THE ESSENTIALS OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION CHARLES WILLIAM HEATHCOIE BV 1471 .H4 Heathcote, C. W. 1882- The essentials of religiou education H35"25" THE 'Essentials of RELIGIOUS EDUCATION BY • ^' ^ ^' v^'^ CHARLES WILLIAM HEATHCOTfe A. M. {Univ. of Penn.) s. x. d. (Temple Univ.) Instructor or Religious Education Theological Department, Temple University INTRODUCTION BY RUSSELL H. CONWELL, D. D., LL. D. BOSTON SHERMAN, FRENCH & COMPANY 1916 COPYBIGHT, 1916 Sherman, French & Company TO MY WIFE BY WHOSE HELP THIS BOOK HAS BEEN MADE POSSIBLE IT IS MOST AFFECTIONATELY DEDICATED INTRODUCTION The heart of humanity comes back to the Bible as the tide to the shore. The critics who would kill the Bible to find the spirit defeat themselves; the Truth will survive and prevail. Dr. Heathcote in this book recognizes clearly the spirit of eternal Truth which permeates and sustains the life of the dear old Book. But the author is not only a scholar and a skillful instructor; he is a direct benefactor. All books having the purpose combined with clear thinking bring the Bible nearer the people and awaken their desire to know its contents. It has the Master's method of teaching teach- ers and sending out missionaries. Every such effort has the approval and encouragement of all lovers of humanity, and when it has the char- acter and scholarship shown in this book, it makes all its Christian readers glad. Russell H. Conwell. PREFACE This text-book is the outgrowth of the lectures given to mj students at the Temple University dur- ing the last several years. A large number of the students, and others outside of the University, inter- ested in religious education, have frequently re- quested me to prepare a book on the subject. To meet this request the book has been written. The volume has been prepared for students in uni- versities, colleges, and theological seminaries, who are interested in the religious pedagogical courses, and is primarily a text-book, since it was desired to place in the hands of students a book dealing particu- larly with the subject of religious education. It is believed that the book will meet this need and require- ment. I have not been unmindful of the large army of faithful and active Bible School teachers who are anxious by careful reading and study to better pre- pare themselves for their noble work, and I hope this work will prove helpful to them also. To the man}^ friends. Christian teachers, and in- structors who have helped by their advice I am very grateful. Charles William Heathcote. CONTENTS CHAPTEB PAGE *4 The Scope of Religious Education . 1 II History of Religious Education: the Early Period 17 III History of Religious Education: the Middle Period 50 IV History of Religious Education: the Later Period 71 V History of Religious Education: the Later Period (Concluded) . . .104 ^Vl Principles of Psychology . . . .116 *^ VII Child Development 133 VIII Periods of Development: Early Child- hood 146 IX Periods of Development: Later Child- hood — Six to Twelve Years . . .158 X Periods of Development: the Adoles- cent 167 XI The Teacher's Requisites . . . .187 XII Preparation and Teaching .... 196 XIII Questions and Illustrations . . .211 XIV Bible Study 224 XV The Bible School Organized . . . 234 XVI Order , .... 253 XVII Graded Lessons 264 XVIII Summary of the Graded Courses . . 270 Bibliography 279 Index 287 CHAPTER I THE SCOPE OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION The Definition — Religion and Education — The Factors — The School — The Home — The Church. THE DEFINITION Dr. Coe says the factors involved in the idea of education are these : " An immature being, a goal or destiny for life, and the older human beings who can help the younger to realize this goal or destiny." ^ Dr. Coe also shows that at times, par- ticularly in the past, educators over-emphasized the adult viewpoint, the goal and the child. In other words, so much stress was laid upon adult experiences that these results became the standards of education. Adult views are necessary for educa- tional development, but to lay undue emphasis upon them to the exclusion of other ideas will prevent genu- ine progressive growth. Naturally the goal sought after under such circumstances was to over-em- phasize the destiny of man. This was the view of medieval education. Religious education then, under the control of the church, was fostered along narrow lines of development. ^ledieval religion as well as education were not " broad enough to include every- thing that is worthy of being a part of our temporal life." Religion and education alike had as their goal the salvation of souls from eternal punishment. 1 Education is Religion and Morals, pages 11 and 12. 1 2 THE ESSENTIALS OF Guided by these narrow ideals, educators forgot to take into account the child life as one of the chief elements in the development of education. However, modern educators such as Pestalozzi, Froebel, and others brought out the importance of studying the child mind. They recognized the fact that for edu- cation to accomplish the most for mankind it must be cognizant of the laws and experiences of childhood as well as of the adult life. Education is a progressive development in which the whole personality is in- volved. During the last few years so much has been writ- ten about the importance of child study that it has been over-emphasized. It has resulted in a tendency to lose sight of the real purpose of child education. At the present time we note a change coming in the educational world. The study of child life is coming to its proper place and sphere. In view of this discussion the question arises, what is education? It will be in order to give the opinions of several prominent educators. " Education is the sum of the reflective efforts by which we aid nature in the development of the physical, intellectual and moral faculties of man, in view of his perfection, his happiness, and his social destination." — J. G. Compayre: Lectures in Pedagogy (Boston, 1893), pages 1-6. " If education cannot be identified with mere in- struction, what is it ? What does the term mean } I answer. It must mean a gradual adjustment to the spiritual possessions of the race." — Butler: The Meaning of Education, page 17. " The true end of teaching is one with the true RELIGIOUS EDUCATION * 3 aim of life; and each lesson. must be presented with the conscious purpose of making the most out of the life of the one taught." — Arnold Tompkins: The Philosophy of Teaching, page 71. " Education, in short, cannot be better described than by calling it the organization of acquired habits of conduct and tendencies to behavior." — William James: Talks to Teachers, page 29- These definitions which we have quoted give the viewpoint of educators in general. Present day edu- cational principles are the outgrowth of the develop- ment of the progress of the world in the past. Pres- ent and past achievements for the truth lay the foun- dations for the future. History shows that educa- tional progress has advanced along two great lines, — the psychological and sociological. The basis is the psychological side. The child mind and not the adult forms the basis of educational principles. The Master Teacher showed this significant fact when he he said, " Suffer the little children to come unto me." As has already been mentioned, it remained for mod- em educators and religionists to readjust the psy- chology of education to the ideal of the Master. The child has his distinctive tendencies, experiences, etc., which must be studied and understood and educated, if later, as a man, he is to do his part in perpetu- ating the ideals of Christian civilization. The sociological side of education is an offshoot of the psychological. The social side of the child na- ture is an inheritance of the tendencies of the past, both primitive and civilized. The sociological part of education is a work for the present and the future. The instinctive tendencies of the child life are to be 4 THE ESSENTIALS OF trained and developed so that they may be adapted to the best physical environment and civilizing ele- ments. On this point Butler says, " Natural forces play no small part in adapting human beings to both elements (physical and civilized) of environment, but the process of education is especially potent as regards adaptation to the second element, civiliza- tion. Civilization — man's spiritual environment, all his surroundings which are not directly physical — this it is which has to be conquered, in its elements at least before one can attain a true education." ^ The two great historic elements, education and the Christian religion, have fostered, developed, and given to us our present-day civilization. Dr. Butler has well said that the child bom into the present-day civilization comes into a fivefold inheritance be- queathed to him by the past, and for him to be truly educated he must have a knowledge of each one of these elements, " as well as insight into them all and sympathy with them all." The summary of his classification is as follows : ^ (1) Th-e Scientific Inheritance. By this man is entitled to know and understand nature by utilizing all the resources of modern scientific method. He is entitled to know about the world from the viewpoint of the earlier people and what it is to-day. It is the basis of a liberal education. (2) The Literary Inheritance. The great liter- ary treasurers and storehouses of culture of the past are to be mastered through the study of languages. Literature shows the progressive development of the 1 Butler: Prikciples of Religious Education, page 5. 