PRESENTED TO THE LIBRARY 
 

 
 
 
 
 ■ ' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
VALUABLE WORKS 
 
 PUBLISHED BY 
 
 J. & J. HARPER, 82 CLIFF-STREET, NEW-YORK, 
 
 And for Sale by the principal Booksellers in the United States. 
 
 HISTORY OF THE JEWS. Ey tlie Rev. H. H. 
 
 Milman. In 3 vols. 18mo» Illustrated witli original 
 
 Maps and Woodcuts. 
 
 “ The Editors of the Family Library have been most fortunate in en- 
 gaging on this work the pen of a scholar, both classical and scriptural, 
 and so elegant and powerful a writer as the Poetry Professor. Few 
 theological works of this order have appeared either in ours or in any 
 other language. To the Christian reader of every age and sex — and we 
 may add of every sect — it will be a source of the purest delignt, instruc- 
 tion, and comfort ; and of the infidels who open it merely that they may 
 not remain in ignorance of a work placed by general consent in the rank 
 of an English classic, is there not every reason to hope that many will 
 lay it down in a far different mood?” — Blackwood's Magazine. 
 
 “Though the subject is trite, the manner of treating it is such as to 
 command our deepest attention. While the work has truth and simplicity 
 enough to fascinate a child, it is written with a masterliness of the sub- 
 ject and an elegance of composition that will please the most refined 
 and fastidious reader.” — E. Saturday's Post. 
 
 “ The narrative of the various and highly interesting events in that 
 period flows on in a chaste style ; and a thorough knowledge of his sub- 
 ject is evident in every page. The work is spirited, well arranged, and 
 full of information, and of a wise and well cultivated spirit.” — Athenaeum. 
 
 “Professor H. H. Milman is one of the most chaste and classical 
 writers of the age. His Bampton Lectures contain some of the most 
 glowing and graphic descriptions which we ever read. The History of 
 the Jews embraced in the volumes before us, has already passed through 
 three editions in England, and is highly and justly commended by many 
 of the most respectable periodicals.” — N. Y. Journal of Commerce. 
 
 “It is written in a very interesting manner — in a more philosophical 
 spirit, and with more depth of reflection, than is generally found in his- 
 tories of this nature. It is not wanting in historical condensation, and the 
 colouring of the style is lively and picturesque.” — N. Y. Evening Post. 
 
 “ The style in which it is written is remarkably lucid and elegant ; 
 attractive by its general smoothness and simplicity, yet animated and 
 forcible. The work must be popular, and we doubt not ranked among 
 the classics of the language.” — Baltimore Republican. 
 
 “ Mr. Milman’s work is calculated to interest and instruct a greater 
 number of readers, of all ages, than any book which has been produced 
 for many years.”— Philadelphia Daily < hronicle. 
 
 “ This History of the Jews is the best we have ever seen.” 
 
 Nem-England, Palladium. 
 
LIFE OF NAPOLEON BUONAPARTE. By J. G. 
 
 Lockhart, Esq. With Copperjrlate Engravings. 
 
 2 vols. 18mo. 
 
 “ We never met with more solid information compressed within so 
 small a space ; and yet the brevity of the style never runs into obscurity. 
 On the contrary, we should be much at a loss to point out such another 
 specimen of narrative clearness in the whole range of contemporary lite- 
 rature. Two volumes so rich in information and interest, so much to be 
 devoured by youth, and so worthy to be consulted by the matures! reader, 
 would constitute certainly one of the cheapest of all possible cheap books. 
 Of a work already so widely known it would be ridiculous to multiply 
 specimens in these pages.”— Blackwood's Magazine. 
 
 “ We anticipate a prodigious circulation for this attractive work. It is 
 drawn up with consummate ability. Indeed, we have seldom perused a 
 work more uniformly interesting in its details.” — Sun. 
 
 “ The first volumes of this work secured for it the attention and patron- 
 age of the public; and the continued ability displayed in these succeeding 
 numbers has gained it an introduction into most of the * * * 4 family libraries,’ 
 not only in England, but in Europe. Suiting itself to the hardship of the 
 times, this work is published in a form and at a price which render it 
 accessible to all classes of the reading public.” — S. Herald. 
 
 “After the merited praise that has already been given to this work, it 
 cannot be supposed that we have any thing particularly original to offer 
 respecting ’t.” — B. Mirror. 
 
 “ It is, unquestionably, in a brief and tangible form, the most popular 
 History of Napoleon that has been yet produced.” — Atlas. 
 
 “ This is a much better book than any otuer in English on the same 
 subject.” — Athenaeum. 
 
 LIFE OF NELSON. By Rolbert Southey) Esq. With 
 a Portrait. 18mo. 
 
 “ This is the best work that ever came from the pen of the laureate, 
 audit is an excellent specimen of biography.”— New England Palladium. 
 
 “The merits of this work are so well known that it is altogether un- 
 necessary to recomipend it to our readers.” — New- York Evening Post. 
 
 “ The illustrious subject of this volume, and the reputation of Southey 
 as a biographer, will be a sufficient guarantee for the interest of the 
 work.” — New- York Constellation. 
 
 “ Southey’s fine and popular biography of Nelson was very much 
 wanted, and is now to be had very cheap, in a very neat and convenient 
 form.” — New-York Commercial Advertiser. 
 
 “ We take much pleasure in recommending this Library to the public, 
 because we really consider it as useful and as deserving of encourage- 
 ment as any work that has ever been in the American press.” — New- 
 York Courier <$- Enquirer. 
 
 “ It is well written ; and consists of many narratives of intense interest, 
 and highly wrought description.” — New-York Mercantile Advertiser. 
 
 4 It is a faithful narrative of the hero of Trafalgar, and paints his 
 character with much force, and in its true colouring. We consider this 
 number a valuable gem in the Family Library.” — Truth Teller. 
 
 ‘The publishers intend to incorporate some works of an American 
 character, which will greatly augment the value of their edition of the 
 Library. This last improvement is all that is wanting to make this work 
 one of the most valuable miscellaneous publications that ever issued from 
 the press.” — New-York American. 
 
 [ 2 ] 
 
L.IFE OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT, By Rev 
 J. Williams. With a Map. 18mo. 
 
 “The style is good, and the narrative well conducted. A modem 
 history of this famous warrior cannot fail to be entertaining.” — New- 
 York Daily Advertiser. 
 
 “ The work is instructing, and inherits a greater shave of interest from 
 the fact, that the history of this ancient Napoleon is disintegrated from 
 the mass of general history, and presented by itself. The style is lucid 
 and well studied.” — New- York Journal of Commerce. 
 
 “ The fourth work included in this collection is a life of Alexander the 
 Great, written by the Rev. John Williams, (of Baloil College, Oxford,) 
 the well-known founder and head of the New Edinburgh Academy, and 
 written in a manner worthy of his high scholastic reputation. He has 
 displayed fblicitously in this volume both the natural and acquired en- 
 dowments of his mind — filled a blank in the historical library, furnished 
 the schoolmaster, and also the schoolboy, whether at home or abroad, 
 with a capital manual — and there will never be, in as far as we can see, 
 the smallest occasion for writing this story over again.” — Blackwood. 
 
 “ This constitutes the seventh volume of the Family Library. It is 
 incomparably the best life— the most careful and correct estimate of 
 Alexander’s achievements we have.” — Monthly Magazine. 
 
 “*rhis is a much better book than any other in English on the same 
 subject.” — Athenaeum. 
 
 “ It is ably and eloquently written.” — B. Journal. 
 
 “ We have repeatedly borne testimony to the utility of this Library. It is 
 one of the best that has ever been issued from the American press, and 
 should be in the library of every family desirous of treasuring up useful 
 k no wledge .” — Boston Statesm an. 
 
 NATURAL HISTORY OF INSECTS. Illustrated! by 
 numerous Engravings. 182 mo. 
 
 “ Of all studies, perhaps there is none more captivating than that of 
 animated nature The present volume is peculiarly useful and agree- 
 
 able.” — New- York Mirror. 
 
 “ The subject is full of interest and satisfaction, and is adapted to all 
 classes of readers.” — Albany Evening Journal. 
 
 “ The information is minute, well arranged, and clearly imparted, and 
 cannot but recommend the work to general perusal in families.” — New- 
 York Standard. 
 
 “ It is the duty of every person having a family to put this excellent 
 Library into the hands of his children.” — N. Y. Mercantile Advertiser. 
 
 “ It seems to us, that it will prove at once agreeable and instructive to 
 persons of all classes, and occupy an appropriate place in the Family 
 Library.”— N. Y. Daily Advertiser. 
 
 “ The study of animated nature, in itself pleasing, is absolutely neces- 
 sary as a branch of usellil knowledge. In the present work the subject 
 is treated with peculiar adroitness, and contains only such details as 
 render the study of Natural History amusing, and at the same time highly 
 instructive. This volume, we should conceive, would be highly advanta- 
 geous for the use of schools ; and we recommend its being placed in every 
 one’s library, as a work full of useful information.” — Truth Teller. 
 
 “ The History of Insects is a curious one. Many of the details are 
 wonderful and full of interest.” — Philadelphia Inquirer. 
 
 “This work must prove useful and interesting to all classes.” 
 
 Albany Daily Advertiser. 
 
 [ 3 ] 
 
LIFE OF LORD BYRON. By John Galt, Esq. 18mo. 
 
 “ This volume has great merit, and is a valuable acquisition to litera- 
 ture.” — New- York Spectator. 
 
 “The sprightly pen of the author has communicated uncommon .inter- 
 est to this work, and he appears to have done perfect justice to its inspired 
 subject.” — Albany Daily Advertiser. 
 
 “ The subject is one of very great interest, which is of course enhanced 
 by the reputation of the writer.” — Baltimore. Republican. 
 
 “ Mr. Galt is one of the most fascinating writers of the age.” — Journal 
 of Commerce. 
 
 “ The work is well written, and gives many particulars in the career 
 of the gifted bard which we never before met with in print.” — Pennsyl- 
 vania Inquirer. 
 
 “ It is the work of one of the most sprightly and popular writers of the 
 day, and has the advantage of being comprised in the moderate compass 
 of a single volume.” — Evening Post. 
 
 “ Mr. Galt is in the habit of eliciting the truth from whatever he under- 
 takes to consider or develop. So much of the exact truth, in respect to 
 Byron, was never before discovered, collected, and set down, as we find 
 in this very interesting volume.”— -C. Journal. 
 
 “ Galt is a powerful writer. His critical abilities and the rare oppor- 
 tunity which he enjoyed of reading the heart-secrets of the mysterious 
 poet give an undoubted value to this history.” — Neiv-York Cabiket. 
 
 “ This volume contains, in a concise but interesting form, a Memoir of 
 the Life and Literary Labours of Lord Byron, by Mr. Galt ; whose classic 
 pen imparts interest and value to every thing it touches.” — Albany Eve- 
 ning Journal. 
 
 “Mr. Galt is well and favourably known as a writer.” — Mercantile 
 Advertiser. 
 
 LIFE OF MOHAMMED, Founder of tlie Religion of 
 
 Islam and of tlie Empire of tlie Saracens. By tlie 
 
 Rev. George Bush, M. A. Witli a plate. ISmo. 
 
 “ It seems to us to be a good narrative of the life of the great Arabian 
 impostor, written in a fine style. . . . We are not aware that any other 
 work of the same size contains the same quantity of information relative 
 to the matters treated of, in as agreeable a form.” — Com. Advertiser. 
 
 “ We have so often recommended this enterprising and useful publica- 
 tion (the Family Library), that we can here only add, that each succes- 
 sive number appears to confirm its merited popularity.” — N. Y. American. 
 
 “ This volume embraces a portion of history extremely interesting to 
 the reader ; and the work well deserves a nlace among the others com- 
 posing the valuable series of the Family Library.”— Evening Journal. 
 
 “ The Family Library should be in the hands of every person. Thus 
 far it has treated of subjects interesting to all, condensed in a perspicu- 
 ous and agreeable style.”— Courier Sr Enquirer. 
 
 “Mr. Bush is a scholar of extensive acquirements, and well fitted for 
 the task which he has undertaken in this volume.”— N. Y. Observer. 
 
 “ In the collection of materials, the author appears to have neglected 
 no source from which valuable aid was to be expected.”— Philadelphia 
 Daily Chronicle. 
 
 “The history of the eminent impostor cannot but be a work of interest 
 to every enlightened mind.” — Penn. Inquirer. 
 
 “ We have found much to admire and commend in every preceding 
 number of the Family Library ; but we believe the present will be allowed 
 the place of honour.” — U. S. Gazette. 
 
 t^] 
 
DEMONOLOGY AND WITCHCRAFT, By Walter 
 Scott, Bart* 18 mo. Witli a plate, 
 
 “ The work is carious, interesting, and instructive.” — Inquirer. 
 
 “ This volume is most interesting, and will be read with great pleasure 
 by almost every Class of readers.” — U. S. Gazette. 
 
 ‘‘It yvould be difficult to select a more interesting subject for the pen 
 of a man of genius than that of popular superstitions. To say that Scott 
 has made more of it than any other man could have done, is only to add 
 another tribute to his acknowledged pre-eminence.” — Boston Statesman. 
 
 “ Tne subject i3 most alluring, and the manner in which it is handled 
 is magical,”— Athenaeum. 
 
 “One of the most useful, and certainly one of the most amusing, in the 
 Family Library.” — Courier. 
 
 “The subject, is one in which Sir Walter is perfectly at home, and is 
 handled with that tact and ability so peculiarly his own .‘—Globe. 
 
 “ We must leave this delightful volume to the delightful admiration 
 which it will obtain, and to that consequent * parlour window’ immor- 
 tality which it-will command more surely and deservedly than any other, 
 of the writer’s works.” — C. Journal. 
 
 “All the volumes of this interesting and useful Library should be in 
 the hands of our youth, as they wiil gain much knowledge and instruc- 
 tion from their perusal. They peculiarly fit the mind for a more exten- 
 sive entry oh the subjects of which they treat, at a more mature period 
 of life.”— IV. Y. Evening Journal. 
 
 “This work will be sought for with'avidity.” — N. Y. Standard. 
 
 “ It is a delightful publication.” — Truth Teller. 
 
 “It hazards little to predict that this volume will prove the most popu- 
 lar that has yet been put forth for the public amusement and instruction.” 
 
 Spectator. 
 
 HiSTORY OF THE BIBLE. By Rev, G. R. Glcig. 
 
 In 2 vols, 18mo. Witli a Map. 
 
 “The style of it is surpassed by no work with which we are ac- 
 quainted : it is highly finished, perspicuous and comprehensive. His- 
 torical and biographical facts are well stated ; the prominent difficulties 
 that present themselves to the mind of an intelligent or skeptical reader 
 of the Bible, are boldly exhibited and ably explained ; the most plausible 
 objections advanced by modern infidels are answered in a very philo- 
 sophical, learned, and conclusive manner. Tiie author has unbodied in 
 it avast deal of learning and research; has discovered superior ingenuity 
 and force of intellect, and furnished, withal, a specimen of fine writing, 
 which must secure a most favourable reception, as well among persons 
 of taste, as those who are fond of Biblical studies. A valuable introduc- 
 tion is prefixed to the work, showing the divine authority and authen- 
 ticity of the Sacred Volume.” — Albany Telegraph >$■ Register. 
 
 “ Mr. Gleig’s plan is very comprehensive, and, judging from the speci- 
 men before us, we are persuaded that it will prove fully satisfactory 
 to a Christian people. In his inquiries and criticisms, as well as in 
 his suggestions and speculations, Mr. Gleig is free and independent. 
 But he never forgets that it is the Bible, the Book of Heaven, he has 
 undertaken to elucidate.” — New Monthly Magazine. 
 
 “The Rev. author is one of the very best writers of the day. He has 
 expended a great deal of labour and research upon his subject, and has 
 succeeded in giving a connected, faithful, and succinct outline of the 
 contents of the Sacred Volume, and in vindicating its^statements from 
 the objections of skepticism and false philosophy.” — American Traveller , 
 
 5 
 
POIiAR SEAS AND REGIONS. By Professors Leslie 
 
 and Jameson and Hugh Murray, Esq. 18 mo. With 
 
 Maps and Engravings. 
 
 “ The style is familiar, concise, and comprehensive. The authors are 
 excellent models for modern historians.” — Albany Evening Journal. 
 
 “ A work from such hands on such a subject cannot fail to be both 
 interesting and valuable.” — N. Y. Evening Post. 
 
 “The three eminent men who have produced this compilation have 
 rendered a great service to the cause of philosophy and knowledge.” — 
 New- York Commercial Advertiser. 
 
 “ The writers are gentlemen of first-rate standing in the scientific world, 
 and the subject is one to which every curious mind is attached by a sort 
 of involuntary impulse.” — N. Y. Journal of Commerce. 
 
 “ It is well calculated for seamen and landsmen, the learned and unin- 
 formed, and for both sexes of every age.” — American Traveller. 
 
 “ This volume is replete with interest ; it exhibits a succinct, yet com- 
 plete and connected view of the successive voyages made to the Arctic 
 Regions.” — Monthly Repository. 
 
 “ This volume presents an exceedingly entertaining and instructive view 
 of all that is known of the Polar Seas and Regions.” — Philadel. Chronicle. 
 
 “The volume now before us not only enters into an account of the 
 climate, the animal and vegetable productions, the geology of the Polar 
 Regions, and the details of the whale fishery;, but present's the public 
 with highly interesting’ accounts of the ancient voyages to the North, 
 the -early as we’l as the more recent voyages in search of the North-East 
 and North-West Passages, together with the late voyages directly towards 
 the North Pole.” — New Monthly Magazine. 
 
 “We recommend this entertaining volume.” — Truth Teller. 
 
 “ We are of opinion that this will prove one of the most popular num- 
 bers of this justly popular work.” — Courier 6- Enquirer. • 
 
 LIFE AND TIMES OF GEORGE IV. With Aiiec* 
 
 dotes of Distisiguisiied Persons. By the Rev. George 
 
 Crcly. With a Portrait. 18 mo. 
 
 “ Mr. Croly hus acquitted himself very handsomely. His subject is 
 one cf much interest, and he has treated it with unusual impartiality. 
 The author's style is chaste, classical, and beautiful, and it may be taken 
 as a model of fine writing. It is worthy of his genius and his educa- 
 tion .” — Mercantile Advertiser. 
 
 “ This number isfrom the eloquent and powerful pen of the Rev. George 
 Croly. It promises much entertainment and instruction. The name of 
 the writer is a sufficient passport to the public attention.” — Com. Adv. 
 
 “This is an interesting volume, blending most beautifully instruction 
 with amusement .” — Lpng Jsihnd Patriot. 
 
 “ Mi. Croly is a man cf talent , and can write well. There is proof of 
 this in the volume before us. The reflections that naturally arise out 
 of the subject are philosophical and just ; and the sketches of character 
 of the leading men and ministers are drawn with a bold and vigorous 
 hand .” — The Athenaeum. 
 
 “The portraits of the Prince’s friends are in the best style, and 
 sketched with impartial freedom. Fox, Burke, Sheridan, Erskine, Cur- 
 ran were of the splendid galaxy, and the characteristics of each are well 
 preserved in Mr. Croiy’s pages.” — Gentleman’s Magazine. 
 
 “ Mr. Croly is not merely a fine writer, but a very powerful one. His 
 outline is as bold and broad as his colours are glowing. lie writes like 
 ft mau well acquainted with his subject .” — Eclectic Review. 
 
DISCOVERY AKD ADVENTURE IN AFRICA. By 
 
 Professor Jameson* James Wilson* Esq.* and Hugh 
 
 Murray, Esq. With, a map and engravings. 18 mo. 
 
 “The names of the distinguished individuals by. whom the volume has 
 been prepared, offer a sufficient pledge for the faithful and accomplished 
 execution of the work ; and the field of their labours is one of almost un- 
 rivalled attraction for whatever is new, strange, or mysterious in histo- 
 rical narrative, or bold and perilous in adventurous exploit.” — The Atlas. 
 
 “ From what we have read, we think it will add another very interest- 
 ing and useful volume to. the Family Library. This work we believe 
 will be interesting to every class of readers, especially to the philanthro- 
 pist and Christian.” — N. Y. Evangelist. 
 
 “ It embraces .the whole field of modern travels in Africa,, and, like 
 ‘Polar Seas and Regions,’ is deserving the attention of every one who 
 pretends to keep pace with the progress of science and discovery.” — Jour, 
 of Commerce. 
 
 “ In this volume is comprised much useful and entertaining knowledge 
 concerning a country which has long been the subject of vague report 
 and conjecture pthe theatre of visionary monsters, and the scene of the 
 most extravagant romance.” — N. Y. Standard. 
 
 “ The names of the authors will satisfy the public that this is a work 
 which will command their . admiration and credence. It is a sterling 
 addition to that most excellent series, the Family Library.” — Albany 
 Daily Advertiser. 
 
 “In the present work we have a perfect history of the discoveries 
 which have been attempted, from the time of Herodotus until the final 
 attempt of Rend Caille ; it is replete with interest.” — N. Y. Courier <$• 
 Enquirer. 
 
 DIVES OF EMINENT PAINTERS AND SCULP- 
 TORS. By Allan Cvuxxiiiigliam* Esq. In 3 vols. 
 
 18mo. Willi Fox-traits. 
 
 “ We advise, all those of our readers who have any respect for our re- 
 commendation, to read these three volumes from beginning to end ; and we 
 are confident of the thanks of such «s shall be induced by our advice te 
 procure for themselves so great an enjoyment.” — N. Y. Mirror. 
 
 “ We would recommend these volumes as being replete with interest- 
 ing incident and valuable historical matter. They are worthy of a promi- 
 nent place in the library of the scholar, and are of that description of 
 works which may be placed in the hands of the younger branches of 
 society, with the assurance that they will impart both moral and intel- 
 lectual improvement.” — Boston Masonic Mirror. 
 
 “The lives of distinguished artists, written by so popular an author, 
 can hardly fail of being duly appreciated by the reading community.”— 
 N. Y. Constellation. 
 
 “This is one of the best written and most instructive books of the 
 series to which it belongs.” — N. Y. American. 
 
 “ The whole narrative is of a lively and alluring kind, flowing m its 
 language, and enriched with ceaseless anecdote.” — N. Y. Atlas. 
 
 “ The lives of Hogarth, <fcc. furnish a fund of entertaining and charac- 
 teristic anecdote, of which the author has known howto avail himself 
 with skill.” — N Y. Evening Post. 
 
 “So much as an accomplished author, an admirable field of exertion, 
 and a beautiful typography, can do or promise for a work, so much we 
 can safely accredit to the volumes before us ” — Journal of Commerce. 
 
 ' m 
 
HISTORY OP CHIVALRY AND THE CRUSADES. 
 
 By G. P. R, Jamesj Esq. With an Engraving. 
 
 I8mo. 
 
 “ The present volume may safely be pronounced an ornament to the 
 literature of the day, and Mr. James be esteemed a writer of great clear- 
 ness and strength/’ — N. Y. Standard. 
 
 “ The author of this work has done the public a service, which we think 
 will be duly appreciated.” — Christian Herald. 
 
 “The period of the world to which this history relates is one most 
 interesting to readers generally.” — N. Y. Mercantile Advertiser. 
 
 “A more interesting, instructive, and amusing volume has not been 
 laid upon our table for many a day.” — Boston Statesman. 
 
 “ Mr. James is well known as an agreeable writer ; and the subjects 
 of this volume are such as can scarcely fail to prove both amusing and 
 interesting.” — N. Y. Daily Advertiser. 
 
 “ The execution of. this work is. like the rest of the Family Library, 
 elegant. The subjects of no little interest ; and those who have read 
 ‘Richelieu’ and ‘Darnley’ will be prepared to think favourably of auy 
 production from the same pen.” — Constellation. 
 
 “ The admirers ofMr James’speculiar style of composition as exhibited 
 in his powerful productions of ‘Darnley,’ * Richelieu,’ ‘ De L’Orme,’ &c. 
 have now an opportunity to witness his equally successful efforts in 
 another department, where all classes of readers may unite in commend- 
 ing the subject, the treatise, and the author.” — American Traveller. 
 
 “ The historical details embraced in this volume are extremely curious 
 and amusing and the accounts of ancient customs pertaining to the vari- 
 ous orders of knighthood engaged in the holy wars, furnish much pleasant 
 reading, as well as food for contemplation on the obsolete follies of man- 
 kind.”--^. Y. Evening Journal. 
 
 LIFE OF MARY, QAJEEN OF SCOTS. By H. G. 
 
 Bell, Esq. In ‘A vols. 18ino. Witli a Portrait. 
 
 “ It is decidedly the most interesting account we have ever seen of that 
 lovely and unfortunate being. We have always felt that Mary was inno- 
 cent of the great crimes charged against her by her furious and deadly 
 enemies ; but our understanding was never before convinced. It was 
 with a feeling of eager joy, that we, for the first time in our lives, admit- 
 ted the full conviction of her innocence. The book is written with much 
 candour.” — Massachusetts Journal. 
 
 “W3 find it imbued with all the interest of a romance, without de- 
 stroying the authenticity of the history. Mary was indeed an attractive 
 subject for the pen of a lively and gallant writer. In such hands, her 
 youth, her beauty, her station, and her misfortunes must have furnished 
 admirable themes on whieh to descant and wake up the sympathies of the 
 reader.” — Pennsylvania Inquirer. 
 
 “The life of the unfortunate queen is a subject of strong interest.”— 
 Constellation. 
 
 “ The style of the author is succiuct and clear, and is a good specimen 
 of historic composition.” — Standard. 
 
 “ The reader will be pleased to learn that the life of Mary has been 
 written anew, by one %vho appears, both in temper and talent, extremely 
 well qualified for the task.” — N. Y. Atlas. 
 
 “ We have heretofore made extracts from this work, which must have 
 given our readers a favourable opinion of the merits of the whole. We 
 have no difficulty in recommending a subject so interesting to the public.” 
 — Albion. 
 
 [ 8 ] 
 
ANCIENT AND MODERN EGYPT. By the Rev. 
 
 M. Russell) IiLt.D. Witli a Map and Engravings. 
 
 IS mo. 
 
 “ It is hardly possible to imagine a volume of more various interest than 
 this.” — Baltimore American. 
 
 “A work that cannot be too warmly commended to the reading pub- 
 lic.” — Providence American. 
 
 “ All that is known of Egypt is condensed into this history; and the 
 readers of it will find themselves well repaid for their labour and money.” 
 — New-Haven Advertiser. 
 
 “ This volume is the most interesting, as well as the most valuable, of 
 the numbers yet published.” — Long Island Star. 
 
 “This is one of the most valuable of the series of the Family Library.” 
 — Badger’s Weekly Messenger. 
 
 “ The information respecting the present state of this interesting coun- 
 try will be found peculiarly valuable.” — New- York. Mirror. 
 
 “ The work is written in a very happy style, and presents a mass of 
 knowledge of the most useful and instructive character, collected together 
 by great industry and research.” — Baltimore Republican. 
 
 “ We think the writer has performed his task with a singular degree of 
 ability and clearness.” — Tribune. 
 
 “ This is a volume of great interest.” — New-York Standard. 
 
 “ An account of this ancient kingdom, connected as it is with events of 
 the greatest importance both in sacred and profane history, cannot fail to 
 be interesting to every person who has a taste for this species of know- 
 ledge.”- — New- York Daily Advertiser. 
 
 “ This work is fully equal to any that have appeared in the Family Li- 
 brary, and that is one of the best of comolimenis which can be paid it.” — 
 Albany Evening Journal. 
 
 HISTORY OP POLAND, from tlie earliest Period to 
 
 the present Time. By James Fletcher, Esq. With 
 
 a Portrait of Kosciusko. ISmo. 
 
 “ This work recommends itself to public notice by its clear, concise, and 
 impartial history of a country and a people for whom the feelings of every 
 lover of freedom are now deeply interested.” — N. Y. Atlas. 
 
 “ Of the writer's fairness and research we have a very good opinion ; 
 and his book is just the thing that is wanted at the present moment.”— 
 New-York American. 
 
 “ A more acceptable volume than this could not be presented to the 
 public.” — Courier >$* Enquirer. 
 
 “ A work of great interest.” — Albion. 
 
 “ No work has for a long period been published here so deserving of 
 praise and so replete with interest.” — American Traveller. 
 
 “ The history is well written, and is presented in a convenient and suc- 
 cinct form.” — New-York Standard. 
 
 “ The present volume will prove, we think, highly acceptable to the 
 public.” — Evening Post. 
 
 “ It will require no recommendations to induce the reading community 
 to possess themselves at once of this valuable and authentic work.” — 
 New-York Evening Journal. 
 
 “ It will be found an exceedingly interesting work.” — Constellation. 
 
 “It treats of a country and a people that attract at this moment the 
 attention of the whole world ; and here there is not an individual who is 
 not interested in the struggle which the brave Poles are now engaged in 
 for liberty and home.” — Mercantile Advertiser. 
 
 [ 9 ] 
 
jFiCtittous Storks, &c. 
 
 ST. VALENTINE'S DAY: or, TIIE 
 FAIR MAID OF PERTH. By 
 the Author of “ Waverley.” In 2 
 vols. 12mo. 
 
 TIIE DOOM OF DEVORGOIL; 
 and AUCIIINDRANE. By the 
 Author of *' Waverley.” 12mo. 
 
 ALMACK’S REVISITED ; or. HER- 
 BERT MILTON. A Novel. In 
 2 vols. l2mo. 
 
 YESTERDAY IN IRELAND. A 
 Novel. In 2 vols. 12mo. 
 
 WALDEGRAVE. A Novel. In 2 
 vols 12mo. 
 
 THE ADVENTURES of a KING’S 
 PAGE. A Novel. 2 vols. 12mo. 
 
 TALES AND SKETCHES. By a 
 Country Schoolmaster. I2mo. 
 
 SEPARATION. A Novel. By La- 
 dy Charlotte Bu ry, Author of 
 “Flirtation.” In 2 vols. 12mo. 
 
 THE EXCLUSIVES. A Novel. In 
 2 vols. 12mo. 
 
 LIFE OF MANSI E WAITCn, TAI- 
 LOR IN DALKEITH. 12mo. 
 
 THE LOST HEIR; and THE PRE- 
 DICTION. A Novel. In 2 vols. 
 
 THE SUBALTERN’S LOG-BOOK. 
 A Novel. In 2 vols. 12mo. 
 
 FOSCARINI. A Novel. In 2 vols. 
 
 HAJJI BABA. A Novel. In 2 vols- 
 
 POSTHUMOUS PAPERS, FACE- 
 TIOUS AND FANCIFUL, 12mo. 
 
 API Cl AN MORLELS. A Comical 
 Work. With Cuts. 12mo. 
 
 STORIES OF A BRIDE. In 2 
 vols. 12mo. 
 
 THE SCHOOL OF FASHION. A 
 Novel. In 2 vols. 12mo. 
 
 RYBRENT DE CRUCE. A Novel. 
 In 2 vols. 12mo. 
 
 THE ENGLISH AT HOME. A 
 Novel. In 2 vols. 12mo. 
 
 THE LAST OF THE PLANT A- 
 GENETS. An Historical Ro- 
 mance. In 2 vols. 12mo. 
 
 TALES OF MILITARY LIFE. In 
 2 vols. 12mo. By the Author of 
 “the Military Sketch-Book.” 
 
 STRATTON HILL. A Tale of the 
 Civil Wars. In 2 vols. 12mo. 
 
 PEACE CAMPAIGNS OF A COR 
 NET. A Novel. In 2 vols. 12mo. 
 
 PRIVATE LIFE. A Novel. In 2 
 vols. 12mo. 
 
 TALES OF THE WEST. 2 vols 
 12mo. By the Author of “ Letters 
 from the East.” 
 
 THE TUILERIES. A Novel. In 
 
 2 vols. 12mo. 
 
 ROMANCE AND REALITY. A 
 Novel. By L. E. L. In 2 vols.l2mo. 
 
 TIIE ICING’S SECRET. A Novel. 
 In 2 vols. 12mo 
 
 JACQUELINE OF HOLLAND. By 
 T. C. Grattan, Esq. In 2 vols. 
 
 ROXOBEL- By Mrs. Sherwood. 
 In 3 vols. 18mo. 
 
 In Press, 
 
 HARPER’S FAMILY LIBRARY — 
 Of this work, which is intended tc 
 combine the two objects of instruc- 
 tion and amusement, comprisiag 
 as much entertaining matter as 
 can be given along with useful 
 knowledge, and as much know- 
 ledge as can be conveyed in an 
 amusing form, several volumes 
 are already published 
 
 THE LIBRARY OF SELECT 
 NOVELS —which will embrace no 
 works but such as have received 
 the impress of general appro- 
 bation, or have been written by 
 authors of established character. 
 Several volumes are now pubr 
 lished. See Catalogue. 
 
 DRAMATIC LIBRARY— Being se- 
 lections from popular standard 
 Dramatic writers ; illustrated with 
 Explanatory Notes, and adapted 
 to Family reading, by the omis- 
 sion of all exceptionable passages. 
 Several voiumes are already pub- 
 lished. See Catalogue. 
 
 FAMILY CLASSICAL LIBRARY ; 
 or English translations of the 
 most valuable Greek and Latin 
 Classics. Several volumes are 
 now published. See Catalogue. 
 
WOR’-SS OF V1Q TXOSf. 
 
 BULWER’S NOVELS. Printed and 
 bound uniformly in sets of 8 vol- 
 umes— embracing “Pelham,” “the 
 Disowned,” “ Devereux,” and 
 “Paul Clifford.” 
 
 DARNLEY. A Novel. By G. P. R. 
 J a m ks , Author of “ Richelieu.” In 
 2 vols. 12mo. 
 
 DE L’ORME. A Novel. By the 
 Author of “ Richelieu” and “ Darn- 
 ley.” 2 vols. 12mo, 
 HAVERHILL. A Novel. By J. A. 
 
 JoNKs^lSsq. In2vols. 12mo. 
 TRAITS OF TRAVEL. A Novel. 
 In 2 vols. I2mo. By T. C. Grat- 
 tan, Author of “Highways and 
 Byways.” 
 
 THE HEIRESS OF BRUGES. A 
 Tale. By the Author of “ High- 
 ways and Byways,” “Traits of 
 Travel,” &c. 2 yols. 12mo. 
 MAXWELL. A Novel. By the 
 Author of “ Sayings and Doings.” 
 2 vols. 12mo. 
 
 LA WRIE TODD ; OR, THE SET- 
 TLERS IN THE WOODS. By 
 John Galt, Esq. In 2 vols. 12mo. 
 SOUTHENNAN. A Novel. In 2 
 vols. 12mo. By the Author of 
 ‘.‘Lawrie Todd,” &c. <fcc. 
 WALTER COLYTQiy. A Tale. 
 In 2 vols. I2mo. By Horace 
 Smith, Author of “ Brambletye- 
 House,” “ Zillah,” &c. &c. 
 
 THE NEW FOREST. A Novel. 
 In 2 vols. 12mo. By the Author 
 of “ Brambletye-House,” “ Zil- 
 lah,” &c. &c. 
 
 THE COLLEGIANS. A Novel. In 
 2 vols. 12mo. 
 
 THE RIVALS. A Novel. By the 
 Author of “the Collegians,” &c. 
 In 2 vols. 12mo. 
 
 HUNGARIAN TALES. In 2 vols. 
 12mo. By Mrs. Gore, Author of 
 “ the Lettre de Cachet” and “ Ro- 
 mances of Real Life.” 
 
 ROMANCES OF REAL LIFE. In 
 2 vols. 12mo. 
 
 FRANCE, IN 1829—30. By Lady 
 Morgan. In 2 vols. 12mo. 
 
 COMING OUT; and THE FIELD 
 OF THE FORTY FOOTSTEPS. 
 Novels. By Misses Jane and An- 
 na Maria Porter. In 3 vols. 
 THE BARONY. A Novel. In 2 
 vols. 12mo. By Miss Anna Ma- 
 ria Porter. 
 
 CLOUDESLEY. A Novel. In 2 
 vols. 12mo. By the Author of “Ca- 
 leb Williams,” &c. 
 
 SKETCHES OF IRISH CHARAC- 
 TER. By Mrs. Sarah C. Hall. 
 THE RIVALS OF ESTE ; and 
 other Poems. By James G, and 
 Mary E. Brooks. 12mo. 
 BEATRICE. A Tale, founded on 
 Facts. By Mrs. HoFLANn. In 2 
 vols. 12mo. 
 
 CONTRAST. A Novel. By Regina 
 Maria Roche, Author of “ the 
 Children of the Abbey,” &e, &c. 
 In 2 vols. 12mo, 
 
 THE DENOUNCED. A Novel. In 
 2 vols. 12ma. By the Authors of 
 “ Tales by the O’Hara Family.” 
 THE OXONIANS. A Novel. In 
 2 vols. 12mo. By the Author of 
 “ the Roud.” 
 
 THE COUNTRY CURATE. By 
 the Author of “ the Subaltern.” In 
 2 vols. 12mo. 
 
 ROMANCE of HISTORY. France, 
 In 2 vols. 12mo. By Leitcij 
 Ritchie, Esq. 
 
 ROMANCE of HISTORY. Spain. 
 In 2 vols, 12mo. By Don T. De 
 Truebat. 
 
 THE INCOGNITO ; or, SINS AND 
 PECCADILLOES. A Novel. By 
 the Author of “ Romance of His- 
 tory,” “ the Castilian,” &c. 
 
 THE TALBA. A Novel. By Mrs, 
 Bray, Author of “ the White 
 Hoods,” “ the Protestant,” &,c. 
 STORIES OF WATERLOO, AND 
 OTHER TALES. In 2 vols. 
 WAVERLEY ; OR, TIS SIXTY 
 YEARS SINCE. A Novel. In 2 
 vols. 12mo. Revised, corrected, 
 and enlarged by the Author. 
 
 DE LISLE. A Novel. 2 vols. 12mo. 
 
3U LWER’S WOS.KS, 
 
 PELHAM; or, THE ADVENTURES OF A GEN- 
 TLEMAN. A Novel. In 2 vols. 12mo. 
 
 “If the most bnlliant wit, a narrative whose interest never flags, and 
 some pictures of the most riveting interest can make a work popular, 
 1 Pelham’ will be as first-rate in celebrity as it is in excellence. The 
 scenes are laid in fashionable life.” — Literary Gazette. 
 
 THE DISOWNED. A Novel. In 2 vols. 12mo. 
 
 “ We have examined ‘ The Disowned,’ and find it fully equal in plot, 
 character, and description to * Pelham,’ and vastly more philosophic and 
 reflecting. It is by far the most intellectual fiction that we have seen for 
 a long time ; and in it may be found some of the finest maxims, and from 
 it may be drawn some of the best morals for the guidance of the human 
 heart.” — The Albion. 
 
 DEVEREUX. A Novel. In 2 vols. 12rao. 
 
 “ The author possesses the most brilliant qualifications of a successful 
 novelist. His conception of character is exquisite ; his descriptive powers 
 are unequalled ; he has wit, pathos, energy, and discrimination in an emi- 
 nent degree ; and he is, moreover, a ripe scholar. In one particular he is 
 not surpassed by any writer of the present or of any other day — we mean 
 the faculty of imparting deep and uncontrollable interest to his stories.” — 
 New- York Mirror. 
 
 PAUL CLIFFORD. A Novel. In 2 vols. 12rao. 
 
 “ ‘ Paul Clifford’ is the most original of all Mr. Bulwer’s works, and 
 cannot fail to add largely to its writer’s reputation. For the man of the 
 world it contains shrewdness and satire ; for the moralist matter of deep 
 thought, and for the young all the interest of narrative and all the poetry 
 of feeling.” — The Albion. 
 
 FALKLAND. A Novel. 12rao. 
 
 “ In the powerful description of intense feeling and passion, it does not 
 fall short of any subsequent work of the same author.”— New- York 
 Monthly Review. 
 
 “ He has shown the rock of passion which has produced the wreck of 
 character. If he has introduced crime, he has denounced it ; if a criminal, 
 he has punished.”— N. Y. Cabinet of Religion, <$-c. July, 1830. 
 
 THE SIAMESE TWINS. l2mo. 
 
 “ We have read Bulwer’s new poem with close attention and with 
 much pleasure. It is worthy of the reputation of the author of* Pelham,’ 
 and has passages of poetry inferior to nothing of modern times, not exclud- 
 ing the days of Byron.” — Pennsylvania Inquirer. 
 
 " Bulwer does not write trines ... It is a production of powerful genius. 
 The work is well worth reading.”— N. Y. Daily Sentinel. 
 
HARPER’S FAMILY LIBRARY, 
 
 “ Books that you may carry to the fire, and hold readily in your hand, 
 are the most useful after all. A man will often look at them , and be 
 tempted to go on, when he would have been frig htened at books of a larger 
 size, and of a more erudite appearance — 1>k. Johnson. 
 
 The proprietors of the Family Library feel themselves stimulated to 
 increased exertions by the distinguished favour with which it has already 
 been received. 
 
 The volumes now before the public may be confidently appealed to 
 as proofs of zeal on the part of the publishers to present to their readers 
 a series of productions, which, as they are connected, not with ephemeral, 
 but with permanent subjects, may, years hence as well as now, be con- 
 sulted for lively amusement as well as solid instruction. 
 
 To render this Library still more worthy of patronage, the proprie- 
 tors propose incorporating in it such works of interest and value as 
 may appear in the various Libraries and Miscellanies now preparing in 
 Europe, particularly the “ National” and the “ Edinburgh Cabinet” Libra- 
 ries. All these productions, as they emanate from the press, will be 
 submitted to a committee of literary gentlemen for inspection ; and none 
 will be reprinted but such as shall be found calculated to sustain the 
 exalted character which this Library' has already acquired. 
 
 Several well-known authors have been engaged to prepare for it original 
 works of an American character, on History', Biography, Travels, &c <Cc. 
 
 Every distinct subject will in general be comprehended in dUe volume, 
 or at most in three volumes, which may form either a portion of the 
 series or a complete work by itself ; and each volume will be embellished 
 wiih appropriate engravings. 
 
 The entire series will be the production of authors of eminence, who 
 have acquired celebrity by their literary labours, and whose names, as 
 they appear in succession, will afford the surest guarantee to the public 
 for the satisfactory manner in which the subjects will be treated. 
 
 Such is the plan by which it is intended to form an American Family 
 Library, comprising all that is valuable in those branches of knowledge 
 which most happily unite entertainment with instruction. The utmost 
 care will be taken, not only to exclude whatever can have an injurious 
 influence on the mind, but to embrace everything calculated to strengthen 
 the Dest and most salutary impressions. 
 
 With these arrangements and facilities, the publishers flatter them- 
 selves that they shall be able to present to their fellow-citizens a work 
 of unparalleled merit and cheapness, embracing subjects adapted to all 
 classes of readers, and forming a body of literature deserving the praise 
 of having instructed many, and amused all ; and above every other spe- 
 cies of eulogy, of being fit to be introduced, without reserve or exception, 
 by the father of a family to the domestic circle. Meanwhile, the very low 
 price at whi'-h it is charged renders more extensive patronage necessary 
 for its support and prosecution. Th& immediate encouragement, there- 
 fore, of those who approve its plan and execution is respectfully solicited 
 The work may be obtained in complete sets, or in separate numbers, 
 from the principal booksellers throughout the United States . 
 
DRAMATIC SERIES 
 
 OP 
 
 THE FAMILY LIBRARY. 
 
 \KrTke number of volumes composing the “ Dramatic Series” will bt 
 
 limited , and will be bound and numbered in such a manner as to render 
 
 it not essentially necessary to obtain them to complete sets of tae 
 
 Family Library .] 
 
 The Old English Dramatists, the friends and contemporaries of Shaks- 
 peare, have contributed one of the most valuable portions to the poetic 
 literature of our country. But — abounding as they do in wit and fancy, 
 in force and copiousness of expression, in truth and variety of character, 
 in rapid change of incidents, in striking and interesting situations, and, 
 above all, in justice and elevation of sentiment — their works are totally 
 unknown to th* generality of readers, and are only found in the hands of 
 an adventurous few, who have deviated from the beaten paths of study 
 to explore for themselves less familiar and exhausted tracts of literary 
 amusement. The neglect of these authors, in an age so favourable to 
 works of imagination as the present, can only be ascribed to that occa- 
 sional coarseness of language which intermixes with and pollutes the 
 beauty of their most exquisite scenes. . . . Under these circumstances, the 
 editors of the Family Library have determined on publishing a selection 
 from the plays of Massinger, Beaumont, Fletcher, Ford, Shirley, Webster, 
 Middleton, and ethers, omitting all such scenes and passages as are in- 
 consistent with tne delicacy and refinement of modern taste and manners. 
 Whenever it is possible, the play will be printed entire. If there be a 
 double plot, the one, as in the case of the Virgin-Martyr, eminently beau- 
 tiful, and the other as eminently offensive, the living beauty will be 
 separated from Ihe dead weight of corruption to which it is unnaturally 
 joined, and be presented to the reader in a form which may afford an un- 
 mixed andtfowtng enjoyment to his imagination. When there is a radical 
 evil in the groundwork of the play, only a single act or a few scenes may 
 be given ; but, in such cases,. care will always be taken to preserve the 
 interest of an entire and connected story. The work will be accompanied 
 with short explanatory notes, and occasional critical remarks. 
 
 “ There can be little doubt that the works of those dramatists who 
 flourished in the time of Shakspeare will be eagerly purchased, as they 
 are very much warned in this country. Although containing the essence 
 of poetry, few on this side of the Atlantic are acquainted with their merits. 
 It is singular that they have not been reprinted here t .ore. A little 
 of the solid thought and laboured composition of those days might be 
 advantageously substituted for much of the frippery now cut down into 
 tedious metre, and eked out with forced and hackneyed rhyme.” — N. Y. 
 Mirror. 
 
 “ The Dramatic Series of the Family Library has been planned in such 
 a manner as to promise to make it one of the most important features of 
 that admirable collection. Hitherto there has been scarcely any attempt, 
 certainly no successful one, at opening the immense source of poetical 
 treasure which is to be found in the works of those dramatists who 
 flourished contemporaneously with the mightiest of them all. The editor 
 of this series is liberal of explanation and elucidation too, where they are 
 called for by any obvious difficulty in the text. Cases of obvious neces- 
 sity alone, however, obtain his interference; he supplies the requisite 
 assistance without obtruding it; sometimes from his own resources, at 
 others from imoojectionable authorities.” — Monthly Review 
 
FAMILY CLASSICAL LIBRARY. 
 
 To those who are desirous of obtaining a knowledge of the most es- 
 teemed authors of Greece and Rome, but possess not the means or leisure 
 for pursuing a regular course of study, the present undertaking must prove 
 a valuable acquisition. 
 
 So diversified are the' objects to which general education is at present 
 directed, that sufficient time cannot be allowed, in most instances, to lay 
 the foundation of an adequate acquaintance with the most popular authors 
 in the Greek and Latin languages. In those instances even, in which the 
 object Las b< en attained, where the taste has been formed, and the habit 
 of occasional recurrence to the Classics has been preserved, the facility of 
 reference to ’a Series of correct and elegant Ticmslations must afford 
 pleasure, and occasional assistance, even to the scholar. To him who. as 
 Dr Knox observes, although engaged in other pursuits, is still anxious to 
 “ retain a tincture of that elegance and liberality of sentiment which the 
 mind acquires by the study of the Classics, and w hich contributes more to 
 form the true gentleman than all the unsubstantial ornaments of modern 
 affectation,” such a collection will, it is confidently hoped, prove accept- 
 able. 
 
 As the learned languages do not form part of the education of females, 
 the only access which they have to the valuable stores of antiquity is 
 through the medium of correct translation. 
 
 The selection is intended to' include those authors whose works may 
 with propriety be read by the youth of both sexes; and it will be obvious 
 that the nature of the publication is of so permanent a character, as to 
 prove equally interesting to posterity as to the present generation. The 
 whole will be presented to the public in a cheap, handsome, and uniform 
 size, forming a complete “ Family Classical Library,” alike useful for the 
 purpose of instruction and amusement. Indeed, as Dr. Park says, “if 
 you desire your son, though no great scholar, to read and reflect, it is 
 your duty to place in his hands the best translations of the best Classical 
 Authors.” 
 
 A Biographical Sketch will be prefixed to each author; and notes will 
 he added, when necessary for the purpose of illustration. Engravings of 
 the authors, and Maps, will be given occasionally. 
 
 The importance attached in the present day to translations of the Classic 
 authors, may be estimated by the fact, that a series has been recently 
 published in England, and also in France, and that another in the Russian 
 language is nowin pro ress, under the immediate sanction of the Imperial 
 Government. 
 
 AN EPITOME OF ENGLISH LITERATURE. 
 
 Under the above title it is intended to publish, in a new and concen- 
 trated form, a series of Standard English Authors. The precise nature of 
 the plan to be adopted in the work will be stated hereafter, — for the present 
 suffice it to observe, that in History no facts, and in Philosophy no reason- 
 ing will be omitted or distorted, so as to render a reference to the original 
 author requisite ; and thus persons of both sexes may become perfectly 
 acquainted with authors repulsive from bulk alone, at a comparatively 
 little cost of time as w'ell as price. The series will be confined to the 
 popular productions of writers in prase,— such as Burnet, Clarendon, 
 Gibbon, Hume, Robertson, Bacon, Locke, Paley, Addison, Goldsmith, 
 Johnson, Swift, <fcc. &c., and will be edited by A J. Valpv, M. A. 
 
 HARPER’S FAMILY LIBRARY.— See Prospectus. 
 
 LIBRARY OF SELECT NOVELS.— See Prospectus. 
 
LIBRARY OF SELECT NOVELS. 
 
 Fictitious composition is now admitted to form an extensive and im 
 portant portion of literature. Well-wrought novels take their rank by the 
 side of real narratives, and are appealed to as evidence in all questions 
 concerning man. In them the customs of countries, the transitions and 
 shades of character, and even the very peculiarities of costume and dia- 
 lect, are curiously preserved ; and the imperishable spirit that surrounds 
 and keeps them for the use of successive generations renders the rarities 
 for ever fresh and green. In them human life is laid down as on a map. 
 The strong and vivid exhibitions of passion and of character which they 
 furnish, acquire and maintain the strongest hold upon the curiosity, and, 
 it may be added, the affections of every class of readers ; for not only is 
 entertainment in all the various moods of tragedy and comedy provided in 
 their pages, but he who reads them attentively may often obtain, without 
 the bitterness and danger of experience, that knowledge of his fellow 
 creatures which but for such aid could, in the majority of cases, be only 
 acquired at a period of life too late to turn it to account. 
 
 This “ Library of Select Novels” will embrace none but such as have 
 received the impress of general approbation, or have been written by 
 authors of established character ; and the publishers hope to receive such 
 encouragement from the public patronage as will enable them in the 
 course of time to produce a series of works of uniform appearance, and 
 including most of the really valuable novels and romances that have been 
 or shall be issued from the modern English and American press. The 
 store from which they are at liberty to choose is already sufficiently great 
 to ensure them against any want of good material ; and it is their inten- 
 tion to make such arrangements as shall warrant the public confidence in 
 the judgment with which the selection will be made. The price, too, will 
 be so moderate as to make the work accessible to almost any income ; and 
 the style in which it is to be performed will render it a neat and con- 
 venient addition to every library. 
 
 There is scarcely any question connected with the interests of literature 
 which has been more thoroughly discussed and investigated than that of 
 the utility or evil of novel reading. In its favour much may be and has 
 been said, and it must be admitted that the reasonings of those who be- 
 lieve novels to be injurious, or at least useless, are not without force and 
 plausibility. Yet, if the arguments against novels are closely examined, 
 it will be found that they are more applicable in general to excessive in- 
 dulgence in the pleasures afforded by the perusal of fictitious adventures 
 than to the works themselves ; and that the evils which can be justly 
 ascribed to them arise almost exclusively, not from any peculiar noxious 
 qualities that can be fairly attributed to novels as a species, but from those 
 individual works which in their class must be pronounced to be indif- 
 ferent. 
 
 But even were it otherwise — were novels of every kind, the good as 
 well as the bad, the striking and animated not less than the puerile, in- 
 deed liable to the charge of enfeebling or perverting the mind ; and were 
 there no qualities in any which might render them instructive as well as 
 amusing — the universal acceptation which they have ever received, and 
 still continue to receive, from all ages and classes of men, would prove 
 an irresistible incentive to their production. The remonstrances of moral- 
 ists and the reasonings of philosophy have ever been, and will still be 
 found, unavailing against the desire to partake of an enjoyment so attrac- 
 tive. Men will read novels ; and therefore the utmost that wisdom and 
 philanthropy can do is to cater prudently for the public appetite, and, as it 
 is hopeless to attempt the exclusion of fictitious writings from the shelves 
 of the library, to see that they are encumbered with the least possible 
 number of such as have no other merit than that of novelty 
 

 
 Cefceiy 
 
Harper’s Stereotype Edition . 
 
 VIEW 
 
 OF 
 
 ANCIENT AND MODERN 
 
 AN OUTLINE OF ITS NATURAL HISTORY. 
 
 PUBLISHED BY J. & J. HARPER, 82 CLIFF-ST. 
 
 Sold by Collins & Hannay, Collins & Co., G. & C. & H. Cnrvill, White, 
 Gallaher, & White, O. A. Roorbach, Pendleton & Hill, E. Bliss, and 
 C. S. Francis ; — Ai.ba.ny, O. Steele, and Little & Cummings ; — Phila- 
 delphia, John Grigg, Towar <fe Hogan, E. L. Carey <fc A. Hart, and 
 T. Desilver, jr. ; — Boston, Richardson, Lord. & Holbrook, Carter, 
 Hcndee, & Babcock ; — Baltimore, W. & J. Neal, J. Jewett, Cushing 
 & Sons, M‘Dowell & Son, J. Robinson, E. J. Coale, amd P. N. Wood 
 
 G YP T; 
 
 WITH 
 
 BY THE 
 
 REV. MICHAEL RUSSELL, LL.D. 
 
 WITH A MAP AND ENGRAVINGS. 
 
 NEW-YORK : 
 
 1831 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 The object of this volume is to present to the 
 reader, in a condensed form, an account of all that 
 is known respecting Egypt, both in its ancient and 
 in its modern state. The history alone of such a 
 country could not fail to be highly interesting to 
 every one who has any curiosity to mark the pro- 
 gress of the human race in civilization and learn- 
 ing, and mor-e especially the beginnings of society 
 at that earliest period to which the writings of un- 
 inspired annalists carry back the mind of the con- 
 templative student. It has indeed been our main 
 endeavour to represent the genius and astonishing 
 acquirements of the old Egyptians through the 
 medium of the great works of architecture, statuary, 
 and sculpture, which are still to be found on the 
 banks of the Nile. In this part of our undertaking 
 we have spared no pains to illustrate the descrip- 
 tions of the Grecian, Roman, and Arabian histo- 
 rians, by a reference to the actual condition of that 
 singular country in our own times ; attempting by 
 these means to supply to the reader of Herodotus, 
 Diodorus Siculus, Strabo, Pliny, and Abdollatiph, a 
 light reflected from the ruins of those splendid 
 monuments which they were the first to make known 
 to the great body of their less-informed contem- 
 poraries. 
 
4 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 However dark may be the cloud which still 
 hangs over the more ancient portion of Egyptian 
 history, it is much less obscure than it was thirty 
 years ago. The united exertions of travellers 
 abroad, and of learned men at home, since the be- 
 ginning of the present century, have contributed 
 not a little towards removing the perplexity which 
 was wont to beset the historian and chronologer at 
 the very threshold of their inquiries. The labours 
 of Dr. Young and of M. Champollion have opened 
 up a path by which, there is great reason to hope, 
 the research of modern authors will be enabled to 
 penetrate into those remote ages which preceded 
 the Persian conquest, and which it has too long 
 been the fashion to consign to mysticism and fable. 
 Without permitting ourselves to yield to an undue 
 confidence in regard to the discoveries which are 
 said to have been made since the comparatively 
 recent period when the language of hieroglyphics 
 was supplied with a key, we may nevertheless 
 cherish the expectation that the light which has 
 been already thrown on the dynasties of the ancient 
 kings of Egypt will increase hereafter into a much 
 greater degree of brightness. It was not the least 
 pleasant part of our task to trace the steps of that 
 arduous investigation which finally led to the 
 knowledge of Phonetic hieroglyphics ; one of the 
 most valuable additions made to literature in mod- 
 ern times. 
 
 The reader will find that we have not neglected 
 any source of information in respect to the learning 
 and science of the Egyptians, and more especially 
 as these are in any way connected with the me- 
 chanical labours, the arts, or the political govern- 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 5 
 
 ment which distinguished the first ages of their 
 history. It was our intention to have included an 
 account of Nubia and Abyssinia in the narrative 
 now submitted to the public ; but we soon discov- 
 ered that the interesting notices which are daily- 
 reaching this kingdom relative to the improvements 
 introduced by Mohammed Ali, the present viceroy 
 of Egypt, and the important changes which he still 
 appears to meditate, would necessarily prevent the 
 accomplishment of so extended a plan. Hence it 
 has been determined to reserve a full and method- 
 ical description of those vast countries for a future 
 volume of the Library. 
 
 In collecting materials for the history of modern 
 Egypt, we placed the greatest reliance on the 
 works of such writers as had lived some time in 
 the country, and had thereby an opportunity not 
 only of marking the progress of events under the 
 extraordinary man who for more than twenty years 
 has directed the government, but also of comparing 
 the actual condition of the inhabitants with the op- 
 pression and barbarism from which they have grad- 
 ually emerged. In this point of view the successive 
 communications of Mr. Salt are extremely valua- 
 ble ; as are also several notices which have been 
 received in this country through the medium of 
 France. Among these last a distinguished place 
 is due to the “Histoire de la Regeneration de 
 l’Egypte,” written in the form of letters by Jules 
 Planat, a staff-officer in the service of the pasha. 
 
 The reader may be surprised, that in describing 
 the manners and customs of the modern Egyptians, 
 we have not taken any notice of a volume by the 
 late Mr. Burckhardt on this very subject. Suffice 
 
6 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 it to observe that the work in question is simply a 
 collection of Arabic proverbs, which illustrate the 
 sentiments of the people rather than their customs 
 or manners, and was therefore altogether unsuitable 
 for the purpose which we had in view. 
 
 It is not necessary to remark that the chapter on 
 Natural History is meant entirely for popular use, 
 and has no claims to scientific precision either in 
 the description or arrangement. Besides, as the 
 sixteenth volume of this Library contains a full 
 view of the Geology and Animal Kingdom of Af- 
 rica, contributed by two able writers, we have in- 
 tentionally limited our survey to such objects as 
 are peculiar to the Egyptian valley and to the 
 rocky barrier by which it is bounded. 
 
 Edinburgh, April, 3 830 . 
 
ADVERTISEMENT. 
 
 The American publishers of this volume, while 
 they acknowledge the general accuracy of the 
 author’s statements, and the clearness and interest- 
 ing nature of the information he has laboriously 
 collected from so many sources, feel themselves 
 obliged to enter their protest against the disparaging 
 and, in their opinion, unjust remarks with which it 
 is interspersed, reflecting upon the scientific French- 
 men who accompanied Napoleon’s expedition to 
 Egypt : the reverend author has not, in their judg- 
 ment, done justice either to the efforts of those 
 gentlemen, or to their success. It may be true 
 that much was not accomplished which might have 
 been expected from the magnitude and complete- 
 ness of their preparations and appointments ; but 
 it is to be remembered that their time to investi- 
 gate and explore was too often lamentably abridged, 
 by the necessity under which they laboured of ac- 
 companying the rapid movements of the army: 
 and no unprejudiced man will or can deny that the 
 results of their exertions were highly important, 
 and very honourable to themselves, when fairly 
 estimated with a reasonable consideration for the 
 difficulties and embarrassments with which they 
 had to contend. 
 
 New-York, August, 1831. 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
C ONTENTS, 
 
 CHAPTER L 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Importance of Egyptian Antiquities — Egypt an old Country in the 
 Infant Age of Greece — Thebes famous in the Days of Homer — Learn- 
 ing and Science of Europe derived from Egypt through Phenicia and 
 Greece — Inquiry into the Source of Egyptian Learning and Civilization 
 — The early Improvement of Nubia and Abyssinia — Resemblance 
 between the Religion, the Symbols, and Architecture of India and of 
 - Egypt — Anecdote of the Sepoys in the British Army — Remarks on the 
 Temples in both Countries — A similar Resemblance between the 
 Egyptians and Chinese — All primitive Tribes derived their Know- 
 ledge from the same Source — Institution of Castes in Egypt and India 
 — Statements of Herodotus and Diodorus on that Subject — Probability 
 that Civilization and the Arts descended the Nile — Contrast between 
 their advanced Knowledge and their debased Worship— Reflection on 
 the Importance attached to the durable Nature of Architectural Monu- 
 ments Page 17 
 
 CHAPTER n. 
 
 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES AND GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF EGYPT. 
 
 General Description of Egypt — Origin of the Name — Opinions of the 
 Ancients— Egypt the Gift of the Nile— Depth of the Soii — Attempts to 
 ascertain the mean Rate of Deposition — Opinions of Shaw, Savary, 
 Yolney, and Bruce — Speculations of the French Philosophers — Proof 
 that Egypt has acquired an Elevation of Surface — Fear of Dr. Shaw 
 in regard to the eventual Sterility of the Land — Constancy of the 
 Inundations — Frauds by the Government — Qualities of the Water — 
 Analysis of the Mud — Accident witnessed by Belzoni — Seasons in 
 Egypt — Heat — Infrequency of Rain — The Winds, Simoom — The Po- 
 litical Geography of Egypt— Mouths of the Nile — Natron Lakes — 
 Waterless River Page 26 
 
 CHAPTER IIL 
 
 CIVU^ HISTORY OF ANCIENT EGYPT. 
 
 Obscurity of Egyptian Annals — Variety of Hypotheses — Reign of Menes 
 determined; his Actions — Account of Osymandias; his Palace and 
 Tomb — Chronological Tables — Invasion of the Shepherds — Quotation 
 
 » B 
 
12 
 
 CONTENTS, 
 
 from Manetho— Mistake as to the Israelites — Indian Tradition in 
 regard to the Conquest of Egypt by Pastoral Chiefs — The Origin of 
 the Pyramids — Hatred of Shepherds entertained by the Egyptians in 
 time of Joseph — The Reign of Mceris — Accession of Sesostris ; his 
 Exploits ; Proofs of his warlike Expedition ; the Magnificence of his 
 Buildings ; his Epitaph — Invasion by Sabaeo the Ethiopian or Abys- 
 sinian— By Sennacherib— By Nebuchadnezzar — By Cyrus— And com- 
 plete Subjugation by Cambyses — The Persian Government — Conquest 
 of Egypt by Alexander the Great — Ancient Dynasties — The Ptolemies — 
 The Romans — The Saracens Page 48 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 MECHANICAL LABOURS OF TfiE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. 
 
 The Magnitude of Egyptian Edifices —Their supposed Object connected 
 with the Doctrine of the Metempsychosis — Proposal made to Alex- 
 ander the Great— Lake Mceris; its Extent— The Narrative of Herodo- 
 tus ; supported by Diodorus and Pomponius Mela — Opinion that the 
 Nile originally flowed through the Valley of the Dry River — Facts 
 stated by Denon ; and by Belzoni — Lake Mceris not a Work of Art — 
 The River of Joseph, and Canals connecting it with the Nile — Pyra- 
 mids ; Account by Herodotus ; Researches of Davison ; of Caviglia ; 
 of Belzoni ; Dimensions of Pyramids — Sphinx; Exertions of Caviglia 
 — Monolithic Temple — Tombs — Reflections Page 74 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 THE LITERATURE AND SCIENCE OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. 
 
 Remains of Egyptian Literature scanty but valuable— Meaning of Hie- 
 roglyphics — Picture-writing— Progress towards an Alphabet ; Illus- 
 trated by the Hebrew and other Oriental Tongues — Different Modes 
 of Writing practised by the Egyptians, Epistolographic, Hieratic, and 
 Hieroglyphic properly so called —Discovery of -Rosetta Stone— Re- 
 searches of Dr. Young and Champollion— The Practice of Chinese in 
 rendering Words Phonetic — The Advantages of the Hieroglyphical 
 Method— Discoveries of Mr. Salt — Anecdote of King Thamus— Works 
 of Thoth or Hermes— Quotation of Clemens Alexandrinus — Greeks 
 learned History from Egypt — The Numerical System of the Ancient 
 Egyptians — The Arabians derived their Arithmetical Signs from 
 Egyptians Page 129 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 REMAINS OF ANCIENT ART IN VARIOUS PARTS OF EGYPT. 
 
 General Magnificence of Remains— Alexandria— Pillar — Cleopatra’s 
 Needle — Catacombs — Memphis — Beni Hassan— Hermopolis Magna — 
 Antinopolis — Siout — Sepulchral Grottos — Tdtnple of Antasopolis — 
 Abydos — Dendera or Tentyra — Magnificent ^Temple and Portico — 
 Elegant Sculptures — Zodiac and Planisphere — Opinions as to their 
 Antiquity— Thebes — The Gateway or Propylon at Luxor— Magnifi- 
 cent Sculptures— Kamac — The Temple ; its Approaches and splendid 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 13 
 
 Gateways ; its vast Extent— Temples at Dair and Medinet Abou — 
 The Memnonium — Statue of Memnon — Tombs— Hemtem — Esneh — 
 Eleithias— Striking Representations of Domestic Life — Edfou— Hadjur 
 Silsili — Koum Ombos — Es Souan — Quarries of Syen6— Island of 
 Elephantine — Concluding Remarks Page 153 
 
 CHAPTER VH. 
 
 THE CIVIL HISTORY OF MODERN EGYPT. 
 
 Saracenic Dynasties — Foundation of Cairo — Crusaders — Saladin the 
 Great— Siege of Ptolemais— Death of Saladin— Crusaders defeated — 
 Rise of Mamlouks — The Rorghites — Monguls and Tatars — Ibrahim 
 Bey — Ali Bey ; his Syrian Campaign ; his Death and Character — 
 Mohammed Bey— Ibrahim and Mourad— Invasion by the French — 
 Defeat at Acre — Victory of Lord Nelson— Battle of Alexandria, and 
 Death of Abercrombie— Evacuation of Egypt by the French — Kurouf 
 Pasha — Mohammed Ali ; Success against the Beys ; appointed Pasha 
 — British Expedition in 1807— Massacre of Mamlouks— History' of 
 Wahabees ; defeated by Ibrahim Pasha — European Tactics introduced 
 — Character of Mohammed Ali Page 209 
 
 CHAPTER Vm. 
 
 THE ACTUAL STATE OF EGYPT UNDER THE GOVERNMENT OF 
 
 MOHAMMED ALI. 
 
 Nature of Innovations — Members of Government — Household — Tenure 
 of Land — Resumption of it by the Pasha — Condition of the People — 
 Army — Military Schools — European Arts — Canal of Mahmoudieh — 
 Introduction of Cotton Manufactures — Exportation of the raw Material 
 to England — Fear of Plague — Silk, Flax, Sugar — Monopoly of Vice- 
 roy — Disadvantages of it — Caravans — Imports and Exports— Revenue 
 and Expenditure— Population— Copts, Arabs, Turks, Greeks, Jews, and 
 Syrians— Characteristics — Cairo— Houses— Citadel— Joseph’s Well, 
 Joseph’s Hall— Necropolis— Tombs— Mosques — Palace at Shoubra — 
 Splendid Pavilion— Comparison of Egypt before and under the 
 Government of Mohammed Ali — Future Prospects under his Suc- 
 cessor Page 258 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 THE OASES, ANCIENT BERENICE, AND DESERT OF THE THEBAID. 
 
 Meaning of the Term Oasis— Those of Egypt described in various and 
 opposite Colours— Used as Places of Exile— Their Number — The 
 Great Oasis — Described by Sir A. Edmonstone — Ancient Buildings — 
 Necropolis or Cemetery— Supposed Origin of such Land — Western 
 Oasis— First visited by Sir A. Edmonstone— El Cazar— Soil— Position 
 — The Little Oasis — El Kassar — Greek Temple — Fountain— El Haix — 
 El Moele— Oasis of Siwah — Description of Towns — Of the Temple 
 of Jupiter Ammon— Fountain of the Sun — Sacred Lake — Other Oases 
 — Desert of the Thebaid — Berenice — Trade — Account of an imaginary 
 City by Caillaud — Situation and Extent of Berenice— Emerald Moun- 
 tains — Present Condition of Miners — Inhabitants of the Desert — 
 Sharkin — Myos Hormus — Cosseir Page 287 
 
14 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF THE EGYPTIANS. 
 
 Great Variety of Manners in Egypt— Funeral Ceremonies described by 
 Diodorus — Judgment pronounced on the Dead — Civil Suits in ancient 
 Times— Account of Coptic Baptism— Levantines — Moslem Marriages; 
 Description by Mr. Browne— Interior of a Harem — Circassians — 
 Ethiopian Women — Mode of Living among Turks ; among Euro- 
 peans — Mosques — Mohammed Ali and Burckhardt — Language of 
 Copts — Religion — Festival of Calige — Virgin offered to the Nile; a 
 similar Custom in India — Female Mourners in Egypt — Dress of 
 Ladies — Amusements of Cairo — Reptiles, Insects, Nuisances — Anec- 
 dote of Sir Sidney Smith — Opinion of Denon — Character of Egyptian 
 Arabs — Houses — Mode of Life — Barbers — Doctors — Piety — Arabic 
 Manuscripts — Serpent-eaters and Charmers — Mamlouk Notions of 
 Respectability Page 308 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 THE NATURAL HISTORY OF EGYPT. 
 
 Geology — Valley of the Nile — Alluvial Formation — Primitive Rocks — 
 Serpentine — Of Upper Egypt — Limestone Strata— Sandstone and Trap 
 — Puddingstone — Verde Antico — Natron Rocks — Minerals — Precious 
 Stones — Ores — Zoology — Camelus Dromedarius— Giraffe — Civet Cat 
 — Ichneumon — Sorex, or Shrew — Jerboa— Hippopotamus — Crocodile ; 
 cherished by Ancients — Monitor of the Nile — Hyena — Capra Aigros 
 — Ovis Tragelaphus — Locust — Birds — Chenelopex — Ostrich — Ibis 
 Ardea ; Ibis Religiosa — Vulture ; Mistake of Bruce — Oriental Dotter- 
 ell — Charadrius Himantopus — Corvus JEgyptiacus — Alcedo iEgyp- 
 tiacus— Anas Nilotica — Sterna Nilotica — The Pelican — The Quail, or 
 Tetrao Coturnix — Fishes — Echencis Neucrates — Sparus Niloticus — 
 Labrus Niloticus — The Perch — Silurus Clarias — Salmo Niloticus — 
 Tetraodon — Mugil Cephalus and Clupea Alosa — Plants — Papyrus; 
 Uses — Persea — Lotus — Rose-lily — Rhamnus Lotus — Phoenix Dacty- 
 lifera — Ficus Sycomorus — Plantain-tree — Cucumis Chate— Cucur- 
 bits Lagenaria — Colocasium — earthamus Tinctorius— Acacia ; Gum ; 
 Frankincense — Henna — The Aloe — Zoophytes — Corallines — Red Co- 
 ral— ^Sponges— Polypes — Madrepores, Millepores, Gorgonia or Sea- 
 fan Page 327 
 
 ENGRAVINGS. 
 
 Map of Egypt To face the Titlepage. 
 
 Obelisk of Cleopatra, Pompey’s Pillar, and Roman Tower 157 
 
 View of the Northern Gate of Dendera or Tentyra. 167 
 
 General View of Edfou, the Ancient Apollinopolis Magna 202 
 
 Part of the City of Tombs at Cairo 283 
 

 A VIEW 
 
 or 
 
 ANCIENT AND MODERN EGYPT, &c. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 Introduction. 
 
 Importance of Egyptian Antiquities— Egypt an old Country in the 
 Infant Age of Greece — Thebes famous in the Days of Homer — Learn- 
 ing and Science of Europe derived from Egypt through Phenicia and 
 Greece — Inquiry into the Source of Egyptian Learning and Civilization 
 — The early Improvement of Nubia and Abyssinia — Resemblance 
 between the Religion, the Symbols, and Architecture of India and of 
 Egypt — Anecdote of the Sepoys in the British Army — Remarks on the 
 Temples in both Countries — A similar Resemblance between the 
 Egyptians and Chinese — All primitive Tribes derived their Know- 
 ledge from the same Source — Institution of Castes iq Egypt and India 
 — Statements of Herodotus and Diodorus on that Subject — Probability 
 that Civilization and the Arts descended the Nile — Contrast between 
 their advanced Knowledge and their debased Worship— Reflection on 
 the Importance attached to the durable Nature of Architectural Monu 
 ments. 
 
 In many respects Egypt has long appeared to the scholar, 
 the antiquary, and the philosopher the most interesting 
 country on the face of the earth. Relatively to the various 
 tribes who, at successive eras, have founded states westward 
 of the Black Sea and the Syrian Desert, it has been univer- 
 sally regarded as the cradle of science, as well as the first 
 seat of regular government ; and hence we find that even 
 the polished nations of modem Europe are accustomed to 
 ascribe the rudiments of their literature and arts to the inge- 
 nious people who, at a period beyond the records of civil 
 history, occupied the banks of the Nile. 
 
 B 2 
 
18 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 It is, no doubt, extremely difficult to construct, out of the 
 scanty materials which have reached our times, a chain of 
 narrative so complete and satisfactory as to connect, without 
 the absence of some essential links, the present with the 
 past, and to enable us to derive an explanation of what we 
 see from a competent knowledge of what we are told has 
 been. Between the immediate successors of Menes, twenty 
 centuries before the Christian era, and the delegated rule 
 which now directs the affairs of Egypt, there is a wide gulf, 
 through which neither the boldest archaeologist has yet 
 been able to establish a path, nor the eye of history to direct 
 its vision. It requires even a great effort of imagination to 
 combine the ideas of that magnificence and power which 
 must have distinguished the epoch when Thebes was built, 
 and the splendid monuments of her kings were erected, 
 with the facts which meet the view of the traveller in our 
 own days, amid the desolations of Karnac and the ruins of 
 Luxor. 
 
 The land of the Pharaohs, in truth, was an old country 
 in the infant age of Greece. The earliest writers of Europe 
 described its grandeur as having already reached its con- 
 summation, and even as beginning to pass away ; while the 
 philosophers and historians who crossed the Mediterranean 
 in search of knowledge were astonished at the proofs of 
 an antiquity which surpassed all their notions of recorded 
 time, and at the tokens of a wisdom, genius, and opulence 
 of which they could hardly hope that their countrymen 
 would believe the description. In the days of Homer the 
 capital of the Thebaid, with its hundred gates and its vast 
 population, was a subject of wonder and of the most exalted 
 panegyric, — an effect which we should at once attribute to 
 the exaggeration of the poet, were it not that the remains 
 which, even after the lapse of three thousand years, continue 
 to resist the injuries of the atmosphere and of barbarism, 
 bear evidence to a still greater magnificence than is ^recorded 
 in the pages of the Odyssey. While the nations which at 
 present make the greatest figure in the world, and influence 
 most deeply the condition of human nature, had not yet 
 passed through the first stage of social life, the inhabitants 
 of Thebes and of Memphis had made a vast progress in 
 civilization, and were even found gratifying a learned curi- 
 osity by inquiries into the constitution of the universe, and 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 19 
 
 into the laws which regulate the movements of the heavenly 
 bodies. Nor was it only the learning and mythological 
 doctrines which characterized the brightest periods of Greece 
 and Rome that were borrowed from the Egyptians. On 
 the contrary, we can trace to the same source those more 
 valuable sciences which exercised the talents of the most 
 ancient and renowned among European sages. Pythagoras 
 submitted to study the elements of mathematics in the 
 schools of the priests ; while Hecataeus and Herodotus col- 
 lected the materials of history among the same class of 
 men, who had carefully preserved the knowledge of former 
 generations. 
 
 The Greeks, it has been frequently remarked, were the 
 only nation in Europe who had any pretensions to antiquity. 
 3ut the wisest even among that ambitious people considered 
 themselves as of yesterday compared to the Egyptians. 
 Plato confessed that his countrymen had no memorial of 
 any event beyond a thousand, or at most two thousand 
 years before his own time ; whereas, in the days of Moses, 
 the wisdom of Egypt had already become proverbial, and 
 that, too, among the Syrian tribes who bordered upon the 
 original seats of primeval knowledge. Phenicia, which 
 appears to have set the first example of commercial inter- 
 course to the rude colonies on the northern shores of the 
 great sea, proved the medium through which the learning, 
 the laws, and the religion of the Nile were conveyed to the 
 ancestors of those brave and ingenious nations who have 
 since associated an imperishable fame with the memory of 
 Athens and Lacedemon. The names of Cadmus, Cecrops, 
 and Danaus continue to represent those missions or volun- 
 tary migrations which, at a remote period, transported from 
 Africa to Europe the treasures of oriental wisdom. 
 
 It has long been an object of inquiry among scholars to 
 discover the channel through which civilization, science, and 
 an acquaintance with the liberal arts first reached the valley 
 which is watered by the Nile. Without analyzing the 
 numerous hypotheses which have been successively formed 
 and abandoned, or repeating the various conjectures which 
 have, age after age, amused the ingenuity of the learned, 
 we shall state, at once, as the most probable of the opinions 
 that have been entertained on this subject, that the stream 
 of knowledge accompanied the progress of commerce along 
 
20 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 the banks of those great rivers which fall into the Persian 
 Gulf, and thence along the coast of Arabia to the shores of 
 the Red Sea. There is the best reason to believe that those 
 passes or lateral defiles which connect the sea just named 
 with the river of Egypt witnessed the earliest migration of 
 colonists from Asia ; who, in the pursuits of commerce, or 
 in search of more fertile lands, or of mountains enriched 
 with gold, found their way into Nubia and Abyssinia. 
 Meantime, it is probable, a similar current set eastward 
 across the mouths of the Indus, carrying arts and institu- 
 tions of a corresponding character into the countries which 
 stretch from that river to the great peninsula of Hin- 
 doostan. 
 
 The most obvious confirmation of the opinion now stated 
 may be drawn from the striking resemblance which is known 
 to subsist between the usages, the superstitions, the arts, 
 and the mythology of the ancient inhabitants of Western 
 India, and those of the first settlers on the Upper Nile. 
 The temples of Nubia, for example, exhibit the same fea- 
 tures, whether as to' the style of architecture or the form of 
 worship which must have been practised in them, with the 
 similar buildings which have been recently examined in the 
 neighbourhood of Bombay. In both cases they consist of 
 vast excavations hewn out ii\ the solid body of a hill or 
 mountain, and are decorated with huge figures which indi- 
 cate the same powers of nature, or serve as emblems to 
 denote the same qualities in the ruling spirits of the universe. 
 
 As a further proof of this hypothesis, we are informed 
 that the sepoys who joined the British army in Egypt 
 under Lord Hutchinson imagined that they found their own 
 temples in the ruins of Dendera, and were greatly exaspe- 
 rated at the natives for their neglect of the ancient deities, 
 whose images are still preserved. So strongly, indeed, 
 were they themselves impressed with this identity, that 
 they proceeded to perform their devotions with all the cere- 
 monies practised in their own land. There is a resem- 
 blance, too, in the minor instruments of their superstition, 
 — the lotus, the lingam, and the serpent, — which can hardly 
 be regarded as accidental ; but it is, no doubt, in the im- 
 mense extent, the gigantic plan, the vast conception which 
 appear in all their sacred buildings, that we most readily 
 discover the influence of the same lofty genius, and the en* 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 21 
 
 deavour to accomplish the same mighty object. The exca- 
 vated temple of Guerfeh Hassan, for instance, reminds 
 every traveller of the cave of Elephanta. The resemblance, 
 indeed, is singularly striking ; as are, in fact, all the lead- 
 ing principles of Egyptian architecture to that of the Hin- 
 doos. They differ only, it has been observed, in those de- 
 tails of the decorative parts, -which trifling points of differ- 
 ence in their religious creeds seem to have suggested to 
 each ; but many even of the rites and emblems are precise* 
 the same, especially those of the temples dedicated to ls- 
 wara, the Indian Bacchus. In truth, in most respects they 
 are so much alike that the same workman might almost be 
 supposed to have superintended the execution of them in 
 both countries. In India and in Egypt the hardest granite 
 mountains have been cut down into the most striking, if no* - 
 the most beautiful, fronts of temples adorned with sculpture. 
 In both countries large masses of rock have been excavated 
 into hollow chambers, whose sides are decorated with col- 
 umns and statues of men and animals carved out of the 
 same stone ; and in each are found solid blocks of many 
 hundred tons weight, separated from the adjoining moun- 
 tain and lifted up into the air. By whom and by what 
 means these wonderful efforts have been accomplished is a 
 mystery sunk too deep in the abyss of time ever to be re- 
 vealed. To Greece neither country is indebted for any part 
 of its architecture, while she has evidently taken many hints 
 from them. Except at Alexandria and Antinoe, no edifice 
 strictly Grecian appears in Egypt. But we need only com- 
 pare the monolithic temples of Nubia with those of Maha- 
 bulipoor, the excavations of Guerfeh Hassan with those of 
 Elephanta, and the grottoes of Hadjur Silsili,'as described 
 by Pococke, with the caverns of Ellora, to be convinced that 
 these sacred monuments of ancient days derived their origin 
 from the same source.* 
 
 A resemblance of a corresponding nature has been dis- 
 covered in the religious usages of the Chinese, compared 
 with those of the Egyptians, particularly in what is called 
 the feast of lamps, — a festival annually observed by the 
 latter people, and graphically described by Herodotus in his 
 
 * See Legh's Journey in Egypt and Nubia, and Quarterly Review, 
 vol. xvi. p. 18. 
 
22 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 second book. This coincidence in a ceremony so little 
 likely to suggest itself to the minds of men who had no in- 
 tercourse with one another, led M. de Guignes to conclude 
 that the first inhabitants of China must have been a colony 
 from Egypt. But it is easy to account for all such facts 
 upon a much more obvious as well as a more rational 
 hypothesis. No one can have failed to remark, that among 
 the most ancient nations there is a great similarity in point 
 of tradition, habits, opinions, knowledge, and history. The 
 Babylonians, the Egyptians, the Assyrians, the Hindoos, 
 and the descendants of Abraham held many things in com- 
 mon respecting the creation of the world, the great deluge, 
 the dispersion of the human race, and the first institution of 
 laws and religious worship. Hence we may conclude that 
 the general agreement in these particulars, which we con- 
 template among the more primitive tribes of mankind, ought 
 to be ascribed to the instruction which they had received 
 while as yet they were but one family, or to tire traditionary 
 tenets which had spread with the diverging lines of their 
 generations, though derived originally from the same pri- 
 meval source. 
 
 But by far the most striking point of resemblance be- 
 tween the inhabitants of Egypt and of India is the institu- 
 tion of castes, — that singular arrangement which places an 
 insuperable barrier between different orders of men in the 
 same country, and renders their respective honours, toils, 
 and degradation strictly hereditary and permanent. Before 
 the invention of letters, indeed, mankind may be said to 
 have been perpetually in their infancy ; whence arose the 
 expedient, founded in a view of the public good, of compel- 
 ling sons to cultivate the arts which had originated in their 
 family, and to follow the professions whereby their fathers 
 had acquired distinction. In allusion to the four classes 
 into which the natives are divided, the Hindoos maintain 
 that, of their god, Nara-Yana, the mouth became a priest, 
 the arm was made a soldier, the thigh was transformed into 
 a husbandman, and from his feet sprang the servile multi- 
 tude. The narrative of Herodotus bears evidence to the 
 same institution at an early period among the Egyptians. 
 He indeed divides the fourth caste into several subordinate 
 sections, — tradesmen, shepherds, interpreters, and pilots, 
 end thereby presents the appearance of a still more minute 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 23 
 
 distinction than prevails in the East; but his statement, 
 when compared with that of Diodorus Siculus at a later 
 epoch, removes every shadow of doubt in regard to the 
 identity of the principle from which this political arrange- 
 ment must have originally proceeded. The last-named 
 historian reduces the orders to, three, — priests, including 
 men of rank ; the military ; and artisans. It is obvious, 
 however, that as husbandmen and labourers are omitted, 
 we must comprehend in the third grade all the classes who 
 practise those arts which are necessary to the subsistence, 
 the comfort, and the ornament of human life. 
 
 We may also mention, as in some degree connected with 
 the division of labour now described, that medical science, 
 even before the days of Herodotus, must have been very 
 carefully studied, if we may draw such a conclusion from 
 the fact that, at the period when he wrote, one physician 
 was confined to one disease. There are, he adds, a great 
 many who practise this art ; some attend to disorders of 
 the eyes, others to those of the head ; some take care of 
 the teeth, others are conversant with all diseases of the 
 intestines ; while many attend to the cure of maladies 
 which are less conspicuous.* The historian could not 
 have mentioned a circumstance more characteristic of a 
 people advanced to a high degree of civilization. Of the 
 Babylonians, among whom he also travelled, he relates that 
 they have no professors of medicine, but that they carry 
 their sick into some public square, with the view of getting 
 advice from any one who may happen to have been afflicted 
 with the same illness. The passengers in general, says 
 he, interrogate the sufferer in regard to the nature of his 
 malady, in order that, if any one of them has been attacked 
 with a similar disease himself, or seen its operation on a 
 third person, he may communicate the process by which his 
 own recovery was effected, or by which, in any other in- 
 stance, he has known the distemper to be removed. No 
 one may pass by a diseased individual in silence, or without 
 inquiry into the symptoms of his complaint.! 
 
 But, to return to the main subject now before us, we 
 may take leave to express our conviction that, in proportion 
 as the antiquities of Egypt shall be brought into a clearer 
 
 * Herodotus, Euterpe, chap. 84. 
 
 I lb. Clio, chap. 197. 
 
24 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 light, the evidence will become more satisfactory in favour 
 of an early intercourse between Hindoostan and the upper 
 regions of the Nile. It is already ascertained that the arts, 
 as practised in the Thebaid, and even in the neighbourhood 
 of Memphis, must have descended from Ethiopia, — the style 
 of sculpture in the latter being in several respects superior 
 to any specimen of that kind of workmanship hitherto dis- 
 covered in Egypt. The temples, too, on the banks of the 
 river above the cataracts bear a closer resemblance to those 
 of India than the corresponding edifices in the lower parts 
 of the country, while they exhibit the undoubted marks of 
 a more remote antiquity. The same conclusion is further 
 supported by the celebrity which the Ethiopians had ac- 
 quired in the earliest age that tradition or poetry has re- 
 vealed to us. The annals of the Egyptian priests were full 
 of them. The nations of Asia, in like manner, on the 
 Tigris and Euphrates, mingled Ethiopian legends with the 
 songs which commemorated the exploits of their own 
 heroes. At a time, too, when the Greeks scarcely knew 
 Italy or Sicily by name, the virtues, the civilization, and 
 the mythology of the Ethiopians supplied to their poets a 
 subject of lofty description. Homer, both in the Iliad and 
 Odyssey, relates that Jupiter, at a certain season of the 
 year, departed from his chosen seat on Olympus to visit 
 this remote and accomplished people. For twelve days the 
 god was absent in their pious and hospitable region. It is 
 probable that some annual procession of the priests of Am- 
 mon up the Nile, to the primitive scene of their worship, 
 was the groundwork of this legend adopted into the popu- 
 lar creed of the older Greeks. Diodorus himself expresses 
 a similar opinion, when he states that the Ethiopians were 
 said to be the inventors of pomps, sacrifices, solemn assem- 
 blies, and other honours paid to the gods ; that is, that they 
 were the religious parents of the Egyptians, to whom the coun- 
 trymen of Homer and Hesiod looked up as to their instructers 
 in sacred things as well as in the principles of civil polity. 
 It has therefore been thought probable that ancient Meroe 
 was the original seat of the religion, the political institu- 
 tions, the arts, and the letters, which afterward shed so 
 bright a lustre on the kingdom of the Pharaohs.* 
 
 * Heeren’s Ideas on the Politics and Commerce of Ancient Nations. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 25 
 
 There is nothing more remarkable in the history of 
 Egypt than that the same people who distinguished them- 
 selves by an early progress in civilization, and who erected 
 works which have survived the conquests of Persia, the 
 triumphs of Roman art, and all the architectural labours 
 of Christianity, should have degraded their fine genius by 
 the worship of four-footed beasts, and even of disgusting 
 reptiles. The world does not present a more humbling con- 
 trast between the natural powers of intellect and the debas- 
 ing effect of superstition. Among the Jews, on the other 
 hand, — a people much less elevated by science and mechani- 
 cal knowledge, — we find a sublime system of theology, and 
 a ritual which, if not strictly entitled to the appellation of 
 a reasonable service, was yet comparatively pure in its ordi- 
 nances, and still further refined by a lofty and spiritual im- . 
 port. It has been said of the Hebrews, that they were men 
 in religion, and children in every thing else. This observa- 
 tion may be reversed in the case of the Egyptians ; for, 
 while in the greater number of those pursuits which give 
 dignity to the human mind, and perpetuate the glories of’ 
 civilized life, they made a progress which set all rivalry at 
 defiance, — in their notions and adoration of the invisible 
 Powers who preside over the destinies of man, they mani- 
 fested the imbecility, the ignorance, and the credulity of 
 childhood. 
 
 In reviewing the annals of the great nations of antiquity, 
 it is interesting to observe that nearly all the knowledge we 
 possess of their manners and institutions may be attributed 
 to a circumstance so very trivial as the choice which they 
 made of their materials for building. As the rise of Egyp- 
 tian power and wisdom preceded a long time the era of 
 letters, the history of the more ancient kings, like that of 
 the Babylonians and Assyrians, must have been lost, had 
 the architectural monuments of the former people not been 
 constructed of more imperishable substances than were to 
 be found in the alluvial plains of Mesopotamia. In con- 
 nexion with these reflections, we are naturally led to remark, 
 that the recent discoveries in hieroglyphics justify the hope 
 that the darkness which has so long hung over the annals 
 and chronology of Egypt will be at length so far dispelled 
 as to enable the historian to ascertain at least the order of 
 events and the succession of monarchs. 
 
 C 
 
20 
 
 PHYSICAL AND POLITICAL 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 Physical Properties and Geographical Distribution of Egypt. 
 
 General Description of Egypt — Origin of tlie Name — Opinions of the 
 Ancients — Egypt the Gift of the Nile — Depth of the Soil — Attempts to 
 ascertain the mean Rate of Deposition — Opinions of Shaw, Savary, 
 Volney, and Bruce — Speculations of the French Philosophers — Proof 
 lhat Egypt has acquired an Elevation of Surface — Fear of Dr. Shaw 
 in regard to the eventual Sterility of the Land — Constancy of the 
 m Inundations — Frauds by the Government — Qualities of the Water — 
 Analysis of the Mud — Accident witnessed by Belzoni — Seasons in 
 Egypt — Heat — Infrequency of Rain — The Winds, Simoom — The Po- 
 litical Geography of Egypt — Mouths of the Nile — Natron Lakes — 
 Waterless River. 
 
 * The physical qualities of Egypt are not less remarkable 
 than its stupendous works of art and its early civilization. 
 It presents itself to the eye of the traveller as an immense 
 valley, extending nearly 600 miles in length, and hemmed 
 in, on either side, by a ridge of hills and a vast expanse of 
 desert. Viewed as an alluvial basin, it owes its existence 
 entirely to the Nile, which flows through it from south to 
 north, conveying annually to the inhabitants the main source 
 of their agricultural wealth, salubrity to their climate, and 
 beauty to their landscape. The breadth of the cultivable 
 soil varies, of course, according to the direction of the 
 rocky barriers by which its limits are determined, — spread- 
 ing, at some parts, into a spacious plain, while at others 
 it contracts its dimensions to less than two leagues. The 
 mean width has been estimated at about nine miles ; and 
 hence, including the whole area from the shores of the 
 Delta to the first cataract, the extent of land capable of 
 bearing crops has been reckoned to contain ten millions of 
 acres. 
 
 The learning of geographers has long been employed in 
 the intricate field of etymology to discover the origin of the 
 term by which Egypt is known among the moderns. It is 
 asserted, by the Greeks, that a celebrated king of this name 
 
GEOGRAPHY OF EGYPT. 
 
 27 
 
 bequeathed it to his dominions, which had formerly passed 
 under the appellation of Aeria, or the land of heat and 
 blackness. In the sacred writings of the Hebrews it is 
 called Mizraim, eyidently the plural form of the oriental 
 noun Mizr, the name which is applied to Egypt by the 
 Arabs of the present day. The Copts retain the native 
 word Chcmia, which, perhaps, has some relation to Cham, 
 the son of Noth ; or, as Plutarch insinuates, may only 
 denote that darkness of colour which appears in a rich soil 
 or in the human eye. Mizraim, it ought also to be observed, 
 was one of the children of Cham ; and it is therefore not 
 improbable that the epithet applied to his inheritance may 
 have arisen from the respect usually paid to the founders 
 of nations. Bruce remarks that Y Gypt, the term used by 
 the Ethiopians when they speak of Egypt, means the coun- 
 try of canals, — a description very suitable to the improved 
 condition of that singular valley under her ancient kings. 
 At all events, it is perfectly clear, that in the heroic age of 
 Greece the word Egyptus was employed in reference to an 
 ancient sovereign, to the land, and also to the river. 
 
 The Nile, we may observe, was described, even among 
 the descendants of Jacob, by the term Sichor, which also 
 signifies black ; and hence the Greeks called it Melas, and 
 the Latins Niger, words which express the very same idea. 
 But it is worthy of remark, as one of the many instances 
 in which the perceptions of the ancients as to colour are 
 not clearly comprehended in our days, that the modern 
 name, used by the Arabs, denotes blue ; the very tint, per- 
 haps, which was indicated by Plutarch when he compared 
 it to the organ of vision. The Greeks, indeed, who inter- 
 preted all languages on the principles recognised by their 
 own, derived this epithet from an imaginary event, the 
 reign of King Nileus. But this hypothesis is disproved 
 by the familiar fact that the great Abyssinian branch is 
 denominated by the inhabitants, in their vernacular tongue, 
 the Bahr-el-Nil, the Blue River, or more commonly the 
 Bahr-el-Azrek, an appellation almost strictly synonymous. 
 
 The stream itself, as if it were doomed for ever to share 
 the obscurity which covers the ancient history of the land 
 to which it ministers, still conceals its true sources from 
 th’ eager curiosity of modern science. The question which 
 ■was agitated in the age of-the Ptolemies has not yet been 
 
28 
 
 PHYSICAL AND POLITICAL 
 
 solved ; and although 2000 years have elapsed since Era- 
 tosthenes published his conjectures as to the origin of the 
 principal branch, we possess not more satisfactory know- 
 ledge on that particular point than was enjoyed in his days 
 by the philosophers of Alexandria. The repeated failures 
 which had already attended the various attempts to discover 
 its fountains convinced the geographers of Greece and 
 Rome that success was impossible, and that it was the will 
 of the gods to conceal from all generations this great secret 
 of nature. Homer, in language sufficiently ambiguous, 
 describes it as a stream descending from heaven. Herodo- 
 tus made inquiry in regard to its commencement, but soon 
 saw reason to relinquish the attempt as altogether fruitless. 
 Alexander the Great and Ptolemy Philadelphus engaged in 
 the same undertaking, and despatched persons well qualified 
 by their knowledge for the arduous task ; but who, never- 
 theless, like the great father of history himself, travelled 
 and inquired in vain. Pomponius Mela was doubtful 
 whether it did not rise in the country of the antipodes. 
 Pliny traced it in imagination to a mountain in the Lower 
 Mauritania, while Euthemenes was of opinion that it pro- 
 ceeded from the borders of the Atlantic, and penetrated 
 through the heart of Africa, dividing it into two continents. 
 Virgil appears to have favoured a conjecture, which has also 
 found supporters at a later period, that the Nile proceeded 
 from the East, and might be identified with one of the great 
 rivers of Asia. 
 
 Quaque pharetratae vicinia Persidis urget, 
 
 Et viridem JBgyptum nigra fceeundat arena, 
 
 Et diversa ruens septem discurrit in ora 
 
 Usque coloratis amnis devexus ab Indis. — Georg, iv. 200. 
 
 And where the stream from India’s swarthy sons, 
 
 Close on the verge of quivered Persia runs, 
 
 Broods o’er green Egypt with dark wave of mud, 
 
 And pours through many a mouth its branching flood. 
 
 SOTHEBY. 
 
 Lucan indulges in his usual mysticism, and appears satis- 
 fied that, by a decree of the fates, the glory of no nation will 
 ever be increased by drawing aside the veil in which the 
 Naiads of this mighty stream have been pleased to conceal 
 themselves. The conceptions of Lucretius, the poet of 
 physical nature, were perhaps more correct, although 
 
GEOGRAPHY OF EGYPT. 29 
 
 obviously founded upon a fortunate conjecture rather than 
 derived from actual research. 
 
 Ille ex eestiferi parti venit amnis, ab Austro 
 Inter nigra virum, percoctaque secla calore, 
 
 Exoriens penitus media ab regione diei. — Lib. vi. 721. 
 
 While rolls the Nile adverse 
 Full from the south, from realms of torrid heat, — 
 
 Haunts of the Ethiop tribes ; yet far beyond 
 First bubbling distant, o’er the burning line. — Goon. 
 
 It is worthy of notice that the judgment formed by Hero- 
 dotus in respect to the course of this celebrated river coin- 
 cides, in a great degree, with the conclusions held by many 
 modem authors. He remarks that, without including the 
 section between Syene and the Mediterranean, the progress 
 of the Nile is known to the extent of four months’ journey, 
 partly by land and partly by water ; for it will be found on 
 experience that no one can go in less time from Elephantine 
 to the country of the Automolians. There is no doubt, he 
 adds, that the Nile rises in the west ; but beyond the people 
 just mentioned all is uncertainty, this portion of Africa being, 
 from the excessive heat, a rude and uncultivated desert. 
 The Nile, he elsewhere observes, certainly rises in Libya, 
 which it divides ; and if it be allowable to draw, from things 
 which are well known, conclusions respecting those that are 
 more obscure, it takes a similar course with the Danube. 
 But of the fountains of the former river, washing, as it does, 
 the savage and uninhabitable wilds of Libya, no one can 
 speak with precision.* 
 
 From other circumstances, mentioned in the second book 
 of his history, there is little doubt that Herodotus believed 
 the Niger and the Nile to be the same river, or, at least, that 
 the water which was carried to the centre of the African 
 continent by the one was discharged into the sea through 
 the mouths of the other. At the present moment there is 
 no hypothesis in regard to these streams which rests on a 
 better foundation. It is no longer disputed that the left 
 branch, the Bahr-el-Abiad or White River, constitutes the 
 principal body of the Nile, and that it flows towards Egypt 
 from the west or south-w r est. Mr. Browne was informed 
 that it issues from a lofty ridge situated to the south of 
 * Euterpe, 31. 33, 34. 
 
