. 18.) The circumstances 
 then being so different, if the result should prove 
 similar, we may be quite certain that Ave shall not 
 be holden guiltless. The ignorance Avhich may 
 be the excuse of others will be our crime. Our 
 birth and denizenship in an enlightened and Pro- 
 testant land will, Avith all our rights and fran- 
 chises to boot, be brought in judgment against us. 
 and stand first in the fearful list of blessings 
 abused. The glories of our country will form the 
 blazonry of our own impeachment, and the very 
 
206 EXHORTATION 
 
 name of Englishmen, of which we are almost all 
 of us too proud, and for which scarcely any of us 
 are enough thankful, will be annexed to that of 
 Christians only to light up our shame and to 
 aggravate our condemnation. 
 
 I repeat, therefore, that the habitual unrellect- 
 ingness, which in certain countries may be sus- 
 ceptible of more or less palliation in most instances, 
 can in this country be deemed blameless in none. 
 The humblest and least educated of our country- 
 men must have wilfully neglected the inestimable 
 privileges secured to all alike, if he has not him- 
 self found, if he has not from his own personal 
 experience discovered, the sufficiency of the Scrip- 
 tures* in all knowledge requisite for a right 
 performance of his duty as a man and a Christian. 
 Of the labouring classes, who in all countries form 
 the great majority of the inhabitants, more than 
 this is not demanded, more than this is not per- 
 haps generally desirable. They are not souyht for 
 in public counsel, nor need they be found where 
 politic sentences are spoken. It is enough if every 
 one is wise in the working of his own craft : so 
 best zvill they maintain the state of the world. 
 
 But you, my friends, to whom the following 
 pages are more particularly addressed, as to men 
 moving in the higher class of society, — you will, 
 I hope, have availed yourselves of the ampler 
 means entrusted to you by God's providence, for 
 
 See App. (A.)— Ed. 
 
TO THE STUDY OF IT. 207 
 
 a more extensive study and a wider use of his 
 revealed will and word. From you we have a 
 right to expect a sober and meditative accommo- 
 dation to your own times and country of those 
 important truths declared in the inspired writings 
 for a thousand generations, and of the awful 
 examples, belonging- to all ages, by which those 
 truths are at once illustrated and confirmed. Would 
 vou feel conscious that you had shewn yourselves 
 unequal to your station in society, — would you 
 stand degraded in your own eyes, — if you betrayed 
 an utter want of information respecting the acts 
 of human sovereigns and legislators ? And should 
 you not much rather be both ashamed and afraid 
 to know yourselves inconversant with the acts and 
 constitutions of God, whose law executeth itself, 
 and whose Word is the foundation, the power, and 
 the life of the universe ? Do you hold it a requi- 
 site of your rank to shew yourselves inquisitive 
 concerning the expectations and plans of states- 
 men and state-councillors ? Do you excuse it as 
 natural curiosity, that you lend a listening ear to 
 the sruesses of state-gazers, to the dark hints and 
 open revilings of our self-inspired state-fortune- 
 tellers, the wizards, that peep and mutter and 
 forecast, alarmists by trade, and malcontents for 
 their bread ? And should you not feel a deeper 
 interest in predictions which are permanent pro- 
 phecies, because they are at the same time eternal 
 truths ? Predictions which in containing the 
 grounds of fulfilment involve the principles of fore- 
 
208 THE BIBLE. 
 
 sight, and teach the science of the future in its per- 
 petual elements ? 
 
 But I will struggle to believe that of those 
 whom I now suppose myself addressing there are 
 few who have not so employed their greater leisure 
 and superior advantages as to render these remarks, 
 if not wholly superfluous, yet personally inappli- 
 cable. In common with your worldly inferiors, 
 you will indeed have directed your main attention 
 to the promises and the information conveyed in 
 the records of the Evangelists and Apostles ; — 
 promises, that need only a lively trust in them, 
 on our own part, to be the means as well as the 
 pledges of our eternal welfare — information that 
 op^ns out to our knowledge a kingdom that is not 
 of this world, thrones that cannot be shaken, and 
 sceptres that can neither be broken nor transferred. 
 Yet not the less on this account will you have 
 looked back with a proportionate interest on the 
 temporal destinies of men and nations, stored up 
 for our instruction in the archives of the Old 
 Testament : not the less will you delight to retrace 
 the paths by which Providence has led the king- 
 doms of this world through the valley of mortal 
 life ; — paths engraved with the footmarks of cap- 
 tains sent forth from the God of armies ; — nations 
 in whose guidance or chastisement the arm of 
 Omnipotence itself was made bare. 
 
 Recent occurrences have given additional 
 strength and fresh force to our sage poet's eulogy 
 on the Jewish Prophets ; — 
 
A MANUAL FOR STATESMEN. 209 
 
 As men divinely taught and better teaching 
 
 The solid rules of civil government 
 
 In their majestic unaffected style, 
 
 Than all the oratory of Greece and Rome. 
 
 In them is plainest taught and easiest learnt 
 
 What makes a nation happy and keeps it so, 
 
 What ruins kingdoms and lays cities flat. 
 
 Par. Reg. iv. 354. 
 
 If there be any antidote to that restless craving 
 for the wonders of the day, which in conjunction 
 with the appetite for publicity is spreading- like an 
 efflorescence on the surface of our national cha- 
 racter ; if there exist means for deriving resis-na- 
 tion from general discontent, means of building 
 up with the very materials of political gloom that 
 stedfast frame of hope which affords the only cer- 
 tain shelter from the throng of self- realizing alarms, 
 at the same time that it is the natural home and 
 workshop of all the active virtues ; that antidote 
 and these means must be sought, for in the colla- 
 tion of the present with the past, in the habit of 
 thoughtfully assimilating the events of our own 
 as:e to those of the time before us. If this be a 
 moral advantage derivable from history in general, 
 rendering its study therefore a moral duty for such 
 as possess the opportunities of books, leisure and 
 education, it would be inconsistent even with the 
 name of believers not to recur with pre-eminent 
 interest to events and revolutions, the records of 
 which are as much distinguished from all other 
 history by their especial claims to divine authority, 
 
 p 
 
210 THE BIBLE 
 
 as the facts themselves were from all other facts 
 by especial manifestation of divine interference. 
 Whatsoever things, saith Saint Paul, (JRom.Kv. 4.) 
 were written aforetime, were written for our 
 learning ; that we through patience and comfort 
 of the Scriptures might have hope. 
 
 In the infancy of the world signs and wonders 
 were requisite in order to startle and break down 
 that superstition, — idolatrous in itself and the 
 source of all other idolatry, — which tempts the 
 natural man to seek the true cause and origin of 
 public calamities in outward circumstances, per- 
 sons and incidents : in agents therefore that were 
 themselves but surges of the same tide, passive 
 conductors of the one invisible influence, under 
 which the total host of billows, in the whole line 
 of successive impulse, swell and roll shoreward ; 
 there finally, each in its turn, to strike, roar and 
 be dissipated. 
 
 But with each miracle worked there was a truth 
 revealed, which thenceforward was to act as its 
 substitute. And if we think the Bible less appli- 
 cable to us on account of the miracles, we degrade 
 ourselves into mere slaves of sense and fancy, 
 which are indeed the appointed medium between 
 earth and heaven, but for that very cause stand in 
 a desirable relation to spiritual truth then only, 
 when, as a mere and passive medium, they yield 
 a free passage to its light. It was only to over- 
 throw the usurpation exercised in and through the 
 senses, that the senses were miraculously appealed 
 
A MANUAL FOR STATESMEN. 211 
 
 to; for reason and religion are their own evidence.* 
 The natural sun is in this respect a symbol of the 
 spiritual. Ere he is fully arisen, and while his 
 glories are still under veil, he calls up the breeze 
 to chase away the usurping" vapours of the night- 
 season, and thus converts the air itself into the 
 minister of its own purification : not surely in 
 proof or elucidation of the light from heaven, but 
 to prevent its interception. 
 
 Wherever, therefore, similar circumstances co- 
 exist with the same moral causes, the principles 
 revealed, and the examples recorded, in the inspired 
 writings render miracles superfluous : and if we 
 neglect to apply truths in expectation of wonders, 
 or under pretext of the cessation of the latter, we 
 tempt God, and merit the same reply which our 
 Lord s:ave to the Pharisees on a like occasion. 
 A wicked and an adulterous generation seeketh 
 after a sign, and there shall no sign be given to 
 it, but the sign of the prophet Jonas, (Matt. xvi. 
 4 :) that is, a threatening call to repentance. f 
 Equally applicable and prophetic will the following 
 verses be. The queen of the South shall rise up 
 in the judgment with the men of this generation 
 and condemn them : for she came from the ut- 
 most parts of the earth to hear the wisdom of 
 Solomon ; and, behold, a greater than Solomon is 
 here. — The men of Nineveh shall rise in judg- 
 ment with this generation and shall condemn it ; 
 
 * See App. (B).— Ed. t See App. < C.)— Ed. 
 
2] 2 
 
 HISTORY RIGHTLY STUDIED 
 
 for they repented at the preaching of Jonas; and, 
 behold, a greater than Jonas is here. (Luke xi. 
 31, 32.) For have we not divine assurance that 
 Christ is with his Church even to the end of the 
 world? And what could the queen of the South, 
 or the men of Nineveh have beholden, that could 
 enter into competition with the events of our own 
 times, in importance, in splendour, or even in 
 strangeness and significancy ? 
 
 The true origin of human events is so little 
 susceptible of that kind of evidence which can 
 compel our belief; so many are the disturbing- 
 forces which in every cycle of changes modify 
 the motion given by the first projection ; and 
 every age has, or imagines it has, its own circum- 
 stances which render past experience no longer 
 applicable to the present case ; that there will 
 never be wanting answers, and explanations, and 
 specious flatteries of hope to persuade a people 
 and its government that the history of the past is 
 inapplicable to their case. And no wonder, if we 
 read history for the facts instead of reading it for 
 the sake of the general principles, which are to 
 the facts as the root and sap of a tree to its leaves : 
 and no wonder, if history so read should find a 
 dangerous rival in novels, nay, if the latter should 
 be preferred to the former on the score even of 
 probability. I well remember, that when the 
 examples of former Jacobins, as Julius Csesar, 
 Cromwell, and the like, were adduced in France 
 and England at the commencement of the French 
 
PROPHETIC. 213 
 
 Consulate, it was ridiculed as pedantry and pedant's 
 ignorance to fear a repetition of usurpation and 
 military despotism at the close of the enlightened 
 eighteenth century ! Even so, in the very dawn 
 of the late tempestuous day, when the revolutions 
 of Corey ra, the proscriptions of the Reformers, 
 Marius, Caesar, and the like, and the direful effects 
 of the levelling tenets in the Peasants' War in 
 Germany, were urged on the Convention, and its 
 vindicators ; I well remember that the Magi of the 
 day, the true citizens of the world, the plusquam- 
 perfecti of patriotism, gave us set proofs that 
 similar results were impossible, and that it was 
 an insult to so philosophical an age, to so enlight- 
 ened a nation, to dare direct the public eye towards 
 them as to lights of warning ! Alas ! like lights 
 in the stern of a vessel they illumined the path 
 only that had been past over ! 
 
 The politic Florentine* has observed, that there 
 are brains of three races. The one understands 
 of itself; the other understands as much as is 
 shown it by others ; the third neither understands 
 of itself, nor what is shewn it by others. In our 
 times there are more perhaps who belong to the 
 third class from vanity and acquired frivolity of 
 mind, than from natural incapacity. It is no un- 
 common weakness with those who are honoured 
 
 * Sono di tre generazioni cervelli: I'uno intende per se ; 
 I'altro intende quanto da altri gli e mostro ; e il terzo non 
 intende nt per se stesso ne per dimostrazione di altri. 
 
 II Principe, c. xxii. 
 
214 SPECULATIVE PRINCIPLES 
 
 with the acquaintance of the great, to attribute 
 national events to particular persons, particular 
 measures, to the errors of one man, to the intrigues 
 of another, to any possible spark of a particular 
 occasion, rather than to the true proximate cause, 
 (and which alone deserves the name of a cause) 
 the predominant state of public opinion. And still 
 less are they inclined to refer the latter to the 
 ascendancy of speculative principles, and the 
 scheme or mode of thinking- in vog'ue. I have 
 known men, who with significant nods and the 
 pitying contempt of smiles have denied all influ- 
 ence to the corruptions of moral and political 
 philosophy, and with much solemnity have pro- 
 ceeded to solve the riddle of the French Revolution 
 by Anecdotes ! Yet it would not be difficult, by 
 an unbroken chain of historic facts, to demonstrate 
 that the most important changes in the commercial 
 relations of the world had their origin in the closets 
 or lonely walks of uninterested theorists ; — that 
 the mighty epochs of commerce, that have changed 
 the face of empires ; nay, the most important of 
 those discoveries and improvements in the me- 
 chanic arts, which have numerically increased our 
 population beyond what the wisest statesmen of 
 Elizabeth's reign deemed possible, and again 
 doubled this population virtually; the most im- 
 portant, I say, of those inventions that in then- 
 results 
 
 best uphold 
 
 War by her two main nerves, iron and gold- 
 
CAUSES OF REVOLUTIONS IN SOCIETY. 215 
 
 had their origin not in the cabinets of statesmen, 
 or in the practical insight of men of business, but 
 in the visions of recluse genius. To the immense 
 majority of men, even in civilized countries, spe- 
 culative philosophy has ever been, and must ever 
 remain, a terra incognita. Yet it is not the less 
 true, that all the epoch-forming revolutions of the 
 Christian world, the revolutions of religion and 
 with them the civil, social, and domestic habits of 
 the nations concerned, have coincided with the 
 rise and fall of metaphvsical systems.* So few 
 are the minds that really govern the machine of 
 society, and so incomparably more numerous and 
 more important are the indirect consequences of 
 things than their foreseen and direct effects. 
 
 It is with nations as with individuals. In tran- 
 quil moods and peaceable times we are quite prac- 
 tical. Facts only and cool common sense are then 
 in fashion. But let the winds of passion swell, 
 and straitway men begin to generalize ; to connect 
 by remotest analogies ; to express the most uni- 
 versal positions of reason in the most glowing 
 figures of fancy ; in short, to feel particular truths 
 and mere facts, as poor, cold, narrow, and incom- 
 mensurate with their feelings. 
 
 With his wonted fidelity to nature, our own great 
 poet has placed the greater number of his pro- 
 
 * This thought might also be applied to, and exemplified 
 by, the successive epochs in the history of the Fine Arts 
 from the tenth century. 1827. 
 
216 AFFINITY OF ABSTRACT NOTIONS 
 
 foundest maxims and general truths, both political 
 and moral, not in the mouths of men at ease, but 
 of men under the influence of passion, when the 
 mighty thoughts overmaster and become the ty- 
 rants of the mind that has brought them forth. 
 In his Lear, Othello, Macbeth, Hamlet, principles 
 of deepest insight and widest interest fly off like 
 sparks from the glowing iron under the loud forge- 
 hammer.* 
 
 * It seems a paradox only to the unthinking, and it is a 
 fact that none, but the unread in history, will deny, that in 
 periods of popular tumult and innovation the more abstract 
 a notion is, the more readily has it been found to combine, 
 the closer has appeared its affinity, with the feelings of a 
 people and with all their immediate impulses to action. At 
 the commencement of the French Revolution, in the re- 
 motest villages every tongue was employed in echoing and 
 enforcing the almost geometrical abstractions of the phy- 
 siocratic politicians and economists. The public roads were 
 crowded with armed enthusiasts disputing on the inalienable 
 sovereignty of the people, the imprescriptible laws of the 
 pure reason, and the universal constitution, which, as rising 
 out of the nature and rights of man as man, all nations alike 
 were under the obligation of adopting. Turn over the fu- 
 gitive writings, that are still extant, of the age of Luther ; 
 peruse the pamphlets and loose sheets that came out in 
 flights during the reign of Charles I. and the Republic ; and 
 you will find in these one continued comment on the apho- 
 rism of Lord Bacon (a man assuredly sufficiently acquainted 
 with the extent of secret and personal influence), that the 
 knowledge of the speculative principles of men in general 
 between the age of twenty and thirty is the one great source 
 of political prophecy. And Sir Philip Sidney regarded the 
 adoption of one set of principles in the Netherlands, as a 
 proof of the divine agency and the fountain of all the events 
 and successes of that Revolution. 
 
WITH PASSION. 217 
 
 A calm and detailed examination of the facts 
 justifies me to my own mind in hazarding the bold 
 assertion, that the fearful blunders of the late dread 
 Revolution, and all the calamitous mistakes of its 
 opponents from its commencement even to the aera 
 of loftier principles and wiser measures (an aera, 
 that began with, and ought to be named from, the 
 war of the Spanish and Portuguese insurgents) 
 every failure with all its gloomy results may be 
 unanswerably deduced from the neglect of some 
 maxim or other that had been established by clear 
 reasoning and plain facts in the writings of Thu- 
 cydides, Tacitus, Machiavel, Bacon, or Harrington. 
 These are red-letter names even in the almanacks 
 of worldly wisdom : and yet I dare challenge all 
 the critical benches of infidelity to point out any 
 one important truth, any one efficient practical di- 
 rection or warning, which did not pre-exist, (and 
 for the most part in a sounder, more intelligible, 
 and more comprehensive form) in the Bible. 
 
 In addition to this, the Hebrew legislator, and 
 the other inspired poets, prophets, historians and 
 moralists of the Jewish Church have two peculiar 
 advantages in their favor. First, their particular 
 rules and prescripts flow directly and visibly from 
 universal principles, as from a fountain : they flow 
 from principles and ideas that are not so properly 
 said to be confirmed by reason as to be reason 
 itself. Principles in act and procession, disjoined 
 from which, and from the emotions that inevitably 
 accompany the actual intuition of their truth, the 
 
218 FAITH IN THE REASON AND CONSCIENCE 
 
 widest maxims of prudence are like arms without 
 hearts, muscles without nerves. Secondly, from 
 the very nature of these principles, as taught in 
 the Bible, they are understood in exact proportion 
 as they are believed and felt. The regulator is 
 never separated from the main spring. For the 
 words of the Apostle are literally and philosophi- 
 cally true : We (that is, the human race) live by 
 faith. Whatever we do or know that in kind is 
 different from the brute creation, has its origin in 
 a determination of the reason to have faith and 
 trust in itself. This, its first act of faith, is scarcely 
 less than identical with its own being. Implicite, 
 it is the copula — it contains the possibility — of 
 every position, to which there exists any corres- 
 pondence in reality.* It is itself, therefore, the 
 realizing principle, the spiritual substratum of the 
 whole complex body of truths. This primal act of 
 faith is enunciated in the word, God : a faith not 
 derived from, but itself the ground and source of, 
 experience, and without which the fleeting chaos 
 of facts would no more form experience, than the 
 dust of the grave can of itself make a living man. 
 The imperative and oracular form of the inspired 
 
 * I mean that, but for the confidence which we place in 
 the assertions of" our reason and conscience, we could have 
 no certainty of the reality and actual outness of the material 
 world. It might be affirmed that in what we call • sleep ' 
 every one has a dream of his own ; and that in what we call 
 ' awake,' whole communities dream nearly alike. It is !— 
 is a sense of reason : the senses can only say — It seems ! 
 1827. 
 
THE DISTINCTION OF MAN 219 
 
 Scripture is the form of reason itself in all things 
 purely rational and moral. 
 
 If Scripture be the word of Divine Wisdom, we 
 might anticipate that it would in all things be dis- 
 tinguished from other books, as the Supreme Rea- 
 son, whose knowledge is creative, and antecedent 
 to the things known, is distinguished from the un- 
 derstanding, or creaturely mind of the individual, 
 the acts of which are posterior to the things which 
 it records and arranges. Man alone was created 
 in the image of God : a position groundless and 
 inexplicable, if the reason in man do not differ from 
 the understanding. For this the inferior animals 
 (many at least) possess in degree : and assuredly 
 the divine image or idea is not a thing of degrees. 
 
 Hence it follows that what is expressed in the 
 Scriptures is implied in all absolute science. The 
 latter whispers what the former utter as with the 
 voice of a trumpet. As sure as God liveth, is the 
 pledge and assurance of every positive truth, that 
 is asserted by the reason. The human under- 
 standing musing on many things snatches at truth, 
 but is frustrated and disheartened by the fluctuating 
 nature of its objects ; * its conclusions therefore 
 
 * ITora/t( t <j yap ovk Icstiv sj^(3fjvai Sig rat avrip KaZr' 
 'HpuKXstrov, ovre Svrjrfjg ovaiag dig cixpacBai Kara l%,iv' 
 dXXd ot,i)T r (]Ti fc«i Tttyju fiSTafioXijg (jKiSvrjfft, icai TrdXw 
 rrvvdyei, paXXov ds ovSk ttoXiv ovck vcrrepop aXX' dfia 
 (rvviarciTai icai airoXuTru, icai irpocreim icai aTrsicrr oSev 
 ovc' tig to elvcti Trepaivu ro yiyvofitvov ctvrrjg rip /.ojcj- 
 Trore Xijytiv, fir)<)' 'lOTaoSrai rf\v yevsaii>, k. r. X. 
 
 Plutakch's De EI. apud DelpJios c. xviii. 
 
220 THE BIBLE A SOURCE OF ACTION. 
 
 are timid and uncertain, and it hath no way of 
 giving- permanence to things but by reducing- them 
 to abstractions. Hardly do we guess aright at 
 things that are upon earth, and with labour do we 
 find the things that are before us ; but all certain 
 knowledge is in the power of God, and a presence 
 from above. So only have the ways of men been 
 reformed, and every doctrine that contains a saving 
 truth, and all acts pleasing to God (in other words, 
 all actions consonant with human nature, in its 
 original intention) are through wisdom ; that is, 
 the rational spirit of man. 
 
 This then is the prerogative of the Bible ; this 
 is the privilege of its believing students. With 
 them the principle of knowledge is likewise a spring 
 and principle of action. And as it is the only 
 certain knowledge, so are the actions that flow 
 from it the only ones on which a secure reliance 
 can be placed. The understanding may suggest 
 motives, may avail itself of motives, and make 
 judicious conjectures respecting the probable con- 
 sequences of actions. But the knowledge taught 
 in the Scriptures produces the motives, involves 
 the consequences ; and its highest/orraw/a is still : 
 As sure as God liveth, so will it be unto thee ! 
 Strange as this position will appear to such as 
 fonret that motives can be causes onlv in a se- 
 condary and improper sense, inasmuch as the man 
 makes the motive, not the motives the man ; yet 
 all history bears evidence to its truth. The sense 
 of expediency, the cautious balancing of compa- 
 
GENESIS OF THE ENGLISH CONSTITUTION. 221 
 
 rative advantages, the constant wakefulness to the 
 Cui bono? — in connection with the Quidmihi? — 
 all these are in their places in the routine of con- 
 duct, by which the individual provides for himself 
 the real or supposed wants of to-day and to-morrow : 
 and in quiet times and prosperous circumstances a 
 nation presents an aggregate of such individuals, 
 a busy ant-hill in calm and sunshine. By the 
 happy organization of a well-governed society the 
 contradictory interests of ten millions of such in- 
 dividuals may neutralize each other, and be recon- 
 ciled in the unity of the national interest. But 
 whence did this happy organization first come ? 
 Was it a tree transplanted from Paradise, with all 
 its branches in full fruitage ? Or was it sowed in 
 sunshine ? Was it in vernal breezes and Q-entle 
 rains that it fixed its roots, and grew and strength- 
 ened? Let history answer these questions. With 
 blood was it planted ; it was rocked in tempests ; 
 the goat, the ass, and the stag gnawed it; the wild 
 boar has whetted his tusks on its bark. The deep 
 scars are still extant on its trunk, and the path of 
 the lightning may be traced among its higher 
 branches. And even after its full growth, in the 
 season of its strength, when its height reached to 
 the heaven, and the sight thereof to all the earth, 
 the whirlwind has more than once forced its stately 
 top to touch the ground : it has been bent like a 
 bow, and sprang back like a shaft. Mightier 
 powers were at work than expediency ever yet 
 called up; yea, mightier than the mere under 
 
222 HUME S HISTORY. 
 
 standing* can comprehend. One confirmation of 
 the latter assertion you may find in the history of 
 our country, written by the same Scotch philoso- 
 pher who devoted his life to the undermining of 
 the Christian religion ; and expended his last 
 breath in a blasphemous regret that he had not 
 survived it; — by the same heartless sophist who, 
 in this island, was the main pioneer of that atheistic- 
 philosophy, which in France transvenomed the 
 natural thirst of truth into the hydrophobia of a 
 wild and homeless scepticism; 'the Elias of that 
 Spirit of Anti-christ, which 
 
 still promising- 
 
 Freedom, itself too sensual to be free, 
 Poisons life's amities and cheats the soul 
 Of faith, and quiet hope and all that lifts 
 And all that soothes the spirit !* 
 
 This inadequacy of the mere understanding to 
 the apprehension of moral greatness we may trace 
 in this historian's cool systematic attempt to steal 
 away every feeling of reverence for every great 
 name by a scheme of motives, in which as often 
 as possible the efforts and enterprises of heroic 
 spirits are attributed to this or that paltry view of 
 the most despicable selfishness. But in the ma- 
 jority of instances this would have been too palpably 
 false and slanderous : and therefore the founders 
 and martyrs of our Church and Constitution, of 
 our civil and religious liberty, are represented as 
 fanatics and bewildered enthusiasts. But histories 
 
 * Poet. Works, I. p. 137.— Erf. 
 
ENTHUSIASM '. IDEAS ACTUATE PRINCIPLES. 223 
 
 incomparably more authentic than Mr. Hume's, 
 (nay, spite of himself even his own history,) con- 
 firm by irrefragable evidence the aphorism of an- 
 cient wisdom, that nothing- great was ever achieved 
 without enthusiasm. For what is enthusiasm but 
 the oblivion and s\vallowing-up of self in an object 
 dearer than self, or in an idea more vivid ? How 
 this is produced in the enthusiasm of wickedness, 
 I have explained in the second Comment annexed 
 to this Discourse. But in the genuine enthusiasm 
 of morals, religion, and patriotism, this enlarge- 
 ment and elevation of the soul above its mere self 
 attest the presence, and accompany the intuition, 
 of ultimate principles alone. These alone can in- 
 terest the undegraded human spirit deeply and 
 enduringly, because these alone belong to its es- 
 sence, and will remain with it permanently. 
 
 Notions, the depthless abstractions of fleeting 
 phenomena, the shadows of sailing vapors, the 
 colorless repetitions of rainbows, have effected 
 their utmost when they have added to the distinct- 
 ness of our knowledge. For this very cause they 
 are of themselves adverse to lofty emotion, and it 
 requires the influence of a light and warmth, not 
 their own, to make them crystallize into a sem- 
 blance of growth. But every principle is actualized 
 by an idea ; and every idea is living, productive, 
 partaketh of infinity, and (as Bacon has sublimely 
 observed) containeth an endless power of semina- 
 tion. Hence it is, that science, which consists 
 wholly in ideas and principles, is power. Scientia 
 et potentia (saith the same philosopher) in idem 
 
224 IDEAS UNIVERSAL AND NATIVE TO MAN. 
 
 coincidunt. Hence too it is, that notions, linked 
 arguments, reference to particular facts and cal- 
 culations of prudence, influence only the compara- 
 tively few, the men of leisurely minds who have 
 been trained up to them : and even these few they 
 influence but faintly. But for the reverse, I appeal 
 to the general character of the doctrines which 
 have collected the most numerous sects, and acted 
 upon the moral being- of the converts with a force 
 that might well seem supernatural. The great 
 principles of our religion, the sublime ideas spoken 
 out everywhere in the Old and New Testament, 
 resemble the fixed stars, which appear of the same 
 size to the naked as to the armed eye ; the mag- 
 nitude of which the telescope may rather seem to 
 diminish than to increase. At the annunciation 
 of principles, of ideas, the soul of man awakes and 
 starts up, as an exile in a far distant land at the 
 unexpected sounds of his native language, when 
 after long years of absence, and almost of oblivion, 
 he is suddenly addressed in his own mother-tongue. 
 He weeps for joy, and embraces the speaker as his 
 brother. How else can we explain the fact so 
 honorable to Great Britain, that the poorest* 
 amongst us will contend with as much enthusiasm 
 as the richest for the rights of property ? These 
 
 * The reader will remember the anecdote told with so 
 much humour in Goldsmith's Essay. But this is not the 
 first instance where the mind in its hour of meditation finds 
 matter of admiration and elevating thought in circumstances 
 that in a different mood had excited its mirth. 
 
TRUTHS OF SCRIPTURE EVER NEW. 225 
 
 rights are the spheres and necessary conditions of 
 free agency. But free agency contains the idea of 
 the free will ; and in this he intuitively knows the 
 sublimity, and the infinite hopes, fears, and capa- 
 bilities of his own nature. On what other ground 
 but the cognateness of ideas and principles to man 
 as man does the nameless soldier rush to the 
 combat in defence of the liberties or the honor of 
 his country ? — Even men woefully neglectful of 
 the precepts of religion will shed their blood for 
 its truth. 
 
 Alas ! — the main hindrance to the use of the 
 Scriptures, as your manual, lies in the notion that 
 you are already acquainted with its contents. 
 Something new must be presented to you, wholly 
 new and wholly out of yourselves ; for whatever is 
 within us must be as old as the first dawn of human 
 reason. Truths of all others the most awful and 
 mysterious and at the same time of universal in- 
 terest are considered so true as to lose all the 
 powers of truth, and lie bed-ridden in the dormitory 
 of the soul, side by side with the most despised 
 and exploded errors. But it should not be so with 
 you ! The pride of education, the sense of con- 
 sistency should preclude the objection : for would 
 you not be ashamed to apply it to the works of 
 Tacitus, or of Shakspeare ? Above all, the rank 
 which you hold, the influence you possess, the 
 powers you may be called to wield, give a special 
 unfitness to this frivolous craving for novelty. 
 To find no contradiction in the union of old and 
 
 Q 
 
226 TRUTHS OF SCRIPTURE 
 
 new, to contemplate the Ancient of days, his words 
 and his works, with a feeling as fresh as if they 
 were now first springing forth at his fiat — this 
 characterizes the minds that feel the riddle of the 
 world and may help to unravel it. This, most of 
 all things, will raise you above the mass of man- 
 kind, and therefore will best entitle and qualify 
 you to guide and control them. You say, you are 
 already familiar with the Scriptures. With the 
 words, perhaps, but in any other sense you might 
 as wisely boast of your familiar acquaintance with 
 the rays of the sun, and under that pretence turn 
 away your eyes from the light of heaven. 
 
 Or would you wish for authorities, for great 
 examples ? You may find them in the writings of 
 Thuanus, of Clarendon, of More, of Raleigh ; and 
 in the life and letters of the heroic Gustavus Adol- 
 phus. But these, though eminent statesmen, were 
 Christians, and might lie under the thraldom of 
 habit and prejudice. I will refer you then to au- 
 thorities of two great men, both pagans ; but re- 
 moved from each other by many centuries, and not 
 more distant in their ages than in their characters 
 and situations. The first shall be that of Hera- 
 clitus, the sad and recluse philosopher. UoXv/j.adir] 
 voov ov cthaerKEL' JjlfivWa <)e ^uau'o/xeVw orofxaTi 
 ayeXaara k - cu aKaXXwrriffra Ka\ itfxvpicrra (pOeyyo- 
 fiivr) yiXlwv krCov eZucveirai tij (j)U)vr} cm rbv 0edV.* 
 
 * Multiscieuce (or a variety and quantity of acquired 
 knowledge) does not teach intelligence. But the Sibyll 
 
KEY TO KNOWLEDGE OF THE WORLD. 227 
 
 Shall we hesitate to apply to the prophets of God, 
 what could be affirmed of the Sibyls by a philoso- 
 pher whom Socrates, the prince of philosophers, 
 venerated for the profundity of his wisdom ? 
 
 For the other, I will refer you to the darling 
 of the polished court of Augustus, to the man 
 whose works have been in all ages deemed the 
 models of good sense, and are still the pocket 
 companions of those who pride themselves on 
 uniting the scholar with the gentleman. This 
 accomplished man of the world has given an ac- 
 count of the subjects of conversation between the 
 illustrious statesmen who governed, and the bright- 
 est luminaries who then adorned, the empire of 
 the civilized world : 
 
 Sermo oritur non de villis domibusie alienis 
 Nee, male nee ne Lepos saltet. Sed quod magis ad nos 
 Pertinei, et nescire malum est, agitamus : utrumne 
 Divitiis homines, an sint virtute beati ; 
 Et quod sit natura boni, summumque quid ejus* 
 
 with wild enthusiastic mouth shrilling forth unmirthful, 
 nornate, and unperfumed truths, reaches to a thousand years, 
 with her voice through the power of God. 
 
 Not her's 
 
 To win the sense by words of rhetoric, 
 Lip-blossoms breathing perishable sweets ; 
 But by the power of the informing Word 
 Roll sounding onward through a thousand years 
 Her deep prophetic bodements. 
 
 Lit. Rem. III. p. 419.— Ed, 
 
 Hor. Serm. II. t. 6. 71, &c. 
 
228 TRUTHS OF SCRIPTURE 
 
 Berkeley indeed asserts, and is supported in his 
 assertion by the great statesmen, Lord Bacon and 
 Sir Walter Raleigh, that without an habitual in- 
 terest in these subjects a man may be a dexterous 
 intriguer, but never can be a statesman. 
 
 But do you require some one or more particular 
 passage from the Bible, that may at once illustrate 
 and exemplify its applicability to the changes and 
 fortunes of empires ? Of the numerous chapters 
 that relate to the Jewish tribes, their enemies and 
 allies, before and after their division into two 
 kingdoms, it would be more difficult to state a 
 single one from which some guiding- light might 
 not be struck. And in nothing is Scriptural his- 
 tory more strongly contrasted with the histories of 
 highest note in the present age, than in its free- 
 dom from the hollowness of abstractions. While 
 the latter present a shadow-fight of things and 
 quantities, the former gives us the history of men, 
 and balances the important influence of individual 
 minds with the previous state of the national 
 morals and manners, in which, as constituting a 
 specific susceptibility, it presents to us the true 
 cause both of the influence itself, and of the weal 
 or woe that were its consequents. How should it 
 be otherwise ? The histories and political economy 
 of the present and preceding century partake in 
 the general contagion of its mechanic philosophy, 
 and are the product of an unenlivened generalizing 
 understanding. In the Scriptures they are the 
 living educts of the imagination ; of that recon- 
 
KEY TO KNOWLEDGE OF THE WORLD. 229 
 
 ciling* and mediatory power, which incorporating 
 the reason in images of the sense, and organizing 
 (as it were) the flux of the senses by the perma- 
 nence and self-circling energies of the reason, 
 gives birth to a system of symbols, harmonious in 
 themselves, and consubstantial with the truths of 
 which they are the conductors. These are the 
 wheels which Ezekiel beheld, when the hand of 
 the Lord was upon him, and he saw visions of 
 God as he sate among the captives by the river of 
 Chebar. Whithersoever the Spirit was to go, the 
 wheels went, and thither was their spirit to go: — 
 for the spirit of the living creature was in the 
 wheels also* The truths and the symbols that 
 represent them move in conjunction and form the 
 living chariot that bears up (for us) the throne of 
 the Divine Humanity. Hence, by a derivative, 
 indeed, but not a divided, influence, and though 
 in a secondary yet in more than a metaphorical 
 sense, the Sacred Book is worthily entitled the 
 Word of God. Hence too, its contents present 
 to us the stream of time continuous as life and a 
 symbol of eternity, inasmuch as the past and the 
 future are virtually contained in the present. 
 According therefore to our relative position on the 
 banks of this stream the Sacred History becomes 
 prophetic, the Sacred Prophecies historical, while 
 the power and substance of both inhere in its laws, 
 its promises, and its comminations. In the Scrip- 
 
 * Ezeh. i. 20. 
 
230 SYMBOLS CHARACTERIZED. 
 
 tures therefore both facts and persons must of 
 necessity have a two-fold significance, a past and 
 a future, a temporary and a perpetual, a particular 
 and a universal application. They must be at once 
 portraits and ideals. 
 
 Eheu ! paupertina philosophic* in pauper tinam 
 religionem ducit : — A hunger-bitten and idea-less 
 philosophy naturally produces a starveling and 
 comfortless religion. It is among the miseries of 
 the present age that it recognizes no medium be- 
 tween literal and metaphorical. Faith is either to 
 he buried in the dead letter, or its name and 
 honors usurped by a counterfeit product of the 
 mechanical understanding, which in the blindness 
 of self-complacency confounds symbols with alle- 
 gories. Now an allegory is but a translation of 
 abstract notions into a picture-language, which is 
 itself nothing but an abstraction from objects of 
 the senses ; the principal being more worthless 
 even than its phantom proxy, both alike unsub- 
 stantial, and the former shapeless to boot. On the 
 other hand a symbol (6 tariv aet ravrrjyopiKoi') is 
 characterized by a translucence of the special in 
 the individual, or of the general in the special, or 
 of the universal in the general ; above all by the 
 translucence of the eternal through and in the 
 temporal. It always partakes of the reality which 
 it renders intelligible ; and while it enunciates the 
 whole, abides itself as a living part in that unity 
 of which it is the representative. The other are 
 but empty echoes which the fancy arbitrarily asso- 
 
PECULIAR TEACHING OF THE BIBLE. 231 
 
 ciates with apparitions of matter, less beautiful but 
 not less shadowy than the sloping orchard or hill- 
 side pasture-field seen in the transparent lake 
 below. Alas, for the flocks that are to be led 
 forth to such pastures ! It shall even be as when 
 a hungry man dreameth, and behold, he eateth; 
 but he awaketh and his soul is empty : or as 
 when a thirsty man dreameth, and behold he 
 drinketh ; but he awaketh and behold, he is 
 faint !* O ! that we would seek for the bread 
 which was given from heaven, that we should eat 
 thereof and be strengthened ! O that we would 
 draw at the well at which the flocks of our fore- 
 fathers had living water drawn for them, even 
 that water which, instead of mocking the thirst 
 of him to whom it is given, becomes a well within 
 himself springing up to life everlasting ! 
 
 When we reflect how large a part of our present 
 knowledge and civilization is owing, directly or 
 indirectly, to the Bible ; when we are compelled 
 to admit, as a fact of history, that the Bible has 
 been the main lever by which the moral and intel- 
 lectual character of Europe has been raised to 
 its present comparative height ; we should be 
 struck, methinks, by the marked and prominent 
 difference of this book from the works which it is 
 now the fashion to quote as guides and authorities 
 in morals, politics, and history. I will point out 
 a few of the excellencies by which the one is dis- 
 
 * 1$. xxix. 8. — Ed. 
 
232 NECESSITY THREEFOLD. 
 
 tinguished, and shall leave it to your own judg- 
 ment and recollection to perceive and apply the 
 contrast to the productions of highest name in 
 these latter days. In the Bible every agent ap- 
 pears and acts as a self- subsisting individual ; 
 each has a life of its own, and yet all are one life. 
 The elements of necessity and free-will are recon- 
 ciled in the higher power of an omnipresent Pro- 
 vidence, that predestinates the whole in the moral 
 freedom of the integral parts. Of this the Bible 
 never suffers us to lose sisHrt. The root is never 
 detached from the ground. It is God everywhere : 
 and all creatures conform to his decrees, the righ- 
 teous by performance of the law, the disobedient 
 by the sufferance of the penalty. 
 
 Suffer me to inform or remind you, that there 
 is a threefold necessity. There is a logical, and 
 there is a mathematical necessity ; but the latter 
 is always hypothetical, and both subsist formally 
 only, not in any real object. Only by the intuition 
 and immediate spiritual consciousness of the idea 
 of God, as the One and Absolute, at once the 
 ground and the cause, who alone containeth in 
 himself the ground of his own nature, and therein 
 of all natures, do we arrive at the third, which 
 alone is a real objective, necessity. Here the im- 
 mediate consciousness decides : the idea is its own 
 evidence, and is insusceptible of all other. It is 
 necessarily groundless and indemonstrable ; be- 
 cause it is itself the ground of all possible demon- 
 stration. The reason hath faith in itself in its 
 
HEBREW AND GREEK IDEAS OF GOD. 233 
 
 own revelations. O \6yoc £<£>//. Ipse dixit. So 
 it is : for it is so. All the necessity of causal 
 relations (which the mere understanding reduces, 
 and must reduce to co-existence and regular suc- 
 cession* in the objects of which they are predicated, 
 and to habit and association in the mind predi- 
 cating) depends on, or rather inheres in, the 
 idea of the omnipresent and absolute : for this it 
 is, in which the possible is one and the same with 
 the real and the necessary. Herein the Bible 
 differs from all the books of Greek philosophy, 
 and in a two-fold manner. It doth not affirm a 
 divine nature only, but a God : and not a God 
 only, but the living God. Hence in the Scriptures 
 alone is the jus divinum, or direct relation of the 
 state and its magistracy to the Supreme Being, 
 taught as a vital and indispensable part of all 
 moral and of all political wisdom, even as the 
 Jewish alone was a true theocracy. 
 
 Were it my object to touch on the present state 
 of public affairs in this kingdom, or on the pro- 
 spective measures in agitation respecting our sister 
 island, I would direct your most serious medita- 
 tions to the latter period of the reign of Solomon, 
 and to the revolutions in the reign of Rehoboam, 
 his successor. But I should tread on glowing 
 embers. I will turn to a subject on which all 
 
 * See Hume's Essays. The sophist evades, as Cicero 
 long ago remarked, the better half of the predicament, 
 which is not prceire but efficienter praire. 
 
234 SOURCES OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION 
 
 men of reflection are at length in agreement — 
 the causes of the Revolution and fearful chastise- 
 ment of France. We have learned to trace them 
 back to the rising importance of the commercial 
 and manufacturing class, and its incompatibility 
 with the old feudal privileges and prescriptions ; 
 to the spirit of sensuality and ostentation, which 
 from the court had spread through all the towns 
 and cities of the kingdom ; to the predominance 
 of a presumptuous and irreligious philosophy ; to 
 the extreme over-rating of the knowledge and 
 power given by the improvements of the arts and 
 sciences, especially those of astronomy, mechanics, 
 and a wonder-working chemistry ; to an assump- 
 tion of prophetic power, and the general conceit 
 that states and governments might be and ought 
 to be constructed as machines, every movement 
 of which might be foreseen and taken into previous 
 calculation ; to the consequent multitude of plans 
 and constitutions, of planners and constitution- 
 makers, and the remorseless arrogance with which 
 the authors and proselytes of every new proposal 
 were ready to realize it, be the cost what it might 
 in the established rights, or even in the lives, of 
 men ; in short, to restlessness, presumption, sen- 
 sual indulgence, and the idolatrous reliance on 
 false philosophy in the whole domestic, social, and 
 political life of the stirring and effective part of 
 the community : these all acting, at once and to- 
 gether, on a mass of materials supplied by the 
 unfeeling extravagance and oppressions of the go- 
 
FORESHOWN IN ISAIAH. 235 
 
 vernment, which shewed no mercy, and very 
 heavily laid its yoke. 
 