2 Butler: The Meaning of Education, pages 17-34. RELIGIOUS EDUCATION 5 peoples of the world which can only be understood and interpreted by the study of language. Though important as is the study of this great literary in- heritance, yet it narrows education to say this study alone is sufficient. It is to go hand in hand with the scientific inheritance in the early life of the child during the period of plasticity or education. (3) The Msthetk Inheritance. The aesthetic spirit engenders the feeling for the beautiful and the sublime ; history shows it occupied a prominent place in the early history of the human race. It was de- veloped and fostered by the Greeks. Later, narrow religious ideals sought to suppress all feelings for the beautiful. But it was impossible. Ideals of art and beauty were given expression in the construc- tion of Gothic cathedrals and the pictures of the painters of the Renaissance. The importance of aesthetic training is recognized to-da}^ as one of the factors in giving the child a true education and per- petuating the ideals of civilization. (4) The Institutional Inheritance. The history of the world shows three types of political ideals. One shows the individual to be of no importance, but only the great mass of the people are to be con- sidered ; that is, individuality must be pressed down for the advantage of the whole. Then there is the type which is shown in extreme individualism, which will not take into consideration the welfare of society as a whole but seeks to make the individual sufficient unto himself. The true type is neither extreme. It gives individual worth, place and consideration but makes it subservient, and responsible to law, the wel- fare of society, and existing institutions. This is the 6 THE ESSENTIALS OF type which our children are to follow if our civiliza- tion of the future is to grow and develop. (5) The Religious Inheritance. Religion in some form or another is common alike to both primitive and civilized people. History of the past testifies to this fact as w^ell as at the present time. The re- ligious inheritance of the race is a rich one. This is true particularly of Christianity in the ideals it has contributed to the advancement of civilization and culture. Religion has always played a prominent part in education though sometimes its spirit was narrow, illiteral, and uninformed. Events of com- paratively recent times have resulted in the separa- tion of religion from education. The growth of the public school system in the United States has wit- nessed the divorcement of all religious instruction from the schools. The result is that our present plan of educational development is not meeting adequately the needs of the child. Since the importance of religious education is gen- erally recognized, it is fitting that we should define it. The ideal of religious education is the develop- ment of the highest form of individual character which is to he interpreted in terms of unselfish service for God and mankind. When the Master gave the command, " Go ye forth and teach" (Matt. 28:19-20), he laid stress upon a great educational truth. His own life and mission exemplified this educational ideal. He impressed this message upon his disciples and finally upon his fol- lowers to teach. What was the basis of his teach- ing? Unselfish service for God and fellow-man. This is the central truth of Christianity. It is based RELIGIOUS EDUCATION 7 upon the highest form of character moulded in spirit and in truth after the life of the perfect Teacher. " Character," says J. S. Mill, " is a completely fash- ioned will." James defines it as a " bundle of habits." The definition as stated by James sets forth the idea we have in mind which we have set forth in our defini- tion of religious education ; namely, the habit of serv- ice which comes through training every tendency of the individual personality which shall find expression in unselfish service for God and man. " No matter how full a reservoir of maxims we may possess, no matter how good one's sentiments may be, if we have not taken advantage of every concrete opportunity to act, one's character may remain entirely unaffected for the better." ^ The keynote of religious education is to develop the highest form of individual character which will seek active expression in the form of un- selfish service. RELIGION AND EDUCATION In theory, religion and education may be separa- ted from each other, but in reality such a thought is impossible. The aim and goal of education and re- ligion are virtually the same. The basis of true edu- cation is religion, and any effort to make education independent of religion narrows its scope, aim, and goal. True education seeks to develop the whole personality. This is the ideal which education must ever have before it and to which it must tenaciously hold. The religious ideal is also concerned in the whole personality. Every volitional, emotional, and 1 James : Psychology, Vol. I, page 125. 8 THE ESSENTIALS OF intellectual tendency is touched, developed, and brought to the highest possible form. No child who has lacked a careful and thorough training in education and religion can be expected upon reaching maturity to do his full duty to God, his fellow-man and to himself. Dr. King has aptly written : " The highest conceivable culture, there- fore, would be the culture that should enable a man to enter with appreciation and conviction into the deepest and most significant personal life of history ; and the world is coming to see with greater clearness every day that that life is the life of Jesus Christ." ^ THE FACTORS There are three important educational factors which help us give the child that true instruction for him to do his full duty in life; i.e. (1) the school, (2) the home, (S) the church. THE SCHOOL According to the interpretation of our constitu- tion, religion cannot be taught in our public schools. In the United States, church and state are separate and independent of each other, yet a reciprocal rela- tion exists between them. We have already written about the supreme impor- tance and sphere of religion in order to make up an all round and efficient education. There is but one conclusion to reach with respect to our public schools, which leads us to say that its educational work, there- fore, is inadequately incomplete. We recognize the importance of reading the Bible 1 Personal and Ideal Elements in Education, page 78. RELIGIOUS EDUCATION 9 in the schools, but we cannot call this exercise a re- ligious instruction, nor would we want it designated by such a term. When this reading is done with dis- crimination and without comment on the choice and splendid portions of Scripture which should always be read, we believe great good can be accomplished in many ways. This reading may not be instructive in the analytic sense, but the mind of pupils is im- pressed with the beauty and simplicity of God's word, and we sincerely believe a thirst will be awakened in the heart of the child for a greater knowledge of the Word. There are many educators and religionists who ad- vocate the study of religion in the public schools. They make a contradistinction between religious teaching and denominationalism. They advocate that religious instruction based on broad general terms of religious concepts free from doctrinal, creedal, and denominational interpretations, could be put into the school curriculum. We realize there is much force and consideration given to their argu- ments, but we cannot see the feasibility of the plan. We believe in the broad interpretation of religion for it to be thoroughly adaptable to all classes and con- ditions of humanity. When we speak of religion, we are, of course, referring to the broad principles of Christianity upon which the advocates of this theory agree, as it is the only religion which can give a posi- tive civilization to the world. We do not believe that the introduction of religious instruction, even on the basis of the broadest interpretation of Christian teachings, would work out in practice. It is very evident that such a plan would not be an acceptable 10 THE ESSENTIALS OF one to the Hebrew, Catholic, and a majority of the Protestant and many other forms of religious life which are represented in our public schools. All these conditions must be borne in mind in advocating this theory. At the same time it is well-nigh impos- sible to interpret religion on the broadest basis, to elminate every iota of denominational and doctrinal viewpoint. The public school is not a religious nor an anti-religious school, but it is a secular institution and we want to see it remain as such. We want to see it give the best instruction possible so that our children may become well educated along scientific, literary, aesthetic, and institutional lines. We recognize that there is considerable weight in the proposition which is set forth in citing the German Schools as an example where an excellent and practical course of religious instruction is obtained. We have every reason to expect this condition of affairs there. The German people are the inheritors of the great Lutheran move- ment, and Luther was a staunch champion and advo- cate of religious education in the schools. Such splendid opportunities are afforded in Germany for the advancement of religious instruction that we have every reason to expect such instruction to be given as shall be the best. Since the Lutheran faith is the state church of Germany, these measures of religious instruction