fr BV 1549 .R6 Rowe, Henry Kalloch, 1869- 1941. Landmarks in Christian I, 4 ,^ 4- ^ ^ THE BIBLE STUDY UNION LESSONS THE COMPLETELY GRADED SERIES LANDMARKS IN CHRISTIAN HISTORY BY HENRY K. ROWE, PH.D. Charles F, Kent, Ph.D. ) ^ ... „.^ Gborge a. Coe. Ph.D.. LL.D.) Consulhng EdHors CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS Nbw York Copyright, 1911, by Charles Scribner's Sons, New York. TABLE OF CONTENTS. Lesson 2. Lesson 3. Lesson 4. Lesson 5. Lesson 6. Lesson 7. Lesson 8. Lesson 9. Lesson 10, Lesson 11. Lesson 12. Lesson 13. Lesson 14. Lesson 15. Lesson 16. Lesson 17. Lesson 18. Lesson 19. Lesson 20. Lesson 21. Lesson 22. Lesson 23. Lesson 24. Lesson 25. PART I. CHRISTIANITY IN THE OLDEN TIME. A Gbeek City in tue Days of Paul 1 How Christianity Reached Antioch and Spread from it. The Birth of Christianity ......... 6 The Life and Teachings of Jesus. How Saul. THE Persecutor Became Paul the Missionary . . .11 The Conflict with Judaism and Heathenism. The New Religion and Old Habits ....... 17 How Christianity Affected the Social Order. One of the Brotherhood at Ephesus. ....... 22 How a Christian Lived in the Late First Century. Christianity in Greek Lands in the Second Century .... 26 Its Progress and its Opposing Forces. The Christian Martyrs 32 The Story of Perpetua. How there Came to be a Creed ........ 37 The Beginnings of Christian Theology. How the Church Became a World Power ...... 42 The Ambition of the Bishop of Rome. The Barbarian Deluge 48 How the Ancient Empire Became Mediaeval Europe. The Missionary Monks. 53 How the Barbarians were Made Christians. Knights of the Red Cross ......... 58 Mohammedanism and the Crusaders. The Climax of Authority 63 What the Christian Religion had Come to Mean in 1200 a.d. PART II. THE GREAT AWAKENING. The New Ideas of a Barefoot Preacher ...... 69 The Church Designed for Service, not Sovereignty. '' The Strange Theories of the Southern Heretics ..... 74 The Albigensians and the Waldensians. Life on an English Manor ......... 79 The Country Folk and their Superstitions. Florence in the Days of Savonarola 84 The Revival of Learning and Morals. How A Saxon Monk Set Germany on Fire . . . . . .89 Luther at the Diet of Worms. Geneva IN the Days of Calvin 91. His Opposition to the Libertines. The Massacre of St. Bartholomew ....... 100 Protestantism in France before and after. The Standing Army of the Catholic Church 105 Loyola and the Jesuits. The Struggle of the Dutch Burghers fob Independence . . .110 Religion and Politics. A Knight of the Seventeenth Century . . . . . .115 How Gustavus Adolphus Saved German Protestantism. A Nobleman of the Eighteenth Century ...... 121 Count Zinzendorf and the Moravians. An Emperor of the Nineteenth Century 126 Napoleon and the Religous Situation in Europe. Hi tv Contents Lesson 26. The Old and the New m Edropk 131 Catholicism and the Spirit of the Present Age. PART ni. ANGLO-SAXON CHRISTIANITY. Lesson 27. The English Revolt from Rome 139 Henry VIII and the Anglican Church. Lesson 28. How England Became Protestant 144 The Boy King and his Advisers. Lesson 29 The Episcopal Church 150 The Anglican Idea in England and America Lesson 30. Queen Mart and the Smithfield Martyrs 156 The Failure to Restore Catholicism Lesson 31. How Scotland Became Protestant 161 The Trials of John Knox. 32. Presbyterians est History 167 Their Principles and their Practice. 33. The English Puritans 173 Oliver Cromwell and his Men. Lesson 34. The Pilgrim Exiles 179 The Mayflower and its Company. Lesson 35. Congregationalists m America 185 What Congregationalism Means. Lesson 36. A Day in Puritan Boston 190 The Banishment of Roger Williams. Lesson 37. The Baptists and their Principles 196 Growth in America and Europe. Lesson 38. Christianity for the Working People of England . . . .201 Wesley, the Evangelist and Social Reformer. 39. The Methodists ........... 207 What Methodism Stands for. PART IV. THE EXPANSION OF CHRISTIANITY IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. Lesson 40. Carey and the Missionary Emphasis 216 The Gospel in the Far East. Lesson 41. Christianity on the American Frontier 221 Pioneers in the West. Lesson 42. Wilberforce and Humanitarian Endeavor . . .... 227 Christianity and Social Service. Lesson 43. Lincoln the Slave Emancipator 333 The End of Slavery in the United States. Lesson 44. The Gospel of Self-Control . 238 The Crusade for Temperance and Purity. Lesson 45. The Ministry of Health 244 The War against Diseases. Lesson 46. The Gospel of Brotherly Love ........ 250 Christian Charity and the Social Settlements. Lesson 47. Christianity in the City Slums 255 William Booth and the Salvation Army. Lesson 48. Christianity in the Rural Villages 261 Oberlin in the French Mountains. Lesson 49. Christianity in Education 267 The Christian Schools and the Christian Press. Lesson 50. The Old Faith and the New Learning 273 The Place of Evolution in Modern Christianity. Lesson 51. Christianity and National Problems 278 The Christian Spirit in Government and Business. Lesson 52. The World at Peace 283 Christianity the Teacher of World Brotherhood. INTRODUCTION. Note 1. What is History? A famous teacher of history in Eng- land once said: " History is past politics; politics is present history." But it is more than that. He might better have said: History is life preserved; present life is history in the making. All that we come into contact with at the present day has connection with the life of some other day. The family of which we are a part exists because it has a long history back of it — it is what we call an his- torical institution. The house in which we live is built as it is because such an arrangement has been found in the past to be con- venient, or because it was the style of building long ago. The village or city with which we are familiar is governed after the pattern of Englishmen or their remote ancestors in the fens and forests of Germany. The school and the church have behind them a long history. Note 2. Why Study History? Of course it is possible to live in the present and largely to disregard the past. We should then in spirit get back nearer to our remote ancestors who, successful in the hunt, gorged themselves with food and went to sleep without a thought for the next day. They had no regard for the future, we have no interest in the past. But there are at least two reasons why this is not wise. One is that no one has a right to claim to be a man of intelligence and education who is ignorant of what industry and science and religion have done in days gone by; the other is that science has discovered that the law of life is a law of unfolding, that is, that everything now existing has developed out of what was previously in existence. In the same way the future will grow out of the present, and we can help to shape it by understanding the past and present out of which it grows. Note 3. Why Study the History of Christianity? It is not easy then to escape the task of studying history. But why interest our- selves in Christian history? For two more reasons. Because it has been the means of a great deal of human progress; and because it is the greatest force for good in the world today — it is what students of society call a powerful dynamic. Christian history is not a record of dead facts, but of a living force; and so it has a rich mean- ing for students of current events, and for those who wish to have a part in solving social problems. V ^l Introduction Note 4. The Purpose and Plan of this Course. The purpose of this course is to furnish a basis for the understanding of the present activities of the church and of the various agencies that are at work for the betterment of the individual and of society. It is not studied for information merely, but for practical usefulness as well. The plan is to measure the progress of human beings by certain land- marks in the history of Christianity. These are to be found all along the way for the last nineteen hundred years, but for conven- ience we consider four periods: (1) Christianity in the Olden Time; (2) The Great Awakening; (3) Anglo-Saxon Christianity; (4) Chris- tian Expansion in the Nineteenth Century. The narrative is full of interest, and there are many points at which the student will wish to stop and think, and talk it over, for questions naturally arise that need consideration and discussion. Provision is made for this. Some topics will need fuller investigation, and references to other books will be found useful. Note 5. Longer and Shorter Courses. The subject of the whole course is designed for a full year's study, but each Part can be taken up by itself. If any Part must be omitted, it should be the last. DIRECTIONS FOR STUDY. The narrative of the first few lessons is found mainly in the New Testament, as indicated in the sources of each lesson. The American Revised Version of the Bible is recommended. Thereafter the story can be gathered from the outline of the lesson, or more fully from a history of the Christian church. Among the brief outlines are Vedder's Church History Handbooks, Zenos' Compendium of Church History, and Hurst's Short History of the Christian Church. A fuller account is given in Newman's Manual of Church History, published in two volumes. An interesting series of stories is to be found in Walker's Great Men of the Christian Church. In preparing the lesson read first the note-book summary of the previous lesson. Then read slowly through the story of the day as told in the text-book, noting the special points indicated under ** Sug- gestions for Study " preceding the story of each lesson. Make note of difficult points to be mentioned in the class. Test yourself by means of the questions printed at the end of the lesson story. Think carefully about the matter for special discussion. Prepare the note- book work assigned by the teacher on the previous Sunday. Use the reading references as freely as opportunity permits. LANDMARKS IN CHRISTIAN HISTORY I, Christianity in the Olden Time Lesson 1. A GREEK CITY IN THE DAYS OP PAUL. How Christianity reached Antioch and spread from it. Sources. — Acts 11:26; Josephus: Antiquities, XII. iii. 1; Wars, HI. i\. 4; Sozomen: Church History, Book V. chap. 19. Josephus was a Jew of good family who lived in the first Christian century, took part in the revolt against Rome, and later went to Rome where he wrote the history of the Jews. Sozo- men wrote a history of the Christian church in the fourth century. He lived during the first half of the fifth century. Suggestions for Study. — 1. Read over carefully the Introduction and the Directions for Study. 2. Read the story of the day. Points to be especially noted: (a) geograph- ical location, races, political relations; (b) religious beliefs and customs; (c) the contrast between the splendor of Greek celebration and the small beginnings of Christianity in Antioch; (d) a later comparison of paganism and Christianity. 3. Think about the following topic for special discussion: Is it worth while to give time and strength, like Paul, for the betterment of city people, whether in this country or elsewhere? 4. Prepare note-book work as follows: (a) See that the summary of the pre- vious lesson as given by the teacher in the class is written out in full, (b) Look up the following names and write a sentence or two about each of them: Alex- ander the Great, Pompey, Herod the Great, (c) Make a list of the prominent events in the history of Antioch, with approximate dates. Note 1. Antioch. Near the northeast corner of the Mediter- ranean Sea two mountain ranges front each other across an historic stream. On the north a spur of the long Taurus chain pushes its foot into the narrow valley; to the south lies the chain of the Lebanon Mountains. Miles away in the interior the river Orontes, now Nahr el 'Asi, has its source, and between these mountains makes its way to the sea. Nineteen hundred years ago a great city stood on the banks of the river twenty miles above its mouth. It extended across the plain from the river to Mount Silpius, and climbing its slope, perched its citadel high on the mountain, and flung its walls far up the mountain sides. Through the city for several miles trailed a wide avenue, paved part of the way with marble slabs, and flanked 1 Landmarks in Christian History Lesson With trees, colonnades, and covered promenades, where the people might walk in shelter from sunshine or storm. Note 2. Its History. Seleucus, a general of the great Alexander, had built the city about 300 b. c, and named it Antioch after his father Antiochus. With shrewd foresight he built it at a point where it would readily gather the peoples of many countries. It had a healthful situation by the mountains, and was near enough to the sea to feel its breezes. It was favorably situated for a center of trade. Through the mountain pass made by the river might come the merchants of the East. Up stream could be brought the wares of the West from across the sea, and to facilitate this commerce its founder built the port of Seleucia at the fiver's mouth. People poured into the city from all directions, Greeks and Macedonians, Jews, Africans, and Asiatics mingling with the native Syrians. The city grew rapidly. Succeeding princes added to its resources and its beauty. Herod the Great was its special benefactor. Noble bridges crossed the broad river; aqueducts and baths, theaters, public basilicas, and private villas beautified the city; and its streets were thronged with cosmopolitan crowds bent on pleasure or gain. The population in the first century of the Christian era is estimated at half a million. Antioch ranked as the third city in the empire of Rome, surpassed only by Alexandria and the capital itself. Note 3. Its Relation to Rome. Syria had been made a Roman province by Pompey in 63 b. c, and naturally Antioch became the seat of the governor of Syria. But the Antiochians were permitted a large measure of self-government, and enjoyed the special privi- lege of freedom from a property tax. The early Roman emperors were especially friendly to the Jews, and continued to them the privilege of having their own ethnarch, a privilege which had been granted by the Greeks long before. Of course, Syria and its capital were a part of the great empire, and many Roman oflScials, mer- chants and travellers were visitors and residents at Antioch. The masses of the people were less concerned with politics than with the daily pastimes that filled their lives. Note 4. Its Attractiveness. The place was peculiarly attractive for residence. Besides the advantage of its location and its pros- perity the city was renowned throughout the ancient world as a pleasure resort. On the west side four or five miles away was the fair grove of Daphne, where the shade of dark laurel and cypress trees furnished a delightful retreat on the hottest summer day, where One A Greek City in the Days of Paul were fountains and statues and a great temple of Apollo, and where in August each year was held a religious festival that became a carnival of licentious freedom. Poets and pliilosophers in the city streets and along the paths of the grove of Daphne vied one with another in praising passion and pleasure. Art, music and dancing enlivened the hours of day and night. The people were fond of the scenes of the theater, and enjoyed the race-course with such mad abandon that party strife broke out at times. Thousands gave their whole time to the pursuit of pleasure. To live in Antioch was to be as gay as a modern Parisian. Notes. Religion in Antioch. Such gaiety as the people of Antioch enjoyed is not in these days associated with religion. Re- ligion does not demand a long face but it requires a clean life. But in the Greek and Roman world of ancient times, and in parts of the Far East today religious rites and immoral practices are asso- ciated closely. That is because religion so often has meant the performance of certain ceremonies or the obedience to certain laws, and the disregard of conduct. It is not surprising then to learn that in the city of Antioch religion had a prominent place. The Greeks and Romans worshipped many gods. They built a great many shrines and temples, and did not neglect their offerings. The great deities were honored magnificently with gatherings and pro- cessions, when crowds of people attended the priests and priestesses whose business it was to minister to the deities. The whole city swarmed to the grove of Daphne for the great festival of the year, and a visitor to the city might suppose that Greek religion, with all its joyousness and abandon, was the chief concern of this great metropolis of the East. Note 6. How Christianity came to Antioch. Into this city there came one day a Jew of Tarsus. It may have been on one of those festival days when Greeks and Syrians and Romans had gone to Daphne, but in the Jewish quarter he would find plenty of Jews. The strict Jew stood aloof from such frivolities, cold, severe, and proud in his own religion. Among such men the newcomer and his companion, who had joined him from Jerusalem, found a place to stay. They had come as religious teachers. They were not at- tended by bands of priests or dancing girls. No throng greeted them as they passed through the city gate. They were not even honored rabbis among the Jews. But news had gone out from Antioch some time before that a number of people in the city had ''4 Landmarks in Christian History "^'"* learned the story of Jesus of Nazareth from wandering disciples of Cyprus and Cyrene, and had become His followers. Barnabas had come from the Jerusalem Christians to investigate, and satisfied of the genuineness of the religious changes in Antioch, had gone off to Tarsus to get Saul, who at one time had been a notorious persecutor of behevers in Christ, but who had become a preacher of His gospel. So Saul of Tarsus — better known by his Roman name Paul — and Barnabas of Jerusalem came to Antioch to help the small company of Jews and Gentiles who had believed in Jesus Christ. Note 7. The Meaning of it all. In the Jewish quarter, in the street Singon, close by the forum and the amphitheater, Paul found a place to preach, and he gathered converts one by one from the community until the followers of Jesus in the city became numerous enough to attract public attention. But the simple religion of the Jew Jesus, without temple or priest, ritual or festival, seemed fool- ishness to the crowd in contrast to the splendor of their worship; and to speak of a Galilean as Christ a King, was to them the height of absurdity. In derision they dubbed His followers Christians. It was the first time that the followers of Jesus had been called by that name. They had called themselves *' disciples " in their relation to the Master, " brethren " in their relation one to another. But now they were given a name that identified them with that which was at the root of their faith, the lordship of Jesus. Henceforth they were to be known by that term. To one who saw Paul standing in a group of these Christians and a crowd of idle hangers-on it would have seemed a hopeless task and a waste of time. Paul would better have been making tents. The same scorn comes to many who see a Salvation Army exhorter on a downtown corner, or a Christian missionary by the street side in an oriental city. But that which had its small beginning in Antioch grew. That same Paul after a year went out from that same city and evangelized the cities of Asia Minor and Macedonia and Greece, and after him and beside him others preached and taught the new Christian faith. Groups of believers became large com- panies, congregations became churches, teachers and charity admin- istrators became powerful bishops, and cities like Antioch learned to honor the names of Christian and of Christ. And before the days of Antioch's decline that very metropolis became one of the four chief centers of Christianity in the ancient world, and the splendid festivals of the grove of Daphne, with their alluring immoralities, were no more. *^"* A Greek City in the Days of Paid 5 Questions on the Introduction. 1. What is meant by history? 2. State some reasons why we should study the history of Chris- tianity. 3. What are the sources from which we derive our information? Questions on the Present Lesson. 1. Where was Antioch? 2. What were its natural surroundings? 3. Wliat peoples lived in the city? 4. Why did so many settle there? 5. Sketch its political history. 6. What was the relation of the city to Rome? 7. What special religious celebration was held at Antioch: 8. In what ways do people show their religion? 9. Of what value are religious ceremonies? 6 Landmarks in Christian History ^^°" 10. How did Christianity come to Antioch? Reading References, (i) Myers: Ancient History (revised edition), pp. 290, 291, 466. (2) Gibbon: Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, ch. 23. (3) Ar- ticle on " Antioch " in Encyclopedia Britannica. (4) Farrar: Life of St. Paul, Book V, ch. 16. {S) Conybeare and Howson: Life and Epistles of the Apostle Paul, pp. 114-124. Lesson 2. THE BIRTH OF CHRISTIANITY. The Life and Teachings of Jesus. Sources. — The gospel narratives in Matthew, Mark, Luke and John, and the account of the events in Jerusalem given in Acts chs. 1-7. Very useful are Stevens and Burton's Harmony of the Gospels, and Burton's Records and Letters of the Apostolic Age. Suggestions for Study. — 1. Read over the summary of the previous lesson, and be ready for questions on it. 2. Read the story of the day. Points to be especially noted: (a) the connec- tion between Judaism and Christianity; (b) the peculiarities in the life of Jesus that made it different from the lives of other men; (c) the characteristics of the teaching of Jesus; {d) the contrast of the old order and the new faith as they met in conflict. 3. Think about the following topic for special discussion: What are the ele- ments of greatness in the career of Jesus? 4. Prepare note-book work as follows: (a) See that the summary of the pre- vious lesson is written correctly, (b) Draw a map of the Lake of Galilee, includ- ing the leading places mentioned in the Galilean ministry of Jesus, (c) Make a list of the persons with whom Jesus talked privately and the topic which they discussed, (d) Make an abstract of the address of Stephen (cf. Acts 7). Note 1. The Birthplace of Christianity. Christianity was born in the homeland of the Jews. It was cradled in Jerusalem. It ma- tured in the lands that border the Mediterranean Sea on the east. It made its way east into Asia, south into Africa, and west into Europe and America until it circled the globe. Christianity came out of Judaism. The Christian religion is based on the teaching of Jesus, who inherited Jewish ideas, and interpreted the best that the Jewish prophets had taught in terms large and broad enough to fit the whole human race. His teachings were made powerful by the life of singular goodness that He lived. They were acceptable Two The Birth of Christianity to others besides Jews because they fitted the spiritual and social needs of many people at a time when they were pecuHarly hungry and thirsty for a satisfying rehgion. The Hfe of Jesus became the central fact of history. The teachings of Jesus became the pattern of right thinking and correct living. Note 2. The Life of Jesus. Jesus was born in Bethlehem, a small town of Judea near Jerusalem. He was reared to young manhood in the highland district of Galilee. At Nazareth He was on the edge of the civilization that was represented in the Romanized towns and in the traffic that passed through them and along the highways that skirted the lake of Galilee and radiated in all direc- tions. Among the hills He was still closely in touch with the world's life. He lived among a people of mixed race, loyal to Judaism, but inferior in standing to the inhabitants of Judea and its capital city of Jerusalem. When about thirty years of age Jesus was conscious of a summons to become a teacher of religion and morals to His own people. He was attracted by the prophet John, who was preaching in the region of the lower Jordan; He participated in his baptism; and with the sternness of His task weighing upon Him He retired into the unkempt country of southern Judea, and fought out with Himself the first great struggle of His life. He won the victory over His lower ambitions, and set before Himself the task of establishing a spiritual kingdom by the very simple process of making men and women better, in place of the Messianic kingdom that the Jews anticipated. Unable to make Jerusalem the center of His efforts He went back early in His ministry to the Galilean people whom He knew best, and who were more teachable than the self-satisfied Jews of Judea. He gathered about Himself a few devoted friends, made Capernaum on the shore of the Sea of Galilee His nominal place of residence, and spent most of His time talking to the people in that city, on the hillsides and along the shore of the lake, and at intervals touring the north country on foot that He might meet the people on their own level and help them physically and spiritually. He performed wonderful deeds of healing from physical disease, and no less strange transformations from sin and moral degradation. He planted the seeds of religious truth along the highways and bypaths, and met the people in their fields, by the wayside wells and in their own homes with the sole purpose of doing them good and stirring in them the ambition to be better. Occasionally He visited Jerusalem, especially at the great festivals of His race, for He was a loyal Jew. 8 Landmarks in Christian History * "^"^ There He came in contact with the people of culture as well as the rabble of the city. He had lively tilts with the Pharisees, who were proud of their old religion and church, with the worldly and fash- ionable Sadducees, with the scribes and the priests of the temple, but His heart was with the people of the streets who needed help, and for them He sacrificed His strength and His chances of popu- larity and preferment among the select circles of the capital. Months of helpful ministry made Jesus the idol of the crowd; but there came a day in Capernaum when He made it plain that He had not undertaken to free them from the political yoke of Rome and give them an easy living, and the bulk of the people deserted Him and His spiritual ideals. Unshaken in His lofty purpose. He did not avoid the enemies that He had made by His frank discussions of true religion, especially in Jerusalem, and there at the feast of the Passover He was seized, condemned at a mock trial, and exe- cuted by crucifixion, hounded to death by the leaders of the old Judaism. Note 3. The New Hope. Christianity had been born only to be strangled in the cradle, as it seemed. The crowd had been disap- pointed and had turned against Jesus. The Jewish leaders had refused Him their approval, and condemned Him as an upstart and unauthorized rabbi. The Galilean lakeside and the streets of Jeru- salem were no longer the scene of a unique public ministry. But there were disciples of this Teacher who beHeved in Him even in death, and who were reassured by the sight of a risen Savior, the same Jesus whom they had known in the flesh, but no longer subject to human limitations or to death itself. He had been true to His mission; they would be true to His teachings. To them was com- mitted the task of living and preaching the gospel that He had proclaimed, and before them was set the hope that they too should be victors over sin and death, and sharers in the larger destiny of a life beyond the grave. Note 4. The Teaching of Jesus. At the beginning of His preach- ing in Galilee (Mark 1 : 14, 15) Jesus declared that He came to bring good tidings. His gospel was made most vivid by the life He lived. The Christian religion is based on His life and His words. His teaching had two striking characteristics. It was first of all for the individual that through Christ he might come to understand his personal relation to God the Father, and might live a friendly life among men grounded on his relationship to God. It was at the same time for the social whole, that it might be fashioned into a Two The Birth of Christianity 9 truer unity through the spirit of fellowship, and so become in a true sense the kingdom of God. Henceforth it was not enough for a man to say that he believed in God, to go into the temple and by means of a sacrifice or ceremony to make himself right with God, and then to go out and abuse his fellowmen; but he was to live a religion which should make him friendly with all men, and should keep him from envy, lust and crime, not only for the sake of his own soul, but even more for the sake of the common good. Note 5. Conflict with the Old Order. This teaching of Jesus was in harmony with the teaching of the Hebrew prophets. It must be remembered that Christianity grew out of Jewish stock. But it was contrary to the teaching of the priests and scribes in the time of Jesus; they put the emphasis on the correctness of cere- mony and exactness in keeping the Mosaic law. For this reason the leaders of the Jewish church hated Jesus, and brought about His death. But Christianity was not dead. Some of those who had believed in Jesus remained in Jerusalem, cherishing the hope that before long He would come again, and win others to faith in Him- self as the Messiah. There were several skirmishes between the leaders of both parties. At last there came an open outbreak. Stephen, one of the followers of Jesus, was charged with incendiary utterances against the Jewish ecclesiastical order, and he boldly hurled a challenge at the leaders w^ho had crucified Jesus, declaring that Moses and the prophets had seen with even clearer vision the true meaning of religion, but their successors were resisting the spirit of God and had killed the greatest of all the prophets. The law and the temple foreshadowed a larger faith in Christianity, which they were too narrow to see. Note 6. A General Policy of Persecution. It is not strange that the fury of the Jewish leaders broke forth impetuously upon the man who had made so grave a charge. What was he to speak so boldly against priest and scribe and Pharisee.^ One man stood as the fear- less representative of a despised and condemned sect, as Jesus had stood alone against the crowd. Opposed to him was the whole force of the Jewish church. Without waiting for the Roman sanc- tion of their condemnation, they hurried him forth and stoned him to death at the feet of the man who was some day to be the champion of Christianity on a larger field — Saul of Tarsus. The death of Stephen was a signal for a general persecution of tiiose who were followers of Jesus, and the disciples, thrust out of the Jewish church. 10 Landmarks in Christian History Lesson were compelled to flee from the city for safety. Once more the old order had triumphed, but the new faith that was born in the person of Jesus was at the threshold of a larger and more successful career. Questions on the Summary of the Preceding Lesson. 1. In what ways was Antioch famous both among Christians and pap^ans 2. Who helped to make it a great Christian city? Questions on the Present Lesson. 1. Where were the beginnings of Christianity? 2. Why did Christianity spread beyond the Jews? 3. What localities are most closely associated with the life of Jesus? 4. What kind of country was Galilee? 5. What are the leading facts in the life of Jesus — (a) before His active ministry; {])) in Galilee; (c) in Jerusalem? 6. What was left after the death of Jesus? 7. Explain the two great characteristics of the gospel of Jesus. 8. Why were the Jewish leaders so unfriendly to the gospel? Three jj^y^ SawZ the Persecutor Became Paul the Missionary 11 9. What was there about the address of Stephen that aroused such intense hatred? 10. What resulted from the execution of Stephen? Reading References. {1) The Gospel according to Mark. (2) Watson: The Life of the Master, pp. 155-163. (S) Purves: The Apostolic Age, pp. 51-55. Lessons. HOW SAUL THE PERSECUTOR BECAME PAUL THE MISSIONARY. The Conflict with Judaism and Heathenism. Sources. — The New Testament account of Paul is found in Acts, chs. 8-28 and Galatians 1: 13 — 2: 9. Ancient traditions regarding his death are recorded in the fifth chapter of the first letter to the Corinthians, written by Clement, head of the church in Rome, about 95 a. d.; and in the Church History of Eusebius, Book 2, ch. 25, written in the fourth century. Suggestions for Study. — 1. Read over the summary of the previous lesson, and be prepared for questions. 2. Read the story of the day. Note especially: (a) the changes in Paul's character that attended his conversion; (b) his earnestness in everything that he did; (c) the principal places where he lived and preached; (d) the means he used to influence people; (e) the contrast between Saul at the execution of Stephen, and Paul when he came to his own death. 3. The following topics are for special thought and discussion: Was Paul justified in turning from his own people to carry on foreign missions among non- Jews? Can the arguments in favor of his action be used to justify foreign mis- sions today? 4. The note-book entries for this lesson should include a list of the principal places visited by Paul, with a map showing their location. See that the sum- mary of the previous lesson is written out. This should stand at the end of the lesson to which it belongs. Note 1. The Strange Experience of Saul of Tarsus. When the zealous Jews took up stones to kill Stephen after the old Mosaic custom, they turned over their outer clothing to a certain Saul of Tarsus, who was a.xiong the most hot-headed radicals. When per- secution broke out against the followers of Jesus, he was the most vigorous of Jewish detectives; and when he led a search for Chris- tians as far away as Damascus a strange experience changed his 12 Landmarks in Christian History Lesson whole career. A blinding vision came upon liim at the hour of noon-day heat, and a voice that he recognized as that of Jesus Christ called liim to account, and sent him into the city for instruc- tion in rehgion. Instead of proceeding roughly to haul men and women to prison, Paul groped his way blindly to his lodging on Strait Street, and when he was visited by a certain Ananias, a Chris- tian of Damascus, he listened humbly to the story of the gospel, and acknowledged himself a disciple of the Nazarene. Note 2. His Changed Purpose. Saul was the son of a Pharisee, and had been educated as a Jewish rabbi. To own allegiance to Jesus as the Messiah was to take a far more radical step than for a Jewish rabbi to become a Christian minister today. He exchanged a position of influence among his own race for a life of ignominy and sure persecution. Only a most powerful mental conviction could have made him do that. But it has always been character- istic of Christianity that it changes the purpose of life from that wliich is self-seeking to that wliich will be of service to others. As soon as Saul felt the change, he did not hesitate to announce it publicly, and he was soon in danger for his life. Partly that the outcry against liim might have time to pass over, and partly that he might adjust himself to liis new experience, he went into retire- ment for some three years in Arabia (Gal. 1:17, 18). There he was able to supplement his learning by coming into direct spiritual inter- course with God away from the haunts of the crowd. As Moses had his time of preparation in the lonely wilderness of Midian, as Elijah met God at Horeb, and as even Jesus liimself had his testing time in the wilderness in preparation for his months of ministry, so Saul had his silent time with God and came out fitted to be Paul, the greatest of the Apostles of Jesus. Note 3. His New Task. The Jewish persecutor had seen the vision, and had come to understand the meaning of the Christ within his own life. Henceforth he was to be an interpreter of Christianity to the world. It was not an easy task. He had found himself at first distrusted by the Christians, and for years he gained no conspicuous position among them. After a visit to Jerusalem he returned to his own city of Tarsus, though he must have known that all who had been his friends there would turn against him. In the absence of definite record it seems reasonable to suppose that he preached the gospel of Jesus for many years in Syria and Cilicia. Then he was invited to Antioch, and became a recognized leader in that city, as was noted in the first lesson. From Antioch he went Three jj^^ g^^j^ ^^^ Persecutor Became Paul the Missionary 13 out on those great missionary tours that have made him famous in Christian history. Naturally he carried his message first to the Jews, but the time came when he was convinced that it was his special mission to go outside his own race, and to present the claims of Christianity as a religion for all men, Gentiles as well as Jews. In this determination he was going contrary to the opinion of most Christians, including the leaders of the Jerusalem brotherhood. Some Christians who had been zealous Jews, and were known as Judaizers, because they insisted that the only door into Christianity was through the Jewish church, violently opposed Paul on his first missionary tours. He had to contend with superstition at Lystra, with pagan indifference among cultured Athenians, and with low moral ideals among pleasure lovers at Corinth. He had to warn Christians of Asia Minor against philosophic misconceptions, and to contend with legalists at Rome. Sometimes his trusted lieutenants deserted him. But his faith in his mission never failed him, and his conviction that God was with him never faltered. There were times when he seemed to be lifted out of himself, and to be conscious of peculiar intimacy with the Unseen. There were hours when he faced the prospect of death at the hands of his enemies. Through all he was the same courageous soul. And when he knew that the end could not be far away, and looked back over the years past, he could say with deep satisfaction: " I have fought a good fight; I have kept the faith." Note 4. Three Missionary Stages. There were three recorded stages of early missions. Jesus Himself was the first missionary, and He supplemented His own efforts by sending out His disciples into the rural hamlets where He could not go. A second stage was begun by the death of Stephen, and Christianity was carried by unknown propagandists far ana wide, even to the large cities of Alexandria, Antioch and Rome. For the most part it was preached to Jews and Jewish proselytes. A few Gentiles accepted Christi- anity for themselves, among whom were Cornelius, a Roman cen- turion evangelized by Peter, and certain inhabitants of Antioch. A third stage was entered upon when Paul and his companion Barnabas went out with a commission from the Christian church in Antioch to evangelize the Greek and Roman world. Paul was especially well equipped to do this cosmopolitan work, for he was of Hebrew parentage, was born and reared in a Greek city and spoke and read the Greek language, and from his father he inherited the privilege of Roman citizenship. Educated with care by Jewish 14, Landmarks in Christian History ^^"°^ rabbis in the schools of Jerusalem, he was acquainted with the Hebrew law, logic, and dialectics, that proved so useful in later disputation.' He possessed an amount of courage and vigor out of proportion to his small size. What was rarest of all he combined with mental acumen the faith of a mystic, and trusted where he could not see. Note 5. The Sailing of Paul and Barnabas. It must have been a greater day in the history of the church of Antioch when its first missionaries sailed away from the pier of Seleucia, the harbor of Antioch, than it is for the churches of America when a large company oi missionaries sail from an Atlantic or Pacific port to go half way around the world. Paul and Barnabas were to make only a short voyage to Cyprus, and then across to Asia Minor, but they were pioneers and that greatly increased their importance. After touring Cyprus and crossing to the mainland, the missionaries made their way through the pass of the mountains that skirt the shores of Asia Minor, and at Galatian Antioch struck one of the highways running east and west. From there Paul visited other Galatian towns, and then returned to Antioch in Syria. After the status of Gentile Christians had been settled by a conference be- tween Paul and the Christian leaders .at Jerusalem, Paul made a more extended tour through Asia Minor, and even penetrated Mace- donia a.id Greece in the interests of the new faith. Everywhere he spoke to the people as he had opportunity, discussing religion in the open forum, as at Athens, in the schools of religion and philoso- phy, as at Ephesus, or in Jewish synagogues, as at Antioch in Pisidia. Like Stephen he argued for the truth of Christianity by reviewing Jewish history, weaving in prophecies of the Messiah, and declaring their fulfilment in Jesus. Wherever he went, Paul culled out a few believers as a nucleus for an organization, and encouraged them in his absence through messengers and by means of the letters that are preserved in the New Testament. Note 6. Paul Checkmated. On a third tour Paul revisited the strategic centers of the Christianity that he had planted in Asia Minor, and then settled down at Ephesus for more than two years. At the end of that time he made a second journey to Greece and Macedonia, and after that made his way to Jerusalem with a gen- erous offering of friendship and charity to the needy mother church. Paul hoped that this might cement a real bond of fellowship between the Christian church of the Jewish capital and the churches of the Thret How Saul the Persecutor Became Paul the Missionary 15 Gentile world. Then his vision widened to include a visit to Rome, and an evangelistic tour in the farther West. But his missionary enterprise was cut short by the hatred of the Jews who brought about his arrest at Jerusalem. From there he was taken a prisoner to Csesarea and Rome, and later was executed in the world's capital by command of Nero, the first Roman emperor who persecuted Christians. Note 7. The Death of the Great Missionary. It was a long time from the stoning of Stephen to the day of Paul's death, but the brave old man must have thought of that earlier occasion in his youth, when he himself was in the band of executioners. Then the faith of Jesus was just beginning to make its way; now it was winning victory even in Rome. He himself had proved faithful to the light he had. When the head of the great Apostle fell beneath the execu- tioner's sword, a great life ended, and a period of long but inter- mittent persecution began, yet Christianity survived them both because it contained divine truth that was vital to human life. Questions on the Summary of the Preceding Lesson. 1. How did Christianity originate? 2. What kind of life did Jesus live? 3. What was the character of His teaching? 4. How was it that the religion of Christ did not perish with the death of its Founder? Questions on the Present Lesson. 1. What is the scene that introduces Saul of Tarsus into the story? 2. How did his experience as a persecutor travelling to Damascus affect him physically and spiritually? 3. What were some of the diflSculties against which Paul had to contend in his ministry? 4. Who were the Judaizers? 16 Landmarks in Christian History ^'"°^ 5, What special traits of character did Paul display? 6. What methods did he use to influence the people? 7. How did there come to be Christian churches where Paul preached? 8. Wh§,t was the reason for Paul's last visit to Jerusalem? 9. When, and how, did Paul die? 10. Point out the significance of his death. Reading References. (1) Acts 22: 1-21; Galatians 1: 13-24. (2) Stalker: The Life of St. Paul, ch. 3. (3) Purves; The Apostolic Age, pp. 111-122, 177-203. P<**^ The New Religion and Old Habits 17 Lesson 4. THE NEW RELIGION AND OLD HABITS. How Christianity Affected the Social Order. Sources. — 1 Corinthians; 2 Corinthians; Romans, chs. 1-3; Acts, ch. 15; Teaching of the Twelve Apostles, a church manual of the second century; Tertul- lian's Apology, I, chs. 42, 43; Eusebius' Church History, Book VI, ch. 43; and numerous other writings of the first four Christian centuries. Suggestions for Study. — 1. Read over the summary of the previous lesson so as to be able to answer questions on it. 2. Read the lesson of the day. Points to be especially noted are: (a) the failure of Jews and Gentiles to see that religious worship and right living must go together; (6) the separation of Christianity from the obligations of Judaism; (c) the brotherly spirit that showed itself to be characteristic of Christians; {d) the labor problem can never be solved until workingmen work in the right spirit; {e) the real test of Christianity is its power to transform individual and social life. 3. For special discussion it is worth while to consider this question: What does primitive Christianity teach as to the way in which we ought to act to- wards existing customs, laws and established institutions.? 4. The note-book work for this lesson should include: (a) the summary: (6) a sketch of the places of worship most famous in Hebrew history, a diagram of the temple, and a brief description of their manner of worship; (c) a list of the best known oracles and temples of paganism. Or, in place of these exercises, the teacher may ask for a short sketch of slavery among the ancients. Note 1. The Old Habits. When Jesus brought to the world His gospel of the fatherly love of God and of brotherly love for men, he found the Jews practising a religion that emphasized correct forms of worship, but living selfish, narrow and often corrupt lives. When Paul carried his message among the pagan Gentiles he found them recognizing Greek divinities with great splendor, as in the grove of Daphne at Antioch, but very often they were licentious and guilty of cruelty and greed. No Jew or Gentile could become Christian unless he lived right, however scrupulous he might be about religious ceremonies. Both Jesus and Paul so declared with strong emphasis. So it came about that wherever Christians con- gregated there were found men and women transformed in life, showing traits of character that made the world wonder, but that commanded its respect. Note 2. Jewish Ideas about Religion. It must be remembered that the unfortunate experiences of the Jewish people had fixed certain ideas firmly in their mind. Their ancestors had originally covenanted with God to be faithful to Him, but many generations of the fathers had deserted Jehovah for other gods. Even the sacred temple of Solomon had been neglected by them and the Mosaic law disregarded. Then complete disaster had come upon them, and 18 Landmarks in Christian History Uaam national life was lost altogether. When the old life was taken up again, and Jerusalem and the temple were rebuilt, the people ac- cepted the explanations of the priests that God had made them suffer because they had neglected Him and His law. The lesson was well learned. For more than four centuries before Christ the Jews were faithful to Jehovah, and so scrupulously did they keep the ceremonial law, that they came to feel that this was all impor- tant, and neglected personal conduct. It is not strange that Jews who were led by Jesus to see the importance of right living should have been unable to shake off the conviction that Judaism was essential, and to feel that Paul was a renegade to his own faith when he admitted Gentiles to an equal share in Christianity without requiring of them entrance into the Jewish church and obedience to the Mosaic law. Note 3. The Conference at Jerusalem. About the middle of the first century Christians seemed in danger of ranging themselves into separate Jewish and Gentile churches. To prevent this Paul met the leaders of the Jewish church in Jerusalem in a famous conference in that city, where a compromise was reached, by which it was agreed that Gentile Christians should be expected to abstain from certain practices that were peculiarly offensive to the Jews, but in other respects were free to practise Christianity without any cere- monial restraint (Acts 15: 6-29). This was in reality a great victory for Paul and the Gentiles, and it insured the practical unity of the primitive Christians. Later on, with the destruction of Jerusalem and the temple, even Jewish Christians came to see that the essence of their religion did not consist in ceremony but in life, and the habits of centuries fell away. Note 4. Gentile Morals. The Jews were not alone in thinking that sacrifice and ceremony made up religion. Nowhere in the non- Jewish world was clean living and unselfish conduct regarded as an essential part of religion. The divorce between religion and morals was complete in the grove of Daphne. It was the same throughout the empire. The besetting sin of the age was impurity. In his very first letter to the Thessalonians Paul charges the disciples to keep the mastery of themselves. " It is God's will," he says, " that you abstain from debauchery, and that each of you learn to get the mastery over bodily desires in purity and honor; nor must any man wrong his brother in this matter by his transgression. . . . For God has not called us to a life of uncleanness, but his calling is a holy calling" (1 Thessalonians 4:3-7). Though he urges the Galatians Pour The New Religion and Old Habits 19 to be firm in the maintenance of their freedom, he has to remind them that hberty is not hcense (Galatians 5:13). The burden of the fifth and sixth chapters of 1 Corinthians is the same. The problem of social purity was peculiarly difficult in the atmosphere of Corinth, and Paul was forced more than once to remind the Christian com- munity there that the impure should have no more place in their religious body than they had in the kingdom of God. To the Romans and the Ephesians also he declared immorality of all sorts to be incompatible with the new social order that was expected with the coming of the Messianic King. Note 5. How the Christians Lived. The early Christians did not talk about " social Christianity," but they lived it. The mes- sage of Jesus was social as well as personal, for it had reference to a man's life among his fellows, and it affected every sphere of social life. It beautified home life. Among pagans at least family rela- tionships were far from ideal. The head of the family had small regard for his wife and children, and slaves had no rights. In the Christian family there was a new affection among its members, and slaves were treated kindly. (Cf. Paul's letter to Philemon about the runaway slave Onesimus.) In each community the primitive Christians formed a brotherhood, helping one another in need, even sharing generously large amounts of property as in Jerusalem (Acts 4:34-37). They worshipped together, and ate together in one another's houses. Christian charity and brotherliness became pro- verbial among their neighbors, and pagans did not hesitate to say: " See how these Christians love one another." The Christian spirit of love broke down the barriers of race and creed. It was contrary to custom for people of alien race to regard one another otherwise than as enemies, though for common con- venience they traded peacefully one with another, and were re- strained from open hostility by Roman authority. But Christi- anity made aliens brothers, and created an internationalism that was wholly new. Not only among themselves but towards pagans, too, the Christians showed the same spirit of kindness. They helped them in sickness, and even in pestilence buried them when their own friends forsook them. A friendly disposition was charac- teristic of them in all their social relations. Note 6. The Labor Question. Christians had their share in the work of their time. They did not become idlers because they visited religious meetings, occupied themselves with charity, and expected the existing social order presently to pass away. It would 20 Landmarks in Christian History Lesson not seem strange if tliey had fretted against their limitations. Most of them belonged to the lower grades of society; many of them were slaves. But it was in harmony with the Christian spirit to do their duty in daily tasks rather than to try to effect economic reform or social revolution. Paul in all his writings never agitates against labor as a curse, but takes his own place in the ranks of tent-makers, and declares the principle of industry: " If any man will not work, neither let him eat " (2 Thessalonians 3: 10). Note 7. The Test of Christianity. So primitive Christianity justified itself in the lives of its adherents. A religion that could transform men and women whose lives were tainted with impurity and shame, whose spirit was one of cruelty, lust and greed of money and pleasure, whose conduct with relation to industry and social betterment was negative if not harmful, was a force in the midst of the Roman and Greek world. No other form of religion, Jew or Gentile, could match it. Like every other religion it did not remain unaffected by the atmosphere in which it was. It became corrupted and paganized in a measure. But its power to transform human life has always given it strength, and has been its greatest apolo- getic in competition with other faiths. The emphasis shifts from individual to social life and back again, but in either case Christi- anity has proved itself the greatest force for good that the world has ever seen. Questions on the Summary of the Preceding Lesson. 1. What distinguishes Paul among early Christian leaders? 2. Trace the course of his principal tours. 3. In what did he excel? Questions on the Present Lesson. 1. What did Jews and Gentiles emphasize most in their religion? 2. What must be said about their conduct? 3. How IS Christianity different? ^<***^ The New Religion and Old Habits 81 4. Explain why the Jews made so much of their law. 5. How did Jewish and Gentile Christians come to an agreement? 6. How did Paul deal with the tendency to impurity? 7. Can a person be really a Christian now, and not live a pure life? 8. Show how the early Christians lived a social Christianity — at home, among other Christians, with pagans, and in their toil. 9. What principle condemns alike the vagabond and the idle rich? 10. What is the truest test of Christianity? Reading References. (1) Paul's Letter to Philemon. (2) Lightfoot: Historical Essays. pp. 1-71. (S) McGiffert: The Apostolic Age, pp. 64-74. 22 Landmarks in Christian History ^'"°" Lessons. ONE OF THE BROTHERHOOD AT EPHESUS. How a Christian Lived in the Late First Century. Sources. — Acts, ch. 19; Ephesians; Rev. 1: 3; 2: 1-7; Ireneeus' Against Here- sies contains a defense of Christianity against Gnosticism; Justin's Apology, chs. 06, 67; Teaching of the Twelve Apostles. Suggestions for Study. — 1. Read the summary of the previous lesson, and be prepared to answer questions on it. 2. Read the lesson of the day. Notice especially: (a) the position of Ephesus and its religious importance; (b) the presence of both Paul and John in Ephesus; (c) the tendency to emphasize knowledge among learned orientals; (d) the meth- od of worship, and the memorial service of the Christians. 3. For special discussion think over what is most impressive and most valu- able in the public worship of the church, and be prepared to give good reasons for your opinion. 4. Note-book work: (a) the lesson summary written out; (6) the names of the seven churches of Asia, and the point of John's special message to each. (If possible draw a map to show their location.) (c) Select two psalms that would be appropriate for the church service of the early Christians. Note 1. The City of Ephesus. Ephesus was originally a Greek colony, built in the days when the Ionian Greeks were settling along the western coast of Asia Minor, and it became one of the most flourishing cities of the East long before the Roman conquests were made in the eastern Mediterranean region. It grew over hill slope and plain in the valley of the river Cayster, where it approaches the sea. Besides the advantage of a location on the coast, it was the natural market for the trade that came westward down the river valleys from the interior of Asia Minor. The city grew in wealth and magnificence, and in the first century of the Christian era outshone other cities of that region. It was interesting reli- giously, for it was the center of the worship of the Greek goddess Artemis (or Diana), and boasted that her temple was one of the grandest in the world. Note 2. Christian Teachers in Ephesus. The importance of the city led Paul to make it his residence after he had completed his second missionary tour. He remained long enough to establish his own faith with a company of believers, but he got into diflBculty with the guild of silversmiths who catered to the worship of Arte- mis, and was forced to leave the place. Apollos was another Chris- tian leader of influence. He had come to Ephesus from Alexandria, and had gone again before Paul arrived. But the man who, after the death of Peter and Paul, is recognized as most influential in Ephesus and the neighboring towns within the Roman province of Asia was the Apostle John, the " disciple whom Jesus loved." If, as Fiv One of the Brotherhood at Ephestis many suppose, he was the same John who wrote the Book of Reve- lation, his spirit is revealed in the brief letters addressed to the seven churches of the province, and that are preserved in the first three chapters of Revelation. Note 3. In the Days of John. It is not difficult to imagine a Christian of that Ephesian church in the days when John wrote his letter. Many a Greek by that time had enrolled himself in the Christian company of that city. His chief concern was to live so as to gain the approval of the great Apostle who wrote: "Little children love one another," and of the greater Master who com- manded His disciples: "Love one another as I have loved you." In such a spirit he was an example to all around him. His presence rebuked their sin; his contentment and patience gave them courage for their work; his faith in the good made them respect his religion. His life was in striking contrast to the Epicurean who dawdled at the banquet or the gaming table, and declared that for him it was enough to eat, drink and be merry while his day lasted; as for the future he knew nothing about it and cared less. The Christian's religious thinking was in strong contrast to the scholarly aristocrat who esteemed Greek philosophy above all else, or who, if inclined to see some truth in Christianity, felt himself above the crowd, one of the elect Gnostics who were confident that to them alone could come the highest knowledge for which life was worth living. The eastern cities were full of such aristocrats of learning. One of the most serious dangers that Christianity had to face in the second century was Gnosticism, which restrict* )d Christianity in its highest attainments to those who were intellectually capable of understand- ing philosophy, instead of promising, as Jesus did, that the Spirit of God should take of the deep things cf God and interpret them aright to every believer, ew n the most humble. Note 4. An Ephesian Christian in the Church. The Christian at Ephesus enjoyed the fellowship of other Christians in the church. The churches of Jewish Christians were modelled upon the original company at Jerusalem and upon the organization of the Jewish church; the churches of the Greek Christians were modelled on those and on the religious associations of various kinds that were common at that period in all parts of the empire. But Christian churches differed little one from another in their organization or worship. It is therefore not difficult to think of the Ephesian Christian as one of a company of believers in Jesus, banded together under the oversight of a board of elders with a president-bishop at the head. 24 Landmarks in Christian History Lesson living in the bond of sympathy and aiding one another when in need. They met in congregation on the first day of the week to worship God, to encourage one another in the Christian way, and to celebrate the Lord's Supper. Note 5. At Worship. It is interesting to know that the service of worship in the primitive church was not very different from present practice. Prayer was an essential part of worship, because Christians beHeved that Christ was present with them, and prayer was the expression of their communion with Him. Public reading of the Old Testament was a custom received from the Jewish syna- gogue, and when a Christian congregation was fortunate enough to have a copy of one of Paul's letters or a narrative of the gospel, that too was a source of public instruction. If a travelling evangelist — usually known as a prophet or apostle — was present, he was listened to with great respect; if no special speaker was there, the Christians talked on religious topics among themselves. The old Hebrew psalms were used as songs of praise, and to these were added certain Christian hymns and chants, like the songs of Mary and Zacharias given in the gospel narrative of Luke (ch. 1). Note 6. The Lord's Supper. The most valued part of worship was the celebration of the Lord's Supper, or Eucharist, in memory of the last supper of Jesus with His disciples. It was a frequent reminder of the sacrifice of Christ, and at a later time came to be regarded as a sacrament. In the church of Ephesus in the time of John it was a simple memorial feast which brought the Christians into communion with God and strengthened the bond of their mutual fellowship. In imitation of Jesus, the president of the com- pany blessed bread and wine with prayer, and deacons distributed them to those present and afterward to the absent ones of the com- pany. This simple ordinance of the s tunate results of the theological controversy. Orthodoxy was de- fined, and uniformity in doctrine was obtained, but at fearful cost. The church of Christ lost its first enthusiasm, and forgot that its fundamental principle of conduct was brotherly love. It had wan- dered far from the teaching of Jesus and the exhortations of the Apostle John. It gained in numbers, in wealth and in outward prosperity through the cessation of persecution; but it lost its spirit- ual force and the qualities which made it truly great. This has been the usual result of disputes over doctrine. Theology has its place, but it is not religion, only the science of religion. Religion has to do with the life of the soul; theology is the product of the intellect. It was inevitable that Greek Christianity should be intellectual- ized, for that was in harmony with the Greek spirit. It was a necessary part of the process of development through which Chris- tianity passed. The church fteeded to define its creed, as it needed ^*^*' How there Came to he a Creed 41 to perfect its organization, but neither creed nor organization is the essential thing in Christianity — that is the spirit of love animating life. Questions on the Summary of the Preceding Lesson. 1. What was the Roman policy towards Christianity? 2. What are the important points in the history of the persecution of the Christians? 3. How were Christians punished? 4. What was the final outcome? Questions on the Present Lesson. 1. What was the simple faith of the early Christians? 2. When did it become necessary for them to define their faith? 3. What is the meaning of a rule of faith? 4. Describe the origin of the Apostles* Creed. Is it still in use? 5. Describe the Alexandrian school of Origen, 6. What was understood by orthodoxy and heresy? 7. Why did there come to be fierce theological controversy? 8. What attempts were made to reach conclusions? 42 Landmarks in Christian History '^"^''" 9. Who was Athanasius? . 10. What was the result of the councils? Reading References. {!) Article " Creeds " in Encyclopedia Britannica, 11th edition (2) Gumlich: Christian Creeds and Confessions, chs. 1, 2. Lesson 9. HOW THE CHURCH BECAME A WORLD POWER. The Ambition of the Bishop of Rome. Sources. — Romans 16:5; 1 Timothy, ch. 3; 4:14; Teaching of the Twelve Apostles; the letters of Ignatius; the Apostolic Constitutions, Book II; Cyprian: On the Unity of the Church; Leo I: Sermon on Peter s Headship. Suggestions for Study. — 1. Read the summary of the previous lesson, and be prepared to answer questions on it. 2. Read the lesson of the day. Points to be especially noted are: (a) the beginnings of the church; (6) the growth in importance of the bishop: (c) the position of Rome; (d) how the bishop of Rome became pope. 3. The following topic is for discussion in class: What is the value of the church in the community, and how can it be made more useful? 4. Note-book work: (a) See that the summary is properly written. (6) Write out the steps in the progress of church organization, noting at least one event in each century, (c) Make a list of the duties of the bishop after he had become head of a diocese. Note 1. The Greek vs. the Latin Fathers. The chief interest of the Greek fathers of the church was in correct thinking about religion. The emphasis of the Latin fathers — except Augustine, the greatest of them all, who waged a third theological controversy and stands as the greatest theologian of the whole church — was upon proper worship and a strong church organization. It was the Latin nature of the West to be most interested in externals, and as Christianity ceased to be regulated by Greek councils after the mid- dle of the fifth century, Rome became the center of church affairs, and the church itself became of more consequence than the life of its members or their thoughts about religion. From that time for a thousand years the Roman or Latin influence was supreme. Nine How the Church Became a World Power 43 Note 2. How there Came to Be a Church. Jesus did not found a Christian church to take the place of the old Jemsh church. He had almost nothing to say about a church. The first disciples con- tinued to worship in the temple, and Paul was a frequent attendant at the Jewish synagogues. After Jesus ceased to be with them, the first disciples met together weekly or oftener to keep in memory their Master and His death and resurrection, usually in the house of one of the company (Rom. 16:5; Philemon vs. 2). They were all bound together as a brotherhood with a common faith and hope, and a love one for another that showed itself in great generosity. At these meetings they prayed and sang together, and exchanged words upon a common theme. But their enemies pushed them out of the Jewish church, and presently Jerusalem and the temple were destroyed. Then Gentile Christian churches became more numerous than Jewish Christian churches, and it became necessary to have some organization to bind the assemblies together, to direct their worship and their charity, and to represent Christianity in the world. The natural models of organization were the Jewish synagogue and the religious club that was common among the Greeks for the maintenance of a particular form of religion. Organized after this fashion a Chris- tian church in any community was directed by a board of elders, or presbyters, one of whom was chief, and was called overseer or bishop, all chosen by the church members. It was his special task to administer the charities of his church, and in this he was assisted by several deacons. Spiritual leadersliip during the first century was in the hands of the Apostles, and of so-called prophets and teach- ers, who were regarded as divinely instructed to inspire the people to Christian living. Some of them were residents iq, one place; some travelled about like modern evangelists. Note 3. How the Bishop Became Supreme. The chief interest of the primitive church was in spiritual living and helpful charity, and in missionary aetivity. But by degrees the original enthusiasm declined. More attention was given to the things in which Gentile religionists were interested — orthodox thinking and the forms of worship. At the same time the churches were losing confidence in the self-appointed prophets and teachers. By a natural and speedy process the bishop became spiritual teacher as well as business manager, and came to be looked to as the defender of the true faith and director of the service of worship. About the same time pagan influence was making itself felt in the matter of the ordinances of 44 Landmarks in Christian History Lesson baptism and the Lord's Supper. Instead of being maintained as simple rites, they were becoming more formal, and were being regarded as sacraments, that is, sacred in themselves and having efficacy to make one religious. Eventually, to partake of the sac- rament of the Lord's Supper was to repeat the sacrifice of Christ's body and blood, and the bishop and presbyter who administered it became in the eyes of the people a priest, like the priests of the temples of old. By this process the primitive church became the Catholic church of the Middle Ages, and the Lord's Supper became the mass. It was all perfectly natural, as it was natural for the theological controversies to take place. The growth of thought and the development of organization and worship were both necessary, but it was unfortunate that they should have destroyed the sim- plicity and the spontaneous enthusiasm of the early days. Note 4. The Bishop in his Diocese. Originally each local church had its bishop. Naturally some of the bishops were more promi- nent than others, either because of their personal ability or because of the importance of the place in which they lived. The bishop of Antioch was a greater man than the bishop of some cross-roads village. Presently the great bishops swallowed up the little ones, just as the business trusts in recent years have disposed of individual merchants and manufacturers. The local enterprise continued, but it was under the control of the powerful bishop. All the ecclesiastical territory that he controlled was called his diocese. So it came about that the bishops were district managers, reserving to themselves the most important rights; while the local church officials, who were simply priests, were responsible for their administration to the bishop, and were restricted in their control of their parishes. Some of the most prominent and powerful bishops had the title of arch- bishop, and the bishops of Antioch, Alexandria, Constantinople, the new capital, and Rome, the old capital, were dignified still further with the title of patriarch. ■j Note 5. The Tendency toward Unity. It is plain that there was a steady tendency away from democratic simplicity in organiza- tion, as there was in worship. Instead of each church managing its own affairs, it was now part of a regular system controlled by an absent official. The note of authority was heard more and more after Christianity became the imperial religion, and everybody be- came a member of the church. There was a growing consciousness of the unity of the one Christian church. Cyprian, who was bishop ^*^ How the Church Became a World Power 45 of the church of Carthage about 250 A. D., and who was the suc- cessor of TertulHan, the first prominent Latin father, did not hesitate to say: "The episcopate — that is, the system of bishops — is one; it is shared among individuals, yet each possesses the entire author- ity. The Church also is one, though she is widely extended among the multitude." Ambrose, bishop of Milan, in northern Italy in the fourth century, did not hesitate to exercise his authority against a Roman emperor who had committed a crime, forbidding liim to enter a Christian church until a period of repentance had passed. Augustine, the greatest of the Latin fathers, stood zealously for the same principles of unity and authority early in the fifth century. But as yet there was no one recognized head. Note 6. The Ambition of the Bishop of Rome. As early as the last part of the second century the Christian church had so per- meated the Roman empire that it might properly be called a catholic or universal church. Irenseus, a bishop of Gaul, but not a Latin father like the others named, did so much to unify the church in his day that he is often spoken of as the founder of the Old Catholic church. It was sufiiciently like what we know as the Catholic church in its organization and ceremonies that the name will not trouble us, but it was not the Roman Catholic church because it was not yet controlled by Rome. But at an early period the Roman bishops had a vision of their church becoming the head of Christen- dom. It was not a wild dream, for Rome had been the center of government in the empire for centuries. Why might not the Roman church take the place of the Roman empire which was declining and plainly destined to come to an end.? This was the ambition which dazzled the eyes of many a Roman bishop in the fourth and fifth centuries. They lacked only the power to bring it about. Note 7. How the Ambition was Realized. Rome had the advan- tage of being the only great church in the West. In the East Anti- och, Alexandria and Constantinople were rivals for supremacy. It was easy for Rome to assume the position of umpire in disputes. In the theological controversies and the meetings of the councils the bishops of Rome had influence. Every opportunity was im- proved to strengthen the Roman position. In the West the Roman bishop was looked to as civil ruler and protector in the disturbed times after Constantine moved his capital to its new seat in the East. Finally at the middle of the fifth century a masterful man became bishop of Rome, who realized in fuller measure than any 46 Landmarks in Christian History Lesson who preceded him supremacy in the whole church. This was Leo, and he is known in history as pope Leo I. From that time it is proper to speak of the Roman bishops as popes. Leo was declared by the emperor to be supreme head of the church, and the claim was never given up, though it could not always be enforced. When barbarian invaders threatened the city of Rome, the bishop pacified them by going in person to intervene. A hundred and fifty years later another great bishop named Gregory I. was able to do even more than Leo to strengthen the papacy, and before the Middle Ages were over the pope of Rome was acknowledged not only as head of the church, but sovereign also over the kings and princes of Europe. Before that time, however, eastern Europe had sepa- rated from the Roman church and organized as a Greek Catholic church, and Asia and North Africa had become Mohammedan, so that the pope became only a western sovereign. Note 8. A Striking Contrast. There was a vast difference be- tween the infant church in Jerusalem practising the principles of brotherhood, and the Church of Rome, proud in its supreme posi- tion at the head of a powerful and rich ecclesiastical organization. The splendid rule that the early disciples of Jesus had dreamed of as the kingdom of God had come to be enjoyed by the representa- tive of Christianity in the old capital city of Rome. It is not diflS- cult to decide which was more in harmony with the purpose of Jesus, but the strength and position of the papacy proved a great advantage to Christianity in the troublous years that followed. Questions on the Summary of the Preceding Lesson. 