 Turn then to the chapter from which the last 
 words were cited, and read the following- seven 
 verses ; and I am deceived if you will not be com- 
 pelled to admit that the Prophet revealed the true 
 philosophy of the French revolution more than two 
 thousand years before it became a sad irrevocable 
 truth of history. And thou saidst, I shall be a 
 lady for ever : so that thou didst not lay these 
 things to thy heart, neither didst remember the 
 latter end of it. Therefore, hear now this, thou 
 that art given to pleasures, that dwellest care- 
 lessly, that sayest in thine heart, I am, and none 
 else beside me ! I shall not sit as a widow, 
 neither shall I know the loss of children. But 
 these two things shall come to thee in a moment, 
 in one day ; the loss of children, and widowhood ; 
 they shall come upon thee in their perfection^ 
 for the multitude of thy sorceries, and for the 
 great abundance of thine enchantments. For 
 thou hast trusted in thy wickedness ; thou hast 
 said, none seeth<jne. Thy wisdom and thy know- 
 ledge, it hath perverted thee ; and thou hast said 
 in thine heart, I am, and none else beside me. 
 Therefore shall evil come upon thee, thou shalt 
 not knoiv* from ivhence it riseth : and mischief 
 
 * The reader will scarcely fail to find in this verse a 
 remembrancer of the sudden setting-in of the frost, a fort- 
 night oefore the usual time (in a country too, where the 
 
236 THIS SERMON, TO WHOM ADDRESSED. 
 
 shall fall upon thee, thou shalt not be able to 
 put it off; and desolation shall come upon thee 
 suddenly, which thou shalt not know. Stand 
 now with thine enchantments, and with the mul- 
 titude of thy sorceries, wherein thou hast laboured 
 from thy youth ; if so be thou shalt be able to 
 profit, if so be thou mayest prevail. Thou art 
 wearied in the multitude of thy cou?isels. Let 
 now the astrologers, the stargazers, the monthly 
 prognosticators stand up, and save thee from 
 these things that shall come upon thee. (Is. xlvii. 
 7, &c.) 
 
 There is a grace that would enable us to take 
 up vipers, and the evil, thing shall not hurt us : 
 a spiritual alchemy which can transmute poisons 
 into a panacea. We are counselled by our Lord 
 himself to make unto ourselves friends of the 
 Mammon of unrighteousness : and in this age of 
 sharp contrasts and grotesque combinations it 
 would be a wise method of sympathizing with the 
 
 commencement of its two seasons is in general scarcely less 
 regular than that of the wet and dry seasons between the 
 tropics) which caused, and the desolation which accom- 
 panied, the flight from Moscow. The Russians baffled the 
 physical forces of the imperial Jacobin, because they were 
 inaccessible to his imaginary forces. The faith in St. Ni- 
 cholas kept off at safe distance the more pernicious super- 
 stition of the destinies of Napoleon the Great. The English 
 in the Peninsula overcame the real, because they set at 
 defiance, and had heard only to despise, the imaginary 
 powers of the irresistible Emperor. Thank Heaven ! the 
 heart of the country was sound at the core. 
 
A READING PUBLIC. 237 
 
 tonfc and spirit of the times, if we elevated even 
 our daily newspapers and political journals into 
 comments on the Bible. 
 
 When I named this Essay a Sermon, I sought 
 to prepare the inquirers after it for the absence of 
 all the usual softening's suggested by worldly pru- 
 dence, of all compromise between truth and cour- 
 tesy. But not even as a sermon would I have 
 addressed the present discourse to a promiscuous 
 audience ; and for this reason I likewise announced 
 it in the title-page, as exclusively ad clerum ; that 
 is, (in the old and wide sense of the word) to men 
 of clerkly acquirements of whatever profession. I 
 would that the greater part of our publications 
 could be thus directed, each to its appropriate class 
 of readers. But this cannot be. For among other 
 odd burs and kecksies, the misgrowth of our lux- 
 uriant activity, we have now a Reading Public* — 
 
 * Some participle passive in the diminutive form, Erudi- 
 tulorutn Natio for instance, might seem at first sight a fuller 
 and more exact designation; but the superior force and 
 humor of the former become evident whenever the phrase 
 occurs as a step ok stair in a climax of irony. By way of 
 example take the following sentences, transcribed from a 
 work demonstrating that the New Testament was intended 
 exclusively for the primitive converts from Judaism, was 
 accommodated to their prejudices, and is of no authority, 
 as a rule of faith, for Christians in general. " The Read- 
 ing Public in this enlightened age and thinking nation, by 
 its favorable reception of liberal ideas, has long demon- 
 strated the benign influence of that profound philosophy 
 which has already emancipated us from so many absurd 
 prejudices held in superstitious awe by our deluded fore- 
 
238 PHILOSOPHIC POPULACE. 
 
 as strange a phrase, me thinks, as ever forced a 
 splenetic smile on the staid countenance of medi- 
 tation ; and yet no fiction. For our readers have, 
 in good truth, multiplied exceedingly, and have 
 waxed proud. It would require the intrepid accu- 
 racy of a Colquhoun to venture at the precise 
 number of that vast company only, whose heads 
 and hearts are dieted at the two public ordinaries 
 of literature, the circulating libraries and the peri- 
 odical press. But what is the result ? Does the 
 . k . 
 
 fathers. But the dark age yielded at length to the dawning 
 light of reason and common sense at the glorious, though 
 imperfect, Revolution. The People can be no longer duped 
 or scared out of their imprescriptible and inalienable right 
 to judge and decide for themselves on all important ques- 
 tions of government and religion. The scholastic jargon of 
 jarring articles and metaphysical creeds may continue for a 
 time to deform our Church-establishment ; and like the gro- 
 tesque figures in the niches of our old Gothic cathedrals, 
 may serve to remind the nation of its former barbarism ; 
 but the universal suffrage of a free and enlightened Public," 
 &c. &c. 
 
 Among the revolutions worthy of notice, the change in 
 the nature of the introductory sentences and prefatory 
 matter in serious books is not the least striking. The same 
 gross flattery which disgusts us in the dedications to indi- 
 viduals in the elder writers, is now transferred to the nation 
 at large, or the Reading Public : while the Jeremiads of 
 our old moralists, and their angry denunciations concerning 
 the ignorance, immorality, and irreligion of the People, ap- 
 pear (mutatis mutandis, and with an appeal to the worst 
 passions, envy, discontent, scorn, vindictiveness,) in the 
 shape of bitter libels on ministers, parliament, the clergy : 
 in short, on the State and Church, and all persons employed 
 in them. 
 
TWO ERRORS TO BE FEARED- 239 
 
 inward man thrive on this regimen ? Alas ! if the 
 average health of the consumers may he judged of 
 by the articles of largest consumption ; if the se- 
 cretions may be conjectured from the ingredients 
 of the dishes that are found best suited to their 
 palates ; from all that I have seen, either of the 
 banquet or the guests, I shall utter my profaccia 
 with a desponding sigh. From a popular philo- 
 sophy and a philosophic populace, Good Sense 
 deliver us ! 
 
 At present, however, I am to imagine for myself 
 a very different audience. I appeal exclusively to 
 men, from whose station and opportunities I may 
 dare to anticipate a respectable portion of that sound 
 book-learnedness, into which our old public schools 
 still continue to initiate their pupils. I appeal to 
 men in whom I may hope to find, if not philosophy, 
 yet occasional impulses at least to philosophic 
 thought. And here, as far as my own experience 
 extends, I can announce one favourable symptom. 
 The notion of our measureless superiority in good 
 sense to our ancestors, so general at the com- 
 mencement of the French Revolution, and for 
 some years before it, is out of fashion. We hear, 
 at least, less of the J argon of this enlightened age. 
 After fatiguing itself, as performer or spectator in 
 the giddy figure- dance of political changes, Europe 
 has seen the shallow foundations of its self-com- 
 placent faith give way ; and among men of influ- 
 ence and property, we have now more reason to 
 apprehend the stupor of despondence, than the 
 
240 NATIONAL EDUCATION. 
 
 extravagancies of hope, unsustained by experience, 
 or of self-confidence not bottomed on principle. 
 
 In this rank of life the danger lies, not in any 
 tendency to innovation, but in the choice of the 
 means for preventing it. And here my apprehen- 
 sions point to two opposite errors ; each of which 
 deserves a separate notice. The first consists in 
 a disposition to think, that as the peace of nations 
 has been disturbed by the diffusion of a false light, 
 it may be re-established by excluding the people 
 from all knowledge and all prospect of ameliora- 
 tion. O ! never, never ! Reflection and stirrings 
 of mind, with all their restlessness, and all the 
 errors that result from their imperfection, from the 
 Too much, because Too little, are come into the 
 world. The powers that awaken and foster the 
 spirit of curiosity are to be found in every village : 
 books are in every hovel. The infant's cries are 
 hushed with picture-books : and the cottager's 
 child sheds his first bitter tears over pages, which 
 render it impossible for the man to be treated or 
 governed as a child. Here as in so many other 
 cases, the inconveniences that have arisen from a 
 thing's having become too general are best removed 
 by making it universal. 
 
 The other and contrary mistake proceeds from 
 the assumption, that a national education will have 
 been realized whenever the people at large have 
 been taught to read and write. Now among the 
 many means to the desired end, this is doubtless 
 one, and not the least important. But neither is 
 
BELL AND LANCASTER. 241 
 
 it the most so. Much less can it be considered 
 to constitute education, which consists in educing" 
 the faculties and forming" the habits ; the means 
 varying according to the sphere in which the indi- 
 viduals to be educated are likely to act and become 
 useful. I do not hesitate to declare, that whether 
 I consider the nature of the discipline adopted,* 
 or the plan of poisoning the children of the poor 
 with a sort of potential infidelity under the " libe- 
 ral idea" of teaching- those points only of religious 
 faith, in which all denominations agree, I cannot 
 but denounce the so called Lancasterian schools 
 as pernicious beyond all power of compensation 
 by the new acquirement of reading and writing. 
 But take even Dr. Bell's original and unsophisti- 
 cated plan, which I myself regard as an especial 
 gift of Providence to the human race ; and suppose 
 this incomparable machine, this vast moral steam- 
 engine, to have been adopted and in free motion 
 throughout the Empire ; it would yet appear to me 
 a most dangerous delusion to rely on it as if this 
 of itself formed an efficient national education. 
 We cannot, I repeat, honor the scheme too highly 
 
 * See Mr. Southey's Tract on the New or Madras sys- 
 tem of education : especially toward the conclusion, where 
 with exquisite humour as well as with his usual poignancy 
 of wit he has detailed Joseph Lancaster's disciplinarian 
 inventions. But even in the schools, that used to be called 
 Lancasterian, these are, I believe, discontinued. The true 
 perfection of discipline in a school is — the maximum of 
 watchfulness with the minimum of punishment. 
 
 R 
 
242 FEARS AS TO EDUCATION. 
 
 as a prominent and necessary part of the great 
 process ; but it will neither supersede nor can it 
 be substituted for sundry other measures, that are 
 at least equally important. And these are such 
 measures, too, as unfortunately involve the necessity 
 of sacrifices on the side of the rich and powerful 
 more costly and far more difficult than the yearly 
 subscription of a few pounds ; — such measures as 
 demand more self-denial than the expenditure of 
 time in a committee or of eloquence in a public 
 meeting-. 
 
 Nay, let Dr. Bell's philanthropic end have been 
 realized, and the proposed modicum of learning 
 have become universal ; yet convinced of its in- 
 sufficiency to stem the strong- currents set in from 
 an opposite point, I dare not assure myself that it 
 may not be driven backward by them and become 
 confluent with the evils which it was intended to 
 preclude.* 
 
 What other measures I had in contemplation, it 
 has been my endeavour to explain elsewhere. 
 But I am greatly deceived, if one preliminary to 
 an efficient education of the laboring classes be 
 not the recurrence to a more manly discipline of 
 the intellect on the part of the learned themselves, 
 in short a thorough re-casting of the moulds, in 
 
 * See the Report of the House of Commons' Committee 
 on the increase of crime ; — within the last twenty years 
 quintupled over all England, and in several counties de- 
 cupled. 28th September, 1828. 
 
DISCIPLINE OF THE HIGHER CLASSES. 243 
 
 which the minds of our gentry, the characters of 
 our future land-owners, magistrates and senators, 
 are to receive their shape and fashion. O what 
 treasures of practical wisdom would be once more 
 brought into open day by the solution of this 
 problem ! Suffice it for the present to hint the 
 master-thought. The first man, on whom the light 
 of an idea dawned, did in that same moment re- 
 ceive the spirit and credentials of a law-giver : 
 and as long as man shall exist, so long will the 
 possession of that antecedent knowledge (the maker 
 and master of all profitable experience) which ex- 
 ists only in the power of an idea, be the one lawful 
 qualification of all dominion in the world of the 
 senses. Without this, experience itself is but a 
 Cyclops walking backwards under the fascination 
 of the past : and we are indebted to a lucky coin- 
 cidence of outward circumstances and contingen- 
 cies, least of all things to be calculated on in times 
 like the present, if this one-eyed experience does 
 not seduce its worshipper into practical anachro- 
 nisms. 
 
 But alas ! the halls of old philosophy have been 
 so long deserted, that we circle them at shy dis- 
 tance as the haunt of phantoms and chimaeras.* 
 The sacred grove of Academus is holden in like 
 regard with the unfoodful trees in the shadowy 
 world of Maro that had a dream attached to every 
 leaf. The very terms of ancient wisdom are worn 
 
 * SeeApp. (E). Ed. 
 
244 TWO STATES OF MIND 
 
 out, or (far worse !) stamped on baser metal : and 
 whoever should have the hardihood to reproclaim 
 its solemn truths must commence with a glossary. 
 In reviewing the foregoing pages, I am appre- 
 hensive that they may be thought to resemble the 
 overflow of an earnest mind rather than an orderly 
 premeditated composition. Yet this imperfection 
 of form will not be altogether uncompensated, if it 
 should be the means of presenting with greater 
 liveliness the feelings and impressions under which 
 they were written. Still less shall I regret this 
 defect if it should induce some future traveller en- 
 gaged in the like journey to take the same station 
 and to look through the same medium at the one 
 main object which amid all my discissions I have 
 still kept in view. The more, however, doth it 
 behove me not to conclude this address without 
 attempting to recapitulate in as few and as plain 
 words as possible the sum and substance of its 
 contents. 
 
 There is a state of mind indispensable for all 
 perusal of the Scriptures to edification, which must 
 be learned by experience, and can be described 
 only by negatives. It is the direct opposite of 
 that which, if a moral passage of Scripture were 
 cited, would prompt a man to reply, " Who does 
 not know this ?" But if the quotation should have 
 been made in support of some article of faith, this 
 same habit of mind will betray itself in different 
 individuals, by apparent contraries, which yet are 
 but the two poles, or plus and minus states, of the 
 
INDISPOSING FOR RECEPTION OF TRUTH. 245 
 
 same influence. The latter, or the negative, pole 
 may be suspected, as often as you hear a comment 
 on some high and doctrinal text introduced with the 
 words, " It only means so and so ! " For instance, 
 I object to a professed free-thinking Christian the 
 following solemn enunciation of the riches of the 
 glory of the mystery hid from ages and from 
 generations by the philosophic Apostle of the 
 Gentiles : — Who (namely, the Father) hath de- 
 livered us from the power of darkness and hath 
 translated us into the kingdom of his dear Son : 
 In whom we have redemption through his blood, 
 even the forgiveness of sins : Who is the image 
 of the invisible God, the first born* of every 
 creature : For by him were all things created, 
 that are in heaven, and that are in earth, visible 
 and invisible, whether they be thrones, or domi- 
 nions, or principalities, or powers : all things 
 were created by him, and for him: And he is 
 before all things, and by him all things consist. 
 And he is the head of the body, the Church : 
 who is the beginning, the firstborn from the dead ; 
 that in all things he might have the preeminence. 
 For it pleased the Father that in him should all 
 fulness dwell : And, having made peace through 
 the blood of his cross, by him to reconcile all 
 things unto himself; by him, I say, whether 
 
 * A mistaken translation. The words should be : Be- 
 gotten before any kind of creation ; and even this does not 
 convey the full sense of the superlative, tcqiototokoi;. (See 
 Table Talk, p. 260. 2nd edit. Ed.) 
 
216 SCEPTICISM AND SUPERSTITION. 
 
 they be things in earth, or things in heaven. CoL 
 i. 13, &c. What is the reply ? — Why, that by 
 these words (very bold and figurative words it must 
 be confessed, yet still) St. Paul only meant that 
 the universal and eternal truths of morality and a 
 future state had been reproclaimed by an inspired 
 teacher and confirmed by miracles !* The words 
 only mean, Sir, that a state of retribution after 
 this life had been proved by the fact of Christ's 
 resurrection — that is all ! 
 
 Of the positive pole, on the other hand, language 
 to the following purport is the usual exponent. 
 " It is a mystery: and we are bound to believe 
 the words without presuming to inquire into the 
 meaning of them." That is, we believe in St. 
 Paul's veracity ; and that is enough. Yet St. 
 Paul repeatedly presses on his hearers that thought- 
 ful perusal of the Sacred Writings, and those habits 
 of earnest though humble inquiry which, if the 
 heart only have been previously regenerated, would 
 lead them to a full assurance of understanding 
 elg k-xiyvwaiv, (to an entire assent of the mind ; 
 
 * But. I shall scarcely obtain an answer to certain difficul- 
 ties involved in this free and liberal interpretation : for ex- 
 ample, that with the exception of a handful of rich men con- 
 sidered as little better than infidels, the Jews were as fully 
 persuaded of these truths as Christians in general are at the 
 present day. Moreover that this inspired teacher had him- 
 self declared that if the Jews did not believe on the evidence 
 of Moses and the Prophets, neither would they though a man 
 should rise from the dead. 
 
st. paul's exhortation to inquiry. 247 
 
 to a spiritual intuition, or positive inward know- 
 ledge by experience) of the mystery of God, and 
 of the Father, and of Christ, in which (nempe, 
 (xv(TT7}pio)) are hid all the treasures of wisdom and 
 knowledge. Col. ii. 2, 3. 
 
 To expose the inconsistency of both these ex- 
 tremes, and by inference to recommend that state 
 of mind, which looks forward to the fellowship of 
 the mystery of the faith as a spirit of wisdom 
 and revelation in the knowledge of God, the eyes 
 of the understanding being enlightened (Eph. i. 
 17 — 18.) — this formed my general purpose. Long 
 has it been at my heart ! I consider it as the contra- 
 distinguishing principle of Christianity that in it 
 alone nag tz\ovtoq rf]c irXypotyopiag rfjg (rvviaewg 
 (the understanding in its utmost power and opu- 
 lence) culminates in faith, as in its crown of glory, 
 at once its light and its remuneration. On this most 
 important point I attempted long ago to preclude, 
 if possible, all misconception and misinterpretation 
 of my opinions. Alas ! in this time of distress and 
 embarrassment the sentiments have a more especial 
 interest, a more immediate application, than when 
 they were first written. If (I observed)* it be a 
 truth attested alike by common feeling and com- 
 mon sense, that the greater part of human misery 
 depends directly on human vices, and the remainder 
 indirectly, by what means can we act on men, so 
 as to remove or preclude their vices and purify 
 
 * The Friend, I. p. 134, 3rd edit. Ed. 
 
248 DIFFUSION OF TRUTH 
 
 their principles of moral election ? The question is 
 not by what means each man is to alter his own 
 character; — in order to this, all the means pre- 
 scribed, and all the aidances given by religion 
 may be necessary for him. Vain of themselves 
 may be — 
 
 The sayings of the wise 
 
 In ancient and in modern books inroll'd 
 
 Unless he feel within 
 Some source of consolation from above, 
 Secret refreshings, that repair his strength. 
 And fainting spirits uphold. 
 
 Samson Agonistes. 
 
 This is not the question. Virtue would not be 
 virtue could it be given by one fellow creature to 
 another. To make use of all the means and ap- 
 pliances in our power to the actual attainment of 
 rectitude, is the abstract of the duty which we owe 
 to ourselves : to supply those means as far as we 
 can, comprises our duty to others. The question 
 then is, what are these means ? Can they be any 
 other than the communication of knowledge and 
 the removal of those evils and impediments which 
 prevent its reception ? It may not be in our power 
 to combine both, but it is in the power of every 
 man to contribute to the former, who is sufficiently 
 informed to feel that it is his duty. If it be said, 
 that we should endeavour not so much to remove 
 ignorance, as to make the ignorant religious : re- 
 ligion herself through her sacred oracles answers 
 
A CHRISTIAN DUTY. 249 
 
 for me, that all effective faith pre-supposes know- 
 ledge and individual conviction. If the mere ac- 
 quiescence in truth, nncomprehended and unfa- 
 thomed, were sufficient, few indeed would be the 
 vicious and the miserable, in this country at least 
 where speculative infidelity is, Heaven be praised ! 
 confined to a small number. Like bodily defor- 
 mity, there is one instance here and another there ; 
 but three in one place are already an undue pro- 
 portion. It is highly worthy of observation that 
 the inspired Writings received by Christians are 
 distinguishable from all other books pretending to 
 inspiration, from the scriptures of the Bramins, 
 and even from the Koran, in their strong and fre- 
 quent recommendations of truth. I do not here 
 mean veracity, which cannot but be enforced in 
 every code which appeals to the religious principle 
 of man; but knowledge. This is not only ex- 
 tolled as the crown and honor of a man, but to seek 
 after it is again and again commanded us as one 
 of our most sacred duties. Yea, the very perfec- 
 tion and final bliss of the glorified spirit is repre- 
 sented by the Apostle as a plain aspect or intui- 
 tive beholding of truth in its eternal and immu- 
 table source. Not that knowledge can of itself 
 do all. The light of religion is not that of the 
 moon, light without heat ; but neither is its 
 warmth that of the stove, warmth without light. 
 Religion is the sun whose warmth indeed swells, 
 and stirs, and actuates the life of nature, but who 
 at the same time beholds all the growth of life 
 
250 DIFFUSION OF TRUTH 
 
 with a master-eye, makes all objects glorious on 
 which he looks, and by that glory visible to others. 
 For this cause I bow my knees unto the Fa- 
 ther of our Lord Jesus Christ, that he would 
 grant you according to the riches of his glory, 
 to he strengthened with might by his Spirit 
 in the inner man ; that Christ may dwell in 
 your hearts by faith ; that ye being rooted and 
 grounded in love, may be able to comprehend with 
 all saints what is the breadth, and length, and 
 depth, and heighth ; and to know the love of 
 Christ which passeth all knowledge, that ye 
 might be filled with the fulness of God. (Eph. 
 iii. 14 — 19.) For to know God is (by a vital and 
 spiritual act in which to know and to possess are 
 one and indivisible) — to know God, I say, is — to 
 acknowledge him as the infinite clearness in the 
 incomprehensible fulness, and fulness incompre- 
 hensible with infinite clearness. 
 
 This then comprises my first purpose, which is 
 in a two fold sense general : for in the substance, 
 if not in the form, it belongs to all my country- 
 men and fellow-Christians without distinction of 
 class, while for its object it embraces the whole 
 of the inspired Scriptures from the recorded first 
 day of heaven and earth, ere the light was yet 
 gathered into celestial lamps or reflected from their 
 revolving mirrors, to the predicted Sabbath of the 
 new creation, when heaven and earth shall have 
 become one city with neither sun nor moon to 
 shine in it : for the glory of God shall lighten it 
 
A CHRISTIAN DUTY. 251 
 
 and the Lamb be the light thereof. My second 
 purpose is after the same manner in a two fold 
 sense specific : for as this Sermon is nominally ad- 
 dressed to, so was it for the greater part exclu- 
 sively intended for, the perusal of the learned : and 
 its object likewise is to urge men so qualified to 
 apply their powers and attainments to an especial 
 study of the Old Testament as teaching* the ele- 
 ments of political science. 
 
 It is asked, in what sense I use these words ? 
 I answer : in the same sense as the terms are em- 
 ployed when we refer to Euclid for the elements 
 of the science of geometry, only with one diffe- 
 rence arising from the diversity of the subject. 
 With one difference only ; but that one how mo- 
 mentous ! All other sciences are confined to ab- 
 stractions, unless when the term science is used 
 in an improper and flattering sense. — Thus we may 
 speak without boast of natural history ; but we 
 have not yet attained to a science of nature. The 
 Bible alone contains a science of realities : and 
 therefore each of its elements is at the same time 
 a living germ, in which the present involves the 
 future, and in the finite the infinite exists poten- 
 tially. That hidden mystery in every the mi- 
 nutest form of existence, which contemplated 
 under the relations of time presents itself to the 
 understanding retrospectively, as an infinite ascent 
 of causes, and prospectively as an interminable 
 progression of effects ; — that which contemplated 
 in space is beholden intuitively as a law of action 
 
252 IDEAL TRUTH. 
 
 and re-action, continuous and extending beyond 
 all bound; — this same mystery freed from the 
 phenomena of time and space, and seen in the 
 depth of real being, reveals itself to the pure rea- 
 son as the actual immanence or in-being* of all in 
 each. Are we struck with admiration at behold- 
 ing the cope of heaven imaged in a dew-drop ? 
 The least of the animalcula to which that drop 
 would be an ocean contains in itself an infinite 
 problem of which God omni-present is the only 
 solution. The slave of custom is roused by the 
 rare and the accidental alone ; but the axioms of 
 the unthinking are to the philosopher the deepest 
 problems as being the nearest to the mysterious 
 root and partaking at once of its darkness and its 
 pregnancy. 
 
 O what a mine of undiscovered treasures, what 
 a new world of power and truth would the Bible 
 promise to our future meditation, if in some gra- 
 cious moment one solitary text of all its inspired 
 contents should but dawn upon us in the pure un- 
 troubled brightness of an idea, that most glorious 
 birth of the God-like within us, which even as the 
 light, its material symbol, reflects itself from a 
 thousand surfaces, and flies homeward to its Pa- 
 rent Mind enriched with a thousand forms, itself 
 above form and still remaining in its own sim- 
 
 * In-being is the word chosen by Bishop Sherlock to 
 express this sense. See his Tract on the Athanasian Creed. 
 1827. 
 
IDEAL TRUTH. 253 
 
 plicity and identity ! for a flash of that same 
 light, in which the first position of geometric 
 science that ever loosed itself from the generali- 
 zations of a groping and insecure experience, for 
 the first time revealed itself to a human intellect 
 in all its evidence and all its fruitfulness, trans- 
 parence without vacuum, and plenitude without 
 opacity ! O that a single gleam of our own in- 
 ward experience would make comprehensible to 
 us the rapturous Eureka, and the grateful heca- 
 tomb, of the philosopher of Samos ; — or that vision 
 which from the contemplation of an arithmetical 
 harmony rose to the eye of Kepler, presenting the 
 planetary world, and all its orbits in the divine 
 order of their ranks and distances ; — or which, in 
 the falling of an apple, revealed to the ethereal 
 intuition of our own Newton the constructive 
 principle of the material universe. The promises 
 which I have ventured to hold forth concerning 
 the hidden treasures of the Law and the Prophets 
 will neither be condemned as paradox or as exag- 
 geration by the mind that has learned to under- 
 stand the possibility, that the reduction of the 
 sands of the sea to number should be found a less 
 stupendous problem by Archimedes than the simple 
 conception of the Parmenidean One. What how- 
 ever is achievable by the human understanding 
 without this light, may be comprised in the epithet, 
 KEvoffTTbcot : and a melancholy comment on that 
 phrase would the history of human cabinets and 
 legislators for the last thirty years furnish ! The 
 
254 VANITY OF IDEALESS STUDY. 
 
 excellent Barrow, the last of the disciples of Plato 
 and Archimedes among our modern mathemati- 
 cians, shall give the description and state the 
 value : and in his words I shall conclude. 
 
 " Aliud agere, to be impertinently busy, doing 
 that which conduceth to no good purpose, is in 
 some respect worse than to do nothing. Of such 
 industry we may understand that of the Preacher, 
 The labor of the foolish wearieth every one of 
 them." 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
257 
 
 APPENDIX, 
 
 CONTAINING COMMENTS AND ESSAYS. 
 
 (A.) 
 
 In this use of the word ' sufficiency,' I pre-suppose on 
 the part of the reader or hearer an humble and docile state 
 of mind, and above all the practice of prayer, as the ne- 
 cessary condition of such a state, and the best if not the 
 only means of becoming sincere to our own hearts. Chris- 
 tianity is especially differenced from all other religions by 
 being grounded on facts which all men alike have the same 
 means of ascertaining with equal facility, and which no 
 man can ascertain for another. Each person must be 
 herein querist and respondent to himself; Am I sick, and 
 therefore need a physician ? — Am I in spiritual slavery, 
 and therefore need a ransomer? — Have I given a pledge, 
 which must be redeemed, and which I cannot redeem by 
 my own resources? — Am I at one with God, and is my 
 will concentric with that holy power, which is at once the 
 constitutive will and the supreme reason of the universe ? 
 — If not, must I not be mad if I do not seek, and mise- 
 rable if I do not discover and embrace, the means of 
 atonement ?* To collect, to weigh, and to appreciate his- 
 torical proofs and presumptions is not equally within the 
 
 * This is a mistaken etymology, and consequently a dull, 
 though unintentional, pun. Our atone is, doubtless, of the 
 same stock with the Teutonic aussohnen, versohnen, the Anglo- 
 Saxon takine; the t for the s. 
 
258 APPENDIX A. 
 
 means and opportunities of every man. The testimony 
 of books of history is one of the strong and stately pillars 
 of the Church of Christ; but it is not the foundation, nor 
 can it without lo«5 of essential faith be mistaken or sub- 
 stituted for the foundation. There is a sect, which in its 
 scornful pride of antipathy to mysteries (that is, to all 
 those doctrines of the pure and intuitive reason, which 
 transcend the ' ' na&rstanding, and can never be contem- 
 plated by it, but through a false and falsifying perspec- 
 tive) affects to condemn all inward and preliminary expe- 
 rience as enthusiastic delusion or fanatical contagion. 
 Historic evidence, on the other hand, these men treat, as 
 the Jews of old treated the brazen serpent, which was the 
 relic and evidence of the miracles worked by Moses in 
 tiie wilderness. They turned it into an idol : and there- 
 fore Hezekiah {who clave to the Lord, and did right in 
 the sight of the Lord, so that after him was none like him,, 
 among all the kings of Judah, nor any that were before 
 him) not only removed the high places, and brake the ima- 
 ges, and cut down the groves ; but likewise brake in pieces 
 the brazen serpent that Moses had made : for the children 
 of Israel did burn incense to it. (2 Kings xviii.) 
 
 To preclude an error so pernicious, I request that to 
 the wilful neglect of those outward ministrations of the 
 word which all Englishmen have the privilege of attend- 
 ing, the reader will add the setting at nought likewise of 
 those inward means of grace, without which the language 
 of the Scriptures, in the most faithful translation and in the 
 purest and plainest English, must nevertheless continue 
 to be a dead language, — a sun-dial by moonlight. 
 
 (B.) 
 
 Reason and Religion differ only as a two-fold applica- 
 tion of the same power. But if we are obliged to distin- 
 guish, we must ideally separate. In this sense I affirm 
 that reason is the knowledge of the laws of the whole 
 
APPENDIX B. 259 
 
 considered as one: and as such it is contradistinguished 
 from the understanding, which concerns itself exclusively 
 with the quantities, qualities, and relations of particulars 
 in time and space. The understanding, therefore, is the 
 science of ph&nomena, and. of their subsumption under 
 distinct kinds and sorts, {genera and species.) Its func- 
 tions supply the rules and constitute the possibility of ex- 
 perience ; but remain mere logical forms, except as far as 
 materials are given by the senses or sensations. The rea- 
 son, on the other hand, is the science of the universal, 
 having the ideas of oneness and allness as its two elements 
 or primary factors. In the language of the old Schools, 
 Unity -f- Omneity = Totality. 
 
 The reason first manifests itself in man by the tendency 
 to the comprehension of all as one. We can neither rest 
 in an infinite that is not at the same time a whole, nor in 
 a whole that is not infinite. Hence the natural man is 
 always in a state either of resistance or of captivity to the 
 understanding and the fancy, which cannot represent tota- 
 tality without limit : and he either loses the one in the 
 striving after the infinite, that is, atheism with or without 
 polytheism, or he loses the infinite in the striving after the 
 one, and then sinks into anthropomorphic monotheism. 
 
 The rational instinct, therefore, taken abstractedly and 
 unbalanced, did, in itself, {ye shall be as gods, Gen. iii. 5.) 
 and in its consequences, (the lusts of the flesh, the eye, and 
 the understanding, as in v. 5.) form the original tempta- 
 tion, through which man fell : and in all ages has con- 
 tinued to originate the same, even from Adam, in whom 
 we all fell, to the atheists who deified the human reason in 
 the person of a harlot during the earlier period of the 
 French Revolution. 
 
 To this tendency, therefore, religion, as the conside- 
 ration of the particular and individual, (in which respect it 
 takes up and identifies with itself the excellence of the 
 understanding) but of the individual, as it exists and ha? 
 
260 APPENDIX B. 
 
 its being in the universal (in which respect it is one with 
 the pure reason,) — to this tendency, I say, religion assigns 
 the due limits, and is the echo of the voice of the Lord 
 God walking in the garden. Hence in all the ages and 
 countries of civilization religion has been the parent and 
 fosterer of the fine arts, as of poetry, music, painting, and 
 the like, the common essence of which consists in a similar 
 union of the universal and the individual. In this union, 
 moreover, is contained the true sense of the ideal. Under 
 the old Law the altar, the curtains, the priestly vestments, 
 and whatever else was to represent the beauty of holiness, 
 had an ideal character : and the Temple itself was a 
 master-piece of ideal beauty. 
 
 There exists in the human being, at least in man fully 
 developed, no mean symbol of tri-unity in reason, reli- 
 gion, and the will. For each of the three, though a dis- 
 tinct agency, implies and demands the other two, and 
 loses its own nature at the moment that from distinction it 
 passes into division or separation. The perfect frame of 
 a man is the perfect frame of a state : and in the light of 
 this idea we must read Plato's Republic* 
 
 The comprehension, impartiality, and far-sightedness of 
 reason, (the legislative of our nature) taken singly and ex- 
 clusively, becomes mere visionariness in intellect, and in- 
 dolence or hard-heartedness in morals. It is the science of 
 cosmopolitism without country, of philanthropy without 
 neighbourliness or consanguinity, in short, of all the im- 
 postures of that philosophy of the French Revolution, 
 which would sacrifice each to the shadowy idol of all. For 
 Jacobinism is monstrum hybridum, made up in part of 
 despotism, or the lust of rule grounded in selfness; and 
 in part of abstract reason misapplied to objects that be- 
 
 * If I judge rightly, this celebrated work is to ' The 
 History of the Town of Man-soul,' what Plato was to John 
 Bunyan. 
 
APPENDIX B. 261 
 
 long entirely to experience and the understanding. Its 
 instincts and mode of action are in strict correspondence 
 with its origin. In all places, Jacobinism betrays its 
 mixed parentage and nature by applying to the brute 
 passions and physical force of the multitude (that is, to 
 man as a mere animal,) in order to build up government 
 and the frame of society on natural rights instead of social 
 privileges, on the universals of abstract reason instead of 
 positive institutions, the lights of specific experience, and 
 the modifications of existing circumstances. Right in its 
 most proper sense is the creature of law and statute, and 
 only in the technical language of the courts has it any 
 substantial and independent sense. In morals, right is a 
 word without meaning except as the correlative of duty. 
 
 From all this it follows, that reason as the science of all 
 as a whole must be interpenetrated by a power, that repre- 
 sents the concentration of all in each — a power that acts 
 by a contraction of universal truths into individual duties, 
 such contraction being the only form in which those truths 
 can attain life and reality. Now this is religion, which is 
 the executive of our nature, and on this account the name 
 of highest dignity, and the symbol of sovereignty. To the 
 same purport I have elsewhere defined religion as philo- 
 sophy evolved from idea into act and fact by the superin- 
 duction of the extrinsic conditions of reality. 
 
 Yet even religion itself, if ever in its too exclusive de- 
 votion to the specific and individual it neglects to inter- 
 pose the contemplation of the universal, changes its being 
 into superstition, and becoming more and more earthly 
 and servile, as more and more estranged from the one in 
 all, goes wandering at length with its pack of amulets, 
 bead-rolls, periapts, fetisches, and the like pedlary, on 
 pilgrimages to Loretto, Mecca, or the temple of Jagger- 
 naut, arm in arm with sensuality on one side and self-tor- 
 ture on the other, followed by a motley group of friars, 
 pardoners, faquirs, gamesters, flagellants, mountebanks, 
 and harlots. 
 
262 APPENDIX B. 
 
 But neither can reason or religion exist or co-exist as 
 reason and religion, except as far as they are actuated by 
 the will (the Platonic Ovfxbg,) which is the sustaining, 
 coercive and ministerial power, the functions of which in 
 the individual correspond to the officers of war and police 
 in the ideal Republic of Plato. In its state of immanence 
 or indwelling in reason and religion, the will appears in- 
 differently as wisdom or as love : two names of the same 
 power, the former more intelligential, the latter more spi- 
 ritual, the former more frequent in the Old, the latter in 
 the New, Testament. But in its utmost abstraction and 
 consequent state of reprobation, the will becomes Satanic 
 pride and rebellious self-idolatry in the relations of the 
 spirit to itself, and remorseless despotism relatively to 
 others; the more hopeless as the more obdurate by its 
 subjugation of sensual impulses, by its superiority to toil 
 and pain and pleasure ; in short, by the fearful resolve to 
 find in itself alone the one absolute motive of action, 
 under which all other motives from within and from with- 
 out must be either subordinated or crushed. 
 
 This is the character which Milton has so philosophi- 
 cally as well as sublimely embodied in the Satan of his 
 Paradise Lost. Alas ! too often has it been embodied in 
 real life. Too often has it given a dark and savage gran- 
 deur to the historic page. And wherever it has appeared, 
 under whatever circumstances of time and country, the 
 same ingredients have gone to its composition ; and it has 
 been identified by the same attributes. Hope in which 
 there is no cheerfulness ; stedfastness within and im- 
 movable resolve, with outward restlessness and whirling 
 activity ; violence with guile ; temerity with cunning ; and, 
 as the result of all, interminableness of object with perfect 
 indifference of means; these are the qualities that have 
 constituted the commanding genius ; these are the marks, 
 that have characterized the masters of mischief, the liber- 
 ticides, and mighty hunters of mankind, from Nimrod to 
 
APPENDIX B. 263 
 
 Buonaparte. And from inattention to the possibility of 
 such a character as well as from ignorance of its elements, 
 even men of honest intentions too frequently become fa- 
 scinated. Nay, whole nations have been so far duped 
 by this want of insight and reflection as to regard with 
 palliative admiration, instead of wonder and abhorrence, 
 the Molochs of human nature, who are indebted for the 
 larger portion of their meteoric success to their total want 
 of principle, and who surpass the generality of their fellow 
 creatures in one act of courage only, that of daring to say 
 with their whole heart, ' Evil, be thou my good I' — All 
 system so far is power ; and a systematic criminal, self- 
 consistent and entire in wickedness, who entrenches vil- 
 lany within villany, and barricadoes crime by crime, has 
 removed a world of obstacles by the mere decision, that 
 he will have no obstacles, but those of force and brute 
 matter. 
 
 I have only to add a few sentences, in completion of this 
 comment, on the conscience* and on the understanding. 
 The conscience is neither reason, religion, or will, but an 
 experience sui generis of the coincidence of the human 
 will with reason and religion. It might, perhaps, be 
 called a spiritual sensation ; but that there lurks a contra- 
 diction in the terms, and that it is often deceptive to give 
 a common or generic name to that, which being unique, 
 can have no fair analogy. In strictness, therefore, the 
 conscience is neither a sensation nor a sense ; but a testi- 
 fying state, best described in the words of Scripture, as 
 the peace of God that passeth all understanding. 
 
 * I have this morning read with high delight an ad- 
 rairable representation of what men in general think, and 
 what ought to be thought, concerning the conscience in the 
 translation of Swedenborg's Universal Theology of the Xew 
 Church. II. p. 361—370. 6 January, 1821. 
 
'264 APPENDIX B. 
 
 Of the latter faculty, namely, of the understanding, con- 
 sidered in and of itself the Peripatetic aphorism, nihil in 
 intellectu quod non prius in sensu, is strictly true, as well 
 as the legal maxim, tie rebus non apparentibus et non ex- 
 istentibus eadem est ratio. The eye is not more inappro- 
 priate to sound, than the mere understanding to the modes 
 and laws of spiritual existence. In this sense I have 
 used the term ; and in this sense I assert that the under- 
 standing or experiential faculty, unirradiated by the reason 
 and the spirit, has no appropriate object but the material 
 world in relation to our worldly interests. The far-sighted 
 prudence of man, and the more narrow but at the same 
 time far less fallible cunning of the fox, are both no other 
 than a nobler substitute for salt, in order that the hog may 
 not putrefy before its destined hour. 
 
 It must not, however, be overlooked that this insula- 
 tion of the understanding is our own act and deed. The 
 man of healthful and undivided intellect uses his under- 
 standing* in this state of abstraction only as a tool or 
 
 * Perhaps the safer use of the term, understanding, for 
 general purposes, is, to take it as the mind, or rather as the 
 man himself considered as a concipient as well as percipient 
 being, and reason as a power supervening. The want of a 
 clear notion respecting the nature of reason may he traced 
 to the difficulty of combining the notion of an organ of sense, 
 or a new sense, with the notion of the appropriate and pe- 
 culiar objects of that sense, so that the idea evolved from 
 this synthesis shall be the identity of both. By reason we 
 know that God is : but God is himself the Supreme Reason. 
 And this is the proper difference between all spiritual facul- 
 ties and the bodily senses ; — the organs of spiritual ap- 
 prehension having objects consubstantial with themselves 
 (bfioovffia), or being themselves their own objects, that is, 
 self-contemplative. 
 