have the support of the government. In the United States such conditions do not obtain. Nor would we want them to exist. We realize the supreme necessity of having the church and the de- pendence of the government upon the church, but we would not want some particular denomination to be RELIGIOUS EDUCATION 11 the state church. American ideals and conceptions of religion and civil liberty and democracy show that these principles are foreign to our viewpoint. We agree with many educators that the Bible should be placed in our public schools to be studied as literature, history, and morals. But let it be stated here that the study of the Bible thus is not re- ligious instruction, and the Bible to be studied along the three lines suggested must be confined to the basic fundamentals of these subjects. We think the Bible from this viewpoint should find a place in our schools. It is the general verdict of all peoples who know about the Bible that it is the repository of the world's sub- limest literature ! If the study of the Koran, Hindu writings, Milton, " Lamb's Tales," etc., may find a place in our school curriculum if the teacher so de- sires, why should the historical study of Joshua, a literary study of the Psalms, or a study of the moral precepts of the Pauline epistles be forbidden.'' We cannot see any sane reason for their omission. Dr. Seeley in his charmingly written book says, " I believe that our teachers should have larger rights of way to emphasize the importance of these virtues (i.e. honesty, sobriety, etc.), so that w4th the culture and furnishing of the intellect, there shall come the development of the individual along moral lines — or religious lines, if you please — and yet not in a sectarian way. Our teachers and superintendents, as a rule, are Christian men and women, and there go out indirectly in their lives influences in this direc- tion." 1 However, we cannot agree with Dr. Seeley in ad- 1 Seeley: Foundation of Education, page 248. 12 THE ESSENTIALS OF vocating the study of the Bible as a religious book, for the reason previously stated, and also for any of the following examples. The Hebrew father would have every right to object, according to his religious beliefs and traditions, to the principles of the Chris- tian religion being taught to his child. The Bible is broad and big enough in its wonderful work to teach the highest form of morals without touching upon its religious precepts. Again we say religion cannot be consistently taught in our public schools. However, the two great factors which are to teach our children religious truths are the home and the church. THE HOME The home is the first and always should remain the most important factor in a child's education. This training should extend from the early years of child- hood to manhood. The ancient Hebrews recognized the supreme importance of home instruction, and they earnestly tried to bring up their children in the fear and admonition of the Lord. When this ideal was earnestly adhered to, peace, joy, and prosperity crowned the people of Israel. In this respect the an- cient Hebrew people will always be an example for the present and future generations. The home is the basic unit of society. It is such an important institution that great emphasis needs to be laid upon the instruction of Biblical truths therein. Alas! in too many of our homes the Bible is a closed book and religious instruction is never given at all. No parent can expect the school and the church to give all the education the child needs. Too many parents seek to shift all of the training RELIGIOUS EDUCATION 13 of their children upon the church and the school. This is impossible. These two important educa- tional factors can never give to a child the training which is expected to come from the hearth-stone. Time and their specialized organization make it im- possible. There should always be the closest cooperation between the home and the school and the church. The parents should take a hearty interest in the daily school tasks of their children, and whatever home work may be required by the school authorities, they should see that their children perform faithfully and well. By this close cooperation the efficiency of the public schools would be increased. The home should also cooperate more earnestly with the church and give it better support and see that the children attend the sessions of the Sunday School regularly and faithfully. Too many parents think it is the duty of the pastor and Bible School teacher alone to see that their children attend church worship and the sessions of the Bible School. They frequently meet with the experience of a Bible School teacher who once visited a home to see that one of the daughters attended her Bible School class more regu- larly. The mother said that it was the duty of the teacher to see that the daughter attended regularly. We agree that it is the duty of pastors and teachers to see that the children come regularly, but it is not their whole nor first duty, for this rests upon the home. The home, therefore, remains the first important factor in the religious education of the child life. 14 THE ESSENTIALS OF THE CHURCH The importance of the church to a community is well recognized. No community could exist without it. The church, particularly through the Bible School, is the second important factor for religious education. A great responsibility rests upon the Bible School, and it is a much needed part of our edu- cational work to-day. For it to do the work of re- ligious education which is in a large measure incum- bent upon it, it must be efficiently organized and utilize the best methods for it to attain the purpose of its organization. The Bible School must work in the closest coopera- tion with the public school because upon it devolves for the most part the task of teaching the child the religious principles which the public school does not. The Bible School needs to be thoroughly and sys- tematically organized. Its curriculum needs to be placed on a scientific and analytic basis if efficient in- struction is to be given. Its teachings must be adaptable to child life, with a knowledge of the capac- ities and needs of the child. The school, it must be remembered, is not only to teach religion as such, per se, but its curriculum should correlate as closely as possible with the public school teaching. In other words. Biblical history, geography, biography, liter- ature, art, and precepts should be carefully taught, as in the public schools. There needs to be careful and systematic grading of the classes so that the teaching of these studies may be adaptable to the capacities of the children. The teachers need to be trained and thoroughly RELIGIOUS EDUCATION 15 prepared to carry on their work. Bible School teaching, like public school teaching, requires train- ing to be thoroughly done. In order that the work of the Bible School may be advanced, there needs to be the closest cooperation between the home and the school. It is necessary if the school is to be efficient in teaching the children of the household. The spirit of cooperation between the two must be very close in order to secure regular attendance upon the Bible School. This is one of the difficult problems which we face at present. At- tendance upon the public school is compulsory ; not so with the Bible School. The attendance there is often irregular on the part of a large number of children, and under present conditions an exceedingly large number of children are not receiving religious instruction. However, we believe this problem can be reduced to a minimum or overcome entirely by close cooperation of Bible School and home. Perhaps on this point a suggestion would be in order which we believe could be worked out along practical lines if the Bible School would employ a trained and paid secretary for this work, or if a number of churches in the city or town would group together to meet the expense. It should be the duty of this secre- tary to come into contact with each home and get the children to go to the school of their denomination. Appeal to the responsibility of parents is the only way the children can ever be brought into the Sunday School. We believe, too, that the stud\^ period for the Bible School lesson should cover a period of at least one hour instead of half an hour. The lesson period may 16 RELIGIOUS EDUCATION be made so interesting and inspiring by a trained teacher that there would be no difficulty experienced on this point. We believe it would be feasible for each child to do a little home work in various exer- cises, which could be reported to the teacher the fol- lowing Sunday. This work could be of such a nature as not to interfere with the public school work. In any event we see the need and importance of religious education, and that the work of carrying it on de- volves upon the Bible School. This great institution we want to make more efficient in every way possible. CHAPTER II HISTORY OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION: THE EARLY PERIOD Egypt — China — Babylonia and Assyria — The Jews: the ideal of Jewish education; Ezra and his work; schools of the later period; female education — The Hindus: their literature — Buddhism; educa- tional principles — The Medo-Persians: religious ideals; educational conceptions — The Hellenic Peo- ple: arty music and poetry; the schools; religious education — The Romans: religion and education — The Catechetical Schools; classes and instruction. In a text-book of this nature it is impossible to give a complete and