 C 3 
 
30 
 
 PHYSICAL and political 
 
 Darfur, called in the language of the country Djibbel-cl- 
 Kumri, or Mountains of the Moon. But it is important to 
 observe that the south winds are there the hottest and driest 
 of any, and bring along with them thick clouds of dust. 
 This shows that there is no high chain within a great dis- 
 tance in the direction now described ; for the winds, before 
 they can be possessed of such qualities, must sweep over a 
 great extent of sandy desert. 
 
 The source of the Bahr-el-Abiad cannot, therefore, be 
 sought in the meridian of Darfur, unless we consent to re- 
 move it far beyond the equator. Besides, Mr. Jackson was 
 informed that travellers have passed by water from Tim- 
 buctoo to Cairo, — a circumstance which, if true, proves 
 either that the Niger and the Nile are the same, or that there 
 must be intermediate ^streams, forming, between the two 
 rivers just named, a communication resembling that which 
 was found by Humboldt to connect the Orinoco with the 
 Amazons. Nor is it a slight circumstance, in weighing the 
 evidence on both sides of this question, to be reminded that 
 the quantity of mud brought down by the Nile cannot be 
 washed annually from the rocky channel of a mountain-tor- 
 rent. This fact was employed by Bruce as the basis of his 
 argument against those writers who ascribe the increase of 
 the Delta to the depositions of the river, being founded on 
 his personal observation of the Bahr-el-Azrek in its course 
 through the greater part of Abyssinia. It is therefore cer- 
 tain that the White River cuts a passage through a consid- 
 erable extent of rich soil before it approaches the granite 
 range which bounds the western extremity of Nubia. The 
 tropical rains collect on the table-lands of the interior, where 
 they form immense sheets of water or temporary lakes. 
 When these have reached a level high enough to overflow 
 the boundaries of their basins, they suddenly send down 
 into the rivers an enormous volume of fluid impregnated with 
 the soft earth over which it has for some time stagnated. 
 Hence the momentary pauses and sudden renewals in the 
 rise of the Nile, — hence, too, the abundance of fertilizing 
 slime, which is never found so copious in the waters of rivers 
 which owe their increase solely to the direct influence of the 
 rains.* 
 
 * Malte Brun, vol. iv. p. 8. 
 
GEOGRAPHY OF EGYPT. 
 
 31 
 
 There is a fact, however, which ought not to be omitted, 
 as being of some value in the determination of the problem 
 now before us ; namely, that the White River begins to 
 swell three or four weeks before the Abyssinian branch re- 
 ceives any accession of water. This may be thought to 
 indicate that the source of the Bahr-el-Abiad must be farther 
 south than the springs which Bruce reached in the meadows 
 of Geesh ; for it is well known that the rainy season in 
 every part of the torrid zone accompanies the vertical posi- 
 tion of the sun. But from these considerations, perhaps, as 
 also from many others which might be adduced, we ought 
 only to conclude that the most learned geographers are still 
 very much in the dark relative to the origin of the magnifi- 
 cent stream to which Africa owes its chief distinction, as well 
 as in regard to the geological phenomena of that remarkable 
 kingdom from which the civil historian derives his clearest 
 views of the primitive state of the western world. 
 
 It is an observation as old as the days of Herodotus, that 
 Egypt is the gift of the Nile. This historian imagined that 
 all the lower division of the country was formerly a deep 
 bay or arm of the sea, and that it had been gradually filled 
 up by depositions from the river. He illustrates his rea 
 soning on this subject by supposing that the present appear- 
 ance of the Red Sea resembles exactly the aspect which 
 Egypt must have exhibited in its original state ; and that, 
 if the Nile by any means were admitted to flow into the 
 Arabian Gulf, it would, in the course of twenty thousand 
 years, convey into it such a quantity of earth as would raise 
 its bed to the level of the surrounding coast. I am of opinion, 
 he subjoins, that this might take place even within ten thou- 
 sand years ; why then might not a bay still more spacious 
 than this be choaked up with mud, in the time which passed 
 before our age, by a stream so great and powerful as the 
 Nile!* 
 
 The men of science who accompanied the French expe- 
 dition into Egypt undertook to measure the depth of alluvial 
 matter which has been actually deposited by the river. By 
 sinking pits at different intervals, both on the banks of the 
 current and on the outer edge of the stratum, they ascer- 
 tained satisfactorily, — first, that the surface of the soil 
 
 Euterpe, chap. 11. 
 
32 
 
 PHYSICAL AND POLITICAL 
 
 declines from the margin of the stream towards the foot of the 
 hills ; secondly, that the thickness of the deposite is gene- 
 rally about ten feet near the river, and decreases gradually 
 as it recedes from it ; and, thirdly, that beneath the mud 
 there is a bed of sand analogous to the substance which has 
 at all times been brought down by the flood of the Nile. 
 This convex form assumed by the surface of the valley is 
 not peculiar to Egypt, — being common to the banks of all 
 great rivers where the quantity of soil transported by the 
 current is greater than that which is washed down by rain 
 from the neighbouring mountains. The plains which skirt 
 the Mississippi and the Ganges present in many parts an 
 example of the same phenomenon. 
 
 An attempt has likewise been made to ascertain the rate 
 of the annual deposition of alluvial substance, and thereby 
 to measure the elevation which has been conferred upon the 
 valley of Egypt by the action of its river. But on no point 
 are travellers less agreed than in regard to the change of 
 level and the increase of land on the seacoast. Dr. Shaw 
 and M. Savary take their stand on the one side, and are 
 resolutely opposed by Bruce and Volney on the other. Hero- 
 dotus informs us, that in the reign of Mceris, if the Nile 
 rose to the height of eight cubits, all the lands of Egypt 
 were sufficiently watered ; but that in his own time, — not 
 quite nine hundred years afterward, — the country was not 
 covered with less than fifteen or sixteen cubits of water. 
 The addition of soil, therefore, was equal to seven cubits at 
 the least, or a hundred and twenty-six inches, in the course 
 of nine hundred years. “ But at present,” says Dr. Shaw, 
 “ the river must rise to the height of twenty cubits, — and 
 it usually rises to twenty-four, — before the whole country 
 is overflowed. Since the time, therefore, of Herodotus, 
 Egypt has gained new soil to the depth of two hundred 
 and thirty inches. And if we look back from the reign 
 of Moeris to the time of the deluge, and reckon that interval 
 by the same proportion, we shall find that the whole per- 
 pendicular accession of the soil, from the deluge to A . D . 1 72 1 , 
 must be 500 inches ; that is, the land of Egypt has gained 
 41 feet 8 inches of soil in 4072 years. Thus, in process 
 of time, the whole country may be raised to such a height 
 that the river will not be able to overflow its banks ; and 
 Egypt consequently, from being the most fertile, will, for 
 
GEOGRAPHY OF EGYPT. 33 
 
 want of the annual inundation, become one of the most 
 barren parts of the universe.”* 
 
 Were it possible to determine the mean rate of accumula- 
 tion, a species of chronometer would be thereby obtained for 
 measuring the lapse of time which has passed since any 
 monument, or other work of art in the neighbourhood of 
 the river, was originally founded. In applying the principle 
 now stated, it is not necessary to assume any thing more 
 than that the building in question was not placed by its 
 architect under the level of the river at its ordinary inun- 
 dations, — a postulatum which, in regard to palaces, temples, 
 and statues, will be most readily granted. Proceeding on 
 this ground, the French philosophers hazarded a conjecture 
 respecting a number of dates, of which the following are 
 some of the most remarkable. 
 
 1. The depth of the soil round the colossal statue of 
 Memnon, at Thebes, gives only 0.106 of a metre (less than 
 four inches) as the rate of accumulation in a century, while 
 the mean of several observations made in the valley of 
 Lower Egypt gives 0.126 of a metre, or rather more than 
 four inches. But the basis of the statue of Memnon was 
 certainly raised above the level of the inundation, by being 
 placed on an artificial mound ; and excavations made near 
 it show that the original height of that terrace was six 
 metres (19.686 feet) above the level of the soil. A similar 
 result is obtained from examining the foundations of the 
 palace at Luxor. Taking, therefore, 0.126 of a metre, the 
 mean secular augmentation of the soil, as a divisor, the quo- 
 tient, 4760, gives the number of years which have elapsed 
 since the foundation of Thebes was laid. This date, 
 which of course can only be considered as a very imperfect 
 approximation to the truth, carries the origin of that cele- 
 brated metropolis as far back as 2960 years before Christ, 
 and consequently 612 years before the deluge, according to 
 the reckoning of the modern Jews. But the numbers given 
 there differ materially from those of the Samaritan text and 
 the Septifagint version ; which, carrying the deluge back 
 to the year 3716 before Christ, make an interval of seven 
 centuries and a half between the flood and the building of 
 Thebes. Though no distinct account of the age of that 
 
 * Shaw’s Travels, vol. ii. p. 235. 
 
34 
 
 PHYSICAL AND POLITICAL 
 
 city is to be found in the Greek historians, it is clear from 
 Diodorus that they believed it to have been begun in a very 
 remote period of antiquity.* 
 
 2. The rubbish collected at the foot of the obelisk of 
 Luxor indicates that it was erected fourteen hundred years 
 before the Christian era. 
 
 3. The causeway which crosses the plain of Siout fur- 
 nishes a similar ground for supposing that it must have 
 been founded twelve hundred years anterior to the same 
 epoch. 
 
 4. The pillar of Heliopolis, six miles from Cairo, appears, 
 from evidence strictly analogous, to have been raised about 
 the period just specified ; but as the waters drain off more 
 slowly in the Delta than in Upper Egypt, the accumulation 
 of alluvial soil is more rapid there than higher up the 
 stream ; the foundations, therefore, of ancient buildings in 
 the former district will be at as great a depth below the 
 surface as those of much greater antiquity are in the middle 
 and upper provinces. But it is obvious that to form these 
 calculations with such accuracy as would render them less 
 liable to dispute, more time and observation would be 
 requisite than could be given by the French in the short 
 period during which they continued in undisturbed pos- 
 session of Egypt. One general and important conse- 
 quence, however, arising from their inquiries, can hardly be 
 overlooked or denied ; namely, that the dates thus obtained 
 are as remote from the extravagant chronology of the ancient 
 Egyptians, as they are consistent with the testimony of both 
 sacred and profane history, with regard to the early civili- 
 zation of that interesting country.! 
 
 But little or no reliance can be placed on such conclusions, 
 because it is now manifestly impossible to ascertain, in the 
 first instance, whether the measures referred to by the an- 
 cient historians were in all cases of the same standard ; 
 
 * Diod. Sic. lib. i. c. 15, aji(f)iaBr]TUTai S' f/ kticis ttjs noXews ravrrjs, 6v 
 fiovov napa tois avyypacpcvcnv, aXha teat nap' avrois rots tear Aiyvnrov 
 [epeveri. 
 
 t See article “ Egypt” in Encyclopaedia Metropolitana. The grounds 
 which may be alleged for giving a preference in point of chronology to 
 the Samaritan text, or .even to the Septuagint, and the singular approxi- 
 mation to the former, resulting from d mean taken between it, the Hin- 
 doo, and the Chinese epochs, are ably stated by Klaproth in his Asia 
 Polyglotta, 25-29. 
 
GEOGRAPHY OF EGYPT. 
 
 35 
 
 and, secondly, whether the deposition of soil in the 
 Egyptian valley did not proceed more rapidly in early times 
 than it does in our days, or even than it has done ever 
 since its effects first became an object of philosophical 
 curiosity. That the level of the land has been raised, and 
 its extent towards the sea greatly increased since the age 
 of Herodotus, we might safely infer, as well from the great 
 infusion of earthy matter which is held in suspension by 
 the Nile when in a state of flood, as from the analogous 
 operation of all large rivers,, both in the old continents and 
 in the new. There is, in truth, no good reason for ques- 
 tioning the fact mentioned by Dr. Shaw, that the mud of 
 Ethiopia has been detected by soundings, at the distance 
 •of not less than twenty leagues from the coast of the Delta. 
 
 Nor is there any substantial ground for apprehending, 
 with the author just named, that, in process of time, the 
 whole country may be raised to such a height that the river 
 will not be able to overflow its banks ; and consequently 
 that Egypt, from being the most fertile, will, for want of the 
 annual inundation, become one of the most barren parts of 
 the universe. The fears of the learned traveller might have 
 been removed by the following reflections. As the formation 
 of land in the Delta proceeds at a quicker rate than in the 
 higher parts of the river, the issue of water into the sea 
 becomes, year after year, less rapid, and consequently less 
 copious ; the current is retarded by the accumulation of 
 mud ; the mouths are successively choked by the increasing 
 masses of sand and soil ; and hence, in the course of ages, 
 the stream, creating a barrier against its own escape, is 
 thrown back upon the adjoining valley, and becomes the 
 willing servant of the agriculturist from Rosetta to the 
 Cataracts. The same opinion is expressed by Lucretius 
 in the following verses : — 
 
 Est quoque, uti possit magnus congestus arenas 
 Fluctibus aversis oppilare ostia contra, 
 
 Cum mare permotum ventus ruit intus arenam : 
 
 Quo sit utLpacto liber minus exitus amnis, 
 
 Et proclivus item fiat minus impetus undis. — Lib. vi. v. 724. 
 
 Then ocean, haply, by the un devious breeze 
 Blown up its channel, heaves with every wave 
 Heaps of high sands, and dams its wonted course 
 Whence narrower, too, its exit to the main, 
 
 And with less force the tardy stream descends. 
 
36 
 
 PHYSICAL AND POLITICAL 
 
 While this cause continues to operate in checking the 
 velocity of the inundation in the northern division of the 
 country, the entrance of the river at Philoe is gradually 
 facilitated by the removal of those obstructions which, in 
 ancient times, secured to Nubia the advantages of an annual 
 irrigation such as Egypt now enjoys, and which still par- 
 tially oppose the motion of the descending flood. The 
 traveller discovers on both sides of the Nubian valley many 
 traces of an extended cultivation which no longer exists. 
 The ridge of rocks which formerly crossed the line of the 
 river, and gave rise to the magnificent falls, the sound of 
 which was heard at the distance of so many leagues and 
 stunned the neighbouring inhabitants, has been insensibly 
 corroded and worn down by the action of the rushing* 
 water, and presents in these days only a few tokens of its 
 original extent. A similar effect, which time will produce 
 on the cliffs of Niagara, will be attended with a similar result 
 on the chain of lakes which terminate in Erie, — the con- 
 tents of which will at length find their way to the ocean 
 along the bed of the St. Lawrence. In the remote ages of 
 the future, the immense valleys now occupied by Superior, 
 Michigan, and those other inland seas which form so striking 
 a feature in North America, will be covered with flocks, 
 herds, and an agricultural population, and only watered by 
 a fine river passing through their centre. In this way the 
 interior of every continent is imperceptibly drained, and 
 new tracts of alluvial land are added to its extremities. 
 
 That Egypt was raised and augmented in the manner 
 described above is rendered manifest by a variety of con- 
 siderations. It is particularly deserving of notice, as sug- 
 gested by Dr. Shaw and confirmed by the French, that 
 whereas the soil of other level countries is usually of the 
 same depth, we find it in Egypt to vary in proportion to 
 its distance from the river, — being in some places near the 
 banks more than thirty feet, while at the extremity of the 
 inundation it does not exceed six inches. Another circum- 
 stance which fortifies the same conclusion is the practice 
 long since become necessary of raising mounds to protect 
 their cities from the violence of the waters. It is not to 
 be imagined that the natives, accustomed to the annual 
 swelling of their river, would build their towns within the 
 limits even of its greatest elevation. On the contrary, it is 
 
GEOGRAPHY OF EGYPT. 
 
 37 
 
 believed that they were wont to place their cities on artificial 
 eminences, to guard against the inconvenience of the sum- 
 mer flood, and particularly to exempt from its ravages their 
 temples and public monuments. But it is every where ad- 
 mitted that some of the finest of their ancient towns are at 
 present undeT the level of the inundation ; while the most 
 laborious efforts have in other parts become indispensable 
 to prevent, by embanking, the destruction of their sacred 
 buildings. Memphis, it is presumed, has been covered by 
 .the increasing soil, after having been abandoned by its 
 inhabitants, who had found the use of mounds unavailing. 
 Bubastis, when about to fall a prey to the same destroyer, 
 was rebuilt on higher ground ; but the beautiful temple, as 
 it could not be removed, was left in its original position, 
 and was accordingly looked down upon from every part of 
 the new city. Heliopolis, in like manner, as we are 
 informed by Strabo, was erected upon an eminence ; but 
 at present the land is elevated around it to such a degree 
 that it appears situated in a plain, which, moreover, is inun- 
 dated every year to the depth of six or eight feet.* 
 
 This source of fertility to Egypt depends exclusively, 
 as every reader knows, upon the periodical rains which 
 drench the table-land of Abyssinia and the mountainous 
 country which stretches from it towards the south and west. 
 The ancients, some of whom indeed entertained very absurd 
 notions respecting the cause of this phenomenon, were 
 generally in the right as to its physical origin, — expressing 
 their belief that the annual overflow of the Nile was closely 
 connected with the climate of Ethiopia, that receptacle of 
 clouds and vapour. Plutarch states most distinctly that the 
 increase of the Egyptian river is owing to the rains which 
 fall in Abyssinia. Even the Arabs had. arrived at the same 
 conclusion long before any European found his way into the 
 country. f More than seven hundred years ago, a failure in 
 the inundation was announced to the farmers of Egypt by 
 a clerical envoy from the chief city of Ethiopia ; who, after 
 having stated that the season in the hill country had been 
 unusually dry, advised them to expect and prepare for the 
 Unwonted lowness of the Nile, which actually occurred. 
 
 * Shaw, vol. ii. p. 229. 
 
 t History of Egypt by Abdollatiph, quoted by Shaw, vol. ii. p. 215. 
 
 D 
 
38 
 
 PHYSICAL AND POLITICAL 
 
 It i6 impossible to find anywhere among terrestrial objects 
 a more striking instance of the stability of the laws of na- 
 ture than the periodical rise and fall of this mighty river. 
 We know, by the testimony of antiquity, that the inunda- 
 tions of the Nile have been the same with respect to their 
 height and duration for thousands of years ; which, as 
 Humboldt remarks, is a proof well worthy of attention, that 
 the mean state of humidity and temperature does not vary 
 in that vast basin.* The rise of the water is so regular that 
 the inhabitants of Lower Egypt look for its arrival with the 
 same degree of confidence as if the blessings which it brings * 
 along with it depended upon causes within their own control. 
 
 The value attached to this gift of nature is esteemed so 
 great as to be made the subject of political regulation, and 
 the main source of public revenue. When it rises to six- 
 teen cubits, the prosperity of the country and the wealth of 
 the exchequer are secure. But, unfortunately, influenced 
 by avaricious motives, the power of a despotic government 
 is employed to mislead their own people in the first instance, 
 and, through that channel, the more scientific nations of 
 Europe, in regard to the actual rise of the inundation. It 
 has been suspected that the notices issued by the guardians 
 of the Mekyas, or Nilometer, have a reference to the taxes 
 which the ruler of Egypt intends to levy, rather than to 
 the real increase of the fertilizing fluid from which they are 
 to be derived. It was first suspected by Niebuhr, and after- 
 ward fully ascertained by the French, that the number of 
 cubits announced in the daily proclamation of the height 
 of the river is not to be relied upon. The real state of the 
 inundation is concealed for political purposes ; and as a 
 proof of this, it is mentioned by M. Girard, that, in 1801, 
 when the public crier gave notice that the water had attained 
 twenty-three cubits two inches, it stood in reality at only 
 eighteen cubits. Hence the difficulty of obtaining an accu- 
 rate statement on this head, and the impossibility of com- 
 paring with suitable exactness the fluctuations of the river 
 in ancient and modern times. 
 
 Considering how much the Egyptians owe to the Nile, it 
 is not surprising that in rude ages they should have been 
 induced to make it an object of w orship Not only does it 
 
 Pers. Nar. vol. iv. 
 
GEOGRAPHY OF EGYPT. 
 
 39 
 
 supersede the labour of the plough and the necessity of col- 
 lecting manure, but it also supplies an abundance of that 
 element which is the most necessary to human existence 
 and comfort, and which to a native of Egypt is, at the same 
 time, a medicine and a luxury. The Egyptian, in short, 
 like the Hindoo, finds his chief solace in his beloved river. 
 Its water is preferred to the most costly beverage ; he even 
 creates an artificial thirst, that he may enjoy the delight of 
 quenching it ; and, when languishing under disease, he 
 looks forward to. the approaching inundation as the season 
 ©f renovated health and vigour. Nor. is this predilection to 
 be ascribed to bigotry or ignorance. On the contrary, we 
 . find that Europeans are equally loud in theii^eulogies on the 
 agreeable and salubrious qualities of the Nile. Giovanni 
 Finati, for example, who was no stranger to the limpid 
 streams of other lands, sighed for the opportunity of return- 
 ing to Cairo, that he might once more drink its delicious 
 water, and breathe its mild atmosphere. Maillet, too, a 
 writer of good credit, remarks, that it is among waters what 
 champaign is among wines. The Mussulmans themselves 
 acknowledge that if their prophet Mohammed had tasted it, 
 he would have supplicated Heaven for a terrestrial immor- 
 tality, that he might enjoy it for ever. 
 
 The Copts, with the feeling natural to Christians of the 
 Greek communion, have fixed upon the 24th of June, the 
 festival of St. John, as the day which affords the first deci- 
 sive token of the annual flood. Travellers, however, inform 
 us that in ordinary years, it is not till the first week in July 
 the rise can be distinctly marked. It is true, that at a much 
 earlier part of the season there is a temporary swell in the 
 current, occasioned by partial rains which fall within the 
 tropics soon after the vernal equinox ; but the real inunda- 
 tion does not commence till the period already mentioned, 
 and even then very imperceptibly. By the middle of August 
 it has reached half its elevation, but it is not at the highest 
 till towards the last days of September. It then continues 
 stationary about two weeks, when it begins gradually to 
 subside. By the 10th of November it has fallen one-half, 
 from which period it diminishes very slowly till the 15th or 
 16th of the following May, when it is understood to have 
 reached its lowest ebb. During the increase the water first 
 acquires a green colour, sometimes pretty deep ; and after 
 
40 
 
 PHYSICAL AND POLITICAL 
 
 thirty or forty days this is succeeded by a brownish red. 
 These changes are probably owing to the augmentations it 
 receives from different temporary lakes in succession, or 
 from the rains which fall at various distances on the table- 
 lands in the interior of Africa. 
 
 The mud of the Nile upon analysis gives nearly one-half 
 of argillaceous earth, with about one-fourth of carbonate 
 of lime ; the remainder consisting of water, oxide of iron, 
 and carbonate of magnesia. On the very banks the slime is 
 mixed with much sand, which it loses in proportion as it is 
 carried farther from the river, so that at a certain distance it 
 consists almost entirely of pure argil. This mud is em- 
 ployed in several arts among the Egyptians. It is formed, 
 into excellent, bricks, as well as into a variety of vessels for 
 domestic use. It enters also into the manufacture of tobacco- 
 pipes. Glass-makers employ it in the construction of their 
 furnaces, and the country people cover their houses with 
 it. As it contains principles favourable to vegetation, the 
 cultivators consider it as a sufficient manure for such places 
 as have not been saturated by the overflowing of the river. 
 
 Although the Nile is almost without exception the min- 
 ister of good to Egypt, there are yet cases in which the 
 excess of its waters has occasioned no small loss both of 
 life and property. In September, 1818, Belzoni witnessed 
 a deplorable scene, owing to the river having risen three 
 feet and a half above the highest mark left by the former 
 inundation. Ascending with uncommon rapidity it carried 
 off several villages, and some hundreds of their inhabitants.. 
 Expecting an unusual rise, in consequence of the scarcity 
 of water the preceding season, the Arabs had had recourse 
 to their wonted expedient of erecting fences of earth and 
 reeds round the villages, to keep the- water from their 
 houses. But on this occasion the pressure of the flood 
 baffled all their efforts. Their cottages, built of earth, could 
 not stand one moment against the current, but were, as 
 soon as the water touched them, levelled with the ground. 
 The rapid stream carried off all that was before it ; the 
 inhabitants of all ages, with their corn and cattle, were 
 washed away in an instant. In Upper Egypt, where the 
 villages are not raised above the level even of' the ordinary 
 inundations, the natives depend for their safety upon arti- 
 ficial barriers. At Agalta, whither he went to procure the 
 
GEOGRAPHY OF EGYPT. 
 
 41 
 
 assistance of the caimakan, or magistrate, he found the said 
 functionary in great alarm, expecting every hour to be swept 
 away by the Nile. “ There was no boat in the village, and 
 should the water break down their weak fences, the only 
 chance of escape was by climbing the palm-trees, till Provi- 
 dence sent some one to their relief. All the boats were 
 employed in carrying away the com from villages that were 
 in danger. Both in Upper and Lower Egypt the men, 
 women, and children are left to be the last assisted, as their 
 lives are not so valuable as com, which brings money to the 
 pasha. As this village was then four feet below the water, 
 the poor Fellahs were on the watch day and night round 
 their fences. They employed their skin-machines, or bags, 
 to throw out the water which rose from under the ground ; 
 but if their fences should be broken down all would be lost.” 
 At another village described by the traveller, the distress of 
 the people was very great. Some of them had taken refuge 
 on a spot where there were only a few feet of land un- 
 covered ; and the water, he adds, was to rise twelve days 
 more, and after that to remain twelve days at its height, 
 according to the usual term of the inundation.* 
 
 It was probably to prevent the occurrence of such catas- 
 trophes, as well as to turn to a beneficial purpose the super- 
 fluous waters of the Nile, that the lake of Moeris, and 
 other similar receptacles, were formed by the ancient kings 
 of Egypt. Although the valley of Fayoum supplied a 
 natural basin for the grand reservoir now mentioned, yet as 
 the canal which connected it with the river, together with 
 the numerous dams which were necessary to regulate the 
 current during the rise and fall of the inundation, were the 
 fruit of human labour, we shall postpone the description of 
 it till we come to the chapter on the Works of Ancient Art. 
 
 We have already remarked that Egypt is indebted for 
 her rich harvests to the mould or soil which is deposited by 
 the river during the annual flood. As soon as the waters 
 retire the cultivation of the ground commences. If it has 
 imbibed the requisite degree of moisture, the process of 
 agriculture is neither difficult nor tedious. The seed is 
 scattered over the soft surface, and vegetation, which almost 
 immediately succeeds, goes on with great rapidity. Where 
 
 * Narrative of Operations, <fcc. vol. ii. p7 94-29. 
 
 D 2 
 
42 
 
 PHYSICAL AND POLITICAL 
 
 the land has been only partially inundated, recourse is had 
 to irrigation, by means of which many species of vegeta- 
 bles are raised even during the dry season. Harvest follows 
 at the distance of about six or eight weeks, according to 
 the different kinds of grain, — leaving time in most cases for 
 a succession of crops, wherever there is a full command of 
 water. The cold season begins with December, and con- 
 tinues about two months. Spring appears in the first days 
 of February, when the fruit-trees blossom, and the atmos- 
 phere acquires a delightful warmth. The period of summer 
 may be said to commence in June, and to end at the close 
 of September, although the transition from the one season 
 to the other is so gradual that it is impossible to define the 
 exact limits of either. During these four months the heat 
 is intense, the fields to which the swelling river has not 
 attained are parched like a desert, and no green leaf is seen 
 but such as are produced by artificial irrigation. Autumn, 
 which is only marked by a slight diminution of temperature, 
 commences about the middle of October, when the leaves 
 fall, and the Nile retires within its channel ; and till the 
 approach of that season which, from its relation to the rest 
 of the year, must be called winter, the face of the country 
 resembles a beautiful meadow diversified with lively colours. 
 Thus is realized the description of Volney, who observed 
 that Egypt assumed -in succession the appearances of an 
 ocean of fresh water, of a miry morass, of a green level 
 plain, and of a parched desert of sand and dust.* 
 
 For various reasons, especially the want of wood and 
 the low elevation of the whole plain from Rosetta to Assouan, 
 the average degree of heat in Egypt is considerably greater 
 than in many other countries situated in the same latitude. 
 In summer, as long as the sun remains above the horizon, 
 the atmosphere is inflamed, the sky is cloudless and spark- 
 ling, and the heat is rendered supportable only by the pro- 
 fuse perspiration which it excites. At Cairo, the medium 
 temperature during that season has been estimated at 
 ninety-two degrees of Fahrenheit’s thermometer. On 
 some occasions it has been known to rise as high as one 
 hundred and twelve degrees ; but such an intensity of heat 
 is usually of short continuance, and almost never expe* 
 
 * Travels, vol. ii. p. 10. 
 
GEOGRAPHY OF EGYPT. 
 
 43 
 
 nenced except in the more confined districts of the Said. 
 At sunset the wind falls, the air becomes cooler, and the 
 vapour suspended in the atmosphere during the day is de- 
 posited in an abundant supply of dew. As the evening 
 advances, a thin mist darkens the horizon, and spreads over 
 the watery grounds ; but during the night it becomes 
 scarcely perceptible, and in the morning, .when the sun has 
 attained a certain elevation, it gradually ascends in the form 
 of flaky clouds. 
 
 The copious evaporation, which necessarily takes place 
 in a country distinguished one-half of the year by excessive 
 heat and moisture, is hardly ever restored to the soil in the 
 shape of rain. The clouds, it is true, sometimes collect in 
 dark masses, and the atmosphere exhibits all the meteoro- 
 logical symptoms which in other climates indicate rain ; but 
 a shower, notwithstanding, is a very rare occurrence in 
 Egypt. When this phenomenon does occur, it continues 
 only a few minutes, and seems counteracted by some affini- 
 ties, chymical or electrical, too powerful to be overcome by 
 the ordinary principle of gravity. In the Delta rain is 
 occasionally seen during the cool part of the year ; but 
 above Cairo it is almost never witnessed at any season. 
 Thunder and lightning are still more infrequent, and are, 
 at the same time, so completely divested of their terrific 
 qualities that the Egyptians never associate with them the 
 idea of destructive force, and are quite unable to comprehend 
 how they should ever be accompanied with either fear or 
 injury. Showers of hail descending from the hills of 
 Syria, and sweeping along the plains of Palestine, are 
 sometimes known to reach the confines of Egypt. But the 
 production of ice is so extremely uncommon, that, on one 
 occasion when it appeared in the low country, the Arabs 
 collected it wfith the greatest care, and sold it, at a high 
 price, to the European merchants of Alexandria. 
 
 The course of the wind, so variable in our climate, is 
 almost strictly periodical on the banks of the Nile. In 
 point both of strength and duration, the northerly breezes 
 predominate, — blowing nearly nine months in the year. 
 They continue with little intermission from May till Sep- 
 tember ; but about the autumnal equinox they veer round 
 to the east, where they remain nearly six weeks, with only 
 slight deviations. About the end of February the gale 
 
44 
 
 PHYSICAL AND POLITICAL 
 
 assumes a southerly direction, and fluctuates exceedingly 
 till the close of April, when it again yields for a time to a 
 more powerful current from the eastward. 
 
 The southerly winds are the most changeable, as well 
 as the most unhealthy ; traversing the arid sands of Africa, 
 uninterrupted by rivers, lakes, or forests, they arrive in 
 Egypt fraught with all the noxious exhalations of the 
 desert. At their approach, the serene sky becomes black 
 and heavy ; the sun loses its splendour, and appears of a 
 dim violet hue ; a light warm breeze is felt, which gradually 
 increases in heat till it almost equals that of an oven. 
 Though no vapour darkens the air, it becomes so gray and 
 thick with the floating clouds of impalpable sand that it is 
 sometimes necessary to use candles at noonday. Every 
 green leaf is instantly shrivelled, and every thing formed 
 of wood is warped and cracked. The effect of these winds 
 on the animal creation, too, is not less pernicious, some- 
 times even occasioning immediate death by sudden squalls 
 which attack the victim before he is aware. The breathing 
 becomes quick and difficult, the pores of the skin are closed, 
 and a feverish habit is induced, owing to suppressed perspi- 
 ration. The increasing heat pervades every substance ; 
 and water itself, no longer cool, is rendered incapable of 
 mitigating the intolerable sensation by which the whole 
 body is oppressed. Dead silence reigns in the streets ; the 
 inhabitants, by confining themselves to their houses, vainly 
 attempt to elude the showers of dust, which is so fine and 
 penetrating that, according to the oriental expression, it 
 will enter an egg through the pores of the shell.* 
 
 These are the hot winds of the desert, termed by the 
 Arabs simoom , and by the Turks samiel , and which have 
 so often proved fatal tp whole caravans, and even to large 
 armies. When they continue longer than three days their 
 effects become quite insupportable, especially to persons of 
 a full habit of body. It is worthy of notice, at the same 
 time, that the southerly breeze which, in the spring of the 
 year, is attended with an intolerable heat, is, during the 
 winter, noted above all others for an intense and penetrating 
 cold. In the latter season the rays of the sun fall more 
 
 * Antis’s Observations on Egypt ; Volney’s Travels, vol. ii. p. 61 
 Dr. Leyden on Egypt, in Murray’s Africa. 
 
GEOGRAPHY OF EGYPT. 
 
 45 
 
 obliquely on the desert, and the current of air which 
 descends on Egypt is chilled by the snowy mountains of 
 Abyssinia. 
 
 Such are the principal phenomena which characterize the 
 climate of Egypt, — a country in the very atmosphere of 
 which nature seems to have adopted new and singular 
 arrangements. In that country, distinguished by an un- 
 common regularity of the seasons and of all the changes 
 which the atmosphere presents, these meteorological facts 
 were first ascertained with philosophical accuracy. But 
 though the observations of the ancient sages of Thebes and 
 Memphis, engraved on immense masses of granite, have 
 defied the ravages of time and the still more destructive 
 hand of man, we can only view the characters with regret, 
 and lament that a wise and learned people may utterly 
 perish before the monuments of their power and science 
 have entirely passed away. 
 
 Egypt is usually divided into Upper and Lower, the lati- 
 tude of Cairo presenting in our day the line of demarcation. 
 But besides this distinction there is another of great an- 
 tiquity, to which frequent allusion is made by the Greek 
 and Roman anthors, namely, that of the Delta, the Hepta- 
 nomis, and the Thebaid. According to this distribution, the 
 first of the provinces just mentioned occupied the seacoast 
 of the Mediterranean ; the third the narrow valley of Upper 
 Egypt ; while to the second was allotted the intermediate 
 space, which seems to have been divided into seven districts 
 or cantons. At a later period when Egypt became subject 
 to the Romans, the Arcadia of that people corresponded 
 nearly to the ancient Heptanomis ; and, about the conclu- 
 sion of the fourth century, the eastern division of the Delta, 
 between Arabia and the Phatnitic branch of the Nile, as 
 high as Heliopolis, was erected into a new province under 
 the name of Augustamnica. In modern times the Arabs 
 have changed the classical appellation of Thebaid into Said, 
 or the high country ; the Heptanomis into Yostani ; and 
 the Delta into Bahari, or the maritime district. 
 
 The following table exhibits a succinct view of the terri- 
 torial distribution of Egypt as recognised by modern geogra- 
 phers and the actual government of the country 
 
46 
 
 PHYSICAL AND POLITICAL 
 
 I. THE SAID, OR UPPER EGYPT. 
 
 1. Province of Thebes. 
 
 2. « Djirgeh. 
 
 3. Siout. 
 
 II. THE VOSTANI, OR MIDDLE EGYPT. 
 
 1. Province of Fayoum. 
 
 2. Beni Souef. 
 
 3. Minieh. 
 
 III. THE BAHAR1, OR LOWER EGYPT. 
 
 1. Province of Bahireh 
 
 2. Rosetta. 
 
 3. Damietta. 
 
 4. Gharbiyeh. 
 
 5. Menouf. 
 
 6. Mansoura. 
 
 7. Sharkey eh. 
 
 The frequent alteration of terms by nations using different 
 languages has produced considerable obscurity in geo- 
 graphical details, as well as a most inconvenient variety in the 
 spelling of proper names. The cities which flourished 
 during the different periods of the Persian, Grecian, Roman, 
 and Saracenic dynasties were not only erected on the sites 
 of more ancient edifices, but under the Turkish and Mam- 
 louk domination, their positions have been partially changed ; 
 and thus, splendid towns celebrated in history have been 
 buried in their own ruins, and the traveller searches for them 
 in vain within the circuit of their ancient walls. 
 
 Nor is this vicissitude confined to the works of human 
 art. Even the great lineaments of nature undergo a grad- 
 ual change, and thereby render the descriptions of early 
 authors almost unintelligible to the modern traveller. The 
 mouths of the Nile, for example, have often deserted their 
 channels, and the river has entered the sea at different 
 points. The seven estuaries known to the ancients were : 
 — 1. The Canopic mouth, corresponding to the present out- 
 let from the Lake Etko, or, according to others, that of the 
 Lake of Aboukir or Maadce ; but it is probable that, at one 
 time, it had communications with the sea at both these 
 
GEOGRAPHY OF EGYPT. 
 
 47 
 
 places. 2. The Bolbitine mouth at Rosetta. 3. The Se- 
 lenitic, probably the opening into the present Lake Burlos. 
 4. The Phatnitic or Bucolic at Damietta. 5. The Mende- 
 sian, which is lost in the Lake Menzaleh, the mouth of 
 which is represented by that of Debeh. 6. The Tanitic or 
 Saitic, which seems to have some traces of its termination 
 to the east of the Lake Menzaleh, under the modem appel- 
 lation of Om-Faridje. The branch of the Nile which con- 
 veyed its waters to the sea corresponds to the canal of 
 Moez, which now loses itself in the lake. 7. The Pelusiac, 
 which seems to be represented by what is now the most 
 easterly mouth of Lake Menzaleh, where the ruins of Pe- 
 lusium are still visible.* 
 
 Of these communications with the sea, the Nile, it is well 
 known, maintains at the present day only the second and 
 the fourth, — the others having been long choked up with 
 mud, or with the earth which falls from the crumbling banks. 
 The cultivation of the Delta has been contracted in a similar 
 proportion ; for in Egypt, wherever the water of the river 
 is withheld, the desert extends or resumes its dominion, 
 covering the finest fields with barren sand and useless shrubs. 
 
 Our description of the physical aspect of this singular 
 country would not be complete did we fail to mention the 
 Valley of the Natron Lakes, and that of the Waterless 
 River. In the former of these there is a series of six basins, 
 bounded on the one side by a lofty ridge of secondary rocks, 
 which perhaps proves the means of concentrating the saline 
 deposite which has given celebrity to the place. The banks 
 and the waters are covered with crystallizations, consisting 
 of muriate of soda or sea-salt, and of natron or carbonate 
 of soda. When a volume of water contains both these 
 salts, the muriate of soda is the first to crystallize, and the 
 carbonate is then deposited in a separate layer. But in 
 some instances, the two crystallizations are observed to 
 choose, without any assignable cause, distinct localities in 
 different parts of the same lake. 
 
 The Waterless River, called by the Arabs Bahr-bela- 
 Maieh, presents itself in a valley which runs parallel to the 
 one just described, and is separated from it only by a line 
 
 * Malte Brun, voL iv. p. 23 ; Mem. sur l’Egypte, vol. i. p. 165; M6m, 
 sur les Bouches du Nil, par Dubois-Ayme. 
 
48 
 
 CIVIL HISTORY OF 
 
 of elevated ground. It has been traced from the neighbour- 
 hood of the Mediterranean through the desert country which 
 stretches to the westward of Fayoum. In the sand with 
 which its channel is every where covered, trunks of trees 
 have been found in a state of complete petrifaction, and also 
 the vertebral bone of a large fish. Jasper, quartz, and 
 petrosilex have likewise been observed scattered over the 
 surface ; and hence some learned persons have thought 
 that these fragments of rock, which do not belong to the 
 contiguous hills, have been conveyed thither by a branch of 
 the Nile, which it is more than probable once passed in this 
 direction, and discharged itself into the sea at some distance 
 to the westward of Alexandria. But this question, which 
 belongs more properly to a subsequent part of our volume, 
 will be discussed at some length in connexion with the opin- 
 ions of those writers who have most recently examined the 
 borders of Lake Mceris.* 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 Civil History of Ancient Egypt. 
 
 Obscurity of Egyptian Annals — Variety of Hypotheses — Reign of Menes 
 determined; his Actions — Account of Osymandias; his Palace and 
 Tomb — Chronological Tables — Invasion of the Shepherds — Quotation 
 from Manetho — Mistake as to the Israelites — Indian Tradition in 
 regard to the Conquest of Egypt by Pastoral Chiefs — The Origin of 
 the Pyramids — Hatred of Shepherds entertained by the Egyptians in 
 time of Joseph — The Reign of Mceris — Accession of Sesostris ; his 
 Exploits ; Proofs of his warlike Expedition ; the Magnificence of his 
 Buildings; his Epitaph — Invasion by Sabaco the Ethiopian or Abys- 
 sinian— By Sennacherib — By Nebuchadnezzar — By Cyrus — And com- 
 plete Subjugation by Cambyses — The Persian Government — Conquest 
 of Egypt by Alexander the Great — Ancient Dynasties — The Ptolemies — 
 The Romans — The Saracens. 
 
 It is our intention in this chapter to give an outline of 
 Egyptian history from the earliest times down to the acces- 
 sion of the Saracenic princes, — an epoch at which the 
 
 * Belzoni, vol. ii. p. 183 ; Denon, vol i. p. 224. 
 
ANCIENT EGYPT. 
 
 49 
 
 power and splendour of the more ancient governments were 
 oppressed by a weight of barbarism which has not yet been 
 removed. 
 
 In regard to this interesting subject, we may confidently 
 assert that there is no portion of the remoter annals of the 
 human race more obscure from the want of authentic records, 
 or more perplexed by groundless conjecture and bold specu- 
 lation. He who begins his inquiries with the establishment 
 of the Egyptian monarchy, and proposes to sail down the 
 stream of time accompanied and guided by the old histo- 
 rians, soon discovers the numerous obstacles which must 
 impede his course. The ancient authors from whom he 
 seeks information require of him to carry back his imagina- 
 tion to an era many thousand years prior to the existence 
 of all written deeds ; and they then gravely introduce him 
 to the gods and demigods who had once condescended to 
 dwell on the banks of the Nile, and to govern the fancied 
 inhabitants of that fertile region. 
 
 If, impatient of the fables related to him respecting super- 
 natural personages, the inquirer should ask who w as the 
 first human sovereign who reigned over Egypt, he is en- 
 couraged by being told that his name was Menes, and that 
 his history is not altogether unknown. But he soon finds out 
 that the exploits of this prince greatly resemble the achieve- 
 ments of the god Osiris, and that the limits between my- 
 thology and the simple annals of a mortal race are not yet 
 fully established. Fatigued with vain conjectures, and still 
 unable to separate facts from fiction, he may resolve to 
 change his plan, and flatter himself with the hope of being 
 able to thread his way through the dark labyrinth of Egyptian 
 chronology. Adopting the philosophical rule, he deter- 
 mines to proceed from the known to the unknown ; and, 
 selecting some comparatively recent and well-attested fact, 
 of which the date is considered as certain, he obtains pos- 
 session of one end of the chain, wrhich he trusts he may 
 succeed in tracing, link after link, until he shall arrive at 
 the other extremity. 
 
 But this method, however ingeniously conceived, has not 
 hitherto been attended with a corresponding success. The 
 chronologer pursues his way, trusting now to one guide, 
 and at another time to a second, who appears to have 
 opened the path under a clearer light ; but, unfortunately, 
 
50 
 
 CIVIL HISTORY OF 
 
 he soon. becomes convinced that the authorities who oppose 
 him, in whatever direction he may choose to proceed, are 
 more numerous than those who favour him with their aid, 
 and on whose reputation he had thought it safe to rely. 
 As he advances, he is further dismayed hy the unwelcome 
 discovery that all his guides become more and more igno- 
 rant, and also that their confidence increases in proportion 
 to the obscurity in which they are enveloped. Their state- 
 ments abound with fictions sufficient to stagger the strong- 
 est belief. He is now satisfied that absolute truth cannot 
 be obtained on such uncertain ground, and therefore con- 
 sents to imitate all those who have gone before him, — to 
 build conjectures instead of establishing facts ; to admit 
 what is probable where he cannot find demonstration ; and, 
 finally, to allow what is possible where he cannot reach 
 unquestionable evidence. His difficulties augment as he 
 removes farther from the point whence he had originally 
 started. Like the traveller who sets out upon a journey 
 when the day is closing, the fight grows more feeble at 
 every step he takes, and the shades of night fall blacker and 
 thicker around him, until he is at length shrouded in total 
 darkness.* 
 
 But to a certain extent, at least, the history of ancient 
 Egypt can be placed on credible grounds, and even be ren- 
 dered capable of throwing fight upon the condition of con- 
 temporary kingdoms. We must at once relinquish the regal 
 gods and the thirty-six thousand years of their government, 
 as only the indication perhaps of some physical principle, 
 or, more probably, the expression of a vast astronomical 
 cycle. The sun, moon, and other leaders of the celestial 
 host may, according to the ancient mythology, be supposed 
 to have ruled over Egypt before it became fit for the habita- 
 tion of mortals ; or the authors of this hypothesis may be 
 thought to have had nothing more serious in view than the 
 gratification of their fancy in the wilds of that terra incog- 
 nita. , which, in every quarter of the globe, stretches far be- 
 yond the boundaries of authentic history. 
 
 But as the reign of Menes marks the limits of legitimate 
 inquiry in this interesting field, and as all correct notions of 
 Egyptian chronology must rest upon the determination of 
 
 See “ Origines,” by Sir William Drummond, vol. ii. p 25a 
 
ANCIENT EGYPT 
 
 51 
 
 the period at which that monarch exercised the supreme 
 power, we shall lay before our readers an abridged view df 
 such opinions on this subject as seem the most worthy of 
 their attention. Here, we need not add, we must confine 
 ourselves to mere results ; it being quite inconsistent both 
 with our limits and our object to enter into the learned ar- 
 guments by which different authors have laboured to fortify 
 their conclusions. But to those readers who are desirous 
 of entering more deeply into the question, we earnestly 
 recommend the works of Hales and l)r. Prichard, the latest 
 and unquestionably the ablest writers on this .obscure 
 though very important branch of historical inquiry. 
 
 Menes, then, began his reign, 
 
 * According to Dr. Hales 2412 years B 
 
 t Old Chronicle 2231 
 
 t Eratosthenes 2220 
 
 $ Eusebius 2258 
 
 || ; — — Julius Africanus 2218 
 
 IT — Dr. Prichard 2214 
 
 As the actions of this monarch were conveyed to pos- 
 terity through the uncertain channel of tradition, little reli- 
 ance can be placed upon the accuracy of the details. Hero- 
 dotus informs us that he protected from the inundations of 
 the Nile the ground upon which Memphis was afterward 
 erected. Before his age the river flowed close under the 
 ridge of hills which borders the Libyan desert, whence, it 
 is more than probable, a large branch of it, at least, made 
 its way through the valley of Fayoum into the Mediterra- 
 nean. To prevent this deviation, he erected a mound about 
 twelve miles south from the future capital of Egypt ; turned 
 the course of the stream towards the Delta ; and led it to 
 the sea at an equal distance from the elevated ground by 
 which on either side the country is bounded. Menes is 
 moreover said to have been a great general, to have made 
 warlike expeditions into foreign countries, and to have 
 fallen a prey at last to the voracity of a hippopotamus. 
 
 Among the principal authorities on which the reign of 
 Menes has been determined is the following statement of 
 
 * New Analysis of Ancient Chronology, vol. iv. p. 418. 
 t Ibid. vol. iv. p. 407. f Prichard’s Egyptian Antiquities. 
 
 $ New Analysis, vol. iv. p. 417. || Ibid. 
 
 If Egyptian Antiquities, p. 91. 
 
 . C. 
 
 | or 2262. 
 
52 
 
 CIVIL HISTORY OF 
 
 Josephus, who had better means of becoming acquainted 
 with the works of Manetho than were enjoyed by Syncel- 
 lus, Africanus, or Eusebius. He assures Us that Menes 
 lived many years before Abraham, and that he ruled more 
 than 1300 years before Solomon.* Now the father of the 
 faithful was born 2153, and the son of David ascended the 
 throne of Israel 1030 years before the Christian era. 
 These facts, combined with the account which is given in 
 the old chronicle of the dynasty of kings which proceeded 
 from Misraim or Misor, seem to justify the conclusions of 
 modern chronology. 
 
 The Greek historian further mentions that the priests 
 recited to him, from books, three hundred and thirty sove- 
 reigns, successors of Menes, among whom were eighteen 
 Ethiopian princes and one queen called Nitocris. But as 
 none of these monarchs were distinguished by any acts of 
 magnificence or renown, he abstains from encumbering his 
 pages with the unmeaning catalogues of their appellations 
 and titles. He makes one exception in favour of Mceris, 
 famed for the excavation of the lake which still bears his 
 name, and of which an account will be given in a subse- 
 quent chapter. 
 
 To assist the recollection of the reader on this rather in- 
 tricate subject, we shall abridge, from the New Analysis of 
 Chronology, a list of the kings who fill up the space be- 
 tween the accession of the first human monarch of Egypt 
 and the death of Mceris : — 
 
 FIRST DYNASTY, EGYPTIANS, 253 YEARS. 
 
 Y. B. C. 
 
 Menes and his successors, ending with Timaus 253 — 2412 
 
 SECOND DYNASTY, SHEPHERD KINGS, 260 YEARS. 
 
 1. Salatis, Silites, or Nirmaryada 19 — 2159 
 
 2. Baion, Byon, or Babya 44 — 2140 
 
 3. Apachnes, Paehman, or Ruchma 37 — 2096 
 
 First. Pyramid begun about 2095 
 
 Abraham visits Egypt about 2077 
 
 4. Apophes 61 — 2059 
 
 5. Janias or Sethos 50 — 1998 
 
 6. Assis or Aseth 49 — 1948 
 
 Expulsion of the Shepherds 260 — 1899 
 
 * Jud. Antiq. lib. viii. 
 
ANCIENT EGYPT. 
 
 53 
 
 THIRD DYNASTY, NATIVE KINGS, 251 YEARS. 
 
 Y. B. C. 
 
 Alisphragmutliosis, &c 27—1899 
 
 Joseph appointed Governor or Regent 9 — 1872 
 
 Jacob's Family settle in Gosheri 215 — 1863 
 
 Death of Joseph 1792 
 
 Queen Nitocris . 1742 
 
 Exode of the Israelites 251 — 1648 
 
 FOURTH DYNASTY, 340 YEARS. 
 
 1. Amosis, Tethmosis, or Thummosis 25 — 1648 
 
 2. Chebron 13—1623 
 
 3. Amenophis I 20 — 1610 
 
 4. Alnesses 21—1589 
 
 5. Mephres 12—1567 
 
 6. Misphragmuthosis 25 — 1554 
 
 7. Thmosis or Tethmosis 9 — 1528 
 
 8. Amenophis 11 30—1518 
 
 9. Orus nr Horus 36 — 1488 
 
 10. Acenchris . 12 — 1452 
 
 11. Rathosis 9—1440 
 
 12. Acencheres I. 12 — 1431 
 
 13. Acencheres II 20 — 1418 
 
 14. Armais or Harmais 4 — 1398 
 
 15. Rainesses- 1 — 1394 
 
 16. Harnesses 66 — 1393 
 
 17. Amenophis III. or Mceris 19—1327 
 
 Death of Mceris 340—1308* 
 
 The most interesting event that occurred during this long 
 interval was the invasion of Egypt by the Shepherds, which, 
 according to the chronology we have here adopted, took 
 place two thousand one hundred and fifty-nine years before 
 the birth of Christ. Manetho, the historian already men- 
 tioned, inserted in his work a very intelligible notice of the 
 misfortune which had befallen his country at that early pe- 
 riod ; the accuracy of which cannot be called in question, 
 except in the point where he is supposed to identify the 
 savage invaders from the East with the peaceful family of 
 Jacob, who were invited to settle in the land of Goshen. 
 The fragment has been preserved by Josephus in his tract 
 against Apion, and contains the following statement : — 
 
 “ We had formerly a king named Timaus. In his reign, 
 God, upon what account I know not, was offended with us ; 
 
 * Vol. iv. p. 418. We have omitted the odd months. 
 
 E 2 
 
54 
 
 CIVIL HISTORY OF 
 
 and unexpectedly men from the East, of obscure origin, 
 boldly invaded the kingdom and subdued it without a con- 
 test. Having mastered the former rulers, they barbarously 
 burnt the cities, demolished the temples of the gods, and 
 treated all the inhabitants most cruelly ; massacring the 
 men, and reducing the women and children to slavery. 
 They next appointed one of their leaders king, whose name 
 was Salatis. He resided in Memphis, and imposed a trib- 
 ute on the Upper and Lower Egypt, and put garrisons in 
 the most important places. But chiefly he secured the 
 eastern parts of the country, foreseeing that the Assyrians, 
 who were then most powerful, would be tempted to invade 
 the kingdom likewise. Finding, therefore, in the Saite- 
 nome, a city placed most conveniently on the north side of 
 the Bubastic channel, which in an ancient theological book 
 is called Avaris, he repaired and fortified it very strongly, 
 and garrisoned it with two hundred and forty thousand sol- 
 diers. Hither he used to come in summer to furnish them 
 with corn and pay, and he carefully disciplined them for a 
 terror to foreigners. He died after he had reigned nineteen 
 years.* 
 
 “ The next, called Baion, reigned 44 years ; and after 
 him Apachnes, 36 years and three months ; then Apophes, 
 61 years ; and Janias, 50 years and one month ; and after 
 him Assis, 49 years and two months. These six were their 
 first kings, who were continually at war with the Egyptians, 
 and wished of all things to eradicate them. 
 
 “ At length the native Egyptian princes rebelled against 
 these tyrants, and, after a tedious warfare, drove them out 
 of the rest of Egypt, and shut them up in Avaris, where 
 they had collected. all their cattle and plunder, and besieged 
 them with an army of 480,000 men. But, despairing of 
 success, the Egyptians concluded a treaty with them, and 
 they were suffered to depart unmolested from Egypt, with 
 all their households, amounting to 240,000 souls, and their 
 cattle. Accordingly they crossed the desert ; but being 
 afraid to return home on account of the Assyrian power, 
 which then held Asia in subjection, they settled in the coun- 
 try of Judsea, and there built Jerusalem.” 
 
 Josephus imagined that this narrative describes the his- 
 
 * Avaris, or Abaris, “ the Pass," was afterward called Pelusium. 
 
ANCIENT EGYPT. 
 
 55 
 
 to ry of his own ancestors, the children of Israel. But it is 
 much more probable that the people who were thus expelled 
 from Egypt were the fathers of the Philistines, who occu- 
 pied the eastern shores of the Mediterranean, and occasion- 
 ally extended their power as far as the banks of the Eu- 
 phrates. Every one knows that., in the language of Western 
 Asia, the term pali denotes shepherds, and stun or sthan 
 means land ; and accordingly the compound word Pali-stan, 
 literally signifies Shepherd-land, or the country of shep- 
 herds. It is therefore extremely probable that the warlike 
 nation who so frequently disputed with the descendants of 
 Abraham the possession of the Syrian border were the pro- 
 geny of the royal herdsmen who so long subjected to their 
 thrall the rich territory of Lower and Middle Egypt. 
 
 The remembrance of the Shepherd expedition is not yet 
 extinct even among the tribes of Central India. In one of 
 the sacred books of the Hindoos, quoted by Captain Wil- 
 ford, a record is preserved of two remarkable migrations 
 from the East in remote times; first of the Yadavas, or 
 “ sacred race,” and afterward of the Pali or Shepherds. 
 These last, we are told, were a powerful tribe, who, in an- 
 cient days, governed the whole country, from the Indus to 
 the mouth of the Ganges, and are called Pali-bothri by 
 Pliny, and Pali-putras in the annals of Hindoostan. They 
 were besides an active, enterprising, and roving people, 
 who, by conquest and colonization, gradually spread them- 
 selves over a great part of Asia, Africa, and Europe. Cross- 
 ing from the shores of the Persian Gulf, they took possession 
 of Arabia, as well as of the lands on the western shore of 
 the Red Sea ; in the latter their country was, by the Greeks 
 and Romans, called Barbaria. .This term was derived from 
 berber , a shepherd, according to Bruce, who describes them 
 as a distinct race from the natives, with long hair and dark 
 complexions, living in tents, and shifting their cattle from 
 place to place for the convenience of pasturage. They seem, 
 in fact, to be the eastern Ethiopians, as distinguished from 
 the western both by Homer and Herodotus.* 
 
 It is well known that the historian just quoted describes 
 the inhabitants of the Syrian Palestine as having, according 
 
 ‘Asiatic Researches, vol. iii. p. 46 ; Bruce’s Travels, vol. ii. p. 21 ; 
 Iliad, i. v. 423 ; Odysa. i. v. 22 ; Herod, lib. vii. 
 
56 
 
 CIVIL HISTORY OF 
 
 to their own account, migrated from the Erythraean Sea to 
 the shores of the Mediterranean, where they afterward ap- 
 plied themselves to navigation and commerce. How exten- 
 sively they spread themselves both in Europe and Asia 
 appears from the cities and places which still retain their 
 name. Thus, a Palestine, or Palesthan, was found on the 
 banks of the Tigris, most probably their original settlement; 
 the town of Paliputra stood on the Hellespont ; the river 
 Strymon in Thrace was surnamed Palestinus ; the Pales- 
 tini and the town Philistia were situated on the river Po in 
 Italy ; and the god of shepherds, among the Latins, was 
 denominated Pales.* 
 
 The following extract from an article in the Asiatic Re- 
 searches, contributed by the learned soldier already named, 
 will tend to strengthen the opinion now universally enter- 
 tained by the ablest writers, that the shepherds who invaded 
 Egypt had migrated from a distant country in the East : — 
 
 “ An ancient king, called Chatura-Yana, passed a hun- 
 dred years in a cavern of Chrishna-giri, the Black Moun- 
 tain, on the banks of the Cali, performing the most rigorous 
 acts of devotion. At length Vishnu appeared to him, and 
 promised him that he should have a son, whom he was to 
 name Tamovatsa. This prince when he succeeded his 
 father was warlike and ambitious, but wise and devout. He 
 prayed to Vishnu to enlarge his ejnpire, and the god granted 
 his request. Hearing that Misra-sthan (the land of Egypt) 
 was governed by a powerful but unjust prince called Nir- 
 maryada, he, with a chosen army, invaded that country 
 without any declaration of war, and began to administer 
 justice among the people, to give them a specimen of a good 
 king ; and when Nirmaryada sent to expostulate, he treated 
 his remonstrance with disdain. This brought on a bloody 
 battle of three days, in which the Egyptian king was killed. 
 The conqueror, who fought like another Parasa Rama, 
 then took possession of the kingdom of Misra, and governed 
 with perfect equity. Babya Vatsa, his son, devoted himself 
 to religion, and resigned his crown to his son Rucma Vatsa, 
 who tenderly loved his people, and so highly improved his 
 country that, from his just revenues, he amassed an in- 
 credible treasure. His wealth was so great that he raised 
 
 * Herod, lib. i. c. 5 ; Hales’s New Analysis, vol. iv. p. 427. 
 
ANCIENT EGYPT. 57 
 
 three mountains, called Rucm-adri, Rujat-adri, and Retu- 
 adri, or the mountain of gold, of silver, and of gems.”* 
 
 In this legend, says Dr. Hales, we trace the distorted 
 features of the Egyptian account. By an interchange of 
 characters, Tamo is the Timaus of Manetho, a quiet and 
 peaceable prince, who w r as invaded without provocation by 
 this Nirmaryada of Cushite race, called Salatis by Manetho, 
 and Silites by Syncellus. His son Babya is evidently the 
 Baion of Manetho. The third king was surnamed Ruchma 
 from his immense wealth, which he collected by oppressing 
 the Egyptians, though he tenderly loved his own people the 
 Shepherds. Wishing either to extirpate the natives or to 
 break down their spirits by hard and incessant labour, he 
 employed them in constructing those stupendous monu- 
 ments of ancient ostentation and tyranny. The Pyramids, 
 which are obviously the mountains indicated in the Hindoo 
 records, were, it is presumed, originally cased with yellow, 
 white, or spotted marbles, brought from the quarries of 
 Arabia. 
 
 From this Hindoo record we seem fully warranted in 
 ascribing the building of the first and greatest pyramid to 
 Apachnes, the third of the Shepherd kings^ and of the rest 
 to his successors. This conclusion is still further confirmed 
 by the tradition of the native Egyptians, communicated to 
 Herodotus, that “ they were built by one Philitis, a shep- 
 herd, who kept his cattle in those parts, and whose memory 
 was held in such abhorrence that the inhabitants would not 
 even repeat his name nor that of his brother who succeeded 
 him.” It is interesting to observe that the vindictive feel- 
 ing of an oppressed people has preserved the original title 
 of the Shepherds in the foreign term Philitis; the etymology 
 of which, as derived from the Sanscrit Pali, and branching 
 out into all the epithets applied to a celebrated people in 
 Syria, we have already endeavoured to explain, t 
 
 The hostile spirit entertained by the Egyptians against 
 their barbarian conquerors continued unabated in the age 
 of the patriarch Joseph, when shepherds were still held as 
 an “ abomination,” — a fact which of itself goes far to prove 
 
 * Asiatic Researches, vol. iii. p. 225. 
 
 t See above, page 55.— New Analysis of Ancient Chronology, vol. iv. 
 p. 428; Herodotus, book ii. c. 128. 
 
58 
 
 CIVIL HISTORY OR 
 
 that the celebrated inroad of the Pastoral kings must have 
 taken place before this favourite son of Jacob was carried 
 as a slave into the house of Potiphar. But it is not sur- 
 prising that the exode of the Israelites should have been 
 confounded by historians with the expulsion of the more 
 ancient invaders. The Hebrews were employed in tending 
 cattle as well as the oriental Pali ; and, in other respects, 
 they were not less disliked by the people, to whom their 
 increasing numbers had rendered them formidable. The 
 military array, too, assumed by the followers of Moses, and 
 the pursuit directed by the Egyptian monarch in person, 
 throw an air of resemblance over the two events. But it is 
 manifest, notwithstanding, that the family of Jacob cannot 
 be identified with that warlike host which subdued Lower 
 Egypt, overturned the throne of Memphis, and placed the 
 sceptre in the hands of a powerful dynasty of kings, who 
 exercised supreme power during the long period of two hun- 
 dred and sixty years. The departure of the Israelites did 
 not take place until the lapse of two centuries and a half had 
 again consolidated the government of the Pharaohs, and 
 improved the resources of the nation. But the true exode 
 of the chosem people, with all the demonstrations of miracu- 
 lous agency by which it was accomplished, is too well 
 known to require from us even the most abbreviated narra- 
 tive ; we therefore proceed to complete the outline of Egyp- 
 tian history in a department not quite so familiar to the 
 common reader. 
 
 Passing over Moeris, whose peaceful labours will be de- 
 scribed hereafter, we arrive at the era of his renowned son, 
 the accomplished and victorious Sesostris. In the history 
 of this hero fiction has exhausted all her powers to darken 
 and exaggerate ; and the little light which remained to guide 
 us to the appreciation of facts has been nearly all obscured 
 by the clouds of chronological error which, from time to 
 time, have been spread over his reign. In placing his ac- 
 cession at the beginning of the thirteenth century before 
 Christ, we follow Hales, being satisfied that his conclusions 
 are worthy of greater confidence than those of every other 
 writer who preceded him in the study of time ; and as our 
 object in this chapter is to fix dates rather than to describe 
 actions, we shall mention the grounds upon which we believe 
 that Sesostris ascended the throae of Egypt at the epoch 
 
ANCIENT EGYPT. 
 
 59 
 
 just stated. Such an exposition will appear more necessary 
 when it is considered that Eusebius imagined this conqueror 
 to be the immediate successor of the Pharaoh who was 
 drowned in the Red Sea at the exode of the Israelites, and 
 that he began his famous expedition while the descendants 
 of Jacob were still wandering in the desert of Arabia. In 
 this untenable opinion the Bishop of Caesarea has been fol- 
 lowed by Usher and Playfair. Sir John Marsham, op the 
 other hand, identified Sesostris with the Shishak of Scripture 
 who invaded Judaea, — a notion which received the concur- 
 rence of Sir Isaac Newton, and has been adopted by many 
 writers of inferior reputation. That the reign of the son of 
 Moeris belongs to an intermediate period may be proved 
 from the following considerations : — 
 
 Herodotus relates that Sesostris was succeeded by Pheron 
 and this last by Proteus, in whose time Troy was taken ; 
 and, according to Manetho, Sesothis was succeeded by 
 Rampses, and Rampses by Ramesses, in whose reign also 
 Troy was taken. Therefore Sesothis and Sesostris were 
 obviously the same person ; and it is equally clear that his 
 accession could not have been much earlier than 1283, or a 
 century before the destruction of Troy, reckoning three 
 reigns equivalent to three mean generations. This agrees 
 sufficiently Avith the date which we have selected. 
 
 Again, in his fourth book, Herodotus states that Targitaus 
 founded the Scythian kingdom about a thousand years at 
 most before the invasion of Darius Hystaspes, or, in other 
 words, about 1508 before the Christian era. But we learn 
 from the historian Justin that Timaus, the sixth king in 
 succession from Targitaus, encountered Sesostris, and 
 checked or defeated him’ at the river Phasis. Reckoning 
 these six reigns equivalent to mean generations, or 200 
 years, the accession of Sesostris could not be earlier than 
 1308 B. C. 
 
 In the third place, Herodotus mentions that Sesostris 
 founded the kingdom of Colchis near Pontus, and left a 
 colony there, consisting of such of his soldiers as were weary 
 of service ; and we are informed by Apollonius Rhodius that 
 the posterity of the Egyptian governor subsisted at JEn, the 
 capital of Colchis, for many generations. This governor 
 was the father of -Eetes, who was the father of Medea, the 
 mistress of Jason in the Argonautic expedition, which, it is 
 
80 
 
 CIVIL HISTORY OF 
 
 well known took place about 1225 E. C.; that is, seventy- 
 four years after Sesostris returned from his Asiatic cam- 
 paigns.* 
 
 The confirmation thus afforded to the Egyptian chro- 
 nology by historical facts, incidentally mentioned by Grecian 
 writers, is extremely satisfactory, and illustrates the sound- 
 ness of the principle upon which our system is constructed. 
 It is deserving of notice, at the same time, that the hero 
 whose exploits fill so large a space in the traditional story 
 of ancient Egypt has been placed, by the researches of 
 Champollion, at the beginning of the thirteenth century 
 before the reign of Augustus Caesar, and thereby most dis- 
 tinctly identified with the great Sesostris, the conqueror of 
 the world. 
 
 Diodorus is our principal authority for the warlike 
 achievements of this celebrated monarch. His first expe- 
 dition after he came to the throne was against the Abys- 
 sinians, whom he reduced to the condition of tributaries. He 
 then turned his arms against the nations who dwelt on either 
 shore of the Red Sea, advanced along the Persian Gulf, and 
 finally, if we may trust to the accuracy of our historian, 
 marched at the head of his troops into India, and even 
 crossed the Ganges. Directing his face towards Upper 
 Asia, he next subdued the Assyrians and Medes ; whence, 
 passing to the confines of Europe, be ravaged the land of 
 the Scythians, until he sustained the reverse above alluded 
 to at the hands of Timaus, their valiant prince, on the banks 
 of the Phasis. Want of provisions, and the impenetrable 
 nature of the country which defended the approaches to an- 
 cient Thrace, compelled him to relinquish his European 
 campaign. He accordingly returned to Egypt in 1299 B. C., 
 being the ninth year of his military enterprise. 
 
 Making due allowance for the exaggeration which always 
 takes the place of authentic records, we are nevertheless 
 disposed to maintain that the history of Sesostris cannot be 
 wholly reduced to fiction, nor ascribed entirely to the mytho- 
 logical wanderings of Bacchus or Osiris. We are assured, 
 on the personal evidence of Herodotus and Strabo, that the 
 pillars erected by the Egyptian leader still remained in their 
 
 * Herod, book ii. e. 103 ; book iv. c. 5, 6, 7; Justin, lib. L c. 1 ; ApoL 
 Rhod . lib. iv. p. 27SL; Hales, vol. iv. p. 433. 
 
ANCIENT EGYPT. 
 
 61 
 
 days, and even that they were actually inspected by them 
 in Syria, Palestine, Arabia, and Ethiopia. The inscription 
 which these proud monuments every where bore was to the 
 following effect : — 
 
 “ Sesostris, King of Kings, and Lord of Lords, subdued this country 
 by his arms.” 
 
 Another circumstance corroborative of the general accu- 
 racy of the old annalists has been already mentioned, — the 
 establishment of an Egyptian colony in the province of Col- 
 chis. The descendants of this military association, pre- 
 senting the dark complexion and woolly hair of Africa, were 
 long distinguishable from the natives of the district among 
 whom they dwelt. Nay, it is possible, we believe, at the 
 present day, to find among the Circassians certain families 
 whose blood might be traced to the soldiers of Sesostris, and 
 whose features still verify the traditional affinity which con- 
 nects them with the ancient inhabitants of the Nile. 
 
 It is usual, in all countries, that the fame of a popular 
 monarch shall be increased by having ascribed to him, not 
 only all the heroic deeds which have been transmitted by 
 the chroniclers of the olden time, but that he shall be re- 
 garded by the multitude as the founder of all the magnificent 
 palaces and gorgeous temples of which the remains still 
 continue to testify that their nation was once wealthy and 
 powerful. On this account it is not improbable that Sesostris, 
 under the several names or titles of Osymandias, Ramesses, 
 Sethosis, and Sethon, has had attributed to him the merit 
 of erecting several splendid edifices which are due to sove- 
 reigns of a less imposing celebrity. At all events, it is not 
 doubted by any one that both Memphis and Thebes owed 
 some of their finest structures to the conqueror of Asia; 
 and it is even recorded by his panegyrists, that the riches 
 and the immense number of prisoners which crowned his 
 successes in the East enabled him to decorate all the towns 
 of Egypt without exacting from his native subjects any 
 portion of their labour or revenue. Memphis, the new 
 capital, was enlarged and ornamented with the most profuse 
 expenditure. The statues, the temples, and the obelisks 
 which adorned it are described by historians in their most 
 pompous language ; but the infelicity of its situation, which 
 
62 
 
 CIVIL HISTORY OF 
 
 exposed it to tlie inundations of the Nile, has so completely 
 obliterated all traces of its existence as to have- created a 
 question among antiquaries as to the precise spot on which 
 it stood. Thebes, on the contrary, which enjoyed a more 
 secure position, and was perhaps built of more lasting mate- 
 rials, displays at the present day the magnificence of her 
 princes, combined with the learning and taste which distin- 
 guished her inhabitants. 
 
 The Palace, or Sepulchral Temple (for the ruins of the ■ 
 two have been confounded), appears to have been an edifice of 
 exquisite workmanship as well as of vast extent. In front 
 there was a court of immense size ; adjoining which there 
 arose a portico four hundred feet long, the roof of which was 
 supported by figures fifteen cubits in height. This portico 
 led into another court similar to the first, but more superb, 
 and adorned with statues of great magnitude, which are said 
 to have represented the king and certain members of his 
 family. Amid a numerous succession of halls and galleries 
 the chisel had sculptured with wonderful art the triumphs 
 of the sovereign, the sacrifices which he had offered, the 
 administration of justice in his courts of law, and such 
 other functions as were appropriated to the head of a great 
 nation. But ' the tomb, properly so called, is especially 
 remarkable for the astronomical emblems which it exhibits. 
 
 It is encompassed with a golden circle three hundred and 
 sixty-five cubits in circumference, to represent the number 
 of days comprehended in the year. The rising and setting 
 of the stars are likewise depicted with considerable accu- 
 racy, and show that great attention was already paid to the 
 motions and periods of the heavenly bodies. Thus it is 
 rendered manifest, that whatever doubt may exist as to the 
 identity of Sesostris and Osymandias, or in regard to the 
 period at which one or other ascended the throne, the light 
 of civilization and the improvement of the arts had made 
 great progress in Upper Egypt more than thirteen centuries 
 before the Christian era. The statue of the monarch him- 
 self represented in a sitting posture, was considered by the 
 ancients as the largest in the country. The foot alone was 
 seven cubits in length ; and the following epitaph appro- 
 priated this gigantic work of art to the renowned commander 
 whose name it was meant to perpetuate : — 
 
ANCIENT EGYPT. 63 
 
 “lam Osymandias, King of Kings ; if any one desire to know what a 
 prince I am, and where I lie, let him excel my exploits.” 
 
 The successors of this great prince, for several genera- 
 tions, did not perform any remarkable action, nor allow their 
 ambitious views to extend beyond the limits of their native 
 kingdom. Perhaps it might be said that the power of 
 Egypt was not more than sufficient to defend her own bor- 
 ders against the erratic hordes who constantly threatened 
 her on the east, and the more regular armaments of Abys- 
 sinia, which occasionally made an inroad from the south. 
 About 770 B. C. Sabaco the Ethiopian descended the Nile, 
 and drove Anysis from the throne. Sixty years later, Sen- 
 nacherib, King of Assyria, meditated the conquest of the 
 same country, and had actually entered its territories, when 
 his immense host was destroyed by a Divine visitation. 
 
 Disgusted with the weakness or misfortune of their 
 sovereigns, the Egyptians made the experiment of an 
 oligarchy of twelve governors, who directed the administra- 
 tion about fifteen years. But, in 619 B. C., Pharaoh Necho 
 was elevated to an undivided throne. His feign is remark- 
 able for the success he obtained against Jerusalem, 'which 
 he took, and against the good prince Josiah, whom he slew. 
 He made several attempts to connect, for the purposes of 
 commerce, the Nile with the Red Sea ; and afterward ac- 
 complished what must have been then esteemed the still 
 more arduous enterprise of circumnavigating Africa, from 
 the Strait of Babelmandeb to the Mediterranean. 
 
 About this period the Assyrian monarchy, which had 
 acquired an ascendant over all the neighbouring nations 
 from the Euphrates to the shores of the Great Sea, became 
 formidable also to Egypt. Nebuchadnezzar on more than 
 one occasion made the weight of his power to~be felt on the 
 banks of the Nile ; but the conquest of the whole of that 
 country was reserved for the great Cyrus, who marshalled 
 under his standard nearly all the states of Western Asia. 
 It appears, however, that the liberal policy of this famed 
 warrior restored to the Egyptians, as well as to the Jews, 
 a certain degree of national independence, — a boon which 
 the former were thought to have abused so much that one 
 of the first measures adopted by his successor had for its 
 object their entire and permanent subjugation. 
 
64 
 
 CIVIL HISTORY OF 
 
 The effects produced upon Egypt by the victories of 
 Cambyses are too important to be passed over with so slight 
 a notice as that now given. It should seem that the way 
 was paved for him by the treachery of two great officers, 
 who sought revenge for a personal insult by throwing open 
 the kingdom to a foreign enemy. When, however, the 
 Persian monarch appeared before Pelusium, he found that 
 preparations had been made for a vigorous resistance ; but, 
 availing himself of the miserable superstition of the garrison, 
 he placed their sacred animals in front of his army, and 
 advanced to the attack. The city surrendered without 
 opposition. A general engagement, which ensued imme- 
 diately afterward, terminated in the total discomfiture of 
 Psammenitus and the reduction of Memphis. The con- 
 queror disgraced his triumph by the most wanton cruelties, 
 and particularly by putting to death the son of the king, 
 together with two thousand individuals of high rank. He 
 also gave vent to his rage against the priests and religion 
 of the country, on suspicion that they were employed to 
 undermine his * authority. Regardless of public opinion, 
 he gave orders to slay the bull Apis, the object of so much 
 veneration among all classes ; and, because the magistrates 
 and guardians of the temple interposed to prevent this hor- 
 rible sacrilege, he slew the one and scourged the other. 
 A similar feeling dictated the mad attempt to seize the 
 consecrated fane of Jupiter Ammon, situated in the Greater 
 Oasis. The loss of half his army, the disaffection. of the 
 remainder, and the universal hatred of his new subjects, 
 compelled him to return to Persia, where he soon afterward 
 became the victim of accident or of conspiracy. 
 
 The government of Persia, interrupted only by a series 
 of unsuccessful revolts, was maintained during more than 
 two hundred years ; at the end of which Alexander the 
 Great, who soon afterward wrested from the hands of 
 Darius the sceptre of the empire itself, took possession of 
 the kingdom of the Pharaohs, now one of its most remote 
 provinces. 
 
 Before we proceed to the history of the Grecian rulers, 
 we shall present a tabular view of the several dynasties from 
 the death of Mceris to the accession of the first Ptolemy 
 
ANCIENT EGYPT. 
 
 65 
 
 FIFTH DYNASTY, 342 YEARS. 
 
 1. Sethos, Sesostris, or Osymandias 33—1308 
 
 2. Rampses or Pheron 61—1275 
 
 3. Cetes, Proteus, or Ramesses 50—1214 
 
 4. Amenophis IV 40—1164 
 
 5. Rampsinites 42 — 1124 
 
 6. Cheops or Chemmis 50 — 1082 
 
 7. Cephrenes, Cephres, or Sesah 56—1032 
 
 8. Mycerinus or Cherinus . 10— 976 
 
 His death 342— 966 
 
 SIXTH DYNASTY, 293 YEARS. 
 
 A chasm 151—966 
 
 1. Bocchoris or Asychis 44—815 
 
 2. Anysis 2—771 
 
 3. Sabacon or So 1 50—769 
 
 Anysis again ( 6—719 
 
 4. Sebecon or Sethos » 40 — 713 
 
 Sennacherib invades Egypt 711 
 
 End of the period : 293—673 
 
 6EVENTH DYNASTY, 148 YEARS. 
 
 1. Twelve contemporary kings 15—673 
 
 2. Psammeticus I 39—658 
 
 3. Nekus or Pharaoh Necho 16—619 
 
 4. Psammis 6—603 
 
 5. Apries or Pharaoh Hophra 28—597 
 
 6. Amasis 44 — 569 
 
 Cyrus conquers Egypt 535 
 
 7. Psammenitus. First revolt of Egypt, (6 mo.) 525 
 
 148 
 
 EIGHTH DYNASTY, PERSIAN KINGS, 112 YEARS. 
 
 1. Cambyses reduces Egypt > 
 
 First Persian Administration \ 
 
 2. Darius Hystaspes. Second revolt of Egypt 
 
 3. Xerxes reduces Egypt { 
 
 Second Persian Administration \ ' ' * 
 
 4 . Artaxerxes Longimanus. Third revolt 
 
 Reduces Egypt > 
 
 Third Persian Administration J 
 •Herodotus visits Egypt 
 
 Darius Nothus. Fourth revolt 112—413 
 
 F 2 
 
 38- 525 
 
 3- 487 
 24—484 
 
 4— 460 
 43-456 
 
 448 
 
66 
 
 CIVIL HISTORY OF 
 
 NINTH DYNASTY, EGYPTIAN KINGS, 81 YEARS. 
 
 1. Amyrtaeus 
 
 2. Pausiris 
 
 3. Psammeticus II 
 
 4. Nephereus 
 
 5. Acoris 
 
 6. Nectanebus 
 
 7. Tachus or Tacos 
 
 8. Nectanebus 
 
 Ochus reduces Egypt ) 
 
 Fourth Persian Administration $ 
 
 6-407 
 
 6—401 
 
 6—396 
 
 14—389 
 
 12-375 
 
 2—363 
 
 11-361 
 
 18-350 
 
 Alexander conquers’Egypt. 
 
 81—332 
 
 Upon the division of the Persian empire, Egypt fell to 
 Ptolemy Lagus, one of Alexander’s generals, who, when 
 he ascended the throne, assumed the cognomen of Soter. 
 Our limits will not permit us to describe at length the 
 character of this prince, nor to set forth the numerous 
 obligations which literature and philosophy continue to bear 
 to his memory. His establishment of the celebrated Alex- 
 andrian Library, and his marked encouragement of men of 
 letters, are too well known to require illustration ; and per- 
 haps the royal munificence which he displayed in providing 
 so splendid an asylum for learning was more than equalled 
 by the discrimination which he manifested in the choice of 
 individuals to preside over its interests and to promote its 
 progress. While inviting to his court and placing in his 
 schools those characters who were the most distinguished 
 of the age for their scientific acquirements, Ptolemy never- 
 theless showed himself the greatest philosopher that adorned 
 Alexandria. To the knowledge of books he joined the 
 more valuable knowledge of men and of business ; and was 
 thereby qualified to direct the pursuits of science to prac- 
 ticable objects, as well as to withdraw the speculations of 
 the learned from the insane metaphysics in which they 
 were wont to indulge, in order to engage them in the more 
 profitable studies of criticism, history, geometry, and medi- 
 cine. The countenance shown to Demetrius Phalerius, and 
 the employment to which he turned his accomplished mind, 
 reflect greater honour upon the memory of Soter than all 
 the magnificence of the Serapeion, or even- the patriotic 
 object contemplated in the structure of the Pharos. 
 
 His son Philadelphus succeeded to an inheritance of great 
 
ANCIENT EGYPT. 
 
 67 
 
 honour, but of much anxiety ; for, being raised to the throne 
 in place of his eldest brother Ceraunus, he was long exposed 
 to the fear of domestic treason and of foreign war. But a 
 reign of thirty-eight years enabled him to consolidate his 
 power, and even to purchase the gratitude of his subjects, 
 by executing many public works of great utility. He con- 
 veyed the waters of the Nile into the deserts of Libya, 
 completed the lighthouse at the harbour of Alexandria, 
 and laboured to improve the navigable canals which con- 
 nected his capital with the Red Sea and the Mediterranean. 
 The only stain upon his administration arose from the 
 pitiful revenge inflicted on the librarian Demetrius, for 
 having advised the former king to allow the succession to 
 proceed in the natural course, and to settle the crown on 
 his first-born son. 
 
 The third Ptolemy found it necessary to begin his reign 
 with a Syrian war, which, in his own time, produced no 
 memorable results, though, it would appear, it opened up to 
 his successor a path to renown as a conquerer in the East. 
 The latter is said not only to have chastised the insolence 
 of Scleucus, and extended his conquests beyond the Eu- 
 phrates, but even to have carried his arms to the confines of 
 Bactria. Among the spoils which Euergetes — the title 
 bestowed upon him by his people — acquired in the course 
 of his victories, was a prodigious number of statues, images 
 of gold and silver, and other instruments of worship, which 
 Cambyses had carried away from the palaces and temples 
 of Egypt. 
 
 It was in the year 221 before our era that Ptolemy Philo- 
 pater mounted the throne of his father in the due course 
 of succession. In his reign the Syrians recovered the prov- 
 inces which the more fortunate arms of his predecessor 
 had added to the Egyptian territory ; the Jews were inhu- 
 manty persecuted ; and the general affairs of the kingdom 
 fell into confusion and disorder. A slave to his passions, 
 and addicted to cruelty, he sunk under a ruined constitution 
 at the early age of thirty-seven. 
 
 The minority which followed was of considerable im- 
 portance, inasmuch as it proved the occasion of introducing 
 formally into Egypt the powerful influence of the Roman 
 government. As Ptolemy Epiphanes was only five years 
 old at the death of his father, the kings of Syria and Mace- 
 
68 
 
 CITIL HISTORY OF 
 
 don determined to dismember and divide his dominions ; on 
 which account the guardians of the prince applied to the 
 Western Republic to interpose her authority in the cause 
 of justice, and to prevent the undue aggrandizement of two 
 ambitious monarclis. 
 
 This request was readily granted ; and, that the interests 
 of the Egyptian court might not suffer from delay, Marcus 
 iEmilius Lepidus set sail for Alexandria to assume the di- 
 rection of affairs. Meanwhile ambassadors were despatched 
 to Antiochus'and Philip, charged with the determination of 
 the senate, and instructed to make known the line of policy 
 which the Roman government had resolved to pursue. But 
 the peace and happiness which were thus secured to the 
 people ceased almost as soon as this feeble ruler took the 
 sceptre into his own hand. He became corrupt, and they 
 became disaffected. Various conspiracies were Tormed and 
 defeated ; but at length the attempt of an assassin succeeded, 
 and Epiphanes was cut off in the twenty-ninth year of 
 his age. 
 
 The government was seized by the queen, a Syrian prim- 
 ness, named Cleopatra, in behalf of her son, who was only 
 six years old. Her partiality for her native court, and the 
 influence of her brother Antiochus, threatened the peace of 
 Egypt and even its independence, when the Romans again 
 interposed to defeat the ambitious schemes of Syria. But 
 the young Ptolemy, distinguished by the title of Philometer, 
 was so completely in the power of his uncle that the inhab- 
 itants of Alexandria raised to the throne a younger prince, 
 upon whom they conferred the surname of Euergetes, 
 though, at a later period, he was better known by the epi- 
 thet Physcon, a term expressive of unwieldy corpulence. 
 The brothers at length divided the kingdom, and exercised 
 a separate and independent sovereignty ; Cyrene and Libya 
 being ceded to the younger, while the other retained that 
 original portion of Egypt which was considered as more 
 strictly hereditary. 
 
 Philometer, at his death, left an infant son, who has been 
 denominated Ptolemy the Seventh, but who never attained 
 to the possession of power. To secure the tranquillity of 
 the nation, a union between the widow of the late king and 
 Euergetes the Second was recommended by the Romans, 
 .and immediately adopted ; the right of succession, on the 
 
ANCIENT EGYPT. 
 
 69 
 
 demise of his uncle, being reserved to the young prince. 
 But the jealousy of the cruel monarch soon put an end to 
 his life, with the view, it might be presumed, of clearing 
 the way for the accession of one of his own sons. He next 
 repudiated his queen, whom he subsequently drove into 
 Syria, and thereby involved his country in the hazard of a 
 war with Demetrius, the rival and enemy of Egypt. Science 
 and learning, intimidated by the horrors which oppressed 
 the kingdom, were observed to take flight from their ancient 
 seat, and to seek an asylum in other lands. The semina- 
 ries of Alexandria were deserted by the most distinguished 
 professors, who, together with the principal inhabitants of 
 the maritime district, found themselves menaced with im- 
 prisonment or death. Nor was it until after the lapse of 
 twenty-nine years that Physcon, detested for his crimes 
 and feared for his sanguinary disposition, finished his earthly 
 career, leaving his crown to be disputed by three sons, Ap- 
 pion, Lathyrus, and Alexander. This reign will appear 
 interesting in the eye of the philosophical historian, from 
 the fact, which the Egyptians could no longer conceal from 
 themselves, that the influence of Rome was daily gaining 
 ground in their councils, and already securing the foun- 
 dations of that dominion which she afterward formally 
 usurped. 
 
 Through the influence of Cleopatra, who had returned 
 from her Syrian exile, Alexander was preferred to the 
 throne. But as the claims of Lathyrus were acknowledged 
 by a majority of the people, he was encouraged to assert 
 his right by force of arms ; and having succeeded in driving 
 his younger brother into a foreign country, he inflicted a 
 severe punishment upon the insurgents of Upper Egypt, 
 who had, during the political dissensions of the new capital, 
 endeavoured to establish their independence. The inhabit- 
 ants of the Thebaid had long felt themselves overlooked. 
 The rising glory of Memphis had first obscured the splen- 
 dour of the ancient metropolis ; while, more recently, the 
 importance of Alexandria, both as a place of learning and 
 of commerce, had attracted to a still greater extent the wealth 
 and population of the kingdom. It is not surprising, there- 
 fore, that the citizens of Thebes should have entertained 
 the desire of recovering some share of the distinction of 
 which they had been gradually deprived, and, at the same 
 
70 
 
 CIVIL HISTORV OF 
 
 time, of securing to the Egyptians a seat of government 
 at a greater distance from the arms and intrigues of their 
 warlike neighbours. In suppressing this spirit of disaffec- 
 tion, Lathyrus is accused of aivexcessive severity, in which 
 he emulated the destructive policy of Cambyses, and re- 
 duced the remains of the venerable city to a heap of ruins. 
 
 His death, in the year eighty-one before Christ, relieved 
 the apprehensions of the people, and opened a path for the 
 .accession of Cleopatra, his only child, whose gentle sex and 
 manners gave the promise of a happy reign. This cheering 
 anticipation might have been realized, had there not existed 
 another claimant for the same honour in the person of 
 Alexander, the son of her father’s brother. Cleopatra was, 
 without doubt, the legitimate sovereign, and was acknow- 
 ledged as such by nearly all her subjects ; but the councils 
 which now directed the affairs of Egypt emanated from the 
 shores of the Tiber. The Romans, who at first acted only 
 as umpires, had already begun to enlarge their views, and 
 to claim a right to interpose with their advice, and even 
 with their arms. Sylla at this period discharged the office 
 of dictator, and, in virtue of his high prerogative as master 
 of the commonwealth, prescribed an arrangement to the 
 competitors for the Egyptian crown. Cleopatra became 
 the wife of her cousin Ptolemy, Alexander the Second, and 
 thereby, it was hoped, had finally united the rival interests 
 of the two branches of the royal family. But this measure 
 produced not the auspicious results which w r ere expected 
 to arise from it. The ambitious youth, impatient of an 
 equal, murdered his young wife, and seized the undivided 
 sovereignty, which he appears to have occupied several 
 years. At length he was compelled to flee from the indig- 
 nation of his subjects to the coast of Tyre ; where, just be- 
 fore his death, he made a will, by which he bequeathed 
 Egypt to the Roman senate and people. 
 
 The next who assumed and disgraced the title of Ptol- 
 emy, was a son of Lathyrus, who, from the excellence of 
 his performances on the flute, was surnamed Auletes. 
 This weak prince proved a tool in the hands of the Romans, 
 and evidently lent himself to accomplish their favourite 
 design of reducing Egypt to the condition of a province 
 dependent on the republic. The leading men at court, who 
 had no difficulty in penetrating his intentions, expelled him 
 
ANCIENT EGYPT. 
 
 71 
 
 from the throne, and placed the sceptre in the hand of his 
 daughter Berenice. To defend themselves still further 
 against the intrigues of Rome, they proposed to marry their 
 young sovereign to the King of Syria, — hoping that the 
 combined forces of the two kingdoms would prove more 
 than a matcti for the legions usually stationed beyond the 
 Hellespont. But the premature death of Antiochus de- 
 feated this wise project. Auletes was restored through the 
 interest of the celebrated Pompey, and conducted into his 
 capital by Mark Antony, a commander hardly less renowned. 
 After a series of oppressions and cruelties, among which 
 may be mentioned the murder of Berenice, he tenninated 
 a shameful reign by an early death, — intrusting his sur- 
 viving children to the care and tuition of the Roman 
 government. 
 
 Among the infants thus left to the protection of the 
 senate, were the famous Cleopatra and her brother Ptolemy 
 Dionysius. As soon as these princes came of age, they 
 were raised to the throne, and associated in the government. 
 But their friendship and union were of short continuance ; 
 and each having the support of a numerous party, their 
 dissensions almost necessarily terminated in a civil war. 
 Cleopatra was compelled to seek refuge in Syria ; soon 
 after which event, Julius Csesar, who by his victory at 
 Pharsalia had already made himself master of the com- 
 monwealth, appeared in Egypt to complete his conquest, 
 and to quell the intestine commotions by which the whole 
 of that kingdom was distracted. She lost no time in re- 
 pairing to Alexandria, where she was secretly introduced 
 into the presence of the Roman general. This able soldier 
 and politician immediately restored to her the share of 
 power which she had formerly possessed, — issuing a decree, 
 in the name of the senate, that Ptolemy Dionysius and his 
 sister Cleopatra should be acknowledged as joint sovereigns 
 of Egypt. The partisans of the young king, being dis- 
 satisfied with this arrangement, had recourse to a military 
 stratagem, by which Csesar and his attendants were nearly 
 destroyed. A war ensued soon afterward, which ended in 
 the death of Ptolemy and the complete establishment of 
 the Romans, not less as conquerors than as guardians of the 
 children of Auletes. 
 
 But it was not consistent with- Egyptian decorum that 
 
72 
 
 CIVIL HISTORY OF 
 
 Cleopatra should reign without a colleague ; and, therefore* 
 to satisfy the prejudices of the people, her youngest 
 brother, not more than eleven years of age, was placed 
 beside her on the throne. Such a nomination could not be 
 regarded in any other light than as a show of limiting the 
 power of the queen ; and even this apparent check on her 
 authority was soon removed by the murder of the child, 
 who fell a victim to the furious passions which at that period 
 dishonoured the descendants of the great Ptolemy. 
 
 But the term of their dynasty was now fast approaching. 
 The assassination of the conqueror of Pharsalia, and the 
 subsequent defeat of Mark Antony, raised the fortunes of 
 Octavianus above the reach of the most powerful of his 
 rivals, and at length invested him with the imperial purple, 
 as the acknowledged head of the Roman world. Cleopatra 
 made her escape from his revenge in a voluntary death ; for 
 suspecting that he intended to wound her feelings, by 
 assigning to her a place in the train of captives who were 
 to adorn his triumph at Rome, she found means to put an 
 end to her life by the bite of a poisonous reptile. With her 
 ended the line of Grecian sovereigns, which had continued 
 two hundred and ninety-six years. 
 
 As a province of the Roman empire, the history of Egypt 
 can hardly be separated from that of the mighty people by 
 whose deputies it was now to be governed. It was, indeed, 
 occasionally disturbed by insurrections, and sometimes even 
 by foreign war ; but it was, notwithstanding, retained with 
 a firm grasp both against domestic and external foes, until 
 the decline of power compelled the successors of Augustus 
 to withdraw their legions from the extremities of the em- 
 pire, to defend the provinces on the Tiber and the Danube. 
 Adrian, in the beginning of the second century, spent two 
 years in Egypt, during which he laboured to revive among 
 the natives the love of letters and the beauties of archi 
 tecture. Severus, too, at a somewhat later period, made e 
 similar visit, when, like his predecessor, he exerted himself 
 to relieve the burdens and improve the condition of the great 
 body of the people. In particular, he countenanced every 
 attempt that was made to repair the ancient monuments, as 
 also to replenish the museums and libraries at Alexandria 
 with books, instruments, and works of art ; and, above all, 
 to withdraw the minds of the more contemplative from the 
 
ANCIENT EGYPT. 
 
 73 
 
 dangerous pursuits of magic and the contemptible decep- 
 tions of astrology. The reigns of Claudius and of Aure- 
 lian were slightly agitated by the pretensions of Zenobia, 
 Queen of Palmyra, who, as a descendant of the Ptolemies, 
 announced herself the sovereign of Egypt. Her army ad- 
 vanced to the frontiers, and even gained some advantages 
 over the Romans ; but her troops being at length steadily 
 opposed by the legions of Syria, she sustained a total defeat, 
 and was carried captive to Rome. 
 
 When, at a later period, the emperor Probus visited 
 Egypt, he executed many considerable works for the splen- 
 dour and benefit of the country. The navigation of the 
 Nile, so important to Rome itself, was improved ; and tem- 
 ples, bridges, porticoes, and palaces were constructed by 
 the hands of his soldiers, who acted by turns as architects, 
 as engineers, and as husbandmen. On the division of the 
 empire by Diocletian, Egypt was reduced to a very distracted 
 state. Achilleus at Alexandria, and the Blemmyes, a 
 savage race of Ethiopians, defied the Roman arms. The 
 emperor, resolved to punish the insurgents, opened the cam- 
 paign with the siege of Alexandria. He cut off the aque- 
 ducts which supplied every quarter of that immense city w'ith 
 water, and pushed his attacks with so much caution and 
 vigour, that. at the end of eight months the besieged sub- 
 mitted to the clemency of the conqueror. The fate of Bu- 
 siris and Coptos was even more melancholy than that of 
 Alexandria. Those proud cities, — the former distinguished 
 by its antiquity, the latter enriched by the passage of the 
 Indian trade, — were utterly destroyed by the arms of the 
 enraged Diocletian.* 
 
 The introduction of Christianity was marked by repeated 
 outrages among the people, and even by such commotions 
 as threatened to shake the stability of the . government. 
 The adherents of the old superstition resisted, on some 
 occasions, the destruction of their temples and the con- 
 temptuous exposure of their idols ; while, in more than 
 one instance, the Christian ministers, with a larger share 
 of zeal than of discretion, insulted their opinions, and even 
 set at defiance the authority of the civil magistrate when 
 interposed to preserve the public peace. But, after the 
 
 * Gibbon, vol. i. chap. 6. 
 
 G 
 
74 
 
 MECHANICAL LABOURS OF 
 
 conversion of Constantine, the power of the church was 
 effectually exerted to co-operate with the provincial rulers 
 in supporting the rights of the empire, and in repelling the 
 inroads of the barbarians from the east and south. Nor 
 was it till a new religion arose in Arabia, and gave birth to 
 a dynasty of warlike sovereigns, that Egypt, wrested from 
 its European conquerors, was forced to receive more arbi- 
 trary masters, and submit to a severer yoke. This era, 
 however, constitutes the point in our historical retrospect 
 at which we announced our intention to interrupt the nar- 
 rative, until we shall have laid before the reader an account 
 of the arts, the literature, and commerce of the ancient 
 Egyptians. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 Mechanical Labours of the Ancient Egyptians. 
 
 The Magnitude of Egyptian Edifices— Their supposed Object connected 
 with the Doctrine of the Metempsychosis — Proposal made to Alex- 
 ander the Great— Lake Mceris; its Extent— The Narrative of Herodo- 
 tus ; supported by Diodorus and Pomponius Mela — Opinion that the 
 Nile originally flowed through the Valley of the Dry River — Facts 
 stated by Denon ; and by Belzoni — Lake Mceris not a Work of Art — 
 The River of Joseph, and Canals connecting it with the Nile — Pyra- 
 mids ; Account by Herodotus ; Researches of Davison ; of Caviglia ; 
 of Belzoni ; Dimensions of Pyramids — Sphinx ; Exertions of Caviglia 
 — Monolithic Temple — Tombs — Reflections. 
 
 The history of Egypt presents nothing more wonderful 
 than the magnitude and durability of the public works 
 which were accomplished by her ancient inhabitants. Prodi- 
 gal of labour and expense, her architects appear to have 
 planned their structures for the admiration of the most 
 distant posterity, and with the view of rendering the fame 
 of their mechanical powers coeval with the existence of 
 the globe itself. It has been suspected, indeed, that the 
 omnipotent spirit of religion mingled with the aspirations 
 of a more earthly ambition in suggesting the intricacies of 
 the Labyrinth, and in realizing the vast conception of the 
 
THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. 
 