APPENDIX B. 265 
 
 organ ; even as the arithmetician uses numbers, that is, as 
 the means not the end of knowledge. Our Shakspeare 
 in agreement both with truth and the philosophy of hi? 
 age names it " discourse of reason/' as an instrumental 
 faculty belonging to reason : and Milton opposes the dis- 
 cursive to the intuitive, as the lower to the higher, 
 
 Differing but in degree, in kind the same. 
 
 Reason may or rather must be used in two different yet 
 correlative senses, which are nevertheless in some measure 
 reunited by a third. In its highest sense, and which is the 
 ground and source of the rest, reason is being, the Supreme 
 Being contemplated objectively, and in abstraction from the 
 personality. The Word or Logos is life, and communicates 
 life ; is light and communicates light. Now this light con- 
 templated in abstracto is reason. Again as constituents of 
 reason we necessarily contemplate unity and distinctity. 
 Now the latter as the polar opposite to the former implies 
 plurality : therefore I use the plural, distinctities, and say, 
 that the distinctities considered apart from the unity are the 
 ideas, and reason is the ground and source of ideas. This 
 is the first and absolute sense. 
 
 The second sense comes when we speak of ourselves as 
 possessing reason ; and this we can no otherwise define 
 than as the capability with which God had endowed man of 
 beholding, or being conscious of, the divine light. But 
 this very capability is itself that light, not as the divine 
 light, but as the life or indwelling of the hiving Word, 
 which is our light ; that is, a life whereby we are capable 
 of the light, and by which the light is present to us, as a 
 being which we may call ours, but which I cannot call 
 mine : for it is the life that we individualize, while the 
 light, as its correlative opposite, remains universal. 
 
 Most pregnant is the doctrine of opposite correlatives as 
 applied to Deity, but only as manifested in man, not to the 
 Godhead absolutelv. 1827. 
 
266 APPENDIX B. 
 
 Of the discursive understanding, which forms for itself 
 general notions and terms of classification for the purpose 
 of comparing and arranging phenomena, the characteristic 
 is clearness without depth. It contemplates the unity of 
 things in their limits only, and is consequently a know- 
 ledge of superficies without substance. So much so in- 
 deed, that it entangles itself in contradictions in the very 
 effort of comprehending the idea of substance. The com- 
 pleting power which unites clearness with depth, the ple- 
 nitude of the sense with the comprehensibility of the un- 
 derstanding, is the imagination, impregnated with which 
 the understanding itself becomes intuitive, and a living 
 power. The reason, (not the abstract reason, not the 
 reason as the mere organ of science, or as the faculty of 
 scientific principles and schemes a priori ; but reason) as 
 the integral spirit of the regenerated man, reason substan- 
 tiated and vital, one only, yet manifold, overseeing all, 
 and going through all understanding; the breath of the 
 power of God, and a pure influence from the glory of the 
 Almighty ; which remaining in i£se//' regenerateth all other 
 powers, and in all ages entering into holy souls maketh 
 them friends of God and prophets ; (Wisdom of Solomon, 
 c. vii.) this reason without being either the sense, the 
 understanding or the imagination, contains all three with- 
 in itself, even as the mind contains its thoughts, and is 
 present in and through them all; or as the expression 
 pervades the different features of an intelligent coun- 
 tenance. Each individual must bear witness of it to his 
 own mind, even as he describes life and light : and with 
 the silence of light it describes itself, and dwells in us 
 only as far as we dwell in it. It cannot in strict language 
 be called a faculty, much less a personal property, of any 
 human mind. He, with whom it is present, can as little 
 appropriate it, whether, totally or by partition, as he can 
 claim ownership in the breathing air or make an inclosure 
 in the cope of heaven. 
 
APPENDIX B. 267 
 
 The object of the preceding discourse was to recom- 
 mend the Bible, as the end and centre of our reading and 
 meditation. I can truly affirm of myself, that my studies 
 have been profitable and availing to me only so far as I 
 have endeavoured to use all my other knowledge as a 
 glass enabling me to receive more light in a wider field 
 of vision from the word of God. If you have accompa- 
 nied me thus far, thoughtful reader, let it not weary you 
 if I digress for a few moments to another book, likewise a 
 revelation of God — the great book of his servant Nature. 
 That in its obvious sense and literal interpretation it de- 
 clares the being and attributes of the Almighty Father, 
 none but the fool in heart has ever dared gainsay. But 
 it has been the music of gentle and pious minds in all 
 ages, it is the poetry of all human nature, to read it like- 
 wise in a figurative sense, and to find therein correspon- 
 dencies and symbols of the spiritual world. 
 
 I have at this moment before me, in the flowery mea- 
 dow, on which my eye is now reposing, one of its most 
 soothing chapters, in which there is no lamenting word, 
 no one character of guilt or anguish. For never can I look 
 and meditate on the vegetable creation without a feeling 
 similar to that with which we gaze at a beautiful infant 
 that has fed itself asleep at its mother's bosom, and smiles 
 in its strange dream of obscure yet happy sensations. The 
 same tender and genial pleasure takes possession of me, 
 and this pleasure is checked and drawn inward by the 
 like aching melancholy, by the same whispered remon- 
 strance, and made restless by a similar impulse of aspira- 
 tion. It seems as if the soul said to herself: From this 
 state hast thou fallen ! Such shouldst thou still become, 
 thy self all permeable to a holier power ! thy self at once 
 hidden and glorified by its own transparency, as the ac- 
 cidental and dividuous in this quiet and harmonious ob- 
 ject is subjected to the life and light of nature ; to that 
 life and light of nature, I say, which shines in every plant 
 
268 APPENDIX B. 
 
 and flower, even as the transmitted power, love and wis- 
 dom of God over all fills, and shines through, nature ! 
 But what the plant is by an act not its own and uncon- 
 sciously — that must thou make thyself to become — must 
 by prayer and by a watchful and unresisting spirit, join 
 at Jeast with the preventive and assisting grace to make 
 thyself, in that light of conscience which inflameth not, 
 and with that knowledge which puffeth not up ! 
 
 But further, and with particular reference to that un- 
 divided reason, neither merely speculative or merely 
 practical, but both in one, which I have in this annota- 
 tion endeavoured to contra-distinguish from the under- 
 standing, I seem to myself to behold in the quiet objects, 
 on which I am gazing, more than an arbitrary illustration, 
 more than a mere simile, the work of my own fancy. I 
 feel an awe, as if there were before my eyes the same power 
 as that of the reason — the same power in a lower dignity, 
 and therefore a symbol established in the truth of things. 
 I feel it alike, whether I contemplate a single tree or 
 flower, or meditate on vegetation throughout the world? 
 as one of the great organs of the life of nature. Lo ! * — 
 with the rising sun it commences its outward life and 
 enters into open communion with all the elements, at once 
 assimilating them to itself and to each other. At the same 
 moment it strikes its roots and unfolds its leaves, absorbs 
 and respires, steams forth its cooling vapour and finer 
 
 * The remainder of this paragraph might properly form 
 the conclusion of a disquisition on the spirit, as suggested 
 by meditative observation of natural objects, and of our own 
 thoughts and impulses without reference to any theological 
 dogma, or any religious obligation to receive it as a revealed 
 truth, but traced to the law of the dependence of the parti- 
 cular on the universal, the first being the organ of the se- 
 cond, as the lungs in relation to the atmosphere, the eye to 
 light, crystal to fluid, figure to space, and the like. 1822. 
 
APPENDIX B. 269 
 
 fragrance, and breathes a repairing spirit, at once the food 
 and tone of the atmosphere, into the atmosphere that feeds 
 it. Lo ! — at the touch of light how it returns an air akin 
 to light, and yet with the same pulse effectuates its own 
 secret growth, still contracting to fix what expanding it 
 had refined. Lo! — how upholding the ceaseless plastic 
 motion of the parts in the profoundest rest of the whole 
 it becomes the visible organismus of the entire silent or 
 elementary life of nature and, therefore, in incorporating 
 the one extreme becomes the symbol of the other; the 
 natural symbol of that higher life of reason, in which the 
 whole series (known to us in our present state of being) 
 is perfected, in which, therefore, all the subordinate gra- 
 dations recur, and are re-ordained in more abundant 
 honor. We had seen each in its own cast, and we now 
 recognize them all as co-existing in the unity of a higher 
 form, the crown and completion of the earthly, and the 
 mediator of a new and heavenly series.* Thus finally, 
 
 * It may be shown that the plus or universal, which man 
 as the minus or individual finds his correlative pole, can 
 only be God. I. This may be proved, exhaustively, that 
 all lower universals are already attached to lower particu- 
 lars. II. It may be proved by the necessity of harmonic 
 correspondence. The principle of personal individuality 
 being the transcendent — (that is, the highest species of genus 
 X, in which X rises, moritur, at dum moritur resurgit, into 
 the higher genus Y,) — the personal principle, I say, being 
 the transcendent of all particulars, requires for its corres- 
 pondent opposite the transcendent of all universals : and 
 this is God. The doctrine of the spirit thus generally con- 
 ceived, and without being matured into any more distinct 
 conceptions by revealed Scripture, is the ground of theo- 
 pathy, religious feeling, or devoutness : while the reason, 
 — as contra-distinguished from the understanding by logical 
 processes, without reference to revelation or to reason sensu 
 eminenti, as the self-subsistent Reason or Logos, and merely 
 
270 APPENDIX B. 
 
 the vegetable creation, in the simplicity and uniformity of 
 its internal structure symbolizing the unity of nature, 
 while it represents the omniformity of her delegated func- 
 tions in its external variety and manifoldness, becomes the 
 record and chronicle of her ministerial acts, and inchases 
 the vast unfolded volume of the earth with the hierogly- 
 phics of her history. 
 
 O ! — if as the plant to the orient beam, we would but 
 open out our minds to that holier light, which ' being com- 
 pared with light is found before it, more beautiful than 
 the sun, and above all the order of stars,' (Wisdom of 
 Solomon, vii. 29.) — ungenial, alien, and adverse to our 
 very nature would appear the boastful wisdom which, be- 
 ginning in France, gradually tampered with the taste and 
 literature of all the most civilized nations of Christendom, 
 seducing the understanding from its natural allegiance, 
 and therewith from all its own lawful claims, titles, and 
 privileges. It was placed as a ward of honour in the 
 
 considered as the endowment of the human will and mind, 
 having two definitions accordingly as it is exercised prac- 
 tically or intellectually, — is the ground of theology, or reli- 
 gious belief. Both are good in themselves as far as they 
 go, and productive — the former — of a sensibility to the 
 beautiful in art and nature, of imaginativeness and moral 
 enthusiasm; — the latter — of insight, comprehension, and a 
 philosophic mind. They are good in themselves, and the 
 preconditions of the better ; and therefore these disquisi- 
 tions would form an appropriate conclusion to The Aids to 
 Reflection. For as many as are wanting either in leisure 
 or inclination, or belief of their own competency to go further 
 — from the miscellaneous to the systematic — that volume is 
 a whole, and for them the whole work. While for others 
 these disquisitions form the drawbridge, the connecting 
 link, between the disciplinary and preparatory rules and 
 exercises of reflection, and the system of faith and philo- 
 sophy of S. T. C. 1827. 
 
APPENDIX B. 271 
 
 courts of faith and reason ; but it chose to dwell alone, 
 and became a harlot by the way-side. The commercial 
 spirit, and the ascendancy of the experimental philosophy 
 which took place at the close of the seventeenth century, 
 though both good and beneficial in their own kinds, com- 
 bined to foster its corruption. Flattered and dazzled by 
 the real or supposed discoveries which it had made, the 
 more the understanding was enriched, the more did it 
 become debased ; till science itself put on a selfish and 
 sensual character, and immediate utility, in exclusive re- 
 ference to the gratification of the wants and appetites of 
 the animal, the vanities and caprices of the social, and 
 the ambition of the political, man was imposed as the test 
 of all intellectual powers and pursuits. Worth was de- 
 graded into a lazy synonyme of value ; and value was 
 exclusively attached to the interest of the senses. But 
 though the growing alienation and self-sufficiency of the 
 understanding was perceptible at an earlier period, yet it 
 seems to have been about the middle of the last century, 
 under the influence of Voltaire, D'Alembert, Diderot, say 
 generally of the so-called Encyclopedists, and alas ! — of 
 their crowned proselytes and disciples, Frederick, Joseph, 
 and Catherine, — that the human understanding, and this 
 too in its narrowest form, was tempted to throw off all 
 show of reverence to the spiritual and even to the moral 
 powers and impulses of the soul ; and usurping the name 
 of reason openly joined the banners of Anti-christ, at once 
 the pander and the prostitute of sensuality, and whether 
 in the cabinet, laboratory, the dissecting room, or the 
 brothel, alike busy in the schemes of vice and irreligion. 
 Well and truly might it, thus personified in our fancy, 
 have been addressed in the words of the evangelical Pro- 
 phet, which I have once before quoted. Thou hast said, 
 None seeth me. Thy wisdom and thy knowledge, it hath 
 perverted thee — and thou hast said in thy heart, lam, and 
 there is none beside me. (Isaiah, xlvii. 10.) 
 
272 APPENDIX B. 
 
 Prurient, bustling, and revolutionary, this French wis- 
 dom has never more than grazed the surfaces of know- 
 ledge. As political economy, in its zeal for the increase 
 of food it habitually overlooked the qualities and even the 
 sensations of those that were to feed on it. As ethical 
 philosophy, it recognized no duties which it could not 
 reduce into debtor and creditor accounts on the ledgers of 
 self-love, where no coin was sterling which could not 
 be rendered into agreeable sensations. And even in its 
 height of self-complacency as chemical art, greatly am I 
 deceived if it has not from the very beginning mistaken 
 the products of destruction, cadavera rerum, for the ele- 
 ments of composition : and most assuredly it lias dearly 
 purchased a few brilliant inventions at the loss of all com- 
 munion with life and the spirit of nature. As the pro- 
 cess, such the result; — a heartless frivolity alternating 
 with a sentimentality as heartless ; an ignorant contempt 
 of antiquity ; a neglect of moral self-discipline; a deaden- 
 ing of the religious sense, even in the less reflecting forms 
 of natural piety ; a scornful reprobation of all consola- 
 tions and secret refreshings from above, — and as the caput 
 mortuum of human nature evaporated, a French nature of 
 rapacity, levity, ferocity, and presumption. 
 
 Man of understanding, canst thou command the stone 
 to lie, canst thou bid the flower bloom, where thou hast 
 placed it in thy classification ? — Canst thou persuade the 
 living or the inanimate to stand separate even as thou 
 hast separated them? — And do not far rather all things 
 spread out before thee in glad confusion and heedless in- 
 termixture, even as a lightsome chaos on which the Spirit 
 of God is moving ? — Do not all press and swell under 
 one attraction, and live together in promiscuous harmony, 
 each joyous in its own kind, and in the immediate neigh- 
 bourhood of myriad others that in the system of thy un- 
 derstanding are distant as the poles? — If to mint and 
 to remember names delight thee, still arrange and classify 
 
APPENDIX B. 273 
 
 and pore and pull to pieces, and peep into death to look 
 for life, as monkies put their hands behind a looking- 
 glass ! Yet consider in the first sabbath which thou im- 
 posest on the busy discursion of thought, that all this is 
 at best little more than a technical memory : that like 
 can only be known by like : that as truth is the correla- 
 tive of being, so is the act of being the great organ of 
 truth : that in natural no less than in moral science, 
 quantum sumus, scinius. 
 
 That which we find in ourselves is {gradu mutato) the 
 substance and the life of all our knowledge. Without this 
 latent presence of the ' I am,' all modes of existence in 
 the external world would flit before us as colored shadows, 
 with no greater depth, root, or fixure, than the image of a 
 rock hath in a gliding stream or the rainbow on a fast- 
 sailing rain-storm. The human mind is the compass, in 
 which the laws and actuations of all outward essences are 
 revealed as the dips and declinations. (The application 
 of geometry to the forces and movements of the material 
 world is both proof and instance.) The fact, therefore, 
 that the mind of man in its own primary and constituent 
 forms represents the laws of nature, is a mystery which 
 of itself should suffice to make us religious : for it is a 
 problem of which God is the only solution, God, the one 
 before all, and of all, and through all ! — True natural 
 philosophy is comprized in the study of the science and 
 language of symbols. The power delegated to nature is 
 all in every part : and by a symbol I mean, not a meta- 
 phor or allegory or any other figure of speech or form of 
 fancy, but an actual and essential part of that, the whole 
 of which it represents. Thus our Lord speaks symboli- 
 cally when he says that the eye is the light of the body. 
 The genuine naturalist is dramatic poet in his own line : 
 and such as our myriad-minded Shakspeare is, compared 
 with the Ratines and Metastasios, such and by a similar 
 process of self-transformation would the man be, com- 
 
 T 
 
274 APPENDIX B. 
 
 pared with the doctors of the mechanic school, who should 
 construct his physiology on the heaven-descended, Know 
 Thyself. 
 
 Even the visions of the night speak to us of powers 
 within us that are not dreamt of in their day-dream of 
 philosophy. The dreams, which we most often remember, 
 are produced by the nascent sensations and inward mo- 
 tiuncula (the fluxions) of the waking state. Hence, too 
 they are more capable of being remembered, because 
 passing more gradually into our waking thoughts they are 
 more likely to associate with our first perceptions after 
 sleep. Accordingly, when the nervous system is ap- 
 proaching to the waking state, a sort of under-conscious- 
 ness blends with our dreams, that in all we imagine as 
 seen or heard our own self is the ventriloquist, and 
 moves the slides in the magic- Ian tern. We dream about 
 things. 
 
 But there are few persons of tender feelings and re- 
 flecting habits, who have not, more or less often in the 
 course of their lives, experienced dreams of a very different 
 kind, and during the profoundest sleep that is compatible 
 with after-recollection, — states, of which it would scarcely 
 be too bold to say that we dream the things themselves ; 
 so exact, minute, and vivid beyond all power of ordinary 
 memory is the portraiture, so marvellously perfect is our 
 brief metempsychosis into the very being, as it were, of the 
 person who seems to address us. The dullest wight is at 
 times a Shakspeare in his dreams. Not only may we 
 expect that men of strong religious feelings, but little re- 
 ligious knowledge, will occasionally be tempted to regard 
 such occurrences as supernatural visitations ; but it ought 
 not to surprise us, if such dreams should sometimes be 
 confirmed by the event, as though they had actually pos- 
 sessed a character of divination. For who shall decide, 
 how far a perfect reminiscence of past experiences, (of 
 many perhaps that had escaped our reflex consciousness 
 
APPENDIX B. 275 
 
 at the time) — who shall determine, to what extent this 
 reproductive imagination, unsophisticated by the will, and 
 undistracted by intrusions from the senses, may or may 
 not be concentered and sublimed into foresight and pre- 
 sentiment ? — There would be nothing herein either to 
 foster superstition on the one hand, or to justify contemp- 
 tuous disbelief on the other. Incredulity is but credulity 
 seen fiom behind, bowing and nodding assent to the ha- 
 bitual and the fashionable. 
 
 To the touch (or feeling) belongs the proximate; to 
 the eye the distant. Now little as I might be disposed 
 to believe, I should be still less inclined to ridicule, the 
 conjecture that in the recesses of our nature, and unde- 
 veloped, there might exist an inner sense, (and therefore 
 appertaining wholly to time,) — a sense hitherto without a 
 name, which as a higher third combined and potentially 
 included both the former. Thus gravitation combines and 
 includes the powers of attraction and repulsion, which 
 are the constituents of matter, as distinguished from body . 
 And thus, not as a compound, but as a higher third, it 
 realizes matter (of itself ens fluxionale et prajiuum) and 
 constitutes it body. Now suppose that this nameless 
 inner sense stood to the relations of time as the power of 
 gravitation to those of space ? A priori, a presence to 
 the future is not more mysterious or transcendant than a 
 presence to the distant, than a power equally immediate 
 to the most remote objects, as it is to the central mass of 
 its own body, toward which it seems, as it were, enchant- 
 ing them : for instance, the gravity in the sun and moon 
 to the spring tides of our ocean. The true reply to such 
 an hypothesis would be, that as there is nothing to be said 
 against its possibility, there is, likewise, nothing to be 
 urged for its reality ; and that the facts may be rationally 
 explained without it. 
 
 It has been asked why knowing myself to be the object 
 of personal slander, (slander as unprovoked as it is ground- 
 
276 APPENDIX B. 
 
 less, unless acts of kindness are provocation) I furnish 
 this material for it by pleading in palliation of so chime- 
 rical a fancy. With that half-playful sadness, which at 
 once sighs and smiles, I answered : why not for that very 
 reason? — namely, in order that my calumniator might 
 have, if not a material, yet some basis for the poison-gas 
 of his invention to combine with ? — But no, — pure false- 
 hood is often for the time the most effective ; for how can 
 a man confute what he can only contradict? — Our opi- 
 nions and principles cannot prove an alibi. Think only 
 what your feelings would be if you heard a wretch deli- 
 berately perjure himself in support of an infamous accu- 
 sation, so remote from all fact, so smooth and homogene- 
 ous in its untruth, such a round Robin of mere lies, that 
 you knew not which to begin with ? — What could you 
 do, but look round with horror and astonishment, plead- 
 ing silently to human nature itself,— and perhaps (as hath 
 really been the case with me) forget both the slanderer and 
 his slander in the anguish inflicted by the passiveness of 
 your many professed friends, whose characters you had 
 ever been as eager to clear from the least stain of reproach 
 as if a coal of fire had been on your own skin ? — But 
 enough of this which would not have occurred to me at 
 all, at this time, had it not been thus suggested. 
 
 The feeling, which in point of fact chiefly influenced 
 me in the preceding half apology for the supposition of a 
 divining power in the human mind, arose out of the con- 
 viction that an age or nation may become free from certain 
 prejudices, beliefs, and superstitious practices in two 
 ways. It may have really risen above them ; or it may 
 have fallen below them, and become too bad for their 
 continuance. The rustic would have little reason to 
 thank the philosopher who should give him true concep- 
 tions of ghosts, omens, dreams, and presentiments at the 
 price of abandoning his faith in Providence and in the 
 continued existence of his fellow-creatures after their death. 
 
APPENDIX B. 277 
 
 The teeth of the old serpent sowed by the Cadmuses of 
 French literature under Lewis XV. produced a plenteous 
 crop of such philosophers and truth-trumpeters in the 
 reign of his ill-fated successor. They taught many facts, 
 historical, political, physiological, and ecclesiastical, dif- 
 fusing their notions so widely that the very ladies and 
 hair-dressers of Paris became fluent encyclopedists ; and 
 the sole price, which their scholars paid for these treasures 
 of new light, was to believe Christianity an imposture, the 
 Scriptures a forgery, the worship of God superstition, hell 
 a fable, heaven a dream, our life without providence, and 
 our death without hope. What can be conceived more 
 natural than the result, that self-acknowledged beasts 
 should first act, and next suffer themselves to be treated, 
 as beasts? 
 
 Thank heaven ! — notwithstanding the attempts of Tho- 
 mas Payne and his compeers, it is not so bad with us. 
 Open infidelity has ceased to be a means even of gratify- 
 ing vanity: for the leaders of the gang themselves turned 
 apostates to Satan, as soon as the number of their prose- 
 lytes became so large that atheism ceased to give distinc- 
 tion. Nay, it became a mark of original thinking to de- 
 fend the Creed and the Ten Commandments: so the 
 strong minds veered round, and religion came again into 
 fashion. But still I exceedingly doubt, whether the su- 
 perannuation of sundry superstitious fancies be the result 
 of any real diffusion of sound thinking in the nation at 
 large. For instance, there is now no call for a Picus 
 Mirandula to write seven books against astrology. It 
 might seem, indeed, that a single fact like that of the loss 
 of Kempenfeldt and his crew, or the explosion of the ship 
 L 1 Orient, would prove to the common sense of the most 
 ignorant, that even if astrology could be true, the astrolo- 
 gers must be false : for if such a science were possible it 
 could be a science only for gods. Yet Erasmus, the 
 prince of sound common sense, is known to have disap- 
 
278 APPENDIX P.. 
 
 proved of his friend's hardihood, and did not himself ven- 
 ture beyond scepticism : and the immortal Newton, to 
 whom more than to any othe human being Europe owes 
 the purification of its general notions concerning the hea- 
 venly bodies, studied astrology with much earnestness and 
 did not reject it till he had demonstrated the falsehood of 
 all its pretended grounds and principles. The exit of two 
 or three superstitions is no more a proof of the entry of 
 good sense, than the strangling of a despot at Algiers or 
 Constantinople is a symptom of freedom. If therefore 
 not the mere disbelief, but the grounds of such dibelief 
 must decide the question of our superior illumination, I 
 confess that I could not from my own observations on the 
 books and conversation of the age vote for the affirmative 
 without much hesitation. As many errors are despised 
 by men from ignorance as from knowledge. Whether 
 that be not the case with regard to divination, is a query 
 that rises in my mind (notwithstanding my fullest convic- 
 tion of the non-existence of such a power) as often as I 
 read the names of the great statesmen and philosophers, 
 which Cicero enumerates in the introductory paragraphs of 
 his work de Divinatione. — Socrates, omnesque Socratici, 
 * * * plurimisque locis gravis auctor Democritus, * * * 
 Cr at ippusque, familiar is noster, quern ego parem summis 
 Peripateticisjudico, * * * * presensionem rerumfuturarum 
 comprobarunt .* Of all the theistic philosophers, Xeno- 
 phanes was the only one who wholly rejected it. A Stoicis 
 degeneravit Panotitis, nee tamen ausus est negare vim esse 
 divinandi, sed dubitare se diiit.f Nor was this a mere out- 
 ward assent to the opinions of the State. Many of them 
 subjected the question to the most exquisite arguments, 
 and supported the affirmative not merely by experience, 
 but (especially the Stoics, who of all the sects most culti- 
 vated psychology) by a minute analysis of human nature 
 
 * L. I. s. 2. Ed. t lb. Ed. 
 
APPENDIX B. 279 
 
 and its faculties: while on the mind of Cicero himself (as 
 on that of Plato with regard to a state of retribution after 
 death) the universality of the faith in all times and countries 
 appears to have made the deepest impression. Gent em 
 quidem nullum video, neque tarn humunum utque doctum, 
 neque tarn immanent tamque barburum, qutenon significari 
 Jutura, et a quibusdam intelligi prcedicique posse censeat.* 
 I fear that the decrease in our feelings of reverence to- 
 wards mankind at large, and our increasing aversion to 
 every opinion not grounded in some appeal to the senses, 
 have a larger share in this our emancipation from the pre- 
 judices of Socrates and Cicero, than reflection, insight, 
 or a fair collation of the facts and arguments. For myself, 
 I would much rather see the English people at large believe 
 somewhat too much than merely just enough, if the latter is 
 to be produced, or must be accompanied, by a contempt 
 or neglect of the faith and intellect of their forefathers. 
 For not to say, what yet is most certain, that a people can- 
 not believe just enough, and that there are errors which no 
 wise man will treat with rudeness, while there is a proba- 
 bility that they may be the refraction of some great truth 
 as yet below the horizon ; it remains most worthy of our 
 serious consideration, whether a fancied superiority to 
 their ancestors' intellects must not be speedily followed in 
 the popular mind by disrespect for their ancestors' institu- 
 tions. Assuredly it is not easy to place any confidence in 
 a form of Church or State, of the founders of which we have 
 been taught to believe that their philosophy was jargon, 
 and their feelings and notions rank superstition. Yet are 
 we never to grow wiser? — Are we to be credulous by 
 birth-right, and take ghosts, omens, visions, and witch- 
 craft, as an heir-loom? — God forbid. A distinction 
 must be made, and such a one as shall be equally availing 
 and profitable to men of all ranks. Is this practicable ? — 
 
 * L. I. s. 1. Ed. 
 
280 APPENDIX B. 
 
 Yes ! — it exists. It is found in the study of the Old and 
 New Testament, if only it be combined with a spiritual 
 partaking of the Redeemer's Blood, of which, mysterious 
 as the symbol may be, the sacramental Wine is no mere 
 or arbitrary memento. This is the only certain, and this 
 is the universal, preventive of all debasing superstitions ; 
 this is the true Haemony, (al/m, blood, olvog, wine) 
 which our Milton has beautifully allegorized in a passage 
 strangely overlooked by all his commentators. Bear in 
 mind, reader ! the character of a militant Christian, and 
 the results (in this life and in the next) of the Redemption 
 by the Blood of Christ; and so peruse the passage: — 
 
 Amongst the rest a small unsightly root, 
 
 But of divine effect, he culled me out : 
 
 The leaf was darkish, and had prickles on it, 
 
 But in another country, as he said, 
 
 Bore a hright golden flower, hut not in this soil ! 
 
 Unknown and like esteem'd, and the dull swain 
 
 Treads on it daily with his clouted shoon ; 
 
 And yet more med'cinal is it than that Mohj 
 
 That Hermes once to wise Ulysses gave. 
 
 He called it Hremony and gave it me, 
 
 And bade me keep it as of sovran use 
 
 'Gainst all enchantments, mildew, blast, or damp, 
 
 Or ghastly furies' apparition. Comus. 
 
 These lines might be employed as an amulet against 
 delusions : for the man, who is indeed a Christian, will 
 as little think of informing himself concerning the future 
 by dreams or presentiments, as of looking for a distant 
 object at broad noon-day with a lighted taper in his hand. 
 
 But whatever of good and intellectual our nature worketh 
 in us, it is our appointed task to render gradually our own 
 work. For all things that surround us, and all things 
 that happen unto us, have (each doubtless its own provi- 
 dential purpose, but) all one common final cause : namely, 
 
APPENDIX B. 281 
 
 the increase of consciousness in such wise that whatever 
 part of the terra incognita of our nature the increased 
 consciousness discovers, our will may conquer and bring 
 into subjection to itself under the sovereignty of reason. 
 
 The leading differences between mechanic and vital 
 philosophy may all be drawn from one point : namely, 
 that the former demanding for every mode and act of ex- 
 istence real or possible visibility, knows only of distance 
 and nearness, composition (or rather juxta-position) and 
 decomposition, in short the relations of unproductive par- 
 ticles to each other; so that in every instance the result is 
 the exact sum of the component quantities, as in arith- 
 metical addition. This is the philosophy of death, and 
 only of a dead nature can it hold good. In life, much 
 more in spirit, and in a living and spiritual philosophy, 
 the two component counter-powers actually interpenetrate 
 each other, and generate a higher third, including both 
 the former, ita tamen ut sit alia et major. 
 
 To apply this to the subject of this present comment. 
 The elements (the factors, as it were) of religion are reason 
 and understanding. If the composition stopped in itself, 
 an understanding thus rationalized would lead to the 
 admission of the general doctrines of natural religion, the 
 belief of a God, and of immortality ; and probably to an 
 acquiescence in the history and ethics of the Gospel. But 
 still it would be a speculative faith, and in the nature of 
 a theory ; as if the main object of religion were to solve 
 difficulties for the satisfaction of the intellect. Now this 
 state of mind, which alas ! is the state of too many among 
 our self-entitled rational religionists, is a mere balance or 
 compromise of the two powers, not that living and gene- 
 rative interpenetration of both which would give being to 
 essential religion, — to the religion at the birth of which 
 we receive the spirit of adoption, whereby we cry Abba, 
 Father; the Spirit itself bearing witness with our spirit, 
 that we are the children of God. (Rom. viii. 15, 16.) 
 
282 APPENDIX B. 
 
 In religion there is no abstraction. To the unity and in- 
 finity of the Divine Nature, of which it is the partaker, it 
 adds the fullness, and to the fullness, the grace and the 
 creative overflowing. That which intuitively it at once 
 beholds and adores, praying always, and rejoicing always 
 — that doth it tend to become. In all things and in each 
 thing — for the Almighty Goodness doth not create gene- 
 ralities or abide in abstractions — in each, the meanest, 
 object it bears witness to a mystery of infinite solution. 
 Thus beholding as in a glass the glory of the Lord, it is 
 changed into the same image from glory to glory. (2 Cor. 
 iii. 18.) For as it is born and not made, so must it grow. 
 As it is the image or symbol of its great object, by the 
 organ of this similitude, as by an eye, it seeth that same 
 image throughout the creation; and from the same cause 
 sympathizeth with all creation in its groans to be redeemed. 
 For we know that the whole creation groaneth and tra- 
 naileth in earnest expectation (Rom. viii. 20 — 23) of a 
 renewal of its forfeited power, the power, namely, of re- 
 tiring into that image, which is its substantial form and 
 true life, from the vanity of self, which then only is when 
 for itself it hath ceased to be. Even so doth religion 
 finitely express the unity of the infinite Spirit by being a 
 total act of the soul. And even so doth it represent his 
 fullness by its depth, by its substantiality, and by an all- 
 pervading vital warmth which — relaxing the rigid, conso- 
 lidating the dissolute, and giving cohesion to that which 
 is about to sink down and fall abroad, as into the dust 
 and crumble of the grave — is a life within life, evermore 
 organizing the soul anew. 
 
 Nor doth it express the fullness only of the Spirit. It 
 likewise represents his overflowing by its communicative- 
 ness, budding and blossoming forth in all earnestness of 
 persuasion, and in all words of sound doctrine : while, 
 like the citron in a genial soil and climate, it bears a 
 golden fruitage of good-works at the same time, the ex- 
 
APPENDIX B. 283 
 
 ample waxing in contact with the exhortation, as the ripe 
 orange beside the opening orange-flower. Yea, even his 
 creativeness doth it shadow out by its own powers of im- 
 pregnation and production, (being such a one as Paul the 
 aged, and also a prisoner for Jesus Christ, who begat to 
 a lively hope his son Onesimus in his bonds) regenerating 
 in and through the Spirit the slaves of corruption, and 
 fugitives from a far greater and harder master than Phile- 
 mon. The love of God, and therefore God himself who 
 is love, religion strives to express by love, and measures 
 its growth by the increase and activity of its love. For 
 Christian love is the last and divinest birth, the harmony, 
 unity, and god-like transfiguration of all the vital, intel- 
 lectual, moral, and spiritual powers. Now it manifests 
 itself as the sparkling and ebullient spring of well-doing 
 in gifts and in labors ; and now as a silent fountain of 
 patience and long-suffering, the fulness of which no hatred 
 or persecution can exhaust or diminish ; a more than con- 
 queror in the persuasion, that neither death, nor life, nor 
 angels, nor principalities, nor powers, nor things present, 
 nor things to come, nor height, nor depth, nor any other 
 creature, shall be able to separate it from the love of God 
 which is in Christ Jesus the Lord. (Rom. viii. 38, 39.) 
 From God's love through his Son, crucified for us from 
 the beginning of the world, religion begins : and in love 
 towards God and the creatures of God it hath its end 
 and completion. O, how heaven-like it is to sit among 
 brethren at the feet of a minister who speaks under the 
 influence of love and is heard under the same influence ! 
 For all abiding and spiritual knowledge, infused into a 
 grateful and affectionate fellow Christian, is as the child 
 of the mind that infuses it. The delight which he gives 
 he receives ; and in that bright and liberal hour the glad- 
 dened preacher can scarce gather the ripe produce of to- 
 day without discovering and looking forward to the green 
 fruits and embryons, the heritage and reversionary wealth 
 
284 APPENDIX C. 
 
 of the days to come ; till he bursts forth in prayer and 
 thanksgiving — The harvest truly is plenteous, but the la- 
 bourers few. gracious Lo?'d of the harvest, send forth 
 labourers into thy harvest! There is no difference be- 
 tween the Jew and the Greek. Thou, Lord over all, art 
 rich to all that call upon thee. But how shall they call 
 on him in whom they have not believed? and how shall 
 they believe in him of whom they have not heard? and 
 how shall they hear without a preacher ? and how shall 
 they preach except they be sent ? And ! how beautiful 
 upon the mountains are the feet of him that bringeth good 
 tidings, that publisheth peace, that bringeth glad tidings 
 of good things, that publisheth salvation ; that saith unto 
 the captive soul, Thy God reigneth ! God manifested in 
 the flesh hath redeemed thee I O Lord of the harvest, 
 send forth labourers into thy harvest. 
 
 Join with me, reader ! in the fervent prayer that we 
 may seek within us what we can never find elsewhere, 
 that we may find within us what no words can put there, 
 that one only true religion, which elevateth knowing into 
 being, which is at once the science of being, and the being 
 and the life of all genuine science. 
 
 (C.) 
 
 Not without great hesitation should I express a suspi- 
 cion concerning the genuineness of any the least im- 
 portant passage in the New Testament, unless I could 
 adduce the most conclusive evidence from the earliest 
 manuscripts and commentators, in support of its interpo- 
 lation : well knowing that such permission has already 
 opened a door to the most fearful license. It is indeed, in 
 its consequences, no less than an assumed right of picking 
 and chusing our religion out of the Scriptures. Most 
 assuredly I would never hazard a suggestion of this kind 
 in any instance in which the retention or the omission of 
 the words could make the slightest difference with regard 
 
APPENDIX C. 285 
 
 to fact, miracle, or precept. Still less would I start the 
 question, where the hypothesis of their interpolation could 
 be wrested to the discountenancing of any article of 
 doctrine concerning which dissension existed : no, not 
 though the doubt or disbelief of the doctrine had been 
 confined to those, whose faith few but themselves would 
 honor with the name of Christianity ; however reluctant 
 we might be, both from the courtesies of social life and 
 the nobler charities of humility, to withhold from the 
 persons themselves the title of Christians. 
 
 But as there is nothing in Matthew xii. 40. which 
 would fall within this general rule, I dare permit myself 
 to propose the query, whether there does not exist internal 
 evidence of its being a gloss of some unlearned, though 
 pious, Christian of the first century, which has slipt into 
 the text? The following are my reasons. 1. It is at all 
 events a comment on the words of our Saviour, and no 
 part of his speech. 2. It interrupts the course and breaks 
 down the application of our Lord's argument, as addressed 
 to men who from their unwillingness to sacrifice their vain 
 traditions, gainful hypocrisy, and pride both of heart and 
 of demeanor, demanded a miracle for the confirmation of 
 moral truths that must have borne witness to their own 
 divinity in the consciences of all who had not rendered 
 themselves conscience-proof. 3. The text strictly taken 
 is irreconcilable with the fact as it is afterwards related, 
 and as it is universally accepted. I at least remember 
 no calculation of time, according to which the interspace 
 from Friday evening to the earliest dawn of Sunday morn- 
 ing, could be represented as three days and three nights. 
 As three days our Saviour himself speaks of it (John ii. 
 19) and so it would be described in common language as 
 well as according to the use of the Jews ; but I can find 
 no other part of Scripture which authorizes the phrase of 
 three nights. This gloss is not found either in the repe- 
 tition of the circumstance by Matthew himself (xvi. 4.) 
 
286 APPENDIX D. 
 
 nor in Mark, (viii. 12.) nor in Luke, (xii. 54.) Mark's 
 narration doth indeed most strikingly confirm my second 
 reason, drawn from the purpose of our Saviour's argu- 
 ment : for the allusion to the prophet Jonas is omitted 
 altogether, and the refusal therefore rests on the depravity 
 of the applicants, as proved by the wantonness of the ap- 
 plication itself. All signs must have been useless to such 
 men as long as the great sign of the times, the call to 
 repentance, remained without effect. 4. The gloss cor- 
 responds with the known fondness of the earlier Jewish 
 converts, and indeed of the Christians in general of the 
 first century, to bring out in detail and into exact square 
 every accommodation of the Old Testament, which they 
 either found in the Gospels, or made for themselves. It 
 is too notorious into what strange fancies, (not always at 
 safe distance from dangerous errors) the oldest uninspired 
 writers of Christian Church were seduced by this passion 
 of transmuting without Scriptural authority incidents, names 
 and even mere sounds of the Hebrew Scriptures, into Evan- 
 gelical types and correspondencies. 
 
 An additional reason may perhaps occur to those who 
 alone would be qualified to appreciate its force : namely, 
 to Biblical scholars familiar with the opinions and argu- 
 ments of sundry doctors, Rabbinical as well as Christian, 
 respecting the first and second chapter of Jonah. 
 
 (D.) 
 
 In all ages of the Christian Church, and in the later 
 period of the Jewish (that is, as soon as from their ac- 
 quaintance first with the Oriental, and afterwards with 
 the Greek, philosophy the precursory and preparative in- 
 fluences of the Gospel began to work) there have existed 
 individuals (Laodiceans in spirit, minims in faith, and 
 nominalists in philosophy) who mistake outlines for sub- 
 stance, and distinct images for clear conceptions ; with 
 whom therefore not to be a thing is the same as not to be 
 
APPENDIX D. 287 
 
 at all . The contempt in which such persons hold the 
 works and doctrines of all theologians before Grotius, and 
 of all philosophers before Locke and Hartley (at least 
 before Bacon and Hobbes) is not accidental, nor yet alto- 
 gether owing to that epidemic of a proud ignorance occa- 
 sioned by a diffused sciolism, which gave a sickly and 
 hectic shewiness to the latter half of the last century. It 
 is a real instinct of self-defence acting offensively by an- 
 ticipation. For the authority of all the greatest names of 
 antiquity is full and decisive against them ; and man, by 
 the very nature of his birth and growth, is so much the 
 creature of authority, that there is no way of effectually 
 resisting it, but by undermining the reverence for the past 
 in toto. Thus, the Jewish Prophets have, forsooth, a cer- 
 tain degree of antiquarian value, as being the only spe- 
 cimens extant of the oracles of a barbarous tribe; the 
 Evangelists are to be interpreted with a due allowance 
 for their superstitious prejudices concerning evil spirits, 
 and St. Paul never suffers them to forget that he had 
 been brought up at the feet of a Jewish Rabbi ! The 
 Greeks indeed were a fine people in works of taste ; but 
 as to their philosophers — the writings of Plato are smoke 
 and flash from the witch's cauldron of a disturbed imagi- 
 nation : — Aristotle's works a quickset hedge of fruitless 
 and thorny distinctions ; and all the philosophers before 
 Plato and Aristotle fablers and allegorizers ! 
 
 But these men have had their day : and there are signs 
 of the times clearly announcing that that day is verging to 
 its close. Even now there are not a few, on whose con- 
 victions it will not be uninfluencive to know, that the 
 power, by which men are led to the truth of things, in- 
 stead of the appearances, was deemed and entitled the 
 living and substantial Word of God by the soundest of 
 the Hebrew Doctors ; that the eldest and most profound 
 of the Greek philosophers demanded assent to their 
 doctrine, mainly as cotpia StcnrapddoToc, that is, a tradi- 
 
288 APPENDIX D. 
 
 tionary wisdom that had its origin in inspiration; that 
 these men referred the same power to the irvp aeiZuov 
 V7rb dwiKovvTog Aoyov ; and that they were scarcely less 
 express than their scholar Philo Judseus, in their affir- 
 mations of the Logos, as no mere attribute or quality, no 
 mode of abstraction, no personification, but literally and 
 mysteriously Deus alter et idem. 
 