detailed account of educational development from the historical viewpoint. In our historical treatment we have followed particularly the religious side of education, and our account, though general, is set forth in sufficient detail to bring out the phases we deem important to emphasize. Down through the centuries, nations, people, and various leaders have contributed something to the progressive development of education. We have picked out particular nations in the past who have made definite contributions to religious education. In the later history we point out the contributions likewise resulting from nations, institutions, and 17 18 THE ESSENTIALS OF leaders. Our treatment is consecutive and progres- sive. One of the striking points of history is the close relationship of religion and education. Our historical studies are the following: EGYPT The early history of Egypt is largely a matter of tradition. The beginning of its history has been pushed back as early as 5000 b. c. The various lit- tle kingdoms were united with one state about 3400 B. c. From this date down to the Roman Conquest, 30 B. c, her influence in the religious and intellectual world was manifested. Her earliest gods were the Nile and the Sun-god (Re). They were universally worshipped. The worship of a multitude of local deities also obtained. An air of mystery has always pervaded her religious life. For our most complete knowledge of the religious life we are indebted to the oldest piece of sacred Egyptian literature, called the " Pyramid Texts." One of the peculiarities of the religion is the con- crete form of expression. The Egyptian borrowed his terminology from the material world, and his mind did not possess the faculty of developing ab- stract terminology. The Egyptians made great progress in architec- ture. Their temples were magnificent pieces of struc- ture, but their paintings and sculpture were too stiff and formal. They made some advances in science. They had a knowledge of medicine, astronomy, mathe- matics, and engineering. Even at an early date, they had an extensive liter- RELIGIOUS EDUCATION 19 ature. They had books of poetry, morals, religion, oratory, travel, etc. Their chief sacred literature consisted of the " Pyramid Texts," " Coffin Texts," and " Book of the Dead." They were votaries of music, but it was of the most primitive nature. There was a close affiliation of church and state in Egypt. The priestly class wielded tremendous power and influence. The temple was not only the place of worship and sacrifice, but also became the school and university. The three most prominent temple universities were at Memphis, Heliopolis, and Thebes. At these schools, the priests were educated and trained in the traditional religious ceremonies, mathematics, ethics, astronomy, and astrology. The children of nobility and royalty were also educated here. One of the most important professions was that of the scribe. He was instructed at one of the chief temple colleges in law, ethics, and accounts. The scribe had as one of his chief duties the making of copies of the sacred rituals and manuscripts. At its best the religious educational systems of Egypt did not raise the cultural life of the people to a high standard. In reality the moral practices were at low ebb. The acme of religious teaching cen- tered in the universal belief of immortality. " His religion was not a reasoned or philosophic religion even in its highest forms. It was the fruit of a dreamy meditation on the broad aspects of life and death rather than of speculative analysis. In ethics, too, his morality was preceptive and dogmatic — not a subject of philosophic investigation." ^ 1 Laurie: Pre-Christiax Education, page 40. W THE ESSENTIALS OF The belief in life after death was universal. They believed that everyone born into the world was given by the gods the " Ka," which was a kind of guardian spirit which was somewhat beneficial to the individual during his earth life. But the chief value of the " Ka " was after death. He was a kind of superior genius intended to guide the fortunes of the individual in the hereafter, for it was in the world of the here- after that he chiefly, if not exclusively, had his abode, and there he awaited the coming of his earthly com- panion. In the oldest inscriptions the death of a man may be stated by saying that " he goes to his ' Ka ' " ; when Osiris dies, he " goes to his ' Ka.' " ^ The viewpoint of life beyond the tomb was dreary and gloomy. Even at the flood-tide of religious thought, when the hope of eternal bliss was injected, the idea of a gloomy existence obtained. CHINA The Chinese claim that their history extends to the remotest antiquity. Scholars generally accept the date 2500 b. c. as a reliable point in the study of the nation's history. With the exception of the last fifteen years, China has made little progress in civil and educational affairs for more than 2,000 years. They have been gliided by tradition and have refused to get out of the rut. The sacred books reflect the various phases of Chinese life. Confucius, who was born about 551 B. c, edited and annotated the sacred books. His chief work was the *' Doctrine of the Mean." The 1 Breasted: Religion and Thought in Ancient Egypt, page 52. RELIGIOUS EDUCATION 21 opening sentence is, " What heaven has conferred is called the nature ; an accordance with this nature is called the path of duty ; the regulation of this path is called instruction." ^ Confucius recognized the existence of a Supreme Being whom he called, " Supreme Ruler of Heaven." He was vitally interested in the moral order and social well-being of his people. Confucius is the ideal man of China. The family is the base of Chinese education as well as the state. The state is a family in a more com- plete form. The father's power in the family life is absolute ; the wife in reality is a slave to her husband. The educational system has built up an intellectual aristocracy, but it has failed to reach the great mass of people. The opportunity is present, but the great majority of Chinese people have neither time nor money to lay hold of it. In brief, the general educa- tional method is the memoriter one. Religious edu- cation per se is lacking in China. In a nation where so much stress has been laid on propriet}^ of conduct, morality, and other virtues, one would expect to find high standards, whereas the reverse is the result. In the Chinese educational scheme, training and discipline have been supplanted by instruction which makes a high moral state im- possible. Their educational system fails to inspire the initiative in the individual. He is hampered by custom, rules, ceremonies, and tradition. He is re- stricted from developing a free personality. This lack of moral freedom is the cause of their inactivity and lack of progress. 1 Legge : Reugioks of China, page 139. 22 THE ESSENTIALS OF BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA The Babylonian civilization which followed the Sumir-Accadian in the Mesopotamian plains, was in reality an outgrowth of the earlier culture. The city of Babylon under the leadership of King Hammurabi about 2000 B. c. became the center of royalty, power, and influence. They inherited the magical incantations, belief in demons, animistic and fetichistic worship as religious rites from the previous civilization. The chief Baby- lonian god was Marduk. There are traces in the sacred literature of a great rise in religious concep- tions which contain no traces of animism or magic. But to have these ideals crystalized into larger and purer religious life was not to be the happy lot of Babylonia. They believed in life after death, but the outlook beyond the grave was sad and gloomy. About 1000 B. c. the Assyrians conquered Baby- lon, and in time Babylonia came entirely under As- syrian denomination. The Assyrians were a warlike people. Their capital was the city of Nineveh. Ashur became their chief deity, and as the country advanced in power and influence, so their god became greater in dignity. Judging from the large number of clay tablets which have been excavated, both countries enjoyed an extensive literature. It seems that each city had its library of clay bricks. One of the largest libra- ries belonging to Ashurbanapal, was at Nineveh (668-626 B. c.) It contained thousands upon thou- sands of clay tablets. RELIGIOUS EDUCATION 23 The relation of religion to culture, particularly in Babylonia, was very close. The Babylonian litera- ture is illustrative of the fact, as it is almost entirely of a religious nature. The religious education, in reality the intellectual life of both countries, was centered in the priesthood. They wielded tremendous power in religion and state aifairs. With each temple was connected a school which was presided over and taught by the priestly class. All learning was of a religious nature. " It is to the temple schools that we owe the intel- lectual activity of Babylonia and Assyria. The in- centive to gather collections of omens, of incanta- tions, and of medical compilations came from the schools. Though the motive was purely practical — viz, to furnish handbooks for the priests and to train young candidates for the priesthood — nevertheless the incentive was intellectual both in character and scope, and necessarily resulted in raising the stand- ard of the priesthood and in stimulating the literary spirit. The popular myths and legends were given a literar}^ form, and preserved in the archives of the temple schools. An interest in fables was aroused, and the wisdom of the past preserved