1. Why were creeds necessary? 2. What preceded the universal creeds? 3. How were forms of confession agreed upon? 4. What was the most famous council? Questions on the Present Lesson. 1. How did the Latin fathers differ from the Greeks in their interests? 2. Why was an effective church organization necessary? 3. What different kinds of leaders were there? ^'"' How the Church Became a World Power 47 4. Explain how the bishops came to be so important. 5. Hrw did the Lord's Supper become changed into the mass? 6. Name some of the supporters of the theory of the unity and authority of the church. Were they Latin or Greek fathers? 7. Explain the ambition of the bishops of Rome. 8. What advantage did Rome enjoy over the eastern cities? 9. Why is it proper to speak of Leo as the first pope? 10. What later pope helped to make Rome great? Reading References. (i) Robinson: History of Western Europe, pp. 18-24, 44-55. (2) Emerton: Introduction to the Middle Ages, ch. 9. 48 Landmarks in Christian History Lesson Lesson 10. THE BARBARIAN DELUGE. How the Ancient Empire Became Medieval Europe. Sources. — Histories of Greek and Latin writers like Ammianus and Jordanes; letters, and treatises on theology and government, like Augustine's City of God. Tacitus in the Germania gives a description of the Germans. Suggestions for Study. — 1. The first matter to receive attention should be the summary. See that it is properly written out, read it over, and be prepared for questions on it in the class. This time re\dew the summaries of the last four lessons. 2. Read the lesson of the day. Note especially: (a) the failure of state and church to save the empire, and some of the reasons for it; (6) the names of the leading German tribes, how they broke over the frontier, and where they settled; (c) the mingling of the two races; {d) the mission of the Christian church, and its gain in authority. 3. For discussion think over how Christianity can help to solve race problems, like the negro problem in the South, and the relation of white men and Asiatics in different parts of the world. 4. Note-book work: (a) The writing of the summary is the first task, (b) A map should be drawn to show the countries which the Germans occupied and if possible their line of migration, (c) Make a list of the principal German tribes, and the countries in which they settled, (d) Make a list of the ways in which the two peoples mingled. Note 1. The Decline Of the Roman Empire. During all the time that the Christian church was growing great and strong the Roman empire was becoming weak. There were reasons for this in the character of the people, and in the way in which they lived and carried on industry. The causes were numerous and complex. But there was a serious danger outside of the inner decline of pros- perity. There were people outside of the Roman empire who were finding out how many good things there were on the Roman side of the frontier, and who stood ready to take advantage of the decline when it had gone far enough so that the empire could not defend itself. Wise men in the empire saw the danger and deplored it. Emperors tried various devices of government to strengthen the empire. The armies drove back one band of invaders after another when they tested the frontier line to see if the time had come. The day of misfortune was delayed but the decline went on. Note 2. Could Christianity Save It? If the church had been truly Christian it might have done much more than it did to save the empire. It should be remembered that the church became popu- lar when Christianity was made the imperial rehgion; and people flocked into the church, until to live in the empire meant practically to be a member of the Christian church. There was no requirement of a changed purpose in life, hardly any intention to do any differ- ^*" The Barbarian Deluge 49 ently except to observe the forms of worship and subscribe to the creed. For men and women to sign themselves Christians and go no further did not make them real Christians, or make it possible to save the empire through them. It is impossible to say what might have been if the Christianity of that day had stood for some- thing better. Note 3. Who were the Probable Invaders? The people who threatened the conquest of the empire in the West were German barbarians. In the East they were Slavic peoples and border tribes of Asia. The eastern part of the empire was fortunate in surviving the barbarian attacks. Territory in Asia Minor was lost to Persian rivals, and more land still to Mohammedan invaders, Saracens and Turks. But the Greek empire long remained, and its capital, Con- stantinople, did not fall until the fifteenth century. The great and unsuccessful struggle was in the West. The German or Teutonic race had long lived among the forests and plains of northern Europe in uncivilized fasliion. The Roman legions had never been able to conquer them, but for four centuries they were able to keep them beyond a frontier line made by the Rhine and Danube rivers. There were numerous tribes, but in time they combined into seven or eight great confederations, of which the most powerful were the Goths, the Vandals and the Franks, and these began to move slowly in great migrations with a general trend toward the south. They had heard of the wealth and splendor of the Roman empire from merchants, soldiers and members of their own race who had seen the greatness and glory of ancient civilization. They were eager to see for themselves and to have some of the good things to enjoy. Note 4. Breaking over the Frontier. As they moved south, those in front of them began to press more heavily against the bar- riers. One by one moved the great migratory bands of tens of thousands of men with their famihes and movable property. There was no special order of march, and no schedule that they had to keep. They camped when they felt like it, and years and some- times generations passed before they got near enough to be danger- ous, but from the Roman point of view conditions were growing steadily worse rather than better. In the year 375 the Goths asked the Eastern emperor that they might be permitted peacefully to cross the river Danube and settle on the southern side. His armies were not strong enough to keep them out, so he could not refuse; 50 Landmarks in Christian History Lesson but he did not treat them well, and three years later a great battle was fought in which the Goths were victorious, and then without resistance they moved at will across the country, visiting and sacking the cities and countryside of Greece and Italy and southern Gaul, until after some years they settled down in Spain. Note 5. How the Invasion Continued. The example of the Goths was contagious. The Vandals went as far as North Africa, and took those provinces for themselves. The Burgundians made their way into the province of Gaul that Julius Caesar had con- quered five hundred years before. The Romans hired bands from one tribe to fight against another tribe, but in either case they were helpless before those powerful men of the North, who had not yet been spoiled by the vices of civilization, and who performed mighty deeds of valor. At last in 476 A. D. there ceased to be a Roman emperor in the West, and ten years later the Franks took away the last piece of Roman territory in Gaul. Within ten years after that another branch of the Goths had set up a kingdom of their own in Italy, and Britain was being submerged by waves of Anglo-Saxon invasion. It was like a great flood — this German migration. It was as resistless in its sweep and as destructive in its consequences. Before the barbarian deluge local and imperial governments tot- tered and fell. Cities were plundered and destroyed. Libraries and art galleries were ransacked. Lands were seized and held in possession by the strongest. The old civilization seemed destined completely to pass away. Note 6. The Fortunes of the Christian Church. Amid the gen- eral destruction one institution suffered comparatively little. That was the Christian church. Some church buildings were sacked and burned, some lands were taken away, but most of the tribes had become nominally Christian before they entered the empire, and they respected the priests and property of their own faith. In countries like Britain where the invaders were still pagan, the loss of the church was greater. It was fortunate for civilization as well as for the church itself that the destruction was not greater, for the Christian church of the empire preserved most of the old civilization and by and by taught the invaders its value and showed them how to adopt it for themselves. Later ages owe a great debt of gratitude to the teachers of the Christian Catholic church, for without their labors it is difficult to see how the ancient civilization could have survived. Ttn The Barbarian Deluge 51 Note 7. The Mingling of the Peoples. By degrees German and Roman provincials learned to live side by side in peace, and to respect one another. Individuals learned even to like each other and to intermarry in ci\dlized fashion. They had business dealings one with another. They went to the same churches, together re- ceived the mass, and bowed in worship before the same God. Their languages began to influence each other until out of Latin and German came the Italian and French and Spanish, sharing in the characteristics of both. Social customs showed the effects of the habits of both races; political order had the Roman form, but was animated by the German spirit. In this way took place what is known in history as the fusion of the Roman and the German, until out of the union came the modern peoples, customs and governments that characterize southern Europe to-day. Note 8. The Effect upon Church Authority. The barbarian con- quests added greatly to the prestige and authority of the officers of the church. Civil officers and the people everywhere looked to the clergy to stand between them and the invaders, for to them only would they show respect. Bishops were made defenders of cities by Roman appointment that they might preserve as much as pos- sible of municipal property and rights. Lands were turned over to the church rather than have them fall into the hands of the Ger- mans. Churches and monasteries became centers of refuge, and not a few men and women took monastic orders and accepted the authority of the abbots at their head rather than submit themselves to the danger of abuse and death. When the clergy saw their power with the superstitious children of the North, they assumed authority which they really did not possess, and by their energy were able to impose their will upon the weaker minds. The authority of the pope was received unquestioningly by the ignorant Germans, and his position was correspondingly strengthened throughout the church. Missionary undertakings that will be described later carried the influence of the church still farther afield. So that the Christian church emerged from the storm of destruction with little loss and in many respects with real gain, and was able for many years to continue to strengthen itself with no rival to dispute its claims. Questions on the Summary of the Preceding Lessons. 1. How was it possible for Christianity to spread as it did in the second century? 2. What were its strongest rivals? 52 Landmarks in Christian History Lesson 3. Name the periods of CJiristian persecution, and name the first emperor who punished Christians. 4. What was the favorite method of punishment? 5. Who made Christianity a legal religion? 6. How did there come to be a creed? 7. What famous council decided theological differences? 8. What was the early organization of the Christian church? 9. Explain how the church grew. 10. Define a bishop and his diocese. 11. Who became the most powerful bishop? Questions on the Present Lesson. 1. Explain the decline of the Roman empire, and the danger that threatened it. 2. What were the possible means of warding off the danger? 3. Why could not Christianity save the state? 4. Who were the Germans, and what did they want? 5. Tell the story of the Goths breaking over the frontier. 6. Name other tribes and their places of settlement. 7. What were the effects of the deluge? 8. Why did the church suffer little as compared with the rest? ^^^^« The Missionary Monks 53 9. Show how the peoples mingled to form one race. 10. Show how the church gained in authority. Reading References. (i) Emerton: Introduction to the Middle Ages, chs. 1-7. (2) Kings- ley: Roman and Teuton. (3) Myers: The Middle Ages, ch. 1. Lesson 11. THE MISSIONARY MONKS. How the Barbarians were made Christians. Sources. — Lives of the saints; chronicles kept in the medieval monasteries; letters of Boniface and others; Bede's Ecclesiastical History of Britain. Suggestions for Study. — 1. See that the summary is written properly in the note-book and studied. 2. Read the lesson of the day. Note especially: (a) the origin of Christian monasticisny (6) the missionary activity of the monks; (c) the stories of Patrick and Boniface; id) the contrast between the cloister monks and the missionary monks. 3. Topic for special thought and discussion: What is there about the monastic idea that deserves to be perpetuated.'' 4. Note-book work: (a) Unless the summary has been written in the note- book in the class, the first task is to copy it. (6) Make a list of the various occupations of the western monks of which you can find record, and underline what you consider the most important, (c) Write a sketch of Boniface in not more than one hundred and fifty words. Note 1. Who Were the Monks? In the days when Christianity became popular and people rushed into the church, and the culti- vation of the spiritual nature no longer received much thought, some persons felt that they could no longer get religious satisfaction from the services of the church. They felt a desire to get away from society and in solitude to seek communion with God and the salvation of their souls. They believed the surest way to strengthen the soul was to abuse the body, so they practised asceticism or self- denialo These were the Christian hermits. There were a great many of them in the desert parts of the East. Some of them became famous, and groups formed about them. Then the groups 54 Landmarks in Christian History Lesson built monasteries, and lived beneath the same roofs under the authority of an abbot. These were the monks. Such a monastery was the one at Bethlehem ruled by Jerome in the fourth century. He was a scholar as well as a monk, ranks among the prominent Latin fathers, and translated the Bible from the original languages into the Latin. This translation is known as the Vulgate. Note 2. How the Monks Lived. In the East the monks devoted most of their time to study, meditation and prayer. In the West they were organized into a regular order by Benedict of Nursia, a monk of Italy, who bound them by vows of poverty, chastity and obedience to the head of the order, and encouraged them to work with their hands. They became famous as farmers and artisans; they produced artistic copies of old manuscripts; they taught schools; they were Christian missionaries to the barbarian tribes of Europe. They did not neglect their religious duties, but the hours of the day were so divided by rule that they had time for all their tasks. These western monks did much to civilize medieval Europe, and their missionary activities are of special interest. Note 3. The Monks as Missionaries. It was through the con- secrated efforts of monks that the German tribes which entered the empire were converted to Christianity, and at a later time through other monks the gospel of Jesus was carried into the wilds of the German homeland, where lived the descendants of the Germans who had been contented to stay behind in the northern forests. Some illustrious names of missionary monks have come down to our own time. Among them was Ulfilas, missionary bishop of the Greek church to the Goths before they wandered over the Roman provinces. He did his best to impress upon them the peaceful nature of Chris- tianity, and it is said that when he translated for them the Old Testament book of Kings he omitted the accounts of bloodthirsty wars, fearing that they might be stirred to imitate them. Severinus was another monk who lived on the border between western and eastern Europe, and between the barbarians and the provinces in the region northeast of Italy. He tried to teach industry and the arts of peace as well as the more spiritual principles of Christianity. Saint Gall in Switzerland is said to have contended with the demons of Lake Constance as well as with the benighted minds of the heathen people. Note 4. Saint Patrick. One of the famous monastic and mis- sionary centers of the Middle Ages was the British Isles. Patricia Eleven The Missionary Monks 55 the patron saint of the Irish, is one of the noted characters of history and legend. He is said to have been born in Scotland, but to have been carried away into slavery in Ireland by a company of bucca- neers. Making his escape to his friends, he was troubled to think what a heathen lot the untamed Irish were, and he made up his mind to be their missionary. Accordingly he gave Iiis life to the conversion of the island. Monasteries sprang up and became the missionary schools of that day; civilizing as well as Christianizing influences were set at work; and eventually the Irish became so thoroughly converted that they have remained one of the most devoted peoples of Catholic Europe. Note 5. Christianity in England. Christianity reached England in two or three different ways. Britain was once a Roman province, and then Christianity was introduced there, as in other Roman provinces. Christianity in its Irish monastic form was established among the islands. and along the coasts of western Britain by those who had learned it from the Celts of Ireland. But Britain was conquered by the Anglo-Saxons, one of the barbarian tribes from Germany that had never received Christianity, and the religion of Jesus was destroyed except among the Irish monasteries of the West. Britain, now called England, or Angle-land, had to be Christianized over again, and this was accomplished by Celtic, or Irish, mission- aries who made their way from the Scotch border, and by Roman missionaries who landed from the Continent and made their way into the interior. Note 6. Boniface, Missionary to the Germans. English Chris- tians in their turn made their way to the wilder parts of the Conti- nent. One of these was Boniface, who became the Apostle of the Germans, and deserves a large place in the annals of missionary heroism. He was not contented to teach and preach where others had gone before him, but he struck out for himself like a true pioneer among those who were wholly pagan. After a few years, in order to be better fortified for his work, he journeyed to Rome, where he received the blessing of the pope and the title of missionary bishop. Returning to Germany he found much to do in persuading the people to accept the Christian religion and in teaching them how to live it. It was hard for them to give up their old superstitions, and the missionary was driven to take strong measures. Note 7. The Fall of the Oak of Thor. Near Geismar in the land of Hesse, so runs the story, was a sacred oak of great age. 56 Landmarks in Christian History Lesson dedicated to the god Thor, who hurls the thunder. Under its branches the whole tribe held its assemblies. As long as this oak stood Boniface could have little hope that he would be able to make much impression upon their pagan minds. So he decided that the tree must come down. It became known that the missionary in- tended to cut down the tree, and great was the excitement. When the day came and Boniface and his companions came to the tree, thousands gathered around to see what would happen, angry and awe-struck, believing that their god would kill the daring English- man for his sacrilege as soon as he put his axe to the tree. But Boniface went vigorously to work to hack it down, and with every stroke the faith of the people in the power of Thor crumbled until, when the giant fell, the people shouted, " The Lord he is God, The Lord he is God! " Out of the wood of the tree Boniface built a shrine for Christian worship, and from that time he was a great man among the people. During the next few years Christianity spread and civilization was extended. Clearings were made in the forests, and churches and monasteries rose among the trees. The people saw that Christianity meant a better living and a nobler life, and were content to follow the instructions of their priests. Note 8. Boniface's Later Life. The English monk knew how to win victories for Christianity among the forest people, and he also knew how to make the Christian organization strong. With great foresight he founded monasteries at points in the wilderness where they would naturally become centers of trade and would grow into towns and cities. The pope made him archbishop, and he organ- ized all the clergy of Germany into an ecclesiastical system loyal to the pope of Rome. He was invited by the princes of the Franks to reorganize the Prankish church in their dominions, and he man- aged this difficult task with remarkable success. By this time he had become an old man, but he was not content to take a well earned furlough during the rest of his life, but started off to convert another savage country to the Christian way. Scarcely had he begun this work when he was set upon one day by a fanatical band of pagans, and fell a martyr to the cause he lofed. Note 9. Two Kinds of Monks. Monasticism tended to make men selfish by emphasizing self-examination and the cultivation of their own souls' welfare. Too many of those who shut themselves within monastery walls remained there, self-centered monks of the cloister. They ignored the natural ties that bound them to home and family; they cut themselves off from any feeling of responsi- Eleven The Missionary Monks 57 bility towards the rest of society; they crushed out of their thoughts everything except that which could contribute to their eternal welfare. But there were monks of another kind, who engaged in active missionary work. They too sought the welfare of their own souls, but they felt their souls nourished by deeds of kindness. They could not crush out the longing to lead others to the God whom they had learned to know, and they wished to build up the strength of the church by adding whole tribes to the number of adherents of the Christian faith. Such were Ulfilas and Severinus, Patrick and Boniface, and others less well known. They deserve honor for living up to the light they had. From our point of view they made many mistakes, and they had much to learn of the real meaning of Christianity; but they had the right spirit, and to them belongs a prominent place in the missionary history of the Christian church. Questions on the Summary of the Preceding" Lesson. 1. Why were the German barbarians able to overrun the Roman empire? 2. What was the result of the deluge? 3. How did Christianity help civilization? 4. What did Christianity gain for itself? Questions on the Present Lesson. 1. Explain asceticism, hermits, monks. 2. Who was Jerome? 3. Compare the eastern and western monks. 4. Who established the monastic order in the West? with what vows? 5. Name several monks who were early missionaries among the barbarians, and relate any incidents about them that you recall. 58 Landmarks in Christian History Lesson 6. Tell tlie story of Saint Patrick. 7. What were the effects of Saint Patrick's mission? 8. In what ways did Christianity come to England? 9. Describe the various activities of Boniface, and make an estimate of his importance. 10. What is meant by cloister monks? Reading References. {!) Emerton: Introduction to the Middle Ages, ch. 11. (2) Myers: The Middle Ages, ch. 3. {3) Maclear: History of Christian Missions during the Middle Ages, ch. 9, Lesson 12. KNIGHTS OF THE RED CROSS. Mohammedan- ism and the Crusaders. Sources. — Contemporary chronicles of kings and monasteries ; collections of church laws; historical accounts by De Joinville, a French noble, William of Tyre and others; and personal memoirs. Suggestions for Study. — 1 . Read over the summary of the previous lesson as written in the note-book, and be ready to answer questions. 2. Read the lesson of the day. Points to be especially noted are: (a) the new religious impulse of Mohammedanism; (6) the conquests and the resulting civilization; (c) the reasons for the Christian crusades; {d) the first and the third crusades; (e) the present standing of Mohammedanism in contrast to Chris- tianity. 3. Consider for discussion the following topic: Which was the more perma- nently effective for good — the work of the missionary monks in the wilderness of Europe, or the conquests of the missionary warriors of Mohammedanism from Spain to India? Give reasons for an opinion. ^^''^'"' Knights of the Red Cross 59 4. Note-book work: (a) The writing of the usual summary. (6) A map of the Holy Land to show the Latin kingdom of Jerusalem. (Cf. Robinson's History of Western Europe, or Munro's History of the Middle Ages.) (c) A map of the present Turkish empire. Note 1 Mohammed and his Crusade. Between the Mediter- ranean Sea and the Indian Ocean lies an ancient land of hot deserts and smiling valleys that has sent forth many times hordes of hardy warriors to the conquest of other lands. From the same country have come some of the great religions of the world. In this great peninsular land of Arabia arose a new rehgious prophet in the first part of the seventh century whose name was Mohammed. He be- longed to the city of Mecca, but his enemies drove him out in the year 622, an event which marks the beginning of the Mohammedan calendar, as the birth of Jesus does for the Christian calendar. Within ten years he was strong enough to return and take the city, and to start his Mohammedan followers on a missionary movement of the sword that was not to stop till their battalions were hurled back from the land of the Franks a hundred years later, after a successful progress the length of the Mediterranean. Note 2. Missionaries of the Sword. It was while missionary monks were Christianizing the barbarian tribes of Europe, that these missionaries of another sort were sweeping across whole con- tinents and compelling the conquered people to choose between their sacred book of the Koran or the sword. There was little that was distinctive about this new religion except that it taught that there was but one God and Mohammed was his greatest prophet. But Mohammed taught that it was God's will that the world should be won for this newest faith even at the point of the sword, and that the dearest delights of heaven were for those who died on the field of battle in fighting for their faith. This teaching was able to unite the tribes of Arabia, and to fire them with an enthusiasm that was irresistible. They moved first upon the nearest lands, Syria and Palestine. They went north and conquered west central Asia, anci northwest and took part of Asia Minor away from the emperor at Constantinople. They took Egypt and pushed beyond, conquered all North Africa, crossed the strait of Gibraltar into Spain and set up an Arabian kingdom there, and even crossed the Pyrenees Moun- tains, to be checked only by a confederation of German tribes under a prince of the Franks. Note 3. Arabian Civilization. The Mohammedans were not con- tent with conquering all these peoples, but they moulded them into 60 Landmarks in Christian History Lesson the fashion of their own particular civilization, as the Romans had fashioned the provinces of their empire according to their own ideas. On the Tigris River in the East among the ruins of the old Assyrian empire they built the city of Bagdad, and gave to it in the days of Haroun-al-Raschid a wealth and magnificence such as had not been known for centuries, and such as the half civilized people of Europe never dreamed of. Not only in the East but at the other end of their dominion also, in Spain that they had conquered from the Visigoths, agriculture was encouraged by the scientific process of irrigation, and tropical fruits and flowers were produced in great abundance. Silk culture is said to have employed 130,000 men in that country. Manufactures of pottery and metal were famous everywhere. High grade Mohammedan schools and universities attracted Christian students from all over Europe. It was all a striking contrast to the backwardness of the rest of Europe. Note 4. Turks in the Holy Land. Just as in the case of the Roman empire, the Arabian dominion broke apart and became weakened and the prosperity of its civilization declined. From far away on the Asiatic steppes another Mohammedan race appeared to dispute with the Arabians the supremacy of the East. The Turks had arrived on the stage of history. In the eleventh century they conquered Syria and the holy places of the Christian religion. Thousands of pilgrims from Europe had been accustomed to resort every year to Jerusalem and the other scenes made sacred by the presence of Jesus Christ. They had never been seriously molested. But the Turks knew nothing of the fine courtesy that distinguished the more highly civilized Arabians. They began to treat Christian pilgrims harshly, and they in their turn returned to their homes to relate a tale of woe in the sympathetic ears of the Christian West. Note 5. The Beginning of the Crusades. This was the beginning of the long series of wars known in the history of Europe as the crusades. Fired with a religious enthusiasm that resembled that of the first Mohammedans, the princes determined to hurl a wave of mailed Christian warriors upon the East and its upstart con- querors and to recover once for all the holy places of their own faith. Meantime the Turks were pressing on and threatening the security of the Greek emperor in Constantinople. In 1095 he appealed to the pope of Rome. Before the year was gone the pope called a council and eloquently depicted the wrongs that were suf- fered and the glory that would^come from a successful campaign, and called upon western Europe to rise and avenge the insult to ^'''^'" Knights of the Red Cross 61 the cross. Other speakers travelled about rousing the passions of the multitude. A mob of men, women and children led by Peter the Hermit started in disorderly fashion without waiting for the organ- ization of an army. In the summer and fall of the year 1096 Duke Godfrey of Bouillon and other princes set out on the long march with organized armies. Every soldier wore on his breast a red cross as the symbol of the faith, and vowed to fight manfully for his prince and his religion. In the next summer these armored knights of the red cross reached the city of Nicea, the old town opposite Constantinople where the council was held in 325 to settle the theological disputes of the Greek Christians. After the conquest of this city they moved on to Antioch which was taken after a siege, and then to Jerusalem in the summer of 1099. A " Latin kingdom of Jerusalem " was established with a length from north to south of five hundred miles, but not more than seventy miles wide, and bordered on the east by a line of fortresses which continued to be held by the Mohammedans. Note 6. The Later Crusades. Thousands of crusaders had per- ished; thousands more returned home. Those who remained for the defense of the new kingdom settled down to live among a Moslem people. Each race was compelled to treat the other with considera- tion. They traded together. They learned to respect each other and even intermarried. The men of the West were astonished at the evidences of civilization which they saw, and when any of them returned to Europe they carried the news of the excellences of the East. Matters went on in this way for fifty years till the original enemies died, but hostilities had gone on intermittently. In 1144 the Mohammedans conquered one of the outlying strongholds of the kingdom of Jerusalem, and tliis stirred up a second crusade in Europe, led by the kings of France and Germany, but this enter- prise accomplished nothing. A third crusade was started forty years later. The old enthusiasm was renewed. Men were promised pardon for all sorts of sins by the church if they would go out to the wars, and immense armies led by the kings of France, Germany and England made their way once more to the Holy Land, and relieved the danger and distress from which the few Christian soldiers in the East had been suffering. But contact with the civilization of the East again had its softening effects upon men's hearts and its broadening influence upon their minds, and Europe gradually learned that the world and religion were both larger than they had thought. Landmarks in Christian History Lesson Other attempts were made from time to time to win a more de- cisive victory for Christianity in the Orient, but the old fierce enthu- siasm was gone, and could not be reawakened. New thoughts were stirring the mind and new interests were stimulating the life of the West, and even the complete fall of the Latin kingdom of Jerusalem in 1291 caused hardly a ripple throughout Christendom. Two hun- dred years had brought changes, chief of which was the stirring of new ideas and the awakening of a new spirit that were to bring to an end the Middle Ages. Note 7. The Cross and the Crescent. Mohammedan and Chris- tian had fought their long fight, and the Christian had not won. The Turks pushed on into Europe, and the Christian emperor at Constantinople was shorn of more territory nearer home. At last after eight hundred years of resistance Constantinople fell before a Mohammedan attack in 1453, and the Greek empire of the East ceased to exist almost a thousand years after the end of the Roman empire of the West. In its place arose the empire of the Turk. The Cross and the Crescent still face each other in the near East. A new stimulus had come to the Christian West, and created a new civilization and recreated the faith of Jesus. Decline has come to the Turkish empire as to its predecessors. But Mohammedanism does not decline. Its ancient center is in Mecca. It reaches out on one side and holds the allegiance of millions of the people of India; it advances in the opposite direction farther towards the heart of Africa each year, and on the other hand Christian missionaries make little impression upon the older Mohammedan lands, except as they deal with Christian peoples who are subject to them. Chris- tian and Mohammedan armies no longer contend with each other on the field of battle, but a spiritual crusade still goes on, and only the future can tell what its outcome will be. Questions on the Summary of the Preceding Lesson. 1. How did there come to be monks? 2. What is meant by cloister monks? 3. In what way were other monks active? 4. Who was Boniface? 5. What can be said of the Benedictine monks? Questions on the Present Lesson. 1. Where did Mohammedanism originate? In what kind of land? Thirteen The Climax of Authority 63 2. What event and date mark the beginning of the Mohammedan era? 3. What were Mohammed's definite achievements? 4. OutHne the conquests of Mohammedanism in its first century. 5. Describe Arabian civilization. 6. Who were the Turks, and how did they interfere with Chris- tians? 7. Describe the beginnings of the crusade movement. 8. What did the crusaders accomphsh? 9. Why did the crusades cease? 10. Compare the cross and the crescent at the present time. Reading References. {!) Myers: The Middle Ages, ch. 13. {2) Munro: History of the Middle Ages, ch. 11. {3) Robinson: History of Western Europe, ch. 15. Lesson 13. THE CLIMAX OF AUTHORITY. What the Chris- tian Religion had Come to Mean in 1200 A. D. Review of Lessons 1-12. Sources. — Chronkles of monasteries, decrees of popes, letters and royal rec- ords; Einhard's Life of Charlemagne; lives of Gregory VII; Roger of Wendover's Floioers of History tells how Innocent III brought King John of England into submission. Suggestions for Study.— 1. Make sure that all the summaries are up to date, and studied in preparation for a final quiz. 2. Read the lesson of the day. The leading points in advance are: (a) the change that had taken place in the meaning of Christianity; (6) the growth of 64 Landmarks in Christian History Lesson papal power since the fall of the empire; (c) the rivalry of pope and German emperor; (d) the submission of Henry to Gregory; (e) the splendor of Innocent's reign. 3. For discussion consider the following question: What is the most important thing about Christianity? 4. Note-book work: (a) See that the last summary is written out. (6) Make a review table of what you consider the leading events in the first twelve hundred years of Christian history, following the order of time as far as possible; and a list of the principal names that have occurred among the makers of Christian history. Note 1. A Bird's Eye Review. There was a man sent from God whose name was John. In the wilderness of the lower Jordan valley he heralded the coming of a greater teacher. Jesus of Nazareth, the Christ who was to come after him, traveled over Palestine, teaching a new gospel and saving both the bodies and souls of men. Because the Jews could not understand this type of goodness, they crucified Him. But through His disciples the pagan as well as the Jewish world was evangelized, and the lives of thousands of men and women were transformed by the power of God's spirit. The new faith of Christianity met with opposition from the Roman state, and torture and death were measured out to many Christian martyrs. It met the demand of an intellectual Greek people for a definition of its belief, and Christian thinkers threshed out a system of doc- trine. It was necessary that the Christian spirit should be em- bodied in a church also, and by a gradual process a strong system of organization was developed. Then, when Christianity had made itself strong and had won recognition in the empire of Rome, that empire fell to pieces under the attacks of a new race of barbarians from the North. Many of these barbarians had already taken upon themselves the name of Christians, and the Christian church sur- vived the general destruction. But the conquerors were uncivilized and ignorant, and the church had to undertake the task of making them truly Christian and civilized. It took nearly a thousand years to do it, but not only were the Germans who had come into the Roman provinces made over, but through the heroism of Christian missionaries northern Europe was Christianized and civilized as well, and Christianity was even strong enough to attempt the recon- quest of Palestine from the Mohammedans who had conquered it. Note 2. What the Christian Religion had Come to Mean. It was certain that in this long period of nearly twelve hundred years from the time of Jesus, opinions about the Christian religion would change greatly. As Jesus taught it, Christianity was a gospel of hope and good cheer, a message of the love of God and an inspira- Thirteen The Climax of Authority 65 tion to nobler living. The Jews attempted to impose upon Chris- tians the necessity of observing the Mosaic law, but this was pre- vented. The Greeks read into it their own philosophical interpre- tations of religious truth, and transformed the simple gospel into a system of theology. The Romans took the growing church organ- ization which necessity had fashioned in the East, and put the stamp of its political system on it. In the West it came to be the custom to think of Christianity as consisting of membership in the one Catholic church, and salvation as secured, not through faith in Christ and a life lived like Him, but through partaking of the sacrament of the mass given by the hands of a properly consecrated priest. The highest priest and bishop of the church was the pope of Rome. Note 3. The Growth of Papal Power. The incoming of the northern tribes and the fall of the empire of the West threw added responsibilities on the pope. He was defender as well as spiritual shepherd of liis flock. And when it became necessary to instruct these children of the forest in the rudiments of the Clu-istian faith and in the elements of civilization, the church had to furnish the means and the teachers. Both pope and church were greatly strengthened by the missionary labors of the monks and by the crusades. Monasticism was founded on the principle of obedience to authority, and when the monks went everywhere over northern and western Europe preaching Catholic Christianity, they im- pressed upon their converts that, as children of the church, they owed unquestioning obedience to the commanos of the pope. The new dioceses were organized with the recognition of the pope as their chief. Archbishops were not properly qualified for their office until they had received their symbol of authority from the pope. It was the pope who stimulated the men of France and Flanders to go on the first crusade against the Mohammedans. The religious enthusiasm that was aroused made the people of western Europe more loyal to the church, and the pope as its head received greater honor. So it came about that Christianity really had come to mean but little more than the acknowledgment of allegiance to a certain church organization and to its absolute ruler the pope. Note 4. The Papacy vs. the New Empire. The popes of Rome were not content with their power and glory as heads of a great church. In the days of anarchy they had become practically civil rulers of their own neighborhood, and later on additional lands were turned over to them as gifts of friendship from princes of the Franks, 66 Landmarks in Christian History Lesson and after a time they persuaded themselves that they had rights as civil rulers as well as church officers. It was only a step further to claim political as well as spiritual supremacy over kings and emperors, but then they met a powerful rival. A king of the Franks named Charlemagne had revived the old empire in the year 800, and had been crowned as emperor by the pope at Rome. He included in his realm only what are now France, Belgium and the Netherlands, Germany, Switzerland and Italy, and he was emperor for only a few years. But the empire was revived again by a German prince Otto, and this time it was called the Holy Roman Empire on the theory that God had given to the emperor his right to rule over the bodies of men as he had given to the pope the right to control their souls. The German emperors never were able to do much more than reign over Germany, but they always claimed Italy also, and sometimes made and unmade popes. On the other hand the popes claimed to have the right to crown and depose the emperors. So these two became keen rivals for the supremacy of Europe. Note 5. Pope Gregory VII vs. the Emperor Henry IV. In 1073 a man named Hildebrand became pope and, changing his name as popes are accustomed to do, took the title of Gregory VII. He was one of the ablest men who ever sat on the papal throne; he made the papacy feared and respected as it never had been before. His particular rival was the German emperor Henry IV. Henry was ambitious to be a rgal emperor, but the princes in his realm were disorderly, and the pope was disposed to thwart his plans. The result was that the emperor fell into a quarrel with Pope Gregory. The emperor issued a decree that the pope was deposed; the pope responded by declaring the emperor expelled from the church and relieved from the allegiance of his nobles and princes. Unfortu- nately for Henry his nobles improved the opportunity to assert their rights in Germany, and the emperor found himself helpless. There was nothing for him to do but to submit to the pope. Note 6. The Scene at Canossa. It was winter, and the pope was stopping for a few days at a castle high up in the Apennine Mountains. After a difficult journey Henry arrived before the castle, and humbly asked that he might be admitted to make his submission to the pope. But he was refused. Day after day for three days the penitent emperor, barefooted and clad in the thin cloak of a pilgrim, stood outside the castle in the snow, begging forgiveness from the proud potentate who claimed to be the repre- Thirteen The Climax of Authority 67 sentative on earth of the meek and kindly Jesus, while that pontiff satisfied his desire for revenge and kept his rival waiting. When Henry was at last admitted, he threw himself unreservedly on the mercy of the pope, and Gregory received him again into the bosom of the church. But Henry went home studying how he might get even with the pope, and years later he drove Gregory from Rome and the pope died in exile. Note 7. Innocent HI, the Lord of Europe. The contest went on for most of the next two centuries. Neither side was able to gain a permanent advantage over the other. But about the year 1200 the greatest of all the popes became lord of Rome. This was Inno- cent III. Before him neither the emperor nor any king could claim the right of supremacy. He compelled the king of the French to submit to his will. He reduced England to a principaHty dependent on the papacy. He nominated the man who was to be emperor of Germany. He intervened in the affairs of Spain, and had himself obeyed even in distant Norway. He recognized the establishment of a new religious order among the Catholic clergy, and as resolutely denied the privilege to another. He ruled Rome in gorgeous state, and allowed no one to dispute liis authority. Since the days of the Roman emperors and of Haroun-al-Raschid the world had not seen such grandeur and such glory. Note 8. The Climax and the Contrast. So the church of Rome had reached the climax of its authority. Before the twelfth century was over the papal fortunes had begun a rapid decline, which was not- to stop until all northern Europe in the Reformation threw off its allegiance to Rome. But for the time the pope was without a rival. In his palace in the old imperial city he could look out over the seven hills of Rome, and rejoice Hke Caesar in the glory that was his; but it seems as if sometimes he must have thought of that other hill outside a city wall where the Savior of men gave up the kingdoms of earth to establish in human hearts the kingdom of heaven. Questions on the Summaries of the Preceding Lessons. 1. What made it impossible for the Roman empire to survive.? 2. When did the invasions of the barbarians occur? 3. What was Christianity able to do? 4. Explain the existence of Christian monks, and their activities. 5. How did Mohammedanism originate? 6. Where were the Mohammedan conquests made? 7. What were the crusades? 68 Landmarks in Christian History Questions on the Present Lesson. .1. Outline briefly the leading events in the first five hundred years of Christian history. 2. What was the task of the church with relation to the barba- rians, and how did it perform the task? 3. Show how Christianity had changed in its meaning through the influence of Jews, Greeks and Romans. 4. How was the papacy able to add to its power in the Middle Ages? 5. What were the two rivals for supremacy in European politics? 6. Sketch the rise of the medieval empire. 7. Tell the story of the quarrel between Henry IV and Gregory VII. 8. What facts show the power of Innocent III? 9 About what time did the papacy reach the climax of its power? 10. Contrast Innocent III in Rome and Jesus at the crucifixion. Reading References. (1) Myers: The Middle Ages, pp. 202-212, 257-260. (2) Robinson: History of Western Euro'pe, chs. 13, 14. {3) Adsuns: Civilization dur- ing the Middle Ages, ch. 10. PART n The Modern Awakening Lesson 14. THE NEW IDEAS OF A BAREFOOT PREACHER. The Church Designed for Service, not Sovereignty. Sources. — Lives of St. Francis, by Bonaventura, and Thomas of Celano; The Rule of St. Francis; The Mirror of Perfectiony written by Brother Leo very ' soon after Francis' death; and the Little Flowers of St. Francis, a collection of anecdotes of the fourteenth century. Suggestions for Study. — 1. Read over the summary of the preceding lesson, and be ready for questions on it. 2. Read the story of the day. Points to be especially noted: (a) the im- pression made on Francis by the words of Jesus; (6) the contrast between the ideas of Francis, the monks and the popes; (c) the program of the friars; (d) the failure of the ideals. 3. Think about the following topic for special discussion : What is the highest ideal that a person can set for himself in Ufe? Give reasons. 4. Prepare the work of the note-book as follows: (a) See that all the note- book work assigned the previous quarter is complete, including the summaries. (b) Look up in an encyclopedia the different kinds of friars and write a brief description of the Dominicans, (c) Write a brief comparison of the Franciscans and the modern Salvation Army. Note 1. A Village of Umbria. In the days when Pope Innocent III was the proudest potentate of medieval Europe, there grew to manhood a boy who was to impress the people of Europe with a new idea of Christianity and the church. He is known in history as St. Francis of Assisi, from the name of the village of Italy in which he was born. As Nazareth was a hundred miles or so from Jerusalem and the hills above it looked down upon the valley of Esdraelon, so Assisi was nearly as far north of Rome and from its situati^ high upon the hill- side its inhabitants could look down over the vale of Umbria. Its terraces bore ancient houses of reddish stone, huddled together and clinging to the steep hillsides. Its people were a sturdy, independent sort, trusting in the wall that girt the town and in the strength of their arms to defend them from their enemies. In those days the villages of Italy were slow to acknowledge any man as master, and Assisi, perched on the hillside and overlooking the plain below, was as proud of itself as was the pope lording it over the seven hills of Rome, Note 2. How Francis Came to be a Friar. It was in the year 1182 that Francis was born in the Umbrian village. He was not a poor boy, for his father was known as a wealthy cloth merchant, who made 70 Landmarks in Christian History Lesson long journeys over Europe to purchase goods at the great fairs, where people gathered from all directions, and exchanged at the same time their gossip and their goods. His merchant father was fond of Francis, and would have given him as fair an education as boys of his sort then received, and a good place in his business afterward. Francis might have seen much of the world and might have become prosperous; but he was foolish enough to want a good time in his own way, and before he was a man grown he had tried all kinds of dissolute ways and had been the leader of a wild, fast set. In those turbulent times he fought for his town in a local quarrel, and suffered imprisonment for a year. After that he was seriously ill, and this sobered him. He was naturally generous and impulsive, and the sight of poverty and sickness made such a wrench upon his sympathies that at times he beggared himself through his generous alms. His father had no more liking for this than for his son's earlier bad habits, and they quarrelled. Francis took off even the good clothes that he wore, and in a gardener's cast-off suit he went off as a hermit, and spent his time begging money to repair neighboring churches and shrines. One day he heard a priest read the word of Jesus: " As ye go, preach, saying, The kingdom of heaven is at hand. Heal the sick, raise the dead, cleanse the lepers, cast out demons; freely ye received, freely give. Get you no gold, nor silver, nor brass in your purses ; no wallet for your journey, neither two coats, nor shoes, nor staff; for the laborer is worthy of his food " (Matt. 10; 7-10). Francis interpreted this as a literal message for himself, and in the spirit of Jesus he went out to preach and to receive his living from the people among whom he went. He and his followers became known simply as friars, that is, brothers, and mendicants from their habit of begging their living. Note 3. The Ideas of Francis about Religion. It must not be for- gotten that the idea of the Catholic church about religion was tliat it consisted of membership in the church and participation in the sacra- ments, that the monks had not been satisfied with this, but had with- drawn from society to work out their own measure of bliss within monastery walls, but that no one had thought of service as the funda- mental principle of Christianity. The pope of Rome claimed to be the vicegerent of Christ and the successor of the Apostles, but he had inverted the order of Christ's thought, and had placed sovereignty before service. Francis caught again the spirit of the teaching of Jesus, and believed that to be truly religious he must take for himself in thirteenth century Europe the rule that Jesus had given His dis- ciples in Palestine in the first century. To serve others was his motto, Pourteen r^j^^ j^^^ jj^^^ ^f ^ Barefoot Preacker 71 and this idea he preached pubhcly out-of-doors, as Jesus had done. He gathered about himself others who became his disciples, in similar fashion as did Jesus. They set for their idea the preaching of this simple gospel, and gave themselves to minister to the sick, the lepers, and the helpless ones. They travelled about Italy, and by and by crossed the Alps and penetrated all parts of Roman Catholic Europe. Note 4. The Rule of Francis. All this time Francis remained a good Catholic. He had no quarrel with the church or its principles, but he did not think the monks had the idea of a truly religious life, and he beheved his own idea of service to be the correct one. He desired to organize his followers into a new monastic order that he might hold them to his own ideas, and to receive the sanction of the pope that the order might have recognition as an orthodox religious institution. First he drew up the rules of the proposed order. They were simple in form, and were based on his fundamental principle of service. His followers were to imitate the Master and His disciples, to practise asceticism and humility, and to serve the Lord and the church. In order to avoid the perils of property into which the monas- teries had fallen, he insisted that the order as well as the individual members should not receive endowments. Note 6. The Recognition of the Order by the Pope. With his rule Francis and several of his companions went to Rome to interview the pope. It was in the year 1210. Innocent was in his grand palace of the Lateran, and thither the mendicant friars made their way. Dark visions may have been clouding the mind of the pope in the midst of his proud prosperity. However that may have been, he was not pleased with the appearance of the barefoot friars in their coarse gowns of undyed wool, and he would not listen to their request. They with- drew in sorrow but not in despair. Innocent went to his bed, but in the night he had strange dreams that seemed to associate themselves with his unwelcome visitors. A palm tree seemed to spring from the soil between his feet, and growing rapidly to spread itself on every side for the comfort of all who came beneath its branches. If he was right to interpret the proposed order as this palm tree, it would be well for the church to give it recognition, even though to approve this crazy fanaticism of Francis seemed to cast discredit on the selfish lives of the monks. In the morning Francis and his companions were recalled and the pope gave his verbal sanction to the plan. Note 6. Success of the New Plan. With the papal benediction the Franciscans went out to bless their fellow-men. They sought only 7^ Landmarks in Christian History Lesson the hard places. They went into the most squaHd sections of the grow- ing towns, and sat by the lepers on the refuse heaps outside the walls. They found abiding places in the meanest quarters, and worked with their hands when they had opportunity, not that they might support themselves, for that was not a part of their plan; but that they might not be idle and that they might set a good example to the people. The Cathohc church has always exalted the clergy, and discouraged the Christian activity of laymen, and it was the wish of the pope that the lay friars become ordained. Then the people went to them as their confessors rather than to their priests, and soon the followers of Francis became famous in the Catholic church. They became teachers in the schools and universities; they were adopted into royal courts as preach- ers and confessors; and they became honored and often rich, in spite of the purpose of their founder that they should 'be poor and humble. An order of nuns corresponding to the Fraliciscans was organized on the same basis by Clara of Assisi, a friend of Francis; and Francis aided greatly in a real religious revival by organizing a third body of lay people known as Tertiaries, who continued in their ordinary voca- tions, but carried out as far as possible the unselfish principles of the regular Franciscans. Note 7. The Failure of the Ideal. Much as Francis lamented it, and tried to prevent it by a modified rule, it proved impossible to main- tain the high standards that he had set for the order. Beautiful churches and well-endowed monasteries were too delightful to be re- fused. Only a minority of the friars had the devotion to keep the rules that Francis had set, after he himself had gone. Another order of friars had been founded by Dominic, a Spaniard, especially devoted to the suppression of heresy, but Dominicans and Franciscans both eventually became proud, corrupt and wealthy. They produced some renowned men, like Thomas Aquinas the greatest scholar of the Middle Ages, Roger Bacon the most illustrious scientist of the time, Fra Angel- ico the artist, Savonarola the prophet of Florence, and even Martin Luther the great reformer of Germany, but in the main they were not men of high character. Some of them made their way as missionaries into America and the East, but the people in Europe and abroad came to hate them as much for their selfish, grasping ways, as in the days of their pure devotion they had loved them for their self-sacrifice. As for Francis, while his manner of living would not suit our ideas of cleanli- ness or godliness, it must be said that he honored the ideals of his Master more than any who had lived since Apostolic days, and in his methods he has been imitated successfully by the Salvation Army of our own time. Fourteen The New Ideas of a Barefoot Preacher 73 Questions on the Lessons of the Preceding Quarter. 1. What was* the subject of the course for the first quarter? 2. What were the leading topics? 3. What were the principal characteristics of the medieval Catholic church? Questions on the Present Lesson. 1. Describe the birthplace of St, Francis. 2. Tell the story of the youth of Francis. 3. Describe his conversion to a new life. 4. How did the ideas of Francis differ from those of the pope? 5. What is meant by the Rule of St. Francis? 6. What was the attitude of the pope towards the Franciscans? 7. Explain how the influence of the new order became widespread, 8. What is meant by Tertiaries? 9. Show how the friars failed to hold to the ideals of Francis. 10. Who were some of the most famous friars? 74 Landmarks in Christian History ^"'^ Reading References. {!) Brother Leo: The Mirror of Perfection. {2) Robinson: History of Western Europe, pp. 225-232. {3) Walker: Great Men of the Chris- tian Church, pp. 164-173. Lesson 15. THE STRANGE THEORIES OF THE SOUTHERN HERETICS. The Albigensians and the Waldensians. Sources. — Bernard of Gui's Inquisitor s Guide; the French laws of Louis IX; papal edicts; various letters, discourses and decrees. Suggestions for Study. — 1. Read over the summary of the last lesson, and be prepared to answer questions. 2. Read the lesson story. Note especially: (a) the tendency towards reli- gious independence; (6) the differences between Albigensians and Waldensians; (c) the principles of the Waldensians; {d) the methods of the Inquisition; {e) the relatives of the Waldensians. 3. Note the follo\\'ing topic for special discussion: Were the medieval "Breth- ren" right in thinking that they could correctly interpret the Bible.'