 When education has disciplined the minds of our 
 gentry for austerer study ; when educated men shall be 
 ashamed to look abroad for truths that can be only found 
 within ; within themselves they will discover, intuitively 
 will they discover, the distinctions between the light that 
 lighteth every man that cometh into the world ; and the 
 understanding, which forms the peculium of each man, 
 as different in extent and value from another man's un- 
 derstanding, as his estate may be from his neighbour's 
 estate. The words of St. John, i. 7 — 12. are in their 
 whole extent interpretable of the understanding, which 
 derives its rank and mode of being in the human race 
 (that is, as far as it may be contrasted with the in- 
 stinct of the dog or elephant, in all, which constitutes it 
 human understanding) from the universal light. This 
 light therefore comes as to its own. Being rejected, it 
 leaves the understanding to a world of dreams and dark- 
 ness : for in it alone is life and the life is the light of' 
 men. What then but apparitions can remain to a philo- 
 sophy, which strikes death through all things visible and 
 invisible; satisfies itself then only when it can explain 
 those abstractions of the outward senses, which by an 
 unconscious irony it names indifferently facts and phe- 
 nomena, mechanically — that is, by the laws of death ; 
 and brands with the name of mysticism every solution 
 grounded in life, or the powers and intuitions of life ? 
 
 On the other hand, if the light be received by faith, to 
 such understandings it delegates the privilege (iZovaiav) to 
 become sons of God, expanding while it elevates, even 
 
APPENDIX D. 289 
 
 as the beams of the sun incorporate with the mist, and 
 make its natural darkness and earthly nature the bearer 
 and interpreter of their own glory. 'Edv firj TnaTtvanTi, 
 ov firj crvvfJTe. 
 
 The very same truth is found in a fragment of the 
 Ephesian Heraclitus, preserved by Stobteus. Ehv vo^ 
 Xeyovrag laxvpl^ta^ai %prj rep %vv(p Trdvrojv Tpsfovrai 
 yap rravTig oi dv2rpw7Tivoi vooi vtto tvbg tov Seiov (Aoyov) 
 KpartT yap togovtov okogov iSiXsi, icai HapKt'i irdai Kai 
 -rrtpiyivsTai* — To discourse rationally (if we would ren- 
 der the discursive understanding discourse of reason) it 
 behoves us to derive strength from that which is common 
 to all men; (the light that Ughteth every man.) For all 
 human understandings are nourished by the one Divine 
 Word, whose power is commensurate with his will, and 
 is sufficient for all and overfloweth, (shineth in darkness, 
 and is not contained therein, or comprehended by the 
 darkness.) 
 
 This was Heraclitus, whose book is nearly six hundred 
 years older than the Gospel of St. John, and who was 
 proverbially entitled the Dark (6 GKOTtivog.) But it was a 
 darkness which Socrates would not condemns and which 
 would probably appear to enlightened Christians the dark- 
 ness of prophecy, had the work, which he hid in the 
 temple, been preserved to us. But obscurity is a word 
 of many meanings. It may be in the subject ; it may be 
 m the author; or it maybe in the reader;— and this again 
 may originate in the state of the reader's heart; or in 
 that of his capacity; or in his temper; or in his acci- 
 
 * Serm. III. Ed. 
 
 t Diogenes Laertius has preserved the characteristic cri- 
 ticism of Socrates. Gael 6' Evpnridnv avTtp Sovra tov 
 ^paxXdrov vvyypapfia, ipeaOai, Ti Soku ; tov Se <t>dvai, 
 'Apev o-vvriKa, yevvaia' olpai de, Kai a pri GvvrJKw ttXtjv 
 AyXiov y& tivoq hlrai KoXvpfinrov. II. v. 7. Ed. 
 
 u 
 
290 APPENDIX D. 
 
 dental associations. Two kinds are especially pointed 
 out by the divine Plato in his Sophistes. The beauty of 
 the original is beyond my reach. On my anxiety to give 
 the fulness of the thought, 1 must ground my excuse for 
 construing rather than translating. The fidelity of the 
 version may well atone for its harshness in a passage that 
 deserves a meditation beyond the ministry of words, even 
 the words of Plato himself, though in them, or no where, 
 are to be heard the sweet sounds, that issued from the 
 head of Memnon at the touch of light. — " One thing is 
 the hardness to be understood of the sophist, another that 
 of the philosopher. The former retreating into the ob- 
 scurity of that which hath not true being, {tov ftij ovrog) 
 and by long intercourse accustomed to the same, is hard 
 to be known on account of the duskiness of the pkce. 
 But the philosopher by contemplation of pure reason 
 evermore approximating to the idea of true being (tov 
 ovtoq) is by no means easy to be seen on account of the 
 splendor of that region. For the intellectual eyes of the 
 many flit, and are incapable of looking fixedly toward the 
 God-like/'* 
 
 * The passage is : — 
 
 SE. Tov fikv 8rj <pi\6o~0(pov iv ToiovTtp Tivi tott(j) Kai 
 vvv koX tVfira avsvprjaofitv, lav Z,r}Tiof.iev, idelv fikv 
 Xaktirbv Ivapywg ical tovtov, ertpov jjlijv rporrov rj re 
 tov aotyiGTOv %a\£7r6r»7e i] ti tovtov. 
 
 6EAI. ILwg; 
 
 JSJE. 'O fiiv cnroOidpacfKiriv tig tt)V tov firj ovrog gkotei- 
 voTrfTa, rpifSy irpoaaiTT6ix(.voQ avrrjg, did to gkothvov 
 tov T07rov KCLTavoijaai %aXE7r6g. V yap ', 
 
 6EAI. "Eoikev. 
 
 SE. 'O Se ye tyiXoaotyog, t?j tov ovrog ad did Xoyifffiutv 
 irpoaKdfitvog idea, cud to Xafnrpbv av rrjg x ( ^P a £ ovda- 
 fiuig svirtrrjg 6(p9rivai' to. yap Trjg toiv 7ToXXCjv ip v XVG 
 aupara KapTspeiv irpbg to Qtiov atyopuivra dHvara. 
 s. 84.— Ed. 
 
APPENDIX D. 291 
 
 There are, I am aware, persons who willingly admit, 
 that not in articles of faith alone, but in the heights of 
 geometry, and even in the necessary first principles of 
 natural philosophy, there exist truths of apodictic force in 
 reason, which the mere understanding strives in vain to 
 comprehend. Take, as an instance, the descending series 
 of infinites in every finite, a position which involves a 
 contradiction for the understanding, yet follows demon- 
 strably from the very definition, of body, as that which 
 fills a space. For w r herever there is a space filled, there 
 must be an extension to be divided. When therefore 
 maxims generalized from appearances (phenomena) are 
 applied to substances; when rules, abstracted or de- 
 duced from forms in time and space, are used as measures 
 of spiritual being, yea even of the Divine Nature which 
 cannot be compared or classed; (For my thoughts are 
 not your thoughts, neither are your ways my ways, saith the 
 Lord. Isaiah lv. 8.) — such professors cannot but protest 
 against the whole process, as grounded on a gross meta- 
 basis tig a\\o ysvog. Yet still they are disposed to tole- 
 rate it as a sort of sanative counter-excitement, that holds 
 in check the more dangerous disease of Methodism. But 
 I more than doubt of both the positions. I do not think 
 Methodism, Calvinistic or Wesleyan, the more dangerous 
 disease ; and even if it w T ere, I should deny that it is at 
 all likely to be counteracted by the rational Christianity 
 of our modern Alogi (XSyog tt'igtewq dXoyog !) who, mis- 
 taking unity for sameness, have been pleased by a mis- 
 nomer not less contradictory to their own tenets than in- 
 tolerant to those of Christians in general, to entitle them- 
 selves Unitarians. The two contagions attack each a 
 wholly different class of minds and tempers, and each 
 tends to produce and justify the other, accordingly as the 
 predisposition of the patient may chance to be. If fa- 
 naticism be as a fire in the flooring of the Church, the 
 idolism of the unspiritualized understanding is the dry 
 
292 APPENDIX E. 
 
 rot in its beams and timbers. "\(3piv %p>) cfitvvvuv 
 ti.aWov r\ TTvpicairjv, says Ileraclitus.* It is not the sect 
 of Unitarian Dissenters, but the spirit of Unitarianism in 
 the members of the Church that alarms me. To what 
 open revilings, and to what whispered slanders, I subject 
 my name by this public avowal, I well know: cnricrTovg 
 ydp rivag tlvai kiriarixpuiv 'HpatcXeiTog, <})1]<tlv, aicovcrai 
 ovk 67ri? a fiivovQ ovd' t'nrtiv a\\a icai, Kvveg tig, [Sav^ov- 
 mv ov av firj yivwOKtixri, 
 
 (E.) 
 The accomplished author of the Arcadia, tbe star of 
 serenest brilliance in the glorious constellation of Eliza- 
 beth's court, our England's Sir Philip Sidney, the para- 
 mount gentleman of Europe, the poet, warrior, and states- 
 man, held high converse with Spenser on the idea of su- 
 persensual beauty ; on all " earthly fair and amiable," as 
 the symbol of that idea ; and on music and poesy as its 
 living educts. With the same genial reverence did the 
 younger Algernon commune with Harrington and Milton 
 on the idea of a perfect State ; and in what sense it is 
 true, that the men (that is, the aggregate of the inhabitants 
 of a country at any one time) are made for the State, not 
 the State for the men. But these lights shine no longer, 
 or for a few. Exeunt : and enter in their stead Holo- 
 fernes and Costard, masked as Metaphysics and Com- 
 mon-sense. And these too have their ideas. The former 
 has an idea that Hume, Hartley, and Condillac have ex- 
 ploded all ideas, but those of sensation ; he has an idea 
 that he was particularly pleased with the fine idea of the 
 last-named philosopher, that there is no absurdity in 
 asking What color virtue is of? inasmuch as the proper 
 philosophic answers would be black, blue, or bottle-green, 
 according as the coat, waistcoat and small-clothes might 
 
 * Diog. Laert. ix. 1. Ed. 
 
APPENDIX E. 293 
 
 chance to be of the person, the series of whose motions 
 had excited the sensations, which formed our idea of vir- 
 tue. The latter has no idea of a better-flavored haunch 
 of venison than he dined off at the Albion. He admits 
 that the French have an excellent idea of cooking in ge- 
 neral, but holds that their best cooks have no more idea 
 of dressing a turtle than the gourmands themselves, at 
 Paris, have any real idea of the true taste and color of 
 the fat. 
 
 It is not impossible that a portion of the high value 
 attached of late years to the dates and margins of our old 
 folios and quartos may be transferred to their contents. 
 Even now there exists a shrewd suspicion in the minds of 
 reading men, that not only Plato and Aristotle, but even 
 Scotus Erigena,* and the schoolmen from Peter Lombardf 
 to Duns Scotus,| are not such mere blockheads, as they 
 pass for with those who have never perused a line of their 
 writings. What the results may be, should this ripen into 
 conviction, I can but guess. But all history seems to 
 favor the persuasion I entertain, that in every age the 
 speculative philosophy in general acceptance, the meta- 
 physical opinions that happen to be predominant, will 
 influence the theology of that age. Whatever is proposed 
 for the belief, as true, must have been previously admitted 
 by reason as possible, as involving no contradiction to 
 the universal forms or laws of thought, no incompatibility 
 in the terms of the proposition ; and the determination on 
 this head belongs exclusively to the science of metaphy- 
 sics. In each article of faith embraced on conviction, 
 the mind determines, first intuitively on its logical possi- 
 bility ; secondly, discursively, on its analogy to doctrines 
 already believed, as well as on its correspondence to the 
 
 * He died at Oxford in 886. Ed. 
 
 t He died Bishop of Paris in 1164. Ed. 
 
 X He died in 1308. Ed. 
 
294 APPENDIX E. 
 
 wants and faculties of our nature ; and thirdly, histori- 
 cally, on the direct and indirect evidences. But the pro- 
 bability of an event is a part of its historic evidence, and 
 constitutes its presumptive proof, or the evidence a priori. 
 Now as the degree of evidence a posteriori, requisite in 
 order to a satisfactory proof of the actual occurrence of 
 any fact stands, in an inverse ratio to the strength or 
 weakness of the evidence a priori (that is, a fact pro- 
 bable in itself may be believed on slight testimony) ; it is 
 manifest that of the three factors, by which the mind is 
 determined to the admission or rejection of the point in 
 question, the last, the historical, must be greatly influenced 
 by the second, analogy, and that both depend on the first, 
 logical congruity, not indeed as their cause or preconsti- 
 tuent, but as their indispensable condition ; so that the 
 very inquiry concerning them is preposterous (<ro0t<7/ja 
 tov v^epov 7rpoTfpov) as long as the first remains unde- 
 termined. Again: the history of human opinions (eccle- 
 siastical and philosophical history) confirms by manifold 
 instances, what attentive consideration of the position itself 
 might have authorized us to presume, namely, that on all 
 such subjects as are out of the sphere of the senses, and 
 therefore incapable of a direct proof from outward expe- 
 rience, the question whether any given position is logi- 
 cally impossible (incompatible with reason) or only in- 
 comprehensible (that is, not reducible to the forms of 
 sense, namely, time and space, or those of the under- 
 standing, namely, quantity, quality, and relation) in other 
 words, the question, whether an assertion be in itself in- 
 conceivable, or only by us unimaginable, will be decided 
 by each individual according to the positions assumed as 
 first principles in the metaphysical system which he has 
 previously adopted. Thus the existence of a Supreme 
 Reason, the creator of the material universe, involved a 
 contradiction for a disciple of Epicurus, who had con- 
 vinced himself that causative thought was tantamount to 
 
APPENDIX E. 295 
 
 something out of nothing or substance out of shadow, and 
 incompatible with the axiom Nihil ex nihilo : While on 
 the contrary to a Platonist this position, that thought or 
 mind essentially, vel sensu eminenti, is causative, is neces- 
 sarily pre-supposed in every other truth, as that without 
 which every fact of experience would involve a contra- 
 diction in reason. Now it is not denied that the framers 
 of our Church Liturgy, Homilies and Articles, entertained 
 metaphysical opinions irreconcilable in their first prin- 
 ciples with the system of speculative philosophy which 
 has been taught in this country, and only not universally 
 received, since the asserted and generally believed defeat 
 of the Bishop of Worcester (the excellent Stillingfleet) in 
 his famous controversy with Mr. Locke. Assuredly 
 therefore it is well worth the consideration of our Clergy 
 whether it is at all probable in itself, or congruous with 
 experience, that the disputed Articles of our Church de 
 revelaiis et credendis should be adopted with singleness of 
 heart, and in the light of knowledge, when the grounds 
 and first philosophy, on which the framers themselves 
 rested the antecedent credibility (may we not add even 
 the revelability?) of the Articles in question, have been 
 exchanged for principles the most dissimilar, if not con- 
 trary ? It may be said and truly, that the Scriptures, and 
 not metaphysical systems, are our best and ultimate au- 
 thority. And doubtless, on Revelation must we rely 
 for the truth of the doctrines. Yet what is considered in- 
 capable of being conceived as possible, will be deemed 
 incapable of having been revealed as real : and that phi- 
 losophy has hitherto had a negative voice, as to the inter- 
 pretation of the Scriptures in high and doctrinal points, 
 is proved by the course of argument adopted in the con- 
 troversial volumes of all the orthodox divines from Origen 
 to Bishop Bull, as well as by the very different sense at- 
 tached to the same texts by the disciples of the modern 
 metaphysique, wherever they have been at liberty to form 
 their own creeds according to their own expositions. 
 
296 APPENDIX E. 
 
 I repeat the question then : is it likely, that the faith of 
 our ancestors will be retained when their philosophy is 
 rejected, — rejected a priori, as baseless notions not worth 
 inquiring into, as obsolete errors which it would be slay- 
 ing the slain to confute ? Should the answer be in the 
 negative, it would be no strained inference that the Clergy 
 at least, as the conservators of the national faith, and the 
 accredited representatives of learning in general amongst 
 us, might with great advantage to their own peace of 
 mind qualify themselves to judge for themselves concern- 
 ing the comparative worth and solidity of the two schemes. 
 Let them make the experiment, whether a patient re- 
 hearing of their predecessors' cause, with enough of predi- 
 lection for the men to counterpoise the prejudices against 
 their system, might not induce them to move for a new 
 trial ; — a result of no mean importance in my opinion, 
 were it on this account alone, that it would recall certain 
 ex-dignitaries in the book-republic from their long exile 
 on the shelves of our public libraries to their old familiar 
 station on the reading desks of our theological students. 
 However strong the presumption were in favor of prin- 
 ciples authorized by names that must needs be so dear 
 and venerable to a minister of the Church in England, as 
 those of Hooker, Whitaker, Field, Donne, Selden, Stil- 
 lingfleet, — (masculine intellects, formed under the robust 
 discipline of an age memorable for keenness of research, 
 and iron industry) — yet no undue preponderance from 
 any previous weight in this scale will be apprehended by 
 minds capable of estimating the counter-weights, which 
 it must first bring to a balance in the scale opposite. The 
 obstinacy of opinions that have always been taken for 
 granted, opinions unassailable even by the remembrance 
 of a doubt, the silent accrescence of belief from the un- 
 watched depositions of a general, never-contradicted, 
 hearsay; the concurring suffrage of modern books, all 
 pre-supposing or re-asserting the same principles with the 
 
APPENDIX E. 297 
 
 same confidence, and with the same contempt for all 
 prior systems ; — and among these, works of highest au- 
 thority, appealed to in our Legislature, and lectured on at 
 our Universities; the very books, perhaps, that called 
 forth our own first efforts in thinking ; the solutions and 
 confutations in which must therefore have appeared ten- 
 fold more satisfactory from their having given us our first 
 information of the difficulties to be solved, of the opinions 
 to be confuted. — Verily, a clergyman's partiality towards 
 the tenets of his forefathers must be intense beyond all 
 precedent, if it can more than sustain itself against an- 
 tagonists so strong in themselves, and with such mighty 
 adjuncts. 
 
 Nor in this enumeration dare I (though fully aware of 
 the obloquy to which I am exposing myself) omit the 
 noticeable fact, that we have attached a portion even of 
 our national glory (not only to the system itself, that sys- 
 tem of disguised and decorous Epicureanism, which has 
 been the only orthodox philosophy of the last hundred 
 years ; but also, and more emphatically) to the name of 
 the assumed father of the system, who raised it to its pre- 
 sent pride of place, and almost universal acceptance 
 throughout Europe. And how was this effected ? Ex- 
 trinsically, by all the causes, consequences, and accom- 
 paniments of the Revolution in 1688 : by all the opinions, 
 interests, and passions, which counteracted by the sturdy 
 prejudices of the mal-contents with the Revolution ; 
 qualified by the compromising character of its chief con- 
 ductors ; not more propelled by the spirit of enterprise 
 and hazard in our commercial towns, than kept in check 
 by the characteristic vis inertia of the peasantry and land- 
 holders ; both parties cooled and lessoned by the equal 
 failure of the destruction, and of the restoration, of mo- 
 narchy ; — it was effected extrinsically, I say, by the same 
 influences, which — (not in and of themselves, but with all 
 these and sundry other modifications) — combined under 
 
298 APPENDIX E. 
 
 an especial control of Providence to perfect and secure 
 the majestic temple of the British Constitution : — but the 
 very same which in France, without this providential 
 counterpoise, overthrew the motley fabric of feudal op- 
 pression to build up in its stead the madhouse of Jaco- 
 binism . Intrinsically, and as far as the philosophic scheme 
 itself is alone concerned, it was effected by the mixed 
 policy and bonhommie, with which the author contrived to 
 retain in his celebrated work whatever the system pos- 
 sesses of soothing for the indolence, and of nattering for 
 the vanity, of men's average understandings : while he 
 kept out of sight all its darker features which outrage the 
 instinctive faith and moral feelings of mankind, ingeni- 
 ously threading-on the dried and shrivelled, yet still 
 wholesome and nutritious, fruits plucked from the rich 
 grafts of ancient wisdom, to the barren and worse than 
 barren fig tree of the mechanic philosophy. Thus, the 
 sensible Christians, the angeh of the church of Laodicea, 
 with the numerous and mighty sect of their admirers, de- 
 lighted with the discovery that they could purchase the 
 decencies and the creditableness of religion at so small 
 an expenditure of faith, extolled the work for its pious 
 conclusions : while the infidels, wiser in their generation 
 than the children (at least than these nominal children) of 
 light, eulogized it with no less zeal for the sake of its 
 principles and assumptions, and with the foresight of 
 those obvious and only legitimate conclusions, that might 
 and would be deduced from them. Great at all times 
 and almost incalculable are the influences of party spirit 
 in exaggerating contemporary reputation ; but never per- 
 haps from the first syllable of recorded time were they 
 exerted under such a concurrence and conjunction of 
 fortunate accidents, of helping and furthering events and 
 circumstances, as in the instance of Mr. Locke. 
 
 I am most fully persuaded, that the principles both 
 of taste, morals, and religion taught in our most popular 
 
APPENDIX E. 299 
 
 compendia of moral and political philosophy, natural the- 
 ology, evidences of Christianity, and the like, are false, 
 injurious, and debasing. But I am likewise not less 
 deeply convinced that all the well-meant attacks on the 
 writings of modern infidels and heretics, in support either 
 of the miracles or of the mysteries of the Christian reli- 
 gion, can be of no permanent utility, while the authors 
 themselves join in the vulgar appeal to common sense as 
 the one infallible judge in matters, which become subjects 
 of philosophy only, because they involve a contradiction 
 between this common sense and our moral instincts, and 
 require therefore an arbiter, which containing both emi- 
 nenter must be higher than either. We but mow down 
 the rank misgrowth instead of cleansing the soil, as long 
 as we ourselves protect and manure, as the pride of our 
 garden, a tree of false knowledge, which looks fair and 
 shewy and variegated with fruits not its own, that hang 
 from the branches which have at various times been in- 
 grafted on its stem ; but from the roots of which under 
 ground the runners are sent off, that shoot up at a distance 
 and bring forth the true and natural crop. I will speak 
 plainly, though in so doing I must bid defiance to all the 
 flatterers of the folly and foolish self-opinion of the half- 
 instructed many. The articles of our Church, and the 
 true principles of government and social order, will never 
 be effectually and consistently maintained against their 
 antagonists till the champions have themselves ceased to 
 worship the same Baal with their enemies, till they have 
 cast out the common idol from the recesses of their own 
 convictions, and with it the whole service and ceremonial 
 of idolism. While all parties agree in their abjuration 
 of Plato and Aristotle, and in their contemptuous neglect 
 of the Schoolmen and the scholastic logic, without which 
 the excellent Selden (that genuine English mind whose 
 erudition, broad, deep, and manifold as it was, is yet less 
 remarkable than his robust healthful common sense) at- 
 
300 APPENDIX E. 
 
 firms it impossible for a divine thoroughly to comprehend 
 or reputably to defend the whole undiminished and un- 
 adulterated scheme of Catholic faith, while all alike pre- 
 assume, with Mr. Locke, that the mind contains only the 
 reliques of the senses, and therefore proceed with him to 
 explain the substance from the shadow, the voice from the 
 echo, — they can but detect each the other's inconsistencies. 
 The champion of orthodoxy will victoriously expose the 
 bald and staring incongruity of the Socinian scheme with 
 the language of Scripture, and with the final causes of 
 all revealed religion : — the Socinian will retort on the or- 
 thodox the incongruity of a belief in mysteries with his 
 own admissions concerning the origin, and nature of all 
 tenable ideas, and as triumphantly expose the pretences 
 of believing in a form of words, to which the believer 
 himself admits that he can attach no consistent meaning. 
 Lastly, the godless materialist, as the only consistent be- 
 cause the only consequent reasoner, will secretly laugh at 
 both. If these sentiments should be just, the conse- 
 quences are so important that every well-educated man, 
 who has given proofs that he has at least patiently studied 
 the subject, deserves a patient hearing. Had I not the 
 authority of the greatest and noblest intellects for at least 
 two thousand years on my side, yet from the vital interest 
 of the opinions themselves, and their natural, uncon- 
 strained, and (as it were) spontaneous coalescence with 
 the faith of the Catholic Church, (they being, moreover, 
 the opinions of its most eminent Fathers) I might appeal 
 to all orthodox Christians, whether they adhere to the 
 faith only or both to the faith and forms of the Church, in 
 the words of my motto : Ad isth&c quaso vos, qualiacun- 
 que primo videantur aspect u attendite, ut qui vobis fursan 
 insanire videar, saltern quibus insaniam rationibus cognos- 
 catis. 
 
 There are still a few, however, young men of loftiest 
 minds, and the very stuff out of which the sword and 
 
APPENDIX E. 301 
 
 shield of truth and honour are to be made, who will not 
 withdraw all confidence from the writer, although 
 
 'Tis true, that passionate for ancient truths 
 And honoring with religious love the great 
 Of elder times, he hated to excess, 
 With an unquiet and intolerant scorn, 
 The hollow puppets of a hollow age 
 Ever idolatrous, and changing ever 
 Its worthless idols !* 
 
 a few there are, who will still less be indisposed to follow 
 him in his milder mood, whenever their Friend, 
 
 Piercing the long-neglected holy cave, 
 The haunt obscure of Old Philosophy, 
 Shall bid with lifted torch its starry walls 
 Sparkle, as erst they sparkled to the flame 
 Of odorous lamps tended by saint and sagelt 
 
 I have hinted, above, at the necessity of a glossary, and 
 I will conclude these supplementary remarks with a no- 
 menclature of the principal terms which occur in the ele- 
 ments of speculative philosophy, in their old and rightful 
 sense, according to my belief; at all events the sense in 
 which I have myself employed them. The most general 
 term (genus summum) belonging to the speculative intel- 
 lect, as distinguished from acts of the will, is Representa- 
 tion, or (still better) Presentation. 
 
 A conscious Presentation, if it refers exclusively to the 
 subject, as a modification of his own state of being, is= 
 Sensation. 
 
 The same if it refers to an Object, is = Perception. 
 
 A Perception, immediate and individual is = an In- 
 tuition. 
 
 Poet. Works, I. p. 200. Ed. t lb. Ed. 
 
302 APPENDIX E. 
 
 The same, mediate, and by means of a character or 
 mark common to several things, is = a Conception. 
 
 A Conception, extrinsic and sensuous, is = a Fact, or 
 a Cognition. 
 
 The same, purely mental and abstracted from the forms 
 of the understanding itself = a Notion. 
 
 A notion may be realized, and becomes cognition; but 
 that which is neither a sensation or a perception, that 
 which is neither individual (that is, a sensible intuition) 
 nor general (that is, a conception) which neither refers to 
 outward facts, nor yet is abstracted from the forms of 
 perception contained in the understanding ; but which is 
 an educt of the imagination actuated by the pure reason, 
 to which there neither !is nor can be an adequate corres- 
 pondent in the world of the senses ; — this and this alone 
 is = an Idea. Whether ideas are regulative only, ac- 
 cording to Aristotle and Kant ; or likewise constitutive, 
 and one with the power and life of nature, according to 
 Plato, and Plotinus (£v \6yq> Zc>V vv, kclI rj £a») ijv to 
 <pu>Q tujv avBpoj7ro)v) is the highest problem of philosophy, 
 and not part of its nomenclature.* 
 
 * See Table Talk, p. 95, 2d edit. Ed. 
 
A LAY SERMON, 
 
 ADDRESSED TO THE HIGHER AND MIDDLE CLASSES, 
 
 ON THE EXISTING DISTRESSES AND 
 
 DISCONTENTS. 1817. 
 
 BY SAMUEL TAYLOR COLERIDGE. 
 
 Secontr <$Tritton: 
 
 WITH THE AUTHOR'S LAST CORRECTIONS AND NOTES, 
 HENRY NELSON COLERIDGE, ESQ. M.A. 
 
'Eav pr/ i\7rify]Tt t aveXmiTTov oi)K evprjaert, dvs&ptv- 
 V7]Tov bv Kal aTropov. Heraclitus. 
 
 If ye do not hope, ye will not find : for in despairing y^ 
 block up the mine at its mouth, ye extinguish the torch, 
 even when ye are already in the shaft. 
 
 God and the world we worship still together, 
 
 Draw not our laws to Him, hut His to ours ; 
 
 Untrue to both, so prosperous in neither, 
 
 The imperfect will brings forth but barren flowers ! 
 
 Unwise as all distracted interests be, 
 
 Strangers to God, fools in humanity : 
 
 Too good for great things and too great for good, 
 
 While still " I dare not " waits upon " I would." 
 
305 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Fellow-countrymen ! You I mean, who fill the 
 higher and middle stations of society ! The com- 
 forts, perchance the splendors, that surround you, 
 designate your rank, but cannot constitute your 
 moral and personal fitness for it. Be it enough 
 for others to know that you are its legal, — but by 
 what mark shall you stand accredited to your own 
 consciences, as its worthy, — possessors ? Not by 
 common sense or common honesty ; for these are 
 equally demanded of all classes, and therefore mere 
 negative qualifications in your rank of life, or cha- 
 racteristic only by the aggravated ignominy con- 
 sequent on their absence. Not by genius or splen- 
 did talent; for these, as being gifts of nature, are 
 objects of moral interest for those alone, to whom 
 they have been allotted. Nor yet by eminence 
 in learning ; for this supposes such a devotion of 
 time and thought, as would in many cases be in- 
 compatible with the claims of active life. Erudition 
 is, doubtless, an ornament that especially beseems 
 a high station : but it is professional rank only that 
 renders its attainment a duty. 
 
 The mark in question must be so far common, 
 that we may be entitled to look for it in you from 
 the mere circumstance of your situation, and so far 
 
 x 
 
306 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 distinctive, that it must be such as cannot be ex- 
 pected generally from the inferior classes. Now 
 either there is no such criterion in existence, or 
 the desideratum is to be found in an habitual con- 
 sciousness of the ultimate principles, in reference 
 to which you think and act. The least that can 
 be demanded of the least favored among you is an 
 earnest endeavour to walk in the light of your own 
 knowledge ; and not, as the mass of mankind, by 
 laying hold on the skirts of custom. Blind fol- 
 lowers of a blind and capricious guide, forced like- 
 wise (though oftener, I fear, by their own improvi- 
 dence,* than by the lowness of their estate) to 
 
 * A truth, that should not however he said, save in the 
 spirit of charity, and with the palliating reflection, that this 
 very improvidence has hitherto been, though not the inevi- 
 table, yet the natural result of poverty and the Poor Laws. 
 With what gratitude I venerate my country and its laws, my 
 humble publications from the Fears in Solitude, printed in 
 1798, (Poet. Works, I. p. 132.) to the present discourse bear 
 witness. — Yet the Poor Laws and the Revenue ! — if I per- 
 mitted myself to dwell on these exclusively, I should be 
 tempted to fancy that the domestic seals were put in commis- 
 sion and entrusted to Argus, Briareus, and Cacus, as lords 
 of the commonalty. Alas ! it is easy to see the evil ; but to 
 imagine a remedy is difficult in exact proportion to the expe- 
 rience and good sense of the seeker. That excellent man, 
 Mr. Perceval, whom I regard as the best and wisest states- 
 man this country has possessed since the Revolution — (I 
 judge only from his measures and the reports of his speeches 
 in Parliament, for I never saw him) — went into the Minis- 
 try, with the design as well as the wish of abolishing lot- 
 teries. I was present at a table, when this intention was an- 
 nounced by a venerable relative of the departed statesman, 
 
INTRODUCTION. 307 
 
 consume life in the means of living", the multitude 
 may make the sad confession 
 
 Tempora mutantur ; nos et mutamur in Mis, 
 
 unabashed. But to Englishmen in the enjoyment 
 of a present competency, much more to such as are 
 defended against the anxious future, it must needs 
 be a grievous dishonor (and not the less grievous, 
 though perhaps less striking, from its frequency) 
 to change with the times, and thus to debase their 
 
 who loved and honored the man, but widely dissented from 
 him as a politician. Except myself, all present were partizans 
 of the Opposition ; but all avowed their determination on 
 this score alone, as a great moral precedent, to support the 
 new minister. What was the result 1 Two lotteries in the 
 first year instead of one ! The door of the cabinet has a quality 
 the most opposite to the ivory gate of Virgil. It suffers no 
 dreams to pass through it. Alas ! as far as any wide scheme 
 of benevolence is concerned, the inscription over it might 
 seem to be the Dantean 
 
 Lasciate ogni speranza, voi ch'entrate ! 
 We judge harshly because we expect irrationally. But on 
 the other hand, this disproportion of the power to the wish 
 will, sooner or later, end in that tame acquiescence in things 
 as they are, which is the sad symptom of a moral necrosis 
 commencing. And commence it will, if its causes are not 
 counteracted by the philosophy of history, that is, by history 
 read in the spirit of prophecy ; — if they are not overcome bv 
 the faith which, still re-kindling hope, still re-enlivens cha- 
 rity. Without the knowledge of man, the knowledge of 
 -men is a hazardous acquisition. What insight might not our 
 statesmen acquire from the study of the Bible merely as 
 history, if only they had been previously accustomed to 
 study history in the same spirit, as that in which good men 
 read the Bible ! 
 
308 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 motives and maxims, the sacred household of con- 
 science, into slaves and creatures of fashion. Thou 
 therefore art inexcusable, O man! (Rom. ii. 1) 
 if thou dost not give to thyself a reason for the 
 faith that is in thee : if thou dost not thereby 
 learn the safety and the blessedness of that other 
 Apostolic precept, Whatsoever ye do, do it in 
 faith. Your habits of reflection should at least be 
 equal to your opportunities of leisure, and to that 
 which is itself a species of leisure, — your immu- 
 nity from bodily labour, from the voice and lash of 
 the imperious ever-recurring- this day. Your at- 
 tention to the objects that stretch away below you 
 in the living landscape of good and evil, and your 
 researches into their existing or practicable bearings 
 on each other, should be proportional to the ele- 
 vation that extends and diversifies your prospect. 
 If you possess more than is necessary for your 
 own wants, more than your own wants ought to be 
 felt by you as your own interests. You are pacing 
 on a smooth terrace, which you owe to the happy 
 institutions of your country, — a terrace on the 
 mountain's breast. To what purpose, by what 
 moral right, if you continue to gaze only on the 
 sod beneath your feet ? Or if converting means 
 into ends and with all your thoughts and efforts 
 absorbed in selfish schemes of climbing cloudward, 
 you turn your back on the wide landscape, and 
 stoop the lower, the higher you ascend. 
 
 The remedial and prospective advantages that 
 may be rationally anticipated from the habit of 
 
INTRODUCTION. 309 
 
 contemplating particulars in their universal laws ; 
 its tendency at once to fix and to liberalize the 
 morality of private life, at once to produce and 
 enlig-hten the spirit of public zeal ; and let me add, 
 its especial utility in recalling the origin and pri- 
 mary purport of the term, generosity,* to the heart 
 and thoughts of a populace tampered with by so- 
 phists and incendiaries of the revolutionary school ; 
 these advantages I have felt it my duty and have 
 made it my main object to press on your serious 
 attention during the whole period of my literary 
 labors from earliest manhood to the present hour. 
 Whatever may have been the specific theme of my 
 communications, and whether they related to cri- 
 ticism, politics, or religion, still principles, their 
 subordination, their connection, and their applica- 
 tion, in all the divisions of our tastes, duties, rules 
 of conduct and schemes of belief, have constituted 
 my chapter of contents. 
 
 It is an unsafe partition which divides opinions 
 without principle from unprincipled opinions : and 
 if the latter are not followed by correspondent ac- 
 tions, we are indebted for the escape, not to the 
 agent himself, but to his habits of education, to 
 the sympathies of superior rank, to the necessity 
 of character, often, perhaps, to the absence of 
 
 * A genere: the qualities either supposed natural and 
 instinctive to men of noble race, or such as their rank is cal- 
 culated to inspire, as disinterestedness, devotion to the ser- 
 vice of their friends and clients, frankness, and the like. 
 
310 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 temptation from providential circumstances or the 
 accident of a gracious nature. These, indeed, are 
 truths of all times and places ; but I seemed to see 
 especial reason for insisting- on them in our own 
 times. A long- and attentive observation had con- 
 vinced me that formerly men were worse than their 
 principles, but that at present the principles are 
 worse than the men. 
 
 Few are sufficiently aware how much reason 
 most of us have, even as common moral livers, to 
 thank God for being Englishmen. It would fur- 
 nish grounds both for humility towards Providence 
 and for increased attachment to our country, if 
 each individual could but see and feel how large a 
 part of his innocence he owes to his birth, breed- 
 ing, and residence in Great Britain. The admi- 
 nistration of the laws; the almost continual preach- 
 ing of moral prudence ; the pressure of our ranks 
 on each other, with the consequent reserve and 
 watchfulness of demeanor in the superior ranks, 
 and the emulation in the subordinate ; the vast 
 depth, expansion and systematic movements of our 
 trade ; and the consequent interdependence, the 
 arterial or nervelike network of property, which 
 make every deviation from outward integrity a 
 calculable loss to the offending individual himself 
 from its mere effects, as obstruction and irregula- 
 rity ; and lastly, the naturalness of doing as others 
 do : — these and the like influences, peculiar, some 
 in the kind and all in the degree, to this privileged 
 island, are the buttresses, on which our foundation- 
 
INTRODUCTION. 311 
 
 less well-doing* is upholden even as a house of cards, 
 the architecture of our infancy, in which each is 
 supported by all. 
 
 Well then may we pray, Give us peace in our 
 time, O Lord ! Well for us if no revolution, or 
 other general visitation, betray the true state of 
 our national morality ! But above all, well will it 
 be for us if even now we dare disclose the secret 
 to our own souls ! Well will it be for as many of 
 us as have duly reflected on the Prophet's assurance, 
 that we must take root downwards, if we would 
 bear fruit upivards ; if we would bear fruit, and 
 continue to bear fruit, when the foodful plants that 
 stand straight, only because they grow in company, 
 or whose slender surface-roots owe their whole 
 stedfastness to their intertanglement, have been 
 beaten down by the continued rains, or whirled 
 aloft by the sudden hurricane. Nor have we far 
 to seek for what ever it is most important that we 
 should find. The wisdom from above has not 
 ceased for us. The principles of the oracles of 
 God (Heb. v. 12.) are still uttered from before the 
 altar; — oracles, which we may consult without 
 cost ; — before an altar where no sacrifice is required, 
 but of the vices which unman us ; no victims 
 demanded, but the unclean and animal passions, 
 which we may have suffered to house within us, for- 
 getful of our Baptismal dedication, — no victim, but 
 the spiritual sloth, or goat, or fox, or hog, which 
 lay waste the vineyard that the Lord had fenced 
 and planted for himself. 
 
312 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 I have endeavored in my previous discourse to 
 persuade the more highly gifted and educated part 
 of my friends and fellow-Christians, that as the 
 New Testament sets forth the means and conditions 
 of spiritual convalescence, with all the laws of con- 
 science relative to our future state and permanent 
 being ; so does the Bible present to us the elements 
 of public prudence, instructing us in the true 
 causes, the surest preventives, and the only cures, 
 of public evils. The authorities of Raleigh, Cla- 
 rendon, and Milton must at least exempt me from 
 the blame of singularity, if undeterred by the con- 
 tradictory charges of paradoxy from one party and 
 of adherence to vulgar and old-fashioned prejudices 
 from the other, I persist in avowing my conviction, 
 that the inspired poets, historians and sententiaries 
 of the Jews, are the clearest teachers of political 
 economy : in short, that their writings* are the 
 
 * To which I should be tempted with Burke to annex 
 that treasure of prudential wisdom, the Ecclesiasticus. I 
 not only yield, however, to the authority of our Church, but 
 reverence the judgment of its founders in separating- this 
 work from the list of the canonical books, and in refusing- to 
 apply it to the establishment of any doctrine, while they 
 caused it to be "read for example of life and instruction of 
 manners." Excellent, nay, invaluable as this book is in tht- 
 place assigned to it by our Church, that place is justified on 
 the clearest grounds. For not to say that the compiler him- 
 self candidly cautions us against the imperfections of his 
 translation, and its no small difference from the original 
 Hebrew, as it was written by his grandfather, he so ex- 
 presses himself in his prologue as to exclude all claims to 
 inspiration or divine authority in any other or higher sense 
 
INTRODUCTION 313 
 
 statesman's best manual, not only as containing 
 the first principles and ultimate grounds of State- 
 policy whether in prosperous times or in those of 
 danger and distress, but as supplying likewise the 
 
 than every writer is entitled to make, who having- qualified 
 himself by the careful study of the books of other men had 
 been drawn on to write something himself. But of still 
 greater weight practically, are the objections derived from 
 certain passages of the book, which savour too plainly of the 
 fancies and prejudices of a Jew of Jerusalem ; for example, 
 c. 1. 25-26, and of greater still the objections drawn from 
 other passages, as from c. xli. which by implication and ob- 
 vious inference are nearly tantamount to a denial of a future 
 state, and bear too great a resemblance to the ethics of the 
 Greek poets and orators in the substitution of posthumous 
 fame for a true resurrection and a consequent personal en- 
 durance ; the substitution in short, of a nominal for a real 
 immortality. Lastly the prudential spirit of the maxims in 
 general in which prudence is taught too much on its own 
 grounds instead of being recommended as the organ or 
 vehicle of a spiritual principle in its existing worldly rela- 
 tions. In short, prudence ceases to be wisdom when it is 
 not to the filial fear of God, and to the sense of the excel- 
 lence of the divine laws, what the body is to the soul, 
 Now in the woi'k of the son of Sirach, prudence is both 
 body and soul. 
 
 It were perhaps to be wished, that this work, and the 
 Wisdom of Solomon had alone received the honor of being- 
 accompaniments to the inspired writings, and that these 
 should, with a short precautionary preface and a few notes 
 have been printed in all our Bibles. The remaining books 
 might without any loss have been left for the learned or for 
 as many as were prompted by curiosity to purchase them, 
 in a separate volume. Even of the Maccabees not above a 
 third part can be said to possess any historic value, as au- 
 thentic acounts. 
 
314 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 details of their application, and as being a full 
 and spacious repository of precedents and facts in 
 proof. 
 