 75 
 
 Pyramids. The preservation of the body in an entire and 
 uncorrupted state during three thousand years, is under- 
 stood to have been connected with the mythological tenet 
 that the spirit by which it was originally occupied would 
 return to animate its members, and to render them once 
 more the instruments of a moral probation amid the ordi- 
 nary pursuits of the human race. The mortal remains 
 even of the greatest prince could hardly have been regarded 
 as deserving of the minute care and the sumptuous appa- 
 ratus which were employed to save them from dissolution, 
 had not the national faith pointed to a renewal of existence 
 in the lapse of ages, when the bodily organs would again 
 become necessary to the exercise of those faculties from 
 which the dignity and enjoyment of man are derived. 
 There can be no doubt, therefore, that Egypt was indebted 
 to the religious speculations of her ancient sages for those 
 sublime works of architecture which still distinguish her 
 above all the other nations of the primitive world. 
 
 It must at the same time be acknowledged that, in all 
 countries comparatively rude, vastness of size takes prece- 
 dence of all other qualities in architectural arrangement. 
 As a proof of this, it will not be denied that even the Pyra- 
 mids sink into insignificance when compared with an un- 
 dertaking proposed by Stesicrates to Alexander the Great. 
 Plutarch relates that this projector offered to convert Mount 
 Athos into a statue of the victorious monarch. The left 
 arm was to be the base of a city containing ten thousand 
 inhabitants ; while the right was to hold an urn, from which 
 a river was to empty itself into the sea. But our object in 
 this chapter is not to describe the fanciful dreams of a pane- 
 gyrist, but to give an account of works which were actually 
 effected, and of which the remains continue at the present 
 day to verify at once the existence and the grandeur. 
 
 We shall begin with Lake Moeris, which, although, upon 
 the whole, it owes more to nature than to art, is neverthe- 
 less well worthy of notice, both for its great extent and for 
 its patriotic object. Herodotus, our best authority for its 
 original appearance, infonns us that the circumference of 
 this vast sheet of water was three thousand six Iiundred 
 stadia, or four hundred and fifty miles, — that it stretched 
 from north to south, — and that its greatest depth was about 
 
76 
 
 MECHANICAL LABOURS OF 
 
 three hundred feet. He adds that it was entirely the pro- 
 duct of human industry ; as a proof of which, he states that 
 in its centre were seen two pyramids, each of which was 
 two hundred cubits above and as many beneath the water, 
 and that upon the summit of both was a colossal statue, 
 placed in a sitting attitude. The precise height of these 
 pyramids, he concludes, is therefore four hundred cubits, or 
 six hundred Egyptian feet. 
 
 The waters of the lake, he continues, are not supplied 
 by springs : on the contrary, the ground which it occupies 
 i6 of itself remarkably dry ; but it communicates by an 
 artificial channel with the Nile, — receiving during six 
 months the excess of the inundation, and during the other 
 half of the year emptying itself back into the river. Every 
 day during the latter period the fishery yields to the royal 
 treasury a talent of silver, — whereas, as soon as the ebb 
 has ceased, the produce falls to a mere trifle. “ The inhabit- 
 ants affirm of this lake, that it has a subterraneous passage 
 westward into the Libyan Desert, in the line of the moun- 
 tain which rises above Memphis. I was anxious to know 
 what became of the earth which was dug out of the lake, 
 and made inquiry at those who dwelt on its shores.” The 
 answer given to this very natural question seems to have 
 imposed on the credulity of the historian. They assured 
 him that the soil was carried to the river, and washed down 
 by the current into the sea, — an explanation with which he 
 was perfectly satisfied. 
 
 In reference to this narrative, which exhibits the usual 
 characteristics of truth and simplicity, we may remark that 
 it is substantially confirmed by the statements of Diodorus 
 Siculus and of Pomponius Mela. According to the former 
 of these writers, the circumference ef the lake was exactly 
 that which has been already quoted from the more ancient 
 historian ; w hile the latter magnifies it to the extent of five 
 hundred miles. They all agree in representing that its 
 object must have been to save the country from the effects 
 of an excessive inundation, and at the same time to reserve 
 a supply of moisture for the arid lands in the vicinity, or for 
 the wants of a dry season in the Delta. It may, however, 
 be thought probable that it was rather to prevent an evil 
 than to secure a benefaction ; for we find that the water 
 
THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. 
 
 77 
 
 has not only a disagreeable taste, but is almost as salt as 
 the sea, — a quality which it is supposed to contract from 
 the nitre with which the surrounding land is every where 
 impregnated. 
 
 Last century, according, to Dr. Pococke, Lake Moeris was 
 about fifty miles long and ten broad. The older French 
 writers estimated its circumference at a hundred and fifty 
 leagues, — a result not materially different from that of the 
 English traveller. Mr. Browne, who was more lately in 
 Egypt, thought that the length did not exceed thirty or forty 
 miles, and that the greatest breadth was not more than six. 
 It is hence manifest that the limits of this inland sea have 
 been much contracted ; and, moreover, that the process of 
 diminution is still going on at a rate which is distinctly per 
 ceptible. In ancient times, there can be no doubt, the water 
 covered a large portion of the valley of F ay oum, and proba- 
 bly, when the inundation exceeded certain limits, found an 
 outlet from the eastern extremity along the valley of the 
 Bahr-bela-Maieh. It is equally manifest that the level of 
 the Nile itself must, in those days, have been higher than 
 it is at present, and that the branch which is now called 
 Joseph’s River must have conveyed no small share of its 
 flood along the foot of the Libyan hills. At the remote 
 epoch when the Delta was a bay of the Mediterranean, the 
 main current of the descending flood would naturally seek 
 an issue in the direction of those very hollows which con- 
 tinue to display the most convincing evidence that they were 
 long washed as the channel of a mighty stream. 
 
 That the Nile originally flowed through the valley of the 
 Dry River is admitted by the most intelligent among modern 
 travellers. M. Denon, for example, regards as proofs of this 
 fact the physical conformation of the adjoining country, — 
 the existence of the bed of a river extending to the sea, but 
 now dry, — its depositions and incrustations, — the depth of 
 the lake, — its extent, — its bearing towards the north on a 
 chain of hills which run east and west, and turn off towards 
 the north-west, sloping down to follow the course of the 
 valley of the dry channel, and likewise the Natron Lakes. 
 And, more than all the other proofs, the form of the chain 
 of mountains at the north of the Pyramid which shuts the 
 entrance of the valley, and appears to be cut perpendicu- 
 larly, like almost all the mountains at the foot of which the 
 G2 
 
78 
 
 MECHANICAL LABOURS OF 
 
 Nile flows at the present day, — all these offer to the view a 
 channel left dry, and its several remains.* 
 
 The opinion that the river of Egypt penetrated into the 
 Libyan Desert, even to the westward of F ay oum, is rendered 
 probable by some observations recorded in the second vol- 
 ume of Belzoni’s Researches. In his journey to the Oasis 
 of Ammon, he reached one evening the Bahr-bela-Maieh. 
 u This place is singular and deserves the attention of the 
 geographer, as it is a dry river , and has all the appearance 
 of water having been in it, — the bank and bottom being 
 quite full of stones and sand. There are several islands in 
 the centre ; but the most remarkable circumstance is, that, 
 at a certain height upon the bank, there is a mark evidently 
 as if the water had reached so high : the colour of the ma- 
 terials above that mark is also much lighter than those 
 •below. And what would almost determine that there has 
 been water there, is that the island has the same mark, and 
 on the same level with that on the banks of the said dry 
 river. I am at a loss to conjecture how the course of this 
 river is so little known, as I only found it marked near the 
 Natron Lakes, taking a direction of north-west and south- 
 east, which does not agree with its course here, which is 
 from north to south as far as -I could see from the summit 
 of a high rock on the west side of it. The Arabs assured 
 me that it ran a great way in both directions, and that it is 
 the same which passes near the Natron Lakes. If this be 
 the case, it must pass right before the extremity of the Lake 
 Mosris, at the distance of two or three days’ journey in a 
 Western direction. This is the place where several petrified 
 stumps of trees are found, and many pebbles with moving 
 or quick water inside.” f 
 
 In its present contracted dimensions, the Lake of Mceris 
 is called by the Arabs the Birket-el-Karoun, and is recog- 
 nised at once as a basin formed by nature, and not by art. 
 The details collected by Herodotus, and the other writers 
 of Greece and Rome, must therefore have applied to the 
 works which were necessary not only to connect the Nile 
 with the lake, but also to regulate the ebb and flow of the 
 inundation. The canal, called Joseph’s River, is about a 
 hundred and twenty miles in length ; which, when it enters 
 
 * Denon, vol. i. p. 163. 
 
 t Belzoni, vol. ii. p. 183. 
 
THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. 
 
 79 
 
 the valley of F ayoura, is further divided into a number of 
 subordinate branches, and supplied with a variety of locks 
 and dams. There were two other canals communicating 
 between the lake and the stream, with sluices at their 
 mouths, which were alternately shut and opened as the Nile 
 rose or fell. These, we may presume, were the achieve- 
 ments of Moeris ; \frhich, when they are regarded as the 
 work of an individual, having for their object the advantage 
 and comfort of a numerous people, may justly be esteemed 
 a far more glorious undertaking than either the Pyramids or 
 the Labyrinth. 
 
 In no circumstance, indeed, do the arts and civilization 
 of ancient Egypt appear more manifest than in the care 
 which was taken to improve the productive qualities of the 
 soil by means of irrigation. A slight inspection of the plain 
 of F ayoum, even in its present neglected state, affords the 
 most convincing evidence that, in the days of the Pharaohs, 
 no degree of labour was accounted too great, provided it 
 could secure to the agriculturist a share in the blessing 
 annually communicated by the Nile. 
 
 Near Beni Souef, in Middle Egypt, the river passes 
 close under the foot of the Arabian hills, and leaves 
 on the western side a large extent of fertile land. At 
 this place the excellence of the system followed by the 
 ancients is most distinctly perceived. The soil deposited 
 during the inundation, as we have elsewhere observed, 
 accumulates fastest near the river, and forms a ridge about 
 a mile and a half broad, which is above the level of the 
 water at all seasons. Between this elevation and the hills 
 there is produced a similar rising of the surface ; so that 
 from the Nile to the rocky barrier which bounds the 
 Libyan Desert, there are two ridges and two depressions. 
 Hence two kinds of canals became requisite, — large ones in 
 the bottom of these hollows, and a smaller class branching 
 off on either side, to water the intermediate grounds. To 
 render these last available, dikes of considerable magnitude 
 were, at certain distances, constructed across the current of 
 the main canals, which served both as dams to retain the 
 water for a sufficient time, and as roads from village to vil- 
 lage. Between Siout and F ayoum, accordingly, where the 
 distance from the Nile and the mountains is the greatest, 
 several principal canals, parallel to the river, were dug in 
 
80 
 
 MECHANICAL LABOURS OF 
 
 ancient times ; among which, the most remarkable were 
 the Bahr Yousef, and another called the Hatn, — the line of 
 which last, however, cannot be so distinctly traced at the 
 present day. In the same district there were eleven large 
 mounds or dikes, besides a considerable number of smaller 
 size, — all provided with sluices to regulate the issue of 
 water according to the state of the crdps and the height of 
 the inundation. 
 
 This precaution, on some occasions, must have been 
 absolutely necessary. Belzoni tells us that the year in 
 which he visited Fayoum an extraordinary overflow of the 
 Nile sent such a quantity of water into the Lake Mceris that 
 it rose twelve feet higher than it had ever been known by 
 the oldest fisherman on its banks. Denon, in like manner, 
 remarks, that if it were not for the dikes which stop the 
 inundation, the great swells would soon convert the whole 
 province into an inland sea, — -an event which had nearly 
 taken place about forty years ago, during an unusually high 
 flood, when- the river rose over the banks of Ilahon, and 
 created an apprehension that it would lay the plain under 
 water, or resume the channel which it had evidently occu- 
 pied in remote ages. To remedy this inconvenience, a 
 graduated mound has been raised near the village just 
 named, where there is also a sluice erected, which, as soon 
 as the inundation has got to the proper height to water the 
 province without drowning it, divides the mass of fluid ; 
 taking the quantity necessary for irrigation, and turning 
 aside the remainder by forcing it back into the river through 
 other canals of a deeper cut, directed to a lower section of 
 the stream. 
 
 We have already suggested that the great work of King 
 Moeris is to be sought for not in the lake which bears his 
 name, but in the immense excavations which connected it 
 with the Nile, and in the mounds, the dams, and the 
 sluices which rendered it subservient to the important pur- 
 poses of irrigation. Enough still remains to enable the 
 reader to fonn some judgment of the extent and magnifi- 
 cence of the original undertaking. The French philoso- • 
 phers describe Fayoum, the ancient name of Arsinoe, as 
 being of an oval figure, and forming a low table-land, gradu- 
 ally sloping towards the north and the south. Along the 
 highest part of the ridge runs the Bahr Yousef as far as 
 
THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. 
 
 81 
 
 Medinet-el-Fayoum, the capital of the province, where it 
 branches off into a great number of smaller streams. Its 
 bed is here cut through the solid rock, and shows that the 
 Egyptians in old times were well acquainted with the prin- 
 ciples of levelling. About five miles within the valley there 
 is a bridge of ten arches running parallel with Joseph’s 
 River, which, serving as a dam when the inundation is low, 
 lets the water pass when it is high, and is probably the 
 sluice mentioned by Strabo and other ancient authors. 
 
 In a direction nearly due north from the bridge just de- 
 scribed, there is a canal, now usually dry, but which, at the 
 height of the flood, carries the water as far as the village 
 of Tamieh, situated on the east side of the lake, — a dis- 
 tance of about twenty-two miles. This cut must have been 
 formed through a bed of continuous rock, as appeared on 
 sinking a shaft into the mud, which in some places was 
 found twenty-three feet deep. Tamieh, which formerly 
 stood on the edge of Moeris, is now six miles from it, — an 
 additional proof that the extent of the lake is very much 
 contracted. In fact, so much neglected are the various 
 channels which, after disburdening the Nile of its super- 
 fluous waters, used to carry them into this western valley, 
 that the limits of the cultivable land are becoming every 
 year more narrow ; the Birket-el-Karoun is gradually re- 
 tiring from its shores ; and the approach of the desert 
 towards the river is more and more facilitated. 
 
 The observations of Belzoni during his journey to the 
 Oasis give much probability to the opinion that the reign 
 of civilization had, at an early age, extended far into the 
 Libyan waste. Ruins of towns, and other tokens of an 
 improved population, meet the eye from time to time ; 
 masses of sand cover the monuments of an age compara- 
 tively enlightened, and deform plains which, there is every 
 reason to believe, were at one time the scene of agricultural 
 industry, of the arts, and of law. A similar inference 
 might be drawn from an examination of the country which 
 stretches to the southward of Tripoli ; where are still to be 
 found the relics of magnificent buildings, mixed with the 
 shingle of the desert, and aflprding to the barbarians who now 
 traverse that wilderness a constant triumph over the achieve- 
 ments of polished life. We ought not, therefore, to give 
 way to an undue haste in concluding that the descriptions 
 
82 
 
 MECHANICAL LABOURS OF 
 
 of Lake Moeris left to us by the ancient authors are much 
 exaggerated. The pyramids mentioned by Herodotus, if 
 we may form a judgment from the remains of those which 
 still stand at the entrance of the valley, were built of brick, 
 and may therefore long ago have yielded to the solvent 
 power of the atmosphere, supplying perhaps part of those 
 ruins which are at present found scattered along the beach. 
 It is not to be imagined that they were placed in the deep 
 basin formed by nature, and which is still occupied by the 
 Birket-el-Karoun, but rather in that division of the lake 
 which was prepared by aTt for the reception of the annual 
 flood, at the period when Moeris changed the course of the 
 .Nile from its more ancient channel.* 
 
 The Labyrinth is also mentioned by Herodotus as one 
 of the greatest wonders of Egypt, and the most surprising 
 effort of human ingenuity and perseverance. “ It exceeds, 
 I can truly assert, all that has been said of it ; and who- 
 ever takes the trouble to examine them will find all the 
 works of Greece much inferior to this, both in regard to 
 workmanship and expense. The temples of Ephesus and 
 Samos may justly claim admiration, and the Pyramids may 
 individually be compared to many of the magnificent struc- 
 tures erected by the Greeks ; but even these are inferior to 
 the Labyrinth. It is composed of twelve courts, all of 
 which are covered ; their entrances are opposite to each 
 other, six to the north and six to the south ; one wall en- 
 closes the whole. The apartments are of two kinds ; there 
 are fifteen hundred above the surface of the ground, and as 
 many beneath, — in all three thousand. Of the fonner, I 
 can speak from my own knowledge and observation ; of the 
 latter, only from the information which I received. The 
 persons who had the charge of the subterraneous apart- 
 ments would not suffer me to see them, alleging that in 
 these were preserved the sacred crocodiles, and the bodies 
 
 * Belzoni, vol. ii. p. 150-158; Jomard D^scrip. de l’Egypte, vol. ii. p. 
 8-43; Strabo, xvi. c. 1 ; Nouvelles Annales des Voyages, xi. p. 133 ; 
 Pococke’s Travels in the East ; Wilford in Asiatic Researches, vol. iii. 
 p. 245. 
 
 - The words of Pliny are remarkable ip regard to the extent of Lake 
 Mceris, as compared with its limits in his own day : — “ Inter Arsinoitem 
 autem et Memphetem locus fuit, circuitu ccl. M.p., aut, ut Mutianus 
 tradit ccccl. M.p. et altitudinis L. pass., manu factus a rege qui fecerat, 
 Mceridis appellants.” P.69. 
 
THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. 
 
 83 
 
 of the kings who constructed the Labyrinth. Of these, 
 therefore, I presume not to speak ; but the upper apart- 
 ments I myself examined, and I pronounce them to be 
 among the greatest triumphs of human industry and art. 
 The almost infinite number of winding passages through 
 the different^ourts excited my warmest admiration. From 
 spacious halif I passed through smaller chambers, and from 
 them again to large magnificent courts almost without end. 
 The ceilings and walls are all of marble, the latter richly 
 adorned with the finest sculpture ; and around each court 
 are pillars of the same material, the whitest and most pol- 
 ished that I ever saw. At the point where the Labyrinth 
 terminates stands a pyramid one hundred and sixty cubits 
 high, having large figures of animals engraved on the out- 
 side, and an entrance to the interior by a subterraneous 
 path.”* 
 
 The same historian relates that this stupendous edifice 
 was constructed beyond the Lake Moeris, near the City of 
 Crocodiles, now better known as Arsinoe, or the Medinet- 
 el-Fayoum. He ascribes the design of the building to a 
 determination of the twelve kings, who at that period gov- 
 erned Egypt, to leave behind them a monument worthy of 
 their fame ; and hence, perhaps, the number of the courts 
 and gates by which the Labyrinth was distinguished . 
 
 Diodorus says that it was built as a sepulchre for Mendes, 
 while Strabo intimates that it only stood near the tomb of 
 the monarch who erected it. Pomponius Mela, again, 
 speaks of it as having been constructed by Psammeticus ; 
 but as Mendes or Imandes is mentioned by several writers, 
 it is probable that he was the king of the particular province 
 in which the Labyrinth was placed, and who, as possessing 
 the greatest influence and authority, might have his funeral 
 monument set. apart from the rest. It is, however, more 
 worthy of notice that, although no other traveller gives so 
 minute an account as has been supplied by Herodotus, the 
 testimony of ancient times tends decidedly to support the 
 main facts contained in his narrative. Strabo, for instance, 
 describes the passages in the Labyrinth as being so nume- 
 rous and artfully contrived that it was impossible to enter any 
 one of the palaces, or to leave it, without a guide. Pliny, 
 
 * Lib. v. c. 9 ; Herodotus, book ii. chap. 148. 
 
84 
 
 MECHANICAL LABOURS OF 
 
 too, makes a reference to the Egyptian Labyrinth, which 
 proves, at least, his conviction that it was worthy of the 
 fame universally received concerning it, as also that it was 
 the pattern of all the similar works which had been at- 
 tempted in different parts of Europe. 
 
 But it must not be concealed that the cu^yjsity of the 
 moderns, who have employed themselves in searching for 
 the remains of this superb structure, has been very gene- 
 rally disappointed ; and, of consequence, that there is a 
 great difference of opinion among them as to its local posi- 
 tion. Larcher and Gibert, after a long investigation of the 
 subject, have determined the situation of the Labyrinth to 
 have been at Senures ; while Pococke, Banier, and Savary 
 follow the ancient historians in placing it beyond Arsinoe, 
 in the direction of the Libyan Desert, and on the shore of 
 Lake Moeris. Amid the ruins of Karoun, accordingly, 
 the attention of certain French travellers was particularly 
 fixed by the appearance of several narrow, low, and very 
 long cells, which, it was thought, could have had no other use 
 than that of containing the sacred crocodiles ; and these 
 have, therefore, been imagined to correspond with the re- 
 mains of the great building in question. But this suppo- 
 sition is not confirmed by the more diligent researches of 
 Belzoni. Speaking of the place, he says, “ I observed 
 several pieces of white marble and granite, which has given 
 me reason to think that there must have been some build- 
 ing of considerable importance in this place, for they must 
 have had more trouble to convey it hither than to any part 
 of Egypt, in consequence of the distance. But whatever 
 remains of beauty might be seen in this town, it does not 
 appear that this was the site of the famous Labyrinth, nor 
 any thing like it ; for, according to Herodotus and Pliny, 
 there is not the smallest appearance which can warrant the 
 supposition that any such edifice was here. The Laby- 
 rinth was a structure of three thousand chambers, one-half 
 above and one-half below. The construction of such an 
 immense building, and the enormous quantity of materials 
 which must have been accumulated, would have yet left 
 specimens enough to have shown where it had been erected, 
 but not the smallest trace of any such thing is any where 
 to Ire seen. The town was about a mile in circumference. 
 
THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. 85 
 
 with the terftple in its centre, so that I could not see how 
 the Labyrinth could be placed in this situation.”* 
 
 He is more inclined to adopt an opinion, founded on the 
 narrative of the Roman naturalist, that this sumptuous 
 monument of ancient taste must have stood in the neigh- 
 bourhood of Terza, at the west end of the Lake Moeris. 
 He there observed several blocks of white stone and red 
 granite, which evidently must have been taken from edifices 
 of great magnitude. Reflecting on the description of Pliny, 
 who places the Labyrinth in that very situation, he made 
 the most diligent search among the remains of antiquity, to 
 ascertain whether the marble fragments bore any evidence 
 of the exquisite workmanship ascribed to the famed struc- 
 ture of Psammeticus. He admits that he saw not the 
 smallest appearance of an edifice either on the ground or 
 under it, but, at the same time, he beheld through all that 
 part of the country a “ great number of stones and columns 
 of beautiful colours, of white marble and of granite.” 
 These materials of a splendid architecture he observed 
 scattered about for the space of several miles, some on the 
 road, and some in the houses of the Arabs, and others put 
 to various uses in the erection of huts. It was not, there- 
 fore, without very plausible reasons that he arrived at the 
 conclusion already stated ; and we are satisfied that most 
 of his readers will concur with him in the opinion that, by 
 tracing those interesting ruins to their source, the site of 
 the Labyrinth might yet be discovered. It is true, that 
 having been but little elevated above the ground, the build- 
 ing may be already buried to a great depth under the mass 
 of soil and sand which is constantly accumulating in all 
 parts of the valley. f 
 
 Nothing is more certain than that the level of the lake, 
 as well as of the adjoining land, must have been raised 
 considerably since the first era of historical records. Bel- 
 zoni himself observed, in one part of Moeris, pillars and ruins 
 of ancient buildings now nearly under water ; and it is well 
 known that the present rulers of -Egypt have more than 
 once found it necessary to erect new dikes upon the an- 
 cient mounds, to obviate the effects of an excessive inun- 
 dation. Denon, too, remarks that at the mouth of this 
 
 * Belzoni, vol. ii. p . 156. 
 
 t Ibid. vol. ii. p. 161-165. 
 
 H 
 
86 
 
 MECHANICAL LABOURS OF 
 
 valley the remains of villages overwhelmed' by the sand 
 may be every where discovered ; adding, that nothing is so 
 melancholy to the feelings as to march over these ruins, to 
 tread under foot the roofs of houses and the tops of mina- 
 rets, and to think that these were once cultivated fields, 
 flourishing gardens, and the habitations of man. Every 
 thing living has disappeared, silence is within and around 
 every wall, and the deserted villages are like the dead, 
 whose skeletons strike with terror.* 
 
 When these circumstances are considered, it will be 
 allowed, both that there is good evidence for the existence 
 of an ancient building of great magnificence on the shores 
 of Lake Mceris, and also that the changes to which the 
 neighbouring soil is constantly subjected render the discov- 
 ery of the Labyrinth, more especially the subterraneous 
 chambers, an undertaking of the utmost uncertainty. From 
 what still remains under our eyes, we are justified in be- 
 lieving almost every thing of Egyptian grandeur, when the 
 object of the architect was to do honour to the gods, or to 
 preserve the memory of a beneficent king. 
 
 Of the wonderful people, indeed, who inhabit the banks 
 of the Nile, there is nothing more remarkable than that 
 their greatest efforts were made at a time when, in regard 
 to religious faith, they were in the grossest ignorance and 
 darkness, and that, when light sprang up around them, their 
 power, their taste, or their zeal seemed to decay, — yielding 
 to the domination of barbarian tribes, who were indebted to 
 them for all their knowledge, as well as for their supersti- 
 tion. Persia added nothing to the arts or architectural im- 
 provement of Egypt ; the Greeks presumed not to rival 
 their masters in the construction of temples, pyramids, and 
 labyrinths ; and the propagation of the true religion, under 
 the Roman emperors, put an end to the lofty imaginations 
 which the subjects of the Pharaohs were wont to realize in 
 their national structures. Christianity, which blesses every 
 land where it is cordially received, contributed most of all 
 to the extinction of that spirit which had impelled the 
 Egyptians to undertake and carry into effect designs so 
 vast and imperishable as those which still call forth the as- 
 tonishment of the traveller. The days of their mythology 
 
 Denon, vol. ii. p. 318. 
 
THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS 
 
 87 
 
 were those of their proudest glories, and, we may add, of 
 their greatest happiness and freedom. The blind belief in 
 the divine origin of their monarchs, as also the inspiring 
 dogma that the soul was to return to its ancient tenement 
 in the flesh, encouraged them to erect monuments which 
 might resist the pressure of ten thousand years, and carry 
 the fame of their authors to the very threshold of eternity. 
 But when the exercise of their primitive superstition was 
 no longer allowed, and another faith was introduced in its 
 place, the temples were gradually abandoned, and the spirit 
 of the Egyptians, unsubdued by the severest political op- 
 pression, yielded at length to a more prevailing power, 
 which directed their hopes and fears to the contemplation 
 of loftier and more spiritual objects.* 
 
 But whatever doubt may exist in respect to the situation 
 and remains of the Labyrinth, there can be none relative 
 to the next great object of Egyptian art which we are 
 about to introduce to the reader. The Pyramids, during 
 several thousand years, have attracted the curiosity of the 
 traveller, and given rise to much learned disquisition ; 
 while so great is their magnitude, and so durable the mate- 
 rial of which they are constructed, that they present to the 
 moderns the same subject. of study which was contemplated 
 by Herodotus, Eratosthenes, Diodorus, and Strabo. Pur- 
 suing the plan we have hitherto followed, we shall first ex- 
 tract from the oldest Greek historian the tradition which pre- 
 vailed in his days, and then draw from other sources the 
 most probable account of the origin, the date, the intention, 
 and the actual appearance of those famous buildings. 
 
 Herodotus, it is well known, ascribes the largest of the 
 Pyramids to Cheops, a tyrannical and profligate sovereign. 
 “ He barred the avenues to every temple, and forbade the 
 Egyptians to offer sacrifice to the gods ; after which, he 
 compelled the people at large to perform the work of slaves. 
 Some he condemned to hew stones out of the Arabian 
 mountains, and drag them to the banks of the Nile ; others 
 were stationed to receive the same in vessels, and transport 
 them to the edge of the Libyan Desert. In this service a 
 hundred thousand men were employed, who were relieved 
 every three months. Ten years were spent in the hard 
 
 * Webster, vol. ii. p. 221. 
 
88 
 
 MECHANICAL LABOURS OF 
 
 labour of forming the road on which these stones were to 
 be drawn — a work, in my estimation, of no less difficulty 
 and fatigue than the erection of the Pyramid itself. This 
 causeway is five stadia in length, forty cubits wide, and its 
 greatest height thirty-two cubits ; the whole being com- 
 posed of polished marble, adorned with the figures of ani- 
 mals. Ten years, as T have observed, were consumed in 
 forming this pavement, in preparing the hill on which the 
 Pyramids are raised, and in excavating chambers under the 
 ground. The burial-place which he intended for himself 
 he contrived to insulate within the building, by introducing 
 the waters of the Nile. The Pyramid itself was a work of 
 twenty years ; it is of a square form, every side being eight 
 plethra in length, and as many in height. The stones are 
 very skilfully cemented, and none of them of less dimen- 
 sions than thirty feet.* 
 
 “ The ascent of the Pyramid was regularly graduated by 
 what some call steps, and others altars. Having finished 
 the first tier, they elevated the stones to the second by the 
 aid of machines constructed of short pieces of wood ; from 
 the second, by a similar engine, they were raised to the 
 third ; and so on to the summit. Thus there were as many 
 machines as there were courses in the structure of the Pyra- 
 mid, though there might have been only one, which, being 
 easily manageable, could be raised from one layer to the 
 next in succession ; both modes were mentioned to me, and 
 I know not wYiich of them deserves most credit. The sum- 
 mit of the Pyramid was first finished and coated, and the 
 process was continued downward till the whole was com- 
 pleted. Upon the exterior were recorded, in Egyptian 
 characters, the various sums expended in the progress of 
 the work, for the radishes, onions, and garlic consumed by 
 the artificers. This, as I well remember, my interpreter 
 
 * We have departed from the common translation of this passage, 
 which, it must be acknowledged, is shrouded in some degree of obscu- 
 rity. In Beloe’s version, and even in Larcher’s, to which he appears to 
 have been much indebted, the reader is led to conclude that the object 
 of the architect, in forming leads or canals from the Nile, was to sur- 
 round the Pyramids themselves with water; whereas it appears that 
 the real intention was to place in an island, or, in other words, to encloso 
 With the sacred stream the repository of the royal corpse in the interior 
 of the building — ras iiroiiero &r]Kas twt/rcp iv vrjay, diwpvtca rov NetXou 
 bay ay tov.— Enter. 124. 
 
THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. 
 
 89 
 
 informed me amounted to no less a sum than one thousand 
 six hundred talents. If this be true, how much more must 
 it have cost for iron tools, food, and clothes for the work- 
 men ! — particularly when we consider the length of time they 
 were employed in the building itself, besides what was spent 
 on the quarrying and carriage of the stones, and the con- 
 struction of the subterraneous apartments. 
 
 “ According to the account given to me by the Egyptians, 
 this Cheops reigned fifty years. He was succeeded on the 
 throne by his brother Cephrenes, who pursued a policy 
 similar in all respects. He also built a pyramid, but it was 
 not so large as his brother’s, for I measured them both. It 
 has no subterraneous chambers, nor any channel for the 
 admission of the Nile, which, in the other pyramid, is made 
 to surround an island where the body of Cheops is said to 
 be deposited. Thus, for the space of one hundred and six 
 years, the Egyptians were exposed to every species of op- 
 pression and calamity ; not having had, during this long 
 period, permission to worship in their temples. Their aver- 
 sion for the memory of these two monarchs is so great, that 
 they have the utmost reluctance to mention even their names. 
 They call their pyramids by the name of Philitis, who, at 
 the epoch in question, fed his cattle in that part of Egypt.” 
 
 It is from the last circumstance mentioned by Herodotus 
 that the very reasonable conclusion has been formed by 
 Bryant, Dr. Hales, and others, in regard to the people by 
 whom the Pyramids are supposed to have been erected. 
 We have already explained the connexion which subsists 
 between the term Pales, Plialis, or Philitis, and the Shep- 
 herd kings who, having invaded Egypt from the east, pos- 
 sessed that country as masters during more than a hundred 
 years, and who, upon being expelled by the indignant na- 
 tives, settled on the adjoining coast of Syria under the 
 denomination of Philistines. It is manifest, at first sight, 
 that the dynasty of princes to whom these stupendous works 
 are ascribed were foreigners, arid also that they professed 
 a religion hostile to the animal worship of the Egyptians ; 
 for it is recorded by the historian, with an emphatic dis- 
 tinctness, that, during the whole period of their domina- 
 tion, the temples were shut, sacrifices were prohibited, and 
 the people subjected to every species of oppression and 
 salamity. Hence it follows that the date of the Pyramids 
 H 2 
 
00 
 
 MECHANICAL LABOURS OF 
 
 must synchronise with the epoch of the Shepherd kings, — 
 those monarchs who were held as an abomination by the 
 Egyptians, and who, we may confidently assert, occupied 
 the throne of the Pharaohs during some part of the interval 
 which elapsed between the birth of Abraham and the cap- 
 tivity of Joseph. 
 
 The reasoning now advanced will receive additional con- 
 firmation, when we consider that buildings of the pyramidal 
 order were not uncommon among the nations of the East, 
 having probably some connexion with the principles of that 
 more refined and lofty adoration which directed the feelings 
 of its*votaries to the magnificence of the heavenly host, and 
 to the influence supposed to be exercised by their aspect and 
 movements on the destiny of man. At the present day 
 there are pyramids in India, — and more especially in Be- 
 nares, where there is one formed of earth and covered with 
 bricks. An edifice of the same kind has been observed at 
 Medun in Egypt, constructed in different stories or platforms, 
 diminishing in size as they rise in height, until they termi- 
 nate in a point, — the exact pattern, it is said, which was 
 supplied by the followers of Budha in the plan of their 
 ancient pyramids, as these have been described by European 
 travellers, on the banks of the Indus and the Ganges. Such, 
 too, is understood to have been the form of the Tower of 
 Babel, the object of which may have been to celebrate the 
 mysteries of Sabaism, the first and purest superstition of the 
 untaught mind. Mr. Wilford informs us, that on his de- 
 scribing the great Egyptian Pyramid to several very learned 
 Brahmins, they declared it at once to have been a temple ; 
 and one of them asked if it had not a communication with 
 the river Nile. When he answered that such a passage 
 was mentioned as having existed, and that a well was at this 
 day to be seen, they unanimously agreed that it was a place 
 appropriated to the worship of Padma Devi, and that the 
 supposed tomb was a trough which, on certain festivals, 
 her priests used to fill with the sacred water and lotus- 
 flowers.* 
 
 The most probable opinion respecting the object of these 
 vast edifices is that which combines the double use of the 
 sepulchre and the temple, — nothing being more common in 
 
 * Asiatic Researches, vol. iii. p. 439. 
 
THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. 
 
 91 
 
 all nations than to bury distinguished men in places con- 
 secrated by the rites of divine worship. If Cheops, Suphis, 
 or whoever else was the founder of the great Pyramid, in- 
 tended it only for his tomb, what occasion was there, says 
 Dr. Shaw, for such a narrow sloping entrance into it, or for 
 the well, as it is called, at the bottom, or for the lower 
 chamber with a large niche or hole in the eastern wall of it, 
 or for the long narrow cavities in the sides of the large upper 
 room, which likewise is incrusted all over with the finest 
 granite marble, — or for the two antechambers and the lofty 
 gallery, with benches on each side, that introduce us into 
 it ? As the whole of the Egyptian theology was clothed in 
 mysterious emblems and figures, it seems reasonable to 
 suppose that all these turnings, apartments, and secrets in 
 architecture were intended for some nobler purpose, — for 
 the catacombs or burying-places are plain vaulted chambers 
 hewn out of the natural rock — and that the deity rather, 
 which was typified in the outward form of this pile, was to 
 be worshipped within.* 
 
 The present aspect of the Pyramids renders it doubtful 
 whether they were ever fully completed, or whether the 
 apparent dilapidation of the external parts ought not to be 
 altogether ascribed to the injuries of the atmosphere and the 
 hands of barbarian conquerors. It is presumed, that a pile 
 of this description was not regarded as entirely finished 
 until it was coated over with polished stone, so as to fill up 
 the vacancies occasioned by the diminution of the successive 
 layers of the building, and to render the surface quite smooth 
 and uniform from the foundation to the summit. Herodotus 
 states, in the clearest terms, that, after the structure was 
 raised to its full height, the artisans began to finish it from 
 the top downwards. In the second Pyramid, accordingly, 
 which bears the name of Cephrenes, a considerable portion 
 of the original casing still remains ; confirming the accuracy 
 of the ancient historian as to the general plan of all such 
 edifices, and affording, at the same time, the means of under- 
 standing that part of his narrative in which he asserts that 
 a great quantity of the stone was brought from the Arabian 
 side of the Nile, and even from the neighbourhood of the 
 Cataracts. It has been ascertained by several modem 
 
 * Travels, vol. ii. p. 201. 
 
92 
 
 mechanical labours of 
 
 travellers that the main body of the huge masses now under 
 consideration is composed of rocks still found in the imme- 
 diate vicinity ; wc must therefore infer that the granite and 
 porphyry used for casing the exterior, as well as for the 
 decorations of the chambers within, are to be identified with 
 the materials described by the Halicarnassian, and which 
 Strabo and Pliny more usually designate as precious stones 
 and marble.* 
 
 The number of pyramids scattered over Egypt is very 
 great ; but by far the most remarkable are those at Djizeh, 
 Sakhara, and Dashour. The first of these places, which is 
 situated on the west side of the Nile, about ten miles from 
 its bank, and nearly in the latitude of Grand Cairo, is 
 distinguished by possessing the three principal edifices 
 described by Herodotus, and which are still regarded as the 
 finest monuments of this class that are to be seen in any 
 part of the world. It is noticed by every author who from 
 personal observation has described these wonderful works 
 of art, that the sense of sight is much deceived in the first 
 attempt to appreciate their distance and their magnitude. 
 Though removed several leagues from the spectator, they 
 appear to be quite at hand ; and it is not until he has trav- 
 elled some miles in a direct line with their bearing that he 
 becomes sensible both of their vast bulk and also of the pure 
 atmosphere through which he had viewed them. They are 
 situated on a platform of rock about a hundred and fifty 
 feet above the level of the surrounding desert, — a circum- 
 stance which at once contributes to their being well seen, 
 and also to the discrepancy that still prevails among the 
 most intelligent travellers as to their actual height. 
 
 The effect now alluded to is well described by Dr. Rich- 
 ardson. “ We had viewed them from several points of 
 observation on the opposite side of the river, and all along 
 the whole course of the canal kept constantly looking at 
 them ; but our recollections were so occupied with exag- 
 gerated descriptions of their enormous dimensions that every 
 look was followed by disappointment ; the eye always en- 
 countered something less than the mind expected it to see ; 
 
 * It is worthy of notice that every stone which admitted of a fine 
 polish and shone in the light was called marble, from pappatpuv, to 
 glisten or shine. 
 
THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. 
 
 93 
 
 and, now that we were, comparatively speaking, at their base, 
 and looking up from the low sandy bank to the Pyramids on 
 the rocky elevation above, our idea of their magnitude was 
 not increased. Even those of the party who exercised the 
 greatest self-control, and scarcely cast a look on those 
 ancient piles during the whole time of our approach, felt 
 disappointed with the diminished grandeur of their appear- 
 ance.”* 
 
 It was not, in short, until their eyes became accustomed 
 to the outline of the stupendous pile of masonry that they 
 could form an estimate of its real dimensions ; after which 
 they were hardly able to convince themselves that such 
 enormous structures were really the work of human hands. 
 In most parts of Europe, the refraction occasioned by a 
 moist climate raises distant objects above the true angle of 
 vision, and confers upon them an apparent magnitude, 
 which a nearer inspection never fails to correct. But in 
 Egypt, on the contrary, the air of which is extremely dry 
 and transparent, the atmospherical effect is reversed, and, 
 accordingly, the first glance of the Pyramids from the banks 
 of the Nile is usually felt to form a striking contrast to all 
 the preconceived notions of the traveller. 
 
 The largest Pyramid stands on an elevation free all 
 round, on which account the accumulation of sand in con- 
 tact with it is less than might have been apprehended. It 
 has, however, suffered much from human violence, immense 
 heaps of broken stones having fallen down on each side, 
 which form a high mound towards the middle of the base. 
 The corners are pretty clear, where the foundation is readily 
 discovered, particularly at the north-west angle ; but it is 
 impossible to see straight along the line of the base on 
 account of these heaps of rubbish. Hence, as has been 
 already suggested, the difficulty of making an exact mea- 
 surement, and the frequent disagreement of the results ; it 
 being impracticable, without removing the sand and fallen 
 stones, to run a straight line all the way in contact with the 
 building. Dr. Richardson paced one side at a little dis- 
 tance from the wall, and found it two hundred and forty- 
 two steps ; whence he conjectures that the extent of seven 
 hundred feet, usually assigned to it, is not far from the truth. 
 
 • Travels along the Mediterranean and Parts Adjacent, vol, i. p. 119. 
 
94 
 
 MECHANICAL LABOURS Of 
 
 The entrance into the Pyramid is on the north side, and 
 is nearly in the centre, about an equal distance from each 
 angle ; being, at the same time, elevated about thirty feet 
 above the base, probably that it might be more difficult for 
 a conqueror to discover it, and less liable to be blocked up 
 with sand. The ascent to it is over a heap of stones and 
 rubbish, that have either fallen from the Pyramid, or been 
 forced out and thrown down in the various efforts made at 
 successive periods to find a passage into the interior. This 
 heap at present rises considerably above the entrance, which 
 is a small orifice not more than three feet and a half square : 
 it is lined above and below, and on either side, with broad 
 flat rocks of red granite, smooth and highly polished. The 
 flags in the bottom of the passage are formed with alter- 
 nate depressions and elevations, in order to afford a firm 
 footing to the person descending ; but this, it is presumed, 
 is a modern operation, because the depressions are not 
 smooth and polished like the rest of the stones. 
 
 After advancing nearly a hundred feet into the entrance, 
 which slopes downward at an angle of about twenty-six 
 degrees, the explorer finds an opening on the right-hand, 
 which conducts him up an inclined plane to the queen’s 
 chamber, as travellers have agreed to call it, — an apartment 
 seventeen feet long, fourteen feet wide, and twelve feet high 
 to the point on which the roof is suspended. " Ascending a 
 similar passage, but somewhat steeper than the first, he 
 perceives another chamber of larger dimensions, being thirty- 
 seven feet two inches long, seventeen feet two inches wide, 
 and about twenty feet in height. This is denominated the 
 king’s chamber, — but upon no better authority that we can 
 discover than the caprice of tourists already converted into 
 a local tradition. Its magnificence, however, entitles it in 
 some degree to the distinction which it has obtained. It is 
 lined all round with large slabs of highly-polished granite, 
 reaching from the floor to the ceiling ; this last being formed 
 of nine immense, flags which stretch from wall to wall. 
 Towards the west end of the room stands the sarcophagus, 
 which likewise consists of red granite highly polished, but 
 without either sculpture or hieroglyphics. Its length is 
 seven feet six inches, while the depth and width are each 
 three feet three inches. There is no lid, nor was there any 
 
THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. 95 
 
 thing found in it except a few fragments of the stone with 
 which the chamber is decorated. 
 
 As this room does not reach beyond the centre of the 
 Pyramid, Dr. Richardson suggests the very probable opinion 
 that there are other passages leading to other chambers in 
 communication with it ; the entrance to which would, it is 
 very likely, be found by removing some of the granite slabs 
 which serve as wainscoting to the walls. To present to the 
 eye a uniform surface in the interior of an apartment was 
 one of the devices usually employed by an architect in old 
 times when he wished to conceal from an ordinary observer 
 the approach to a secret retreat, — reserving to himself and 
 his employer the knowledge of the particular stone which 
 covered the important orifice, as well as the means of ob- 
 taining a ready access. 
 
 A third chamber, still higher in the body of the Pyramid 
 than either of the two just mentioned, was discovered by 
 Mr. Davison, who about sixty years ago was British consul 
 at Cairo. Having on one of his visits observed a hole in 
 the top of the gallery, he resolved to ascertain the object 
 of it, and whether it led to any apartment which had not 
 yet been described. For this purpose he made seven short 
 ladders in such a manner as to fasten one to another by 
 means of four wooden pins, — the whole set, when joined, 
 being about twenty-six feet in length. When all the parts 
 were put together, the ladder entered enough into the hole 
 to prevent it from sliding on the side of the gallery. He 
 then mounted, and found a passage two feet four inches 
 square, which turned immediately to the right. He entered 
 a little way, with his face on the ground, but was obliged to 
 retire on account of the passage being in a great measure 
 choked with dust and bats’ dung, which in some places was 
 near a foot deep. He first thought of clearing a path by 
 throwing the dirt down into the gallery ; but, foreseeing 
 that this would be a work of some time, he determined to 
 make another effort to enter, which was attended with more 
 success than the first. He was able to creep in, though with 
 much difficulty, not only on account of the lowness of the 
 passage, but likewise the quantity of dust which he raised. 
 W r hen he had advanced a little way, he discovered what he 
 supposed to be the end of the approach. His surprise was 
 great when he reached it, to find to the right a straight 
 
96 
 
 MECHANICAL LABOURS OF 
 
 passage into a long, broad, but low place, which he knew, 
 as well by the length as the direction of the entry he had 
 come in at, to be immediately above the large room. The 
 stones of granite which are at the top of the latter form the 
 bottom of this, but are uneven, being of unequal thickness. 
 The room is four feet longer than the one below ; in the 
 latter you see only seven stones, and a half of one on each 
 side of them ; but in that above the nine are entire, the two 
 halves resting on the wall at each end. The breadth is 
 equal with that of the room below. The covering of this, 
 as of the other, is of beautiful granite, but it is composed 
 of eight stones instead of nine, the number in the room 
 below. At this stage of the investigation Mr. Davison was 
 joined by some of his attendants, who, being a great deal 
 troubled with the dust and want of air, soon retired. At 
 length, after having measured and examined every part of the 
 chamber, he also descended by the ladder, satisfied that no 
 more could be accomplished without the accession of greater 
 strength and means.* 
 
 The same room was entered and explored a few years 
 ago by Mr. Caviglia, to whose enterprising spirit the anti- 
 quaries of Egypt are under great obligations, but without 
 adding any thing to our knowledge of its structure or in- 
 tention. He remarks, tjiat the sides of the chamber were 
 coated with red granite of the finest polish ; and he ascer- 
 tained that the unevenness of the floor was occasioned by 
 its being formed of the individual blocks of syenite which 
 constitute the roof of the chamber below ; hence they 
 must be wedged in on the principle of the arch. The bats’ 
 dung, which in the time of Mr. Davison was a foot in depth, 
 had now increased to a foot and a half. 
 
 But it is extremely doubtful, even after these laborious 
 endeavours, whether we have yet made farther progress in 
 dissecting the structure of the Pyramid than was attained 
 by the Greeks and Romans two thousand years ago ; for it 
 is worthy of notice that every recess which has been ex- 
 plored in modern times bears marks of having been ex- 
 amined by former adventurers. We find, besides, that the 
 narrow entrance into the great Pyramid was known to 
 
 * Memoirs relating to European and Asiatic Turkey, edited from MS. 
 Journals by Robert Walpole, M. A. p. 354. 
 
THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. 
 
 97 
 
 Strabo, which he tells us had a stone placed at the mouth 
 of it to be removed at pleasure. The same author likewise, 
 as well as Herodotus, was acquainted with the subterra- 
 neous chambers, and Pliny has left a description of the 
 well. It is true that they declined to enter into many par- 
 ticulars which could hardly fail to have met their observation, 
 — an omission which we are justified, at least in the case 
 of Herodotus, in attributing to certain superstitious notions 
 of their sanctity and mysterious uses. 
 
 The account given by Mr. Davison of his descent into 
 the well, now alluded to, is so interesting that we cannot 
 withhold from the reader an outline of his proceedings. 
 Conceiving it to be very deep, he provided himself with a 
 large quantity of rope, one end of which he tied round his 
 waist ; and letting down a lantern attached to a small cord, 
 he resolutely prepared to follow. With no small difficulty 
 he prevailed on two of his servants and three Arabs to hold 
 the line, — the latter assuring him that there were ghosts 
 below, and that he never could hope to return. Taking 
 with him a few sheets of paper, a compass, a measure, and 
 another lighted candle, he commenced the descent, and soon 
 reached the bottom of the first well or shaft. Here he 
 found, on the south side, at the distance of about eight 
 feet from the place where he landed, a second opening, 
 which descended perpendicularly to the depth of five feet 
 only; and at four feet ten inches from the bottom of this 
 he discovered a third shaft, the mouth of which was nearly 
 blocked up with a large stone, leaving an opening barely 
 sufficient to allow a man to pass. Here he dropped down 
 his lantern, not only with the view of ascertaining to what 
 depth he was about to proceed, but also to determine 
 whether the air were pernicious or otherwise. The shaft, 
 however, was so tortuous that the candle soon became in- 
 visible ; but the consul was not to be discouraged, as nothing 
 less than a journey to the bottom would satisfy his eager 
 curiosity. His main difficulty arose from the superstitious 
 dread of the Arabs, who could hardly be prevailed upon to 
 go down and hold the rope. After many prayers, and 
 threats, and promises of money, and of all the treasure 
 which might be found in the well, the avarice of one man 
 so far overcame his terror that he ventured to descend ; 
 
 I 
 
98 
 
 MECHANICAL LABOURS OF 
 
 though, on reaching the bottom, “ he stared about him pate 
 and trembling, and appeared more like a spectre than a 
 human being.” 
 
 Mr. Davison now pushed forward with the rope round 
 his body, being convinced, from the distant view of the 
 lantern which he had let down, that this well was somewhat 
 deeper than the first. Having proceeded a little farther 
 than half-way to the spot where the candle had rested, he 
 came to a grotto about fifteen feet long, four or five wide, 
 and nearly the height of a man. From this place the third 
 shaft or well was sloping ; and, by throwing down a stone, 
 he ascertained it to be of much greater depth than the 
 others. But, still resolved to persevere, he pushed the 
 lantern a little before him, and set out afresh on his jour- 
 ney, calling to the Arab to loosen the rope gently, and 
 availing himself of little holes made in the rock*, obviously 
 with the purpose of aiding a descent. At length, the shaft 
 beginning to return a little more to the perpendicular, he 
 arrived speedily at the bottom, where he found all farther 
 passage precluded by a large accumulation of sand and 
 rubbish. 
 
 Having reached this point, our adventurer began to 
 reflect on two circumstances which had not before occurred 
 to him, either of which would have agitated weaker nerves. 
 The first was, that the multitude of bats which he had dis- 
 turbed might put out his candle ; and the second, that the 
 immense stone on the mouth of the pit might slip down 
 and close the passage for ever. On looking about the 
 bottom he found a rope-ladder, which, though it had lain 
 there sixteen years, was as fresh and strong as if perfectly 
 new. It had been used, as is conjectured, by Mr. Wood, — 
 the author of a work on the ruins of Balbec and Palmyra, 
 — to assist his progress downwards ; but he, it is concluded, 
 must have stopped short at the grotto. When Mr. Davison, 
 on his return, had reached the bottom of the first shaft, the 
 candles fell and went out ; upon which “ the poor Arab 
 thought himself lost.” He laid hold of the rope, as his 
 master was about to ascend, declaring that he would rather 
 have his brains blown out than.be left alone there with the 
 Devil. “ I therefore permitted him,” says the consul, “ to 
 go before ; and, though it was much more difficult to ascend 
 than to descend, I know not how it was, but he scrambled 
 
THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. 99 
 
 up a hundred times more quickly than he had come 
 down.”* 
 
 The depth of the first shaft was twenty-two feet ; of the 
 second twenty-nine ; and of the third, ninety-nine ; which, 
 with the five, feet between the first and second, makes the 
 whole descent one hundred and fifty -five; f 
 
 It is somewhat remarkable that the dimensions assigned 
 to the well by Pliny were eighty-six cubits, — an approxi- 
 mation to the truth which must remove all doubt from the 
 mind of every candid reader that the honour of detecting 
 the intricacies of the great Pyramid was not reserved to 
 the moderns. The Romans appear to have taken a consid- 
 erable interest in the architectural antiquities of Egypt, the 
 names of their favourite princes being inscribed on the. 
 monuments ; and hence it might have been inferred that 
 this, one. of the greatest works of the ancient world, would 
 not fail to attract their attention. 
 
 The latest and the most complete survey, however, made 
 of the hidden caverns of the Pyramid of Cheops, is that 
 accomplished by Mr. Caviglia, the spirited foreigner already 
 mentioned. In his first attempt to sound the depths of the 
 celebrated well, he descended as far as Mr. Davison had 
 done, and with nearly similar results. But he was by no 
 means satisfied with the issue of his labour. Observing 
 that the groiifid under his feet gave a hollow sound, he sus- 
 pected that there must be some concealed outlet. He ac- 
 cordingly determined to resume operations ; and with this 
 view he hired several Arabs, whom he employed in drawing 
 up the rubbish from the bottom with baskets and cords. In 
 a short time, however, owing to the extreme reluctance of 
 these people to work, he was compelled to suspend his 
 undertaking until an oider from the Kaiya-bey was procured, 
 which had the effect of subduing their indolence, and, to a 
 certain degree, of removing their prejudices. It is not, 
 
 * In the letter to M. Varsy, of which the above is an abridgment, Mr. 
 Davison remarks, “ Vous avez beau dire que j’aurais dd regarder eomme 
 honorable d’etre enseveli dans un de ces fameux mot lumens qui n’ont 4te 
 destines que pour les grands rois. Je vous avoue franchement, Mon- 
 sieur, que je n’avais pas la moindre ambition a cet dgard. Bien au con- 
 traire, j’etais cent fois plus content desortir etrevoir le jour.” 
 
 + See Walpole’s Memoirs, p. 350, for the narrative of Mr. Davison ; 
 and Quarterly Review, vol. xix. p. 392, which contains an original com- 
 munication from Mr. Salt. 
 
100 
 
 MECHANICAL LABOURS OF 
 
 indeed, surprising that the natives should have manifested 
 reluctance to labour in circumstances so appalling ; being 
 confined in a place where, owing to the impurity of the 
 atmosphere, no light would burn longer than half an hour, 
 and where the heat was so intense as to threaten suffocation. 
 At length, in fact, it became so intolerable that one Arab 
 was carried up nearly dead, and several others, on their 
 ascending to the surface, fainted away ; so that, at last, in 
 defiance of the command laid upon them, they almost en- 
 tirely abandoned the task, declaring that they were willing 
 to work, but not to die for him. 
 
 Thus opposed and disappointed, Mr. Caviglia next turned 
 his attention to the clearing of the principal entry or pas- 
 sage into the Pyramid, which, from time immemorial, had 
 been so blocked up as to oblige those who ventured within 
 its orifice to creep on their hand^ and knees. His chief 
 object in this undertaking was to improve the ventilation 
 of the interior, — a purpose which he not only carried into 
 effect, but, moreover, in the course of his labours, he made 
 the unexpected discovery that the main passage leading from 
 the entry did not terminate in the manner asserted by 
 Maillet, and believed by all his successors. On the con- 
 trary, having removed several large masses of calcareous 
 stone and granite, apparently placed there to obstruct all 
 farther progress, he found that it still continued in the same 
 inclined plane downwards, was of the same dimensions, and 
 had its sides worked with the same care as in the portion 
 above, though filled up nearly to the top with earth and frag- 
 ments of rock. After clearing it out to the length of a 
 hundred and fifty feet, the air became again so impure, and 
 the heat so suffocating, that he had once more the same 
 difficulties to encounter with regard to the Arabs. Even 
 his own health was at this time visibly impaired, and he was 
 attacked with a spitting of blood ; but nothing could induce 
 him to desist from his interesting researches. 
 
 After the lapse of the third month from the time at which 
 he began his toils, he had excavated as far as two hundred 
 feet in the new passage without any thing particular occur- 
 ring, when, shortly afterward, a door on the right-hand 
 was discovered, from which, in the course of a few hours, 
 a strong smell of sulphur was perceived to issue. Mr. 
 Caviglia, having now recollected that when at the bottom 
 
THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. 
 
 101 
 
 of the well, in his first enterprise, he had burned some sul- 
 phur for the purpose of purifying the air, conceived it prob- 
 able that this doorway might communicate with it, — an 
 idea which, in a little time, he had the pleasure of seeing 
 realized, by discovering that it opened at .once upon the 
 bottom of the well, where he found the baskets, cords, and 
 other implements, which had been left there on his recent 
 attempt at a farther excavation. This discovery was so far 
 valuable as it afforded a complete circulation of air along 
 the whole passage, and up the shaft of the well, and thereby 
 obviated all danger for the future, arising from the noxious 
 condition of the atmosphere.* 
 
 But the passage did not terminate at the doorway which 
 opened upon the bottom of the well. Continuing to the 
 distance of twenty-three feet beyond it, in the same angle 
 of inclination, it became narrower, and took a horizontal 
 direction for about twenty-eight feet farther, where it opened 
 into a spacious apartment immediately under the central 
 point of the Pyramid. This new chamber is sixty-six feet 
 long by twenty-seven broad, with a flat roof ; and, when first 
 entered, was found nearly filled with large stones and rub- 
 bish, which Mr. Caviglia succeeded in removing. The 
 
 * It is amusing to contrast the indefatigable exertions of this individual, 
 whose sole motives were derived from an enlightened curiosity and a 
 desire to benefit the literary world, with the cautious procedure of Colonel 
 Coutelle, one of Buonaparte’s military savans : — “ J’arrivai a l’extr^mite, 
 mais non pas 4 point ou s’etaient arr£tes les ouvriers : le fond etait rempli 
 de terre et de cailloux roules ; j’en remplis une de mes poches ; ensuite 
 je pris toutes les mesures dont j’avais besoin. Mais deja ma lumi^re 
 4tait pale ; ma respiration plus gen4e ; le thermomdtre de Keaumur etait 
 audessus de 25 degr6s,” &c. After filling one of his pockets with the 
 rubbish which impeded his progress into the secret apartments of the 
 Pyramid, the gallant colonel withdrew, uttering imprecations against 
 the detestable atmosphere, which at once affected his breathing and 
 raised the thermometer. — Descrip, de l\ Egypt. Antiquities , vol. ii. p. 39. 
 
 The same writer informs us that the French, hoping to find many an- 
 tiquities fresh and undesecrated in the interior of a pyramid not yet 
 touched, adopted the resolution of demolishing one of the third or fourth 
 class from top to bottom. It is stated that every layer of stone was from 
 a yard to a yard and a half in depth, and that all the blocks, being of a 
 dimension proportioned to their thickness, weighed about twelve thou- 
 sand pounds (6000 kilogrammes) a piece. But, after having advanced 
 about half way in the process of demolition, they were obliged to relin- 
 quish the enterprise ; leaving, says the colonel, the fruit which would 
 have indemnified their toils to be reaped by those who were to come after 
 them- 
 
 12 
 
102 
 
 MECHANICAL LABOURS OF 
 
 platform of the floor, which is dug out of the rock, is irregular, 
 nearly one-half of the length from the east end being level, 
 and about fifteen feet from the ceiling ; while in the middle it 
 descends five feet lower, in which there is a hollow space, 
 bearing all the appearance of the commencement of a well 
 or shaft. From this point it rises to the western end ; so 
 that at the extremity there is scarcely room between the 
 floor and the roof for a man to stand upright, the whole 
 chamber having the appearance of an unfinished excava- 
 tion. Mr. Salt, however, is disposed to think; after a care- 
 ful comparison of it with other subterranean apartments 
 which have been disfigured by the combined effects of time 
 and the rude hands of curious visiters, that it may once 
 have been highly wrought, and used, perhaps, for the per- 
 formance of solemn and sacred mysteries. Some Roman 
 characters, rudely formed, had been marked with the flame 
 of a candle on the rock, part of which, having mouldered 
 away, rendered the words illegible. The same gentleman 
 had flattered himself that this chamber would turn out to be 
 the one described by Herodotus, as containing the tomb of 
 Cheops, which was insulated by a stream drawn from the 
 Nile ; but the want of an inlet for the sacred fluid, and the 
 elevation of the floor thirty feet above the level of the river 
 at its highest inundation, put an end to this delusive opinion. 
 From an expression of Strabo, however, purporting that the 
 passage from the entrance leads directly down to the cham- 
 ber which contains the sarcophagus, he thinks, and perhaps 
 justly, that this apartment was the only one known to the 
 Greek geographer. 
 
 On the south side of this spacious excavation there is a 
 passage just wide and high enough for a man to creep along 
 on his hands and knees, continuing horizontally in the rock 
 for fifty-five feet ; but there it abruptly terminates. Another 
 opening at the east end of the chamber commences with a 
 kind of arch, and runs about forty feet into the solid rock of 
 the Pyramid. A third passage is mentioned, but so ob- 
 scurely that we cannot ascertain either its direction or 
 dimensions. It is not, however, to be imagined that these 
 passages had no object, or that they originally terminated at 
 the point where the curiosity of modern travellers meets a 
 check from the accumulation of rubbish, or, perhaps, from 
 the intervention of a regular portcullis, such as Belzoni 
 
THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. 
 
 103 
 
 encountered in the second Pyramid. Dr. Richardson, in- 
 deed, insinuates that the avenues in question have not been 
 actually explored by several writers who have thought 
 proper to describe them, — a charge which, we are satisfied, 
 does not apply to Caviglia, whose exertions were only 
 limited by the utmost bounds of human energy and perse- 
 verance. 
 
 Before we proceed to some more general observations on 
 the history and comparative magnitude of the Pyramids, 
 we shall present to the reader a short account of the discov- 
 eries made by Belzoni in the interior of that which bears 
 the name of Cephrenes. 
 
 As Herodotus, whose fidelity has been generally approved 
 by the investigations of more recent times, gave assurance 
 that there were no chambers in this edifice, a long time had 
 passed without any attempt being made to penetrate its 
 outer walls. In fact, such an undertaking was regarded as 
 equally romantic and impracticable. The French philoso- 
 phers who accompanied the invading army led by Buona- 
 parte made several endeavours to find an entrance, but, 
 perceiving no trace in the building which could encourage 
 the belief that it had ever been perforated, they left it in 
 despair. The resolution of Belzoni, however, a private 
 unassisted individual, achieved a conquest over the mystery 
 of ancient art, which the power and ingenuity of a great 
 nation had relinquished as beyond the reach of human 
 means. His success in detecting the sepulchral labyrinths 
 of Thebes inflamed him at once with the desire and the 
 confidence of discovering a passage into the secret cham- 
 bers of Cephrenes, the reputed founder of the second 
 Pyramid. 
 
 His first attempt was not attended with an adequate 
 degree of success, while the labour and expense which it 
 entailed upon him were so great as would have cooled the 
 ardour of a less zealous antiquary. He began by forcing a 
 passage, which he was soon obliged to abandon, as equally 
 hopeless to himself and dangerous to the persons employed. 
 But this disappointment only increased his desire to accom- 
 plish an object on which he had staked his happiness as well 
 as his reputation. Observing minutely the exterior of the 
 Great Pyramid, he satisfied himself that the passage was 
 not placed exactly in the middle of the building, but that it 
 
104 
 
 MECHANICAL LABOURS OF 
 
 ran in a straight line to the eastern side of what is called 
 the king’s chamber ; which being in the centre of the 
 Pyramid, he conjectured that the entrance must be as far 
 from the middle of the face as is the distance from the centre 
 of the chamber to the east end of it. Having made this 
 clear and simple observation, he concluded, that, if there 
 were any chamber in the second Pyramid, the orifice could 
 not be at the spot where he had begun his excavation, but, 
 calculating by the position of the passage in the first, nearly 
 thirty feet farther east. 
 
 Encouraged by these new views, he returned to his task, 
 and was immediately delighted to observe, that at the very 
 place where he intended to recommence operations, there 
 was a hollow on the surface of the building. Any traveller, 
 says he, who shall hereafter visit the Pyramids may plainly 
 perceive this concavity above the true entrance. Summon- 
 ing his Arabs, he forthwith resumed his toils ; and so cor- 
 rect was his measurement that he did not deviate more than 
 two feet from the mouth of the passage which was to admit 
 him into the recesses of this vast edifice. The native work- 
 men were indeed as skeptical as ever, entertaining not the 
 slightest expectation that any approach would ever be dis- 
 covered, and occasionally muttering their opinion of him 
 in the expressive tenn magnoon , which, in their language, 
 denotes madman or fool. 
 
 After clearing away a great deal of rubbish, and cutting 
 through massy stones, he had the satisfaction to see the 
 edge of a block of granite, — the material used for casing 
 the passages in the Pyramid of Cheops, — inclining down- 
 ward at the same angle as in the latter building, and point- 
 ing towards tne centre. On the following day three large 
 slabs were discovered, one on each side, and the third on 
 the top, — indicating very distinctly that the object of his 
 search was now about to be realized. In a few hours, 
 accordingly, the right entrance into the Pyramid was 
 opened, — proving to be a passage four feet high, and three 
 feet six inches wide, formed of granite, and descending a 
 hundred and four feet towards the centre, at an angle of 
 twenty-six degrees. Nearly all this passage was filled with 
 large stones which had fallen from the upper part, and, as 
 the floor slopes downwards, they had slid on till some- 
 larger than the rest stopped the way. 
 
THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. 
 
 105 
 
 The next portion of his task was to remove this rubbish, 
 which had extended even to the entrance of the chamber. 
 At length he reached a portcullis, which, being a fixed 
 block of stone, at first sight appeared to obstruct all further 
 progress into the interior. “ It stared me in the face,” said 
 Mr. Belzoni, “ and said ne plus ultra , — putting an end, as 
 I thought, to all my projects for it made a close joint 
 with the groove at each side, and on the top it seemed as 
 firm as the rock itself which formed the passage. On a 
 close inspection, however, he perceived that, at the bottom, 
 it was raised about eight inches from the lower part of the 
 groove which was cut beneath to receive it ; and he found 
 by this circumstance that the large slab before him was 
 nothing more than a barrier of granite, one foot three inches 
 thick. Having observed a small aperture at the top, he 
 thrust a straw into it upwards of three feet, — a discovery 
 which convinced him that there was a vacuum prepared to 
 receive the portcullis. The raising of it, indeed, was a 
 work of no small difficulty. As soon, however, as it was 
 elevated high enough for a man to pass, an Arab entered 
 with a candle, -and announced that the place within was 
 very fine. A little more room enabled our adventurer to 
 Squeeze his person through, when he exclaims, — “ After 
 thirty days' I had the pleasure of finding myself in the way 
 to the central chamber of one of the two great Pyramids of 
 Egypt, which have long been the admiration of beholders.”* 
 
 As his main object was to reach the centre of the build- 
 ing, he advanced in that direction, along a passage cut out 
 of the solid rock, six feet in height, and six feet six inches 
 broad. At length he reached a door at the centre of a large 
 chamber. “ I walked slowly two or three paces, and then 
 stood still to contemplate the place where I was. What- 
 ever it might be, I certainly- considered myself in the centre 
 of that Pyramid which, from time immemorial, had been the 
 subject of the obscure cpnjectures of many hundred travel- 
 lers, both ancient and modern. My torch, formed of a few 
 wax candles, gave but a faint light : I could, however, 
 clearly distinguish the principal objects. I naturally turned 
 my eyes to the west end of the chamber, looking for the 
 
 * Researches and Operations in Egypt and Nubia, vol. i. p. 417. 
 
108 
 
 mechanical labours of 
 
 sarcophagus, which I strongly expected to see in the same 
 situation as that in the first Pyramid ; but I was disappointed 
 when I saw nothing there. The chamber has a pointed or 
 sloping ceiling, and many of the stones had been removed 
 from their places evidently by some one in search of treasure. 
 On my advancing towards the west end, I was agreeably 
 surprised to find that there was a sarcophagus buried on a 
 level with the floor.” 
 
 Upon examining more minutely the chamber into which 
 he had entered, he found it to be forty-six feet in length, 
 sixteen feet three inches wide, and twenty-three feet six 
 inches high. It is hewn out of the solid rock from the floor 
 to the roof, which last is composed of large slabs of calca- 
 reous stone, meeting in the centre at an angle correspond- 
 ing to that of the Pyramid itself. The sarcophagus is 
 eight feet long, three feet six inches wide, and two feet three 
 inches deep in the inside. It is surrounded by large blocks 
 of granite, apparently to prevent its removal, which could 
 not be effected without great labour. The lid had been 
 drawn to one side ; so that the receptacle, be it fount or 
 grave, was half open. It is manufactured of. the very finest 
 granite ; but, like the other in the Pyramid of Cheops, it 
 presents not a single hieroglyphic. Inspecting the inside 
 solely with the view of finding some inscription which would 
 throw light on the history and intention of this mighty 
 edifice, be did not at first observe that there were bones 
 mixed with the sand and gravel which it contained. These 
 fragments of an animal body, being afterward sent to Lon- 
 don, were ascertained to belong to the bovine species, and 
 have been very generally supposed to be the remains of a 
 sacred bull, — an object of veneration among the ancient 
 Egyptians. On the sides of the chamber, which were 
 carefully examined, Mr. Belzoni observed many scrawls 
 executed with charcoal ; all of which, however, were in a 
 character quite unknown to him, and already become so 
 faint that they were in some places nearly illegible, and 
 rubbed off on the slightest touch. 
 
 On the wall at the west end of the chamber he perceived 
 an inscription, which has been translated as follows : — 
 
 “ The Master Mohammed Ahmed, lapicide, has opened 
 them ; and the Master Othman attended this (opening), and 
 
THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. 107 
 
 the King Ali Mohammed, from the beginning to the closing 
 up.”* 
 
 Mr. Belzoni admits that the letters were far from being 
 distinct. The transcriber was a Copt, whom he induced to 
 go from Cairo for the purpose, not having sufficient confi- 
 dence in his own pen. He adds, however, that not being 
 satisfied with his protestations of accuracy, though the 
 inscription was copied under his own eyes, he invited other 
 persons, who were esteemed the best Arabic scholars in the 
 country, to lend their aid, and particularly to compare the 
 transcript with the original on the wall. They found it all 
 perfectly correct and intelligible, except the concluding 
 word, which was acknowledged to be obscure ; but, says he, 
 if it be considered how much that word resembles the right 
 one, we shall find a good sense, and the whole inscription 
 made out. The circumstance, too, supposed to be here 
 recorded, — that the Pyramid was closed up after having 
 been opened by the agents of King Ali Mohammed, — cor- 
 responds exactly to the facts of the case, and affords a strong 
 corroboration of the conjectural emendation proposed by the 
 translator. 
 
 It is repiarkable that in this Pyramid, as well as in the 
 larger one, there is a pit or shaft which descends to a lower 
 part of the building. At the bottom of this opening there 
 were so many stones as nearly to choke up its entrance ; 
 but, after removing these, Mr. Belzoni found the passage 
 running towards the north, as formerly, at an angle of 
 twenty-six degrees. It continued in this direction, and with 
 the same slope downwards, forty-eight feet and a half, where 
 it joined a horizontal passage fifty-five feet in length, still 
 running north. Half-way up this avenue on the right is a 
 recess eleven feet long and six deep. On the left, opposite 
 to it, is another entry twenty-two feet in length, with a 
 descent of twenty-six degrees towards the west. Before he 
 proceeded any farther northwards, he went down this pas- 
 sage, where he found a chamber thirty-two feet long, nine 
 feet nine inches wide, and eight feet six inches in height. 
 This apartment contains many small blocks of stone, some 
 
 * This is the version of Mr. Sfflame, who says, “ The Arabic to which 
 T gave the meaning of these last words * to the closing up’ is not spelled 
 correctly in the paper I saw, — a fault which I attribute to the transcribe^ 
 from the stone.” 
 
108 
 
 MECHAXICAL LABOURS OF 
 
 not more than two feet in length. It has a pointed roof 
 like that before mentioned, though it is cut out of the solid 
 rock. On the walls and ceiling are some unknown inscrip- 
 tions similar to those in the upper chamber. 
 
 Reascending to the horizontal passage, he discovered at 
 the end of it a portcullis, which must have originally pos- 
 sessed the same construction as the one already described ; 
 but the plate of granite which had served as a a door was 
 taken down, and is still to be seen under the rubbish which 
 encumbers the approach. Beyond this point he entered into 
 a lane which runs forty-eight feet in a direction parallel to 
 the one above, and, in fact, appears to issue from the Pyra- 
 mid near its base. If this supposition be well founded, it 
 will follow that the monument of Cephrenes has two 
 entrances, — an inference, we presume, which might be 
 extended to that of Cheops, w r here there are several pas- 
 sages without any outlet hitherto discovered. The immense 
 mass of broken stones and sand which surrounds the foun- 
 dation of the larger edifice has all along prevented such a 
 minute examination of its lower parts as might have enabled 
 the scientific antiquary to connect the internal structure 
 with the general plan and uses of the building. Hence it 
 is extremely probable that apertures will be found in all the 
 four sides conducting to the centre, at different angles of 
 inclination, and establishing a communication among the 
 various chambers which the Pyramids contain. 
 
 After these details, it is impossible to refrain from an 
 expression of admiration so justly due to the perseverance 
 and ability of Mr. Belzoni. It was truly observed by Mr. 
 Salt, that the opening of this Pyramid had long been con- 
 sidered an object of so hopeless a nature that it is difficult 
 to conceive how any person could be found sanguine enough 
 to make the attempt ; and, even after the laborious discovery 
 of the forced entrance, it required great resolution and confi- 
 dence in his own views to induce him to continue the opera- 
 tion, when it became evident that the enterprise of his 
 predecessors, possessed of greater means, had completely 
 failed. Of the discovery itself Belzoni has given a very 
 dear description, and his drawings present a perfect idea 
 of the entrances, passages, and chambers. Of the labour 
 of the undertaking no one can form an idea. Notwith- 
 standing the masses of stone which he had to remove 5 and 
 
THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. 
 
 109 
 
 the hardness of the materials which impeded his progress, 
 the whoie was effected entirely at his own risk and expense.* 
 It is manifest, from the inscription discovered by Belzoni, 
 as well as from the state of the chambers in the two larger 
 Pyramids, that they had both been opened at the distance 
 of many years. Dr. Shaw, on the authority of an Arabian 
 author, mentions that the one attributed to Cheops was en- 
 tered about ten centuries ago by Almamon, the renowned 
 caliph of Babylon. It is added that the explorers found in 
 it, towards the top, a chamber with a hollow stone, in which 
 there was a statue like a man, and within it the body of a 
 man, upon which was a breastplate of gold set with jewels. 
 Upon this breastplate there was a sword of inestimable 
 price ; and at its head a carbuncle of the bigness of an egg, 
 shining like the light of the day ; and upon the human 
 figure were characters written with a pen, which no man 
 understood, f 
 
 * What must be the feelings of every candid person who reads the fob 
 lowing statement, which we give in the words of the discoverer himself: — 
 
 “ One thing more I must observe respecting the Count de Forbin. On 
 his return from Thebes I met him at Cairo, in the house of the Austrian 
 consul. I had begun the task of opening the Pyramids, and had already 
 discovered the false passage. The count requested, in a sort of sarcastic 
 manner, when I had succeeded in opening the Pyramid, which no doubt 
 he supposed I never would, that I would send him the plan of it, as he 
 was about setting off for Alexandria the next day, and thence to France. 
 
 I thought the best retaliation I could make was to send him the de- 
 sired plan, and I did so as soon as I opened the Pyramid, which was in 
 a few days after his departure. Would any one believe that the noble 
 count, on his arrival in France, gave out that he had succeeded in pene- 
 trating the second Pyramid of Djizeh, and brought the plan of it to 
 Paris ? Whether this be the fact or not will appear from the following 
 paragraph taken from a French paper now in my possession ; — ‘ On the 
 24th of April, Monsieur le Compte de Forbin, director-general of the 
 Royal Museum of France, landed at the lazaretto of Marseilles. He 
 came last from Alexandria, and his passage was very stormy. He has 
 visited Greece, Syria, and Upper Egypt. By a happy chance, some days 
 before his departure from Cairo, he succeeded in penetrating into the 
 second Pyramid of Djizeh. Monsieur Forbin brings the plan of this 
 important discovery, as well as much information on the labours of M. 
 Drovetti at Karnac, and on those which Mr. Salt, the English consul, 
 pursues with the greatest success in the valley of Beban-el-Malook, and 
 in the plain of Medinet Abou. The Museum of Paris is going to be en- 
 riched with some of the spoils of Thebes, which Monsieur Forbin has 
 collected in his travels.’ 
 
 Was this written,” exclaims Belzoni, “ by some person in France, In 
 ridicule of the Count de Forbin, or is it an attempt to impose on the 
 public by a tissue of falsehoods Vol. i. p. 393. 
 t Shaw’s Travels, vol. ii. p. 207, and Pyramidographia by Mr. Greaves, 
 
 K 
 
11U 
 
 MECHANICAL LABOURS OF 
 
 It is in like manner recorded by Abdollatiph that wlieiT 
 Melec-Alaziz-Othman-ben-Yousouf succeeded his father, he‘ 
 allowed himself to be persuaded by some foolish courtiers 
 to throw down the Pyramids, and that he sent thither sap- 
 pers, miners, and quarriers, under the direction of proper 
 officers, with orders to overturn the red one, that, namely, 
 ascribed to Mycerinus, and which is known to have been 
 coated with highly-coloured granite. To execute the in- 
 structions with which they were charged, they encamped 
 on the adjoining ground, and collected a great number of 
 labourers, whom they maintained at an enormous expanse. 
 There they remained eight whole months, exerting them- 
 selves to the utmost in order to fulfil their commission ; but 
 their most strenuous endeavours with picks and levers above, 
 and with ropes and cables below, could not remove more 
 than one or two stones a-day. When a block was thrown 
 down, there was the additional labour of breaking it into 
 fragments and carrying it aside ; and one of the engineers 
 is reported to have said, that, although he were to get ten 
 thousand pieces of gold, he could not readjust one of these 
 stones in its proper place. At length they abandoned the 
 attempt, without demolishing the magnificent structure, or 
 even, as the historian thinks, without materially reducing 
 its dimensions. The date of this barbarous project is 
 usually placed about the end of the twelfth century. 
 
 Several other ealiphs. are named by Makrisi and Abdol- 
 latiph as having meditated the demolition of these great 
 works. Saladin, for example, charged his emir, Kara- 
 lcoush Asadi, to build the citadel and walls of Cairo, — 
 instructing him, at the same time, to consider Memphis and 
 the Pyramids as the most suitable quarry for obtaining ma- 
 terials. Hence, it is conjectured, the coating of the large 
 edifice of Cheops, two-thirds of that of Cephrenes, and the 
 greater part of some of the smaller ones, have been carried 
 away, and can now only be sought for in the immense 
 causeway, and the innumerable arches which he constructed 
 between these monuments and the Nile, or in the citadel, 
 the mosques, and the battlements of the capital. The re- 
 mains of this causeway are still to be seen ; the finer por- 
 tion of it, however, that was upon the lower ground, has 
 been swept away by the overflowing of the Nile. Some 
 authors have supposed it to be the relics of the great road 
 
THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. 
 
 Ill 
 
 described by Herodotus, used for transporting the stones 
 consumed in the construction of the Pyramids. But we 
 are informed that a very slight inspection of the material, 
 as well as of the style in which the building has been com- 
 pleted, will satisfy every one qualified to judge that this 
 opinion is not founded in truth. Abdollatiph, in fact, a 
 contemporary writer, states, in the plainest terms, that it 
 was constructed by Asadi, one of the emirs of Salah-Eddin- 
 Yousouf, the son of Job, commonly called Saladin the 
 Great.* 
 
 The opening of the Great Pyramid has, by many oriental 
 writers, been ascribed to the Caliph Abdalla M amour, the 
 son of Haroun A1 Rascliid ; and they state that he em- 
 ployed for the accomplishment of his object, fire, vinegar, 
 and other chymical solvents. Others attribute this achieve- 
 ment to the Caliph Mohdi, whose name was Mohammed. 
 The latter is not improbably the sovereign whose reputation 
 is embalmed in the inscription, copied by the direction of 
 Belzoni, under the title of King Ali Mohammed ; and as it 
 is recorded that he attended the opening of them , — in the 
 plural number, — it is certainly not unreasonable to conclude 
 that it was he who first penetrated into the interior of both, 
 and who is, consequently, chargeable with much of the 
 unnecessary dilapidation which accompanied his fruitless 
 labours. 
 
 Considering the immense toil as w'ell as uncertainty 
 which attend the exploration of the Pyramids, we cannot 
 be surprised at any difference of opinion that may happen 
 to prevail in regard to the various apertures, passages, and 
 chambers which occupy the interior. But it is much less 
 easy to reconcile the mind to the discrepancy which per- 
 plexes almost every book of travels, in reference to the 
 magnitude of the buildings themselves. For instance, the 
 following table exhibits only a small portion of the error 
 which applies to the measurement, or estimated bulk, of 
 these famous structures ; and yet the difference is so great 
 as to justify the suspicion that the standard used by the 
 several writers could not be the same, or that the summit 
 
 * Travels along the Mediterranean and Parts Adjacent. By Bobeit 
 Richardson, M.D. — Vol. i. p. 139. 
 
112 MECHANICAL LABOURS OF 
 
 of the principal structure has been considerably lowered 
 since the days of Herodotus. 
 
 ANCIENTS. 
 
 Height of the 
 Great Pyramid. 
 Feet. 
 
 Length of 
 the Side. 
 Feet. 
 
 800 
 
 Strabo 
 
 
 600 
 
 
 600 
 
 700 
 
 Pliny 
 
 
 708 
 
 MODERNS. 
 
 Le Brun 
 
 
 704 
 
 Prosper Alpinus 
 
 625 
 
 750 
 
 Thevenot 
 
 
 612 
 
 Niebuhr 
 
 440 
 
 710 
 
 Greaves 
 
 
 648 
 
 Davison 
 
 
 
 French Savans 
 
 440(470 Eng.). 
 
 704 
 
 NUMBER 07 LAYERS OR STEPS. 
 
 
 Greaves . . 
 
 207 
 
 
 Maillet • • • 
 
 208 
 
 
 Albert Lewenstein 260 
 
 
 Pococke . . 
 
 
 
 Belon 
 
 
 
 Thevenot. 
 
 208 
 
 
 Davison . . 
 
 206 
 
 
 Davison not only numbered the layers, but gives the 
 height of every one of them separately, from the bottom to 
 the top. Grobert, a member of the French Academy, 
 appears to have proceeded in a similar manner, counting the 
 steps individually, and measuring their thickness. But it 
 is obvious, that if they did not make an allowance in every 
 instance for any deviation of the surface of the step from 
 the plane of the horizon, the result would not coincide with 
 the actual height of the Pyramid. As an approximation, 
 however, we may assume that the structure in question is 
 four hundred and eighty feet high, on a base of seven hun- 
 dred and fifty feet in length ; or, in other words, covering 
 an area of about eleven acres, and rising to an elevation of 
 127 feet above the cross of St. Paul’s cathedral. 
 
 Mr. Belzoni^whose solitary exertions accomplished more 
 than the united band of philosophers attached to the French 
 army, ascertained the dimensions of the second Pyramid 
 to be as follows : — 
 
THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. 
 
 113 
 
 The Base 
 
 Perpendicular height 
 
 Coating from the top to the place 
 
 Ftet. 
 
 .084 
 
 .456 
 
 where it ends 
 
 | 140 
 
 Before we leave these memorable relics of ancient gran- 
 deur, we must revert to a circumstance which is too remark? 
 able to be passed over. In all the pyramids that have been 
 opened, which at Djizeh and Sakhara amount at least to 
 six, the entrance has always been found near the centre on 
 the northern face, and the passage as uniformly proceeding 
 downwards from it, at an angle which never varies. 
 Greaves makes the inclination in that of Cheops to be 
 26°, while Caviglia has determined it at 27° ; which last 
 we have observed to be common to all the sloping passages 
 in the edifice just specified. He found the same angle on 
 opening one of the small pyramids towards the south, at 
 the end of the passage of which were two chambers, leading 
 one out of the other, and both empty. The same conclusion 
 was formed by Belzoni in regard to the Pyramid of Ce- 
 phrenes. The angle in all the sloping channels was 26°. 
 With much apparent reason, therefore, has it been con- 
 jectured that this coincidence could not be accidental. It 
 must have been the work of design, executed for some spe- 
 cial purpose ; and nothing more readily presents itself to 
 the mind, as an object worthy of so much care, than the 
 uses of astronomy, to which the priests of ancient Egypt 
 are known to have been greatly addicted. 
 
 Pauw suggested that the pyramids, as well as the obe- 
 lisks, were temples raised to the god of day, because one 
 of their sides is in all cases turned to the east. If, then, 
 nothing more were apparent than the exact position of these 
 buildings in reference to the four cardinal points of the 
 compass, it would of itself be sufficient to stamp the char- 
 acter of the Egyptians at a very remote age as at least 
 practical astronomers. But when to this are added the 
 delineation of the twelve signs of the zodiac, the traces of 
 which are still visible at Esneh and Dendera, the naming 
 of the principal stars, and the grouping of the constellations, 
 there can remain no doubt that the science of the priesthood 
 was chiefly employed in marking the times and paths of the 
 celestial host. When, too, we find that all the learning of 
 
 K2 
 
114 
 
 MECHANICAL LABOURS OF 
 
 Thales, by which he was enabled to calculate eclipses, and 
 determine the solstitial and equinoctial points, was acquired 
 from the Egyptian clergy six hundred years before the 
 Christian era ; that at a later period Eratosthenes was found 
 qualified to measure a degree of the meridian, and from the 
 result to deduce the circumference of the earth to an extra- 
 ordinary degree of accuracy ; and that the day of the sum- 
 mer solstice was then, and probably at a much earlier epoch, 
 so nicely observed by means of a well dug at Syene, from 
 the surface of which the sun’s disk was reflected entire, — 
 we cannot hesitate to receive any hypothesis which assumes 
 an astronomical purpose, in accounting for the architectural 
 prodigies of ancient Egypt. 
 
 It is indeed quite consistent to suppose that the priests, 
 in the construction of these stupendous monuments, would 
 avail themselves of the means thus offered of connecting 
 their sacred duties with their favourite study, and of com- 
 bining the sentiments of piety with the sublime conceptions 
 of astronomy. Among other benefits which this union has 
 conferred upon posterity is that of having fixed with pre- 
 cision the faces of the Pyramids, from which, as Pauw has 
 observed, “ we know that the poles of the earth have not 
 changed.” But there is reason to think that the Pyramids 
 were made subservient to a more immediate and important 
 use in the science of astronomy, namely, to correct the 
 measurement of time. This object, it may be conceived, 
 was in contemplation when the main passages leading from 
 the northern sides were formed. These approaches, as we 
 have repeatedly remarked, are invariably inclined down- 
 wards, in an angle of about 27°, with the plane of the hori- 
 zon, which gives a line of direction not far removed from 
 that point in the heavens where the polar star now crosses 
 the meridian below the Pole. The observation of this, or 
 some other star, across the meridian, would give them an 
 accurate measure of sideral time,- — a point of the first 
 importance in an age when, it is probable, no other 
 instruments than rude solar gnomons, or expedients still 
 more imperfect, were in use. Indeed it would not be easy 
 to devise a method more effectual for observing the transit 
 •of a star with the naked eye, than that of watching its pas- 
 sage across the mouth of such a lengthened tube ; and it is 
 manifest that some one of these luminaries, when in the 
 
THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. 
 
 115 
 
 meridian below the Pole, must have been seen in the line 
 of a passage inclined at an angle of twenty-six or twenty- 
 seven degrees. 
 
 These remarks were suggested by an incidental notice 
 in the short memorandum of the measurements made by 
 Mr. Caviglia : — “ One no longer sees the pole-star at the 
 spot where the main passage ceases to continue in the 
 same inclination, and where one begins to mount.” From 
 this expression it is naturally concluded that he must have 
 seen the pole-star when at the bottom of the main passage ; 
 and, if so, we have not yet got the true measure of the 
 angle which these passages form with the horizon. This 
 would be very desirable, as it could not fail to lead to most 
 important results ; especially if it should be found that the 
 difference of the angles in the approaches of the Pyramids 
 of Djizeh, Sakhara, and Dashour correspond to the differ- 
 ence of the latitude of these several places. We might 
 then be almost certain that they were intended for the pur- 
 pose of observing the passage, over the meridian, of some 
 particular star, whose altitude, when below the Pole, was 
 equal to the angle of the passage. If this suggestion 
 should be well founded, it would not be difficult, by calcu- 
 lation, to determine which of the stars within the Arctic 
 circle might be seen to pass across the mouths of the shafts 
 about the supposed time of building the Pyramids, and 
 thereby to fix, with more precision than has been hitherto 
 attained, the period at which these stupendous structures 
 were erected.* 
 
 Dr. Richardson is disposed to call in question the sound- 
 ness of this hypothesis, — observing that the supposition of 
 the passage being intended as “ an astronomical instrument 
 for measuring sideral time is scarcely tenable. Pyramids 
 are prodigiously expensive and unmanageable machines ; 
 and the passage, being so carefully sealed at the entrance, 
 precluded all possibility of using them as such.”f But, in 
 reply to this rather hasty stricture, it may be sufficient to 
 remark that no one has ever maintained they were meant 
 solely for astronomical uses. The constant occurrence of 
 
 * Quarterly Review, vol. xix. p. 40G ; Greave’s Pyramidographia; 
 Belzoni’s Researches, vol. i. p. 416. 
 
 * Travels along the Mediterranean, vol. i. p. 133- 
 
116 
 
 MECHANICAL LABOURS OF 
 
 a fact, however, so little likely to be accidental could hardly 
 fail to suggest that it must have been intended to serve 
 some purpose ; and we therefore agree with the ingenious 
 writer who first advanced the hypothesis, in ascribing the 
 •uniform inclination of the passages in the two large Pyra- 
 mids to some object quite unconnected with the mere 
 facility of descent. 
 
 Having occupied so much space with this description of 
 the monuments of Djizeh, we must rest satisfied with a 
 mere reference to those of Abousir, Sakhara, and Dashour. 
 Every one knows that, in point of magnitude, these are 
 much inferior to the former, though still entitled to rank 
 very high as the remains of a great people, whose glory 
 unfortunately is now almost entirely reflected from the 
 ruins of their ancient works. It is deserving of notice, at 
 the same time, that these smaller pyramids are generally 
 coated with a material different from the body of the edifice ; 
 and, moreover, that, so far as they have been inspected, in 
 their structure and internal distribution they bear a strik- 
 ing resemblance to the more stupendous erections at Djizeh, 
 
 Our account of the mechanical productions of ancient 
 Egypt would be incomplete did we not mention the great 
 Sphinx, which has always been regarded as an accompani- 
 ment, and sometimes even as a rival to the Pyramids. The 
 latest information in regard to this stupendous figure was 
 obtained from the persevering labours of Mr. Caviglia, 
 whose name has been already mentioned with so much 
 honour. After the most fatiguing and anxious endeavours, 
 during several months, he succeeded in laying open the whole 
 statue to its base, and exposing a clear area extending to a 
 hundred feet from its front. It is not easy, says Mr. Salt, 
 who witnessed the process of excavation, for any person 
 unused to operations of this kind, to form the smallest idea 
 of the difficulties which he had to surmount, more espe- 
 cially when working at the bottom of the trench ; for, in 
 spite of every precaution, the slightest breath of wind, or 
 concussion, set all the surrounding particles of sand in mo- 
 tion, so that the sloping sides began to crumble away, and 
 mass after mass to come tumbling down, till the whole sur- 
 face bore no unapt resemblance to a cascade of water. 
 Even when the sides appeared most firm, if the labourers 
 suspended their w ork but for an hour, they found on theijr 
 
THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. 
 
 117 
 
 return that they had the greatest part of it to do over again. 
 This was particularly the case on the southern side of the 
 paw, where the’ whole of the people, — from sixty to a hun- 
 dred, — were employed for seven days without making any 
 sensible advance, the sand rolling down in one continued 
 torrent. 
 
 But the discovery amply rewarded the toil and expense 
 which were incurred in revealing the structure of this won- 
 derful work of art. The huge paws stretched out fifty feet 
 in advance from the body, which is in a cumbent posture ; 
 fragments of an enormous beard were found resting beneath 
 the chin ; and there were seen all the appendages of a 
 temple, granite tablet, and altar, arranged on a regular 
 platform immediately in front. On this pavement, and at 
 an equal distance between the paws of the figure, was the 
 large slab of granite just mentioned, being not less than 
 fourteen feet higlj, seven broad, and two thick. The face 
 of this stone, Which fronted the east, was' highly embel- 
 lished with sculptures in bas-relief, the subject representing 
 two sphinxes seated on pedestals, and priests holding out 
 offerings, while there was a long inscription in hiero- 
 glyphics most beautifully executed ; the whole design being 
 covered at top, and protected, as it were, with the sacred 
 globe, the serpent, and the wings. Two other tablets of 
 calcareous stone, similarly ornamented, were supposed, 
 together with that of granite, to have constituted part of 
 a miniature temple, by being placed one on each side of the 
 latter, and at right angles to it. One of them, in fact, was 
 still remaining in its place ; of the other, which was thrown 
 down and broken, the fragments are now in the British Mu- 
 seum. A small lion, couching in front of this edifice, had 
 its eyes directed towards the Sphinx. There were, besides, 
 several fragments of other lions rudely carved, and the fore- 
 part of a sphinx of tolerable workmanship ; all of which, 
 as well as the tablets, walls, and platforms on which the 
 little temple stood, were ornamented with red paint, — a 
 colour which would seem to have been, in Egypt as well 
 as in India, appropriated to sacred purposes. In front of 
 the temple was a granitic altar, with one of the four pro- 
 jections or horns still retaining its place at the angle. 
 From the effects of fire evident on the stone, this altar, it is 
 manifest, had been used for burnt-offerings. On the side 
 
118 
 
 MECHANICAL LABOURS OF 
 
 of the left paw of the great Sphinx were cut several indis- 
 tinct legends in Greek characters, addressed to different 
 deities. On the second digit of the same was sculptured, 
 in pretty deep letters, an inscription in verse ; of which the 
 subjoined translation was given by the late Dr. Young, 
 whose extensive knowledge of antiquities enabled him at 
 once to restore the defects of the original, and to convey its 
 meaning in Latin as well as in English.* 
 
 On the digits of the southern paw were only discovered 
 a few of the usual dedicatory phrases in honour of Harpo- 
 crates, Mars, and Hermes. One inscription gives, as Mr. 
 Salt reads it, to the Emperor Claudius the extraordinary 
 appellation of the “ good spirit” (dyados <5at/xo>v ), — an in- 
 stance of flattery which can only be outdone by that of 
 another inscription discovered in Upper Egypt, where Cara- 
 calla is styled “ most pious” (jpiissimus ), on the very same 
 stone from which the name of his murdqyed brother Geta 
 had probably been erased by his own hand. On another 
 small edifice, in front of the Sphinx, was a legend with the 
 name of. Septimius Severus, in which that of Geta was 
 
 * 2ov Senas tKnay\ov rzv\av Seoi diev iovres 
 
 Qeioancvoi XVPVS KvpiSa na^onevr/s' k. t. A. 
 
 Tuum corpus stupendum struxerunt dii sempiterni, 
 Parcentes terrae triticum pinsenti ; 
 
 In medium erigentes arvensis tabulae 
 Insulae petrosae arenam detrudentes: 
 
 Vicinam pyramidibus talem se posuerunt visu. 
 
 Non CEdipodis homicidam, sicut ad Thebas, 
 
 Sed Deae Latonae famulam purissimam 
 Seduld observantem desideratum bonum regem, 
 
 Terrae Egyptiae venerandum ductorem, 
 
 Caelestem magnum imperatorem (diis affinem) 
 
 Similem Vulcano, magnanimum (fortissimum) 
 
 Validum in bello, et amabilem inter cives 
 Terram laetari (omnigenis epulis jubentem). 
 
 Thy form stupendous here the gods have placed, 
 
 Sparing each spot of harvest-bearing land ; 
 
 And with this mighty work of art have graced 
 A rocky isle encumbered once with sand : 
 
 Not that fierce Sphinx that Thebes erewhile laid waste, 
 
 But great Latona’s servant, mild and bland : 
 
 Watching that prince beloved who fills the throne 
 Of Egypt’s plains, and calls the Nile his own. 
 
 That heavenly monarch who his foes defies : 
 
 Like Vulcan powerful, and like Pallas wise. 
 
THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. 
 
 119 
 
 obliterated as in the former, and as it also is on the triumphal 
 arch erected by the same emperor at Rome. The former 
 inscription, however, is not to Claudius, but to his suc- 
 cessor Nero, as may be distinctly traced in the first line as 
 it now appears.* 
 
 We have eritered more particularly into these details on 
 account of an error into which Dr. Clark has fallen respect- 
 ing the share of merit due to the French in uncovering the 
 body of the Sphinx. He states, without the slightest hesi- 
 tation, that the academicians who followed the camp of 
 Buonaparte laid open the wffiole pedestal of this statue, as 
 well as the cumbent or leonine part of the figure, which 
 were before entirely concealed by the sand ; adding that, 
 instead of answering the expectations raised concerning the 
 work upon which it was supposed to rest, the. pedestal 
 proves to be a wretched substructure of brick-work and 
 small fragments of stone, put together like the most insig- 
 nificant piece of modern masonry, and wholly out of char- 
 acter, both with respect to the prodigious labour bestow r ed 
 upon the statue itself and the gigantic appearance of the 
 surrounding objects. Now, every one who has glanced 
 into the splendid publication, to the contents of which the 
 several philosophers contributed in their respective depart- 
 ments, knows well that the French never uncovered more 
 than the back of the Sphinx, — that they never pretended 
 to have seen the pedestal, — and that there is, in fact, no 
 brick-work in any way connected with that celebrated statue. 
 M. Denon saw nothing but the head and neck; and M. 
 Gobert, who was constantly stationed at the Pyramids, 
 says, in his Memoir, that he succeeded in laying bare the 
 back to such an extent as was sufficient to determine the 
 measurement ; affirming that the figure was cut out of a 
 salient angle of the mountain, and is accordingly one solid 
 piece of rock. It is true that the paws, which are thrown 
 out fifty feet in front, are constructed of masonry ; but it is 
 neither insignificant, nor in the least degree resembling 
 modem workmanship. This, however, could not be known 
 either to the French or to Dr. Clark. Perhaps, after all, 
 
 * For the above account of Caviglia’s discoveries, as he himself has 
 not published any thing, the reader is indebted to the several communi 
 cations forwarded by Mr. Salt from Egypt to the late editor of the 
 Quarterly Review. 
 