for future generations." ^ THE JEWS The Jews trace their history back to the call of Abram by the Lord from Ur of the Chaldees, who emigrated to Canaan about 2000 b. c. However, iJastrow: Religious Belief in Babyloxia axd Assybia, page 279. M THE ESSENTIALS OF their history as a people dates from about 1490 b. c. when they emigrated from Egypt under the leader- ship of Moses. Moses was a remarkable man in every respect. He stands out in primitive history as its greatest leader. He was leader and schoolmaster for his peo- ple. He presented to them the conception of God as a Being who was infinite, pure, ethical, without limi- tation, who was ready to bless, and who also required from them obedience and service and worship. Moses impressed upon his people the necessity of remembering the law and ceremonies and of seeing that they were fulfilled to the letter. He emphasized the importance of parents instructing their children at a tender age in the mysteries and elements of their holy religion. In Deuteronomy 6 : 6-7 we read, " And these words, which I command thee this day, shall be upon thy hearts, and thou shalt teach them diligently unto thy children, and shalt talk of them when thou sittest in thy house, and when thou walkest by the way, and when thou liest down, and when thou risest up." (Cf. Deut. 4:9; 6:6-9; 6:20-25; 31: 10-13; 32:46.) According to Micah 3:11, the priests were among the earliest religious teachers of the people. Then in Joshua 8 : 30-35 we read where the people were gathered together in front of Mount Gerizim and Mount Ebal where he had erected altars and where he read the word of the law to them. " There was not a word of all that Moses commanded, which Joshua read not before all the assembly of Israel, and the women and the little ones, and the so- journers that were among them." RELIGIOUS EDUCATION ^5 THE IDEAL OF JEWISH EDUCATION " The sages of the Talmud did not merely regard the intellectual accomplishments which are derived from education, but they also, nay chiefly, looked upon the moral advantages and well-regulated dis- position which it should produce. Their efforts in this respect were directed not only to impart knowl- edge to the young, but also to imbue them with love and reverence for God, as well as to develop in them a good disposition and sound moral principles. Honest thoughts and honest deeds should be the re- sult of a study of knowledge and wisdom." ^ THE SCHOOLS OF THE PROPHETS The teachers were called fathers and the students were known as " sons of the prophets." These schools were not to prepare candidates for the pro- phetic order, as the call of a prophet to service was based upon another idea. These schools were more in the nature of conferences or institutes for the pur- pose of mutual fellowship and edification. Probably music and chanting were also discussed. The greatest teachers of these schools were Samuel, Elijah, and Elisha. They met at Ramah, Bethel, Jericho, Gilgal, and Jordan. Through the mutual association of the prophets and students, many of the future leaders, reformers, and poets were trained. EZRA AND HIS WORK With the return of the Hebrews from their exile a new era began in their religious education. Ezra, 1 Spiers: School System of the Talmud, pages 41 and 42. 26 THE ESSENTIALS OF the scribe, learned in the law, became their great re- ligious leader. To promote religious instruction in a systematic way, it seems that the calling of the congregation together as referred to in Nehemiah 8 marks the incipiency of the movement. The book of the law became the text book of the people, and they were taught by priests properly accredited for the work. " The Bible became the spelling-book, the community a school, religion an affair of teaching and learning. Piety and education were inseparable ; whoever could not read was no true Jew. We may say that in this way were created the beginning of popular education. In what way this took place is, it is true, wrapped in mystery ; in the synagogue men did not learn to write and read, and the scribes were not elementary teachers. But the ideal of education for religion's sake was set up, and awoke emulation even though the goal was not reached all at once." ^ It was during this period that the synagogue seems to have been established. Many regard Ezra as the founder of it. However, it marks a distinctive period in the religious educational history of the He- brew people when systematic religious instruction was to be given to them. In time, wherever a synagogue was found, there a school was connected with it. The curriculum con- sisted in the study of the Scriptures, the Hebrew lan- guage, writing, and reading. Various subjects were discussed and a system of catechetics obtained. A brief description of the synagogue school is quoted as follows from Schaff-Herzog : " The school room is the interior of a squalid building rudely con- 1 Hastings : Bible Dictionaey, Vol. I, page 647. RELIGIOUS EDUCATION 27 structed of stone, with a domed roof and white- washed walls, a wooden desk or cupboard on one side, and an inscription in Hebrew over the door. From the building, as we approach, comes the hum of many children's voices repeating the verses of the sacred Torah in unthinking and perfunctory monotone. The aged teacher sits silent in the midst. As we look in, we see his huge turban, his gray beard, and solemn features, appearing over the ruddy face of the dark-eyed boys who sit on the floor around him. . . . The scholars are the children of the richer members of the village community, — of the Bethamen, or ' men of leisure,' who form the representative congregation at every synagogue service, or of the ' standing men,' who go up yearly with the village priest for a week in Jerusalem to fulfill similar functions in the temple ritual." The period from the Return to about 75 b. c. was also noted particularly for the rise of a professional class of teachers known as the Sopherim or scribes. They became interested in the law and literature of the past, devoting their time to its study and elucida- tion. They also advanced the educational work which Ezra had started. The Book of Proverbs was the religious pedagogical handbook of this period. SCHOOLS OF THE LATER PERIOD About one hundred years before the fall of Jerusa- lem it is evident that elementary schools existed. In 64? A. D., when Joshua ben-Gamala (Gamaliel) was High Priest, he ordained that attendance at the ele- mentary schools should be compulsory. Among the Jews it was the custom, rigidly carried 2S THE ESSENTIALS OF out, to instruct their boys at a very early age in the mysteries of their religion. The Talmud says, " As soon as the child begins to speak, the father should teach him to say in Hebrew, ' The Law which Moses commanded us is the heritage of the congregation of Jacob,' and also the first verse of the Shemang: ' Hear, O Israel, the Eternal our God is one God.' " It was necessary for the boy to be six years of age before he could be enrolled as a pupil in the schools. During his first four years of school life his only text- book was the Bible. He was taught the Mishna from his tenth to fifteenth year. After his fifteenth year he was instructed in the Gemorah. The Jewish pedagogical system required the teacher to be brief in his teaching. Rambling ex- planations were to be avoided. The instruction was largely memory work, as he sought to impress the truths upon the mind through concise teaching and also to strengthen the memory. The teachers who taught the respective branches of study were especially trained for their work. The schools were organized so that each teacher should instruct only twenty-five pupils. The time set aside for school instruction was zeal- ously guarded and no encroachments upon it were permitted. The school sessions were held early in the morning and late in the evening. Sabbaths and festi- val days were the only school holidays permissible. The discipline generally followed was the rules re- quired by the Talmud : ( 1 ) The pupil must attend the school regularly. (2) During lessons no pupil is allowed to leave his seat for any purpose without permission of the master. (3) No pupil must ask RELIGIOUS EDUCATION 29 questions which have no reference to the subject taught. (4) Two pupils must not ask a question at the same time. (5) No pupil shall ask any question at the moment when the master enters the school. (6) Pupils must prepare and learn thoroughly the lessons and exercises given them for each day.^ A friendly and affectionate relationship was sought between teacher and pupil. However, the pupil was to remember that a high degree of reverence was due his instructor. Corporal punishment was forbidden except under extraordinary circumstances. The highest degree of efficiency in study and instruction was sought by appealing to the honor of the pupils. FEMALE EDUCATION The education of the girls of the family was not neglected. Their education was entirely along domestic lines. The mother was regarded as the best teacher for her daughters, who were under her tutor- age from birth until marriage. They were taught " to fear God and his commandments," writing, read- ing, and particularly domestic duties. In the train- ing of her daughter the Jewish mother carefully in- culcated the ideals of motherhood as a holy and prec- ious heritage. In Proverbs 31 there appears a beautiful descrip- tion of a worthy woman which was held up as an ideal to be aspired to by every Jewish girl. " Strength and dignity are her clothing : And she laugheth at the time to come. She openeth her mouth with wisdom : 1 Spiers: School System of the Talmud, page 51. 