 Well therefore (again and again I repeat to 
 you,) well will it be for us if we have provided 
 ourselves from this armory while yet the day of 
 trouble and of treading down and of perplexity 
 appears at far distance and only in the valley of 
 vision : if we have humbled ourselves and have 
 confessed our thin and unsound state, even while 
 from the uttermost parts of the earth we were 
 hearing songs of praise and glory to the upright 
 nation. (Is. xxii. 5. xxiv. 16.) 
 
 But if indeed the day of treading down is pre- 
 sent, it is still in our power to convert it into a 
 time of substantial discipline for ourselves, and of 
 enduring benefit to the present generation and to 
 posterity. The splendour of our exploits, during 
 the late war, is less honourable to us than the 
 magnanimity of our views, and our generous con- 
 fidence in the victory of the better cause. Ac- 
 cordingly, we have obtained a good name, so that 
 the nations around us have displayed a disposition 
 to follow our example and imitate our institutions ; 
 too often I fear even in parts where from the dif- 
 ference of our relative circumstances the imitation 
 had little chance of proving more than mimicry. 
 But it will be far more glorious, and to our 
 neighbours incomparably more instructive, if in 
 distresses to which all countries are liable we be- 
 stir ourselves in remedial and preventive arrange- 
 
INTRODUCTION. 315 
 
 ments which all nations may more or less adopt ; 
 inasmuch as they are grounded on principles in- 
 telligible to all rational, and obligatory on all moral, 
 beings ; inasmuch as, having been taught by God's 
 word, exampled by God's providence, commanded 
 by God's law, and recommended by promises of 
 God's grace, they alone can form the foundations 
 of a Christian community. Do we love our 
 country ? These are the principles by which the 
 true friend of the people is contradistinguished 
 from the factious demagogue. They are at once 
 the rock and the quarry. On these alone and with 
 these alone is the solid welfare of a people to be 
 built. Do we love our own souls ? These are the 
 principles, the neglect of which writes hypocrite 
 and suicide on the brow of the professing Christian. 
 For these are the keystone of that arch on which 
 alone we can cross the torrent of life and death 
 with safety on the passage ; with peace in the re- 
 trospect ; and with hope shining upon us from 
 through the cloud toward which we are travelling. 
 Not, my Christian friends ! by all the lamps of 
 worldly wisdom clustered in one blaze can we guide 
 our paths so securely as by fixing our eyes on this 
 inevitable cloud, through which all must pass, 
 which at every step becomes darker and more 
 threatening to the children of this world, but to 
 the children of faith and obedience still thins away 
 as they approach, to melt at length and dissolve 
 into that glorious light, from which as so many 
 gleams and reflections of the same falling on us 
 
316 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 during our mortal pilgrimage, we derive all prin- 
 ciples of true and lively knowledge, alike in 
 science and in morals, alike in communities and in 
 individuals. 
 
 It has been my purpose throughout the follow- 
 ing discourse to guard myself and my readers from 
 extremes of all kinds : I will therefore conclude 
 this Introduction by inforcing the maxim in its 
 relation to our religious opinions, out of which, 
 with or without our consciousness, all our other 
 opinions flow as from their spring-head and per- 
 petual feeder. And that I might neglect no in- 
 nocent mode of attracting or relieving the reader's 
 attention, I have moulded my reflections into the 
 following 
 
 ALLEGORIC VISION. 
 
 A feeling of sadness, a peculiar melancholy, is 
 wont to take possession of me alike in spring and 
 in autumn. But in spring- it is the melancholy of 
 hope : in autumn it is the melancholy of resigna- 
 tion. As I was journeying on foot through the 
 Appennine, I fell in with a pilgrim in whom the 
 spring and the autumn and the melancholy of both 
 seemed to have combined. In his discourse there 
 were the freshness and the colors of April : 
 
 Quul ramicel a ramo, 
 Tal da pensier pensiero 
 hi lui germogliava. 
 
 But as I gazed on his whole form and figure, I 
 
INTRODUCTION. 317 
 
 bethought me of the not unlovely decays, both of 
 age and of the late season in the stately elm, 
 after the clusters have been plucked from its en- 
 twining- vines, and the vines are as bands of dried 
 withies around its trunk and branches. Even so 
 there was a memory on his smooth and ample fore- 
 head, which blended with the dedication of his 
 steady eyes, that still looked — I know not, whether 
 upward, or far onward, or rather to the line of 
 meeting where the sky rests upon the distance. 
 But how may I express that dimness of abstrac- 
 tion which lay like the flitting tarnish from the 
 breath of a sigh on a silver mirror, and which ac- 
 corded with the lustre of the pilgrim's eyes, with 
 their slow and reluctant movement, whenever he 
 turned them to any object on the right hand or on 
 he left? It seemed, methought, as if there lay 
 upon the brightness a shadowy presence of disap- 
 pointments now unfelt, but never forgotten. It 
 was at once the melancholy of hope and of resig- 
 nation. 
 
 We had not long been fellow-travellers, ere a 
 sudden tempest of wind and rain forced us to seek 
 protection in the vaulted door-way of a lone cha- 
 pelry : and we sate face to face each on the stone 
 bench along-side the low, weather-stained wall, 
 and as close as possible to the massy door. 
 
 After a pause of silence : " Even thus," said 
 he, " like two strangers that have fled to the same 
 shelter from the same storm, not seldom do despair 
 and hope meet for the first time in the porch 
 
318 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 of death !" " All extremes meet," I answered ; 
 " but yours was a strange and visionary thought." 
 " The better then doth it beseem both the place 
 and me," he replied. " From a visionary wilt 
 thou hear a vision ? Mark that vivid flash through 
 this torrent of rain. Fire and water. Even here 
 thy adage holds true, and its truth is the moral of 
 my vision." I entreated him to proceed. Sloping 
 his face toward the arch and yet averting his eye 
 from it, he seemed to seek and prepare his words : 
 till listening to the wind that echoed within the 
 hollow edifice, and to the rain without, 
 
 Which stole on his thoughts with its two-fold sound, 
 The clash hard by and the murmur all round, 
 
 he gradually sank away, alike from me and from 
 his own purpose, and amid the gloom of the storm 
 and in the duskiness of that place he sate an em- 
 blem on a rich man's sepulchre, or like a mourner 
 on the sodded grave of an only one, an aged mourner, 
 who is watching the waned moon and sorroweth 
 not. Starting at length from his brief trance of 
 abstraction, with courtesy and an atoning smile he 
 renewed his discourse, and commenced his parable. 
 During one of those short furlows from the ser- 
 vice of the body, which the soul may sometimes 
 obtain even in this its militant state, I found my- 
 self in a vast plain, which I immediately knew to 
 be the Valley of Life. It possessed an astonishing 
 diversity of soils : here was a sunny spot, and there 
 a dark one, forming just such a mixture of sun- 
 
INTRODUCTION. 319 
 
 shine and shade, as we may have observed on the 
 mountains' side on an April day, when the thin 
 broken clouds are scattered over heaven. Almost 
 in the very entrance of the valley stood a large 
 and gloomy pile, into which I seemed constrained 
 to enter. Every part of the building was crowded 
 with tawdry ornaments and fantastic deformity. 
 On every window was portrayed, in glaring and 
 inelegant colors, some horrible tale or preterna- 
 tural incident, so that not a ray of light could 
 enter, untinged by the medium through which it 
 passed. The body of the building was full of 
 people, some of them dancing in and out in un- 
 intelligible figures, with strange ceremonies and 
 antic merriment, while others seemed convulsed 
 with horror, or pining in mad melancholy. In- 
 termingled with these, I observed a number of 
 men, clothed in ceremonial robes, who appeared 
 now to marshal the various groups and to direct 
 their movements ; and now with menacing coun- 
 tenances, to drag some reluctant victim to a vast 
 idol, framed of iron bars intercrossed, which formed 
 at the same time an immense cage, and the shape 
 of a human Colossus. 
 
 I stood for a while lost in wonder, what these 
 things might mean ; when lo ! one of the directors 
 came up to me, and with a stern and reproachful 
 look bade me uncover my head ; for that the place, 
 into which I had entered, was the temple of the 
 only true religion, in the holier recesses of which 
 the great Goddess personally resided. Himself 
 
320 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 too he bade me reverence, as the consecrated mi- 
 nister of her rites. Awe-struck by the name of 
 religion, I bowed before the priest, and humbly 
 and earnestly entreated him to conduct me into 
 her presence. He assented. Offerings he took 
 from me, with mystic sprinklings of water and 
 with salt he purified, and with strange sufflations 
 he exorcised, me ; and then led me through many 
 a dark and winding alley, the dew-damps of which 
 chilled my flesh, and the hollow echoes under my 
 feet, mingled, methought, with moanings, af- 
 frighted me. At length we entered a large hall 
 without window, or spiracle, or lamp. The asylum 
 and dormitory it seemed of perennial night ; only 
 that the walls were brought to the eye by a number 
 of self-luminous inscriptions in letters of a pale 
 sepulchral light, which held strange neutrality with 
 the darkness, on the verge of which it kept its 
 rayless vigil. I could read them, methought; but 
 though each one of the words taken separately I 
 seemed to understand, yet when I took them in 
 sentences, they were riddles and incomprehensible. 
 As I stood meditating on these hard sayings, my 
 guide thus addressed me, — Read and believe : these 
 are mysteries ! — At the extremity of the vast hall 
 the Goddess was placed. Her features, blended 
 with darkness, rose out to my view, terrible, yet 
 vacant. I prostrated myself before her, and then 
 retired with my guide, soul-withered, and wonder- 
 ing, and dissatisfied. 
 
 As I re-entered the body of the temple, I heard 
 
INTRODUCTION. 321 
 
 a deep buz as of discontent. A few whose eyes 
 were bright, and either piercing or steady, and 
 whose ample foreheads, with the weighty bar, 
 ridge-like, above the eyebrows, bespoke observa- 
 tion followed by meditative thought ; and a much 
 larger number who were enraged by the severity 
 and insolence of the priests in exacting their offer- 
 ings, had collected in one tumultuous group, and 
 with a confused outcry of " This is the temple of 
 Superstition !" after much contumely, and turmoil, 
 and cruel maltreatment on all sides, rushed out of 
 the pile: and I, methought, joined them. 
 
 We speeded from the temple with hasty steps, 
 and had now nearly gone round half the valley, 
 when we were addressed by a woman, tall beyond 
 the stature of mortals, and with a something more 
 than human in her countenance and mien, which 
 yet by mortals could be only felt, not conveyed by 
 words or intelligibly distinguished. Deep reflec- 
 tion, animated by ardent feelings, was displayed in 
 them : and hope, without its uncertainty, and a 
 something more than all these, which I understood 
 not ; but which yet seemed to blend all these into 
 a divine unity of expression. Her garments were 
 white and matronly, and of the simplest texture. 
 We inquired her name. My name, she replied, is 
 Religion. 
 
 The more numerous part of our company, af- 
 frighted by the very sound, and sore from recent 
 impostures or sorceries, hurried onwards and ex- 
 amined no farther. A few of us, struck by the 
 
 Y 
 
322 CHRISTIAN PROPHECIES. 
 
 manifest opposition of her form and manner to 
 those of the living- idol, whom we had so recently 
 abjured, agreed to follow her, though with cautious 
 circumspection. She led us to an eminence in the 
 midst of the valley, from the top of which we could 
 command the whole plain, and observe the relation 
 of the different parts, of each to the other, and of 
 each to the whole, and of all to each. She then 
 gave us an optic glass which assisted without 
 contradicting our natural vision, and enabled us to 
 see far beyond the limits of the Valley of Life : 
 though our eye even thus assisted permitted us 
 only to behold a light and a glory, but what we 
 could not descry, save only that it was, and that 
 it was most glorious. 
 
 And now with the rapid transition of a dream, 
 I had overtaken and rejoined the more numerous 
 party, who had abruptly left us, indignant at the 
 very name of religion. They journeyed on, goad- 
 ing each other with remembrances of past oppres- 
 sions, and never looking back, till in the eager- 
 ness to recede from the temple of Superstition they 
 had rounded the whole circle of the valley. And 
 ]o ! there faced us the mouth of a vast cavern, at 
 the base of a lofty and almost perpendicular rock, 
 the interior side of which, unknown to them, and 
 unsuspected, formed the extreme and backward 
 wall of the temple. An impatient crowd, we en- 
 tered the vast and dusky cave, which was the only 
 perforation of the precipice. At the mouth of the 
 cave sate two figures ; the first, by her dress and 
 
INTRODUCTION. 323 
 
 gestures, I knew to be Sensuality ; the second 
 form, from the fierceness of his demeanour and 
 the brutal scornfulness of his looks, declared him- 
 self to be the monster Blasphemy. He uttered big- 
 words, and yet ever and anon I observed that he 
 turned pale at his own courage. We entered. 
 Some remained in the opening- of the cave, with 
 the one or the other of its guardians. The rest, 
 and I among them, pressed on till we reached 
 an ample chamber, which seemed the centre of the 
 rock. The climate of the place was unnaturally 
 cold. 
 
 In the furthest distance of the chamber sate an 
 old dim-eyed man, poring with a microscope over 
 the torso of a statue, which had neither base, nor 
 feet, nor head ; but on its breast was carved, Na- 
 ture. To this he continually applied his glass, 
 and seemed enraptured with the various inequa- 
 lities which it rendered visible on the seemingly 
 polished surface of the marble. Yet evermore was 
 this delight and triumph followed by expressions 
 of hatred, and vehement railing against a bein°-, 
 who yet, he assured us, had no existence. This 
 mystery suddenly recalled to me what I had read 
 in the holiest recess of the temple of Superstition. 
 The old man spoke in divers tongues, and conti- 
 nued to utter other and most strange mysteries. 
 Among the rest he talked much and vehemently 
 concerning an infinite series of causes and effects, 
 which he explained to be — a string of blind men, 
 the last of whom causrht hold of the skirt of the 
 
324 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 one before him, he of the next, and so on till they 
 were all out of sight ; and that they all walked 
 infallibly straight, without making- one false step, 
 though all were alike blind. Methought I bor- 
 rowed courage from surprise, and asked him, — 
 " Who then is at the head to guide them?" He 
 looked at me with ineffable contempt, not un- 
 mixed with an angry suspicion, and then replied, 
 " No one ; — the string of blind men goes on for 
 ever without any beginning : for although one 
 blind man cannot move without stumbling, yet 
 infinite blindness supplies the want of sight." I 
 burst into laughter, which instantly turned to 
 terror ; — for as he started forward in rage, I caught 
 a g'lance of him from behind; and lo ! I beheld a 
 monster bi-form and Janus-headed, in the hinder 
 face and shape of which I instantly recognized 
 the dread countenance of Superstition — and in the 
 terror I awoke. 
 
A LAY SERMON, 
 
 ETC. 
 
 Blessed are ye that sow beside all waters. 
 
 Isaiah xxxii. 20. 
 
 On all occasions the be^innin^ should look toward 
 the end ; and most of all when we offer counsel 
 concerning- circumstances of great distress, and 
 of still greater alarm. But such is my business 
 at present, and the common duty of all whose 
 competence justifies the attempt. And therefore, 
 my Christian friends and fellow Englishmen, have 
 I in a day of trouble and of treading down a.nd 
 of perplexity , taken my beginning from this as- 
 surance of an inspired messenger to the devisers 
 of liberal things, (xxxiii. 8.) who confident in 
 hope are fearless in charity. For to enforce the 
 precept involved in this gladsome annunciation of 
 the" Evangelical herald, to awaken the lively feel- 
 ing which it breathes, and to justify the line of 
 conduct which it encourages, are the end to 
 which my present efforts are directed — the ulti- 
 mate object of the present address, to which all 
 the other points, therein discussed, are but intro- 
 ductory and preparative. Blessed are ye that sow 
 beside all waters. It is the assurance of a Pro- 
 phet, and therefore surety itself to all who profess 
 
326 CHRISTIAN HOPEFULNESS 
 
 to receive him as such. It is a command in the 
 form of a promise, which at once instructs us in 
 our duty and forecloses every possible objection to 
 its performance. It is at once our guide and our 
 pioneer — a hreeze from Heaven, which at one and 
 the same time determines our path, impels us along 
 it, and removes beforehand each overhanging 
 cloud that might have conspired with our own 
 dimness to bewilder or to dishearten us. What- 
 ever our own despondence may whisper, or the 
 reputed masters of political economy may have 
 seemed to demonstrate, neither by the fears and 
 scruples of the one, or by the confident affirma- 
 tions of the other, let us be deterred. They must 
 both be false if the Prophet is true. We will still 
 in the power of that faith which can hope even 
 against hope continue to sow beside all waters : 
 for there is a blessing attached to it by God him- 
 self, to whose eye all consequences are present, on 
 whose will all consequences depend. 
 
 But I had also an additional motive for the selec- 
 tion of this verse. Easy to be remembered from 
 its briefness, likely to be remembered from its 
 beauty, and with not a single word in it which the 
 malignant ingenuity of faction could pervert to the 
 excitement of any dark or turbulent feeling, I 
 chose it both as the text and title of this dicourse, 
 that it might be brought under the eye of many 
 thousands who will know no more of the discourse 
 itself than what they read in the advertisements of 
 it in our public papers. 
 
A DUTY. 327 
 
 In point of fact it was another passage of Scrip- 
 ture, the words of another Prophet, that originally 
 occasioned this address by one of those accidental 
 circumstances, which so often determine the current 
 of our thoughts. From a company among* whom 
 the distresses of the times and the disappointments 
 of the public expectations had been agitated with 
 more warmth than wisdom, I had retired to solitude 
 and silent meditation. A Bible chanced to lie open 
 on the table, my eyes were cast idly on the page 
 for a few seconds, till gradually* as a mist clears 
 away, the following words became visible, and at 
 once fixed my attention. We looked for peace, but 
 no good came ; for a time of health, and behold, 
 trouble. — I turned to the beginning of the chapter: 
 it was the eighth of the Prophet Jeremiah, and 
 having read it to the end, I repeated aloud the verses 
 which had become connected in my memory by their 
 pertinency to the conversation, to which I had been 
 so lately attending: namely, the 11th, 15th, 20th, 
 and 22nd. 
 
 They have healed the hurt of the daughter of 
 my people slightly, saying, Peace, Peace, when 
 there is no peace. We looked for peace, but no 
 good came : for a time of health, and behold, 
 trouble ! The harvest is past, the summer is 
 ended: and we are not saved. Is there no balm in 
 Gilead ? Is there no physician ? Why then is 
 not the health of the daughter of my people re- 
 covered, ? 
 
 These impassioned remonstrances, these heart- 
 
328 CHARACTER 
 
 probing- interrogatories, of the lamenting Prophet 
 do indeed anticipate a full and alas ! a too faithful 
 statement of the case, to the public consideration of 
 which we have all of late been so often and so 
 urgently invited, and the inward thought of which 
 our very countenances betray as by a communion 
 of alarm. In the bold painting of Scripture lan- 
 guage, all faces gather blackness, — the many at 
 the supposed magnitude of the national embarass- 
 ment, the wise at the more certain and far more 
 alarming evil of its moral accompaniments. Peace 
 has come without the advantages expected from 
 peace, and on the contrary, with many of the se- 
 verest inconveniences usually attributed to war. 
 We looked for peace, but no good came ; for a 
 time of health, and behold, trouble! The harvest 
 is past, the summer is ended, and we are not saved. 
 The inference therefore contained in the preceding- 
 verse is unavoidable. Where war has produced 
 no repentance, and the cessation of war has brought 
 neither concord nor tranquillity, we may safely cry 
 aloud with the prophet: They have healed the 
 hurt of the daughter of my people slightly, saying 
 Peace, Peace, when there is no peace : and pro- 
 ceed to answer the three questions in the answers 
 to which the Prophet instructs us to seek the solu- 
 tion of the problem. First, who are they who have 
 hitherto prescribed for the case, and are still tam- 
 pering with it? What are their qualifications ? What 
 has been their conduct? Second, what is the true 
 seat and source of the complaint, — the ultimate 
 
OF THE DEMAGOGUE 329 
 
 causes as well as the immediate occasions ? And 
 lastly, what are the appropriate medicines ? Who 
 and where are the true physicians ? 
 
 First, who are those that have been ever loud and 
 foremost in their pretensions to a knowledge both 
 of the disease and the remedy ? The answer to 
 this question is continued in a preceding- part of 
 the chapter from which I extracted the text, where 
 the Prophet Isaiah enumerates the conditions of a 
 nation's recovery from a state of depression and 
 peril. The vile person, he tells us, must no more be 
 called liberal, nor the churl be said to be boun- 
 tiful. For the vile person will speak villainy, 
 and his heart will work iniquity to practise hy- 
 pocrisy and to utter error against the Lord ; to 
 make empty the soul of the needy, and he will 
 cause the drink of the thirsty to fail. The in- 
 struments also of the churl are evil : he deviseth 
 wicked devices to destroy the poor with lying 
 words, even when the needy speaketh aright. But 
 the liberal deviseth liberal things, and by liberal 
 things shall he stand. ( xxxii. 5, 6, 7, S.J 
 
 Such are the political empirics, mischievous in 
 proportion to their effrontery and ignorant in pro- 
 portion to their presumption, the detection and ex- 
 posure of whose true characters the inspired states- 
 man and patriot represents as indispensable to the 
 re-establishment of the general welfare, while his 
 own portrait of these impostors whom in a former 
 chapter (ix. 15.) he calls, the tail of the nation, 
 and in the following verse, demagogues that cause 
 
330 IN ALL AGES 
 
 the people to err, affords to the intelligent believer 
 of all ages and countries the means of detecting 
 them, and of undeceiving all whose own malignant 
 passions have not rendered them blind and deaf and 
 brutish. For these noisy and calumnious zealots, 
 whom (with an especial reference indeed to the 
 factious leaders of the populace who under this 
 name exercised a tumultuary despotism in Jeru- 
 salem, at once a sign and a cause of its approaching 
 downfall,) St. John beheld in the Apocalyptic vision* 
 as a compound of locust and scorpion, are not of 
 one place or of one season. They are the peren- 
 nials of history : and though they may disappear 
 for a time, they exist always in the egg and need 
 only a distempered atmosphere and an accidental 
 ferment to start up into life and activity. 
 
 It is worth our while, therefore, or rather it is 
 
 * My own conception of this canonical book is, that it nar- 
 rates in the broad and inclusive form of the ancient Prophets 
 (that is, in the prophetic power of faith and moral insight 
 irradiated by inspiration) the successive struggles and final 
 triumph of Christianity over the Paganism and Judaism of 
 the then Roman Empire, typified in the fall of Rome, the 
 destruction of the Old and the symbolical descent of the 
 New Jerusalem. Nor do I think its interpretation even in 
 detail attended with any insuperable difficulties. 
 
 It was once my intention to have translated the Apoca- 
 lypse into verse, as a poem, holding a mid place between 
 the epic narrative and the choral drama : and to have an- 
 nexed a commentary in prose : —an intention long and fondly 
 cherished, but during many years deferred from an un- 
 feigned sense of my deficiency ; and now there remains only 
 the hope and the wish, or rather a feeling between both. 
 
A DECEIVER, 331 
 
 our duty to examine with a more attentive eye this 
 representative portrait drawn for us by an infallible 
 master, and to distinguish its component parts each 
 by itself so that we may combine without confusing 
 them in our memory; till they blend at length 
 into one physiognomic expression, which whenever 
 the counterpart is obtruded on our notice in the 
 sphere of our own experience, may be at once re- 
 cognized, and enable us to convince ourselves of 
 the identity by a comparison of feature with feature. 
 The passage commences with a fact which to the 
 inexperienced might well seem strange and impro- 
 bable ; but which being a truth nevertheless of our 
 own knowledge, is the more striking and charac- 
 teristic. Worthless persons of little or no estima- 
 tion for rank, learning, or integrity, not seldom 
 profligates, with whom debauchery has outwrestled 
 rapacity, easy because unprincipled, and generous 
 because dishonest, are suddenly cried up as men 
 of enlarged views and liberal sentiments, our only 
 genuine patriots and philanthropists: and churls, 
 that is, men of sullen tempers and surly demeanor ; 
 men tyrannical in their families, oppressive and 
 troublesome to their dependents and neighbours, 
 and hard in their private dealings between man 
 and man ; men who clench with one hand what 
 they have grasped with the other ; these are ex- 
 tolled as public benefactors, the friends, guardians, 
 and advocates of the poor ! Here and there in- 
 deed we may notice an individual of birth and 
 fortune, 
 
332 AN INCENDIARY, 
 
 (For great estates enlarge not narrow minds) 
 
 who has been duped into the ranks of incendiaries 
 and mob-sycophants by an insane restlessness, and 
 the wretched ambition of figuring as the Triton of 
 the minnows. Or we may find, perhaps, a pro- 
 fessional man of shewy accomplishments but of a 
 vulgar taste, and shallow acquirements, who in 
 part from vanity, and in part as means of in- 
 troduction to practice, will seek notoriety by an 
 eloquence Avell calculated to set the multitude 
 agape, and excite gratis to over-acts of sedition 
 or treason which he may afterwards be retained to 
 defend. These however are but exceptions to the 
 general rule. Such as the Prophet has described, 
 such is the sort of men ; and in point of historic 
 fact it has been from men of this sort, that pro- 
 faneness is gone forth into all the land. (Jere- 
 miah, xxiii. 15.) 
 
 In harmony with the general character of these 
 false prophets are the particular qualities assigned 
 to them. First, a passion for vague and violent in- 
 vective, an habitual and inveterate predilection for 
 the language of hate, and rage, and contumely, 
 an ungoverned appetite for abuse and defamation. 
 The vile will talk villainy. 
 
 But the fetid flower will ripen into the poisonous 
 berry, and the fruits of the hand follow the blos- 
 soms of the slanderous lips. His heart will work 
 iniquity. That is, he will plan evil, and do his 
 utmost to carry his plans into execution. The 
 
AN INCENDIARY, 333 
 
 guilt exists already ; and there wants nothing but 
 power and opportunity to condense it into crime 
 and overt act. He that hateth his brother is a 
 murderer, says St. John : and of many and va- 
 rious sorts are the brother-haters, in whom this 
 truth may be exemplified. Most appropriately for 
 our purpose, Isaiah has selected the fratricide of 
 sedition, and with the eagle eye and practised 
 touch of an intuitive demonstrator he unfolds the 
 composition of the character, part by part, in the 
 secret history of the agent's wishes, designs and 
 attempts, of his ways, his means, and his ends. 
 The agent himself, the incendiary and his kindling 
 combustibles, had been already sketched by Solo- 
 mon in the rapid yet faithful outline of a master 
 in the art ; The beginning of the words of his 
 mouth is foolishness and the end of his talk 
 mischievous madness. (Eccles. x. 13.) If in the 
 spirit of prophecy,* the wise ruler had been pre- 
 sent to our own times, and their procedures ; if 
 
 * Solomon has himself informed us that beyond wealth and 
 conquest, and as of far greater importance to him, in his ar- 
 duous office of king and magistrate, he had sought through 
 knowledge of wisdom to lay hold on folly ; — that is, by the study 
 of man to arrive at a grounded knowledge of men, and 
 through a previous insight into the nature and conditions 
 of good to acquire by inference a thorough comprehension 
 of the evil that arises from its deficiency or perversion. 
 And truly in all points of prudence, public and private, we 
 may accommodate to the royal Preacher his own words : 
 ( Eccles. ii. 12.) What can the man say that cometh after the 
 King 1 Even that ichich hath been said already. 
 
334 A MALIGNANT, 
 
 while he sojourned in the valley of vision he 
 had actually heard the very harangues of our reign- 
 ing- demagogues to the convened populace ; could 
 he have more faithfully characterized either the 
 speakers or the speeches ? Whether in spoken or 
 in printed addresses, whether in periodical journals 
 or in yet cheaper implements of irritation, the ends 
 are the same, the process is the same, and the 
 same is their general line of conduct. On all occa- 
 sions, — but most of all and with a more bustling 
 malignity whenever any public distress inclines 
 the lower classes to turbulence, and renders them 
 more apt to be alienated from the government of 
 their country ; — in all places and at every oppor- 
 tunity pleading to the poor and ignorant, — no 
 where and at no time are they found actually 
 pleading for them. Nor is this the worst. They 
 even plead against them. Yes ! — sycophants to 
 the crowd, enemies of the individuals, and well- 
 wishers only to the continuance of their miseries, 
 they plead against the poor and afflicted, under the 
 weak and wicked pretence that we are to do no- 
 thing of what we can, because we cannot do all 
 that we would wish. Or if this sophistry of sloth 
 Csophisma pigri) should fail to check the bounty 
 of the rich, there is still the sophistry of slander 
 in reserve to chill the gratitude of the poor. If 
 they cannot dissuade the liberal from devising li- 
 beral things, they will at least blacken the motives 
 of his beneficence. If they cannot close the hand 
 of the giver, they will at least embitter the gift in 
 
A TYRANT, 335 
 
 the mouth of the receivers. Is it not as if thev 
 had said within their hearts: — " The sacrifice of 
 charity has been offered indeed in despite of us ; 
 but with bitter herbs shall it be eaten ! (Exod. 
 xii. 8.) Imagined wrongs shall make it distaste- 
 ful. We will infuse vindictive and discontented 
 fancies into minds, already irritable and suspicious 
 from distress : till the fever of the heart shall coat 
 the tongue with gall and spread wormwood on the 
 palate ?" 
 
 However angrily our demagogues may disclaim 
 all intentions of this kind, such has been their pro- 
 cedure, and it is susceptible of no other interpreta- 
 tion. We all know that the shares must be scanty, 
 where the thing to be divided bears no proportion 
 to the number of the claimants. Yet He, who satis- 
 fied a multitude in the wilderness with a few loaves 
 and fishes, is still present to his Church. Small 
 as the portions are, if they are both given and 
 taken in the spirit of his commands, a blessino- 
 will go with each ; and the handful of meal shall 
 not fail, until the day when the Lord bringeth 
 back plenty on the land. But no blessing can 
 enter where envy and hatred are already in pos- 
 session ; and small good will the poor man have 
 of the food prepared for him by his more favored 
 brother, if he have been previously taught to re- 
 gard it as a mess of pottage given to defraud him 
 of his birth-right. 
 
 If then to promise medicine and to administer 
 poison ; if to flatter in order to deprave ; if to af- 
 
336 A HYPOCRITE AND A SLANDERER. 
 
 feet love to all and shew pity to none ; if to exag- 
 gerate and misderive the distress of the labouring 
 classes in order to make them turbulent, and to 
 discourage every plan for their relief in order to 
 keep them so ; if to skulk from private infamy in 
 the mask of public spirit, and make the flaming 
 patriot privilege the gamester, the swindler, or the 
 adulterer ; if to seek amnesty for a continued vio- 
 lation of the laws of God by an equal pertinacity 
 in outraging the laws of the land ; if these charac- 
 terize the hypocrite, we need not look far back 
 or far round for faces, wherein to recognize the 
 third striking feature of this prophetic portrait. 
 When therefore the verifying facts press upon us 
 in real life ; when we hear persons, the tyranny of 
 whose will is the only law in their families, de- 
 nouncing all law as tyranny in public ; — persons, 
 whose hatred of power in others is in exact pro- 
 portion to their love of it for themselves ; when 
 we behold men of sunk and irretrievable cha- 
 racters, to whom no man would entrust his wife, 
 his sister, or his purse, having the effrontery to 
 propose that we should entrust to them our reli- 
 gion and our country ; when we meet with pa- 
 triots, who aim at an enlargement of the rights 
 and liberties of the people by inflaming the popu- 
 lace to acts of madness that necessitate fetters; — 
 pretended heralds of freedom and actual pioneers 
 of military despotism ; we will call to mind the 
 words of the prophet Isaiah, and say to ourselves : 
 This is no new thing under the sun ! We have 
 
LIBERTY OF THE PRESS 337 
 
 heard it with our own ears, and it was declared to 
 our fathers, and in the old time before them, that 
 one of the main characteristics of demagogues in 
 all ages is, to practise hypocrisy. 
 
 Such, I assert, has been the general line of con- 
 duct pursued by the political empirics of the day : 
 and your own recent experience will attest the 
 truth of the assertion. It was affirmed likewise 
 at the same time, that as the conduct, such was 
 the process : and I will seek no other support of 
 this charge, I need no better test both of the men 
 and their works, than the plain question : Is there 
 one good feeling to which they do — is there a 
 single bad passion to which they do not — appeal ? 
 If they are the enemies of liberty in general, inas- 
 much as they tend to make it appear incompatible 
 with public quiet and personal safety, still more em- 
 phatically are they the enemies of the liberty of the 
 press in particular ; and therein of all the truths 
 human and divine which a free press is the most 
 efficient and only commensurate means of protect- 
 ing, extending, and perpetuating. The strongest, 
 indeed, the only plausible, arguments against the 
 education of the lower classes are derived from 
 the writings of these incendiaries ; and if for our 
 neglect of the light that hath been vouchsafed to 
 us beyond measure, the land should be visited with 
 a spiritual dearth, it will have been in no small 
 degree occasioned by the erroneous and wicked 
 principles which it is the trade of these men to 
 propagate. Well therefore has the Prophet made 
 
 z 
 
338 ENDANGERED. 
 
 it the fourth mark of these misleaders of the mul- 
 titude, not alone to utter error, but to utter error 
 against the Lord, to make empty the soul of the 
 hungry. Alas ! it is a hard and a mournful thing 
 that the press should be constrained to call out 
 for the harsh curb of the law against the press. 
 For how shall the law predistinguish the ominous 
 scritch owl from the sacred notes of augury, from 
 the auspicious and friendly birds of warning ? 
 And yet will we avoid this seeming injustice, we 
 throw down all fence and bulwark of public de- 
 cency and public opinion. Already has political 
 calumny joined hands with private slander, and 
 every principle, every feeling, that binds the citi- 
 zen to his country, the spirit to its Creator, is in 
 danger of being undermined. Not by reasoning, 
 — for from that there is no danger ; but by the 
 mere habit of hearing them reviled and scoffed at 
 with impunity. Were we to contemplate the evils 
 of a rank and unweeded press only in its effects 
 on the manners of the people, and on the general 
 tone of thought and conversation, the greater love 
 we bore to literature, and to all the means and 
 instruments of human improvement, the more 
 anxiously should we wish for some Ithuriel spear 
 that might remove from the ear of the ignorant 
 and half-learned, and expose in their own fiendish 
 shape, those reptiles, which inspiring venom and 
 forging illusions as they list, 
 
 thence raise, 
 
 At least distemper'd discontented thoughts, 
 Vain hopes, vain aims, inordinate desires. 
 
THE DEMAGOGUE S MEANS. 339 
 
 I feel, my friends ! that even the strong- and 
 painful interest which the peculiar state of the 
 times, and almost the occurrences of the hour 
 create, can scarcely counterbalance the wearisome 
 aversion inspired by the deformity and palpable- 
 ness of the subject itself. As the plan originates 
 in the malignant restlessness of desperate ambition 
 or desperate circumstances, so are its means and 
 engines a drag-net of fraud and delusion. The 
 instruments also of the churl are evil, he deviseth 
 wicked devices with lying words. He employs a 
 compound poison, of which the following- are the 
 main ingredients, the proportions varying- as the 
 case requires, or the wit of the poisoner suggests. 
 It will be enough rapidly to name and number the 
 components, as in a catalogue. 1. Bold, warm, 
 and earnest assertions, it matters not whether sup- 
 ported by facts or not, nay, though they should 
 involve absurdities and demonstrable impossibili- 
 ties ; as for example, that the amount of the sine- 
 cure places given by the executive power would 
 suffice to remove all distress from the land. He 
 is a bungler in the trade, and has been an indocile 
 scholar of his dark master, the father of lies, who 
 cannot make an assertion pass for a fact with an 
 ignorant multitude. The natural generosity of the 
 human heart which makes it an effort to doubt, 
 the confidence which apparent courage inspires, 
 and the contagion of animal enthusiasm, will in- 
 sure the belief. Even in large assemblies of men 
 highly educated it is too often sufficient to place 
 impressive images in juxta-position ; and the con- 
 
340 the demagogue's means. 
 
 stitutive forms of the mind itself aided by the 
 power of habit will supply the rest. For we all 
 think by causal connections. 2. Startling parti- 
 cular facts, which, dissevered from their context, 
 enable a man to convey falsehood while he says 
 truth. 3. Arguments built on passing events and 
 deriving- an undue importance from the feelings 
 of the moment. The mere appeal, however, to the 
 auditors whether the arguments are not such that 
 none but an ideot or a hireling could resist, is an 
 effective substitute for any argument at all. For 
 mobs have no memories. They are in nearly the 
 same state as that of an individual when he makes 
 (what is termed) a bull. The passions, like a 
 fused metal, fill up the wide interstices of thought, 
 and supply the defective links : and thus incom- 
 patible assertions are harmonized by the sensation, 
 without the sense, of connection. 4. The display 
 of defects without the accompanying advantages, 
 or vice versa. 5. Concealment of the general and 
 ultimate result behind the scenery of local and 
 particular consequences. 6. Statement of posi- 
 tions that are true only under particular condi- 
 tions, to men whose ignorance or fury, make them 
 forget that these conditions are not present, or 
 lead them to take for granted that they are. 7. 
 Chains of questions, especially of such questions 
 as the persons best authorized to propose are ever 
 the slowest in proposing ; and objections, intelli- 
 gible of themselves, the answers to which require 
 the comprehension of a system. 8. Vague and 
 
THE DEMAGOGUES MEANS. 341 
 
 common-place satire, stale as the wine in which 
 flies were drowned last summer, seasoned by the 
 sly tale and important anecdote of yesterday, that 
 came within the speaker's own knowledge ! 9. 
 Transitions from the audacious charge, not seldom 
 of as signal impudence " as any thing was ever 
 carted for," to the lie pregnant and interpretative : 
 the former to prove the orator's courage, and that 
 he is neither to be bought, nor frightened ; the latter 
 to flatter the sagacity of the audience. 
 
 'Ej/ Tvavovpyia re KCli jpao-ti icai KopaXncevficuriv. 
 
 10. Jerks of style, from the lunatic trope, pyfiaO' 
 /7T7ro€a^uoj-'a, 7ro\Xac re aXivci'iOpag £7rwj', to the buf- 
 foonery and " red-lattice phrases " of the canaglia, 
 anc&p GvcKtCibv fioploopov re -koXvv kcu kukiuq koL 
 rrvKotyavTiciQ ; the one in ostentation of superior 
 rank and acquirements (for where envy does not 
 interfere, man loves to look up ;) the other in 
 pledge of heartiness and good fellowship. 11. 
 Lastly, and throughout all, to leave a general im- 
 pression of something striking, something that is 
 to come of it, and to rely on the indolence of men's 
 understandings and the activity of their passions 
 for their resting in this state, as the brood- warmth 
 fittest to hatch whatever serpents' egg* opportunity 
 may enable the deceiver to place under it. Let 
 but mysterious expressions* be aided by signifi- 
 
 * Vide North's Examen, p. 20 ; and The Knights of 
 Aristophanes. A version of this comedy, abridged and 
 
342 THE RESULT. 
 
 cant looks and tones, and you may cajole a hot 
 and ignorant audience to believe any thing by say- 
 ing-nothing, and finally to act on the lie which they 
 themselves have been drawn in to make. This is 
 the pharmacopoeia of political empirics, here and 
 everywhere, now and at all times. These are the 
 drugs administered, and the tricks played off by 
 the mountebanks and zanies of patriotism ; drugs 
 that will continue to poison as long as irreligion 
 secures a predisposition to their influence ; and 
 artifices that, like stratagems in war, are never 
 the less successful for having succeeded a hundred 
 times before. They bend their tongues as a bow : 
 they shoot out deceits as arrovjs : they are pro- 
 phets of the deceit of their own hearts : they 
 cause the people to err by their dreams and their 
 lightness: they make the people vain, they feed 
 them with vjormzuood, they give them the water 
 of gall for drink ; and the jjeople love to have it 
 so. And what is the end thereof? (Jerem. 
 passim.) 
 
 Isaiah answers for me in the concluding words 
 of the description; — To destroy the poor evert 
 
 modernized, would be a most seasonable present to the 
 public. The words quoted above from this play and The 
 Frogs, may be rendered freely in the order in Avhich they 
 occur : thus, 
 
 1. Thence he is illustrious, as a man of all waters, a bold 
 fellow, and one who knows how to tickle the populace. 
 
 2. Phrases on horseback, curvetting- and careering words. 
 
 3. Scattering tilth and dirt, malice and sycophantic tales. 
 
EFFECT OF TAXATION. 343 
 
 when the needy speaketh aright ; — that is, to 
 impel them to acts that must end in their ruin 
 by inflammatory falsehoods, and by working- on 
 their passions till they lead them to reject the 
 prior convictions of their own sober and unsophis- 
 ticated understandings. As in all the preceding- 
 features so in this, with which the prophetic por- 
 trait is completed, our own experience supplies 
 both proof and example. The ultimate causes of 
 the present distress and stag-nation are in my opi- 
 nion complex and deeply seated ; but the imme- 
 diate occasion is too obvious to be over-looked but 
 by eyes at once red and dim through the intoxica- 
 tion of factious prejudice, that maddening spirit 
 which pre-eminently deserves the title of vinum 
 dcemonum applied by an ancient Father of the 
 Church to a far more innocent phrenzy. It is 
 demonstrable that taxes, the product of which is 
 circulated in the country from which they are 
 raised, can never injure a country directly by the 
 mere amount ; but either from the time or cir- 
 cumstances under which they are raised, or from 
 the injudicious mode in which they are levied, or 
 from the improper objects to which they are ap- 
 plied. The sun may draw up the moisture from 
 the river, the morass, and the ocean, to be given 
 back in genial showers to the garden, the pasture 
 and the cornfield ; but it may likewise force up- 
 ward the moisture from the fields of industry to 
 drop it on the stagnant pool, the saturated swamp, 
 or the unprofitable sandwaste. The corruptions of 
 
d44 IDEA OF 
 
 ;t. system can be duly appreciated by those only 
 who have contemplated the system in that ideal 
 state of perfection exhibited by the reason ; the 
 nearest possible approximation to which under ex- 
 isting- circumstances it is the business of the pru- 
 dential understanding' to realize. Those, on the 
 other hand, who commence the examination of a 
 system by identifying- it with its abuses or im- 
 perfections, degrade their understanding- into the 
 pander of their passions, and are sure to prescribe 
 remedies more dangerous than the disease. Alas ! 
 there are so many real evils, so many just causes 
 of complaint in the constitutions and administra- 
 tion of all governments, our own not excepted, 
 that it becomes the imperious duty of the true 
 patriot to prevent, as much as in him lies, the 
 feelings and efforts of his fellow-country-men from 
 losing themselves on a wrong scent. 
 