120 
 
 MECHANICAL LABOURS OF 
 
 the hint has been taken from Pococke, who remarks, in re- 
 gard to the body oTthe Sphinx, that what some have taken for 
 joinings of the stones, are nothing more than veins in the 
 rock. Hence the suspicion that the hands of the builder 
 were employed in constructing the supposed pedestal or 
 platform on which the statue rests. 
 
 We may remark in passing, that the scientific corps 
 commissioned by Buonaparte to illustrate the history and 
 antiquities of Egypt effected almost nothing in. either de- 
 partment. Compelled to follow the movements of the 
 army, which was at no time in undisturbed possession of 
 the country, they could not engage in those tedious opera- 
 tions, which, as has been proved by the experience of Bel- 
 zoni and Caviglia, were absolutely necessary to success in 
 any attempt to analyze the structure of the vast edifices 
 which invite the curiosity of the traveller. It is not denied 
 that, in the great work published under the patronage of 
 the French government, there is much valuable information 
 connected more or less directly with the ancient state of 
 Egypt ; but it is no less true, that nearly all the disserta- 
 tions which occupy its splendid volumes might have been 
 written by men who had never quitted Paris, nor seen any 
 other document besides those which are supplied by the 
 Greek and Roman authors. This remark applies, in the 
 strictest sense, to the long article by M. Jomard on the 
 Pyramids. It is a mere abridgment of the descriptive nar- 
 rations left by Herodotus, Diodorus, Strabo, Pliny, Ammia- 
 nus, and by some later writers of the Arabian school. In 
 regard to the Sphinx, again, we subjoin in a note the sum 
 of all the intelligence which is conveyed to the readers of 
 Europe by the renowned philosophers of Napoleon the 
 Great.* 
 
 We know not whether it will be consolatory to the reader 
 
 * Son 41 Ovation, d'environ 13 metres au-dessus du sol aetuel, reste 
 comme temoin et comine mesure de l’enldvement des pierres qui a ete 
 fait a la superficie pour dresser cette partie de la montagne. La croupe, 
 & peine sensible, semble settlement tracee sur le sol dans une longueur 
 de pres de 22 metres; et le cdte que nous avons voulu decouvrir, en 
 faisant enlever la sable que les vents ont accumule jnsqu’au niveau de 
 la montagne, ne nous a offert, sur une profondeur de 9 d 10 metres en- 
 viron, aucune forme regulidre : quant d l’excavaiion qui avait dte re- 
 marquee sur la tdte, elle n'est profonde que de 2 metres 924 millimetres, 
 d'une forme unique et irrdgulidre.— Description del' Egypt, vol. ii. p. 52, 
 Antiquites. 
 
THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. 
 
 121 
 
 to be informed, that this remarkable statue is again as much 
 under the dominion of the desert as it was half a century ago ; 
 and, consequently, that it now meets the eye of the Egyp- 
 tian traveller shrouded in sand to the same depth as before. 
 Dr. Richardson relates that the wind and the Arabs had re- 
 placed the covering on this venerable piece of antiquity, and 
 hence that the lower parts were quite invisible. “ The 
 breast, shoulders, and neck, which are those of a human being, 
 remain uncovered, as also the back, which is that of a lion ; 
 the neck is very much eroded, and, to a person near, the 
 head seems as if it were too heavy for its support. The 
 headdress has the appearance of an old-fashioned wig, 
 projecting out about the ears, like the hair of the Berberi 
 Arabs ; the ears project considerably, the nose is broken, 
 the whole face has been painted red, which is the colour 
 assigned to the ancient inhabitants of Egypt, and to all the 
 deities of the country except Osiris. The features are 
 Nubian, or what, from ancient representations, may be 
 called ancient Egyptian, which is quite different from the 
 negro feature. The expression is particularly placid and 
 benign ; so much so, that the worshipper of the Sphinx 
 might hold up his god as superior to all the other gods of 
 wood and stone which the blinded nations worshipped.”* 
 
 He adds that there is no opening found in the body of the 
 Sphinx whereby to ascertain whether it is hollow or not ; 
 but we learn from Dr. Pococke that there is an entrance both 
 in the back and in the top of the head, the latter of which, 
 he thinks, might serve for the arts of the priests in uttering 
 oracles, while the former might be meant for descending to 
 the apartments beneath, t 
 
 As to the dimensions of the figure, Pococke found the 
 head and neck, — all that were above ground, — to be twenty- 
 seven feet high ; the breast was thirty-three feet wide ; and 
 the entire length about a hundred and thirty. Pliny esti- 
 mated it at a hundred and thirteen feet long, and sixty- 
 three in height. According to Dr. Richardson, the stretch 
 of the back is about a hundred and twenty feet, and the 
 elevation of the head above the sand from thirty to thirty- 
 five, ^ — a result which accords pretty nearly with the mea- 
 surement of Coutelle. It is obvious, at the same time, that 
 
 * Travels, vol. i. p. 152. 
 
 f Vol. i. p. 46. 
 
122 
 
 MECHANICAL LABOURS Ot 
 
 the discrepancy in these reports as to the elevation of the 
 figure must be attributed to the varying depth of the sand, 
 which appears to have accumulated greatly since the days 
 of the Roman naturalist. The Sphinx was entire in the 
 time of Abdollatiph, who describes its graceful appearance 
 and the admirable proportion in the different features of the 
 countenance, which excited his astonishment above every 
 thing he had seen in Egypt. Makrisi states that it was 
 mutilated by the Sheik Mohammed, who, in the spirit of a 
 true Mussulman, thought himself bound to destroy all 
 images, and every thing indeed which bore the slightest 
 resemblance to a living creature. He w r as called the 
 Faster, — an expression which denoted his rigid adherence 
 to the rules of his church ; while his attack on the Sphinx, 
 and on the stone lions at the gates of Cairo, established his 
 reputation as a furious bigot. 
 
 The learned have indulged in the utmost latitude of con- 
 jecture respecting the design of such figures. As they are 
 all found placed near temples and consecrated buildings, it 
 has been justly inferred that their emblematical form must 
 have had some relation to the theological opinions or re- 
 ligious rites of the ancient Egyptians. According to some 
 authors, the countenance of a beautiful woman, combined 
 with the body of a lion or other animal, intimated the allur- 
 ing aspect with which vice at first assails the unwary, and 
 the besotted monsters which she makes them when caught 
 in her fangs. Others, again, have regarded them as astro- 
 nomical symbols, marking the passage of the sun from the 
 sign Leo into that of Virgo, and thereby shadowing forth 
 the happy period when the overflowing of the Nile diffuses 
 the blessings of health and plenty throughout the whole 
 land. To us the import of this vast hieroglyphic appears 
 somewhat more profound and mystical. The philosophers 
 of the East, w r ho accustomed themselves to view the created 
 universe as the effect of a certain mysterious generation, 
 naturally regarded the First Cause as combining both sexes, 
 as exercising, in a manner entirely incomprehensible to the 
 human intellect, the male and the female energies, and 
 thereby becoming the parent of every thing that exists. It 
 will, accordingly, be found that to the Sphinx are ascribed 
 attributes which do not belong to a man or to a woman 
 singly, and which cannot be united in the same figure with- 
 
THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. 
 
 123 
 
 out representing that imaginary hermaphrodite which the 
 refined speculation of the orientals has enshrined in the 
 darkest recesses of their mystic theology.* On a subject, 
 however, so far removed from the ordinary path of investi- 
 gation in modern times, and so little likely either to instruct 
 or amuse, it may be sufficient to have suggested materials 
 for reflection to such as are inclined to enter at greater 
 length upon such abstruse inquiries. 
 
 Connected with the stupendous undertakings of the 
 Egyptian architects, there is an occurrence mentioned by 
 Herodotus, to which we shall merely direct the attention 
 of the reader. Alluding to a temple erected at Sais in 
 honour of Minerva, the historian observes that what, in his 
 opinion, was most of all to be admired, was a sanctuary 
 brought by Amasis from Elephantine, consisting of one 
 entire stone. The carriage of it employed two thousand 
 men, all sailors, for the whole period of three years. The 
 length of this edifice, if it may be so called, was twenty-one 
 cubits, the width fourteen, and the height eight. It was 
 placed at the entrance of the temple ; and the reason as- 
 signed for its being carried no farther is, that the architect, 
 reflecting upon his long fatigue, sighed deeply, and thereby 
 alarmed the superstition of the king, who considered it as a 
 bad omen. Some, however, affirm, that one of the men 
 employed in working a lever was crushed to death, — an 
 event which discouraged Amasis, and induced him to desist 
 from his enterprise.! 
 
 We know that the practice of erecting monolithic tem- 
 ples, or sanctuaries hollowed out in a single stone, was very 
 general in Egypt ; some striking specimens being still pre- 
 served in the higher parts of the country. But we question 
 whether the power of modem mechanics could remove from 
 
 * Les Sphinx des Egyptiens ont les deux sexes, c’est A dire qn’ils sont 
 
 ftmelles par devant, ayant une tite de femme,— et miles derriire C’est 
 
 une remarque que personne n’avait encore faite. II resulte, de l’inspec- 
 tion de quelques monumens, que les artistes Grecs donnaient aussi des 
 natures composees A ces itres mixtes, et qu’ils faisaient mime des sphinx 
 barbus, comme le preuve un bas-relief en terre cuite conserve A la Far- 
 nesina. Lorsque Herodote nomme les sphinx des androsphinges , il a 
 voulu designer par cette expression la dupliciti de leur sexe. Les sphinx 
 qui sont aux quatre faces de la pointe de l’obilisque du soleil, sont re- 
 marquables par leurs mains d’hommes armies d’ongles crochus, comme 
 les griffes des bites firoces. — Winkelman. 
 
 j Herpdotus, lib. ii. c. 175. 
 
124 
 
 MECHANICAL LABOURS 0? 
 
 the quarry, and convey to the distance of four hundred 
 miles, a mass of rock thirty-two feet long, twenty-one broad, 
 and twelve ' in height. It is only in a nation where the 
 Pyramids continue to bear witness to the astonishing effects 
 produced by labour and perseverance that such things must 
 not be pronounced incredible. The obelisks, too, some of 
 which adorn more than one capital city in Europe, prove 
 that the resources of the Egyptian engineer are not to be 
 measured by the progress of similar arts, at the same period, 
 in any part of Italy or Greece. 
 
 But our limits forbid us to indulge in details. We hasten, 
 therefore, to leave the vast cemetery which surrounded the 
 ancient Memphis, and of which the Pyramids may be con- 
 sidered as the principal decorations, by noticing the re- 
 searches of Mr. Salt and his coadjutor Caviglia, in the 
 ruined edifices or tombs which crowd the neighbourhood of 
 Djizeh. Viewed from the monument of Cheops, they ap- 
 pear in countless multitudes, scattered without order among 
 the larger buildings, as the graves in a churchyard round 
 the church, and extend towards the north and south along 
 the left bank of the Nile, as far as the eye can reach. 
 These remains of antiquity were noticed by Pococke and 
 other travellers, but were not till lately examined with the 
 attention which they appear to deserve. They are de- 
 scribed as being generally of an oblong form, having their 
 walls slightly inclined from the perpendicular inwards,— 
 the peculiar characteristic of ancient Egyptian architec- 
 ture — flat roofed, with a sort of parapet round the outside 
 formed of stones, rounded at the top, and rising about a 
 foot and a half above the level of the terrace. The walls 
 are constructed of large masses of rock of irregular shape, 
 seldom rectangular, though neatly fitted to each other, 
 somewhat in the manner of the Cyclopean structures, as they 
 are called, which are found in various parts of Greece. 
 
 The first of these mausoleums examined by Mr. Caviglia 
 was found to have the inside walls covered with stucco, and 
 embellished with rude paintings, one of which, though much 
 defaced, evidently represented the sacred boat, while another 
 displayed a procession of figures, each carrying a lotus in 
 his hand. At the southern extremity were several mould- 
 ering mummies laid one over the other in a recumbent 
 uosture. Many of the bones remained entire, and among 
 
THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. 
 
 125 
 
 the rest was a scull with part of its cloth covering inscribea 
 with hieroglyphics. The second edifice he explored had 
 no paintings, but contained several fragments of statues. 
 In one of the chambers were found two pieces of marble 
 composing an entire figure, almost as large as life, in the 
 act of walking, with the left leg stretched forward, and the 
 two arms hanging down and resting on the thighs. F rom 
 the position of this statue, and from that of a pedestal and 
 the foot of another figure, in a different chamber, both facing 
 the openings into the respective apartments, Mr. Salt is of 
 opinion that they were so placed for the express purpose 
 of being seen by the friends of the deceased from an ad- 
 joining corridor ; the statues themselves bearing, as he 
 thinks, evident marks of being intended for portraits of the 
 persons whom they were meant to represent. The several 
 parts were marked with a strict attention to nature, and 
 coloured after life, having artificial eyes of glass or trans- 
 parent stones, to give them the air of living men. A head 
 was discovered, but it did not exactly fit the statue in ques- 
 tion, though it probably belonged to the foot and pedestal ; 
 but its chief value consisted in its similarity in style and 
 features to that of the Sphinx, having the same facial line, 
 the same sweetness of expression and marking in the mouth, 
 and the same roundness and peculiarity which characterize 
 the rest of the countenance, — circumstances which tend to 
 prove its great antiquity. In removing the fragments, eight 
 hours were employed in enlarging the opening of the cham- 
 ber to enable the workmen to force them through ; whence 
 it is evident that the statue must have been placed in its cell 
 before the edifice was completely finished. The same obser- 
 vation, indeed, applies to the Pyramids ; the sarcophagus, 
 and other remains of art contained in which, must have been 
 introduced before the passages were lined with granite, 
 the space being now too contracted to admit of their con- 
 veyance in a perfect state. We are informed by Mr. Salt 
 that many of the fragments found in these tombs, composed 
 of alabaster as well as of the hardest rock, give a much 
 higher idea of Egyptian sculpture than has usually been 
 entertained ; the utmost attention being shown by the artist 
 to the anatomical properties of the human figure, to the 
 swell of the muscles and the knitting of the joints. 
 
 In a third of these stone edifices was a boat of a large 
 
 E2 
 
126 
 
 MECHANICAL LABOURS OF 
 
 size, sculptured with a square sail, different from any now 
 employed on the Nile. In the first chamber of this building 
 were paintings, in bas-relief, of men, deer, and birds, — the 
 men engaged in planning and preparing certain pieces of 
 furniture, hewing blocks of wood, and pressing out skins 
 either of wine or oil. The top of the second chamber is 
 hollowed out in the form of an arch. In this apartment, it 
 is added, the figures and hieroglyphics are exceedingly 
 beautiful. On the right is represented a quarrel between 
 some boatmen, executed with great spirit ; and, a little 
 farther on, a number of men engaged in the different pur- 
 suits of agriculture, — ploughing, hoeing up the ground, 
 bringing in their com on asses, and storing it in the maga- 
 zines. On the west are several vases painted in the most 
 vivid colours ; and on the south a band of musicians playing 
 on the harp, flute, and a species of clarionet, together with 
 a group of dancing women, tinged of a yellow colour, as is 
 the case in most of the temples of Upper Egypt. In the 
 same structure are two other chambers, one unembellished, 
 the other having carved on its walls a variety of figures and 
 hieroglyphics. In a fifth of these mortal dwellings were 
 similar inscriptions on a thick coat of white plaster, exe- 
 cuted, as it would appear, with a wooden stamp or mould. 
 
 Many others of thes.e ancient sepulchres were cleared 
 out, and found to consist of a number of different apartments, 
 variously disposed, but similarly decorated with carvings 
 and paintings, according, perhaps, to the wealth or caprice 
 of those who erected them ; one, in particular, from the deli- 
 cacy of its colours, its general pleasing aspect, and superior 
 style of execution, w*as deemed deserving of the closest 
 attention. It is further observed, that, in all of them, there 
 were discovered fragments of bitumen, great quantities of 
 mummy-cloth and of human bones, which seemed to remove 
 all doubt of their having served- the purpose of entombing 
 the j3ead. A very important circumstance yet remains to 
 be noticed. In some one apartment of all these monumental 
 edifices was a deep shaft or well, from the bottom of which 
 a narrow passage conducted to a subterraneous chamber. 
 One of these shafts, cleared out by Mr. Caviglia, was sixty 
 feet deep, and in the room a little to the south of the lower 
 extremity of the pit was standing, without a lid, a plain but 
 highly-finished sarcophagus, of the same dimensions nearly 
 
THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. 
 
 127 
 
 as that in the Pyramid of Cheops, though still more exqui- 
 sitely polished. This discovery supplies a strong argument 
 in support of the opinion that all the Pyramids were used as 
 sepulchres, whatever may have been their primary and more 
 important object. 
 
 As to the comparative antiquity of the mausoleums just 
 described, Mr. Salt entertained an opinion different from 
 that of most writers ; considering the ground in which they 
 stand as the burial-place of the kings of Egypt prior to the 
 construction of the Pyramids, and as having been connected 
 with Heliopolis before the seat of government was trans- 
 ferred to Memphis. The more general belief, however, is, 
 that these edifices are not only much more recent than the 
 vast structures which they surround, but that in a majority 
 of cases they are composed of tbe coating of the Pyramids, 
 removed from their surface either by violence or by the 
 effects of time. As a confirmation of this view, it may be 
 stated that the walls of these tombs are formed of the same 
 kind of stones which were used for coating the more ma- 
 jestic monuments, and covered with hieroglyphics, as were 
 also the casings of the Pyramids at a remote epoch. On 
 these last Abdollatiph says that he himself saw as many 
 inscriptions as would fill ten thousand volumes ; and other 
 authors have recorded the same fact in language equally 
 strong. A circumstance mentioned by Mr. Salt appears to 
 us to be completely decisive of the question. He saw a 
 stone, bearing an inscription of hieroglyphics and figures, 
 built into one of the walls upside down, — a fact which 
 proves beyond a doubt that it had constituted a part of 
 some other structure before it was placed in its present 
 position. It is probable, too, that the little mounds which 
 diversify the surface of the neighbouring country were origi- 
 nally buildings of the same description, but of a still higher 
 antiquity ; and that they have gradually mouldered down 
 into the shape they now exhibit, under the pressure of age 
 and the wasting influence of the elements. 
 
 In examining the interesting district which includes 
 Djizeh, Abousir, Sakhara, and Dashour, and which may 
 even be regarded as extending to the borders of Lake Moeris, 
 the contemplative spirit finds itself in a great city of the 
 dead, — reading the annals of a mighty people, the impres- 
 sions of whose power and genius are most closely associated 
 
128 
 
 MECHANICAL LABOURS, ETC. 
 
 with emblems of mortality, — whose thoughts must have been 
 constantly occupied with the value of posthumous fame, 
 and who appear to have spent their lives in preparing a 
 receptacle for the body after all its earthly attachments 
 should have passed away. At the present hour, the wide 
 plain of Memphis is in the possession of those who urged 
 its labours or presided over its affairs three thousand years 
 ago. The peasant or the traveller, accordingly, who seeks 
 a dwelling in that desolate region, must enter the precincts 
 of a tomb, and share an apartment with bones which have 
 been insensible during many centuries, and be surrounded 
 with figures and inscriptions which point to events not re- 
 corded in any other history. No nation of the ancient world 
 has so successfully perpetuated its existence through the 
 medium of death. The actual inhabitants of Egypt sink 
 into insignificance when compared with the mouldering dust 
 of their ancestors ; and the proudest edifices which they 
 have raised since the days of the Pharaohs produce not on 
 the mind of the spectator ahy other feeling than that the 
 sons have gradually degenerated from the power or ambition 
 of their fathers. 
 
 We reserve for another chapter an account of the ruins, 
 more strictly architectural, which continue to adorn the sites 
 of the ancient cities, especially in the upper division of the 
 kingdom. 
 
LITERATURE AND SCIENCE, ETC. 
 
 129 
 
 CHAPTER Y. 
 
 The Literature and Science of the Ancient Egyptians. 
 
 Remains of Egyptian Literature scanty but valuable— Meaning of Hie- 
 roglyphics — Picture-writing — Progress towards an Alphabet ; Illus- 
 trated by the Hebrew and other Oriental Tongues — Different Modes 
 of Writing practised by the Egyptians, Epistolographic, Hieratic, and 
 Hieroglyphic properly so called— Discovery of Rosetta Stone— Re- 
 searches of Dr. Young and Champollion — The Practice of Chinese in 
 rendering Words Phonetic — The Advantages of the Hieroglyphical 
 Method — Discoveries of Mr. Salt — Anecdote of King Tharnus— Works 
 of Thoth or Hermes — Quotation of Clemens Alexandrinus — Greeks 
 learned History from Egypt — The Numerical System of the Ancient 
 Egyptians — The Arabians derived their Arithmetical Signs from 
 Egyptians. 
 
 The materials for this section of our work are neither 
 abundant nor various ; but they are, nevertheless, extremely 
 satisfactory, and point out, in a manner free from all am- 
 biguity, the first steps taken by man in his attempts to 
 communicate his thoughts through the medium of written 
 language. The literature of ancient Egypt, we must admit, 
 does not, like that of Greece, call forth our admiration by 
 splendid poems and regular histories ; nor, like that of the 
 Hebrews, by preserving the events of the primeval world 
 in a record sanctioned by the Spirit of Eternal Wisdom. 
 But, notwithstanding, in the brief notices which have come 
 down to our age of the methods adopted by the early Egyp- 
 tians for giving permanency to their conceptions, we have a 
 treasure which, to the philosopher, is more valuable than 
 the sublime verses of Homer, and, in a merely grammatical 
 point of view, not inferior to the inspired narrative of Moses 
 itself. We allude to the system of hieroglyphics ; the 
 knowledge of which is very important, both as exhibiting 
 authentic specimens of picture-writing — the original expe- 
 dient of the rude annalist — and also as indicating the path 
 which led to that nobler invention — the use of an alphabet. 
 
 The term hieroglyphic literally denotes sacred sculpture, 
 and was employed by the Greeks in reference to those 
 figures and inscriptions which they found engraven on the 
 
130 
 
 LITERATURE AND SCIENCE OF 
 
 temples, sepulchres, and other public buildings of Egypt. 
 The practice, however, out of which it arose, appears to be 
 common to the whole human race in the first stage of civil- 
 ization ; being dictated to them by necessity, and suggested 
 by the most obvious associations. Man learns to paint 
 before he attempts to write ; he draws the outline of a figure 
 long before he is able to describe an event ; he confines his 
 representations to the eye during ages in which he can find 
 no more direct means of addressing the understanding, or 
 of amusing the fancy. In the infancy of society, all com- 
 munication not strictly verbal is carried on through the 
 medium of picture-writing ; and this imperfect method 
 continues in all countries until a happy accident, or the 
 visit of a more refined people, makes known the secret of 
 alphabetical notation. 
 
 When, for example, the Spaniards first landed on the 
 shores of America, the event was announced to the inhab- 
 itants of the interior by rough drawings of men, arms, and 
 ships; some specimens of which have been preserved by 
 Purchas, to whose laborious diligence we are indebted for 
 the best account of European discovery and conquest in the 
 western hemisphere. But, generally speaking, the aid of 
 an alphabet so completely supersedes the more primitive 
 usage, that, in most countries, all traces of the latter are 
 speedily forgotten ; and it is only by a remote and rather 
 indistinct species of reasoning that the philosophical gram- 
 marian endeavours to connect the refined literature of a 
 polished age with the rude efforts of the savage to imbody 
 his thoughts in external signs. The monuments of Egypt, 
 from their extreme durability, supply a history which no- 
 where else exists of the successive steps which conduct 
 mankind from the first point to the last in the important 
 art now under our consideration. Our limits will not per- 
 mit us to enter into an investigation which would itself 
 occupy an entire volume ; we shall therefore confine our- 
 selves to a general statement of first principles, and to 
 such an illustration of them as may prove intelligible to the 
 young reader, who may not have other opportunities of 
 studying this important subject. 
 
 The first and simplest expedient, then, is that already 
 mentioned, of attempting to convey and perpetuate the 
 knowledge of an event by forming a rude picture of it. 
 
THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. 
 
 131 
 
 The inconvenience inseparable from such a method would 
 soon suggest the practice of reducing the delineation, and 
 of substituting a sword for an armed man, a flag for an 
 invading host, and a curved line for a ship. In the earlier 
 stages of contraction, the abbreviated forms would still re- 
 tain a faint resemblance to the original figure ; but in process 
 of time, as the number of ideas and relations increased, the 
 signs would deviate farther from the likeness of an object, 
 and assume more and more the character of a conventional 
 mark, expressive of thought as well as of mere existence. At 
 this era, however, which may be regarded as the second in 
 order, every sign would continue to be a separate word, 
 denoting some individual thing, td^ether with all the cir- 
 cumstances and associated reflections which could be con- 
 veyed by so imperfect a vehicle. 
 
 It is worthy of notice that the language of China retains 
 the aspect now described at the present day. Attached to 
 old habits, or repelled from imitation by the contempt which 
 usually attaches to ignorance, the people of that vast em- 
 pire refuse to adopt the grammatical improvements of 
 Europe, which would lead them to analyze their written 
 speech into its alphabetical elements. Their composition, 
 accordingly, still consists of a set of words or marks expres- 
 sive of certain ideas ; becoming, of course, more complicated 
 as the thoughts to be conveyed are more numerous or sub- 
 tile, and requiring, at length, a great degree of very painful 
 and unprofitable study to comprehend their full import. 
 
 The third and most valuable movement in the progress of 
 grammatical invention is that which provides a sign for 
 expressing a sound instead of denoting a thing, and dissects 
 human speech into letters instead of stopping at words. 
 The apparatus for accomplishing this object appears to have 
 been at the first sufficiently awkward and inconvenient. In 
 order to write the name of a man, for example, the inge- 
 nuity of the Egyptian philologist could suggest nothing 
 more suitable than to arrange, in a given space, a certain 
 number of objects, the initial letters of which, when pro- 
 nounced, would furnish the sounds required. For instance, 
 if a person following that scheme of notation wished to re- 
 cord that Pompey had landed in Egypt, he would describe 
 the action by the wonted signs employed in picture-writing ; 
 but to express the appellation of the general, he would find 
 
132 
 
 LITERATURE AND SCIENCE OF 
 
 it necessary to draw as many objects as would supply in the 
 first letters of their names, P , o, m, p, e, y. In writing the 
 word London, on this principle, we might take the figures 
 of a lion , of an oak, of a net, of a door, of an oval, and of a 
 nail ; the initial sounds or first letters of which words would 
 give the name of the British capital. 
 
 After a certain period there arose, from this modified 
 hieroglyphic, a regular alphabet constructed so as to repre- 
 sent and express the various sounds uttered by the human 
 voice. This invention, being subsequently communicated 
 to the Greeks, contributed in a great measure to their im- 
 provement, and laid the foundation of their literary fame. 
 The gift of Cadmus, who conveyed sixteen letters across 
 the Mediterranean, is celebrated in the traditional history 
 of the nation upon whom it was conferred ; and hence the 
 arrival of that renowned adventurer from the coast of Egypt 
 continues to be mentioned as the epoch when civilization 
 and a knowledge of the fine arts were first received by the 
 barbarians of eastern Europe. The trading communities 
 which had already stationed themselves on the shores of 
 Syria were probably, as we have elsewhere suggested, the 
 medium of intercourse between Egypt and Greece — a sup- 
 position which enables us to account for the similarity ob- 
 served by every scholar in the more ancient form of their 
 alphabetical characters. But, whatever ground there may 
 be for this conjecture, there is no doubt that the process 
 detected in the Egyptian monuments reveals the important 
 secret which the philosophical grammarian has so long 
 laboured to discover. 
 
 As a proof, and at the same time an illustration of the 
 argument now advanced, we may recall to the mind of the 
 oriental student that the alphabet of the Hebrew, as well as 
 of the other cognate tongues, is in fact a list of names, and 
 that the original form of the letters bore a resemblance to 
 the objects which they were used to express. Alcph, Beth, 
 Gimel, which in the common language of the country de- 
 noted an ox, a horse, a camel, were at first pictures or rude 
 likenesses of a dwelling and of the two animals just spe- 
 cified ; proceeding on the very familiar system, not yet 
 exploded in books for children, w here an a6s, a bull, and a 
 cat are associated with the first three letters of the Roman 
 alphabet. The process of abbreviation, which is rapidly 
 
THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. 
 
 133 
 
 applied by an improving people to all the technical proper- 
 ties of language, soon substituted an arbitrary sign for the 
 complete portrait, and restricted the use of the alphabetical 
 symbol to the representation of an elementary sound. 
 
 But in Egypt the use of the hieroglyph was not entirely 
 superseded by the invention of an alphabet. For many 
 purposes connected with religion, and even with the more 
 solemn occupations of civil life, the emblematical style of 
 composition continued to enjoy a preference ; on a principle 
 similar to that which disposes the Jew to perform his wor- 
 ship in Hebrew, and the Roman Catholic in Latin. There 
 appears also to have been a mixed language used by the 
 priests, partaking at once of hieroglyphics and of alpha- 
 betical characters ; which, in allusion to the class of men 
 by whom it was employed, was denominated hieratic. 
 Hence, in process of time, the Egyptians found themselves 
 in possession of three different modes of communication — 
 the hieroglyphic, properly so called, the hieratic, and the 
 demotic or common. This distinction is clearly recognised 
 in the following well-known passage extracted from the 
 works of Clemens Alexandrinus. 
 
 Those who are educated among the Egyptians, says he, 
 learn first of all the method of writing called the epistolo- 
 graphic ; secondly, the hieratic, which the sacred scribes 
 employ ; and, lastly, the most mysterious description, the 
 hieroglyphic, of which there are two kinds, — the one denot- 
 ing objects, in a direct manner, by means of the initial 
 sounds of words ; the other is symbolical. Of the sym- 
 bolical signs one class represents objects by exhibiting a 
 likeness or picture ; another, by a metaphorical or less com- 
 plete resemblance ; and a third, by means of certain alle- 
 gorical enigmas. Thus, — to give an example of the three 
 methods in the symbolical division, — when they wish to 
 represent an object by the first, they fix upon a distinct re- 
 semblance ; such as a circle, when they want to indicate 
 the sun, and a crescent when their purpose is to denote the 
 moon. The second, or metaphorical, allows a considerable 
 freedom in selecting the emblem, and may be such as only 
 suggests the object by analogous qualities. For instance, 
 when they record the praises of kings in their theological 
 fables, they exhibit them in connexion with figurative allu- 
 sions which shadow forth their good actions and benign 
 M 
 
1 34 LITERATURE AND SCIENCE OF 
 
 dispositions. In this case the representation is not direct 
 but metaphorical. Of the third method of symbolical writ- 
 ing, the following will serve as an example : they assimilate 
 the oblique course of the planets to the body of a serpent, 
 but that of the sun to the figure of a scarabseus.* 
 
 In the above extract there is mention made of that spe- 
 cies of hieroglyphics which expresses objects by the initial 
 letters , — a remark that is now perfectly intelligible, but 
 which, till the year 1814, presented a most perplexing 
 enigma to the ablest scholars in Europe. It does not prop- 
 erly belong to the business of this chapter to give a history 
 of the various steps which finally led to a discovery of the 
 path that promises to conduct the scholar to the richest 
 treasures of Egyptian learning ; but as the subject is of 
 considerable interest, and affords at the same time a striking 
 instance of the success which hardly ever fails to reward 
 an enlightened perseverance, we shall enter into a few 
 details. 
 
 When the French were in Egypt they discovered, in the 
 foundation of a fort near Rosetta, a block or slab of basalt, 
 which presented an inscription in three distinct languages, 
 namely, the sacred letters, the letters of the country, and 
 the Greek. The first class obviously comprehends the 
 hieroglyphic and hieratic, the mode of writing used by the 
 priests ; while the second not less manifestly identifies 
 itself with what Clemens calls the epistolographic, and 
 which is now usually particularized as demotic or enchorial. 
 Unfortunately a considerable part of the first inscription 
 was wanting ; the beginning of the second, and the end of 
 the third, were also mutilated ; so that there were no precise 
 points of coincidence from which the expounder could set 
 out in his attempt to decipher the unknown characters. 
 But the second inscription, notwithstanding its deficiencies 
 near the beginning, was still sufficiently perfect to allow a 
 comparison to be made of its different parts with bach other, 
 and with the Greek, by the same method which would have 
 been followed if it had been entire. Thus, on examining, 
 in their relative situation, the parts corresponding to two 
 
 * We liave given a paraphrase rather than a literal version ; the 
 original not admitting of a strict rendering without sacrificing the sense 
 of the author, which alone we have endeavoured to retain. 
 
THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. 
 
 135 
 
 passages of the Greek inscription in which Alexander and 
 Alexandria Occurred, there were soon recognised two well- 
 marked groups of characters resembling each other, which 
 were therefore considered as representing these names. A 
 variety of similar coincidences were detected, and especially 
 that between a certain assemblage of figures and the word 
 Ptolemy, which occurred no fewer than fourteen times ; 
 and hence, as the Greek was known to be a translation of 
 the Egyptian symbols, the task of the decipherer was 
 limited to a discovery of the alphabetical power of the 
 several marks, or objects, which denoted that particular 
 name. It was by pursuing this path that success was ulti- 
 mately attained. It was satisfactorily made out that hiero- 
 glyphics not only expressed ideas, or represented things, 
 but also that they were frequently used as letters ; and that, 
 when employed for the last of these purposes, the names 
 of the several objects in the language of the country sup- 
 plied the alphabetical sounds which composed any particular 
 word. 
 
 The first steps which led to this important discovery 
 were made by Dr. Young, who ascertained that certain 
 figures in the group, corresponding to the word Ptolemy, 
 were used alphabetically, and represented sounds. Hence 
 the distinction of phonetic hieroglyphics, as opposed to those 
 which are understood to denote objects only. A key was 
 thereby found for unlocking the storehouses of Egyptian 
 learning, which had remained inaccessible to many genera- 
 tions ; and, whether the treasure shall prove equal in value 
 to the expectations which have been entertained of it, there 
 is now the greatest probability that the famed wisdom of 
 one of the most ancient nations of the world shall be ren- 
 dered familiar to the modern reader. Already, indeed, 
 history and chronology have received essential aid from the 
 investigations of recent travellers, guided by the light which 
 has just been revealed. The names of some of the most 
 distinguished Egyptian princes, even of the Pharaonic 
 dynasties, have been deciphered from monuments erected 
 during their respective reigns. The canon of Manetho, 
 which it had become so common to treat with contempt, 
 has been verified in many points ; and in this way the titles 
 of several monarchs which had been abandoned as fabu- 
 lous, including Misphragmuthosis, Amenophis, Harnesses, 
 
136 
 
 literature and science op 
 
 and Sesostris, are once more restored to the page of authen- 
 tic history, and to their place in the succession of Egyptian 
 sovereigns. 
 
 Nothing, perhaps, connected with this interesting sub- 
 ject is more surprising than that the priests of Heliopolis 
 and Memphis should have continued the use of imitative 
 and symbolic hieroglyphics so long after they had become 
 acquainted with the more convenient apparatus of alpha- 
 betical writing. But this fact, which might otherwise 
 appear incredible, finds a counterpart in the practice of the 
 Chinese, who, as we have already mentioned, retain even 
 at the present day a modified species of hieroglyphics, — a 
 literary notation that denotes things or ideas instead of ex- 
 pressing sounds, — and which they likewise can render pho- 
 netic at pleasure. When, for example, they have occasion 
 to indicate any foreign combination of vocal sounds, such 
 as the name of a European object or person, they attach a 
 certain mark to their words, and thereby convert them into 
 letters ; the initial consonant of the several terms supplying 
 the successive alphabetical articulations necessary to form 
 the noun in question. At this stage all the difficulty of the 
 invention is conquered. The moment that men have 
 learned to denote, by a visible sign, a sound instead of a 
 sensation or an event, they have acquired possession of an 
 alphabet ; and then nothing more is requisite except to 
 abbreviate the figures so as to make them convenient for the 
 rapid uses of ordinary life, — to dismiss the picture, in short, 
 and substitute an arbitrary mark, according to the practice 
 of European nations. But the ancient Egyptians, like the 
 modem Chinese, thought proper to rest satisfied with one- 
 half of the advantages which their ingenuity had earned ; 
 continuing, for ages after the knowledge of phonetic charac- 
 ters, to intersperse them with the imitative and symbolical 
 figures which in every other country those others have com- 
 pletely superseded. 
 
 Leaving it to the historian of this remarkable discovery 
 to detail the incidents which accompanied the investigations 
 of Dr. Young, Silvestre de Sacy, Akerblad, Salt, and Cham- 
 pollion, we confine ourselves to the statement of the im- 
 portant faet, that, from a copious induction of instances, 
 extending in some cases to several hundreds for a single 
 character, the last of these authors has completely ascer- 
 
THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. 
 
 137 
 
 tained that every phonetic hieroglyph is the image of some 
 physical object whose name, in the spoken language of 
 Egypt, begins with the sound or letter which the sculptured 
 figure was destined to represent. Thus the image of an 
 eagle, which in the Coptic is Ahom , became the sign of the 
 vowel A ; that of a small vase, called Berbe in Egyptian, 
 stood for the consonant B ; that of a hand, Tot, represented 
 the letter T ; that of a hatchet, Kelebin , was the sign of 
 the consonant K ; that of a lion or lioness, Labo, the sign 
 of the consonant L ; that of a nycticorax, Movladj, the 
 sign of M ; that of a flute, Sebiandjo , the sign of the con- 
 sonant S ; that of a mouth, Rd, the sign of the consonant 
 R ; and the abridged image of a garden, Shene, the sign of 
 the compound articulation Sh. 
 
 It is obvious from the statement now made, that, as there 
 are a great many objects the names of which begin with 
 the same letter, an author using phonetic hieroglyphics 
 must have had a wide field in which to select his characters. 
 Some of the letters were in fact represented by fifteen and 
 even by twenty-five different figures. M. Champollion is 
 of opinion that, in writing the articulated sounds of a word, 
 the Egyptians chose, among the great number of characters 
 which they were at liberty to employ, those figures which 
 by their qualities represented such ideas as had a relation 
 to the object which they meant to express. For example, 
 in designating the name of Notib, one of their deities, they 
 selected, to express the letter B, the figure of a ram in pre- 
 ference to any other sign, because the ram was by itself a 
 symbol of this deity ; so much so, indeed, that we often 
 find him represented under the figure of a man, with the 
 head of that animal. For the same reason, to express the 
 letter N, they chose from among the several characters em- 
 ployed for the purpose the sign of a vase, because it was 
 usual to represent this god with one of these vessels lying 
 at his feet. Again, the lion, which in Coptic was called 
 Labo, stood for the letter L ; and though this sound was 
 represented by several other signs, the Egyptians, in 
 writing the name of Ptolemy, and afterward of the Roman 
 emperors, uniformly employed the figure of that noble ani- 
 mal, to denote, no doubt, the corresponding qualities in their 
 powerful and magnanimous sovereigns. 
 
 Aji author was thus enabled to combine with a name the 
 
 M 3 
 
138 
 
 LITERATURE and science of 
 
 character of the individual to whom it applied, — possessing 
 through these means a fund of the most delicate flattery or 
 panegyric. Perhaps it may have been solely for such rea- 
 sons that hieroglyphics continued to be used for inscriptions 
 and legends, in preference to the bare notation of alphabet- 
 ical signs, long after the superior convenience belonging to 
 the latter, for merely literary purposes, must have been 
 universally appreciated. 
 
 We may observe, too, that in writing hieroglyphics the 
 figures may be placed in four different ways, and are often 
 found so arranged on the same monument. They are either 
 in perpendicular lines, and may be read from right to left 
 or from left to right ; or they are in a horizontal direction, 
 following the same variety as to the mode of reading. Two 
 rules, however, have been given to determine which way 
 any inscription or papyrus is to be deciphered. The first 
 is, that in hieroglyphical manuscripts the characters are for 
 the most part placed in perpendicular lines ; while in sculp- 
 tures and paintings, especially when they refer to persons, 
 the signs are situated horizontally. The second rule, 
 equally general and equally useful, is, that every inscription, 
 manuscript, or legend of any kind whatever, is to be read 
 from the side towards which are turned the heads of the 
 animals or the angular edges of the characters. Thus a 
 line of hieroglyphics is like a regular procession, in which 
 all the images of the several objects follow the march of 
 the initial sign ; and it is probably to point out this direc- 
 tion that all the figures of men and lower animals, whether 
 birds, reptiles, insects, or quadrupeds, have been designed 
 in profile. 
 
 After what has been narrated, it is scarcely necessary to 
 observe, that the learning of an Egyptian, like the similar 
 acquirements of a modem Chinese, would be measured by 
 the number of hieroglyphic or ideographic signs which he 
 was able to interpret. This remark, it is true, applies 
 almost exclusively to the figurative and symbolic classes 
 which, instead of sounds, denoted things or qualities. But 
 as there were scarcely any pieces of composition executed 
 entirely in phonetic characters, and without a considerable 
 intermixture of the two others, the means of acquiring 
 knowledge among the subjects of the Pharaohs must have 
 been extremely limited. Perhaps, at a more advanced 
 
THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. 
 
 139 
 
 period of hieroglyphical discovery, we shall .find that many 
 of the signs which are at present esteemed symbolical 
 were also used alphabetically, — an expectation which has 
 unquestionably been rendered more probable by the recent 
 investigations of Champollion among the ancient monu- 
 ments of Egypt. 
 
 This indefatigable author has arrived at the following 
 conclusions, founded on personal research, and supported 
 by the results published by other travellers : — 
 
 1. That the phonetic hieroglyphic alphabet can be applied 
 with success to the legends of every epoch indiscriminately, 
 and is the true key of the whole hieroglyphical system. 
 
 2. That the ancient Egyptians constantly employed this 
 alphabet to represent the sound of the words in their lan- 
 guage. 
 
 3. That all hieroglyphical inscriptions are composed of 
 signs, which, for the greatest part, are purely alphabetical. 
 
 4. That these alphabetical signs are of three different 
 Kinds, — the demotic, hieratic, and hieroglyphical, strictly 
 so called. 
 
 And, lastly , that the principles of this graphic system are 
 precisely those which were in use among the ancient 
 Egyptians. The hieroglyphical alphabet which he has 
 already discovered includes nearly nine hundred characters, 
 some of which are exclusively phonetic, but the greater 
 number appear also to combine the properties of the figura- 
 tive and the symbolical orders. 
 
 We cannot leave this interesting subject without men- 
 tioning a discovery made by Mr. Salt, which proves that 
 phonetic characters were in use as early as the reign of 
 Psammeticus, — an inference, indeed, which has been since 
 extended to a much remoter period of Egyptian history. It 
 had occurred that, as these characters were applied to the 
 names of foreign monarchs, — the Ptolemies and Roman 
 emperors, — so, in all probability, if known at the time, they 
 would likewise have been made use of in expressing the 
 names of the Ethiopian sovereigns who had previously held 
 the country in subjection. The result proved the sound- 
 ness of this conjecture. From some sketches made at 
 Abydos, he was fortunate enough to decipher the name of 
 SABAKO or XABAKO40, with the same termination which 
 was afterward found in a MEN 040 ; and in an inscription 
 
140 
 
 LITERATURE AND SCIENCE OF 
 
 taken from the ‘back of a small portico at Medinet Abou, he 
 discovered the name of TIPAKA, who, he imagines, can be 
 no other than “ Tirhakah, King of Ethiopia, who came out 
 to make war against Sennacherib, king of Ass 3 'ria.”* 
 
 If this supposed identity be admitted, it wall prove that 
 the phonetic characters were in use more than seven hun- 
 dred years before Christ, and it wrnuld also establish the 
 reign of a sovereign named in the Bible, of whose existence 
 some learned men have been inclined to doubt. Nor did 
 JAv. Salt’s discoveries stop here. Upon the high granitic 
 rocks of Elephantine, and also on a large column in front 
 of the great Temple of Karnac, he made out, with the 
 utmost ease, from beneath the obtrusive name of a Ptolemy 
 the appellation of IIEAMITIK written phonetically. This 
 name is also sculptured on one of the smaller temples at 
 Eleithias and on the Campensian obelisk, as well as on that 
 in Monte Citorio. But we have already remarked that the 
 use of phonetjc symbols can be satisfactorily traced back 
 as far as the reign of Misphragmuthosis, — fifteen centuries 
 at least before the Christian era.f 
 
 Some readers, it is presumed, will value this discovery 
 more because it seems to withdraw the veil which had long 
 concealed the origin of alphabetical w r riting, than for any 
 light which it may prove the means of throwing upon the 
 literature of the ancient Egyptians. There can be no doubt 
 that the Greeks were accustomed to attribute to the priests 
 of the Nile the merit of having first introduced the know- 
 ledge of letters as the representatives of vocal sounds,. 
 Plato, for example, relates, that, during the reign of King 
 Thamus, his secretary Thoth came to lay before him the 
 discoveries he had made, among which ivas the invention 
 
 * 9 Kings, chap. xix. v. 
 
 t We refer, once for all, to the following treatises as the sources of 
 oyF information on hieroglyphics : — The article “ Egypt,” in Supplement 
 to Eocy. Urit. An Account of some Recent Discoveries in Hieroglyphical 
 literature and Egyptian Antiquities, &c. by Thomas Young. M.D., F.R.S. 
 
 & M. Dacie’r, relative a l’Alphabet des Hieroglyphes Phonetiques, 
 par M. Champollion le Jeune. Precis da Sysu&me Jlieroglyphique 
 des Anciens Egyptiens, Sr. c. p&r le m£me Auteur. Lettres A M. le Due 
 de Blacas d'Aulps, &c., relatives au Mus£e Royal Egvptien de Turin, 
 jSs&ay on Dr. Young’s and M. Champolliorr’s Phonetic System of Hieror 
 xrlypluce, <fcc. ; by Henry Salt, Esq. Article “ Hieroglyphics,” in Edin. 
 flsriew, yol. xlv.p. 96. Lectures on the Elements of Hieroglyphics ang 
 /fgypfian Antiquities ; by the Marquis Spineto. 
 
THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. 
 
 141 
 
 of the alphabet ; and he consulted the king whether it might 
 be expedient to make it public. His majesty, who saw the 
 full value of the discovery, was particularly opposed to the 
 plan of recommending it to general use, and, like a true 
 politician, concealed the real cfftise, while he assigned one 
 more remote and secondary, why he wished that it should 
 be kept secret. He therefore told his ingenious minister, 
 that if the new mode of writing should be divulged, the 
 people would no longer pay any attention to hieroglyphics ; 
 and as these would consequently be soon forgotten, the 
 invention would, in its effects, prove one of the greatest 
 obstacles to the progress of knowledge. 
 
 Whatever may be the precise meaning of the passage 
 now quoted, it seems reasonable to infer from it, that in the 
 days of Plato the Greeks ascribed to the philosophers of 
 Egypt the honour of having devised a system of phonetic 
 signs, which finally superseded the cumbrous expedient of 
 writing by pictures. It may likewise be concluded, although 
 on grounds somewhat different, that hieroglyphics were not 
 invented after the use of letters had become known, with the 
 view of concealing mysteries from the multitude, but that 
 they were in fact the original mode of communication em- 
 ployed by all nations in the rude beginnings of society. To 
 suppose that they were introduced for the sake of enhancing 
 the paltry knowledge possessed by the priests, or for con- 
 fining the lights of science to the privileged orders of the 
 state, is an hypothesis contradicted by the most authentic 
 historical records ; while to assert that the Egyptians had 
 letters before they had hieroglyphics is not less absurd, says 
 Spineto, than to affirm that they danced before they could 
 walk. On this question the only difficulty we have to en- 
 counter is, to explain why they continued so long, in their 
 public monuments and more solemn transactions at least, to 
 use the ancient method after they had become acquainted 
 with a scheme of notation so much better suited to all the 
 purposes of literature. Perhaps certain notions of sanctity, 
 similar to those entertained by the Jews in regard to the 
 name of the Supreme Being, may have prevented the priests 
 of Pharaoh from revealing the attributes of their gods in the 
 vulgar idiom of the country. 
 
 In reference to the knowledge actually acquired of the 
 literature of ancient Egypt by means of the late discove- 
 
142 
 
 LITERATURE AND SCIENCE OF 
 
 ries in hieroglyphics, we are not entitled to speak in boastful 
 or very confident, language. The wasting hand of time, 
 which has rendered its effects visible even on the Pyramids, 
 has entirely destroyed the more perishable materials to 
 which the sages of Thebes nnd the magicians of Memphis 
 may have committed the science of their several genera- 
 tions. We know, too, that the bigotry of ignorance and of 
 superstition accomplished, in many cases, what the flood of 
 years had permitted to escape ; for w’hich reason we must 
 not estimate the extent of acquirement among the wise 
 men of Egypt by the scanty remains of their labours which 
 have been casually rescued from accident and violence. 
 From Diodorus Siculus we receive the information that in 
 the tomb of Osymandias were deposited twenty thousand 
 volumes, — a number which is reduced by Manetho to three 
 thousand five hundred and twenty-five, — all of which, on 
 account of their antiquity or the importance of their sub- 
 jects, were ascribed to Thoth or Hermes, who, it is well 
 known, united in his character the intelligence of a divinity 
 with the patriotism of a faithful minister. 
 
 Of these works, which unquestionably belong to a very 
 remote antiquity, we have a short account supplied by a 
 Christian bishop, Clemens of Alexandria, who appears to 
 have devoted much attention to the learning of the ancient 
 Egyptians. “ In that country,” he tells us, “ every indi- 
 vidual cultivates a different branch of philosophy, — an ar- 
 rangement which applies chiefly to their holy ceremonies. 
 In such processions the sijiger occupies the first place, carry- 
 ing in his hand an instrument of music. He is said to be 
 obliged to learn two of the books of Hermes ; one of which 
 contains hymns addressed to the gods, and the other the 
 rules by which a prince ought to govern. Next comes the 
 Horoscopus, holding a clock and the branch of a palm-tree, 
 which are the symbols of astrology. He must be completely 
 master of the four books of Hermes which treat of that 
 science. One of these explains the order of the fixed stars ; 
 the second, the motion and phases of the sun and moon • 
 the other two determine the times of their periodical rising 
 Then follows the Hierogrammatist or sacred scribe, with 
 tw r o feathers on his head, and a book and ruler in his 
 hand, to which are added the instruments of writing, some 
 ink and a reed. He must know what are called hiero* 
 
THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. 
 
 143 
 
 glyphics, and those branches of science which belong td 
 cosmography, geography, and astronomy, especially the 
 law r s of the sun, moon, and five planets ; he must be ac- 
 quainted with the territorial distribution of Egypt, the course 
 of the Nile, the furniture of the temples and of all conse- 
 crated places. After these is an officer denominated Sto- 
 listes, who bears a square-rule as the emblem of justice, and 
 the cup for libations. His charge includes every thing 
 which belongs to the education of youth, as well as to sac- 
 rifices, first-fruits, selecting of cattle, hymns, prayers, reli- 
 gious pomps, festivals, and commemorations ; the rules for 
 which are contained in ten books. This functionary is 
 succeeded by one called the prophet, w T ho displays in his 
 bosom ajar or vessel, meant for carrying water, — a symbol 
 thought to represent the deity, but which, more probably, 
 had a reference to the sacred character of the Nile. He is 
 attended by persons bearing bread cut into slices. The duty 
 of the prophet made it necessary for him to be perfectly 
 Acquainted with the ten books called sacerdotal, and which 
 treat of the laws of the gods, and of the whole discipline of 
 the priesthood. He also presides over the distribution of 
 the sacred revenue ; that is, the income arising from the 
 performance of pious rites, and dedicated to the support of 
 feligious institutions. Hence, there are forty-two books of 
 Hermes, the knowledge of which is absolutely necessary ; 
 of these, thirty-six, containing the whole philosophy of the 
 Egyptians, are carefully studied by the persons whom we 
 have mentioned ; and the remaining six are learned by the 
 Pastophori, or inferior priests, as they belong to anatomy, 
 to nosology, to instruments of surgery, to pharmacy, to the 
 diseases of the eye, and to the maladies of women.”* 
 
 This distribution of the sciences does not enable us to 
 determine either the principles on which they were founded 
 or the extent to which they were pursued. We possess a 
 better criterion in the perfection to which the people of 
 Egypt, at a very early period, had carried some of those 
 arts which have a close dependence upon scientific deduc- 
 1 ions. The prodigies of Thebes could not have been accom- 
 plished by a nation ignorant of mathematics and chymistry ; 
 nor could the pyramids, the obelisks, and the monolithic 
 
 * Clemen. Alexandrin. Strom, lib. vi. p. 633. 
 
144 
 
 LITERATURE AND SCIENCE OF 
 
 temples, which still meet the eye of the traveller in almost 
 every spot between Elephantine and the mouths of the Nile, 
 have been raised without the aid of such mechanical powers 
 as have their origin. in the calculations of philosophy. 
 
 It seems possible that, in the lapse of ages, a country 
 shall lose the science upon which the arts must have been 
 founded, while the arts themselves shall remain as an heredi- 
 tary bequest from father to son. The Chinese are in such 
 a condition at present ; and so perhaps were the Egyptians 
 immediately before the Macedonian conquest. But as the 
 practical excellence of several of the arts in China satisfies 
 us that the light of scientific knowledge must at one time 
 have shone in that vast empire, so might we be convinced, 
 on the same grounds, that the artisans of Egypt were 
 instructed by men who had made great progress in the 
 various branches of natural philosophy. We are in tact 
 informed by Manetho, that one of the Pharaohs, the grand- 
 father of Psammeticus, and the sage Petosiris his contem- 
 porary, wrote valuable treatises on astronomy, astrology, 
 and medicine. The last of these works is mentioned even 
 by Galenus and Aetius, while that on astronomy is alluded 
 to both by Eusebius and Pliny ; though it is not improbable 
 that they were altered by the sophists of Alexandria who 
 began to flourish under the reigns of the Ptolemies. It is 
 asserted that the royal author and his philosophical col- 
 league undertook to explain the creation of the world, as 
 well as the influences exerted upon the human frame by the 
 heavenly bodies ; but when we reflect upon the channel 
 through which this account has reached us, we must not 
 draw hasty conclusions in regard to the physics of the 
 ancient Egyptian school. 
 
 Tatian relates that the Greeks learned how to write his- 
 tory from perusing the Egyptian annals. This assertion 
 appears to be well founded ; it being manifest, that from the 
 most remote antiquity the latter people had adopted the 
 custom of transmitting to posterity the memory of past 
 events. Originally they seem to have written their chroni- 
 cles in verse, and inscribed them on stones in hieroglyphical 
 characters ; but at a certain time after the invention of the 
 alphabet, they adopted prose and began to form regular 
 books, though they still retained the custom of celebrating, 
 in lyric measure, the praises of their gods and heroes. It 
 
the ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. 
 
 145 
 
 seems, indeed, according to the account of the industrious 
 and learned Zoega, who has collected all the authorities of 
 ancient writers on this subject, that historical treatises 
 were very numerous in Egypt, and that the care of copying 
 them constituted one of the principal duties which devolved 
 upon the sacred scribes. Herodotus himself informs us, 
 that he acquired all his knowledge of their country from the 
 priests, who read to him from a book the names of three 
 hundred and thirty kings who had reigned between Menes 
 and Sesostris. Theophrastus, too, who may be regarded 
 as writing from personal knowledge, concurs in the views 
 just stated. Manetho, again, assures his readers that ho 
 compiled his work from authentic records. Diodorus, a 
 writer of the highest credit, refers not only to histories in 
 the Egyptian language, but to commentaries and illustra- 
 tions, — a fact confirmed by Josephus and Strabo, the latter 
 of whom even praises the simplicity of their style. It was 
 from these sources that the Greek authors, Eratosthenes, 
 Agatharchides, Artemidorus, Syncellus, Apollonides, Ascle- 
 piades, compiled their histories of Egypt. Besides, we 
 ought not to forget that the Grecian writers who visited the 
 land of the Pharaohs found it already in a state of decay 
 both as to knowledge and power. The priests had lost 
 much of the learning for which their ancestors were cele- 
 brated, and no longer enjoyed the privileges which dignified 
 their order prior to the invasion of Oambyses. A library 
 at Thebes, so early as the reign of Osymandias, proves that 
 before the Trojan war a taste for reading had spread over a 
 large portion of Egyptian society. There was a similar 
 establishment at Memphis, in the temple of the god Phtha, 
 from which Naucrates, a wretched scribbler, accuses Homer 
 of having stolen the Iliad and Odyssey, and of having after- 
 ward published them as his own. Such a charge evidently 
 refutes itself, but it nevertheless tends to confirm the con- 
 clusion drawn from it by ancient writers, in regard to the 
 early civilization and literary habits of the Egyptians. The 
 patronage bestowed by the first of the Ptolemies was, there- 
 fore, in strict accordance with the pursuits .of the peoplo 
 whom the fortune of war had appointed them to govern. 
 The splendid collection of books at Alexandria was formed 
 by those politic sovereigns as one of the means whereby 
 they might procure popularity, — a motive which reflects no 
 N 
 
140 
 
 LITERATURE AND SCIENCE OF 
 
 less honour on the character of their subjects than on their 
 own penetration and beneficence. 
 
 Nor is it undeserving of notice, that in the most brilliant 
 period of Alexandrian literature, a large share of attention 
 was bestowed upon the antiquities of Egypt. Nearly three 
 centuries before our era, the works of authors then es- 
 teemed ancient were sought for with eagerness, and made 
 the subject of laborious commentary. Heyne, in a very 
 ingenious treatise on the sources whence Diodorus probably 
 derived the materials of his history, has mentioned along 
 list of writers who preceded the Sicilian, as compilers on 
 the affairs of that interesting kingdom.* In this way we 
 see the erudition of the older nation reflected from the works 
 of their successors in a comparatively recent age ; on which 
 account we think it not too bold to maintain that most of 
 the scientific and literary acquirements which distinguished 
 the Greeks, while the rest of Europe was in a state of bar- 
 barism, were derived from their intercourse with the scholars 
 of Thebes and Memphis. In fact, at one time, no Greek 
 was accounted truly learned until he had sojourned a certain 
 period on the banks of the Nile ; conversed with the philoso- 
 phers on the mysteries of their science ; studied the laws, 
 the government, and the institutions of the most remarkable 
 people that ever existed ; examined and explored their ever- 
 lasting monuments ; and become in some measure initiated 
 in the wisdom of the Egyptians. 
 
 Connected with the subject of this chapter, and not a little 
 important in itself, is an inquiry, which has lately engaged 
 a good deal of attention, into the Egyptian method of arith- 
 metical notation. The principal writers who have favoured 
 the world with their opinions on this interesting monument 
 of antiquity are, M. Jomard, whose name has been already 
 mentioned as the author of an essay on the Pyramids, Dr. 
 Young, M. Champollion, and Dr. Kosegarten, who, about 
 two years ago, published a treatise on the literature of ancient 
 Egypt- 1 
 
 This system, we are told, is neither literal, like the Gre- 
 cian and Roman, nor altogether figurate, like the Arabic, but 
 
 * De Fontibus Historiarum Diodori. 
 
 f De Prisca iEgyptiorum Litteratura Commentatio Prima ; quam 
 seripsit Joannes Godofredus Kosegarten, S. S. Theol.Doct., ejusdemque 
 et Lit. Orient, in Academia Grypliisvaldensi Prof. Vimarise, 1828. 
 
THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. 
 
 14 ? 
 
 something intermediate between them. It is constructed 
 upon principles altogether peculiar, and expressed by means 
 of certain characters or signs, which, although perfectly 
 distinct from those which are employed in the graphic sys- 
 tem, are nevertheless framed- xipon a strict analogy to them, 
 and adapted with much nicety to the particular form of 
 composition in which they happen to be used. As there 
 were three forms of writing among the ancient Egyptians, 
 — the hieroglyphic, the hieratic, and the enchorial or de- 
 motic, — so, in like manner, there were three forms of nota- 
 tion used by them ; one adapted to each of these particular 
 kinds of composition, and now known by the name of the 
 variety to which it belongs. But as the hieroglyphic or 
 monumental writing is the basis of the two other classes, 
 so, in the system of numerical expression, the hieratic is a 
 modified form of the hieroglyphic, and the demotic of the 
 hieratic. In the last two, however, there is this peculiarity, 
 — that separate modes of notation are employed to designate 
 the days of the month, and that, in both these modes, 
 several of the numerals which we now denominate Arabic 
 are distinctly recognised. This very remarkable fact has 
 been so strikingly exemplified by such writers as have ex- 
 amined the Egyptian notation in detail, as to leave no doubt 
 whence our modern symbols originated. It does not indeed 
 appear very clearly which of the three forms was used, in 
 preference to the others, in scientific computations. But, 
 judging from analogy, it is probable that the demotic nota- 
 tion, like the demotic writing, was employed in the common 
 transactions of life ; while, with respect to scientific calcu- 
 lations, all that can be gathered from such monuments as 
 the zodiacs of Dendera and Esneh amounts to nothing 
 more than the fact that the numerical expressions are uni- 
 formly accommodated to the particular kind of writing in 
 which they occur. 
 
 By the labours of several distinguished antiquaries who 
 have applied themselves to the study of Egyptian literature, 
 the hieroglyphic signs of numbers from one to a thousand 
 have been ascertained beyond the possibility of doubt or 
 error : and as these constitute the simplest of the three 
 forms of notation in use among the ancient Egyptians, we 
 shall endeavour to represent them in such a manner as to 
 render the principle of their arrangement as intelligible as 
 our means will admit. 
 
148 
 
 LITERATURE AND SCIENCE OF 
 
 The nine digits are not formed upon the Arabic scheme 
 of having a separate mark for each, hut simply by repeating 
 the sign of unity as often as there are units in any digit 
 from one to nine. Thus the former is represented by a 
 short thick stroke | ; two by,a couple of such strokes | § ; 
 three by j { [ ; and so on to ten : the higher digits, however, 
 seven , eight, and nine , being represented frequently by 
 strokes arranged in double columns, obviously for the pur- 
 pose of saving space. The mark or sign for ten is ; and 
 all the intermediate numbers between ten and twenty are 
 made up by units affixed to the symbol for ten ; thus hi is 
 eleven, hu is twelve, nin is thirteen, and so on. 
 Twenty is expressed by two tens ; and the interme- 
 diate numbers between twenty and thirty, in the same way 
 precisely as those between ten and twenty. Thirty is repre a 
 sented by three tens, ftHfl ; forty by four tens, ft (10^ * 
 and so on to a hundred ; the tens in sixty, seventy, eighty, 
 and ninety, being, like the higher digits, generally arranged 
 in double columns. From a hundred , the mark or sign for 
 Which is 9, to a thousand , the numbers ascend exactly upon 
 the principle already explained in regard to the preceding 
 part of the scale. Thus 200 is represented ©9 5 300 §99 ; 
 
 and so on to a thousand, the symbol of which is 
 
 Such is the hieroglyphical form of notation ascertained 
 by a vast number of readings and comparisons ; and from 
 Vvhat has been already stated, as well as from the nature 
 of the signs themselves, and the principle upon which they 
 are combined, it seems pretty evident that they could never 
 have been employed except in monumental inscriptions, for 
 Which alone they are adapted. To say nothing of other 
 objections, the method is by far too operose for ordinary 
 purposes, and never could have been applied, with any 
 degree of success, either to civil affairs or to scientific com- 
 putations. To denote, for example, the present year, 1831, 
 It would require, according to this scheme, no fewer than thir- 
 
 teen figures. 
 
 » $ 999999 nm 
 
 At the same 
 
 time, the high antiquity of this method of numeration is 
 manifest from the simplicity of the principle upon which the 
 scale is constructed, no less than from the age of the monu- 
 ments on which the inscriptions have been discovered. 
 
THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. 
 
 149 
 
 The hieratic form, which is the most complete of all, 
 possesses some very remarkable peculiarities ; but as it 
 passes naturally into the demotic or enchorial, and has a 
 much closer affinity to that than to the hieroglyphic, we 
 shall confine our account of it to a mere exposition of the 
 principle on which the scheme is made to rest. The digits, 
 omitting the variations, which are of little importance, are 
 represented thus : — 
 
 1 I 
 
 2 M 
 
 3 UJ 
 
 4 
 
 5 ....... Z 
 
 Ten is represented by the Greek lambda direct or re- 
 versed \ or X • The sign of a hundred is , of two hun- 
 dred of three hundred JJ/, of four hundred ; while 
 500 , 600 , 700 , 800 , 900 , are represented respectively by 
 combining the signs of 200 and 300 ; of 300 and 300 ; of 
 300 and 400 ; of 400 and 400 ; and 300 thrice repeated. 
 The mark for 1000 is the sanpi of the Greeks. 5 ; the sym- 
 bol of 10,000 is Qj while 100,000 is represented by the sign 
 of *a hundred combined with that of 1000. 
 
 So much for the common numbers of the hieratic scale. 
 But there is also a peculiar and distinct set of numerical 
 signs for the days of the month ; which are not a little 
 interesting, as exhibiting the source whence the Arabians 
 derived three or four of the figures which that people after- 
 ward introduced into the western world ; thus conferring 
 upon Europe one of the greatest benefits it ever received, 
 at the hand either of conqueror or of sage, the art of printing 
 alone excepted. These numbers resolve themselves into 
 three decades, the first of which is as follows : 
 
 6 ^ 
 
 ^ r 
 
 =5 
 
 Z. 
 
 N 2 
 
LITERATURE AND SCIENCE OE 
 
 150 
 
 1 . 
 a. 
 3 . 
 
 4* 
 5 . 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 • 0 
 21 
 
 13 
 
 ■m 
 
 * 
 
 The numbers composingthe second decade, or from ten to 
 twenty, are represented by combining the symbol of 10 with 
 
 the digits in succession, thus 1 1 ; 12 ; 7 13; 
 
 and so oh to twenty, the mark or sign of which is . 
 Lastly, from twenty to thirty, the numbers are represented in 
 the same way precisely as from ten to twenty, / , 21 ; 
 
 a / 3 t 
 
 SJX ’ ^ ’ 's/I ’ muc ^’ t ^ ien J f° r the hieratic nota- 
 
 tion in both its parts, which is evidently in many respects a 
 great improvement upon the hieroglyphic, the source 
 whence it was primarily derived. 
 
 The demotic form of notation is not so perfectly under- 
 stood as the method just described ; there being a blank 
 from 13 to 20, and from 60 to 100, the intervening numbers 
 not having been yet determined by actual discovery. The 
 signs or marks bear a great resemblance to those of’ the 
 hieroglyphic class, of which they are obviously a copy : — 
 
 1 . . 
 
 .... 1 
 
 8 . . . 
 
 ... a- 
 
 n . . 
 
 • • • • M 
 
 9 . . . 
 
 . . . 2 
 
 3 . . 
 
 .... tM 
 
 10 . . . 
 
 
 4 . . 
 
 
 20 . . . 
 
 . . . > 
 
 5 . . 
 
 • • • • 0 
 
 30 . . . 
 
 ... 3 
 
 6 . . 
 
 .... ^ 
 
 40 . . . 
 
 . . . < 
 
 7 . . 
 
 • • • • 2. 
 
 50 . . . 
 
 • • • ? 
 
 The history of the various steps by which Champollion 
 and others arrived at the knowledge of the numerical system 
 
THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. 
 
 151 
 
 of the Egyptians is extremely interesting, and affords an 
 instance, almost as striking as that of phonetic hieroglyphics, 
 of the triumph of genius, combined with perseverance, over 
 difficulties which appeared entirely insuperable. Accident, 
 it is true, contributed in both cases to diffuse a light over 
 the subject, which could not have been struck out by dint 
 of unaided sagacity. The Rosetta stone enabled our anti- 
 quaries to accomplish what the learning of Clemens and the 
 ingenuity of Warburton had failed to make known ; and, in 
 the latter inquiry, the appearance of a neglected papyrus, con- 
 taining the translation of an ancient deed, supplied the means 
 of determining the value of a long list of numerical signs. 
 
 There can be little doubt that it was to Egypt the Sara- 
 cens were indebted for the scheme of arithmetical notation 
 which they subsequently communicated to the scholars of 
 Europe. Thus it is rendered more than probable that to 
 the same people we owe two of the most important inven- 
 tions which could be employed in the service of learning, — 
 an alphabet, and a regular scale of numbers suited to the 
 profoundest investigations of science. Justly, indeed, has 
 it been remarked, as a most striking fact in the history of 
 the human mind, that the only two discoveries which no 
 one has ever claimed as his own are precisely those which 
 succeeding ages have found it impossible to extend or im- 
 prove, and which, at the period of their first introduction, 
 were as complete and as universal in their application as 
 they are at the present moment. It is hardly less surprising 
 that the Greeks, who were indebted to the Egyptians for 
 the elements of almost all those sciences which they after- 
 ward so much advanced, should have failed to discern the 
 manifold conveniences attached to their numerical system. 
 Some centuries, however, had passed away before they were 
 induced to adopt it from a people comparatively barbarous, 
 but who, like themselves, had profited by their vicinity to 
 that fountain of knowledge which so long beautified and 
 enriched the country of the Pharaohs.* 
 
 * To the authorities mentioned in the text we feel satisfaction in 
 adding an article, in a recent number of the Westminster Review, on 
 the “ Egyptian Method of Notation,” to which we acknowledge ourselves 
 under great obligations. See also “ Remarques sur les Signes Num6- 
 riques des Anciens Egyptiens. Par E. Jomard. Description de l’Egypte, 
 vol. ii. p. 57. Antiquites.” 
 
152 
 
 LITERATURE AND SCIENCE, ETC. 
 
 A review of the literature of this ancient nation might 
 seem to require that we should give an account of the theo- 
 logical opinions entertained by the priests, as well as of the 
 doctrines received by the multitude, relative to the nature 
 of the human soul, and a future state of reward and punish- 
 ment. But it must be apparent that the object of our un- 
 dertaking precludes all such discussion, as being at once 
 too abstruse and too extensive in its ramifications. It may 
 therefore be sufficient to observe that the popular religion 
 of Egypt, like that of all pagan tribes, was directed towards 
 those qualities in the physical system of the universe upon 
 which the permanence of the animal kingdom is known to 
 depend. The generative and prolific powers, under their 
 various forms, and as affecting every description of organ- 
 ized matter, were worshipped as the Universal Parent, 
 whose names were multiplied according to the changing 
 aspect of nature, and whose attributes, when personified, 
 gave birth to a thousand subordinate divinities. The tenet 
 of the metempsychosis appears to have regulated the faith 
 of the people so far as it applied to the effect of their con- 
 duct on their future condition. The soul was understood 
 to expiate the sins committed in the human body, or to 
 enjoy the rewards due to pureness of living, in a succession 
 of transmigrations during three thousand years ; at the end 
 of which it was expected to resume its former tenement, and 
 to discharge once more the functions of an earthly existence. 
 
 Again, as to the poetry, the eloquence, and the polite 
 literature of that remarkable people, we are still too ignorant 
 of the Coptic to form an accurate judgment. But there is 
 reason to hope that the example presented by M. Quatre- 
 mere to the scholars of Europe will not be neglected — that 
 the spoken language of the Egyptians will at length receive 
 a degree of attention equal to its importance — and, conse- 
 quently, that the productions of the poets and orators of 
 Thebes, the passionate effusions of the lover and the patriot, 
 may yet be added to the stores of English learning. 
 
 In respect to the arts of the ancient Egyptians, we shall 
 have a better opportunity of introducing a few observations 
 in the following chapter, where we intend to bring before 
 the reader a view of some of the more striking remains of 
 their taste and skill, as collected from the descriptions of 
 recent travellers. 
 
remains of ancient art. etc. 
 
 Ift3 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 Remains of Ancient Art in various Parts of Egypt. 
 
 General Magnificence of Remains — Alexandria — Pillar — Cleopatra’s 
 Needle — Catacombs— Memphis— Beni Hassan— Hermopolis Magna— 
 Antinopolis — Siout — Sepulchral Grottoes— Temple of Anta opolis — 
 Abydos — Dendera or Tentyra — Magnificent Temple and Portico- 
 Elegant Sculptures — Zodiac and Planisphere — Opinions as to their 
 Antiquity — Thebes — The Gateway or Propylon at l.uxor — Magnifi- 
 cent Sculptures — Karnac — The Temple ; its Approaches and splendid 
 Gateways ; its vast Extent — Temples at Dair and Medinet Abou— 
 The Memnonium — Statue of Memnou — Tombs — Ilerment — Esneh — 
 Eleithias — Striking Representations of Domestic Life — Edfou— Iladjur 
 Silsili— Koum Ombos — Es Souatt — Quarries of Syen£- Island of 
 Elephantine —Concluding Remarks. 
 
 We have purposely made a distinction between those 
 immense works which display the gigantic plans and me- 
 chanical- resources of the ancient Egyptians, and the speci- 
 mens of the finer arts of architecture, statuary, and painting 
 which still delight the eye of the scientific traveller amid 
 the ruins of Thebes, Dendera, and Ebsamboul. No view 
 of Egypt would be complete without such an outline as we 
 now propose to exhibit ; for it is not possible in any other 
 way to connect the history of that remarkable country with 
 its proud monuments of ancient taste and grandeur, or to 
 render credible the sublime descriptions which have been 
 transmitted to us by philosophers as well as by poets. The 
 remains which still indicate the site of its oldest capital pre- 
 sent the most unequivocal proof of its early civilization, and 
 of the high degree of power which the inhabitants had 
 attained by means of their knowledge. Its origin is lost in 
 the obscurity of time, being coeval perhaps with the people 
 who first took possession of the country ; but, to give an 
 idea of its great antiquity, it may be sufficient to remark 
 that the building of Memphis, the date of which even 
 stretches beyond the limits of authentic history, was the 
 first attempt made to rival its magnificence and prosperity. 
 Alluding to one portion of that splendid city, Champollion 
 expresses himself in the following terms : — “ All that I had 
 
154 
 
 REMAINS OF ANCIENT ART 
 
 seen, all that I had admired on the left bank, appeared 
 miserable in comparison with the gigantic conceptions by 
 which I was surrounded. I shall take care not to attempt 
 to describe any thing ; for, either my description would not 
 express the thousandth part of what ought to be said, or, 
 if I drew even a faint sketch, I should be taken for an 
 enthusiast or perhaps for a madman. It will suffice to add, 
 that no people, either ancient or modern, ever conceived the 
 art of architecture on so sublime and so grand a scale as the 
 ancient Egyptians. Their conceptions were those of men 
 a hundred feet high ; and the imagination, which in Europe 
 rises far above our porticoes, sinks abashed at the foot of the 
 140 columns of the hvpostyle hall at Kamac.” 
 
 The traveller from Europe usually lands at Alexandria, 
 a city which in any other part of the world except Egypt 
 would be denominated ancient. The pillar which graces 
 that capital of the Grecian kings was long associated with 
 the name of Pompey the Great ; but an inscription upon it 
 has, in modern times, been distinctly made out, which 
 proves that its last dedication was to the Emperor Diocle- 
 tian by a prefect who happened to bear the same name as 
 the rival of Julius Caesar. We have just insinuated that it 
 was no uncommon occurrence, during the successive dynas- 
 ties which governed the Egyptians, to carve the titles of 
 princes on palaces, temples, and obelisks which had existed 
 a thousand years before their accession to power ; whence 
 it must appear that nothing can be more fallacious, as a test 
 of antiquity, than the names which are found in inscrip- 
 tions, even in those of the hieroglyphic class. Mr. Salt, 
 we have already mentioned, traced the appellation of one 
 of the Ptolemies engraved over that of Psammeticus — the 
 sovereign, it is probable, in whose reign the original build- 
 ing was erected. 
 
 The Alexandrian pillar stands upon a pedestal twelve 
 feet high, which has obviously been formed of stones pre- 
 viously used for some other purpose. The shaft is round, 
 about ninety feet in length, and surmounted by a Corinthian 
 capital which adds ten feet more to the elevation. The 
 column, we believe, is one block of porphyry, although it 
 has more usually been described as consisting of syenite or 
 Egyptian granite. It is nine feet in diameter, with a per- 
 ceptible entesis, but without hieroglyphics ; remarkably well 
 
IN VARIOUS PARTS OF EGYPT. 
 
 155 
 
 cut, and very little injured by the effects of time. No one, 
 however, can fail to perceive that the shaft does not corres- 
 pond with the capital, base, and pedestal, which are ex- 
 tremely poor both in execution and taste. 
 
 It is to be deeply regretted that the architectural beauties 
 of this celebrated monument are not a little defaced by the 
 undue freedoms which have been used by certain European 
 visiters. One of the latest writers on the subject informs 
 us, that what with black paint and red ochre, pitch and 
 sand, the pedestal and the lower part of the shaft may now 
 rival the party-coloured mantle of Jacob’s favourite son. It 
 was in vain to look for any of Diocletian’s inscriptions, 
 since the scribbling of those who had ascended to the top 
 had obliterated all other traces. It appears, that in March, 
 1827, the officers of the Glasgow, ship of war, by means of 
 flying a kite, had passed a string over the top of the column 
 — to this they fastened a cord, and eventually a rope-ladder. 
 Their example has been followed by the crew of almost 
 every king’s ship since stationed in that port. Breakfasts 
 have been given, and letters written on the top, and even a 
 lady has had courage to ascend. But the national flag 
 having on one occasion been left by a party, the governor 
 took so much offence as to prohibit all such frolics for the 
 time to come.* 
 
 There is a want of unanimity among travellers as to the 
 precise import of the inscription on this famous pillar. M. 
 Quatremere has ascertained that there was in the time of 
 Diocletian a prefect whose name was Pompeius, and thereby- 
 afforded a strong corroboration to the opinion of those who 
 think that the monument was raised in honour of that em- 
 peror by one of his deputies. But Dr. Clarke read the 
 Greek characters so as to substitute Adrian instead of Dio- 
 cletian ; and found out, at the same time, that the name of 
 the commander who dedicated the pillar was Posthumus 
 rather than Pompeius. The greater number, however, fol- 
 low the version which retains the latter appellation, and 
 which by that means accounts so easily for the vulgar error 
 in regard to the object of the erection. 
 
 We are informed by Denon, that the earth about the 
 
 ♦Travels in the C' mea. — A similar feat was accomplished in 1777 by 
 an English captain. 3ee Irwin's Voyage. 
 
156 
 
 REMAINS OF ANCIENT ART, ETC. 
 
 foundations of the pillar having been dug away, two frag- 
 ments of an obelisk of white marble were discovered to 
 have been added to the original substructure. These, Dr. 
 Clarke thinks, must have been intended merely to maintain 
 the base in its adjusted position until the pedestal could be 
 raised upon it, and that they were not meant to contribute 
 to the support of the column. It is chiefly deserving of 
 notice, however, that the block on which the pedestal rests 
 is inscribed on the four sides with hieroglyphics, the figures 
 or characters of which, being inverted, show that it has 
 been turned upside dowm ; thus affording a complete proof 
 that the stone must have belonged to some more ancient 
 work, which was probably in ruins before the pillar was 
 erected in its present site. 
 
 In a remote, unfrequented part of the city stands the obe 
 lisk well known by the name of Cleopatra’s Needle, and 
 which is described as a fine piece of granite covered with 
 hieroglyphics. There were originally two of these, appa- 
 rently brought from Heliopolis or Thebes to adorn the en- 
 trance to the palace of the Ptolemies. About twelve years 
 ago, when Dr. Richardson visited Alexandria, the one stood 
 erect, the other lay prostrate on the ground ; but, in regard 
 to the latter, he remarks that it was mounted on props, and 
 seemed as if “ prepared for a journey.” It has been since 
 removed, with the view of being conveyed to England, 
 though it has not yet, so far as we have been able to learn, 
 reached its destination. The dimensions are sixty-four 
 feet in length, and eight feet square at the base. 
 
 Alexandria presents many other remains of sumptuous 
 buildings, of which there is no tradition among the inhabit- 
 ants on which any reliance can be placed. On each side 
 of what appears to have been one of the principal streets 
 are still to be seen rows of stately marble columns, all over- 
 turned and neglected. They are conjectured to be the 
 relics of a magnificent colonnade which extended between 
 the gates of the Sun and Moon, and was regarded as one 
 of the most striking ornaments of the city ; but in the 
 hands of the Turks, as some author has observed, every 
 thing goes to decay, and nothing is repaired. Wherever an 
 excavation is made, an arch, a pillar, or a rich cornice indi- 
 cates that a splendid structure had once occupied the 
 ground, but can supply no information as to the object, the 
 
158 
 
 REMAINS OF ANCIENT ART 
 
 date, the name, or the founder. For miles the suburbs are 
 covered with the ruins of the ancient town. Heaps of 
 brick and mortar, mixed with broken shafts and mutilated 
 capitals, cover immense vaults, which, serving as reservoirs 
 of water, are replenished on every overflow of the Nile. 
 Perhaps much of this devastation, as well as of the igno- 
 rance which prevails respecting it, may be attributed to the 
 effects of that fatal earthquake which swallowed up 50,000 
 of the inhabitants, and threw down the loftiest of their 
 edifices. But on such subjects all inquiry is vain, for the 
 traveller finds that the degraded beings who now occupy 
 the wrecks of this superb metropolis are equally indifferent 
 arid ill-informed as to every event which preceded their own 
 times. 
 
 The Catacombs of Alexandria present nothing very re- 
 markable, being in a condition nearly as ruinous as the city 
 whose dead they were intended to receive. The real en- 
 trance to these subterraneous abodes is unknown ; the pres- 
 ent passage opening from the seashore like the approach 
 into a grotto. The most of the chambers are so entirely 
 choked up with sand that it is extremely difficult to crawl 
 into them even on the hands and knees. Their form, as 
 well as the doors, pilasters, and sarcophagi, show them to 
 be the work of Grecian artists ; but, although in size they 
 are fully equal to the Egyptian catacombs, yet in the article 
 of decoration they are not once to be compared to them. 
 All along the shore of the western harbour are numerous 
 sepulchres of inconsiderable note, some of them under the 
 rock ; many are merely cut into it, and open to the air ; 
 and not a few are under the level of the sea. Several baths 
 are likewise exhibited in this quarter, which as usual are 
 assigned to Cleopatra ; but such of them as are now to be 
 seen are equally small and incommodious, and of a descrip- 
 tion far too inferior to countenance the supposition that 
 they had ever been used by her whose beauty and accom- 
 plishments triumphed over the heroes of Rome.* 
 
 In ascending the Nile we shall take no notice of Cairo, 
 because the works which it exhibits do not serve to illus- 
 trate the principles of the arts, or to display the remains of 
 the grandeur for which the ancient Egyptians are cele- 
 
 * Richardson’s Travels, Vol. i. p. 21. 
 
IN VARIOUS PARTS OF EGYPT. 
 
 159 
 
 brated. We should willingly detain the reader at Memphis, 
 did any relics of its magnificence occupy the ground on 
 which it once stood, to gratify the rational curiosity its 
 name cannot fall to excite. But we shall only quote from, 
 an old writer a description of that capital as it appeared in 
 the twelfth century. “Among the monuments of the 
 power and genius of the ancients,” says Edrisi, “ are the 
 remains still extant in old Misr or Memphis. That city, a 
 little above Fostat, in the province of Djizeh, was inhabited 
 by the Pharaohs, and is the ancient capital of the kingdom 
 of Egypt. Such it continued to be till ruined by Bokht- 
 nasr (Nebuchadnezzar) ; but many years afterward, when 
 Alexander had built Iskanderiyeh (Alexandria), this latter 
 place was made the metropolis of Egypt, and retained that 
 pre-eminence till the Moslems conquered the country under 
 Amru ebn el Aasi, who transferred the seat of government 
 to Fostat. At last El Moezz came from the w T est and built 
 El Cahirah (Cairo), which has ever since been the royal 
 place of residence. But let us return to the description of 
 Memf, also called old Misr. Notwithstanding the vast 
 extent of this city, the remote period at which it was built, 
 the change of the dynasties to which it has been subjected, 
 the attempts made by various nations to destroy even the 
 vestiges, and to obliterate every trace of it by removing the 
 stones and materials of which it was formed, — ruining its 
 houses, and defacing its sculptures ; notwithstanding all 
 this, combined with what more than four thousand years 
 must have done towards its destruction, there are yet found 
 in it works so wonderful that they confound even a re- 
 flecting mind, and are such as the most eloquent would not 
 be able to describe. The more you consider them the more 
 does your astonishment increase ; and the more you look 
 at them the more pleasure you experience. Every idea 
 which they suggest immediately gives birth to some other 
 still more novel and unexpected ; and as soon as you ima- 
 gine that you have traced out their full scope, you discover 
 that there is something still greater behind.” 
 
 Among the works here alluded to, he specifies a mono- 
 lithic temple, similar to the one mentioned by Herodotus, 
 adorned with curious sculptures. He next expatiates upon 
 the idols found among the ruins, not less remarkable for 
 the beauty of their forms, the exactness of their proportions, 
 
160 
 
 REMAINS OF ANCIENT ART 
 
 and perfect resemblance to nature, than for their truly as- 
 tonishing dimensions. We measured one of them, he says, 
 which, without including the pedestal, was forty-five feet 
 in height, fifteen feet from side to side, aftid from back to 
 front in the same proportion. It was of one block of red 
 granite, covered with a coating of red varnish, the antiquity 
 of which seemed only to increase its lustre.* 
 
 The ruins of Memphis, in his time, extended to the dis- 
 tance of half a day’s journey in every direction. But so 
 rapidly has the work of destruction proceeded since the 
 twelfth century, that few points have been more debated 
 by modern travellers than the site of this celebrated me- 
 tropolis. Dr. Pococke and Mr. Bruce, with every show of 
 reason, fixed upon Metrahenny, an opinion which was op- 
 posed by Dr. Shaw, who argued in favour of Djizeh. But 
 the investigations of the F rench appear to have decided the 
 question. At Metrhaine, one league from Sakhara, we 
 found, says General Dugna, so many blocks of granite 
 covered with hieroglyphics and sculptures around and 
 within an esplanade three leagues in circumference, en- 
 closed by heaps of rubbish, that we were convinced that 
 these must be the ruins of Memphis. The sight of some 
 fragments of one of those colossuses, which Herodotus 
 says were erected by Sesostris at the entrance of the tem- 
 ple of Vulcan, would, indeed, have been sufficient to 
 dispel our doubts had any remained. The wrist of this 
 colossus, which Citizen Coutelle caused to be removed, 
 shows that it must have been forty-five feet high ! 
 
 The ruins of Beni Hassan, although comparatively a 
 modern place, bear decided marks of antiquity ; the mate- 
 rials of the principal buildings having been conveyed from 
 some more ancient town, — a practice which appears to 
 have become frequent under the Ptolemies as well as in 
 the earlier times of the Roman ascendency. The grottos, 
 however, which were once the abodes of holy hermits, are 
 the most striking remains of this village, and are remark- 
 able for paintings, of which Mr. Hamilton has given an 
 elaborate account. The ceilings of these chambers are 
 
 * Abdollatiph’s Abridgment of Edrisi, translated by M. Silvestre de 
 Sacy. Encyclopaedia Metropolitana, article Egypt. 
 
 t Courrier de l’Egypte. A plan of the ruins is given by M. Jacotin in 
 the Description de l’Egypte. 
 
itf VARIOUS PARTS OF EGYPT. 
 
 161 
 
 generally arched, while others are supported by Columns 
 cut out of the rock, having a truly Egyptian character, and 
 the* appearance of four branches of palm-trees tied together. 
 The largest is sixty feet in length, and forty in height ; to 
 the south of it are seventeen smaller apartments, and 
 probably the same number to the north. Ten columns 
 originally supported this large chamber, four of which are 
 fallen down. There were two other rooms of nearly similar 
 dimensions, from which, as in the former case, there were 
 doorways leading into inferior apartments, suggesting the 
 idea of halls surrounded by cells for the private accommo- 
 dation of the inmates. 
 
 Ashmonein, the ancient Hermopolis Magna, is now re- 
 duced to the state of a village, though the remains of its 
 former magnificence may yet be traced over an area four 
 miles in circumference. The portico of a temple is described 
 by Mr. Leigh, who saw it in the year 1813, as quite perfect. 
 It consists of twelve massive columns, which are not built 
 of cylindrical blocks of stone, but each block is formed of 
 several pieces so neatly joined together that, where they are 
 not injured by time, it is difficult to discover the junction 
 of the several fragments. The columns are arranged in 
 two rows, distant from each other twelve feet ; and the roof 
 is formed of large flags of stone, covered with stucco and 
 beautifully ornamented. The columns and the whole inte- 
 rior of the portico have been painted ; among the colours red, 
 blue, and yellow seem to predominate. The hieroglyphics 
 on the plinths are different on each front, but they are the 
 same on every plinth on the same front. The capitals, 
 which in some degree represent the tulip in bud, are let into 
 the columns. Several other shafts of granite are scattered 
 about near the temple, bearing a distinct evidence to its 
 original extent and grandeur. 
 
 We pass by Antinopolis or Sheikh Ababde, because its 
 features unequivocally denote its modern origin, and fix its 
 larger buildings to the time of the Romans. It is said to 
 have been erected by the emperor Hadrian in memory of 
 Antinous, who perished in the Nile; and it has been re- 
 marked that its colonnades, triumphal arches, baths, and 
 amphitheatres are as little in unison with the surrounding 
 objects, and as foreign to the soil in which they stand, as 
 O 2 
 
162 
 
 REMAINS OF ANCIENT ART 
 
 was the new capital raised by the same people at Tr ves, 
 on the banks of the Moselle. 
 
 Siout, which is now esteemed the metropolis of Upper 
 Egypt, is better stored with the relics of former days, con- 
 sisting, however, of tombs and sepulchral grottos rather than 
 of the more lively monuments of antiquity, the palaces and 
 temples of the victorious Pharaohs. Norden describes at 
 some length those primeval repositories of the dead, which 
 are excavated in the mountains about half a league from the 
 modern town. Passing a gateway, the visiter enters a large 
 saloon supported by hexagonal pillars hewn out of the rock 
 itself. The roofs are adorned with paintings, which can be 
 distinguished sufficiently well even at present ; and the gold 
 that was employed in the decoration glitters on all sides* 
 There are perceived here and there some openings which 
 lead to other apartments ; but the accumulation of sand and 
 rubbish prevents all ingress. He suggests that there are 
 three tiers of tombs, approachable by separate avenues from 
 the outside, — an opinion which is confirmed by Sir F. Hen- 
 niker, who observed in the second story an excavation of 
 108 feet by 78, the entrance of which was ornamented with 
 some costly sculptures. Denon, indeed, assures u& that all 
 the inner porches of these grottoes are covered with hiero- 
 glyphics : “ Months,” says he, “ would be required to read 
 them, even if one knew the language, and it would take 
 years to copy them. One thing I saw by the little daylight 
 that enters the first porch, — that all the elegancies .of orna- 
 ment which the Greeks have employed in their architecture, 
 all the wavy lines and scrolls, and other Greek forms, are 
 here executed with taste and exquisite delicacy. If one of 
 these excavations were a single operation, as the uniform 
 regularity of the plan of each woqld seem to indicate, it must 
 have been an immense labour to construct a tomb. But we 
 may suppose that such a one, when finished, would serve 
 for ever for the sepulture of a whole family, or even race, 
 and that some religious worship was regularly paid to the 
 dead ; else, where would have been the use of such laboured 
 ornaments in the form of inscriptions never to be read, and 
 a ruinous, secret, and buried splendour. At different periods, 
 or at annual festivals, or when some new inhabitant was 
 added to the tombs, funereal rites were doubtless performed, 
 in which the pomp of ceremony might vie with the magnifi 
 
IN VARIOUS PARTS OF EGYPT. 
 
 163 
 
 cence of the place. • This is the more probable, as the rich- 
 ness of decoration in the interior forms a most striking contrast 
 with the outer walls, which are only the rough natural rock. 
 I found one of these caves with a single saloon, in which 
 were an innumerable quantity of graves cut in the rock in 
 Regular order ; they had been ransacked with the view of 
 procuring mummies, and I found several fragments of their 
 contents, such as linen, hands, feet, and loose bones. Be- 
 sides these principal grottoes, there is such a countless num- 
 ber of smaller excavations that the whole rock is cavernous, 
 and resounds under the foot.”* 
 
 The temple at Antseopolis, the modern Gau-el-Kebir, is 
 well deserving of attention, and more especially as it is fast 
 mouldering into a heap of ruins. The portico, in the year 
 1813, consisted of three rows, each of six columns, eight 
 feet in diameter, and, with their entablature, sixty-two feet 
 high. This structure, which, from its situation in a thick 
 grove of palm-trees, is perhaps the most picturesque in 
 Egypt, stands close to the banks of the Nile, whose waters 
 have already undermined some part of it, and threaten to 
 wash the whole away. The columns, architraves, and 
 indeed every stone of the building, are covered with hiero- 
 glyphics in bas-relief. At the farthest extremity of the 
 temple is an immense block of granite of a pyramidal form, 
 twelve feet high, and nine feet square at the base, in which 
 a niche has been cut, seven feet in height, four feet wide, and 
 three deep. It is hollowed out, as if for the reception of a 
 statue, though Mr. Leigh imagined that the cavity was meant 
 as a chest or depository for the sacred birds. 
 
 In the year 1817, many overturned stones and pillars were 
 lying on the brink of the river, or had fallen into its channel. 
 Of the portico just described only one column remained 
 standing, presenting a shaft from forty to fifty feet in height, 
 wrought into panels, and surmounted with a capital like 
 the calix of a flower. The space between each of the com- 
 partments was occupied by rows of hieroglyphics ; and the 
 compartments themselves were filled with figures of Osiris, 
 Isis, and Anubis, receiving offerings under different forms. 
 A column, which seemed to have recently fallen down at its 
 side, consisted of the same number of stones, and was 
 sculptured in a similar manner. 
 
 * Denon, vol. i. p. 150. 
 
164 
 
 REMAINS OF ANCIENT ART 
 
 Two years afterward, the fine vestibule of antaeopolk 
 was entirely levelled with the ground. The Nile, in this 
 part of its course, had long been advancing towards the 
 eastern side of the valley, and washing away the foundations 
 of such buildings as stood upon its right bank : when, in the 
 year just mentioned, in consequence of an unusually high 
 inundation, it completed the work of destruction, reducing 
 this splendid monument of ancient piety to a mass of ruins.* 
 As our object in this survey of ancient buildings and 
 ruined cities is not confined to a mere topographical de- 
 scription, we omit several small towns situated on either 
 bank of the Nile, because they no longer present any re- 
 mains of art to connect them with the period to which our 
 retrospect extends. In ascending the Thebaid, however, 
 we are arrested by the interesting relics of Abydos, the 
 modern Arabat, supposed by Strabo to have been the resi- 
 dence of Memnon ; although in the days of this geographer 
 it was already reduced to a paltry village. A few blocks 
 and columns of granite continue to assure the traveller that 
 the desolate region which he has entered was once the scene 
 of splendour and an active population. A large building, 
 too, of the highest antiquity, convinces him that Abydos 
 must have held a distinguished place among the cities of 
 Upper Egypt. Mr. Hamilton tells us that this edifice ap- 
 peared entire, but was so much choked up with sand that 
 it was extremely difficult either to enter the apartments or 
 to examine the architecture. The area which it occupied 
 was nearly a rectangle of 350 feet by 150. The pillars were 
 conjectured to be about thirty feet in height ; which did not, 
 however, exhibit any remarkable sculptures or paintings. 
 One peculiarity of this building could not be observed with- 
 out interest. — “ From the west point we could enter into 
 seven chambers of similar dimensions, measuring thirty-six 
 feet in length, sixteen feet and a half in width, and five feet 
 six inches in height ; the only instance of the kind I have 
 ever witnessed of undoubted Egyptian architecture. The 
 arches, however, are not constructed on the principle of the 
 arch, and cannot therefore be adduced as any evidence of 
 such principles having been known to, and put in practice 
 
 * Leigh, p. 95 ; Richardson, vol. i p. 178 ; Encyclop. Metropol. 
 Egypt. 
 
IN VARIOUS PARTS OF EGYPT. 
 
 165 
 
 by tlie Egyptians. The architraves, or rather rafters of the 
 rooms, as well as the upper layer of stones on each side-wall, 
 are cut out so as to resemble an arched roof ; and perhaps 
 they are thus executed in imitation of those which the same 
 people used to form for the catacombs and sepulchres which 
 they excavated in the rocks.”* 
 
 Four hundred paces farther north are the traces of an- 
 other building, which appears to have been a temple, though 
 little now remains but the fragments of three granite gate- 
 ways. In size it has been much inferior to the edifice just 
 described, being only 250 feet in length, and 120 feet wide. 
 Such ruins seem to justify the conclusion, which has been 
 drawn by recent travellers, that Arabat represents the ancient 
 Abydos, and also that the great structure is the Memnonium 
 celebrated by Strabo. 
 
 As the sand continues to gain ground all along the pre- 
 cincts of the western desert, the difficulty of entering this 
 palace of Memnon is every year increased. In 1821, when 
 Sir F. Henniker visited Egypt, the external lineaments of 
 the building were so entirely obliterated that it was not 
 easy to imagine a building could be concealed in the spot 
 where he was directed to seek for it. On the roof, which 
 alone occupies nearly as much space as the neighbouring 
 village, he paced fifty-four long steps on stones that have 
 never yet been removed, though he observed signs of 
 destruction at either end. There are some small chambers 
 in the pile, in which the colour of the painting is so well 
 preserved that doubts immediately arise as to the length of 
 the time it has been done. The best works even of the 
 Venetian school betray their age ; but the colours, here 
 supposed to have been in existence two thousand years 
 before the time of Titian, are at this moment as fresh as if 
 they had been laid on an hour ago. The stones of which 
 this fabric is built measure in some cases about twenty-two 
 feet in length ; the span of the arch is cut in a single stone ; 
 
 * Hamilton’s Egyptiaca, p. 259. This author remarks, “ Savary’s 
 pompous account of Abydos is a fictitious narrative of a place he never 
 saw, and bears more resemblance to the remains at Dendera than to any 
 other in Egypt. It is composed of the description of this place by 
 M. ChevalieT, Governor of Chandernagore, improved by a few embellish- 
 ments of bis own invention. 
 