30 THE ESSENTIALS OF And the law of kindness is in her tongue. She looketh well to the ways of her household, And eateth not the bread of idleness. Her children rise up, and call her blessed: Her husband also, and he praiseth her saying: Many daughters have done worthily, But thou excellest them alL Grace is deceitful, and beauty is vain: But a woman that feareth Jehovah, she shall be praised." (Proverbs 31:25-31.) THE HINDUS The common characteristic of the Egyptian and Semitic and Chinese religions, in so far as they touched the people, was their externalism. But the popular religion of all these races was an external system; and, in the case of all save the Israelites, it was a superstition. The spirituality of religion was lost in ceremonial, and the practical ethics which the religion might have yielded were choked by ex- ternal observances.^ When we pass from the Egyptian and Semitic territories to the home of the Aryan races, we feel like travellers ascending from monotonous and op- pressive plains to a cool and invigorating table-land.^ Our studies of the Aryan or Indo-European races will include the Hindus, Medo-Persians, Greeks, and Romans. The Hindu Aryans first emigrated into the Indus district from Central Asia probably between 2000 1 Laurie: Pee-Christian Education, pages 165 and 166. RELIGIOUS EDUCATION 31 and 1500 b. c. In time they conquered and spread themselves over the whole of Central India. THEIR LITERATURE To understand the religious, social, and intel- lectual tendencies of the Hindus, we must go to the repository of their ideals — the Sanskrit literature. The sacred portion of this ancient literature may be divided into two parts: (1) Sruti, the portion which is based entirely upon direct revelation; (2) Smriti, the part which was handed down by tradition and which was thought to have been revealed to hu- man writers. It is not within the compass of our book to describe the Sanskrit literature in detail, but it is our purpose to discuss the parts which are essential to a knowledge of the religious and educational tendencies of the Hindus. Our discussion will be based upon the di- visions adopted by Professor Williams in his scholarly volume " Hinduism," under four departments ; viz, — (1) The three portions of the Veda, — Mantra, Brahmana, and Upanishad. (2) The Darsanas, or systems of philosophy. (3) The Dharmastras. (4) The Bhakti sastras. The principal works under these four heads are the best exponents of the different periods of development through which the Hindu religious mind has passed and which, together, make up Hinduism.^ The Vedic hymns were probably composed by vari- ous poets between the years 1500 and 1000 b. c. 1 Prof. Williams: Hinduism, page 16. 32 THE ESSENTIALS OF ^ The first division of the Veda, called the Mantra por- tion, contains the hymns, prayers, and invocations which were used in the worship of deities. The winds, fire, sun, and water were deified and worshipped. The second division is called the Brahmana; this elaborates upon the conception of sacrifice and con- tains precepts concerning the ritual. The Brahmana were directories to be used by the priests, Brahmans, in the proper usage of the Mantras in conducting worship and at sacrifice. The Upanishad, or third division, contains the mys- tical doctrines which were appended to the Brahmana about 600 B. c. The doctrine of pantheism can be traced to the earliest Upanishads. Out of the Upanishads grew the six Darsanas or schools of phil- osophy, sometimes called the Six Instruments of True Teaching, or Six Demonstrations of Truth. The six schools as mentioned and arranged by Professor Williams are as follows : ( 1 ) The Nyaya, founded by Gotama. (2) The Vaiseshika, founded by Kauada. (3) The Saukhya, founded by Kapila. (4) The Yoga, founded by Pataujali. (5) The Mimausa, founded by Jaimini. (6) The Vedanta, founded by Badarayana or Vyasa. These schools developed distinctive types of phil- osophy which contributed in large measure to the in- tellectual and religious life of the Hindus. The chief purpose of the Brahmanistic philosophy was " to teach men to abstain from action of every kind, good or bad; as much from liking as from dis- RELIGIOUS EDUCATION 33 liking, as much from loving as from hating, and even from indifference. Actions are the fetters of the em- bodied soul, which when it has shaken, it will lose all sense of individual personality and return to the con- dition of simple soul. This constitutes Brama or true knowledge ; this is the summwm honum of Brah- manism; this is the only real bliss — the loss of re- peated separate existences by complete absorption (sayiyya) into the only really existing Being, who is wholly unfettered by action, and without qualities of any kind (nirguna) and called Soccidananda, be- cause he is pure life (with nothing, however, to live for), pure thought (with nothing to think about), pure joy (with nothing to rejoice about)." ^ The code of Manu, a compilation of legalistic, re- ligious, ethical, and philosophical precepts, comes next in importance in ancient Hindu literature. The author or authors of the code are unknown. The earliest version may be assigned to the fifth century B. c, and then from time to time various parts seem to have been added by the Brahmans who claimed the mythical philosopher Manu to be the author. The code determines the social status. By divine appointment there are four classes of society and each caste is separated from the other by insurmountable regulations and barriers. In the scale of social precedence the Brahmans took first rank, and the other castes came in the following order: (1) sol- diers, {9,) agriculturists, (3) servants. Manu's code also set forth the doctrine of the transmigration of the soul. As a result of good or bad deeds, words, and thoughts, a man's soul passed J Prof. Williams ; Hinpuism, page 52, 34 THE ESSENTIALS OF through the highest, middle, or lowest stages of ex- istence. According to Manu, women were considered essen- tially inferior to man and they were in every respect his subordinates. BUDDHISM About 500 B. c. Buddhism arose in opposition to the caste system and tyranny of Brahmanism. The chief reforms which Buddhism introduced may be enumerated as follows : (1) Equality of all men. (2) Sacrifices of atonement are of no avail as each individual will suffer in this life or the future life the consequences of his own deeds. (3) Futility of prayers. (4) The goal of life is Nirvana; that is, annihila- tion or extinction of the soul. In reality Buddhism cannot be termed a religion ; it is rather a system setting forth teachings in pa- tience, morals, charity, etc. According to Hopkins, Buddha believed neither in God nor soul.^ However, Hindu religious ideals in their essence were not based on externalism ; when the devotees of ceremonialism sought to give it precedence, then the reforms of Buddhism resulted. " The ethical virtues of a race whose deepest con- victions were pantheistic and whose highest hope was personal absorption in the Universal, were, as we might expect, temperance, peaceableness, patience, docility, gentleness, and resignation. These virtues; 1 Hopkins: India Old and New, page 138. RELIGIOUS EDUCATION S5 are naturally accompanied by politeness, respect for parents and elders, and obedience to the civil and ecclesiastical powers. But duty in our commanding sense of the word, and the virtues following from a strong personality that controls circumstances and shapes the life of each man, were not to be ex- pected." ^ EDUCATIONAL. PRINCIPLES In pointing out the purpose of Hindu education, Wuttke, in contrasting it with the Chinese, well says : " The Chinese educate for practical life, the Indians for the ideal ; those for earth, these for heaven ; those educate their sons for entering the world, these for going out of it. Those educate for citizenship, these for the priesthood ; those for industrial activity, these for knowledge." Among the earliest schools that we have any record of were schools of priests organized for the purpose of preventing of falling into disuse certain ancient sacred w^ords, the repetition of which seemed to pro- cure the favor of the gods. These schools developed elaborate commentaries which served as text-books for the students. According to Rhys-Davids, " The training in these schools was a curious kind. History in one sense, and science too, were of course entirely unrepresented. The chief weight was placed on memory, and the ingenuityof commentators was much exercised in reconciling the diverse statements of the ancient texts which could not err, and in finding mystic reasons to explain all the various details of the sacrifice." ^ 1 Laurie: Pre-Christiax Educatiox, page 176. 2 Rhys-Davids: Buddhism, page 19. 