 If then w T e are to master the ideal of a benefi- 
 cent and judicious system of finance as the pre- 
 liminary to 'all profitable insight into the defects 
 of any particular system in actual existence, we 
 could not perhaps find an apter illustration than the 
 gardens of southern Europe would supply. The 
 tanks or reservoirs would represent the capital of a 
 nation ; while the hundred rills hourly varying- 
 their channels and directions under the gardener's 
 spade would give a pleasing image of the dispersion 
 of that capital through the whole population by the 
 joint effect of taxation and trade. For taxation 
 itself is a part of commerce, and the Government 
 
A BENEFICIAL TAXATION. 345 
 
 may be fairly considered as a great manufactur- 
 ing-house, carrying- on in different places, by 
 means of its partners and overseers, the trades of 
 the ship-builder, the clothier, the iron-founder, 
 and the like. As long as a balance is preserved 
 between the receipts and the returns of Govern- 
 ment in their amount, quickness, and degree of 
 dispersion ; as long as the due proportion obtains 
 in the sums levied to the mass in productive cir- 
 culation, so long does the wealth and circumstantial 
 prosperity of the nation, — (its wealth, I say, not its 
 real welfare ; its outward prosperity, but not neces- 
 sarily its happiness) — remain unaffected, or rather 
 they will appear to increase in consequence of the 
 additional stimulus given to the circulation itself 
 by the reproductive action of all large capitals, 
 and through the check which taxation, in its own 
 nature, gives to the indolence of the wealthy in its 
 continual transfer of property to the industrious 
 and enterprizing. If different periods be taken, 
 and if the comparative weight of the taxes at each 
 be calculated, as it ought to be, not by the sum 
 levied on each individual, but by the sum left in 
 his possession, the settlement of the account will 
 be in favor of the national wealth, to the amount 
 of all the additional productive labor sustained or 
 excited by the taxes during the intervals between 
 their efflux and their re-absorption. 
 
 But on the other hand, in a direct ratio to this 
 increase will be the distress produced by the dis- 
 turbance of this balance, by the loss of this pro- 
 
346 EALANCE DISTURBED. 
 
 portion ; and the operation of the distress will be 
 at least equal to the total amount of the difference 
 between the taxes still levied, and the quantum of 
 aid withdrawn from individuals by the abandonment 
 of others, and of that which the taxes, that still 
 remain, have ceased to give by the altered mode 
 of their re-dispersion. But to this we must add 
 the number of persons raised and reared in con- 
 sequence of the demand created by the preceding 1 
 state of things, and now discharged from their oc- 
 cupations : whether the latter belong exclusively 
 to the executive power, as that of soldiers and the 
 like, or from those in which the labourers for the 
 nation in general are already sufficiently numerous. 
 Both these classes are thrown back on the public, 
 and sent to a table where every seat is pre-occu- 
 pied. The employment lessens as the number of 
 men to be employed is increased ; and not merely 
 in the same, but from additional causes and from 
 the indirect consequences of those already stated, 
 in a far greater ratio. For it may easily happen, 
 that the very same change, which had produced 
 this depression at home, may from equivalent 
 causes have embarrassed the countries in com- 
 mercial connection with us. At one and the same 
 time the great customer at home wants less, and 
 our customers abroad are able to buy less. The 
 conjoint action of these circumstances will furnish, 
 for a mind capable of combining them, a suffi- 
 cient solution of the melancholy fact. They can- 
 not but occasion much distress, much obstruction, 
 
TRANSITION FROM WAR TO PEACE. 347 
 
 and these again in their re-action are sure to be 
 more than doubled by the still greater and uni- 
 versal alarm, and by the consequent check of con- 
 fidence and enterprise, which they never fail to 
 produce. 
 
 Now it is a notorious fact, that these causes did 
 all exist to a very extraordinary degree, and that 
 they all worked with united strength, in the late 
 sudden transition from war to peace. It was one 
 among the many anomalies of the late war, that it 
 acted, after a few years, as a universal stimulant. 
 We almost monopolized the commerce of the world. 
 The high wages of our artizans and the high prices 
 of agricultural produce intercirculated. Leases of 
 no unusual length not seldom enabled the provident 
 and thrifty farmer to purchase the estate he had 
 rented. Every where might be seen roads, rail- 
 ways, docks, canals, made, making, and projected ; 
 villages swelling into towns, while the metropolis 
 surrounded itself, and became (as it were) set with 
 new cities. Finally, in spite of all the waste and 
 havock of a twenty years' war the population of 
 the empire was increased by more than two millions. 
 The efforts and war-expenditure of the nation, 
 and the yearly revenue, were augmented in the 
 same proportion : and to all this we must add a 
 fact of the utmost importance in the present 
 question, that the war did not, as was usually the 
 case in former wars, die away into a long expected 
 peace by gradual exhaustion and weariness on both 
 
318 CIRCUMSTANCES AND DISTRESS 
 
 sides, but plunged to its conclusion by a concen- 
 tration, we might almost say, by a spasm of energy, 
 and consequently by an anticipation of our re- 
 sources. We conquered by compelling rever- 
 sionary power into alliance with our existing and. 
 natural strength. The first intoxication of triumph 
 having passed over, this our agony of glory was 
 succeeded of course by a general stiffness, and 
 relaxation. The antagonist passions came into 
 play ; financial solicitude was blended with con- 
 stitutional and political jealousies, and both, alas ! 
 were exacerbated by personal imprudences, the 
 chief injury of which consisted in their own ten- 
 dency to disgust and alienate the public feeling. 
 And with all this, the financial errors and pre- 
 judices even of the more educated classes, in short, 
 the general want or imperfection of clear views 
 and a scientific insight into the true effects and in- 
 fluences of taxation, and the mode of its operation, 
 became now a real misfortune, and opened an addi- 
 tional source of temporary embarrassment. Re- 
 trenchment could no longer proceed by cautious 
 and calculated steps ; but was compelled to hurry 
 forward, like one who crossing the sands at too 
 late an hour finds himself threatened by the inrush 
 of the tide. Nevertheless, it was a truth susceptible 
 of little less than mathematical demonstration, 
 that the more, and the more suddenly, the revenue 
 was diminished by the abandonment of the war- 
 taxes, the greater would be the disturbance of the 
 
.ATTENDING IT. 3-19 
 
 balance :* so that the agriculturalist, the manu- 
 facturer, or the tradesman, — (all in short but an- 
 nuitants and fixed stipendiaries) — who during- the 
 war having paid as five had fifteen left behind, 
 would shortly have less than ten after having paid 
 but two and a half. What then the pressure on 
 the country must be, when we add to the above the 
 operation of the return to cash payments, without 
 any change made in the intrinsic value of the coin, 
 and so as in effect to reimpose the amount of taxes, 
 nominally remitted, may be easily understood. 
 
 But there is yet another circumstance, which I 
 must not pass by unnoticed. In the best of times 
 — or what the world calls such — the spirit of com- 
 
 * The distuibance of this balance mav be illustrated 
 thus : — Suppose a great capitalist to have founded in a large 
 market-town a factory that gradually increasing employed 
 at length from five to six hundred workmen ; and that he 
 had likewise a second factory at a distance from the former 
 (in the Isle of Man for instance) employing half that number, 
 all of the latter having been drafted from and still belonging 
 to the first parish. After some years we may further sup- 
 pose, that a large proportion of the housekeepers and trades- 
 people might have a running account with the capitalist, 
 many with him, as being their landlord, and still more for 
 their stock. The workmen would in like manner be for the 
 greater part on the books of the tradesfolks. As long as 
 this state of things continued, all would go on well ; — nay, 
 the town would be more prosperous with every increase of 
 the factory. The balance is preserved. The circulations 
 counterpoise each other, or rather they are neutralized by 
 interfluence. But some sudden event leads or compels the 
 capitalist to put down both factories at once and with little 
 or no warning ; and to call in all the monies owing to him, 
 
350 FLUCTUATION IN TRADE. 
 
 merce will occasion great fluctuations, some falling- 
 while others rise, and therefore in all times there 
 will be a large sum of individual distress. Trades 
 likewise have their seasons, and at all times there 
 is a very considerable number of artificers who are 
 not employed on the average more than seven or 
 eight months in the year : and the distress from 
 this cause is great or small in proportion to the 
 greater or less degree of dissipation and im- 
 providence prevailing among them. But besides 
 this, that artificial life and vigor of trade and 
 agriculture, which was produced or occasioned by 
 the direct or indirect influences of the late war, 
 proved by no means innoxious in its effects. Habit 
 
 and which by law had the preference to all other debts. What 
 would be the consequence ? The workmen are no longer 
 employed, and cannot at once pay up their arrears to the 
 tradesmen ; and though the capitalist should furnish the 
 latter with goods at half price, and make the same abatement 
 in their rent, these deductions would afford little present 
 relief : while, in the meantime the discharged workmen from 
 the distant factory would fall back on the parish, and increase 
 the general distress. The balance is disturbed. Put the 
 country at large for the parishioners, and the government in 
 all departments of expenditure for the capitalist and his 
 factories : and nearly such is the situation in which we are 
 placed by the transition from the late war to the present peace. 
 But the difference is this. The town may never recover its 
 temporary prosperity, and the capitalist may spend his re- 
 maining fortune in another county ; but a nation, of which 
 the Government is an organic part with perfect interde- 
 pendence of interests, can never remain in a state of de- 
 pression thus produced, but by its own fault : that is from 
 moral causes. 
 
IMPROVIDENCE IN FARMERS, ETC. 351 
 
 and the familiarity with outward advantages, which 
 takes off their dazzle ; sense of character ; and 
 above all, the counterpoise of intellectual pursuits 
 and resources ; are all necessary preventives and 
 antidotes to the dangerous properties of wealth and 
 power with the great majority of mankind. It is 
 a painful subject : and I leave to your own experi- 
 ence and recollection the assemblage of folly, pre- 
 sumption, and extravagance, that followed in the 
 procession of our late unprecedented prosperity ; the 
 blind practices and blending passions of specula- 
 tion in the commercial world, with the shoal of 
 ostentatious fooleries and sensual vices which the 
 sudden influx of wealth let in on our farmers and 
 yeomanry. Now though the whole mass of calamity 
 consequent on these aberrations from prudence 
 should in all fairness be attributed to the sufferer's 
 own conduct ; yet when there supervenes some one 
 common cause or occasion of distress which press- 
 ing hard on many furnishes a pretext to all, this 
 too will pass muster among its actual effects, and 
 assume the semblance and dignity of national ca- 
 lamity. Each unfortunate individual shares during 
 the hard times in the immunities of a privileged 
 order, as the most tottering and ruinous houses 
 equally with those in best repair are included in 
 the same brief after an extensive fire. The change 
 of the moon will not produce a change of weather, 
 except in places where the atmosphere has from 
 local and particular causes been predisposed to its 
 influence. But the former is one, placed aloft and 
 
352 CAUSES OF DISTRESS 
 
 conspicuous to all men ; the latter are many and 
 intricate, and known to few. Of course it is the 
 moon that must bear the entire blame of wet sum- 
 mers and scanty crops. All these, however, 
 whether they are distresses common to all times 
 alike, or though occasioned by the general revolu- 
 tion and stagnation, yet really caused by personal 
 improvidence or misconduct, combine with its pe- 
 culiar and inevitable effects in making- the cup 
 overflow. The latter class especially, as being- in 
 such cases always the most clamorous sufferers, in- 
 crease the evil by swelling the alarm. 
 
 The main causes of the present exigencies are 
 so obvious, and lie so open to the common sense of 
 mankind, that the labouring classes saw the con- 
 nection of the change in the times with the sud- 
 denness of the peace, as clearly as their superiors, 
 and being less heated with speculation, were in the 
 first instance less surprised at the results. To a 
 public event of universal concern there will often 
 be more attributed than belongs to it ; but never 
 in the natural course of human feelings will there 
 be less. That the depression began with the peace 
 would have been of itself a sufficient proof with 
 the many that it arose from the peace. But this 
 opinion suited ill with the purposes of sedition. 
 The truth, that could not be precluded, must be 
 removed : and when the needy speaketh aright, 
 the more urgent occasion is there for the wicked 
 device and the lying words. Where distress is 
 felt, tales of wrong and oppression are readily be- 
 
MISREPRESENTED. 353 
 
 lieved, to the sufferer's own disquiet. Rage and 
 revenge make the cheek pale and the hand tremble 
 worse than even want itself : and the cup of sor- 
 row overflows by being held unsteadily. On the 
 other hand nothing calms the mind in the hour of 
 bitterness so efficaciously as the conviction that it 
 was not within the means of those above us, or 
 around us, to have prevented it. An influence, 
 mightier than fascination, dwells in the stern eye 
 of necessity, when it is fixed steadily on a man : 
 for together with the power of resistance it takes 
 away its agitations likewise. This is one mercy 
 that always accompanies the visitations of the Al- 
 mighty when they are received as such. If there- 
 fore the sufferings of the lower classes are to supply 
 air and fuel to their passions, and are to be per- 
 verted into instruments of mischief, they must be 
 attributed to causes that can be represented as re- 
 movable ; either to individuals who have been pre- 
 viously rendered unpopular, or to whole classes of 
 men, accordingly as the immediate object of their 
 seducers may require. What, though nothing 
 should be more remote from the true cause ? What, 
 though the invidious charge should be not only 
 without proof, but in the face of strong proof to 
 the contrary ? What, though the pretended re- 
 medy should have no possible end but that of ex- 
 asperating the disease ? All will be of little or no 
 avail if these truths have not been administered 
 beforehand. When the wrath is gone forth, the 
 plague is already begun. Wrath is cruel, and 
 
 A A 
 
354 PENSIONS 
 
 where is there a deafness like that of an outra- 
 geous multitude ? For as the matter of fire is, 
 so it burnetii. Let the demagogue but succeed in 
 maddening the crowd, he may bid defiance to de- 
 monstration, and direct the madness against whom 
 it pleaseth him. A slanderous tongue has dis- 
 quieted many, and driven them from nation to 
 nation ; strong cities hath it pulled down and 
 overthrown the houses of great men. (Ecclus. 
 xxviii. 14.) 
 
 We see in every promiscuous public meeting 
 the effect produced by the bold assertion that the 
 present hardships of all classes are owing to the 
 number and amount of pensions and sine-cures. 
 Yet from the unprecedented zeal and activity in 
 the education* of the poor, of the thousands that 
 
 * With all due humility we contended that the war in 
 question had likewise its golden side. The anomalous occa- 
 sions and stupendous events of the contest had roused us, 
 like the blast of a trumpet from the clouds ; and as many as 
 were capable of thinking were roused to thought. It had 
 forced on the higher and middle classes — say, rather on the 
 people at large, as distinguished from the mere populace — 
 the home truth, that national honesty and individual safety, 
 private morals and public security, mutually grounded each 
 ether, that they were twined at the very root, and could not 
 grow or thrive but in intertwine : and we of Great Britain had 
 acquired this instruction without the stupifying influences 
 of terror or actual calamity. Yet that it had operated prac- 
 tically, and in a scale proportional to the magnitude of the 
 occasion, the late and present condition of manners and in- 
 tellect among the young men at Oxford and Cambridge, the 
 manly sobriety of demeanor, the submission to the routine 
 
AND SINECURES. 355 
 
 are inflamed by, and therefore give credit to, these 
 statements, there are few without a child at home, 
 who could prove their impossibility by the first 
 and simplest rules of arithmetic ; there is not one, 
 perhaps, who taken by himself and in a cooler mood, 
 would stand out against the simple question, — 
 whether it was not folly to suppose that the low- 
 ness of his wages or his want of employment could 
 be occasioned by the circumstance, that a sum (the 
 whole of which, as far as it is raised by taxation, 
 cannot take a yearly penny from him) was dis- 
 persed and returned into the general circulation by 
 annuitants of the Treasury instead of annuitants 
 of the Bank, by John instead of Peter; however 
 blameable the regulation might be in other re- 
 spects ? What then ? the hypothesis allows of a 
 
 of study in almost all, and the zeal in the pursuit of know- 
 ledge and academic distinction in a large and increasing 
 number, afford a cheering testimony to such as were familiar 
 with the state of the two Universities forty or even thirty 
 years ago, with the moral contrast which they presented, at 
 the close of the last, and during the former half of the pre- 
 sent reign ; while a proof of still greater power, and open 
 to the observation of all men, is supplied by the predomi- 
 nant anxiety concerning the education and principles of 
 their children in all the respectable classes of the commu- 
 nity, and the unexampled scale, in consequence, of the very 
 numerous large and small volumes composed or compiled 
 for the use of parents. Nor here did the salutary influence 
 stop. We had been compelled to know and feel that the 
 times in which we had to act or suffer were the Saturnalia 
 of revolution ; and fearful evidence had been given us at 
 the cost of our unfortunate neighbours, that a vicious and 
 
356 TITHES, MACHINERY. 
 
 continual reference to persons, and to all the un- 
 easy and malignant passions which personalities 
 are of all means the best fitted to awaken. The 
 grief itself, however grinding it may be, is of no 
 avail to this end ; it must first be converted into a 
 grievance. Were the audience composed chiefly 
 of the lower farmers and the peasantry, the same 
 circumstance would for the same reason have been 
 attributed wholly to the Clergy and the system of 
 tithes ; as if the corn would be more plentiful if 
 the farmers paid their whole rent to one man, in- 
 stead of paying nine parts to the landlords and the 
 tenth to the tithe-owners ! But let the meeting 
 be composed of the manufacturing poor, and then 
 it is the machinery of their employers that is 
 devoted to destruction : though it would not ex- 
 ceed the truth if I affirmed, that to the use and 
 
 ignorant population was a magazine of combustibles left 
 roofless, while madmen and incendiaries were letting- off 
 their new invented blue lights and fire-rockets in every di- 
 rection. The wish sprang up and spread throughout Eng- 
 land that every Englishman should be able to read his Bible, 
 and have a Bible of his own to read. The general wish or- 
 ganized itself into act and plan : a discovery, the living 
 educt of one man's genius and benevolence, rendered the 
 execution practicable and even easy ; and the god-like idea 
 began and is proceeding to realize itself with a rapidity yet 
 stedfastness, which nothing could make possible or credible, 
 but such a conviction effected by an experience so strange 
 and awful, and acting on that volunteer spirit, that instinct 
 of fervid yet orderly co-operation, which most of all our 
 honourable characteristics distinguishes, secures, enriches, 
 strengthens and elevates the people of Great Britain. [From 
 an Essay published in the Courier, July, 1816.] 
 
CAPITALISTS. 357 
 
 perfection of this very machinery the majority of 
 the poor deluded destroyers owe their very exist- 
 ence, owe to it that they ever beheld the light of 
 heaven ! 
 
 Even so it is with the capitalists and store- 
 keepers, who by spreading- the dearness of provi- 
 sions over a larger space and time prevent scarcity 
 from becoming real famine, the frightful lot at 
 certain and not distant intervals of our less com- 
 mercial forefathers. These men by the mere in- 
 stinct of self-interest are not alone birds of warn- 
 ing, that prevent waste ; but as the raven of Elijah, 
 they bring supplies from afar. But let the incen- 
 diary spirit have rendered them birds of ill omen : 
 and it is well if the deluded malcontents can be 
 restrained from levelling at them missiles more 
 alarming than the curse of the unwise that alighteth 
 not. There be three things (says the wise son of 
 Sirach) that mine heart fear eth, the slander of a 
 city, the gathering together of an unruly multi- 
 tude, and a false accusation : all these are ivorse 
 than death. But all these are the arena, and 
 the chosen weapons of demagogues. Wretches ! 
 they would without remorse detract the hope which 
 is the subliming and expanding warmth of public 
 credit, destroy the public credit which is the vital 
 air of national industry, convert obstruction into 
 stagnation, and make grass grow in the exchange 
 and the market-place ; if so they might but goad 
 ignorance into riot, and fanaticism into rebellion ! 
 They would snatch the last morsel from the poor 
 
358 CAUSE OF THE DISTRESS. 
 
 man's lips to make him curse the Government in 
 his heart — alas ! to fall at length, either ignomi- 
 niously beneath the strength of the outraged law, 
 or (if God in his anger, and for the punishment of 
 general depravity should require a severer and 
 more extensive retribution) to perish still more la- 
 mentably among the victims of its weakness. 
 
 Thus then, I have answered at large to the first 
 of the three questions proposed as the heads and 
 divisions of this address. I am well aware that 
 our demagogues are not the only empirics who 
 have tampered with the case. But I felt unwil- 
 ling to put the mistakes of sciolism, or even those 
 of vanity and self-interest, in the same section with 
 crime and guilt. What is omitted here will find 
 its place elsewhere ; the more readily, that having 
 been tempted by the foulness of the ways to turn 
 for a short space out of my direct path, I have en- 
 croached already on the second question ; that, 
 namely, which respects the ultimate causes and 
 immediate occasions of the complaint. 
 
 The latter part of this problem I appear to my- 
 self to have solved fully and satisfactorily. To 
 those who deem any further or deeper research 
 superfluous, I must content myself with observing, 
 that I have never heard it denied that there is 
 more than a sufficiency of food in existence. I 
 have, at least, met with no proof that there is or 
 has been any scarcity, either in the materials of 
 all necessary comforts, or any lack of strength, 
 skill and industry to prepare them. If we saw a 
 
OVERBALANCE OF COMMERCIAL SPIRIT. 359 
 
 man in health pining at a full table because there 
 was not the savory meat there which he loved, 
 and had expected, the wanton delay or negligence 
 of the messenger would be a complete answer to 
 our inquiries after the occasion of this sullenness 
 or inappetence ; but the cause of it we should be 
 tempted to seek in the man's own undisciplined 
 temper, or habits of self-indulgence. So far from 
 agreeing therefore with those who find the causes 
 in the occasions, I think the half of the question 
 already solved of very unequal importance with 
 that which yet remains for solution. 
 
 The immediate occasions of the existing distress 
 may be correctly given with no greater difficulty 
 than would attend any other series of known his- 
 toric facts; but toward the discovery of its true 
 seat and sources, I can but offer a humble contri- 
 bution. They appear to me, however, resolvable 
 into the overbalance* of the commercial spirit 
 in consequence of the absence or weakness of the 
 counter -weights ; this overbalance considered as 
 displaying itself, 1. in the commercial world it- 
 self: 2. in the agricultural : 3. in the Government : 
 
 * I entreat attention to the word, over-balance. My 
 opinions would be greatly misinterpreted if I were supposed 
 to think hostilely of the spirit of commerce to which I attri- 
 bute the largest proportion of our actual freedom, and at 
 least as large a share of our virtues as of our vices. Still 
 more anxiously would I guard against the suspicion of a 
 design to inculpate any number or class of individuals. It 
 is not in the power of a minister or of a cabinet to say to the 
 
360 DECAYED FEELING OF RANK. 
 
 and, 4. in the combined influence of all three on 
 the more numerous and labouring classes. 
 
 Of the natural counter-forces to the impetus of 
 trade, the first that presents itself to my mind, is 
 the ancient feeling of rank and ancestry, com- 
 pared with our present self-complacent triumph 
 over these supposed prejudices. Not that titles 
 and the rights of precedence are pursued by us 
 with less eagerness than by our forefathers. The 
 contrary is the case ; and for this very cause, be- 
 cause they inspire less reverence. In the old 
 times they were valued by the possessors and 
 revered by the people as distinctions of nature, 
 which the Crown itself could only ornament, but 
 not give. Like the stars in heaven, their influence 
 was wider and more general, because for the mass 
 of mankind there was no hope of reaching, and 
 therefore no desire to appropriate, them. That 
 many evils as well as advantages accompanied this 
 state of things I am well aware : and likewise that 
 many of the latter have become incompatible with 
 far more important blessings. It would therefore 
 be sickly affectation to suspend the thankfulness 
 
 current of national tendency, Stay here ! or, Flow there I 
 The excess can only be remedied by the slow progress of 
 intellect, the influences of religion, and irresistible events 
 guided by Providence. In the points, even, which I have 
 presumed to blame, by the word Government I intend all 
 the directors of political power, that is, the great estates of 
 the realm, temporal and spiritual, and not only the Parlia- 
 ment, but all the elements of Parliament. 
 
ECLIPSE OF PHILOSOPHY. 361 
 
 due for our immunity from the one in an idle re- 
 gret for the loss of the other. But however true 
 this may be, and whether the good or the evil pre- 
 ponderated, still, this reverence for ancientry in 
 families acted as a counterpoise to the grosser 
 superstition of wealth. Of the efficiency of this 
 counter-influence I can offer negative proof only : 
 and for this we need only look back on the de- 
 plorable state of Holland in respect of patriotism 
 and public spirit at and before the commencement 
 of the French Revolution. 
 
 The limits and proportions of this address allow 
 little more than a bare reference to this point. The 
 same restraint I must impose on myself in the fol- 
 lowing. For under this head I include the general 
 neglect of all the austerer studies ; the long and 
 ominous eclipse of philosophy ; the usurpation of 
 that venerable name by physical and psychological 
 empiricism ; and the non-existence of a learned 
 and philosophic public, which is perhaps the only 
 innoxious form of an imperium in bnperio, but at 
 the same time the only form which is not directly 
 or indirectly encouraged. So great a risk do I 
 incur of malignant interpretation, and the asser- 
 tion itself is so likely to appear paradoxical even 
 to men of candid minds, that I should have passed 
 over this point, most important as I know it to 
 be ; but that it will be found stated more at large, 
 w r ith all its proofs, in a work on the point of pub- 
 lication. The fact is simply this. We have — 
 lovers, shall I entitle them ? — or must I not rather 
 
362 MODERN 
 
 hazard the introduction of their own phrases, and 
 say, amateurs or dilettanti, as musicians, botanists, 
 florists, mineralogists, and antiquarians ? Nor is it 
 denied that these are ingenuous pursuits, and such 
 as become men of rank and fortune. Neither in 
 these or in other points do I complain of any excess 
 in the pursuits themselves ; but of that which arises 
 from the deficiency of the counterpoise. The effect 
 is the same. Every work, which can be made use 
 of either to immediate profit or immediate pleasure, 
 every work which falls in with the desire of ac- 
 quiring wealth suddenly, or which can gratify 
 the senses, or pamper the still more degrading 
 appetite for scandal and personal defamation, is 
 sure of an appropriate circulation. But neither 
 philosophy or theology in the strictest sense of the 
 words, can be said to have even a public existence 
 among us. I feel assured that if Plato himself 
 were to return and renew his sublime lucubrations 
 in the metropolis of Great Britain, a handicrafts- 
 man from a laboratory, who had just succeeded in 
 disoxydating an earth, — silex, or lime, for instance, 
 — would be thought the more respectable, nay, 
 the more illustrious person of the two. Nor will 
 it be the least drawback from his honors, that he 
 had never even asked himself, what law of uni- 
 versal being nature uttered in this phenomenon : 
 while the character of a visionary would be the 
 sole remuneration of the man, who from the in- 
 sight into that law had previously demonstrated 
 the necessity of the fact. As to that which passes 
 
AND ELDER SYSTEMS. 363 
 
 with us under the name of metaphysics, philosophic 
 elements, and the like, I refer every man of reflec- 
 tion to the contrast between the present times and 
 those shortly after the restoration of ancient lite- 
 rature. In the latter we find the greatest men of 
 the age, statesmen, warriors, monarchs, architects 
 in closest intercourse with philosophy. I need 
 only mention the names of Lorenzo the Magnifi- 
 cent, Picus Mirandola, Ficinus and Politian ; 
 the abstruse subjects of their discussion, and the 
 importance attached to them, as the requisite qua- 
 lifications of men placed by Providence as guides 
 and governors of their fellow-creatures. If this 
 be undeniable, equally notorious is it that at pre- 
 sent the more effective a man's talents are, and 
 the more likely he is to be useful and distinguished 
 in the highest situations of public life, the earlier 
 does he shew his aversion to the metaphysics and 
 the books of metaphysical speculation, which are 
 placed before him : though they come with the 
 recommendation of being so many triumphs of mo- 
 dern good sense over the schools of ancient philo- 
 sophy. Dante, Petrarch, Spenser, Philip and Al- 
 gernon Sidney, Milton and Barrow were Platonists. 
 But all the men of genius, with whom it has been 
 my fortune to converse, either profess to know no- 
 thing of the present systems, or to despise them. 
 It would be equally unjust and irrational to seek 
 the solution of this difference in the men ; and if 
 not, it can be found only in the philosophic systems 
 themselves. And so in truth it is. The living of 
 
364 WANT OF A PHILOSOPHIC CLASS. 
 
 former ages communed gladly with a life-breathing 
 philosophy: the living of the present age wisely 
 leave the dead to take care of the dead. 
 
 But whatever the causes may be, the result is 
 before our eyes. An excess in our attachment to 
 temporal and personal objects can be counteracted 
 only by a pre-occupation of the intellect and the 
 affections with permanent, universal, and eternal 
 truths. Let no man enter, said Plato, who has 
 not previously disciplined his mind by geometry.* 
 He considered this science as the first purification 
 of the soul, by abstracting the attention from the 
 accidents of the senses. We too teach geometry ; 
 but that there may be no danger of the pupil's 
 becoming too abstract in his conceptions, it has 
 been not only proposed, but the proposal has been 
 adopted, that it should be taught by wooden dia- 
 grams. It pains me to remember with what ap- 
 plause a work, that placed the inductions of mo- 
 dern chemistry in the same rank with the demon- 
 strations of mathematical science, was received 
 even in a mathematical University. I must not 
 permit myself to say more on this subject, de- 
 sirous as I am of shewing the importance of a phi- 
 losophic class, and of evincing that it is of vital 
 utility, and even an essential element in the com- 
 position of a civilized community. It must suffice, 
 that it has been explained in what respect the pur- 
 suit of truth for its own sake, and the reverence 
 
 * Qvceiq ayeu)jJi.sTpi]TOQ tlairio. — Ed. 
 
RELIGIOUS FAITH ; 365 
 
 yielded to its professors, has a tendency to calm or 
 counteract the pursuit of wealth ; and that there- 
 fore a counterforce is wanting- wherever philosophy 
 is degraded in the estimation of society. " What 
 are you " (a philosopher was once asked) "in conse- 
 quence of your admiration of these abstruse spe- 
 culations ? " He answered : " What I am, it does 
 not become me to say; but what thousands are, 
 who despise them, and even pride themselves on 
 their ignorance, I see — and tremble ! " 
 
 There is a third influence, alternately our spur 
 and our curb, without which all the pursuits and 
 desires of man must either exceed or fall short of 
 their just measure. Need I add, that I mean the 
 influence of religion ? I speak of that sincere, that 
 entire interest, in the undivided faith of Christ 
 which demands the first-fruits of the whole man, 
 his affections no less than his outward acts, his 
 understanding equally with his feelings. For be 
 assured, never yet did there exist a full faith in the 
 divine Word, (by whom not immortality alone, 
 but light and immortality were brought into the 
 w r orld) which did not expand the intellect while it 
 purified the heart ; which did not multiply the aims 
 and objects of the mind, while it fixed and simpli- 
 fied those of the desires and passions. If acqui- 
 escence without insight ; if warmth without light ; 
 if an immunity from doubt given and guaranteed 
 by a resolute ignorance; if the habit of taking for 
 granted the words of a catechism, remembered or 
 forgotten ; if a sensation of positiveness substituted 
 
366 ITS TRUE CHARACTER. 
 
 — I will not say, for certainty, but— for that calm 
 assurance, the very means and conditions of which 
 it supersedes ; if a belief that seeks the darkness, 
 and yet strikes no root, immovable as the limpet 
 from its rock, and like the limpet fixed there by 
 mere force of adhesion ; — if these suffice to make us 
 Christians, in what intelligible sense could our 
 Lord have announced it as the height and consum- 
 mation of the signs and miracles which attested his 
 Divinity, that the Gospel was preached to the 
 poor? In what sense could the Apostle affirm 
 that believers have received, not indeed the wisdom 
 of this world that comes to nought, but the wisdom 
 of God, that we might know and comprehend the 
 things that are freely given to us of God ? or that 
 every Christian, in proportion as he is indeed a 
 Christian, has received the Spirit that searcheth 
 all things, yea, the deep things of God himself? — 
 On what grounds could the Apostle denounce even 
 the sincerest fervor of spirit as defective, where it 
 does not bring forth fruits in the understanding ?* 
 Or again : if to believe were enough, why are we 
 commanded by another Apostle, that, besides this, 
 giving all diligence we should add to our faith 
 manly energy and to manly energy knowledge ? 
 (2 Pet. i. 5.) Is it not especially significant, that 
 in the divine economy, as revealed to us in the 
 New Testament, the peculiar office of Redemption 
 is attributed to the Word, that is, to the intel- 
 
 * Brethren! be not children in understanding : howbsit, 
 in malice be ye children, but in understanding' be men. 
 
UNITARIANS. 367 
 
 ligential wisdom which from all eternity is with 
 God, and is God ; that in Him is life, and the life 
 is the light of men ? 
 
 In the present day we hear much, and from men 
 of various creeds, of the plainness and simplicity 
 of the Christian religion : and a strange abuse has 
 been made of these words, often indeed with no ill 
 intention, but still oftener by men who would fain 
 transform the necessity of believing in Christ into 
 a recommendation to believe him. The advocates 
 of the latter scheme grew out of a sect that were 
 called Socinians, but having succeeded in disbe- 
 lieving far beyond the last foot-marks of the So- 
 cini, have chosen to designate themselves by the 
 name of Unitarians. But this is a name, which in 
 its proper sense, can belong only to their antago- 
 nists : for unity or unition, and indistinguishable 
 unicity or oneness, are incompatible terms : while, 
 in the exclusive sense in which they mean the 
 name to be understood, it is a presumptuous boast, 
 and an uncharitable calumny. Their true designa- 
 tion, which simply expresses a fact admitted on all 
 sides, would be that of Psilanthrophists,* or assert- 
 
 * New things justify new terms. Novis in rebus licet nova 
 nobis verba conjingere. — We never speak of the unity of at- 
 traction, or of the unity of repulsion ; but of the unity of at- 
 traction and repulsion in each one corpuscle. The essential 
 diversity of the ideas, unity and sameness, was among the 
 elementary principles of the old logicians ; and the sophisms 
 grounded on the confusion of these terms have been ably 
 exposed by Leibnitz, in his critique on Wissowatius, the 
 acutest, perhaps, of all the learned Socinian divines, when 
 Socinian divines were undeniably men of learning. 
 
368 UNITARIASTISM. 
 
 ors of the mere humanity of Christ. It is the in- 
 terest of these to speak of the Christian religion as 
 comprised in a few plain doctrines, and containing" 
 nothing not intelligible, at the first hearing, to men 
 of the narrowest capacities. Well then, (it might 
 be replied) we are disposed to place a full reliance 
 on the veracity of the great Founder of the Chris- 
 tian religion, and likewise — which is more than 
 you yourselves are on all occasions willing to ad- 
 mit — on the accuracy and competence of the wri- 
 ters, who first recorded his acts and sayings. We 
 have learned from you, whom, — and we now wish 
 to hear from you — what we are to believe. In 
 answer to this request we are referred to a parti- 
 cular fact or incident, recorded of Jesus, by his 
 biographers, the object and purpose of which was, 
 we are told, to produce belief of certain doctrines. 
 And what are these ? Those without the previous 
 belief of which, no man would, or rather, according 
 to St. Paul's declaration, could become a convert 
 to Christianity ; doctrines, which it is certain that 
 Christ's immediate disciples believed, not less con- 
 fidently, before they had acknowledged his mission, 
 than they did afterwards. Religion and politics, 
 they tell us, require but the application of a com- 
 mon sense, which every man possesses, to a sub- 
 ject in which every man is concerned. To be a 
 musician, an orator, a painter, or even a good me- 
 chanician, presupposes genius ; to be an excellent 
 artizan or mechanic requires more than an average 
 degree of talent ; but to be a legislator or a theo- 
 
UNITARIAXISM. 369 
 
 logian, or both at once, demands nothing" but com- 
 mon sense ! Now, I willingly admit that nothing- 
 can be necessary to the salvation of a Christian 
 which is not in his power. For such, therefore, 
 as have neither the opportunity nor the capacity 
 of learning more, sufficient, doubtless, will be the 
 belief of those plain truths, and the fulfilment of 
 those commands, which to be incapable of under- 
 standing, is to be a man in appearance only. But 
 even to this scanty creed the disposition of faith 
 must be added : and let it not be forgotten that 
 though nothing can be easier than to understand a 
 code of belief, four-fifths of which consist in 
 avowals of disbelief, and the remainder in truths, 
 concerning which (in this country at least) a man 
 must have taken pains to learn to have any doubt ; 
 yet it is by no means easy to reconcile this code 
 of negatives with the declarations of the Chris- 
 tian Scriptures. On the contrary, it requires all 
 the resources of verbal criticism, and all the per- 
 verse subtlety of special pleading, to work out a 
 plausible semblance of correspondency between 
 them. It must, however, be conceded that a man 
 may consistently spare himself the trouble of the 
 attempt, and leave the New Testament unread, 
 after he has once thoroughly persuaded himself 
 that it can teach him nothing of any real importance 
 that he does not already know. St. Paul indeed 
 thought otherwise. For though he too teaches us, 
 that in the religion of Christ there is milk for 
 babes : yet he informs us at the same time, that 
 
 B B 
 
370 MEANING OF THE SIMPLICITY 
 
 there is meat for strong men ; and to the like 
 purpose one of the Fathers has observed that in 
 the New Testament there are shallows where the 
 lamb may ford, and depths where the elephant 
 must swim. The Apostle exhorts the followers of 
 Christ to the continual study of the new religion, 
 on the ground that in the mystery of Christ, which 
 in other ages was not made known to the sons of 
 men, and in the riches of Christ which no research 
 could exhaust, there were contained all the trea- 
 sures of knowledge and wisdom. Accordingly in 
 that earnestness of spirit, which his own personal 
 experience of the truth inspired, he prays with a 
 solemn and a ceremonious fervour, that being 
 strengthened with might in the inner man, they 
 may be able to comprehend with all saints ivhat 
 is the breadth and length and depth and height, 
 of that living principle at once the giver and the 
 gift of that anointing faith, which in endless evo- 
 lution teaches us of all things, and is truth ! For 
 ail things are but parts and forms of its progres- 
 sive manifestation, and every new knowledge but 
 a new organ of sense and insight into this one all- 
 inclusive verity, which, still tilling the vessel of 
 the understanding, still dilates it to a capacity of 
 yet other and yet greater truths, and thus makes 
 the soul feel its poverty by the very amplitude of 
 its present, and the immensity of its reversionary, 
 wealth. All truth indeed is simple, and needs no 
 extrinsic ornament. And the more profound the 
 truth is, the more simple : for the whole labour 
 
OF TPIE SCRIPTURES. 371 
 
 and building-up of knowledge is but one continued 
 process of simplification. But I cannot comprehend, 
 in what ordinary sense of the words the properties 
 of plainness and simplicity can be applied to the 
 Prophets, or to the writings of St. John, or to the 
 Epistles of St. Paul ; or what can have so marvel- 
 lously improved the capacity of our laity beyond 
 the same class of persons among the primitive 
 Christians; who, as we are told by a fellow Apostle, 
 found in the writings last-mentioned many passages 
 hard to be understood, which the unlearned as 
 well as the unstable, were in danger of wresting- 
 and misinterpreting. I can well understand, how- 
 ever, what is and has been the practical conse- 
 quence of this notion. It is this very consequence, 
 indeed, that occasioned the preceding remarks, 
 makes them pertinent to my present subject, and 
 gives them a place in the train of argument requi- 
 site for its illustration. For what need of any 
 after- recurrence to the sources of information con- 
 cerning a religion, the whole contents of which can 
 be thoroughly acquired at once, and in a few hours ? 
 An occasional remembrancing may, perhaps, be 
 expedient ; but what object of study can a man 
 propose to himself in a matter of which he knows 
 all that can be known, all at least, that it is of use 
 to know ? Like the first rules of arithmetic, its 
 few plain and obvious truths may hourly serve the 
 man's purposes, yet never once occupy his thoughts. 
 But it is impossible that the affections should be 
 kept constant to an object which gives no employ- 
 
372 UNITARIAN 
 
 ment to the understanding-. The energies of the 
 intellect, increase of insight, and enlarging views, 
 are necessary to keep alive the substantial faith in 
 the heart. They are the appointed fuel to the 
 sacred fire. In the state of perfection all other 
 faculties may, perhaps, be swallowed up in love ; 
 but it is on the wings of the Cherubim, which the 
 ancient Hebrew doctors interpreted as meaning" the 
 powers and efforts of the intellect, that we must 
 first be borne up to the pure empyrean : and it 
 must be Seraphs and not the hearts of poor mortals, 
 that can burn unfuelled and self-fed. Give me 
 understanding (exclaimed the royal Psalmist) and I 
 shall observe thy law with my whole heart. Teach 
 me knowledge and good judgment. Thy com- 
 mandment is exceeding broad: how I love thy 
 law ! it is my meditation all the day. The en- 
 trance of thy words giveth light, it giveth under- 
 standing to the simple. I prevented the dawning 
 of the morning : mine eyes prevent the night- 
 watches, that I might meditate upon thy word. 
 Now where the very contrary of this is the opinion 
 of many, and the practice of most, what results can 
 be expected but those which are actually presented 
 to us in our daily experience ? 
 
 There is one class of men* who read the Scrip- 
 
 * Whether it he on the increase, as a sect, is douhtful. 
 But it is admitted by all — nay, strange as it may seem, 
 made a matter of boast, — that the number of its secret ad- 
 herents, outwardly of other denominations, is tenfold greater 
 than that of its avowed and incorporated followers. And 
 
CREED. 373 
 
 tures, when they do read them, in order to pick 
 and choose their faith : or (to speak more accu- 
 rately) for the purpose of plucking* away live- 
 asunder, as it were from the divine organism of 
 
 truly in our cities and great manufacturing and commercial 
 towns, among lawyers and such of the tradesfolk as are 
 the ruling members in bookclubs, I am inclined to fear that 
 this has not been asserted without good ground. For, 
 Socinianism in its present form, consisting almost wholly 
 in attack and imagined detection, has a particular charm for 
 what are called shrewd knowing men. Besides, the vain 
 and half-educated, whose Christian and surnames in the 
 title pages of our magazines, lady's diaries, and the like, are 
 the successors of the shame-faced Critos, Phileleutheroses, 
 and Philaletheses in the time of our grandfathers, will be 
 something : and now that Deism has gone out of fashion, 
 Socinianism has swept up its refuse. As the main success 
 of this sect is owing to the small proportion which the affir- 
 mative articles of their faith ( rari nantes in gurgite vasto) bear 
 to the negative, (that is their belief to their disbelief) it will 
 be an act of kindness to the unwary to bring together the 
 former under one point of view. This is done in the 
 following catalogue, the greater part if not the whole of 
 which may be authenticated from the writings of Mr. 
 Belsham. 
 