160 REMAINS OF ANCIENT ART, ETC. 
 
 a portico is still visible ; each individual part is of exquisite 
 workmanship, but badly put together. This writer agrees 
 with Mr, Hamilton in the opinion that the ancient Egyp- 
 tians did not understand the principle of the arch. One 
 chamber, in particular, appears to demonstrate jat once their 
 intention and their inability, — the span of the arch being 
 cut in two stones, each of which bears an equal segment 
 of the circle. These placed together would naturally have 
 fallen, bui they are upheld by a pillar placed at the point of 
 contact, — an expedient which leaves no doubt that in this 
 point of architectural invention the subjects of the Pha- 
 raohs had not attained their usual success. If, says Sir 
 Frederick, those who raised the Pyramids and built Thebes* 
 and elevated the obelisks of Luxor, had been acquainted 
 with the principle of the arch, they would have thrown 
 bridges across the Nile, and have erected to Isis and Osiris 
 domes more magnificent than those of St. Peter’s and St. 
 Paul’s.* 
 
 It was in one of the inmost chambers of the larger edifice 
 at Abydos that Mr. W. Bankes, in 1818 , discovered a large 
 hieroglyphical tablet containing a long series of royal names, 
 as was evident from the ring, border, or, as the French call 
 it, the cartouche, w r hich surrounds such inscriptions. On 
 examination, it proved to be a genealogical table of the 
 immediate predecessors of Ramesses the Great, the Sethos 
 or Sethosis of Manetho, the Sesoosis of Diodorus, and the 
 Sesostris of Herodotus. A careful comparison of it with 
 other documents has enabled M. Champollion to ascertain, 
 with a considerable degree of probability, the period in which 
 the sixteenth and following dynasties mentioned by Mane- 
 tho must have occupied the throne. The epochs thus 
 determined, though still liable to some objections, are sup- 
 ported by so many concurrent and independent testimonies 
 as to warrant the expectation, now entertained by many 
 chronologists, that they will ultimately be established beyond 
 the reach of controversy.! 
 
 Dendera, which is commonly identified wdth the ancient 
 Tentyra, presents some very striking examples of that 
 
 * A Visit to Egypt, p. 112. 
 
 t Encyclopaedia' Metropolitan^ article Egypt. 
 
168 
 
 REMAINS OF ANCIENT ART 
 
 sumptuous architecture which the people of Egypt lavished 
 upon their places of worship. The gateway in particular 
 which leads to the temple of Isis has excited universal 
 admiration. Each front, as well as the interior, is covered 
 with sculptured hieroglyphics, which are executed with a 
 richness, a precision, elegance of form, and variety of orna- 
 ment, surpassing in many respects the similar edifices 
 which are found at Thebes and Philoe. The height is 
 forty-two feet, the width thirty-three, and the depth seven- 
 teen. “ Advancing along the brick ruins,” says Dr. Rich- 
 ardson, “ we came to an elegant gateway or propylon, which 
 is also of sandstone, neatly hewn, and completely covered 
 with sculpture and hieroglyphics remarkably well cut. 
 Immediately over the centre of the doorway is the beautiful 
 Egyptian ornament usually called the globe, with serpent 
 and wings, emblematical of the glorious sun poised in the 
 airy firmament of heaven, supported and directed in his 
 course by the eternal wisdom of the Deity. The sublime 
 phraseology of Scripture, ‘ the Sun of Righteousness shall 
 rise with healing on his wings,’ could not be more emphati- 
 cally or more accurately represented to the human eye than 
 by this elegant device.” The temple itself still retains all 
 its original magnificence. The centuries which have 
 elapsed since the era of its foundat ion have scarcely affected 
 it in any important part, and have impressed upon it no 
 greater appearance of age than serves to render it more 
 venerable and imposing. To Mr. Hamilton, who had seen 
 innumerable monuments of the same kind throughout the 
 Thebaid, it seemed as if he were now witnessing the 
 highest degree of architectural excellence that had ever 
 been attained on the borders of the Nile. Here were con- 
 centrated the united labours of ages, and the last effort of 
 human art and industry, in that uniform line of construction 
 which had been adopted in the earliest times. 
 
 The portico consists of twenty-four columns, in three 
 rows ; each above twenty-two feet in circumference, thirty- 
 two feet high, and covered with hierogtyphics. On the 
 front, Isis is in general the principal figure to whom offer- 
 ings are made. On the architrave are represented two pro- 
 cessions of men and women bringing to their goddess, and 
 to Osiris, who is sitting behind her, globes encompassed 
 
IN VARIOUS PARTS OF EGYPT. 
 
 169 
 
 with cows’ horns, mitred snakes, lotus flowers, vases, little 
 boats, graduated staffs, and other instruments of their em- 
 blematical worship. The interior of the pronaos is adorned 
 with sculptures, most of them preserving part of the paint 
 with which they have been covered. Those on the ceiling 
 are peculiarly rich and varied, all illustrative of the union 
 between the astronomical and religious creeds of the ancient 
 Egyptians ; yet, though each separate figure is well pre- 
 served and perfectly intelligible, we must be more intimately 
 acquainted with the real principles of the sciences, as they 
 were then taught before we can undertake to explain the 
 signs in which they were imbodied. 
 
 The sekos, or interior of the temple, consists of several 
 apartments, all the walls and ceilings of which are in the 
 same way covered with religious and astronomical repre- 
 sentations. The roofs, as is usual in Egypt, are flat, formed 
 of oblong masses of stone resting on the side-walls ; and 
 when the distance betw r een these is too great, one or two 
 rows of columns are carried down the middle of the apart- 
 ment, on which the huge flags are supported. The capitals 
 of these columns are very richly ornamented with the 
 budding lotus, the stalks of which, being extended a certain 
 way down the shaft, give it the appearance of being fluted, 
 or rather scalloped. The rooms have been lighted by 
 small perpendicular holes cut in the ceiling, and, where it 
 was possible to introduce them, by oblique ones in the sides. 
 But some idea might be formed of the perpetual gloom in 
 which the apartments on the ground-floor of the sekos 
 must have been buried, from the fact, that where no side- 
 light could be introduced, all they received was communi- 
 cated from the apartment above ; so that, notwithstanding 
 the cloudless sky and the brilliant colours on the walls, the 
 place must have been always well calculated for the mys- 
 terious practices of the religion to which it was consecrated. 
 On one corner of the roof there was a chapel or temple 
 twenty feet square, consisting of twelve columns, exactly 
 similar in figure and proportions to those of the pronaos. 
 The use to which it may have been applied must probably 
 remain one of the secrets connected with the mystical and 
 sometimes cruel service in which the priests of Isis were 
 employed, though it is by no means unlikely that it was 
 meant as a repository for books and instruments collected 
 
170 
 
 REMAINS OF ANCIENT ART 
 
 for the more innocent and exalted pursuits of practical 
 astronomy. 
 
 Towards the eastern end of the roof are two separate 
 sets of apartments, one on the north and the other on the 
 south side of it. The latter consists of three rooms, the 
 first of which is only remarkable for the representation of 
 a human sacrifice. A man, with the head and ears of an 
 ass, is kneeling on the ground, tied with his hands behind 
 him to a tree, with two knives driven into his forehead, two 
 in the shoulders, one in his body, and another in the thigh. 
 Five priests, with the heads of dogs, and hawks, are in a 
 row behind him, each having a knife in his hand. The 
 deity, before whom the mactation is about to be performed, 
 is clothed in a long white garment, and holds in his right 
 hand the crook or crosier, with the flagellum. 
 
 The ceiling of the next room is divided into two com- 
 partments by a figure of Isis in very high relief. In one of 
 them is the circular zodiac ; in the other a variety of boats 
 with four or five human figures in each ; one of whom is 
 in the act of spearing a large egg, while others are stamping 
 with their feet upon the victims of their fury, among which 
 are several human beings. Near this scene a large lion, 
 supported by four dog-headed figures, each carrying a knife, 
 may be regarded as an additional type of the sanguinary 
 purposes for which the apartment was used. The walls of 
 the third room are covered with the several representations 
 of a person, — first at the point of death lying on a couch ; 
 then stretched out lifeless upon a bier ; and finally, after 
 being embalmed. As these sculptures are much more 
 defaced than the others, it is very difficult to decipher their 
 details. But the ensigns of royalty and the presence of the 
 deity are, in general, clearly discernible ; on which account 
 it is not improbable that the scenes may bear an allusion to 
 the death of some sovereign of the country who w T as 
 honoured as the patron of religion or of science. 
 
 The western wall of the great temple is particularly 
 interesting for the extreme elegance of the sculpture, — as 
 far as Egyptian sculpture is susceptible of that character, 
 — for the richness of the dresses in w^hich the priests and 
 deities are arrayed, and even of the chairs in which the 
 latter are seated. Here are frequent representations of men 
 who seem prepared for slaughter or just going to be put t? 
 
IN VARIOUS PARTS OF EGYPT. 
 
 1/1 
 
 death. On these occasions one or more appear, with their 
 hands or legs tied to the trunk of a tree, in the most painful 
 and distorted attitudes. 
 
 The grand projecting cornice, one of the most imposing 
 features of Egyptian architecture, is continued the whole 
 length of this and the other walls ; a moulding separates it 
 from the architrave ; and, being carried down the angles 
 of thg building, gives to the whole a solid finished appear- 
 ance, combined with symmetry of parts and chasteness of 
 ornament. 
 
 In If'small chapel behind the temple, the cow and the 
 hawk seem to have been particularly worshipped, as priests 
 are frequently seen kneeling before them presenting sacri- 
 fices and offerings. In the centre of the ceiling is the same 
 front face of Isis in high relief, illuminated, as it were, by a 
 body of rays issuing from the mouth of the same long figure, 
 which, in the other temples, appears to encircle the 
 heavenly bodies. About two hundred yards eastward from 
 this chapel is a propylon of small dimensions, resembling 
 in form that which conducts to the great temple, and, like it, 
 built in a line with the wall which surrounds the sacred 
 enclosure. Among the sculptures on it, which appear of 
 the same style but less finished than those on the large 
 temple, little more is worthy of notice than the frequent 
 exhibition of human slaughter by men or by lions. Still 
 farther towards the east there is another propylon, equally 
 well preserved with the rest, about forty feet in height, and 
 twenty feet square at the base. Among the sacred figures 
 on this building is an Isis pointing with a reed to a gradu- 
 ated staff held by another figure of the same deity, from 
 which are suspended scales containing water animals ; the 
 whole group, perhaps, being an emblem of her influence 
 over the Nile in regulating its periodical inundations. 
 
 The enclosure within which all the sacred edifices of 
 Dendera, with the exception of the last propylon, are con- 
 tained, is a square of about a thousand feet. It is sur- 
 rounded by a wall which, where best preserved, is thirty-five 
 feet in height, and fifteen feet thick. The crude bricks of 
 which it is built were found to be fifteen inches and a half 
 long, seven and three-quarters broad, and four inches and 
 three-quarters thick. There have been at certain intervals 
 
172 
 
 REMAINS OF ANCIENT ART • 
 
 projections of the wall or towers ; but it is difficult to say 
 whether for purposes of defence or strength.* 
 
 Dr. Richardson observes, in reference to the sculptures 
 on the temple of Dendera, that “ the female figures are so 
 extremely well executed that they do all but speak, and have 
 a mildness of feature and expression that never was sur- 
 passed.” Every thing around appears to be in motion, and 
 to discharge the functions of a living creature ; being, at 
 the same time, so different from what is ever seen in Europe 
 that the mind is astonished, and feels as if absolutely intro- 
 duced to personages of the remotest ages, to converse with 
 them, and to witness the ceremonies by which they delighted 
 to honour their gods. The temple at Dendera, says this 
 author, is by far the finest in Egypt ; the devices have more 
 soul in them ; and the execution is of the" choicest descrip- 
 tion. After walking round it, and considering its peculiar 
 beauty and ornament, one is astonished to find that there is 
 no exact transcript or model of it in England. 
 
 France has done much to make the world acquainted with 
 Egyptian antiquities, and had the agents she employed 
 performed their work with fidelity, would have been entitled 
 to our warmest gratitude ; but the rubbish was never 
 cleared away from the walls or from the interior of this 
 temple ; and being unable to give the whole of any one 
 building, they represent it in patches, and those so incor- 
 rectly, that no person, on examining them, can be sure 
 whether he is studying the compositions of the ancient 
 Egyptians or of the modem French ; so that no part of 
 their work can serve as an unsuspected guide to the student 
 of antiquities on the banks of the Nile. 
 
 As Dr. Richardson is one of the latest travellers who have 
 published upon Egypt, we are induced to give his description 
 of the inside of the magnificent fane now under our con- 
 sideration. “ The first apartment has three columns on 
 each hand, all covered with sculpture and hieroglyphics, 
 and surmounted at the top, like those already mentioned, 
 with the head of Isis Quadrifrons. The w alls behind the 
 col mans are equally enriched, so that there is not a spot the 
 eye can rest on but addresses to the mind a tale of interest 
 and wonder *, though no man can read or unfold its precise 
 
 Hamilton’s Egyptiaea, p. 196-204. 
 
IN VARIOUS PARTS OF EGYPT. 
 
 173 
 
 meaning, yet each forms to himself some conjecture of the 
 story, and is pleased with the constant exercise of his mind. 
 Passing on we entered another apartment which has no 
 columns, but the walls are decorated in the same manner $ 
 then we moved into a third, which was equally so, and from 
 thence passages go off to small handsome side-chambers, 
 equally ornamented with figures, and stars, and hiero- 
 glyphics, and a sort of chain-work along the ceiling, of a blue 
 colour. The passage to the right leads to an easy hand- 
 some stair, by which to ascend to the top of the building ; 
 we continued our way, however, straight forward, and 
 entered another chamber, in the centre of which Stands the 
 sanctuary, or holiest apartment, all of them rich in sculpture 
 and hieroglyphics. Never did I see a greater field for 
 thought or reflection, and never did I regret more the want 
 of time than in visiting the superb temple of Dendera.”* 
 The enthusiasm of a Frenchman seeks expressions still 
 more elevated to give utterance to his feelings. “ I wish,” 
 exclaims Denon, “ that I could here transfuse into the soul 
 of my reader the sensations which I experienced. I was 
 too much lost in astonishment to be capable of cool judg- 
 ment ; all that I had hitherto seen served here but to fix 
 my admiration. This monument seemed to me to have the 
 primitive character of a temple in the highest perfection. 
 I felt that I was in the sanctuary of the arts and sciences. 
 How many periods presented themselves to my imagination 
 at the sight of such an edifice ! How many ages of crea- 
 tive ingenuity were requisite to bring a nation to such a 
 degree of perfection and sublimity in the arts ; and how 
 many more of oblivion to cause these mighty productions to 
 be forgotten, and to bring back the human race to the state 
 of nature in which I found them on this very spot ! Never 
 was there a place which concentred in a narrower compass 
 the well-marked memorial of a progressive lapse of ages. 
 "What unceasing power, what riches, what abundance, what 
 superfluity of means must a government possess which 
 could erect such an edifice, and find within itself artists 
 capable of conceiving and executing the design of decorating 
 and enriching it with every thing that speaks to the eye and 
 the understanding ! Never did the labour of man show me 
 
 * Travels, vol. i. p. 205. 
 
 P 2 
 
174 
 
 REMAINS OF ANCIENT AFT 
 
 the human race in such a splendid point of view ; in the 
 ruins of Tentyra the Egyptians appeared to me giants. I 
 wished to take every thing on paper, but I could hardly 
 venture to begin the work : I felt that, not being able to 
 raise my powers to the height which was before my admiring 
 eyes, I could only show the imperfection of the imitative 
 art. I was confused by the multiplicity of objects, aston- 
 ished by their novelty, and tormented by the fear of never 
 again visiting them. On casting my eyes on the ceilings, 
 I had perceived zodiacs, planetary systems, and celestial 
 hemispheres, represented in a tasteful arrangement : I saw 
 that the Supreme Being, the First Cause, was every where 
 depicted by the emblems of his attributes ; and I had but 
 a few hours to examine, to reflect on, and to copy what it 
 had been the labour of ages to conceive, to put together, 
 and to decorate. With my pencil in my hand, I passed 
 from object to object, distracted from one by the inviting 
 appearance of the next, constantly attracted to new sub- 
 jects, and again torn from them. I wanted eyes, hands, 
 and intelligence vast enough to see, copy, and reduce to 
 some order the multitude of striking images which pre- 
 sented themselves before me. I was ashamed at repre- 
 senting such sublime objects by such imperfect designs, but 
 I wished to preserve some memorial of the sensations which 
 I here experienced, and I feared that Tentyra would escape 
 from me for ever ; so that my regret equalled my present 
 enjoyment. I had just discovered, in a small apartment, a 
 celestial planisphere, -when the last rays of daylight made 
 me perceive that I was alone here, along with my kind and 
 obliging friend General Beliard, who, after having satisfied 
 his own curiosity, would not leave me unprotected in so 
 deserted a spot. We galloped on and regained our division. 
 — In the evening, Latournerie, an officer of brilliant courage 
 and of a refined and delicate taste, said to me, ‘ Since I 
 have been in Egypt deceived in all my expectations, I have 
 been constantly heavy and melancholy, but Tentyra has 
 cured me : what I have seen this day has repaid me for all 
 my fatigues ; whatever happens to me in the event of this 
 expedition, I shall all my life congratulate myself at having 
 embarked in it, to have obtained the remembrance of this 
 day, which I shall preserve all the rest of my existence.’ ”* 
 
 Travels in Upper and Lower Egypt, vol. i. p. 295. 
 
IN VARIOUS PARTS OF EGYPT. 
 
 175 
 
 This extract will afford the means of judging how far 
 the members of the French Institute had an opportunity 
 of examining the buildings of which they have undertaken 
 to give at once a description and a copy. Denon himself 
 admits, that as their troops were engaged in pursuit of an 
 enemy constantly mounted, the movements of the division 
 were invariably both unforeseen and complicated ; and con- 
 sequently that he was sometimes obliged to pass rapidly 
 over the most interesting monuments, and at other times 
 to stop where there was nothing to observe.* 
 
 We must not, however, omit to mention that at a subse- 
 quent period Denon returned to this interesting scene of 
 antiquities, when he copied the zodiac and the celestial 
 planisphere which have excited so much discussion among 
 the philosophers of Europe. He copied also the rest of the 
 ceiling, which is divided into two equal parts by a large 
 figure that seems to be an Isis ; her feet resting upon 
 earth, her arms extended towards heaven, while she 
 appears to occupy all the space between. In another part 
 of the ceiling is a large figure, probably representing 
 heaven or the year, with its hands and feet on the same 
 level, and unfolding, with the curvature of the body, four- 
 teen globes, placed on as many boats, distributed over seven 
 beads or zones, separated from each other by numberless 
 hieroglyphics, but too much covered with stalactites and 
 smoke to allow of its being taken. 
 
 All the world knows that the French mathematicians dis- 
 covered in these astronomical drawings, compared with the 
 corresponding emblems at Esneh, certain proofs of an an- 
 tiquity usually thought inconsistent with the chronology 
 of the sacred writings. Signor Visconti published some 
 calculations on the subject, which drew from M. de Lalande 
 a series of remarks, inserted in the “ Connaissances des 
 Terns” for the year 1807. These authors agree in the con- 
 clusion that the zodiac of Dendera must have been formed 
 in the first century of the Christian era, or, at latest, before 
 the year 132 of our epoch. Mr. Hamilton discovered two 
 facts which tended greatly to confirm the opinion now 
 stated ; the one fixing the reign of Tiberius as the period 
 to which may be assigned the construction of the building ; 
 
 * Preface, p. iii. 
 
176 
 
 REMAIN'S OF ANCIENT ART 
 
 the other affording the most satisfactory proof that the 
 summer solstice was in Cancer when the zodiac was carved; 
 whence it follow's that the date in question could not be far 
 removed from the birth of Christ. 
 
 The coincidence here between the deductions of the as- 
 tronomer and the observations of the traveller is very striking, 
 and strengthens our confidence in the accuracy of both. 
 But the speculations which follow on the celestial plani- 
 sphere, as they assume a wider range, have not produced 
 the same unanimity. From certain figures which are in- 
 troduced, De Lalande is of opinion that it must have been 
 composed at the time when the summer solstice was in the 
 middle of the sign Cancer, or, in other words, about three 
 thousand years ago ; and he refers his readers to the argu- 
 ments he has adduced in another work, to prove that it was 
 about the period just mentioned when the system of the 
 heavens was constructed, in which Eudoxus, eight hundred 
 years afterward, and Aratus his follower, described the 
 sphere. While, however, he attributes this antiquity to 
 the Dendera zodiac, he has no hesitation in allowing the 
 probability that the temple itself within which it is engraved 
 may be of a much later date. 
 
 From another process of calculation into which our 
 limits forbid us to enter, Mr. Hamilton infers that we can- 
 not assign to this astronomical picture an antiquity less 
 remote than four thousand five hundred years, the period 
 the sun must have taken to pass through the two adjacent 
 signs of Leo and Cancer, according to the annual precession 
 of the equinoxes. He adds, indeed, in a note, that if we 
 place the sun in the middle of Leo at the time of the sol- 
 stice when this zodiac was constructed, we shall then 
 assign to it only the antiquity of three thousand tw r o hun- 
 dred years ; that is, fourteen hundred years before the 
 Christian era. This would leave a space amply sufficient 
 for the acquisition of astronomical knowledge between the 
 deluge and the date specified.* 
 
 The reasonings and conclusions of which we have now 
 presented an outline have drawn upon their authors a load 
 of calumny by no means justifiable on any of the grounds 
 which a generous and candid criticism is wont to assume. 
 
 Hamilton’s Egyptiaca, p. 215. 
 
IN VARIOUS PARTS OF EGYPT. 
 
 177 
 
 The positions, indeed, which they laboured to establisn, 
 are liable to attack from various quarters ; and especially 
 because these are founded on a very incorrect copy of the 
 astronomical sculptures which they undertook to explain. 
 Denon appears to have spent but one day amid the ruins 
 of Dendera, on a task which would have required the unin- 
 terrupted employment of several weeks ; and accordingly 
 it is now nowhere denied that his drawings do not exhibit 
 an exact representation either of the zodiac or of the plani- 
 sphere. Dr. Richardson, who had an opportunity of com- 
 paring the French work with- the original, admits the ele- 
 gance of the execution, but declares that “ it is perfectly 
 foppish, and not the least Egyptian in its style or manner. 
 It is, besides, extremely ineorrect both in the drawing of 
 the figures and in the hieroglyphics, as well as in the 
 number of stars which accompany them ; which last are 
 both fewer in number and differently arranged from what 
 we found them to be in the ceiling. In point of sentiment 
 it is equally inaccurate ; the several authors having im- 
 parted to the human figure an insipid and babyish expres- 
 sion, which one would not have expected from the com- 
 panions of Napoleon; and which is as foreign to the 
 Egyptian character as the aspect of a child or an insipid 
 coxcomb is to that of the Theseus, the Memnon, or the 
 Apollo.”* 
 
 We cannot, however, agree with this facetious traveller 
 that the ceiling at Dendera has no connexion whatever with 
 astronomy, but is merely a congregation of gods and god- 
 desses, mythological beings, and religious processions. 
 Perhaps there may be a scheme of general physics involved 
 in the multifarious emblems displayed in the temple, — a 
 theory of production and reproduction, of which the princi- 
 ples continue unknown, — but it is still more probable that 
 the veneration shown by all ancient nations to the host 
 of heaven, and an effort to trace their paths or positions in 
 the immense regions of space, called forth the genius of the 
 artist and the wealth of the pious in the ornaments of 
 Tentyra. 
 
 Our object in this chapter, we have already remarked, is 
 not to illustrate the opinions of the Egyptians, but to pre- 
 
 Travels, toI. 1. p. 204. 
 
178 
 
 fcfelrfAiNS OF ANCIENT ART 
 
 simt a record of their taste and ability in the fine arts. Fof 
 this purpose no portion of their labours, since Thebes was 
 trodden under foot and the Labyrinth disappeared, could bo 
 more happily selected than the ruins of Dendera. Its 
 columns, statues, sculptures, and hieroglyphics are the 
 admiration of the most refined people at present on the face 
 of the earth. Travellers who can agree in nothing else 
 unite in extolling the wonders of the temple and portico. 
 The ardent Frenchman and the more phlegmatic native 
 of Britain are equally enthusiastic in their expressions 
 of delight and astonishment. Even Belzoni, who was 
 accustomed to the grandest sights, acknowledges that the 
 majestic appearance of the temple and the variety of its 
 ornaments had such an effect on him, that he seated him- 
 self on the ground, and for a considerable time was lost in 
 •admiration.* 
 
 It is generally admitted that the monuments of Tentyra 
 do not possess the same degree of antiquity which belongs 
 to the buildings of Thebes. As a proof of this, it is men- 
 tioned that the basis of the large temple in the former 
 place stands upon a terrace which is still fifteen feet above 
 the level of the neighbouring country ; while similar ter- 
 races at Thebes are only on a level with the surface of the 
 
 * Narrative, vol. i. p. 52. When at Dendera Mrs. Elwood relates 
 that “here we in vain searched for the famous circular zodiac, which, 
 by the descriptions of the temple we had read, we were aware must be 
 in tilis neighbourhood ; but, after a great number of pantomimic signs 
 had passed between us, the Arab guide made us understand it had been 
 taken away ; and this we subsequently found was positively the case, a 
 Frenchman having carried it off to Cairo ! What a Goth ! to dismantle 
 this majestic building for the purpose, in a manner more rode than even 
 the Turks themselves ! We, however, saw the spot where— alas ! that 
 I should say — it had been. C observed that the figures in the tem- 
 
 ple closely resembled those he had seen in India ; and in fact it was 
 here that the sepoys, when brought into Egypt, prostrated themselves 
 in adoration, thinking they saw their own deities before them, which 
 proves there is a strong affinity between tbe worship of the ancient 
 Egyptians and that of the modern Hindoos .” — Narrative of a Journey 
 Overland from England to India , vol. i. p. 213. 
 
 It is generally known that the zodiac, the removal of which occasioned 
 bo much indignation to this lady, has been some time in Paris. The 
 rivalry which animates the tourists and philosophers of France and 
 England threatens to inflict upon the interesting remains of Egyptian 
 art a greater injury than they have sustained from the ravages of two 
 thousand years, and from the assaults of all the barbarian conquerors 
 ■who have possessed the country from Nebuchadnezzar to Moham- 
 med Ali. 
 
IN VARIOUS PARTS OF EGYPT. 
 
 179 
 
 Nile, aVve which they were, beyond a doubt, once greatly 
 elevated. Visconti, therefore, and after him Belzoni, inferred 
 that the' temple at Dendera was not older than the time 
 of the Ptolemies, or perhaps that of the Romans ; but 
 Jollois, on the contrary, expresses his firm conviction, that 
 from the style and execution of the sculptures, they cannot 
 have been made subsequently to the invasion under Cam- 
 byscs, and were probably at least as old as . the tomb 
 of Psammis, who lived in the time of Josiah, king of 
 Judah. 
 
 It is obvious, when we reflect that Tentyrawas built at a 
 considerable distance from the river, the argument drawn 
 from the elevation of the soil occasioned by the annual 
 flood, docs not apply to the question at issue ; while the 
 inscriptions found on many of the ancient monuments of 
 Egypt cannot be understood in any other sense than as a 
 re dedication of the fabric to a popular monarch,-— a prac- 
 tice sanctioned by the usage of all ages. But, on other 
 accounts, we concur in the views of Belzoni in regard to 
 the date of the principal edifices now under consideration. 
 
 Leaving Dendera, however, w'e proceed to Thebes, the 
 remains of which, though not possessed of greater elegance 
 and beauty, are usually regarded with a larger share of 
 interest. The vast extent of the ruins is itself a subject 
 of profound attention. The ancient city extended from the 
 ridge of mountains which skirt the Arabian Desert to the 
 similar elevation which bounds the valley of the Nile on 
 the west, being in circumference not less than twenty-seven 
 miles. But its actual situation may perhaps be more suc- 
 cessfully represented to the fancy by the descriptions of 
 those who have recently examined it, and whoso first irn- 
 pressions, though recorded in language which may seem 
 inflated, supply, it is probable, a faithful picture of the 
 manifest desolation for which alone it is now celebrated. 
 The following paragraph, extracted from the w r ork of Denon, 
 the friend and companion of Buonaparte, is sufficiently 
 striking : — 
 
 “At nine o’clock, in making a sharp turn round a pro- 
 jecting point, w r e discovered all at once the site of the ancient 
 Thebes in its whole extent. This celebrated city, the size 
 of which Homer has characterized with the single expres- 
 sion of thp hundred-gated , — a boasting and poetical phrasq 
 
180 
 
 REMAINS OF ANCIENT ART 
 
 which has been repeated with so much confidence for so 
 many centuries ; — this illustrious city, described in a few 
 pages dictated to Herodotus by Egyptian priests, that have 
 since been copied by every historian, — celebrated by the 
 number of its kings, whose wisdom had raised them to the 
 rank of gods, — by laws which have been revered without 
 being promulgated, — by science, involved in pompous and 
 enigmatical inscriptions, — the first monuments of ancient 
 learning which are still spared by the hand of time ; — this 
 abandoned sanctuary, surrounded with barbarism, and again 
 restored to the desert from which it had been drawn forth, 
 — enveloped in the veil of mystery and the obscurity of 
 ages, whereby even its own colossal monuments are mag- 
 nified to the imagination, — still impressed the mind with 
 such gigantic phantoms that the whole army, suddenly and 
 with one accord, stood in amazement at the sight of its 
 scattered ruins, and clapped their hands with delight, as if 
 the end and object of their glorious toils, and the complete 
 conquest of Egypt were accomplished and secured by taking 
 possession of the splendid remains of this ancient me- 
 tropolis.”* 
 
 Another traveller, less enthusiastic than Denon, describes 
 the effect of a first sight in the following terms : — “While 
 I was leisurely travelling along, thinking only of our arrival 
 at Luxor, one of the party who had preceded us called to 
 me from a rising ground to turn to the left : and having 
 gone a few yards off the road, I beheld unexpectedly the 
 temple of Kamac. It was long after I reached my tent ere 
 I recovered from the bewilderment into which the view of 
 these stupendous ruins had thrown me. No one who has 
 not seen them can understand the awe and admiration they 
 excite even in unscientific beholders. When I compare 
 the descriptions of Denon and Hamilton I find them essen- 
 tially correct, yet without giving me any adequate idea of 
 the glorious reality. They fail in describing what has 
 never been, and which, I think, never can be, described. No 
 words can impart a perception of the profusion of pillars, 
 standing, prostrate, inclining against each other, broken 
 and whole. Stones of a gigantic size propped up by pillars, 
 and pillars again resting upon stones which appear ready 
 
 * Travels in Upper and Lower Egypt, vol. i. p 3. 
 
IN VARIOUS PARTS OF EGYPT. 
 
 181 
 
 to crush the gazer under their sudden fall ; yet, on a second 
 view, he is convinced that nothing but an earthquake could 
 move them ; all these pillars, covered with sculpture, per* 
 haps three thousand years old, though fresh as if finished 
 but yesterday, — not of grotesque and hideous objects, such 
 as we are accustomed to associate with ideas of Egyptian 
 mythology, but many of the figures of gods, warriors, and 
 horses, much larger than life, yet exhibiting surpassing 
 beauty and grace.”* 
 
 The modem Egyptians, either with the view of obtain* 
 ing materials at little expense of labour, or in order that 
 their hovels might be secure from the periodical inundations 
 of the river, are commonly found to have built their villages 
 on the ruins of an ancient temple or palace, even on the 
 very summit of the roof and most elevated part of the walls. 
 Hence the grandeur of Thebes must now be traced in four 
 small towns or hamlets, — Luxor, Kamac, Medinet Abou, 
 and Gornoo. Following the best authorities, which, in this 
 case, are usually the most recent, we proceed to lay before 
 the reader a brief description of the principal buildings 
 which time and barbarism have spared within the precincts 
 of this celebrated capital. 
 
 In approaching the temple of Luxor from the north, the 
 first object is a magnificent gateway, which is two hundred 
 feet in length, and the top of it fifty-seven feet above the 
 present level of the soil. In front of the entrance are two 
 of the most perfect obelisks in the world, each consisting of 
 a single block of red granite. They are between seven and 
 eight feet square at the base, and more than eighty feet 
 high ; many of the hieroglypbical figures with which they 
 are covered being an inch and three-quarters deep, cut with 
 the greatest nicety and precision. Between these obelisks 
 and the propylon are two colossal statues, also of red granite ; 
 they are nearly of equal size, but, from the difference of the 
 dress, it is inferred that the one was a male, the other a 
 female figure. Though buried in the ground to the chest, 
 they still measure about twenty-two feet from thence to the 
 top of their mitres. 
 
 * Narrative of a Journey from Calcutta to Europe. By Mrs. Charles 
 Lushington, p. 81. 
 
 Q 
 
182 
 
 REMAINS OF ANCIENT ART 
 
 On the eastern wing of the north front of the propylon 
 there is sculptured a very animated description of a remark- 
 able event in the campaigns of some Egyptian conqueror. 
 The disposition of the figures and the execution of the whole 
 picture are equally admirable, and far surpass all ideas that 
 have ever been formed of the state of the arts in Egypt at 
 the era to which they must be attributed. The moment 
 chosen for the representation of the battle is that when the 
 troops of the enemy are driven back upon their fortress, and 
 the Egyptians, in the full career of victory, are about be- 
 coming masters of the citadel. 
 
 The commander, behind whom is borne aloft the royal 
 standard, is of a colossal size, and advances in a car drawn 
 by two horses. His helmet is adorned with a globe, and 
 has a serpent at each side. He is in the act of shooting an 
 arrow from a bow, which is full stretched ; around him are 
 quivers, and at his feet a lion in the act of rushing forward. 
 There is a great deal of life and spirit in the form and atti- 
 tude of the horses, which are at full gallop, — feathers 
 waving over their heads, and the reins fastened round the 
 body of the conqueror. Under the wheels of the car, and 
 under the hoofs and bellies of the horses, are crowds of 
 dead and wounded men. On the side of the enemy horses 
 are seen in full speed with empty cars ; others heedless of 
 the rein ; and all at last rushing headlong down a precipice 
 into a broad and deep river which washes the walls of the 
 town. The expression here is exceedingly good. No- 
 where has the artist shown more skill than in two particular 
 groups ; in one of which the horses, arrived at the verge 
 of the precipice, instantly fall down, while the driver, cling- 
 ing with one hand to the car, the reins and whip falling 
 from the other, and his whole body trembling with despair, 
 is about to be hurled over the backs of his steeds. In the 
 other, the horses still find a footing on the side of the hill, 
 and are hurrying forward the charioteers to inevitable de- 
 struction. 
 
 Immediately in front of the conqueror are several cars in 
 full speed for the walls of the town ; but even in these the 
 w irriors are not beyond the reach of the arrow’s darted from 
 his unerring bow ; and when wounded they look back on 
 their pursuer as they fall. Farther on, more fortunate fugi- 
 tives are passing the river ; in which are mingled horses. 
 
IX VARIOUS PARTS OF EGYPT. 
 
 183 
 
 chariots, arms, and men, expressed in the most faithful 
 manner, and represented in all attitudes. Some have 
 already reached the opposite bank, where their friends, who 
 are drawn up in order of battle but have not courage to 
 engage in fight, drag them to the shore. Others, having 
 escaped by another road, are entering the gates of the town 
 amid the shrieks and lamentations of those within. Towers, 
 ramparts, and battlements are crowded with inhabitants, 
 who are chiefly bearded old men and ■women. A party of 
 the former are seen sallying forth, headed by a youth whose 
 different dress and high turban mark him out as some dis- 
 tinguished chieftain ; while on either side of the town 
 are observed large bodies of infantry, and a great force of 
 ■chariots issuing from the gates, and advancing apparently 
 by different routes to attack the besiegers. 
 
 The ardour with which the hero of the piece is advanc- 
 ing has already carried him far beyond the main body of 
 his own army, and he is there alone, among the slain and 
 wounded w r ho have sunk under his powerful arm. Behind 
 this scene the two lines of the enemy join their forces, and 
 attack in a body the army of the invaders who move on to 
 meet them. Besides the peculiarity of the incidents re- 
 corded in this interesting piece of sculpture, there may be 
 traced an evident distinction between the short dresses of 
 the Egyptians and the long robes of their oriental enemies, 
 whether Indians, Persians, or Bactrians ; — the different 
 forms of the car or chariot, — the Egyptian containing two 
 warriors, the foreign vehicle being loaded with three ; and, 
 above all, the difference of the arms, — the soldiers of Sesos- 
 tris having a bow and arrows, while their antagonists 
 vibrate spears or brandish short javelins. 
 
 At one extremity of the western wing of the propylon the 
 beginning of this engagement appears to be represented ; 
 the same monarch being seen at the head of his troops ad- 
 vancing against the double line of the enemy, and first 
 breaking their ranks. At the other extremity of the same 
 wing the conqueror is seated on his throne after the victory, 
 holding a sceptre in his left hand, and enjoying the barba- 
 rous pleasure of beholding eleven of the principal captives 
 tied together in a row with a rope about their necks. The 
 foremost stretches out his hands imploring pity ; another is 
 on his knees just going to be put to death by the hands of 
 
184 
 
 REMAINS OF ANCIENT ART 
 
 two executioners ; while above them is the vanquished 
 monarch with his hands bound behind him to a car, about 
 to be dragged in triumph before the conqueror. 
 
 In the rear of the throne different captives are suffering 
 death in various ways ; some like the Briareus, the execu- 
 tioner holding them by the hair of the head ; others dragged 
 by chariots, or slain by the arrow or the scimitar. Next 
 appears in view the conqueror’s camp, round which are 
 placed his treasures, and where his servants are preparing 
 a feast to celebrate the victory. 
 
 “ It is impossible,” says Mr. Hamilton, “ to view and to 
 reflect upon a picture so copious and so detailed as this I 
 have just described, w ithout fanc}'ing that I saw here the ori- 
 ginal of many of Homer’s battles, the portrait of some of the 
 historical narratives of HeTodotus, and one of the principal 
 groundworks of the description of Diodorus : and, to com- 
 plete the gratification, we felt that, had the artist been better 
 acquainted with the rules of perspective, the performance 
 might have done credit to the genius of a Michael Angelo 
 or a Julio Romano. To add to the effect, in front of this 
 wall had been erected a row of colossal figures of granite ; 
 fragments of some of them, still there, sufficiently attest 
 their size, their character, and the exquisite polish of the 
 stone.” 
 
 All this magnificence and cost, the reader is aware, are 
 lavished on a gateway. On passing it the traveller enters a 
 ruined portico, of very large dimensions ; and from this a 
 double row of seven columns, with lotus capitals, two-and- 
 twenty feet in circumference, conducts him into a court one 
 hundred and sixty feet long, and one hundred and forty 
 wide, terminated at each side by a row of columns ; beyond 
 which is another portico of thirty-two columns, and then 
 the adytum, or interior part of the building. It is conjec- 
 tured, with much plausibility, that this is the edifice to which 
 the description of Diodorus applies as the palace or tomb 
 of the great Osymandias ; allowance being made for his 
 embellishments, in which he has introduced some of the 
 more striking features that distinguish the largest buildings 
 of Thebes. 
 
 Karnac, which is about a mile and a half lower down, is 
 regarded as the principal site of Diospolis, the portion of 
 the ancient capital which remained most entire in the days 
 
IX VARIOUS PARTS OF EGYPT. 
 
 185 
 
 of Strabo. The temple at the latter place has been pro- 
 nounced, in respect to its magnitude and the beauty of its 
 several parts, as unique in the whole world. Mr. Hamil- 
 ton admits that, in regard to its general plan, the distribu- 
 tion of the entrances, and the interior of the building, the 
 descriptions of Pococke and Denon are tolerably accurate. 
 But he adds, that without personally inspecting this extra- 
 ordinary structure, it is impossible to have any adequate 
 notion of its immense size, or of the prodigious masses of 
 which it consists. This edifice has twelve principal en- 
 trances, each of which is composed of several propyla and 
 colossal gateways, besides other buildings attached to them, 
 in themselves larger than most other temples. The sides 
 of some of these are equal to the bases of the greater num- 
 ber of the pyramids in Middle Egypt, and are built in the 
 rustic style, each layer of stone projecting a little beyond 
 that which is above it. One of the propyla is entirely of 
 granite, adorned with the most finished hieroglyphics. On 
 each side of many of them have been colossal statues of 
 basalt and granite, from twenty to thirty feet in height, — 
 some in the attitude of sitting, others standing erect. The 
 avenues of sphinxes that lead in several directions to the 
 propyla, one of which was continued the whole way across 
 the plain to the temple at Luxor, nearly two miles distant, 
 correspond to the magnificence of the principal structure. 
 And the body of the temple, which is preceded by a large 
 court, at whose sides are colonnades of thirty columns in 
 length, and through the middle of which are tw o rows not 
 less than fifty feet high, consists, first, of a prodigious- hall 
 or portico, the roof sustained by one-hundred and thirty- 
 four pillars, some of which are twenty-six feet in circum- 
 ference, and others thirty-four. Next appear four beau- 
 tiful obelisks, marking the entrance to the adytum, near 
 which the monarch is represented as embraced by the arms 
 of Isis. This sanctuary consists of three apartments, en- 
 tirely of granite. The principal room is in the centre ; it 
 is tw r enty feet long, sixteen wide, and thirteen feet high. 
 Three blocks of granite form the roof, which is painted 
 with clusters of stars, on a blue ground. The walls are 
 likewise covered with painted sculptures, of a character 
 admirably suited to the mysterious purposes to which the 
 Q2 
 
186 
 
 REMAINS OF ANCIENT ART 
 
 chamber was sometimes devoted.* Beyond this are other 
 porticoes and galleries, which have been continued to a third 
 propylon, at the distance of two thousand feet from that at 
 the western extremity of the temple. 
 
 This is certainly the building which Diodorus Siculus 
 attempts to describe as the most wonderful and most an- 
 cient of the four temples at Thebes, remarkable for their 
 magnitude and beauty. In enumerating its colossal pro- 
 portions, he says that it was thirteen stadia — a mile and a 
 half — in circumference ; forty-five cubits high ; and the 
 walls twenty-four feet thick ; adding, that the ornaments^ 
 riches, and workmanship which combined to embellish it 
 corresponded to its vast extent. The above dimensions, 
 however great, are, we may add, in many instances found 
 to fall short of the truth. 
 
 It were needless, says the author from whose work we 
 have abridged this account, to enumerate with a more mi- 
 nute detail the different apartments, the columns, the co- 
 lossal statues, the gateways, or the obelisks of this immense 
 edifice. Denon concludes the partial description which he 
 has attempted, by declaring that “ one is fatigued with 
 writing, one is fatigued with reading, one is stunned with 
 the thought of such a conceptiorl. It is hardly possible to 
 believe, after having seen it, in the reality of the existence 
 of so many buildings collected on a single point, in their 
 dimensions, in the resolute perseverance which their con- 
 struction required, and in the incalculable expenses of so 
 much magnificence. On examining these ruins, the imagi- 
 nation is wearied with the idea of describing them. Of 
 the hundred columns of the porticoes alone of this temple, 
 the smallest are seven feet and a half in diameter, and the 
 largest twelve. The space occupied by this circumvallation 
 contains lakes and mountains. In short, to be enabled to 
 form a competent idea of so much magnificence, it is neces- 
 sary that the reader should fancy what is before him to 
 be a dream, as he who views the objects themselves oc- 
 casionally yields to the doubt whether he be perfectly 
 »wake. ”f 
 
 * Herodotus, Clio, c. 182. 
 
 t On est fatigue dYcrire, on est fatigue de lire, on est epouvante de la 
 pens£e d’une telle conception ; on ne peut croire, m&me apr^s l’avoir vu f 
 a la reality de l’existence de tant de constructions reunies sur un me me 
 
IN VARIOUS PARTS OF EGYPT. 
 
 187 
 
 The dimensions of the great edifice at Karnac are about 
 1200 feet in length and 420 in width. But the principal 
 fane, grand and imposing as it is, sinks into nothing 
 when compared with the extent and number of the build- 
 ings which surround it, — the prodigious gateways of pol- 
 ished granite, covered with sculpture and adorned with 
 colossal statues, — the subordinate temples which any where 
 else would be esteemed magnificent piles, — and the ave- 
 nues, which approach it from almost every point of the 
 compass, miles in length, and guarded by rows of sphinxes, 
 of vast size, cut out of single blocks of syenite. The field 
 of ruins at Karnac is about a mile in diameter. Probably 
 the whole of this space was once, in the prouder days of 
 Thebes, consecrated entirely to the use of the temple. 
 There are traces of walls considerably beyond this, which, 
 we may presume, enclosed the city in its greatest extent ; 
 but, after the seat of government was withdrawn, the capi- 
 tal removed to Memphis, and the trade removed to another 
 mart, the inhabitants narrowed the circle of their defences, 
 and built their houses within the limits of the sacred 
 confines.* 
 
 But Luxor and Karnac represent only one-half of ancient 
 Thebes. On the western side of the river there are several 
 structures, which, although they may be less extensive, 
 are equal, if not superior, in their style of architecture. 
 We cannot, however, enter upon a description of the tem- 
 ples at Dair and Medinet Abou. Suffice it to observe, that 
 the propylon of the latter is about 175 feet long, and 
 very richly adorned with the usual embellishments of sculp- 
 ture and inscriptions. The temple itself is in length some- 
 what more than five hundred feet, while the cella is nearly 
 a hundred and fifty broad without the walls. The Memno- 
 nium, the ruins of which give a melancholy celebrity to 
 northern Dair, is still more remarkable, and is perhaps one 
 of the most ancient in Thebes. This beautiful relic of an- 
 tiquity looks to the east, and is fronted by a stupendous 
 propylon, of which 234 feet in length are still remaining. 
 The main edifice has been about 200 feet wide, and 600 
 
 point, A leur dimensions, A la Constance obstinAe qu’a exigAe leur fabri- 
 cation, aux depenses incalculables de tant de somptuositA. — Tome ii. 
 p. 226. 
 
 * Richardson’s Travels, vol. ii. p. 96, 
 
183 
 
 REMAIN? OF ANCIENT ART 
 
 feet long ; containing six courts and chambers, passing 
 from side to side, with about one hundred and sixty col- 
 umns thirty feet high. All the side-walls have been broken 
 down, and the materials of which they were composed 
 carried away ; nothing remaining but a portion of the col- 
 onnade and the inner chambers, to testify to the traveller 
 what a noble structure once occupied this interesting 
 spot. 
 
 There is a circumstance mentioned by a recent visiter, 
 which is too important to be overlooked in detailing the 
 unrivalled grandeur of ancient Thebes. The temple at 
 Medinet Abou was so placed as to be exactly opposite to 
 that of Luxor, on the other side of the Nile ; while the 
 magnificent structure at Karnac was fronted by the Mem- 
 nonium or temple of Dair : and hence all these grand 
 objects formed so many stages or prominent points in the 
 religious processions of the priests. Though the taber- 
 nacle of Jupiter dwelt at Karnac, the proper Diospolis, yet 
 it was carried over the river every year, and remained a 
 few days in Libya ; and we find, from a general estimate, 
 that there was a space of between nine and ten miles, over 
 which they might exhibit the pomp and parade of their 
 superstition, both going and returning. Almost every part 
 of the road through this immense theatre -was lined with 
 sphinxes, statues, propyla, and other objects calculated to 
 inflame the ardour of devotion ; and in all the imposing 
 ceremonies of pagan idolatry, it is impossible to conceive 
 any thing more impressive than the view which must have 
 burst upon the sight of the enraptured votaries when, at 
 the close of the solemnity of bringing back their god, they 
 entered the grand temple of Karnac, to replace him in his 
 shrine, with harps and cymbals, and songs of rejoicing.* 
 
 In the Memnonium there is still to be seen the statue of 
 Osymandias, Memnon, or Sesostris. It is pronounced to 
 be by far the finest relic of art which the place contains, 
 and to have been once its brightest ornament, though at 
 present it is thrown down from its pedestal, laid prostrate 
 on the ground, arid shattered into a thousand pieces. It is 
 about 26 feet broad between the shoulders, 54 feet round 
 the chest, and 13 feet from the shoulder to the elbow. 
 
 * Richardson, vol. ii. p. 95. 
 
IN VARIOUS PARTS OF EGYPT. 
 
 189 
 
 There are on the back and both arms hieroglyphical tablets 
 extremely well executed, which identify this enormous 
 statue with the hero whose achievements are sculptured on 
 the walls of the temple. 
 
 This figure has sometimes been confounded with that 
 which bears the name of Memnon, and which has been so 
 long celebrated for its vocal qualities. This last, however, 
 is one of the two statues vulgarly called Shamy and Damy, 
 which stand at a little distance from Medinet Abou, 
 towards the Nile. These, we are told, are nearly equal in 
 magnitude, being about 52 feet in height. The thrones on 
 which they respectively rest are thirty feet long, eighteen 
 broad, and between seven and eight feet high. They are 
 placed about forty feet asunder ; are in a line with each 
 other ; and look towards the east, directly opposite to the 
 temple of Luxor. If there be any difference of size, the 
 southern one is the smaller. It appears to be of one entire 
 stone. The face, arms, and front of the body have suf- 
 fered so much from studied violence that not a feature of 
 the countenance remains. The headdress is beautifully 
 wrought, as also the shoulders, which, with the back, con- 
 tinue quite uninjured. The massy hair projects from 
 behind the ears like that of the Sphinx. The sides of the 
 throne are highly ornamented with the elegant device of 
 two bearded figures tying the stem of the flexible lotus 
 round the ligula. The colossus is in a sitting posture, with 
 the hands resting upon the knees. On the outside of each 
 of the limbs there is a small statue, with spiked crowns on 
 their heads, and fhe arms down by the side. They stand 
 up in front of the pedestal, and reach nearly to the knee. 
 The legs of tHte great statue are divided, and between the 
 feet there is another diminutive figure whose head does not 
 rise higher than the two just descnbed. 
 
 The other statue, which stands on the north side, appears 
 to be that of the vocal Memnon. It presents the same atti- 
 tude as its companion, with a similar figure between the 
 feet and on each side of the legs. It has, however, been 
 broken over at the waist, — an effect which was reported to 
 Strabo to have been produced by an earthquake. In his 
 time the head with the disrupted half of the body, lay on 
 the ground ; the other half remaining in the original posi- 
 tion, which it still occupies. The part that had been 
 
190 
 
 REMAINS OF ANCIENT ART 
 
 broken off is now carried away, and the figure is again 
 completed by courses of common sandstone, forming the 
 back, neck, and head. It is entirely fashioned like the 
 upper part of the other, having several hieroglyphics and 
 other emblems sculptured between the shoulders ; but, as 
 the stone is not susceptible of such elegant workmanship, 
 no attempt has been made to imitate the drapery which 
 adorns its more fortunate neighbour. Upon that portion 
 of the more celebrated statue which still remains, or rather 
 upon the side of the throne, the ornament of the two 
 bearded figures tying the lotus round the stalk of the ligula, 
 with the accompanying hieroglyphics, are as fresh and dis- 
 tinct as on the other. The drapery, too, as far as can 
 now be determined, must have been originally the same 
 in both. 
 
 “But,” says Dr. Richardson, “what characterizes this 
 as the statue of vocal celebrity are the numerous inscrip- 
 tions, both in Greek and Latin, in verse and prose, with 
 which it is covered ; all of them attesting that the writers 
 had heard the heavenly voice of Memnon at the first dawn 
 of day, — feeble indeed at first, but afterward becoming 
 strong and powerful like a trumpet. We searched with 
 eagerness for the name of the illustrious geographer quoted 
 above ; but, if ever it was there, it is now among the many 
 illegibles that no human eye can decipher. Julia Romilla, 
 Cecilia Treboulla, Pulitha Balbima, and many others, attest 
 that they heard the voice of the Memnon, when along with 
 the Emperor Hadrian and his royal consort Sabina, w'hom 
 they seem to have accompanied in their tour throughout the 
 country. One person writes, — I hear (audio) the Memnon ; 
 and another person, — I heard the Memnon sitting in Thebes 
 opposite to Diospolis.”-* 
 
 We know not whether the fact now mentioned will 
 receive any explanation from the circumstance that the 
 material of which the statues are composed is a quartzy 
 sandstone, highly crystallized, and containing a considerable 
 portion of iron. When struck it gives a metallic ring, — the 
 kind of sound which used to be attributed to the Memnon. 
 It is singular, at all events, that the belief of its former 
 vocality still lingers in the tradition of the country ; for the 
 
 * Travels, vol. ii. p. 41. 
 
IN VARIOUS PARTS OF EGYPT. 191 
 
 Arabs continue to call it Salamat, or the statue that bids 
 good morning.* 
 
 It is evident that these statues stand on either side of an 
 avenue leading to a place of worship, and that they were 
 followed by a series of other colossal figures, the remains 
 of some of which are still visible. The temple, whose ap- 
 proach they were appointed to guard, was uncovered by 
 Mr. Salt, who at the same time brought to light a number 
 of sphinxes, with the lion’s head on the body of a human 
 female, and in short traced the foundation and columns of 
 a magnificent building. Belzoni, in like manner, disinterred 
 a handsome statue of black granite, which is now within 
 the precincts of the British museum, — affording additional 
 evidence that the Memnon had belonged to an establish- 
 ment not inferior, perhaps, even to the sublime structures 
 of Luxor and Karnac. On this ground we are disposed 
 to adopt the opinion of the writer whom we have just 
 quoted, who thinks that the ruined temple now mentioned 
 ought to be regarded as the proper Memnonium, and not 
 the edifice which contains the statue of Osymandias. 
 
 The neighbourhood of Thebes presents another subject 
 worthy of attention, and quite characteristic of an Egyptian 
 capital, — the Necropolis, or City of the Dead. Proceeding 
 on the idea that the human being only sojourns for a time 
 in the land of the living, but that the tomb is his perma 
 nent dwelling-place, the inhabitants of this magnificent 
 metropolis lavished much of their wealth and taste on the 
 decoration of their sepulchres. The mountains on the 
 western side of*Thebes have been nearly hollowed out in 
 order to supply tombs for the inhabitants ; while an adjoin- 
 ing valley, remarkable for its solitary and gloomy aspect, 
 appears to have been selected by persons of rank as the re- 
 ceptacle of their mortal remains. The darkest recesses of 
 these pits and chambers have been repeatedly explored by 
 travellers in search of such antiquities as might illustrate 
 the ancient manners of the people, as well as by those mer- 
 cenary dealers in mummies who make a trade of human 
 bones, coffins, and funeral lining. 
 
 To give an idea of the magnificence lavished by the 
 Egyptians on their burial-places, it will be enough to de- 
 
 Richardson, p. 43. 
 
102 
 
 REMAINS OF ANCIENT ART 
 
 scribe the immense vaults discovered by Belzoni, who, in 
 excavating for curiosities, possessed a tact or instinct 
 similar to that which leads the mineral engineer to the 
 richest veins of the precious metals. He fixed upon a spot 
 at the bottom of a precipice, over which, when there hap- 
 pens to be rain in the desert, a torrent rushes with great 
 fury ; and after no small .degree of labour he reached the 
 entrance of a large and very splendid tomb. This hall, 
 which is extremely beautiful, is twenty-seven feet long and 
 twenty-five broad ; the roof being supported by pillars fully 
 four feet square. At the end of it is a large door which 
 opens into another chamber twenty-eight feet by twenty- 
 five, having the Avails covered with figures, which, though 
 only drawn in outline, are so perfect that one would think 
 they had been done only the day before. Returning into 
 the entrance-hall, he observed a large staircase descending 
 into a passage. It is thirteen feet long, seven and a half in 
 width, and has eighteen steps, leading at the bottom to a 
 beautiful corridor of large dimensions. He remarked that 
 the paintings became more perfect the farther he advanced 
 into the interior, retaining their gloss or a kind of varnish 
 laid over the colours, which had a beautiful effect, being 
 usually executed on a white ground. At the end of this 
 splendid passage he descended by ten steps into another 
 equally superb ; from which he entered into an apartment 
 twenty- four feet by thirteen, and so elegantly adorned with 
 sculptures and paintings that he called it the Room of 
 Beauty. When standing in the centre of this chamber, the 
 traveller is surrounded by an assembly of Egyptian gods 
 and goddesses — the leading personages of the Pantheon, — 
 whose presence was thought to honour, or perhaps to pro- 
 tect, the remains of the mighty dead. 
 
 Proceeding farther, he entered a large hall twenty-eight 
 feet long, and twenty-seven broad ; in which are two rows 
 of square pillars, three on each side of the entrance, form- 
 ing a line with the corridors. At either side of this hall, 
 which he termed the Hall of Pillars, is a small chamber; 
 the one on the right is ten feet by nine, that on the left ten 
 feet five inches by eight feet nine inches. The former of 
 these, having in it the figure of a cow painted, he called the 
 Room of Isis ; the latter, from the various emblematical 
 drawings which it exhibits, was denominated the Room of 
 
IN VARIOUS PARTS OF EGYPT. 
 
 193 
 
 Mysteries. At the end of the hall is the entry to a large 
 saloon with an arched roof or ceiling, and extending to 
 thirty-two feet in length by a breadth of twenty-seven. On 
 the right of the saloon is a small chamber without any thing 
 in it, roughly cut as if unfinished, and destitute of painting ; 
 on the left is an apartment with two square pillars, twenty- 
 five feet eight inches by twenty-two feet ten inches. These 
 columns are three feet four inches square, and beautifully 
 painted like the rest. At the same end of the room, and 
 facing the Hall of Pillars, he found another chamber, forty- 
 three feet long by seventeen six inches broad, and adorned 
 with a variety of columns. It is covered with white plaster 
 where the rock did not cut smoothly, but there is no painting 
 in it ; and as Mr. Belzoni discovered in it the carcass of a 
 bull embalmed with asphaltum, he distinguished it by the 
 appellation of the Room of Apis. There were also seen, 
 scattered in various places, an immense number of small 
 wooden figures of mummies six or eight inches long, and 
 covered with mineral oil to preserve them. There were some 
 other figures of fine earth, baked, coloured blue, and strongly 
 varnished ; while on each side of the two little rooms were 
 wooden statues standing erect, with a circular hollow inside, 
 as if to contain a roll of papyrus. 
 
 “ But,” sajrs Mr. Belzoni, “ the description of what w r e 
 found in the centre of the saloon, and which I have reserved 
 till this place, merits the most particular attention, not 
 having its equal inThe world, and being such as we had no 
 idea could exist. It is a sarcophagus of the finest oriental 
 alabaster, nine feet five inches long, and three feet seven 
 inches wide. The thickness is only two inches, and it is 
 transparent when a light is placed in the inside of it. It is 
 minutely sculptured within and without with several hun- 
 dred figures, which do not exceed two inches in height, and 
 represent, as I suppose, the whole of the funeral procession 
 and ceremonies relating to the deceased. I cannot give an 
 adequate idea of this beautiful and invaluable piece of an- 
 tiquity, and can only say that nothing has been brought into 
 Europe from Egypt that can be compared with it. Thecover 
 was not there ; it had been taken out and broken into several 
 pieces, which we found in digging before the first entrance.”* 
 
 * Belzorii’s Narrative of Operations, &c. vol. i. p. 365. Dr. Clarke 
 pronounced the stone of which the sarcophagus is composed to be of a 
 
194 
 
 REMAINS OF ANCIENT ART 
 
 The sarcophagus was placed over a staircase in the centre 
 of the saloon, communicating with a subterraneous passage 
 three hundred feet in length, which seemed to proceed 
 through the very heart of the mountain. Hence, there is 
 reason to believe that there must originally have been two 
 entrances to the tomb, one of which was closed at the time 
 when the sarcophagus was lodged in it ; for not only was 
 this communication obstructed by means of a wall, but 
 several large stones were inserted in the pavement of the 
 saloon, to prevent any one from perceiving either the stair 
 or the passage to which it leads. In short, great pains had 
 been taken to conceal the chamber in which the royal corpse 
 was deposited. The staircase of the entrance-hall had 
 been built up at the bottom, and the intervening space filled 
 with rubbish ; while the floor was covered with large blocks 
 of stone, so as to deceive such individuals as might happen 
 to force a passage through the wall, and make them suppose 
 that the tomb ended at the second apartment. The persons 
 who had been previously in the sepulchre, and destroyed 
 the cover of the sarcophagus, must have possessed a com- 
 plete acquaintance with the plan and structure of that sub- 
 terranean palace ; for, at their departure they used such 
 precautions against a second discovery, that no degree of 
 sagacity less than the share which had fallen to Belzoni could 
 have defeated their object. 
 
 The walls of nearly all the apartments are decorated with 
 superb paintings and sculptures which we cannot undertake 
 to describe at length. But, for a reason which will imme- 
 diately appear, we must not pass over one wherein is repre- 
 sented a military procession, consisting of a gTeat number 
 of figures all looking towards a man who is much superior 
 to them in size. At the close of this pageant are three dif- 
 ferent sorts of people, from as many nations, evidently Jews, 
 Ethiopians, and Persians. Behind them are some Egyp- 
 tians without their ornaments, as if they were captives 
 rescued and returning to their own country, followed by 
 a hawk-headed figure, supposed to be their protecting 
 deity. 
 
 By the application of his principle for explaining phonetic 
 
 rarer and much more valuable species than alabaster. A model of this 
 splendid tomb was afterward exhibited in London containing the real 
 sarcophagus. 
 
IN VARIOUS PARTS OF EGYPT. 
 
 195 
 
 hieroglyphics, Dr. Young discovered among the drawings 
 copied from this tomb the names of Necho and Psammis, 
 kings of Egypt, who reigned towards the end of the seventh 
 century before the Christian era. Now, it is universally 
 known that Pharaoh-Necho conquered Jerusalem and 
 Babylon, and that his son Psammis or Psammuthis, as he is 
 sometimes called, made war against the Ethiopians. Hence, 
 we are provided with the means of understanding the object 
 as well as the constituent parts of the procession described 
 by Belzoni. The natives of three different countries are 
 distinctly recognised. The Jews are readily distinguished 
 by their physiognomy and complexion ; the Ethiopians by 
 their colour and ornaments ; and the Persians by their 
 characteristic dress, as they are so often seen engaged in 
 battle with the Egyptians.* 
 
 There cannot, therefore, be any doubt as to the age of 
 this splendid monument of Egyptian art ; for the two Pha- 
 raohs whom it commemorates, and by the latter of whom it 
 was probably erected, swayed the sceptre nearly two thou- 
 sand five hundred years ago. What were the Greeks and 
 Romans at that period I They were barbarians in the 
 strictest sense of the word, or only beginning to emerge from 
 the rudest condition in which mankind are found to cultivate 
 the relations of social life. Many of the sepulchral chambers 
 of Thebes are much older than that of Ps ammis , reaching 
 back to the epoch when that capital was 
 
 “ The world's great empress on the Egyptian plain, 
 
 That spread her conquest o’er a thousand states, 
 
 And poured her heroes through a hundred gates ; 
 
 Two hundred horsemen and two hundred cars 
 From each wide portal issued to the wars.” — P ope. 
 
 Every traveller, from Bruce down to the latest tourist who 
 has trodden in his steps, luxuriates in the description of Gor- 
 noo, with its excavated mountains, and dwells with minute 
 anxiety on the ornaments which at once decorate the superb 
 mausoleums of the Beban el Melouk, and record the early 
 progress of Egyptian science. It is lamentable, however, 
 to find, that in the great work published under the auspices 
 of the French government, the representations, in point of 
 
 * Dr. Richardson, vol. i. p. 281, differs from Belzoni as to the figures 
 tn the procession, but without any attempt to oppose the explanation 
 of Dr. Young, or to call in question the antiquity of the tomb. 
 
196 
 
 REMAINS OF ANCIENT ART 
 
 colouring at least, are extremely inaccurate. In the Harp 
 Tomb, for example, the drawings of which were very accu- 
 rately copied by the historian of Abyssinia and his secretary 
 Balugani, there is a priest performing, who is dressed in a 
 long white robe spotted or ?',nped with red. The French 
 artists have arrayed him in a flowing mantle of the deepest 
 black with white stripes. The gentleman, too, who is 
 seated on a chair at a little distance listening to the music, 
 and habited in a short loose garment falling about half-way 
 down the thighs, the rest of the limbs and arms being bare, 
 the Savans have attired in a pair of blue pantaloons after 
 the Parisian fashion, and in a waistcoat of the same colour. 
 The headdress, moreover, which in the original reaches up 
 to the ceiling, they have curtailed into a small bonnet, 
 bearing a striking resemblance to the cap of liberty. In this 
 way they have given to the group a sort of general resem- 
 blance, while in the detail the representation is as unlike as 
 possible. They have made that blue which should be red, 
 black which should be white, yellow which should be green, 
 and short which should be long.* 
 
 The names of Jollois and Devilliers are affixed to the 
 large prints of the tomb just mentioned, as vouchers for their 
 accuracy ; but there is too much reason to suspect that the 
 labour of colouring the engravings, like the task of writing 
 the dissertations on the antiquities of Egypt, was left to the 
 ingenuity of artists at Paris, who had no other guide than 
 an indistinct description. As a farther proof of this, we 
 may mention that the painting in the ruins of the Memno- 
 nium, which represents the storming of a fort, was copied 
 by Major Hayes, as well as by the French academicians, 
 and that the men, who have a sort of petticoat drapery in 
 the one, are naked in the other ; our neighbours preferring 
 what appeared to them the more picturesque representation, 
 without paying any regard to the truth of monuments.! 
 
 When examining the tomb discovered by Belzoni, a subse- 
 
 * Richardson, vol. iup. 4. 
 
 I Dr. Richardson, vol. ii. p. 5, remarks, that after so many misrepre- 
 sentations in the work of the Wise-men, — the French Savans, — it will 
 not be difficult to decide whose names should precede the verb, in the 
 very courtly inscription, “ Bruce est un menteur and whether we 
 might not with some degree of propriety address them, considered as a 
 single body, in the words of the Roman bard “Nomine mutato, de te 
 fabula narratur » 
 
IN VARIOUS PARTS OF EGYPT. 
 
 197 
 
 quent traveller, after observing that the colours are remark- 
 ably vivid, and that the painting has not suffered either from 
 time or human violence, adds, “ It is impossible adequately 
 to describe the sensations of delight and astonishment which 
 by turns took possession of our minds as we moved along 
 the corridor, and examined the different groups and hiero- 
 glyphics that occur in every successive chamber. We had 
 been told that what we saw was a tomb ; but it required a 
 constant effort of the mind to convince us that it was such. 
 Only one sarcophagus in one chamber, and twelve cham- 
 bers, exclusive of the long corridor, all highly ornamented, 
 for nothing ! It may have been a subterraneous temple, 
 exhibiting the religious creed of the worshippers, or the rites 
 of initiation. It may have been a subterraneous palace, 
 like those of the king of the Troglodytes. But never was 
 there such a superfluous waste, if we are to suppose that 
 all this was done merely for the reception of one sarcopha- 
 gus.” Perhaps, like the chambers of imagery seen by the 
 Jewish prophet, they were the scene of idolatrous rites per- 
 formed in the dark, — an opinion which has received the 
 countenance of Mr. Jowett, who says that the tombs of the 
 Beban el Melouk cannot be better described than in the 
 words of Ezekiel, “ Then said he unto me, Son of man, dig 
 now in the wall : and when I had digged in the wall, behold 
 a door. And he said unto me, Go in, and behold the wicked 
 abominations that they do there. So I went in and saw ; 
 and behold, every form of creeping things, and abominable 
 beasts, and all the idols of the house of Israel, portrayed 
 upon the wall round about.” In this, as in other cases, the 
 Hebrews were but servile imitators ; the originals were in 
 Egypt, and are still to be seen in almost all the ancient 
 sepulchres or subterranean temples.* 
 
 We cannot leave these ancient tombs without expressing 
 our regret that the rage for discovery in the mansions of the 
 dead should have led to consequences so little creditable to 
 European delicacy. The mummies have been drawn from 
 their tombs with a rapacious and unsparing hand. The 
 chief part of this havoc, no doubt, has been committed by 
 the Arabs, who tear the bodies open to get at the rosin, or 
 asphaltum, used in the embalming, which they sell at Cairo 
 
 * Richardson, vol. ii. p. 78 ; Jowett’s Christian Researches. 
 
 R3 
 
198 
 
 REMAINS OF ANCIENT ART 
 
 to great advantage ; .but travellers and their agents have 
 also had their share in this sacrilege, as it may be justly 
 called. “ It is,” says Mr. Came, “ a sad and disgusting 
 sight ; the sands and the edges of the graves in some parts 
 being strewed with bones, and even pieces of flesh thrown 
 wantonly about. The poor Egyptians, who had slept in 
 peace some thousands of years, have been mercilessly 
 dealt with here, and the remains of warriors, citizens, and 
 sages, now lie mingled together beneath the burning sun ; 
 for no retreat or sanctuary has been suffered to remain 
 inviolate.”* 
 
 Sir F. Henniker made a similar complaint. He tells us 
 that the plain is strewed with broken bones, and that the 
 coffins are used for firewood. The trouble that the Egyp- 
 tians took to preserve their bodies causes their destruction, 
 and “ the race of Nilus barters for their kings.” I was 
 standing by, he adds, when the resurrection-men found a 
 sepulchre ; “ they offered me the haul, unopened, for four 
 guineas.” It proved to be Grecian-Egyptian, the first of its 
 kind hitherto discovered ; including three chambers, with 
 fourteen coffins, in each of which was placed a bunch of 
 sycamore branches, which fell to atoms at the touch. The 
 whole of ancient Thebes is the private property of the 
 French and English consuls ; a line of demarcation is drawn 
 through every temple, and these buildings, which have 
 hitherto withstood the attacks of barbarians, will not long 
 resist the speculation of civilized cupidity, directed by phi- 
 losophers and antiquaries. + 
 
 Ascending the Nile, the traveller finds the valley, which 
 had contracted above Thebes to very narrow limits, once 
 more begin to widen, and the adjoining hills to retire. In 
 a recess, about a mile from the river, stands the village of 
 Herment, on the ruins of a city to which the Greeks gave 
 the name of Hermonthis. A temple of moderate dimen- 
 sions, but peculiar in its plan, and distinguished only by the 
 beauty of its columns and sculptures, is still remaining. 
 There is no trace of a propylon ; but the walls of the pro- 
 naos are standing, though in many places much dilapidated. 
 The cella is pretty entire, and covered with sculptures and 
 
 * Letters from the East, vol. i. p. 357. 
 
 t Notes during a Visit to Egypt, <kc. p. 137 
 
IN VARIOUS PARTS OF EGYPT. 
 
 199 
 
 hieroglyphics ; for a description of which we must refer the 
 reader to the authentic pages of Travels along the Mediter- 
 ranean. We are assured that these works are well executed, 
 and indicate a more ancient date than most of the temples 
 in Egypt ; and yet stones, bearing hieroglyphics, are found 
 here placed in an inverted position, and thereby supplying 
 ground for a reasonable conjecture that they had been 
 brought from the ruins of edifices still older than the one 
 in which they are now incorporated. 
 
 Esneh, the ancient Latopolis, is the next place which 
 invites the attention of the scientific tourist. It is worthy 
 of notice chiefly on account of a temple, the portico of 
 which has been pronounced by Denon to be the purest frag- 
 ment of Egyptian architecture, and one of the most perfect 
 monuments of antiquity. It consists of eight columns with 
 broad capitals, differing from each other in the ornament 
 that they bear ; in one it is the vine, in another the ivy, in 
 a third the palm-leaf. The parts behind the portico are 
 trivial and negligent as to their decorations. The sanctuary 
 is totally destroyed ; but, from what remains of the outer 
 wall, there seems to have been an exterior gallery quite 
 around the temple. The pronaos has still tw r enty-four col- 
 umns, six rows with four in each. Various devices, resem- 
 bling those at Dendera, appear on the ceiling between the 
 columns ; and in the space w'hich separates the last row 
 from the wall on each side, are represented the twelve signs 
 of the zodiac, or perhaps certain astrological emblems de- 
 noting the influence of the heavenly bodies. The vicinity 
 of Esneh, on both sides of the river, exhibits the remains 
 of many buildings of which the history and the object have 
 been long concealed in that darkness which still hangs over 
 the former condition of Upper Egypt. Vestiges of prime- 
 val paganism can be traced, mingled with the more recent 
 institutions of Christianity, but both now so much defaced 
 by the ravages of civil w r ar that the most diligent research 
 fails to be rewarded with any adequate degree of success. 
 
 The grottoes of Eleithias, a town somewhat farther south 
 and on the eastern side of the Nile, are extremely interest- 
 ing, inasmuch as they represent, in the paintings with 
 which the walls are decorated, many of the pursuits and 
 habits that illustrate the private life of the ancient Egyptians. 
 In this respect they are more important than even the 
 
200 
 
 REMAINS OF ANCIENT ART 
 
 splendid sepulchres of Thebes ; the ornaments in the latter 
 being confined to the higher ceremonies of religion, or to 
 the shadowing forth of those physical mysteries to which 
 their pious rites are supposed to have had an immediate 
 reference. 
 
 The great French work, and the less pretending volume 
 of Mr. Hamilton, supply a very particular description of 
 the works of art at Eleithias. In the largest of the grottoes 
 visited by our countryman, there are three statues the size 
 of life, representing a wealthy rustic with his two wives. 
 One side of the wall is occupied with the picture of a feast, 
 at which the master and mistress are seated together on a 
 chair, richly dressed, — a favourite monkey at their feet is 
 regaling itself on a basket of grapes. A servant, part of 
 whose livery is the skin of a leopard, appears to introduce 
 the guests, who are sitting in rows of men and women, 
 each with a lotus in the hand. To some of these the attend- 
 ants are presenting bowls and dishes, according to the 
 usage which still prevails in many parts of the East. 
 Behind the visiters are tables covered with sundry kinds of 
 food ; while the banquet is enlivened by the presence of mu- 
 sicians and dancers. One woman is playing on a harp ; 
 another on a double flute ; three others are dancing in the 
 style* of those females kqown at Cairo under the name of 
 Almeh ; and a small figure, apart, is performing similar 
 motions with a sword in each hand. The master is then 
 represented walking, attended by his servants, who, among 
 other things, are carrying a chair, a water-jar, and a mat, 
 to visit his labourers at work : and accordingly the artist 
 has here depicted the mode of hoeing, ploughing, sowing, 
 and rolling ; of reaping the com and gathering it in ; of 
 winnowing the grain, and the carriage of it to the granary ; 
 and, finally, the embarkation of bread or biscuit on board 
 the Djerms. The farm-yard is next seen crowded with 
 oxen, cows, sheep, goats, asses, mules, and other animals. 
 Again, we see the vintage and the process of making wine ; 
 after which, the mode of catching and salting fish and 
 water-fowl. Finally, fruits are presented to the master and 
 his friends, and the whole concludes with offerings of grati- 
 tude to the gods. 
 
 In another part of the scene is the flax-harvest. The 
 whole process of pulling the crop up by the roots, of carry- 
 
IN VARIOUS PARTS OF EGYPT. 
 
 201 
 
 ing it away in small bundles and combing it, is very inge- 
 niously represented. It may be observed that the com- 
 plexion of the men is invariably red, that of the women 
 yellow ; but neither of them can be said to have any thing 
 in their physiognomy at all resembling the negro counte- 
 nance. The labourers are dressed in a sort of scull-cap, 
 and in short close drawers, having very little hair on their 
 heads ; while the locks of the others who appear to super- 
 intend them spread out at the sides, after the fashion of the 
 Nubians and Berberi above the Cataracts. 
 
 Next follow representations of ship-building and sailing, 
 with all the machinery which belonged to their simple navi- 
 gation. Nor are the amusements of the fowler forgotten, 
 which seem to have consisted in the use of a net and a 
 variety of other snares. The bow and arrow appear to have 
 been also employed. The scene, after embracing a great 
 number of occupations or pastimes, to which we cannot 
 make a more particular allusion, closes with a funeral pro- 
 cession, into which all the pageantry and magnificence of 
 Egyptian ceremonial are introduced, accompanied with the 
 several emblems which were employed of old to denote the 
 duties of this life and the hopes of the next.* 
 
 Leaving the instructive grottoes of Eleithias, we proceed 
 to Edfou, the Apollinopolis Magna of the Greeks, which 
 presents several architectural remains worthy of notice. 
 There are two temples in a state of great preservation ; one 
 of them consisting of high pyramidal propyla, a pronaos, 
 portico, and sekos, the form most generally used in Egypt ; 
 the other is periptoral, and is at the same time distinguished 
 by having, on its several columns, the appalling figure of 
 Typhon, the emblem of the Evil Principle. 
 
 The pyramidal propylon which forms the principal 
 entrance to the greater temple is one of the most imposing 
 monuments extant of Egyptian architecture. Each of the 
 sides is a hundred feet in length, thirty wide, and a hundred 
 high. Many of the figures sculptured on it are thirty feet 
 in height, and are executed in so masterly and spirited a 
 style as to add considerably to the grand effect of the 
 building. In each division there is a staircase of 150 or 
 160 steps, which conduct the visiter into spacious apart- 
 
 Egyptiaca, p. 92. 
 
REMAINS OF ANCIENT ART, ETC. 
 
 203 
 
 ments at different elevations. The horizontal sections of 
 each wing diminish gradually from 100 feet by 30, to 83 by 
 20, as will appear to the eye from the accompanying plate ; 
 although the solidity and height of the propylon give it more 
 the aspect of a fortress or place of defence than of the 
 approach to a religious edifice. As an explanation of this 
 peculiarity, we are told that the addition of these gateways 
 to a temple was permitted as a favour to such of the ancient 
 kings of Egypt as, for their pious and beneficent actions, 
 became entitled to perpetuate their names in the mansions 
 of their gods. The Ptolemies, who claimed the right of 
 sovereignty from conquest, indulged in the same mag- 
 nificence, and built porticoes, propyla, and even temples. 
 Cleopatra, in her misfortunes, is said to have removed wfith 
 the most valuable part of her property to an edifice of a 
 very extraordinary size and structure, which she had for- 
 merly erected near the fane of Isis. Most probably, as Mr. 
 Hamilton thinks, it was a propylon of the kind just described. 
 Nothing could be better adapted for her purpose ; inasmuch 
 as the variety of apartments offered every convenience that 
 could be desired, and when the small door at the bottom of 
 the staircase was closed, it was perfectly inaccessible. 
 
 In no part of Egypt are more colossal sculptures seen on 
 the walls of a public building than on the larger temple at 
 Edfou. These, we are told, are extremely well executed, 
 and in some cases the colours are still completely unchanged. 
 Priests are seen paying divine honours to the Scarabaeus, 
 or beetle, placed upon an altar, — an insect which is said to 
 have been typical ©f the sun, either because it changes its 
 appearance and place of abode every six months, or because 
 it is wonderfully productive.* We regret to find that both 
 the temples, though well preserved, are almost concealed 
 among heaps of dirt and rubbish ; indeed the terrace of the 
 larger one is occupied by several mud cottages belonging to 
 the villagers, and the interior chambers of the sekos are 
 indiscriminately used as sinks, granaries, or stables. 
 
 Hadjur Silsili would not detain the traveller in his pro- 
 gress up the Nile, were it not for the immense quarries from 
 which, it is very probable, were hewn at different times 
 those remarkable columns, statues, and obelisks which lend 
 
 Egyptiaca, p. 88 ; Denon, vol. ii. p. 184. 
 
204 
 
 REMAINS OF ANCIENT ART 
 
 to Tfrebes, Dendera, and Hermonthis their chief attraction 
 even at the present day. Sphinxes, monolithic temples, 
 and other monuments of Egyptian architecture, in an un- 
 finished state, are still found near the rocks out of which 
 they were cut. There is a large mass of stone, eighteen 
 feet in every direction, supported only by a pillar of white 
 earth three feet in diameter, — serving as an example of that 
 peculiar vanity which has been attributed to the Egyptians, 
 and which made them attract the admiration of posterity 
 by works of the boldest design, and requiring the application 
 of the most extraordinary mechanical powers. 
 
 Koum Ombos, supposed to represent the ancient capital 
 of the Ombite Nome, attracts notice by the remains of a mag- 
 nificent temple. The faqade consists of a portico of fifteen 
 columns, five in front and three deep, thirteen of which are 
 still standing. The ornaments above the entrances are 
 equally rich and highly finished. Towards the north-west 
 angle of the enclosure is a small temple of Isis, the capitals 
 of which are square, and have on each of the four sides the 
 countenance of the goddess beautifully carved. The sculp- 
 tures on the walls are very numerous, and even now, at the 
 end of two thousand years, preserve the brilliancy of their 
 first colouring.* 
 
 Es Souan, a town of which the origin is comparatively 
 modem, stands near the site formerly occupied by the ancient 
 Syene. The decline of commercial intercourse between 
 Egypt and Ethiopia has gradually reduced this place to the 
 condition of a poor village, subsisting on the scanty portion of 
 cultivable land that spreads out between the river and the 
 rocks of the desert. On the acclivity of an adjoining hill 
 is an ancient temple of small dimensions, and differing 
 somewhat in form from similar monuments in Egypt ; but, 
 being buried in rubbish up to the capitals of the columns 
 and the architrave, it has not been minutely examined by 
 recent travellers. Pococke imagined it to be the once cele- 
 brated observatory of Syene, although no pains were taken 
 to ascertain its precise structure or object. The position 
 of the famous well remains equally unknown. In fact, 
 there is no approach to agreement among observers as to 
 
 * It was dedicated in the reign of King Ptolemy and Queen Cleopatra, 
 his sister.— See Hamilton's Egyptiaca, p. 75. 
 
IN VARIOUS PARTS OF EGYPT. 
 
 205 
 
 the northern limit of the torrid zone, the place where the 
 disk of the sun was reflected from the surface of the water 
 on the day of the summer solstice. The calculations of 
 Bruce led him to believe that Es Souan is situated in lati- 
 tude 23° 28' ; whereas Nouet, a French astronomer, asserts 
 that its true parallel is in latitude 24° 8' 6". But it ought 
 to be kept in mind that Syen6 stood a little farther towards 
 the south than the town which now represents it ; while it 
 is not improbable that the point which marked the return 
 of the solar orb, in his annual course, may have been fixed 
 at the remotest extremity of the ancient city. 
 
 The quarries of Syene have been long celebrated, and 
 sufficient vestiges of them still remain to render it credible 
 that they furnished the materials for the colossal monuments 
 of Egypt. They are seen at the foot of the mountains on 
 the east, and some of them are close to the river. The 
 marks of the chisels and drills are distinctly visible, as well 
 as of the powerful wedges with which, when the sides were 
 cleared, the blocks were started from their bed. In one 
 quarry there was found a half-finished obelisk between 70 
 and 80 feet long, and 10 feet broad. In others were col- 
 umns in a rough state, possessing similar dimensions ; while 
 along the breast of the hill were observed the marks of 
 immense blocks, thirty and forty feet in length, which had 
 been separated from the rock. 
 
 The island of Elephantine is much richer in architectural 
 remains than the town we have just described. Romans 
 and Saracens, it is true, have done all in their power to 
 deface or to conceal them ; but, as Denon remarks, the 
 Egyptian monuments continue devoted to posterity, and 
 have resisted equally the ravages of man and of time. In 
 the midst of a vast field of bricks, and other pieces of baked 
 earth, a very ancient temple is still left standing, surrounded 
 with a pilastered gallery and two columns in the portico. 
 Nothing is wanting but two pilasters on the left angle of 
 this ruin. Other edifices had been attached to it at a 
 later period, but only some fragments were remaining, 
 which could give no idea of their form when perfect, — 
 proving only that these accessary parts were much larger 
 than the original sanctuary. — Could this be the temple of 
 Cneph, the good genius, that one of all the Egyptian gods 
 who approaches the nearest to our ideas of the Supreme 
 
206 
 
 REMAINS OF ANCIENT ART 
 
 Being 1 Or is it the temple of this deity which is placed six 
 hundred paces farther to the north, having the same form 
 and size, though more in ruins, — all the ornaments of which 
 are accompanied by the serpent, the emblem of wisdom and 
 eternity, and peculiarly that of the god now named 1 
 Judging from what he had seen of Egyptian temples, M. 
 Denon is disposed to think that this supposed fane of Cneph 
 belongs to the class which were used in the earliest times, 
 and is absolutely the same species of building as the temple 
 at Gornoo, which appeared to him the most ancient in 
 Thebes. The chief difference in the sculpture of this at 
 Elephantine is, that the figures have more life, the drapery 
 is more flowing, and falls into a better form of composition/* 
 
 The fascination attending this review of the monuments 
 of ancient art has perhaps carried us somewhat farther than 
 is quite consistent with our plan, which compels us to 
 abstain from minute details, however interesting and agree- 
 able. There is no other nation in the world, if we except 
 those on the eastern borders of Asia, — whose real history 
 has not yet been made known to the European reader, — 
 which could present such a retrospect at the same early 
 period, or gratify the traveller with the display of so much 
 magnificence and beauty. Nor must our opinion of Egyp- 
 tian science, art, and general civilization be limited to the 
 rigid inferences which alone an examination of their actual 
 remains might appear to justify. On the contrary, we are 
 entitled to assume the most liberal rule of reasoning in regard 
 to the acquirements of a people who surpassed, to such an 
 extent, all their contemporaries westward of the Arabian 
 Desert ; and to conclude that in other matters, the memorials 
 of which could not be conveyed to posterity by the architect 
 or the sculptor, the priests and sovereigns of the Nile had 
 made a corresponding progress. 
 
 For example, we are told, that in the time of Moses the 
 land of Egypt was celebrated for fine linen, — a notice which, 
 to a hasty reader, conveys only that simple fact, but which, 
 to the philosopher who has reflected on the slow and gradual 
 steps by which nations advance to maturity, suggests a 
 state of improvement inseparable from an established 
 government and the exercise of good laws. Our meaning 
 
 Denon, vol. ii. p. 32. 
 
IN VARIOUS PARTS OF EGYPT 
 
 20 ? 
 
 will receive a suitable illustration from the following passage 
 in the works of Dr. Adam Smith : “ The woollen coat 
 which covers the day-labourer, coarse and rough as it may 
 appear, is the produce of the joint labour of a great number 
 of workmen. The shepherd, the sorter of the wool, the 
 wool-comber or carder, the dier, the spinner, the weaver, 
 the fuller, the dresser, with many others, must all join their 
 different arts in order to complete even this homely produc- 
 tion. What a variety of labour, too, is necessary in order 
 to produce the tools of the meanest of those workmen ! 
 To say nothing of such complicated machines as the ship 
 of the sailor, the mill of the fuller, or even the loom of the 
 weaver, let us consider only what a variety of labour is 
 requisite in order to form that very simple machine, the 
 shears with which the shepherd clips the wool. The miner, 
 the builder of the furnace for smelting the ore, the feller 
 of the timber, the burner of the charcoal to be made use of 
 in the smelting-house, the brickmaker, the bricklayer, the 
 workmen who attend the furnace, the millwright, the forger, 
 the smith, must all of them join their different arts in order 
 to produce them. Were we to examine in the same manner 
 all the different parts of his dress and household furniture, 
 the coarse linen shirt which he wears next his skin, the 
 shoes which cover his feet, the bed which he lies on, toge- 
 ther with the tools of all the different workmen employed in 
 producing these different conveniences, we should be sensi- 
 ble that, without the assistance and co-operation of many 
 thousands, the very meanest person in a civilized country 
 could not be provided, even according to what we very 
 falsely imagine the easy and simple manner in which he is 
 usually accommodated.”* 
 
 Let the reader transfer this reasoning to the “fine linen” 
 of Egypt, and he will immediately see the conclusions to 
 which we have alluded. Many arts must have arrived at 
 great perfection before the commodity mentioned by the 
 Hebrew legislator could have become an object of mer- 
 chandise or of foreign commerce. How much skill, too, in 
 the art of tempering metals was necessary to prepare tools 
 for the workmen who carved the hardest granite, and covered 
 with sculptures the walls and ceilings of the most ancient 
 
 * Wealth of Nations, yoI. i. p. 17. 
 
208 
 
 REMAINS OF ANCIENT ART, ETC. 
 
 temples ! Even the improvements of modem Europe supply 
 not means for equalling the ingenious labours of the Egyp- 
 tian artists. What a series of efforts must have preceded 
 the excellence which is preserved for our admiration in the 
 temples of Karnac and Luxor, in the tombs of Gomoo, 
 and even in the grottoes of Eleithias ! How many genera- 
 tions must have contributed their share to this perfection ' 
 The contemplative mind seeks refuge in a remoter antiquity 
 than is allowed by the annals of the neighbouring tribes 
 of Syria and of Greece ; some of whom, instead of imi- 
 tating the arts which would at once have secured to them 
 the comforts and dignity of social life, derived nothing from 
 their intercourse with Egypt except the absurd ceremonies 
 of a gross superstition, which degraded the understanding 
 while it polluted the heart. 
 
 It was our intention to have entered at some length into 
 a history of the commercial relations which appear to have 
 subsisted at an early period between Egypt and the nations 
 of the East, and which were maintained, during several 
 centuries, by a regular intercourse as well by land as by 
 the Erythrcean Sea and the Arabian Gulf. But we must 
 content ourselves with a simple reference to the learned 
 volumes of Dr. Vincent on the Commerce and Navigation 
 of the Ancients, and to Dr. Robertson’s Historical Disquisi- 
 tion concerning Ancient India ; where is to be found the 
 most authentic information that we possess on this im- 
 portant subject, recommended, too, by very luminous and 
 satisfactory reasoning. 
 
CIVIL HISTORY OF MODERN EGYPT. 
 
 209 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 The Civil History of Modern Egypt. 
 
 Saracenic Dynasties — Foundation of Cairo— Crusaders— Saladin the 
 Great— Siege of Ptolemais — Death of Saladin— Crusaders defeated— 
 Rise of Mamlouks— The Borghites — Monguls and Tatars— Ibrahim 
 Bey — Ali Bey ; his Syrian Campaign ; his Death and Character — 
 Mohammed Bey— Ibrahim and Mourad— Invasion by the French — 
 Defeat at Acre — Victory of Lord Nelson — Battle of Alexandria, and 
 Death of Abercrombie— Evacuation of Egypt by the French — Kurouf 
 Pasha — Mohammed Ali ; Success against the Beys ; appointed Pasha 
 — British Expedition in 1807 — Massacre of Mamlouks— History of 
 Wahabees; defeated by Ibrahim Pasha —European Tactics introduced 
 — Character of Mohammed Ali. 
 
 The enterprising spirit breathed into the Saracens by 
 their military prophet soon made itself felt in the rapid con- 
 quests which they effected in all the surrounding countries. 
 Egypt, as a province of the Roman empire which was 
 already about to fall in pieces by its own weight, could not 
 resist their arms, led by the valiant and politic Amru. 
 Aided by treachery this fortunate general got possession of 
 Alexandria; to the inhabitants of which he presented the 
 humiliating alternative of paying a heavy tribute year after 
 year, or of embracing the Mohammedan faith and submit- 
 ting to its painful ritual. At the same time the valuable 
 library which adorned that city fell a prey to the religious 
 bigotry of the conquerors, who thought that any addition 
 to the knowledge bequeathed to them by the author of the 
 Koran was either superfluous or positively sinful. 
 
 The frequent contentions, which ensued during the eighth 
 century for the honours of the caliphate afforded to Egypt 
 an opportunity of occasionally asserting its independence ; 
 but no sooner was the question of supreme power deter- 
 mined by arms or by treaty than it was again compelled to 
 submit to the will of the victor. Among the various dynas- 
 ties which assumed the reins of government were the 
 descendants of Ali the son-in-law of the prophet, of Abbas 
 his uncle, and of Fatima his daughter, — who continued to 
 S3 
 
210 
 
 CIVIL HISTORY OF 
 
 urge their respective claims during several generations, and 
 to expel one another in their turn from the thrones of 
 Damascus and of Bagdad. 
 
 The reader could take no interest in the obscure wars 
 and sanguinary revolutions which were directed by the 
 powerful families of Aglab, Ommiah, and Ikshed, who not 
 only seized the provincial authority along the shores of the 
 Mediterranean, but even alarmed the holy successors of 
 Mohammed in Syria and on the banks of the Tigris. At 
 length, towards the end of the tenth century, the chief of 
 the Fatimite branch removed the seat of his power from 
 Cyrene, where it had been long established, to Cahira the 
 City of Victory, the Grand Cairo of modern times. Other 
 princes had assumed independence in Egypt, and refused 
 to acknowledge the temporal supremacy of the Caliph of 
 Bagdad, though the title of the latter, in his capacity of 
 Imaum or chief priest of the Mohammedans, was regu- 
 larly recited in the daily prayers of the faithful. But 
 the African usurper at length interdicted this mark of 
 spiritual allegiance, and demanded as his own right all the 
 honours which belonged to the lineal descendant of the 
 prophet. 
 
 The eleventh century brought upon Egypt a succession 
 of calamities. A dreadful famine, with the usual accom- 
 paniments of plague and pestilence, swept off great multi- 
 tudes, especially in the maritime districts and along the 
 Syrian border. This destructive visitation was succeeded 
 by one hardly less to be deplored, — an inroad of the Turks, 
 who had already descended from the extensive plains of 
 Central Asia and found employment at the court of the 
 caliph as mercenary soldiers. They had resolved to avenge 
 the cause of their master on his rebellious subjects ; and 
 with this view they committed the most horrid cruelties 
 wherever they could carry their arms, setting an example 
 of a savage warfare long unknown to the country which 
 they had overrun, and thereby rousing against themselves 
 the bitterest resentment and detestation of the whole body 
 of the people. The hosts of the crusaders arrived to com- 
 plete the misery which the northern barbarians had com- 
 menced. Having reduced Pelusium these warriors advanced 
 against Cairo, which they threatened with a similar fate ; 
 but learning that a Syrian army was on its march to cut 
 
MODERN EGYPT. 211 
 
 off their retreat, they accepted a sum of money and raised 
 the siege. 
 
 Towards the close of the twelfth century the descendants 
 of Fatima ceased to reign over Egypt. Aladid, the last of 
 the race, appears to have intrusted the government to the 
 wisdom of his viziers, who, it is manifest, laboured both at 
 home and abroad to establish their own power rather than 
 that of their master ; and as he had no near relations, his 
 death was the signal for his ambitious minister to seat him- 
 self on the empty throne. This founder of a new dynasty 
 was the renowned Saladin, whose name is so closely asso- 
 ciated with the most brilliant exploits of the Mohammedan 
 arms. He began by seizing the wealth and securing the 
 strong places of the kingdom, — throwing at the same time 
 into confinement all whom he suspected of being the par- 
 tisans of the late monarch. Not inheriting the blood of 
 the prophet, he did not assume the title of caliph, which 
 implies the sacerdotal as well as the kingly office ; but con- 
 tented himself with the denomination of sultan, leaving the 
 priestly duties to be discharged by some individual sprung 
 from the sacred lineage* 
 
 Though Saladin was acknowledged as sovereign of Egypt 
 by many of the neigbouring states, and even received the 
 sanction of the caliph of Bagdad, his government was not 
 yet firmly established. There were two powerful factions 
 opposed to his authority ; the adherents of Aladid’s family, 
 who wished to retain the sceptre in the F atimite succession, 
 and the king of Syria, who dreaded the ascendency of so 
 warlike a neighbour. The first favoured the pretensions 
 of an adventurer who claimed the throne, and even enabled 
 him to appear in the field at the head of 100,000 men. But 
 a complete victory soon relieved the new sultan from all 
 apprehension in this quarter. The Christians, under the 
 command of William, king of Sicily, next engaged his 
 attention, having laid siege to Alexandria both by land and 
 sea. Saladin flew to the relief of a place the preservation 
 of which was so important at once to his reputation and to 
 the success of his future plans. He had mustered a force 
 sufficient to justify the hazard of a battle ; but before he 
 could accomplish his object, the crusaders, smitten with a 
 sudden panic, commenced a hurried retreat, leaving behind 
 them their stores, their baggage, and even their military 
 
212 
 
 CIVIL HISTORY OF 
 
 engines. The court of Damascus, still cherishing a feeling 
 of deep-rooted jealousy, endeavoured to strengthen their 
 interests by an extended alliance among the surrounding 
 principalities ; watching eagerly for an opportunity to 
 check the views and disappoint the ambition of the Egyp- 
 tian sultan. At length they resolved to commit their cause 
 to the fortune of war. A general engagement ensued, 
 which terminated so decidedly in favour of Saladin that he 
 returned from it the undisputed master of the whole 
 of Syria. 
 
 His next cares were directed to the enlargement and 
 fortification of Cairo, which he had determined to render a 
 capital worthy of his extensive dominions, and fit to be 
 compared with the more ancient cities adorned by Menes, 
 Sesostris, and Ptolemy. He encouraged the schools and 
 literature of the country, and in many other respects 
 showed qualities suited to a tune of peace ; but he was soon 
 torn away from his schemes of domestic improvement to 
 the din of arms and the ravages of war. Having obtained 
 the ascendency in Syria, he resolved to extend his power 
 also into Palestine ; and with this view he led his troops 
 against the numerous host of the crusaders who had again 
 joined their banners for the recovery of the Holy Land. 
 His first efforts in the field were not attended with success. 
 The Christians, animated with an equal courage and long 
 accustomed to the use of their weapons, repelled the attacks 
 of the sultan with so much fury that he saw his fine army 
 perish before his eyes, either in the battle or while 
 attempting to retreat across the desert into Egypt. 
 
 But his spirit could not be subdued by temporary 
 reverses. Aided by commanders who shared his energy 
 and ambition, he resumed offensive operations both by sea 
 and land ; recovered all the ground he had lost in the 
 former campaign ; and finally gained a decisive victory 
 over the allied forces led by Lusignan, king of Jerusalem, 
 and by Arnold, lord of Karac, both of whom were taken 
 prisoners. The former was treated with respect, but the 
 latter was put to death by Saladin’s own hand, because he 
 had inflicted many injuries on the followers of Mohammed. 
 Ptolemais, Neapolis, Csesarea, and other cities fell into the 
 power of the Egyptian ruler, who, finding nothing to 
 oppose his progress, marched to the capital, which he im- 
 
MODERN EGYPT. 
 
 213 
 
 mediately invested. The garrison was numerous, and 
 made a desperate defence ; but after the conqueror had 
 effected a breach in the walls, and was on the point 
 of entering the town, the governor proposed a capitulation. 
 
 Saladin, enraged at the delay occasioned by a protracted 
 siege, refused to accept the terms , vowing that he would 
 sack and utterly demolish the Holy City, though almost 
 equally venerated by Mohammedans and by Christians. 
 His cruel threatenings roused the spirit of the defenders, 
 who announced their resolution to put 5000 Mussulman 
 prisoners to death , and in order that no European might 
 be exposed to their revenge, they would also deprive of life 
 their own wives and children. They added, that with the 
 view of disappointing their enemy in the expectation 
 of booty, they would destroy every thing valuable within the 
 walls; level the rock which the disciples of the prophet 
 held sacred ; and then sally out in a body on the besiegers, 
 either to purchase victory or to sell their lives at the dearest 
 price. The knowledge of this resolution moved Saladin to 
 more reasonable terms ; and he consented that the garrison, 
 ns well as the inhabitants of Jerusalem, should have their 
 lives spared on the condition of paying a liberal ransom in 
 money. 
 