* 4. Observe the following note-book work: (a) Write out in full the last sum- mary. (6) Draw a map of Europe, and place on it the principal localities where heresy flourished. It should include at least Albi and Lyons in southern France, Lombardy, Piedmont, and the cities of Wy cliff e and Huss. (c) Make a list of the ways in which the heretics differed from the orthodox Catholics, {d) Write a brief sketch of the Spanish Inquisition. Note 1. The Catholic Church and Heresy. Not long before Francis applied to the pope for a recognition of his new order of friars, Peter Waldo of Lyons in southern France had asked that he and his followers might receive the papal sanction, but it had been refused. They practised a simple gospel like the Franciscans, but 'they main- tained the right of the individual to follow the instructions of the Bible even if it conflicted with the teachings of the priests. But this was heresy, and heresy in the eyes of the church of Rome was a most serious offense. It is w^ell to remember that the Catholic church of the Middle Ages stood firmly for one church and one faith. To separate from the one true church was schism, and the Greek Christians had been guilty of that in 1054. To question the faith or practices of the church and its clergy was heresy, and from time to time heretical individuals and even small sects appeared, but the church was able to suppress them. Rome was usually wise enough to adapt to her own use whatever various movements arose within the church, like monasticism. It was far better to do this than to make enemies of them. But there were limits of disagreement. The friars approached that limit with their Fifteen ^j^^ Strange Theories of the Southern Heretics 75 new ideas; the Waldensians and other sects of southern Europe went beyond it, and were condemned by the church as heretics. Note 2. Who were the Southern Heretics? It is important to know the facts about these southern Europeans because they were pioneers of reformed Christianity. From them to the German Refor- mation of Luther the development of independence in rehgion was steady. They were of two kinds. One class believed contrary to the doctrine of the church, and usually are known by the name of Albigensians from Albi, a city in southern France. The other class cared less for matters of belief, but were particular about conduct. They were the Waldensians, so called from their founder, Peter Waldo. The Albigensians held ideas about good and evil that were oriental. There had always been a closer connection between the East and southern France than with any other part of western Europe, so this was not surprising. They were so hateful to the church that the pope finally pronounced their condemnation, and sent a crusade to root them out most cruelly. Parts of southern France that had been among the most prosperous and progressive were turned into desert, and a great many lives destroyed. The Waldensians were quite different, resembling closely some of the later evangelical denominations of Protestants, but they too were compelled to suffer for the sin of heresy. Note 3. The Story of the Waldensians. There were several localities in southern Europe where people were becoming discon- tented with the conduct of the priests, and distrustful of the methods and teaching of the church. Three powerful groups are the Poor Men of Lyons in southern France, the Poor Men of Lombardy in northern Italy, and the Austrian dissenters. The Poor Men of Lyons were followers of Peter Waldo. His story is a reminder of the life of Francis of Assisi. He was a well-to-do merchant of a French city, but local incidents led him to accept for himself the same principle that inspired Francis. He disposed of his property for the benefit of the poor, and went out preaching the doc- trine of a simple gospel, fashioning his rule of life from the Bible. He had parts of it translated into his own language, as he did not know Latin, and committed to memory a large portion. Copies were dis- tributed, and Waldo and the disciples who gathered about him ex- plained to the people that in the Bible was to be found a sufl5cient guide to the way of life. At the same time they criticised the conduct of the Catholic clergy, pronouncing them effeminate and unscrupulous, and unsafe as religious guides. Naturally they were condemned by the archbishop of Lyons, and failed to receive the approval of the 76 Landmarks in Christian History Lesson pope. They were especially obnoxious because as laymen they claimed to be sufficient to themselves without the clergy. The French Waldensians spread eastward and there they met the Poor Men of Lombardy. They were sympathetic with each other in most points, and all came to be known as Waldensians. Their ideas spread into Germany and Austria, even as far north as the Baltic Sea. They were especially numerous in the Swiss mountains, and often escaped there from persecution. They became influential in forwarding reformation ideas. Note 4. The Principles of the Waldensians. The fundamental principle of the Waldensians was that the Bible was their authority in matters of religion. Out of that theory grew the doctrine of indi- vidual independence from Catholic control. It was not the desire of these humble people to get out of the church. They were a company of spiritually minded men and women within the one great church of God, but they trusted His word rather than the teaching of the church. Another of their principles was that every person who felt the call of God must preach the truth as he understood it. It was better also that a layman should administer baptism and the Lord's Supper, than for a corrupt priest to do it; and many of them thought that no one had a right to baptism until he had had a real religious experience. Of course, this was wholly contrary to the sacerdotal idea of the Roman Catholic church that the salvation of every individual depended on participation in the sacraments at the hands of a properly ordained priest. The Waldensians seemed to threaten the destruction of the whole ecclesiastical system that had been so long and carefully reared. Note 5. Three Ways of Checking Heresy. Principles like these that seemed so hostile to the very idea of the church were too dangerous to be tolerated by the Catholic leaders. There were three possible meth- ods of checking this kind of heresy. Its causes might be removed by curing the corruptions of the clergy ; Pope Innocent III tried to do this by calling a council in his Lateran palace, but this plan failed. Another way was to cut off the heretics from the church by a decree of excom- munication. This made them outlaws in earth and heaven, and was the favorite weapon of the medieval popes; but it was not effective with people who did not depend upon priests to admit them to heaven, and who renounced voluntarily the good tilings of earth. The third method was by persecution and punishment. The stories of the martyrdom of heretics at the hands of Catholics bring to mind the sad tales of pagan persecution of the early Christians. The spirit of the persecutors had not changed. In the first case it was Fifteen fj^j^^ Strange Theories of the Southern Heretics 77 the Roman state and in the second case the Roman church, but in each case individuals were punished because they dared to set themselves against an established system. Note 6. The Inquisition. Large armies were sent against the Albigensians. The Waldensians were searched for by expert per- secutors, and brought before a religious court that became notorious for its zeal in deahng with heretics. This was the court of the Inquisi- tion. Any suspicious person might be brought before the Inquisition, and be tried by the usual harsh methods of the day. Torture was used to wring confession of guilt from the person on trial. If the accused gave way he was forgiven, but had to suffer the punishment of long imprisonment. If he persisted he was turned over to the civil courts to be dealt with, which meant burning ahve without delay. Some were banished instead of being burned; hanging and drowning were other methods of punishment used in some localities. The Inquisi- tion became famous for the number of its victims and the severity of its punishments. Note 7. ReKgious Kindred of the Waldensians. The outbreak of an independent evangehcal type of Christianity in southern Europe was not the only evidence that there was an increasing unrest among the people in religious matters. The Bible was translated into many languages, and read more than it had been before. It was difficult to harmonize much in the Catholic church with what the Bible said, for the church had drifted far from the spirit of Jesus. As far away as England John Wycliffe translated the Bible into the tongue of the people, declared that Scripture was superior to the pope, and sent out his poor priests to preach the simple gospel. In Bohemia John Huss demanded from the pulpit that the church reform itself. In Germany and the Netherlands choice spirits known as Mystics rejoiced in a more spiritual religion than the church gave them. In the two last-named countries were many little groups, mostly of working people, who found delight in meeting for Bible study and prayer, and had no confidence in the church. They lived, according to the testimony of their enemies, most exemplary lives. They were pure in speech and in living, modest and peacefully disposed among their neighbors. They were not eager for wealth. They brought up their children carefully, and educated them in schools that accepted the same principles. They were friends of the sick and afflicted. Like the Waldensians they were accustomed to call themselves the Brethren. In Bohemia there was a similar union of Brethren, and it is significant that Grermans, Bohemians and Waldensians all came 78 Landmarks in Christian History Lesson. to use the same catechism, printed by the firm of Koburgers in the German city of Nurnberg. Understanding these various sects in different parts of Europe, it is easier to see how the Continent was being prepared for a reforma- tion in religion that was going to end the universal sway of the Catholic church in western Europe, and after a time to give freedom of thought and action to the people of the West. Questions on the Summary of the Preceding Lesson. 1. Who was Francis of Assisi? 2. Outline the history of the friars. Questions on the Present Lesson. 1. Define schism and heresy. 2. What were the differences between Albigensians and Walden- sians? 3. Tell the facts about the Hfe of Peter Waldo. 4. Where did the Waldensians spread to in Europe? 5. What were the principles of the Waldensians? 6. How was the Roman church accustomed to combat heresy? 7. Compare ancient persecution with the martyrdom of the heretics. 8. Explain the methods of the Inquisition. '^»*^"** Life on an English Manor 79 9. Who were Wycliffe and Huss? 10. Describe the medieval " Brethren.'* Reading References. {!) Robinson: History of Western Eurojw, pp. 216-225. (2) Whit- tier: The Vaudois Teacher. (3) Hale: hi His Name. Lesson 16. LIFE ON AN ENGLISH MANOR. The Country Folk and their Superstitions. Sources. — Domesday Book, an inventory of the eleventh century; records of the manors; rolls of the manor courts; various surveys, lists and descriptions; Langland's Piers the Plowman. Suggestions for Study. — 1. Read over the summary of the preceding lesson, and be prepared to answer questions. 2. Read the lesson story. Points to be especially noted: (a) how the peasants lived on the manor; (6) what were their ideas; (c) the parish priests; (d) the awakening ambition of the peasants; (e) the influence of Wy cliff e's priests. 3. Note the following topic for special discussion: How could the priests have made religion a more real help to the peasants.'* 4. The following exercises are for the note-book: (a) Write out in full the summary of the last lesson. (6) Make a comparison of th- life of the peasants and the Hfe of the farmers to-day by means of two lists. In one column place the houses, food and clothing, duties, religion, etc., of the peasants, and in the parallel column the corresponding conditions of the present day in the United States, (c) Write an imaginary sketch of the life of a priest in a parish such as has been described. Note 1. Classes of People in the Middle Ages. While the clergy of the church were claiming so much authority for themselves, and while in some places new ideas were being worked out contrary to them, ordinary every day life was going on after the medieval fashion. History tells of eventful life; the daily humdrum existence of the com- mon people usually has not been recorded. But it must not be for- gotten that life went on in rude fashion, mostly on the farms; and this we can understand in a measure from documents that have remained until now. The people of the Middle Ages belonged in three great classes. 80 Landmarks in Christian History ^^""^ There were the clergy from the bishops down, the nobles who held the land and did the fighting wliile the clergy did the praying, and the great mass of the people, who were regarded as of small account. They were, however, the foundation on wliich the social structure rested. But the great bulk of the people had few rights; they were mostly serfs of the nobles or lords; and they were oppressed as well as helped by the church. Note 2. How the Land was Held in England. There is more infor- mation about land in England and France than elsewhere, and the mother country is most interesting to an American. The land there is to be thought of as in the hands of the lords, who lived each on his own estate in a castle or manor house, allotting lands to common folk, and requiring of them rent or service in exchange. The houses of the peasants were grouped in a small village not far from the lord's house; near the center of the village was the parish church, and close by the house of the priest. Monasteries were scattered over the country, and they often held lands on which the peasants worked, as on the estate of a noble. The bishops of the church lived in larger towns where they had their cathedrals, but such towns were few in the Middle Ages. As a rule people on one estate had little to do with any other estate, and took care of themselves with little outside trade. Note 3. How the Peasants Lived. The real life of a peasant on an English manor about the year 1300 can best be understood from the story of a single individual. John Cay worth lived on the manor of Bernhorne in Sussex, near the place where William of Normandy fought the battle that gave him the conquest of England nearly two hundred and fifty years before. The whole estate contained four hundred and fifty acres of tillable land besides woodland. Of this land John Cayworth was allotted thirty acres, for which he worked on the farm of his lord enough days to amount to the worth of two and one- fourth shillings a year, and paid a rent in coin and poultry of as much more annually. John and his family lived in a hut that was little more than a hovel. It was made of wattled sticks cemented with mud, and had a roof of turf with a hole in it to let out the smoke. There was only one room inside that served for living-room, dining-room, bed-room and kitchen. A single garment served for clothing day and night, a bunch of dirty straw on the floor for a bed. Cooking utensils were few and of the rudest sort; black bread and cider or beer the staple food and drink. There was no window, and but a single door to the hut. In an adjoin- ing shed or pen might h(^ found a pig and a few hens. The farm yard Sixteen Life on an English Manor 81 was small and fenced in. The rudest agricultural implements were used in the cultivation of the fields, and the variety of crops was small. Father, mother and children worked out of doors in all weathers, with no recreation or amusement month after month. They were abso- lutely ignorant and exceedingly superstitious. All sorts of strange customs were due to their fear of ghosts, demons and witches. They trusted in charms, and practised incantations. Certain days were lucky, certain accidents unlucky. They were afraid of the priests, because they feared the power that they possessed to harm them. Many of their religious customs were due to their superstitions. They were confident that the sign of the cross was a sure protection, and the medieval church constantly encouraged them in their superstitious ideas that it might keep its control over them absolute. Note 4. The Parish Church. On Sundays and holy days John Cayworth joined the other peasants of the manor in the parish church. The priest belonged to the class of the common people, knew their wants, and ministered to them according to the rules laid down for him by his bishop. Too many priests had little real sympathy with their people, but they performed the routine service that was required of them, baptizing the children, marrying the young people, and burying the dead. In the church the main part of the service was the mass. To share in the prayers and to taste the bread of the Eucharist was to be most religious and to be safe from harm; to have the forgiveness of the priest for sins committed, and to have his blessing, made one entirely easy in mind. It is important to realize that to the masses of the people the Catholic Cliristianity of the Middle Ages was not far removed from paganism. They knew nothing of religious experience or of Christian doctrine. One was left to the monks, the other to the schoolmen. Few of them ever heard a sermon on Christian living. Their Christianity consisted of a vague idea of God and Christ, a vivid sense of the Virgin Mary as a protector and of the mass as a means of escape from eternal tor- ture, and a wholesome fear of the priest as powerful to help or harm them. If they could have a few feet of ground in the churchyard when they died, and a few prayers to help them through purgatory, they might feel that their religious experience was complete. Note 5. The Grind of Existence. Such a life as that which has been pictured had little to relieve its dull and dreary monotony. There was no cheering social intercourse between neighbors. Life was made up of a continuous struggle for existence. The crops often failed and the people starved to death. The lord felt no interest in his serfs 82 Landmarks in Christian History Lesson except to get what was due him. There was disease as well as famine, aggravated by the habits of living. There were no hospitals or asylums, not even almshouses, except as the monasteries relieved suffering. Peasant customs were rough and cruel. It was easy to gather a gang to burn a hayrick or plunder an unpopular peasant. Burglary, arson and even murder were common. Sometimes peasants murdered an unpopular lord; frequently they ran away, though the law compelled them to remain on the land. It was difficult to get about over the country, for there were no roads. The people were almost without comfort, without civilization, without morals, and almost without religion. Note 6. How the Peasant became a Free Man. Life on the Eng- lish manors could not always remain like this. Now and then there came news from the outside world that stirred the dull minds of the peasants. A wandering minstrel or a pedlar would bring word that a market town was growing up a few miles away, where it was possible to get coin of the realm for extra produce, with which the peasant might purchase more privileges from his lord. Or if he could gel away to the town and remain undiscovered for a year and a day, he would be a free man. One and another broke away. Opportunity was opening its doors to a broader life. Now and then a travelling lord or bishop came their way, and from persons in their retinue would come tales of a larger world, and am- bition would begin to glow, and unrest would take possession of the soul, and the peasant would think hard how he might improve his life, whether he should go or stay. And then would come a travelling priest, one of John Wycliffe's Lollards, and chide them for their submission to the oppression of the lord and for their superstitious faith in their ignorant priest. They declared that no priest could change the bread of the mass into the body of Christ, as all good Catholics thought. That was not the true basis of religion. They must find out what was the teaching of the New Testament and obey that, if they would be saved in the time of terror at the judgment day. So by degrees the English peasant learned to think of freedom — freedom that would break the bonds that held him in service on the farm where his ancestors had toiled for many generations, freedom that would give him a knowledge of the world and a share in that larger life of which he caught occasional glimpses, freedom from the superstition by which the priest kept his soul shackled, and knowledge of a truer faith that should give him light and joy in two worlds. Sixteen Life on an English Manor 83 Questions on the Summary of the Preceding Lesson. 1. Where did heresy make rapid growth about the time of Francis of Assisi? 2. What were the leading sects, and how did they differ? 3. What was the effect of persecution? Questions on the Present Lesson. 1. How are the people of the Middle Ages to be classified? 2. How did each of these classes live? 3. Describe the house of John Cay worth. 4. In what ways were people superstitious? 5. To what class did the parish priest belong? 6. How did the church touch the life of the people on the manor? 7. Describe the grind of existence. 8. What shows that morals were not good? 9. Explain how a peasant would be influenced towards ambitioa 64 Landmarks in Christian History Lesson 10. How were the poor priests of Wycliffe different from the ordinary priests of the parish? Reading References. (i) Robinson: History of Western Europe, ch. 18. (2) Jessopp: Village Life in Norfolk Six Hundred Years Ago, a chapter in a volume of essays entitled the Coming of the Friars, (S) Cheyney: Industrial and Social History of England, ch. 2. Lesson 17. FLORENCE IN THE DAYS OF SAVONAROLA. The Revival of Learning and Morals. Sources. — Machiavelli's History of Florence; city and town charters; ordi- nances of English gilds; chronicles of the German cities; Savonarola's sermons and letters. Suggestions for Study. — 1. Read over the summary of the preceding lesson in preparation for class questions. 2. Read the lesson story. Note especially: (a) the rise of the towns and the fame of Florence; (6) the awakening of new ideas; (c) the need of reform in morals and religion; (d) Savonarola as a prophet. 3. Give special thought to the following subject for class discussion: What part should the church have in moral reform? 4. The following exercises are for the note-book: (a) See that the summary of the preceding lesson is written out in full, (b) Draw a map of Italy to show Rome, Florence, Pisa, Genoa, Venice, (c) Make lists of the leading artists and writers of the Renaissance, with dates of birth and death. Consult ency- clopedias, or Myers' The Middle Ages, ch. 18. {d) Make a list of the most famous classical writers of Greece and Rome. Note 1. The City of Florence. In the Middle Ages there were few towns except those Roman municipalities which had survived the period of destruction. Among these was Florence, which had been founded in the second century before the Christian era when one of the through Roman roads was built to the North. The city was located in the wide valley of the river Arno, and is regarded by some travellers as the most attractive place in Italy because of its location, its history, and its fame as an art center. Florence passed through the usual vicissitudes of a Roman town during the German conquest and in the later medieval disturbances, and like others of the Italian towns kept its independence in the days of struggle with the ambitious German emperors. In the thirteenth century Dante was born in Florence, and the fame that came to him as the greatest poet of the Renaissance shed Seventeen Florence in the Days of Savonarola 85 luster on his birthplace. Petrarch was his illustrious successor. In the fifteenth century Florence produced world-renowned artists in Michael Angelo, Raphael, Titian, and Leonardo da Vinci, and was acknowledged as the center of the Renaissance under the patronage of the family of the Medici, despots of the city. In the closing years of the fifteenth century a famous monk and prophet, Savonarola, preached and suffered for the cause of reform. Florence is to-day one of the leading cities of modern Italy. Note 2. The Rise of the Medieval Towns. From the eleventh century onward there was an urban growth. The modern awakemng was stirring the people of the country. Men like John Cayworth were waking up, and better men than he were ambitious to make life worth while There were profits to be made from trade, and new centers ot prominence sprang into existence. Charters were obtained from lords and kings granting privileges that usually included self-government The crusades weakened the nobility and correspondingly strengthened the townsmen, and the crusades furnished a new impulse to broaden traffic between East and West. Along the fines of commerce grew up large towns, like Augsburg in Germany and Bruges in Belgmm. In Italy Venice and Genoa grew rich and powerful as shipping centers. Florence became especially famous for its manufactures of the loom Smaller towns sprang up everywhere in favorable situations as local centers Into 'these towns drifted the countrymen to become free and pros- perous. Into such towns went the friars, the Waldensian preachers, and Wvcliffe's poor priests, and helped and stimulated the people. There were organized the universities in which centered the learmng of the day, many of which became hot-beds of new thought. There too were the guilds of merchants and artisans, corresponding in a way to the trusts and trade unions of the present. It was in the towns that progress was moving irresistibly forward. Note 3. The Renaissance. Nothing was so likely to stimulate a new intellectual fife as this mental awakening in the towns Business made the merchants keen, and the artisans developed skill of work- manship and the power of invention. The minds of the scholars were trained in the schools and in the numerous discussions ot the day. A new interest awoke in the ancient classics. Greek scholars moved from the East to Italy when Constantinople feU before the Turks in 1453 Petrarch collected old manuscripts. Dante, in the spirit ot Virgil, sang in Itafian verse of the religious visions that sprang into being in hit soul. Men loved that which was very old, and dared to 86 Landmarks in Christian History Lesson dream of things that were very new. A wonderful outburst of artistic skill gave to Italy a rich and beautiful dowry of architecture, sculpture and painting, such as the world had never received since the Age of Pericles in ancient Athens. In the schools, which had been filled with a scholastic spirit that had little to do with real life, was felt the stirring of the spirit of a new learning that was to bring in the modern age. Medieval Latin gave way to the classical Greek and Latin as the lan- guages of education, and the Romance tongues began to exhibit literary charm. In the whole realm of thought there had come a new birth — this is the meaning of the Renaissance. Note 4. Political Changes. The spirit of independence and prog- ress was seen not only in the tradesmen of the towns, in the scholars of the universities, and in the artists of Florence and the other Italian cities, but among the princes of Europe as well. They too were throw- ing off the burdens that had prevented the achievement of their am- bitions. Two circumstances had favored them. The church had passed the day when the papacy reached the climax of its authority under Innocent III. England, France and Germany not long after had reasserted successfully their national independence of the pope. That gave the kings an opportunity to develop a real national feeling and a loyalty to the kingship. The second gain had come from the destruction of great numbers of the feudal nobility during the Crusades. Hundreds of nobles had mortgaged their lands to the townsmen who had money, and had gone off to the wars. A great many never returned, and as their property passed to the merchants of the towns, so their political rights passed to the kings. The princes and the people were growing strong at the expense of the nobles. Note 5. Religion in the Fifteenth Century. The greatest need of the age was a moral and religious reform. Socially, politically, and intellectually the age was awake. The church hindered the highest progress. When the pope lost his grip upon the states of Europe early in the fourteenth century, the papacy declined very rapidly. For about seventy years the popes made their home at Avignon in southern France instead of Rome because of Roman political and social dis- turbances. The papal court became magnificent and luxurious, but was believed generally to be corrupt in manners and morals. The people of western Europe were losing much of their supreme con- fidence in the pope of Rome. The papal court returned to Rome, but there followed a disgraceful contest between two popes and their suc- cessors, each claiming a lawful election to the papacy by the electoral college of cardinals. Seventeen Florence in the Days of Savonarola 87 While the papacy was suffering in this way in the estimation of the people, the clergy of the church were becoming blamed more than ever for their shortcomings. Bishops and priests, monks and nuns, were charged with greediness and loose living. The leaders of the church were condemned by public opinion for the very same faults that had called out Paul's condemnation of the Corinthian Christians. Perhaps the Catholic clergy were no worse than they had been. It may be that the public conscience was becoming more sensitive. It was unquestionably a fact that there was great need of reform. Note 6. Church Councils and the Question of Reform. The university in the city of Paris demanded that the pope should call a council of the church leaders to bring about reform. It was a grave question whether the church could reform itself, whether there must not come first a revolution in rehgion that would change the character of religious leadership and even of religious teaching. But reforming councils were called in a vain attempt to effect a change. At Pisa near Florence, at Constance and Basle in Switzerland, the church tried to pacify its popes, to purify its clergy, and to punish disobedient heretics, but with no permanent results. It was becoming apparent that only through a powerful revival of religious and moral feeHng could there be produced a real and lasting reform. Note 7. Savonarola, the Florentine Friar. The friars were to be the heralds of the religious awakening. The greatest of them was to arise in Germany, but as Jesus had His herald in John the Baptizer, so Luther was preceded by Savonarola. This Florentine friar was a devoted CathoHc. He entered a Dominican monastery because he saw the moral corruption in the world, and because he was disappointed in love. This was in 1475. Ten years later he became noted as an eloquent preacher, and in the years that followed he was conspicuous among the leaders of the city. Florence was then ruled by the illus- trious Lorenzo de Medici. In the most fearless fashion Savonarola preached to thousands of the citizens on the judgments of the book of Revelation. He condemned the Medici as despots in Florence; he denounced the Florentines for their lethargy and their sins; he con- demned the pagan customs that had been revived in the Renaissance; he thundered against the rich and profligate monks; and threatened the sure judgments of God upon all who would not reform. For a time his appeals met with tumultuous response. Men and women changed their habits, and threw their articles of luxury on the immense bon- fires that celebrated the victory of righteousness. But Savonarola became involved in ecclesiastical difficulties and in city politics. The 88 Landmarks in Christian History Lesson fickle people turned away from him. He lost his leadership in Florence, and very soon he was seized and put to death by strangling, and his body burned. This was in 1498. Savonarola will never live in liis- tory as statesman or theologian. He was not even a heretic in the sense that he disbelieved in either church or pope. He was only a voice in the streets of Florence, but as a prophet of reform he belongs among the heroes of all religious history. Questions on the Summary of the Preceding Lesson. 1. What was the condition of peasant life in England? 2. How did the peasants practise religion? Questions on the Present Lesson. 1. Tell the history of Florence from its origin. 2. Name several of its famous citizens. 3. Explain the growth of the medieval towns, and name a few. 4. Define charters, guilds, universities. 5. Explain the meaning of Renaissance, and how it came to be 6. With what ancient city may Florence be compared? Why? 7. What was the greatest need of the age? 8. Explain the weaknesses of the papacy and of the clergy. Eighteen jj^^ ^ Saxou Mouk Sct Germany on Fire 89 9. In what way was an attempt made to secure reform? 10. Who was the prophet of reform in Florence? Sketch his career. Reading References. (1) Myers: The Middle Ages, chs. 16, 18. (2) Schaff: History of the Christian Church, V, ii, pp. 684-716. (S) Ehot: Romola, chs. 71, 72. Lesson 18. HOW A SAXON MONK SET GERMANY ON FIRE. Luther at the Diet of Worms. Sources. — Chronicles of the German cities; the works of Luther, and his letters; the reports of the Diet at Worms by Aleander, one of the representa- tives of the pope; Melanchthon's Life of Luther; Erasmus' Praise of Folly, a satire on the medieval Schoolmen. Suggestions for Study. — 1. Read the summary of the preceding lesson preparatory to questions in the class. 2. Read the lesson story. Note especially: (a) the temper of Germany in the early sixteenth century; (6) the outbreak of Luther against indulgences; (c) his brave defense at the Diet of Worms; (d) the place of the Bible in the Reformation; (e) the principles of Protestantism. 3. Think over the following topic for discussion in the class: What do you consider the important points in your personal religion? 4. Note-book work: (a) See that the summary of the last lesson is complete. (6) Find places in the New Testament where faith in Jesus is spoken of as the means of salvation, (c) Find out how the English Bible now in use came into existence, and note down the story of the version of King James in 1611 and of the Revised Version of 1881. Note 1. Germany in the Early Sixteenth Century. The fifteenth century had made it certain that the old culture had been recovered for southern Europe. With this culture Italy might be content, but it was different in northern Europe. There were heart longings in the homes of the German fatherland that neither art nor literature could satisfy. Culture was not religion, and a revival of art and learning was not enough. Nor did the Catholic church, with its grand cathedrals, its splendid ritual, and its impressive celebration of the mass, give satis- faction. People were tired of the corruption and greed of the clergy. They were hungry for a simpler faith. The friends of the Renaissance 90 Landmarks in Christian History Lesson north of the Alps hoped that the new learning might bring religious reformation tln-ough a new knowledge of the Bible, and Erasmus pre- pared an improved Greek text of the New Testament, and Reuchlin made important contributions to the Hebrew of the Old Testament. But this was not for the common people. The middle class in the towns was angry with the established church because it drained the people of their money for the benefit of Rome, and this hurt trade. The peasants hoped for a religious and social reform that would free them at the same time from the burdens of the church and of social oppression. The devout " Brethren " practised their religion inde- pendently of Roman direction. All were waiting for the hour when the voice of a leader should summon the people to a forward move- ment in the interests of reform. Note 2. Martin Luther. That leader was Martin Luther. He was the man for the crisis. He came out of the ranks of the peasants, though he was not fully in sympathy with all their demands. He was a university graduate, sympathetic with the new biblical learning, and himself a teacher of the Bible. He belonged to a monastic order in the church, and diligently sought his own salvation by vigorous self- denial, but he found peace only as he put his trust in God's mercy, and, like the " Brethren," accepted for himself the simple gospel of Jesus. But Luther struck his first blow for the Reformation in a way that was likely to please most the men of the middle class who opposed the loss of so much of the people's money to Rome. Note 3. The Sale of Indulgences. Just as Luther and all Ger- many were ready for reform in the year 1517, there came into the Saxon town of Wittenberg, where Luther was a university professor, a Domin- ican friar named Tetzel. He was an agent of the pope for the sale of indulgences. An indulgence was a pardon for sin. The Catholic church claimed the forgiveness of sin as one of its rights. A priest was supposed to require repentance from the person who had sinned be- fore pardon was granted that should free the sinner from its penalty, but a great many priests were careless of the spirit that was back of the form. In the early sixteenth century religion had become shamefully commercialized. Selling pardons had come to be a profitable means of raising money for the church, and Tetzel's special enterprise was to get money for the building of St. Peter's cathedral in Rome. All over Germany money was going out of the country for this purpose, but what was worse, people were getting the idea that a piece of paper properly endorsed was all that was necessary to free them from the consequences of sin. Eighteen jj^^ ^ SoxoTi MoTik Set Germany on Fire 91 Note 4. Luther's Ninety -five Theses. Luther had come to beHeve with all his soul that it was only through faith in God's mercy and truth that a person could be saved from sin and its penalty. He was a man of strong convictions, and when the streets of Wittenberg echoed to the voice of the hawker of indulgences, the Wittenberg professor of theology was greatly moved. He denounced the enterprise from his chair in the university to the students in his classes. In the pulpit he thundered against such an iniquitous traffic. On the church door, which was often used as a university bulletin board, he tacked a paper on which were written ninety-five propositions, expressing his opinions on this vexed question. These became historic as Luther's Ninety-five Theses, and they precipitated the German Reformation. Note 5. Great Excitement in Germany. The theses had been written in Latin, but they were speedily translated and scattered broad- cast. These were what the German people had been waiting for. At last they had found their champion. Enthusiasm knew no bounds. One man had dared to speak out. The church summoned him to account, but Luther stood by his opinions. Presently he woke up to the fact that he was the most talked of man in Germany and the leader of the people's cause. He proceeded to issue pamphlets expressing more clearly his religious ideas. The Bible was his authority; reason and faith together interpreted it for him. Students flocked from all parts of Germany to his class-room. He summoned the nobility to withstand a corrupt church. He attacked the sacraments of that church. Finally he sent out a trumpet call to every true German to realize his Christian freedom by taking his stand on the gospel of a personal experience of God's grace that saves from sin, and brings fellowship with God in Christ. This was the essence of Protestantism, and Luther thus became its great exponent. Note 6. The Diet of Worms. By these acts Luther had broken completely with the pope and the old ecclesiastical system of Roman Catholicism. The pope took summary action against him through the imperial government of Germany. He was summoned to attend an assembly, or diet, of all the lay and clerical princes of the realm. Knights, dukes, and lords of every degree would be there; the great dignitaries of the Catholic church in all Germany, and the delegates from the pope himself would be there; the emperor Charles V, who was also king of Spain with all her old and new world possessions, would be there; and Martin Luther, the Augustinian friar, the heretic of Saxony, would have to face them all alone. But when his friends tried to persuade him not to go, he declared that he should not hesitate Landmarks in Christian History Lesson though the devils in the streets were as numerous as the tiles on the city roofs. He went in obedience to the summons. He stood before that august assembly, overawed at first, but with recovered courage answered to the charge of heresy. When he was taunted with dodging the questions at issue, he declared boldly: " I will give you an answer which has neither horns nor teeth. Popes have erred, and councils have erred. Prove to me out of Scripture that I am wrong, and I submit. Till then my conscience binds me. Here I stand. I can do no more. God help me. Amen." All day long the stoim of opinion raged in the assembly, Luther had friends among the princes, and they stood by him; but when it seemed that he was likely to be condemned, he was hurried away into retirement to secure his safety. The Diet pronounced his condemnation. Note 7. Luther's German Bible. During his forced retirement in the castle of the Wartburg, Luther employed himself in giving to the people of Germany a correct translation of the Bible in their own tongue. By this act he not only made sure of the permanency of the Reformation, even if he should perish, but he laid the foundation of the modern German as a literary language. The Bible became the weapon of the German Protestants, and in this respect Germany was imitated by all Protestants. The Bible took the place of the Catholic church as an authority in matters of religion. Through its pages God spoke to the men and women of the modern age in the words in which He spoke to His people of old. It echoed to the voices of the Hebrew prophets. It recorded the words of Jesus Himself to the people of Galilee and Judea. It contained a statement of the truth that it was not through monastic self-righteousness, nor through the sacra- ments of an established church, nor through the ministrations of an ordained clergy, that man and God could come close together, but through the response of the human heart to the call of God through the person of Jesus Christ. Through religious faith would come the new religious life. To the child of God all forms of sin were forbidden. Moral reform must follow spiritual renewal, and thus at last the modern awakening would be complete. Note 8. The Later Reformation in Germany. Protestantism in Germany had its experiences of storm and stress. It was oppressed by the old order in church and state. Its success was threatened by the radicals who were not satisfied with what Luther had done. Luther himself passed off the scene. Many parts of the country were lighted with the fires of civil war. Not a few of the Germans clung to their old faith, and others returned to the church of their ancestors after a Eighteen jj^^ ^ Saxon Mouk Set Germany on Fire 93 time. But the Reformation could not be undone. The spirit of a new age Uved in the monk of Wittenberg. Germany, and Europe too, could never be the same again. For northern Europe the shackles of superstition were broken. The new evangel was heard in Sweden and in Scandinavia, in the Netherlands, in France, and in the British Isles, and steadily it has made its way abroad until it has borne its message to the farthest corners of the world. Questions on the Summaries of the Preceding Lesspns. 1. Who were the Franciscan friars? 2. Who were the Waldensians, and how did they differ from the Albigensians? 3. How did the peasants of England live? 4. How did they practise religion? 5. What were the characteristics of the new town life? 6. In what way was there an awakening? 7. What city may be called the home of the Renaissance? Questions on the Present Lesson. 1. How was the temper of Germany different from that of Italy? 2. What was the feeling of the different classes? 3. What were indulgences? 4. Why was Luther opposed to them? 5. In what ways did he show his objections? '* 6. What was the real core of Luther's Protestantism? 04 Landmarks in Christian History " 7. Describe Luther at the Diet of Worms. 8. What was Luther's relation to the Bible? 9. Why has the Bible been important to Protestants? 10. What were the leading countries into which the Reformation went? Reading References, (i) Jacobs: Martin Luther. (2) Walker: Great Men of the Christian Church, ch. 12. (3) Charles: Chronicles of the Schdnberg-Cotta Family. Lesson 19. GENEVA IN THE DAYS OF CALVIN. His Opposition to the Libertines. Sources. — Calvin's letters, tracts, commentaries, and city ordinances; Cal- vin's Institutes of the Christian Religion, the text-book of Protestantism; the Life of Calvin by Beza, his successor in Geneva. Suggestions for Study. — 1. Read the summary of the preceding lesson preparatory to questions in class. 2. Read the lesson story. Note especially: (a) the place of Calvin in the progress of the Reformation; (6) the difficulties with which Calvin was beset in Geneva; (c) the importance of the "Institutes"; {d) the new place of democracy in church government; (e) the interest of Calvin in social welfare. 3. Think over the following topics for class discussion: Which is the better method for abolishing such vices as were prevalent in Geneva: prohibition and rigid suppression, or moral education.? Is there any serious lack in present day education.? 4. Note-book work: (a) See that the summary of the last lesson is complete. (&) Draw a map of central Europe to show the location of Geneva, Zurich, Strassburg, Wittenberg, Worms, Rome, (c) Find places in the letters of Paul where he speaks of God's grace as the means of salvation from sin. {d) Place in three parallel columns the principal evils in the city, the restrictions made jjy the city government, and Calvin's provisions for social welfare. Underline in each coliuim the two which you regard as most important. Nineteen Geneva in the Days of Calvin 95 Note 1. The City of Geneva. The city of Geneva lies on the border between France and the mountain land of the Swiss. From the blue lake at its foot pour the swift waters of the river Rhone; in the dis- tance sliines the white summit of Mont Blanc. Up from the lake wind the narrow streets of the old town, massed with buildings that almost hide the cathedral, where the second great prophet of the Refor- mation had his pulpit, and from which there went forth words that stirred Europe. It was into this city on a summer day in the year 1536 that John Calvin came as a travelling scholar, and in this city he re- mained to make it famous as the capital city of the Reformed faith. When Calvin came to Geneva, fourteen years had passed since Luther defied empire and church in the Diet of Worms. During that time the new faith had made its way into the countries bordering Germany. It had been especially successful in Switzerland. In Zurich under the leadership of Zwingli a more radical revolt from Rome had taken place. The cities of Berne and Basle had gone over to Protestantism, and before Calvin arrived Geneva had declared its religious and political independence from the prince-bishop who had been lord of the city. But Switzerland and the Protestant countries generally needed a leader who should conserve the progress that Luther had made, and who should organize and instruct the followers of the Reformed faith. That man was John Calvin. Note 2. How Calvin Became the Master in Geneva. Calvin was a Frenchman, who had been born in 1509, had been well educated, and had caught the spirit of the German Reformation. Protestants were persecuted in France, and Calvin had determined to seek an asylum on the Continent, and was on his way to Strassburg, a Protestant center of western Germany, when he came to Geneva intending to stay over one night, and then to proceed elsewhere for further study. His presence was made known to William Farel, a reforming evangelist then living in Geneva, and it was through him that Calvin received his call to remain in the city and take the lead in certain measures of reform. Calvin yielded reluctantly, and began his task by lecturing on theology in the church of Saint Pierre. He urged a simpler gospel than that of the Catholic church or of Luther. He provided a con- fession of faith and a catechism. He approved the stern discipline that had been introduced by the city council for loose living. It hap- pened that there were many in Geneva who had been accustomed to a free and easy life. They prized their liberty, and resented the restric- tions insisted upon by Calvin and the council. One of the effects of the revolt from the Catholic church was to intoxicate people with the Landmarks in Christian History Lesson idea of liberty, and liberty was often carried to license. It was a difficult task for the reformers to prevent this, and Calvin found the opposition of the " Libertines " in Geneva so strong that he lost liis grip upon the city and was banished by his enemies. He spent three years in Strassburg, but at the end of that time he was recalled by the city that could not get along without him, and he established himself firmly in his old capital. Note 3. How Calvin Became the Leader of the Reformed Church. Calvin became the most influential leader of Protestantism through his text-book of theology and tlu-ough his organization of the Genevan church. Before he had become widely known tliis young French scholar had brooded upon the principles of the Reformation, and had put form to his beliefs in a manuscript that he published in the Swiss city of Basle four months before he came to Geneva. The new book bore the title of the Institutes of the Christian Religion. It met a great need. Thus far there had been no definite and full statement of the faith of the Reformation. No one had attempted a system of thought to set over against the theology of the Catholic church. There was need for a definition of the new faith, just as there had been when Christianity was introduced to the Greek world of the second century. Calvin with his Institutes supplied the text-book of the Reformation. In the matter of organization Calvin's contribution was no less important. The Catholic theory had been that the church, including all citizens, was under the government of the clergy, and that the bishops of the dioceses were the superior rulers with the pope as their chief. Luther had thrown over the pope with the Catholic system of faith, but he had not changed much the method of church govern- ment. In his church there were still overseers, though they might be called superintendents instead of bishops, and the rule was still in the hands of the clergy. Calvin changed all that. The members of his church were those who professed the Reformed faith. The officers of the church were the minister, the teacher, the elders and the deacons. They were called by God and approved by the people. Except the deacons, these officers constituted a consistory, which was the govern- ing board of the church, and which was also the guardian of faith and morals. This church was not subject to the state, as Lutheranism became, but was the ally of the state, and the theory was, like that of Catholicism, that the state should protect and reinforce the church. Note 4. Calvin's Theories. The theory of the French reformer was that God had called him to reform Geneva. His ainr was to build a commonwealth based on the idea of the sovereignty of God, and receiv- Nineteen Geneva in the Days of Calvin 97 ing the word of God as its constitutional authority. God demanded self-restraint and moral living, and it was Calvin's duty to see that God was obeyed. God's sovereignty was absolute. He had elected Calvin to be lord of Geneva as His viceroy. God had elected a few out of the city to be saved from the sin in which the mass of men were weltering. It was Calvin's task to see that they were not drawn into temptation and sin by the evil around them. The Bible was the source of his faith and of the authority that he possessed. It was natural that the Bible should become the authority of a church which rejected the authority of the Roman Catholic church. So the common- wealth of Geneva was built on the two corner-stones of the sovereignty of God and of the Bible, and Calvinism fashioned its theology on the basis of a sovereign God choosing whom he would to be saved from a sinful world and to citizenship in the invisible city of God. Note 6. Calvin's Rule. With liis principles as a basis Calvin carried through his reforms in spite of the Libertines. The city was ruled nominally by several councils and assemblies, and Calvin was never able to disregard them, though he was the most powerful man in the city. In most matters they agreed heartily. Calvin's system of church government was set in order. Rigid rules of discipline forbade frivolous as well as immoral conduct, and provided for a careful observance of Sunday. Drinking and gambhng were severely punished; jests at the expense of religion incurred banishment. Pro- fanity and witchcraft were punishable by death. The lowly and high- born alike were subject to the same law, and were visited with the same punishment. The church did not itself impose the penalty. Its officers reproved and rebuked offenders, and in aggravated cases cut them off from the church; the city government could be depended upon to do whatever else was necessary. Note 6. Servetus and the Libertines. It was not without strong opposition that Cal vin carried out his strict policy. The Libertines were his constant enemies. Their leader, Gruet, was seized, condemned and beheaded for standing in the way of the municipal policy. Ser- vetus, a brilliant Spanish physician, rashly antagonised Calvin and the city authorities, and his case was made a test of strength between the Calvinists and the Libertines. It was aggravated by the pecuHar heresy of Servetus, in which he announced his disbelief in the Trinity. This was considered an unpardonable offence, and as heretic and Libertine he was punished with the extreme penalty of being burned at the stake. Two years later Calvin's friends gained completely the control of affairs in the city, and the reformation to which Calvin had considered himself called was complete. The reformer died in 1564. 98 Landmarks in Christian History Lesson Note 7. The Record of Calvin and the Influence of Calvinism. Calvinism stands for a definite program and for definite achievement. It represented law and order in Geneva, and it lifted the life of the city to a high moral plane. It gave an impulse to popular government, fostered by the church organization, and by the belief in the equality of all men before a holy and sovereign God. It stood for a high type of education. Cahin brought teachers to the city, established a graded system of instruction, and founded the University of Geneva in 1559. He instituted a program of social welfare. Calvin had at heart the social prosperity of Geneva. He exercised care for the sick poor, and provided hospitals and asylums. He investigated the sanitation of the city. He emphasized the importance of labor, and concerned himself with the establishment of industries in Geneva. He made the home the corner-stone of society. It was these excellences of faith and organization and social welfare that commended Calvinism to other lands. Calvinism became the Reformed faith of France and the Netherlands, and replaced Lutheran- ism in western Germany. It won Scotland for the Reformation, and gave birth to Puritanism in England. It created New England, and impressed the Puritan stamp upon the American people. It has sent out evangelical missionaries into all parts of the world. Luther had precipitated the Reformation; Calvin made it permanent and widely extended. Questions on the Summary of the Preceding Lesson. 1. In what respects was Germany ready for Luther.'^ 2. Why is it proper to speak of him as the " hero of the Reforma- tion ".? 3. What was the fundamental principle of German Protestantism.? Questions on the Present Lesson. 1. What was the religious situation in Europe when Calvin went to Geneva? 2. What conditions did Calvin find in the city, and how did he meet them? 3. What book did Calvin publish, and why was it important? Nineteen Geneva in the Days of Calvin 4. How did Calvin organize the Reformed church in Geneva? 5. Compare the relation of the Lutheran church to the German state, and the relation of the Calvinistic church to the Genevan state. 6. What were the basic principles of Calvinism? 7. Describe Calvin's rule in Geneva. 8. Who was Servetus? 9. How did Calvin promote the social welfare of the people? 10. How widely did Calvinism spread? Reading References. {!) Robinson: History of Western Europe. (2) Walker: Great Men of the Christian Church, ch. 13. {3) Stephenson: John Calvin: the Statesman. {Jj) W^alker: John Calvin. (5) Beza: Life of Calvin. (6) Calvin: Institutes of the Christian Religion. (7) SchaS: History of the Christian Church, VII, ch. 8. (S) Cambridge Modern History, II, ch. 11. 100 Landmarks in Christian History Lesson Lesson 20. THE JVLASSACRE OF SAINT BARTHOLOMEW. Protestantism in France before and after. Sources. — Beza's Ecclesiastical History of the Reformed churches in the Kingdom of France; Calvin's letters; correspondence of the reformers; Paris city registers; edicts, memoirs, journals and letters; records of the Venetian ambassador. Suggestions for Study. — 1. Read over the summary of the preceding lesson., and be ready for questions on it. 2. Read the story of the day. Points to be especially noted are: (a) the place of Calvin in the French Reformation; (6) the political element that was present as well as the religious; (c) the spirit of Catholics and Protestants toward each other, revealed in the wars and in the massacre; (d) the power of a king to affect the happiness of thousands by a single edict. 3. Think about the following questions for discussion: ^Vhat was the proper policy for Henry IV to follow with reference to religion when he became king of France? What is the correct course for a ruler to follow to-day? 4. Prepare note-book work as follows: (a) See that the last summary is prop- erly written out (6) Write a character sketch of Catherine de Medici, (c) Make a list of the principal persons connected with this period of French his- tory, and after each name mention his position in the realm, his religion, and his character as far as it is possible to determine them. Note 1. The French Reformation. When Calvin went to Geneva, he was a refugee from France. He had just published in the preface to his histitutes an appeal to King Francis I that he would treat kindly and justly the adherents of the Reformed faith. The Reformation had come to France independently of Calvin or Luther. The study of the Bible in the University of Paris had led the scholar, Jacques Lefevre, and others to evangelical ideas just as similar study in the University of Wittenberg had produced the leader of the German Reformation. In Germany the new thought appealed particularly to the people; in France it attracted the prosperous burghers of the cities and many of the nobility. Margaret, the sister of the king, became a Protestant. Even the king was friendly at first, but he became a fierce persecutor. The French Reformation took on a different character from the Ger- man, because of the nobility who were interested in it. Some of them, including the princes of Conde, who were in the probable line of suc- cession to the throne, cared more for politics than for religion, and used their Protestantism to promote their political ambitions. The wars that followed are, therefore, wars of ambition fully as much as wars of religion. The leader of the Catholic party was the duke of Guise; the leader of the Huguenots was Admiral Coligny. Note 2. The Influence of Calvin. Though Calvin remained at Geneva, he had a part in the progress of French Protestantism. He was able to influence the Huguenots, as the French Protestants were Twenty j,f^^ Massacre of Saint Bartholomew 101 called, in several different ways. He carried on an extensive corre- spondence. He received many fugitives at Geneva, instructed them in his own ideas, and sent them back to spread those ideas through France. His Institutes of the Christian Religion served to indoctrinate the Hugue- nots. It is not surprising to find that both the doctrine and the organi- zation of the French Protestant church were patterned after Geneva. Indeed in France the presbyterian form of church organization was carried out more fully than had been possible in Geneva. Then after Calvin's death we find the Genevan influence continuing through Beza, who was Calvin's successor in the Swiss city, and who wrote a history of the Reformation in France. Note 3. Character of the Strife Between the Religious Parties. The story of the long contest for supremacy in France reflects no glory on the French character. It is a tiresome, sickening narrative of unscrupulous scheming, of cold-blooded murder, and of long continued warfare. The kings of the nation were Catholic in their sympathies, and often persecuted the Huguenots as relentlessly as the old Roman emperors had punished the Christians of olden time. The Italian queen mother of several of the young kings, Catherine de Medici, seems to have had no religious convictions strong enough to prevent her froni aiding whichever party would be most useful to her, and she used the methods of modern Italian conspirators in getting rid of her enemies. The duke of Guise was the influential adviser of the king. Under circumstances such as these it is easy to understand the events that succeeded one another. The government was harsh to the Protestants, and they in turn plotted the arrest and imprisonment of the Guises. When this was found out the punishment was severe, hundreds being executed in a variety of ways for the. amusement of the ladies of the court. To preserve the balance of power Catherine granted privi- leges to the Protestants, but the duke of Guise disregarded the grant, and murdered a company of Protestants worshipping in a barn. Then war broke out, and was carried on with every variety of mercilessness and cruelty. At last Catherine tried to patch up a peace by bringing about a marriage alliance between the families of princes on both sides, and thousands of Catholics and Protestants poured into Paris to cele- brate the arrival of peace. It was then that the Catholic party carried out its master stroke of policy in the massacre of thousands of Protes- tant citizens on the eve of Saint Bartholomew's Day (August 24, 1572). Note 4. The Massacre of Saint Bartholomew. In the scheming of parlies it had seemed necessary to get rid of Admiral Coligny, the Protestant leader who was winning the king away from the Guises. 102 Landmarks in Christian History Lesson An attempt had been made to assassinate him, and when that failed and his friends promised to retahate, a plot was hatched to wipe out the Huguenots who were in the city at the wedding. The king's con- sent was secured through the queen mother. Shortly after midnight at the tolling of a bell the bloody work began. Assassins burst into the room of Coligny, who, though surprised, faced them calmly and died bravely. His body was thrown to the street where the duke of Guise was waiting for the completion of the deed. In the royal palace of the Louvre the Protestant princes were arrested, and noblemen put to the sword. Then the murderers divided into groups. All through the city they pursued their deadly work in the darkness, cutting down fugitives in the streets, and pursuing others into the houses. The Latin quarter was stained with the blood of Huguenot gentlemen, as were the stair- ways of the Louvre. No place was sacred, no spot secure, and all because Frenchmen could not agree in interpreting the religion of the Christ of peace whom all professed to honor and worship. The work that was begun in the capital extended into the towns until thousands had fallen victims to religious hate. Wlien the pope of Rome received the news he ordered a Te Deum of praise to be sung, and when Philip of Spain heard of it, he is said to have laughed aloud for the first time in his life. Note 5. The Edict of Nantes. The massacre of so many Hugue- nots in France was a severe blow to the cause of the Reformation, but the struggle went on. Religious wars were characteristic of the time. Philip of Spain was the champion of the Catholics in Europe; Eliza- beth of England was a leader among the Protestants. The Dutch were fighting in the Netherlands for their independence from Spain, and they were expecting help from the French Huguenots, when they received the discouraging news of the massacre of Saint Bartholomew's Day. Another half century was to pass before the period of religious wars should come to an end, and political interests become most prominent. In 1589 a Protestant prince became King Henry IV of France, and four years later he adopted the Catholic faith in order to make sure of his crown and to bring peace to his distressed country. He is re- ported to have said that Paris was well worth a mass. In 1598 he granted toleration to the Protestants to hold their faith privately, and to enjoy rights of public worship in certain specified towns. They were admitted to schools and public offices on a level with Catholics. Besides these benefits a few places were assigned to them, especially as strongholds for refuge and defense if difficulty should arise again. This plan worked badly, for it gave the Huguenots the nucleus of political power, and led to trouble later on. Tweniy rpj^^ Massacre of Saint Bartholomew lOS Note 6. The Revocation of the Edict. After a time the fortified towns were taken away from the Huguenots, who were planning a Protestant state of France. At last in 1685, after nearly a century of toleration, Louis XIV revoked the religious freedom that had been granted, and another era of persecution began. This prohibition of Protestantism closed all their churches and outlawed all the individuals who belonged among the Huguenots. The Protestant ministers were driven out of the country, but the people were forbidden to leave on penalty of being sent to the galleys as slaves for life. But the outlawed people preferred to take the risks of emigration rather than to remain under such conditions, and thousands managed to escape from the country. It is estimated that more than a quarter of a million people thus withdrew from their intolerant fatherland. Some of them found their way to England, some to Holland, and some to Germany, and many even settled among the English colonies in America. Note 7. The Results of the Migration. The results of the migra- tion were peculiarly unfortunate for France. The Huguenots were of good stock. They belonged to that class of the people that was most intelligent and industrious, and in outlawing them Louis XIV was depriving his kingdom of its most valuable citizens. When they went out they took with them their industries, and helped to enrich the coun- tries where they settled. Those who remained suffered the indignities of their lot, and Protestantism in France has never been able to recover from such blows as the Massacre of Saint Bartholomew and the Revo- cation of the Edict of Nantes. The decline of French fortunes after the death of Louis XIV may be traced in a measure to his unfortunate policy of intolerance. Note 8. What Intolerance Means. Religious intolerance has never in the end helped a nation. The Roman empire did not save itself or its pagan emperor cult by persecuting Cliristianity. The Roman Catholic nations never gained strength by punishing Protestants. They might succeed in destroying Protestantism in a certain country, but such extermination never brought gain to the intolerant land. The whole period of religious wars marks a period of permanent pros- perity in England and the Netherlands, but no such gain came to France and Spain. In the next lesson appears the last great undertaking of the Catholic church to check the growing Protestantism — ^that of the Jesuits. Questions on the Summary of the Preceding Lesson. 1. Who was the great leader of the Swiss Reformation? 2, What were some of his interests in Geneva? 104 Landmarks in Christian History Lesson 3. What text-book of Reformation doctrine did he publish? 4. In what countries did Calvinism become the prevailing type of religion? Questions on the Present Lesson. 1. How did the Reformation start in France? '^^'^ ^ 2. Explain how Calvin had a part in it. 3. Describe the character of the struggle between Catholics and Protestants. 4. Tell the story of Saint Bartholomew's Day. 5. What privileges were granted by Henry IV to Protestants? 6. What do you think of Henry IV as a man and a king? 7. What is meant by the revocation of the edict of Nantes? 8. What was the effect upon France? 9. What became of thousands of French Huguenots? 10. How does intolerance usually affect a nation? Twenty-one y^^ Standing Army of the Catholic Church 105 Reading References. (1) Lindsay: History of the Reformation, II, cli. 4. (^) Myers: TJie Modern Age, ch. 5. (s) White: The Massacre of Saint Bartholomew. Lesson 21. THE STANDING ARMY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. Loyola and the Jesuits. Sources. — The Historical Relations of the Jesuits; contemporary lives of Loyola; letters of individual Jesuits; decrees of the Society of Jesus, and its rules. Suggestions for Study. — 1. Read over the questions on the preceding lesson preparatory to class review. 2. Read the story of the present lesson, giving special attention to the follow- ing points: (a) the personal experiences of Loyola; (b) the purpose of the new order; (c) methods for Catholic recovery; (d) the missionary enterprises Ea.st and West; (e) the weakness of Jesuitism. 3. Think over for class discussion the following question: Does a noble pur- pose make right the use of questionable means in carrying out that purpose.? 4. Note-book work: (a) See that the summary of the preceding lesson is written out in full. (6) Make a list of the principal religious orders in the Catholic church, and state briefly the reason for their existence, and their achievements, (c) Write a sketch of Father Marquette in not more than five hundi'ed words. Note 1. A Soldier of Jesus. Pampekma was a border fortress of northern Spain, in a pro\ince kept by a family of Spanish nobles proud of their Gothic descent. One day in 15*21 the garrison was attacked by an overwhelming French force, and after a gallant defense was taken. The hero of the defense was Ignatius Loyola, an ambitious soldier of the family of nobles mentioned. He was so badly wounded that his dream of fame as a soldier was rudely shattered. But fame was too dear a dream to be easily surrendered, and he resolved to win fame as a saint. If he could not be a soldier of the king of Spain, he might be a soldier of the King of heaven. He felt far away from God, but he vowed that he would change his manner of life, and by self-denial would win favor from heaven. In a Dominican monastery he went through a soul struggle like that of Luther at Erfurt, and in complete self-surrender found peace. But the Spanish nature was different from the German. Luther's experience made him the leader of the German Reformation; Loyola's struggle only made him more intense in his desire to know the mysteries of religion. The religious Spaniard easily turned to mysticism, and by self-examination and analysis he tried to probe the depths of the spiritual nature. 