 1. They believe in one God, professing to differ from 
 other Christians only in holding the Deity to be unipersonal, 
 the Father alone being God, the Son a mere, though an in- 
 spired and highly gifted, man, and the Holy Spirit either a 
 synonyme of God, or of the divine agency, or of its effects. 
 
 2. They believe men's actions necessitated, and consist- 
 ently with this affirm that the Christian religion (that is, 
 their view of it) precludes all remorse for our sins, they 
 being a present calamity, but not guilt. 
 
 3. They believe the Gospels though not written by in- 
 spiration, to be authentic histories on the whole : though 
 
374 UNITARIAN 
 
 the Bible, textuary morsels and fragments for the 
 support of doctrines which they had learned before- 
 hand from the higher oracle of their own natural 
 common-sense. Sanctas Scrip turas f rust ant ut 
 
 with some additions and interpolations. And on the au- 
 thority of these writings confirmed by other evidence, they 
 believe in the resurrection of the man Jesus Christ, from 
 the dead. 
 
 4. On the historic credibility of this event they believe 
 in the resurrection of the body, which in their opinion is 
 the whole man, at the last day : and differ from other 
 Churches in this only, that while other Christians believe, 
 that all men will arise in the body, they hold that all the 
 bodies that had been men will arise. 
 
 5. A certain indefinite number of mankind thus renewed 
 to life and consciousness, it is the common belief of them 
 all, will be placed in a state of happiness and immortality. 
 But with respect to those who have died in the calamitous 
 condition of unreformed sinfulness, (to what extent it is for 
 the supreme Judge to decide) they are divided among them- 
 selves. The one party teach, that such unhappy persons 
 will be raised only to be re-annihilated : the other party 
 contend, that there will be a final restoration of all men, 
 with a purgatory or state of remedial discipline, the severity 
 and duration of which will be proportioned to the kind, 
 degree, and obstinacy of the disease, and of which there- 
 fore every man is left to his own conjectural hopes and 
 fears : with this comfort however to the very worst, (that is, 
 most unfortunate and erroneous of mankind) that it will be 
 all well with them at last. In this article they differ from the 
 Papists in having no hell, and in placing their purgatory 
 after, instead of before, the day of judgment. 
 
 6. Lastly, as they hold only an intellectual and physical, 
 and not a moral, difference in the actions and characters of 
 men, they not being free agents, and therefore not moi-e re- 
 sponsible beings than the true beasts, although their greater 
 
CREED. 375 
 
 frustrent. Through the gracious dispensations of 
 Providence a complexity of circumstances may 
 co-operate as antidotes to a noxious principle, and 
 realize the paradox of a very good man under a 
 
 powers of memory and comparison render them more sus- 
 ceptible of being- acted on by prospective motives — (and 
 in this sense they retain the term, responsibility, after 
 having purified it by the ex-inanition of its old, and the trans- 
 fusion of a new, meaning) — and as they with strict conse- 
 quence, merge all the attributes of Deity in power, intelli- 
 gence, and benevolence, (mercy and justice being modes, or 
 rather perspective views, of the two latter ; the holiness of 
 God meaning the same or nothing at all ; and his anger, 
 offence, and hatred of moral evil, being mere metaphors and 
 figures of speech addressed to a rude and barbarous people) 
 they profess to hold a Redemption — not however by the 
 Cross of Christ, except as his death was an evidence of his 
 sincerity, and the necessary preliminary to his Resurrection ; 
 but — by the effects which this fact of his Resurrection, to- 
 gether with his example, and his re-publication of the moral 
 precepts (taught indeed long before, but as they think, not 
 so clearly, by Moses and the Prophets) were calculated to 
 produce on the human mind. So that if it had so happened, 
 that a man had been influenced to an innocent and useful life 
 by the example, precepts, and martyrdom of Socrates, So- 
 crates, and not Christ, would have been his Redeemer. 
 
 These are all the positives of the modern Socinian Creed, 
 and even these it was not possible to extricate wholly from 
 the points of disbelief. But if it should be asked, why this 
 resurrection, or re-creation is confined to the human animal, 
 the answer must be, — that more than this has not been reveal- 
 ed. And so far all Christians will join assent. But some have 
 added, and in my opinion much to their credit, that they 
 hope it may be the case with the brutes likewise, as they 
 see no sufficient reason to the contrary. And truly, upon 
 their scheme, I agree with them. For if man be no other or 
 
376 UNITARIAN 
 
 very evil faith. It is not denied that a Socinian 
 may be as honest, useful and benevolent a cha- 
 racter as any of his neighbours ; and if he thinks 
 more and derives a larger portion of his pleasures 
 from intellectual sources, he is likely to be more 
 
 nobler creature essentially, than he is represented in their 
 system, the meanest reptile, that maps out its path on the 
 earth by lines of slime, must be of equal worth and respec- 
 tability, not only in the sight of the Holy One, but by a 
 strange contradiction even before man's own reason. For 
 remove all the sources of esteem and the love founded on 
 esteem, and whatever else pre-supposes a will and therein 
 a possible transcendence to the material world ; mankind, 
 as far as my experience has extended, (and I am less than 
 the least of many whom I could cite as having formed the 
 very same judgment) are on the whole distinguished from 
 the other beasts incomparably more to their disadvantage, 
 by lying, treachery, ingratitude, massacre, thirst of blood, 
 and by sensualities which both in sort and degree it would 
 be libelling their brother-beasts to call bestial, than to their 
 advantage by a greater extent of intellect. And what in- 
 deed, abstracted from the free-will, could this intellect be 
 but a more shewy instinct of more various application in- 
 deed, but far less secure, useful, or adapted to its purposes, 
 than the instinct of birds, insects, and the like. In short, 
 as I have elsewhere observed, compared with the wiles and 
 factories of the spider, or with the cunning of the fox, it 
 would be but a more efflorescent, and for that very cause a 
 less efficient, salt to preserve the hog from putrifying before 
 its destined hour. 
 
 Well may the words of Isaiah be applied and addressed 
 to the teachers and followers of this sect, or rather, I would 
 say, to their tenets as personified — The ivord of the Lord was 
 unto them, precept upon precept, line upon line, here a little and 
 there a little, that they might go and fall backward, and he 
 broken and spared. Wherefore, hear the word of the Lord, ye 
 scornful men that rule this people ! Because ye have suid, We 
 
CREED. 377 
 
 so. But in such instances, (and that they are not 
 infrequent, I am, from my own experience, most 
 willing to bear witness,) the fruit is from the grafts, 
 not from the tree. The native produce is, or would 
 be, an intriguing, overbearing 1 , scornful and worldly 
 disposition ; and in point of fact, it is the only 
 scheme of religion that inspires in its adherents a 
 contempt for the understandings of all who differ 
 from them.* But be this as it may, and whatever 
 be its effects, it is not probable that Christianity 
 will have any direct influence on men who pay it 
 no other compliment than that of calling by its 
 name the previous dictates and decisions of their 
 own mother- wit. 
 
 Still, however, the more numerous class is of 
 those who do not trouble themselves at all with reli- 
 gious matters, which they resign to the clergyman of 
 the parish. But whilst not a few among these men 
 consent to pray and hear by proxy ; and whilst 
 others, more attentive to the prudential advantages 
 of a decorous character, yield the customary evi- 
 dence of their Church-membership ; but, this per- 
 formed, are at peace with themselves, and 
 
 have made a covenant with death, and with hell are we at agree- 
 ment ! Your covenant with death shall be annulled, and your 
 agreement with hell shall not stand. For your bed is shorter 
 than that a man can stretch himself upon it, and the covering 
 narrower than that lie can wrap himself in it. — xxviii. 
 
 * A Calvinist, or Moravian, for instance, would lament 
 over a disbeliever in their peculiar tenets, as over one from 
 whom the gift of faith had been hitherto withholden ; but 
 would readily join in attestation of his talents, learning, good 
 morals, and all natural gifts. — 1827. 
 
378 MODERN 
 
 think their Sunday's task 
 
 As much as God or man can fairly ask ; — 
 
 there exists amongst the most respectable laity of 
 our cities and great towns, an active, powerful, 
 and enlarging minority, whose industry, while it 
 enriches their families, is at the same time a support 
 to the revenue, and not seldom enlivens their whole 
 neighbourhood : men whose lives are free from all 
 disreputable infirmities, and of whose activity in 
 the origination, patronage, and management both 
 of charitable and of religious associations, who must 
 not have read or heard ? and which who that has, 
 will dare deny to be most exemplary ? After the 
 custom of our forefathers, and their pure household 
 religion, these, in so many respects estimable per- 
 sons, are for the greater part in the habit of having 
 family-prayer, and a portion of Scripture read every 
 morning and evening. In this class, with such 
 changes or substitutions as the peculiar tenets of the 
 sect require, we must include the sensible, orderly 
 and beneficent Society of the Friends. Here then, 
 if any where, (that is, in any class of men ; for the 
 present argument is not concerned with individu- 
 als,) we may expect to find Christianity tempering 
 commercial avidity and sprinkling its holy damps 
 on the passion of accumulation. This, I say, we 
 might expect to find, if an undoubting belief in the 
 threats and promises of Revelation, and a conse- 
 quent regularity of personal, domestic, and social 
 demeanor, sufficed to constitute that Christianity, 
 the power and privilege of which is so to renew 
 and irradiate the whole intelligential and moral life 
 
QUAKERS : 379 
 
 of man, as to overcome the spirit of the world. 
 If this, the appointed test, were found wanting-, 
 should we not be forced to apprehend, nay, are we 
 not compelled to infer, that the spirit of prudential 
 motive, however ennobled by the magnitude and 
 awfulness of its objects,* and though as the termi- 
 nation of a lower,— it may be the commencement 
 (and not seldom the occasion) of a higher state, 
 — is not, even in respect of morality itself, that 
 abiding and continuous principle of action, which 
 is either one with the faith spoken of by St. Paul, 
 or its immediate offspring. It cannot be that 
 
 * And in this alone, Palev, by a use of terms altogether 
 arbitrary, places the distinction between prudence and 
 virtue, the former being self-love in its application to the 
 sum of pain and pleasure that is likely to result to us, as the 
 consequence of our actions, in the present life only; while 
 the latter is the same self-love, that together with the pre- 
 sent consequences of our actions, takes in likewise the more 
 important enjoyments or sufferings which, accordingly as we 
 obev or disobey His known commands, God has promised 
 to bestow, or threatened to inflict, on us in the life to come. a 
 According to this writer, it becomes the duty of a rational 
 free agent (it would be more pertinent to say, of a sentient 
 
 a "And from this account of obligation it follows, that 
 we are obliged to nothing but what we ourselves are to gain 
 or lose something by ; for nothing else can be a violent 
 motive to us. As we should not be obliged to obey the 
 laws or the magistrate, unless rewards or punishments, 
 pleasure or pain, somehow or other, depended upon our 
 obedience ; so neither should we, without the same reason, 
 be obliged to do what is right, to practise virtue, or to obey 
 the commands of God." — Paley, Moral and Polit. Phil. 
 B. ir. c. 2. et passim. 
 
380 THEIR CHARACTER 
 
 spirit of obedience to the commands of Christ, by 
 which the soul dwelleth in him, and he in it ; and 
 which our Saviour himself announces as a beinu 
 born again. And this indispensable act, or in- 
 fluence, or impregnation, of which, as of a divine 
 tradition, the eldest philosophy is not silent ; which 
 clashed through the darkness of the pagan myste- 
 ries ; and which it was therefore a reproach to a 
 master in Israel, that he had not already known; 
 this is elsewhere explained, as a seed which, though 
 
 animal capable of forecast) to reduce his will to an habitual 
 coincidence with his reason, on no other ground, but because 
 he believes that God is able and determined either to gratify 
 or to torment him. Thus, the great principle of the Gospel, 
 that we are bound to love our neighbours as ourselves and 
 God above all, must, if translated into a consistency with 
 this theory of enlightened self-love, run thus : On the ground 
 of our fear of torment and our expectation of pleasure from 
 an infinitelv powerful Being, we are under a prudential ob- 
 ligation of acting towards our neighbours as if we loved 
 them equally with ourselves ; but ultimately and in very 
 truth to love ourselves only. And this is the work, this the 
 svstem of moral and political philosophy cited as highest 
 authority in our Senate and Courts of Judicature ? And 
 (still worse! ) this is the text-book for the moral lectures at 
 one of our Universities, justly the most celebrated for 
 scientific ardor and manly thinking. It is not without a 
 pang of filial sorrow that I make this acknowledgement, 
 which nothing could have extorted from me but the strongest 
 conviction of the mischievous and debasing tendencies of 
 that wide-spread system, in which the Works of Paley (his ■ 
 Sermons excepted) act not the less pernicious part, because 
 the most decorous and plausible. The fallacious sophistry 
 of the grounding principle in this whole system has been 
 detected by Des Cartes, and Bishop Butler ; and of late 
 vears, with great ability and originality, by Mr. Hazlitt. 
 
AS CHRISTIANS. 381 
 
 of gradual developement, did yet potentially con- 
 tain the essential form not merely of a better, but 
 of another life ; — amidst all the frailties and tran- 
 sient eclipses of mortality making, 1 repeat, the 
 subjects of this regeneration not so properly better 
 as other men, whom therefore the world could not 
 but hate, as aliens. Its own native growth, to 
 whatever height it had been improved by cultivation 
 (whether through the agency of blind sympathies, 
 or of an intelligent self-interest, the two best guides 
 to the loftiest points to which the worldly life can 
 ascend) the world has always been ready and 
 willing to acknowledge and admire. They are of 
 the world : therefore speak they out of the heart 
 of the world (Ik tov ktot^ouJ and the world hear- 
 eth them. (1. John, iv.) 
 
 To abstain from acts of wrong and violence, to 
 be moreover industrious, useful, and of seemly 
 bearing, are qualities presupposed in the Gospel 
 code, as the preliminary conditions, rather than 
 the proper and peculiar effects, of Christianity. 
 But they are likewise qualities so palpably indis- 
 pensable to the temporal interests of mankind that, 
 if we except the brief frenzies of revolutionary 
 riot, there never was a time, in which the world 
 did not profess to reverence them : nor can we 
 state any period, in which a more than ordinary 
 character for assiduity, regularity, and charitable- 
 ness did not secure the world's praise and favor, 
 and were not calculated to advance the individual's 
 own worldly interests : provided only, that his 
 
382 WORLDLY PRUDENCE 
 
 manners and professed tenets were those of some 
 known and allowed body of men. 
 
 I ask then, what is the fact? We are — and, 
 till its good purposes, which are many, have been 
 all achieved, and we can become something better, 
 long may we continue such! — a busy, enterprising*, 
 and commercial nation. The habits attached to 
 this character must, if there exist no adequate 
 counterpoise, inevitably lead us, under the specious 
 names of utility, practical knowledge, and so forth, 
 to look at all things through the medium of the 
 market, and to estimate the worth of all pursuits 
 and attainments by their marketable value. In 
 this does the spirit of trade consist. Now would 
 the general experience bear us out in the assertion, 
 that amid the absence or declension of all other 
 antagonist forces, there is found in the very circle 
 of the trading and opulent themselves, in the in- 
 crease, namely, of religious professors among them, 
 a spring of resistance to the excess of the com- 
 mercial Impetus, from the impressive example of 
 their unworldly feelings evidenced by their mode- 
 ration in worldly pursuits ? I fear, that we may 
 anticipate the answer wherever the religious zeal 
 of such professors does not likewise manifest itself 
 by the glad devotion of as large a portion of their 
 time and industry, as the duty of providing a fair 
 competence for themselves and their families leaves 
 at their own disposal, to the comprehension of 
 those inspired writings and the evolution of those 
 pregnant truths, which are proposed for our ear- 
 nest, sedulous research, in order that by occupying 
 
AVITII UNCHRISTIAN" TEMPER. 383 
 
 our understanding's they may more and more assi- 
 milate our affections. I fear, that the inquiring- 
 traveller would more often hear of zealous reli- 
 gionists who have read (and as a duty too and with 
 all due acquiescence) the prophetic, Wo to them 
 that join house to house and lay field to field, 
 that they may be alone in the land! — and yet 
 find no object deform the beauty of the prospect 
 from their window or even from their castle turrets 
 so annoyingly, as a meadow not their own, or a 
 field under ploughing with the beam- end of the 
 plough in the hands of its humble owner ! I fear 
 that he must too often make report of men lawful 
 in their dealings, Scriptural in their language, 
 alms-givers, and patrons of Sunday schools, who 
 are yet resistless and overawing bidders at all land 
 auctions in their neighbourhood, who live in the 
 centre of farms without leases, and tenants without 
 attachments ! Or if his way should lie through 
 our Q-reat towns and manufacturing districts, in- 
 stances would grow cheap with him of wealthy 
 religious practitioners, who never travel for orders 
 without cards of edification in prose and verse, 
 and small tracts of admonition and instruction, all 
 " plain and easy, and suited to the meanest capa- 
 cities ;" who pray daily, as the first act of the 
 morning and as the last of the evening, Lead 
 us not into temptation ; but deliver us from evil ! 
 and employ all the interval with an edge of appetite 
 keen as the scythe of death in the pursuit of yet 
 more and yet more of a temptation so perilous, 
 that (as they have full, often read, and heard read, 
 
384 QUAKER NEGLECT 
 
 without the least questioning-, or whisper of doubt) 
 no power short of omnipotence could make their 
 deliverance from it credible or conceivable. Of 
 all denominations of Christians, there is not one 
 in existence or on record whose whole scheme of 
 faith and worship was so expressly framed for the 
 one purpose of spiritualizing* the mind and of ab- 
 stracting it from the vanities of the world, as the 
 Society of Friends, not one, in which the members 
 are connected, and their professed principles en- 
 forced, by so effective and wonderful a form of 
 discipline. But in the zeal of their founders and 
 first proselytes for perfect spirituality they excluded 
 from their system all ministers specially trained 
 and educated for the ministry, with all professional 
 theologians : and they omitted to provide for the 
 raising up among themselves any other established 
 class of learned men, as teachers and schoolmasters 
 for instance, in their stead. Even at this day, 
 though the Quakers are in general remarkably 
 shrewd and intelligent in all worldly concerns, yet 
 learning, and more particularly theological learning, 
 is more rare among them in proportion to their 
 wealth and rank in life, and holden in less value, 
 than among any other known sect of Christians. 
 What has been the result ? If the occasion per- 
 mitted, I could dilate with pleasure on their decent 
 manners and decorous morals, as individuals, and 
 their exemplary and truly illustrious philanthropic 
 efforts as a Society. From all the gay and tinsel 
 vanities of the world their discipline has preserved 
 
OF LEARNING I 385 
 
 them, and the English character owes to their ex- 
 ample some part of its manly plainness in externals. 
 But ray argument is confined to the question, 
 whether religion in its present state and under the 
 present conceptions of its demands and purposes 
 does, even among the most religious, exert any 
 efficient force of control over the commercial spirit, 
 the excess of which we have attributed not to the 
 extent and magnitude of the commerce itself, but 
 to the absence or imperfection of its appointed 
 checks and counteragents. Now as the system of 
 the Friends in its first intention is of all others 
 most hostile to worldly-mindedness on the one 
 hand ; and as, on the other, the adherents of this 
 system both in confession and practice confine 
 Christianity to feelings and motives ; they may be 
 selected as representatives of the strict, but un- 
 studied and uninquiring, religionists of every de- 
 nomination. Their characteristic propensities will 
 supply, therefore, no unfair test for the degree of 
 resistance, which our present Christianity is ca- 
 pable of opposing to the cupidity of a trading- 
 people. That species of Christianity I mean, A 
 which, as far as knowledge and the faculties of 
 thought are concerned, — which, as far as the growth 
 and grandeur of the intellectual man is in question 
 — is to be learnt ex tempore ! A Christianity 
 poured in on the catechumen all and all at once, 
 as from a shower-bath : and which, whatever it 
 may be in the heart, yet for the understanding 
 and reason is from boyhood onward a thing past 
 
 c c 
 
386 ITS RESULT. 
 
 and perfected. If the almost universal opinion be 
 tolerably correct, the question is answered. But 
 I by no means appropriate the remark to the 
 wealthy Quakers, or even apply it to them in any 
 particular or eminent sense, when I say, that often 
 as the motley reflexes of my experience move in 
 long- procession of manifold groups before me, the 
 distinguished and world-honored company of Chris- 
 tian Mammonists appears to the eye of my imagi- 
 nation as a drove of camels heavily laden, yet all 
 at full speed, and each in the confident expectation 
 of passing through the eye of the needle, without 
 stop or halt, both beast and baggage. 
 
 Not without an uneasy reluctance have I ven- 
 tured to tell the truth on this subject, lest I should 
 be charged with the indulgence of a satirical mood 
 and an uncharitable spleen. But my conscience 
 bears me witness, and I know myself too near the 
 grave to trifle with its name, that I am solely 
 actuated by a sense of the exceeding importance 
 of the subject at the present moment. I feel it an 
 awful duty to exercise the honest liberty of free 
 utterance in so dear a concernment as that of pre- 
 paring my country for a change in its external 
 relations, which must come sooner or later ; which 
 I believe to have already commenced ; and that it 
 will depend on the presence or absence of a corres- 
 ponding change in the mind of the nation, and 
 above all in the aims and ruling opinions of our 
 gentry and monied men, whether it is to cast down 
 our strength and prosperity, or to fix them on a 
 
PHILOSOPHICAL SYSTEMS : 387 
 
 firmer and more august basis. " Surely to every 
 good and peaceable man it must in nature needs 
 be a hateful thing to be the displeaser and molester 
 of thousands ;* * * but when God commands to take 
 the trumpet and blow a dolorous or a jarring blast, 
 it lies not in man's will what he shall say and what 
 he shall conceal."* 
 
 That my complaints, both in this and in my 
 former Lay Sermon, concerning the same errors, 
 are not grounded on any peculiar notions of mine, 
 the following remarks of a great and good man, 
 not less illustrious for his piety and fervent zeal as 
 a Christian, than for his acuteness and profundity 
 as a philosopher, may, perhaps, be accepted afe 
 proof. 
 
 " Prevailing studies," he observes, " are of no 
 small consequence to a state, the religion, manners, 
 and civil government of a country ever taking some 
 bias from its philosophy, which affects not only the 
 minds of its professors and students, but also the 
 opinions of all the better sort, and the practice of 
 the whole people, remotely and consequentially 
 indeed, though not inconsiderably. Have not the 
 doctrines of necessity and materialism, with the 
 consequent denial of man's responsibility, of his 
 corrupt and fallen nature, and of the whole scheme 
 of Redemption by the incarnate Word gained 
 ground during the general passion for the corpus- 
 
 * Milton. Reason of Church Government, B. II. Introd. 
 
 Ed. 
 
388 THEIR POLITICAL 
 
 cularian and experimental philosophy which hath 
 prevailed about a century ? This indeed might 
 usefully enough have employed some share of the 
 leisure and curiosity of inquisitive persons. But 
 when it entered the seminaries of learning, as a 
 necessary accomplishment and as the most im- 
 portant part of knowledge, by engrossing men's 
 thoughts and fixing their minds so much on cor- 
 poreal objects, it hath, however undesignedly, not 
 a little indisposed them for spiritual, moral, and 
 intellectual matters. Certainly, had the philosophy 
 of Pythagoras and Socrates prevailed in this age, 
 we should not have seen interest take so general 
 and fast hold on the minds of men. But while 
 the employment of the mind on things purely 
 intellectual is to most men irksome, whereas the 
 sensitive powers by our constant use of them, 
 acquire strength, the objects of sense are too often 
 counted the chief good. For these things men 
 fight, cheat, and scramble. Therefore, in order to 
 tame mankind and introduce a sense of virtue, the 
 best human means is to exercise their under- 
 standing, to give them a glimpse of a world supe- 
 rior to the sensible ; and while they take pains to 
 cherish and maintain the animal life, to teach them 
 not to neglect the intellectual. 
 
 " It might very well be thought serious trifling 
 to tell my readers that the greatest men had ever 
 a high esteem for Plato ; whose writings are the 
 touchstone of a hasty and shallow mind ; whose 
 
IMPORTANCE. 389 
 
 philosophy, the admiration of ages, supplied patriots, 
 magistrates, and lawgivers to the most flourishing 
 states, as well as Fathers to the Church, and Doc- 
 tors to the Schools. In these days the depths of 
 that old learning are rarely fathomed : and yet it 
 were happy for these lands, if our young nobility 
 and gentry instead of modern maxims would im- 
 bibe the notions of the great men of antiquity. 
 But in this free-thinking time, many an empty 
 head is shook at Aristotle and Plato : and the 
 writings of these celebrated ancients are by most 
 men treated on a level with the dry and barbarous 
 lucubrations of the Schoolmen. It may, however, 
 be modestly presumed that there are not many 
 among us, even of those that are called the better 
 sort, who have more sense, virtue, and love of their 
 country than Cicero, who in a letter to Atticus 
 could not forbear exclaiming, Socrates et Socra- 
 tici viri! nunquam vobis gratiam referam. Would 
 to God, many of our countrymen had the same obli- 
 gations to those Socratic writers ! Certainly, where 
 the people are well educated , the art of piloting a 
 state is best learnt from the writings of Plato. But 
 among a people void of discipline and a gentry 
 devoted to vulgar cares and views, Plato, Pytha- 
 goras, and Aristotle themselves, were they living, 
 could do but little good." 
 
 Thus, then, of the three most approved antago- 
 nists to the spirit of barter, and the accompanying 
 disposition to overvalue riches with all the means 
 
390 SPIRIT OF TRADE UNCHECKED *. 
 
 and tokens thereof — of the three fittest and most 
 likely checks to this tendency, namely, the feeling 
 of ancient birth and the respect paid to it by the 
 community at large ; a genuine intellectual phi- 
 losophy with an accredited, learned, and philo- 
 sophic class ; and lastly, religion ; we have found 
 the first declining, the second not existing, and 
 the third efficient, indeed, in many respects and 
 to many excellent purposes, only not in this par- 
 ticular direction : the religion here spoken of, 
 having long since parted company with that inqui- 
 sitive and bookish theology which tends to defraud 
 the student of his worldly wisdom, inasmuch as it 
 diverts his mind from the accumulation of wealth 
 by pre-occupying his thoughts in the acquisition of 
 knowledge. For the religion of best repute among 
 us holds all the truths of Scripture and all the doc- 
 trines of Christianity so very transcendant, or so 
 very easy, as to make study and research either 
 vain or needless. It professes, therefore, to hunger 
 and thirst after righteousness alone, and the rewards 
 of the righteous ; and thus habitually taking for 
 granted all truths of spiritual import leaves the un- 
 derstanding vacant and at leisure for a thorough 
 insight into present and temporal interests : which, 
 doubtless, is the true reason why its followers are 
 in general such shrewd, knowing, wary, well-in- 
 formed, thrifty and thriving men of business. But 
 this is likewise the reason, why it neither does nor 
 can check or circumscribe the spirit of barter ; and 
 to the consequent monoply which this commercial 
 
ITS PROGRESS. 391 
 
 spirit possesses, must its over-balance be attributed, 
 not the extent or magnitude of the commerce itself. 
 Before I enter on the result assigned by me as 
 the chief ultimate cause of the present state of the 
 country, and as the main ground on which the im- 
 mediate occasions of the general distress have 
 worked, I must entreat my readers to reflect that 
 the spirit of trade has been a thing of insensible 
 growth ; that whether it be enough, or more or 
 less than enough, is a matter of relative, rather 
 than of positive, determination ; that it depends on 
 the degree in which it is aided or resisted by all the 
 other tendencies that co-exist with it; and that 
 in the best of times this spirit may be said to live on 
 a narrow isthmus, between a sterile desert and a 
 stormy sea, still threatened and encroached on either 
 by the too much or the too little. As the argument 
 does not depend on any precise accuracy in the 
 dates, I shall assume it to have commenced as an 
 influencing part of the national character, with the 
 institution of the public funds in the reign of Wil- 
 liam III., and from the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle 
 in 1748, to have been hurrying onward to its maxi- 
 mum, which it seems to have attained during- the 
 late war. The short interruptions may be well 
 represented as a few steps backward, that it might 
 leap forward with an additional momentum. The 
 words, old and modern, then and now are applied 
 by me, the former to the interval between the 
 Reformation and the Revolution ; and the latter 
 to the whole ueriod since the Revolution ; the one 
 
392 CONTRAST OF RELIGIOUS CHARACTER 
 
 from 1460 to 1680, the other from 1680 to the pre- 
 sent time. 
 
 Having premised this explanation, I can now 
 return an intelligible answer to a question, that 
 will have risen in the reader's mind during his 
 perusal of the last three or four pages. How, it 
 will be objected, does all this apply to the present 
 times in particular ? When was the industrious 
 part of mankind not attached to the pursuits most 
 likely to reward their industry ? Was the wish to 
 make a fortune, or, if you prefer an invidious phrase, 
 the lust of lucre, less natural to our forefathers than 
 to their descendants ? If you say that though a 
 not less frequent, nor less powerful passion with 
 them than with us, it yet met with a more frequent 
 and more powerful check, a stronger and more ad- 
 vanced boundary-line in the religion of old times, 
 and in the faith, fashion, habits, and authority of 
 the religious : in what did this difference consist ; 
 and in what way did these points of difference act ? 
 If indeed the antidote in question once possessed 
 virtues which it no longer possesses, or not in the 
 same degree, what is the ingredient, either added, 
 omitted, or diminished since that time, which can 
 have rendered it less efficacious now than then ? 
 
 Well ! (I might reply) grant all this : and let 
 both the profession and the professors of a spiritual 
 principle, as a counterpoise to the worldly weights 
 at the other end of the balance, be supposed much 
 the same in one asre as in the other. Assume for a 
 moment, that I can establish neither the fact of its 
 
BEFORE AND SINCE THE REVOLUTION. 393 
 
 present lesser efficiency, nor any points of difference 
 capable of accounting for it. Yet it might still be 
 a sufficient answer to this objection, that as the 
 commerce of the country, and with it the spirit of 
 commerce, has increased fifty-fold since the com- 
 mencement of the latter period, it is not enough 
 that the counterweight should be as great as it was 
 in the former period : to remain the same in its 
 effect, it ought to have become very much greater. 
 But though this be a consideration not less impor- 
 tant than it is obvious, yet I do not purpose to rest 
 in it. I affirm that a difference may be shown, 
 and of no trifling importance as to that one point, 
 to which my present argument is confined. For 
 let it be remembered that it is not to any extraor- 
 dinary influences of the religious principle that I 
 am referring, not to voluntary poverty, or seques- 
 tration from social and active life, or schemes of 
 mortification. I speak of religion merely as I 
 should of any worldly object, which, as far as it 
 employs and interests a man, leaves less room in his 
 mind for other pursuits : except that this must be 
 more especially the case in the instance of religion, 
 because beyond all other interests it is calculated 
 to occupy the whole mind, and employ successively 
 all the faculties of man ; and because the objects 
 which it presents to the imagination as well as to 
 the intellect cannot be actually contemplated, much 
 less can they be the subject of frequent meditation, 
 without dimming the lustre and blunting the rays 
 of all rival attractions. It is well known, and has 
 
394 THEOLOGICAL LITERATURE 
 
 been observed of old, that poetry tends to render 
 its devotees* careless of money and outward ap- 
 pearances, while philosophy inspires a contempt of 
 both as objects of desire or admiration. But religion 
 is the poetry and philosophy of ail mankind ; unites 
 in itself whatever is most excellent in either, and 
 while it at one and the same time calls into action 
 and supplies with the noblest materials both the 
 imaginative and the intellective faculties, superadds 
 the interests of the most substantial and home-felt 
 reality to both, to the poetic vision and the philo- 
 sophic idea. But in order to produce a similar effect 
 it must act in a similar way ; it must reign in the 
 thoughts of a man and in the powers akin to thought, 
 as well as exercise an admitted influence over his 
 hopes and fears, and through these on his delibe- 
 rate and individual acts. 
 
 Now as my first presumptive proof of a differ- 
 ence (I might almost have said, of a contrast) 
 between the religious character of the period since 
 the Revolution, and that of the period from the 
 accession of Edward VI to the abdication of 
 James II, I refer to the sermons and to the theolo- 
 
 * Hie error tamen et levis hcec insania quantas 
 Virtutes habeat, sic eollige : vatis avarus 
 Non lemere est animus ; versus amat, hoc studet unum ; 
 Detrimenta, fugas servorum, incendia ridet ; 
 NoiiJ'raudem socio, puerove incogitat uilam 
 Pupillo ; vivit siliquis et pane secundo : 
 Militia', quanquam piger et malus, utilis urbi. 
 
 Horat. Epist. II. I. 118. 
 
OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY : 395 
 
 gical works generally of the latter period. It is 
 my full conviction that in any half dozen sermons of 
 Donne, or Taylor, there are more thoughts, more 
 facts and images, more excitements to inquiry and 
 intellectual effort, than are presented to the congre- 
 gations of the present day in as many churches or 
 meetings during twice as many months. Yet both 
 these were the most popular preachers of their 
 times, were heard with enthusiasm by crowded and 
 promiscuous audiences, and the effect produced by 
 their eloquence was holden in reverential and affec- 
 tionate remembrance by many attendants on their 
 ministry, who, like the pious Isaac Walton, were 
 not themselves men of much learning or education. 
 In addition to this fact, think likewise on the large 
 and numerous editions of massy, closely printed 
 folios : the impressions so large and the editions so 
 numerous, that all the industry of destruction for 
 the last hundred years has but of late sufficed to 
 make them rare. From the long list select those 
 works alone, which we know to have been the most 
 current and favourite works of their day : and of 
 these again no more than may well be supposed to 
 have had a place in the scantiest libraries, or per- 
 haps with the Bible and Common Prayer Book to 
 have formed the library of their owner. Yet on 
 the single shelf so filled we should find almost every 
 possible question, that could interest or instruct a 
 reader whose whole heart was in his religion, dis- 
 cussed with a command of intellect that seems to 
 exhaust all the learning and logic, all the historical 
 
396 ITS PREACHERS 
 
 and moral relations, of each several subject. The 
 very length of the discourses, with which these 
 rich souls of wit and knowledge fixed the eyes, 
 ears, and hearts of their crowded congregations, 
 are a source of wonder now-a-days, and (we may 
 add) of self-congratulation, to many a sober Chris- 
 tian, who forgets with what delight he himself has 
 listened to a two hours' harangue on a loan or tax, 
 or at the trial of some remarkable cause or culprit. 
 The transfer of the interest makes and explains 
 the whole difference. For though much may be 
 fairly charged on the revolution in the mode of 
 preaching as well as in the matter, since the fresh 
 morning and fervent noon of the Reformation, 
 when there was no need to visit the conventicles 
 of fanaticism in order to 
 
 See God's ambassador in pulpit stand, 
 
 Where they could take notes from his look and hand ; 
 
 And from his speaking action bear away 
 
 More sermon than our preachers use to say ; 
 
 yet this too must be referred to the same change 
 in the habits of men's minds, a change that in- 
 volves both the shepherd and the flock : though 
 like many other effects, it tends to reproduce and 
 strengthen its own cause. 
 
 The last point, to which I shall appeal, is the 
 warmth and frequency of the religious controver- 
 sies during the former of the two periods ; the 
 deep interest excited by them among all but the 
 lowest and most ignorant classes ; the importance 
 attached to them by the very highest ; the number, 
 
AND CONTROVERSIALISTS. 397 
 
 and in many instances the transcendant merit, of 
 the controversial publications — in short, the rank 
 and value assigned to polemic divinity. The sub- 
 jects of the controversies may or may not have 
 been trifling- ; the warmth with which they were 
 conducted, may have been disproportionate and in- 
 decorous ; and we may have reason to congratulate 
 ourselves that the age in which we live, is grown 
 more indulgent and less captious. The fact is intro- 
 duced not for its own sake, but as a symptom of the 
 general state of men's feelings, and as an evidence 
 of the direction and main channel, in which the 
 thoughts and interests of men were then flowing. 
 We all know that lovers are apt to take offence and 
 wrangle with each other on occasions that perhaps 
 are but trifles, and which assuredly would appear 
 such to those who had never been under the in- 
 fluence of a similar passion. These quarrels may 
 be no proofs of wisdom ; but still in the imperfect 
 state of our nature the entire absence of the same, 
 and this too on far more serious provocations, 
 would excite a strong suspicion of a comparative 
 indifference in the feelings of the parties towards 
 each other, who can love so coolly where they pro- 
 fess to love so well. I shall believe our present 
 religious tolerancy to proceed from the abundance 
 of our charity and good sense, when I can see 
 proofs that we are equally cool and forbearing as 
 litigators and political partizans. And I must 
 again in treat my reader to recollect that the pre- 
 sent argument is exclusively concerned with the 
 
398 MODERN SYNCRETISM '. 
 
 requisite correctives of the commercial spirit, and 
 with religion therefore no otherwise than as a 
 counter-charm to the sorcery of wealth : and my 
 main position is, that neither by reasons drawn 
 from the nature of the human mind, nor by facts 
 of actual experience, are we justified in expecting* 
 this from a religion which does not employ and 
 actuate the understandings of men, and combine 
 their affections with it as a system of truth grad- 
 ually and progressively manifesting itself to the 
 intellect ; no less than as a system of motives and 
 moral commands learnt as soon as heard, and con- 
 taining nothing but what is plain and easy to the 
 lowest capacities. Hence it is that objects, the 
 ostensible principle of which I have felt it my duty 
 to oppose,* and objects, which and the measures 
 for the attainment of which possess my good wishes 
 and have had the humble tribute of my public ad- 
 vocacy and applause — I am here alluding to the 
 British and Foreign Bible Society — may yet con- 
 verge, as to the point now in question. They may, 
 both alike, be symptoms of the same predominant 
 disposition to that coalition-system in Christianity, 
 for the expression of which theologians have in- 
 vented or appropriated the term, Syncretism :f 
 
 * See supra, p. 241. — Ed. 
 
 t dementia Evangelica (writes a German theologian of 
 the last century) quasi matrona habenda est, purioris doctrines 
 custos, mitis quidem, at sedula tamen, at vigilans, at seduc- 
 torum impatiens. Iste vero Syncretismus, quern Laodiceni apud 
 nos tantopere collaudant, nusquam a me nisi meretrix audiet, 
 
ITS EFFECTS. 399 
 
 although the former may be an ominous, the latter 
 an auspicious symptom ; though the one may be 
 worse from bad, while the other is an instance of 
 good educed from evil. Nay, I will dare confess 
 that I know not how to think otherwise, when I 
 hear a Bishop of the Church publicly exclaim, — 
 (and not viewing it as a lesser inconvenience to be 
 endured for the attainment of a far greater good, 
 but as a thing desirable and to be preferred for its 
 own sake) — No notes ! No comment ! Distribute 
 the Bible and the Bible only among the poor! — 
 a declaration which from any lower quarter 1 
 should have been under the temptation of attri- 
 buting either to a fanatical notion of immediate 
 illumination superseding the necessity of human 
 teaching, or to an ignorance of difficulties which 
 (and what more worthy ?) have successfully em- 
 ployed all the learning, sagacity, and unwearied 
 labors of great and wise men, and eminent servants 
 
 Jidei vel pigrct vel status sui ignaroe proles, postea autem indolis 
 secularis genetrix, et quacum nee sincera Jides, nee genuinu 
 caritas commorari feret . 
 
 The true Gospel spirit of toleration we should regard as a 
 matron, a kind and gentle guardian indeed of the pure doc- 
 trine, but sedulous, but vigilant, but impatient of seducers. 
 This Syncretism on the contrary, which the Loadiceans 
 among us join in extolling so highly, shall no where hear 
 from me other or better name than that of harlot, the offspring 
 of a belief either slothful or ignorant of its own condition, 
 and then the parent of worldly-mindedness,and with whom 
 therefore neither sincere faith nor genuine charity will en- 
 dure to associate. 
 
400 OVERBALANCE OF COMMERCIAL SPIRIT 
 
 of Christ, during- all the ages of Christianity, and 
 will doubtless continue to yield new fruits of know- 
 ledge and insight to a long series of followers.* 
 
 Though an overbalance of the commercial spirit 
 is involved in the deficiency of its counterweights ; 
 yet the facts that exemplify the mode and extent 
 of its operation will afford a more direct and satis- 
 factory kind of proof. And first I am to speak of 
 this overbalance as displayed in the commercial 
 world itself. But as this is the first, so is it for 
 my present purpose the least important point of 
 view. A portion of the facts belonging to this 
 division of the subject I have already noticed ; 
 and for the remainder let the following suffice as 
 the substitute or representative. The moral of 
 the tale I leave to the reader's own reflections. 
 Within the last sixty years or perhaps a somewhat 
 larger period, (for I do not pretend to any nicety 
 of dates, and the documents are of easy access) 
 there have occurred at intervals of about twelve or 
 thirteen years each, certain periodical revolutions 
 
 * I am well aware that by these open avowals, that with 
 much to honor and praise in many, there is something to 
 correct in all, parties, I shall provoke many enemies and make 
 never a friend. If I dared abstain, how gladly should I have 
 so done ! Would that the candid part of my judges would 
 peruse or re-peruse the affecting and most eloquent intro- 
 ductory pages of Milton's second book of his " Reason of 
 Church Government urged, Sec," and give me the credit, 
 which my conscience bears me witness I am entitled to claim, 
 for all the moral feelings expressed in that exquisite pas- 
 sage. 
 