 The wars which Saladin carried on against the heroes 
 of the Crusade do not properly fall within the limits of this 
 volume, more especially as the scene of conflict was chosen 
 in Syria rather than in Egypt. Suffice it to mention, that 
 when he had succeeded in establishing his authority from 
 Thebes to Damascus, his territories were once more in- 
 vaded by a Christian armament, conducted by the Emperor 
 of Germany, the King of France, and the celebrated Richard 
 Cceur de Lion, the sovereign of England. The combined 
 forces encamped before Ptolemais, — a stronghold which is 
 better known by its modern name of Acre, — in which the 
 sultan had collected a numerous army, and made prepara- 
 tions for a vigorous defence. Want of harmony among the 
 European powers enabled him to resist their attacks a long 
 time without incurring any serious loss ; and it was not 
 until the approach of famine had thinned his ranks and 
 depressed the spirits of the survivors, that he consented to 
 offer conditions. Upon the promise of refunding a part 
 of the treasure which at different times he had extorted 
 
214 
 
 CIVIL HISTORY OF 
 
 from the allies, he was allowed to march oat with the 
 honours of war ; delivering to the victors the possession of a 
 town, the siege of which had involved the sacrifice of three 
 hundred thousand men, including the flower of European 
 chivalry and the best warriors of the East. 
 
 After numerous vicissitudes of fortune, in which his 
 active valour, aided by the jealousies that distracted the 
 counsels of his antagonists, had generally secured to him 
 the advantage in the field, he died in the fifty-fifth year 
 of his age. His son, who succeeded him on the throne 
 of Egypt, appears to have possessed his ambition without 
 his talents. But Alcamel, to whom the sceptre fell about 
 the beginning of the thirteenth century, threw a lustre on 
 his reign by his success in repelling the crusaders ; who 
 for the fifth time invaded the kingdom of the sultans. 
 Damietta had surrendered to the Christians, who, elated 
 by the prosperous commencement of the campaign, advanced 
 up the Nile, and meditated the entire conquest of the 
 country. But the issue of a general action, which soon 
 afterward took place, was so disastrous to the foreigners 
 that they were compelled to sue for mercy, and to accept 
 the conditions of a treaty more honourable to the clemency 
 of the victors than to the ability of the European com- 
 manders. 
 
 Alcamel died at Damascus in 1238, and Aladel, one 
 of his sons, was raised to the throne’; but Nojmoddin, the 
 eldest brother, laid claim to the kingdom. A bloody con- 
 test would probably have ensued had not the younger 
 prince, in the mean time, disappeared or died, — an event 
 which led to the peaceable accession of the senior claimant. 
 Nojmoddin, like his predecessor, soon acquired great influ- 
 ence with the leaders of the Crusade ; for Richard, Earl 
 of Cornwall, perceiving that the Sultan of Egypt possessed 
 more power than the Syrian lords of Karac and Damascus, 
 entered into an alliance with him, and thereby ensured 
 protection to the Christian pilgrims when on their way to 
 the holy sepulchre. 
 
 In this unsettled state of affairs Nojmoddin passed into 
 Syria, determined, with the help of some rude tribes who 
 occupied the neighbouring desert, to subdue the faithless 
 armies of Damascus. A battle, in which he found himself 
 opposed by certain European auxiliaries, crowned his 
 
MODERN EGYPT. 
 
 215 
 
 enterprise with success, and opened up a path to still more 
 important advantages ; but, in the mean time, a new host 
 of crusaders arrived at the port of Damietta, having Louis 
 the Ninth of France for their leader. In the absence 
 of the sultan, and while the nation was altogether unpre- 
 pared for such an inroad, the French king made considerable 
 progress ; several towns fell, and the inhabitants fled for 
 refuge into the upper part of the country. Nojmoddin, 
 who was busily engaged in the siege of Emessa, hastened 
 towards home to save his people from the horrors of an 
 utter conquest ; but, harassed by fatigue and anxiety, he 
 sank by the way, leaving the government to his son, an 
 inexperienced youth. The enemy still pushed into the 
 interior, apprehending no serious opposition, when to their 
 surprise they found themselves in presence of a formidable 
 army, raised by the exertions of the sultan’s widow, the 
 famous Shagir Aider. Louis was defeated and taken 
 prisoner ; while his followers, after having endured the 
 greatest privations, were glad to throw themselves upon 
 the compassion of the natives, whose fields they had laid 
 waste, and whose houses they had plundered. 
 
 This period is remarkable for the earliest accession to 
 power of that celebrated class of men called Mamlouks. 
 Saladin, who as a usurper put little confidence in the 
 native troops of Egypt, placed around his person a guard 
 of foreigners, composed of slaves purchased or made cap- 
 tives in the provinces which border on the southern shores 
 of the Caspian Sea. Successive sultans had increased the 
 power of these armed attendants by new privileges ; and 
 hence, as has always happened in every similar case, they 
 acquired at length the entire disposal of the sovereign 
 authority. Ibeg, one of their number, became regent during 
 the minority of the prince ; and upon the death of that boy 
 he married the queen-mother, and finally stepped into the 
 throne. Carried off by assassination he left the supreme 
 power to his son, who only enjoyed it during a very short 
 period ; but notwithstanding the convulsions which inces- 
 santly shook the state, and the alarming progress of the 
 Monguls in the eastern part of the Mohammedan empire, the 
 Mamlouk dynasty directed the affairs of Egypt not less than 
 one hundred and twenty years. 
 
 But the inheritance of the Pharaohs was now doomed to 
 
216 
 
 CIVIL HISTORY OF 
 
 pass from the hands of one class of slaves to be seized by 
 another not less vile and degraded. Among the captives 
 annually brought into Egypt were numerous young men 
 from that district of Western Asia which in our days is 
 denominated Circassia. Being enrolled as soldiers, they 
 were stationed in the several fortresses and strongholds 
 which had been erected throughout the kingdom with the 
 view of checking the insubordination of the people ; and, 
 accordingly, from the name of such castles in the Coptic 
 tongue, they were denominated Borghites, or garrison 
 troops, to distinguish them from those who served in the 
 field. By a captain of this militia, whose name was Barcok, 
 the Mamlouk dynasty, properly so called, was brought to 
 an end, and a new race of Borghite princes elevated to the 
 vacant throne. His valour and wisdom entitled him to the 
 place which he usurped, and he proved a benefactor to the 
 unhappy country w T hich he could hardly fail to despise. 
 
 The latter part of the fourteenth century witnessed the 
 first menaces of those warlike hordes which, under the 
 various designations of Monguls and Tatars, carried their 
 arms into the southern provinces of Asia, and at length 
 conquered settlements in the richest parts of Africa and 
 Europe. Tamerlane, who had already overrun the fine 
 countries watered by the Tigris and Euphrates, was desirous 
 to add Syria also to his dominions ; and, with this great 
 object in view, w r as directing his march towards the w est, 
 when, finding that the Sultan of Egypt had collected a 
 strong force at Damascus to dispute his progress, he turned 
 on his steps and sought a less formidable enemy near the 
 sources of the river Indus. At the same time the furious 
 Bajazet, at the head of his Ottoman levies, was spreading 
 terror upon both sides of the Hellespont, and had approached 
 to the very gates of Constantinople. He had, indeed, ex- 
 pressed his determination to reduce that city, and to found 
 his government upon the ruins of the Roman empire ; in 
 pursuance of w hich plan he eagerly solicited the friendship 
 of Barcok and the blessing of the caliph, who, in his capacity 
 of Imaum or chief priest of the Mohammedan church, kept 
 his usual residence at Cairo. The fate of Egypt appeared 
 for a time inseparably connected with the policy of one or 
 other of these warriors, who were resolved to possess it 
 either as an allied or as a conquered province. But, fortu- 
 
MODERN EGYPT. 
 
 217 
 
 nately for the peace and independence of that country, the 
 armies of the rival barbarians exhausted themselves in 
 mutual hostilities, till, after various success on either 
 side, Bajazet was taken prisoner, and Tamerlane relin- 
 quished the pursuit of military fame. Relieved from a con- 
 federacy which must have borne it down, Egypt preserved, 
 a century and a half longer, under a succession of very 
 feeble princes, the semblance of supreme power ; when at 
 length, in 1517, the victorious arms of the Turks dethroned 
 the last of the Borghite dynasty, and reduced his kingdom 
 to the condition of a province. 
 
 In the most perfect form of the Turkish government in 
 Egypt it consisted of a divan, or council of regency, com- 
 posed of those who commanded the military bodies,- — the 
 president, in all cases, being the pasha or viceroy. From 
 the Mamlouk beys, who presided over the provinces, were 
 chosen the Sheik el Belled, or governor of Grand Cairo ; 
 the Janizary Aga, or commander of the Janizaries ; the 
 Defturdar, or accountant-general ; the Emir el Hadgi, or 
 conductor of the caravan ; the Emir el Said, or governor of 
 Upper Egypt ; and the Sheik el Bekheri, or governor of the 
 sherifs. 
 
 In the course of the sixteenth century, when Soliman the 
 First was involved in war with the great European powers, 
 the authority of the Porte in Egypt was considerably dimin- 
 ished, while several important changes were introduced into 
 the local government. The beys, who superintended the 
 twenty-four departments into which the kingdom was 
 divided, collected the revenues of their respective districts, 
 and thereby acquired a degree of influence which rendered 
 them equally insolent and formidable. The heads of the 
 seven military corps and the pasha becoming excessively 
 avaricious, courted the favour of the beys, who could enforce 
 the payment of tribute with severity, or remit it in part, 
 according to their pleasure. By indulging the members 
 of the regency, these officers in their turn increased in 
 power till they obtained the complete disposal of public 
 affairs. The subordinate governors had originally a few 
 Mamlouks or slaves at their command, for enabling them 
 to make their authority respected in the provinces where 
 they presided ; but in proportion as their power was enlarged 
 they augmented their attendants, and by that means added 
 
218 
 
 CIVIL HISTORY OF 
 
 materially to their military strength as independent rulers. 
 When, too, a vacancy occurred in the government of a 
 province, the most influential bey had his favourite Mamlouk 
 appointed to the office. Such an election still farther 
 augmented his authority ; and by pursuing a similar course, 
 the most active and powerful of these chiefs acquired a con- 
 tinually increasing influence in the government, and their 
 Mamlouks at length became the only efficient soldiers in 
 the state. 
 
 By means similar to those now described, Ibrahim, one 
 of the veteran colonels of the Janizaries, succeeded, about 
 the middle of last century,’ in rendering himself in effect the 
 sovereign of Egypt. He had so multiplied and advanced 
 his enfranchised Mamlouks, that of the twenty-four beys no 
 fewer than eight belonged to his household ; and the influ- 
 ence connected with these appointments was the greater, 
 inasmuch as the pasha always left vacancies in the subordi- 
 nate governments, in order that he might appropriate the 
 revenue to his own private purposes. On the other hand, 
 the largesses which he bestowed on the officers and soldiers 
 of his corps had firmly attached them to his interest, when 
 Rodoan, the most powerful of the Azab colonels, devoted 
 himself to his cause, and thereby completed his political 
 ascendency. The pasha, incapable of opposing this faction, 
 was no more than a phantom in the public eye, and even 
 the orders of the sultan himself were lightly regarded when 
 weighed against those of Ibrahim. At his death, which 
 happened in 1757, his slaves, divided among themselves 
 but united against all others, continued to give the law. 
 Rodoan, who had succeeded to the influence of his col- 
 league, was expelled and slain by the younger beys ; and 
 during the period of ten years the affairs of Egypt were 
 managed by a cabal, whose principal motives, veiled by the 
 most empty pretensions of patriotism, were ambition and 
 revenge. At length the celebrated Ali, one of their number, 
 gained a decided superiority over his rivals ; and, under the 
 successive titles of Emir Hadgi and Sheik el Belled, and by 
 means which indicate the degraded condition of all classes 
 of the people, rendered himself absolute master of the whole 
 country. 
 
 The birth of Ali Bey, like that of the Mamlouks in general, 
 is extremely uncertain. It is commonly believed in Egypt 
 
MODERN EGYPT. 
 
 219 
 
 that he was the son of a Circassian peasant, bought or cap- 
 tured as a slave when about twelve years of age, and after- 
 ward sold at Cairo to a Jew, who made a present of him to 
 Ibrahim, the aspiring chief already mentioned. In the 
 house of his patron he received the customary education of 
 a page, which consists in horsemanship, in the ready use 
 of the carbine, pistol, and sabre, in throwing the lance, and 
 sometimes in a little reading and writing. In these exer- 
 cises he displayed an activity and fire which obtained for 
 him the surname of Djendali, or Madcap. But the solicitude 
 of ambition soon moderated this excessive warmth. At the 
 age of eighteen he received the gift of manumission from 
 his indulgent master, who soon afterward appointed him to 
 a government, and procured for him a place among the 
 twenty-four beys, at once the tyrants and protectors of the 
 unhappy natives. 
 
 The death of Ibrahim, we have remarked, wos a signal 
 to his dependants for rapacity and intrigue. Ali Bey was 
 neither the least active nor the least successful. He pre- 
 cipitated Rodoan from his guilty elevation, and was pre- 
 paring to realize a plan for thinning still farther the ranks 
 of his opponents, when he was compelled to leave the city 
 and take refuge in a temporary exile. At the end of two 
 years, which he had spent in making the necessary arrange- 
 ments, he appeared suddenly in Cairo ; slew four beys who 
 were his enemies ; banished four others ; and became from 
 that moment the chief of the prevailing party. He no 
 longer thought it necessary to conceal his ulterior views ; 
 but expelling the pasha, and refusing the tribute annually 
 remitted to Constantinople, he assumed the supreme power, 
 and even proceeded so far as to coin money in his own 
 name. 
 
 The Porte did not behold without indignation such an 
 attack upon its authority; but being occupied with the 
 affairs of Poland and the pretensions of Russia, could not 
 bestow a sufficient degree of attention on the revolted 
 province. The usual methods of poison and the bowstring 
 were repeatedly attempted ; but Ali, whose vigilance w r as 
 ever awake, turned these deadly instruments against the 
 lives of those who bore them. To consolidate his power, 
 he equipped a fleet in the Red Sea, and took possession of 
 Mecca and of Djidda ; at the latter of which places he 
 
220 
 
 CIVIL HISTORY OF 
 
 meant to establish the emporium of Indian commerce, and 
 thereby to supersede the tedious voyage by the Cape of 
 Good Hope. His chief undertaking, however, was directed 
 against the Turkish arms in Syria. Sheik Daher, already 
 in rebellion, was a powerful and faithful ally ; while the 
 extortions of the pasha of Damascus, by driving the people 
 to revolt, afforded the most favourable opportunity for 
 invading his government. 
 
 In the year 1771 a force, amounting to about sixty thou- 
 sand men, crossed the frontier under the command of 
 Mohammed Bey, the friend of Ali. Daher sent four or 
 five thousand irregular cavalry to strengthen the expedition, 
 led by his son, a youth of great military promise. On the 
 other hand, the pashas of Sidon, Tripoli, and Aleppo mus- 
 tered their several contingents, and advanced to join Osman 
 the governor of Damascus, whose territory was menaced 
 with invasion. On the 6th of June an action took place, 
 when the Mamlouks and their allies rushed with so much 
 fury on the Turks, that the latter, terrified at the carnage, 
 had immediate recourse to flight. The troops of Ali in- 
 stantly became masters of the whole country, and took pos- 
 session of the capital without opposition, there being neither 
 soldiers nor walls to defend it. The castle alone made a 
 show of resistance ; for the garrison, being already con- 
 quered by their fears, hastened to capitulate in order to 
 prevent the horrors of an assault. 
 
 But the morning on which the place was to be surrendered 
 witnessed an extraordinary scene. At dawn of day the 
 Egyptian army was beheld in full retreat towards the Nile. 
 In vain did Daher fly to demand the cause of so strange a mea- 
 sure ; Mohammed made no other answer to the anxious inter- 
 rogatories of the Syrian rebel than that it was his pleasure 
 to retire, and that no one was entitled to question the pru- 
 dence of his conduct. Nor was it- merely a retreat con- 
 ducted on military principles ; it was a positive flight, the 
 Mamlouks rushing from before the walls as if hotly pursued 
 by a victorious enemy, while the road from Damascus to 
 Cairo was covered with men on foot, and with the stores 
 and baggage which they had abandoned. This singular 
 occurrence was attributed at the time to a pretended report 
 of the death of Ali Bey ; but the real cause, soon afterward 
 discovered, was no other than a conference with Osman, 
 
MODERN EGYPT. 
 
 221 
 
 held in the tent of the Egyptian commander, when the 
 pasha gained him and the beys under his orders to the 
 interests of the Sublime Porte. Convinced by the argu- 
 ments addressed to their avarice not less than to their fears, 
 they swore by the sabre and the Koran to return home with- 
 out delay ; and so suddenly did they execute their determi- 
 nation that the news of their coming preceded their actual 
 arrival at Cairo only by six hours. Ali would at once have 
 punished this treason by the death of his general ; but find- 
 ing him supported by many powerful individuals in the 
 army, he suppressed his rage, thinking it more politic to 
 reserve the moment of revenge till he could gratify it without 
 danger. 
 
 To effect the ruin of Mohammed, whose conduct even 
 after the affair of Damascus continued to excite suspicion, 
 he gave orders, on one occasion, that no Mamlouk should 
 be suffered to pass the gates of Cairo in the evening or at 
 night ; and, at the same moment, commanded his rival into 
 exile. He had hoped, it was supposed, that the object of 
 his displeasure, as he must necessarily leave the city before 
 morning, would be detained by the guards for attempting 
 to violate the regulation just mentioned, and be thereby 
 placed entirely in his power. But the soldiers, imagining 
 that their general was charged with private instructions 
 from Ali, allowed him to pass without interruption, although 
 accompanied with a formidable retinue ; nor was the mis- 
 take discovered until it was too late to pursue him. Mo- 
 hammed retired into the Said, where he drew around him 
 all the discontented Mamlouks, and waited with impatience 
 an opportunity for avenging their common cause. 
 
 In a little time the force of this disaffected chief was so greatly 
 augmented that he thought himself sufficiently strong to make 
 an attempt upon Cairo. A battle ensued in a plain adjoin- 
 ing to the city, which terminated so decidedly to the advan- 
 tage of the insurgents, that Ali found some difficulty to escape 
 at the head of eight hundred Mamlouks, who accompanied 
 his flight into Syria. There he joined his old ally Daher, 
 who still held out against the government of Constantinople ; 
 and, having strengthened the camp with so seasonable a 
 reinforcement of well-disciplined cavalry, he took share in 
 an expedition at that instant meditated by the revolted 
 Tasha, the object of which was to raise the siege of Sidon 
 T 2 
 
222 
 
 CIVIL HISTORY OF 
 
 The Turks, unwilling to he attacked in their trenches, drew 
 out their tumultuary bands to a little distance from the 
 town, and prepared for a general action. Fortune once 
 more smiled on Ali and his confederates, who soon saw the 
 army of the enemy, three times more numerous than their 
 own, entirely defeated, and scattered over the face of t^he 
 country. 
 
 Flushed with this success, the exiled ruler longed to 
 return to his capital, where, as he was insidiously informed 
 by the agents of Mohammed, the majority of the inhabitants 
 were anxious to behold him restored to his former power. 
 He was also deceived by his superstition, which taught him 
 to believe that the hour of his ascendant was come, and that 
 the stars pointed out the path to a renewed and permanent 
 glory. Had he listened to the voice of prudence, he would 
 have waited for the assistance promised by the Russians, 
 who did not disdain to consider him a useful ally in their 
 war with the Porte, — and for the troops detached by Daher, 
 to* secure a victorious return, whatever might be the inten- 
 tions or military resources of the hostile beys. But yielding 
 to an inconsiderate impatience, with the remains of his 
 Mamlouks and fifteen hundred Sifadians he entered the 
 desert, where he was met by Mourad at the head of a 
 superior force ; wounded by the hand of this young officer ; 
 taken prisoner ; and forthwith conducted into the presence 
 of Mohammed. On the third day after this event, his death 
 was announced to the soldiers, who were desired to ascribe 
 it to the severe hurts which he had received in the fight ; 
 but who, notwithstanding, were generally disposed to trace 
 it to the operation of poison, or to the less tedious application 
 of the dagger. 
 
 Thus terminated the career of this celebrated person, 
 who for some time engaged the attention of Europe, and 
 afforded to many politicians the hopes of a beneficial revo- 
 lution. That he was an extraordinary character cannot be 
 denied ; but it is exaggeration to place him in the class of 
 great men. The accounts given of him by those who knew 
 him best prove, that though he possessed the seeds of great 
 qualities, the want of culture prevented them from coming 
 to maturity. But in Ali Bey we must admire one property 
 which distinguished him from the multitude of tyrants who 
 have governed Egypt, and which is never the portion of 
 
MODERN EGYPT. 
 
 223 
 
 vulgar minds ; he was actuated by the desire of attaining 
 glory, although a vicious education prevented him from dis- 
 covering its true elements as well as the path which leads 
 to it. To be a great statesman as well as a warrior he 
 wanted nothing but the lessons of civilized life, or the aid 
 of enlightened counsellors ; and of those who are born to 
 command, how few are there who merit even this restricted 
 eulogium !* 
 
 The death of Ali Bey did not produce any change favour- 
 able to Egypt ; on the contrary, Mohammed, into whose 
 hands the supreme power fell undivided, displayed, during 
 the two years of his government, no qualities higher than 
 the ferocity of a robber and the baseness of a traitor. He 
 began, indeed, by renewing the customary tribute to the 
 sultan, and even paid the arrears due by his predecessor ; 
 but his conduct soon proved, that instead of acting on the 
 principles of an enlightened patriotism, he intended no 
 more than to purchase the means of gratifying political re- 
 venge, and of depressing a formidable neighbour. He 
 sought permission to wage war with Daher, and to reduce 
 the whole of Syria to the obedience of the Porte ; thereby 
 covering the deep feeling of private resentment under the 
 cloak of public duty. 
 
 After due preparation, he undertook the siege of Jaffa, 
 which, owing to the ignorance of the assailants rather than 
 the courage of the garrison, was protracted to the end of 
 six weeks. At length conditions were agreed on, and the 
 treaty might be considered as concluded, when, in the midst 
 of the security occasioned by that belief, the Mamlouks 
 rushed into the town, and subjected it to all the horrors of 
 an assault, putting women and children, old and young, to 
 death ; while Mohammed, equally mean and barbarous, 
 caused a pyramid formed of the heads of these unfortunate 
 sufferers to be raised as a monument of his victory. He 
 advanced next to Acre, where the Shiek Daher had estab- 
 lished his government, and demanded that all the riches 
 accumulated within the city should be delivered up to him, 
 under the pain of a universal massacre of the inhabitants, 
 not excepting the European merchants. But before the 
 day arrived on which he intended to realize his savage 
 
 * Volney’s Travels through Egypt and Syria, vol. i. p. 139 : Edinburgh 
 Encyclopaedia, article Egypt. 
 
224 
 
 CIVIL HISTORY OF 
 
 threatening, he was carried off by a malignant fever in the 
 very prime of life. 
 
 This event took place in the summer of 1776 ; upon 
 which the army, as on a former occasion, dispersed in the 
 greatest disorder, and accomplished a tumultuous march 
 into Egypt. Mohammed had left at Cairo one of his freed- 
 men, Ibrahim Bey, as governor of the city, taking with him 
 into Syria the more warlike Mourad, to whom he confided 
 the management of the campaign. These two chiefs were 
 now prepared to dispute the succession, and every appear- 
 ance at first threatened open hostilities ; but when they had 
 time to consider the power and resources of each other, they 
 determined to avoid the issue of a combat, and to share the 
 authority which neither was content to relinquish. 
 
 Their joint administration, however, was soon disturbed 
 by the jealousies of the other beys, who thought themselves 
 unjustly deprived of the influence which belonged to their 
 rank, — a feeling which made the deepest impression on 
 certain individuals who had belonged to the house of Ali, 
 the great patron of their order. Two of that number, 
 Hassan and Ishmael, collected their adherents and took the 
 field. Mourad pursued them into the Said, where the 
 greater part either dispersed or capitulated without coming 
 to action. 
 
 Dissension at length divided the interests of the sovereign 
 colleagues, and even drove them to arms. Each in his turn 
 fled from Cairo, and formed an encampment in Upper 
 Egypt ; but no sooner did their troops appear in sight of 
 one another than the chiefs induced them to settle their 
 differences on the basis of a new treaty. Matters continued 
 in this precarious situation till 1786, when, peace being 
 established between the Russians and the Turks, the sultan 
 resolved to reduce Egypt once more to a state of obedience. 
 With this view he despatched the celebrated Hassan Pasha 
 at the head of 25,000 men, who, landing at Alexandria in 
 the month of July, made instant preparations for advancing 
 towards the capital. Mourad and his Mamlouks met him 
 at Mentorbes, where a desperate battle ensued. The ground 
 being still very soft from the effects of the inundation, the 
 Turkish infantry gained a decided advantage over horsemen 
 whose movements were constantly impeded, and who, sink- 
 ing in the mud, were equally incapable of attack or defence. 
 
MODERN EGYPT. 
 
 225 
 
 Cairo opened its gates to Hassan, who, after appointing a 
 governor, continued his march in pursuit of the rebellious 
 beys into Upper Egypt. The difficulties of this undertak- 
 ing, however, induced him in the course of the following 
 year to accede to a treaty, by which they were left in full 
 possession of the country from Barbieh to the frontiers of 
 Nubia, on condition of relinquishing all claims to the ter- 
 ritory below the limits now specified. 
 
 The wisdom and moderation of the Turkish pasha pro- 
 cured the inestimable blessing of a settled government to 
 the inhabitants of Lower Egypt. He lightened their bur- 
 dens, redressed their numerous grievances, and fortified the 
 city so as to protect it from a sudden inroad on the part of 
 the disaffected beys. But in 1790 the plague appeared in 
 its most virulent form, and after committing frightful de- 
 vastation among the lower classes, put an end to the life 
 of Ishmael. Only a short interval elapsed, during which 
 an attempt was made to perpetuate the authority of the 
 Porte, when Mourad and Ibrahim returned from their exile, 
 and assumed once more the sovereign power in defiance of 
 the sultan and his divan. 
 
 But the domestic struggles of party were now about to be 
 superseded by an event which threatened the existence of 
 Egypt as a province of the Turkish empire. In 1798 a 
 French army under General Buonaparte effected a landing 
 near Alexandria, with the avowed object of restoring the 
 legitimate influence of the grand signior, but with the real 
 intention of adding that important country to the dominions 
 of the new republic. The Mamlouks resolved to dispute 
 his passage towards the capital, and accordingly awaited 
 his approach at Imbaba, a village about seven miles distant 
 from the Great Pyramids. As might have been expected, 
 the discipline of the French triumphed over the wild courage 
 of their opponents, gained a complete victory, and opened 
 the way for the possession of Grand Cairo. Ibrahim fled 
 into the eastern parts of the Delta, while Mourad with the 
 remnant of his brave horsemen retreated into the desert 
 beyond Sakhara. 
 
 The possession of Egypt had long been viewed by the 
 politicians of France as an object of great importance. It 
 is therefore an error to suppose that the scheme of conquer- 
 ing that country originated with Napoleon Buonaparte ; for 
 
220 
 
 CIVIL HISTORY OF 
 
 he, in adopting this bold measure, did no more than follow 
 up the ideas of several writers who had great influence on 
 the public mind of Europe. Sanuto the Venetian, for ex- 
 ample, mentions the subjugation of Egypt by some nation 
 whose territory bordered on the Mediterranean, as the most 
 effectual blow that could be struck against the power of the 
 Crescent, as well as the most likely means for recovering 
 the East India trade. Count Daru, who in his history of 
 Venice repeats the arguments of Sanuto, reminds his readers 
 that the communication between India and the southern 
 parts of Europe, by the channel of the Red Sea, was the 
 shortest, the surest, and the most economical ; that it would 
 not be difficult to establish a communication between the 
 Red Sea and the Nile; that, independently of the com- 
 merce of India, there was on the eastern coast of that sea 
 a country abounding in aromatics and perfumes ; that Africa 
 itself, by its gold and ivory, offered rich materials for trade; 
 and, in short, that the possession of Egypt by one of the 
 maritime powers of the Mediterranean was preferable to 
 the possession of all the provinces of Hindostan. 
 
 Leibnitz, too, addressed to Louis the Fourteenth a memo- 
 rial on the same subject, advising that monarch to lay hold 
 of Egypt for the purpose of destroying the maritime and 
 commercial ascendency of the Dutch, which he alleges de- 
 pended mainly on the success of their Indian trade. Hence 
 it is manifest that Buonaparte only revived an old theory, 
 and attempted to launch against Britain the weapon which 
 the German philosopher had forged for the destruction of 
 the merchants and shipmasters of Holland.* 
 
 The government of the sultan, who could not mistake the 
 motives of Buonaparte, declared war in the following year 
 against the French republic. Throwing off the mask, po- 
 litical and religious, which did not deceive even the Arabs 
 and Fellahs of Egypt, the invader led his army into Syria, 
 and laid siege to the principal towns on the coast. El Arish 
 and Jaffa were quickly reduced ; upon which he opened his 
 
 * Histoire de Venice, tom. iii. p. 75, 76 ; Webster’s Travels through 
 the Crimea, Turkey, and Egypt. The Venetians solicited the authority 
 of the pope to trade with infidels ; but in the mean time, says the histo- 
 rian, they made no scruple to conform to the errors of the Mussulmans, 
 by enacting treaties “in the name of the Lord and of Mahomet ” — au 
 riom du Seigneur et de Mahomet. 
 
MODERN EGYPT. 
 
 227 
 
 trenches before Acre. The result of this memorable enter- 
 prise is too well known to require any details. Buonaparte, 
 after sacrificing his heavy artillery, commenced a retreat 
 towards Egypt under the most unfavourable circumstances; 
 his track through the desert being marked by the dead bodies 
 of French soldiers who had sunk under fatigue, or were 
 sabred by the light cavalry of the enemy. 
 
 Dessaix, who had been left to prosecute the war against 
 the Mamlouks, found himself unable to bring them to a 
 general action. Mourad retired before him as far as Syene, 
 occupying such positions as rendered an attack impossible ; 
 and no sooner did the French turn their backs, than he as- 
 sailed their rear or cut oflf their supplies. Meanwhile a 
 Turkish fleet appeared on the coast with eight thousand 
 men on board. Hardly had they landed when they were 
 met by Buonaparte, who, after an obstinate and sanguinary 
 conflict, overwhelmed them with a complete destruction ; the 
 most of those who escaped his bayonets being drowned in 
 attempting to regain their ships. 
 
 Although we profess not to be the historian of the mili- 
 tary proceedings which determined the fate of Egypt at the 
 beginning of this century, we cannot pass without remark 
 the exaggeration of Denon, who says that at Aboukir the 
 French destroyed twenty thousand Turks, six thousand 
 being killed, two thousand taken, and the remainder driven 
 into the sea. Such statements were written to gratify the 
 pride or amuse the anxiety of the Parisians, who could not 
 conceal from themselves that their country had sacrificed a 
 fleet and an army to the romantic ambition of a popular 
 general ; and it is no longer denied by the biographers of 
 Buonaparte, that he was in the practice of dictating false- 
 hoods, to be given to the world in the form of public des- 
 patches, in order to withdraw attention from the amount 
 of his disasters. 
 
 The victory of Nelson, and the repulses sustained in 
 Syria, indicated to this chief that the star of his fortune was 
 not to reach its ascendant in Egypt. Intrusting the com- 
 mand to Kleber, he departed in a secret manner from head- 
 quarters, and sailed for France, where he hastened to forget 
 the companions of his toil in the deep game of politics which 
 soon afterward placed him on a throne. Buonaparte is 
 understood to have instructed his successor to enter into 
 
228 
 
 CIVIL HISTORY OF 
 
 negotiation with the government of the Porte, for the pur- 
 pose of evacuating the country, on condition that certain 
 commercial advantages should be conceded to the French 
 republic. Failing in this, it is related that Kleber consented 
 to withdraw his army on the simple terms of being allowed 
 to retain private property, and of having the safety of his 
 men guarantied against the Mamlouks on shore and the 
 British at sea. But the treaty does not appear to have been 
 signed ; each party imagining that their circumstances 
 might be improved by another appeal to arms. The French 
 general, indeed, was soon after assassinated at Cairo ; but 
 Menou, who succeeded to the chief authority, being encou- 
 raged by the expectation of receiving fresh supplies from 
 Europe, resolved to keep possession of the country at all 
 hazards, and to defend his positions against the combined 
 forces of the Turks and English.* 
 
 The debarkation of the army under Sir Ralph Abercrom- 
 bie, the gallant actions which succeeded, and the defeat of 
 the French near Alexandria, on the 21st March, 1800, are 
 matters of general history familiarly known to every reader. 
 Egypt at this moment became the scene of European wars ; 
 the policy of two great nations was brought into collision 
 on the banks of the Nile ; and the fate of India, or at least 
 the temporary security of the British possessions in that vast 
 country, appeared to depend on the success or failure of this 
 unwonted expedition into an African province. Each party 
 
 * Sir Robert Wilson (History of Expedition, p. 65, quarto edition) 
 assigns a reason for the renewal of the war highly creditable to the British 
 character. Admiral Keith reftised to give his consent to the conditions 
 agreed upon at El Arish, communicating to the Turks his conviction 
 of the greater expediency of driving the French out of the country alto- 
 gether. Kleber was at Cairo, and making preparations to evacuate the 
 capital, when a notice arrived from Sir Sidney Smith, that hostilities 
 were to be continued, and that he was not expected to fulfil the terms of 
 a convention which was not to be observed by the other party. The 
 Turks, it is said, meant to take advantage of Kleber’s ignorance, and to 
 attack him while reposing on bis arms. It is added, that they never for- 
 gave Sir Sidney for his generous honesty, considering him as little better 
 than a traitor to their cause. 
 
 Others insinuate that Kleber had no intention of acceding to the treaty, 
 and that he negotiated with the allies only to gain time until the arrival 
 of reinforcements from Europe should enable him to act with greater 
 certainty of success. See Wilson ; Dr. Clarke, vol. iii. ; Life of Buona- 
 parte in Family Library ; Bourrienne’s Memoirs ; and the Modem Trav- 
 eller 
 
MODERN EGYPT. 
 
 229 
 
 professed to support the legitimate power of the grand 
 signior ; but even the simplest of the Arab tribes could not 
 fail to perceive that their land was desolated by the ambition 
 of the Franks, who, they suspected, were accustomed to 
 avow one motive and to act upon another. 
 
 The siege of Alexandria was rendered remarkable by an 
 expedient which necessity appeared to sanction, though 
 doubts have since been entertained both of its wisdom and 
 humanity. It is worthy of notice, at the same time, that it 
 was suggested by the French ; for in the pocket of General 
 Roiz, who was killed in the action of the 21st, there was 
 found a letter written by Menou, expressing an apprehen- 
 sion that the British wduld cut the embankment which forms 
 the canal of Alexandria, and thereby admit the waters of 
 the sea into Lake Mareotis. “ From that moment,” says 
 Sir Robert Wilson, “ it had become the favourite object of 
 the army ; as, by securing the left and part of its front, the 
 duty would be diminished, the French cut off from the inte- 
 rior, and a new scene of operations opened.” But there 
 were very serious objections to the measure. The mischief 
 it might do was incalculable. The Arabs could give no 
 information where such a sea would be checked : the ruin 
 of Alexandria might probably be the consequence ; and, 
 while it covered the British left, it would also secure the 
 front of the French position, except from a new landing. 
 But the urgency of the present service, says the historian, at 
 length superseded all remoter considerations. General Hut- 
 chinson reluctantly consented, and the army was in rap- 
 tures. Never did a working party labour with more zeal ; 
 every man would have volunteered with cheerfulness to 
 assist. Four cuts were made of six yards in breadth, and 
 about ten distant from each other ; but only two could be 
 opened the first night. At seven o’clock the last fascine 
 was removed, and the joy was universal. The water 
 rushed in with a fall of six feet ; and the pride and peculiar 
 care of Egypt, the consolidation of ages, was in a few hours 
 destroyed by the devastating hand of man. Two more cuts 
 were finished next day, and three more marked out ; but 
 the force of the water was such as soon to break one into 
 the other ; and now an immense body of water rushed in, 
 which continued flowing for a month with considerable 
 violence. 
 
 U 
 
230 
 
 CIVIL HISTORY OF 
 
 After a variety of skirmishes, which usually terminated 
 to the advantage of the British and their allies, General 
 Hutchinson resolved to lay siege to Cairo, where the main 
 strength of the French army was now assembled. Beliard, 
 who commanded in that city, proposed terms of capitula- 
 tion ; being at length perfectly satisfied, that without rein- 
 forcements from Europe the war could not be carried on 
 with any rational prospect of success. On the 27th June 
 articles were signed, by which the garrison consented to 
 evacuate the capital on condition of being sent to France. 
 
 Meantime the blockade of Alexandria was prosecuted 
 with vigour under the direction of General Coote; Menou 
 having expressed his determinatiorf to bury himself in its 
 ruins rather than pull down the flag of the victorious repub- 
 lic. But no sooner had a regular bombardment commenced 
 from the ships in the harbour and the batteries on land, 
 than his resolution failed, and he expressed his readiness to 
 listen to terms. On the 2d of September the garrison laid 
 down their arms, on the usual condition of being sent to 
 their own country without any impeachment on their honour 
 as soldiers ; and thus Egypt, after having been more than 
 two years the theatre of a destructive war, found itself once 
 more under the government of the Turks, and acknow- 
 ledging the authority of the Sublime Porte. 
 
 The British general exerted himself to the utmost to 
 procure favourable terms in behalf of the Mamlouk beys, 
 who, it was well known, had resolutely opposed the French, 
 and suffered no small loss both in men and property, in the 
 earlier period of the invasion. Mourad had already fallen 
 a victim to the plague, and Ibrahim, now well advanced in 
 age, was at the head of their affairs, assisted by Osman 
 Tambourji, an active and very gallant officer. On the sur- 
 render of Cairo, General Hutchinson insisted that the Mam- 
 louks should have restored to them all their rights and dig- 
 nities, on condition of paying their annual tribute to the 
 sultan, and of permitting the pasha to exercise the authority 
 belonging to a viceroy at the head of a competent body of 
 troops. 
 
 The grand vizier, who was still in Egypt, ostensibly con- 
 curred in this arrangement, and reinstated Ibrahim in his 
 former office of Sheik el Belled, or governor of Cairo ; but it 
 was, nevertheless, the intention of the court to depress the 
 
MODERN EGYPT. 
 
 231 
 
 beys to such a degree that they should no longer have it in 
 their power to disturb the tranquillity of the province. 
 With this view the capitan pasha invited their leader with 
 his principal officers to his camp at Aboukir. These rough 
 soldiers, dreading no treachery, repaired into the admiral’s 
 presence, and were received with every demonstration of 
 esteem. Pleasure and amusements were freely lavished on 
 them ; but as this complaisance had no apparent object, 
 the guests became tired of it, expressed their suspicions to 
 the British general, and even threatened to leave the camp 
 without permission. That officer assured them of the 
 friendly intentions of the pasha and of their own safety ; 
 not suspecting the frightful atrocity which the barbarian 
 chief was actually meditating. 
 
 A short time afterward, when Lord Hutchinson was about 
 to leave the country, Hassan again invited the beys to a 
 sumptuous entertainment ; when, at his importunate re- 
 quest, they consented to go on board some pleasure-boats 
 which he had provided for the purpose. When they had 
 proceeded to a little distance at sea, they were followed by 
 a fast-sailing skiff, sent, as it were, with intelligence to the 
 pasha ; which he no sooner perceived than he mentioned 
 the necessity of conversing with the messenger, apprehend- 
 ing that he might be the bearer of important despatches from 
 Constantinople. The cutter came alongside, and what 
 appeared to be ample despatches were handed to the Turk, 
 who, on pretence of reading them more at his leisure, 
 stepped into the small vessel, which immediately fell back. 
 The Mamlouks, still unsuspecting the snare which was laid 
 for them, proceeded on their course ; but no sooner did they 
 enter Aboukir Bay than they saw some large ships, filled 
 with soldiers, and ready for action. They now perceived 
 their danger, and their worst fears were about to be realized ; 
 for discharges of musketry and artillery hurled destruction 
 among the boats, and killed nearly all who were on board. 
 Those who escaped death were taken prisoners, and forced 
 to swear on the Koran that they would not reclaim the pro- 
 tection of the English. Our countrymen, however, indig- 
 nant at this abominable instance of Mussulman treachery, 
 and sensible that their own faith had been pledged for the 
 safety of the beys, addressed to the pasha a very severe 
 remonstrance : they insisted that the prisoners should be 
 
232 
 
 CIVIL HISTORY OF 
 
 liberated, and that the bodies of the murdered chiefs should 
 be buried with military honours. 
 
 On the departure of Hassan, Mohammed Kusrouf, his 
 favourite slave, was appointed pasha of Grand Cairo. A 
 Georgian by birth, this minion of fortune showed himself 
 equally weak and tyrannical, and seemed to confine all the 
 energies of his government to the extermination of the hated 
 Mamlouks. He invited them to fix their residence in the 
 capital ; and upon meeting a direct refusal, he sent a strong 
 force against them into Upper Egypt, under the command 
 of Taher, and the celebrated Mohammed Ali, then begin- 
 ning to rise into power. All attempts at negotiation having 
 failed, Kusrouf sent a larger army, which he intrusted to 
 Yousef Bey, with orders to prosecute the war with the 
 utmost vigour. A battle ensued in the neighbourhood of 
 Damanhour, in which the Turks were miserably defeated, 
 with the loss of five thousand men killed and wounded. 
 The Mamlouks, being very little weakened, might have 
 pushed their success to the gates of Cairo ; but, from igno- 
 rance and dissension, they threw away the fruits of their 
 victory, and allowed the viceroy time to rally the fugitives, 
 and place the city in a posture of defence. 
 
 Y ousef attributed his want of success to the disaffection 
 or the cowardice of Mohammed Ali, who appears to have 
 been second in command, — a charge which was eagerly 
 listened to by the pasha, who had already seen reason to 
 apprehend the ambitious projects of this remarkable person, 
 whose character has since made so deep an impression on 
 the history of modem Egypt. The attempt which was 
 made to bring him to trial occasioned a revolution in the 
 government, the effects of which have been perpetuated to 
 the present day ; but in order that the connexion of events 
 may be more clearly traced, we must indulge in a brief 
 retrospect of his earlier progress towards the distinction 
 which he still occupies. 
 
 The present viceroy of Egypt is a native of Cavalla, a 
 small town in Roumelia, a district of Albania. Losing his 
 father in early life, he was protected by the governor of the 
 place, who bestowed upon him that species of training which 
 qualifies a man to rise under a despotic government, where 
 vigilance, intrepidity, and a ready use of arms are held the 
 most valuable accomplishments. His activity recommended 
 
MODERN EGYPT. 
 
 233 
 
 him to an appointment as a subordinate collector of taxes ; 
 and in the performance of his duty it was observed that he 
 set a higher value on the money which he was ordered to 
 exact, than on the blood or even the lives of the unhappy 
 peasantry over whom his jurisdiction extended. On one 
 occasion the inhabitants of a village refused payment, 
 resisted, threatened, and rose in rebellion. The governor 
 was alarmed at this unusual firmness, and applied to Mo- 
 hammed. The young functionary undertook to reduce 
 them to obedience ; and for this purpose he proceeded to the 
 refractory hamlet at the head of a few men hastily equipped, 
 announcing that he was charged with a secret mission. He 
 entered a mosque, and sent for several of the principal 
 inhabitants, who, not suspecting any violence, instantly 
 obeyed his summons. No sooner were they within the 
 walls, than he ordered them to be bound hand and foot, and 
 immediately set olf for Cavalla, regardless of the pursuing 
 multitude, whom he overawed by threatening to put his 
 captives to death. 
 
 This resolute step procured for him the rank of Boulouk- 
 bashi and a rich wife, a relation of his patron the governor. 
 As it is not uncommon among the Turks to unite the duties 
 of a soldier with the pursuits of a merchant, Mohammed 
 became a dealer in tobacco, — a business which he appears 
 to have followed with considerable success till the invasion 
 of Egypt by the French called him to fulfil a higher destiny 
 in a scene of active warfare. The contingent of three hun- 
 dred men, raised by the township of Cavalla, was placed 
 under the command of Ali, who was now decorated with the 
 higher title of Binbashi, and recognised as a captain of 
 regular troops. 
 
 His conduct in the field of battle soon attracted the notice 
 of the pasha, who recommended him to Kusrouf, the gov- 
 ernor of Cairo. After the massacre of the Mamlouks at 
 Aboukir, the young Albanian obtained the command 
 of a division in the army of Yousef Bey, and joined 
 the expedition against the insurgent chiefs, which termi- 
 nated so fatally to the lives as well as to the reputation of 
 the Turks. Yousef, it has been already mentioned, accused 
 Mohammed of misconduct or disaffection so extremely pal- 
 pable as to have been the main cause of their miserable 
 defeat. ~ Whether there was any real ground for this charge 
 
234 
 
 CIVIL HISTORY OF 
 
 it is impossible to determine ; but at all events it was 
 believed by Kusrouf, who resolved forthwith to expel the 
 Cavalliot from the country, as a person in whom he could 
 no longer place confidence. 
 
 But the pasha was not aware of the character with whom 
 he had come into collision. The pay of the troops was con- 
 siderably in arrear ; and this Mohammed demanded in a 
 resolute tone, as the sole condition on which he would yield 
 obedience. The governor sent orders that he should appear 
 before him in the night ; but the Roumelian leader, not un- 
 acquainted with the object of such private interviews, re- 
 turned for answer that he would show himself in broad day- 
 light in the midst of his soldiers. Perceiving the danger 
 with which he was threatened, Kusrouf admitted into Cairo 
 the Albanian guards under Taher Pasha, hoping that the 
 intrigues of the one chief would counteract those of the 
 other. But in this expectation he was grievously disap- 
 pointed ; for the mountaineers, in whatever points they 
 might differ, were unanimous in demanding their pay, and 
 in all the measures which were suggested for compelling 
 him to advance it. They attacked the palace, reduced the 
 citadel, drove Kusrouf and his household from the city, 
 and finally deposited the viceregal power in the hands of the 
 Pasha Taher. 
 
 The tyrannical measures of this new ruler brought his 
 reign to a close at the end of twenty-two days, and the ac- 
 tual government of the country reverted to the hands of the 
 Mamlouks, under the aged Ibrahim, Osman Bardissv, and 
 Mohammed Ali. The Porte, indeed, sent a pasha of high 
 rank to assume the direction of affairs at Cairo ; but the 
 beys, having once more the upperhand, and mindful of the 
 cruel treachery inflicted upon them by Hassan, seized the 
 viceroy at Alexandria, and put him to death. 
 
 The undisputed ascendency of the Mamlouks might in the 
 end have proved fatal to Mohammed Ali, who did not belong 
 to their body. For this reason he contrived to embroil Bar- 
 dissy, who has been called the Hotspur of the beys, with 
 some of his associates ; and, finally, attacking him w ith his 
 own hand, drove him from the capital, and reinstated the 
 exiled pasha, whom he intended to use merely as a tool for 
 effecting his own purposes. The grand signior, suspecting 
 his ambitious views, issued orders, in the year 1804, that 
 
MODERN EGVPT. 
 
 235 
 
 the Albanians should return into their own country ; intend- 
 ing, it may be presumed, to garrison the Egyptian fortresses 
 with troops less disposed to insubordination. Mohammed, 
 whose plans were gradually advancing towards completion, 
 disregarded the mandate ; intimating that his services were 
 still necessary to repress the daring designs of the Mara- 
 louks, who continued to occupy the greater part of the king- 
 dom, while they breathed avowed hostility against the 
 government of the Porte. The following year a firman 
 arrived, conferring upon him the enviable appointment of 
 pasha of Djidda, and of the port of Mecca on the eastern 
 shore of the Red Sea. On this occasion he acceded so far 
 as to assume the mantle and cap peculiar to his new office ; 
 but the army, prepared for the scene which ensued, flocked 
 around him, uttering the most seditious language, and 
 threatening immediate violence if their arrears were not dis- 
 charged. Mohammed alone could rule the disturbed ele- 
 ments in this furious tempest. He was entreated to take 
 upon him the duties of viceroy, — to save Egypt from rebel- 
 lion and bloodshed, — and to preserve an important province 
 to the Turkish empire. The wily Albanian seemed to be 
 amazed at this proposal, and refused ; but in so faint a tone, 
 that the petitioners were induced to repeat and urge still 
 more strongly their request. He yielded at length to en- 
 treaties which he himself had suggested, accepted the 
 insignia of office, and was proclaimed by the shouts of his 
 numerous adherents the new representative of the grand 
 signior.* 
 
 Kourschid Pasha, who was now in the capital, endea- 
 voured, by inviting the dangerous aid of the Mamlouks, to 
 oppose this nomination. But while he was making prepa- 
 rations to take the field against the usurper, the capitan 
 pasha unexpectedly cast anchor before Alexandria ; who 
 forthwith sent orders to him to place the citadel in the hands 
 of Mohammed, and also to repair in person, without delay, 
 to his head-quarters on the seacoast. Kourschid obeyed, 
 and, after a short period of service in other quarters of the 
 Turkish empire, lost his life. 
 
 The Mamlouks, who had been summoned to the standard 
 of the governor, were unwilling to lay down their arms 
 
 * Webster’s Travels, vol. ii. p. 56. 
 
236 
 
 CIVIL HISTORY OF 
 
 until they should have once more tried the fortune of war 
 against their old enemy the Albanian pasha. The latter, 
 who was contriving a snare for these turbulent horsemen, 
 wished nothing more ardently than that they should attack 
 him in Cairo ; nay, he suggested to the sheiks, on whom 
 he had the greatest reliance, to encourage the beys in their 
 meditated assault, and even to promise them assistance 
 should they resolve to ' enter the city. The Mamlouks, 
 reposing implicit faith in these pretended friends, seized 
 the first opportunity of bursting in at one of the gates, 
 which had been opened for the purpose of admitting some 
 countrymen with their camels. Dividing their numbers 
 into two parties, they advanced along the streets sounding 
 their martial instruments, and anticipating a complete 
 triumph. But they soon discovered their mistake ; for, 
 being attacked by the inhabitants on all sides, driven from 
 post to post, and slaughtered without mercy, they sustained 
 so severe a loss as from that moment to cease to be formida- 
 ble. All the prisoners met the same fate ; and eighty-three 
 heads were sent to Constantinople to grace the walls of the 
 imperial seraglio. 
 
 But the Sublime Porte, unwilling that any one interest 
 should obtain the ascendency in Egypt, determined now to 
 support the beys ; and accordingly a capitan pasha was 
 despatched to Alexandria with instructions to assist Elfy, 
 well known by his residence in England, in his endeavours 
 to assume the viceregal mantle, and thereby to depress the 
 rising power of Mohammed. This envoy, upon his arrival, 
 sent a capidji bashi to Cairo, summoning Ali to appear im- 
 mediately at that port, where his master was ready to bestow 
 upon him the government of Salonica. The Albanian 
 chief had too much knowledge of the policy usually pursued 
 in the divan to accept of such promotion. He asked those 
 around him whether he should not show himself a fool and 
 a craven if, after having won the supreme station with only 
 five hundred men at his disposal, he were to abandon his 
 post to his enemies, now that he counted at his side fifteen 
 hundred resolute countrymen and companions in arms. 
 u Cairo is to be publicly sold !” he exclaimed ; — “ whoever 
 will give most blows of the sabre will win it, and remain 
 master !” 
 
 His demeanour towards the pasha was, at the same time 
 
MODERN EGYPT. 
 
 237 
 
 ■submissive and dutiful ; he regretted that the mutinous 
 state of the army would not permit him to obey the sum- 
 mons of his highness, and to have the pleasure of showing 
 how ready he was on all occasions to bow the knee before 
 a representative of his imperial lord. At this very moment 
 he was plotting with the beys, and sending large sums of 
 money to Constantinople, to secure friends on both sides of 
 the Mediterranean. At length the sultan, finding that Ah 
 could not be deposed, and perceiving himself on the eve of 
 a war with Russia, forwarded secret orders to the capitan 
 to make the best terms he could with the usurper, and to 
 leave him in possession of the viceroyalty. A short time 
 after this occurrence, the regular diploma confirming him 
 in his office was transmitted by the Porte; and as Elfy 
 Bey and Bardissy, the most powerful of his enemies, died 
 about the same period, Mohammed found himself the master 
 of Egypt, invested with a legal title, and opposed by no 
 one whom he had any reason to fear. To complete his 
 conquest, indeed, he advanced into Upper Egypt to attack 
 the Mamlouks. There he defeated a large body of their 
 troops, and was preparing to follow them, in the hope of 
 effecting their utter annihilation as a political body, when 
 he received despatches from Turkey announcing the com- 
 mencement of hostilities between Great Britain and the 
 Ottoman empire.* 
 
 It was in the year 1807 that the English ministry sent a 
 second expedition into Egypt, with the view of preventing 
 that country from falling again into the hands of the French, 
 whose ambassador at Constantinople was understood to 
 direct the politics of the grand signior. The number of 
 troops under the British general did not exceed five thou- 
 sand ; and it was entirely owing to the ignorance of our 
 government in regard to the amount of the Turkish forces 
 at Alexandria, and the strength as well as the disposition 
 of the Mamlouks, that they exposed such a handful of men 
 to certain destruction. The beys availed themselves of this 
 opportunity to make their peace with Mohammed Ali, and 
 consented to follow his standard against the invaders, who 
 had established a footing on their coast. The melancholy 
 result is well known. Alexandria yielded to General Fraser 
 
 * Webster's Travels, vol. ii. p. 67 
 
238 
 
 CIVIL HISTORY OF 
 
 after a smart encounter ; but, failing in his successive 
 attempts on Rosetta and El Hamet, the flower of our little 
 army was cut off, wounded, or taken prisoners. Four hun- 
 dred and fifty of their heads were publicly exposed at Cairo, 
 while the unfortunate captives were treated with every spe- 
 cies of contempt and cruelty. 
 
 The departure of the British allowed the pasha to return 
 to the internal affairs of his turbulent province. As he 
 relied chiefly upon the army, he had increased its numbers 
 till the expense of maintenance emptied his coffers, and 
 compelled him, in order to replenish them, to resort to mea- 
 sures of extreme severity. He felt that his popularity was 
 endangered ; and being convinced that the Mamlouks 
 would embrace the first opportunity of attempting to pre- 
 cipitate him from the viceregal throne, he resolved upon their 
 final destruction at whatever expense of candour or hu- 
 manity. This horrible determination, it has been conjec- 
 tured, was confirmed by the necessity imposed upon him 
 of conducting the war against the Wahabees in Arabia, — 
 an undertaking in which he could not engage without em- 
 ploying in that country his best troops and commanders. 
 The Porte had urged him to prepare for this expedition, so 
 important to the purity of the faith and to the integrity of 
 the empire ; rewarding him, beforehand, by conferring upon 
 his favourite son, Toussoun, the dignity of a pasha of the 
 second order. 
 
 The same youth had been appointed by his father general 
 of the army which was destined to serve in Arabia. The 
 1st day of March, 1811, was named for the investiture of 
 the new chief, — a ceremony which was to take place in the 
 citadel. The Mamlouks were invited to share in the parade 
 and festivities of the occasion ; and accordingly, under the 
 command of Chahyn Bey, and arrayed in their most splendid 
 uniform, they appeared at the hall of audience, and offered 
 to the pasha their hearty congratulations. Mohammed 
 received them with the greatest affability. They were 
 presented with coffee, and he conversed with them indi- 
 vidually with apparent openness of heart and serenity of 
 countenance. 
 
 The procession was ordered to move from the citadel 
 along a passage cut out in the rock ; the pasha’s troops 
 marching first, followed by the Mamlouk corps mounted as 
 
MODERN EGYPT. 
 
 239 
 
 usual. As soon, however, as they had passed the gate, it 
 was shut behind them, while the opposite end of the defile 
 being also closed, they were caught, as it were, in a trap. 
 Mohammed’s soldiers had been ordered to the top of the 
 rocks, where they were perfectly secure from the aim of the 
 Mamlouks, while they poured down volleys of shot upon 
 their defenceless victims, who were butchered almost to the 
 last man. Some of them, indeed, succeeded in taking 
 refuge in the pasha’s harem, and in the house of Toussoun ; 
 but they were all dragged forth, conducted before the kiaya 
 bey, and beheaded on the spot. The lifeless body of the 
 brave Chahyn was exposed to every infamy. A rope was 
 passed round the neck, and the bloody carcass dragged 
 through various parts of the city. Mengin, who was in 
 Cairo at the time, assures his readers that the streets during 
 two whole days bore the appearance of a place taken by 
 assault. Every kind and degree of violence was committed 
 under pretence of searching for the devoted Mamlouks ; 
 and it was not until five hundred houses were sacked, much 
 valuable property destroyed, and many lives lost, that Ali 
 and his son ventured out of the citadel to repress the popular 
 fury.* 
 
 Mohammed noted among the slain four hundred and 
 seventy mounted Mamlouks, besides their attendants who 
 usually served on foot. The number of victims in the end 
 did not fall short of a thousand ; for orders were given to 
 pursue this devoted race into the remotest parts of the 
 country, and, if possible, to exterminate them throughout 
 the whole pashalic. The heads of the principal officers 
 were embalmed, and sent as an acceptable present to the 
 sultan at Constantinople. Only one of the beys, whose 
 name was Amim, is understood to have escaped the massacre 
 in Cairo. Being detained by business, he was too late to 
 occupy his proper place in the procession, and he only 
 arrived at the citadel at the moment when the troops were 
 passing the gate. He waited till they had entered the fatal 
 passage, intending to join his own body ; but seeing the 
 gate shut suddenly, and hearing, almost immediately after, 
 the discharge of firearms, he put spurs to his horse and 
 
 * Histoire de 1’Egypte sous le Gouvernement de Mohammed Ali, par 
 M. Felix Mengin, &c. tom. i. p. 363-365. . 
 
240 
 
 CIVIL HISTORY OF 
 
 galloped out of the city. He afterward retired with a small 
 suite into Syria. 
 
 It is impossible to refrain from condemning the cruel and 
 faithless conduct of Mohammed on this memorable occasion. 
 He may have received orders from Constantinople to anni- 
 hilate those ambitious and turbulent soldiers who acknow- 
 ledged no master but their own chief, and no laws except 
 such as suited their licentious habits. But it is difficult, 
 notwithstanding, to find an apology for the deliberate cold- 
 hearted treachery which disgraced the execution of the 
 imperial mandate. So little compunction, too, did he feel 
 when reflecting on the occurrence, that we are told by Men- 
 gin, on being infonned that he was reproached by all travel- 
 lers in their narratives for this inhuman massacre, he replied, 
 that he would have a picture of it painted together with one 
 of the murder of the Due d’Enghien, and leave to posterity 
 what judgment it might pass on the two events. This 
 argumentum ad hominem might silence a Frenchman who 
 had followed the standard of Buonaparte, but it goes only a 
 very little way to remove the impression of abhorrence which 
 must be retained by every heart not altogether insensible to 
 those eternal distinctions on which all moral judgments must 
 be founded.* 
 
 * For a striking account of the massacre of the Mamlouks, see “ Life 
 and Adventures of Giovanni Finati,” vol. i. p. 101, &c. He varies in a 
 few particulars from the narrative of Mengin, although in the essential 
 points there is no material difference. The beys, he tells us, were not 
 assembled to grace the reception of the Pelisse by the young pasha, but 
 to consult with the viceroy about the approaching war with the Arabian 
 schismatics; and Mengin himself relates that Toussoun was not in- 
 vested with the ensigns of his office till more than a month afterward. 
 The chief, too, called Chahyn by the latter author, is by Finati denomi- 
 nated Sa'im,— an example of the discrepancy which arises from the prac- 
 tice adopted by travellers in Egypt of spelling according to the pronun- 
 ciation of their respective countries. 
 
 It is remarkable that the Frenchman should have omitted an anecdote 
 of Amim Bey, which made a great noise at the time, and was repeated 
 to Mr. W. Banks by that officer himself when he met him at a subse- 
 quent period in Syria. “This chief, who was brother to the celebrated 
 Elfy, urged the noble animal which he rode to an act of greater despera- 
 tion, for he spurred him till he made him clamber upon the rampart, and 
 preferring rather to be dashed to pieces than to be slaughtered in cold 
 blood, drove him to leap down the precipice, a height that has been esti 
 mated at from thirty to forty feet, or even more ; yet fortune so favoured 
 him, that, though the horse was killed, the rider escaped.” — Finati, 110. 
 
 Sir F. Henniker says of him, “ His horse leaped over the parapet, like 
 leaping out of a four pair of stairs window. The horse was killed. 
 
MODERN EGYPT. 
 
 241 
 
 Mohammed Ali was now at liberty to devote his attention 
 to the state of things in Arabia, whither his son Toussoun 
 Pasha, had been sent to command the army. His campaign 
 had already been crowned with several successes against the 
 Wahabees ; he had taken the city of Medina, the keys of 
 which his father had sent to the Porte, with large presents 
 of money, jewels, coffee, and other valuable articles. The 
 viceroy himself now thought it time to pay his devotions at 
 the shrine of Mecca, and accordingly made a voyage across 
 the Red Sea. At Djidda he was received with all kindness 
 and hospitality by the Shereef Ghaleb ; in return for which, 
 to gratify either his avarice or his political suspicion, he 
 gave secret orders to Toussoun to seize and convey him to 
 Cairo. Meanwhile he plundered the palace of immense 
 treasures, part of which he applied to the support of the 
 army, and part he shared with his master, the sultan ; but 
 the latter, on understanding the manner in which they had 
 been obtained, had honesty enough to return them to their 
 owner through Mohammed. 
 
 The various occurrences of the Arabian war are not of 
 sufficient interest to the general reader to warrant a minute 
 detail. Suffice it to observe, that under the direction of 
 Toussoun the Egyptian army suffered considerable reverses, 
 and was not a little reduced both in number and in spirit when 
 Mohammed Ali himself assumed the command. His presence 
 in the camp immediately restored discipline and confidence 
 to such a degree that the troops longed for an opportunity 
 to revenge their losses in the field, and, if possible, to bring 
 the contest to the issue of a general action. Their wishes 
 in tliis respect were soon gratified ; for the enemy, who had 
 begun to despise the invaders, and even to pour upon them 
 the most insolent and opprobrious language, were easily 
 induced to relinquish their position where they could not 
 have been attacked, and to meet the viceroy on equal ground, 
 where he could hardly fail to secure a decisive victory. The 
 battle of Basille terminated the campaign of 1815, and 
 opened up to the conqueror a flattering view of ultimate 
 success. But disease found its way into his ranks ; the 
 Albanians were fatigued and disgusted with a war of posts 
 
 The bey intrusted himself to some Arabs (Albanians according to 
 Finati), who, notwithstanding the offer of a large reward, would not 
 deliver him up.” P. 64. 
 
 X 
 
242 
 
 CIVIL HISTORY OF 
 
 against barbarians still more savage than themselves ; and 
 they did not conceal from the pasha that they expected 
 to be relieved, and allowed to seek for health on the banks 
 of the Nile. This chief knew his countrymen too well to 
 resist their inclinations in a matter so closely connected with 
 their feelings ; he acknowledged the justice of their claim ; 
 assured them that he also meant to return to Cairo ; and 
 proceeded instantly to make arrangements for carrying his 
 plan into execution. 
 
 The military experience which Mohammed had acquired 
 when opposed to European armies convinced him of the 
 necessity of improving the tactics of his Turks and Arabs. 
 For this purpose he employed several French soldiers, who 
 deserted during the expedition under Buonaparte, to intro- 
 duce the new system ; and immediately a regular course of 
 drilling was begun, and enforced, too, with a strictness and 
 severity that only tended to exasperate the feelings, and to 
 ripen projects of resistance and revenge. From the very 
 first the native troops regarded this discipline with the 
 utmost jealousy and aversion, as a direct invasion of the 
 rights and liberties of their profession. Their resentment 
 soon found vent against the subaltern officers, whom they 
 assassinated in the streets, and even on parade. This, how- 
 ever, far from deterring the government, only led to higher 
 degrees of constraint and compulsion, till at length the 
 odium which had ceased to attach itself to the mere instru- 
 ments of the experiment, extended to the highest authori- 
 ties, and even to the ruler himself. If we must have the 
 French discipline, said the discontented, let us carry the 
 French system a little farther, and let us have our revolution 
 too. Accordingly, upon a day previously fixed, — the 4th 
 August, 1815, — all the troops in the neighbourhood of 
 Cairo broke out into open mutiny and revolt, with the pro- 
 fessed purpose of plundering the city, and putting Moham- 
 med Ali to death. After falling upon such of the officers 
 as had escaped the violence directed against them individu- 
 ally, they marched towards the citadel in a formidable body ; 
 and, had not the pillage of the bazaars attracted their atten- 
 tion in the first instance, the chiefs of the government, who 
 were quite unprepared for the attack, could hardly have found 
 safety. 
 
 The pasha fortunately was not in the citadel, but in one 
 
MODERN EGYPT. 
 
 243 
 
 of his palaces which stands in a large open square, near 
 the European division of the capital. More mindful of the 
 Franks than of his own welfare, he sent to them, upon the 
 breaking out of the disturbance, five hundred muskets, with 
 ammunition sufficient to serve the purpose of their defence. 
 Meanwhile, it being taken for granted that he was in the 
 fortress, no search was made for him elsewhere ; though he 
 had to endure many bitter hours of suspense, galled as he 
 must have been by the ingratitude of his army, and liable 
 every moment to be dragged forth to destruction. He was 
 at length extricated from his perilous situation by the fidelity 
 and courage of Abdim Bey, an Albanian, brother to Has- 
 san Pasha, whom he had left in the command of the Arabian 
 army. This officer had a particular attachment to his 
 person ; and having drawn together about three hundred of 
 his own nation who had continued loyal, went to the palace 
 where he was concealed, placed him under this faithful 
 escort, and forced a passage to the citadel, where he was 
 lodged in perfect security. 
 
 This took place late in the evening of that day of confu- 
 sion and terror ; and when it was discovered that the pasha 
 had been so long within their reach, disappointment exas- 
 perated the soldiers to fresh excesses, and a renewal of the 
 pillage. Before morning Mohammed had proclaimed a 
 general amnesty, on condition that the troops would return 
 to their duty, pledging himself, at the same time, that the 
 obnoxious system should be discontinued, and promising to 
 the merchants and inhabitants who had been pillaged a full 
 indemnity for their losses. This declaration produced the 
 desired effect, and Cairo was immediately restored to a 
 state of tranquillity and peace ; while the great number of 
 individuals who were implicated in the guilt of disaffection, 
 rendered it prudent in his highness to adhere strictly to the 
 terms of the pardon which he had announced. 
 
 It could hardly be doubted that in a rising of this nature, 
 where there was evidently so much of concert and of 
 secrecy, there must have been some prime mover, possess- 
 ing weight and influence among the soldiers ; and hence no 
 pains were spared by the government in order to obtain in- 
 formation. Giovanni Finati, who was himself an actor in 
 the scene which he describes, asserts that no clew was ever 
 obtained which could ’ead to a discovery of the principal 
 
244 
 
 CIVIL HISTORY OF 
 
 insurgents. But Belzoni, -who was in Egypt at the same 
 period, remarks that there was reason to think the pasha 
 knew who the chief instigators were, for it was found that 
 several persons shortly after “ died of sudden deaths, and 
 indeed many of the chiefs and beys disappeared.”* 
 
 No attempt appears to have been made for some time 
 after the failure now described to introduce the European 
 discipline. In the year 1821, when Sir F. Henniker was at 
 Grand Cairo, the old system prevailed, and is amusingly 
 exposed in the following description : — “ Saw the infantry 
 (Albanians) mustered. An attempt to drill these lawless 
 ragamuffins occasioned the last insurrection, — no marching 
 and countermarching, — no playing at soldiers. They, 
 however, suffer themselves to be drawn up in line to listen 
 to the music, — if such it may be called when produced by 
 drums and squeaking Moorish fifes in the hands of Turks ; 
 a number of voices frequently chimed in, and destroyed the 
 monotony ; during this the soldiers were quiet. It is 
 nearly impossible to distinguish officers from privates ; 
 every man provides himself with clothes and arms according 
 to his means ; there is only this family likeness among 
 them, — that pistols, swords, and a shirt, outwardly exhibited, 
 are necessary. An Albanian is not improved since the 
 time of Alexander ; he is still a soldier and a robber. 
 Ibrahim Pasha having, as he says, conquered the Waha- 
 bees, made his triumphal entry this morning ; first came 
 the cavalry, — horses of all sizes, ages, colours, and quali- 
 ties ; an Arab Fellah attendant upon each soldier carried a 
 musket ; every soldier carried — a pipe ; occasionally the 
 prelude of a kettle-drum, hammered monotonously with a 
 short leathern strap, announced a person of consequence : 
 the consequence consisted in eight or nine dirty Arabs, 
 carrying long sticks, and screaming tumultuously ; then 
 came the infantry, a long straggling line of Albanians ; 
 then a flag ; then a long pole, surmounted by a gilt ball, — 
 from this suspended a flowing tail of horsehair ; then a 
 second flag, a second tail, a third flag, and the pasha’s third 
 tail ; the victor covered with a white satin gown, and a 
 high conical cap of the same military material ; this Caesar 
 
 * Life and Adventures of Giovanni Finati, vol. ii. p. 71 ; Belzoni’s 
 Narrative, vol. ii. p. 9. 
 
MODERN EGYPT. 
 
 245 
 
 looked like a sick girl coming from the bath. The mobility 
 closed this Hudibrastic triumph. Having traversed the 
 town, they vented their exultation in gunpowder. The 
 Turkish soldiers, whether in fun or earnest, always fire 
 with ball ; and on a day of rejoicing it commonly happens 
 that several are killed ; these accidents fall in general on 
 the Franks.”* 
 
 In relating the triumph of Ibrahim, we have somewhat 
 anticipated the course of events. His brother Toussoun had 
 some time before fallen the victim of poison or disease, 
 whence arose the necessity of appointing a new com- 
 mander of equal rank to carry on that war, already waged 
 so long and with so little success against the heretics 
 of Derayeh. More than a century had passed since Abdul 
 Wahab, the Socinus of the Mohammedans, disturbed the 
 belief of the faithful by certain innovations in their doc- 
 trine respecting the character and offices of the prophet. 
 The austerity of his life drew around him a great number 
 of followers, and at length, finding himself sufficiently 
 strong to brave the power of the provincial governors, he 
 attacked without any reserve the rank idolatry of the wonted 
 pilgrimages to the tomb of Mohammed, and the absurdity 
 of putting any trust in relics, ablutions, or any outward 
 ceremonies. He inculcated the principles of pure deism, 
 and reduced the whole duty of man, as a religious being, 
 to prayer and good works. 
 
 Had he confined the objects of his mission to article? 
 of faith or new modes of piety, it is not probable that the 
 Ottoman Porte would have disturbed him in the exercise 
 of his vocation. But as he found the use of arms necessary 
 to convince hardened skeptics, as well as to destroy the 
 monuments of their idolatry, he permitted the zeal of his 
 followers to display itself in military ardour, and in the 
 formation of disciplined bands. On one occasion his suc- 
 ceJ3>: advanced into Persia at the head of 20,000 men, 
 resolving to capture the city of Kirbeleh, and to lay waste 
 the tomb of Hassan, the son of Ali and grandson of the 
 prophet. The spirit of persecution breathed in all his 
 actions ; the inhabitants were put to the sword ; and the 
 
 * Notes during a Visit, &c. By Sir Frederick Henniker, p. 66. 
 
 X 2 
 
246 
 
 CIVIL HISTORY OF 
 
 sepulchre — a favourite place of pilgrimage among the Per- 
 sians, — was plundered and desecrated. 
 
 In short, a dynasty of these fanatical warriors had es- 
 tablished itself on the throne of Derayeh. In the begin- 
 ning of the present century Abdelazeoz, the son of Abdul, 
 was murdered by a native of Kirbeleh, to revenge the in- 
 dignities committed upon the holy tomb, — an event which 
 was followed by a renewal of hostility and the shedding 
 of much blood. His successor, Sehood, began his career 
 of retaliation by directing the power of his arms against 
 Bassora and Irak. The Shereef of Mecca, who took the 
 field in order to check his progress, was defeated in every 
 battle and compelled to sue for peace. But no sooner were 
 terms concluded than the Wahabite, at the head of 40,000 
 men, marched to Medina, which was obliged to open its 
 gates ; when, following up his success, he proceeded to 
 Mecca, where he met with as little opposition. Here he 
 ordered the tomb of the prophet to be opened, whence he 
 abstracted the numerous jewels, consisting of diamonds, 
 pearls, rubies, and emeralds, which had been long venerated 
 by the pious disciples of the Koran. He melted the golden 
 vessels, the chandeliers, and vases ; and having exposed 
 the whole to public sale, he distributed the money among 
 his soldiers. This act of daring sacrilege excited against 
 Sehood the indignation of every Mussulman who had not 
 thrown off all reverence for the founder of his religion ; 
 while his military resources, employed with so much 
 vigour, did not fail to alarm the government at Constanti- 
 nople, who immediately sent orders to Mohammed Ali to 
 chastise the presumptuous heretic and deliver the holy city 
 from his arms. 
 
 But the success which finally attended the expedition 
 of the Egyptian pasha was owing to the death of Sehood 
 rather than to the bravery or skill of the Turkish generals. 
 The Wahabite chief was succeeded by his son Abdallah, 
 who possessed neither talent nor courage equal to the 
 arduous duties which he was. called upon to discharge. 
 After a vain attempt at negotiation he allowed himself to 
 be besieged in his capital, which, after a feeble defence 
 during three months, he was obliged to surrender together 
 with his own personal liberty. He was sent to Constanti- 
 
MODERN EUROPE. 
 
 247 
 
 nople, where he was first exposed to the execration and 
 contempt of the populace, and then deprived of his head 
 like a common malefactor. Ibrahim is remembered as the 
 scourge of Arabia and the curse of Derayeh. His father, 
 in a moment of pag^ion against the Wahabees, had threat- 
 ened to destroy their city so that one stone of it should not 
 be left upon another, — a menace which was executed to the 
 fullest extent. The inhabitants who escaped the sword 
 were chased into the desert, where many of them must have 
 perished ; meantime the pasha returned in triumph to 
 Cairo in the manner described by Sir F. Henniker. 
 
 But the severity of Ibrahim did not put an end to the 
 Wahabite reformation, nor to the spirit of resistance by 
 which its abetters were animated. On the contrary, the 
 war was renewed in 1824 with as much ferocity as ever, 
 and apparently with increased means on the part of the in- 
 surgents of bringing it to a successful issue. It was pro- 
 tracted during the three following years with alternate 
 advantage ; having been, during the latter portion of that 
 interval, allowed to slumber, owing to the struggle made by 
 the Greeks in the Morea to recover their liberty. The par- 
 ticulars of the several campaigns are given with consider- 
 able minuteness by Planat, who held an office under the 
 viceroy of Egypt, and who took upon himself to write the 
 history of the “ Regeneration” which that remarkable per- 
 sonage has effected in the kingdom of the Pharaohs. 
 Suffice it to observe that it was in a succession of battles 
 with the Wahabees that Mohammed Ali first derived 
 advantage from his improved system of tactics. His in- 
 fantry, disciplined by French officers and instructed in the 
 European method of moving large masses in the field, 
 proved decidedly superior in every conflict where the nature 
 of the ground permitted a military evolution.* 
 
 It may be inferred from the statement just made that the 
 viceroy was not deterred by the tumult at Cairo from 
 resuming at a proper time the plan he had already matured 
 for introducing into his army the drill of modern Europe. 
 Aware of the obstinacy which characterizes the Albanians, 
 
 * Histoire de la Regeneration de 1’Egypte, &c. Par Jules Planat, 
 ancien Officior de l’Artillerie de la Garde Imperiale, et chef d’Etat-major 
 au service du Pacha d’Egypte. Gendve, 1830, p. 238. 
 
248 
 
 CIVIL HISTORY OF 
 
 he left them to be shamed out of their awkward and inef- 
 ficient system by witnessing the improvement of the other 
 troops ; resolving to put his experiment to the test on the 
 Fellahs of Egypt, and on the still more unsophisticated 
 natives of Sennaar and Kordofan. With this view, as well 
 as to reduce the remoter provinces of the upper country to 
 his obedience, he fitted out, in 1820, an expedition which 
 he placed under the command of his son Ishmael, whom he 
 charged with instructions for accomplishing the double pur- 
 pose now stated. The success of the young general fulfilled 
 the expectations of Mohammed Ali. Thousands of captives 
 were sent from the conquered districts to the neighbourhood 
 of Es Souan, where they were formed into battalions, and 
 subjected to all the restraint and fatigue of European dis- 
 cipline. 
 
 We are told that these unhappy beings were in the first 
 place vaccinated, and that, as soon as they recovered from 
 this factitious distemper, they were put into the hands of 
 French officers to be instructed in the manual exercise and 
 other military arts, according to the latest institutions of the 
 Buonapartean school. The hopes of the pasha were at first 
 greatly disappointed in these black troops. They were in- 
 deed strong and able-bodied, and not averse from being 
 taught ; but when attacked by disease, which soon broke 
 out in the camp, they died like sheep infected with the rot. 
 The medical men ascribed the mortality to moral rather 
 than to physical causes. . It appeared in numerous in- 
 stances, that having been snatched away from their houses 
 and families, they were even anxious to get rid of life ; and 
 so numerous were the deaths which ensued, that out of 
 20,000 of these unfortunate persons, three thousand did 
 not remain alive at the end of two years. 
 
 But nothing could shake the determination of the viceroy. 
 He placed five hundred faithful Mamlouks under the charge 
 of Colonel Seve, formerly aid-de-camp to Marshal Ney, 
 who were trained to fulfil the duties of officers. As the 
 blacks, for the reasons already mentioned, were found unfit 
 for this laborious service, he impressed, according to the 
 rules of a national conscription, about thirty thousand 
 Arabs and peasants, whom he sent under a military guard 
 to Upper Egypt. Planat informs us, that in 1827 twelve 
 regiments were organized, tolerably well clothed in a plain 
 
MODERN EGYPT. 
 
 249 
 
 uniform, and armed after the manner of European soldiers ; 
 and as it is intended that every regiment shall consist of 
 five battalions of eight hundred men, the military establish- 
 ment, in infantry alone, will amount to about fifty thousand. 
 There are, besides, several corps of cavalry, artillery, and 
 even marines ; which last are stationed at Alexandria, to 
 serve on board the ships of war whenever it may be neces- 
 sary to meet an enemy at sea. 
 
 The colonels of regiments are extremely well paid, 
 having allowances which amount to not less than 1500Z. 
 a-year. Their dress, too, is very rich, consisting of red 
 cloth, covered with gold lace, and a cluster of diamonds, in 
 the form of a half-moon, on each breast. Over this they 
 wear, on state occasions, a scarlet pelisse, which fastens 
 over the body with two large clasps of gold set with eme- 
 ralds. Their upper dress is closed with a sash ; and the 
 Turkish full trousers have given way to a more convenient 
 habiliment, which is tied under the knee, and fitted to the 
 legs like gaiters. The pay of the non-commissioned officers 
 is likewise ample ; and that of the men eighteen piasters a 
 month, with full rations of good provisions, and their cloth- 
 ing. They are now content, and even attached to the 
 service ; while a considerable spirit of emulation prevails 
 among them, excited in a great measure by the impartial 
 manner in which promotion ffom the ranks is bestowed, 
 according to the merit of the candidates. It is worthy of 
 notice, too, that the men are no longer liable to arbitrary 
 punishment. Every one committing a fault must be tried 
 before he can be bastinadoed, and generally some other 
 penalty is inflicted, such as confinement, degradation, or 
 hard labour. The officers, again, when they forget their 
 duty or their character, are placed under arrest ; and even 
 the viceroy himself does not pretend to decide as to their 
 guilt, but leaves the result to the award of justice, regulated 
 by martial law. 
 
 The superiority of troops prepared for the field according 
 to the European method was, as we have already stated, 
 most distinctly manifested in the several campaigns which 
 they served against the Wahabees, — a circumstance which 
 afforded to the viceroy a degree of delight almost beyond 
 expression. This first step in the improvement of an art, 
 valuable above all others to a governor placed in the cir- 
 
250 
 
 CIVIL HISTORY OF 
 
 curastances which he occupied, was due almost entirely to 
 Colonel Seve, whose name has been already mentioned. 
 This able officer encountered much opposition from the bar- 
 barians whom he was appointed to superintend ; but, with 
 the tact which belongs to a man who has inspected society 
 in all its forms, he subdued the ferocity of the savage by 
 assuming a tone more commanding than that of mere ani- 
 mal courage. The Mamlouks were occasionally so discon- 
 tented as to threaten his life ; but he never lost his firm- 
 ness ; and, by offering to meet single-handed those who 
 conspired against his authority, he gained the respect 
 which is always lavished by untutored minds upon fearless 
 hardihood, and at length became a favourite among all 
 classes of the military. Planat tells us, that on one occa- 
 sion, when a volley was fired, a ball whizzed past the ear 
 of Seve. Without the slightest emotion, he commanded 
 the party to reload their pieces. “You are very bad 
 marksmen,” he exclaimed ; — “ Make ready, — fire !” They 
 fired, but no ball was heard: the self-possession of the 
 Frenchman disarmed their resentment ; they thought him 
 worthy of admiration ; and at length were ready to ac- 
 knowledge that in point of acquirement and professional 
 experience he was decidedly a better man than them- 
 selves.* He afterward fell while serving in Greece. 
 
 Great merit was unquestionably due to this officer for 
 the reformation which he had effected in the viceroy’s 
 army ; but beyond this we cannot speak of him without 
 the strongest expressions of contempt and detestation, it 
 being universally known that he had adopted the religion 
 of Mohammed, — soothing and cloaking his degradation 
 with the name of Suliman Bey, and under the title of Mir- 
 allai, or commander of four thousand. He received his 
 pelisse and his advancement on the morning of Christmas- 
 day, — as if he had expressly intended to insult the faith 
 which he hadjust renounced, — a sacrifice on his part which, 
 however trifling it might appear, would not exalt him in 
 the eyes of his new sovereign, who has never required any 
 of his Christian servants to change their creed. 
 
 The invasion of the upper provinces by the army under 
 the command of Ishmael, belongs to the history of Nubia 
 
 * Histoire de la Regeneration, p. 28. 
 
MODERN EGYPT. 
 
 251 
 
 rather than to that of Egypt ; for which reason we shall not 
 enter into its details at present farther than to state, that 
 owing to an insult inflicted upon one of the native chiefs, 
 this favourite son of Mohammed Ali was cut off by a most 
 miserable death. The cottage in which he and his per- 
 sonal attendants had taken up their quarters was sur- 
 rounded with a mass of combustible materials, and burnt 
 to the ground ; no one escaping through the flames except 
 the physician, who was reserved for more protracted suffer- 
 ing. Ibrahim, the conqueror of Derayeh, avenged in some 
 degree the murder of his brother, and even extended the 
 dominion of the Egyptian arms into districts which neither 
 the Persians nor the Romans had ventured to penetrate. 
 But the affairs of Greece* which began to occupy the full 
 attention of the Porte,- supplied a new theatre for the mili- 
 tary talent of his lieutenant, who, at the command of his 
 father, withdrew his troops from the deserts of Dongola 
 and Kordofan to transport them to the more sanguinary 
 fields of the Morea. 
 
 As it belongs not to this narrative to record even inci- 
 dentally the events of the war to which we have just re- 
 ferred, we shall conclude this chapter with a brief outline 
 of the character of that remarkable person who at present 
 fills the viceregal throne of Egypt, and whose genius seems 
 destined to accomplish a greater change on the condition 
 of that country than has been effected by conquest or 
 revolution since the days of Alexander the Great. 
 
 Perhaps the actions of this ruler are the best expression 
 of his views and feelings, and might alone be appealed to 
 as a proof of an elevated and aspiring mind, still clouded 
 indeed with some of the darkest shades of his original bar- 
 barism, and not unfrequently impelled by the force of pas- 
 sions which are never allowed to disturb the tranquillity of 
 civilized life. He is now about sixty years of age, rather 
 short in stature, with a high forehead and aquiline nose, 
 and altogether possessing tin expression of countenance 
 which shows him to be no ordinary man. His dress is 
 usually very plain ; the only expense which he allows him- 
 self in matters connected with his person being lavished 
 upon his arms, some of which are studded with diamonds. 
 Like Buonaparte, his outward appearance seems to have 
 changed considerably with the progress of his years ; for 
 
252 
 
 CIVIL HISTORY OF 
 
 although, when between thirty and forty, he was described 
 by a British traveller as “of a slender make, sallow com- 
 plexion, and under the middle size,” he is reported by the 
 latest visiters to have become “ thick-set,” and somewhat 
 full in the figure. 
 
 “ On our arrival being announced,” says an author whom 
 we have already quoted, “ we were immediately ushered 
 into his presence, and found him sitting on the corner of 
 the divan, surrounded by his officers and men, who were 
 standing at a respectful distance. He received us sitting, 
 but in the most gracious manner, and placed the Earl of 
 Belmore and Mr. Salt upon his left-hand, and his lordship’s 
 two sons and myself at the top of the room on his right. 
 The interpreter stood, as well as the officers and soldiers, 
 who remained in the room during the whole time of the 
 visit. He began the conversation by welcoming us to Cairo, 
 and prayed that God might preserve us, and grant us pros- 
 perity. He then inquired of the noble traveller how long 
 he had been from England, and what was the object of his 
 journey to Egypt ; to all which he received satisfactory 
 answers. His highness next adverted to the prospect 
 before him, the Nile, the grain-covered fields, the Pyramids 
 of Djizeh, the bright sun, and the cloudless sky, and re- 
 marked, with a certain triumphant humour on his lip, that 
 England offered no such prospect to the eye of the spectator.” 
 
 He was told that the scenery of England was very fine. 
 “ How can that be, he shortly rejoined, seeing you are 
 steeped in rain and fog three quarters of the year. — He 
 next turned the conversation to Mr. Leslie’s elegant experi- 
 ment of freezing water in the vacuum of an air-pump ; 
 which he had never seen but admired prodigiously in de- 
 scription, and seemed to anticipate with great satisfaction a 
 glass of lemonade and iced water for himself and Triends, 
 as the happiest result of the discovery. Talking of his 
 lordship’s intended voyage up the Nile, he politely offered 
 to render every possible facility ; cautioning him at the 
 same time to keep a sharp lookout among the Arabs, who, 
 he believed, would not take any thing from him or his party 
 by violence, but would certainly steal if they found an op- 
 portunity of doing it without the risk of detection. He then 
 related a number of anecdotes, touching the petty larcenies 
 of that most thievish race ; some of which were by no 
 
MODERN EGYPT. 
 
 253 
 
 means without contrivance or dexterity. But the one 
 which seemed to amuse both himself and his friends the 
 most was that of a traveller, who, when eating his dinner, 
 laid down Ills spoon to reach for a piece of bread, and by 
 the time he brought back his hand the spoon was away ; 
 the knife and fork soon shared the same fate ; and the un- 
 fortunate stranger was at length reduced to the sad neces- 
 sity of tearing his meat, and lifting it with his fingers and 
 thumb, like the Arabs themselves. Many persons were 
 near, but no one saw the theft committed ; and all search 
 for the recovery of the property was in vain. — We now 
 took leave of the viceroy, leaving him in the greatest good- 
 humour ; he said we might go every where, and see every 
 thing we wished, and that he hoped to have the pleasure 
 of seeing us again.”* 
 
 In reference to the freezing experiment, we may mention 
 that Mohammed Ali, very soon after the visit now de- 
 scribed, obtained from England, through Mr. Salt, the 
 requisite apparatus. The machine on its arrival was con- 
 veyed to his palace, and some Nile water was procured for 
 the purpose. He hung over the whole operation with in- 
 tense curiosity ; and when, after several disappointments, a 
 piece of real ice was produced, he took it eagerly in his 
 hand, and danced round the room for joy like a child, and 
 then ran into the harem to show it to his wives. f 
 
 No one has attempted to conceal that there is in the tem- 
 per of Mohammed Ali, intermingled with many good quali- 
 ties, a deep tincture of barbarism and fierceness. Impatient 
 of opposition, and even of delay, he occasionally gives him- 
 self up to the most violent bursts of passion ; and in such 
 moments there is hardly any cruelty which he will not per- 
 petrate or command. For instance, some time ago he had 
 ordered that the dollar should pass for a fixed number of 
 piasters, and it was mentioned in his presence that the rate 
 was not strictly followed. His highness expressed some 
 doubt of the fact, when the head interpreter carelessly ob- 
 served that a Jew broker, whom he named, had a few days 
 before exchanged dollars for him at the rate asserted. — “ Let 
 him be hanged immediately,” exclaimed the pasha ! The 
 
 * Richardson’s Travels, vol. i. p. 101. 
 
 t Carne’s Letters from the East. vol. i. p. 80. 
 
 Y 
 
254 
 
 CIVIL HISTORY OF 
 
 interpreter, an old and favourite servant, threw himself at his 
 sovereign’s feet, deprecating his own folly, and imploring 
 pardon for the wretched culprit. But all intercession was 
 in vain ; the viceroy said his orders must not be disregarded, 
 and the unfortunate Jew was instantly led to his death.* 
 
 We find proofs of a similar sally at Djidda, where he 
 appears to have used his own hands to inflict a punishment 
 which he thought inexpedient to remit. Hoseyn Aga, the 
 agent for the East India Company, resident in that town, 
 was, says a recent traveller, a remarkably fine-looking man, 
 displaying an air of dignity mixed with hauteur ; hand- 
 somely clad, too, though the heavy folds of his muslin tur- 
 ban were studiously drawn over his right eye to conceal the 
 loss of it, — for Mohammed Ali one day in a fit of rage 
 pulled it out ! Yet these men are friends, — great friends 
 just at present, and will remain so as long as it may be 
 convenient and agreeable to both parties to consider each 
 other in that light. t 
 
 But the master of Egypt is not at all times so ferocious. 
 For example, when Mrs. Lushington was at Alexandria, 
 intelligence was brought to him that a small fort at the en- 
 trance of the harbour had been taken possession of by cer- 
 tain Franks, and that the Turks belonging' to it had been 
 made prisoners. Some consternation prevailed among his 
 people ; but instead of being angry he laughed heartily, 
 and swearing by his two eyes, — his favourite oath, — that 
 they must be English sailors, he directed his interpreter to 
 write to their captain, to order his men on board ship again. 
 Upon inquiry it proved as the pasha had anticipated ; the 
 men had landed, got drunk, and crowned their liberty by 
 seizing on the fort, and confining the unfortunate Turks, 
 who, indolently smoking their pipes, never could have an- 
 ticipated such an attack in time of profound peace. He 
 evinced equal self-command, and still more magnanimity, 
 when he first heard of the event which destroyed his infant 
 navy and humbled his power. We allude to the battle of 
 Navarino. He had not 'finished the perusal of the unwel- 
 come despatches, when he desired a European consul to 
 assure his countrymen and all the other Franks that they 
 
 * Narrative of a Journey from Calcutta to Europe, p. 179. 
 
 t Journey Overland, vol. i. p. 306. 
 
MODERN EGYPT. 255 
 
 should not be molested, and that they might pursue their 
 wonted occupations in perfect security. 
 
 Among the ships lying in the harbour was the. wreck of 
 one of the pasha’s own vessels. The captain had com- 
 mitted some crime which was represented by his crew to 
 the viceroy, who ordered him immediately on shore to 
 answer his accusers. Knowing his guilt he pretended sick- 
 ness, till a second message from the same quarter left him 
 no alternative ; and unable longer to evade his fate, he sent 
 all his crew ashore, and calling to an old and faithful ser- 
 vant, the only person on board, he bade him jump out of 
 the port into the sea ; at the same time, having loaded two 
 pistols, he fired into the magazine, and blew up the ship 
 and himself together. When the story was related to the 
 pasha, he said, “These are Frank customs ; this is dying 
 like an Englishman !”* 
 
 There is something characteristic in the following notice 
 by Sir F. Henniker, who remarks, that the pasha appeared 
 to him to have a vulgar, low-born face, but a commanding, 
 intelligent eye. “ He received us in the court-yard, seated 
 on a sofa, and wielding a pipe, dressed like a private indi- 
 vidual, as Turks of real consequence generally are, except- 
 ing on gala days. The vice-consul and myself sat down 
 on the sofa with him* Pipes are not offered except to 
 equals ; coffee served up, — no sugar, even though the pasha 
 himself has a manufactory of that article, — the attendants 
 ordered to -withdraw ; no pride, no affectation, even though 
 the pasha is an upstart. Remained nearly an hour dis- 
 coursing on English horses, military force, the emerald 
 mines at Cosseir, his son’s victory over the Wahabees, and 
 his expected triumphal entry. ”f 
 
 It is generally stated, that since Mohammed Ali has felt 
 himself secure in the pashalic he has ceased to be cruel. 
 Seldom now does he take away life, and never with torture ; 
 and if his subordinate officers were as well disposed as him- 
 self, the people, notwithstanding the oppressive taxes, 
 would feel their property more secure. One instance of 
 his prompt justice excited much astonishment ; although a 
 slower and more regular method would not, it is probable, 
 in a nation so completely disorganized, have produced an 
 
 * Narrative, p. 191. 
 
 + Notes, p. 63, 
 
256 
 
 CIVIL HISTORY OF 
 
 equal effect. A cachief who had not been long accustomed 
 to the government of the viceroy punished one of his own 
 servants with death. He was called before Mohammed, 
 who asked him by what authority he had committed this 
 outrage. He thought it enough to urge in his defence that 
 the man was his own servant. True, retorted the pasha, 
 but he was my subject ; and, in the same breath, passed 
 sentence that the culprit should be immediately beheaded, 
 — an effectual warning to the rest of the grandees present. 
 This act of severity has saved the lives of many of the 
 Arabs, who, in former times, were sacrificed by their Turkish 
 masters on the most trifling pretences. 
 
 In short, Mohammed is well spoken of by most European 
 travellers, though in general they estimate his character by 
 too high a standard, — the principles and habits of their 
 own countries. There is only one author whose impression 
 was rather unfavourable : — “ I sat in the divan,” says he, 
 “ with my eyes fixed on him ; I wanted to examine the 
 countenance of a man who had realized in our day one of 
 those scenes in history which, when we have perused it, 
 always compels us to lay down the book and recover our- 
 selves. There he sat, — a quick eye, features common, nose 
 bad, a grizzled beard, looking much more than fifty, and 
 having the worn complexion of that period of life. They 
 tell you he is not sanguinary ; men grow tired of shedding 
 blood as well as of other pleasures ; but if the cutting off a 
 head would drop gold into his coffers, he would not be slow 
 to give the signal. His laugh has nothing in it of nature ; 
 how can it have 1 I hear it now,— a hard, sharp laugh, 
 such as that with which strong heartless men would 
 divide booty torn from the feeble. I leave him to his ad- 
 mirers.”* 
 
 “ In the usages of the table,” says Mr. Came, “ he is 
 still an Osmanli ; knives, forks, and other useful append- 
 ages never make their appearance at his meals. About 
 five years ago some English travellers were graciously 
 received by. him, and pressingly invited to dine. But not 
 even in compliance with the taste of his guests would he 
 depart from his own habits ; for, wishing to show a noble 
 lady particular attention, he took a large piece of meat in 
 
 Scenes and Impressions, p. 176. 
 
MODERN EGYPT. 
 
 257 
 
 his hand, and politely placed it before her. Perfectly dis- 
 mayed at the compliment, and the sight of the savoury 
 morsel which rested on her plate, she turned to her com- 
 panion, who was more used to oriental manners, and 
 earnestly asked what she was to do. ‘ Eat it to be sure,’ 
 was the reply. She looked at the pasha ; his fine dark eye 
 seemed to rest on her with a most kind and complacent 
 expression ; and there was no help for it but to follow 
 the excellent advice given her by her more experienced 
 friend.”* 
 
 That Mohammed Ali is a despot, and even in some 
 respects a barbarian, cannot be denied ; but there is, not- 
 withstanding, in all his institutions so much of wisdom and 
 patriotism that he unquestionably deserves to occupy a high 
 place among those adventurers who have so well profited by 
 revolutions as to place themselves on a throne. His am- 
 bition, though dishonoured by the means which he has 
 occasionally found it necessary to adopt, is, upon the whole, 
 of the right kind, and has all along been directed to the 
 promotion of the national welfare rather than to his own 
 personal aggrandizement. If he has died his hands in 
 blood, it has been in that of the worst enemies of Egypt ; 
 and if he has in numerous cases had recourse to arbitrary 
 government, his object, it must be acknowledged, has ever 
 been the security and improvement of the distracted country 
 over which it has been his lot to preside. 
 
 * Recollections of the East, p. 288 
 
 y 3 
 
258 
 
 ACTUAL STATE OF EGYPT 
 
 CHAPTER VIIi. 
 
 The Actual State of Egypt under the Government of 
 Mohammed Ali. 
 
 Nature of Innovations — Members of Government — Household — Tenure 
 of Land — Resumption of it by the Pasha — Condition of the People — 
 Army — Military Schools — European Arts — Canal of Mahmoudieh — 
 Introduction of Cotton Manufactures — Exportation of the raw Material 
 to England — Fear of Plague— Silk, Flax, Sugar — Monopoly of Vice- 
 roy — Disadvantages of it — Caravans — Imports and Exports — Revenue 
 and Expenditure — Population — Copts, Arabs, Turks, Greeks, Jews, and 
 Syrians — Characteristics — Cairo —Houses— Citadel— Joseph’s Well, 
 Joseph's Hall -Necropolis— Tombs— Mosques — Palace at Shoubra — 
 Splendid Pavilion— Comparison, of Egypt before and under the 
 Government of Mohammed Ali— Future Prospects under his Suc- 
 cessor. 
 
 In a country where the administration of law depends 
 almost entirely upon the character of an individual, and 
 where at the same time the nomination to the supreme 
 authority is usually determined by intrigue or in the field 
 of battle, the mere form of government cannot be of very 
 much consequence. But the sagacity of the present ruler 
 of Egypt, who is aware of the influence exerted on the 
 minds of men by custom and the use of certain modes of 
 speech, has dictated to him the expediency of innovating 
 less in the outward structure of the constitution than in 
 those internal parts whence all real power is derived, and 
 by means of which it is diffused to the remotest extremity 
 of the vast province of which he has assumed the command. 
 Although virtually independent, he has hitherto continued 
 a formal acknowledgment of that superiority which belongs 
 to the head of the Ottoman empire ; and while he wields 
 the sceptre with as little restriction as the most arbitrary 
 of oriental despots, he carefully preserves the appearance 
 of only sharing with others the portion of a delegated 
 authority. 
 