106 Landmarks in Christian History ^^^°^ Note 2. Loyola and his Associates. Loyola worked out a set of religious exercises that he was willing to guarantee would sanctify the soul, and he resolved to introduce these to others who like himself were disposed to devote themselves to a religious life. He was too inde- pendent to accept readily the restraints of one of the monastic orders, but he was religiously minded. After an unsuccessful missionary tour as far as Jerusalem, he settled down to study at Paris, and to perfect himself and his exercises. He carefully observed his companions and in his own mind selected several that he hoped he might attract to the same purpose that animated him. By the influence of his person- ality he was able to form a group of a few enthusiasts on the basis of his spiritual exercises, associated together to serve the old church that was buffeted by revolution in many lands. The group of associates did not organize fully at once, but after trying themselves for a time, they appealed to the pope for permission to found a new order, and in 1540 they received his sanction. Note 3. The Society of Jesus. This new order took final shape at Rome. Loyola was made its chief, and his companions would have called it by his name, but he would accept no other name for it than that of Jesus, and so it became the Society of Jesus, popularly termed the Jesuit order. The prime purpose of the order was the defense of the Catholic church. The same military spirit of loyalty which made Ignatius Loyola defend the Pampeluna fortress to the last extremity made him desire to found his new order on the military principle of loyalty to the church. This explains how the Jesuits were different from other Catholic orders. Instead of swarming into monasteries these Catholic knights organized themselves under a general as the superior of the order and bound themselves to unquestioning obedience to him and to the pope. Their individual lives were of no consequence if the interests of the church demanded a sacrifice. Their personal affairs did not weigh with them for a moment. Even moral standards must fall, and they must defy the voice of conscience, if their leaders spoke otherwise. Of such stuff was made the standing army of the Catholic church. Note 4. The Jesuits as Defenders of the Faith. When the order of the Jesuits was founded, the foundations of Catholicism seemed fast crumbling in many a country of Europe. Not only England and Germany had broken away from the papacy and the Swiss cities learned the meaning of religious as well as political independence, but even the most Catholic countries, like Spain and France and Italy and the states of southern Germany, seemed likely to follow the Protestant pioneers Twenty-one j^ Standing Army of the Catholic Church 107 and give the death blow to the church that had ruled the mind of Europe for centuries. Then it was that the picked men who had been won to the Jesuits began to bring about a reaction. They made their way into the various countries and won back prominent individuals to the church. They were well educated, and soon became teachers in the schools, where they used their influence to make an impression on the young people. They worked their way into favor with the princes, and by shrewd diplomacy were able to dhect affairs of state. They became father confessors of ladies of wealth and position, and so in- directly became a power for the carrying out of the plans of the church. In this way the wavering German states were held for the old church, and many districts that seemed altogether lost were recovered. Note 5. Jesuit Missionaries in Asia. The standing army of the pope was used elsewhere than on the battlefields with Protestantism in Europe. Without a moment's hesitation individual Jesuits went as outposts of Christianity to America and the Far East. In the East they were under the protection of the king of Portugal; in the West they were in French and Spanish territory, but they trusted in the power of God to keep them, and gloried in the opportunity to toil and suffer. The story of the foreign missionary enterprise of the Jesuits is very romantic. Francis Xavier was one of the original company of Loyola in France. He was sent as missionary to Asia. He located first in India only two years after the pope had sanctioned the Jesuit organization. He had not sufficient patience to learn the language of the people among whom he had come, so that his influence was limited, but he gained large numbers of the natives to a nominal adherence to Christianity, and influenced resident Europeans for good. From India he went to Japan, where he gained entrance for Christianity in a similar manner. Then he started for China, but died on the -way. He was followed by other Jesuits, who extended the work of the pioneer, but resorted to questionable means to accomplish their ends. These Catholic enterprises in Asia may not seem to be very thorough, but Catholic Christianity survived until Japan and China were opened again to foreign influence in the nineteenth century. Note 6. Among the American Indians. The opening of the New World to exploration and settlement gave opportunity for missionary work among the American Indians. The task was undertaken by different orders. The Franciscans penetrated that part of North America which belonged to Spain, and in 1535 boasted that they had converted nearly a million and a quarter of the natives. The Jesuits located in Brazil about the middle of the sixteenth century, and gained 108 Landmarks in Christian History ^^^°" the friendship of the Indians. They made their way into Paraguay, where early in the seventeenth century they estabhshed an independent paternal state. They used the natives as serfs on the land that they had taken as their possession, but they brought to them the Christian religion, and established greater prosperity for the people than they had otherwise enjoyed. In French Canada and in the Mississippi region such bold pioneers as Father Marquette explored land and watercourses with the ardor of Livingstone in Africa. They penetrated among the wild tribes of the interior, and over and over again gave up their lives to the blood- thirsty Indian tribes. Pushing up river and creek in an Indian canoe, they landed wherever they could get a hearing, planted the cross as the symbol of their faith, and told the savages the story of Jesus. This chapter in missionary history is one of the noblest in the annals of Christian foreign enterprise. The Jesuit fathers of North America in their singleness of purpose and their brave constancy belong among the heroes of the faith. Note 7. Why Jesuits have a Bad Name in History. In spite of such devotion as was shown by these soldiers of the church they were feared and hated by many Catholics as well as Protestants. Even- tually they were driven out of nearly every country of Europe, and the order was abolished by the pope in 1773, but it was reinstated in 1814 and recovered its former position. Rival orders, like the Franciscans, were jealous of its power, and kings disliked the Jesuits because their interests were often hostile to the interests of the state where they were located. But the principal evil of the Jesuits was their unscrupulous- ness. The principle of unquestioning obedience with which they started produced the fruit of dishonesty. No one trusted a Jesuit in dealing with him. Vast amounts of property were heaped up by a system of business ethics that would compare favorably with the system that has been condemned ty public opinion in recent years. Moral distinctions were lost in the mind of the Jesuit who resigned all his individuality, and his moral influence was dangerous and deadly. For these reasons the reputation of the order has suffered justly. Yet the student of Christian history cannot help admiring the principle of loyalty that animated the Jesuits, as he delights in the noble principles of Francis of Assisi, and lamenting that the order has not maintained the high purpose of its founder. The career of the Jesuits makes plain the truth that no organization, religious or otherwise, can have a truly noble history unless it is founded on the eternal principles of right* eousness and truth. Twenty-one fj^j^^ Standing Army of the Catholic Church 109 Questions on the Summary of the Preceding Lesson. 1. What was involved in French Protestantism besides reUgion? 2. What was the Massacre of Saint Bartholomew? 3. Wliat was the Edict of Nantes? 4. How did the Huguenots fare in France after that date? Questions on the Present Lesson. 1. How did it happen that Loyola became a soldier of the church? 2. What were his religious exercises? 3. How did the Society of Jesus differ from other religious orders? 4. In what ways did they win back the wavering nations? 5. Where did the Jesuits go as missionaries in the East? 6. Tell of the missionary enterprises of Xavier. 7. In what regions of America were the Jesuits active? 8. Describe the heroism of Marquette and others. 9. What were the later fortunes of the Jesuits in Europe? 10. Explain the weaknesses of Jesuitism. 110 Landmarks in Christian History Lesson Reading References. {1) Walker: Great Men of the Christian Church, ch. 15. {2) Robin- son: Readings in European History, II, pp. 345-351. {S) Robinson: History of Western Europe^ pp. 437-444. Lesson 22. THE STRUGGLE OF THE DUTCH BURGHERS FOR INDEPENDENCE. Religion and Politics. Sources. Brandt's History of the Reformation in the Low Countries: state and personal correspondence, and memoirs. Suggestions for Study. — 1. Read the summary of the last lesson in prepa- ration for questions in the class. 2. Read the story of the present lesson. Note especially: (a) the status of the Reformation in Europe about 1550; (6) the reasons for the Dutch rebellion against Spain; (c) William of Orange; (d) the outcome of the war for independ- ence; (e) the Dutch type of religion. 3. Think over carefully the following topic: What are the elements in a man's character and career that may properly entitle him to greatness.'' 4. Note-book work: (a) See that the summary of the last lesson is written in full, (b) Make two tables comparing the lives of William of Orange and George Washington, (c) Draw a map of Europe, and indicate on it by color or shading the religions of the various countries, (d) Read the story of the relief of Ley- den, and write it out in a short sketch in your own words. Note 1. The People of the Netherlands. At the mouth of the river Rhine, where some of its waters lost themselves among salt marshes and others found their way between the sand dunes to the sea, lived the ancestors of the modern Dutch and Belgians. The Dutch in the north were related to the Germans and shared in the German nature; the Belgians in the south were mainly Celts, and never fused into one people with their northern neighbors, though sometimes both lived under the same government. In Reformation days both coun- tries were very prosperous, and very active in trade. They were interested in what was going on in the world, including religious reforms, and Lutheranism found its way into the country from the east and Calvinism from the south. In the north the people were inclined toward Protestantism, but the Celtic nature of the south was much more loyal to Catholicism. Both parts of the Netherlands formed a portion of the ample European dominions of Charles V, king of Spain, who was also by election emperor of the German people. This was the emperor who had condemned Luther at the Diet of Worms, and who was increasingly unfriendly to Protestantism. When he found that the Twenty-two j,^^ Struggle of the Dutch Burghers 111 Reformed faith was spreading in the Netherlands, he issued a fierce edict against it in the year 1550. Note 2. Europe in 1550. When Charles V undertook to root out Protestantism from the Netherlands in 1550, the continent of Europe was much divided religiously. Luther had convinced a large majority of the German people that the Catholic church was wrong, but his work was done. The Swiss cantons were not in agreement religiously, but Zwingli had done effectively his work of reform in Zurich, and Calvin was approaching the climax of his successful administration in Geneva. The Huguenots in France were increasing in numbers in spite of royal persecution. England was introducing Protestantism under its boy king Edward VI, and the new religion was trying to find its way into Scotland. Poland, Hungary, Bohemia, and other parts of central Europe seemed likely to be lost to the Catholic church. On the other hand Italy and Spain remained loyal, and for ten years Loyola and his Jesuit order had been hard at work winning back thousands every- where to the old church. Note 3. The Rebellion of the Dutch. The king of Spain acted on the principle that he had unquestionable right to force his people to practise the form of religion that he approved. The Netherlanders did not agree with him. The king used force, but after five years he wearied of his burdens, and surrendered all his lands to his son Philip II. He was harsher than his father, and punished his rebellious subjects severely. It presently became plain that the sturdy Dutch and the determined king were likely to come to blows. All thoughtful men in the realm could see this. Among these was a noble who was to become shortly the champion of the Dutch in a war for independence, and who in some respects resembles Washington, the hero of American inde- pendence. Driven to desperation by the cruelties of the government and its disregard for the charter rights of the Dutch cities, the nobles formed a league for the defense of their rights, adopted the name of ** Beggars " from a term given them in derision and proceeded to fight the forces of the king of Spain. Note 4. The War of Independence. The harsh customs of those days and the bitterness of religious hate made war horrible and cruel. The straggle in the Netherlands resembled that between the Catholics and the Huguenots in France in its character, but the Dutch nobles were mostly loyal to the cause of the people. The contest developed into a war for national independence. In this the people of the southern provinces joined for a time, but differences in race, character and reli- 112 Landmarks in Christian History Lesson gion led them to withdraw and leave the Dutch to fight it out alone. This sturdy people did not shrink from the contest. They looked to Protestant England for help, and they were expecting aid from the French Huguenots when the Massacre of Saint Bartholomew took place, but for the most part they depended on their own strength and courage. On land they were not a match for the veterans of Spain, but on the sea the Dutch sailors performed deeds of valor that made the name of the " Sea Beggars " respected and renowned. The tales of Dutch bravery and sacrifice for their cause have often thrilled the student of history, and take their place alongside the stories of the ancient Greeks, the medieval Swiss, and modern patriots of America and Europe. Their great hero was William of Orange. Note 5. William, Prince of Orange. Prince William was a man of wealth and high position when he sacrificed everything to oppose the policy of the king of Spain, and take the leadership of the cause of Dutch independence. At the opening of the struggle he fled from the country and raised a force of men at his own expense. He was an abler statesman than general, and his efforts on the battlefield were not very successful. Still the country did not suffer greatly, for the extensive trade of the cities continued, and prosperity even increased. The figure of William of Orange stands in striking contrast to that of Philip II, king of Spain. Philip was a hard taskmaster, merciless to those who did not think as he did or obey his command. He was bigoted and narrow minded; the maintenance of Catholicism was his master passion; and he showed the emotions of joy and hate only when he was moved by religious news. William was almost alone in his age standing for the toleration of other religious opinions than his own. He was brought up as a Catholic, and he remained in that faith until Philip began his policy. Later he accepted Calvinism, but the form of religious faith was far less important in his eyes than a simple trust in God and a life devoted to the public good. These characteristics gave him a lofty and permanent place in history. Note 6. The March of Events. The siege and relief of Leyden marked the turning-point of the war. Its fate seemed certain when William of Orange proposed cutting the dykes built to defend the city from the sea, and then it becq^me possible for the patriot fleet to reach the starving people with welcome relief. In congratulating the city on its escape. Prince William proposed that the people celebrate the event by founding a university, and so the University of Leyden took its place alongside the universities of Wittenberg and Geneva as great Protes- tant schools of learning. After the war had dragged on for seven years Twenty-two fj^j^^ Struggle of the Dutch Burghers 113 more, the Dutch formally declared their independence from Spain, announcing, in words that resemble the American Declaration of Independence, that God did not give a ruler the right to tyrannize over his people; and that by such tyranny he forfeited their allegiance. This declaration was provoked by an outrageous act of Phihp against the Dutch hero, William of Orange. Note 7. The Death of the Prince of Orange. The king of Spain realized that William was the soul of the Dutch resistance. He re- solved that the rebel to liis authority should die. Against him on the field of battle had been arrayed the strongest and most disciplined armies of which Spain could boast, armies that contained soldiers who had seen service in America and in various parts of Europe. Over them he had placed in command his ablest generals. The Dutch had maintained their cause against them all. The king had tried to bribe the Prince of Orange, but no offer moved him. At last he publicly offered a large reward to the assassin who would remove the patriot from his path. In reply to the ban against him William of Orange published a defense of the Dutch liberties, and an arraignment of the cruel king, which is called the Prince's Apology. It could not save his life; it contained no hint of submission; but it justified William and the Dutch in the judgment of history. It was not long before he fell a martyr to the cause to which he had dedicated himself, dying by an assassin's bullet with the words on his Hps: " O God, have pity on this poor people." Note 8. The Issue of the Struggle. The war did not end with the death of William. His son, Prince Maurice, took his place in the field, and John of Barneveldt imitated his statesmanship. The English crossed the channel and gave substantial aid to the fighting Dutch. The young prince proved himself an able leader. Other nations became involved in the war as it went on. Philip of Spain died at last, and when every one was weary of the struggle a truce was arranged, and eventually the independence of the northern Dutch provinces was acknowledged. Note 9. The Protestant Church of the Netherlands. The success of the Dutch revolt gave a nev/ nation to Europe, and so it is of impor- tance in political history. It was a struggle far more momentous to the cause of religion in Europe. The Dutch occupied an important place in the Protestant line of defense, and their success insured the future of Protestantism. It was not clear for some time just what form of Prot- estantism would be generally adopted. All the great leaders of the 114 Landmarks in Christian History ^"'^^^ Reformation had their followers. The Dutch Protestant churches were organized usually on the presbyterian basis, and in the end Cal- vinism became the national form of faith. The Dutch creed, which is known as the Belgic Confession, was drawn up after the fashion of the confession of faith of the French Protestants, and for the instruction of the young people the Dutch church accepted the Heidelberg Cate- chism of the west German Calvinists. There came a time in the early seventeenth century when a disagree- ment arose over the theology which ought to be taught in the Dutch universities and churches. Arminius, a university professor, pro- claimed opinions that were not in harmony with the Calvinistic theol- ogy, and some of the strong Calvinists regarded his heresy as serious. As Calvinistic Presbyterianism had been adopted as the Protestant type of faith for the Dutch Reformed church by act of the nation, it seemed necessary to have a church council to settle the dispute, and a famous synod was the result. Representatives from England and Germany joined with Dutch Calvinists in the Synod of Dort, and con- demned Arminianism in 1618. Most modern evangelical denomina- tions except the Methodists have been Calvinists, and for that reason the victory of Calvinism at this Dutch synod holds a prominent place in modern church history. Questions on the Summary of the Preceding Lesson. 1. Who were the Jesuits.^ 2. What made them so effective in the service of the Catholic church? 3. Why have they become famous in history? Questions on the Present Lesson. 1. What is meant by the land and the people of the Netherlands? 2. Describe religious conditions in western and central Europe about 1550. 3. Why did the Dutch rebel against Spain? 4. Why did not all the provinces persist in the war for independence? Twenty-ihree ^ Ktiight of the Seventeenth Century 115 5. Tell the part of William of Orange in the war. 6. Compare Prince William and King Philip of Spain, 7. What was the fate of Prince William? 8. Describe the last part of the war and its results. 9. What was the Dutch form of Protestantism? 10. Explain the importance of the Synod of Dort. Reading References. (1) Myers: The Modern Age, ch. 4. (^) GrifEs: Brave Little Holland and What She has Taught Us. {$) Versteeg: The Sea Beggars, Lesson 23. A KNIGHT OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. How Gustavus Adolphus Saved German Protestantism. Sources. — Swedish histories; letters of Gustavus Adolphus; periodicals, like the Swedish Intelligencer published in London and Theatrum Europaeum in Ger- many; records in the archives of the German states; correspondence of partici- pants in the Thirty Years' War. Suggestions for Study. — 1. Read over the summary of the last lesson preparatory to questions in the class. 2. Read the lesson story. Note especially: (a) the meaning of a knight; (b) the crisis in the fortunes of Protestantism; (c) the part of Gustavus Adolphus in the Thirty Years' War; (d) the contrast between Gustavus and Wallenstein; (e) the outcome of the war. 116 Landmarks in Christian History Lesson 3. Think about the following topic for class discussion : What better ways are there of settling international difficulties to-day? 4. Note-book work: (a) See that the summary is properly complete. (6) Draw a map to show the countries involved in the Thirty Years' War. (c) Write a brief character sketch of Gustavus Adolphus. (d) Make a chart with parallel columns to show the leading events in the Protestant history of Europe between 1500 and 1650 in Germany, Switzerland, France and the Netherlands. Note 1. The Knights of Chivalry. In the disturbed state of society that was chronic in the Middle Ages, it was customary for individual men to devote their time and strength to fighting for the church and for women of quality who could not fight for themselves. This was the medieval way of expressing gentlemanly courtesy, just as a monastic life was the expression of a religious ambition, or participa- tion in a crusade denoted a desire for Christian activity. Those who became knights with this cliivalrous purpose were expressly set apart by a ceremony, and some of them were so eager to play an admirable part in warlike enterprise that they wandered over Europe in search of adventure. Such knighthood was no longer conspicuous after the passing of the days of chivalry, but the spirit of adventure survived and appeared frequently in the enterprises of discovery and settlement in the seventeenth century. Note 2. The Need of Protestant Champions. In that same century there was abundant opportunity for knights of Protestantism on the battlefields of Europe. The Reformation of the sixteenth century had resulted in political convulsions, and wars of religion were the charac- teristic conflicts of the time. Luther and Calvin had contended against Catholicism with spiritual weapons, but neither of them had been military men. In France and in the Netherlands wars had been fought in the last half of the sixteenth century, which were both religious and political in character. The Protestant Dutch won tlieir independ- ence from Spain, but the Protestants of France were crowded out of the country. The Jesuits had done what they could to hold the nations to the Catholic church. With the opening of the seventeenth century it was plain that religious supremacy in Europe must be settled on the field of battle, and the theater of war seemed likely to be Germany. In the land of Luther there was no strong central government. Many small states had their own rulers and conducted their own affairs with- out much reference to the emperor wlio was over them all. The princes of some of these states had decided for the religion of Luther, some for that of Calvin, and some held to the Catholic faitli. It had been agreed between Lutherans and Catholics at Augsburg in 1.555 that each prince could decide for his people between these two faiths; Calvinists Twenty-three A Knight of the Seventeenth Century 117 had no legal standing. Arrangements had been made also for the disposal of church property in dispute. But fifty years had shown how unsatisfactory the Peace of Augsburg was, and all parties were ready to fight out the issue. The great lack was a trustworthy leader on the Protestant side. Note 3. Outbreak of the Thirty Years' War. After war had seemed inevitable for a long time, leagues had been formed, and prep- arations had been made, the conflict began in Bohemia in 1618 as a dis- pute over church property. It proved to be a long war, and was most destructive to the prosperity of Germany. It began as a religious dispute within the German empire, but it drew in from outside those who had political and religious grievances, and when the war of thirty years was over, the map of much of Europe had to be readjusted. Bohemia had a king of its own, and was a part of the German empire. When the war broke out the Protestants deposed their Catholic king, and invited a Protestant prince from the Rhine to the throne of Bo- hemia. Protestant plans failed, however; and a second period of the war began when the king of Denmark interested himself in the German war, and championed the cause of the Protestants. The doctrines of Luther had made their way into Denmark, Norway and Sweden, and all these countries had become Protestant. But the king of Denmark had no better success than the prince from the Rhine, and in 1630 it looked very dark for the Protestants of Europe. Note 4. GustavusAdolphus. Then it was that the king of Sweden, like a knight of cliivalry, intervened, and made the cause of the German Protestants his own. He had been influenced to do this for several reasons. Foremost among them was his conviction that the cause of the German Protestants was right, and that they needed liim as their champion. He had other interests of his own in the war, which were chiefly political. He was helped to his determination by the influence of the French who had designs of their own upon Germany. Gustavus Adolphus was a king who had accomplished great things for Sweden. When he came to the throne at the age of seventeen, the resources of the nation were not organized, and the country was dis- tracted with foreign dangers and difiiculties. In twenty years he was able to put the nation in order and to turn foreign dangers into success- ful campaigns. He had become one of the leading princes of Europe, when he saw the need of his presence in Germany. Before the national assembly he presented arrangements for the conduct of the government in his absence, and said his farewells in language that seemed to show his presentiment that he might never return. 118 Landmarks in Christian History ^'"°** Note 5. The Swedes in Germany. With a strong army the " Lion of the North " landed in Germany, but the Protestant princes were suspicious of his motives and jealous of his leadership. Their inability to pull together seriously handicapped the Protestants during the war. The Protestant princes did not unite until the fall of Mag- deburg and the cruel punishment of its defenders by Tilly, the com- mander of the CathoHc forces, showed them clearly what they had to expect. Then the princes of Saxony and Brandenburg joined forces with the Swedish king, and in a great battle at Breitenfeld Tilly and the Catholics were defeated. The Protestant knight pushed across Saxony; met the CathoHcs again, when Tilly lost his life; and presently the Catholics awoke to the fact that the Snow-king of the North, as they had contemptuously called him, did not melt as he moved southward, but instead he was likely to master all Germany unless he was speedily checked. Note 6. Wallenstein and Gustavus. The only man to whom the Catholics could turn in their distress was an independent adventurer named Wallenstein, who had played a conspicuous part in the early period of the war as a CathoUc general, until the emperor was forced to dismiss him from the service because he could not be trusted. Wall- enstein was one of those men who was so unscrupulous that he did not hesitate to stoop to the meanest act if he might gain a selfish end. In the crisis of the war the emperor turned to him for help. Wallenstein would not give it unless he was granted a free hand. Then he set up his standard and rallied forty thousand men of his own kind, who proved far more harmful even to the CathoUcs of Germany than was Gustavus. It was through such soldiers as these that the war brought such widespread disaster and suffering to the people of Germany. After considerable manoeuvering the armies of Wallenstein and Gus- tavus met. on the battlefield of Lutzen in Saxony late in the year 1632. The two ablest generals of the whole war confronted each other for a fight that seemed likely to prove the turning-point of the whole war. Gustavus was representative of the best element in Protestantism. He was fighting for what he believed was a holy cause, and he looked to God for the victory. Wallenstein was a man of different mould. He cared nothing for the religious interests that were involved. He would as soon have gone over to the side of Gustavus as to fight him, if in that way he could better have gained his end. Gustavus stood for the highest type of religion in arms. Wallenstein represented the worst element that fights the battles of nations. Conscious of the momentous issue of the conflict the Swedish king went into battle with the name of Twenty-three ^ Knight of the Seventeenth Century 119 Jesus on his lips; Wallenstein faced him after he put to the torch the city of Lutzen in his rear. Note 7. The Fortunes of War. The Swedes were far less numer- ous than the men of Wallenstein, and they had been left alone to fight for Protestantism. Gustavus did not spare himself, but rushed into the thickest of the fight. Inspired by his example, the gallant Swedes fought with resistless valor, and before the day was over drove the Catholic adventurers to disastrous retreat. But on the field of battle lay the body of the Swedish king. He had won his last victor v. He had given his hfe for Sweden and for the Protestant cause in Germany. He had won a place among the noblest knights in the annals of chivalry. The war might have ended then if it had not been that the selfish interests of France and Sweden led them to unite their forces to weaken still further the German emperor. And so the wearisome war dragged on. Wallenstein, planning treachery, was assassinated at the com- mand of the emperor, dying ignominiously in striking contrast to the death of Gustavus Adolphus. The original contestants passed off the field of action. One province of the empire after another felt the evil effects of the war, until sheer exhaustion finally led to peace. Note 8. The Treaty of Westphalia. After prolonged conferences all parties were able to agree upon terms of peace in the year 1648. Issues that had convulsed Europe for generations were now brought up for settlement. The arrangements provided for the adjustment of both the political and the religious questions that had made so much trouble. By the terms of the peace the Swiss cantons and the Dutch provinces were recognized as independent. France and Sweden both gained territory at the expense of the German empire. But the religious issues were of greatest interest in the history of Christianity. Once for all it was settled that the results of the Reformation were to remain permanent. The last effort of the Catholic church to hold all Europe had failed. Henceforth Catholics and Protestants must tolerate each other. Catholics, Lutherans and Calvinists were allowed an equal footing in Germany, but the prince of each state must be the one to decide the form of religion for his people, and those who did not like it must make the best of it or emigrate. Germany and Switzerland remained part Catholic and part Protestant. England, Scotland, the Netherlands, and the Scandinavian countries were henceforth to be reckoned as Protestant. France, Spain, Portugal and Italy were loyal to the faith of the Middle Ages. Not all the vexing questious of religion were settled, but new interests, economic and political, were demand- ing attention. The wars of religion were over. 120 - Landmarks in Christian History Lesson Questions on the Summaries of Preceding Lessons. 1. Who was the great leader of the Swiss Reformation? 2. How widely did his influence spread? 3. What was the title of his great work on Protestant theology? 4. Who were the Huguenots? 5. Describe their fortunes. 6. Explain the Dutch struggle for liberty. 7. Estimate the worth of William of Orange. 8. Who was the king of Spain that opposed Dutch independence? 9. Who were the Jesuits? 10. What was their influence on Europe? Questions on the Present Lesson. 1. Describe a knight of chivalry. 2. In what sense was Gustavus Adolphus such a knight? 3. Explain the need of the Protestants in Germany. 4. What were the causes of the Thirty Years* War? 5. What was the condition of Sweden politically and religiously? 6. Describe the part played by Sweden in the war. -'*. Show the contrast between Wallenstein and Gustavus Adolphus. 8. What was the character of the war in its last period? Twenty-four ^ NohUman of the Eighteenth Centunj 121 9. What were the poHtical results of the war? 10. Wliat were the rehgious results of the war? Reading References. (1) Myers: The Modern Age, ch. 6, (^) Robinson: History of Western Europe, ch. 29. (3) Fletcher: Gustavus Adolphus. Lesson 24. A NOBLEMAN OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. Count Zinzendorf and the Moravians. Sources. — The writings of Spener and Zinzendorf; Spangenberg's Life of Zinzendorf; diary of David Zeisberger. Suggestions for Study. — 1. Read the summary of the preceding lesson for class questions. 2. Read the lesson story. Notice especially: (a) the new spirit in the Pietists; (h) the influence of tliis new spirit on Zinzendorf; (c) Moravian missions. 3. Think about the following topics for special discussion in class: What made missionaries of the Moravians.'^ Can Christians be true to their faith and not be missionary.? 4. Note-book work: (a) See that the summary of the last lesson is complete. (6) Write a sketch comparing Gustavus Adolphus and Zinzendorf. (c) Look up the Moravians in one of the encyclopedias or histories and make a list of the missionary undertakings of the Moravians, (d) Write a brief account of the Moravians in the United States. (Cf. Hamilton: History of the Moravian Church in the United States.) Note 1. Evangelical Christianity in Germany. It is natural for rehgious enthusiasm to give place after a while to regular forms of religion that may express the constant purpose of the soul. The danger in this process lies in the inclination to make a form of doctrine or a religious ceremony the whole of religion. In that case religion ceases to control impulse, the consciousness of fellowship with God is lost, and moral vitality is sapped. That is what happened in Germany after the glow of the religious revival under Luther had passed away. The wars between Protestants and Catholics emphasized externals, and distracted the mind from spiritual concerns. Lutheranism came to stand for a theology as dead as that of the medieval Schoolmen, and 122 Landmarks in Christian History Lesson for forms of worship and organization that were little better than those of the Catholic church. It seemed as if the evangelical revival had failed. Note 2. The Pietists. It has been the experience of the church through nearly nineteen centuries that it has had many periods of religious decline like that in Germany. But every decline has had its revival, and following abuses has come reform. Germany was no exception. In 1648 at the end of the Thirty Years' War it seemed as if religion were dead. But before that war was over there was born the man who was to give a new type of religion to the fatherland in what is known as Pietism. Tliis was Philip Jacob Spener. In 1670 Spener was pastor in the German city of Frankfort, and he felt the deadness of religion so keenly that he made a special effort to make it seem more real in human life. For this purpose he held religious meetings in his own house twice a week of those who showed an interest and by religious reading and conversation endeavored to cultivate spirituality. By this means and by his writings Spener tried to start an influence in each church that would permeate the whole body and revitalize Lutheranism. Emphasis was put on certain experiences, like conversion, that has never been lost out of the evangelical churches. It was not strange that these unusual ideas and practices met with opposition in the churches of Germany, but Spener made friends among earnest men and women, and wherever he went he was recog- nized as a leader. His most famous disciple and helper was August Francke, who put stress on Bible study. In 1694 a new university was opened at Halle, and before long Francke became a professor there and made that school the center of Pietism. The Pietists are to be remembered not merely as preachers of new ideas in religion, but as practical reformers also. Halle became famous for its orphanage as well as its university; it maintained an influential Christian press; it contained a large preparatory school fathered by Francke; and it trained and sent out the first Protestant missionaries to India. Alto- gether Pietism played a very important part in Christian progress about the year 1700. Note 3. Count Zinzendorf. When Spener was court preacher in Dresden, he acted as godfather for the child of a nobleman of Saxony. The boy was brought up by his grandmother, who was a friend of the Pietist leaders. At the age of ten he was sent to Francke at Halle, and became a pupil in the preparatory school. There he became deeply religious like the Pietists ; but his uncle did not think this whole- some, and he went from Halle to Wittenberg, where Luther had done T^venty-four ^ Noblemau of the Eighteenth Century 123 his great work. There he studied law for three years, but never with his heart fully at ease. Travel and poHtical Hfe broadened his ideas and his experience, and then he married and settled on a large estate in Saxony that had belonged in the family. This man was Count Zinzendorf. It was he who gave a refuge to the persecuted Moravians, and who is known in history as their leader. He received his religious impulse from the Pietists, and never lost that impulse as long as he lived. The Moravians furnished an evangelical impulse to John Wesley, the founder of the Methodists, and so it is possible to trace an evangelical line of descent from the Pietists in the Lutheran church, through the Moravians and Methodists to the present time. Note 4. Origin of the Moravians. Before Luther spoke the words that precipitated the Reformation, John Huss of Bohemia had aroused many Bohemians and Moravians to truer ideas of Christianity. His followers called themselves United Brethren, but they were persecuted almost out of existence. Nevertheless a few survived, and in the first years of the eighteenth century, while the young Zinzendorf was getting his education, the " Brethren " were encouraged and united by Christian David, a warm-hearted, spiritually minded Lutheran. He looked about for a place to which the Moravians might go and be safe from annoyance. The wishes of these true-hearted Christians became known to Count Zinzendorf, who desired to be a friend to such people wherever he might find them, and he permitted the refugees to settle on his land. Two families came first, but others followed them, until at least three hundred people belonged to the settlement. This place of refuge the Moravian Brethren called Herrnliut, or the Lord's Watch. A monument commemorates the beginning of the settlement with the inscription: "On this spot was felled the first tree for the settlement of Herrnhut, June 17, 1722," and underneath the words of the Psalm- ist: " Yea, the sparrow hath found an house, and the swallow a nest for herself where she may lay her young, even thine altars, O Lord of hosts, my king and my God." Note 6. Zinzendorf and the Moravians. The owner of the lands greeted the newcomers most cordially. It is said that when he first found them on his estate, he entered the house where the Moravians were, welcomed them, and bowed with them in prayer to God for his blessing upon them. A nobleman of such religious type as Zinzendorf was unusual in Germany, and it is not strange that the humble Mora- vians should have looked to their generous benefactor not only for pro- tection but also for leadership. Zinzendorf accepted the responsibility, and shared the best that he had with his adopted people. He had little 1^4 Landmarks in Christian History Lesson sympathy with sectarianism. It was his desire to unite all his Mora- vians on the simple platform of a common love to Christ. This was sometimes expressed in crude ways, but the spirit of the body was in deep sympathy with its leader, who once exclaimed: " I have but one passion; it is He, only He," It proved impossible to get them all to agree in matters of belief, but Zinzendorf held them together, pre- served the ancient Moravian succession of bishops, organized the brotherhood with bishops, priests and deacons, and established their worship. The life of the people was semi-monastic, for the people lived in groups, had a distinctive costume, and were governed as a congregation. At first Zinzendorf was only protector and counsellor, but eventually he superintended the whole company with the office of bishop. Note 6. Moravians as Missionaries. After the thrilling stories of Jesuit missions there are no great tales of missionary heroism before the Moravian missionary enterprises. It seems remarkable that the early Protestants did not have the missionary impulse to carry their new faith abroad. Perhaps they were too busy at home. At all events it was a new idea for Protestants, except in connection with Halle, when the Moravians became fired with missionary enthusi- asm. Zinzendorf had the ambition to evangelize the dead churches of Europe by planting Moravian outposts here and there, and they were extended even to England and America. He himself at one time visited the Moravian settlements in Pennsylvania, .and tried to reach the Indians with the Clu-istian gospel. But the Moravians are most famous as missionaries to the most remote and unpromising people in the world. They sought places of peculiar hardship. They settled in Greenland and Iceland; they went to the most inliospitable parts of Africa; they found their way to China, to the West Indies, to Ceylon, to Mohammedan North Africa. They were pioneers for many missionary organizations in the next century. In proportion to their numbers and their resources the Moravians have done more for mis- sions than any other among modern Christian sects. Ever since their first enterprises they have been a missionary inspiration. Note 7. A Striking Contrast. Count Zinzendorf will never be reckoned as a great man in history. But he was a Christian of whom the church may well be proud. He was a prince among the noblemen of his day. The average man of social position in the eighteenth century was not a man of noble impulse and honorable endeavor. He was proud, independent, careless in habits, and of questionable morals. His religion, if he had any, was a veneer that could be easily Twenty-four ^ NohUman of the Eighteenth Century 1<2.5 rubbed off. He devoted himself to the gratification of his own whims. He hved solely for himself, and died as if there was nothing beyond. Zinzendorf was one of God's true noblemen. He spent his life for others besides himself. Not his own satisfaction but their good, was the goal of his ambition. He could share hardship with the lowliest of the Moravians in carrying out a worthy mission. He suffered banishment without complaint. He saw some of his plans fail. In all his experiences he was loyal to the task that God had set him to carry out. He deserves a place with the heroes of Christian story. Questions on the Summary of the Preceding Lesson. 1. Wliy is the Thirty Years' War important in history ? 2. Who were its most striking military figures? 3. What did the Treaty of Westphalia accomplish? Questions on the Present Lesson. 1. Explain who are meant by the Pietists. 2. Describe the acti\aties of Francke at Halle. 3. Who was Count Zinzendorf? 4, Give an account of the early Moravians, and their settlement at Herrnhut. 5. What was Zinzendorf's basis of Christian union? 6. How did the Moravians live? 7. What were Zinzendorf's ambitions for Moravian activity? 126 Landmarks in Christian History Lesson 8. Outline the history of Moravian missions. 9. How do they compare with other Christian bodies? 10. Contrast Zin^endorf with the typical nobleman of the eighteenth century. Reading; References. {1) Sohm: Outlines of Church History, pp. 188-195. (2) Walker: Great Men of the Christian Church, ch. 17. {3) Vedder: Christian Epoch MakerSy ch. 14. Lesson 25. AN EMPEROR OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. Napoleon and the Religious Situation in Europe. Sourdes. — Correspondence of Napoleon; documents on the negotiation of the concordat, published by the Society of Diplomatic History at Paris; various memoirs; Desenne's General French Code of Laws. Suggestions for Study. — 1. Read the summary of the preceding lesson, and be prepared to answer questions. 2. Read the lesson story, noting especially: (a) The effect of the French Revolution upon the church; (6) the importance of Napoleon; (c) the con- cordat; (d) the French Protestants. 3. Think about the following topics for class discussion: Was Napoleon's treatment of the Catholic church fair? What must modern Protestant churches do to enjoy the approval and allegiance of the people? 4. Note-book work: (a) See that the summary of the last lesson is complete. (6) Make two lists, one to show the principal events of the Revolution up to the end of the reign of terror, the other to show the steps in the advance and decline of Napoleon's fortunes, (c) Draw a map of Europe to show the extent of Napoleon's power, (d) Show by a table what the Catholic church gained and lost by the concordat of 1801. Note 1. The French Revolution. The greatest social and political upheaval in Europe after the Reformation was the French Revolution, which began in 1789, was transformed into a personal struggle for empire by Napoleon Bonaparte, a French soldier, and ended with his overthrow in 1815. It was not a religious revolt like the Refor- rweniy-five ^^ EmperoT of the Nineteenth Century 127 mation, but it affected religion, especially in France, and for a time abolished Christianity in that country. The Revolution was due to the long oppression of the people by both state and church, and when it came httle respect was paid to the institutions of government or rehgion. When the revolutionists gained their first successes, the national assembly turned its attention to the church. France was a Catholic country, and many of its clergy had never been reformed. Churches and monasteries held immense amounts of property. The people generally were loyal to their rehgion, but the thinking men had little use for a Christianity that was not more genuinely Christian. The result was that the national assembly took away the property of the church, and declared it to be a national institution maintained and controlled by the state. Its officers were to be elected by the people. This new arrangement was formulated in the Civil Constitution of the clergy in 1790. This act made many enemies, the pope denounced it, and most of the clergy refused to agree to it. Note 2. Religious Changes. The revolutionists gradually became drunk with power. Harsher measures followed. The clergy who would not accept the constitution were deported. In September, 1792, the monarchy was abolished and a reign of terror began. In the course of the next three years religion was knocked about Hke a foot- ball. In one of the provinces the peasants undertook to fight for their king and their church, but the lawlessness of those in power displayed itself even more hatefully than before. At Paris a French actress was installed in the cathedral of Notre Dame as the goddess of Reason, but this was too atheistic for any but a few. The French philosophers regarded reason as better than faith, but their reason persuaded them of the existence of God, and Robespierre, the last leader of the reign of terror, restored the worship of the Supreme Being, and proclaimed by a parliamentary decree that the French nation believed in God and the immortality of the soul. In the reaction that followed the downfall of Robespierre in 1795 Christianity came again to its own. The government declared that religion was a voluntary rather than a state affair, the churches were reopened, and Sunday was once more observed. Some changes had taken place that could not be reversed. Property had passed from the church into other hands that never was restored. The old feudal rights that the church had so long enjoyed had been abolished forever. Many of the monastic orders never regained their former position and wealth. There were no more church courts. There was no longer any national support of orthodoxy; Protestants 128 Landmarks in Christian History Lesson had a right to existence. The medieval church had become necessarily somewhat modernized. Note 3 The Concordat between Napoleon and the Pope. In the days of disorder a Corsican lieutenant of artillery distinguished himself in the wars in which France had become involved, and he came out oS the confusion as the leading citizen of the French republic. This was Napoleon Bonaparte. In 1799 he made himself virtually the ruler of the nation, and four years later received the title of emperor from the French people, who were proud of his wonderful success in war, and of his peaceful reforms in France. Bonaparte saw the advantage of coming to terms with the Catholic church. Personally he had little interest in religion, but he knew that it would strengthen his administration and was good for the people morally and socially. He had driven the pope out of Rome in the course of his conquest of Italy, but a new pope had been elected, and was allowed to take his place in Rome. Then negotiations were opened between Bonaparte and the representative of the pope in Paris, and were completed successfully in the summer of 1801 by the adoption of a concordat, or working treaty. Note 4. Terms of the Concordat. In the opening sentence of the treaty it was explicitly declared that Catholicism was the religion of a majority of the French people and of Bonaparte himself. The first article provided for Catholic worship unhindered except by necessary police regulations, but it was not thereby permitted to persecute Prot- estants. The government was able to control the number and appoint- ment of bishops in agreement with the pope, and the clergy must take an oath to be loyal to the state. On these terms the state would see that the clergy were provided with a living. Bonaparte insisted that the state was supreme in ecclesiastical as in other matters. In some respects the new arrangement was not satisfactory to Na- poleon, but he shrewdly modified some of the terms by the police regu- lations of ecclesiastical affairs that he introduced. The pope felt him- self injured by such conduct, but he could not afford to break with the powerful Frenchman, and difficulties were smoothed over. So cordial were their relations that Bonaparte presently arranged with the pope for an Italian concordat also. In France there was some objection to the new treaty, but Bonaparte was able to enforce his will upon all, and Catholic Christianity was officially inaugurated again in the cathedral of Notre Dame. Note 6. French Protestants. Bonaparte realized that the friend- ship of all parties was valuable to him, and for this reason he recog- Tweniy-five ^^ EmperoT of tJw Nineteenth Century 129 nized the Protestants as well as the Cathohcs, and even gave the Jews the protection of the government if they would pay their taxes and perform military service. The principal Protestant bodies in France were the Lutherans and the Calvinists. They had suffered much in the past. In the days of the religious wars they had been so hated as to bring about the massacre of Saint Bartholomew. King Henry IV had granted toleration to them, but Louis XIV had withdrawn it and Protestants had fled to other lands. A better policy had been followed before the Revolution, and that event made them free but weak. Now they were brought under state control as were the Catholics. Their officers might be chosen by their own organizations, but their choice must receive the approval of Bonaparte. In return for this the state would furnish support for Protestant ministers just as for Catholic priests, and their worship was unhindered. Note 6. The Emperor Napoleon and the Church. In 1804 Bona- parte became emperor of France with the title of Napoleon I. His ambition was to restore the glory of the empires of the past. Rome dazzled him. Charlemagne and Otto were to be surpassed. The powers of Europe opposed these ambitions, but with marvellous military ability he moved his armies against one after another of his enemies, and brought them to his feet. Within six years he reached the climax of power. The Netherlands, most of Germany, Switzer- land and Italy were a part of French territory or were ruled by his dependents. In his triumphal progress he had not scrupled to remove the pope from his path. French armies occupied Rome, and the pope was compelled to submit himself to Napoleon more completely than any of his predecessors. It was plain that Napoleon had no quarrel with religion in his dominions, whether it was Protestant or Catholic, but he would not permit a rival ecclesiastical power to stand in any sense on a level with liis imperial self. Note 7. The Fall of Napoleon. The contrast between this upstart Corsican soldier and such a man as Zinzendorf, or such a prince as Gustavus Adolphus, is very striking. Zinzendorf was willing to devote all that he had to the spiritual interests of men wherever they lived or to whatever race they belonged. The Swedish king was will- ing to risk and lose his life for the sake of his country and his faith. Napoleon cared nothing for any one but himself, and he scrupled not to sacrifice millions of lives if he might gain his ambition. Such a man by his extraordinary ability was able to command the admiration of his people and to establish a mighty empire, but he was not able to hand that empire down to his son, or to give him a name loved and 130 Landmarks in Christian History Lesson honored in Europe. In 1812 Napoleon met a great disaster in war with Russia. The other nations that hated him leagued themselves against him once more. He fought furiously at bay; and, after he had been once taken and banished, he escaped and fought fiercely a last great battle at Waterloo. Captive at last, he was securely imprisoned in the island of Saint Helena far away among the waters of the Atlantic Ocean, where he died a few years later. European nations as far as possible restored the conditions that prevailed before the Revolution, but in France the concordat of 1801 continued in force until 1906. Questions on the Summary of the Preceding Lesson. 1. Who were the Moravians? 2. Who was Zinzendorf? 3. What has made the Moravians famous in religious history? Questions on the Present Lesson. 1. How did the Catholic church help to cause the French Revolu- tion? 2. How did the revolutionists treat the church and Christianity? 3, What permanent changes resulted? 4. What was the concordat? 5. Explain what each side gained by the arrangement. 6. Outline the history of the French Protestants before Napoleon. Iwenty-six j,^^ q^^ ^^^ ^j^^ ^^^ ^^ EuTOpe 131 7. What privileges were granted to them by Napoleon? 8. What was Napoleon's ambition, and how far did he accomplish it? 9. Contrast Napoleon and Zinzendorf. 10. What was the fate of Napoleon? Reading References. (1) Robinson and Beard : The Development of Modern Europe, I, pp. 310-312. (^) Rose: The Life of Napoleon /, I, pp. 249-262. (3) Morris: The French Revolution, pp. 189, 190. Lesson 26. THE OLD AND THE NEW IN EUROPE. Catholicism and the Spirit of the Present Age. Sources. — Decrees of the Vatican Council, encyclical letters of the pope, the French Law of Associations, the writings of CathoHc Modernists, files of news- papers and periodicals. Suggestions for Study. — 1. Read over all the summaries of the quarter's lessons, and be ready for review questions in class. 2. Read the story of the present lesson. Note especially: (a) the strength- ening of papal authority; (6) the restlessness that resulted in revolt from Rome, especially in France; (c) the opposition between the medieval spirit of the Catholic church and the spirit of modernism; (d) the steps of progress in Chris- tian history. 3. Think over the following topic for class discussion: Can a church keep its old faith in a new age? 4. Note-book work: (a) See that the summaries of all the lessons are com- plete up to date, (b) Draw a map of Europe to show the Catholic countries and the Protestant countries, and indicate particularly those that have recently thrown off the ecclesiastical control of the pope, (c) Make a list of the principal events of Catholic history since 1800. (d) Make a list of the principal names 132 Landmarks in Christian History Lesson in Christian history since Francis of Assisi, arranging them in groups according to centuries. Note 1. Restoration of the Old Order. The downfall of Napoleon resulted in the re-establishment of the old order of things in Europe. Liberty had proved impossible without anarchy; the common people had shown that they were unreliable. Everywhere on the Continent there was a reaction in favor of the old ways. The papacy of the Roman Catholic church was an essential part of the ancient system. Once more the pope spoke with authority from the Vatican at Rome, and the leaders of liberalism hid their heads. The Jesuits were restored to their old rights and privileges and became leaders of the extremely reactionary Catholics who were known as Ultramontanes. Under their guidance the ancient church proceeded to assert spiritual claims that surpassed in self-assurance the medieval claims of supremacy. Note 2. Spiritual vs. Temporal Authority. In 1846 Pius IX be- came pope, and liis pontificate of thirty-two years was the longest in the history of the papacy. During that time occurred four events of great importance to the Catholic church. The first was the emphatic declaration of the sinlessness of the Virgin Mary. Catholics had long revered Mary as the mother of Jesus, and extravagant claims of her goodness and her power with God had been put forth, but now for the first time it was decreed ofiicially that the absolute sinlessness of Mary must be believed by all Catholics. The second event was the publi- cation to the world of the pope's Syllabus of Errors, a relentless con- demnation of all modern scientific ideas that in any way interfered with the old methods of interpretation of the Bible, of theological doctrine, of church history, of philosophy and of government. In this way the old church set itself definitely and without reserve against the spirit and thought of the modern age. The third event was the declara- tion of the doctrine of papal infallibility. The authority of the pope had been recognized for centuries in a general way, but never had a church council authoritatively decreed the absolute wisdom of the Cathohc chief. Now as if to protest still further against any modern ideas of liberty of thought it was solemnly declared by vote of a Catho- hc council assembled in the Vatican palace at Rome that when the pope spoke as the head of the Catholic church on faith and morals he could not err. Thus the Catholic church placed the supreme crown on the head of the pope, and pronounced him endowed with the wisdom of God. As if in derision of this decree, the fourth event occurred almost at the same moment in the year 1870. The new kingdom of Italy took Rome for its capital, and the pope lost the Twenty-Six rpj^^ q^ ^^^ ^^^ ^^^ ^^ Europe 133 territorial rights that he had held for more than a thousand years. Temporal authority had shpped from his grasp at the same time that his spiritual authority was declared to be supreme. Note 3. The Changing Age. The nineteenth century fulfilled the promise of better thinking that came with the Renaissance and the Reformation. The shackles were falling off from minds that had been controlled by worn out ideas. Science was making discoveries in many fields of exploration, and upsetting long cherished theories. A new social life was coming as a result of a rapid development of industry. Ideas of political liberty that had been proclaimed in the French Revolution could not be crushed, and they began to be heard again all over Europe. Now and then a revolution broke out as an escape valve for the popular unrest. It became increasingly doubtful whether absolutism, either in state or church, could maintain its con- trol. The United States proved an object lesson to Europe in its politi- cal and religious freedom. Even Socialism found a place in the thought of many in Europe at the middle of the nineteenth century. Note 4. Revolt from Rome. There were not a few Catholics in Germany and Austria who were unable to accept the doctrine of papal infallibility. Many hid their discontent, bowed their wills to the will of the church, and remained loyal to its organization; but there were thousands who could not reconcile this latest act with their con- sciences, and they withdrew and organized the Old Catholic church, wliich continues as a thorn in the side of Catholic unity. For this and other reasons hundreds are drifting away from the Roman Catholic church in those countries every year, and are joining the Old Catholic or even Protestant churches. Many more are losing their religious faith altogether, and contenting themselves with a philosophy of unbelief, and a life without church or creed. But the most serious revolt is the revolt of Catholic states from any dependence upon an ecclesiastical ruler outside the country. This phase of revolt is seen most prominently in recent years in France and Portugal. Note 5. Disestablishment in France and Portugal. The French people have become increasingly irreligious in recent years. The French nation never was satisfied with the concordat of 1801 between Napoleon and the pope. In the last years of the nineteenth century it became plain that the Catholics aimed to exercise as much control as possible in French affairs, and a wave of hostility swept government and people into a strong anti-papal movement. The government publicly expressed dissatisfaction with the concordat. Then it passed a law suppressing the monastic orders with their convents and schools, 134 Landmarks in Christian History Lesson and required the authorization of all religious associations. Next it broke off official relations with the papacy, and finally ended the con- cordat. No longer would the French government support the clergy. The state took possession of church buildings, but allowed them to be used for religious purposes under the direction of religious associations. This was in effect the nationaUzation of the French church. Hence- forth France and not the pope bad control. Similar steps have been taken in Portugal for the attainment of the same purpose, and all Catholic Europe seems likely to be organized eventually into national churches under the spiritual leadership of the pope, but with only limited ecclesiastical authority granted to him. Note 6. The Attitude of the Pope. Of course the pope and his advisers vigorously protested against such usurpation of authority by the state. They were unyielding in their demands that the French •clergy should not submit. But the people of the nation supported the French government, and the leaders proceeded to carry out their policy. Many palaces and seminaries formerly used by the church have been turned into schools and hospitals. Pensions are paid to those mem- bers of the clergy who apply for them, but the support of religion both Catholic and Protestant is otherwise voluntary. The state has freed itself from a foreign master in ecclesiastical affairs. Note 7. Modernism vs. Medievalism. There have been two popes since Pius IX died in 1878, Leo XIII (1878-1903) and Pius X (1903 — ). Both have had to wage a battle of ideas as well as of politics. The Catholic church has been influenced by modern ways of thinking. This could not be helped but the church has set itself strongly against the modern tide. The spirit of independence has asserted itself among clergy and laity. The pope has been forced to condemn independent opinions in religion. He has taken upon himself to denounce the spirit of liberalism in some of the clergy in America. He has thundered fiercely against socialism. The Catholic church stands for medieval- ism in opposition to modern thought. Thomas Aquinas is its teacher of theology. Its face is towards the past. Its ideal is the supreme authority of the pope. Its hope of salvation is in the sacrament and the priests. It is stifled by the atmosphere of liberalism. In spite of the greatness of its past its influence is waning in competition with the ideas of this age. The Roman Catholic church represents that which has been rather than that which is. It has had its day, and it survives as a great relic of a great past, but it connot control the future because it is not the fittest to survive. Note 8. Innocent the Sovereign v^. Pius the Prisoner. Seven Twentysix J,^^ qj^ ^^^ ^j^^ ^^^ ^^ EuTOpe 135 hundred years ago Innocent III was the acknowledged sovereign of Europe. From the hills of Rome the law went forth to north and south alike, and it was a law to be obeyed. The Catholic church was one great and united body. Its glory and its power dazzled a continent. Its dogma controlled the thought of the age. It could with equal ease lay its strong arm upon the heretic, or call forth the might of its cru- saders against the Mohammedan East. The pope was lord. To-day Pius IX is but a " prisoner in the Vatican.'* No longer do the kings of Europe fear his decree. When united Italy demanded the city of Rome for its capital forty years ago, there was nothing left of all the temporal sovereignty of the popes, but the few acres to which the popes since then have chosen to confine their movements. The spiritual empire of the ancient church is falling in ruins. Northern Europe is lost. One after another Catholic countries are asserting independence of papal control. In America the church seeks recompense for Euro- pean losses, but the spirit of American independence is not in harmony with the spirit of Roman authority. Feebly the pope protests against the modernism of an age to which he does not belong, but unquestioned law no longer goes forth from Rome. Note 9. Looking Backward. It is a long look back to the birthday of Christianity, but it is not difficult to trace the path of its progress. It had a Jewish inlieritance, but a Gentile training. It went to school to Greece, but in its maturity it took on Roman forms. It was con- trolled for a thousand years by the hand of a Roman pope. But a purer faith and a freer life came with Protestantism. Francis of Assisi and his friars preached sacrifice and practised social kindness as the highest Christian ideal. Waldensians and Mystics learned the meaning of spiritual experience. The medieval world awoke to new consciousness of human possibilities, and new ideas found their birth in the Renaissance. Savonarola and Luther thundered against Catholic corruption, and Germany broke away from the Catholic faith and Roman control. The new movement found its western center in Geneva, and Calvin became the teacher of the Protestants of Switzerland, France, the Netherlands, and Great Britain. Through storm and stress the Protestants of those countries struggled for freedom from the past. In Germany the wars of religion came to an end with the peace of Westphalia in 1648, after the Swedish king, Gustavus Adolphus, had sacrificed himself to the Protestant cause. Since then the hero of the mission field has contended for honor among men with the hero of the battle field. Zinzendorf and Napoleon represent the two types. Ideals have changed with the modernizing of ideas. 136 Landmarks in Christian History Lesson The old church still faces the future with the spirit of the past, but it is losing the confidence of thoughtful men. The future is with that type of Christianity that best expresses the spirit of Jesus in religious thought and human life. Questions on the Summaries of the Lessons. 1. What religious groups show that there was a religious awakening after the twelfth century ^ 2. How did the people Hve in country and town.? 3. Who was Martin Luther? 4. What did Calvin do at Geneva? 5. Explain the mixture of politics with religious reform in France and the Netherlands. 6. Who were the Jesuits? 7. Why was the Thirty Years' War important? 8 Contrast Zinzendorf and Napoleon. Questions on the Present Lesson. 1. What was the effect on the papacy of the downfall of Napoleon? 2. What four events mark the pontificate of Pius IX? 3. How did the temporal authority of the pope come to an end? 4. In what senses was the nineteenth century a changing age? 5. Tell the story of disestablishment in France. 6. What are the names of the last two popes? 7. What is the meaning of modemisrD f Twenly.six rpj^^ Q^ ^^^ ^y ^^^ ^^ EuVOpe 137 8. Why does the CathoKc church oppose modernism? 9. Contrast Innocent III and Pius IX. 10. Mention in review the leading facts of Cathohc history. Reading References. (1) Newman: Manual of Church History^ II, pp. 503-518. {2) Cheetham: Church Hi'storij, Modern Period, ch. 9. (S) Robinson and Beard: The Development of Modern Europe, II, pp. 166-172. PART III Anglo-Saxon Christianity Lesson 27. THE ENGLISH REVOLT FROM ROME. Henry Vni and the Anglican Church. Sources. — Statutes, and other parliamentary documents; reports of the His- torical Manuscripts Commission; chronicles; tracts and various pamphlets; letters; More's Utopia. Suggestions for Study. — 1. Read Lesson 18 as a reminder of what was oc- curring on the Continent during the reign of Henry VIII in England. 2. Read the story of the present lesson. Points to be especially noted are: (a) the possibilities of the new king's reign; (6) Henry's lack of self-control; (c) the divorce and its consequences; {d) the plunder of the monasttries. 3. Think over the following questions for class discussion: What were the qualities of Henry VIII that are weaknesses in a king? Do the acts of Henry prove anything as to the proper relation of the church and the state? 