IN THE COMMERCIAL WORLD. 401 
 
 of credit. Yet revolution is not the precise word. 
 To state the thing- as it is, I ought to have said, 
 certain gradual expansions of credit ending- in 
 sudden contractions, or, with equal propriety, as- 
 censions to a certain utmost possible height, which 
 has been different in each successive instance ; but 
 in every instance the attainment of this its ne plus 
 ultra has been instantly announced by a rapid se- 
 ries of explosions (in mercantile language, a crash) 
 and a consequent precipitation of the general sys- 
 tem. For a short time this Icarian credit, or ra- 
 ther this illegitimate offspring of confidence, to 
 which it stands in the same relation as Phaeton 
 to his parent god in the old fable, seems to lie 
 stunned by the fall ; but soon recovering, again it 
 strives upward, and having once more regained its 
 mid region, 
 
 thence many a league, 
 
 As in a cloudy chair, ascending rides 
 Audacious ; — 
 
 till at the destined zenith of its vaporous exalta- 
 tion, 
 
 All unawares, fluttering its pennons vain 
 
 Plumb down it drops. — 
 
 Or that I may descend myself to the cool element 
 of prose, — alarm and suspicion gradually diminish 
 into a judicious circumspectness ; but by little and 
 little, circumspection gives way to the desire and 
 emulous ambition of doing business : till impa- 
 tience and incaution on the one side, tempting and 
 
 D D 
 
402 MORAL DEPRAVATION 
 
 encouraging headlong adventure, want of principle, 
 and confederacies of false credit on the other, the 
 movements of trade become yearly gayer and gid- 
 dier, and end at length in a vortex of hopes and 
 hazards, of blinding passions and blind practices, 
 which should have been left where alone they ought 
 ever to have been found, among the wicked luna- 
 cies of the gaming table. 
 
 I am not ignorant that the power and circum- 
 stantial prosperity of the nation has been increas- 
 ing during the same period, with an accelerated 
 force unprecedented in any country, the popula- 
 tion of which bears the same proportion to its pro- 
 ductive soil ; and partly, perhaps, even in conse- 
 quence of this system. By facilitating the means 
 of enterprise, it must have called into activity a 
 multitude of enterprising individuals and a variety 
 of talent that would otherwise have lain dormant : 
 while by the same ready supply of excitements to 
 labor, together with its materials and instruments, 
 even an unsound credit has been able within a 
 short time to* substantiate itself. I shall perhaps 
 be told too, that the very evils of this system even 
 the periodical crash itself, are to be regarded but 
 
 * If by the display of forged Bank notes a speculator 
 should establish the belief of his being a man of large fortune, 
 and gain a temporary confidence in his own paper-money : 
 and if by large wages so paid he should stimulate a number 
 of indolent Highlanders to bring a tract of waste land into 
 profitable cultivation, the promissory notes of the owner, 
 which derived their first value from a delusion, would end in 
 
IN THE LABOURING 403 
 
 as so much superfluous steam ejected by the escape 
 pipes, and safety valves of a self- regulating- ma- 
 chine : and lastly, that in a free and trading country 
 all things find their level. 
 
 I have as little disposition as motive to recant 
 the principles, Avhich in many forms and through 
 Various channels I have labored to propagate ; but 
 there is surely no inconsistency in yielding all due 
 honor to the spirit of trade, and yet charging sun- 
 dry evils which weaken or reverse its blessings on 
 the over-balance of that spirit, taken as the para- 
 mount principle of action in the nation at large. 
 Much I still concede to the arguments for the 
 present scheme of things, as adduced in the pre- 
 ceding paragraph : but I likewise see, and always 
 have seen, much that needs winnowing. Thus in- 
 stead of the position, that all things find, it would 
 be less equivocal and far more descriptive of the 
 fact to say, that things are always finding, their 
 level : which might be taken as the paraphrase or 
 ironical definition of a storm. But persons are 
 not things — but man does not find his level. 
 Neither in body nor in soul does the man find his 
 level. After a hard and calamitous season, during 
 
 representing- a real property, and this their own product. A 
 most improbable case ! In its accidental features, I reply, 
 rather than in its essentials. How many thousand acres have 
 been reclaimed from utter unproductiveness, how many 
 doubled in value, by the agency of notes issued beyond the 
 bona Jide capital of the bank or firm that circulated them, or 
 at best on capital afloat and insecure. 
 
404 AND TRADING 
 
 which the thousand wheels of some vast manufac- 
 tory had remained silent as a frozen water-fall, be 
 it that plenty has returned and that trade has once 
 more become brisk and stirring- : go, ask the over- 
 seer, and question the parish doctor, whether the 
 workman's health and temperance with the staid 
 and respectful manners best taught by the inward 
 dignity of conscious self-support, have found their 
 level again ! Alas ! I have more than once seen 
 a group of children in Dorsetshire, during the heat 
 of the dog-days, each with its little shoulders up 
 to its ears, and its chest pinched inward, the very 
 habit and fixures, as it were, that had been im- 
 pressed on their frames by the former ill-fed, ill- 
 clothed, and unfuelled winters. But as with the 
 body, so or still worse with the mind. Nor is the 
 effect confined to the labouring classes, whom by 
 an ominous but too appropriate change in our phra- 
 seology we are now accustomed to call the labour- 
 ing poor. I cannot persuade myself that the fre- 
 quency of failures with all the disgraceful secrets 
 of fraud and folly, of unprincipled vanity in ex- 
 pending and desperate speculation in retrieving, 
 can be familiarized to the thoughts and experience 
 of men, as matters of daily occurrence, without 
 serious injury to the moral sense : more especially 
 in times when bankruptcies spread, like a fever, 
 at once contagious and epidemic ; swift too as the 
 travel of an earthquake, that with one and the 
 same chain of shocks opens the ruinous chasm in 
 cities that have an ocean between them !— in times, 
 
CLASSES. 405 
 
 when the fate flies swifter than the fear, and yet 
 the report, that follows the flash, has a ruin of its 
 own and arrives but to multiply the blow ! — when 
 princely capitals are often but the telegraphs of 
 distant calamity : and still worse, when no man's 
 treasure is safe who has adopted the ordinary means 
 of safety, neither the high nor the humble ; when 
 the lord's rents and the farmer's store, entrusted 
 perhaps but as yesterday, are asked after at closed 
 doors ! — but worst of all, in its moral influences as 
 well as in the cruelty of suffering, when the old 
 labourer's savings, the precious robberies of self- 
 denial from every day's comfort ; when the orphan's 
 funds ; the widow's livelihood ; the fond confiding 
 sister's humble fortune ; are found among the vic- 
 tims to the remorseless mania of dishonest specu- 
 lation, or to the desperate cowardice of embarrass- 
 ment, and the drunken stupor of a usurious selfish- 
 ness which for a few months respite dares incur a 
 debt of guilt and infamy, for which the grave itself 
 can plead no statute of limitation. Name to me any 
 revolution recorded in history, that was not followed 
 by a depravation of the national morals. The Ro- 
 man character during the Triumvirate,' and under 
 Tiberius ; the reign of Charles II. and Paris at the 
 present moment, — are obvious instances. What 
 is the main cause ? The sense of insecurity. On 
 what ground then dare we hope that with the same 
 accompaniment, commercial revolutions should not 
 produce the same effect, in proportion to the extent 
 of their sphere ? 
 
406 INCIDENTS 
 
 But these blessings — with all the specific terms, 
 into which this most comprehensive phrase is to 
 be resolved ? Dare we unpack the bales and cases 
 so marked, and look at the articles, one by one ? 
 Increase of human life and increase of the means 
 of life are, it is true, reciprocally cause and effect: 
 and the genius of commerce and manufacture has 
 been the cause of both to a degree that may well 
 excite our wonder. But do the last results justify 
 our exultation likewise ? Human life, alas ! is 
 but the malleable metal, out of which the thievish 
 picklock, the slave's collar, and the assassin's 
 stiletto are formed as well as the clearing axe, 
 the feeding plough-share, the defensive sword, and 
 the mechanic tool. But the subject is a painful 
 one : and fortunately the labours of others, with 
 the communications of medical men concerning the 
 state of the manufacturing poor, have rendered it 
 unnecessary. I will rather (though in strict me- 
 thod it should, perhaps, be reserved for the follow- 
 ing head) relate a speech made to me near Fort 
 Augustus, as I was travelling on foot through the 
 Highlands of Scotland. The speaker was an elderly 
 and respectable widow, who expressed herself with 
 that simple eloquence, which strong feeling seldom 
 fails to call forth in humble life, but especially in 
 women. She spoke English, as indeed most High- 
 landers do who speak it at all, with a propriety 
 of phrase and a discrimination of tone and empha- 
 sis that more than compensated for the scantiness 
 of her vocabularv. After an affecting account of 
 
IN THE HIGHLANDS. 407 
 
 her own wrongs and ejectment, (which however, 
 she said, bore with comparative lightness on her, 
 who had saved up a wherewithal to live, and was 
 blessed with a son well to do in the world,) she 
 made a movement with her hand in a circle, di- 
 recting my eye meanwhile to various objects as 
 marking its outline: and then observed, with a 
 deep sigh and a suppressed and slow voice which 
 she suddenly raised and quickened after the first 
 drop or cadence : — " Within this space — how short 
 a time back ! there lived a hundred and seventy- 
 three persons : and now there is only a shepherd, 
 and an underling or two. Yes, Sir ! One hun- 
 dred and seventy-three Christian souls, man, wo- 
 man, boy, girl, and babe ; and in almost every 
 home an old man by the fire-side, who would tell 
 you of the troubles before our roads were made ; 
 and many a brave youth among them who loved 
 the birth-place of his forefathers, yet would swing 
 about his broad sword and want but a word to 
 march off to the battles over sea : aye, Sir, and 
 many a good lass, who had a respect for herself! 
 Well ! but they are gone, and with them the bris- 
 tled bear,* and the pink haver, f and the potatoe 
 plot that looked as gay as any flower-garden with 
 its blossoms ! I sometimes fancy that the very 
 birds are gone, all but the crows and the gleads ! 
 Well, and what then? Instead of us all, there is 
 one shepherd man, and it may be a pair of small 
 
 * A species of barley. t A species of oats. 
 
408 INCIDENTS 
 
 lads — and a many, many sheep ! And do you think, 
 Sir ! that God allows of such proceedings ? " 
 
 Some days before this conversation, and while I 
 was on the shores of Loch Katrine,]: I had heard 
 of a sad counterpart to the widow's tale, and told 
 with a far fiercer indignation, of a " Laird who 
 had raised a company from the country round 
 about, for the love that was borne to his name, and 
 who gained high preferment in consequence : and 
 that it was but a small part of those that he took 
 away whom he brought back again. And what 
 were the thanks which the folks had both for those 
 that came back with him, some blind, and more 
 in danger of blindness ; and for those that had pe- 
 rished in the hospitals, and for those that fell in 
 battle, fighting before or beside him ? Why, that 
 their fathers were all turned out of their farms 
 before the year was over, and sent to wander like 
 so many gipsies, unless they would consent to shed 
 their grey hairs, at ten-pence a day, over the new 
 canals. Had there been a price set upon his head, 
 and his enemies had been coming upon him, he 
 needed but have whistled, and a hundred brave 
 lads would have made a wall of flame round about 
 
 J The Lake so widely celebrated since then by a poet, to 
 whose writing's a larger number of persons have owed a 
 larger portion of innocent, refined, and heart-bettering 
 amusement, than perhaps to any favourite of the Muses 
 recorded in English literature : while the most learned of 
 his readers must feel grateful for the mass of interesting 
 and highly instructive information scattered throughout his 
 works, in which respect Southey is his only rival. 
 
IN THE HIGHLANDS. 409 
 
 him with the flash of their broad-swords ! Now if 
 the French should come among" us, as (it is said) 
 they will, let him whistle to his sheep and see if they 
 will fight for him ! " The frequency with which I 
 heard, during my solitary walk from the end of 
 Loch-Lomond to Inverness, confident expectations 
 of the kind expressed in his concluding words — nay, 
 far too often eager hopes mingled with vindictive 
 resolves — I spoke of with complaint and regret to 
 an elderly man, whom by his dress and way of 
 speaking I took to be a schoolmaster. Long shall 
 I recollect his reply: " O, Sir, it kills a man's love 
 for his country, the hardships of life coming by 
 chang-e and with injustice !" I was sometime af- 
 terwards told by a very sensible person who had 
 studied the mysteries of political economy, and was 
 therefore entitled to be listened to,' that more food 
 was produced in consequence of this revolution, 
 that the mutton must be eaten somewhere, and what 
 difference where ? If three were fed at Manchester 
 instead of two at Glencoe or the Trosachs, the 
 balance of human enjoyment was in favour of the 
 former.' I have passed through many a manufac- 
 turing town since then, and have watched many a 
 group of old and young, male and female, going 
 to, or returning from, many a factory, but I could 
 never yet persuade myself to be of his opinion. 
 Men, I still think, ought to be weighed notcounted. 
 Their worth ought to be the final estimate of their 
 value. 
 
 Among the occasions and minor causes of this 
 
410 ENHANCEMENT OF TRICES: 
 
 change in the views and measures of our land- 
 owners, and as being- itself a consequent on that 
 system of credit, the outline of which was given 
 in a preceding page, the universal practice of en- 
 hancing the sale price of every article on the pre- 
 sumption of bad debts, is not the least noticeable. 
 Nor, if we reflect that this additional per centage 
 is repeated at each intermediate stage of its elabo- 
 ration and distribution from the grower or importer 
 to the last retailer inclusively, will it appear the 
 least operative. Necessary, and therefore justi- 
 fiable, as this plan of reprisal by anticipation may 
 be in the case of each individual dealer, yet taken 
 collectively and without reference to persons, the 
 plan itself would, I suspect, startle an unfamilia- 
 rized conscience, as a sort of non-descript piracy, 
 not promiscuous in its exactions only because by 
 a curious anomaly it grants a free pass to the of- 
 fending party. Or if the law maxim, volentibus 
 non jit injuria, is applicable in this case, it may 
 perhaps be described more courteously as a Benefit 
 Society of all the careful and honest men in the 
 kingdom to pay the debts of the dishonest or im- 
 provident. It is mentioned here, however, as one 
 of the appendages to the twin paramount causes, the 
 paper currency and the national debt, and for the 
 sake of the conjoint results. Would we learn what 
 these results are ; — what they have been in the 
 higher, and what in the most numerous, class of 
 society ? Alas ! that some of the intermediate 
 rounds in the social ladder have been broken and 
 
ITS EFFECTS. 411 
 
 not replaced, is itself one of these results, Re- 
 trace the progress of things from 1792 to 1813, when 
 the tide was at its height, and then as far as its ra- 
 pidity will permit, the ebb from its first turn to the 
 dead low-water mark of the last quarter. Then 
 see whether the remainder may not be generalized 
 under the following heads. Fluctuation in the 
 wages of labor, alternate privation and excess (not 
 in all at the same time, but successively in each) 
 consequent improvidence, and over all discontent 
 and a system of factious confederacy : — these 
 form the history of the mechanics and lower ranks 
 of our cities and towns. In the country a peasantry 
 sinking into pauperism, step for step with the rise 
 cf the farmer's profits and indigencies. On the 
 side of the landlord and his compeers, we shall find 
 the presence of the same causes attested by an- 
 swerable effects. Great as their almost magical 
 effects* were on the increase of prices in the neces- 
 saries of life, they were still greater, dispropor- 
 tionallv greater, in all articles of shew and luxury. 
 With few exceptions, it soon became difficult, and 
 
 * During the composition of this sheet I hare had and 
 availed myself of the opportunity of perusing the Report of 
 the Board of Agriculture for the vear 1816. The numerous 
 reflections, which this most extraordinary volume excited in 
 my mind, I cannot even touch on in this closing sheet of a 
 Work that has already extended far beyond my original pur- 
 pose. But had I perused it at the commencement, I should 
 still have felt it my duty to direct the main force of my ani- 
 madversions against the demagogue class of State-empirics. 
 I was not, indeed, ignorant of the aid, which they derived 
 
412 SPIRIT OF TRADE 
 
 at length impracticable, for the gentry of the land, 
 for the possessors of fixed property to retain the 
 rank of their ancestors, or their own former esta- 
 blishments, without joining in the general compe- 
 tition under the influence of the same trading spirit. 
 Their dependents were of course either selected 
 from or driven into the same eddy ; while the temp- 
 tation of obtaining more than the legal interest for 
 their principal became more and more strong with 
 all persons who, neither trading nor farming, had 
 lived on the interest of their fortunes. It was in 
 this latter class that the rash, and too frequently, 
 the unprincipled projector found his readiest dupes. 
 Had we but the secret history of the building specu- 
 lations only in the vicinity of the metropolis, too 
 many of its pages would supply an afflicting but 
 instructive comment. That both here, and in all 
 other departments, this increased momentum in the 
 spirit of trade has been followed by results of the 
 most desirable nature, I have myself,* exerted my 
 best powers to evince, at a period when to present 
 the fairest and most animating features of the sys- 
 
 from other quarters : — nor am I now ashamed of not having 
 anticipated its extent. There is, however, one communica- 
 tion (p. 208 to 227) from Mr. Mosely, from which, with 
 the abatement only of the passage on tithes, I cannot with- 
 hold my entire admiration. It almost redeems the remain- 
 der of the Report. 
 
 * In a variety of articles published at different periods in 
 the Morning- Post and Courier ; but with most success in the 
 Essay, before cited, on Vulgar Errors on Taxation, which 
 had the advantage of being; transferred almost entire to the 
 
IN AGRICULTURE. 413 
 
 tern, and to prove their vast and charm-like in- 
 fluence on the power and resources of the nation 
 appeared a duty of patriotism. Nothing, however, 
 was advanced incompatible with the position, which 
 even then I did not conceal, and which from the 
 same sense of duty I am now attempting to display ; 
 namely, that the extension of the commercial spirit 
 into our agricultural system, added to the over- 
 balance of the same spirit, even within its own 
 sphere ; aggravated by the operation of our revenue 
 laws ; and finally reflected in the habits, and ten- 
 dencies of the labouring classes ; is the ground- 
 work of our calamity, and the main predisposing 
 cause, without which the late occasions would some 
 of them not have existed, and the remainder not 
 have produced the present distresses. 
 
 That agriculture requires principles essentially 
 different from those of trade ; that a gentleman 
 ought not to regard his estate as a merchant his 
 cargo, or a shopkeeper his stock, — admits of an 
 easy proof from the different tenure of landed pro- 
 perty ,X and from the purposes of agriculture itself, 
 
 columns of a daily paper, of the largest circulation, and from 
 thence, in larger or smaller extracts, to several of our pro- 
 vincial journals. It was likewise reprinted in two of the 
 American Federalist papers : and a translation appeared, I 
 have been told, in the Hamburgh Correspondenten. 
 
 I The very idea of individual or private property in our 
 present acceptation of the term, and according to the current 
 notion of the right to it, was originally confined to moveable 
 things : and the more moveable, the more susceptible of the 
 nature of propertv. Proceeding from the more to the less 
 
414 THE ENDS OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 which ultimately are the same as those of the State 
 of which it is the offspring-. For I do not include 
 in the name of agriculture the cultivation of a few 
 vegetables by the women of the less savage hunter 
 tribes. If the continuance and independence of 
 the State be its object, the final causes of the State 
 must be its final causes. Let us suppose the ne- 
 gative ends of a State already attained, namely, 
 its own safety by means of its own strength, and 
 the protection of person and property for all its 
 members, there will then remain its positive ends : 
 
 perfect right ; we may bring all the objects of an indepen- 
 dent ownership under five heads: — namely, 1. precious 
 stones, and other jewels of as easy transfer: — 2. precious 
 metals, and foreign coin taken as weight of metal : — 3. mer- 
 chandize, by virtue of the contract between the importer and 
 the sovereign in whose person the unity and integrity of the 
 common wealth were represented ; that is, after the settled 
 price had been paid by the former for the permission to im- 
 port, and received by the latter under the further obligation 
 of protecting the same : — 4. the coin of the country in the 
 possession of the natural subject ; and last of all, and in 
 certain cases, the live stock, the peculium a pecude. Hence, 
 the minds of men were most familiar with the term in the 
 case of Jews and aliens : till gradually, the privileges at- 
 tached to the vicinity of the bishops and mitred abbots pre- 
 pared an asylum for the fugitive vassal and the oppressed 
 franklin, and thus laid the first foundations of a fourth class 
 of freemen, that of citizens and burghers. To the feudal 
 system we owe the forms, to the Church the substance of 
 our liberty. As comment take, first, the origin of towns and 
 cities ; next, the holy war waged against slavery and vil- 
 lenage, and with such success that the law had barely to 
 sanction opus jam consummatum at the Restoration. 
 
AND THE STATE IDENTICAL. 415 
 
 — 1. to make the means of subsistence more easy 
 to each individual : — 2. to secure to each of its 
 members the hope* of bettering- his own condition 
 or that of his children : — 3. the developement of 
 those faculties which are essential to his humanity, 
 that is, to his rational and moral being". Under the 
 last head I do not mean those degrees of intellectual 
 cultivation which distinguish man from man in the 
 same civilized society, but those only that raise the 
 civilized man above the barbarian, the savage, and 
 the brute. I require, however, on the part of the 
 State, in behalf of all its members, not only the 
 outward means of knowing their essential duties 
 and dignities as men and free men, but likewise, 
 and more especially, the discouragement of all 
 such tenures and relations as must in the very 
 nature of things render this knowledge inert, and 
 cause the good seed to perish as it falls. Such at 
 least is the appointed aim of a State : and at 
 whatever distance from the ideal mark the existing- 
 circumstances of a nation may unhappily place the 
 
 * The civilized man gives up those stimulants of hope 
 and fear, the mixture or alternation of which constitutes the 
 chief charm of the savage life : and vet his Maker has dis- 
 tinguished him from the brute that perishes, by making hope 
 an instinct of his nature and an indispensable condition of 
 his moral and intellectual progression. But a natural in- 
 stinct constitutes a natural right, as far as its gratification is 
 compatible with the equal rights of others. Hence our an- 
 cestors classed those who were incapable of altering their 
 condition from that of their parents, as bondsmen or villeins, 
 however advantageously they might otherwise be situated. 
 
416 THE NEGATIVE DUTIES 
 
 actual statesman, still every movement ought to be 
 in this direction. But the negative merit of not 
 forwarding- — the exemption from the crime of ne- 
 cessitating — the debasement and virtual disfran- 
 chisement of any class of the community, may be 
 demanded of every State under all circumstances : 
 and the Government that pleads difficulties in re- 
 pulse or demur of this claim impeaches its own 
 wisdom and fortitude. But as the specific ends of 
 agriculture are the maintenance, strength, and se- 
 curity, of the State, so (I repeat) must its ultimate 
 ends be the same as those of the State : even as 
 the ultimate end of the spring and wheels of a 
 watch must be the same as that of the watch. Yet 
 least of all things must we overlook or conceal, 
 that morally and with respect to the character and 
 conscience of the individuals, the blame of un- 
 faithful stewardship is aggravated, in proportion as 
 the difficulties are less, and the consequences, lying 
 within a narrower field of vision, are more evident 
 and affecting. An injurious system, the conni- 
 vance at which we scarcely dare more than regret 
 in the Cabinet or Senate of an Empire, may justify 
 an earnest reprobation in the management of 
 private estates : provided always, that the system 
 only be denounced, and the pleadings confined to 
 the court of conscience. For from this court only 
 can the redress be awarded. All reform or inno- 
 vation, not won from the free agent by the presen- 
 tation of juster views and nobler interests, and 
 which does not leave the merit of having effected 
 
OF EVERY STATE. 417 
 
 it sacred to the individual proprietor, it were folly 
 to propose, and worse than folly to attempt. 
 Madmen onlv would dream of digging or blowing 
 up the foundation of a house in order to employ 
 the materials in repairing the walls. Nothing- 
 more can be asked of the State, no other duty is 
 imposed on it, than to withhold or retract all ex- 
 trinsic and artificial aids to an injurious system; 
 or at the utmost to invalidate in extreme cases such 
 claims as have arisen indirectly from the letter or 
 unforeseen operations of particular statutes : claims 
 that instead of bein°* contained in the rights of its 
 proprietary trustees are encroachments on its own 
 rights, and a destructive trespass on a part of its 
 own inalienable and untransferable property — I 
 mean the health, strength, honesty, and filial love, 
 of its children. 
 
 It would border on an affront to the under- 
 standings of the members of our Landed Interest, 
 were I to explain in detail what the plan and conduct 
 would be of a gentleman ;* if, as the result of his 
 
 * Or, (to put the question more justly as well as more 
 candidly) of the land-owners collectively : — for who is not 
 aware of the facilities that accompany a conformity with the 
 general practice, or of the numerous hinderances that retard, 
 and the final imperfection that commonly awaits, a deviation 
 from it 1 On the distinction between things and persons 
 all law human and divine is grounded. It consists in this : 
 that the former may be used as mere means ; but the latter 
 must not be employed as the means to an end without 
 directly or indirectly sharing in that end. 
 
 E E 
 
418 TRUE OBJECT OF LAND-OWNERS. 
 
 own free conviction the marketable produce of bis 
 estates were made a subordinate consideration to the 
 living and moral growth that is to remain on the land 
 — I mean a healthful, callous-handed but high-and- 
 warm-hearted tenantry, twice the number of the 
 present landless, parish-paid laborers, and ready to 
 march off at the first call of their country with a Son 
 of the House at their head, because under no appre- 
 hension of being (forgive the lowness of the ex- 
 pression) marched off at the whisper of a land- 
 taster : — if the admitted rule, the paramount self- 
 commandment, were comprised in the fixed resolve 
 — I will improve my estate to the utmost ; and my 
 rent-roll I will raise as much as, but no more than, 
 is compatible with the three great ends (before 
 enumerated) which being those of my country must 
 be mine inclusively : — this, I repeat, it would be 
 more than superfluous to particularize. It is a 
 problem, the solution of which may be safely en- 
 trusted to the common sense of every one who has 
 the hardihood to ask himself the question. But 
 how encouraging even the approximations to such 
 a system, of what fair promise the few fragmentary 
 samples are, may be seen in the Report of the 
 Board of Agriculture for 1816, p. 11, from the Earl 
 of Winchelsea's communication, in every paragraph 
 of which wisdom seems to address us in behalf of 
 goodness. 
 
 But the plan of my argument requires the re- 
 verse of this picture. I am to ask what the results 
 would be, on the supposition that agriculture is 
 
DIFFERENT RULE IX TRADE : 419 
 
 carried on in the spirit of trade ; and if the neces- 
 sary answer coincide with the known general 
 practice, to shew the connection of the conse- 
 quences with the present state of distress and un- 
 easiness. In trade, from its most innocent form 
 to the abomination of the African commerce nomi- 
 nally abolished after a hard fought-battle of twenty- 
 years, no distinction is or can be acknowledged 
 between things and persons. If the latter are 
 part of the concern, they come under the denomi- 
 nation of the former. Two objects only can be 
 proposed in the management of an estate considered 
 as stock in trade — first, that the returns shall be 
 the largest, quickest, and securest possible ; and 
 secondly, with the least out-goings in the providing, 
 over-looking and collecting the same, — whether it 
 be expenditure of money paid for other men's time 
 and attention, or of the tradesman's own, which 
 are to him money's worth, makes no difference in 
 the argument. Am I disposing of a bale of goods ? 
 The man whom I most love and esteem must yield 
 to the stranger that outbids him ; or if it be sold 
 on credit, the highest price, with equal security, 
 must have the preference. I may fill up the de- 
 ficiency cf my friend's offer by a private gift, or 
 loan ; but as a tradesman, I am bound to regard 
 honesty and established character themselves, as 
 things, as securities, for which the known unprin- 
 cipled dealer may offer an unexceptionable substi- 
 tute. Add to this, that the security being equal, 
 I shall prefer, even at a considerable abatement of 
 
420 ITS OPERATION 
 
 price, the man who will take a thousand chests or 
 bales at once, to twenty who can pledge them- 
 selves only for fifty each. For I do not seek 
 trouble for its own sake ; but among other advan- 
 tages I seek wealth for the sake of freeing myself 
 more and more from the necessity of taking trouble 
 in order to attain it. The personal worth of those, 
 whom I benefit in the course of the process, or 
 whether the persons are really benefited or no, is 
 no concern of mine. The market and the shop 
 are open to all. To introduce any other principle 
 in trade, but that of obtaining the highest price 
 with adequate security for articles fairly described, 
 would be tantamount to the position that trade 
 ought not to exist. If this be admitted, then what 
 as a tradesman I cannot do, it cannot be my duty, 
 as a tradesman, to attempt : and the only remain- 
 ing question in reason or morality is — what are 
 the proper objects of trade. If my estate be such, 
 my plan must be to make the most of it, as 1 would 
 of any other mode of capital. As my rents will 
 ultimately depend on the quantity and value of the 
 produce raised and brought into the best market 
 from my land, I will entrust the latter to those 
 who bidding the most have the largest capital to 
 employ on it : and this I cannot effect but by di- 
 viding it into the. fewest tenures, as none but ex- 
 tensive farms will be an object to men of extensive 
 capital and enterprising minds. I must prefer this 
 system likewise for my own ease and security. 
 The farmer is of course actuated by the same mo- 
 
IN AGRICULTURE. 421 
 
 tives as the landlord : and, provided they are both 
 faithful to their engagements, the object of both 
 will be : 1. the utmost produce that can be raised 
 without injuring' the estate ; 2. with the least pos- 
 sible consumption of the produce on the estate 
 itself; 3. at the lowest wages; and 4. with the 
 substitution of machinery for human labor where- 
 ever the former will cost less and do the same 
 work. What are the modest remedies proposed 
 by the majority of correspondents in the last Re- 
 port of the Board of Agriculture ? ' Let measures 
 be taken that rents, taxes, and wages be lowered, 
 and the markets raised ! A great calamity has 
 befallen us from importation, the lessened purchases 
 of Government, and, " the evil of a superabundant 
 harvest" of which we deem ourselves the more en- 
 titled to complain, because " we had been long 
 making 112 shillings per quarter of our corn," and 
 of all other articles in proportion. As the best 
 remedies for this calamity, we propose that we 
 should pay less to our landlords, less to our laborers, 
 nothing to our clergyman, and either nothing or 
 very little to the maintenance of the Government 
 and of the poor ; but that we should sell at our 
 former prices to the consumer !' — In almost every 
 page we find deprecations of the Poor Laws : and 
 I hold it impossible to exaggerate their pernicious 
 tendency and consequences as at present generally 
 worked. But let it not be forgotten, that in agri- 
 cultural districts three-fourths of the Poors' Rates 
 are paid to healthy, robust, and (O sorrow and 
 
422 POOR laws : 
 
 shame !) industrious, hard-working- paupers in lieu 
 of wages — (for men cannot at once work and 
 starve) ; and therefore if there are twenty house- 
 keepers in the parish, who are not holders of land, 
 their contributions are so much bounty money to 
 the latter. But the Poor Laws form a subject, which 
 I should not undertake Avithout trembling-, had I the 
 space of a whole volume to allot to it. Suffice it 
 to say that this enormous mischief is undeniably 
 the offspring of the commercial system. In the 
 only plausible work, that I have seen, in favor of 
 our Poor Laws on the present plan, the defence 
 is grounded ; first, on the expediency of having 
 labor cheap, and estates let out in the fewest 
 possible portions — in other words, of large farms 
 and low wages — each as indispensable to the other, 
 and both conjointly as the only means of drawing 
 capital to the land, by which alone the largest 
 surplus is attainable for the State ; that is, for the 
 market, or in order that the smallest possible pro- 
 portion of the largest possible produce may be con- 
 sumed by the raisers and their families : — secondly, 
 on the impossibility of supplying, as we have sup- 
 plied, all the countries of the civilized world (India 
 perhaps and China excepted), and of underselling 
 them even in their own market if our working- 
 manufacturers were not secured by the State 
 against the worst consequences of those failures, 
 stagnations, and transfers, to which the different 
 branches of trade are exposed, in a greater or less 
 degree, beyond all human prevention ; or if the 
 
MANUFACTURING SYSTEM : 423 
 
 master manufacturers were compelled to give 
 previous security for the maintenance of those 
 whom they had, by the known law of human in- 
 crease, virtually called into existence. 
 
 Let me not be misunderstood. I do not myself 
 admit this impossibility. I have already denied, 
 and I now repeat the denial, that these are neces- 
 sary consequences of our extended commerce. On 
 the contrary, I feel assured that the spirit of com- 
 merce is itself capable of being- at once counteracted 
 and enlightened by the spirit of the State, to the 
 advantage of both. But I do assert, that they are 
 necessary consequences of the commercial spirit 
 un-counteracted and un-enlightened, wherever 
 trade has been carried to so vast an extent as it has 
 been in England. I assert too, that, historically and 
 as matter of fact, they have been the consequence 
 of our commercial system. The laws of Lycurgus, 
 like those of the inspired Hebrew Legislator, were 
 anti-commercial : those of Numa and Solon were 
 at least uncommercial. Now I ask myself, what 
 the impression would have been on the Senate of 
 the Roman or the Athenian Republic, if the fol- 
 lowing proposal had been made to them and intro- 
 duced by the following preamble. " Conscript Fa- 
 thers, (or Senators of Athens !) it is well known to 
 you, that circumstances being the same and the 
 time allowed proportional, the human animal may 
 be made to multiply as easily, and at as small an 
 expence, as your sheep or swine : which is meant, 
 perhaps, in the fiction of our philosophers, that 
 
424 ITS PRINCIPLES APPLIED 
 
 souls are out of all proportion more numerous than 
 the bodies, in which they can subsist and be mani- 
 fested. It is likewise known to you, Fathers ! that 
 though in various States various checks have been 
 ordained to prevent this increase of births from be- 
 coming" such as should frustrate or greatly endan- 
 ger the ends for which freemen are born; yet the most 
 efficient limit must be sought for in the moral and 
 intellectual prerogatives of men, in their foresight, 
 in their habituation to the comforts and decencies 
 of society, in the pride of independence; but above 
 all in the hope that enables men to withstand the 
 tyranny of the present impulse, and in their ex- 
 pectation of honour or discredit from the rank, 
 character, and condition of their children. Now 
 there are proposed to us the speedy means of at 
 once increasing the number of the rich, the wealth 
 of those that are already such, and the revenues of 
 the State : and the latter, Fathers ! to so vast an 
 amount, that we shall be able to pay not only our 
 own soldiers but those of the monarchs whom we 
 may thus induce to become our allies. But for 
 this it will be requisite and indispensable that all 
 men of enterprise and sufficiency among us should 
 be permitted, without restraint, to encourage, and 
 virtually to occasion, the birth of many myriads 
 of free citizens, who from their childhood are to be 
 amassed in clusters and employed as parts of a 
 mighty system of machinery. While all things 
 prove answerable to the schemes and wishes of these 
 enterprisers, the citizens thus raised and thus em- 
 ployed by them will find an ample maintenance, 
 
TO ROME OR ATHENS. 425 
 
 except in those instances where the individual may 
 have rendered himself useless by the effects of his 
 own vices. It must not, however, be disguised 
 from you, that the nature of the employments and 
 the circumstances to which these citizens will be 
 exposed, will often greatly tend to render them in- 
 temperate, diseased, and restless. Nor has it been 
 yet made a part of the proposal, that the employers 
 should be under any bond to counteract such inju- 
 rious circumstances by education, discipline, or 
 other efficient regulations. Still less mav it be 
 withholden from your knowledge, Fathers of the 
 State, that should events hereafter prove hostile 
 to all or to any branch of these speculations, to 
 many or to any one of the number that shall have 
 devoted their wealth to the realization of the same — 
 and the light, in which alone they can thrive, is 
 confessedly subject to partial and even to total 
 eclipses, which there are no means of precisely 
 foretelling — the guardian planets to whose conjunc- 
 tion their success is fatally linked, will at uncertain 
 periods, for a longer or shorter time, act in malig- 
 nant oppositions — then, Fathers, the principals are 
 to shift for themselves, and leave the disposal of 
 the calamitous, and therefore too probably tur- 
 bulent, multitude, now unemployed and useless, to 
 the mercy of the community, and the solicitude of 
 the State ; or else to famine, violence, and the ven- 
 geance of the laws !" 
 
 If, on the maxims of ancient prudence, on the 
 one hand not enlightened, on the other not dazzled, 
 by the principles of trade, the immediate answer 
 
426 HOW SPIRIT OF TRADE IN AGRICULTURE 
 
 would have been: — " We should deem it danger 
 and detriment, were we to permit so indefinite and 
 improvident increase even of our slaves and Helots: 
 in the case of free citizens, our countrymen, who 
 are to swear to the same laws, and worship at the 
 same altars, it were profanation ! May the Gods 
 avert the omen !"— if this, I say, would have been 
 their answer, it may be safely concluded that the 
 connivance at the same scheme, much more that 
 the direct encouragement of it, must be attributed 
 to that spirit which the ancients did not recognize, 
 namely, the spirit of commerce. 
 
 But I have shewn that the same system has gra- 
 dually taken possession of our agriculture. What 
 have been the results ? For him who is either 
 unable or unwilling to deduce the whole truth from 
 the portion of it revealed in the following extract 
 from Lord Winchelsea's Report, whatever I could 
 have added would have been equally in vain. His 
 Lordship speaking of the causes which oppose all at- 
 tempts to better the labourers' condition, mentions, 
 as one great cause, the dislike which the farmers 
 in general have to seeing the labourers rent any 
 land. Perhaps, (he continues) " one of the reasons 
 for their disliking this is, that the land, if not 
 occupied by the labourers, would fall to their own 
 share ; and another I am afraid is, that they rather 
 wish to have the labourers more dependent upon 
 them ; for which reasons they are always desirous 
 of hiring the house and land occupied by a labourer, 
 under pretence, that by those means the landlord 
 will be secure of his rent, and that they will keep 
 
INJURES THE LABOURER, 427 
 
 the house in repair. This the agents of estates are 
 too apt to give into, as they find it much less trouble 
 to meet six than sixty tenants at a rent-day, and 
 by these means avoid the being- sometimes obliged 
 to hear the wants and complaints of the poor. All 
 parties therefore join in persuading the landlord, 
 who it is natural to suppose (unless he has time and 
 inclination to investigate the matter very closely) 
 will agree to this their plan, from the manner in 
 which it comes recommended to him : and it is in 
 this manner that the labourers have been dispos- 
 sessed of their cow-pastures in various parts of the 
 midland counties. The moment the farmer obtains 
 his wish, he takes every particle of the land to him- 
 self, and re-lets the house to the labourer, who by 
 these means is rendered miserable ; the poor rate 
 increased ; the value of the estate to the land- 
 owner diminished ; and the house suffered to go to 
 decay ; which once fallen the tenant will never 
 rebuild, but the landlord must, at a considerable 
 expence. Whoever travels through the midland 
 counties, and will take the trouble of inquiring, 
 will generally receive for answer, that formerly 
 there were a great many cottagers who kept cows, 
 but that the land is now thrown to the farmers ; and 
 if he inquires, still farther, he will find that in those 
 parishes the poor rates have increased in an amaz- 
 ing degree, more than according to the average 
 rise throughout England." — In confirmation of his 
 Lordship's statement I find in the Agricultural Re- 
 ports, that the county, in which I read of nothing 
 but farms of 1000, 1500, 2000, and 2500 acres, is 
 
428 AND SOCIETY. 
 
 likewise that in which the poor rates are most nu- 
 merous, the distresses of the poor most grievous, 
 and the prevalence of revolutionary principles the 
 most alarming. But if we consider the subject on 
 the largest scale and nationally, the consequences 
 are, that the most important rounds in the social 
 ladder are broken, and the hope which above all 
 other things distinguishes the free man from the 
 slave, is extinguished. The peasantry therefore 
 are eager to have their children add as early as 
 possible to their wretched pittances, by letting 
 them out to manufactories ; while the youths take 
 every opportunity of escaping to towns and cities. 
 And if I were questioned, as to my opinion, re- 
 specting the ultimate cause of our liability to dis- 
 tresses like the present, the cause of what has been 
 called a vicious (that is excessive) population with 
 all the furies that follow in its train — in short, of 
 a state of things so remote from the simplicity of 
 nature, that we have almost deprived Heaven itself 
 of the power of blessing us ; a state in which with- 
 out absurdity, a superabundant harvest can be com- 
 plained of as an evil, and the recurrence of the 
 same a ruinous calamity, — I should not hesitate to 
 answer — " the vast and disproportionate number 
 of men who are to be fed from the produce of the 
 fields, on which they do not labour." 
 
 What then is the remedy ; — who are the physi- 
 cians ? The reply may be anticipated. An evil 
 which has come on gradually, and in the growth of 
 which all men have more orless conspired, cannot be 
 removed otherwise than gradually, and by the joint 
 
MODE OF REMEDY. 429 
 
 efforts of all. If we are a Christian nation, we must 
 learn to act nationally as well as individually, as 
 Christians. We must remove half truths, the most 
 dangerous of errors, (as those of the poor visionaries 
 called Spenceans), by the whole truth. The Go- 
 vernment is employed already in retrenchments ; 
 but he who expects immediate relief from these, 
 or who does not even know that if they do any 
 thing- at all, they must for the time tend to aggravate 
 the distress, cannot have studied the operation of 
 public expenditure. 
 
 I am persuaded that more good would be done, 
 not only ultimate and permanent, but immediate, 
 good, by the abolition of the lotteries accompanied 
 by a public and Parliamentary declaration of the 
 moral and religious grounds that had determined the 
 Legislature to this act ; of their humble confidence 
 of the blessing of God on the measure ; and of their 
 hopes that this sacrifice to principle, as being more 
 exemplary from the present pressure on the revenue 
 of the State, would be the more effective in restoring 
 confidence between man and man ; — I am deeply 
 convinced, that more sterling and visible benefits 
 would be derived from this one solemn proof and 
 pledge of moral fortitude and national faith, than 
 from retrenchments to a tenfold greater amount. 
 Still more, if our legislators should pledge them- 
 selves at the same time that they would hereafter 
 take counsel for the gradual removal or counterac- 
 tion of all similar encouragements and temptations 
 to vice and folly, that had, alas ! been tolerated 
 hitherto, as the easiest way of supplying the ex- 
 
430 MODE OF REMEDY. 
 
 chequer. And truly, the financial motives would 
 be strong indeed, if the revenue laws in question 
 were but half as productive of money to the state 
 as they are of guilt and wretchedness to the people. 
 Our manufacturers must consent to regulations ; 
 our gentry must concern themselves in the educa- 
 tion as well as in the instruction of their natural 
 clients and dependents, must regard their estates as 
 secured indeed from all human interference by every 
 principle cf law, and policy, but yet as offices of 
 trust, with duties to be performed, in the sight of 
 God and their country. Let us become a better 
 people, and the reform of all the public (real or sup- 
 posed) grievances, which we use as pegs whereon 
 to hang our own errors and defects, will follow of 
 itself. In short, let every man measure his efforts 
 by his power and his sphere of action, and do all 
 he can do. Let him contribute money where he 
 cannot act personally : but let him act personally 
 and in detail wherever it is practicable. Let us pal- 
 liate where Ave cannot cure, comfort where we cannot 
 relieve : and for the rest rely upon the promise of 
 the King of Kings by the mouth of his Prophet, 
 Blessed are ye that sow beside all waters. 
 
 FINIS. 
 
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