36 THE ESSENTIALS OF There were special schools conducted by the Brah- mans called Parishads where special instruction was given in the Vedas. The schools of philosophy we have already referred to. The young Brahman studied the sacred writings, which he was required to learn by heart. In educational and practical affairs the Hindu relied largely upon his memory. The edu- cational opportunities were open to all castes, and the lower castes were expected to attend the schools. On the whole the castes below the Brahmans were fairly educated. THE MEDO-PERSIANS " The first great wave of Aryan emigration which had resulted in the establishment of the European na- tions, had been followed by another wave which first carried the Hindus into the Punjab, and then the Iranian populations into the vast districts of Bact- ria and Ariana. Mountains and deserts checked for a time their further progress, but at length a number of tribes each under its own chiefs, crept along the southern shores of the Caspian to the northern coast of the Persian Gulf, and these tribes were known in later history as the Aryan Medes and Persians." ^ The earliest history of Persia rests in obscurity. The founding of the Persian Empire by Cyrus dates from 558 b. c. By active and strategic methods Cyrus extended the boundaries of his empire and se- cured the fealty of many tribes and provinces. In 539 B. c. the Persian monarch waged a successful campaign against his formidable rival Babylon, which he succeeded in crushing. This great victory added 1 Rawlinson: Ancient Monaechies, Vol. Ill, page 300. RELIGIOUS EDUCATION 37 about 250,000 square miles to his empire. The overthrow of Babylon also marked the downfall of the old Semitic civilization and an ancient religious system. Zorastrianism, a purer and nobler system, the Persian state religion, took its place. At his death, Cyrus left his vast dominion to his two sons Camb^^ses and Smerdis. Cambyses was jealous of his brother, and he had him secretly put to death. Later, about 525 b. c. he entered upon the conquest of Egypt, which he partially subdued. As Cambyses was returning to Persia from his Egyptian campaign, a messenger brought him the news that a revolution was in progress among the Persians. Realizing the failure and his inability to suppress the rebellion at home, he committed suicide. The Magian priests who bitterly opposed Zoras- trianism as the national religion, took advantage of Camb^^ses' absence and fomented open rebellion. After the death of Cambyses became known, they seized the reins of government, destroyed the Zoras- trian temples, and established Magism as the state re- ligion. The change in religion was satisfactory, particularly to the Medes, who desired a more ma- terial worship. Finally dissatisfaction arose with the existing rul- ing order of priesthood. Darius, the son of Hys- taspes, a prince of the royal blood, led a successful revolt against the Magi, who were driven from power and large numbers of them were slain. Darius ac- ceded to the throne 521 b. c. He restored the Zoras- trian religion to national dignity and rebuilt the temples. He reorganized his empire and established his authority over an immense domain. 38 THE ESSENTIALS OF Subsequently the empire continued to grow and ex- pand until the great ill-fated expedition of Xerxes against Greece which marked the waning influence and power of Persia. The empire continued to be a great power until conquered by Alexander in 331 B. c. RELIGIOUS IDEALS The primitive Persian religion was probably identical with the early Median religious concepts. The religious ideals in their primitive form recognized the worship of a supreme deity, Ahura Mazdah, or Ormazd (the Lord of Wisdom), and the presence of an evil spirit, Angra Mainyu, or Ahriman (destruc- tive spirit), who has a host of evil spirits (dseva) to do his bidding in the accomplishment of his wicked de- signs. Ahriman wages continued warfare with Ahura but in the end evil will be conquered. The founder of this religious system was Zoroaster or Zarathustra. He was a zealous and cultured re- ligious reformer who had a high conception of the monotheistic type of religion. His conception of the existence and presence of evil in the world is shown in his idea of the existence of the evil spirit Ahriman, and the ultimate triumph of the good. The moral concepts of the Zoroastrian were simple and elevating. These ideals were the basic principles of Zoroastrianism when it in time became elevated to the dignity of a state religion. ** When the Medes, in establishing a wide-spread Empire, chiefly over races by whom Magism had been long professed, allowed the creed of their subjects to corrupt their own belief, accepted the Magi for RELIGIOUS EDUCATION 39 their priests and formed a mixed religious system, — the Persians in their milder country, less exposed to corrupting influences, maintained their original faith in undiminished purity and continued faithful to their primitive traditions. The political dependence of their country upon Media during the period of the Median sway made no difference in this respect ; for the Medes were tolerant and did not seek to interfere with the creed of their subjects." ^ The ancient sacred literature of Zorastrianism is Zendavesta. There the ideals of worship are en- joined which comprise prayer and thanksgiving to Ormazd. The sacred writings opposed idolatry. They offered up various sacrifices upon the altar and the favorite sacrifice was the horse. The religious systems of the Jews and Persians had many ideals in common, and a close religious sym- pathy existed between them. The books of Ezra, Nehemiah, and Esther portray the social and re- ligious conditions which obtained among the two peoples. The subsequent history of Zorastrianism shows corrupting influences of Magism, Babylonianism, and other forms of belief which existed in Asia. In time idolatry developed, and the Persians worshipped their gods in magnificent temples like other nations. The inquiries which Aristotle caused to be made, towards the very close of the empire, into the true nature of the Persian religion, showed him Ormazd and Ahriman still recognized as " Principles," still standing in the same hostile and antithetical atti- tude, one towards the other, which they occupied iRawlinson: Ancient Monarchies, Vol. Ill, page 347. 40 THE ESSENTIALS OF when the first Forgord of the Vendidad was written, long anterior to the rise of the Persian Power." -^ EDUCATIONAL CONCEPTIONS The Persians were very careful and strict in the training- of their sons. The boy for the first five years of his life was under the care of women. At the age of seven more rigid training began. At the age of fifteen he was supposed to be an expert horse- man, hunter, capable of enduring all kinds of hard- ships, and effective in the use of the javelin and bow. He was also taught a useful knowledge of agriculture, and the construction of instruments of war. From the age of fifteen until fifty he was subject to the mili- tary service of his country. The higher classes were selected for service in the king's body-guard and were stationed at the capital. When the Persians adhered closely to these edu- cational conceptions, their sons were trained into temperate habits. The acme of their moral training consisted in a careful observance of truth. A liar was despised. The Persian youth learned additional moral ideals and religious concepts in his study of sacred poems wherein the exploits of gods and heroes were set forth. His instructor recited these poems in his presence, and he was expected to repeat them from memory. In general his education extended throughout the first twenty years of his life. The Persians were the preeminent Asiatic people of their time. The simple Zorastrian faith inspired them to high and noble conceptions and contributed in large measure to the strong national feeling which iRawlinson: Ancient Monarchies, Vol. Ill, page 363. RELIGIOUS EDUCATION 41 existed. Among the Persians there existed free spirit and unhampered personality. There were cer- tain grades of society and certain rules which were to be fulfilled in the relation of one rank to another which obtained among them, but there was lacking the depressing effect upon personality, and the con- ditions of life in general, which resulted from the caste plan of India. " With a sense of personality there comes into existence freedom and many conse- quent virtues. The Persian thus seems to bridge the gulf between the Oriental and the European. And yet he was an Oriental." ^ THE HELLENIC PEOPLE The early history of Greece marks the beginning of European intellectual and political life. In the political life of their city-states there was shown a spirit of civic and personal freedom which was, per- haps, never dreamed of by the ancient Egyptians, Chinese, Semites, Hindus, and Persians. Their in- tellectual life was marked by clarity of thought, and through it their feelings and sympathies were beau- tifully expressed. Their history is no less interesting, but a detailed account is beyond the compass of our text-book, hence general statements must suffice. Five epochs may be mentioned. (1) The prehistoric to the close of the great mi- grations. (2) The Greek states to the close of the Persian Invasion 479 b. c. 1 Laurie: Pee -Christian Education, page 206. 