4. Note-book work: (a) Write a sketch of 250 words on religious conditions in Germany and England in about 1535. (6) Draw a map of England, locating London, the capital, and Canterbury and York, the two archbishoprics of the English church, (c) Make two lists, one of the most famous cathedrals of England, and the other of the most noted monasteries. Note 1. When Prince Henry Became King. Happy were the people of " merrie England " when Prince Henry Tudor became king Henry VIII in 1509. He was eighteen years old, handsome and energetic. He succeeded to a father, Henry VII, who had united the nation, but who was tyrannical and miserly; and there was little mourning after he was gone. W^ith the new reign it seemed as if a new day had dawned for England. Europe was basking in the sunshine of the Renaissance, and England was near enough to enjoy its influences. The young king patronized the New Learning. Erasmus, the Greek scholar from Hol- land, and More, the courtier and philosopher, were his friends. The feuds between the great English families, that had vexed the country in the fifteenth century, seemed at an end. Only seventeen years before this Columbus had discovered a new world in the West, and Cabot had coasted the eastern shore of North America in 1498, and claimed it for the British throne. Heaven seemed to smile on the fortunes of England and her youthful king, and the good cheer and hope of the time are reflected in the phrase " merrie England." Note 2. Religion in the Realm. When Henry VIII became king, all Europe was Catholic. Luther had not yet hurled his defiance at a corrupt church. But throughout the West there was discontent and 139 140 Landmarks in Christian History ^^"^o^ unrest. The church had not cleansed itself, and it was well known that reform was greatly needed. People were thinking more earnestly about religion than they had thought before. The influence of the pioneers of reform was being felt. Savonarola had only just been silenced in Florence. Wycliffe, long since dead, still spoke to the heart of many an Englishman. A hundred and fifty years earlier he had lectured and preached at Oxford, had issued his Bible translation, and had sent out poor priests to evangelize the country. The church had opposed all this, but the eft'ects of his career had never been lost. Now John Colet was expounding the New Testament at Oxford in a way that brought out a new meaning, though he did not profess to be a reformer. The seed of the Reformation was germinating in English hearts to spring up from the soil when a favorable time should come. Note 3. The King's Domestic Affairs. The English king married for his queen the princess Catherine of Aragon in Spain. That nation was the greatest power in Europe, and it was much to the ad- vantage of England that such an alliance should take place. It seemed to add to the good fortune of the nation. For many years all went well. The king was lovable, and the country prospered. The Reformation broke out in Germany, but the Catholic king of Catholic England wrote a pamphlet against Luther, and the grateful pope of Rome conferred upon the English king the title of " Defender of the Faith." But Henry was losing his self-control. He was puffed up with pride and drunk with power. He loved to rule. As a colt takes the bits in his teeth, the young king took his own course. He cared notliing for the rights of England, nothing for the expectations of the people. He was fond of displaying his power in acts of tyranny. He was passionate as well as proud and headstrong. He yielded to liis appetites and his whims. He fell in love with a young maid of honor in attendance upon the queen, and determined to divorce his wife and marry Anne Boleyn. In most disgraceful fashion he set ahout securing a divorce from the pope, who alone had the power to annul the marriage with Catherine. The poor queen appealed to the pope and humbled herself to beg favor from the king, but without avail. The pope delayed, but the impetuous king could not wait, and taking the matter into his own hands, he had the divorce issued in England and married Anne. Note 4. The Revolt from Rome. It was as if a bombshell had dropped into the palace of the pope. Three centuries earlier Pope In- nocent III had quarreled with king John, but had been able to carry out his own policy. Later on the English nation had declared itself independent of the political power of the pope. But only a few individ- Tweruy-scv^a fj^^ English Revolt from Rome 141 uals had ever questioned the pope's right of supremacy in rehgion. This included all matters relating to marriage, for marriage was one of Ihe sacraments of the church. Now Henry dared to defy this right by marrying Anne without papal permission. Then the king in masterful fashion declared that he himself, and not the pope, was the head of the English church, and the English Parliament confirmed it by an Act of Supremacy in 1531. By tliis high-handed act Henry placed England in ecclesiastical revolt against the Roman pope. As if tliis were not enough the king aimed another blow at the church by striking down Cardinal Wolsey, the leading Catholic in England and his own counsellor. He had grown old in the king's service; but he had been slow in managing the divorce correspondence which had been en- trusted to liim, and Henry tlu-ust him out of office. Sadly the aged churchman turned away from the royal court, and almost at once he sank into his grave. With the despair of many a one who has felt the ingratitude of kings, he cried: " Had I but served my God with half the zeal I served my king, he would not in my age Have left me naked to my enemies." Note 5. The Meaning of the Revolt. The whim of a passionate king had done what a great religious reform had not yet been able to do. Another nation of the North had thrown off the yoke of the papacy. But it must not be supposed that by that act England became Protestant. Some who were in sympathy with Luther and with the ideas of Wycliffe secretly rejoiced. But the masses of the English people were loyal Catholics. They clung to the old faith; they gathered as before in the parish churches; they still looked to the monasteries for charity in poverty and sickness. They paid their hard-earned pittances into the treasury of the church, and looked confidently for escape from purga- tory in return. King Henry himself remained Catholic in his faith. The meaning of the revolt was simply this: that the Catholic church of England was now to regard the king and not the pope as its supreme liead. As the pohtical revolt against the pope had come in the four- teenth century, so now came the ecclesiastical revolt in the sixteenth century. The spiritual revolt which should make England Protestant was still in the future. Note 6. The Fate of the Monasteries. The king was free to do as he pleased with the English church. Parhament had proved submis- sive, and the English clergy did not dare to dispute the will of the king. Henry cut off the financial resources of the pope in England, and it was forbidden to the clergy to appeal to the pope from an English decision. 142 Landmarks in Christian History Leaaon Parliament made all these a part of the law, and gave all church ap- pointments to the king. In 1536 Henry took a step that angered the church and grieved many of the people. He took away the property and the privileges of the monasteries. There was good reason why some of these monasteries should be dissolved, for they were corrupt; but many of them conducted their affairs properly and were very helpful to the common people. But the king coveted their wealth, and they were not able to resist. By distributing some of the proceeds to his favorites among the nobles the king made them his strong friends, and there was no hope that the monasteries would ever be restored. The plunder amounted to seventy-five million dollars according to the mod- ern value of money. Eight thousand members of religious orders were turned loose upon the world, and eighty thousand persons deprived of the aid that the monasteries had supplied. The social and economic con- sequences of this act were as far-reaching as the religious results. Note 7. The Close of Henry's Reign. The reign of Henry VIII came to an end amid no such splendor and joy as it began. He had revelled in his independence, but he had squandered the fortune that his father had acquired. He had cared little for the large majority of his subjects, while he had plundered the church for the benefit of his favorites. He had broken many of the bonds that bound the nation to the past, and had raised the kingdom to a position of honor and re- spect in Europe; but he had broken his alliance with the most powerful nation of his time. His country was disappointed with this man who had promised so much, but had shown himself lacking in the qualities of royal greatness. He could not rule England well because he could not rule himself. He can never be called a great king because he failed to achieve greatness as a man. He is to be remembered as the man who freed England from the pope, but could not free himself from the control of liis passions and his pride of power. Yet Henry's reign brought with it the first step of England in modern progress. It meant much that England was trying a new path in religion. At first it might not seem very different from the famihar way of Rome; but by degrees it would mount to a liigher level, it would enter a new atmosphere, and the people would feel a new spiritual vigor. King Henry was an incompetent guide to stand at the turnstije and direct the nation into an untried path, but it was a time when England greatly needed to get out of the ruts, and in spite of the jolting that the nation received the change was a blessing in disguise. It could hardly be expected that a radical change would be successful. It re- mained for the next king to make further alterations. Twenty-men f^g English Revolt from Rome 143 Questions on Lesson 18. 1. How did the Reformation take place in Germany? 2. Who was its leader? 3. Who was the German emperor at that time? 4. Did it have any effect on the rest of Europe? Questions on the Present Lesson. 1. What favorable circumstances promised a successful reign for Henry VHI? 2. Were there any tendencies away from the Catholic church in England ? 3. "Name some of the persons conspicuous in the thought and life of England at the outset of Henry's reign. 4. How did Henry show his real character? 5. Explain how the revolt from Rome took place. 6. Show why this does not mean the introduction of Protestantism. 7. Tell the story of Cardinal Wolsey. 8. What was the fate of the English monasteries? 9. What were the effects of the royal "policy? 10. Explain the failure of Henry VIII to achieve greatness. 144 Landmarks in Christian History ^"'°" Reading References. (1) Myers: The Moderji Age, pp. 94-108. (2) Andrews: History of England, pp. 244-269. {3) Hulbert: The English Reformation and Puritanism, ch. 3. (4) Lindsay: History of the Reformation, II, pp. 315-350. Lesson 28. HOW ENGLAND BECAME PROTESTANT. The Boy King and his Advisers. Sources. — State papers and correspondence; literary remains of Edward VI; Strype's Ecclesiastical Memorials, and Life of Cranmer; chronicles and tracts. Suggestions for Study. — 1. Read over the summary of the preceding lesson, and be prepared to answer questions. 2. Read over the lesson story. Note especially: (a) the helplessness of the boy king; (6) the religious opinions of the leaders and of the people; (c) the changes in worship; (d) the Forty-two Articles. 3. Think over the following topic for discussion in class : In what ways does a beautiful church building help to make a person religious.'' 4. Note-book work: (a) See that the last summary is copied properly into the note-book. (6) Write a description of a special church service that made upon you a strong personal impression, (c) Make a list of the principal early English translations of the Bible, and state briefly the sj^iecial characteristic of each, (d) Draw a picture or diagram of a Catholic cathedral. Note 1. Edward the Boy King. When king Henry VIII was dead, his leading adviser, who is known in history as Lord Somer- set, locked up his will, and hurried off to arrange the future with the heir to the throne. He found the children of the late king in his own country castle. The only son of Henry was prince Edward, a boy of nine, and it was not difficult for Somerset to gain for himself the manage- ment of affairs. Edward was well informed for his age, but of course he had nothing to say about national policies. His father had hoped that public aflfairs would continue as before, and had arranged for a council to take charge, but the ambitious Somerset soon crowded out those who were not friendly to his own plans. His religious policy was to make England Protestant. Archbishop Cranmer had become a Protestant. The boy king had been educated in the same faith. It was easy therefore to use the authority of the king to bring about changes in the worship and creed of the English church. For this reason the reign of Edward is one of the landmarks in Christian history, because it was during that time that the revolt against the pope developed into a rejection of Catholicism. Note 2. Actors in the Drama of Reform. England became a stage on which was enacted one of the prominent acts in the drama of the Twenty-eight jJqk^ England Became Protestant 145 Reformation. The first great act of that drama was played in Germany, the second in the Swiss city of Zurich, and the third at Geneva. Luther, Zwingh and Calvin were the prominent names. But at the middle of the sixteenth century in England there was displayed yet another act in the mighty movement that was changing the religion of a large part of Europe, an act that was to have a profound impression on the later history of the Anglo-Saxon race. The leading actors were Somerset and his successor, the Duke of Northumberland, and Thomas Cranmer, the Archbishop of Canterbury. The regents worked mainly in their own interest; Cranmer was at first influenced by expediency, but he became convinced of the rightfulness of his conduct, and was staunch in his adherence to the Protestant cause. Cranmer cannot be admired for great strength of character, as Luther and Calvin are admired. He was always greatly impressed by royalty. But he was at least honest in his opinions, and he was the chief agent in bringing about the changes that established Protestantism. Note 3. Religion and the People. In these days of religious free- dom it seems strange to think of a king and his advisers altering the religion of a whole nation. It is not difficult to understand that individ- uals here and there were moved by the lively changes that had taken place in Germany, or influenced by the writings of Calvin and his followers. It is not at all surprising that the Bible translations of Tyn- dale and Coverdale issued in the reign of Henry VIII led a considerable number among the English people to see that Catholicism was not the true type of the Christian religion. But it must be supposed that much the greater part of the English people were perfectly content to receive the ministrations of Catholic priests and to trust the sacraments for their eternal salvation. Though William Tyndale wrote in order that the ploughboy might know the true gospel, the agricultural laborer took his religion without objection from the parish church. Though the artisans in the towns may have remembered the poor priests of Wycliffe, they were content with the priests that they met in their own streets. Though thinking men in the universities rejected the whole ecclesiastical system of Rome, the average citizen of Oxford and Cambridge was loyal to the faith of the past. Note 4. Erastianism. It was believed generally that the form of religion was a matter to be determined for the average man by those in authority. Luther had accepted that idea in Germany after he lost his faith in the peasants, and the Peace of Augsburg had declared definitely that the German princes should decide for their subjects between Lutheranism and Calvinism. When Henry VIII declared himself to be 146 Landmarks in Christian History ^*"^'» the head of the church in England, he assumed authority in matters of religion, and Parliament agreed to it in the Act of Supremacy. When the council of regents took up the matter of the religion of the nation at the beginning of the reign of Edward, they acted on the principle that religion was a department of government, and that religion must be decided upon just as other matters of national policy were determined. The church was the machinery of government for carrying out what was decreed by the council. This was the theory that had been set forth by Erastus, a Swiss theologian, in opposition to Calvin and his theory that the government was the agent of the church. This theory of state control as accepted in England became known as Erastianism, and is opposed to the Calvinistic Presbyterian idea which was advocated later by many of the English Puritans. Note 5. Acts of Protestant Reform. As the Erastian theory of state authority in religion was accepted, and as the leaders were favor- able to Protestantism, reforming acts naturally followed. These may be grouped under four heads: (1) the abolition of certain Catholic practices; (S) the marriage of the clergy; {3) the use of the English language in church worship; {^) the adoption of an altered creed. The councillors of the king did not hesitate to make these changes, though the king was young, and though the church itself was not consulted. It was customary for churchmen to meet in an assembly called convo- cation to discuss and vote upon matters relating to the church; but in this case the council decided what should be done and left it to the con- vocation to agree. If bishops did not fall in with the changes they could expect to be removed from office and perhaps thrown into prison. In this high-handed manner Protestant practices were introduced. Note 6. Abolition of the Old Ways. Cathohcs were accustomed to beautiful buildings for their worship. Churches and cathedrals were ancient, and through the years and centuries they had been enriched with the offerings of devout parishioners. Richly stained glass filled the windows, through which the light fell in prismatic colors and helped to produce an atmosphere of beauty and refinement. Beautiful frescoes and paintings adorned the walls. Statues and crosses in the niches were visible signs of the veneration of the people for Christ and the saints of the church. The exercises of worship were suggestive of reverence, penitence and peace. All these were aids in bringing the soul into the right attitude toward God. It was not strange if sometimes the superstitious worshipper mistook the means of worship as of su- preme worth, and venerated the image or the sacrament with a rever- ence that was due to God alone. Twenty^eight jj^y^ England Became Protestant 147 The thoroughgoing Protestant had no use for images and crosses, for frescoed walls or colored windows. To him they were signs of super- stition and idolatry. Holy water and incense were relics of paganism and its incantations. The English governing council proceeded to place them under a taboo, and sent commissioners all over the country on a royal visitation to destroy that wliich was tabooed, and to explain to each parish that these practices were no longer to be a part of religious worship. Bishops who opposed this program of destruction were thrown into prison, and the people dared not object. Note 7. The Marriage of the Clergy. Many of the clergy were wilhng to overlook such actions as these because of the second provision of England's rulers. This was permission for the English clergy to marry. In the early Christian days there had been no prohibition from marrying, but public opinion in the church after a time favored a single Hfe for those who were in church orders. All monks took the vow of celibacy, and the influence of monasticism was strong in favor of all the parish clergy also being independent of family cares. So it became the rule that the clergy should not marry. But a single life is not a natural life. It is human nature to seek companionship and to enjoy family associations. The lack of it led to evil practices among the clergy, and from the beginning Protestantism declared itself against cehbacy and other monastic practices. So in England it was promptly decreed that clergymen might marry, and a large proportion of them were glad to do so. Note 8. The Use of the English Language in the Churches. From the time when Rome became the center of Christianity the Latin lan- guage was the ecclesiastical tongue. It was recognized as the oflBcial language of the Catholic church. The Latin Vulgate version became the accepted version of the Bible. The sacred mass was performed in the same language. In Latin were written the documents of the church, the bulls of the pope, all papal correspondence. It seemed to good Catholics as if there was something sacred about the tongue of the old Romans, as if God himself were better pleased with creeds and pater- nosters in Latin than in English, French or German. Protestantism opposed this idea among other revolutionary acts and opinions. Luther translated the Bible into German. Calvin put his Institutes into French, after he had written them originally in Latin. It was part of the plan of the royal council in England to abolish Latin, and the order went forth to conduct worship in the language of the gospel. In order to make this possible Archbishop Cranmer prepared an English Book of 148 Landmarks in Christian History ^^*'°" Comnioji Prayer to take the place of the old Latin Missal and Bredarij, and English translations of the Bible were placed in the churches. Note 9. The New Creed. It remained to change the doctrines of the church in England to make them agree with the best Protestant thought. In this the teaching of Calvin was the best guide, but Luther- anism contributed to the Anglican theology. The new creed was put into shape by Cranmer, and amended by others. In its later form it was written in forty-two articles, and it is known in history as the Forty-two Articles of the reign of Edward VI. A few years afterward in the reign of Elizabeth they were reduced in number to thirty-nine, and the Thirty-nine Articles constitute the statement of faith of Ihe present church of England. Protestant doctrines were explained still further by homilies that were distributed to the churches, and by a catecliism prepared for the instruction of the people. Note 10. Protestant Forms vs. the Protestant Spirit. Thus Eng- land became Protestant as far as the decrees of the government could make it so. The spirit of the people was still Catholic. They did not yet understand the simple gospel of divine and brotherly love that Jesus taught. They needed evangelists who would go through the English lanes and chat by the English hedges about the plain truths of practical religion as Jesus had done in Galilee and Judea. But the evangelistic spirit slumbered in England. Here and there an individual churchman saw clearly what the people needed, and spoke to them out of a warm heart. But the awakening among the better classes of Eng- lishmen waited for the days of Puritanism, and the rural folk were not . evangelized until the days of Wesley and the Methodists. And so the mandate of the boy king Edward did not change the real religion of the people. Before his body was in its grave, England began to turn back to the Catholic fold. Questions on the Summary of the Preceding Lesson. 1. How did it happen that England revolted from Rome.? 2. What were some of the results.? 3. Did England become Protestant under Henry VIII.? Questions on the Present Lesson. 1. Wliy is the reign of Edward VI one of the Christian historical landmarks.? 2. Who were the leaders in the English Reformation? Twenty-eight jJq^^ England Became Protestant 149 3. What was the attitude of the people? 4. What was the theory as to the relation of church and state? 5. What were the principal acts of reform? 6. What were the reasons for and against the destruction of images in the churches? 7. What was the importance of the new rule about the marriage of the clergy? 8. Explain the need of a new Book of Common Prayer, 9. What is meant by the Forty-two and the Thirty-nine Articles? 10. Was the English Reformation completed in the reign of Edward VI? Reading References. (1) Myers: The Modern Age, pp. 108-111. (2) Andrews: Histonj of England, pp. 269-277. (3) Hulbert: The English Reformation and Puritanism, pp. 127-148. (^) Lindsay; History of the Reformation, II, pp. 351-367. 150 Landmarks in Christian History Lettm Lesson 29. THE EPISCOPAL CHURCH. The Anglican Idea in England and America. Sources. — The Thirty-nine Articles; the Book of Common Prayer; Hooker's Ecclesiastical Polity; Strype's Memorials; Hooks and Perry's Documentary His- tory of the Protestant Episcopal Church in the United States of America. Suggestions for Study. — 1, Review the summary. 2. Read the story of the present lesson, and study especially: (a) the episco- pal idea; (6) the High and Low church parties; (c) the growth of Episcopacy in America; (d) what the Episcopal church stands for. 3. Think about the following topics for special class discussion: "What is a minister or priest for? How does the episcopal idea agree with religious liberty? 4. Prepare for the note-book: (a) the summary of the last lesson; (6) a map of England showing the principal Anglican church centers; (c) a description of the Episcopal Prayer Book; (d) an account of the social enterprises of a promi- nent Episcopal city church, like Emmanuel church, Boston, or Saint George's church in New York. Note 1. The Church of England an Episcopal Church. At last England had a national church, and that national church was Protes- tant. The rulers of the nation had decided that the island kingdom should take its place with the Germans, the Dutch, and the people of Geneva in their adherence to the ideas of the Reformation. To be a Catholic was to trust in the church through its priests and its sacra- ments to make men right with God ; to be a Protestant was to trust to a personal faith in the grace of God through Christ for salvation. The average Englishman might not in liis thinlving make a careful distinc- tion, but Protestantism was now the nominal religion of the realm. The Protestant churches on the Continent not only had a different faith from that of the Catholic church, but also a different organization. With slight exceptions the bishops gave way to other officers. When the English church became Protestant it was necessary to decide whether the changes in doctrine involved a hke change in administra- tion. It was agreed that the papacy should be subtracted, but that in other respects the ancient church of England, which was older than the papacy, should keep in its former simplicity and liberty the episcopal system which had characterized it of old. So the church of England, commonly called Anglican, is an Episcopal church. In America it received the name Protestant Episcopal to distinguish it from the Catho- lic church on the one hand and non-episcopal churches on the other. In England the bishops received seats in Parliament, but also had their separate convocation for the discussion of religious matters. In Amer- ica, of course, they have had no share in the national government, but they have had their general convention, which meets every three years. Twentynim f^g EpisCOpal ChuTck 151 Note 2. The Episcopal Idea. The Episcopal church is one of the prominent denominations among modern Protestants. It stands for an idea. Back of every organization is an idea. Back of every re- Hgious denomination is the perception of a bit of truth that others have not recognized as important. Wliat the Episcopal church stands for is orderliness in faith, in worsliip, and in administration. For this reason it makes a larger use of creeds than some other churches. For the same reason it employs a ritual in church services. With the same thought it exercises oversight and authority over local bodies through the bishop. The bishop is the center of the episcopal system. Tliis episcopal idea was a natural characteristic of the Anglican church of the Reformation because it was characteristic of the Catholic church, and the Church of England continued the tradition of Catholicism. In the eyes of a Catholic the bishop was the successor of the first Apostles. He received Apostolic ordination and inlierited the Apostolic authority. He was the guardian of the Apostolic faith. The chief Catholic idea was that the pope, who was the Bishop of Rome, was cliief of all the bishops, as Peter was said to be chief of the Apostles. In the church of England the head of the bishops was the Archbishop of Canterbury, but all the bishops were under the control of the king as the head of the nation. So under Edward VI the Church of England became Protes- tant in its doctrines, but it remained Catholic in its organization. Note 3. A Conflict of Opinions. There was one element in Prot- estantism that was liable to make trouble for an episcopal system. The root principle of Protestantism was individualistic; in it was involved the idea of personal freedom in religion. Episcopacy stood for order and oversight, and in this was involved the idea of authority. It was inevitable that there should be radicals and conservatives about the source and the amount of authority in the Anglican church, and that a variety of opinions should produce several different groups in the one church. First of all there was the High church party, which desired to keep as much as possible of Cathohcism, which revered authority, appreciated ritualism, and maintained the divine right of bishops descending in a regular succession from the Apostles. Those who emphasized the right of the government to control the church were called Erastians. Then there were many who believed that the Ref- ormation had not gone far enough, and who put an emphasis on evan- gelical doctrine. They formed the basis for the Low church party. There was one man, Richard Hooker, who sympathized in some respects with the High church party, but who made reason and Scrip- ture the basis of episcopal authority rather than Apostolic succession. 152 Landmarks in Christian History Lesson In his Laws of Ecclesiastical Polity he made the most notable contribu- tion to the ecclesiastical discussions of his age, and liis influence was cast on the side of a breadth of view and a tolerance of attitude that was greatly needed. Note 4. Episcopal Extension Abroad. A national system does not easily endure transplanting. The Stuart kings of Scottish birth tried to extend Episcopacy from England to Scotland, but the Scottish lords bound themselves by a covenant to defend their own Presbyterian system, and the Covenanters were successful against fire and sword. Ireland was too strongly Catholic to think of receiving a Protestant Episcopacy. When the first English colonies were planted in America it would naturally be supposed that the church of England would gain a new foothold there. The Virginia colonists included Anglican clergy- men in their number, and so did others of the Southern plantations, but in the North the colonists organized Separatist churches. There was no American bishop before the Revolution. The Bishop of London was expected to look after the religious interests of the colonists, but his oversight was not so careful as it might have been, and among the faithful clergymen were not a few of another sort. Definite organiza- tion for a foreign propaganda was effected in England by the organiza- tion of two societies at the end of the seventeenth century — the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, and the Society for the Propaga- tion of the Gospel. A century later the Church Missionary Society added greatly to the effectiveness of foreign missionary endeavor, and for more than a hundred years has had a most honorable history. Note 5. The Establishment of the Protestant Episcopal Church in the United States. In the liistory of every religious communion there are stories of hardy pioneer clergymen who do credit to the denomina- tion to which they belong. Among the early American Episcopalians there were representatives of that sort. They crossed the streams on horseback, scoured the open, and burrowed through the forests on their ministry of devotion. By tidewater and in the back country they practised their own type of religion and maintained it against all comers. But there w^ere not many such, and they lacked the strength of organiza- tion. The Revolution nearly destroyed American Episcopacy. It be- came apparent that its only salvation was an efiicient American organi- zation independent of the church of England. In New England the Episcopal church was strongest in Connecticut, and the Connecticut clergy asked the Anglican church to consecrate Seabury, one of their number, as bishop. This local request of a small number of clergy was refused, and Seabury had to content himself with securing an irregular Tweniynine ff^Q EpiSCOpal ChuTck 153 consecration at the hands of certain Scotch bishops in 1784. Three years later the EngHsh church granted the blessing of Apostolic succes- sion to two other Americans, and so came into existence the separate Protestant Episcopal church. About the same time the first general convention of the denomination met at Philadelphia and adopted a platform of principles. Four years later the organization was com- pleted; a liturgy, prayer book, creeds, and canons adopted; and the American church was instituted according to the fashion of the church of England, but with no king or archbishop at its head. Note 6. Characteristics of American History. For thirty years the growth of the Episcopal ^church in America was slow. It did not seem to some people to be in harmony with democratic principles. It was too English in antecedents and in organization to be thoroughly liked. But after 1830 it took on new life. Its missionaries went into the West, and planted Episcopacy on the frontier. There were organized efforts among Indians and negroes. Foreign missions were undertaken. A theological seminary was founded in New York in 1819, and other schools were established in the South and West. New dioceses were organized as the denomination extended its lines. Party cleavage in the church proved a hindrance to harmonious growth. A group that feared Catholic influence over the denomination withdrew and organized the Reformed Episcopal church in 1873. The Low church party, with its evangelical sympathies and its low estimate of the importance of episcopal succession, found itself often opposed to the policies of the High church party, whose sympathies were more Catholic. Yet the Episcopal church has overcome its difficulties, has worked out important results, and is growing very rapidly in numbers. The denomination ranks sixth among Protestants in the United States, with about nine hundred and sixty thousand communicants. Annual contributions amount to more than eighteen million dollars. The church of England is estimated to have a membership of two and a half millions in England and Wales, with revenues amounting to nearly twenty-nine million dollars. Note 7. Social Activity. The Episcopal church has taken a promi- nent stand in favor of a higher social welfare. In 1889 a pastoral letter of the bishops of the church emphasized the importance of a higher standard of public morals and recognized the gravity of the industrial situation. Since then the church has reiterated these statements, has broadened its activities in the building of hospitals and other social institutions, and has grappled successfully with the city problems of its great churches. With large wealth and effective organization the 154 Landmarks in Christian History ^*°^ Episcopal cliiirclies of New York, for example, seem likely to succeed in solving the down-town religious problem where others may fail. Note 8. Church Union. The Episcopal church has been a con- sistent leader in the movement towards church union. While it was still weak in America, the denomination gave earnest attention to the subject, and now that it has grown strong it is assuming the leadership in the undertaking. Part of its platform was adopted by the Lambeth Conference of 1888, which in England united all Episcopalians in the "Quadrilateral," a proposition of union for all the Christian world. In 1910 the Protestant Episcopal General Convention undertook to secure a conference of all Christian churches to consider questions of faith and order, and this effort to get together, properly financed, is being pushed. The ideal of Christian union, difficult of realization as it may seem, is in accordance with the spirit of the founder of Chris- tianity himself, and is worthy of the best efforts of any Christian denomination. Note 9. "What the Episcopal Church Stands for. The Episcopal church to-day includes within its fold a great variety of religious types. The High churchman lays great stress on the importance of historic continuity in ecclesiastical organization, and to most other Protestants he seems to magnify the importance of certain external manifestations of religion. The " Oxford Movement " of the nineteenth century showed a distinct tendency towards Rome in the High church party of England. On the other hand there are Episcopalians who hold to the essential experience of inward spiritual religion, and revere the words of such great evangelical preachers as Frederick W. Robertson and Phillips Brooks. Besides these are the Broad churchmen, who care less for forms of thought or organization than for social purity and the spirit of brotherly love, and who find their ideals in such men as Maurice and Kingsley. The typical Episcopalian is he who recognizes the authority of the bishop, worsliips God with an historic and dignified ritual, gives an important place to the sacraments, and holds to the Nicene Creed. Whatever the narrowness or breadth of interpretation of any. individual, he remains an Episcopalian because the episcopal idea is essential to his religious experience. As such he is the only natural and effective mediator between the Catholic and the non- episcopal churches of Christendom. Questions on the Summary of the Preceding Lesson. 1. When did the English church become Protestant? 2. What were some of the changes made? 3. Did the people favor these changes? Twenty-nine y/^g EpisCOpal ChuTck 155 Questions on the Present Lesson. 1. What is the difference between Catholic and Protestant thought about the way of salvation? 2. Explain what is meant by the episcopal idea. 3. How did English Protestants differ in their opinions.? 4. Who was Richard Hooker? 5. How was the Episcopal church extended to America? 6. Wliat have been the characteristics of American Episcopalians: 7. What is the denominational standing of Episcopacy? 8. Describe the Episcopalian interest in church union. 9. Explain the parties in the church. 10. Define the fundamentals of American Episcopacy at the present time. 156 Landmarks in Christian History Lesson Reading References. (1) Articles in the Encyclopedia Britannica, lltli edition, on England^ Church of, and Anglican Communion. {2) Article in the New Schaff- Herzog Encyclopedia on Episcopacy, § IV. (3) Allen: Phillips Brooks. (4) Hodges: The Epnscopal Church: its Doctrine, Discipline and Worship, Lesson 30. QUEEN MARY AND THE SMITHFIELD MARTYRS. The Failure to Restore Catholicism. Sources. — State papers; letters of Cardinal Pole, the legate of the pope; chronicles written by a resident in the Tower of London; contemporary accounts of affairs in England and of the refugees on the Continent; Strype's Memorials; Foxe's Acts and Monuments. Suggestions for Study. — 1. Read the summary of the preceding lesson, and be prepared for questions in the class. 2. Read the lesson story. Points to be especially noted are: (a) the loyal heart of Mary Tudor; (b) Mary's Catholic policy; (c) the Smithfield martyrs; (d) Cranmer and his fellow sufferers; (e) the effects of persecution. 3. Think about the following topics for discussion in class : What constructive religious poUcy might have been followed by Mary with a good prospect of success? Which religious changes are most likely to be permanent — those that are gained by radical revolution, or those that come by a more gradual process.'' 4. Note-book work: (a) See that the last summary is complete, (b) Enu- merate other religious persecutions already studied, grouping them under Jewish, pagan and Catholic, (c) Write a sketch of the career and character of Thomas Cranmer. [d) Write in not more than two hundred words the story of Lady Jane Grey. Note 1. The Heart of Mary Tudor. The harsh judgment of his- tory has given the title of " Bloody Mary " to the half sister of Edward VI who succeeded him on the English throne. It is an epithet that has often been hurled at Englishmen, as if it were characteristic of the English people. It is certainly undeserved by queen Mary Tudor. She lived in a rough and cruel age, when passions were hot and human life was cheap. But the daughter of Catherine of Aragon was not by nature cruel. She was a woman of her age, and the victim of an idea. The prevalent characteristic of her nature was a spirit of loyalty to her mother and her faith. To understand her career it is necessary to remember the circumstances of her life. Her mother had been set aside for another favorite by her royal father. The head of the Roman church in whom her mother trusted had been repudiated by her lawless father for his own headship. The monasteries that symbolized the highest sanctity had been ruthlessly destroyed. Mary herself had never Thirty Queen Mary and the Smithfield Martyrs 157 been sure thai she would be allowed to live; and when the death of her brother had given her the right to reign, her enemies had tried to sup- plant her by the unfortunate Lady Jane Grey. When at last the Prin- cess Mary became queen, she burned to avenge the insults to her mother and the Roman church. She thrilled with a desire to restore to its rightful place the religion that all Spanish princesses loved. This ardent desire is a key to the story of her short reign. Note 2. The Restoration of Catholicism. To strengthen her policy Mary married her cousin, Philip II, of Spain, who liked England little and Mary less, and she proceeded to carry England back into the Roman fold. Very dutifully the members of Parliament knelt before Cardinal Pole, the papal legate, and confessed their sin of heresy. Very sturdily, however, they refused to surrender the monastic lands which king Henry had distributed to his friends among the nobility. But this did not greatly mar the satisfaction of all over this act of recon- ciliation. No prouder moment ever came in the life of the unhappy queen than this which saw the former wrong reversed; and at Rome there was unbounded rejoicing over the blow to the cause of Protestan- tism in Europe. Note 3. How the Nation Felt about it. It takes more than a royal proclamation or an act of Parliament to change the religion of a people. There were only a few in England who were seriously discontented with Roman Catholicism when Henry revolted against the control of the pope. Only the more intelligent townspeople sympathized with the efforts of king Edward's advisers when they tried to bring the church of England into line with the Lutheran and Calvinist churches of the Continent. Most of the English people were slu-ewd enough to see that the royal council was selfish in its endeavors to extend Protestan- tism, and when their controj was over the people were quite willing to see the restoration of the Catholicism in which they had been brought up and in which they really believed. The city of London was the stronghold of the newer faith, and some disturbances occurred there, but the clergy and nobles were sympathetic with the queen as there was no attempt to restore the church property which had fallen to many of them, and there was no prospect of serious opposition. Note 4. A Policy of Persecution. If queen Mary had been content with the restc^ation of friendly relations with the pope, and had given her time and strength to the upbuilding of national prosperity, her reign might have been both popular and prosperous. But her temper of mind and her unhappy experiences prevented this. In the first place 158 Landmarks in Christian History Lesson she was a most loyal Catholic. She would personally sacrifice any- thing in the interests of her faith: why should she not sacrifice the bodies of unbelievers to save their souls from eternal loss? It was a task given her by Heaven to champion the cause of the true church in a critical period of English history. Like Paul on the way to Damascus, she thought that she was doing God service when she persecuted heretics. In the second place she was most unhappy in her marriage relations, her health became broken, and she became irritable and a1 times almost insane. Under the spur of her religious zeal and her mental frenzy, it is not strange that she entered upon a program to root out heresy from her dominions, and that has given her in history the title of " Bloody Mary." Note 5. Imprisonment and Death. The queen did not at once bring heretics to the stake. One of her first acts was to remove from their positions the most prominent supporters of the policy of Edward VI. The leading bishops were deprived of their dioceses and thrown into prison. It is difficult in these days of prison reform and merciful treatment of even the most hardened criminals to realize what it meant to be imprisoned in the days of the Tudor sovereigns of England. Prisoners of all sorts were crowded together into filthy dens, sometimes plunged into underground dungeons, and kept there without trial for months and years. It was a living death that was worse than burning at the stake. Strong men came out of such an experience with broken health and loss of reason. Delicate women suffered untold agony and contracted incurable diseases. Even children suffered with the rest. After the queen's chief enemies were thus taken care of, the work of punishment and death began. There were two classes of people who suffered the extreme penalty in the reign of Mary. One was made up of ignorant fanatics who had learned something of what was going on in the Protestant countries of Europe, accepted the new ideas with enthusiasm, and clung to them with tenacity whether they understood them or not. Intolerant themselves, they suffered courageously the attacks of an intolerant government. The other class was composed of leading clergymen who counted the cost, but could not bring themselves to accept the Catholic interpretation of the ministry or the mass. Note 6. The Smithfield Martyrs. One of the first to die was John Rogers, who had made an EngHsh translation of the Bible. The scenes at his death were ominous of the effect which persecution was likely to have on the people. Here was a man whose conduct had been only good, and when he went to his death the people cheered him " as if he were going to his wedding." Within a few days several prominent Thirty Queeii Mary and the Smithfield Martyrs 159 bishops were sent to die at the stake in their own cathedral towns. Most of the executions of the reign were carried out at Smitlifield just outside London. There with the cattle market on one side and the old Norman church of Saint Bartholomew on the other, fagots were piled about the stakes in a large open space, the martyrs were fastened in the midst, and, wliile crowds of people watched and jeered, their bodies were consumed in the flames that bigotry and hate had kindled. It was a punishment as barbarous as the age that endured or applauded it. Burning was thought a suitable punishment for heretics, for it sym- bolized their future suffering after death. It was in harmony with the ideas of the age which called for torture as a necessary part of punish- ment. The horrors of Mary's reign cannot be laid entirely upon the person of the queen. They were inevitable if there was to be a policy of repression. They are a sad commentary on the religious supersti- tion of the queen, and on the spirit of a cruel age. Note 7. The Three Oxford Martyrs. Among the leaders of the English Reformation none were more eminent than Cranmer, who as Archbishop of Canterbury had been the chief of the English clergy, Ridley, Bishop of London in the reign of Edward, and Latimer, Bishop of Worcester in the days of Ilem^y's revolt. All three were tried in Saint Mary's church in Oxford, where they made a brave defense. Of course they were condemned as dangerous heretics. Cranmer was an old man and had borne the honors of the nation, but he was put to the torture like a common criminal, and in a moment of weakness con- fessed that he had been at fault. His enemies were determined not to be cheated of their prey, however, and he was condemned to die. Then as he stood in the face of death he declared liis true convictions, and held resolutely in the fire the hand that had signed his confession. Latimer too was an old man of seventy, but he encouraged Ridley to die bravely, and they also went honorably to their doom. There stands in Oxford to-day in the public square near wliicli they died a " Martyr's Monument " to the three faithful ones who went through the fiery furnace and sealed with their lives the faith that was the conviction of their souls. As often before, the blood of the martyrs was the seed of the church, and thousands of good Catholics accepted the faith of these tlu'ce because of their sturdy conduct. Note 8. The Effects of the Persecution. The result of all this severity was different from that which the queen anticipated. It alienated the people from their sovereign, and they breathed a sigh of relief when her reign was over. It made it certain that this violent reaction towards Catholicism could not last. Not only did Protestau- 160 Landmarks in Christian History ^^^^°^ tism come again, but the extremer Puritanism came with the return of exiles who liad fled for safety to the Continent, who felt there the in- fluences of Calvinism, and who returned after Mary's death determined to make the English church genuinely Protestant. It led the people to hate such absolutism as the Tudor sovereigns had shown, and it had a distinct influence toward democracy. Note 9. the Death of the Queen. Queen Mary died in Novem- ber, 1558, " the unliappiest of queens, and wives, and women." She knew that her husband did not love her, and that her people hated her. She did not even have the satisfaction of feeling that she had saved England to the Roman church. She had sacrificed everything to gain this end. She died broken-hearted and unwept. History has con- demned her, and with a measure of justice, for she made many suffer who might better have been allowed to live. But in this more tolerant and enlightened age the student of the English Reformation may well pity the ignorant, lonely, suffering queen, and be thankful for the re- ligious freedom and religious peace that has come about tlirough the unmeasured suffering of other days. Questions on the Summary of the Preceding Lesson. 1. What does the Episcopal church stand for? 2. What is its organization in England and the United States? 3. Explain the three parties in the church. Questions on the Present Lesson. 1. Describe the circumstances under which Mary Tudor came to the throne. 2. What was her religious policy.^ 3. Why was a Catholic policy likely to succeed? 4. What facts help to explain the harshness of the queen? 5. Tell of prison conditions in those days. Thirty-one jJqh^ Scotlaud BecaviG Protestant 161 G. What two classes of people would not be forced into Catholicism? 7. What is meant by the Smithfield martyrs? 8. Why were heretics burned to death? 9. Tell the story of the Oxford martyrs. 10. Mention three results of this severe policy of Queen Mary. Reading References. {1) Vi^YYj: Ilistorij of tlic Reformation in England, c\i. \^. {2) Lind- say: History of ilic Reformation, II, pp. 368-384. {3) Green: History of the English Pcoyle, II, Book IV, cli. 2. Lesson 31. HOW SCOTLAND BECAME PROTESTANT. The Trials of John Knox. Sources. — English and Scotch state papers; letters of Mary Stuart; writings of John Knox; various histories of the church of Scotland; the Book of Common Order of the church of Scotland. Suggestions for Study. — 1. Review the last lesson by means of the sum- mary, and be ready for class questions. 2. Read over the lesson story, and note especially: (a) how Protestantism came to Scotland; (6) the fortunes of John Knox before his return to Scotland; (c) the Lords of the Congregation; {d) the religious changes; {c) the fate of Mary, queen of Scots. 3. Think over the following topics for special discussion: Might not John Knox have served his country better if he had done what he could to purify the Catholic church of Scotland instead of stirring up a divisive Reformation? When is it necessary to take sides in a religious or moral reform? 4. The following exercises are suggested for the note-book: (a) the summary. (6) Draw a map of Scotland to show Edinburgh, Saint Andrews, Leith, and 162 Landmarks in Christian History Lesson Glasgow, (c) Write a short account of the travels of John Knox, {d) Write a description of the life of a galley slave, as it is given in Wallace's Ben Hur, or Jean Marteilhes's Memoirs of a Protestant. Note 1. A French Galley in the Sixteenth Century. Off the east coast of Scotland between Saint Andrews and Dundee a French galley lay at anchor. In it a galley slave, so ill that he seemed likely to die, looked away to the shore. " Do you see that place over yonder," asked a friend. " Yes, I know it well," was the reply, " for I see the steeple of that place where God first in public opened my mouth to his glory, and I am fully persuaded, how weak that ever I now appear, that I shall not depart this life till that my tongue shall glorify his godly name in the same place." This slave with the sturdy soul was John Knox, the leader of the Scotch Reformation. He had been captured by the French as a Protestant insurgent, and after the harsh practices of the times he had been made a galley slave, but in spite of bodily weakness he had faith to believe that his work as a Protestant was but just begun. Note 2. When Protestantism first Came to Scotland. Up to the sixteenth century Scotland was on the border of civilization. The high- land clans maintained feuds with one another and with the lowlanders from one generation to another. Catholicism was the religion of the land. The modern age had not yet dawned. Several circumstances, however, favored religious changes. Nowhere in Europe were the Catholic clergy more corrupt. The church was completely under the political control of the nobles. If the people ever awoke to a realization of these conditions there might be an outbreak of religious indignation. In the fifteenth century several universities had been founded, and these stimulated thought. Then by 1525 Lutheran books found their way into the country, and presently Protestant pioneers were preaching the doctrines of reform. Among these were Patrick Hamilton, a Scotch nobleman, who preached for some months but was burned at the stake in 1528, and George Wishart, an enthusiastic preacher of the new doctrines, who suffered similarly at Saint Andrews. The most im- portant achievement of Wishart was the conversion to Protestantism of John Knox, who was destined to be the Calvin of Scotland. Note 3. Progress of the Reformation. When Wishart died and Knox was carried off to France, it seemed as if Scotch Protestantism had been choked in the cradle. The government was friendly to the old church, and there was no leader of the Protestants remaining. As in other countries religion was mixed up with politics. If friendship with Protestants could help an ambitious ruler, then Protestants were Thirty-one jj^^ Scotland Became Protestant 163 treated less harshly; if not, they were condemned. Scotland was always at odds with England, so that when England changed the form of religion one way, Scotland threw its weight on the other. Scotland's continued national policy was friendship with France, and marriage alliances cemented the two nations. France was Catholic, and the prospects were that French iniiuence would succeed in keeping Scotland the same. Yet the cause of the Reformation made its way steadily in the land. There was great dissatisfaction with the Scotch clergLy; there was political rivalry among the nobles that led some to set Protestan- tism over against Catholicism; and Lutheran, Calvinist and Anglican influences all had their part. Note 4. Knox on the Continent. Meantime John Knox had been released from his floating prison, had spent two years in the north of England as a reformed preacher, and then had gone to the Continent when Mary began to persecute Protestants. He visited one place after another, waiting for better conditions in England, and making the acquaintance of some of the Protestant leaders. When he was con- vinced that he would not be able to return soon to England or Scotland, he went to Geneva to make his home in the city of Calvin. He found himself in close sympathy with the great reformer of Geneva, and Calvin recommended him as minister to a company of English refugees who had fled from th§ persecution of queen Mary and had settled in 'the German city of Frankfort. Protestants in their extreme individual- ism did not agree well in those days, and Knox did not get on well with his Frankfort congregation. He left them shortly, and after a brief stay in Geneva and a hurried visit to Scotland, where he married, he returned to Geneva and became pastor of a company of English exiles, ministering to them in a building under the shadow of Calvin's own church in the city. Note 5. The Lords of the Congregation. While Knox was absent the Protestants of Scotland had not been idle, and though the presence of their leader was made impossible, they were influenced by his advice. He had counselled them to bind together the leading Protestants of the country, and for this purpose a number of nobles and other influential men met at Edinburgh and united in a covenant " to maintain, set forward, and establish the most blessed Word of God and his congrega- tion." From this act they became known as Lords of the Congregation. All these nobles who hoped to preserve their own rights against the crown leaned toward the Protestant side. Scotland had for years been ruled by a French princess, a member of the Catholic family of the Guises, in the name of her daughter Mary. This daughter was married 164 Landmarks in Christian History ^^««" to the royal lieir of France the year after the Scotch lords had made their covenant. It looked as if together the Catholics of France and Scotland would destroy altogether the liberties of Scotland. In the midst of this crisis Knox returned to take a part in the regeneration of his country. Note 6. Changes in State and Church. Both sides appealed to arms. Knox joined the reformers, but not to fight with material weapons. The government outlawed him, but he proceeded about the country winning scores to the Protestant faith. In such strenuous times he did not hesitate to speak boldly, and the passions of the people took fire. Insurgents burst into the churches and monasteries, broke up the furniture, defaced the walls, and seized property. The people at Edinburgh wanted him for their minister, but he was not safe in the capital. After a few months the Lords of the Congregation were strong enough to make terms with their enemies, and while the danger was by no means over the Protestants were free to institute reforms. As the English Parliament voted the desired changes in the reigns of Henry VIII and Edward VI, so the Scotch Parliament put through the reforms of the Protestants in 1560. The first step was to abolish Catholicism and all relations with Rome. The second was to put in force a policy of intolerance against Catholics. The third was to adopt a Reformed Confession of Faith, which with .the Book of Discipline furnished a basis for Scotch Protestantism. Calvinism was the ac- cepted faith, and Presbyterianism the form of organization of the purified church of Scotland. These changes were not dependent upon the will of the crown. The youthful Mary was away from Scotland, residing in France as queen of that country. She was a good Catholic, but that made no difference in the action of the Scotch. Their religious reformation was virtually a political revolution as well, and though Mary was still in name queen of Scots, in reality she was almost without power. Note 7. John Knox vs. Mary, Queen of Scots. While in Geneva Knox had thundered against the English queen Mary Tudor in a pamphlet entitled First Blast of the Trum'pet against the Monstrous Regiment of Women. The ideas set forth were not at all in harmony with those of the queen of Scots; and when she ceased to be the queen of France at the death of her young husband in the very year of the religious changes in Scotland, and returned to pacify her own Scotch plains and highlands, she found herself speedily at odds with Knox. The queen did not hesitate to have mass celebrated for her in Holyrood Palace in her capital city of Edinburgh, but John Knox, farther up the Thirty-one ffgy^ Scotland Became Protestant 165 street from his pulpit in Saint Giles's church declared on the next Sun- day that one mass .was more hateful to him than ten thousand hostile soldiers. Mary invited him to the palace to reason with her about these tilings, but the stern reformer was so harsh that he left her in tears. Like an old prophet, he denounced her as a modern Jezebel, condemned the gaiety of her court, and declared the rights of the people of Scotland to be greater than those of any sovereign. At first she had gained the sympathy of the people, but her two unfortunate marriages after her return from France alienated them, and six years later she was forced to abdicate. Note 8. Death in Captivity. Queen Mary of Scotland, less than thirty years of age, at the same time one of the loveliest and one of the most hated of women, fled from her second throne to her cousin Eliza- beth of England. A Catholic queen, she was forced to sue for favor in a Protestant land. She had fallen far short of her ambition. In the beauty and promise of girlhood she had married a French prince, and before she was twenty she became queen of one of the proudest nations of Europe. In her own right she was queen of Scotland, and English Catholics looked upon her as the rightful heir of Mary Tudor instead of Ehzabeth. It was a dazzling prospect for a Scotch girl. Then in close succession misfortunes had fallen upon her: the loss of her posi- tion in France through the death of her husband, the acts of rebellion in her own Scotland, and now the crowning act of disloyalty that drove her from her throne. Elizabeth received her kindly in England, but Mary became the center of more than one attempt to place her instead of Elizabeth on the English throne. The only safe place to keep her was in prison, and at last another conspiracy drove the English queen to sign a death warrant for her execution, and Mary, queen of Scots, was no more. Note 9. The Leadership of John Knox. If the unfortunate queen wins sympathy for her hard fate, the Scotch leader wins admiration for the thoroughness of liis work. " He did not shrink from the hardest tasks. It was he who fasliioned the Confession after the model of Geneva. It was he who organized the Scotch church on a Presbyterian basis by means of a Book of Discipline. It was he who established Protestant worship according to a Book of Common Order. It was he who had most to do with the adoption of all these measures of reform by the General Assembly of the Presbyterian church of Scotland. Knox did not Kve to see the death of the queen who had fled to England. He toiled on for years in infirmity, impressing himself upon his nation by the " union of tenderness and strength, of humor and seriousness, 166 Landmarks in Christian History Lesson of geniality and severity, of manful sympathies and godly fervor " that characterized him, and he died at last feared by his enemies and cherished faithfully by his friends, earning well the eulogy pronounced at liis grave: " Here lies one who never feared the face of man," Questions on the Summaries of the Preceding Lessons. 1. What was the occasion of the revolt of England from the control of the pope? 2. What happened to the monasteries? 3. Who made the English church Protestant? 4. What were the characteristics of the new English Episcopacy? 5. What was the religious policy of Mary Tudor? 6. What was the favorite method of punishing heretics? 7. Who was the most illustrious victim of the persecutions in Eng- land? Questions on the Present Lesson. 1. How is John Knox introduced? ^ 2. Give reasons why Protestantism found a foothold in Scotland. 3. Who were some of the pioneers? 4. What conflicting influences were at work in the nation? 5. How was Knox occupied in the years when he was away from Scotland ? 6. Who were the Lords of the Congregation? 7. Name some of the changes in the church of Scotland. Thirty-two Presbyterians in History 167 8. Tell the story of Mary, queen of Scots. 9. Describe the relations of Knox and the queen. 10. What does Scotland owe to John Knox? Reading References. (1) Walker: The Reformation, pp. 313-334. (2) Beveridge: Makers of the Scottish Church, ch. 7. (3) Walker: Great Men of the Christian Church, pp. 255-269. (4) Cowan: John Knox. Lesson 32. PRESBYTERIANS IN HISTORY. Their Principles and Their Practice. Sources. — The Constitution of the Presbyterian church in the United States of America; Proceedings of councils; Records of the Kirk of Scotland, and Acts of the General Assembly; Macpherson's Preshyterianism; Macphail's The Pres- byterian Church. Suggestions for Study. — 1. Study the summary of the last lesson. 2. Read the story of the present lesson, noting especially : (a) the fundamental ideas of Presbyterians; (6) the fortunes of the church of Scotland; (c) the estab- lishment of Preshyterianism in America and its record here; {d) the present organization of American Presbyterians. 3. Think over the following topic for class discussion: What can a great de- nomination like the Presbyterians do to improve the relations of capital and labor? 