 The administration is in the hands of the following offi- 
 cers : — 1st, The Kiaya Bey, who may be called the prime 
 
UNDER MOHAMMED ALI. 
 
 259 
 
 minister ; 2d, The Aga of the Janizaries, or chief of the 
 war department ; 3d, The Ouali, or head of the military 
 police ; 4th, The Mohtesib, or superintendent of the markets ; 
 and, 5th, The Bash-aga, or master of the civil police. In 
 every district there is also a headsman, who is authorized 
 to determine differences by arbitration, and watch over the 
 peace and good order of his neighbourhood. All fees have 
 been abolished, and competent salaries are appointed ; and 
 so effectually are these duties performed that the streets of 
 Cairo are as safe as those of London, except on occasions, 
 now almost never known, when the military break loose for 
 want of pay, or to revenge themselves for some professional 
 grievance. All criminal prosecutions are settled by a cadi 
 or judge, who is sent annually from Constantinople, and 
 assisted by a number of sheiks, or others learned in the law. 
 A civil process is stated to cost four per cent, of the value 
 in dispute ; of which th'e cadi takes four-fifths to himself, 
 and gives one-fifth to the lawyers who have aided him in the 
 decision. 
 
 Besides the public officers now mentioned, there are 
 others attached to the household of the viceroy, such as the 
 treasurer, the sword-bearer, the inspector of provisions, 
 the commandant of the citadel, and the superintendent of 
 customs and excise, who in Egypt act under the immediate 
 direction of the head of the government. There is also a 
 body-guard, consisting of four hundred Mamlouks, to which 
 may be added six hundred gentlemen of the privy chamber, 
 as they are called, or yeomen of the palace. Including all 
 the subordinate functionaries in the civil and military depart- 
 ments, the domestic establishment of the pasha comprehends 
 not fewer than fifteen hundred individuals. 
 
 So numerous and rapid are the changes to which Egypt 
 has been subjected under a succession of dynasties, and 
 even of foreign conquerors, that it is extremely difficult to 
 ascertain on what tenure the land was held, in the early 
 ages of the monarchy, by the persons who devoted their 
 labour and capital to its cultivation. We know that the 
 Pharaoh who reigned in the days of Joseph transferred to 
 the crown a large portion of it, by supplying to the famished 
 peasantry a quantity of corn in return for their fields ; and 
 hence we may infer, that, prior to the date at which this 
 
260 
 
 ACTUAL STATE OF JKGYFT 
 
 transaction took place, a distinct property in the soil was 
 recognised by the Egyptian sovereigns. But during the 
 long interval which has elapsed since the Macedonian con- 
 quest, it is probable that the territorial domain was occupied 
 upon conditions similar to those which were implied in 
 the ancient system of fiefs at one time universal through- 
 out Europe, — a certain portion of the annual produce 
 being made payable to him whose sword, or whose influ- 
 ence with the monarch, had procured to him the feudal 
 superiority. 
 
 Before the accession of Mohammed Ali, the representa- 
 tive of the sultan was satisfied with a miri, or land-tax, 
 according to the quality and other advantages of the soil, 
 and had even acknowledged in some of the occupants a 
 right almost equivalent to that of a permanent owner. The 
 present viceroy, however, has taken into his own hands the 
 greater part of the territorial possessions ; granting, in 
 name of compensation, a yearly pension for life to the 
 several moultezims, or proprietors, whom he has thus de- 
 prived, but leaving to them nothing which they can bequeath 
 to their children or heirs. The lands which Mohammed 
 has seized in the way now described belonged, generally 
 speaking, to the Mamlouks, whom except in their capacity 
 of soldiers he wishes to extirpate ; 2dly, To certain estab- 
 lishments for feeding the poor, or for supporting mosques, 
 fountains, public schools, and other national charities ; and, 
 finally, to the ancient class of feuars in whose management 
 or principles he could not be induced to repose a sufficient 
 degree of confidence. But it is added, that even the owners 
 of those lands which have not yet beeli seized are not 
 masters of their crops ; they cannot dispose of any part of 
 them until the agents of government have taken what por- 
 tion they may think proper at their own price ; and, in 
 place of the established miri, all the families attached to 
 the court are served with agricultural produce at half its 
 value, while the pasha regulates the price of all that can be 
 spared for exportation. Such a system will fully explain 
 the observation of M. Mengin, that “the traveller sees with 
 astonishment the richness of the harvests contrasted with 
 the wretched state of the villages and that, “ if it be true 
 that there is no country more abundant in its territorial pro- 
 
UNDER MOHAMMED ALI. 261 
 
 Auctions, there is none perhaps whose inhabitants upon the 
 whole are more miserable.”* 
 
 As to the agricultural labourers, or Fellahs, the innovations 
 of the pasha have probably left them in nearly the same 
 state in which, as far as history goes, they appear always 
 to have been, with the additional disadvantage, if such it 
 must be esteemed, of submitting to the military conscrip- 
 tion. But perhaps, although in appearance the most tyran- 
 nical measure that Mohammed has enforced in the progress 
 of his regeneration, the establishment of a regular army is 
 not an evil cff an unmixed nature. Heretofore the sword 
 has been exclusively in the hands of foreigners, originally 
 slaves of the most degraded caste, and afterward the most 
 iaughty and insatiable of masters ; while at present the 
 latives are taught the use of arms ; are permitted to rise in 
 the service according to a scale of merit ; and are, in short, 
 put in possession of means whereby they may protect their 
 own rights against the avarice of the Turks and the inso- 
 ence of the Mamlouks. 
 
 We have already stated, on the authority of the latest 
 work which has been published on Egypt, that the pasha 
 has formed twelve regiments of infantry, consisting each- 
 of five battalions, and including, when on the war estab- 
 lishment, forty-eight thousand men.f. We presume that 
 he has hitherto satisfied himself with little more than half 
 that number of foot-soldiers, — a large proportion of whom 
 are drawn from the Arab population, and even from the con- 
 quered districts of Sennaar and Kordofan. Planat, who 
 held a high office in the viceroy’s staff, speaks highly of the 
 negroes in point of bodily strength, faithfulness, and sobriety, 
 while he ascribes all the difficulties which were encountered 
 by the Europeans appointed to introduce the new disci- 
 pline to the apathy, the self-conceit, and religious preju- 
 dices of the higher order of Turks. But so far as we con- 
 sider the condition of the people at large, who are thus 
 
 * Histoire de l’Egypte sous le Gouvernement de Mohammed Ali, &c. 
 &c. Par M. Felix Mengin. 
 
 t In 1826, Planat informs us that six regiments were fully equipped, 
 amounting in all to 24,000. L’arm£e se forma alors par regimens, de 
 cinq bataillons ( hacun, & 800 hommes par bataillon, ce qui donnait un 
 effectif de 24,000 hommes. Les six regimens requrent leurs nunieros 
 let eurs drapeaux. R£g£n6ration de 1’Egypte, p. 39. 
 
262 
 
 ACTUAL STATE OF EGYPT 
 
 rendered liable to be called from their mud hovels to the 
 camp, the improvement in food and clothing seems no inade- 
 quate compensation for the precarious liberty of which they 
 are temporally deprived. 
 
 To complete his arrangements, the pasha has founded 
 several military schools, in which young persons of all 
 classes, especially from among the Arabs, are instructed in 
 mathematics, fortification, gunnery, foreign languages, and 
 in the principles of European tactics. An extensive arsenal 
 is established in Cairo, where cannon are cast, muskets 
 fabricated, and gunpowder manufactured in great abun- 
 dance. The latest inventions are imported from France 
 and England; the most expensive apparatus and instru- 
 ments are purchased ; the mysteries of gas, and steam, and 
 lithography are subjects of familiar study in the Egyptian 
 capital, encouraged by the viceroy, and patronised by his 
 court. 
 
 Mrs. Lushington visited the military college in Cairo, 
 where she found masters in all the different branches of 
 art and science which are deemed subservient to the pro- 
 fession of a soldier. “ Besides these professors there were 
 other instructers, chiefly Italians, who, in addition to their 
 own language, taught Arabic, Turkish, and French, as also 
 botany and arithmetic. Of the pupils three hundred were 
 military conscripts, one hundred and fifty Greek slaves, and 
 the rest Turkish boys from Roumelia, and many Egyptians, 
 who w r ere either Mamlouks or slaves of the pasha. These 
 were divided into classes of sixty or a hundred each, every 
 class under aninstructer and subordinate monitors. Besides 
 the mathematical students, twenty were learning Persian, 
 a great many French and Italian, and the whole were taught 
 to read and write Turkish and Arabic. Of the fourteen 
 hundred boys of which the college consists, five hundred 
 are boarders, and the rest are day-scholars ; all appeared 
 healthy, clean, and well clothed. 
 
 “ The munificence of the pasha allots above six thousand 
 dollars a month to the maintenance of this seminary ; which, 
 though a small sum when compared with what would be 
 the expenses of a similar establishment in England, is ade- 
 quate to its purpose in a country where the necessaries of 
 life are both cheap and abundant. The lithographic and 
 printing presses next engaged our attention. They wero 
 
UNDER MOHAMMED ALI. 
 
 263 
 
 apparently well conducted, under the management of a 
 Druse, a native of Mount Lebanon, a young man of polite 
 manners, lively and intelligent, and one of the many who 
 had been sent by the pasha to Europe for education. I saw 
 printing in all its branches, from the formation of the letters 
 to the completion of a book. The works already printed 
 were, a ‘ Turkish History’ by an officer of th& grand vizier ; 
 ‘ Correspondence between the Pasha and the Porte a 
 translation in Turkish of some French authors on military 
 and naval gunnery ; the Persian poem called Goolistan ; 
 and some grammars. The presses were made under the 
 superintendence of this Druse, but the paper was of Euro- 
 pean manufacture.”* 
 
 Having experienced much difficulty, and several disap- 
 pointments, as long as he was obliged to employ foreigners 
 in his different undertakings, the pasha perseveres in the 
 scheme, which he adopted some years ago, of sending 
 young men of talent to Italy, France, and England, to study 
 the respective arts of these enlightened countries. Several 
 of his pupils have visited London and other parts of Great 
 Britain, where they endeavoured to make themselves 
 acquainted with every mechanical pursuit or ingenious in- 
 vention that was likely to give pleasure to their sovereign, 
 and to benefit their native land. At the present time, be- 
 sides some small colonies stationed at Genoa and Leghorn, 
 there are about forty individuals in Paris, under the direction 
 of Messrs. Jomard and Agoub, learning various branches 
 of science, the liberal arts, and even the outlines of Euro- 
 pean literature. 
 
 It is sometimes a misfortune for a man to live in advance 
 of his age, and we accordingly find that the pasha is not 
 only far from being popular, but that he is disliked by the 
 more influential classes of his subjects on account of his 
 
 * Narrative of a Journey, p. 171. This college, we believe, is at Boulak, 
 the port of Cairo, and not within the walls of the city. We were struck 
 with a remark made by the pasha when visiting one^ of his military 
 schools. Addressing the young officers, whom he exhorted to redouble 
 their zeal and perseverance as the first difficulties were already over- 
 come, he said, “ If I had any influence in heaven, 1 should work miracles 
 in your behalf; but I am nothing more than a man, and can only give 
 you salaries.” “ Si j’avais du credit dans le ciel, je ferais pour vous des 
 miracles ; mais je ne suis qu’un homme, je ne puis vous offrir que des 
 salaires.” Planat, p. 181 . 
 
264 
 
 ACTUAL STATE OF EGYPT 
 
 most meritorious exertions. The indulgence, for example, 
 which he grants to religious sects of every denomination; 
 the use of the vaccine discovery as well as of other surgical 
 practices borrowed from Europe ; and, above all, the school 
 of anatomy recently founded, which creates a necessity for 
 human subjects even in addition to the waxen models which 
 he has procured from Italy, are innovations highly dis- 
 agreeable to the bigoted Mussulmans. In fact, they perceive 
 that he is a Turk only to his own countrymen, with whom 
 he is rigidly strict ; while to all others he displays a degree 
 of liberality to which they are disposed to give the name 
 of dishonesty or indifference. 
 
 His labours are somewhat better appreciated when they 
 are directed to the embellishment of mosques, the decora- 
 tion of fountains and reservoirs, or to the erection of a 
 colonnade of white marble in honour of a patron saint. 
 But whatever may be thought of his conduct at home, he 
 has every where else obtained great praise for his indefati- 
 gable exertions in opening the ancient canals, which had 
 been closed up for centuries, and in digging new ones, in 
 order to promote the safety as well as the extension of 
 commerce. Among these is particularly deserving of notice 
 the cut which connects the harbour of Alexandria with the 
 Nile, near Fouah, — a magnificent work, forty-eight miles 
 in length, ninety feet broad, and about eighteen in depth, 
 and supplying the means for bringing the whole produce 
 of the country, without danger or interruption, to the port 
 of shipment. In the winter of 1817, we are told, when a 
 scarcity of grain prevailed all over Europe, vessels flocked 
 to Egypt, where there was abundance ; but owing to the 
 bar at the mouth of the Nile near Rosetta, and the tem- 
 pestuous weather along the coast, none of it could be con- 
 veyed in time to Alexandria. Hence, of the ships which 
 had assembled, above three hundred in number, some at 
 length went away in ballast, and others with half cargoes, — 
 a circumstance which occasioned not only a very heavy loss 
 to the owners, but endless disputes among the agents and 
 merchants. It was then that the advantages of a navigable 
 canal were urged upon the pasha, who resolved to engage 
 immediately in the arduous undertaking. 
 
 In pursuance of this object, all the labouring classes of 
 Lower Egypt were put in requisition, and a month’s pay 
 
UNDER MOHAMMED ALI. 
 
 265 
 
 advanced to them to provide necessaries. To each village 
 and district was allotted, as to the Roman legions of old, 
 the extent of work which they were expected to perform. 
 The Arabs were marched down in multitudes, under their 
 respective chiefs, along the line of the intended canal ; and 
 it has been confidently stated, on good authority, that the 
 number employed at one time amounted to upwards of two 
 hundred and fifty thousand men. In little more than six 
 weeks the whole excavation w-as completed, and the mass 
 of the people returned home to their respective habitations ; 
 but, in the autumn, a few thousands were called upon to face 
 parts of the bank with masonry, and to make the whole 
 navigable for vessels of considerable burden. The canal, 
 named Nahmoudieh, was opened with great pomp on the 
 7th December, 1819, and promises to confer a great benefit 
 on the natives themselves as well as on the foreign mer- 
 chant who sends ships to their port. 
 
 It has been stated by more than one of the late writers 
 on Egypt, that twenty thousand labourers fell a sacrifice to 
 the urgency of the pasha on this occasion, and that, as the 
 Franks are accused of having suggested the improvement, 
 they share with his highness the odium which attaches to 
 the remembrance of so oppressive a servitude. But, making 
 allowance for the exaggeration usual in such cases, it is 
 probable that the loss of life was not so great as it has been 
 represented ; and, besides, it is more likely to have fallen 
 upon the women and children, who, as in the patriarchal 
 times, follow the migration of the males, than upon the 
 workmen who were actually employed in the excavation. 
 We are inclined to adopt this view of the matter from a 
 fact stated by Planat in regard to the military conscription 
 about five years ago. The number of recruits wanted for 
 the army was 12,000, but the multitude who appeared at 
 the camp, including all ages and both sexes, was found to 
 exceed 70,000, and who, before they could return to their 
 dwellings, must have been subjected to much suffering, and 
 to almost every species of privation. 
 
 The zeal and energy of the viceroy have been rewarded 
 by a great increase of trade, and a corresponding rise in the 
 value of raw produce ; but accident has conferred upon him 
 a greater boon than could have been derived from the 
 wisest arrangements. M. Juxnel discovered, one day, in 
 
266 
 
 ACTUAL STATE OF EGYPT 
 
 the garden of a Turk, called Mako, a plant of the cotton- 
 tree, which he afterward propagated with so much skill 
 and success as to have changed, says Planat, the commerce 
 and statistics of Egypt. This important vegetable bears 
 the name of the Frenchman who first made the government 
 acquainted with its manifold uses as an article of domestic 
 manufacture and of foreign trade. Jumel erected at Boulak, 
 near Cairo, a superb establishment, equal in its structure 
 to the finest European manufactory, for spinning, weaving, 
 dying, and printing of cotton goods. The latest improve- 
 ments in machinery were borrowed from Rouen or Man- 
 chester ; steam is the principal moving power ; and gas is 
 employed for the purposes of artificial light. 
 
 At Siout Mr. Webster found a cotton manufactory in 
 full operation. “It was established,” says he, “some six 
 years ago, and gives employment to eight hundred men and 
 boys, who earn ten, fifteen, twenty, or thirty paras, and 
 sometimes three piasters. Little boys of seven or eight 
 were seen in all parts of the process. The Arab boys are 
 singularly active and intelligent-looking. They work with 
 an air of sharpness which is quite remarkable, — a sort of 
 style and flourish which shows a full comprehension and 
 mastery of what they are about. They appear much quicker 
 than English boys of the same age. Young girls were 
 once tried in the factory-work, but were found to be of no 
 service. The manager and sub-manager accompanied us 
 round with great pleasure. Cotton factories are by no 
 means uncommon in Egypt.”* 
 
 M. Mengin made a remark, which we have seen confirmed 
 by other authors, namely, that during the prevalence of 
 the desert winds, machinery is very liable to be disordered 
 by the impalpable dust which then fills the air, and is so 
 extremely penetrating, that, as the natives assert, it will 
 enter into an egg through the pores of the shell. This 
 powder finds its way into the wheel-work and finer parts of 
 a piece of mechanism, disturbing and sometimes stopping 
 the movements ; while the wood, in similar circumstances, 
 warps or splits, and the threads, owing to the excessive dry- 
 ness of the climate, are very apt to break and snap asunder. 
 But notwithstanding all these disadvantages, which per- 
 
 * Travels, vol. ii. p. 131. 
 
UNDER MOHAMMED ALT. 
 
 267 
 
 haps find a full compensation in the cheap labour of a coun- 
 try whose inhabitants have few wants, the pasha is able to 
 compete with the European manufacturers in every market 
 to which he is admitted, and even to undersell the merchants 
 of India in their own ports.* 
 
 It has happened, fortunately for the pasha, that this cot- 
 ton-wool is not the usual coarse kind hitherto grown in 
 Egypt, but of a very superior quality, equal to the best 
 American. In the year 1822, the crop yielded about 
 5,600,000 lbs., — a portion of which, being sent to Liverpool 
 on trial, was sold at the rate of a shilling a pound. In 1823, 
 the produce was so abundant, that after supplying the 
 countries on the borders of the Mediterranean, it was cal- 
 culated that at least 50,000 bags might be exported to 
 England. The pasha is still extending the culture of tins 
 useful plant on tracts of ground long neglected, by clearing 
 out the old canals, and digging others for the purpose of 
 irrigation ; so that it is very probable the quantity of cotton 
 which may be raised in Egypt will at no distant period 
 equal the whole importation from America ; because, as 
 the crop is not exposed, on the banks of the Nile, to the 
 frosts and heavy rains which frequently injure it in the less 
 temperate climate of the United States, it is much less pre- 
 carious. Besides, this new source of supply acquires addi- 
 tional importance from the consideration that it will be 
 brought to England in British shipping, and will, there- 
 fore, almost necessarily lead to an increase of our export 
 trade to Egypt. 
 
 It was at one time apprehended that fear of the plague in 
 this country might prove an obstacle to the extension of the 
 cotton-trade with the dominions of the pasha. An alarm, 
 which no one at first thought could pronounce altogether 
 groundless, seized the magistrates of Liverpool, who forth- 
 with consulted the physicians, both as to the risk of infec- 
 
 * While we write, the following notice appears in a Calcutta paper, 
 dated towards the end of last year : — “ An Arab ship has arrived from 
 the Red Sea, and brought 250 bales of cotton-yarn, the manufacture of 
 the pasha at his spinning-mills near Cairo. It is reported that he has 
 sent 500 bales to Surat, 1000 to Calcutta, and that he intends next season 
 to send long-cloths, maddapollans, &c., having established power- 
 looms ! These goods are at present admitted at 60 per cent, invoice cost, 
 besides 4* per cent, customs. What will the mercantile community say 
 to this new competitor!” 
 
268 
 
 ACTUAL STATE OF EGYPT 
 
 tion, and the proper means for preventing so formidable 
 an evil. But the experience of more than a century proves, 
 that with suitable precautions the disease in question can 
 be effectually guarded against, even in climates which might 
 be imagined to predispose the human constitution to its 
 influence. The Mediterranean States, for example, have 
 found that the establishment of quarantine protects the 
 health of their inhabitants ; while many intelligent medical 
 men hold the opinion that the atmosphere of Great Britain, 
 combined with the improved police of our larger towns, is 
 itself a sufficient antidote to the malady, which occasionally 
 carries death through the crowded, filthy, and ill-ventilated 
 lanes of the modern Alexandria. The pasha himself has 
 undertaken to extirpate the plague from Egypt ; and we 
 have no doubt, that by the use of the means which he has 
 been advised to adopt he will ultimately succeed. The 
 rules enforced by the English Board of Health in that coun- 
 try in 1801 had the effect, in the first instance, of causing 
 its gradual disappearance, and, finally, of bringing it to a 
 total cessation ; and the whole of Egypt remained perfectly 
 free from it during the ten succeeding years. At all events, 
 a trade with Turkey has been carried on with perfect impu- 
 nity from a very remote period ; comprehending cotton- 
 wool, cotton-yarn, mohair-yarn, and carpets, articles not 
 less to be suspected as vehicles of contagion than the com- 
 modities produced by Mohammed Ali.* 
 
 Besides cotton, this enterprising monarch has bestowed 
 a similar attention on silk, flax, and the sugar-cane. To 
 these may be added indigo, safflower, and henneh, which 
 are of great use in the various processes of dying and 
 calico-printing. In the valley of Tumulaut, the ancient 
 Land of Goshen, he has established a colony of five hundred 
 Syrians, for the purpose of cultivating the mulberry and 
 rearing silkworms ; while in the beautiful province of 
 Fayoum the vine and the olive are again approaching that 
 perfection which they once enjoyed, and for which the 
 genial climate of Egypt appears so well calculated. To- 
 bacco is likewise cultivated to a great extent ; but, being 
 weaker than the American, is not so much liked in Europe, 
 and is, therefore, chiefly confined to domestic consumption. 
 
 * See Quarterly Review, vol. xxx. p. 500. Planat and Volney. 
 
UNDER MOHAMMED ALI. 
 
 269 
 
 In a word, it is impossible to set limits to the productive 
 powers of that fine country, stimulated by heat and moisture 
 to an extent which in some degree may be regulated by the 
 wants of the agriculturist, and of which the soil is constantly 
 repaired by the annual depositions of the river. Nothing 
 seems wanting but a more enlightened experience, and the 
 enjoyment of greater freedom on the part of the cultivator 
 to render the dominions of Mohammed Ali the richest 
 country on the face of the earth, the abode of plenty, civili- 
 zation, and knowledge. 
 
 But it must not be concealed, that at present the pasha 
 is too much disposed to interfere with the private industry 
 of his subjects. His views of political economy are narrow 
 in the extreme. Having created the commerce and manu- 
 factories of Egypt, he regards the whole as his own prop- 
 erty, or at least so much under his control that no one is 
 permitted to think for himself, to fix his price, or to choose 
 his market. His excise officers rival in activity the agents 
 of the oldest European nation ; and hence we are assured, 
 that if a peasant sows a little cotton, and his wife spins it 
 into a garment, it is liable to seizure, unless it be stamped 
 with the viceroy’s mark as a proof of its having paid duty. 
 We are further told, that he furnishes the shoemaker with 
 leather, who cuts it and makes it into shoes, and when they 
 are finished carries them to the agent of the pasha, who 
 pays him so much a day for his labour. The shoes are 
 then deposited in a general store, out of which they are 
 sold to the public. The same thing is done in regard to 
 the cloth manufactures. He provides the weaver with the 
 yarn, who, when he has completed his web takes it to the 
 viceroy’s overseer, who remunerates him at a certain Tate 
 for his work ; the stuff is then lodged in the government 
 warehouse, where it is either sold for domestic use, or 
 exported by foreign merchants, at a considerable profit to 
 the vigilant pasha. 
 
 The same principle applies to the largest establishments. 
 Every landholder and manufacturer is obliged to convey the 
 produce of his labour to some central depot, where it is 
 purchased by the agents of government at fixed prices ; and 
 all articles must be marked, otherwise they cannot be legally 
 sold. Even in the speculations of foreign trade the pasha 
 claims the right of taking a share with the merchants, so 
 
270 
 
 ACTUAL STATE OP EGYPT 
 
 far at least as to advance funds and enjoy a portion of the' 
 profit. But should the adventure turn out unfavourably, 
 he does not think himself bound to bear any part of the 
 loss ; confining his generosity on such occasions to an 
 ample allowance of time for reimbursing the stock which 
 he may have contributed. 
 
 Hence, it has been alleged that his countenance has in 
 many cases proved a positive disadvantage ; because he has 
 induced mercantile houses into speculations in which they 
 would not have voluntarily engaged, and involved them in 
 difficulties from which some who possessed but a small 
 capital have never recovered. It is in the Indian trade 
 chiefly that these disasters have occurred; sufficient atten- 
 tion not having been paid to the length of the voyage, the 
 slowness of the returns, and, above all, the frequent gluts to 
 which those distant markets are liable. But so desirous is 
 Mohammed of establishing an intercourse with the East, 
 that there are no expedients within the range of human 
 means which he will not employ in order to realize his pur- 
 pose. The recovery of the trade which was withdrawn 
 from Egypt by the barbarism of its government, as well as 
 by the improvements in navigation which crowned the 
 efforts of the European powers in the beginning of the six- 
 teenth century, is a favourite object with the politicians of 
 Cairo, and engages deeply the attention of their chief. He 
 can already supply the states on the shores of the Mediter- 
 ranean with wax, hides, coffee, myrrh, frankincense, coccu- 
 lus indicus, asafoetida, ivory, rhinoceros-horn, tortoise-shell, 
 sal ammoniac, senna, tamarinds, ostrich- feathers, incense, 
 balsam of Mecca, gum-arabic, gum-copal, benzoin, Soco- 
 trine aloes, coloquintida, gum-ammoniac, galbanum, sagape- 
 num, opoponax, spikenard, sulphur, musk, and gold-dust. 
 
 The intercourse by land with the countries towards the 
 south and west is carried on by caravans. Those from 
 Sennaar and Darfur arrive in September or October, and 
 depart when they have sold their goods and completed their 
 purchases. The sacred convoy of pilgrims bound to Mecca 
 reaches Egypt about the Ramadan, or general fast, and sets 
 off immediately after Beiram, the great Mohammedan feast, 
 that it may enter the holy city before the month of the fes- 
 tival has expired. Caravans from Mount Sinai appear in 
 the spring, bringing dates and charcoal ; similar commodi- 
 
UNDER MOHAMMED ALI. 
 
 271 
 
 ties are sent from the oases on the backs of camels ; the 
 same mode of conveyance being still used to transport the 
 cargoes of Arabia, Persia, and Hindostan from the Red Sea 
 to the capital. 
 
 The caravans from Abyssinia travel northward through 
 the desert, on the east side of the Nile, as far as Esneh. 
 They bring ivory and ostrich-feathers ; but their principal 
 trade consists in gum and in slaves of both sexes, Cairo 
 being the ultimate destination of the latter, the place where 
 the sales are made. They carry home Venetian glass manu- 
 factures, woollen dresses, cotton and linen stuffs, blue 
 shawls, and some other articles which they purchase at 
 Siout and Kenneh. The Ababde and Bicharis tribes also 
 come to Esneh for metals, utensils, and such grain as they 
 require. They sell slaves, camels, and gum, which they 
 gather in their deserts, as well as the charcoal which they 
 make from the acacia trees. But the most valuable com- 
 modity that they bring is senna, which they collect in the 
 mountains between the Nile and the Red Sea, where it 
 grows without culture. 
 
 The trade to Cossier, on the shores of that gulf, is only 
 a feeble remnant of that by which Egypt was once enriched. 
 The exports are wheat, barley, beans, lentils, sugar, car- 
 thamon flowers, oil of lettuce, and butter. The importa- 
 tions are coflfee, cotton cloth, Indian muslins, English silks, 
 spices, incense, and Cashmere shawls. This branch of 
 commerce is conducted by persons going on their pilgrimage 
 to Mecca. 
 
 The principal imports from the nations of Europe may be 
 reckoned as follows : — The French cloths called mahouts 
 and londrins, silks, scarlet caps, gold-lace, blotting-paper, 
 glass, earthenware, hardware, watches, and many inferior 
 objects from Marseilles ; every variety of cotton goods, su- 
 perfine broadcloths, lead, tin, iron, steel, vitriol, gun-barrels, 
 firearms, and watches, from England ; similar articles from 
 Germany and Italy, especially the scarlet bonnets or scull- 
 caps which are indispensable to the Turks. Such goods 
 brought directly from the place of manufacture pay an im- 
 post duty of three per cent. ; while Turkish commodities 
 are charged five per cent, at Alexandria, and four per cent, 
 at Boulak. For goods brought by land from the interior 
 nine per cent, is exacted at one payment. The export duty 
 
272 
 
 ACTUAL STATE OF EGYFT 
 
 is three per cent, to Europe, and five per cent, to Turkey on 
 either side of the Hellespont. Cargoes sent by the Red 
 Sea pay ten per cent, each way, with certain exceptions too 
 minute to be specified on the present occasion. The fullest 
 details, with ample lists of exports and imports, are given by 
 M. Mengin, in the work already so often referred to, w r here 
 the mercantile reader will find much to gratify his curiosity 
 in regard to the commercial system pursued by Moham- 
 med Ali. 
 
 The revenue of Egypt has been estimated at 2,249,379 L, 
 — arising from the miri , or land-tax ; the customs ; the re- 
 sumed lands, amounting to nearly all the cultivable soil ; the 
 conquered territories, Darfur, Sennaar, Nubia, and a large 
 part of Arabia ; the monopoly of nearly all the Egyptian 
 commerce ; and, finally, an excise on manufactures, raw 
 produce, and provisions. The annual expenditure is calcu- 
 lated at l,757,840Z.,of which more than one-half is required 
 for the army, including the erection of barracks and the 
 supply of arms. About 90,000Z. is remitted to Constanti- 
 nople in name of tribute ; 14,000Z. is devoted to the sup- 
 port of the church and the law ; an equal sum is ex- 
 pended on the pilgrimage to Mecca ; and nearly 200,000Z. 
 on the pasha’s household, his guards, and his yeomen of 
 the palace. 
 
 In former times the revenue passed through the hands of 
 the beys, who, after charging it with the expenses of govern- 
 ment, were understood to remit the surplus to Constantino- 
 ple. But the different agents and collectors managed so 
 adroitly that the grand signior very seldom touched any 
 portion of the taxes ; on the contrary, he was often called 
 upon to pay for the repairs of buildings and canals which 
 were never executed. It is generally believed that the 
 Mamlouks drew from Egypt, in the shape of public and 
 private income, about a million and a half sterling. When 
 the French were in possession of the country the imports 
 varied from year to year according to the state of the war. 
 General Reynier valued their average amount at about nine 
 hundred thousand pounds sterling, or from twenty to twenty- 
 five millions of francs.* 
 
 It has not been found an easy task to ascertain the popula- 
 
 * Malte Bran, vol. iy. p. 100. 
 
UNDER MOHAMMED ALT. 
 
 273 
 
 tion of modem Egypt. M. Sylvestre de Sacy, Men gin, and 
 others, have supplied certain facts, from which we may 
 infer that it amounts to about two millions and a half ; but 
 it remains doubtful whether we ought to include in that 
 number the Arabs who occupy the deserts between the Nile 
 and the Red Sea, or to restrict it to the inhabitants of towns, 
 and to such of the peasantry as are made subjects of taxa- 
 tion. The last of the authors just named, who professes 
 to have paid great attention to this article of Egyptian sta- 
 tistics, reckons in Cairo eight persons to a house, while in 
 the provinces he assigns only four individuals to every 
 family. The amount is as follows : — 
 
 Houses. Inhabitants. 
 
 In Cairo. 25,000 200,000 
 
 In the provincial towns of Alexandria, Ro- 
 setta, Damietta, Old Cairo, and Boulak 14,532 58,128 
 
 In fourteen provinces, containing 3475 vil- 
 lages 504,168 2,256,272 
 
 603,700 2,514,400 
 
 Compared with the pompous narratives of the ancient 
 historians, the present population of the great valley of the 
 Nile sinks into insignificance. Before the Persian conquest 
 the inhabitants, including all classes who acknowledged the 
 authority of the Pharaohs, were estimated at seven millions, 
 —-a number which, if we consider the extreme productive- 
 ness of the country, yielding in many parts two crops every 
 year, will not be pronounced altogether improbable. Be- 
 sides, we are satisfied that the Libyan Desert now covers a 
 great breadth of soil which was at one time under crop, and 
 which, even in our own days, is not quite beyond the reach 
 of irrigation by means of canals drawn from the higher sec- 
 tions of the Nile, — an expedient not unlikely to suggest 
 itself to that energetic governor, who has already made an 
 extensive cut near Elephantine in order to avoid the disad- 
 vantages of the Cataracts. 
 
 The people of Egypt may be divided into Copts, Arabs, 
 Turks, Greeks, Jews, and Syrians. The first are the most 
 ancient, and bear, as Malte Bran observes, the same rela- 
 tion to the Arabs that the Gauls did to the Franks under the 
 first race of the French kings. But the victors and the 
 vanquished have not, as in the latter case, been amalgamated 
 
274 
 
 ACTUAL STATE OF EGYPT 
 
 into one national body. The followers of Mohammed, in 
 their fierce intolerance, reduced the unhappy Greeks and 
 Egyptians to a state of painful degradation ; forcing them 
 to live apart from their proud masters, and to earn a liveli- 
 hood by constant labour. They did not, however, peremp- 
 torily insist on the alternative of conversion or utter exter- 
 mination, as the Romish Christians did with the Arabian 
 Mussulmans in Spain ; while the talent possessed by the 
 Copts for writing and keeping accounts recommended them 
 to their conquerors, and at the same time supplied the 
 means of perpetuating their own race. The Arab, who 
 knew no art but that of war, saw that he had an interest in 
 preserving them ; and hence we find, that after all the con- 
 tumely and oppression they have undergone, their number 
 amounts to about two hundred thousand. They are seen 
 in all parts of the country from Alexandria to the Cataracts ; 
 but their principal residence is in the Said, where they oc- 
 casionally constitute almost the exclusive inhabitants of 
 whole villages. 
 
 Egypt has been so frequently invaded, overrun, and colo- 
 nized, that there no longer exists a pure race among its 
 inhabitants. The Copts are usually regarded as the de- 
 scendants of the true Egyptians, the subjects of Amenophis 
 and Sesostris. Yolney remarks, that “ both history and 
 tradition attest their descent from the people who were 
 conquered by the Arabs, — that is, from that mixture of 
 Egyptians, Persians, and, above all, of Greeks, who under 
 the Ptolemies and Constantines were so long in possession 
 of Egypt.” “ This,” he adds, “ will be. rendered still 
 more probable, if we consider the distinguishing features of 
 this race of people : we shall find them all characterized by 
 a sort of yellowish dusky complexion, which is neither 
 Grecian nor Arabian : they have all a puffed visage, swollen 
 eyes, flat noses, and thick lips ; — in short, the exact coun- 
 tenance of a mulatto. I was at first tempted to attribute this 
 to the climate ; but when I visited the Sphinx, I could not 
 help thinking the figure of that monster furnished the true 
 solution of the enigma, observing its features to be precisely 
 those of a negro.”* 
 
 Those writers who have gone in search of the etymological 
 
 * Travels, vol. i. p. 79. 
 
UNDER MOHAMMED ALI. 
 
 275 
 
 extraction of the name have, as usual, arrived at very 
 different results. Perhaps the opinion of Herbelot presents 
 the greatest show of reason, which identifies it with the 
 word Kypt or Kept, a term which is employed even by the 
 modem Copts as the designation of their country. In 
 remote times Mgyptius was also written Mgoptios , in both 
 of which forms the first syllable is an article. Homer, too, 
 seems to have given the name of -Egyptos to the Nile ; and 
 according to Herodotus, Thebes, the ancient capital, was 
 called -Egyptus. If we remove the article and the Greek 
 termination from -Egoptios, — the remaining root, Gopt, will 
 give the appellation by w'hich the old possessors of Egypt 
 are known to the nations of modem Europe. * 
 
 The Coptic language, which is fully ascertained to have 
 been the tongue of the people at large under the Pharaonic 
 dynasty, exhibits some affinity to the Hebrew and Ethiopia, 
 but is now greatly mixed with Greek and Arabic terms. 
 Several dialects have been detected, according to the geo- 
 graphical situation of the tribes who continue to speak it, 
 whether in the Delta or the Said. Its general character, 
 we are told, consists in the shortness of the words, in the 
 simplicity of its grammatical modifications, and in the cir- 
 cumstance of expressing genders and cases by prefixed syl- 
 lables, and not by terminations, like the languages of 
 Greece and Roine.f 
 
 The religion of the Copts is that form of Christianity 
 which was derived from the sect of the Eutychians, a body 
 of heretics who sprang up in the Greek or Eastern church. 
 Their head is the patriarch of Alexandria, who, they main- 
 tain, sits in the seat of St. Mark the Evangelist ; to whom 
 they ascribe their conversion, and whose relics they were 
 wont to exhibit. This dignitary may also be regarded as 
 the superior of the Abyssinian Christians, for he always 
 appoints the Abuna, who is the highest ecclesiastical func- 
 tionary among that people. The patriarch, though himself 
 elected by the clergy, exercises an almost unlimited power, 
 and is every where obeyed with the most profound respect. 
 
 * D’Herbelot, Bib. Orient, mots Kebt, Kibt ; Malte Brun, iv. p. 106 ; 
 Kircber’s Prodromus Koptus, p. 293 ; Herod. Euterpe. 
 
 t Quatremdre, Recherches sur la Litterature Egyptienne ; Vater in 
 the Mithridates of Adelung ; Zoega de Orig. et Usu Obeliscorum, sect, 
 iv e. 2. 
 
276 
 
 ACTUAL STATE OF EGYPT 
 
 The officiating ministers are maintained by the bounty of 
 their flocks ; but it should seem, that as their acquirements 
 are not expected to be of a very high order, the process of 
 training is neither tedious nor expensive. The rite of or- 
 dination proceeds on a principle similar to that of the mar- 
 riage-ceremony among the ancient Romans. The candi- 
 date is seized by his friends among the priests, and carried 
 almost by force to the patriarch, who persists, notwith- 
 standing all his pleas of unworthiness, to pronounce over 
 him the usual benediction. No person can be ordained 
 who is unmarried, nor when he has been ordained can he 
 marry a second time. The monks, on being admitted into 
 their order, are clad in a winding-sheet, and have the fu- 
 neral-service performed, to indicate that they are now dead 
 to the world. They are bound to maintain a strict celi- 
 bacy, as from among them the bishops are uniformly 
 elected, — a strange contrast in the qualifications required 
 in the different ranks of the priesthood. The Copts prac- 
 tise the Jewish rite of circumcision, as well as auricular 
 confession, and other ceremonies common to the Eastern 
 church and to that of the West. At Cairo, indeed, there 
 are about 5000 of them who have conformed to the Romish 
 communion, and are receiving a suitable education under 
 the eyes of certain members of the College for Propagating 
 the Faith in Foreign Parts. 
 
 Although this people are generally regarded as the de- 
 scendants of the ancient Egyptians, mingled with the Per- 
 sians left by Cambyses, and with the Greeks who followed 
 the standard of Alexander, they are described by travellers 
 as having a darker complexion than the Arabs, flat fore- 
 heads, and hair partaking of the woolly character. They 
 have also large eyes, raised at the angles, high cheek-bones, 
 short though not flat noses, wide mouths, and thick lips. 
 Like all classes of men who have been long degraded, they 
 are remarkable for cunning and duplicity, removed at once 
 from the pride of the Turk and the bluntness of the Arab ; 
 being an uncouth and grovelling race, and farther distant 
 from civilization and the softened habits of society than any 
 of their fellow-citizens. 
 
 The physiognomical description now given is supplied 
 by Malte Brun, which differs not greatly from that of Vol- 
 ney. Dr. Richardson, on the other hand, observes, that 
 
UNDER MOHAMMED ALI. 
 
 277 
 
 neither in their features nor in their complexion have the 
 Copts the smallest resemblance to the figures of the ancient 
 Egyptians represented in the tombs at Thebes, or in any 
 other part of the country ; and he accordingly supposes 
 that they are a mixed race, bearing in their physiognomy 
 the marks of an alliance to the great Circassian family, and 
 obviously distinguished from the children of Mizraim, the 
 aboriginal Egyptians. The Nubians, on the contrary, resi- 
 dent at Elephantine, are described by him as perfectly 
 black, but without possessing the least of the negro feature ; 
 the lips small, the nose aquiline ; the expression of the 
 countenance sweet and animated, and bearing a strong re- 
 semblance to that which is generally found portrayed in the 
 temples and tombs of the ancient Egyptians. He also 
 noticed several families of a third, race, differing both in 
 complexion and feature from the inhabitants of Es Souan 
 and of Nubia. Their hue was more of a bronze or red- 
 dish brown, resembling mahogany ; approaching nearer, 
 both in feature and in complexion, to that which is called 
 the head of the young Meinnon, and to the figures in the 
 tomb at Eeban el Melouk, than any of the human race that 
 ever fell under his observation. They are as different, he 
 subjoins, from the Copt in Egypt, both in hue and feature, 
 as a Hindoo is from a Frenchman.* 
 
 Hence it has been concluded, with considerable proba- 
 bility, that the ancient Egyptians were, as regards colour* 
 blacks, although essentially distinguished in their physiog- 
 nomy from the negro. The inhabitants of modern Egypt 
 have by other authors been rated as follows : — 
 
 Copts 160,000 
 
 Arab Fellahs 2,250,000 
 
 Bedouin Arabs 150,000 
 
 Arabian Greeks 25,000 
 
 Jews- 20.000 
 
 Syrians 20,000 
 
 Armenians 10,000 
 
 Turks and Albanians 20,000 
 
 Franks or Levantines 4000 
 
 Mamlouks 500 
 
 Ethiopians, &c. 7,5000t 
 
 The Arabs may be divided into three classes ; first, the 
 
 * Travels, vol. i. p. 00. 361. 
 
 A a 
 
 t Modem Traveller. 
 
278 
 
 ACTUAL STATE OF EGYPT 
 
 wild independent Bedouins who occupy the desert ; then 
 the pastoral tribes who feed their flocks on the borders of 
 Egypt and occasionally enter the cultivated districts ; and, 
 lastly, the peasants or Fellahs, who devote themselves to 
 agriculture and the arts, and are the principal inhabitants 
 of the villages both in Upper and Lower Egypt. This 
 people are distinguished by a lively and expressive physiog- 
 nomy, small sparkling eyes, short pointed beards, and a 
 general angularity of form : their lips, being usually open, 
 show their teeth ; their arms are extremely muscular ; the 
 whole body, in short, is more remarkable for agility than 
 for beauty, and more nervous than handsome. The tented 
 Arab, hovering with his flocks along the borders of the 
 fertile valley of the Nile, is the same in character, manners, 
 and customs as he has been since the days of the patri- 
 archs ; regarding with disdain and proud independence all 
 other classes of mankind, but more particularly those of his 
 own ^nation who in his eyes have degraded themselves by 
 taking up their abodes in fixed habitations, and Vvhom he 
 calls, in contempt, the Arab of the Walls. 
 
 The Turks have graver features and sleeker forms, fine 
 eyes, but overshaded so much as to have little expression ; 
 large noses, handsome mouths, good lips, long tufted beards, 
 lighter complexions, short necks, a grave and indolent 
 habit of body ; and in every thing an air of weight which 
 ftiev associate with the idea of nobleness. 
 
 The Greeks, who must now be classed as foreigners, 
 present the regular features, the delicacy and the versatility 
 of their ancestors ; they are charged with a certain degree 
 of sharpness and roguery in their mercantile transactions, 
 qualities for which they are indebted, perhaps, to the op- 
 pressive domination of their Moslem conquerors. We 
 are told that there are about five thousand descendants of 
 the ancient Greek colonists, who form quite a distinct race 
 from the modern Greeks. They have lost their original 
 tongue, and speak a kind of Arabic ; most of them are mari- 
 ners, but in general they pursue the inferior and handi- 
 craft trades. 
 
 The Jews have the same physiognomy as in Europe, 
 and are here, as well as every where else, devoted to the 
 pursuits of commerce. Despised and buffeted, without 
 being actually expelled, they compete w T ith the Copts in 
 
UNDER MOHAMMED ALI. 
 
 *279 
 
 the large towns for situations in the customs, and for the 
 management of property belonging. to the rich. M. Mengin 
 reckons' that there are about four thousand of this singular 
 people resident in the dominions of Mohammed Ali, three 
 thousand of whom inhabit a part of Cairo which bears the 
 distinction of their name. The streets are so narrow as 
 to be almost impassable ; the houses are dark, crowded 
 together, filthy, and so infectious, that when the plague 
 breaks out, the first inquiry is, if it has appeared in the 
 Jews’ Quarter.* - 
 
 There are about two thousand Arabians who reside prin- 
 cipally in the capital, where they exercise every kind of 
 trade, and are much concerned in money transactions with 
 the government. The Greek Christians of Syria may be 
 estimated at three thousand in Cairo, and one thousand in 
 the other cities of Egypt.. They were formerly the whole- 
 sale merchants who supplied the land proprietors and others 
 with various kinds of articles, and were in general wealthy ; 
 but the monopoly of the viceroy has very considerably les- 
 sened their business and diminished their funds. 
 
 The spirit of improvement which distinguishes the reign 
 of Mohammed has produced less change on the external 
 appearance of Cairo than on the temper and views of its 
 inhabitants. We have elsewhere stated that this celebrated 
 city was founded in the tenth century by the first caliph t)f the 
 Fatimite dynasty, and that the famous Saladin, about two 
 hundred years afterward, built the ramparts with which 
 it is surrounded, extending more than eighteen thousand 
 yards in length. In ascending the Nile the traveller arrives 
 first at Boulak, the port of the capital, where the vessels are 
 moored that come from the coast. Farther south is Old 
 Cairo, at which there is a harbour for the reception of the 
 traders that descend from Upper Egypt. Between these 
 two ancient towns is Cairo, properly so called, removed 
 from the river about a mile and a half, and stretching towards 
 the mountains of Mokattam on the east, — a distance of not 
 less than three miles. It is encircled with a stone wall, 
 surmounted by fine battlements, and fortified with lofty 
 towers at every hundred paces. There are three or four 
 
 * Mengin, Histoire de l’Egypte; Malte Brun vol. iv; Malus, Me- 
 moire sur l’Egypte; Denon, tom. i. p. 88; Hasselquist; Voyage, p. 68. 
 
280 
 
 ACTUAL STATE OF EGYPT 
 
 beautiful gates built by the Mamlouks, and uniting a simple 
 style of architecture with an air of grandeur and magnifi- 
 cence. 
 
 But in this vast metropolis we find only one street, nar- 
 row and unpaved. The houses, like all others in Egypt, 
 are badly built of earth or indifferent bricks, and are only 
 distinguished by being two or three stories high. Lighted 
 by windows looking into back-courts or quadrangles, they 
 appear from the streets like so many prisons, though the 
 general aspect is a little relieved by a number of large 
 squares and many fine mosques. That of Sultan Hassan, 
 built at the bottom of the mountain on which the citadel is 
 placed, is in the form of a parallelogram, and of great ex- 
 tent ; a deep frieze goes all the ’way round the top of the 
 wall, adorned with sculptures which we call Gothic, but 
 which were introduced into Europe by the Arabians who 
 invaded Spain. 
 
 Cairo is traversed by a canal which issues from the Nile 
 a little below the old town, and having passed through im- 
 mense and innumerable heaps of rubbish, enters the modern 
 capital on the south side, goes out at the north, and wind- 
 ing round the wall makes a second entrance on the west, 
 and terminates in the Birket-el-Esbequier. The outline of 
 the city is nearly that of a quadrant, being square towards 
 the north and east and circular towards the south and west. 
 This artificial river is of the greatest consequence to the 
 inhabitants ; for, besides furnishing them while the inunda- 
 tion continues with an abundant supply of water for all the 
 purposes of domestic life, it affords the means of replenish- 
 ing a variety of small lakes, both inside and outside the 
 walls, on which they ply their pleasure-boats, and enjoy a 
 variety of other recreations suited to their indolent luxury 
 or to the softness of their delicious climate. On the borders 
 of these, especially within the town, may be seen in an 
 evening fireworks pouring their light into the air, dancing- 
 dogs, dancing-monkeys, dancing-girls, and all fhe people 
 making merry and rejoicing, as in the days of old when the 
 Nile had attained its due elevation, and promised to bless 
 their fields with an ample increase. In one of these sheets 
 of water is observed the lotus, — that mysterious plant so 
 highly esteemed by the ancient Egyptians, the flower of 
 which contrasts so beautifully with the liquid ground on 
 
UNDER MOHAMMED ALI. 281 
 
 which it reposes, as well as with the arid waste by which it 
 is surrounded. 
 
 The citadel, which occupies part of the ridge of Mokat- 
 tam, is a place of considerable strength, but, like most other 
 ancient buildings in Egypt, greatly encumbered with ruins. 
 The palace of the pasha is not worthy of notice on any 
 other account than as being the residence of so distinguished 
 a person when he chooses to live in his capital. It is a 
 small house, plain, and without any exterior decoration, 
 except that it has more glass-windows in front than Turkish 
 dwellings usually^ exhibit. The Well of Joseph, in the 
 middle of the fortress, calls us back to the twelfth century, 
 the era of the renowned Saladin, by whom it was excavated, 
 and whose name, Yousef, it continues to bear. It is about 
 45 feet in circumference at the top, and is dug through the 
 soft calcareous rock to the depth of about 270 feet, where 
 it meets a spring of brackish water on a level with the Nile, 
 from which indeed it is derived, — owing its saline impreg- 
 nation to the nature of the soil through which it has filtered. 
 The water is raised in buckets by two wheels drawn by 
 oxen, — the one being on the surface of the ground, the 
 other at the depth of 150 feet. The main use of this cele- 
 brated cistern, besides partly supplying the garrison, is to 
 irrigate the adjoining gardens, and keep alive the little ver- 
 dure which adorns, the interior of the fortress ; but it is 
 preserved in tolerable repair from the consideration, that 
 were the place ever subjected to a siege, the stream of Jo- 
 seph’s Well would become the sole reliance of the troops as 
 well as of the numerous inhabitants. 
 
 The memory of Saladin is farther associated with the 
 citadel by means of a ruin called Joseph’s Hall, and which 
 is understood to have formed part of the palace of that war- 
 like prince. The columns, it is manifest, have been taken 
 from some more ancient building at Memphis, being gene- 
 rally monolithic, or consisting of a single stone, tall and 
 massy, and adorned with highly-wrought capitals. In the 
 days of Saracenic magnificence, this must have been a truly 
 splendid edifice, meriting in some degree the praises be- 
 stow T ed upon the royal residences of that aspiring and inge- 
 nious people. But it is now in a very dilapidated condition, 
 part being converted into a magazine, and part used as a 
 granary ; while the whole has such a waste and mournful 
 
282 
 
 ACTUAL STATE OP EGYPT, ETC. 
 
 appearance, as to be, in truth, more desolate and less in- 
 teresting than if it were a complete ruin.* 
 
 But, in describing Joseph’s Hall, we apprehend that we 
 have spoken of an architectural relic which no longer 
 exists. In the year 1824 the citadel was much shaken by 
 the explosion of a magazine ; whence arose the necessity 
 of a thorough repair in several of the remaining buildings 
 of the fortress. Among the ruins pointed out for demo- 
 lition were the surviving walls of Saladin’s palace ; on the 
 site of which was about to be erected a square, meant proba- 
 bly for the better accommodation of the troops. The roof 
 of this edifice, which might long have withstood the ravages 
 of time, was very much admired. It was formed of a suc- 
 cession of little domes made of wood, into which were 
 introduced concave circles containing octagons of blue and 
 gold. The corners and arches of the buildings were carved 
 in the best Saracenic manner, and in many places the 
 colours and gilding continued perfectly bright. 
 
 Cairo, although it cannot boast of an origin so ancient 
 as that of Thebes, nor of a mythology which connected the 
 present life so closely with the next, has nevertheless a city 
 of tombs, a Necropolis on which has been lavished much 
 treasure combined with a certain portion of architectural 
 taste. The desert towards the east is studded with sepul- 
 chres and mausoleums, some of which produce a very striking 
 effect. As every Turk throughout the empire, from the 
 grand signior to the meanest peasant, is compelled to be of 
 some profession ; and as every calling has its peculiar head- 
 dress, which is represented on a pole at the grave of the 
 deceased, — a burial-place in a Moslem country has necessa- 
 rily a singular appearance. The celebrated tombs' of the 
 Mamlouks are going fast to decay, their boasted magnifi- 
 cence being now limited to a gilt inscription ; but, in order 
 that the reader mgy be enabled to form a judgment as to 
 their grandeur in former days, we insert a drawing taken 
 from the splendid work on Egypt published by the imperial 
 government of France. 
 
 The cemetery of the pasha is the most sumptuous of 
 modern structures in the Necropolis of Cairo. It is a 
 vaulted stone building, consisting of five domes, under 
 
 Richardson, vol. i. p. 48. 
 
284 
 
 ACTUAL STATE OF EGYPT 
 
 which, in splendid chambers composed of marble, are laid 
 the bodies of his two sons Toussoun and Ishmael, and of 
 his favourite wife the mother of these youths. Having 
 mentioned this lady, it may not be out of place to add that 
 she possessed an astonishing degree of influence over her 
 impetuous husband, who always regarded her as the foun- 
 dation of his good fortune. She was much esteemed, too, 
 and beloved by the people ; for her power was uniformly 
 exerted on the side of justice and mercy. Much of her 
 time was occupied in receiving petitions ; but it was seldom 
 jshe had to refer them to the pasha, as her ascendency was 
 too well known by the ministers to require this last appeal. 
 If, however, in consequence of any demur on their part, she 
 had to apply to him, he answered their remonstrance by 
 saying, — “ ’Tis enough. By my two eyes ! if she requires 
 it the tiling must be done, be it through fire, water, or 
 stone.” 
 
 Mohammed Ali generally resides at Shoubra, where he has 
 built a splendid palace, and planted a garden after the Euro- 
 pean fashion. The ceilings, executed by a Grecian artist, 
 are lofty and vaulted, ornamented with gold, and with -repre- 
 sentations of landscapes, or of palaces and colonnades, the 
 whole being painted in light and pleasing colours. The 
 sultana’s private sitting-room is still more sumptuous. 
 During the heats of summer his highness occupies an 
 apartment below, particularly adapted for coolness, having 
 a marble fountain in the centre amply supplied with a 
 constant stream of water. On one of the walls is inscribed, 
 in large Arabic characters, a verse from the Koran, signify- 
 ing “ an hour of justice is worth seventy days of prayer.” 
 
 But the chief embellishment of the place is a magnificent 
 pavilion, about 250 feet long by 200 broad. On its sides 
 run four galleries or colonnades, composed of elegant pillars 
 of the finest white marble, surrounding a sunken court six 
 feet deep, paved throughout with the same beautiful mate- 
 rial. At each corner of the colonnade is a terrace, over 
 which water passes into the court below in a murmuring 
 cascade, having on its ledges figures of fish, sculptured so 
 true to nature that they appear to move in the flowing 
 stream. The whole supply of water rises again through a 
 fountain in the centre, and reappears in a beautiful jet-d’eau, 
 lofty, sparkling, and abundant. In fine weather the pasha 
 
UNDER MOHAMMED ALI. 
 
 285 
 
 occasionally resorts to this splendid fountain with the ladies 
 of his harem, who row about in the flooded court for the 
 amusement of his highness, while he is seated in the colon- 
 nade. Great is the commotion when the ladies descend 
 into the garden. A signal is given, and the gardeners 
 vanish in a moment. Mrs. Lushington was struck with 
 the ruddy cheeks and healthy appearance of these men. 
 They are principally Greeks ; and the gay colours of their 
 fanciful costume, — each with a nosegay .or bunch of fruit 
 in his hand, — combined w r ith the luxuriant scenery around, 
 gave them more the semblance of actors in a ballet repre* 
 senting a fete in Arcadia than the real labourers of a Turk- 
 ish despot.* 
 
 This chapter would be incomplete were we not to com- 
 pare what Egypt is at present with what it was at the 
 beginning of the century. 
 
 When Mohammed assumed the command anarchy 
 reigned in fevery department. The country was distracted 
 by the conflicting pretensions of the Mamlouks, aided by 
 the Bedouin Arabs, the Albanians, and the Turks, with 
 many rival chieftains. The soldiers were mutinous ; the 
 finances were exhausted ; property was insecure ; agricul- 
 ture was neglected ; and commerce languished. But now 
 every thing is improved ; the wild Arabs are submissive ; 
 the military are controlled, lodged in barracks or tents, and 
 regularly paid ; the finances prodigiously increased ; new 
 articles of produce raised ; and trade carried on to an 
 extent formerly unknown. The whole country from Alex- 
 andria to Syene is perfectly tranquil, and travellers pass 
 unmolested with as much freedom and safety as on the 
 continent of Europe. It is not pretended that the viceroy 
 has not his failings ; he has many : but to estimate his 
 character he should be judged by the standard of other 
 Mohammedan princes, — of the pashas of Syria or Turkey, 
 for example ; — and which of all these can be compared to 
 him '? It is-hardly fair to try him by our notions of excellence, 
 when every thing — custom, religion, government — are so dif- 
 ferent. His defects are those of education and example ; his 
 improvements are the fruit of his own genius and patriotism, t 
 
 * Narrative of a Journey, p. 128. 
 
 t Quarterly Review, vol. xxx.p. 508. Mr. Came remarks that the 
 firm and decisive character of Mohammed is in nothing more visible than 
 
286 
 
 ACTUAL STATE OF EGYPT, ETC# 
 
 A report has reached Europe that this remarkable person 
 has conceded to his people the benefits of a representative 
 government and a voice in the administration of public 
 affairs. But the information is much too vague to be en- 
 titled to a place in the records of history. 
 
 The future prosperity of Egypt depends in a great 
 degree upon the successor of the present viceroy. Ibrahim, 
 the son of his wife, and the Defturder, who is' his son-in- 
 law by marriage, will probably divide the choice of Moham- 
 med. The former is more likely to obtain the recommenda- 
 tion of the pasha and the sanction of the Sublime Porte, 
 because he is more friendly than the other to the re- 
 generation which has been effected throughout the country 
 with results so favourable even to the supreme government 
 Should the election fall on the husband of Ali’s daughter, 
 the consequences will be deplorable ; for he is not only a 
 decided enemy to the Franks and to the late innovations, 
 but regards them both with the eye of a bigoted Mussul- 
 man. 
 
 in the perfect secnrity and quietness that reign throughout his dominions. 
 The traveller there dreams no more of violence than he would do in any 
 town throughout Scotland or Wales ; from the capital to the Cataracts 
 every man's hand is at peace with him, and he may ramble along the 
 banks of the Nile with as entire an ease and abandon as on those of his 
 native rivers or in his own garden at home .— Recollections of the East 
 p. 284. 
 
THE OASES, ETC. OF THE THEBAID. 287 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 The Oases, Ancient Berenice, and^ Desert of the Thebaid. 
 
 Meaning of fhe Term Oasis — Those of Egypt described in various and 
 opposite Colours — Used as Places of Exile— Their Number — The 
 Great Oasis — Described by Sir A. Edmonstone — Ancient Buildings — 
 Necropolis or Cemetery— Supposed Origin of such Land— Western 
 Oasis — First visited by Sir A. Edmonstone — El Cazar— Soil — Position 
 — The Little Oasis — El Kassar — Greek Temple — Fountain— El Haix — 
 El Moele — Oasis of Siwah — Description of Towns — Of the Temple 
 of Jupiter Ammon — Fountain of the Sun — Sacred Lake — Other Oases 
 — Desert of the Thebaid — Berenice — Trade — Account of an imaginary 
 City by Caillaud— Situation and Extent of Berenice— Emerald Moun- 
 tains — Present Condition of Miners — Inhabitants of the Desert — 
 Sharkin — Myos HormUs — Cosseir. 
 
 The territory of Egypt includes certain fertile spots in 
 the Libyan desert, which, from the peculiarity of their 
 situation, amid an ocean of sand, have been denominated 
 islands. The term oasis, in the ancient language of the 
 country, signifies an inhabited place, a distinction suffi- 
 ciently intelligible when contrasted with the vast wilderness 
 around, in which even the most savage tribes have not ven- 
 tured to take up their abode. It has been observed, at the 
 same time, that as this descriptive epithet is applied to a 
 cluster of oases as well as to a single spot of verdant 
 ground, the use of it has become somewhat ambiguous. In 
 this respect, indeed, they bear a striking resemblance to 
 islands in the great sea, where one of larger size is usually 
 surrounded by others of smaller dimensions ; all taking . 
 their name from some circumstance, geographical or phy- 
 sical, which is common to the whole. 
 
 Like Egypt itself, these isolated dependencies have been 
 described in very opposite colours by different writers. 
 The Greeks called them the islands of the blessed ; and 
 without doubt they appear delightful in the eyes of the 
 traveller who has during many painful weeks suffered the 
 privations and fatigue of the desert. But it is well known 
 
288 THE OASES, AKCIENT BERENICE, 
 
 that they were generally regarded in a less favourable 
 aspect by the Greeks and Romans, who not unfrequently 
 assigned them as places of banishment. The state male- 
 factor and the ministers of the Christian church, who were 
 sometimes comprehended in the same class, were, in the 
 second and third centuries, condemned to waste their days 
 as exiles in the remote solitude of the Libyan Oasis. They 
 were usually reckoned three in number ; the Great Oasis, 
 of which the principal to\frn is El Kargeh ; the Little Oasis, 
 or that of El Kassar; and -the Northern Oasis, more fre- 
 quently called Siwah. To these is now added the Western 
 Oasis, which does not appear to have been mentioned by 
 any ancient geographer except Olympiodorus, and which 
 was never seen by any European until Sir Archibald 
 Edmonstone visited it about ten years ago. 
 
 The -Great Oasis, the most southern of the whole, con- 
 sists of a number of insulated spots, which extend in a line 
 parallel to the course of the Nile, separated from one 
 another by considerable intervals of sandy waste, and 
 stretching not less than a hundred miles in latitude. M. 
 Poncet, who examined it in 1698, says that it contains 
 many gardens watered with rivulets, and that its palm- 
 groves exhibit a perpetual verdure. It is the first stage 
 of the Darfur -caravan, which assembles at Siout, being 
 about four days’ journey from that town, and nearly the 
 same distance from Farshout. The exertions of Browne, 
 Caillaud, Edmonstone, and Henniker have supplied to the 
 European reader the most ample details relative to this in- 
 teresting locality, which, there can be no doubt, must have 
 been the scene of civilized life, and perhaps of political in- 
 stitutions, at a very remote era. 
 
 An interesting account of the architectural ruins of 
 the Great Oasis is to be found in the pages of Sir A. 
 Edmonstone, who tells, that about a mile and a half 
 towards the north of El Kargeh, he observed on an emi- 
 nence a building which proved to be a small quadrangular 
 temple 31 feet long by 21 broad, of which three sides are 
 still remaining. The walls on the inside are covered with 
 figures and hieroglyphics, greatly defaced, but of distin- 
 guished elegance. There was the usual enclosure of un- 
 burnt brick,— a defence necessary in a country so much 
 
AND DESERT OF THE THEBAID. 
 
 289 
 
 exposed to hostile incursions as this has always been. 
 From hence he discovered a larger temple at a short dis- 
 tance to the north-west, and on a high ground still farther 
 in the same direction several buildings like the ruins of an 
 Arab town. On approaching the temple he was struck 
 with the beauty of the situation, in the midst of a rich 
 wood, consisting of palm, acacia, and other trees, with a 
 stream of water in front. 
 
 In point of magnitude it far exceeded any thing he had 
 hitherto seen. The entry is through a dromos , of which 
 the enclosures are so broken that it is difficult to discern 
 the shape. He could distinguish, however, that it had been 
 formed by a parapet wall surmounted with a cornice, con- 
 necting ten columns, with spaces on each side to admit an 
 easy approach. The temple stands east and west, and a rich 
 cornice runs all round the top. The front is completely covered 
 with colossal figures and hieroglyphics, which, as they extend 
 but half-way to the north and south sides, give the .vhole exte- 
 rior rather an unfinished appearance. The great doorway is 
 much ornamented, and leads to a magnificent apartment, 60 
 feet by 54, with twelve columns, 13 feet in circumference. 
 The second chamber, 54 feet by 18, is divided from the first 
 by a sort of screen, formed by a wall lower than that of the 
 temple, intersected by four columns, which, together with four 
 others in the centre of the apartment, now fallen, are of the 
 same size with those above mentioned. The chamber is 
 traced all over with figures and hieroglyphics on stucco, 
 retaining marks of paint, particularly blue and red ; whereas, 
 the first is quite plain, except on the west side. The third 
 apartment 31 feet by 29, is ornamented likewise, and con- 
 tains eight columns, but of much smaller dimensions than 
 the others. Last comes the adytum , or shrine, 20 feet by 
 8, richly carved, though blackened with smoke. On each 
 side are two compartments detached, but so choked up that 
 it was impossible to ascertain their shape. The roof of the 
 rest of the building is fallen in, except some slabs occa- 
 sionally supported by pillars ; but that of the adytum, 
 which is lower, is entire. One of the stones used for cover- 
 ing this latter apartment is 35 feet by 19 feet 4 inches, and 
 2 feet 3 inches thick. 
 
 To the east of the temple are three detached doorways, 
 at different intervals, and of different proportions. As they 
 B b 
 
2S0 
 
 THE OASES, ANCIENT BERENICE, 
 
 do not resemble the propvla which are usual in other parts 
 of Egypt, Sir Archibald is of opinion that this edifice was 
 originally surrounded with a triple wall, in the manner 
 described by Diodorus as applicable to the fane of Jupiter 
 Ammon. The first is a solid building, with figures all 
 round it ; among others, on the inside, is a colossal repre- 
 sentation of Osiris at a banquet. The same is again found 
 on the west front. On the roof are four spread eagles or 
 vultures, painted red and blue. The second doorway, 
 which is at some distance in the same direction, but not in 
 the same line, is considerably higher than even the temple 
 itself. Only one-half is standing, having a few figures 
 inside carved in relief, and some remains of brickwork 
 strongly piled on the top. As it is too high for any pur- 
 poses of defence, a conjecture has been advanced, that it 
 may have been the residence of, one of the Stelite hermits, 
 of whose superstitious practices many traces still remain. 
 The last of the three propyla is low and imperfect ; but it 
 is remarkable for an inscription in Greek letters, with which 
 the east end is completely covered, containing a rescript, 
 published in the second year of the emperor Galba, relating 
 to a reform in the administration of Egypt. 
 
 In regard to what appeared at first as the ruins of an 
 Arab town, we are informed, that, upon a closer examina- 
 tion, it proved to be a necropolis or cemetery, consisting of 
 a great variety of buildings, not fewer than two or three 
 hundred, each the receptacle of a number of mummies. 
 The greater part are square, and surmounted with a dome 
 similar to the small mosques erected over the tombs of 
 sheiks ; having generally a corridor running round, which 
 produces an ornamental effect very striking at a distance, 
 and gives them a nearer resemblance to Roman than to any 
 existing specimen of Greek or Egyptian architecture. 
 Some few are larger than the rest. One, in particular, is 
 divided into aisles like our churches ; and that it has been 
 used as such by the early Christians is clearly evinced by 
 the traces of saints painted on the walls. In all there is a 
 Greek cross, and the celebrated Egyptian hieroglyphic, the 
 crux ansata , or cross with a handle, w'hich, originally signi- 
 fying life, would appear to have been adopted as a Christian 
 emblem, either from its similarity to the shape of the cross, 
 or from its being considered the symbol of a future existence* 
 
AXD DESERT OF THE THEBAID. 
 
 291 
 
 But the great peculiarity is a large square hole in the centre 
 of each, evidently for the purpose of containing a mummy, 
 and which, from the fragments and wrappings which lay 
 scattered about, had probably been ransacked for the sake 
 of plunder. Sir Archibald imagines these sepulchres to be 
 of Roman construction at an early period, since it is gene- 
 rally believed that the practice of embalming was gradually 
 discontinued in Egypt after the extension of Christianity ; 
 but he adds, “ among the various receptacles for the re- 
 mains of the dead, from the stupendous pyramid to the rudest 
 cavern, I know of none, existing or recorded, at all corres- 
 ponding to them in shape and appearance.”* 
 
 There are several other ruins in the neighbourhood -of El 
 Kargeh, which appear to combine the relics of Egyptian 
 paganism with the symbols of Christian worship, and 
 thereby lead us to conclude that the edifices ma) 7 have been 
 repaired in the early ages of our faith after being relin- 
 quished by the more ancient occupants. For a more minute 
 account of these remains we take leave to refer the curious 
 reader to the work already indicated. 
 
 Sir F. Henniker speaks rather contemptuously of the 
 ecclesiastical architecture which happened to fall under his 
 notice in that oasis. There is a temple which he describes 
 as a small building composed of petty blocks of stone, the 
 pillars of which are only two feet six inches in diameter, 
 and, “ even these, instead of being formed of one solid block, 
 are constructed of millstones.” He adds, that the surface 
 of the earth in the vicinity of the temple is very remarkable ; 
 it is covered with a lamina of salt and sand mixed, and has 
 the same appearance as if a ploughed field had been flooded 
 over, then frozen, and the water drawn off from under the 
 ice.t 
 
 This remark suggests a question relative to the origin of 
 these grassy islands in the desert. Major Rennel thinks 
 that they may be attributed to the vegetation which would 
 necessarily be occasioned by springs of water ; the decay 
 of the plants producing soil until it gradually increased to 
 the extent of several leagues. They are universally sur- 
 rounded by higher ground, — a circumstance which accounts 
 for the abundance of moisture. Fezzan, in particular, is 
 
 * Edmonstone’s Journey to tw'pof the Oases of Upper Egypt.p. 62, &c, 
 f JVoteSj p. 188. 
 
292 
 
 THE OASES, ANCIENT BERENICE. 
 
 nearly encircled with mountains ; and the descent from the 
 western barrier of Egypt into the middle level of the Greater 
 Oasis is distinctly marked by Mr. Browne. Their fertility 
 has always been deservedly celebrated. Strabo mentions 
 the superiority of their wine ; Abulfeda and Edrisi the 
 luxuriance of the palm-trees ; and our poet Thomson extols 
 
 “ the tufted isles 
 
 That verdant rise amid the Libyan wild.” 
 
 Summer, v. 812. 
 
 The climate, however, is extremely variable, especially in 
 winter. Sometimes the rains in the Western Oasis are 
 very abundant, and fall in torrents, as appears from the 
 furrows in the rocks ; but the season Sir A. Edmonstone 
 made his visit there was none at all, and the total want of 
 dew in the hot months sufficiently proves the general dry- 
 ness of the atmosphere. The springs are all strongly im- 
 pregnated with iron and sulphur, and hot at their sources ; 
 but, as they continue the same throughout the whole year, 
 they supply to the inhabitants one of the principal means 
 of life. The water, notwithstanding, cannot be used until 
 it has been cooled in an earthen jar. 
 
 It was in the year 1819 that the author just cited, in 
 company with two friends, Messrs. Hoghton and Master, 
 joined a caravan of Bedouins at Beni Ali, and entered the 
 Libyan desert, proceeding towards the south-west. At the 
 end of six days, having travelled about one hundred and 
 eighty miles, they reached the first village of the Western 
 Oasis, which is called Bellata. Having explained to the 
 inhabitants that their object was “ old buildings,” they were 
 informed that there were some in the neighbourhood. 
 ‘‘Accordingly,” says Sir Archibald, “in the evening we 
 rode to see them, and in our way passed through a beautiful 
 wood of acacias, the foliage of which, at a little distance, 
 recalled English scenery to our recollection. The trees far 
 exceeded in size any I had ever seen of the kind, and upon 
 measuring the trunk of one it proved to be 17 feet 3 inches 
 in circumference.”* 
 
 El Cazar, however, appears to be the principal town of 
 the oasis. The situation of the place, we are told, is per- 
 
 Journey to Two of the Oases, p. 44. 
 
AND DESERT OF THE THEBAID. 
 
 293 
 
 fectly lovely, being on an eminence at the foot of a line of 
 rock which rises abruptly behind it, and encircled by exten- 
 sive gardens filled with palm, acacia, citron, and various 
 other kinds of trees, some of which are rarely seen even in 
 those regions. The principal edifice is an old temple or 
 convent called Daer el Hadjur, about fifty feet long by 
 twenty-five wide, but presenting nothing either very mag- 
 nificent or curious. The first chamber is 24 feet by 20, 
 supported by four pillars five feet in diameter at the shaft, 
 the walls, as far as they are visible, being traced with figures 
 and hieroglyphics. The winged globe, encompassed by the 
 serpent, the emblem of eternity, is carved over one of the 
 doors. 
 
 This oasis is composed of twelve villages, of which ten 
 are within five or six miles of each other ; the remaining 
 two being much farther off at the entrance of the plain, and 
 scarcely looked upon as belonging to this division. The 
 sheik expressed his belief that there was inhabited land to 
 the westward, — adding that some Arabs, who had lately 
 attempted to explore the country in that direction, met at 
 the end of three days such a terrible whirlwind as compelled 
 them to return. 
 
 The prevailing soil is a very light red earth, fertilized en- 
 tirely by irrigation. The people are Bedouins, who acknow- 
 ledge the sovereignty of the pasha, and pay an annual tribute. 
 The only manufacture worthy of notice is that of indigo, 
 the method of producing which is very simple : the plant, 
 when dried, is put into an earthen jar with hot water, and 
 agitated by means of a palm branch, resembling the handle 
 of a churn, until the colour is pressed out. The liquid is 
 then strained through the bark of a tree into another jar, 
 where it is left for eight or nine days, during which time 
 part of the water escapes by trickling through a small aper- 
 ture half-way down thp side of it, leaving the sediment at the 
 bottom. It is afterward put into a broad but very shallow 
 hole formed in the sand, which absorbs the remaining 
 liquid, and leaves the indigo in solid cakes on the surface. 
 This commodity is the property of the richer inhabitants, and 
 is one of the very few articles which the pasha has not mo- 
 nopolized, probably from ignorance of its existence in that 
 remote district.* 
 
 Journey, p. 58, 
 
 B b 2 
 
294 
 
 THE OASES, ANCIENT BERENICE, 
 
 The latitude of the Western Oasis is nearly the same'as 
 that of Thebes and the Great Oasis, or about 26 ° north. 
 The longitude eastward from Greenwich may be a little 
 more or less than twenty-eight degrees, El Kargeh being 
 estimated at thirty degrees ten minutes, and the distance 
 between it and Bellata amounting to a journey with camels 
 of thirty-five hours, or one hundred and five miles. We 
 may add, that it was on his return from the remoter oasis 
 to the Nile that Sir Archibald visited the cluster of islands 
 of which El Kargeh is the chief, and where he found the 
 remains of the magnificent temple already described. 
 
 The Little Oasis, or that of El Kassar, has been less 
 visited than either of the two others which have been longest 
 known to European travellers. We owe the latest and 
 most distinct account to Belzoni, who, proceeding in search 
 of it westward from the valley of Fayoum, arrived at the 
 close of the fourth day on the brink of what he calls the 
 Elloah, — that is, the El Wah, or El Ouah, from which the 
 Greeks formed the more common term oasis. He describes 
 it as a valley surrounded with high rocks, forming a spa- 
 cious plain of twelve or fourteen miles in length, and about 
 six in breadth. There is only a small portion cultivated at 
 present, but there are many proofs remaining that it must 
 at one time have been all under crop, and that with proper 
 management it might again be easily rendered fertile. The 
 first village he entered was called Zaboo, where he met with 
 a kind reception upon the whole, although the simple in- 
 habitants could not comprehend why a man should en- 
 counter the toils and perils of the desert merely to gratify 
 his curiosity in regard to old buildings. They endeavoured 
 to persuade him that the Devil had taken possession of all the 
 vaults which he wished to examine ; and when he came out 
 they expected to find him loaded with treasure, — the only 
 intelligible object for which, in their estimation, he could 
 brave so formidable an enemy. 
 
 From Zaboo he went to El Kassar, the chief village in 
 that group of oases. There he. saw the remains of a Greek 
 temple, consisting of a high wall with two lateral wings, 
 and an arch in the centre. It is so situated that it must 
 have been built on the ruins of another of greater dimen- 
 sions. Its breadth is about sixty feet, and its length, it is 
 presumed, must have been in proportion. There were 
 
AND DESERT OF THE THEBAID. 
 
 295 
 
 several tombs excavated in the rock somewhat like those of 
 Egypt, in which Mr. Belzoni found several sarcophagi of 
 baked clay with the mummies inside, — their folding not so 
 rich nor so fine, the linen of a coarse sort, and the corpses, 
 being without asphaltum, not so well preserved. His atten- 
 tion was also attracted by the account which he had received 
 of a w r ell sixty feet deep, whose water varies in its tempera- 
 ture twice every day. When he first put his hand into it, 
 being a little after sunset, he felt it warm ; but at midnight 
 it was apparently much warmer ; and before sunrise it was 
 again somewhat cooler, though less so than in the evening. 
 “ For instance,” says he, “ if we were to suppose the water 
 to have been 60° in the evening, it might be 100° at mid- 
 night, and in the morning about 80° ; but when I returned 
 at noon it appeared quite cold, and might be calculated in 
 proportion to the other at 40° Whatever may be the 
 causes of this apparent change of temperature, it was of 
 importance to prove the existence of the fountain itself, ac- 
 cording to the description found in Herodotus, who says 
 that there is a well near the temple of Jupiter Ammon, 
 whose water is cold at noon and midnight, and warm in the 
 morning and evening.* 
 
 It is now known that such fountains are not peculiar to 
 any one of the oases, having been discovered in various 
 parts of the Libyan Desert ; and hence the argument of 
 Belzoni, in regard to the situation of the temple of Ammon, 
 entirely loses its force. All the waters in that division of 
 Africa are strongly impregnated with saline and mineral 
 substances, — an example of which, in the form of a rivulet, 
 he records as having presented itself to his observation* in 
 the neighbourhood of Zaboo. “ It is,” says he, “ curious 
 water ; for if white woollen-cloth be put into it, after 
 twenty-four hours it is taken out as black as any dier could 
 make it.” The change of temperature is obviously effected 
 by the chymical qualities of the strata through which the 
 spring makes its way under ground, modified in a certain 
 degree by evaporation and the presence of light during the 
 heat of the day. 
 
 As to the natives, we are told that their mode of living is 
 very simple : rice, of which they have great abundance, is 
 
 * Researches, vol. il. p. 2 18 
 
296 
 
 THE OASES, ANCIENT BERENICE, 
 
 their chief food ; but it is of so inferior a sort that they have 
 little traffic in it, and what they do enjoy is only among the 
 Bedouins who go thither yearly to purchase dates. They 
 have a few camels and donkeys., several cows, buffaloes, 
 goats, and sheep, and could be happy in this Elysium, as it 
 is separated from the rest of mankind ; but, subjoins Mr. 
 Belzoni, “ they are mortal, and they must have their evils !” 
 Their greatest enemies are their own neighbours at another 
 village, which they described as being on the opposite side 
 of a high rock, removed from them three days’ joumev. 
 They are continually in dispute, and often attack one another 
 for the most trifling causes.* 
 
 The traveller was very desirous to cross the desert north- 
 wards to the Oasis of Siwah, but he could not, either by 
 promises or entreaties, prevail upon any one to become his 
 guide in so perilous an adventure. He then resolved to pro- 
 ceed in a south-west direction, in search of a similar district 
 known at El Kassar by the n am e of El Haix, and situated 
 at the distance of thirty hours’ journey. Upon his arrival, 
 he found it a tract of land forming a crescent of more than 
 twenty miles in extent, and presenting some spots of fertile 
 ground and various springs of excellent water. He traced 
 the remains of an ancient town, the baths of which are still 
 in a state of good preservation. A Christian church of 
 Grecian architecture and the ruins of a convent were like- 
 wise clearly distinguished ; but as the guide selected by 
 Belzoni was recognised at El Haix as the sheik of one of 
 the predatory hordes of Bedouins, who from time to time 
 carry terror over the face of the whole desert, a regard to his 
 personal safety induced him to shorten his visit. 
 
 Soon after "his return to El Kassar he set out in a south- 
 easterly direction for a place called El Moele, where he 
 once more found the ruins of a small village, and the re- 
 mains of a very large Christian church and convent. Some 
 of the paintings on the wall are finely preserv ed, particularly 
 the figures of the twelve apostles on the top of a niche over 
 an altar ; the gold is still to be seen in several parts, and 
 the features are perfectly distinct. El Mode is situated at 
 the extremity of a long tract of land which had been culti- 
 vated in former times, but is now abandoned for want of 
 
 * Researches, vol. ii. p. 198. 
 
AND DESERT OF THE TIIEBAID. 
 
 297 
 
 water. It extends more than ten miles from west to east ; 
 whence it required a long day’s journey to bring him again 
 to the banks of the Nile. 
 
 We have still to mention the Oasis of Siwah, in some 
 respects the most interesting of the whole, and more espe- 
 cially t.s connected with the traditions of Jupiter Ammon, 
 whose temple it is generally understood to contain. It is 
 situated in lat. 29° 12' N., and in long. 26° 6 E. ; being 
 about six miles long, and between four and five in width, 
 the nearest distance from the river of Egypt not exceeding 
 one hundred and twenty miles. A large proportion of the 
 land is occupied by date-trees ; but the palm, the pome- 
 granate, the fig, the olive, the vine, the apricot, the pium, 
 and even the apple are said to flourish in the gardens. No 
 soil can be more fertile. Tepid springs, too, holding 
 salts in solution, are numerous throughout the district ; 
 and it is imagined that the frequency of earthquakes is 
 connected with the geological structure of the surrounding 
 country. 
 
 “ The external appearance of the town of Siwah is 
 striking and singular, as well as its internal arrangements. 
 It is built on a steep conical rock of testaceous limestone, 
 and both in its form and its crowded population bears a 
 resemblance to a beehive. The streets, narrow and crooked, 
 are like staircases, and so dark from the overhanging stories, 
 that the inhabitants use a lamp at noonday. In the centre 
 of the town the streets are generally five feet broad and about 
 eleven feet high ; but some are so low that you must stoop 
 to pass through them. Each house has several floors, the 
 upper communicating with the lower by galleries and cham- 
 bers which cover the streets. The number of stories visible 
 is three or four, but there are in fact five or six. On every 
 marriage the father builds a lodgment for his son above 
 his own, so that the town is continually rising higher. The 
 houses and walls are for the most part built of natron or 
 mineral soda, and rock salt mixed with sand, coated with a 
 gypseous earth which preserves the salt from melting. The 
 town is divided into two quarters : the upper is inhabited 
 only by married people, women, and children ; the lower by 
 widowers and youths, who, though allowed to go into the 
 other quarter by day, must retire at dusk under the penalty 
 of a fine. The total population of the town is between 
 
298 
 
 THE OASES, ANCIENT BERENICE, 
 
 2000 and 2500 ; that of the oasis at large is supposed to 
 amount to 8000 souls.”* 
 
 But a description of the temple of Ammon must prove 
 more interesting to the reader than any details respecting 
 the mode of life pursued by barbarians. A league and a 
 half, then, from the town of Siwah, towards the east, are 
 the ruins of an edifice built in the Egyptian style, to which 
 the natives give the name of Omn Beydeh. The vestiges 
 of a triple enclosure, enormous stones lying on the ground, 
 and masses still standing prove it to have been a monument 
 of the first order. The portion still remaining and in tole- 
 rable preservation is thirty-three feet in length, and con- 
 sists of part of a gateway and two great walls, which are 
 covered with three immense stones measuring thirty-four 
 feet by twenty-seven. The only apartment that could be 
 distinctly made out was 112 feet in length; the whole 
 area of ruins being a rectangular space about 360 feet 
 by 300. 
 
 The decorations are observed to bear the closest resem- 
 blance to those of the Egyptian monuments ; the figures, 
 scenes, and arrangements being entirely the same. Here 
 is the god with the ram’s head, such as is seen at Thebes 
 and Latopolis, who also receives the homage of the priests. 
 The ram is the animal that most frequently occurs among 
 the ornaments. The interior and the ceiling of the apart- 
 ment still standing are richly adorned with hieroglyphic 
 sculptures in relief and coloured. The figures of the gods 
 and priests form Jong processions, occupying three rows, 
 surmounted with a multitude of hieroglyphic tablets painted 
 blue or green. The same style and the same cast of coun- 
 tenance are remarked here as in the monuments of the 
 Thebaid, — the same costumes and sacrifices. The roof is 
 occupied by two rows of gigantic vultures with extended 
 wings, with tablets of hieroglyphics, and stars painted red 
 on a blue ground. Under the ruins of the entrance-gate, 
 and on two of the faces of a rectangular block, is sculptured 
 in full relief the figure of Typhon or the evil genius, about 
 five feet high. A similar block has been used in the basis 
 Of the mosque of Siwah ; being without doubt the pedestals 
 
 * Modern Traveller, Egypt, vol. ii. p. 200 ; Cabinet of Foreign Voyages, 
 vel. 1. 
 
AND DESERT OF THE TIIEBAID. 
 
 2 99 
 
 of columns erected after the manner of the Typhonium of 
 Edfou, to which these ruins bear a resemblance, though on 
 a larger scale.* 
 
 This description, which does much credit to the penetrat- 
 ing eyes and vivid fancy of a French traveller, the zealous 
 M . Drovetti, may be contrasted with the sober delineation 
 of an Englishman, who saw no more than was actually to 
 be seen in the mouldering walls of the famous El Birbe, 
 which adorn the Oasis of Siwah.f 
 
 Nearly a mile from these ruins, in a pleasant grove of 
 date-palms, is still discovered the celebrated Fountain of the 
 Sun, dedicated of old to the Ammonian deity. It is a small 
 marsh rather than a well, extending about ninety feet in 
 length and sixty in width, but is at the same time perfectly 
 transparent, though a constant disengagement of air 
 reveals the chymical action which gives a peculiar character 
 to its waters. At present, not less perceptibly than in the 
 days of Herodotus, the temperature is subject to a diurnal 
 ehange. In the night it is apparently warmer than in the 
 day ; and in the morning, as was observed by the ancients, 
 a steam rises from it, denoting the refrigeration of the 
 atmosphere. Close by this spring, in the shade of the 
 palm-grove, are the traces of a small temple, supposed to 
 be the relics of the sanctuary mentioned by Diodorus Sicu- 
 lus as being near the Fountain of the Sun. 
 
 The character of the ruins now described carries back 
 their date beyond the era of Christianity, — an inference 
 which is confirmed by the appearance of a mountain in the 
 neighbourhood, a great part of which has been converted 
 into catacombs. Some of these sepulchral chambers are 
 on a magnificent scale, and bear a considerable degree of 
 resemblance to the celebrated tombs of Thebes, having the 
 same variety of apartments, and even of decoration, sculp- 
 ture, arid painting. But, unfortunately, none of them have 
 escaped violation, and in the greater number nothing remains 
 except relics of ancient mummies, crumbling bones, and 
 torn linen. About ten years ago a part of the excavations 
 was possessed by a tribe of Arabs, who turned them into a 
 subterraneous village. 
 
 * Cabinet of Voyages, vol. i. p. 205. 
 
 t See Travels in Africa, Egypt, and Syria, by W. G. Browne. Second 
 edition, p. 14, (See. 
 
300 
 
 THE OASES, ANCIENT BERENICE, 
 
 The interest of the traveller is still excited by a succession 
 of lakes and temples which stretch into the desert far 
 towards the west ; all rendered sacred by religious associa- 
 tions and by the traditionary legends of the native tribes. 
 Tombs, catacombs, churches, and convents are scattered 
 over the waste, which awaken the recollections of the 
 Christian to the early history of his belief, and which at 
 the same time recall to the Pagan and the Mohammedan 
 events more interesting than are to be found in the vulgar 
 annals of the human race, or can touch the heart of any 
 but those w T ho are connected with a remote lineage by means 
 of a family history. At a short distance from the sacred 
 lake there is a temple of Roman or Greek construction, 
 which in modem times bears the name of Kasr Roum. 
 The portion still standing is divided into three apartments, 
 the longest of which is fifty feet by twenty-two, and the 
 height eighteen feet. The roof, composed of large stones, 
 is still remaining in a part of the building; but, generally 
 speaking, both the covering and the walls have fallen down. 
 Perhaps the only remarkable feature attending this building 
 is the fact that the architecture is of the Doric order, the 
 sculptures, cornices, and friezes being executed with much 
 care and precision, — a circumstance which cannot fail to 
 excite surprise in a country surrounded by the immense 
 deserts of Libya, and at the distance of not less than four 
 hundred miles from the ancient limits of civilization. 
 
 In the consecrated territory of that mysterious land is 
 the salt lake of Arashieh, distant two days and a half from 
 Siwah, in a valley enclosed by two mountains, and extend- 
 ing from six to seven leagues in circumference. So holy 
 is it esteemed, that M. Caillaud could not obtain permission 
 to visit its banks. Even the pasha’s firman failed to alter 
 the determination of the sheiks on this essential point. 
 They declared that they would sooner perish than suffer a 
 stranger to approach that sacred island, which, according 
 to their belief, contained treasures and talismans of mys- 
 terious power. It is said to possess a temple, in which are 
 the seal and sword of the prophet, the palladium of their 
 independence, and not to be seen by any profane eye. A 
 reasonable doubt may indeed be entertained as to these 
 assertions ; for M. Drovetti, who accompanied a detach- 
 -ment of troops under Hassan Bey, walked round the borders 
 
AND DESERT OF THE THEBAID. 
 
 301 
 
 of the lake, and observed nothing in its bosom but naked 
 rocks. Mr. Browne, too, remarks, that he found “ mis- 
 shapen rocks in abundance,” but nothing that he could 
 positively decide to be ruins, — it being very unlikely, he 
 adds, that any should be there, the spot being entirely des- 
 titute of trees and fresh water. 
 
 Major Rennell has employed much learning to prove 
 that the Oasis of Siwah is the site of the famous temple of 
 Jupiter Ammon. He remarks, that the variations, between 
 all the authorities ancient and modern, amount to little 
 more than a space equal to thrice the length of the oasis 
 in question, which is at the utmost only six miles long. 
 
 “ And it is pretty clearly proved that no other oasis exists 
 in that quarter within two or more days’ journey ; but, on 
 the contrary, that Siwah is surrounded by a wide desert : so 
 that it cannot be doubted that this oasis is the same with 
 that of Ammon ; and the edifice found there the remains of 
 the celebrated temple from whence the oracles of Jupiter 
 Amnion were delivered.”* 
 
 At different distances in the desert, towards the west, 
 are other oases, the exact position and extent of which are 
 almost entirely unknown to the European geographer. 
 The ancients, who we are satisfied had more certain intel- 
 ligence in regard to that quarter of the globe than is yet 
 possessed by the moderns, were wont to compare the sur- 
 face of Africa to a leopard’s skin ; the little islands of fer- 
 tile soil being as numerous as the spots on that animal. It 
 is probable that these interesting retreats will soon be better 
 known; for the authority of Mohammed Ali being recog- 
 nised as far as his name is known, the traveller will find 
 the usual facilities and protection which are so readily 
 granted to the Franks whom an enlightened curiosity leads 
 into his dominions. 
 
 The desert which bounds the eastern side of the Egyptian 
 valley, and stretches to the shores of the Red Sea, presents 
 likewise to the philosopher several points worthy of con- 
 sideration. Mr. Irwin, who travelled from Kenneh to Cairo 
 by a road which passes obliquely through the northern part 
 of this wilderness, found some delightful ravines in the hilly 
 barrier by which it is guarded, ornamented with beautiful 
 
 * The Geographical System of Herodotus Examined and Explained, 
 6iC., vol. ii. p. 230. Second edition. 
 
 C c 
 
002 TrtE OASES, ANCIENT BERENICE, 
 
 shrubs, and affording a safe retreat to the timid antelope. 
 Some tufts of wild wheat, a date-tree, a well, and a grotto 
 call to mind the old anchorets who chose in these solitudes 
 to relinquish all intercourse with the sinful world. Two 
 verdant spots, of a similar character, near the Arabian 
 Gulf, between Suez and Cosseir, contain the monasteries 
 of St. Anthony and St. Paul, surrounded with thriving 
 orchards of dates, olives, and apricots. 
 
 But the most interesting object on the shores of the inlet 
 just mentioned are the remains of Berenice, a town which 
 connects the history of ancient Egypt with that of the 
 Macedonian and Roman power in Africa, and at the same 
 time indicates one of the channels through which commerce 
 was carried on between the remoter parts of Asia and the 
 notions of Europe. According to Pliny, it was through 
 Berenice that the principal trade of the Romans with India 
 was conducted, b} r means of caravans, which reached the 
 Nile at Coptos, not far from the point at which the present 
 shorter road by Cosseir meets the river. By this medium 
 it is said that a sum not less than 400,000Z. was annually 
 remitted by them to their correspondents in the East, in 
 payment of merchandise which ultimately sold for a hundred 
 times as much. 
 
 An exaggerated account of an ancient city, said to have 
 been discovered in that neighbourhood, was published some 
 years ago in a French work, purporting to convey intelli- 
 gence recently received from M. Caillaud, a young traveller 
 in Africa. The situation was described as being a few 
 leagues from the Red Sea, and currently known among the 
 Arabs by the name of Sekelle. The ruins consisted of 
 many temples, palaces, and private houses still standing, so 
 that they might in some respects be compared to the relics 
 of Pompeii ; the architecture was Grecian, with some 
 Egyptian ornaments ; several inscriptions seemed to prove 
 that the town must have been built by the Ptolemies, while 
 one of the temples was evidently dedicated to Berenice. 
 The hope of examining so many splendid monuments of 
 ancient taste induced Belzoni and Mr. Beechey to undertake 
 a painful journey across the desert, from Esneh to the Red 
 Sea ; in the course of which, after having inspected the sur- 
 rounding country with the greatest minuteness, and that, too, 
 under the direction of the same guide who had attended 
 
AND DESERT OF THE TIIEBAID. 
 
 303 
 
 M. Caillaud, they had the mortification to discover that the 
 ardent Frenchman, beguiled either by the mirage or by his 
 own heated fancy, had seen towers, palaces, and temples, 
 which to more ordinary observers were entirely invisible. 
 The strictures of Belzoni, whose mind was entirely devoted 
 to matters of fact, are more, amusing than complaisant. 
 “ All that we saw was the summits of other lower moun- 
 tains, and at last we began to be persuaded that no such 
 town existed, and that Monsieur Caliud (so he spells the 
 name) had seen the great city only in his own imagination. 
 It was rather provoking to have undertaken such a journey 
 in consequence of such a fabricated description ; and I hope 
 this circumstance will serve as a warning to travellers to 
 take care to what reports they listen, and from whom they 
 receive their information. From the accounts of persons 
 who are so given to exaggeration, one cannot venture on a 
 journey without running the risk of being led astray and 
 disappointed, as we were in our search after the said town 
 with its eight hundred houses, — and very like Pompeii !” 
 
 But his labour was at length rewarded by discovering the 
 site of the real Berenice on the margin of the sea, and at 
 no' great distance from the position in which it is laid down 
 by M. D’Anville. The ruins have assumed the appearance 
 of little mounds, but the lines of the principal streets, never- 
 theless, can still be distinctly traced, and even the forms of 
 the houses, though these last are for the most part filled 
 with sand. The materials used by the architects of Habesh 
 were somewhat singular, for Belzoni assures us that he 
 could see nothing but coral, roots, madrepore, and several 
 petrifactions of seaweed. The temple, he adds, is built of 
 a kind of soft calcareous and sandy stone, but decayed much 
 by the air of the sea. 
 
 It is well known that Berenice was built by Ptolemy 
 Philadelphus, a little after the establishment of Myos 
 Hormus. Situated in a lower part of the gulf, it facilitated 
 navigation by enabling mariners to take advantage of the 
 regular winds. The inland route between Coptos and 
 Berenice was opened with an army by the same prince, w r ho 
 established stations along it for the protection of travellers. 
 This relation, which is given by Strabo, agrees with the 
 Adulitic inscription preserved in Cosmas, which records the 
 Ethiopian conquests of Ptolemy Euergetes, who seems to 
 
304 
 
 THE OASES, ANCIENT BERENICE, 
 
 have adopted the commercial plans of his father, and to 
 have endeavoured to extend them. The Romans, when 
 they conquered Egypt, immediately perceived the import- 
 ance of these arrangements ; Berenice became the centre 
 of their Eastern trade, and Myos Hormus sunk to a subordi- 
 nate station. The only Greek author who gives an account 
 of this emporium is the geographer just named. All the 
 details, indeed, concerning the inland route from Coptos to 
 Berenice are Roman. It occupied twelve days, and is esti- 
 mated at 258 miles by Pliny and the compiler of the Peutin- 
 gerian Tables. The port of Habesh, the name that the 
 harbour corresponding to Berenice now obtains, is derived 
 from the appellation which the African shore in the parallel 
 of Syen6 often receives.* 
 
 The situation of this interesting town must have been 
 delightful. The sea opens before it on the east ; and, from 
 the southern coast to the point of the cape, there is an 
 amphitheatre of mountains, with a single break on the 
 north-west, forming the communication which connects it 
 with Egypt. Right opposite there is a fine harbour entirely 
 made by nature, guarded on the east by a projecting rock, 
 on the south by the land, and on the west by the town. 
 The extent covered by the ruins was ascertained to be 2000 
 feet by 1600, which was calculated to contain 4000 houses ; 
 but, that he might “not be mistaken for another Caliud,” 
 Mr. Belzoni reduces the number to 2000, which at the rate 
 of five to a family gives a population of about 10,000 per- 
 sons, old and young. The temple, which measured 102 
 feet in length by 43 in width, proved to be Egyptian both 
 in its plan and its architecture, having figures sculptured in 
 basso relievo, executed with considerable skill, together 
 with many hieroglyphics. The plain that surrounds the 
 town is very extensive ; the nearest point in the mountains 
 which form the crescent being not less than five miles dis- 
 tant. The soil is so completely moistened by the vapour 
 from the sea as to be quite suitable for vegetation, and 
 would produce, if properly cultivated, abundant pasture for 
 camels, sheep, and other domestic animals. At present it 
 abounds with acacias and a small tree called suvaro, which 
 last grows so close to the shore as to be under water every 
 
 * Murray's Historical Account, vol. U. p. 187. 
 