42 THE ESSENTIALS OF (3) The Athenian Supremacy 478-431, and the Peloponnesian War 431-404, to the Theban Su- premacy 362 B. c. (4) Ascending of Philip of Macedon over Greece 338 B. c, and the reign of Alexander the Great 323 B. c. (5) Becomes a Roman province 146 b. c. ART, MUSIC, AND POETRY The constituent elements of Hellenic education were art, music, and poetry. The ideal was to have all citizens educated. In other words art, literature, and music were created for the public. The orators addressed the great national assembly, which was also attended by citizens in large numbers. When tragedies and comedies were presented at Athens, the whole of Hellas was usually represented by citi- zens drawn thither to see the acting. Various fes- tive occasions which brought together large numbers of people were the times when the poet recited his poems. The orator and poet depicted those ideals which would inspire deeper love for their country and vividly unfolded the glories of their beloved Greece. The ancient Hellene was an ardent lover of music. The early tribal music was very primitive, but as the national spirit developed, music of a higher and nobler type resulted. Music was believed to have a desirable effect on the body, soul, and mind. A certain branch of the Pythagorean school advocated that the sweet strains of the harp would restore peace to the disturbed soul. Great stress was laid upon the educative value of RELIGIOUS EDUCATION 43 art. The impersonal side of art was particularly emphasized inasmuch as it was the national value that was to be enhanced. The highest degree of perfection was sought for in every statue or frieze which was erected, and which was invariably used to adorn a public temple or gymnasium. The Hellenic theory upheld the ideal that beautiful art developed beautiful characters in those who came in contact with it. " To serve this educational end, the Hellenes expected every statue and painting, as well as every poem and tune, to have ^^o?, that is, according to Aristotle's definition, to be such that its moral pur- pose was manifest to the average man." ^ THE SCHOOLS The ideals of the schools aimed to produce the highest type of citizenship. Each boy was taught reading, writing, arithmetic, and the national litera- ture. The sons of the wealthy classes, in addition, studied rhetoric and philosophy. The Hellenic theory of the ideal citizen aimed not only to give the highest training possible to the mind and imagina- tion, but demanded equal training for the perfection of the body. All games, hardships, and exercises of the gymnasium were utilized to develop the body. The chief object of this physical training was to de- velop in each youth character, courage, determina- tion, and energy. The ideal of the Hellenic schools first of all was to teach character. The citizens demanded that the school-master be a man of the most exemplar}^ char- 1 Freeman: Schools of Hellas, page 244. U THE ESSENTIALS OF acter. They held the teacher responsible for any breach of conduct or misdemeanor on the part of his pupils. RELIGIOUS EDUCATION The religious system of the Greeks was a complex one. It consisted in the worship of innumerable di- vinities. The stories and myths of their deities were enshrined in the epics of the race. The youth made a careful study of these books, which he was required to commit to memory. In time he took part in the various religious festivals and dances, which in- creased his knowledge of sacred things and intensi- fied his faith in the gods. The two great poets, Homer and Hesiod, who embodied in their works the myths of the gods, were considered to have written with special authority, and in time their poems were looked upon as divinely inspired ; Homer particularly became the Bible of the Hellenic people. The school- masters, orators, and the people in general drew les- sons in morals from the Iliad and Odyssey. However, later many of the philosophers revolted against the low mythical ideals embodied in the epics. Xenophanes said, " Homer and Hesiod ascribed to the gods all that is considered disgraceful among men." ^ Eventually public opinion lost its faith in the old myths, but belief in the old deities continued. In order that the people might not lose sight of the ideal, namely, the attainment of perfect character, philosophers like Plato sought to personify those ethical ideals which should guide the people. Thus Plato in his idealization of Socrates seeks to present 1 Freeman: Schools of Hellas, page 229. RELIGIOUS EDUCATION 45 those ethical concepts which shall help the Hellenic people to the attainment of perfect character. The Greek conception of life in all its phases was based upon the aesthetic. Their theory, as men- tioned, was to produce the ideal man. The ideal of the beautiful towered above all other vital considera- tions of life, and this may be applied as the real cause for the ultimate failure of the Greek system. The theory was not a total failure, but it represents only one side of human endeavor. A one-sided sys- tem in education, morals, or religion cannot possibly exist permanently. THE ROMANS In making a brief study of religious education from the Roman viewpoint, a general survey of Roman history will be in order. Rome was founded 753 B. c. From 509 to 265 b. c. was the period of internal development ; the establishment of the re- public and Roman supremacy in Ital}', 265-146 B. c, marked the extension of her power in the West and East. 146-48 b. c. was the period of revolu- tion — the dictatorship of Julius C.Tsar. In 30 b. c. Caesar Augustus became emperor and reigned until 14 A. D. The empire continued until 476 a. d. During this period, 306-337 a. d., reigned Constan- tine the Great, who recognized Christianity as the religion of the empire. RELIGION and EDUCATION In the early history the religious duties which were to be performed were marked by simplicity. Certain traditional forms, which each father taught 46 THE ESSENTIALS OF his son, were to be fulfilled in order to gain the favor and blessing of the gods. When Rome extended her power over the East, new gods were added to her system and beautiful temples were erected and dedi- cated to their worship in the great capital city. Many religious festivals were inaugurated with elab- orate ceremonies in honor of the deities. Around each household and estate, in time, innumerable dei- ties were gathered, which were faithfully worshipped in the hope of obtaining the richest divine favors. Thus the Roman children were taught their reli- gious ideals in their home life. They accepted and continued the religious life of their fathers. The highest moral instruction which obtained was the traditional precept of the household. However, about 200 b. c. marks the influx of Greek philosophy in Rome, which had a tremendous effect in the religious and educational ideals of the time. In Rome, as in Greece, the ideal of education was to develop the highest order of citizenship in order that each citizen might be trained to render the best possible service to the state. In the earlier days of Rome, as in Greece when culture was at its zenith, the moral training of the pupil was the main principle kept in view. When Hellenic educational ideals gained a perma- nent foothold in Rome, Greek teachers in large num- bers were found among the Romans. The Greeks taught particularly rhetoric and philosophy. The Greek schools of philosophy taught particularly that phase which has to do with the conduct of life. In time, when a Roman desired information relative to right and wrong, he did not consult the priest of his RELIGIOUS EDUCATION 47 religion, but he went to some philosopher for advice. In the homes of many wealthy Romans, Greek phil- osophers were found who were expected to teach high moral principles to the children. As the old Roman conception of education passed away, the Hellenic took its place, but the cultured Roman at his best manifested the prosaic and prac- tical side of life. Or as Laurie says, " As can easily be understood in the case of a nation whose genius was so essentially practical, whose life was so wholly a civil life, the chief legacy of thought which they bequeathed to humanity was their moral energy and their jurisprudence. The latter we still study as the basis of all modern law; and this it was which, dur- ing a long and critical period, continued with the influence of the Church to hold the civilization of Europe together, and finally to re-create it." ^ THE CATECHETICAL SCHOOLS It seems that the incipiency of the catechetical schools may be traced to the days of the Apostles. It was the custom of the Apostles to gather groups of people about them for instruction. That a sim- ple method of catechetics obtained at this time is evidenced b}^ Hebrews 5: 12, "For when b}^ reason of the time ye ought to be teachers, ye have need again that some one teach you the rudiments of the first principles of the oracles of God ; and are become such as have need of milk, and not of solid food." ^ 1 I^aurie: Pre-Christian Educatiox, page 32L 2 The term catechetics according to Thayer is derived from the Greek verb Kar-nx^^^ which means: (1) to somid to- wards, sound down upon, resound; (2) to teach orally, to instruct. References: Cf. Acts 21:21, 24; Rom. 2:18; I Cor. 14:19. 48 THE ESSENTIALS OF This method of instruction was generally used in the primitive Christian church. According to " The Teaching of the Twelve Apostles," which is a manual devoted in part to Christian instruction and which was largely used in the early church, men were to be thoroughly instructed in the essentials of Christian faith before they were to be admitted to baptism. Out of this method of instruction grew the cate- chetical schools of post-Apostolic times. The most celebrated of all was the Christian school at Alex- andria. Here were taught the elementary principles of Christianity, and theology in its higher form. One of its famous teachers was the learned and saintly Clement. Another famous catechist was Cyril of Jerusalem. He lectured at Jerusalem dur- ing the reign of the first Christian emperor, Con- stantine. His lectures are clear, methodical, full of Christian truth and encouragement. CLASSES AND INSTRUCTION According to Bingham there were four classes of catechumens.^ (1) The c^w ©ov/xevoi, or catechumens instructed privately without the church. (2) The aKpowfievoL, audientes, or hearers, who were so called from their being admitted to hear ser- mons and the Scriptures read in the church. (3) The yowKXivovT€