4. Note-book work: (a) See that the summary of the last lesson is written out. (&) Prepare lists of ten countries in which American Presbyterian mis- sions are located, and of ten schools of higher learning in the United States. (Consult the article on Preshyterianism in the Encyclopedia Brifannico, 11th edition.) (c) Write a brief sketch on one of the following topics: the with- drawal of the Free Kirk ministers from the Scotch Assembly; or the work of the American Presbyterians for labor in the cities and for rural communities. (Consult for the last topics pamphlets issued by the Presbyterian Home Mission Board, 156 Fifth Avenue, New York.) Note 1. The Origins of Presbyterianism. The Presbyterian de- nomination is one of the strong Protestant bodies of the United States: 168 Landmarks in Christian History ^'^'^^ it is the established church of Scotland and the Netherlands, and it has been prominent in the history of other countries. It is believed that Presb jterianism has a basis in the New Testament and in the life of the primitive church, but the Presbyterian denomination finds its modern origin in Geneva, where Calvin gave to the Protestants of modern Europe liis theological ideas and certain practices regarding discipline which have continued as a convenient model. It is not often that one man has so widespread and permanent an influence in religion as John Calvin. He may well be called the father of Presbyterianism. In the city of Geneva it was impossible to work out such a complete system as is needed by a national church, but Calvin's work of organization was promptly completed in France and Scotland. Note 2. Fundamental Ideas. It was natural that Presbyterians everywhere should accept the doctrinal standards of Calvin, and so wherever a Presbyterian is found, one expects to discover a Calvinist. For many years English-speaking Presbyterians took the Westminster Confession of Faith, adopted by the English Parliament in 1648, as their unchanging standard of Calvinistic faith; but modern ways of looking at religious truth have modified the Calvinism even of Presby- terians. But the pecuharity of Presbyterians is not their Calvinistic doctrine, for other denominations have shared that with them, but it is their system of government. Discipline and organization were most important matters in the mind of Calvin, and it seemed to him that if discipline was to be effectual it must be in the hands of a few officers. On the basis of this idea a system of church councils or courts has been worked out, which is typical of Presbyterian organization everywhere. Calvin laid the basis of it in Geneva by organizing the local church officers into a consistory or local council, which should have charge of all cases of discipline. When the French Protestant church was organ- ized in 1559 the system was completed with the organization of a graded series of four church courts. Calvin's consistory was the local court. Next above it was the presbytery, which was the council or court for a wider district, and was composed of ministers and elders from the local churches in the district. Above this was the synod, including all Pres- byterians in a province; and highest of all was a general assembly of representatives of all Presbyterians in the nation. The Presbyterian system is a representative system, and stands between the Episcopal system in which the bishop exercises authority, and the Congregational system in which the members of the local congregation have final authority. It is a system in harmony with the modern spirit of representative democracy. Thirty-two PresbyteHans in History 169 Note 3. The Progress of Presbyterianism. It was natural that the Protestantism of the Netherlands should be influenced by the French and the Swiss. The Reformed church of the Netherlands accepted the Calvinistic faith and organized itself on the Presbyterian basis. So did the churches of the Rliine valley in Germany. John Knox organized the church of Scotland on Cahdn's model, and that church carried out most completely the organization and the spirit of Calvin that lay back of it. This was not accomplished without a hard struggle with Episco- pacy, but the Scotch won their own way even against Stuart kings of united England and Scotland through the devotion of the Covenanters who had bound themselves together for the defense of their religious liberties. The church of Scotland adopted the liturgy of Knox's church in Geneva, and for its declaration of faith the Westminster Confession. It had the same church courts as in France, but the local consistory re- ceived the name of the kirk session. An attempt was made to introduce the system of the Presbyterians into England in the reign of Elizabeth, but it was unsuccessful. Presbyterianism has never been strong there. It found its way to America tlu'ough several different channels, but American Presbyterianism gained its strength from the Scotch and Scotch-Irish. Note 4. The Church of Scotland. When there is one fixed church in a land, two things are almost sure to happen. One of these is that certain indi\T[duals wdll disHke the restraint that is exercised by such a church, and \\dll dissent from its rules of faith and order. The other is that there will be friction between the civil government and the ecclesi- astical government. Both happened in Scotland. Other denomina- tions gained a foothold in Scotland, and even witliin the Presbyterian church there was so much difference of opinion that parties were formed. Then the question of patronage troubled the churches. Civil authori- ties paid the salary of the minister, and lay patrons often decided who the minister should be. Yet the churches could hardly be expected to like such a plan. Scotch Presbyterians, therefore, passed through seasons of wordy war- fare, and true religion suffered much, for it was hardly to be supposed that spiritual experience would be fostered by such matters. When Scotchmen were not in debate over these questions, they were fond of dwelhng in thought and word on the doctrines of Calvinism. At last in 1843 the Scotch church split, mainly over the question of patronage, and four hundred and twenty-one ministers, led by Thomas Chalmers, gave up their livings, sacrificed their state support and their connection with the church which had come down from the Reformation, and 170 Landmarks in Christian History ^^«*<>" organized the Free Kirk. This secession led to wiser measures in the parent body, and in 1874 patronage was abolished and the people allowed to elect their own ministers, though the church continues to be the established church of the land. . An earher revolt against some of these same evils had led to the organization of a separate body, known later as the United Presby- terians, and in 1900 this group united with the Free Kirk to form the United Free Church of Scotland. Because of acts like these, there are to-day in Scotland two large and several smaller Presbyterian bodies, all \drtually agreeing in matters of faith and practice, but existing in- dependently. The separation has brought about improvements that would hardly have been possible in one organization. Both of the large bodies are prosperous and growing. They have modified the harshness of the old Calvinism; they are interested in missions and social service; and they excel in scholarly attainments. Altogether they have about seventeen hundred congregations and one milhon, two hundred thousand members. Note 5. Presbjrterian Emigration. Early in the seventeenth cen- tury northern Ireland was colonized by Protestants from Great Britain. Among these was a considerable number of Scotch Presbyterians. Later in American colonial days many Scotch-Irish descendants settled among the foothills of the Alleghanies, and became some of the sturdiest citizens of the United States. From the European continent came Presbyterians from the Rliine lands and from France, and of course, the Dutch had no small share in American settlement. Local churches were planted here and there, and the first presbytery was organized in Philadelphia in 1706; ten years later tliis developed into a synod. The strength of Presbyterianism was in the middle colonies and among the hills. Presbyterians were not welcome in New England, though the organization of the Congregationalists was semi-Presbyterian in the seventeenth century. As the country expanded toward the West, the Presbyterians shared in the religious gains. Note 6. The Record of American Presbyterians. When the American Revolution broke out, there were seventeen presbyteries and one hundred and seventy ministers in the colonies. These were loyally American, and they suffered much from the war. When it was over the denomination reorganized its forces, and held the first meeting of a General Assembly of all Presbyterians in the country. When settlers began to push rapidly into the interior, the Presbyterians and Congrega- tionalists formed a Plan of Union in 1801, by which they agreed to work together in planting new churches. This plan lasted for twenty- Thirty-two Presbyterians in History 171 seven years. During this period a revival swept through Kentucky and Tennessee, and many converts required more preachers than could be educated. The Presbyterian church laid great stress on education, and objected to the appointment of untrained ministers in the district. But local opinion was otherwise, and presently the Cumberland presby- tery withdrew from the parent body, and organized a new denomination, which continued as the Cumb^land Presbyterians until a reunion was brought about in 1906. From time to time other differences arose in the main body over such questions as a general or limited atonement, agreement or partial dis- agreement with the terms of the Westminster Confession, the sanction of slavery in the South, and revivalism. These differences of opinion produced denominational schisms, and some of the Scotch divisions have also been perpetuated here. The most important of these divi- sions are the United Presbyterians, and the Southern Presbyterian church which separated from the main body at the time of the Civil War. Like the Presbyterians across the sea, the Americans have grown more liberal in interpreting doctrine, and are interested in missions and social welfare. In organizing to meet social needs in city and country the Presbyterians have been leaders among Protestant denominations in America. They emphasize the importance of education, and are well equipped with colleges and seminaries. Altogether the Presby- terians in this country number about two million members, and are growing steadily in numbers and in strength. Note 7. How the Presbyterians are Organized in the United States. Each church is composed of those who accept the Calvinistic faith in a sovereign God and in the Bible as a sovereign guide, and who confess a distinct purpose to follow Jesus Christ. The minister is the spiritual teacher, and a board of elders elected by the church oversees discipline. The minister and elders constitute the session, which de- cides all cases of discipline, but a member under discipline may appeal to a higher church court. The session also receives members into the church, and appoints delegates to the presbytery. The presbytery is composed of the pastor and one elder as repre- sentatives from each church in a district. This body has control over the ministers and churches in the district instead of allowing them to be the supreme judges of their own affairs. It is this organization that has given the distinctive name to the denomination. Synods and the general assembly are organized like the presbytery, but have oversight over larger territory, and rank higher in authority than the pregbj'tery. 172 Landmarks in Christian History Lesson The general assembly elects a moderator as its head, and this is a great honor; but he has no episcopal authority and liis office is not permanent. Questions on the Summary of the Preceding Lesson. 1. Who was the leader of the Scotch Reformation? 2. By whom was he opposed? 3. What was the fate of the queen? ^ Questions on the Present Lesson. 1. How did Presbyterianism originate? 2. What peculiarities distinguish the Presbyterians? 3. Show how the Genevan organization developed into a full system. 4. Describe the progress of Presbyterian ideas in Europe, 5. Tell something of the difficulties of the church of Scotland. 6. Explain how there came to be Presbyterians in the United States. 7. What are some of the different Presbyterian bodies in Scotland and in the United States? 8. What are the interests of present day Presbyterians? 9. How is the denomination organized in America? 10. Define Plan of Union, Kirk session, and Westminster Confession Thirty-three fji^ English Puritaus 173 Reading References. {!) Macphail: The Presbyterian Church. {2) Tliompson: History of the Presljyterian Churches in the United States, ch. 17. {3) Article on Presbyterianism in the Encyclopcedia Britannica, 11th edition. Lesson 33. THE ENGLISH PURITANS. OHver CromweU and his Men. Sources. — Cromwell's letters and speeches; Pepys' Diary; Strype's Memo- rials; journals and memoirs; constitutional documents; large numbers of tracts, pamphlets, letters and manuscripts. Suggestions for Study. — 1. Read over the summary of the preceding lesson. 2. Read the lesson story, noting especially: (a) the religious desires of the Puritans; (6) the king James Bible translation; (c) Puritan insurgency; {d) the spirit and method of Cromwell. 3. Think over the following topics for class discussion: When is a revolution justified.? Would the religious wishes of the Puritans have been sufficient reason for going to wa.r? 4. Note-book work: (a) See that the summary of the last lesson is in proper form. (6) Write a sketch comparing Cromwell and Washington, (c) Draw a map of England to show how the country was divided, and mark the principal battle fields, (d) Draw a map of New England to show the principal Puritan settlements, (e) Make a list of five English translations of the Bible, and state how each came into existence. Note 1. Origin of the English Puritans. In all great social changes there are always a few people who see farther ahead than the crowd, and are not satisfied with the extent of the changes that take place. When England was made Protestant there were some who wanteU to sweep away all the Catholic customs, like the peculiar vestments of the clergy, the custom of kneeling when receiving the sacrament, and other symbols. These radical Protestants were in special danger when queen Mary restored Catholicism, and many of them fled to Protestant cities of the Continent. It was to one such group that John Knox min- istered at Geneva. There they came under the influence of Calvin. At one time they asked him if they ought to use the prayer book of king Edward, and he gave an unfavorable reply because it needed greater purity. This desire for reform in the interests of purity in religion gave to these radical Protestants the name of Puritans. Note 2. The Puritans and the Established Church of England. As it was the theory of the Roman Catholic church of the Middle Ages that all Christians must belong to the one church and accept the com- 174 Landmarks in Christian History Leason mands of its head, so it was the theory in England in the sixteenth cen- tury that all the Christian people of England must belong to the one Anglican church and accept the rules laid down by its head, the English sovereign. Most of the Puritans were willing to agree to these terms, hoping to reform the church within the organization. But there were some who did not believe that the government ought to control the church. They had no objection to one national church, but it ought not to be governed by the king or be administered by bishops. They wanted to introduce the system of Geneva where the state assisted the church and where there were no bishops to control the ministers. This was the Presbyterian party in the Anglican church, and was led by Thomas Cartwright, one of the able leaders of the English Puritans. Besides the episcopal Puritans and the Presbyterians there were a few who believed that each congregation should be a complete and inde- pendent church, and they are known in English history as Independents or Separatists, and from their congregations came the modern English and American Congregationalists and Baptists. They received no sympathy from Puritans or Presbyterians, and some of them suffered death for their radicalism. Note 3. The Puritans and the Sovereign. The Puritans of every type were obnoxious to the rulers of England. The first desire of the sovereign was to have peace and uniformity in religion, and anything that looked like independent thinking or practice was frowned upon. After Mary's death her sister Elizabeth restorecj Protestantism, but she was more conservative than Edward VI and his advisers, and she would tolerate neither Puritans in the Anglican church, nor Presby- terians who wanted a different church. She had many a tiff with Thomas Cartwright, as Mary of Scotland had with John Knox, but she had her way as long as she lived. When Elizabeth died in 1603 she left no direct heir to the English throne. Her Aunt Margaret had married into the royal family of Scotland, and James, the son of Mary, queen of Scots, became king of England as well as of Scotland. Puritan ministers hastened to meet him on his way to the English capital, but in a conference at Hampton Court he told them plainly that his interests were with the regular church, and the only promise that they could secure from him was a new Bible translation. This attitude of opposition to ecclesiastical reform continued for the next forty years through the reigns of James I and his son Charles I. Note 4. The King James Bible. The Bible translation author- ized by James was the most important product of his reign. There had . Thiriy.thre» f^g English Puritans 175 been several earlier English translations, and in particular the Genevan Bible, a Puritan edition published on the Continent. This was the first to divide chapters into verses. It had explanatory notes, and in other ways was an improvement over its predecessors. But it could hot command the confidence of most Anglicans, and there was need of a revision that would be acceptable to all the people of the realm. So king James authorized a new version, and appointed competent schol- ars to perform the task. They made use of previous translations, and studied carefully the best of the original Hebrew and Greek texts, and in 1611 produced an Authorized Version that has remained the standard Bible of English-speaking Protestants until recent years. It was also the basis of a great many translations by foreign missionaries. In the latter part of the nineteenth century it seemed desirable to have a revision of king James' version .because older manuscripts had been discovered and critical scholarship had become more exact than was possible early in the seventeenth century. For this reason English and American revisers undertook the work, and by 1885 had completed a Revised Version of the Old and New Testaments. This version is winning its way gradually into popular favor. Note 5. Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress. Some of the most inde- pendent of the Puritans were deeply religious men. Richard Baxter was a minister who had a powerful religious influence over his, parish- ioners, and labored for Christian union and sympathy in an age that was narrow and selfish. His Sainfs Everlasting Rest was one of the most prized books of Puritan literature. John Bunyan is better known. During an imprisonment of twelve years in Bedford Jail for conscience sake, he commenced Pilgrim's Progress, a religious allegory which, when completed, began to influence greatly the common people, and which eventually came to stand next to the Bible in the estimation of thousands of evangelical Christians. In scholarly circles it is regarded as one of the best productions of English authors with respect to the purity of its literary style. Note 6. Puritan Insurgents. When the English Puritans found that they could not hope for royal favor, and that all evidences of in- dependence brought punishment, they concluded that no course of action remained to them but to go into politics, and force the king to promote reforms. Parliament was supposed to have a share in the government of both state and church, and they might be able to push through parliamentary reform. But the Stuart kings were so deter- mined to have their own way, that they proceeded to rule without Par- 176 Landmarks in Christian History Leaaon liament. But in spite of the emigration to America of thousands of discouraged Protestants, the spirit of insurgency grew. At length king Charles was compelled to summon ParHament to provide means for quelhng a Scotch disturbance. The insurgents in- sisted first that existing abuses should be stopped. They brought to trial the leading agents of the king. They proceeded to pass laws that would force the king to reform his policy. Presently they grew so bold that the king interfered and demanded the arrest of five of the most conspicuous advocates of popular liberty. He even went himself to the House of Parliament and stationed his guard at the door to pre- vent their escape. But they had heard a rumor of what was about to happen, and had fled. When the king made his way into the room, he looked over the assembly for the five men, and when he did not see them he said, " Ah! I see the birds have flown," and bafiled, went his way. The people of London were in an uproar because the king had vio- lated the privileges of Parliament in entering their assembly with an armed force. They began to take sides for and against the king. They formed military companies, and marched to and fro with great show of zeal. As was to be expected the church and the nobility favored royal authority, and with them ranged themselves the less important gentry who hoped to gain advantage from their loyalty. On the other side were the tradesmen and many of the farmers, and the Puritans everywhere. The strength of the Puritan party was always in the sober and sturdy middle class on whom rested the prosperity of the nation. Note 7. Fighting for Freedom. It soon became plain that liberty could be won only by the sword. The king rallied his supporters, and the war began. The Parliamentary insurgents had no lack of volun- teers, but they needed training. There was one man in the parlia- mentary army, a staunch Puritan, who was wise enough to see that improvement was needed on his side if the cause of popular rights and true religion was to win in the bitter struggle that he foresaw. This man was Oliver Cromwell. Pie knew that the king's army was inspired by a sense of honor and loyalty to the sovereign; over against this spirit he thought it necessary to appeal to loyalty to God and the truth. He believed that even the common men, rustics and apprentices, could be drilled into a brave and powerful force, if only they were animated with that spirit. But he had better material than that. There were young men of Puritan families who had as good horses and as brave hearts as the royal cavaliers, and these men he determined to use. He TMrty-three f]^^ English PuHtans 177 drilled his own men patiently until they were masters of military tactics. He infused into them a deep sense of their task as defenders of religion. He fired them with his own purpose and enthusiasm. On the eve of the battle of Marston Moor, wliile the soldiers of the royal army were carousing, the regiment of Cromwell held a prayer meeting; the next day it was their cavalry charge that won a great victory for Parliament, and they celebrated by singing psalms. The man who could produce such a regiment of Ironsides as this was wanted for general of the arm}-. What he had done with a few he was able to do with many. A year later on the field of Naseby Cromwell proved decisively that his method was the true one, and that " God with us " was a more thrilling challenge than the name of king or queen. Note 8. A Puritan Dictator. The civil war ended with the defeat of the royalists and the execution of the king. Charles I had reigned for himself alone; it was the Puritan idea that he should have reigned for his people. Even before the war was over religious reforms were carried out. The Presbyterians found themselves strong enough to change the constitution of the Anglican church, and in the famous Westminster Assembly of Presbyterian leaders they adopted their Con- fession and Catechism after the pattern of Calvin. But as Episcopacy gave way to Presbyterianism, so thelatter gave place to Independency. The revolution had produced an army more powerful than Parliament, and the army was independent in its ideas of religion and government. At the head of the army was Cromwell. In the confusion and conflict of parties he held public afi^airs with a continually tightening rein. The people could not be trusted to govern themselves; Cromwell became their Lord Protector. He was the personification of Puritanism. He felt himself called of God to lead the Puritan hosts, as truly as were the heroes of ancient Israel. In the vigorous spirit of the Old Testament he maintained a Puritan rule over England. He was a typical Puritan in the strength of his religious beliefs, and in the courage of his con- victions. But Puritanism was harsh in its methods, and too often gloomy and narrc w in its spirit. It went too far in its emphasis upon sobriety and religiousness, and the reaction came in the restoration of the Stuart monarchy in 1660 and in a carnival of unrestrained pleasure. Yet Puritanism worked mightily for good in old England, and in the New England beyond the Atlantic it laid the foundations of a sturdy and God-fearing nation. The reaction could not prevent the completion of reform at a later day. Oliver Cromwell was a dictator at a time when strength and courage were most needed to prevent national shipwreck. 178 Landmarks in Christian History ^"'<"» Surely England had seen a contrast between a king who claimed to rule by divine right, but who in reality was a selfish tyrant, and a man who ruled well, not because he was born to the purple, but because he felt himself guided by the hand of God, and realized his duty to the nation. Questions on the Summary of the Preceding Lesson. 1. What is the meaning of Presbyterianism? 2. Where did it originate? 3. Where has it been prominent? Questions on the Present Lesson. 1. How did there come to be Puritans in England? 2. What was their purpose, and how far did they achieve it in the first fifty years? 3. How did the Puritans fiisi o,k\ with the English rulers? 4. What is the meaning of the king James version of the Bible? 5. Explain hjw there came to be a civil war. 6. Why did many Puritans emigrate? y. Ji* what way did Cromwell become prominent? 8. What proved the valor of the Ironsides? 9. Outline the history of Cromwell's dictatorship. Thirty^jour f^g Pilgrim Exiles 179 10. Show the contrast between Charles I and Cromwell. Reading References. (1) Heron: Short History of the Puritans. (2) Roosevelt: Life oj Oliver Cromwell. {3) Gardiner: CromwelVs Place in History. Lesson 34. THE PILGRIM EXILES. The Mayflower and its Company. Sources. — Bradford's History of Plymouth Plantation; Mourt's Relation; Plymouth Colony Records; Arber's Story of the Pilgrim Fathers, containing nu- merous extracts from the sources; Hanbury's Memorials. Suggestions for Study. — 1. Read the summary of the preceding lesson for class questions. 2. Read the story of the present lesson. Take special note of: (a) the differ- ence between Puritans and Separatists; (6) the life in Holland; (c) the Plymouth settlement; {d) the spirit that produced success. 3. Think over the following topics for discussion in class : Is such a pilgrim- age as that of the Scrooby folk more worth while than the religious pilgrimages to Rome or Mecca.? Give reasons. Is it possible to speak of the Pilgrim enter- prise as a Christian mission? 4. Note-book work: (a) See that the preceding summary is complete. (6) Draw a map to show the pilgrimage of the Scrooby company, (c) Write an imaginary description of the departure of the Mayflower from Plymouth back to England, or of the signing of the compact in the Mayflower cabin, {d) Make a diagram to show the growth of independency in English religion from the time of Henry VHI to the Plymouth settlement, (e) Write in one hundred words the substance of the Mayflower Compact. Note 1. The Pilgrim Church in Scrooby. There was an old manor house in Scrooby on the road from London to York in the north of Eng- land that had a history. When Margaret, the sister of Henry VIII, married king James IV of Scotland, she stopped there over night on her bridal journey north. When Cardinal Wolsey was dismissed by king Heru'y, he too found a resting place at Scrooby for a time. But the most important part of its history is not in connection with queen or cardinal, but in its Pilgrim church. In the days when the Puritan ministers were haggling with king James at the Hampton Court Conference, there was living in the old manor house a certain William Brewster, who was a postmaster in the employ of the sovereign. Between his official duties he thought much 180 Landmarks in Christian History Lesson about matters of religion, and was inclined to be quite independent in his thinking. Before long he invited his neighbors to meet Sundays in the manor house, and listen to Puritan preaching. But he and his friends believed that it was not enough to be a Puritan, and so organized an independent church of theh own, and separated altogether from the established Anglican church. Note 2. Puritans and Separatists. At this time there were in England a great many Puritans, but very few Separatists. It is im- portant to distinguish between the two, for it is easy to confuse them. Puritans were persons who wished to reform the church, but had no thought of withdra\ving from it, at least not so long as they remained in England. But there w^ere a few who thought that it never would be possible to secure reform from wdthin; and they decided to separate from that* which was hopelessly worldly. Those who thus separated themselves were called Separatists. Because they dissented from the opinions of the great majority of church people, they are often spoken of as Dissenters. Because they organized themselves, ecclesiastically as independent congregations, they are also called Independents and Congregationalists. In America all Puritans became Independents, and adopted a Congregational form of church organization, but in England they were quite distinct. When the Scrooby people organized their congregation, there were three other Separatist congregations that had originated in England, but because of persecution had fled to Holland, where there was toleration. But neither the English government nor the English people had much sympathy for those Protestants who were so radical that they could not affiliate with the old fine Anglicans, the Puritans, or the Presb\i;erians. Note 3. The Scrooby Separatists Begin their Pilgrimage. It was the established policy of the English sovereigns not to tolerate religious dissent. The Scrooby people knew that in organizing their own con- gregation they were inviting attack. Other Separatists were being put to death for a similar fault. To many people they may seem foolishly independent, but with them it was a matter of conscience. They could not obey the proclamation of king James demanding uniformity, and therefore they made preparations to leave the country for safety. After they had made the necessary arrangements for transportation, had disposed of some of their property and packed up their movable goods, they made their w^ay to old Boston, and prepared to set sail for Amsterdam. Twice they were prevented from leaving the country, for the king would not permit Englishmen to banish themselves from the homeland. At last, however, they made their way to Holland, Thirty-four f^g PUgrim ExiUs 181 where they were welcomed by other EngHsh exiles. In Amsterdam they remained about a year, but they found their English neighbors so extremely independent as to be quarrelsome, and the Scrooby people moved on to Leyden. It was not easy for these English men and women to give up their homes in the parish where their ancestors had lived, to sacrifice property and occupations, and to attempt to get a hving in the midst of untried surroundings, and in the midst of a people who had different customs and spoke a different language. The Scrooby folk could not expect to improve their material fortunes, but they were willing to suffer incon- venience and poverty if only they could be free to practice their own religion, and this they were able to do in Leyden. Note 4. The Mayflower Enterprise. After they had remained in Leyden more than ten years, it became apparent that they could not hope for religious liberty in England, and they began to look about for a new home. They had been able to get on in Leyden, but they saw their children growing up like the Dutch rather than their own English people, and they longed for some English shore where they might end their pilgrimage, and leave a better heritage to those who came after them. Not a few of those who suffered for religion's sake turned their eyes toward America in those days, and though Englishmen had made only one permanent settlement, and that at Jamestown was under Anglican auspices, the Scrooby company looked about for means to emigrate to some part of the Atlantic coast. A company of merchants in London, England, had obtained a large grant of land in the southern coast region. This company was looking for industrious settlers, and presently a bargain was struck between them. So it came about that as many of the Scrooby folk as could go found themselves one morning on the deck of the ship Speedwell in the harbor of Delft, listening to the farewells of their friends, and especially of their beloved minister John Robinson, who was to remain behind. From Delft they sailed across the English channel to Southampton, where other Pilgrims joined them in the Mayflower, but unfortunately the Speedwell proved unseaworthy, many became discouraged and decided to abandon the enterprise, and at last the Mayflower got away late in September 1620, crowded with a hundred passengers. Note 5. The Mayflower Compact. It was a stormy voyage that the Mayflower company experienced, but they weathered the gales and after two montlis dropped anchor in Cape Cod Bay instead of in Virginia. The coast of southeastern New England is far from an in- viting sight in November, but the v/^^ry emigrants were glad to set 182 Landmarks in Christian History ^«"'>'» foot on shore, and as soon as possible they investigated the country, and at last, late in December, broke ground for a settlement in a harbor that they called Plymouth. It had been agreed before they left Eng- land that the Pilgrims should not be molested in their religious beliefs, and they were free to arrange for their own government. They were lovers of law and order, like all good Englishmen, but there were some adventurers among the colonists who were not of the Scrooby company, and who were inclined to act independently. In order to make their community life secure, the Pilgrims gathered in the cabin of the May- flower and signed a compact by which they covenanted to keep the laws that were made and to accept whatever government it should seem best to adopt. They had already chosen a governor, and when they landed and made their settlement their life went on as smoothly as if they were Englishmen in the mother country. Note 6. The Meaning of the Plymouth Settlement. The colony of the Pilgrims at Plymouth never was very large. It was overshad- owed by the more extensive colony of Massachusetts Bay, and before the century was over it was merged in the larger colony. The Scrooby company could not boast of well-to-do merchants and university- trained ministers, like the Puritans of Boston, but the Mayflower enter- prise has a significance of its own that makes it not less important. Ten years before the Puritans settled at Charlestown in Boston harbor the Pilgrims established a commonwealth on the foundation of democ- racy in church and state. They had come to America as Congrega- tionalists; and in the Mayflower Compact they had drawn up an in- strument of self-government that introduced a new era. On this foun- dation the Pilgrim state existed as long as it remained a separate colony, and its two-fold democracy was a valuable example to other colonies, and a precedent for democratic government in the whole nation. Small as it seemed in its beginnings the Pilgrim settlement at Plymouth was in effect one of the greatest enterprises in history. Note 7. The First Winter. As if nature conspired with the Eng- lish king to crush the spirit of independence, the first winter treated the Pilgrims harshly. Under severe handicaps they erected their log houses on the slope of the hill that rises above the harbor, and at the top built their meeting-house, and planted their cannon on its roof. Through the long weeks the Mayflower rode at anchor in the harbor, but no other sail broke the horizon line. The bitter cold and snow were worse than anything to which they had been accustomed, and, after the long and perilous passage, were most trying to the health of the community. One after another succumbed to the hardships of Thirty-four ffig Pilgrim Exiles 183 those months, and when spring came and the Mayflower sailed away to England, not more than half of the original company remained above the sod. Even John Carver, the governor, was dead. But the sturdy souls that had suffered and dared so much were not daunted, and not one would return when the Mayflower turned her prow to the east. Seldom in the world's history has there been so pathetic or heroic a scene as when the little handful of Pilgrims gathered on Burial Hill and watched the Mayflower pass the point and disappear. The last tie with old England was broken. They did not know whether they should ever again see an English ship. But they dared it all for re- ligion's sake, and they trusted in God to bring them through even the valley of the shadow of death. Note 8. The Future of the Colony. With the spring came better fortunes. The Indians were friendly. Fish swarmed in the sea, and game was abundant in the woods. Grain was planted and harvested. The colony received other settlers from England. The young people married and made homes of their own. With Bradford as governor and Brewster as religious leader, the community kept the peace and prospered. In time some of the settlers pushed out and established homes beyond the original bounds of the settlement. Later on they met the outposts of the Massachusetts Bay colony extending toward the south. Such prosperity was most satisfactory after the precarious existence of the first months at Plymouth. But it should be remem- bered that this future prosperity could not be foreseen in the dark days, and it was only their courage as Englishmen and their faith as religious pioneers that made possible their victory over every obstacle. Note 9. The Church of the Pilgrims. It was a great disappoint- ment to the original emigrants that their pastor, John Robinson, had been unable to accompany them. William Brewster, although not ordained, ministered to the spiritual needs of the company as best he could until a regular minister could be obtained. The local church organized itself, and managed its affairs on the Congregational pattern. It affiliated with the independent churches of the Massachusetts Bay settlement, and from time to time sent out religious colonies of its own that became independent churches. In this way Congregationalism received its planting in New England when it had been banished from old England over sea, and from this beginning " the Congregational, way " has found a path for itself across the American continent, and from America has crossed a larger ocean to India, China and Japan. 184 Landviarks in Chrisiian Hidory ^^««on Questions on the Summary of the Preceding Lesson. 1. Who were tlie Puritans? 2. Why did they resort to a revolution? 3. Who was their greatest leader? 4. How did the Puritans succeed? Questions on the Present Lesson. 1. Why is Scrooby manor house of special historic interest? 2. Who were the Separatists? 3. Why did the Scrooby congregation go to Holland? 4. Explain the cause and the nature of the Mayflower enterprise. 5. Describe the voyage, and the agreement made before landing. 6. Why is the settlement of Plymouth important? 7. Describe the hardships and the heroism of the first months. 8. How did the future result? 9. Who were the principal leaders among the Pilgrims? 10. What was the church of the Pilgrims? Thirty-five Congregationolists in America 185 Reading References. {1) Fiske: Beginnings of New England, pp. 66-87. {2) Young: Chronicles of the Pilgrim Fathers, pp. 109-239. {3) Ames: The May- flower and her Log. Lesson 35. CONGREGATIONALISTS IN AMERICA. What Con- gregationalism Means. Sources. — Winthrop's Journal; Mather's Magnolia; Dexter's Congregational- ism as seen ifi its Literature; Walker's Creeds and Platforms of Congregationalism; Dimning's The National Council Digest. Suggestions for Study. — 1. Read over the summary of the last lesson. 2. Read the story of the present lesson. The following points should be especially considered: (a) the organization of an established Congregationalist system of church and state in New England; (6) the importance of the ministers; (c) how the churches manage their affairs; (d) the various interests of the de- nomination; (c) its standing and present prospects. 3. Think about the following topic for class discussion: What can a single Congregationalist church do in a country community to improve social conditions? 4. Note-book work: (a) See that the summary of the last lesson is written out in full, (b) Write a short account of one of the following: John Winthrop, Cotton Mather, Jonathan Edwards, or Henry Ward Beecher. (c) Draw a map to show the early Congregationalist colonies, and some of the important Con- gregationalist centers of later days. Note 1. Congregationalism the EstabUshed Faith of New Eng- land. The pioneers of religious independency in England were the ancestors of two prominent denominations in present day England and America — the Congregationalists and Baptists. They were individual- ists in religion when all others accepted the idea of a national church. They wanted neither bisliop nor presbytery to govern them, but main- tained the right of every congregation to control itself. This is the peculiar characteristic of Congregationalism. The Pilgrims were the first English Independents to seek asylum in America, but the main stream of immigration did not come through the port of Plymouth. In the troubled years of strife that preceded the English Revolution, Puritans who despaired of reforming the Anglican church crossed the Atlantic and settled the colony of Massa- chusetts Bay about Boston as a center. Here three thousand miles from home they took on the Congregational t}^e of independency with Plymouth as a model. Twenty thousand Puritans thus became New England Congregationalists in the decade before 1640. Some of the settlers made their way to New Haven and to the Connecticut valley. 186 Landmarks in Christian History Lesson until four tiny commonwealths were organized on the independent pattern. In these commonwealtlis each church was founded on the Congregationalist model, but with a recognition of inter-church fellow- ship. Each colony was sufficiently exclusive to desire the presence of none but people of their own kind, and each relied on a friendly colonial government of their own making to see that the type was preserved. In this way the Congregationalist church became the " standing order " of religion in New England, except in Rhode Island, as truly as the Anglican church was a state establishment in England. Note 2. The Influence of the Ministers. In the Congregationahst churches there is no recognition of a minister as bishop or priest. A minister is the leader of Ihe local congregation in religious interests, the pastor of souls as the shepherd is caretaker of his flock, the administrator of spiritual tilings in the parish, the counsellor and teacher of his own people, and the adviser of other churches and ministers. He is ambas- sador of God to men, but not a priest standing between God and men. He has no authority except that which is given him by the church. His influence is proportionate to the strength of his own personahty and the sheer force of his own manliness. The Congregationalist church has always put emphasis upon an upright and educated body of ministers, and honors and respects its leaders. In colonial days they were men of greatest influence because of the close alliance between church and state. As religious interest was the motive that led to the emigration, so the minister as interpreter of divine and human conduct was the first citizen. In the parish, which was identical with the town, he was the acknowledged leader; in the colonial legislature he was an outspoken lobbyist. This dominance of religious leaders has given the name of " the theocracy " to the government of Massachusetts until the exclu- sive policy broke down about thirty-five years after the colony was founded. Note 3. Breathing a Religious Atmosphere. The young people of New England grew up in surroundings such as these, and Sundays and week days they breathed this religious atmosphere. In their re- ligious opinions they shared in the doctrines of Calvin, and the Con- gregationalist home and parish reflected the sternness of Puritan Geneva. Moral standards were high, and the rules of life were strict. It was not all solemnity and shadow in the Puritan home, but life was a serious responsibility, and if any persons failed to live correctly they were speedily called to account. The church assumed the responsi- bility of regulating the lives of its members, and the Congregationalists regarded discipline as important as did the Presbyterians. But they Thirty-five Congregationolists in America 187 carried it through in a different way, and in this lies the fundamental difference between Congregationalists and Presbyterians, not in a matter of behef. Note 4. Congregationalist Organization. The very name Congre- gational puts emphasis on the congregation. In Congregationalism the local church is independent of every other church or combination of churches, and every church is governed by its own members. While the Presbyterian denomination has its general assembly, its synods, and its presbyteries, all with jurisdiction over the local church, the Congre- gationalist denomination is only a loose federation of local churches, organized for convenience and for fellowship in a national council, and in state and district conferences and associations, but none of these have power over the local church. Congregationalism represents pure de- mocracy in religion. In the government of the local church Congrega- tionalist history has presented two varieties, one where every member of the congregation has an equal voice, the other where the leaders exercise control. The former is the true Congregationalism; the latter is a semi-Presbyteriamsm, that was strong in the aristocratic days of the theocracy, but gave way to a purer democracy. As Puritan ideas lost the strength of their grip with the passing of time, discipline became of less relative importance. Other matters interested the churches. At the same time there was not the strenuous necessity of insisting upon local independence. That principle was understood and accepted as a fundamental principle in the denomina- tion. The value of fellowship between the churches led to the organiza- tion of conferences of churches and ministerial associations, but care was always taken to see that there was no infringement of the rights of the churches. This is the time-honored " Congregational way," and for these principles of independence and fellowship Congregationalism stands. Note 5. The History of Colonial New England. The Puritan commonwealth of New England enjoyed material prosperity because the settlers contended sturdily against savage nature and still more savage Indians. They gained political experience and self-confidence by their experiments, and though they could not surpass their fathers in serious purpose and religious devotion, they maintained their church life and their religious customs, and carried Congregationalism with them as they steadily advanced the frontiers of settlement. The Con- gregational way was not free from briars and pitfalls. Church con- ferences were held more than once. There was discussion over the right to church membership and admission to the ordinances of baptism 188 Landmarks in Christian History ^^^""^ and the Lord's Supper, especially as to the privileges of cliildren, and this was settled for nearly two centuries by the adoption of a " half-way covenant," which admitted to baptism the children of those who were not in full membership but in affiliation. Sometimes drastic action had to be taken to keep out or to expel disturbers of the civil or religious peace. Often the Congregationalist leaders bewailed the religious leth- argy of those in Zion. ^ The early seventeenth century witnessed a serious decline in religious interest, but later revivals under Jonathan Edwards and George Wliite- field, an English preacher, stimulated a better spirit. Edwards was an inlellectual giant as well as a revivalist, the greatest thinker that America produced in colonial days. He was the founder of a New England theology that holds a prominent place in the history of Christian doctrine. Note 6. New Interests and Activities. With the nineteenth cen- tury came more revivals, and a greater development of New England theology, but new ideas and new interests were coming to the front. There were many who were no longer satisfied with the stern theology of Calvinism, and had even less use for the emotionalism in religion that appeared prominent in revivals. They were liberal in theology and rational in conduct. At last their dissatisfaction led some individ- uals to withdraw and organize separate churches, and in some cases w^hole churches adopted liberal opinions and took a new designation. In this way the Unitarians of New England came out of Congregation- alist churches. Unitarians retained the Congregational form of organi- zation, and in their worship they were not very different, but in doctrine their emphasis was on humanity rather than divinity, and their energies were devoted to humanitarian endeavor in this world instead of spiritual growth for the next. Both Trinitarian and Unitarian Congregationalists were loyal to tlie principle of thorough education for their ministers. Harvard College had been founded for that express purpose within a few years after the colonial settlement. Other colleges were founded as needed. In the nineteenth century a number of theological seminaries were added. In 1810 the Congregationalists organized the American Board of Commis- sioners to carry on the enterprise of foreign missions. In union with the Presbyterians they interested themselves in the evangelization of the growing West. They had their share in the overthrow of slavery, and have helped to educate the emancipated negro in the South. In recent years the Congregationalist churches have taken a position of promi- nence in other departments of social service. Thirty-five Congregationalists in America 189 Note 7. Congregationalists Outside of New England. The strength of the CongregationaHsts has always been in New England; but wher- ever New Englanders have gone they have taken with them their type of religion, and in the cities and throughout the Middle West they hold a prominent place. There are in the whole country more than seven hundred thousand Congregationalists, and they contribute yearly eleven and a half millions of dollars for religious purposes. It is characteristic of Congregationalists, as of other Clu-istians in the twentieth century, thai they interpret Clu*istianity in terms of life rather than of doctrine. It makes less difference what a person's belief may be than what spirit animates his life. Organization is determined less by theory than by efficiency. With na intention of sacrificing the independence of the local congregations the denomination has strengthened itself by more general organizations. The National Council is of gro\ving importance, and is continually gathering to itself more of the activities and functions of the denomination. Congregationalism cannot cease to be itself, be- cause it is in harmony with the spirit of American institutions, but the more efficiently it organizes itself for the accomplishment of present day tasks, the more effective will it be, and the larger place it will fill among the religious forces of America. Questions on the Summaries of Recent Lessons. 1. Where did modern Presbyterianism originate.^ 2. Where has it been prominent? 3. What does it stand for in doctrine and organization .^^ 4. Who were the Puritans? 5. What was their history in England? 6. Describe the meaning of the Pilgrims, and the importance of their history. Questions on the Present Lesson. 1. Why did Congregationalism become strong in New England? 2. Show how it became the " standing order.'* 3. Explain the power of the ministers. 4. What did Puritanism stand for in America? 100 Landmarhs in Christian History Lesson 5. How are the Congregationalist churches organized? 6. What difficulties troubled the churches? 7. Who was Jonathan Edwards? 8. Explain the origin of the Unitarians in New England. 9. How have Congregationalists interested themselves in missions? • 10. Describe American Congregationalists in the twentieth century. Reading References. (1) Fiske: Beginnings of Neiv England, pp. 88-114. (2) Boynton: The Congregational Way. (3) Felt: The Ecclesiastical History of New England, ch. 5. Lesson 36. A DAY IN PURITAN BOSTON. The Banishment of Roger Williams. Sources. — Records of the Massachusetts Bay Colony; letters of Roger Williams; Bradford's History of Plymouth; Winthrop's History of New England; Backus' History of the Baptists of New England; Williams' Bloody Tenent of Persecution for Cause of Conscience. Suggestions for Study. — 1. Read the summary of the last lesson. 2. Read the story of the present lesson. Note especially: (a) the character of Williams; (b) his trial; (c) the conflicting theories regarding liberty in religion; (d) Williams' later career. 3. Think over the following question for class discussion: How estimate the value to society of a pioneer like Roger Williams.^ Thirty-six ^ j^^y {^ Puritan Boston 191 4. Note-book work: (a) See that the summary of the last lesson is completed. (6) Write an imaginary sketch of Roger Williams in two parts — first, his trial before the Massachusetts Court, and secondly, his winter wanderings among the Indians, (c) Draw a map to show the three colonies of Massachusetts Bay, Plymouth, and Providence, from Salem to Providence. Note 1. Colonial Boston. It was the eighth day of October, 1635. The peninsula of Shawmut, called Boston after the old English town of that name, lay beneath the autumn sun, crowned with its three hills and bathing its feet in the waters of the harbor. Four years before this, Puritan settlers had laid the foundations of the new town, and on King Street had put up the Congregationalist meeting-house that had. been intended originally for Charlestown across the river. Not far from the church Governor Winthrop had erected liis house on the Roxbury high- way, and in democratic fashion was wont to attend church with his fellow citizens. The new settlement straggled up the slope past the house of Anne Hutchinson to the Common, capped by Sentry Hill. Here the Puritans had gained a foothold on the western continent, and here on that October afternoon Puritanism was in the air. Note 2. A Session of Court. On this day the court of the colony assembles at Cambridge across the Charles River. It is not an ordinary occasion. At its bar stands for final trial and sentence a man who has come from England as a Puritan, has been accepted by both colonies, and has been an honored minister over Congregationahst churches, but who has been so independent as to cherish principles at variance with the Massachusetts Bay colony on the vital question of the rights of magistrates to interfere in rehgious matters, and so indiscreet as to make public his opinions. Governor Winthrop is his friend, but the other leaders of the colony are vexed at his independence. Already he has been admonished, but he has written letters that incriminate him, one to the churches advising them to discipline the magistrates for being too officious, the other to his own church of Salem urging it to withdraw from fellowship with the other churches of the colony. Such writings were an insult to the ministers, and they are present at court to see that justice is done. He is arraigned before the court and charged with misconduct. In response he tries to justify his letters and his whole course of conduct. Generously the court offers him a month to prepare further defense before sentence is pronounced upon him, but he prefers to bring the matter to a conclusion. He joins in debate with one of the ministers who is brought forward as a champion against him. All attempt to convince him is fruitless, and with the waning day the court adjourns. 192 Landmarks in Christian History Lesson only to meet again the next morning and pronounce sentence of banish- ment from the jurisdiction of the colony. Note 3. Who was Roger Williams? This story of trial and banish- ment is well known as an account of the first serious disturbance that threatened the peace and prosperity of the new colony. Passion and prejudice have led to injustice on both sides. It is well to consider it carefully in the light of that period of Christian history. Roger Wil- liams, the exiled Puritan minister, was one of the restless souls of that day of religious unrest, and he was never long satisfied with the forms of religion which he adopted. Too radical to play a part in the estab- lished church of England, he emigrated to Boston as a Puritan with rather independent tendencies. Wherever he went he showed the characteristics of a strong personality by making firm friends and decided enemies. He found himself most at home in Salem, for that church was more independently inchned than the others, perhaps be- cause it was the mother church of the colony. Note 4. The Clash of Theories. With his restlessness of mind this Separatist Salem minister was moving on beyond his neighbors in his grasp of political and religious truths. The Puritans of Massachu- setts Bay were organized on the basis of a united church and state, like old England from wliich they had come. They shared the almost universal opinion of the Old World that the magistrates of the state had jurisdiction in ecclesiastical as well as civil affairs. To deny such con- trol in old England was treason; naturally it was treason in New England also. The doctrine of full religious liberty had not as yet risen above the horizon of thought. When Luther stood before the imperial Diet at Worms he caught a glimpse of its meaning, but he was not true to the light. Roger Wilhams, standing before the Massachusetts court at Cambridge had mastered a truth that belonged to a later age, and it is not strange that Puritan divines and Puritan officials condemned him in that gray dawn of freedom. His independent disposition would not permit him to compromise, and he did not restrain his denunciation of Puritan narrowness; their fear of schism in the struggling church and of anarchy in the infant colony exaggerated his opposition to the settled order and led the Massachusetts leaders to regard the man in the light of a deluded and wicked insurgent. Note 5. Outcast in the Wilderness. It is not difficult to see in imagination the worthy gentlemen of the colony wending their way home from the court, and congratulating each other that this troubler of Israel, who had provoked the churches so long, was at last expelled Thirty six ^ j)f^y {f^ Puritan Boston 193 from their midst. Reverend John Cotton of the Boston church declared that the banishment of Wilhams meant his enlargement, because now he had the whole wilderness of America to indoctrinate with his heresies. It would have been impossible for them to see that the banishment of this free thinker was to result in the planting of another colony in New England of which the corner stone would be this rejected principle of religious liberty, and which in time would deliver over the principle to a new nation. Williams was allowed time to remove to a new settlement. It was even agreed that he might remain until spring. But it was impossible for the man to restrain his liberty of utterance, and when the colony found that he was abusing his privilege it was decided to ship him to England. Learning of this intention he fled into the forest, and after many weeks of wandering and hardship in the depth of winter, he found a refuge among the Narragansett Indians, and in the spring of 1636 laid the foundations of Providence, later destined to be the capital of Rhode Island. Note 6. The Limit of Independency. In espousing the cause of religious liberty Williams was championing a principle that distin- guished one branch of Separatists in England, the Baptists. From the Anabaptists of Germany and the Netherlands, the evangelical radicals of the Continental Reformation, they had received this idea, and it became one of the distinctive characteristics of the small group of Christians calling themselves Baptists in England. Williams may have been influenced by English Baptists before he emigrated to America, but he had not accepted the other main principle of the Baptists, which was the baptism of those only who had a conscious faith in Jesus Christ as Savior and Lord. In his progress towards radical opinions Williams reached this milestone of behevers' baptism at Providence, and there he helped to organize the first Baptist church in America. There were Baptists in Massachusetts Bay from an early day, and Henry Dunster, the president of Harvard College, became a Baptist, but no church of that order was organized in the colony until 1663. Roger Williams had not yet reached the limits of independency. There were a few Baptists in England who felt that it was important that baptism should be administered only by those who had been ordained by a rightful apostolic succession. Dissatisfied on this ground, Williams withdrew presently from the Baptist communion in Providence and announced himself a " Seeker " for an ideal ecclesiastical order. Note 7. Three Experiments. The beginnings of three colonies had been made in less than twenty years. The Pilgrims of Scrooby and 194 Landmarks in Christian History Lesson Leyden had led the way in New England and settled at Plymouth with the heroism of martyrs for their faith. That colony in its slow and peaceful way prospered and expanded, and before the century was over became a part of the Massachusetts colony. The Puritans had followed the path across the Atlantic, and had established a groujD of settlements around Boston on and near the shore of Massachusetts Bay. Both colonies had established an orderly government, and had organized Congregationalist churches to the exclusion of all other orders. At the head of Narragansett Bay Roger Williams had found his haven of refuge, and after him Anne Hutchinson, a similar disturber of the peace of Boston, had located near the mouth of the bay on Rhode Island. At Newport a second Baptist church was soon organized. It was the policy of the Rhode Island settlements from the beginning to allow the freedom which they were denied in Massachusetts, and in spite of many disorderly elements that were attracted by such unusual liberty, the colony maintained its existence, and finally obtained from the English king the most liberal colonial charter of the age. Note 8. The Progress of Christianity. In these ways by a process of spiritual selection Anglo-Saxon Christianity was finding its way to strength and freedom. Out of the toils of Catholicism it had tried to free itself, but most people had gone no farther than Anglicanism. Not a few who were dissatisfied with this achievement wished to purify the church of its superstitions, and were dubbed Puritans for their pains. They helped in the way of progress, but most of them clung to the old church. Then it was that a few broke away altogether from the bonds that bound them, accepted the name of Separatists, and sought to work out their salvation independently of the older Anglican order. Some of them were content to organize themselves on a Congregational basis, covenanting together to live orderly Christian lives. Others were not content until they had cast off all shackles on their freedom, and as Baptists maintained independence of individual belief. At the same time they restricted baptism and church membersliip to those who had such an intelligent belief. As all of these found their beginnings in old England, so they found a place in the beginnings of American Chris- tianity. Questions on the Summary of the Preceding Lesson. 1. What advantage had the Congregationalists in New England? 2. How were they organized ? 3. What were the characteristics of the denomination.'' 4. What division took place in the nineteenth century? Thirty-six ^ ])ay in Puritan Boston 195 Questions on the Present Lesson. 1. Describe colonial Boston. 2. Explain the place of Williams in the colony. 3. Why was Roger Williams brought to trial before the court? 4. Tell the story of the trial of Williams. 5. What kind of man was he.^ 6. In what way was Williams ahead of his times.? 7. How did it happen that he went to Rhode Island.'^ 8. What was his later religious history.? » 9. Point out resemblances and differences in the three colonies of Massachusetts Bay, Plymouth, and Providence. 10. Show how the Reformation progressed towards independency. Reading References. (1) Fiske: Beginnings of Neiv England, I, pp. 111-134. (S) Palfrey: History of New England, I, pp. 405-425. (3) Newman: History of the Baptists in the United States, pp. 59-83. 196 Landmarks in Christian History Lesson Lesson 37. THE BAPTISTS AND THEIR PRINCIPLES. Growth in America and Europe. Sources — Publications of the Hanserd KnoUys' Society; McGlothlin's ' Baptist Confessions of Faith; much controversial literature on baptism, from the seventeenth to the nineteenth centuries; Wayland's Principles and Practices of the Baptists; records of churches, minutes of associations, reports of missionary societies, and files of religious newspapers. Suggestions for Study. — 1 . Read over the summary of the last lesson for questions in class. 2. Read the story of the present lesson. Points to be especially noted are: (a) How there came to be Baptists; (6) where they located in America; (c) the influence of the Philadelphia Association; {d) Baptist missions; (e) the leading principles of the Baptists. 3. Think over the following topics for special class discussion: How account for the growth of the Baptists.? What are the important matters with which the church should busy itself in these days.'' 4. Note-book work: (a) See that the summary of the last lesson is written properly. (6) Make a list of the Protestant bodies that have suffered persecu- tion, with the name of the persecuting body, (c) Make three columns, placing at the head the names Presbyterian, Congregationalist, and Baptist, and state in each column the distinctive principles of each, (d) Write a brief sketch of Carey or Judson. Note 1. Baptist Ancestors. The predecessors of modern Baptists are to be found among the evangelical Christians of central Europe in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, who called themselves " Brethren." ^ike the Waldensians they were common folk, who preferred the teach- ings of the New Testament to the authority of the church, and who valued prayer more than the sacraments. They remained within the Catholic fold until after Luther came out from it. They never har- monized with the Lutheran Reformation, and some of them were identified with the socialistic disturbances of these years of upheaval. Whether peaceful or socialistic they were called Anabaptists, which meant re- baptizers, because they did not regard infant baptism as true baptism, and rebaptized adult believers. The cardinal doctrines of the Ana- baptists of Switzerland, Germany, and the Netherlands were (1) the acceptance of the Bible rather than the church as the guide in religious faith and practice; {2) the right of every individual to his own rehgious experience and practice; {3) baptism not a sacrament but a symbol, and limited to those who were conscious of reconciliation v^th God. Severe persecution crushed out the Baptists of the Continent. In England the first Baptist churches came out of Separatist churches. English Baptists were much like Congregationalists, except for their emphasis on the principles mentioned as belonging to the Anabaptists. Baptists differed among themselves over the restrictive doctrines of ThiTty-seven ff^^ Baftists and their Principles 197 Calvinism, and for nearly three centuries there were the two divisions in England of General and Particular Baptists. The first Particular or Calvinistic church was organized only six years before Roger Wilhams' church at Providence. There was for a time a question among English Baptists as to the proper mode of baptism, but before 1650 nearly all agreed that the only proper form was immersion. Note 2. The First American Baptists. Baptists received their share of the odium that was visited upon all Separatists. Puritans were bad enough, and Congregationalists were worse, but the Baptists were the worst of all. More than one died at the stake for his faith. In 1689 the Toleration Act secured liberty for Presbyterians, Congrega- tionalists, and Baptists in England; but before that date not a few Baptists left the country to obtain religious freedom. Roger Williams was the most conspicuous dissenter in the early history of Congrega- tionalist New England, but in 1644 a law was passed by the Massachu- setts Bay colony against Baptists, and a few felt the heavy hand of the lav/. The first church of the denomination in America is supposed to be that at Providence, organized in 1639. Naturally most of the Baptists in New England gathered in the \dcinity of Providence, but in 1665 a Baptist church was organized in Boston. Baptists were the leaders in the struggle for religious liberty in Massachusetts and Vir- ginia, and had a part in securing the separation of church and state when the national government was organized after the Revolution. Note 3. The Fellowship of Baptist Churches. The first Baptist churches in America were slow to organize in groups because of their love of local independence, but in 1707 a number of churches organized the Philadelphia Association, which became influential among Baptists North and South. While their New England brethren were striving for liberty, Philadelphia Baptists were sending out their evangelists into the South where churches were planted and grouped into associa- tions, and the foundations were laid for a Baptist advance that has made the denomination one of the most prominent throughout the Soutli. A little later through the same Philadelphia influence New England Baptists recognized church fellowship by organizing an association. These organizations were strictly Hmited to the functions of fellowship and advice, and had no right to exercise authority in apy way. The result was individual independence, and a pure democracy in govern^ ment, but weakness in denominational solidarity. Note 4. Baptist Confessions. Baptists have never had a liking for creeds. A declaration of one's own faith, or the confession adopted by 198 Landmarks in Christian History ^^""" a particular church, is held to be as valuable as the creed of an ecu- menical council. Yet English Baptists did not hesitate to agree upon an adaptation of the Westminster Confession, and this adapted con- fession was adopted by the Philadelphia Baptists in 1742, and became the standard of faith for American Baptists south of that section. Northern Baptists adopted milder Calvinistic statements in the New Hampshire Confession of 1833. Note 5. Missionary Undertakings. Evangelistic fervor was .char- acteristic of American Baptists. When the country was only beginning to be settled away from the seaboard counties, evangelists and mission- aries pushed into the interior, endured the hardsliips and dangers of the forests, gathered the people in their log cabins or in camp meetings in the woods, and preached the fundamental principles of the Christian gospel as they were interpreted by Protestants. There was nothing peculiar about the doctrines of those frontier preachers, but they put an emphasis on sin and the need of divine grace in Jesus Christ to save from sin, and when repentance had brought the experience of conver- sion, they buried their converts in baptism in the waters of lake or stream. They held to immersion as the appropriate form of baptism symbolic of the death of the old life and resurrection to a new and holier life; baptism was never regarded as of sacramental power to save from sin. In this way Baptists increased in number all along the frontier from Maine and Nova Scotia to the far southwest and eventually to the Pacific coast. For a considerable time there was no missionary organization. Churches sent out their pastors and others; associations commissioned missionaries; until early in the nineteenth century voluntary societies were organized to carry on missionary enterprise. About that time both English and American Baptists awoke to the duty of sending missionaries to foreign lands to propagate Christianity. The result was the organization of Enghsh and American foreign missionary societies, which did more than anything else to solidify the denomination. William Carey laid the foundations of modern missionary enterprise in India, and Adoniram Judson in Burma. These undertakings have been enlarged until Baptist missionaries are to be found in all parts of the world, and contributions amounting to nearly two milhon dollars annually are supplied for missionary interests at home and abroad by American Baptists alone. Note 6. Divisions. Unfortunately there came breaks in the ranks of American Baptists. Differences over Calvinism produced the Free- will Baptists, who have recently reunited with the regular body. Cer- TUrty-seten fj^^ Baptists and their Principles 199 tain peculiarities of individual Baptists west of the Alleghanies led to the organization of the Campbellites or Disciples, who have grown to be over a million and a quarter in number. Differences over slavery led to the separation of Northern and Southern Baptists in 1845, and to the formation of the Southern Baptist Convention. There are several other small bodies with various pecuharities. The Baptist family properly includes all who practice immersion upon believers only, and who organize themselves on the Congregational model. Note 7. Growth and Consolidation. Neither in England nor in America have Baptists had a spectacular history. Their interests have been evangelistic rather than creedal, and they have not been vexed with questions of church government. They have enjoyed a steady, and for the most part rapid growth m all English-speaking lands. In recent years there has been a tendency towards greater consolidation of interests. Nearly all English Baptists united in a Baptist Union in 1901. Six years later American Baptists in the North organized a Northern Baptist Convention to bring together all the interests of the denomination; and this was preceded by a friendly conference between North and South, which took the form of a permanent General Con- vention. Finally, a Baptist World Alliance has been organized to bind together Baptists everywhere, an organization that seeks especially to protect the struggling Baptists of Russia and other parts of the European Continent. Baptists in all the world number approximately seven and a half miUions, and in the United States rank second among Protestant denominations. Note 8. Baptist Principles. Baptists have been loyal to the evan- gelical interpretation of the Bible. They have been individualistic from the beginning, maintaining that the prime essential of religion is a con- scious right relationship between the individual and God through Jesus Christ. Because of this personal relationship no priest may mediate with God, or state official interfere to prevent private judgment and personal freedom. Baptists were slow to organize, and when churches were formed only those were received into membership who had come to years of understanding, when conscious relationship with God is possible and when one may reaUze his duty with regard to the church and the larger kingdom. Only such were baptized and received to the Lord's Supper. Baptists have held to immersion as the mode of baptism of Jesus himself, and as the most appropriate form of an ordinance which is purely symbolic. In America it has been the cus- tom until recent years to welcome to the Lord's Supper only those Christians who have been immersed, but in England " open commun- £00 Landmarks in Christian History ^^**^'^ ion" has been the usual practice, and there are many Baptist churches of mixed membership. Although strongly individualistic, Baptists stood for social right- eousness in the days of the German Reformation, and Baptists have organized for social progress in late years in common with all the leading Christian denominations. There is a strong tendency to emphasize larger and more efficient church acti\ity in the interests of all classes and peoples, while at the same time the old emphasis upon personal experience is not lost. The problem of the hour is at the same time to preserve the old and to keep step with the new. Questions on the Summary of the Preceding Lesson. 