AXD DESERT OF THE THEBAID. 
 
 305 
 
 high tide. Unfortunately, there are no wells nor springs in 
 the neighbourhood, and hence a difficulty in accounting for 
 the supply of an article altogether indispensable to a town 
 so considerable as Berenice must have been during the 
 government of the Ptolemies. It is presumed that the 
 contiguous hills would afford the means of answering this 
 claim, though at present no traces of an aqueduct can be 
 discovered. 
 
 From this narrative it should seem that the city which 
 bears the name of Ptolemy’s mother is situated near the 
 24th degree of latitude, or in the same parallel with Syene. 
 The seashore in that vicinity is formed almost entirely of 
 calcareous matter, in the shape of madrepores, corals, and 
 shells, all aggregated into a solid mass like a rock, and 
 stretching from the bank of sand which constitutes the 
 boundary of the tide to a great distance into the water. A 
 similar phenomenon occurs in Ceylon, where the lime held 
 in solution at the mouths of the rivers combines with the 
 siliceous and argillaceous ingredients of the beach, and gives 
 rise to a continued extension of the coast as well as to those 
 coral reefs which prove so dangerous to the mariner. “ All 
 the shore,” says the traveller, “ as far as we could see, was 
 composed of a mass of petrifactions of various kinds.” In 
 some places there are beds of sand, but there is not a spot 
 for a boat to approach the beach without the risk of being 
 staved against the rock. 
 
 At the distance of twenty-five miles, in a straight line 
 from the Red Sea, are the famous Emerald Mountains, the 
 highest of which, from a reference to its subterranean trea- 
 sure, is called Zubara. These mines were formerly visited 
 by Bruce, whoseaccount of them is amply confirmed by the 
 latest travellers, who in, verifying his statements do no 
 more than justice to his memory, so long and so ungene- 
 rously reviled. The present pasha of Egypt made an 
 attempt in the year 1818 to renew the process, which had 
 been long relinquished, for finding those precious stones so 
 much prized by the former conquerors of the land. About 
 fifty men were employed when Mr. Belzoni passed the 
 establishment ; but, although they had toiled six months, 
 nothing was found to satisfy the avarice of their powerful 
 employer, whom they execrated in their hearts. The mines 
 or excavations made by the ancients were all choked up 
 C c 2 
 
306 
 
 THE OASES, ANCIENT BERENICE, 
 
 with the rubbish , of the roof that had fallen in, and the 
 labour to remove it was great ; for the holes were very 
 small, scarcely capable of containing the body of a man 
 crawling like a chameleon. These unfortunate wretches 
 received their supply of provisions from the Nile ; but occa- 
 sionally it did not arrive in due time, and great famine of 
 course prevailed among them. The nearest well was dis- 
 tant about half a day’s journey ; whence it is not surprising 
 that, deprived of the necessaries of life, and feeling that 
 they were doomed to be sacrificed in the desert, they should 
 have repeatedly risen against their leaders and put them to 
 death.* 
 
 The great wilderness of Eastern Egypt is occupied by 
 various tribes of Arabs, who consider its different sections 
 as their patrimonial inheritance. The Ababdeh rule over 
 that portion of it which stretches from the latitude of Cos- 
 seir to a distant part of Nubia ; the Beni Wassel join them 
 on the north ; and these again are succeeded by the Ma- 
 hazeh, who claim an authority as far as the parallel of Beni 
 Souef. The desert, which comprehends the Isthmus of 
 Suez, is in the possession of a fourth family, who are known 
 by the designation of Hooat-al, and sometimes by that of 
 Atoonis or Antonis, derived, it is probable, from the name of 
 the saint whose convent gives celebrity to the neighbourhood. 
 
 It has been observed that this sterile region exhibits the 
 form of a triangle, the apex of which is placed at Suez, 
 while the two sides rest upon the Red Sea and the Nile. 
 In the parallel of Cairo the river is scarcely three days’ 
 journey distant from the sea ; at Keft the distance is con- 
 siderably increased ; farther south it becomes nine days’ 
 journey ; while at Syene it is computed to be about seven- 
 teen. This district, which from its eastern situation is 
 denominated Sharkin, — a word latinized into Saracene, — is 
 by the ancients frequently termed Arabia, from the simi- 
 larity both of the country and the inhabitants. It has also 
 been termed Asiatic Egypt. The chain of mountainous 
 ridges which confine the eastern bank of the Nile is so steep 
 and precipitous that it frequently exhibits the aspect of an 
 artificial fortification, interrupted at intervals by deep and 
 rugged ravines. But, as if this natural defence had not 
 
 * Belzoni, vol. ii. p. 40. 
 
AND DESERT OF THE THEBAID. 
 
 307 
 
 been sufficient, the remains of a real wall, about twenty- 
 four feet thick, formed of huge stones, and running from 
 north to south, is asserted to have been discovered in this 
 desert. This the Arabs suppose to have been constructed 
 by an ancient Egyptian king, and hence the name which it 
 continues to bear , — The Wall of the Old Man. The greater 
 part of this arid desert affords no traces of animal or vege- 
 table life : “ The birds,” says Dr. Leyden, “ shun its torrid 
 atmosphere, the serpent and the lizard abandon the sands, 
 and the red ant, which resembles in colour the soil on which 
 it lives, is almost the only creature that seems to exist 
 among the ruins of nature. But the monasteries of St. 
 Anthony and St. Paul are still inhabited by Coptic monks, 
 who, while they claim an absolute power over demons and 
 wild beasts, are unable to protect themselves from the wan- 
 dering Arabs, — more formidable than either to an unarmed 
 ascetic.”* 
 
 Towards Suez the shore is skirted by some small islands, 
 which are as barren as the mainland. The principal of 
 these are the Jaffatines, four in number, and arranged in 
 the form of a semicircle. After passing Djibel-el-Zeil the 
 harbour of Myos Hormus presents itself, anciently selected 
 by Ptolemy Philadelphus in preference to Suez. For a con- 
 siderable period this was the emporium of the Arabian 
 trade, until, as we have already stated, in the time of the 
 Romans it was supplanted by Berenice. Cosseir, the Leucos 
 Portus of the geographer Ptolemy, has long given place to 
 a more modern town of the same name, which stands in 
 lat. 26° 7’ N., and long. 34° 4 E., and is said to be built 
 among hillocks of moving sand. The houses are formed 
 of clay, and the inhabitants, in their manners and features, 
 have a greater resemblance to the Arabians of the opposite 
 shore than to the native Egyptians. It now derives its 
 chief importance from being one of the stations at which 
 the pilgrims assemble on their route to the holy cities of 
 Mecca and Medina, t 
 
 * Murray’s Historical Account of Discoveries and Travels in Africa 
 vol. ii. p. 182. 
 
 t Ibid. vol. ii. p. 186. 
 
308 
 
 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 Manners and Customs of the Egyptians. 
 
 Great Variety of Manners in Egypt — Funeral Ceremonies described by 
 Diodorus — Judgment pronounced on the Dead — Civil Suits in ancient 
 Times— Account of Coptic Baptism— Levantines — Moslem Marriages; 
 Description by Mr. Browne— Interior of a Harem — Circassians — 
 Ethiopian Women — Mode of Living among Turks ; among Euro- 
 peans — Mosques — Mohammed Ali and Burekhardt — Language of 
 Copts — Religion — Festival of Calige — Virgin offered to the Nile ; a 
 similar Custom in India — Female Mourners in Egypt — Dress of 
 Ladies — Amusements of Cairo — Reptiles, Insects, Nuisances — Anec- 
 dote of Sir Sidney Smith— Opinion of Denon — Character of Egyptian 
 Arabs — Houses — Mode of Life — Barbers — Doctors — Piety — Arabic 
 Manuscripts — Serpent-eaters and Charmers — Mamlouk Notions of 
 Respectability. 
 
 In a country, the inhabitants of which acknowledge so 
 many different descents, the manners and customs must 
 partake of an equal variety. The habits of the Moslem, for 
 example, can have little resemblance, to those of the Copt, 
 the Mamlouk, the Bedouin, or the Jew ; for in points where 
 hereditary attachments do not interfere, the authority of 
 religion continues to perpetuate a distinction. Our best 
 guides as to modern Egypt are Mr. Browne and Dr. Hume, 
 both of whom were a considerable time resident in the 
 country, and well qualified by their knowledge of society to 
 supply an intelligible account of what fell under their ob- 
 servation. In regard to the more ancient periods, it is 
 obvious that we do not possess sufficient information of do- 
 mestic life from which to furnish a narrative that might 
 prove agreeable to the general reader, who cannot be sup- 
 posed to take much interest in the details of a superstitious 
 worship, or in the opinions of a mystical philosophy. We 
 shall therefore confine ourselves to a single extract from 
 Diodorus Siculus, relative to the funeral ceremonies which 
 were observed in the days of the Pharaonic dynasty. He 
 tells us that a talent of silver — 450 1. — was sometimes ex- 
 pended in performing the last offices to a distinguished 
 individual, 
 
OF THE EGYPTIANS. 
 
 333 
 
 The relatives of the deceased, says he, announce to the 
 judges and to all the connexions of the family the time ap- 
 pointed for the ceremony, which includes the passage of th» 
 defunct over the lake or canal of the Nome to which he 
 belonged. Two-and-forty judges are then collected, and 
 arranged on a semicircular bench, which is situated on the 
 bank of the canal ; the boat is prepared, and the pilot, who 
 is called by the Egyptians Charon , is ready to perform his 
 office ; whence it is said that Orpheus borrowed the mytho- 
 logical character of this personage. But before the coffin 
 is put into the boat, the law permits any one who chooses 
 to bring forward his accusations against the dead person ; 
 and if it is proved that his life was criminal the funeral rites 
 are prohibited ; while, on the other hand, if the charges are 
 not substantiated, the accuser is subjected to a severe pun- 
 ishment. If there are no insinuations against the deceased, 
 or if they have been satisfactorily repelled, the relations 
 cease to give any further expression to their grief, and pro- 
 ceed to pronounce suitable encomiums on his good principles 
 and humane actions ; asserting, that he is about to pass a 
 happy eternity with the pious in the regions of Hades. 
 The body is then deposited in the catacomb prepared for it 
 with becoming solemnity.* 
 
 This narrative is confirmed by various pictorial repre- 
 sentations still preserved, which exhibit the forty-two judges 
 performing the duty here assigned to them, as well as by 
 certain inscriptions which distinctly allude to the same 
 remarkable custom. Hence is likewise established the 
 opinion, conveyed by several of the Greek historians and 
 philosophers, that the ancient Egyptians believed in a future 
 state of reward and punishment. 
 
 In civil suits, according to the same author, the number 
 of judges was only thirty ; and it is worthy of special notice, 
 as bearing some affinity to a usage well known in a neigh- 
 bouring nation, that their president wore a breastplate 
 adorned with jewels, which was called Truth. The eight 
 books of the laws were spread open in court ; the pleadings 
 of the advocates were exclusively conducted in writing, in 
 order that the feelings of the judges might not be improperly 
 biassed by the too energetic eloquence of an impassioned 
 
 Diodcr. Sicul. His:, lib. L cap. 92. 
 
310 
 
 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS 
 
 orator. The president delivered the sentence of his col- 
 leagues by touching the successful party with the mysterious 
 symbol of truth and justice which adorned his person.* 
 
 Dr. Hume relates, that when at Rosetta h6 and a friend 
 were invited by a Coptic merchant to witness the christen- 
 ing erf a child. On entering they were received by the lady 
 of the house with great civility. She poured a little per- 
 fumed rose-water into their hands from a bottle covered 
 with silver filigree of very fine work ; and as they passed 
 into the room they were sprinkled over with rose-water. 
 This was found to be a common custom in all Coptic and 
 Levantine houses when a person makes a visit of ceremony. 
 The apartment into which they were introduced was in the 
 highest floor, where was a table covered with all kinds 
 of sweetmeats and fruits. The mistress of the family and 
 her sister, also a married lady, with her husband and other 
 guests, soon made their appearance. The infant was com- 
 pletely swathed. The ceremony was performed by a 
 Coptic priest, according to a service which he read from a 
 manuscript ritual ; which, if we may trust to the descrip- 
 tion given by Pococke, consists in plunging the child three 
 times into water, after which it is confirmed, and receives 
 the other sacrament, — that is, the minister dips his finger 
 in consecrated wine and puts it to the infant’s mouth. f 
 Having mentioned the Levantines, we may add that the 
 people who go by this name are the descendants of Franks 
 born in Egypt and Syria, and that they are thereby distin- 
 guished from the natives of European countries. The 
 ladies of this class imitate the Arabs in dying their eye- 
 lashes, eyebrows, and hair with a dark colour, and dress in 
 the costume of the higher order of that description of society. 
 
 The Moslem marriages are always regulated by the elder 
 females, the bridegroom seldom seeing the bride until the 
 day of their union. It is merely a civil contract between 
 their mutual friends, and signed by the young man and his 
 father. There is a procession consisting of many persons, 
 male and female, who accompany the young lady to the 
 house of her future husband, where she is received by her 
 female friends. As soon as the ceremony is performed the 
 
 * Philosoph. Trans., 1819 ; Supplement to Ency. Brit., vol. iv. p. jg, 
 
 f Walpole’s Memoirs, p. 400; Pococke’s Travels, vol. i. p, 246 
 
OF THE EGYPTIANS. 
 
 311 
 
 women raise a shout of congratulation, which is repeated 
 at intervals during the entertainment that follows. After 
 this burst of joy they make another procession through the 
 streets, the females all veiled ; and a person mounted on a 
 horse richly caparisoned carries a red handkerchief fixed to 
 the end of a pole after the fashion of a military banner. 
 They then return to the house, where they pass the 
 remainder of the day and part of the night in feasting, 
 looking at dancing-girls, and listening to singing-men. 
 
 Mr. Browne, who witnessed the marriage of the daughter 
 of Ibrahim Bey, describes it in the following terms : — “ A 
 splendid equipage was prepared in the European form of a 
 coach drawn by two horses and ornamented with wreaths 
 of artificial flowers, in which a beautiful slave from the 
 harem, personating the bride (whose features were very 
 plain), was carried through the principal streets of Cairo. 
 The blinds of the coach were drawn up, and the fair deputy 
 sat concealed. The procession was attended by some beys, 
 several officers, and Mamlouks, and ended at the house 
 of the bridegroom, who received her from the carriage in 
 his arms.” In general at Cairo, the bride, who is com- 
 pletely veiled, walks under a canopy supported by two 
 women to the house of the bridegroom. He adds, that the 
 ladies of the capital are not tall but well formed. The 
 upper ranks are tolerably fair, in which and in fatness con- 
 sist the, chief praises of beauty in the Egyptian climate. 
 They marry at fourteen or fifteen, and at twenty are past 
 their prime. For what reason the natives of hot climates 
 ordinarily prefer women of large persons, he acknowledges 
 that he was not able to discover. Nevertheless the Coptic 
 ladies have interesting features, large black eyes, and a 
 genteel figure.* 
 
 •Speaking of the original inhabitants of Egypt, this author 
 confirms the opinion given by recent travellers in opposition 
 to that supported by Malte Brun, and obviously borrowed 
 from Volney. He admits that there is a peculiarity of 
 feature common to all the Copts, but asserts that neither 
 in countenance nor personal form is there any resemblance 
 to the negro. Their hair and eyes are indeed of a dark hue, 
 and the former is often curled, though not in a greater 
 
 * Travels in Africa, Egypt, and Syria, p. 76. 
 
312 
 
 manners and customs 
 
 degree than is usually seen among Europeans. The nose 
 is generally aquiline, and though the lips be sometimes 
 thick, they are by no means generally so ; and, on the 
 whole, he concludes a strong resemblance may be traced 
 between the form of visage in the modem Copts and that 
 presented in the ancient mummies, paintings, and statues. 
 
 Dr. Hume was admitted into the harem of Hassan Bey, 
 and saw three of its inmates. They were seated in a small 
 room, on the sides of which was a divan or sofa covered 
 with crimson satin, — a Turkey earpet being spread on the 
 middle of the floor. The crimson satin w as fancifully em- 
 broidered with silver flowers. The ladies wore white 
 turbans of muslin, and their faces were concealed with long 
 veils, which in fact w T ere only large white handkerchiefs 
 thrown carelessly over them. When they go abroad they 
 wear veils like the Arab women. Their trousers were of 
 red and white striped satin, very wide but drawn together 
 at the ankle with a silk cord, and tied under their breasts 
 with a girdle of scarlet and silver. Something like a w hite 
 silk shirt with loose sleeves and open at the breast was 
 next the skin. Over all was thrown a pelisse ; one of them 
 wore light blue satin, spangled with small silk leaves, while 
 the two others were decked in pink satin and gold. 
 
 “We were treated with coffee, and were fanned by the 
 ladies themselves w T ith large fans, a perfume being at the 
 same time scattered through the room. 1 his was com- 
 posed of rose-water, a great. quantity of which is made in 
 F ay oum. ' They were reserved at first, but after conversing 
 with the Mamlouk who attended me they were less careful 
 to conceal their faces. Their beauty did not equal what I 
 had anticipated from the fineness of their skins. They 
 were inclined to corpulence ; their faces were round and 
 inexpressive, but the neck, bosom, arms, and hands were 
 of great fairness and delicacy. My dress seemed to amuse 
 them very much, and they examined every part of it, par- 
 ticularly my boots and spurs. When drinking coffee with 
 the Turkish officers. I chanced to forget my handkerchief; 
 and as I seemed to express a desire to find it, one of the 
 ladies took off a handkerchief from her head and presented 
 it to me, having first perfumed it.”* 
 
 * Walpole’s Memoirs, p. 393. 
 
OF THE EGYPTIANS. 
 
 313 
 
 After this visit, Dr. Hume, expressing to a Mamlouk 
 some curiosity in respect to the female establishment of 
 Hassan Bey, was informed that the whole amounted to 
 more than twenty, several of whom were Circassians ; but 
 he added that his master had in reality only one wife, who 
 was not among the ladies to whom the stranger was intro- 
 duced, and that all the others were simply her attendants. 
 This arrangement is more general than is commonly 
 believed, for even the Arabs usually content themselves 
 with one wife ; or, when they have two, the second is 
 always subservient to her predecessor in the affairs of the 
 house. 
 
 The Ethiopian women brought to Egypt for sale, though 
 black, are exceedingly beautiful ; their features being per- 
 fectly regular, and their eyes full of fire. A great number 
 of them had been purchased by the French during their 
 stay in the country, who were anxious to dispose of them 
 previously to their departure for Europe ; and it was the 
 custom to bring them to the common market-place in the 
 camp, sometimes in boys’ clothes, at other times in the 
 gaudiest female dress of the Parisian fashion. The price 
 was generally from sixty to a hundred dollars, while Arab 
 women could be purchased as low as ten. The Circassians 
 at all times are exposed to sale in particular markets or 
 khans, and occasionally bring large sums of money to their 
 owners. Their beauty, however, is not very highly prized 
 by Europeans, who are at a loss to account for those lofty 
 descriptions which fill the pages of oriental romance, and 
 ascribe all the attractions of female form to the natives 
 of one favoured portion of Asia. 
 
 In the house of a Turk the apartments for the women 
 are furnished with the finest and most expensive articles ; 
 but those of the men are only remarkable for a plain style 
 of neatness. They breakfast before sunrise, make their 
 second meal at ten, and their third at five in the afternoon ; 
 using at all times an abundance of animal food. A large 
 dish of pilau appears in the middle of the table, surrounded 
 with small dishes of meat, fish, and fowl. Their drink is 
 confined to water, but coffee is served immediately after the 
 meal. At the tables of the great sherbet is introduced ; for 
 as the manufacture of wine is not encouraged in Egypt the 
 quantity that is used by the Greeks and Franks must be 
 
314 
 
 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS 
 
 procured from abroad. The Egyptians still prepare a fer- 
 mented liquor of maize, millet, barley, or rice, but it has 
 very little resemblance to our ale. It is sufficiently pleasant 
 to the taste, and of a clear light colour ; but being very 
 weak and pregnant with saccharine matter, it does not 
 keep fresh above a day. The native Christians distil for 
 themselves a liquor known by the general name of araki. 
 It is made of dates, currants, or the small grapes which are 
 imported from the Seven Islands. But the example of 
 Mohammed Ali, who does not disdain to drink wine, has 
 introduced some degree of laxity into the manners of the 
 metropolis, where there are many who hold the opinion that 
 the great wisdom of their pasha is entitled to equal respect 
 with the injunctions of their prophet. 
 
 The style of living among Europeans is considerably 
 different, but not uniform ; every consulate setting an ex- 
 ample to the people under its protection, and varying 
 according to the seasons of the year. “ One cannot find,” 
 says Mr. Came, “ the comforts of an English breakfast at 
 Cairo ; a cup of coffee and - a piece of bread are ready at an 
 early hour for whoever chooses ; at midday comes a luxu- 
 rious dinner of foreign cookery, with the wines of Europe 
 and fruits of the East ; and seven in the evening introduces 
 supper, — another substantial meal, though rather less pro- 
 fuse than the dinner ; and by ten o’clock most of the family 
 retire. This is not the way of living best adapted to the 
 climate, which seems to require only a slight refreshment 
 during the sultry hours, and the solid meal to be reserved 
 till the cool of the day. A singular luxury in this city, as 
 well as in every other in the East, is the caimac, or clouted 
 cream, exactly the same as that made in Devonshire and 
 Cornwall, and manufactured in the same manner. It is cried 
 about the streets fresh every morning, and is sold on small 
 plates ; and, in a place where butter is never seen, it is a 
 rich and welcome substitute.”* It may be remarked in 
 passing, that except for the purposes of cookery fire is never 
 used in the houses of Cairo, it being found more convenient 
 to compensate the diminished temperature of the cold season 
 Dy an addition to their clothing than by grates or stoves. 
 
 There are in the same capital more than three hundred 
 
 * Carne’s Letters from the East, vol. i. p. 96. 
 
OF THE EGYPTIANS. 
 
 315 
 
 mosques, four or five of which are very splendid, more espe- 
 cially the one dedicated to Jama el Azhar, which is orna- 
 mented with pillars of marble and Persian carpets. A 
 sheik, being at the same time an ecclesiastic of a high order, 
 presides over the establishment, to which an immense prop- 
 erty was formerly attached, and which still supports a 
 number of persons who have the reputation of being dis- 
 tinguished for profound skill in theology and accurate 
 knowledge of the Arabic language. It is furnished also 
 with an extensive collection of manuscripts ; and lectures 
 are read on all subjects which among Mohammedan church- 
 men continue to be regarded as scientific, although entirely 
 unconnected with the improvements of modern times. 
 
 The character of the viceroy, who labours under the im- 
 putation of being a freethinker, has not failed to operate a 
 certain effect on the sentiments of the higher class of per- 
 sons in Cairo. It is said of him that he values no man’s 
 religious opinions a single straw ; as long as they serve him 
 well, they may be Guebres, or worshippers of the Grand 
 Lama. The celebrated traveller Burckhardt, with whom 
 he was very fond of conversing, presented himself ono day 
 before him. “ Pasha,” he said, “ I want to go and see ihe 
 Holy City, and pray at the Prophet’s tomb ; give me your 
 leave and firman for the journey.” — “You go to Mecca and 
 our blessed Prophet’s tomb !” said the prince, “ that’s im- 
 possible, .Ibrahim ! you are not qualified ; you know what I 
 mean ; nor do I think you are a true believer.” — “ But I 
 am, pasha,” was the reply: “you are mistaken, I assure 
 you ; I am qualified, too, in every respect ; and as to belief, 
 have no fears about that ; tell me any part of the Koran 
 that I will not believe !” — “ Go to the Holy City, go, Ibra- 
 him,” said the pasha, laughing heartily ; “ I was not aware 
 you were so holy a man. Do you think I’ll vex myself with 
 questions from the Koran 1 Go and see the Prophet’s tomb, 
 and may it enlighten your eyes and comfort your heart!”* 
 We are rather surprised to find both Mr. Browne and 
 Dr. Hume maintaining that the Coptic language is entirely 
 extinct, and no longer used in any part of Egypt. The 
 former relates that in the Christian monasteries the prayers 
 \re read in Arabic,. and the epistle and gospel in Coptic; 
 
 * Came’s Recollections of Travels in tho East, p. 248, 
 
316 
 
 manners and customs 
 
 observing, however, in regard to this last, that the priest is 
 a mere parrot repeating a dead letter. Manuscripts in that 
 language are, nevertheless, still found in some of the con- 
 vents, leave to copy which might easily be obtained from 
 the patriarch ; and by these means a valuable addition 
 would be made to the collections of M. Quatremere, to whom 
 the scholars of Europe have been so much indebted.* 
 
 We have already stated that the Coptic creed is heretical 
 in regard to the point on which Eutychius was accused of 
 an erring faith. The moderns, notwithstanding, have 
 adopted transubstaniiation, thereby approximating more 
 closely to the Roman belief than their orthodox neighbours 
 of the Greek communion. They have, at the same time, 
 adopted from the Mohammedans the custom of frequent 
 prostrations during divine service ; of individual prayer in 
 public ; and various other ceremonies suggested by the 
 peculiarity of their climate. 
 
 The festival of opening the Galige, or cutting the bank 
 of the Nile, is still annually observed at Cairo, and is one 
 of the few ancient customs which continue to identify the 
 inhabitants of the modern capital with their remotest ances- 
 tors. The year in which Mr. Carne visited Egypt, the 16 th 
 of August was the day appointed for this solemnity, the 
 inundation having reached nearly its greatest height. Ac- 
 companied by some friends, he repaired about eight in the 
 evening to the place, which was a few miles distant from the 
 city, amid the roaring of cannon, illuminations, and fire- 
 works. The shores of the Nile, a long way down from 
 Boulak, were covered with groups of people, — some seated 
 beneath the large spreading sycamores smoking, others 
 gathered around parties of Arabs, who were dancing with 
 infinite gayety and pleasure, and uttering loud exclamations 
 of joy, affording an amusing contrast to the passionless 
 demeanour and tranquil features of their Moslem oppres- 
 sors. Perpetually moving over the scene, which was illu- 
 mined by the most brilliant moonlight, were seen Albanian 
 soldiers in their national costume, Nubians from the burn- 
 ing clime of farther Egypt, with Mamlouks, Arabs, and 
 Turks. 
 
 * Maillet remarked, “ Aujourd’hui la langue Copte n’y est plus entendue 
 par les Coptes mdmes : le dernier qui l’entendait eet rnort en ce siicle.” 
 P.24. 
 
OF THE EGYPTIANS. 
 
 317 
 
 At last day broke, and soon after the report of a cannon 
 Announced that the event so ardently wished for was at 
 hand. In a short time the kiaya bey, the chief minister of 
 the pasha, arrived with his guard, and took his seat on the 
 summit of the opposite bank. A number of Arabs now 
 began to dig down the dike which confined the Nile, the 
 bosom of which was covered with a number of pleasure- 
 boats full of people, waiting to sail along the canal through 
 the city. Before the mound was completely demolished, 
 the increasing dampness and shaking of the earth induced 
 the workmen to leave off. Several of them then plunged 
 into the stream, and exerting all their strength to push down 
 the remaining part, small openings were soon made, and the 
 river broke through with irresistible violence ; for some 
 time it was like the rushing of a cataract. 
 
 According to custom, the kiaya bey distributed a good 
 sum of money, — throwing it into the bed of the canal below, 
 where a great many men and boys scrambled for it. It was 
 an amusing scene, as the water gathered fast round them, 
 to see them struggling and groping amid the waves for the 
 coin ; but the violence of the torrent soon bore them away. 
 There were some, indeed, who had lingered to the last, and 
 now sought to save themselves by swimming, — still buffet- 
 ing the waves, and grasping at the money showered down, 
 and diving after it as it disappeared. Unfortunately, this 
 sport costs a few lives every year, and the author informs 
 us there was one young man drowned on the present 
 occasion. 
 
 The different vessels, long ere the fall had subsided, 
 rushed into the canal, and entered the city, their decks 
 crowded with all ranks, uttering loud exclamations of joy. 
 The overflowing of the Nile is the richest blessing of 
 Heaven to the Egyptians ; and as it finds its way gradually 
 into various parts of Cairo, the inhabitants flock to drink of 
 it, to wash in it, and to rejoice in its progress. The vast 
 square called the Birket, which a few hours before presented 
 the appearance of a dusty neglected field, was now turned 
 into a beautiful scene, being covered with an expanse of 
 water, out of the bosom of which arose the finest sycamore 
 trees. The sounds of joy and festivity, of music and songs, 
 were now heard all over the city with cries of “ Allah, 
 D d 2 
 
318 
 
 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS 
 
 Allah!” and thanks to the Divine bounty for so inesti- 
 mable a benefaction.* 
 
 It is admitted on all hands that, long before its arrival, 
 Cairo stands greatly in need of this annual ablution. Dr. 
 Clarke, at whose presence all the plagues of Egypt were 
 revived in more than their original horrors, consents to 
 acknowledge, that when the canal was filled with its muddy 
 water, the prodigious number of gardens gave to the capital 
 so pleasing an appearance, and the trees growing in those 
 gardens were so new to the eye of a European, that for a 
 moment he forgot the innumerable abominations of the 
 dirtiest city in the whole earth. But he adds, that the 
 boasted lakes, or rather mudpools, into which the w aters 
 of the river are received, particularly the famous Esbequier 
 Birket, would certainly be considered nuisances in any part 
 of the civilized world. f 
 
 A tradition prevails, that in ancient times a virgin was 
 annually sacrificed to the Nile, in order to propitiate the 
 deity who presided over its waters, and who, it was ima- 
 gined with the view of obtaining the wonted victim, occa- 
 sionally postponed or diminished the periodical flood. The 
 only memorial now existing of this obsolete practice appears 
 in the form of a pile or statue of mud, called Anis or the 
 Bride, which is raised every year between the dike of the 
 canal and the river, and is afterward carried away by the 
 current when the embankment is broken down. Moreri, Mur- 
 tadi, and other writers, allude to the same custom, and assign 
 the motive already suggested for its introduction among the 
 Egyptian idolaters. “ They imagined,” says the former, 
 “ that their god Serapis was the author of the marvellous 
 inundation of the Nile, and accordingly, when it was 
 delayed, they sacrificed to him a young girl. This barbarous 
 devotion was abolished, if we may believe the Arabian 
 historians, by the Caliph Omar.”t 
 
 It has become usual to resolve this statement into a 
 mythological legend or astronomical emblem ; but the preva- 
 lence of a similar custom in other parts of the world, and 
 more especially in India, compels us to adhere to the literal 
 import of the narrative, however abhorrent it may be to all 
 
 * Carrie’s Letters, vol. i. p. 99. t Travels, vol. v. p. 108. 
 
 J Diction., vol. vii. p. 1041. 
 
OF THE EGYPTIANS. 
 
 319 
 
 the sentiments of modem times. For example, Bishop 
 Heber relates that the images of a man and a woman, used 
 in a Hindoo festival, were thrown into the Ganges ; and he 
 describes it “ as the relic of a hideous custom which still 
 prevails in Assam, and was anciently practised in Egypt, 
 of flinging a youth and maiden, richly dressed, annually into 
 their sacred river. That such a custom formerly existed 
 in India is, I believe, a matter of pretty uniform tradition.”* 
 Some indistinct recollection of a similar fact appears to 
 have reached the time of Ovid, who relates, that after nine 
 years’ drought, it was suggested that this grievous calamity 
 might be averted by the sacrifice of a human being, a 
 stranger in the land, — a corrupted allusion, perhaps, to the 
 events which happened in the days of the patriarch Joseph. 
 
 Dicitur jEgyptios caruisse juvantibus arva 
 Imbribus," atque annos sicca fuisse novem. 
 
 Cum Thraseas Busirim adiit, monstratque piari 
 Hospitis effuso sanguine posse Jovem. 
 
 The practice of hiring women to lament for the dead is 
 still observed at Cairo, to the great annoyance of the Frank 
 population, whose ears reject the monotonous accents in 
 which this nightly dirge is performed. Upon inquiry it was 
 found that the wealthier the family the more numerous were 
 the hired mourners, and of course the louder the lamenta- 
 tion ; that these singers exhibited the most frightful dis- 
 tortions, having their hair dishevelled, their clothes torn, 
 and their countenances disfigured with paint and dirt, — that 
 they were relieved at intervals by other women similarly 
 employed, — and that the ceremony might thus be continued 
 to any length. A principal part of their art consists in 
 mingling with their howling such affecting expressions of 
 praise or pity as may excite the tears of the relations who 
 are collected around the corpse. f 
 * Journal, vol. ii. p. 391. 
 
 t Clarke’s Travels, vol. v. p. 105. It is evident, as Dr. Clarke ob- 
 serves, that this custom, like the caoineadh of the Irish and the funeral- 
 cry of other nations, are remains of ceremonies practised in honour of 
 the dead in almost every country of. the earth. They are the same that 
 Homer describes at the death of Hector, and they are frequently alluded 
 to in the sacred Scrip! ures : “ Call for the mourning women, that they 
 may come ; and send for cunning women, that they may come : and let 
 them make haste, and take up a wailing for us, that our eyes may run 
 down with tears, and our eyelids gush out with waters ” — Jer. ix. 17 18 
 
3*20 
 
 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS 
 
 The females of Cairo are often seen in the public streets 
 riding upon asses and mules : they sit in the masculine 
 attitude, like the women of Naples and other parts of Italy. 
 Their dress consists of a hood and cloak extending to the 
 feet with a stripe of white calico in front, concealing the 
 face and breast, but having two small holes for the eyes 
 In this disguise, if a man were to meet his own wife or 
 sister, he would not be able to recognise her unless she 
 spoke to him ; and this is seldom done, because the sus- 
 picious Moslems, observing such an intercourse, might sup- 
 pose an intrigue to be going on, in which case they would 
 put one if not both of them to death. Sir F. Henniker com- 
 pares a lady mounted in the way just described, and wrapped 
 up in a black mantle from head to foot, to a coffin placed 
 perpendicularly on a horse, and covered with a pall. 
 
 The inhabitants of Cairo, fond of shows, like the populace 
 of all great cities, amuse themselves chiefly with feats of 
 bodily exercise, such as leaping, rope-dancing, and wrest- 
 ling matches ; also sinking and dancing. They have buf- 
 foons, whose rude pleasantries and stale, jests excite the 
 ready laugh among an ignorant and corrupt people. The 
 almehs, or female improvisatores, who amuse the rich with 
 the exercise of their talent, differ from such as exhibit to 
 the multitude. They come to relieve the solitude of the 
 harem, where they teach the women new tunes, and repeat 
 poems which excite interest from the representations which 
 they give of national manners. They initiate the Egyptian 
 ladies in the mysteries of their art, and teach them to prac- 
 tise dances of rather an unbecoming character. Some of 
 these females have cultivated minds and an agreeable con- 
 versation, speaking their native language w’ith purity. 
 Their poetical habits make them familiar with the softest 
 and best-sounding expressions, and their recitations are 
 made with considerable grace. They are called in on all 
 festive occasions. During meals they are seated in a sort 
 of desk, where they sing. Then they come into the draw- 
 ing-room to perform their dances, or pantomimic evolutions, 
 of which love is generally the groundwork. They now lay 
 aside the veil, and with it the modesty of their sex.* 
 
 W e shall take no farther notice of the disgraceful scenes 
 
 * Malte Brun. iv. p. 72. 
 
or THE EGYPTIANS. 
 
 321 
 
 which too often accompany the exhibitions of these dancing- 
 women, nor shall we draw aside the veil which conceals 
 from the common eye the sensualities of the Egyptian 
 capital. It would be almost equally disagreeable to copy 
 the descriptions given by several British travellers of the 
 sufferings inflicted upon the senses and imagination of a 
 European by the reptiles, flies, fleas, and other more nau- 
 seous vermin. Dr. Clarke informs us that a singular species 
 of lizard made its appearance in every chamber, having cir- 
 cular membranes at the extremity of its feet, which gave it 
 such tenacity that it walked upon window-panes of glass, 
 or upon the surfaces of pendent mirrors. This revolting 
 sight was common in every apartment, whether in the 
 houses of the rich or of the poor. At the same time such 
 a plague of flies covered all things with their swarms, that 
 it was impossible to eat without having persons to stand by 
 every table with feathers or flappers to drive them away. 
 Liquors could not be poured into a glass ; the mode of 
 drinking was, to keep the mouth of every bottle closed till 
 the moment it was applied to the lips, and instantly to cover 
 it with the palm of the hand when removing it to any 
 one else. 
 
 The utmost attention to cleanliness, by a frequent change 
 of every article of wearing apparel, could not prevent the 
 attacks of vermin, which seemed to infest even the air of 
 the place. A gentleman made his appearance, to receive a 
 company whom he had invited to dinner, with lice swarming 
 upon his clothes ; and the only explanation he could give 
 as to the cause was, that he had sat for a short time in one 
 of the boats upon the canal. Nay, it is ascertained that 
 certain winds cover even the sands of the wilderness with 
 this abominable insect. Sir Sidney Smith, on one occasion, 
 apprehending the effects of sleeping a night in the village 
 of Etko, preferred a bed on the bare surface of the adjoining 
 desert ; but, so far from escaping the evil he had dreaded, 
 he found himself in the morning entirely covered with that 
 mysterious plague over which the magicians of Pharaoh 
 had no power. In regard to frogs, of which the Nile at 
 one period of its annual increase seems to be almost ex- 
 clusively composed ; the “ boils breaking out with blains ;** 
 and ot-her peculiarities which continue to afflict the land of 
 Ham, we must restrict ourselves to a simple reference to 
 
322 
 
 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS 
 
 such writers as Drs. Clarke, Shaw, and Poc.ocke, who 
 groan over the long catalogue of human sufferings ; or to 
 Sir F. Henniker, and other facetious tourists, who convert 
 these short afflictions into a subject of merriment.* 
 
 The French were less difficult to please, and much more 
 open to favourable impressions. Denon, for example, 
 speaks of the pleasurable sensations daily excited by the 
 delicious temperature of Cairo, causing Europeans, whc 
 arrive with the intention of spending a few months in the 
 place, to remain during the rest of their lives without ever 
 persuading themselves to leave it. Few persons, however, 
 with whom our countrymen associate, are disposed to ac- 
 quiesce in this opinion. Those, indeed, who are desirous 
 of uninterrupted repose, or who are able to endure the in- 
 variable dulness which prevails in every society to which 
 strangers are admitted, may perhaps tolerate without mur- 
 muring a short residence in the midst of what Dr. Clarke 
 calls a “ dull and dirty city.” The effect, it is admitted, 
 whether it be of climate, of education, or of government, 
 is the same among all the settlers in Egypt except the 
 Arabs, — a disposition to exist without exertion of any kind, 
 — to pass whole days upon beds and cushions, — smoking 
 and counting beads. This is what Maillet termed the true 
 Egyptian taste ; and that it may be acquired by residing 
 among the native inhabitants of Cairo is evident, from the 
 appearance exhibited by Europeans who have passed some 
 years in that city.f 
 
 The lower orders of Egyptian Arabs are described as a 
 quiet, inoffensive people, with many good qualities ; and 
 they are upon the whole more active in agricultural employ- 
 ments than we should be led to imagine from the habits of 
 the better class of them in towns, who pass their time in 
 listless indolence. Their dress consists simply of a pair 
 of loose drawers, blue or white, with a long blue tunic, 
 which serves to cover them from the neck to the ankle, and 
 a small red woollen scull-cap, round which they occasion- 
 
 * “ The dust of the earth became lice upon man and upon beast 
 throughout all the land of Egypt. This application of the words of 
 sacred Scripture,” says Dr. Clarke, 44 affords a literal statement of 
 existing evils ; such a one as the statistics of the country do now 
 warrant.” 
 
 t La Vraie Genie Egyptienne. 
 
OF THE EGYPTIANS. 
 
 323 
 
 ally wind a long white stripe of the same material. The 
 articles of furniture in their houses are extremely few. 
 “ The rooms of all people of decent rank,” says Dr. Hume, 
 “have a low sofa, called a divan, extending completely 
 round three sides, and sometimes to ever} T part of them 
 except the doorway ; but it is most commonly confined to 
 the upper end of the chamber. On this divan the hours 
 not devoted to exercise or business are invariably passed. 
 It is about nine inches from the floor, and covered with 
 mattresses ; the back is formed by large cushions placed all 
 along the wall so close as to touch each other, and more or 
 less ornamented according to the wealth or taste of the 
 owner. The beds are generally laid on wickerwork strongly 
 framed, made of the branches of the date-tree, or consist 
 of mattresses placed on a platform at the end of the room. 
 For their meals they have a very low table, round which 
 they squat on the mats covering the floor ; and in houses 
 of repute I have sometimes seen this table made of copper 
 thihly tinned over. The mats used in Egypt are made of 
 straw, or of the flags attached to the branches of the date- 
 tree, and are very neatly worked in figures, such as squares, 
 ovals, and other forms, with fanciful borders. They are 
 very durable, but harbour numbers of fleas, with which all 
 the houses swarm, particularly in hot weather.”* 
 
 The poorer sort of these Arabs seldom can afford to eat 
 animal food, but subsist chiefly on rice made into a pilau, 
 and moistened with the rancid butter of the country. Some- 
 times they make a hearty meal on boiled horse-beans 
 steeped in oil. The date supplies them with sustenance a 
 part of the year; and in summer the vast quantities of 
 gourds and melons which are then produced, place within 
 their reach an agreeable variety. Their drink is the milk 
 of buffaloes, or the water of the Nile purified and preserved 
 in cisterns. None but the higher orders or those of disso- 
 lute lives ever taste wine ; and hence, although grapes grow 
 abundantly in several parts of Egypt, only a very small 
 portion is manufactured into that exhilarating beverage 
 which is forbidden to every true believer in the Prophet. 
 
 Some particular traits distinguish the Egyptian Arabs 
 from other orientals. A country frequently laid under 
 
 * Walpole’s Memoirs, p. 386. 
 
324 
 
 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS 
 
 water makes the art of swimming a valuable acquisition. 
 The children leam it at play ; even the girls become fond 
 of it, and are seen swimming in flocks from village to vil- 
 lage with all the dexterity of the fabled nymphs. At the 
 festival of the opening of the canals, several professional 
 swimmers perform a mock fight in the water, and land to 
 attack an enemy in presence of the pasha. Their evolu- 
 tions are executed with surprising vigour. They some- 
 times float down the river on their backs, with a cup of 
 coffee in one hand and a pipe in the other, while the feet 
 are tied together with a rope.* 
 
 In many parts the barbers are still the only practitioners 
 in physic ; and in a country where every man’s head is 
 shaved, the professors of the healing art cannot fail to be 
 numerous. Their knowledge is of course extremely con- 
 fined. They perform a few surgical operations, and are 
 acquainted with the virtues of mercury and some standard 
 medicines. The general remedy in cases of fever and 
 other kinds of illness is a saphie from a priest, which con- 
 sists of some sentence from the Koran written on a small 
 piece of paper and tied round the patient’s neck. This, if 
 the sick man recovers, he carefully preserves by keeping it 
 constantly between his scull-caps, of which he generally 
 wears two or three. Saphies are very commonly used by 
 the Mohammedans, being considered to possess much effi- 
 cacy for the body as well as the soul, and occupy the same 
 place in the estimation of the superstitious as did the front- 
 lets of the Jews and the phylacteries of the early Chris- 
 tians. In every bazaar, however, some shops are found in 
 which are sold some of the most common drugs, such as 
 opium, rhubarb, and senna, t 
 
 The Egyptian Arabs are punctual in the performance of 
 their religious duties at the stated hours appointed by their 
 Prophet. They are often seen, after a hard day’s work, 
 kneeling with great devotion, offering up their prayers with 
 their foreheads at times touching the ground. The respect 
 in which idiots are held by the Mohammedans is well 
 known ; it being imagined that these unfortunate persons 
 are possessed by a benign spirit, and under the special pro- 
 
 ' * Malte Brun, ir. p. 108. 
 t Dr. Hume In Walpole’s Memoirs, p. 389, 
 
OF THE EGYPTIANS. 
 
 325 
 
 tection of Heaven. It is to be regretted that these notions 
 of sanctity sometimes lead to customs not to be reconciled 
 to European ideas of decorum ; the use of clothes being 
 thought inconsistent with the purity of mind and the holy 
 functions which the superstition of an ignorant people has 
 attributed to the natural fool. 
 
 Until the present viceroy introduced the European press, 
 a printed book was a rare sight in Egypt either-among 
 Turks or Arabs. A^class of men, similar to the copyists 
 and caligraphers of the middle ages, earned a livelihood by 
 forming manuscripts of the Koran and other works in high 
 reputation, some of which were most beautifully executed 
 in inks of various colours. The notes were generally done 
 in red or light blue. Dr. Clarke, who made considerable 
 purchases, informs us that writings of celebrity bear very 
 great prices, especially treatises on history, geography, and 
 astronomy. The Mamlouks are fonder of reading than the 
 Turks ; and some of their libraries in Cairo contained 
 volumes valued at immense sums. This traveller obtained 
 a transcript of the “ Arabian Nights,” which was brought 
 to him in four quarto cases, containing one hundred and 
 seventy-two tales, separated into one thousand and one 
 portions for recital during the same number of nights. This 
 valuable acquisition was unfortunately lost, — an event 
 which is the more to be regretted, because many of the 
 tales related to Syrian and Egyptian customs and traditions, 
 which have not been found in any other copy of the same 
 work.* 
 
 A custom still prevails in Egypt, which may be traced to 
 the remotest times, as being alluded to by Herodotus, and 
 distinctly mentioned by Plinv, — the practice of taming ser- 
 pents, of sporting with the bites of the most poisonous 
 vipers, and even of eating these animals alive. “ A tumul- 
 tuous throng,” says Dr. Clarke, “passing beneath the win- 
 dows of our house, attracted our attention towards the 
 quay ; here we s&w a concourse of people following men 
 apparently frantic, who with every appearance of convul- 
 sive agony were brandishing live serpents, and then tearing 
 them with their.teeth ; snatching them from each other’s 
 mouths with loud cries and distorted features, and afterward 
 
 * Travels, vol. v. p. Ill, 
 
 E e 
 
326 
 
 manners and customs, etc. 
 
 falling into the arms of the spectators as if swooning ; the 
 women all the while rending the air with their lamenta- 
 tions.” 
 
 This singular power over so dangerous an animal is 
 claimed only by one tribe, who, on account of some signal 
 act of piety performed by their ancestors, are understood to 
 be protected by the Prophet from any injury that might 
 befall them. These persons, however, do not always escape ; 
 for the author of the book of Ecclesiasticus asks, Who will 
 pity a charmer that is bitten by a serpent ?' Forskal says, 
 that the leaves of the aristolochia sempervirens was used 
 during forty days hy those who wished to be rendered invul- 
 nerable ; and we observe in the examination which an 
 Abyssinian ecclesiastic underwent at the instance of some 
 British travellers who wanted to ascertain the accuracy of 
 Bruce, it is stated that the plant must be used at the moment 
 the charm is performed. 
 
 1 At Pella, too, if we may believe Lucian, the serpents were 
 rendered so tame and familiar that they were fed by the 
 women, and slept with the children. Dr. Hume relates, 
 that when he lived at Alexandria a nest of snakes was dis- 
 covered in his house. Following the advice of his inter- 
 preter he sent for one of the* gifted family, who was an old 
 man, and by trade a carpenter. He prayed fervently at the 
 door a quarter of an hour, and at length, pale and trembling, 
 he ventured into the room ; while an English sailor, who 
 was employed as a servant, cleared away the rubbish in 
 which they were concealed, and killed them with a shovel. 
 
 We conclude this chapter with a remark truly character- 
 istic of the manners of modern Egypt, and of the feelings 
 which were ingrafted upon the minds of the higher class 
 by the long-continued sway of the Mamlouks. Before the 
 reign of the present viceroy, it was customary, even among 
 a people rigidly attached to the distinctions of hereditary 
 rank, to reserve their highest respect for the purchased slave 
 whose relations were unknown, and whose bravery or other 
 personal qualities had raised him to the first honours in the 
 country. General Reynier mentions that he has heard even 
 Turkish officers say of persons who occupied great posts, 
 w He is a man of the best connexions, — he w as bought.”* 
 
 Reyaier, L’Egyp te ,- P- 68 > quoted by M. Malts Brun, vol. Iv. p. 107. 
 
NATURAL HISTORY OF EGYPT, 
 
 327 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 The Natural History of Egypt. 
 
 Geology — Valley of the Nile — Alluvial Formation — Primitive Rocka — 
 Serpentine — Of Upper Egypt— Limestone Strata— Sandstone and Trap 
 — Puddingstone — Verde Antico — Natron Rocks — Minerals — Precious 
 Stones — Ores — Zoology — Camelus Dromedarius— Giraffe — Civet Cat 
 — Ichneumon — Sarex, or Shrew — Jerboa — Hippopotamus — Crocodile ; 
 cherished by Ancients — Monitor of the Nile— Hyena — Capra Aigros 
 — Ovis Tragelaphus — Locust — Birds — Chenelopex — Ostrich — Ibis 
 Ardea ; Ibis Religiosa — Vulture ; Mistake of Bruce — Oriental Dotter- 
 ell — Charadrius Himantopus— Corvus iEgyptiacus — Alcedo iEgyp- 
 tiacus— Anas Nilotic^ — Sterna Nilotica — The Pelican — The Quail, or 
 Tetrao Coturnix — Fishes — Echencis Neucrates — Sparus Niloticus — 
 Labrus Niloticus— The Perch— Silurus Clarias — Salmo Niloticus — 
 Tetraodon — Mugil Cephalus and Clupea Alosa— P lants— P apyrus; 
 Uses — Persea — Lotus — Rose-lily— Rhamnus Lotus — Phcenix Dacty- 
 lifera — Ficus Sycomorus — Plantain-tree — Cucumis Chate — Cucur- 
 bita Lagenaria — Colocasium — Carthamus Tinctorius— Acacia ; Gum ; 
 Frankincense — Henna — The Aloe — Zoophytes — Corallines — Red Co- 
 ral — Sponges — Polypes — Madrepores, Millepores, Gorgonia or Sea-fan. 
 
 SECTION I. GEOLOGY. 
 
 The valley of the Nile, which taken by itself is strictly 
 an alluvial formation, presents, nevertheless, a variety of 
 features highly deserving the notice of the geologist. It is 
 bounded by two Chains- of hills, which, after gradually 
 passing from the primitive order of rocks into the secondary 
 and flcetz-trap, terminate in deposites belonging to the most 
 recent description of stratified minerals. 
 
 The district between Philoe and Es Souan, on the left 
 bank of the river, is occupied by the northern extremity of 
 that granitic range which stretches into Nubia ; containing 
 a particular species of stone to which, from the mixture of 
 a small portion of hornblende, the name of syenite is usually 
 given. It is in this neighbourhood that those quarries 
 are still seen from which the ancients hewed the stupen- 
 dous masses required for their colossal statues and obelisks. 
 The granite is occasionally diversified by alternations of 
 gneiss, porphyry, clay-slate, quartz, and serpentine, which 
 contain, as imbedded minerals, a great variety of carnelions 
 
328 
 
 NATURAL HISTORY OF EGYPT. 
 
 and jaspers. Serpentine likewise occurs on the Arabian 
 side, along with beds of clay-slate and compact felspar, and 
 has been erroneously described by some authors as a green- 
 coloured marble. There has also been observed in Upper 
 Egypt a true marble, or granular foliated limestone, ex- 
 hibiting the various hues of white, gray, yellow, blue, and 
 red ; and which, when combined with serpentine, forms the 
 well-known rock called verde antico. 
 
 This section of the geological domain is succeeded towards 
 the north by an argillaceous sandstone alternating with the 
 carbonate of lime ; while the corresponding chain on the 
 Arabian side continues to display serpentine and granite. 
 At Esneh the rocks become more decidedly calcareous, re- 
 taining the same character till they sink into the plain 
 ■which bounds the lower division of Egypt. The steep 
 perpendicular cliffs which characterize this limestone for- 
 mation give a monotonous and rather dreary aspect to the 
 country, contrasting unfavourably with the bolder and more 
 picturesque mountains of the south, which offer new views 
 in rapid succession, and confer upon the landscape an agree- 
 able variety: of beauty and magnificence. 
 
 This limestone has a splintery of conchoidal fracture ; its 
 Colour is gray or variegated ; and it contains numerous 
 petrifactions of shells, corals, and fishes. It extends from 
 Syene to the Mediterranean ; and, in Lower Egypt, reaches 
 from Alexandria to the Red Sea in the vicinity of Suez. A 
 similar rock is discovered in the mountain-district which 
 leads to Cosseir, and in the same country there are hills of 
 limestone associated with gypsum or sulphate of lime. In 
 the valleys which intersect that elevated ground, the sand 
 is partly calcareous and partly quartose, indicating the 
 quality of the strata from the waste of which it is formed. 
 It is said that the ridge in question consists of three kinds 
 of rock ; the first of which is a small-grained granite ; the 
 second is a breccia, or puddingstone of a particular sort, 
 known by the name of breccia de verde ; and to this suc- 
 ceeds, for a space of thirty miles, a schistose deposite, which 
 seems to be of a contemporaneous formation with the brec- 
 cias, since they are connected by gradual transitions, and 
 contain rounded masses of the same substance. 
 
 At the wells of EJ-Aoosh-Lambazeh there occurs a sin- 
 gular chain of slaty mountains, presenting, in their compo- 
 
NATURAL HISTORY OF EGYPT. 
 
 329 
 
 sition, rock-crystal and steatitic rocks ; but at the distance 
 of eight miles from Cosseir they suddenly change their 
 character, the greater part of them appearing in the form 
 of limestone or alabaster, in strata lying nearly north and 
 south. Here are found the remains of the astrea diluviana ; 
 and among the hills, considered by geologists as of later 
 formation, are observed specimens of a schistose structure, 
 together with porphyries not distinctly characterized. The 
 bottom of the valley, covered with immense rocky frag- 
 ments, presents a numberless variety of minerals, — clay- 
 slate, gneiss, porphyry, granite, and certain compound rocks, 
 — in which are actynolite, and a particular kind of steatite 
 containing nodules of schistose spar. There is besides a 
 new and peculiar substance, found also in several spots of 
 the Desert of Sinai, and resembling the green shorl of 
 Dauphine. It has not been discovered in a separate state, 
 but forms part of' the granites, the porphyries, and other 
 rocks.* 
 
 Greenstone, or the very common rock which is composed 
 of hornblende qhd felspar, occurs in beds in Upper Egypt. 
 It is sometimes porphyritic, forming a green-coloured basis, 
 in which pale green crystals of felspar are imbedded, and 
 constituting a beautiful stone, recognised among mineralo- 
 gists as green porphyry. It is not unfrequently mistaken 
 for the verde antico, which, as we have already described, is 
 a compound of serpentine and granular limestone without 
 eith^j hornblende or felspar. 
 
 Buf the most remarkable geological formation in Egypt 
 is that composed of the carbonate of soda, which skirts the 
 vaUey of the Natron Lakes. The hills which divide the 
 basin, now named from that of the Waterless River, consist 
 in a great measure of this chymical compound mixed with 
 a muriate of the same substance. In the valley of the Wil- 
 derness the latter salt is found in thin compact layers sup- 
 ported by strata of gypsum ; and also in the other deserts it 
 occurs very frequently in a state of crystallization, sometimes 
 under the sand, but more frequently on the surface. 
 
 It is to be regretted that our travellers, generally speak 
 ing, have not bestowed that degree of attention upon the 
 geological structure of Eastern Africa which it unquestion- 
 
 * M£m. sur l’Egypte, vol. iii. p. 255 ; Malte Brun, vol. iv. p. 29 
 E e 2 
 
330 NATURAL HISTORY OF EGYPT. 
 
 ably deserves. Hitherto no extensive series of observations 
 have been made in regard to the general direction and dip 
 of the mountains in that part of the world, and hence the 
 relative positions of the great rock-formations remain very 
 imperfectly known. We can perceive in their narratives 
 some traces of the usual distinctions of mineral bodies into 
 primitive, secondary, floetz, and alluvial, and are thereby led 
 to conclude that there are in Egypt the same successions 
 and affinities which mark the geological relations of these 
 substances in all other portions of the globe that have been 
 minutely examined. But there is still a complete want of 
 Systematic views in all the descriptions and details with 
 which we have been hitherto supplied ; and thus are we 
 Compelled to rest satisfied with conjecture when we are 
 most, desirous to attain the means of establishing a philo- 
 sophical principle.* 
 
 Of the more precious minerals found in Egypt the fol- 
 lowing are the best known, and the most interesting to the 
 common reader. 
 
 The topaz may still be seen in an islanchof the Red Sea, 
 called Zemorget, or the Island of Topazes, and is said to 
 have been collected by some of the ancient kings. 
 
 The emerald, it has been already mentioned, was under- 
 stood to be procured in the ridge of mountains situated on 
 the western shores of the Arabian Gulf, and to have been 
 made an article of considerable commerce by the Romans. 
 Bruce speaks of an island in the same sea called the ^sland 
 of Emeralds, but which, upon being minutely examined, 
 Was found to produce nothing more valuable than green- 
 coloured fluor spar. 
 
 * Chrysoberyl is likewise enumerated among the mineral 
 productions of Upper Egypt. The rarest varieties of quartz, 
 too, met with in any part of Africa are the Egyptian avan- 
 turine and the rock crystal of the northern shores. Cal- 
 cedony also, as well as camelion, have been picked up on 
 either bank of the Nile, both in the Upper and Low r er prov- 
 inces. Agate belongs to the rocks which diversify the 
 desert eastward of Cairo ; while jasper occurs in veins of con- 
 siderable thickness in the clay-slate which bounds the 
 western valley between Esneh and Siout. 
 
 There is a finer jasper, however, for which Egypt is cele- 
 
 * Murray’s Discoveries in Africa, vol. 
 
Natural history of Egypt. 
 
 331 
 
 brated, and which occurs abundantly in the sandy waste 
 between the capital and Suez. It has likewise been found 
 in other parts below Beni Souef, imbedded in a species of 
 conglomerate. Actynolite, epidote, and hornblende are 
 frequently detected in the valleys which extend from the 
 Upper Nile towards the Red Sea ; to which may be added 
 heavy spar or sulphate of barytes. 
 
 The mountains contiguous to Egypt have been so im- 
 perfectly explored that we are still ignorant as to the 
 amount of their metallic treasures. We may, however, 
 conclude, from the early advancement of the arts among 
 the inhabitants of the Nile, that iron was not unknown to 
 them ; and thence proceed to the inference that this ore was 
 found in the vicinity of the great works in which it was 
 employed. Their quarries, their obelisks, their pyramids, 
 and statues indicate, in a manner not to be misunderstood, 
 that instruments of the best-tempered metal must have been 
 placed in the hands of their artists. 
 
 Africa affords a considerable quantity of gold, which is 
 always obtained in the form of dust and rolled masses, and 
 is found in the sand of rivers, or the alluvial soil of valleys 
 near a mountain-range. The position of Egypt deprives it 
 of this source of wealth ; but in the countries above the 
 Cataracts, especially in Kordofan, there are several tracts 
 remarkable for the quantity of this precious metal which 
 they afford. Hence the opinion prevalent among the 
 ancients that Ethiopia was rich in gold ; which, in former 
 times as well-as at present, was brought to market in quills 
 of the ostrich and vulture. But the main supply received 
 in these days at Cairo and Alexandria is brought from the 
 alpine region whence issue the Gambia, the Senegal, and 
 the Niger, — as also from Bambouk, a district situated to 
 the north-west of that lofty range, and verging towards the 
 shore ofnhe Atlantic. Of silver, copper, lead, and anti- 
 mony we find no traces till we ascend as high as Abys- 
 sinia, or even to the borders of Mozambique and the central 
 mountains which form the skeleton of the Libyan continent.* 
 
 SECTION II. ZOOLOGY. 
 
 At the head of the animals which meet the eye of the 
 traveller in Egypt we are naturally led to mention the 
 
 * Murray’s Historical Account of : Discoveries and Travels in Africa. 
 
 Article on Natural History by Professor Jameson. 
 
332 
 
 NATURAL HISTORY OF EGYPT. 
 
 camel, or Camelus dromedarius , which, although a native 
 of a more eastern climate, has long been domesticated in 
 that country. It is the principal beast of burden, and has 
 been emphatically named the “ ship of the desert.” But 
 for this quadruped, so patient of thirst and fatigue, and 
 capable of traversing with rapidity immense deserts covered 
 with a deep and burning sand, vast tracts both of Asia and 
 of Africa would necessarily be uninhabited.* 
 
 The giraffe or camelopard has been occasionally seen on 
 the southern borders of Egypt. This animal, it is well 
 known, is distinguished by an uncommon length of neck, 
 and by a head which very much .resembles that of a sheep, 
 while it is provided with two undivided horns tipped with 
 brushes of hair. It has been found fully eighteen feet 
 high, — a form which qualifies it for gathering its food, the 
 leaves of trees. It is at the same time a remarkably gentle 
 creature. Hasselquist adds, that it is most elegant and 
 docile, — that in his days it had been seen by very few 
 natural historians, — and that none had given a perfect 
 description or good figure of it. “ I have only seen the 
 skin of the animal,” says he, “ and have not had an oppor- 
 tunity of beholding it alive.”! 
 
 The civet cat ( Viverra civetla) was not unknown to the 
 ancient Egyptians ; but the chief object of their regard was 
 the Viverra ichneumon , w T hich was almost venerated with a 
 species of worship. 
 
 This quadruped ( Herpes tes Pharaoms ) is one of the most 
 celebrated of the Egyptian animals. It possesses a strong 
 instinct of destruction, and in searching for its prey exter- 
 minates the young of many noxious reptiles. The eggs of 
 crocodiles form its favourite food ; and this portion of its 
 history being mingled in early times with the fanciful notion 
 of its being able to encounter and overcome that gigantic 
 creature in the adult state, divine honours were awarded to 
 it by the ancient Egyptians, and it became, and con- 
 tinued for ages, an object of superstitious reverence to a 
 people prone to this symbolical worship of the powers of 
 nature. 
 
 Ichneumons are still domesticated in Egypt, where they 
 rid the houses of the smaller animals, and perform the office 
 
 * Murray’s Historical Account of Discoveries and Travels in Africa. 
 
 Voyages. &c. 5 p. 189. 
 
NATURAL HISTORY OF EGYPT. 
 
 333 
 
 of our domestic cats. Like the latter, they are said to be-» 
 come strongly attached to their accustomed dwellings, from 
 whence they seldom wander. They recognise the persons 
 and the voices of their masters ; and the chief remnant of 
 their unsubdued or instinctive nature is perceptible during 
 meal-time, when they retire with their food to some quiet 
 and accustomed corner, and manifest by an angry growling 
 their jealous dislike to interruption. The sense of smell is 
 very acute in this animal. It dwells by the sides of rivers, 
 and in addition to its favourite repast of crocodiles’ eggs, it 
 eagerly sucks the blood of every creature which it is able to 
 overcome. Its body is about a foot and a half in length, 
 and its tail is of nearly equal dimensions. Its general colour 
 is a grayish brown ; but when closely inspected each hair is 
 found annulated with a paler and a darker hue. 
 
 The sorex, or shrew, also occurs in that country. The 
 Cape shrew inhabits caverns, and is seen in the southern 
 parts of Africa ; while two other species (the S. Olivieri of 
 Desmarets and the <S. religiosa of Is. Geoffroy) are natives 
 of Egypt, where they were formerly held sacred as objects 
 of worship, and where their embalmed remains are still oc- 
 casionally found in the catacombs of Sakhara. The last- 
 named variety appeared to be extinct ; but it has been lately 
 ascertained to hold its place among the animals of India. 
 
 Of the marmot tribe, Egypt presents a particular genus 
 called the Dipus , or' jerboa. According to Sonnini, the 
 sandy ruins which surround the city of Alexandria are much 
 frequented by this creature. They live in society, and in 
 burrows which they dig with their teeth and nails. It is 
 even said that they make their way through a soft stone 
 which lies beneath the stratum of sand. They are easily 
 alarmed, and betake themselves precipitately to their holes 
 on the slightest noise, and consequently can only be killed 
 by surprise. The Arabs, however, force them out by stop- 
 ping up all the avenues to their retreats but one. “In 
 Egypt,” says Sonnini, “ I kept six of these animals for 
 some time in a large iron cage. The very first night they 
 entirely gnawed through the upright and cross pieces of 
 wood, and I was obliged to have the inside lined with tin. 
 They ate rice, walnuts, and all kinds of fruit. They de- 
 lighted in being in the sun, and when taken into the shade 
 huddled together, and seemed to suffer from the privation 
 of heat.” 
 
334 
 
 NATURAL HISTORY OF EGYPT. 
 
 The hippopotamus, or river-horse, appeared in Egypt in 
 former times ; but at present, either from an increase of his 
 natural enemies or from a deficiency in the supply of his 
 food, he is seldom seen below the Cataracts. Malte Brun 
 asserts that the voracity of this animal, by annihilating the 
 means of his support, has greatly reduced the number of his 
 race. Abdollatiph, with some justice, denominates the hip- 
 popotamus an enormous water-pig. In the days of Hassel- 
 quist it was believed that the river-horse did much damage 
 to the Egyptians. “ He goes on shore,” says that traveller, 
 “ and in a short space of time destro}'s an entire field of com 
 or clover, not leaving the least verdure as he passes ; for he 
 is voracious, and requiring much to fill his great belly.”* 
 This animal is well known to have cloven hoofs, the mane 
 and tail of a horse, a thick and very heavy hide, and in size 
 to be equal to a large ox. It was sacred in that district of 
 Egypt, where the crocodile was held as an abomination ; 
 and occasionally appears in the more ancient sculptures, 
 associated with the figures of other less noble quadrupeds. 
 
 The crocodile ( Lacerta crocodilis ) is closely connected at 
 once with the superstition and the natural history of Egypt. 
 The form of this amphibious creature is familiar to the 
 youngest reader. In the mouth are two rows of sharply- 
 pointed teeth, thirty or more on each side ; the upper part 
 of the snout and forehead consists of one fixed bone, reach- 
 ing to the ears, which are broad, surrounded with a small 
 border, and growing near the joint' of the upper jaw. The 
 armour with which the body is covered may be con- 
 sidered as one of the most elaborate pieces of natural mech- 
 anism. In the full-grown animal it is so strong as easily to 
 repel a musket-ball, appearing as if covered with' the most 
 regular and curiously carved work. The colour of an adult 
 is blackish-brown above, and yellowish-white beneath ; the 
 upper parts of the legs and sides are varied with deep yellow, 
 and in some parts tinged w r ith green. 
 
 The female is said to be extremely cautious in depositing 
 her eggs in the sand unobserved. The general number is 
 from eighty to a hundred, which are rather smaller than 
 those of a goose, and are left to be hatched by the heat of 
 the sun. The young, which as soon as they burst the shell 
 run into the water, become the prey of a great variety of ene- 
 
 Voyages and Travels, p. 188. 
 
NATURAL HISTORY OF EGYPT. 
 
 335 
 
 mies both in the river and on land. The vulture destroys 
 millions of them, and, as we have already mentioned, the 
 ichneumon acquired divine honours by his useful instinct in 
 searching for the eggs and brood of so formidable an animal. 
 
 We are told by Herodotus, that those who live near 
 Thebes and the Lake Moeris hold the crocodile in religious 
 veneration. As a proof of this, they select one which they 
 tame, suspending golden ornaments from its ears, and some- 
 times precious stones of great value ; the forefeet, however, 
 being secured by a chain. They feed it with the flesh of the 
 sacred victims and with other suitable food. As long as it 
 lives they treat it with unceasing attention ; and when it 
 dies it is embalmed, and afterward deposited in a conse- 
 crated chest. 
 
 According to Labat, a negro armed only with a kmfe in 
 his right hand, and having his left wrapped round with thick 
 leather, will venture boldly to attack the crocodile in his own 
 element. As sqpn as he observes his enemy near, the man 
 puts out his left arm, which the beast immediately seizes 
 with his teeth. He then gives it several stabs below the 
 chin where the hide is very tender ; and the water coming 
 in at the mouth, thus involuntarily laid open, the creature 
 is soon destroyed. 
 
 The monitor of the Nile, known also by the name of 
 ouran, the Lacerta Nilotica of Linnaeus, is a species of 
 lizard about three feet long, and was much venerated by the 
 ancient Egyptians, because it also devours the eggs and the 
 young of the crocodile. In Congo the same animal is of a 
 much larger size, and is almost equally venerated by the 
 inhabitants, to whom, as a destroyer of very noxious ver- 
 min, it proves ^extremely useful. The land monitor of 
 Egypt, which is found in all'the neighbouring deserts, is the 
 terrestrial crocodile of Herodotus, and the true sincque of 
 the ancients. The common chameleon, so* remarkable for 
 the power it possesses of changing its colour, is also a native 
 of Egypt and of the countries which are contiguous to it 
 on the west. 
 
 The hyena, which is so universally scattered over Africa, 
 is well known in Egypt. It is a disgusting and trouble- 
 some animal, haunting the suburbs, and sometimes even 
 penetrating into the streets after sunset, preying on offal 
 and stealing the remains of dead carcasses. 
 
 There is no great variety of the goat or sheep tribes in 
 
336 
 
 NATURAL HISTORY OF EGYPT. 
 
 Egypt. The Capra aigros , or wild goat, is said to inhabit the 
 north of Africa ; while the mouflon occurs in the rocky deserts 
 of Barbary, as well as in those which border on the Nile. 
 
 But the Ovis tragelaphus is a more interesting species. 
 It is about the size of a common ram ; the throat is fur- 
 nished with long pendulous hairs, and the knees are pro- 
 tected by a kind of ruffles, composed of straight hairs about 
 five inches long, hanging quite around them. The speci- 
 men in the French Mvlseum was shot in the vicinity of 
 Cairo, though it is not supposed to occur habitually in that 
 neighbourhood. This species appears to have been de- 
 scribed by- Dr. Caius so far back as the year 1561, from an 
 individual brought into England from Barbary. The horns 
 were above a foot in circumference at the base, and in front 
 were only an inch asunder. The beard was formed by long 
 hairs on the cheeks and under-jaw, and was divided into two 
 lobes. A setaceous mane stood up along the neck, and par- 
 ticularly about the withers, where it was tufted, lengthened, 
 erect, and of a darker colour than the rest of the body, 
 which resembled in its hue the winter dress of the stag. 
 This creature in the domestic state whs gentle though petu- 
 lant*. It loved to ascend high places and the roofs of houses, 
 and ran with great swiftness, sometimes making prodigious 
 bounds. 
 
 We have omitted the dog, ape, buffalo, and other ani- 
 mals which figure in the Egyptian mythology, merely 
 because they are not- peculiar to that country, and do not 
 present any thing remarkable either in their habits or con- 
 formation. In the Lithostrotum Prcenestinum copied by 
 Dr. Shaw, there is exhibited a great variety of zoological 
 Specimens, to which, for the reason just assigned, we pay 
 no attention ; for, although the creatures there represented 
 were well known in Egypt, they were not unknown in 
 other parts of the world. 
 
 Our limits do not permit us to insert a complete list of 
 the reptiles and insects with which Egypt abounds at cer- 
 tain seasons of the year. We may, however, mention, that 
 the Cerastes , which was probhbly the true Egyptian as- 
 pic, is still found in the neighbouring deserts. Dr. Shaw 
 relates that he saw a couple of these vipers, which had been 
 kept five years in a large crystal vessel without any visible 
 food. They were usually^ coiled up in some fine sand, 
 which was placed in the bottom of the jar ; and at the time 
 
NATURAL HISTORY OF EGYPT. 
 
 337 
 
 they “were shown to him they had just cast their skins, 
 and were as brisk and lively as if newly taken. The horns 
 of this creature, from which it takes its name, are white 
 and shining, and have some resemblance to a grain of barley. 
 
 The locust is a formidable enemy to the Egyptians, as 
 well as to all the nations of Africa. When the Gryllus 
 migratorius , or wandering locust, takes to flight, the air is 
 darkened, and the surrounding countries are filled with 
 terror. Mr. Barrow mentions, that in a part of the Libyan 
 continent, where he happened to be travelling, the whole 
 surface of the ground for nearly 2000 square miles might 
 literally be described as covered with them. They had 
 devoured every blade of grass, and every green herb except 
 the reeds. 
 
 For an account of the Scarabceus, the mystical beetle, 
 the emblem of the sun and of the prolific powers of nature, 
 we must refer to works on Egyptian mythology ; because, 
 being received into the pantheon of oriental superstition, 
 its imaginary qualities are completely removed beyond the 
 precincts of natural history. 
 
 Connected in some degree with zoological investigation, 
 we may simply allude to the fact mentioned by several 
 travellers, that exotics, including even the human species, 
 do not thrive in Egypt, — the apology usually urged for the 
 constant purchase of white slaves to replace the loss of life 
 which could not be supplied by propagation. To prove the 
 absurdity of this statement, it will be sufficient to mention 
 that the valley of the Nile has been successively in the 
 hands of Copts, Persians, Greeks, Romans, Saracens, and 
 Turks ; and that the progeny of all tlese races of men may 
 be found in the mixed people who at present cultivate its 
 fields or occupy its cities. 
 
 SECTION III. BIRDS. 
 
 It is admitted by the best naturalists that the birds of 
 Egypt do not differ much from those of Europe. M. Geof- 
 froy Saint Hilaire saw the Egyptian swan represented in 
 many of the temples of that country, both in sculptures 
 and in coloured paintings, and entertains no doubt that 
 this bird was the chenelopex of Herodotus, to which the 
 ancient inhabitants paid divine honours, and had even dedi- 
 cated a town called Chenoboscion . It is not peculiar to 
 F f 
 
338 
 
 NATURAL HISTORY OF EGYPT. 
 
 Egypt, but is found all over Africa, and over a great part 
 of Europe. 
 
 The common ostrich, or StrutMo , is one of the largest 
 and most remarkable members of the feathered tribe, and 
 has been celebrated from the most remote antiquity by 
 many fabulous writers, who ascribed to it qualities more 
 wonderful than even those which it possesses. It is not 
 indeed found in the valley of the Nile, being a bird pecu- 
 liar to the wilderness, but it occasionally occurs in the ex- 
 tensive desert which borders the western shore of the Red 
 Sea, — a portion of territory which now acknowledges the 
 government of Mohammed Ali. Its height is estimated 
 at seven or eight feet, and in swiftness it surpasses every 
 other animal. That it is gregarious no naturalist any 
 longer doubts, being generally seen in large troops at a 
 great distance from the habitations of man. The egg is 
 about three pounds in weight, and in the warmer regions 
 of Africa is usually hatched by the rays of the sun alone, 
 though in less heated regions the bird is observed to sit 
 upon them. 
 
 The ibis has been recognised under five or six different 
 species, of which we shall notice only the Ibis ardea and 
 the Ibis religiosa. The former of these is as large as a fe- 
 male raven, and is found in great numbers in Lower Egypt 
 during the inundation of the Nile, feeding in those places 
 which the water does not reach, and afterward on such 
 spots as the water has deserted. Its food consists of in- 
 sects and small frogs, which abound greatly while the 
 river is at its height ; and hence the ibis is extremely use- 
 ful to the inhabitant, who might otherwise experience 
 every year one of the most disgusting plagues which af- 
 flicted their country in the days of Moses. 
 
 But the other, the Ibis religiosa of Cuvier, or Abbou 
 Hannes of Bruce, is the most celebrated. It is a bird of 
 very peculiar aspect, though undistinguished by much di- 
 versity in the colours of its plumage. It stands rather 
 more than two feet high, and measures in length, from the 
 tip of the bill to the extremity of the tail, about two feet 
 six inches. The bill is long and arched, about seven inches 
 long, and considerably thicker and broader towards the 
 base than that of the scarlet ibis. The head and neck, for 
 more than half a foot below the eyes, are entirely bare of 
 feathers, and present nothing but a black cutaneous sur- 
 
NATURAL HISTORY OF EGYPT. 
 
 339 
 
 face. A small portion of the lower part of the neck, the 
 whole under parts of the body, likewise the back and scapu- 
 lars, the greater and lesser wing-coverts, and the tail, are of 
 a dingy or yellowish white. Long funereal-looking plumes, 
 of a purplish-black colour, proceeding from beneath the ter- 
 tiary wing-feathers, hang not ungracefully on either side 
 of the tail, and, when the wings are closed, conceal the 
 points of the primary and secondary quills, both of which 
 are white tipped with deep greenish black. The legs and 
 feet are a deep lead colour, and the claws are black. 
 
 Among the ancient Egyptians, a people prone to award 
 divine honours to the brute creation, the ibis was regarded 
 as an object of superstitious worship, and hence its sculp- 
 tured outline frequently occurs among the hierogl}qphical 
 images which adorn the walls of their temples. The 
 conservation of its mystical body occupied the assidu- 
 ous care of their holiest priests while living, and exercised 
 the gloomy art of their most skilful embalmers when dead. 
 To slay or insult it would have been deemed a crime of the 
 darkest hue, and sufficient to call down upon the offender 
 the immediate vengeance of Heaven. 
 
 The Egyptian vulture, or Vultur percnopterus, is de- 
 scribed as a powerful but very disgusting bird. The face is 
 naked and wrinkled, the eyes are large and black, the beak 
 hooked, the talons long and extended for prey, and the 
 whole body covered with filth. Notwithstanding, says 
 Hasselquist, the inhabitants of Egypt cannot be too thank- 
 ful to Providence for its services. All the places round 
 Cairo, he tells us, were in his time filled with the dead 
 bodies of asses and camels, and thousands of these birds fly 
 about and devour the carcasses before they putrefy and fill 
 the air with noxious exhalations. They assemble with 
 the kites every morning and evening in the square called 
 Rohneli, below the castle, — which is the place for execut- 
 ing capital offenders, — there to receive the alms of fresh 
 meat left them by the legacies of wealthy great men. They 
 are said even to follow the yearly caravan to Mecca, that 
 they may devour the offal of the slaughtered beasts and the 
 bodies of the camels which die by the way. The name of 
 this bird among the Arabs is Rachama.* 
 
 * In the 7th volume of Bruce’s Travels, p. 265, second edition, there 
 is hazarded an unfortunate criticism suggested by the name of this bird. 
 
 It will not be improper,” says the great traveller, “ that I here take 
 
340 NATURAL HISTORY OF EGYPT. % - 
 
 The oriental dotterell, or Charadrius Kervan , a bird 
 about the size of a crow, is frequently met with in Lower 
 Egypt, in the acacia groves near the villages of Abousir 
 and Sakhara, in the vicinity of sepulchres, and in the 
 desert. It has a shrill voice resembling that of the black 
 woodpecker, and utters rather an agreeable note. Its 
 principal food are the rats and mice with which, at certain 
 seasons, the country abounds. It seldom drinks, being ori- 
 ginally a native of the wilderness, and has been kept in a 
 cage several months without water. 
 
 The Charadrius himantopus, on the contrary, comes to 
 Egypt in the month of October, and is usually found in 
 moist places and the neighbourhood of lakes ; possessing 
 nearly the same habits as the tringa JEgyptiaca, or plover, 
 which appears at the ebb of the inundation. 
 
 The Corvus JEgyptiacus , or Egyptian crow, which is not 
 larger than a lark, lives in trees, and feeds on insects. 
 Hasselquist relates that he has found in its stomach the 
 remains of scorpions and scolopendras. 
 
 The Alcedo rudis, and the Alcedo JEgyptiacus , or king- 
 fisher, are observed in Egypt, chiefly on the banks of the 
 Nile, where they live on small fish, frogs, and insects. 
 
 The bat, a member of the numerous family of the Vesper - 
 tiliones , next invites our notice. The Egyptian bat is dis- 
 tinguished by its ash-coloured fur and its long and slender 
 tail. It inhabits the subterranean galleries and other exca- 
 vations of Egypt. 
 
 notice that the English translator, by his ignorance of language, has lost 
 all the beauty, and even the sense of the Hebrew original. He makes 
 God say (Exod. xix. 4), ‘Ye have seen what I did unto the Egyptians, 
 and how I bare you on eagles’ wings, and brought you unto myself.’ 
 Now, if the expression had been really eagle, the word would have been 
 nisr, and would have signified nothing ; but in place of eagle, God says 
 vulture, the emblem of maternal affection ; so that the passage will run 
 thus : Say to the children of Israel, see how I have punished the Egyp- 
 tians, while I bore you up on the wings of the Rachama. that is, of pa- 
 rental tenderness and affection, and brought you home to myself. It is 
 our part to be thankful that the truths of Holy Scripture are pre- 
 served to us entire, but still it is a rational regret that great part of the 
 beauty of the original is lost by this kind of interpretation.” 
 
 After all this minute criticism, the reader will find it hard to believe 
 that the original word is not Rachama, as is here stated, but nisr, — or 
 nisrim the plural form, — and consequently, according to Bruce’s own 
 argument, the authorized translation is right, and his correction founded 
 in ignorance. He cannot have looked into the Hebrew Bible, where the 
 language is ’DJD 
 
NATURAL HISTORY OF EGYPT. 
 
 341 
 
 The duck of the Nile, or Anas Nilotica, occurs wild in 
 Upper Egypt, and, perhaps, on the shores of the Red Sea. 
 The neck and superior part of the head are white with black 
 spots, and a gray line runs lengthways behind the eyes ; 
 the under part of the body and the thighs are of the same 
 colour. The Arabians call it bah ; and in Lower Egypt it 
 is often seen in a domesticated state among flocks of tame 
 fowls. 
 
 The Sterna Nilotica , or Egyptian sea-swallow, is esteemed 
 a beautiful bird. Its beak is black ; its head and neck are 
 grayish, with small black spots ; the part round the eyes is 
 black, spotted with white ; the back, wings, and tail are 
 gray ; the belly and under part of the neck are white ; the 
 feet are red, and the toes black. The Arabs call it abunures. 
 It is found on the Nile ; but it seems to prefer the canals 
 near Cairo when filled with the mud of the river. 
 
 The pelican, or Pelecanus onocratalus , is a migratory 
 bird, which appears in Egypt about the middle of September. 
 In their flight they form an acute angle, like the common 
 wild-goose. Some of them remain at Damietta, or in the 
 islands of the Delta, but the greater part go up as far as th« 
 capital. 
 
 The Tetrao coturnix , or quail, is likewise a bird of pas- 
 sage, — an amazing number of which migrate to Egypt in 
 the month of March, the season at which the wheat ripens. 
 They conceal themselves among the crops ; but the peasants, 
 aware of their arrival, spread nets over the com, and sur- 
 round the field, at the same time making a noise to rouse 
 them from their feed. In this way vast multitudes are 
 caught, which supply the natives with a very savoury dish. 
 
 “ If the food of the Israelites in the desert was a bird,” says 
 Mr. Hasselquist, “ this is certainly it, being so common in 
 the places through which they passed.” 
 
 SECTION IV. FISHES. 
 
 The only tenants of the water which can be considered 
 as peculiar to Egypt are such as frequent the Nile ; and 
 to these narrow limits we shall confine our sketch of 
 ichthyology. 
 
 The Eckeneis naucrates , or sucking-fish, occurs at Alex- 
 andria, though very rarely, and is by the Arabs called charnel 
 or ferrhun. 
 
 F f 2 
 
342 
 
 NATURAL HISTORY OF EGYPT. 
 
 The Sparus Niloticus, as its name imports, is found in 
 the Nile ; the vernacular appellation is giralle. 
 
 The Labrus Niloticus , called bulti by the Arabs, is 
 esteemed the best fish in their waters. 
 
 The perch occurs under three different specific forms, 
 — the JEgyptiaca, the Nilotica, and the Damiettica. They 
 ascend the river considerably above Cairo, and are much 
 sought after by the inhabitants of that city. The flesh is 
 white, and has an exquisite flavour. 
 
 The Silurus clarias, a singular fish, called schielan by 
 the Arabians, occurs sometimes in the Nile. It defends 
 itself with its fins, the bones of which are understood to be 
 poisonous. A similar character attaches to the Silurtis 
 anguillaris , and the Silurus mystus ; neither of which, 
 however, is so well known. 
 
 The Salmo Niloticus , or salmon of the Nile, is a very 
 valuable fish, and ascends the stream as high as Cairo. It 
 frequently w r eighs 1 00 lb. ; but is, notwithstanding, very 
 delicate eating ; and is held to be one of the best dishes 
 supplied by the river. The Arabs call it nefareh. 
 
 Very unlike the animal just described is the Tetraodon, 
 which, according to the inhabitants, has recently taken 
 possession of the Nile. The Arabs call it fahaka, and say 
 that it grows to a prodigious size. When newly caught, 
 the skin stings like a nettle, creating small pustules on the 
 hands of the fishermen ; and, if eaten, it causes almost 
 instant death. 
 
 The Mugil ccphalus and Clupea Alosa, the one the mullet 
 and the other a herring, are well known to the Egyptians. 
 The latter, to which the Arabs have given the name of 
 sagboga, goes up from the sea in December and January 
 towards the capital, where it exercises the ingenuity of the 
 Arabian cooks, who are said to prepare it for the table in 
 such a manner as to intoxicate the eaters.* 
 
 SECTION V. PLANTS. 
 
 The Papyrus , or Cyperus papyrus of Linnaeus, most 
 naturally suggests itself whenever we turn our attention to 
 the vegetable productions of Egypt. The stalk is of a vivid 
 green, of a triangular form, and tapering towards the top. 
 Pliny says that the root is as thick as a man’s arm, and that 
 
 Hasselquist’a Voyages and Travels in the Levant, p. 223, &c. 
 
NATURAL HISTORY OP EGYPT. 
 
 343 
 
 the plant occasionally exceeded fifteen feet in height. At 
 present it is rarely found more than ten feet long, — alx>ut 
 two feet or little more of the lower part of the stalk being 
 covered with hollow sharp-pointed leaves, which overlap 
 each other like scales, and fortify the most exposed pr*rt of 
 the stem. These are usually of a yellow or dusky-brown 
 colour. The head is composed of a number of small grassy 
 filaments, each about a foot long. Near the middle each 
 of these filaments parts into four, and in the point or par- 
 tition are four branches of flowers, the termination of which 
 is not unlike an ear of wheat in form, but is in fact a soft 
 silky husk. 
 
 This singular vegetable was used for a variety of pur- 
 poses, the principal of which was the structure of boats and 
 the manufacture of paper. In regard to the first, we are 
 told by Pliny, that a piece of the acacia-tree was put in the 
 bottom to serve as a keel, to which the plants were joined, 
 being first sewed together, then gathered up at stem and 
 stem, and made fast by means of a ligature. 
 
 “ Consentur bibulaMempbilis cymba papyro.” 
 
 But it is as a substance for writing upon that the papyrus 
 is best known and most interesting to the scholar. The 
 process by which the plant was prepared for this purpose is 
 briefly stated by the Roman naturalist. The thick part of 
 the stalk being cut in two, the pellicle between the pith and 
 the bark, or perhaps the two pellicles, were stripped off and 
 divided by an iron instrument. This was squared at the 
 sides so as to be like a riband, then laid upon a smooth table 
 or dresser, after being cut into proper length. These 
 stripes or ribands were lapped over each other by a very 
 thin border, and then pieces of the same kind were laid 
 transversely, the length of these last answering to the 
 breadth of the first. This being done, a weight was laid 
 upon them, while they were yet moist, after which they 
 were dried in the sun. It was thought that the water of 
 the Nile had a gummy quality sufficiently strong to glue 
 these stripes together ; but Mr. Bruce, who ascertained by 
 experiment that this opinion is perfectly groundless, sug- 
 gests that the effect was produced by means of the saccha- 
 rine matter with which the papyrus is strongly impregnated. 
 
344 
 
 NATURAL HISTORY OF EGYPT. 
 
 The flower of this plant, it is well known, was used for 
 religious purposes.* 
 
 The Persea is celebrated among the ancients as a beauti- 
 ful fruit-tree, which adorned and enriched Egypt at an early 
 period, although naturalists have failed to recognise it in 
 that country in more recent times. It is supposed to be 
 the Aguacate of St. Domingo, and has accordingly obtained 
 from botanists the name of Laurus Persea. Others have 
 attempted to prove the identity of it with the Sibesten, but 
 the differences are too glaring to allow this hypothesis to 
 be maintained. Perhaps its type may still be discovered in 
 India, whence, it is more than probable, it was originally 
 derived. 
 
 The Lotus , associated with so many fanciful ideas and 
 religious rites, makes a greater figure than any other plant 
 in the mythological history of the Egyptians. It is, prop- 
 erly speaking, a species of Nymphaea or water-lily, which 
 on the disappearance of the inundation covers all the canals 
 and pools with its broad round leaves ; among which the 
 flowers in the form of cups of bright white or azure blue, 
 rest with inimitable grace on the surface of the water. 
 There are two species of the lotus, the white and. the blue, 
 both known to the ancients, though the latter kind is seldom 
 mentioned. 
 
 The rose-lily of the Nile, or the Egyptian bean, which is 
 frequently found carved on the monuments, is not at present 
 seen in that country; so that the plant would have been 
 utterly unknown to naturalists, if they had not found it in 
 India. It is the Nymphaea nelumbo of Linnaeus, and is in 
 truth the plant upon which the Egyptian lotophagi, or lotus- 
 eaters, were accustomed to live. 
 
 But the fruits of the lotus, so much praised by Homer, 
 and which so greatly delighted the companions of Ulysses, 
 were those of the modern jujube or Rhamnus lotus. The 
 same tree is described by Theophrastus under the name of 
 the lotus, and is, perhaps, the duda'ine of the Hebrew Scrip- 
 tures. There is another species still, mentioned by Pliny 
 as the Faba Grazca, or lotus; but this has been ascertained 
 to be different from the Egyptian, being no other than the 
 Diospyros lotus , — a sort of guayacana , or ebony. f 
 
 * Plin. Hist. Nat. lib. xiii. cap. ii.; Bruce’s Travels, vol. vii. p. 118. 
 t Malte Brun, iv. 42, 
 
NATURAL HISTORY OF EGYPT. 
 
 345 
 
 The Phoenix dactylifera , or date-tree, is of great value to 
 the inhabitants of Egypt, — many families, particularly in 
 the upper provinces, having hardly any other food a great 
 part of the year ; while the stones or kernels are ground for 
 the use of the camels. The leaves are converted into 
 baskets ; the soft bark into ropes and rigging for their 
 boats ; and the timber, though soft, is used for rafters in 
 the construction of houses. 
 
 The Ficus sycomorus is not less useful in a country des- 
 titute of all the harder description of forest trees. It grows 
 to an immense size in Egypt, some specimens having been 
 seen by travellers fully fifty feet in circumference. Of this 
 tree the ancient inhabitants made coffins for their mummies ; 
 and no timber certainly could have been better suited for 
 the purpose, as it resists the powers of decomposition during 
 several thousand years. As it sends forth large leafy 
 branches, it affords an excellent shade to the weary trav- 
 eller; and the fruit, although rather insipid, is full of 
 moisture, and on that account well adapted to the wants of 
 the climate. It buds in the latter end of March, and the 
 fruit ripens in the begimiing Of June. 
 
 The plantain-tree, or Musa paradisaica, flowers in Octo- 
 ber and November, or immediately after the inundation of 
 the Nile, when the air is temperate and the earth still 
 moist. The fruit is said to be sweet, somewhat hard, or 
 between a pear and a date, a little viscid and mealy, -melting 
 in the mouth without being chewed. It is, however, highly 
 valued, and brings a great price at Cairo, in the neighbour- 
 hood of which the tree does not thrive. The nitrous fields 
 around Rosetta, and perhaps the breeze from the sea, con- 
 stitute the soil and climate in which it prospers the most 
 luxuriantly. 
 
 Egypt of course abounds in melons and cucumbers. 
 There is one, however, the Cucumis Chate, which bears the 
 name of the country, and is sometimes called the queen of 
 cucumbers, which grows in the vicinity of Grand Cairo, and 
 nowhere else. This fruit, says Hasselquist, is a little 
 watery, the flesh is almost of the same substance as the 
 melon, and tastes sweet and cool. The grandees and 
 Europeans in the capital eat it as the most pleasant fruit 
 they can find, and that from which they have the least to 
 dread in point of health. 
 
 Allied to these are the gourds, one of which, called Cu- 
 
846 
 
 NATURAL HISTORY OF EGYPT. 
 
 curbita lagenaria, is much used by the poor people. It is 
 boiled and seasoned with vinegar, — the shell, with the 
 addition of rice and a little meal, being mashed into a kind 
 of pudding. It grows in all parts of Egypt, and even in the 
 deserts of Arabia, wherever there is found a little rich soil 
 of the proper depth. 
 
 The Colocasium, or, as it is described by Hasselquist, 
 the Arum colocasia , is still cultivated in Egypt for the sake 
 of its large esculent roots, and continues to maintain the 
 high character which it received from the ancients. 
 
 The Carthamus tinctorius , or safflower, is raised in large 
 quantities throughout the country, and is a source of con- 
 siderable profit to the natives. The leaves, which are used in 
 dying, are gathered three times in the year ; and after being 
 carefully washed, pressed, and dried, are exported to all 
 parts of Europe, where they supply the artisan with a 
 beautiful yellow. At Cairo the young leaves are also 
 esteemed an excellent sallad. 
 
 The Acacia of Upper Egypt, or the Mimosa Lebbeck, is 
 cultivated in the gardens of Cairo, though it is very doubt- 
 ful whether it be originally a native of the country. But 
 the Mimosa Nilotica , or Acacia vera, is decidedly Egyptian 
 in its origin, and is much valued on account of its producing 
 the gum-arabic, or frankincense of Arabia. Alpinus con- 
 founded this with the Mimosa Senegal , and even described 
 the celebrated gum as the produce of the latter ; but the 
 Egyptians know the one from the other extremely well, 
 calling the true species charad, while the other, which is of 
 no use or value, they denominate fetne. The genuine gum 
 is gathered in great quantities in Arabia, and is itself of 
 two kinds. The best is found along the northern bay of 
 the Red Sea, near Thor or Thur, and hence the name Thus 
 given to it by the Romans as well as by the dealers in 
 Egypt. It is clearer or more pellucid than the inferior sort, 
 which is collected in the desert between Cairo and the 
 Isthmus of Suez. 
 
 The Henna , or Lawsonia spinosa, which is purely an 
 article of female luxury, grows both in Upper and in Lower 
 Egypt, and flowers from May till August. To obtain a 
 deep yellow for their nails the ladies make a paste of the 
 pulverized leaves, and bind it on their hands and feet all 
 night. The die lasts for three or four weeks, after which 
 it requires to be renewed. This custom is so ancient among 
 
NATURAL HISTORY OF EGYPT. 
 
 347 
 
 the Egyptians, as well as other eastern nations, that mum- 
 mies are occasionally discovered with a similar tincture on 
 their nails. The Arabs call it chenna, or al-chenna. 
 
 Aloe perfoliata vera , the mitre-shaped aloe, is, among the 
 Egyptian Moslem, a symbolic plant, and in some measure 
 dedicated to religion. Whoever returns from Mecca hangs 
 this plant over his street door, as a token of his having per- 
 formed that holy journey. The superstitious natives believe 
 that this shrub prevents evil spirits and apparitions from 
 entering their houses; and in this feeling the Jews and 
 Christians of Cairo participate, so far at least as to venerate 
 the sacred aloe. 
 
 SECTION VI. ZOOPHYTES. 
 
 These hold a rank between animals and vegetables, most 
 of them taking root and growing up into stems and branches. 
 Some are soft and naked, and others are covered with a 
 hard shell. 
 
 The Corallines are composed of capillary tubes whose 
 extremities pass through a calcareous crust, and open into 
 pores on the surface. They are entirely submarine, and 
 owing to their branches being finely divided and jointed 
 resembling some species of lichen, they were till lately 
 arranged by botanists with the cryptogamous plants. In 
 appearance they certainly approach very nearly to some of 
 the vegetables ; but their calcareous covering is alone suf- 
 ficient to prove that they are allied, in however humble a 
 station, to a more elevated order of beings. 
 
 The Red Coral , or Corallium rubrum , is fished up in the 
 Red Sea. It grows much slower than the madrepores, and 
 never occurs in such masses. It is found at different 
 depths, and it is remarked, says Professor Jameson, that 
 light exerts a powerful influence on its growth as well as on 
 its colour, the tint being darker in proportion to the deep- 
 ness of the sea. 
 
 The Sponges consist of an entirely ramified mass of ca- 
 pillary tubes, and were at one time supposed by many to be 
 the production of a species of worm which is often found 
 straying about their cavities. Others have imagined them 
 to be mere vegetables ; but that they are possessed of a 
 living principle seems evident from the fact of their alter- 
 
348 
 
 NATURAL HISTORY OF EGYPT. 
 
 nately contracting and dilating their pores, and shrinking 
 in some degree from the touch whenever examined in their 
 native waters. They are the most torpid of all the zoo- 
 phytes. The officinal sponge is elastic and very full of 
 holes ; it grows into irregular tubes of a woolly consistence, 
 and generally adheres by a very broad base to the rocks. 
 When it is first taken it has a strong fishy smell, and 
 requires to be carefully washed in order to prevent its 
 growing putrid. 
 
 The Polypes are gelatinous animals, consisting of a long 
 tubular body, fixed at the base, and surrounded at the mouth 
 by arms or tenacula ; but, as these are by no means peculiar 
 to the oriental parts of Africa, we hold it sufficient to have 
 mentioned their existence. 
 
 Madrepores are found on the east coast of Egypt, and 
 along the shores. of Africa, each species being peculiar to 
 a certain latitude, and increasing in number according to 
 the greater warmth of the climate. The Red Sea presents 
 a considerable variety of millepores, sertularias, cellularias, 
 alcyoniums, and sponges, and occasionally some fine speci- 
 mens of the gorgonia or sea-fan. 
 
 It is well known that immense reefs and islands are pro- 
 duced by the minutest of zoophytic animals. These sub- 
 marine formations, in some parts of the world, have been 
 traced a thousand miles in length, fifty miles in breadth, 
 and to depths almost unfathomable. There are found, too, 
 at considerable elevations on the land, beds of rocks, and 
 even entire hills, of very remote origin, containing a variety 
 of corals ; thus affording a satisfactory proof that these 
 animals must have existed in countless numbers in a former 
 condition of our earth, and that then, as at present, they 
 contributed greatly towards adding to the solid matter of 
 the globe. 
 
 THE END. 
 

 
 
 
 
 
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