1. What has made Roger Williams famous .^^ 2. Why was he banished from the Massachusetts Bay colony? S. Where did he settle.? Questions on the Present Lesson. 1. W'ho were the Anabaptists.? 2. What was the origin of the English Baptists.? 3. What were some of the early Baptist principles.? 4. How did American Baptists organize for fellowship? 5. What do Baptists think about creeds? 6. How did they carry on evangelistic missions in this country? 7. To what extent are they interested in foreign missions? 8. How did American Baptists become divided? Thirty-eight Christianity for the Working People of England 201 9. Explain methods of consolidation. 10. What do Baptists stand for to-day? Reading References. (1) Burrage: History of the BajMsts in New England. {2) Article " Baptists " in the Catholic Encyclopedia. {3) Vedder: Church Histoty Handbooks, IV, on Baptist History. Lesson 38. CHRISTIANITY FOR THE WORKING PEOPLE OF ENGLAND. Wesley, the Evangelist and Social Reformer. Sources. — Wesley's journal, letters, and sermons; Hymns of Charles Wesley; Brown's Estimates of the Manners and Principles of the Times; Methodist Conference Minutes. Suggestions for Study.— 1. Read the summary of the last lesson. 2. Read the story of the present lesson. Points to be noted especially are: (a) the life of the English people; (6) the religious experiences of Wesley; (c) his preaching; (rf) Methodist organization; (e) the social helpfulness of Wesley. 3. Think over the following topic for class discussion: Why is social service a necessary part of religious activity.? 4. Note-book work: (a) See that the summary of the last lesson is complete. (6) Make a list of the social activities of John Wesley, (c) Prepare a diagram, or a section of the map of England, to show how Wesley organized Methodism. (d) Write an imaginary sketch of the coal miners listening to the preaching of Wesley, (e) Write a brief essay on the hymns of Charles Wesley. Note 1. The Common People of England. The masses of Eng- land were little affected by the Reformation of the sixteenth century, or even by the Separatist movement of the seventeenth century. Tltey accepted with good humor whatever alterations were made in creeds and prayer books, but their lives were not changed. They had no educational advantages; their morals were not well developed; they had few religious aspirations. In their every day living they were not ambitious. As farmers they toiled in the fields in old-fashioned ways; as miners they plodded underground in a dull routine. They yielded to brute passions, and often seemed little better than animals. They consumed immense quantities of liquors of the worst sort. Their lives 202 Landmarks in Christian History ^'^"'^ were a dull round of drudgery and sluggish animalism. In the eigh- teenth century it seemed as if the English people had reached the lowest depths of immorality and irreligion. Many among the higher classes were debauched and skeptical; members of the lower classes were too often superstitious and beastly. If ever a nation needed a spiritual quickening that would probe to the depths of human nature, that na- tion was England in the early eighteenth century. Note 2. The Awakening of John Wesley. In 1703 John Wesley was born in an English rectory in Epworth, where his father was a clergyman of the Anghcan church. He inherited unusual gifts from his mother, and in process of time he was educated for the ministry. Like most prospective clergymen of the church of England he had had no special rehgious experience. At Oxford University there was little serious application to study in those days. Teachers and pupils took life as easily as possible, and Wesley enjoyed it with the rest. Yet he was of a sufficiently serious disposition to lead him to earnest thinking, and before his years at Oxford were over he became the leader of a band of earnest young men, who were generally ridiculed and dubbed Metho- dists, because they scrupulously maintained the forms of religion and interested themselves in philanthropy. Six years later John Wesley and his brother Charles sailed for the new colony of Georgia, where they attempted religious leadership, but with little success. On the voyage the brothers had fallen in with a company of Moravians, who influenced John Wesley so deeply that, upon his return to London, he attended a Moravian service, and there he received a religious awaken- ing that he describes by saying: " I felt my heart strangely warmed. I felt I did trust in Christ, Christ alone for my salvation; and an assur- ance was given me that He had taken away my sins, even mine." Note 3. George Whitefield. One of Wesley's religious company at Oxford was George Whitefield, the son of a tavern keeper. Inspired with rehgious enthusiasm, he took orders in the Anglican church and became a powerful preacher. His pulpit method was different from that of the clergy, and their disHke of him led him to open-air preaching. He had a dramatic energy and a power to sway the emotions that made him very effective with the people. Twenty thousand colliers gathered to hear him at Bristol, and he swayed them as a hurricane moves the leaves of the trees. He visited America several times, and on his first journey through the seaboard colonies he received a great ovation. Boston Common was the only place that would hold the crowds when he preached in that town, and he became the leading agent of the " Great Awakening." Wesley and Whitefield did not agree in theology. Thirty-eight Christianity for the Working People of England 203 Wesley and his followers rejected Calvinism, while Whitefield main- tained it, but they worked in sympathy, though not in co-operation. Note 4. Wesley as an Evangelist. It was through the influence of Whitefield that Wesley overcame his High church scruples, and resorted to preaching out of doors. The kind of message that they had to give was not pleasing to Anglican churchmen of that day. They were too evangelical. The usual Anglican teaching was that through the church the individual finds his way to God and heaven; Wesley and Whitefield had a message like the prophets of Israel. They preached the blackness of sin and the terrors of everlasting punishment with an energy that tlu-illed their hearers. They pointed out the way of salvation through Christ by the grace and mercy of a forgiving God. That was what stirred the hearts of the sodden millions of England's laboring folk, for they knew that their fives were sinful. Wesley, like Whitefield, was very successful at Bristol, and there his first chapel was erected. It soon became the practice to build Methodist chapels wherever the common people responded to the message of Wesley. In London an abandoned government workshop was pur- chased and christened the " Foundry." Tliis became the home of Wesley and the Methodist headquarters. By these means England was stirred religiously as it never had been before, and while an inevit- able emotional reaction was felt, from this time the revival method became used by the strongly evangelical denominations. Note 5. Hymns of the Methodist Awakening. Every great re- ligious revival has been accompanied by an outburst of sacred song. Methodism contributed generously to 'the hymnody of the church. The Wesley family were leaders in giving suitable hymns to the people. John Wesley translated German hymns, and his brother Charles wrote several thousand spiritual songs; some of which find a place in every modern hymn book. The ministry of music has led many a soul into harmony with Him who created the music of the spheres. Without the hymns of Charles Wesley it is hard to believe that the preaching of John Wesley would have been so effective. Note 6. Organization. John Wesley had no intention of creating a new denomination. He had experienced an awakening of soul that made it imperative for him to be a prophet to the masses of England. He would have been most happy if he could have stirred the whole Anglican church to a new spiritual experience, but when this proved impossible he was glad to go to the people of the open country and the busy town and gather them into his chapels. Thus Methodism re- 204 Landmarks in Christian History ^'<'" mained for years a popular movement within the bounds of Anglican- ism, but requiring some new machinery. Wesley had a genius for organization, and it required a genius to finance the enterprise. The people were poor. It was only by a penny a week that groups of twelve collected small funds, but these became large sums in the aggregate. These groups became classes and the penny collector became spiritual leader of the group, and the result was the class meeting which has been so helpful and so characteristic of Methodism. Finally in 1740 English Wesleyans organized at Lon- don a " United Society," which became in time the Methodist denom- ination. Note 7. The Workers. The founder of Methodism faced two great difficulties. The first was the lack of trained leaders. It was necessary to resort to laymen for preachers. Francis of Assisi was the one man who had dared to intrust such religious work to unordained men, but the need of Wesley was too great for him to hesitate. Since then the activity of laymen has steadily increased in all denominations. The organization promptly took on the methods that have been char- acteristic of the Methodists. Preachers, instead of being located per- manently, became itinerants. Most of them were uneducated, and soon lost their usefulness in a particular place. It was customary for them to minister to a group of stations which constituted a circuit. With wonderful energy Wesley superintended all these arrangements, and brought all his workers together for an annual conference. Note 8. Social Service. The second great difficulty that Wesley faced was the ignorance and poverty of the people. The result was that he becam-C more of a social worker than a theologian. Like Francis of Assisi again, he was too busy ministering to physical and spiritual need to take time for deep thinking. In most respects Methodist the- ology has differed little from that of other evangelical churches. The great exception has been that the Methodists rejected Calvinism in a day when it was accepted by other Protestant bodies, and Methodists believed in an evangehcal type of Arminianism. Wesley was so sure that God's grace was free to all that he could not accept the doctrines of election and predestination. Wesley saw the need of educating the children of the working people, and day schools and Sunday schools became a part of the Methodist system. He provided also an abundance of good hterature for his people, writing and editing, and providing cheap editions for those who had little money. All humanitarian endeavor appealed to him, and philanthropy became an important part of Methodism alongside evan- Thlrtu-cight Christianity for the Working People of England 205 gelism. Wesley organized charity, and found means of employment for those who needed it. He encouraged Methodist women to engage in visiting the sick. He founded orphanages and hospitals. He set up the first free medical dispensary. There were many poor who needed temporary help, and these were aided from a loan fund that he secured. By this means he relieved more than two hundred and fifty people in a year and a half. Wesley opposed slavery and the use of liquors, and the Methodists became foremost in the labor union movement. In this variety of ways Methodism showed its interest in social reform as well as in individual salvation, and Wesley anticipated many of the methods of the modern institutional church. Note 9. The Founder of Methodism. John Wesley must rank as one of the great men of Christian liistory. He was a man of strong personality and deep earnestness. A less eloquent preacher than White- field, he spoke with power in a degenerate age, and he produced a new type of minister. Thackeray in his lecture on George II strikingly writes: " No wonder that Whitefield cried out in the wilderness, that Wesley quitted the insulted temple to pray on the hillside. I look with reverence on those men at that ti«me. Which is the sublimer spectacle — the good John Wesley surrounded by his congregation of miners at the pit's mouth, or the queen's chaplains mumbling tlu-ough their morning office in their ante-room, under the picture of the great Venus, with the door opened into the adjoining chamber of the queen.? " Wesley's organizing ability was remarkable, and was most opportune. It is difficult to see how the movement of Methodism could have acquired permanence without that quality. It was his task to grip the common people of England and drag them out of the mire in which they were content to wallow, and it is his glory that he was willing to give his hfe to that task and to accomplish so much. It is often said that Metho- dism saved England from an eighteenth century revolution like that of France. However that may be, no religious and moral awakening ever came to England that has equalled in power and importance the Wesleyan revival. Questions on the Summary of the Preceding Lesson. 1. What are the leading principles of the Baptists.? 2. How do they rank among other Protestant bodies? 3. What is their missionary record.? Questions on the Present Lesson. 1. Describe the condition of the masses of the English people. 206 Landmarks in Christian History ■^^**<"' 2. Explain Wesley's religious awakening. 3. Who was Whitefield? 4. What were the characteristics of the new preaching? 5. What were the first Methodist centers? 6. What was the special contribution of Charles Wesley to the Meth- odist movement? 7. Describe the organization of the Methodists by their founder. 8. Where did Methodism get its preachers? 9. Define the Methodist theology. 10. Describe the social service of Wesley and his friends. Reading References. (1) Banfield: John Wesley. {2) Walker: Great Men of the Christian Church, ch. 18. {3) Article on Methodism in Bliss: New Encyclopedia of Social Reform, Thirty-nine fhe Methodists 207 Lesson 39. THE METHODISTS. What Methodism Stands for. Sources. — The materials for Methodist history consist of the records of con- ferences and conventions, and the writings and addresses of Methodist leaders. A satisfactory list of material is printed in Buckley's History of Methodism in the United States. Suggestions for Study. — 1. Read over the summary of the last lesson. 2. Read the story of the present lesson, noting especially: (a) the marks of each denomination; (b) the story of the Wesleyans in Great Britain; (c) the organization of the Methodist Episcopal church in the United States; (d) the characteristics of Methodism. 3. Think over the following topics for sp>ecial class discussion: Are revivals a helpful stimulus to true religion .f* Is there any relation between revivals and denominational growth.'' 4. The following exercises are suggested for the note-book: (a) See that all the summaries are properly completed for the quarter, (b) Make a table showing what each of the denominations studied has contributed to the common good, (c) Write a brief sketch showing the importance of Methodism in the history of Anglo-Saxon Christianity, (d) Write an account of a Methodist camp meeting, as may be learned from reading or from the memory of older people. Note 1. The Spirit of Denominationalism. It has been the boast of the Roman Catholic church that it maintains the unity of the faith, and Protestants have been accused often of introducing divisions into the church. There is to-day among Protestant churches a growing disposition to get together. Yet it is well to remember that denomina- tionalism has not been altogether evil. In its beginnings denomina- tionalism was a mark of independent thinking. The Protestant Refor- mation introduced an age when the individual began to count for what he was worth, and when he began to think for himself. Differences in religious thinking were unavoidable. Denominations were groups of those who thought alike with regard to certain important matters in religion. Each of the great denominations stood for a particular emphasis, and in each case the emphasis was needed. Take the history of Anglo-Saxon Christianity. The Anglican church stood for independence from the hierarchy of Rome, for an English rather than a Roman church. That was the first step. A great many in the English church were Puritans, and wished to go farther away from the Roman customs, but as long as they preferred church unity to denominationalism the truths for which they stood were not generally accepted. Some of them thought the Presbyterian origin and discipline so important that they sacrificed unity and tried to establish a Presby- terian church. Others after a little thought that the independence of the congregation was more important than unity or strength of organiza- tion, and they became Separatists, and in some cases Pilgrims, and 208 Landmarks in Christian History ^""^ established Congregationalist churches. Some of these Congregation- ahsts, feehng that Hberty was not complete, that individual experience was not sufficiently emphasized, and that New Testament baptism was not observed, withdrew and organized Baptist churches. These inde- pendent Congregationalist and Baptist churches in time recognized bonds of fellowship, and each group became a denomination. Last of all, others still in the Anglican church awoke to the spiritual need of the common people, and they sacrificed their Anglicanism for the sake of the need, and organized the Methodist denomination along lines that the circumstances demanded. In these days the spirit of mutual interest and social solidarity is over- coming the spirit of denominationalism and producing helpful co- operation, if not union, but denominations have met a religious need, and the emphasis of each must not be overlooked in the praiseworthy desire for unity. Note 2. The Task of Methodism. The Methodists came into existence because of a new vision of the spiritual need of the masses of the English people and the spiritual power of the simple gospel of Jesus. It made philanthropy a part of its task because of the poverty and ignorance of the people to whom it ministered. With small means this infant denomination heroically undertook to convert and improve materially the millions of common folk who were almost uninfluenced by the established church. Manfully the new church went about the task. The organization given to it by Wesley approved itself to the people because it worked. Efficiency is the test of every organization. The itinerant preachers travelled all over England. Slowly a better trained ministry supplemented with their wisdom the evangelistic fervor of the lay preachers, but the spiritual earnestness of the preachers was the strength of the movement. Before the death of Wesley, in 1791, Methodism had gained a foothold in America, and added to its task on this side of the great water. To provide a leader with authority in America Wesley ordained Thomas Coke as the first superintendent or bishop. With the same methods of itinerant evangelism Methodism in America brought spiritual quickening to many whom the older churches did not reach. In the South and on the frontiers it became a power to build up the forces of religion, and presently its rapid growth made it one of the leaders among the evangelical denominations of the United States. Note 3. Wesleyans in Great Britain. The separation from the Anglican church was due primarily to the lack of sympathy of the Angli- can church for the new spiritual message of Wesley and his preachers, and Thirty-nine The Metkodists £09 secondarily to the fact that the Methodist preachers were not admitted to AngHcan pulpits and were looked upon as inferiors, and to the fact that large numbers of adherents of Methodism came from dissenting churches, and would not aflBliate with Anglicanism. The influence of John Wesley was so strong until the close of liis life that the break was not yet complete; when it came the Methodists of Great Britain called themselves Wesleyans from the name of their leader, and as Wesleyans continue to be known. The death of Wesley precipitated certain diffi- culties upon the church. The organization of administration was most important. The difficulty of superintendence was met, not by the institution of a bishopric as in America, but by the organization of districts, each with a committee having powers of administration and discipHne. All district committees were subject to the general confer- ence. English Methodism has had its difficulties of organization, and varieties of Methodists are found in England as in America, but in general there was united progress. Wesleyanism never became strong in Scotland, Wales, or Ireland. Note 4. Methodist Beginnings in America. The first Methodist congregation in America came together in 1766 through the influence of a woman in New York. This congregation provided a preacher from its own number, who organized a class and later built a meeting- house. About the same time a beginning was made in Maryland. The Methodists were few at the outbreak of the Revolution, though they had organized a conference two years before, and the war and disagree- ments that followed nearly worked their ruin. It was then, in 1784, that Wesley appointed Coke to administer Methodist affairs in America, and he became the first bishop of the Methodist Episcopal church. The difference of name between English Wesleyans and American Methodist Episcopals corresponds to the difference in organization. The regular Methodists of the United States with their bishops have an organization much like the Protestant Episcopal church, while in Eng- land the Wesleyan organization is much more like the Presbyterians. Francis Asbury had long acted as assistant superintendent in America, and Wesley appointed him also to be a joint superintendent with Coke. Complete organization was effected by a conference in Baltimore at which the appointment of the bishops, or superintendents, was ratified, and a Discipline adopted including most of the doctrinal statements of the Anglican church as modified by Wesley. At that time there were in the United States about eighteen thousand adherents and four hun- dred preachers and exhorters. Within five years the number of mem- bers increased to more than sixty thousand. 210 Landmarks in Christian History ^"'*" Note 5. Methodist Fortunes in the United States. The rapid growth of Methodism proved the success of its spiritual appeal to the people. Its methods were revivalistic, and it was a time when an emo- tional appeal was most effective. There was an emphasis upon reli- gious experience that few but the Baptists had given, and the growth of these two denominations in all parts of the country showed the rehgious interest of the plain folk of America. In the South the negroes as well as the whites had their Methodist and Baptist churches, and greatly swelled the total membership of the denominations. Very unfortu- nately the slavery issue arose between Northern and Southern Metho- dists, as it did among the Baptists, and resulted in a separation that still continues. The Methodists had other troubles and other divisions. The rights of laymen have always been a bone of contention, and the refusal of the general conference to grant rights asked for was one of the leading causes of the organization of the Methodist Protestant church in 1830. This church has no bishops. Colored Methodists in the United States are organized by themselves in several bodies, chief of which are the African Methodist Episcopal church and the African Methodist Episcopal Zion church. Questions of discipline have vexed the Methodists at times because of the strictness of Methodist require- ments; questions of church order at times have been disturbing; but through all difficulties the denomination has grown until it ranks first among all the Protestant denominations of the United States, numbering in 1911 about 6,800,000, while in all the world the members and pro- bationers are approximately 8,700,000. Note 6. What the Methodists Stand for. Certain practices which have been characteristic of Methodism are passing away with the chang- ing ideas and customs of the times, but Methodism has maintained certain fundamental principles upon which practices are based. Among these an important place belongs to evangelism. That word stands for faith in the gospel of Jesus and the propagation of that faith through special religious appeals. Methodists therefore have been conspicuous in evangelistic effort in the home country and in missions abroad. Camp meetings have been a favorite means of evangelistic appeal. Accepting the universality of sin, Methodists stand for the universality of God's grace, and for the co-operation of God and man in the working out of individual salvation. A belief in the witness of the Spirit, giving assurance of forgiveness and even of a kind of perfection, has been a characteristic of Methodists. In their ideas and practices about bap- tism and the Lord's Supper Methodists agree with Congregationalists and Presbyterians. A love feast similar to that of the early disciples has been a common observance. Thirtynin0 The Methodists 211 Organization is episcopalian in American Methodism, but the esti- mate of the rank of bishops is quite moderate. Ministers are frequently called elders. Bishops are few, and have large sections of country to administer. Over smaller districts they appoint district supermtend- ents, who were formerlly called presiding elders. These are selected from among the ministers, and are the bishops' assistants for local ad- ministration. Regular conferences are held, beginning with the weekly class meeting in the local church, and culminating in a general confer- ence of the denomination once in four years. In these ways the m- terests of the denomination are maintained and efficiency secured. Note 7. The Progress of Christiamty. Religion has a two-fold office. Its task is to relate the individual soul to God, and to establish brotherly relations among men. Christiamty fostered personal religion tlu-ough the teaching of Jesus and the Apostles, but through pagan influences the individual Christian lost touch with God, and the Roman Catholic church substituted the sacraments for faith. One after an- other the Protestant denominations have stripped off the covermgs of the plain and simple truth of the gospel, and have emphasized the im- portance of individual religion and direct approach to God. The mde- pendence of the individual from the priest, then from the estabhshed church, then from the control of the state in religion, and the importance of a close observance of New Testament teaching are included in the story of progress. . , , • • xr But Christianity is likewise a social rehgion. At the beginmng ttie social principle breathed through the message of Jesus, found expression in the primitive organization of the disciples, and shone out in the brotherly fellowship of Christians. The Catholic church did not lose the social emphasis as it lost the spiritual emphasis. The solidarity of the ecclesiastical body was made prominent. Charity held a large place. Religion had a very real place in family and social life. Prot- estants were slow to appreciate the importance of social duty. Ger- man Anabaptists and English Methodists caught its meamng, but the emphasis was put upon the gospel for the individual. But Anglo-Saxon Christianity in all its denominational forms is learning the importance of the social as well as the evangelical in these early years of the twen- tieth century, and in the church of the future both will find an equally prominent place. Questions on the Summaries of Recent Lessons. 1. Show how the principle of religious liberty made trouble in the Massachusetts Bay colony. 2. How did the colony of Providence originate? 212 Landmarks in Christian History Lesson 3. What liave been the characteristics of the Baptists? 4. How did there come to be Methodists? 5. Show how the Methodists became interested in social Christianity. Questions on the Present Lesson. 1. Has denominationahsm hindered the growth of Christianity? 2. What has been the task of Methodism? 3. How did Wesley provide for American Methodism? 4. Why did Wesleyanism become separated from Anglicanism? 5. How does Methodist organization differ in Great Britain and the United States? 6. Name some of the Methodist difficulties in America. 7. How do the Methodists compare in numbers with other denomina^ lions? 8. What are the leading characteristics of Methodism? 9. How has Christianity fostered personal religion? 10. How has a social Christianity shown itself in the Christian church? Thirty-nine The Methodists 213 Reading References. (i) Vedder: Handbooks of Church Histonj, III, Part II, chs. 3, 5. {2) Hurst: Short Histonj of the Christian Church, pp. 531-538. (3) Faulkner: The Methodists, (^) Hart; Source Book of American His- tory, pp. 231-234. PART IV The Expansion of Christianity in The Nineteenth Century Lesson 40. CAREY AND THE MISSIONARY EMPHASIS. The Gospel in the Far East. Sources. — Records of churches and missionary societies; letters of Carey; the form of agreement of the missionaries at the Serampore mission; English and American Baptist missionary magazines. Suggestions for Study. — 1. Read over the story of the missionary monks in Lesson 11. 2. Read the story of the present lesson. Notice especially: (a) the stirring of the missionary spirit in Carey; (6) the courage with which he overcame diffi- culties at home and abroad: (c) the significance of his life; {d) the variety of his tasks. 3. Think over the following topics for special discussion: How may Christian missions be made most useful in the new China? Why is Christian education of special importance in that coimtry.'^ 4. Note-book work: (a) Write a comparison of the missionary methods of the medieval monks and those of modern Protestant missionaries, (b) Draw a map of India, locating on it the leading cities and some of the mission stations of the denomination with which you are connected, (c) Find out the story of the life of Buddha, and write a brief sketch in the note-book, {d) Make a list of ten foreign missionaries who have been prominent during the last ten years and the countries to which they have gone. Note 1. The Expansion of Christianity. The nineteenth century was marked by an enlargement of Christian interests, and a new con- ception of social ministry. Hitherto Chiristiamty had found expression mainly in the church, and the characteristics of Christian history were largely ecclesiastical and theological. The landmarks of history in this latest period are different. The expansion of interest includes foreign and home missions, and the fortunes of all grades of human beings. The Christian conscience freed the slave in the British Empire and in the United States. It has not limited itself to church action, but it has stimulated social endeavor in many departments of life. It has warred against impurity, intemperance, disease, and poverty. It has worked out the principle of brotherly love in social helpfulness in city and country. It has grappled with the problems of thought and activity that have stirred peoples and nations in the last fifty years. In all these ways the Christian spirit has been working ever more widely in an attempt to make real the Christian ideal of the kingdom of God. This Christian spirit has vitalized individual human lives. It has 215 216 Landmarks in Christian History Lesson built religion into character. It has grown continually more powerful in all social relationships. It is the dynamic that must solve the prob- lems of the modern age. Note 2. A Shoemaker's Apprentice. In the English Midlands, where many a stream winds between the corn lands and green pas- tures of prosperous farmers, there grew up a weaver's boy in the late eighteenth century, who became one of the famous heroes of Christian history. His name was William Carey. Though born in a village about midway between the old universities of Oxford and Cambridge, he never studied at either, but was self-educated. Though his father was clerk in the Anglican parish, the boy knew nothing of how the Anglican church won its independence from Rome or how Puritanism strove fbr a purer worship. After an unpromising boyhood, young Carey was apprenticed to learn the trade of shoemaking, with no prospect of any higher career than that of his hard-working father. Note 3. Visions of Duty. Two years after he began his appren- ticeship William Carey gained a new understanding of religion through the influence of one of his fellow apprentices. He became an earnest Bible student and accepted Baptist ideas of New Testament teaching, joining a Baptist church. His new religious experience led him to have larger aspirations. It seemed to him that he could make more of his life than to bend his back over a shoemaker's last. He began to talk on religion to small groups of his friends, and presently he became pastor of a poor Baptist church with a salary of fifteen pounds a year. Carey had already married, and to make a. living he taught school through the day, cobbled in the evening, and preached on Sunday. Few men who were compelled to live so hard a life as that would have had any wider visions. But Carey had become a student. He had mastered foreign languages. He had learned something of the world. He had found out its religious destitution, and he felt a longing that tingled through his veins to send the gospel of the English Midlands beyond the seas to the heart of paganism, as Jesus had commanded long before. Note 4. The Expansion of Christianity. The grand psean of Chris- tian conquests did not come ringing down the centuries to Carey as it sounds to the better informed Christian world to-day. He did not know the full tale of the successive victories of the cross over the altars of pagan Rome or of the German forests. He may never have heard of Boniface or Ulfilas, of Xavier or Raymond Lull. But Carey heard the call of God, and he saw something of the need in those parts of the world where the story of the cross had never gone. ^'"''^ Carey and the Missionary Emphasis 217 The great missionary conquests of Christian liistory were won h^ the CathoHc church. Protestantism thus far had given its attention almost exclusively to the expansion of ideas. On the continent and in England the reformers had done their work, and Wesley and his co-laborers had translated Protestant Christianity into the language of the average man. Now it was time that the millions of Asia and the South Sea who were in the twilight of religious superstition should be Christianized by English Protestant missionaries sent out by churches that were consecrated to a missionary propaganda. Note 5. Overcoming Obstacles. The path of the pioneer is always full of obstructions. Carey found little sympathy for his mission- ary ideas. The stern Calvinism that filled the English Baptist churches found small place for evangelistic endeavor. Dr. Ryland expressed it when he checked the enthusiasm of Carey at a church association meet- ing with the words: " Sit down, young man; when the Lord gets ready to convert the heathen he will do it without your help or mine." Dr. Ryland had baptized Carey a few years before, " a poor journeyman shoemaker," as he recorded in his diary. Who was he that he should be dictating a missionary policy to the Almighty or to the churches.^ Then the sterling qualities that were in the half-starved country min- ister shone forth. In spite of rebuke he persevered. He published a missionary tract, and he got another opportunity in the association which he used effectively to deliver an epoch-making discourse. It was then that he spoke on the theme which has been an inspiration to Christian missionaries ever since: " Expect great things from God; attempt great things for God," He followed this up with personal appeals; and on the second of October, 1792, there was organized at Kettering through his instrumentality the Baptist Missionary Society, and Carey soon set sail for India as its first missionary. Note 6. Why Carey's Enterprise was Epochal. William Carey was not the first English Protestant to embark on the enterprise of foreign missions. Nor does the glory of missionary pioneering belong pri- marily to the Baptists. Nevertheless the organization of the Baptist Missionary Society of Great Britain by Carey marks an epoch in Chris- tian history. Before 1792 Protestant missionary effort had been indi- viduaHstic and spasmodic, except for the Moravians. After 1792 the missionary enterprise became organized. Episcopalians and Dis- senters alike banded themselves together in voluntary societies to prosecute Christian missions to eastern pagans. In less than twenty years the wave of missionary enthusiasm spread to America so effec- tively that it produced similar effects. A company of college students 218 Landmarks in Christian History "^^*""* under a haystack in western Massachusetts caught the impulse and did not rest until they had compelled the Congregationalist churches to accept them as evangelists to the same land to which Carey had gone. Two of them on sliipboard became Baptists, and their consecration to missions persuaded American Baptists to organize for the same great enterprise, and Adoniram Judson entered upon a heroic career in Burma. Meantime Robert Morrison, with sublime faith, faced the most disheartening difficulties of a mission to China, and for thirty years knocked patiently at its outer portal before the door was forced ajar. Since the heroism of those three pioneers hundreds of other men and women have trodden the pathway that they blazed, and in all parts of the non-Christian world have toiled and died in imitation of the Great Evangehst of Galilee and Judea. Because of them Christianity can never again lose the missionary emphasis. Today it is pushing its way into the interior of Africa; for a hundred years it has gained steadily among the islands of the Pacific. Its greatest task has been among the civilized pagans of the Far East. There half the people of the world have stagnated under the religious influences of Hinduism and more degraded cults in spite of the moral excellences of Buddhist and Confucian ideals. Slowly the gospel of Jesus has secured recogni- tion by proud Asiatic empires, but with every year the victory of Christian principles becomes more pronounced. To such dimensions has grown the feeble enterprise inaugurated by the cobbhng preacher of Northamptonshire. Note 7. Planting the Serampore Mission. Carey's early experi- ences in India were not encouraging. For a time he and his family nearly starved because the missionary attempted to earn his own living. Then, too, the East India Company, which really governed British India, was unfriendly to his enterprise. After seven months he was compelled to accept an opportunity to act as superintendent of an indigo factory north of Calcutta. Here for five years he labored at his task and in preparation for later missionary work. He mastered the Bengali tongue, and made a translation of parts of the Bible into it; he set up a printing press; and he preached to the people as he had opportunity. Six years after Carey reached India the English society sent out Marshman and Ward to reinforce Carey, and with them the pioneer established himself at Serampore, a Danish trading station. This was in 1800. The three missionaries planned a community enterprise, bought a large building, and made it into a common home for their families. They formed a Christian brotherhood, ate their meals in Forty - Carey and the Missionary Emphasis 219 common and with economical management, and put the money that they were ^ble to save into a missionary fund. The ideals of Carey looking to self-support were realized. For many years the brotherhood held together, and it is asserted that in the space of fifty years nearly ninety thousand pounds were put to missionary use. This made it possible for the Society at home to use its funds elsewhere, and the suc- cess of the Serampore mission assisted greatly in similar undertakings. Notes. Educational Missions. With characteristic breadth of vision Carey saw the place that education must hold in the develop- ment of Christianity and civilization in mission lands. He realized, as many well-intentioned people have not, that it was only by the slow process of the schools that the foundations of solid Christian progress could be laid. The preaching of the gospel was of prime importance, but to conserve the results which such preaching might produce, he thought it necessary to provide for Christian nurture. Thoroughly convinced of the wisdom of tliis policy, the Serampore commumty did not hesitate to spend large sums on schools, with noteworthy success. Note 9. Carey as a Linguist and Scientist. This missionary pioneer had a remarkable gift for acquiring the mastery of unfamiliar languages. He had taught himself five languages before he left England, and after- ward he learned how to use many more. He employed this talent to prepare Bible translations for different peoples. In a little over twenty vears he put forty such translations tlirough the press; more than halt of these were translations of the whole New Testament made by him- self When it is remembered that this labor was accomplished without the scholarly helps of the present day, and by a man without university trainino-, and that the translations were into languages that lacked all such lit"erary aids as grammar and dictionaries, the achievement appears stupendous. He was with all the rest a botanist of great repute. He was a nature lover from boyhood. On his missionary compound he delighted in making a botanical garden that became one of the marvels of that region. As Carey became an Asiatic college professor of languages because of his proficiency as a Hnguist, so he became a valued member of the Agricultural and Horticultural Society of India, and at his death was honored with a marble bust placed to his memory in the apartments of the Society. Note 10. The Honored Dead. After forty-one years spent in India, Carey found rest in the graveyard of the mission at Serampore in the month of June, 1834. England honors the men who have earned her ^20 Landmarks in Christian History Lesson flag around the world. She counts among her noble dead the soldiers who gave India to the British Empire. The Christian church of all time will honor itself by cherishing in the annals of its history the lives of the men who have extended a knowledge of Christian truth, and not least among them William Carey, who had most to do with making British India a part of the Kingdom of God. Questions on Lesson 11 in Review. 1. Who were some of the missionary monks of the Middle Ages? 2. Describe briefly the career of Boniface. 3. How did they manage the enterprise? Questions on the Present Lesson. 1. Describe the early life of William Carey. 2. What visions of duty came to him? 3. Explain how Christianity had been expanding. 4. How did Carey arouse interest in foreign missions? 5. What were the effects of the organization of the first society? 6. Why is Christian expansion in the East so desirable? 7. Relate the early experiences of Carey in India. 8. Why are educational missions important? Forty-one Christianity on the American Frontier £^1 9. Why were Carey's translations so remarkable? 10. How does Carey compare with other famous Englishmen? Reading References. {!) Myers: Life of Carey. {2) Vedder: Christian Epoch Makers, ch. 15. (3) Rowe: Carey and the Land of India (Envelope Series of the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, 1910). Lesson 41. CHRISTIANITY ON THE AMERICAN FRONTIER. Pioneers in the West. Sources. — Records of denominational Home Mission societies; religious peri- odicals; lives of missionary pioneers; Adams's The Iowa Band; Puddefoot's Minute Man on the Frontier. Suggestions for Study. — 1. Read over the summary of the preceding lesson in preparation for class questions. 2. Read the story of the present lesson, with special note of the following: (a) the beginnings of home missions; (b) methods of organization; (c) the diffi- culties; (d) the story of Marcus Whitman. 3. Think over the following topics for special discussion in class: What can home mission societies do for the immigrant? What can the local church do for the immigrant in the community .-* 4. Note-book work: (a) See that the summary of the last lesson is complete. (6) Write an imaginary sketch of the planting of the Whitman mission among the Nez Perces Indians, (c) Draw a map of the Oregon country to include Oregon, Washington, and Idaho, and their leading cities. On the margin of the map write a list of the chief products of the region, (d) Make two lists of six names each, the first containing prominent missionary pioneers, and the second prominent missionary colleges. Note 1. Westward Ho! The march of civiUzation toward the setting sun is one of the most remarkable phenomena of history. From the ancient empires of the East to Greece and Rome, and then to Spain and France and England the star of empire has made its way. The barriers of the Atlantic checked the westward movement until the eve of the sixteenth century, but ever since those barriers broke the tide of emigration has swelled until at last the West has met the Pacific East from oversea. Alongside the marching emigrant the Christian 222 Landmarks in Christian History Letson pioneer has kept the pace. As heroically as the missionary to India or China he has endured the hardships of travel, and has helped to break new ground all along the advancing frontier. In the forests of the South he pitched his tent and held a campmeeting that stirred the people far and near. On the prairies of the Mississippi valley he organized the settlers into churches and built for them Christian schools. On the rougher plains farther west and in the mountains beyond he rode to ranch or mining camp and with the courage of a prophet summoned those whom he found to nobler living. In the midst of the rush for gold he went on another search to California and Alaska. In the latest emigration to the wheat lands and the expanding towns of the Canadian Northwest he is still on the firing line doing battle for righteousness. Note 2. The Progress of Settlement. The early colonists clung to the Atlantic seaboard. Starting in Virginia and Massachusetts, they gradually filled the spaces between, but they were slow to move beyond tidewater. Mountains barred the way to the interior, and while colonial days lasted there was httle desire to get away from the sea beyond which lay the mother land. The first settlers of Massachusetts doubted if settlement would ever go many miles away from the sea. But when the fortunes of war and the efforts of diplomacy opened to citizens of the young nation a limitless western empire, the opportunity for a greater success and the spice of adventure lured thousands into the great unknown. Streams of horses and wagons began to flow through the passes of the Alleghanies. Kentucky and Tennessee were occupied. The " Old Northwest " above the Ohio River surrendered its fields and forests. By and by the emigrant tide reached the Missis- sippi and passed beyond, to spread itself over the western plains and to cross in rivulets through the passes in the Rockies and the Sierras to the Pacific coast. Note 3. The First Missionaries. In the days before the West was open at all ministers from the older settlements itinerated along the fringe of civilization. From Massachusetts they went into Maine and New Hampshire, from Connecticut into New York, and from Phila- delphia into the South. At first the evangelistic impulse alone moved them to undertake this ministry at large, and their churches were willing to have them go. Some were sent out by the regular organiza- tions of churches. The Philadelphia Association of Baptist churches despatched evangelists to the South, who laid the foundations of Bap- tist growth in that section. The Shaftesbury Association of Vermont churches experimented by sending missionaries to the western New York frontier and even across to Canada. The first act of the General Forty-one Christianity on the American Frontier 223 Assembly of Presbyterians, organized in 1789, was to plan a home missionary campaign, and even before that date the Reformed Church had appointed a committee to provide means for Christian extension. Note 4. The Organization of Missionary Societies. Experience proved that the best method of carrying on regular campaigns was through the organization of such societies as had already been formed for foreign mission propaganda. Beginning with state societies in Connecticut and Massachusetts, the Congregationalists and Baptists entered on a new era of activity. They did not confine their efforts to the limits of the state, but sent missionaries to all the edges of the unoccupied country. These state societies were followed by national organizations which undertook the common task on a larger scale. Congregationalists and Presbyterians resembled each other in all respects except the method of church government. It seemed as if this small difference might be disregarded in the work of providing religion for new settlements; so the two denominations combined forces according to a Plan of Union drawn up in 1801, and for fifty years they worked shoulder to shoulder in the country north of the Ohio. For var- ious reasons the Presbyterian form seemed to take root most easily, with the result that Presbyterianism strengthened itself at the expense of the sister body. The result was good for the new settlements in that it saved them from an unnecessary number of churches, but the Congre- gationalist denomination has never been so strong in that section as it would have been without the Union. Note 5. Missionary Statesmanship. It seems remarkable that the evangelical churches of the United States should have awakened simul- taneously to the importance of building Christian homes, schools, and churches in the new lands of the West. They could not know then that in time to come the Middle West would be the dominant power in a vast union of American States stretching from the Atlantic to the Pacific. They only knew that sons and brothers, friends and acquaint- ances kept going out from the home communities with their faces to the frontier, and they knew that if the new settlements were to grow strong and prosperous they must have at the center of their community life the institutions of religion. And so, often with depleted membership and resources, the older churches toiled and sacrificed to provide the money, and missionaries faced the hardships of pioneering that the future of the West might be secure. Note 6. Scouting for God. It is not difficult to understand how groups of emigrants could leave their comfortable homes in the East 224 Landmarks in Christian History ^'^ and face the perils of forest and stream and plain. They expected to win a larger measure of prosperity in the New West, and the rewards promised to outweigh the peril and hardship. But only divine love could persuade talented men and well-born women to begin their mar- ried life en route for the mountain and the prairie, and to brave every- thing for the sake of the welfare of others. In these days when modern railroad trains span the desert stretches and chmb the dizzy steeps, it requires imagination to picture the old hfe. The first itinerants found only pathless forests and unforded streams. They pushed up unknown rivers in frail, heavily laden craft. They. crossed wastes as dangerous and dreary as the great northern ice-pack. They lived in the openthroughthedry heat of summer and the pitiless cold of winter storms. And all for the love of Clirist and the people for whom Christ died. Then came the slow task of upbuilding. Small companies of Chris- tian people must be encouraged to attempt church organization and the building of a meeting-house. The few children must be gathered into Sunday schools. Money was scarce and labor was in constant demand. Sometimes the missionary had to put up his own shack, and contribute from his own time and money and strength to erect a bare board meeting-house. But he did not shrink. Then by the side of the church went up the school and the college. The old Puritan idea that religion and education were twin corner-stones of national pros- perity was not abandoned in the building of the West. Denomina- tional colleges still dot the country from East to West, evidences of the faith and courage of the pioneers. Note 7. The Iowa Band. In several cases groups of young men went out together from eastern theological schools and settled near each other in Illinois, Iowa, Kansas, and Washington. In this way the strength of the band accomplished what individual effort could not hope to do. As the Haystack Band started at Williams College, and gathering strength at Andover Seminary made the beginning of the foreign mission undertaking in America, so the Iowa Band starting from Andover went out beyond the Mississippi and took possession of that state for God. Asa Turner and Reuben Gaylord had prepared the way. In the fall of 1843 eleven pioneer preachers camped down upon the land and began a simultaneous constructive effort to build the kingdom of God on the acres of Iowa. To them in large measure is due the vigor and stalwart worth of a people that are known and ad- mired all over the country. Note 8. Marcus Whitman. It was a far cry across the vast reaches of the trans-Mississippi plains and over the lofty ridges of the Forty-6ne Christianity on the American Frontier 225 Rockies to Oregon in the year 1836. But an opportunity was there. It was not to dig for gold, nor to get gain from apple orchard pr grain field, that Marcus Whitman and his young wife started on their bridal tour to a region that was far harder to reach than India or Burma. They were o-oing as missionaries to the Nez Perces Indians. Three thousand five hundred miles stretched before them to the Pacific shore. Six montlis it took them to make the journey amid thrilling experiences that are almost unbehevable. They found a home in " Beautiful Valley " where they established a mission for the aborigines. There must have been lonely hours in the two years and a half that passed before they received the first letters from home. And then came a crisis in the history of the Oregon country. Jesuit priests and Hudson Bay fur traders tried to push out the United States from what was still a debatable land. Thousands of square miles of the greatest value were on the point of being secured by Great Britain. Marcus Whitman was a patriot as true as the patriots of Lexington and Bunker Hill. And he did more than they. In the dead of winter he started almost alone on a horseback ride to the East to confer with the government at Washington and to get settlers from New Eng and to establish the American claim by actual occupancy. After incredible hardsliips he succeeded in accomplishing both purposes, and almost a year after he had gone forth he led a party of a thousand emigrants from the East into his Oregon valley. Three years later Whitman and his wife and twelve others were massacred by unfriendly Indians, but the Oregon country was saved to the United States, and the mission did not die. Note 9. The Meaning of Home Missions. Since those pioneer days the work of the home mission societies has been enlarged. After 1840 the emigration of Europeans presented a problem that has grown with the years. Indians and negroes and the outlying peoples of Mexico and the West Indies have demanded attention and help. Catholics and Mormons have been threatening perils West and East. Co- operative agencies have multiplied to meet the increasing needs. The foundation work is done. It was in the pioneer days, when the Ameri- can race of the future was in the making in those new and mighty states of the great West, that Christianity found means of expansion to countless homes and communities. It was a great crisis in American history. Without the pioneers of home missions and the efforts of the great societies there would have been grave danger that the nation would never have been able to meet the crises that have come already and those that are yet in the future. There is still opportunity for heroic 226 Landmarks in Christian History LcSdO.l work East and West. The greatest crises of American history are still ahead. In the storm and stress of the days which shall yet be there must arise successors of the pioneers who will do battle for American and Christian ideals. The meaning of frontier history is that the vic- tory is worth all it costs. Questions on the Preceding Lesson. 1. Who was William Carey? 2. In what ways was his life notable? 3. What do Christian missions accomplish in the East? Questions on the Present Lesson. 1. Describe the westward march of civihzation, and show the part of the missionary. 2. How was missionary pioneering first undertaken in the United States? 3. How did voluntary societies set to work in the West? 4. Why did the churches become stimulated to missionary activity? 5. Describe the diflSculties of pioneering. 6. Why were educational institutions established? 7. Explain the meaning of the Iowa Band. 8. Sketch the heroic life of Marcus Whitman. FurLj-iwG Wilherforce and Humanitarian Endeavor 227 9. What permanent good resulted from his efforts? 10. Explain why home missions have a deep meaning. Reading References. {!) Clark: Leavening the Nation. (2) Mo wry: Marcus Whitman. {3) Pilddefoot: The Minute Man on the Frontier. {Jf) Connor: Black Rock. (5) Faris: Winning the Oregon Country. Lesson 42. WILBERFORCE AND HUMANITARIAN ENDEAVOR. Christianity and Social Service. Soiirces.-T-Correspondence and life of Wilherforce; his diary; writings of the Clapham philanthropists; Hansard's Parliamentary Reports. Suggestions for Study. — 1. Read over the summary of the preceding lesson. 2. Read the lesson of the day. Points to be especially noted are: (a) the humanitarian period; {h) the Clapham philanthropists; (c) the championship of Wilherforce; (d) factory reform; {e) Charles Kingsley. 3. For special discussion consider the following topics: How can labor con- ditions be improved in a modern industrial nation.? 4. Note-book work: (a) See that the summary of the last lesson is fully written out. ih) Find instances in the New Testament where Jesus commends social service, (c) Write a short account of the English Parliament and some of its recent legislation, {d) Write a brief sketch of WiUiam Wilberforce. Note 1. The Humanitarian Spirit. In the fifteenth century hu- manism preceded the German Reformation. In the eighteenth cen- tury the Methodist Reformation was followed by humanitarianism. In the first instance human life became an interesting subject of study; in the second case there was a new sense of human worth. This new consciousness appeared in various ways — in religion, in politics, in social and industrial relations. Religious teachers perceived a wide- ness in God's mercy that had not been appreciated before. The nar- row Calvinistic idea that Christ died for the elect only gave way to the Methodist doctrine of divine grace free to all. The new sect of Universalists — founded by James Relly in London about the middle of the eighteenth century and by John Murray in the United States about 1790 — even maintained the doctrine of universal salvation. 228 Landmarks in Christian History Lesson The Uiiiversalist denomination has never grown to large proportions, but its distinctive principle was a symptom of a new sense of human worth and has been dynamic in modern thinking. In politics the rights of every individual were championed by revolutionists in America and France in the last quarter of the century. The spirit of social sym- pathy showed itself in a variety of ways in the same period. It stimu- lated the missionary conviction in the churches ; it expressed itself with the aid of printer's ink; it produced numerous social reform enterprises. Note 2. The Social Expansion of Christianity. This awakening of human sympathy marks the period as one in which there took place a social expansion of Christianity. The emphasis on personal religion had been strong since the Reformation, but during the nineteenth century the trend has been towards an emphasis on the social duty of the individual Christian and of the church. It came to be seen that, while social endeavor is dependent on the. spiritual stimulus, individual Christianity is of little worth unless it stimulates to humanitarian en- deavor. Methodism had caught this truth in a measure, but the best representatives of tliis idea were the Evangelicals who formed a group in the Anglican church, strongly influenced by Methodist principles, but remaining in the Episcopal fold. One group of these Evangelicals in particular reveals the strength of the new religious and humanitarian spirit. This was a group of eminent men and women centering about the London suburb of Clapham, and sometimes known as the " Clap- ham sect." Most of them lived there, as Emerson and several of his literary contemporaries formed a coterie in the village of Concord, Massachusetts, not many years later. They wrote on philanthropy. They practised it — one of them gave away not less than ten thousand dollars a year. Another of the company, William Wilberforce, became their spokesman in Parliament. As a group they had an influence for social reform that was unequalled in that day, and it is to be remem- bered that they were church people. Note 3. A Catalogue of Public Evils. There was great need of social reform in England. Thousands of people were desperately poor. They were not thrifty and fell into debt. Debtors were thrown into prison when they could not pay. At one time not far from the year 1800 there were ten thousand such debtors in jail and twice as many trying to escape imprisonment. Once in prison it was impos- sible for them to satisfy their creditors, and their condition was pitiable. Penalties were severe, and prison conditions were intolerable. Morals in England needed improvement in spite of Methodist reforms. Drunk- enness and gambling were still common. Slavery and the slave trade Fortytwo WUberfoTce and Humanitarian Endeavor 229 were intrenched in the business system of the empire. The condition of many workers in Enghsh industry was Kttle better than that of the West Indian slaves. Women and children toiled long hours in the factories amid most unhealthful surroundings; underground in some of the mines they were treated like animals. Even in charitable institu- tions there was cruelty and neglect, and the schools needed to be reformed. Some of the religious bodies were oppressed by the state, and needed relief. Only a few of the English people had the right to vote, and parliamentary reform was one of the most needed im- provements. The difficulties in the way of betterment were mountain high, but the reformers attacked them with courage and determination. Note 4. Wilberforce, the Champion of the Slave. There are three great enterprises that must find a place in the story of humanitarian effort in England during the first half of the nineteenth century. The first of these is the attempt of Wilberforce to destroy the traffic in human slaves under the British flag. Wilberforce was a Yorkshireman of good family, and he enjoyed the privileges of a university education. He was not strong physically, but he had mental endowments that gave him power with men, espe- cially tlirough his eloquence. He became influenced by the evangelical type of religion tln-ough a friend, and he gained political opportunity through William Pitt, the famous young statesman of the last years of the eighteenth century. It was his religious interest that prompted him to become the champion of the slave, and it was ability in parlia- mentary speech that made him effective. His health did not always permit him to be active, but when he was able he was always foremost in keeping social questions to the front, and for many years he was an ideal representative of the people in the national legislature of England. Slavery is almost as old as the race itself, but its forms have been worse in some periods than in others. In Europe slavery gave way to serfdom after the fall of the Roman empire, and in th^most progres- sive countries slaves became freemen. But a new and very profitable industry had been opened up in supplying African negroes for slaves on American plantations of cotton, sugar, and tobacco. Englishmen had been engaged in tliis trade from the days of Queen Elizabeth. English planters in the West Indies depended on the supply of negroes to give them a profitable interest on their investments. For many years they had no fear of being disturbed. But it had become known that great cruelty was practised in obtaining the negroes in Africa, and the horrors of the slave ships that were overcrowded with their human 230 Landmarks in Christian History Lesson cargo became notorious. The awakened English conscience became sensitive. The Quakers opposed the traffic. Thomas Clarkson, a young Enghshman, was a pioneer in his anti-slavery zeal, and he interested Wilberforce; Wilberforce introduced the subject into parlia- mentary debate. At first he was treated with ridicule and contempt, and he made little progress, but he persisted. Then in alarm the powerful planters and traders bestirred themselves to protect their vested interests. By slow steps "Wilberforce and his friends gained ground. This intrepid parliamentarian with the vision of freedom in his heart would not be put down. Again and again he returned to the charge after every defeat. After a time Wilberforce was able to secure restrictions upon the traffic, and at last after twenty years of struggle the Christian spirit of England was strong enough to bring the slave trade to an end in 1807. When this beginning had been made, it was only a question of time when slavery itself must go, and this was decreed in 1833. By the law of that year all slaves in the British colonies were freed, and twenty thousand pounds were paid to their owners in compensation. Note 5. Lord Shaftesbury and Factory Reform. Wilberforce had been interested in all good causes, though his special effort was made in behalf of negro slaves. He did not live to assume the championship of the second great enterprise, the emancipation of the white people of England who in mines and factories were enduring a slavery almost as revolting as that of the " middle passage." The leadership in factory reform passed to Lord Shaftesbury, an English nobleman, as truly Christian as Wilberforce, and of sufficient power in purse and politics to make liim effective in carrying a reform through Parliament. The English factory system had grown up out of changing industrial conditions. The invention of machinery destroyed the old hand labor, and because the machinery was heavy and expensive, capitahsts who could afford it built large factories and equipped them with machinery. Then they looked about for laborers. From poorhouses, orphanages, and poor families, they gathered women and children to work with the men; they paid them low wages, and kept them at work twelve hours and more; and England, devoted to the economic gospel of freedom of trade and manufacturing from governmental interference, permitted such abuses. But there came a time when the Christian conscience called a halt. By a succession of laws, culminating in Shaftesbury's Factory Acts of 1844 and 1847, the workers were freed from the severest oppression. Forty-two WUberforce and Humanitarian Endeavor 231 Note 6. Kingsley and the Christian Socialists. The tliird great enterprise was the upHft of social hfe in country and town. The leaders were a group of Christian Sociahsts, who would now be called only socialized Christians, behevers in the social mission of Christianity to redeem the whole man. The most prominent leader was Charles Kingsley, a learned scholar, but only a country clergyman when he assumed the championsliip of the masses in 1848. He wrote pam- phlets and articles for the papers, and he pubUshed books showing social conditions in the manufacturing towns and in the rural districts. The working people of his day had little use for the church, but Kings- ley gloried in his churchmanship and in the gospel that he preached. Far from being a modern socialist he declared that what the world needed was not more of any system good or bad, but more of the spirit of God. He accomplished no great reform, but he did that which was more important, he revealed the spirit of a true Clu^istian man and preacher. Note 7. Christian Social Service. The social mission of Chris- tianity was only beginning to be apparent in the first half of the nine- teenth century, but it had gone so far that it could produce men Hke these. Nothing reveals more clearly the growth of the Christian spirit than the contrast between such a selfish statesman as Lord Somerset, railroading a nominal Protestantism through the English Parliament to suit his own ends, and a man like Wilberforce, standing in feebleness of body but with splendid courage in that same Parliament, and fighting year after year the battles of those who could not speak for themselves. Questions on the Summary of the Preceding Lesson. 1. Wlien did home missions begin in America? 2. What methods were used? 3. What have been the results? Questions on the Present Lesson. 1. What are the indications of a hew humanitarian spirit in England? 2. Who were the Universalists: Lesson 232 Landmarks in Christian History 3. Who were the EvangeHcals? 4. Explain the need of social reform in England. 5. Describe the career of Wilberforce. 6. What were the evils of negro slavery? 7. How was it abolished in the British empire? 8. Describe the industrial conditions that led to factory reform. 9. Why does Kingsley belong in this story? 10. Contrast Somerset and Wilberforce. Reading References. (1) Cheyney: Industrial and Social History of England, ch. 9. (2) Hall: The Social Meaning of Modern Religious Movements in England, lecture 4. (S) Gibbins: English Social Reformers, pp. 94-107. (4) E. B. Browning: The Cry of the Children. Forty-three Lincoln, the Slave Emancipator 233 Lesson 43. LINCOLN, THE SLAVE EMANCIPATOR. The End of Slavery in the United States. Sources. — Messages and Papers of the Presidents; debates and speeches in Congress and elsewhere; the Emancipation Proclamation; Lincoln's Works; biographies and reminiscences of liincoln and the war; files of secular and reUgious newspapers. Suggestions for Study. — 1. Read the summary of the last lesson. 2. Read the story of the present lesson, noting especially: (a) the life of the negro; (6) the growth of abolition sentiment; (c) the task of Lincoln; (d) the Emancipation Proclamation; (e) the greatness of Lincoln. 3. Think over the following special topic for class disscussion: What is the duty of the church with regard to the problem of human labor.^ 4. The following exercises are suggested for the note-book: (a) See that the usual summary is in proper form. (6) Write an imaginary description of slave life on a Southern plantation, (c) Outline the arguments for and against slavery, (d) Make a list of the states that seceded from the Union, and another list of the decisive battles of the war. (e) Draw a map to show the states and the battlefields. Note 1. Negro Slavery in the United States. It is a curious coinci- dence that the year 1807 which saw the end of the British slave trade witnessed also the prohibition of the slave trade in the United States. From the time when the Dutch landed the first cargo of negroes in Virginia in 1619, slavery had existed in America. Gradually it became unprofitable and ceased in the northern part of the country, but in the South it seemed to the planters an economic necessity. Negro labor was depended on for the cultivation and harvesting of the plantation crops. It was purely an economic consideration. Except for one or two sects like the Quakers, the religious denominations were not hostile to it. The social conscience of America had not been aroused by a Wilberforce. In the last part of the eighteenth century it seemed as if slavery might die out in the South, but in 1793 Eli Whitney invented a cotton gin that greatly increased the value of a cotton crop. Cotton speedily became the great staple of the South, and the demand for slaves increased. In many parts of the South the slave system was a paternal sort of arrangement. The master cared for his slaves as dependents on the estate, housing, clotliing, and feeding them, and exacting from them little severe labor in return. The negroes often preferred such a life to the responsibilities of freedom. But on the large plantations, espe- cially in the far South, where hundreds of the slaves worked in the fields under a paid overseer, the system worked badly. The methods employed to force their labor and to speed them up were harsh. Worst of all much immorality attended the system of slavery. The blacks were ignorant, superstitious, and lazy. They were never taught self-control. 234 Landmarks in Christian History ^^'"*" and gave way freely to animal passion. Bought and sold as chattels, they did not know the sanctity of the home. They revelled in the enjoy- ment of religions dissipation, but religion was of the emotions rather than of the will. At best the slave system was an antiquated social order not fitted to the nineteenth century, and could not remain after the Christian conscience of the nation became more powerful than economic convenience. Note 2. Anti-Slavery Sentiment Grows. As early as 1790 petitions opposing slavery went to Congress from the Quakers and from a Penn- sylvania Society for Promoting the abolition of Slavery. With the growth of western settlement and the admission of new states to the Union, Congress tried to maintain a balance between states that per- mitted slavery and those that prohibited it. After 1830 individual agita- tors appeared, like William Lloyd Garrison, and in the year that the British Parliament abolished slavery in the empire the American Anti- Slavery Society was organized. A few years later Harriet Beecher Stowe wrote Uncle Tom's Cabin, a dark picture of Southern life that converted thousands in the North to a profound hatred of a system that made such evils possible. These agitators made slavery a moral issue and disregarded economic conditions. As Socialists today demand a radical revolution in the industrial order because there is oppression of the laborer, so abolitionists then demanded immediate emancipation of the slaves regardless of the ruin that would impend over the industry of the South, and regardless of the fact that the negroes would not know how to use their freedom. Naturally Southerners became very sensi- tive to the charges of cruelty and immorality that were hurled against them, and many who were not guilty of abuses suffered for the guilt of those who practised them. Slavery was a system that bound the whole South together in a common fault and a common fate. Note 3. Approaching Civil War. After 1850 slavery became the dominant political issue of the nation. The growth of anti-slavery sentiment was making the North determined to prevent the spread of slavery in the new territory. The pride of the South was aroused to defend its honor and to maintain the equality of its own section of the country with the more rapidly growing North. The spirit of division had already entered the councils of several of the great religious denom- inations, and disrupted them Next it entered the ranks of the two great political parties, destroyed one, and divided the other. . Anti- slavery sentiment crystallized in the organization of a Republican party which grew so rapidly that it was victorious in the national elec- tion of 1860. With an insane fear that this meant the destruction of Forty-three Lincolu, the Slave Emancipator 235 the South in the fall of its peculiar industrial system, the South repudi- ated the Union which had been formed with the states of the North after the Revolution, and prepared to defend by force its hberty of action. Note 4. Abraham Lincoln. On the twelfth of February, 1809, there was born in a miserable Kentucky shack a boy who was to meet the emergency of '61. This was Abraham Lincoln. He spent his boyhood in southern Indiana on the border between North and South, and grew to manhood without any of the advantages that were needed for future success. But he became a self-reliant son of the prairie, and when he was his own master he studied the profession of the law in IlHnois, which led him later into politics. When slavery became a political issue, he took his stand on the side that he believed to be morally right. Two years before the fateful campaign of 1860 he stumped the state of Illinois for the governorship against the most redoubtable champion of the slave system in the North. That courageous but unsuccessful campaign made him the Republican nominee for the presidency in 1860, and it was against him and his party that the South raised the standard of secession in the weeks that followed his election. Note 5. Lincoln's Task. Few men in history have faced such a difficult problem as met Lincoln when he was inaugurated president in the spring of 1861. He had foreseen the catastrophe when he declared his conviction that the nation could not continue to exist half slave and half free, but neither he nor the Republican party had intended to force abolition on the South. Now the Union wliich seemed essential to American prosperity was broken, and all hope of the peace- ful emancipation of forced labor in the South seemed at an end. As Jesus wept over the fall of Jerusalem wliich he foresaw, so Lincoln might well weep over the impending conflict between brothers, descend- ants of sires who had dedicated the nation to human freedom. But he had taken oath to preserve the Union, and it was his task to use all the force that the nation possessed to prevent division. The years that had confirmed the South in its rights as independent slave-holding states had knit together the northern states into a unified nation, and when Lincoln called for troops the loyal sentiment of the North re- sponded, and the war began. Note 6. The Need of a Socialized Religion. It has always been difficult for a Northern churchman to understand how the Christian people of the South could justify their defense of slavery. It will be 236 Landmarks in Christian History ^^*'"'" just as difficult for the Christian of the future to understand ho\v present daj followers of Jesus Christ can permit the social evils of modern industrial and city life. The difficulty has been and continues to be that religion too often remains a thing apart, a concern of the soul in its relations to its Maker, but not a thing which is intimately related to the business of every day life. The South justified its economic system on tlie ground of necessity, and supported it by the example of the worthies of the Old Testament. There has never been a section of the country more deeply religious than the South. The industrial North excuses its evils on the same ground of necessity, and maintains its religious complacency as long as the routine functions of religion are performed. The Civil War has taught more than one lesson to America, but Christian people of the present day very much need to learn the lesson that their religion is not complete, and the peace and prosperity of the country are not secure, until social justice and oppor- tunity are made possible for every man, woman and child in the United States. Note 7. A Double Tragedy. For four weary years the great tragedy of the Civil War was staged on the fair South country. Many times has the picture been drawn of fields destroyed and homes deso- lated, of cities in ruin and lives sacrificed. It was an awful fate for the people who had clung to the survivals of an age outworn. But in the White House at Wasliington there was being enacted another tragedy that had its setting in the soul of the President. No one who understands the tender sympathy and merciful spirit of Lincoln can doubt that there beat upon him as fierce a storm as swept over his country. The extent of his suffering no one can know. He was sus- tained by his native optimism and by his trust in Divine Providence, and the end of the war brought no greater measure of peace to the whole country than it brought to the heart of Abraham Lincoln. His swift death wliich followed was a sad aftermath of the long tragedy, but it enslirined him in the heart of the nation for all time. Note 8. The Emancipation Proclamation. In the darkest hour of the war Lincoln did not forget that the freedom of the slave as well as the preservation of the Union was at stake. Then he performed an act as a war measure that he would not have done in time of peace. By its revolt against the national government the South had forfeited the right to its slave property if the commander-in-chief of the Union armies deemed it necessary to confiscate it. On this principle and on the higher moral principle that slavery was wrong, Abraham Lincoln wrote the Emancipation Proclamation of the colored race in the South. orty-t ree Liucoln, the Sluve Emancipator 237 It was written when the war had continued for a Httle more than a year, and it went into effect on the first day of January, 1863. It had to be enforced by the armies of the North, and its fate was not determined for more than two years of bitter war, but time vindicated the bold act of Lincoln in striking from millions of the human race the shackles that kept them from their rightful heritage of manhood and from the American birthright of opportunity. Note 9. The Greatness of Lincoln. Kings have claimed to rule by divine right; presidents have won office by unholy methods; vic- torious generals have made their way to high position over fields of blood. Abraham Lincoln was one of the few men of whom it might truly be said that he ruled by the grace of God. He took office that he might serve his country; he held firmly to the cause of right though the sons of the North bled, and the men of the South called him tyrant. He died a martyr to the principles for which he had given already the best years of his life. In days to come, when animosities are forgotten and character shines in clear light, Abraham Lincoln will appear in the history of liis age a man called of God to right a social wrong that might not longer endure. Questions on the Summary of the Preceding Lesson. 1. What marked Christian expansion in England.'^ 2. What social reforms occurred.^ 3. Who were the leaders.^ Questions on the Present Lesson. 1. How did slavery become fastened on the South? 2. What were some of its evils? 3. Compare the abolitionist agitation with that of socialism. 4. Trace the growth of abolition sentiment up to the war. 238 Landmarks in Christian History ^"""^ 5. State the facts about Lincoln's early life. 6. How did he come to be the champion of freedom and union? 7. How explain the South's justification of slavery? 8. What was the double tragedy? 9. Explain the Emancipation Proclamation. 10. Describe the greatness of Lincoln. Reading References. . {!) Tarbell: Life of Lincoln. {2) Ropes: Story of the Civil War. {3) Hart: Source Book of American History. (Jf) Stowe: Uncle Tom's Cabin. Lesson 44. THE GOSPEL OF SELF-CONTROL. The Crusade for Temperance and Purity. Sources. — Addresses and papers of temperance advocates; legislative acts in various countries; tracts and reports of such societies as the Anti-Saloon League and the American Purity Alliance; national and international statistics. Suggestions for Study. — 1. Review the summaries from the beginning of the quarter. 2. Read the present lesson story, giving special attention to: (a) the need of temperance reform; (6) the three methods that have been tried; (c) the work of Father Mathew; id) the present organized agencies; {e) the purposes and results of the purity campaign. 3, Give special thought to the following topic for class discussion: What are the strong arguments in favor of restricting freedom by a prohibitory law? FoHv-four rpj^^ Q^g^^i ^j Self-Control 239 4. The following exercises are suggested for the note-book: (a) See that all summaries up to date are complete. (6) Make a list of ways by which it is possible for the church to help the cause of temperance and purity; make a second Ust by which the school may do the same; and a third list on state action, (c) Write an article suitable for newspaper publication on Substitutes for the Saloon, (d) Write a sketch of the life of Frances Willard. Note 1. The Pull of Animal Desires. It was a remarkable achieve- ment for men like Lincoln and Wilberforce to free millions of slaves from bondage to other men. As great an honor may yet belong to him who can free the men who are slaves to their own primitive pas- sions. Intemperance and impurity are as great a curse to the human race as slavery. It is well known that the earliest human desires are to eat and to mate. Such desires are proper as long as they are kept under control. Unfortunately the shores of the centuries are strewn with human wrecks because of the perversion of those desires. To keep temperate and to keep pure have been harder tasks for many than to play the man on the field of battle. But self-control is one of the principles of Christianity. Paul had much to say about that kind of gospel in his letters to the Corinthians and Romans. Medieval monks made asceticism and cehbacy fundamental principles of their order. The progressive Christians of the nineteenth century could do no less than to stand for the gospel of self-control, and so it came about that a crusade was on in England and America for temperance before the victory against slavery was fully won. Note 2. The Need of Temperance Reform a Century Ago. Two circumstances made temperance reform necessary. One was that immoderate drinking was far more general than now, and the other was that distilled spirits had displaced largely the milder fermented liquors in England and America. Even the clergy were sometimes addicted to strong drinks, setting a bad example to their parishioners and disgracing the cloth. It was impossible to have a house-raising, a husking bee, or even a funeral without the consumption of quantities of liquors. It became apparent to certain physicians in England and America that bodily health was suffering from frequent intoxication, and legislators in Parliament recognized the fact that the race was suffering physical degeneration. Early in the nineteenth century several of the clergy awoke to the evil of intemperance and spoke against it. Perhaps the most important temperance writings of the period were six sermons of Dr. Lyman Beecher of Litchfield, Con- necticut, which were published, and had far more than a local influence. Note 3. Organizing for Reform. There were two good reasons for organization. In the first place it gave strength to the reformers to 240 Landmarks in Christian History Lesson plan together and unite for action; in the second place membership in a society gave strength to the weak wills of those who were tempted to immoderate indulgence. There have been several stages in the history of organization, as there have been stages in the anti-drink campaign generally. In the first years it was a crusade for temperance, not for total abstinence or prohibition. The use of cider, wine, and beer was not frowned upon like the consumption of whiskey, brandy, and rum. Local and state societies in New York and New England were followed by agitation in Ireland and in 1831 the British and For- eign Temperance Society was organized in London under the patronage of the highest officials of the Anglican church, and later of Queen Victoria. But as temperance enthusiasm increased, the movement for self-denial was extended to a pledge of total abstinence from intoxi- cants of every kind. The American Society for the Promotion of Temperance was founded on that principle in 1826, and within three years there were affiliated with it eleven state and local societies. Note 4. Father Mathew's Crasade. The most effective work in this period of emphasis on total abstinence was performed by an Irish Catholic priest of Cork, Father Theobald Mathew. He was passing through the workhouse one day in the year 1838 with a Quaker friend who was known as an ardent temperance advocate. They passed by certain debauched inmates, when the Quaker exclaimed, " Oh, Theo- bald Mathew, if thou would but take the cause in hand!" The priest after some reflection accepted the challenge, and organized the Cork Total Abstinence Society with sixty members. Addressing them at the first meeting, he expressed liis conviction that the use of intoxicants was an unnecessary and harmful practice, and declared: "I will be the first to sign my name in the book which is on the table, and I hope we shall soon have it full." Each man then took this pledge: " I promise to abstain from all intoxicating drinks, etc., except used medici- nally and by order of a medical man, and to discountenance the cause and practice of intemperance." From this local beginning the temperance enthusiasm spread from county to county of Ireland. As Father Mathew went from place to place, thousands gathered to see and hear him, and tens of thousands signed the pledge. The consumption of spirits fell off decidedly, and the priest of Cork dared to hope that Ireland might become converted wholly to temperance. When he thought his work in Ireland done, he went to Scotland and England, where a quarter of a million people declared themselves for total abstinence. He even visited the United States, where he was received with ^very mark of honor. But when PoTty.fouT rjri^^ Gospel of Self-CoTitrol 241 Father Mathew returned to Ireland in 1851, he found that the people were falling back into their old habits, and he came to the conclusion that the only possible way of obtaining permanent success was through legislative prohibition. Note 5. Prohibition by Law. During the same period as Father Mathew's crusade the Washingtonian movement grew and declined in the United States. It had its origin in the sudden reformation of six confirmed drinkers in Baltimore. They organized a society, and started an enthusiastic movement that was second only to that of Father Mathew. Yet before 1850 it went the way of other temporary excitements. These two waves of popular enthusiasm made it plain that as long as the law permitted the sale of intoxicants, self-control must wait on governmental control. The highest type of social control is self- control, and it is to be hoped that the time will come when the human will is strong enough to dispense with the props of legal restraint, but until that time comes prohibitions of various sorts must be maintained. On this theory the temperance workers proceeded after years of unsuc- cessful experiment with voluntary self-denial. Turning their attention to legislative action, they secured a state law in New York in 1845, prohibiting the public sale of liquor, but this was repealed after an experiment of two years. In Maine, through the efforts of Neal Dow, there was enacted a law that has remained permanently on the statute books. Other states have followed this example in the half century that has passed. Some laws have been successful in checking intem- perance, others have been repealed after a time. During the last thirty years a national Prohibition party has been agitating for national prohibition. Note 6. Frances Willard and her Times. In the last fifty years three notable organizations have furthered temperance interests. The oldest of these came into existence just as Father Mathew returned from America to Ireland. This was the order of Good Templars. It was the first organization to admit women on equal terms with men. It stood for total abstinence for the individual and prohibition for the state. It has proved very helpful in Europe as well as in America. The second was the Woman's Christian Temperance Union, in which the women of the world have enrolled themselves for the larger influ- ence of womankind, and for the education of children in the schools and churches to understand the evils of intemperance. In the adminis- tration of this organization no person has been so prominent as Frances Willard. She dechned an important educational position to become 242 Landmarks in Christian History ^^"'^^ head of the Chicago branch of the society, and through her great executive abihty she rose to be the founder and first president of the world organization. It was Miss Willard's spirit of consecration to duty that first made her career possible. It was the character of the woman more than her oflSce that made her famous. Like her there have been many humble members of Christian churches who have striven through years to further the temperance cause. Temperance has been the one popular social reform that enlisted the support of the churches in the period before social service became prominent. This rehgious con- nection of the temperance movement has been sustained in the last twenty years by the Anti-Saloon League, which is the third great agency to be included in this list. Originating in Ohio, it has labored everywhere to bring to bear upon state legislatures the pressure of the best public opinion, and it has been remarkably successful in effecting prohibitory legislation, especially in the South. Note 7. The Purity Campaign. A twin evil of intemperance has been impurity. Indeed, it is seriously questioned if the victims of vice are not more than those of intemperance. The drink habit is much less destructive of the home than the social evil. Drunkenness causes less widespread physical ruin than venereal disease. The two flourish together, and both are peculiarly destructive among the most civilized peoples. The campaign for social purity is of more recent date than the tem- perance crusade. When the public awoke to the importance of con- certed action against vice, they began to organize. The principal aims have been to educate public opinion, to rescue the fallen, and to develop constructive methods of reform through legislation and otherwise that would prevent a continuance of the evils that were becoming notorious. Definite results have followed. The distribution of quantities of obscene literature to young people has been checked. Printed information has been distributed on topics of sex hygiene, and sex instruction is being introduced into schools. Law and order leagues have lessened im- moral practices in many cities. Better laws for the regulation of pros- titution have been enacted and enforced. A large number of indi- viduals have been rescued from an irregular manner of fife. Note 8. The Social Gospel. In these definite ways the apostles of the gospel of self-control have been carrying on their crusade. With the prop of the law they are encouraging the weak-willed to stand on their own feet. The church is enlarging its Christian ministry by urging the weak-kneed to seek spiritual strength, and at the same time is doing its part in removing the temptations of the environment. No Forly^Sour ^ rp^^ Q^^^^l ^J Self-Coutrol 243 great social reform is achieved in a single generation, but victory is in sight when the expanding thought of the day recognizes both the spiritual and the social ministry of the Christian religion. Questions on Recent Lesson Summaries. 1. Why is Carey's name important in Cliristian history? 2. What were some of his achievements? 3. What was the work of the Christian scouts of America? 4. Name some of the earliest social reforms of the nineteenth century in Great Britain. 5. Name some of the leaders. 6. What caused the Civil War in the United States? 7. Who was the promoter of emancipation? Questions on the Present Lesson. 1. What are the principal human desires, and how have they been abused? 2. How has Christianity emphasized self-control? 3. What reasons were there for temperance reform a century agoi 4. What two kinds of temperance reform were first tried, and what were the reasons for each? 5. Tell the story of Father Mathew's crusade. 6. Why did it seem necessary to introduce prohibition? 7. State the three most notable organizations of recent years, and their particular characteristics. 244 Landmarks in Christian History - ^^'"°" 8. What made the career of Frances Willard so creditable? 9. What have been the purposes of the purity campaign? 10. What definite results have been achieved? Reading References. {!) Article on Temperance in Encyclopedia Britannica, 11th edition. (2) Peabody: The Liquor Problem, a report of a committee of fifty (Houghton, Mifflin Co., 1905). {3) Gordon: Life of Frances E. Willard. Lesson 45, THE MINISTRY? OF HEALTH. The War Against Diseases. Sources. — Reports of medical societies and scientific journals; the lives of devoted investigators, physicians, and nurses; newspaper and periodical articles; Bucldey's Faith-Healing, Christian Science, and Kindred Phenomena. Suggestions for Study. — 1. Read the summary of the preceding lesson for class questioning. 2. Read the lesson story, noting especially: (a) the two lines of health pro- gress; (6) medical discoveries in the nineteenth century; (c) the spirit of servdce among physicians and nurses; (d) varieties of mind cure. 3. Think over the following topics for special discussion in class: In what respects may the work of a physician or a nurse be called Christian? What is there of good in Christian Science? 4. Note-book exercises: (a) Complete the summary of the last lesson. (b) Write an account of the Emmanuel Movement, (c) Write a sketch of Florence Nightingale, Clara Barton, or Mary Baker Eddy, (d) Quote five of the sayings of Jesus with reference to bodily healing, and name five cures wrought by Him. Note 1. Christianity for the Body as well as the Soul. It was an ancient theory that health was the gift of the gods; the modern theory is that it must be set down to the credit of the right kind and the right number of bacteria. In olden times it was the current opinion that the soul could thrive only by torturing the body, or at least denying it proper care. The fakirs of the East still hold to that opinion. The modern student of hygiene hunts in a Bible concordance for the maxim. ^''^^'^'' ' The Ministry of Health 245 Cleanliness is next to Godliness, so sure is he that it is Christian doc- trine. It is an evidence of the expanding thought about Christianity that so much emphasis is put on the gospel of bodily health. It is also becoming plain that health of mind and upHft of spirit are largely dependent on the body. It was the Great Physician himself who asked: " Which is easier to say, ' Thy sins be forgiven thee,' or to say, * Rise up and walk '?" It is inconceivable to think of a man as con- verted at the hands of Jesus who was not made physically as well as spiritually whole. It is the awakening consciousness of this fact that has produced more than one cult of healing that claims to be in har- mony with the spirit and teaching of Christianity. It is the Christian spirit of service that leads so many physicians and nurses to sacrifice comfort and even life in a ministry of health and a warfare against disease. Note 2. Two Health Crusades. Nineteenth century Christianity was marked by a series of crusades against social ills. The missionary crusade against ignorance and superstition in the East, the anti-slavery crusade in England and America, and the temperance crusade have found a place already in this story. The campaign for better health has been waged along two lines — that of medical and sanitary science, and that of mental and Christian science. Each has been slow to recognize anything of value in the other, but they are beginning to approach each other in recent years. Both belong among the land- marks of Christian^^history, because they are marked by the spirit of devotion to the good of humanity. Their differences of opinion merely illustrate the difficulty of answering the question of Jesus as to the comparative ease of curing the whole man by the physical or by the spiritual process. Note 3. The Development of Medical Science. Every one knows of the barbaric methods used by the medicine man among peoples of a low stage of culture. Every one does not contrast the heroic measures in vogue among his own ancestors with the improved science of his own day. The improvements in medical science have come by means of more thorough investigations into the causes of disease, and have been marked by better methods of treatment and by the invention of greatly improved instruments in surgery. There are certain names that must always be held in reverence as the benefactors of mankind. The dis- coveries of Pasteur in the realm of bacteriology, after the most patient and self-denying researches, made possible the modern germ theory of disease. Koch did a very real service to the afflicted when he made known the germ of the dreadful scourge of tuberculosis. It was an 246 Landmarks in Christian History , Lettm even greater boon to suffering humanity when Morton discovered the use of anaesthetics, and Lister succeeded in providing antiseptic treat- ment for wounds. The presence of the Christian minister has been a benediction in countless sick-rooms, but as far as bodily relief was concerned his power was limited to giving spiritual strength to bear the pain. It has been given to the modern physician to soothe the body and dull the ache, and coax the weary spirit back to its tenement of clay. Perhaps strangest of all is it that minister and physician, as in the Emmanuel Movement, have found a way to work together for the cure of the whole nature. Note 4. Hygiene. Physicians base much of their advice on the old adage that an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure. It is easier to keep well than it is to get well. Hygiene, therefore, belongs by the side of medicine as a minister to health. In the old classical dictionaries a tiny niche was reserved for the goddess Hygeia; in modern encyclopedias hygiene has room to display its importance. The ancient Romans appreciated the importance of pure water, and built great aqueducts to procure it. They knew the value of cleanly habits, and maintained large public baths. In Athens the famous Themistocles was at one time sanitary inspector of the town pump. But modern sanitation and hygiene have surpassed the ancients in their thorough- going instruction and provision for all classes of the people. Sanitary regulations received a religious sanction among the Hebrews by their incorporation into the Mosaic law; personal cleanHness and social purity are coming to be a part of the modern creed of every progressive race. The physician preaches the doctrine of personal hygiene to each of his patients. The social reformer insists that tuberculosis and other prevalent diseases so common among the poor can be eradi- cated only by better personal habits and more sanitary housing arrange- ments. The war against disease in the slums is forcing the destruction of unhealthful tenements. The new campaign for rural betterment includes in its program more careful attention to rural hygiene. The press is educating the people everywhere to a cleaner, better life. Note 5. Ministers of Health. Physicians and nurses belong in a special honor list among the servants of mankind. In the past the sick had to depend on the ministrations of a kindly neighbor. Now a new order of sisters of charity has sprung into existence. Young women give their lives to trained nursing and do not shrink from places w^here few but the Catholic sisters have had the courage to go. Singly as village nurses they care for one and another in bodily need. In trained companies they stand by the side of the physicians in the hospitals. ^"'•'^■•^"^ The Ministry of Health M7 Both men and women meet the horrors of accident and the dangers of pestilence. They even enHst in a new red cross service to the wounded on the field of battle that is a truer token of chivalry than the enlist- ment of the medieval crusader. With a cup of cold water for the parched and fevered body they are performing a Christly service that marks tliis period as eminently humane, and characterizes their min- istry as nobly divine. Note 6. The Mind Cure Theory. While the physical scientists were making their discoveries, there were other persons who worked on the theory that the seat of disease was in the mind. They beheved that a sound mind would make and keep the body sound; that a dis- eased imagination was responsible for many ills that could be cured by mental treatment. Not all such practitioners agreed in their methods of treatment, but they did agree that the power of suggestion is superior to the power of drugs as a curative agent in at least some ailments. Two schools of such thinkers have allied themselves with religion — those who depend upon the theory of faith cure, and the Christian Scientists — and they may be taken as representatives of the whole group. Note 7. Faith Healing. Among both Catholics and Protestants there have occurred many remarkable cures that cannot be explained satisfactorily except on the ground of a strong, religious faith. Such cures date back a long way in Catholic history but a single place of pilgrimage made famous in the nineteenth century sufficiently illus- trates Catholic faith cure. In the region of the Pyrenees in southern France is a town of eight thousand people called I^ourdes. The Virgin Mary in the year 1858 is said to have revealed to a peasant girl that a spring in a certain grotto possessed miraculous powers of healing. The faithful began to flock to the shrine and enjoy the healing properties of the waters, until it became a famous place of pilgrimage. In America more than one crippled Catholic has found relief at the shrine of Saint Anne de Beaupre in Quebec, where the relics of the saint took the place of the curative waters of Lourdes; and they have left their crutches belli nd as mute testimonials to their cure. The Protestant, believing in neither relics nor waters, has faith that the prayers of a man strong in his grip upon the Unseen will avail much for his tortured body, and he too gains the relief he seeks. The Mormon has as creditable instances to relate as either Catholic or Protestant, and the pagan can match them all. Each case must be ascribed to the power of suggestion to affect the bodily functions and so bring about a ciure. 248 Landmarks in Chridiari History Lesson Note 8. Christian Science. The most remarkable type of mind cure is found in Christian Science. Mary Baker Eddy, who had practised mental healing, and taught that bodily illness was a delusion, published in 1875 a book entitled Science and Health, with Key to the Scriptures. Tliis book set forth the peculiar system that she called Christian Science, and became the accepted text-book of all those who received the principles of her philosophy. Critics declared that Mrs. Eddy's philosophy was crude, and that Christian Science was neither Clu'istian nor scientific, but those who experienced, its power as a cura- tive agent beheved in it because it worked, and the number of such persons rapidly increased. The first church of tliis sect was organized in Boston, with Mrs. Eddy as pastor, in 1879; hundreds of similar churches were organized all over the United States; and the teaching found acceptance in high social circles in Great Britain. The optimism and good cheer that are characteristic of Christian Scientists have com- mended the doctrine to many who cannot approve it intellectually, but its greatest recommendation is its power of suggestion over persons aflflicted with functional disorders. Like faith cure, it is an illustration of the power of human thought. Note 9. The Conclusion of the Whole Mattel. The experience of the century has made it plain that the crusade against disease is not a simple or easy one, but that it is worth much individual sacrifice to alleviate human suffering. It has shown that nature must receive assistance to release the grip of a very real malady, but that the mind has reservoirs of power that may often be drawn upon by those who have the key. It has revealed the important fact that hygiene is of more value than medicine. Best of all it has taught us that he who not only ministers to the suffering in their need, but also removes the causes of disease, is one of the truest disciples of the Great Physician, who healed the sick because His heart was overflowing with love. Science has become the handmaid of religion in promoting the kingdom of God. Questions on the Summary of the Preceding Lesson. 1. Why is moral restraint necessary? 2. State the meaning of the modern temperance- crusade. 3. What special organization and leader have been conspicuous? Questions on the Present Lesson. 1. On what occasion did Jesus speak the words quoted in Note 1 ? ^"^^y^"' The Ministry of Health 249 2. What are the two hnes of medical development characteristic of the nineteenth century? 3. How has improvement in medical science taken place? 4. What are some of the names of leading medical discoverers? 5. Can minister and physician work together for the sick? 6. Explain how hygiene is emphasized. 7. Show how nursing is a divine ministry. t 8. What is the basis of the mind cure theory? 9. Give illustrations of faith cure. 10. Describe Christian Science. Reading References. (1) Article on Medicine in Encyclopedia Britannica, 11th edition (section on Modern Progress). (2) Article on Psychotherapy in New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia. (3) Trine: In Tune with the Infinite, (4) Longfellow: Santa Filomena. 250 Landmarks in Christian History Lesson Lesson 46. THE GOSPEL OF BROTHERLY LOVE. Christian Charity and the Social Settlements. Sources. — Reports of philanthropic societies of many sorts; Proceedings of the National Conference of Charities and Corrections; the letters of Edward Denison; Jane Addams' Twenty Years at Hull House; numerous volumes of Charities and The Survey. Suggestions for Study. — 1. Read the summary of the preceding lesson. 2. Read the story of the present lesson. Give special attention to (a) the old and the new principles of giving; (6) Edward Denison and Toynbee Hall; (c) the meaning of the social settlement; {d) Jane Addams at Hull House. 3. Think over the following topic for special class discussion: How can the church co-operate with the social settlement? 4. The following exercises are suggested for the note-book: (a) See that the last summary is complete. (6) If in the city, make a visit to a social settle- ment, or talk with a charity visitor, and write an account of it in the note- book. If in the country, think how Christian people might do more for the community, and write down the result in the note-book, (c) Find out all the places where Jesus speaks of the poor, {d) Write a sketch of Jane Addams. (e) Make a list of all the activities of some settlement like Hull House. Note 1. Catholic Charity. " It matters little," said an eleventh century monk, " that our churches rise to heaven, that the capitals of their pillars are sculptured and gilded, that our parchment is tinted purple, that gold is melted to form the letters of our manuscripts, and that their bindings are set with precious stones, if we have little or no care for the meSibers of Christ, and if Christ himself lies naked and dying before our doors." It was characteristic of the medieval monas- teries that they ministered to the poor, not with the scientific precision of modern charity organizations, but on the principle of giving to every one in need, whether deserving or not. A special officer of the monas- tery, called the almoner, had charge of monastic relief, and when this relief failed, as it did in England in the days of Henry VIII's destruc- tion of the monasteries, it became necessary for the government to provide a plan of poor relief. The practice of charity was also a part of the duty of every parish priest in the Middle Ages, and it must be said to the credit of the Roman Catholic church that it has always been distinguished for that form of social service. The Catholic sisters of charity are witnesses to the spirit of philantlu-opy that characterizes the body. Note 2. Charity Organization. In Protestant England the duty of poor relief passed into the hands of the government, and colonial America adopted the same system. But the spirit of brotherly love needed still other channels. So it came about that the humanitarian days of the nineteenth century saw a great increase of voluntary charity, and at last the organization of voluntary societies to regulate the miscel- Forty-six rj.j^^ Q^^^^j^ ^j Brothedy Love ^51 laneous giving, which was doing harm as well as good. It was Dr. Chalmers, the famous Scotch divine, who instituted the system of friendly visiting among the poor, which has become the favorite method of present day investigation. Edward Denison, a London investigator, came to the conclusion that Chalmers' method was the only wise one. He said: " I am beginning seriously to beheve that all bodily aid to the^oor is a mistake; whereas by giving alms you keep them perma- nently crooked. Build schoolhouses, pay teachers, give prizes, frame workmen's clubs, help them to help themselves, lend them your brains, but give them no money, except what you sink in such undertakings." On this principle of helping only in emergencies, and continually aiding the poor to help themselves, modern charity organizations have been based. There is still room for the personal response to immediate need, but the associated charities of the great cities are most effective agents for proper methods of relief. These have their branches in various districts of the cities administered from central headquarters, depend on voluntary visitors as well as their own experts, and seek the co-operation of churches and all other charitable agencies. All the great agencies in the United States are united Jn a National Conference of Charities and Corrections. Note 3. The Spirit of Love vs. the Spirit of Greed. Full many a knight, like Sir Launfal, sought merit in the days of chivalry, by throw- ing a purse to the beggar whom he encountered along the way. Too many a philanthropist has hoped for a favorable balance in the banking- house of Heaven because of his kind deeds. The Pharisee and the Mohammedan alike give alms for the good that may accrue to them- selves. This spirit of selfish gain is akin to the spirit of the beggar who will not work. But the gospel of brotherly love is based on a nobler principle, and that gospel has been having a mighty influence in the last fifty years. There is many a man who cannot always look up with the optimism of Christian Science; there are not a few who cannot look down into the slums with the Salvation Army lassies; but there is no one who cannot lend a hand to a suffering friend in the spirit of Jesus. There is hope for the dweller in the slums because the spirit of brotherhness has sent men and women who have had opportunities for knowledge and culture to live among the poor, and to minister to them, believing that inasmuch as they minister to the least among humans they are serving the Son of man. Note 4. Social Settlement. The pioneer of these modern friars was Edward Denison. He was a young Oxford man, with an enthu- siasm for humanity, when he went into a lowly district of London, and ^52 Landmarks in Christian History Lesson offered himself to the parish clergyman as a helper among the poor. He made his home among the people whom he befriended. He sought their acquaintance. He taught the young in a night school. He stood between them and the city authorities. " I shall drive the sanitary inspector," said he, " to put the act against overcrowding in force, with regard to some houses in which there have been as many as eight and ten bodies occupying one room." In such ways as these he showed the people that he was their friend. This single pioneer did not live long, but he was followed by others from the universities of Oxford and Cambridge. In 1885 Toynbee Hall was definitely established as the home of several who had caught the spirit of Denison and his fol- lowers, and who had decided to settle among the social outcasts of London. By coming into close touch with their neighbors in all the social relations that are characteristic of neighborhood life, they were able to translate the spirit of their gospel into concrete, practical help- fulness. Note 5. The Meaning of the Social Settlement. The social set- tlement is then an effort to bring together educated, well-to-do, and philanthropic persons with the poor, untrained, strugghng masses in the worse parts of the city. The movement is not confined to the city. There is a log cabin settlement among the mountain whites in North Carolina; a church settlement experiment has been tried in rural New Hampshire. But the storm and stress of life is sternest in the cities, and the motive which has driven Moravian missionaries to the most difficult foreign mission fields has sent most of the social settlers into the heart of the great city. The purpose of settlement is not to admin- ister charity, though settlement workers may be agents of the charity organizations of the city. It is not necessary for a settlement to organ- ize clubs and classes, though the workers among the people find such schemes among the most useful plans for popular progress. The set- tlement is merely a place where a group of high-minded men and women live, and try to exert a helpful influence by their very presence and interest in the neighborhood. Because they are fellow -citizens in the same ward and precinct they become recognized as neighbors. Their purpose is to plant an oasis in the desert, and if the people of the desert will camp there for an hour, those who have planted the oasis will be well pleased. But settlement workers are particularly careful not to intrude or in any way to seem to patronize. They avoid religion and party politics because they do not want to appear to take sides or proselytize. The settlement house is usually the dwelling of ten to twenty residents, and the center from which radiate their work and Forty-Six Yj^^ g^^^^i ^j Brotherly Love ^53 influence. It is in this fashion that the social settlement has found its place within the last thirty years, and it has shown by its creation of a Christian atmosphere of love that it has come to stay. The story of one settlement and its well known head is an epitome of settlement history. Note 6. A Friend of the Poor. If Florence Nightingale was the angel of the camp in the struggle of death in the Crimea, Jane Addams has been the angel of the lowly in the struggle for life in the congested foreign settlement of Chicago. Miss Addams is a native of the state that gave Lincoln to the Union, and the spirit of Lincoln burned in her when she graduated from Rockford College. European travel did not content her. She longed for an opportunity to serve others, but she had to make her opportunity. She found her mission by founding Hull House, one of the earliest social settlements in America. There her ministry has been that of the interpreter of American life and ideals to those who come as strangers from another kind of life. Because she lives her creed, she has been a most effective interpreter of the gospel of brotherly love. When the history of this age of social Chris- tianity is written, her name will find its place among the planters of the landmarks. Note 7. Jane Addams at Hull House. In the month of September 1889, Jane Addams and a friend went into the foreign section of the city of Chicago, leased a commodious building with the assistance of interested friends, and made it their permanent home. The purpose of the enterprise was to show that the real meaning of democracy and social unity is social friendship. These pioneers believed that they could make their lives count most by establisliing just as many points of friendly contact as possible between American culture and citizen- ship and the untrained but human stranger in a great American city. They were wdlling to let experience guide them in the determination of these points of contact. The first undertakings were the organization of clubs for the children and evening classes for their elders, and frequent social gatherings at Hull House. "Perhaps even in those days," says Miss Addams, " we made a beginning towards that object which was afterwards stated in our charter: To provide a center for a higher civic and social life; to institute and maintain educational and philantlu-opic enterprises, and to investigate and improve the conditions in the industrial districts of Chicago." Experience showed the need of the common comforts of life, and baths, gymnasium, and diet kitchen were introduced. Co- operative undertakings were started for the buying of coal and for the 254 Landmarks in Christian History Lesson boarding of working girls. Out of the latter has grown the Jane Club, affectionately named for the head of the settlement. After five years of experience the residents published Hull House Maps and Papers, and the settlement became known widely. The activities of Hull House have been mainly along the three lines of recreation, education, and co-operation. Recognizing the spirit of youth and the meagre opportunities of homes and city streets, the set- tlement promptly supplied diversions. Conscious of the l^ck of means of training, the residents provided lecture courses, classes, and debating clubs. Sympathetic with the laborer, Hull House made friends of the trade unions, and some of them located their headquarters at the set- tlement. To-day Hull House is the leaven of democracy and of right- eousness in one of the hugest of twentieth century cities. Note 8. Old and New Tjrpes of Christianity. It is not in monastic retreats that the saint is reared to-day, but in the swirling life of the city streets. It is not in ecumenical councils called to determine creeds, but in the great conferences of social workers meeting to plan for human weal, that hearts are stirred and faces glow. It is not ever}; one that says. Lord, Lord, in the ritual's measured tone, but the men and women who do the will that reflect most truly the heart of God. It is doubtful if there has ever been a time since Jesus lived when His gospel was interpreted more truly than by those who have revealed the meaning of divinity in actual brotherliness. Questions on the Summary of the Preceding Lesson. 1. How are body and spirit related with reference to health? 2. When was their right relation first understood.? 3. What gains have been made.? Questions on the Present Lesson. 1. How did the Catholic monasteries practise charity.? 2. What is the modern principle of giving to the poor.? 3. What spirit should be back of the giving.? Forty seven Christianity in the City Slums 255 4. Who was Edward Denison? 5. What is the purpose of the social settlement? 6. How do the residents live? 7. Describe Jane Add-ams. 8. Why did she go to Chicago? 9. What special subjects interest the workers at Hull House? 10. Bring out the contrast between the old and the new types of Cbjistianity. Reading References. (1) Addams: Ttventy Years at Hull House. {2) Henderson: Social Settlements. (3) Richmond: Friendly Visiting Among the Poor. Lesson 47. CHRISTIANITY IN THE CITY SLUMS. William Booth and the Salvation Army. Sources. — Booth's In Darkest England and the Way Out is a description of the field of work of the Salvation Army; the workers are best described in Booth- Tucker's Life of Catherine Booth, and Coates' Life Story of General Booth. The work that has been done is revealed in the year book of the Salvation Army. Some of the results are expressed dramatically in Begbie's Tvnce-Born Men. The prison work of the Volunteers appears in Maud B. Booth's After Prison — What? 256 Landmarks in Christian History Lesson Suggestions for Study. — 1. Read the summary of the preceding lesson in preparation for questions in the class. 2. Read the story of the present lesson. Note especially: (a) the new im- pulse in the life of an ordinary boy; {h) the meaning of the slums; (c) the growth of the Salvation Army; (d) the social work of the Army; (e) the Volunteers of America. 3. Think over the following topics for special consideration and discussion; In what ways can Christianity be carried to the people of the tenements and the slums besides the work of the Salvation Army? Can the people be attracted to Protestant churches? 4. Note-book work: (a) Complete the summary of the last lesson. (6) Draw a map of the United States to show the leading cities and in the margin write the name of a settlement in each city, (c) Write a comparison of the Fran- ciscans under Francis of Assisi and the Salvationists under William Booth. (d) Write a short sketch of the prison work of Mrs. Ballington Booth. Note 1. The Begiiming. One evening in the year 1844 an English boy attended a Methodist prayer meeting in Nottingham, and there surrendered a most stubborn will to the keeping of God. The incident is a reminder of an epochal experience of John Wesley; but it was not an unusual incident and would not be remarkable did it not mark the beginning of another great religious enterprise that has followed in the wake of Methodism and gleaned the fields that the earlier move- ment reaped. The fifteen- year-old boy was William Booth; the enter- prise that he was to estabhsh was the worldwide crusade of the Salvation Army. Note 2. The Significance of It. There was a profound meaning in this initial act of William Booth. It meant a new step in the expansion of Christianity. England has a way of introducing reforms by degrees. During the last eighty years the political franchise has been extended to all classes of the people by three definite reform bills. In the same way social reform has moved forward one step at a time. The same holds true of the expansion of rehgion in England. The forms of Protestantism were adopted in the days of the Tudor sovereigns. Real spiritual religion came to the middle classes of the English people through Puritanism and the Separatist institutions of Congregation- alists. Baptists, and Quakers. Methodism carried this new evangeli- calism to the working people of Great Britain. But when all that was done, there remained one class which had never felt the pulsing of religious fife in their degenerate veins — ^the people of the city slums. It was to be the mission of William Booth and his co-workers to carry the gospel of Jesus to the blind and halt and maimed in the alleys and closes of Britain's lowest abyss. Note 3. How there Came to be Slums. The slum is a product of Foreseen Christianity in the City Slums 257 modern civilization. It may have had its counterpart in the ghetto of Rome or Alexandria, but the conditions that produce the modern slum have changed. The slum owes its existence to the modern industrial system which requires many people to hve on a small area near the factories that command their daily toil. They and their families herd in large tenement houses, provided with an eye to the profits and rented at a figure not warranted by the accommodations. In America, where immigrants are employed extensively in the factories, the tenement house harbors a foreign population in the main. The tenement house is the product of the industrial system; it is itself the feeder of the slum. There are not a few among the people of the tenements who have slipped a cog in the social machine. They fall ill and cannot work, or they get into bad habits and adopt criminal practices. Some are victims of the saloon or of the disorderly house. Those who for one reason or another lose their grip, and are down and out, find their way into the slum and help to foster its misery and its degradation. The lepers of modern life are there; the frayed ends of society are there; the secrets of the underworld are within its precincts. Never until the days of William Booth and the Salvation Army did the gospel of Jesus Christ lay its hand upon the modern city slum and draw from its deptlis one and another of the wretches who were numbered among its outcasts. Note 4. The Founder of the Salvation Army. When William Booth went out from the prayer meeting where he had met God, he entered into a new experience. He was a working boy with a mother to support, but preaching was his avocation. Religion was his hobby. When his day's work was done at eight o'clock, he went out into the streets or the fields, gathered an audience, and talked religion to them. He was made a Methodist lay preacher, and became a recognized leader as an evangelist. He led his companions from the Methodist chapel into the street, paraded the town, and returned with its social refuse gathered into his net, and dumped the contents into the chapel. His betters complained at the human assortment, but he went on with his collection just the same. Already young Booth was using methods that were to become characteristic of the later army. In time Booth was ordained and given a settled charge. But his temper was evangelistic, and he proved insubordinate. The Metho- dist system had no room for such an independent, unconventional individual as he, for the earlier Methodism of Wesley, field preacher, had become respectable and institutionalized. The young evangelist betook himself to the heart of London, as the first Methodists had 258 Landmarks in Christian History Lesion sought the open places in the country and the rural towns. He pitched his gospel tent in the London slums, and preached there the story of the prodigal son. He received vituperation and abuse from those worthies of a higher social scale who disapproved of his actions; he felt the blows of less refined enemies who pelted him with stones. But he persevered because it was in his nature to persevere. At first the enterprise that he established in London was called the Christian Mis- sion; by a sudden inspiration the followers of Booth adopted the name of the Salvation Army, and William Booth became its general. Note 5. Extending the Campaign. The general got his first soldiers from the converts that he made from the earnest Christian workers in the churches who accepted the missionary work that he was trying to do. After the mission took its name in 1878 General Booth organized it on a military plan, showing an organizing genius that would do honor to a trained man. He was not content to do his work in the metropolis, but maintaining his own quarters there, he sent out his military posts into the slums of the other cities of Great Britain until he had drawn them all within his sphere of operations. As if this were not enough he drilled his recruits with an eye to wider service. Then he organized armies for foreign occupation. He appointed members of his own family as chief officers, and sent them out to India, to the United States, to Paris, and Sweden^, and Canada. Everywhere military methods were employed to further the evangelism which was the inspiration of the movement. A squad of workers paraded the streets regardless of weather or human opposition. Strains of martial music from their own bands inspired the workers and aroused the people. Then at some vantage point by the way they formed their line of battle, and in song, and prayer, and exhortation poured their hot shot into the col- lected throng. They began in poverty and without powerful sup- porters, but their numbers swelled, and contributions began to come in from sympathizers of various sorts, until it became possible to pro- vide buildings for barracks and halls for meetings and other purposes. In this manner the Salvation Army recruited its ranks for a dozen years, confining itself mainly to evangehstic activities. Note 6. The Bugle Strikes the Social Note. In 1889 came the great dock strike in London. The unskilled laborers had joined hands for the first time in organized revolt against injustice. The sympathy of the Army was with those who felt themselves oppressed, but efforts to help them were hmited to spiritual consolation. One day a certain captain of the Army was holding a meeting among the unemployed in London, when he became convinced that it was useless to talk to these Forty-seven Christianity in the City Slums 259 starving men about the bread of life for hungry souls unless something should be done to relieve their bodily hunger. He went to General Booth and urged this principle upon him, but he received no encourage- ment. In his disappointment the captain resigned from the service. But the incident made its impression upon the head of the Army. Booth gave way, and in 1890 the retired captain was recalled, made commissioner of social reform, and given encouragement to develop a department of social service in the Army. Note 7. How Social Reform Worked Out. If ever a class of people needed to be helped socially it was the outcasts of the slums. General Booth had worked on the principle that if a person experienced saving grace from on high, it made no difference how low in the mire he had sunk, that experience was enough to make him over new and keep him pure. But over and over again the environment conquered the spirit. In spite of the wonderful lives of hundreds of converted men and women, there were not a few who could not resist the temptation to slip back into their old ways, and it became evident that the field of the cam- paign must be enlarged. The army had been fighting a spiritual warfare; henceforth it began also a social campaign. Shelters and food depots were provided for the needy, and a labor bureau for the unem- ployed. Factories were planned and the necessary funds were pro- cured from the phenomenal sale of General Booth's book entitled In Darkest England and the Way Out. A pet scheme was the provision of cheap lodging houses. Finally the fertile brain of General Booth evolved a scheme for a system of colonies, by which the person who was to be helped up was given a start in the city, then sent out into the country, and at last, if he proved himself worthy, was to be given a new start oversea. In the United States alone the Army now has scores of lodging-houses, industrial and rescue homes, and shelter and food depots, besides its regular rehgious missions. Note 8. The Volunteers of America. The arbitrary military government of General Booth did not work altogether well in such a democratic country as the United States. In time Commander and Mrs. Ballington Booth withdrew with some of their followers from the Army, and organized the Volunteers of America. This organiza- tion, while never large, has performed a special mission to some to whom the methods of the Salvation Army did not appeal. Mrs. Booth has been especially successful in her reform work for prisoners in differ- ent parts of the country. Note 9. The Salvation Army in History. The organization of this ^60 Landmarks in Christian History ^'"^ unique social and religious institution will take its place alongside the order of the Franciscan friars, as patterned in purpose after the religion of Jesus. The Salvationists have followed literally His injunction to go out among the hedges and the byways and gatlier in the outcasts. They have taken the Bible as their manual of mihtary tactics and their guide to discipline. Their theology is that of the Primitive Methodists. But their enthusiasm is stimulated by the victories that they are winning steadily over sin and crime and degradation, and the indi- viduals that they are lifting out of the slime of the city slum. WilHam Booth and his Army are a landmark in Christian history because in the spirit of the Master they have been missionaries to the poorest and the weakest of God's suffering children. Questions on the Summary of the Preceding Lesson, 1. How has the gospel of brotherly love been interpreted? 2. What methods have been used.? 3. What is the special social need of this period? Questions on the Present Lesson. 1. What was the special significance of the conversion of William Booth? 2. What is it that has produced the city slum? 3. Describe the slum people. 4. Explain how Booth became a slum evangelist. 5. Why is the organization called the Salvation Army? 6. What are the characteristic revival methods of the Army? FoTty-eighi Christianity in the Rural Villages 261 7. How did it happen that the Army undertook the work of social relief? 8. What methods of relief work have been adopted? 9. What are the Volunteers of America? 10. Explain the place of the Salvationists in Christian history. Reading References. (i) Russell: A Rescuer of Ruined Lives, an article in the Missionary Review of the World, June, 1909, pp. 451-456. {2) Woods: English Social Movements, pp. 170-181. (3) Benedict: Waifs of the Slums. {4) Begbie: Twice Born Men. Lesson 48. CHRISTIANITY IN THE RURAL VILLAGES. Oberlin in the French Mountains. Sources. — Lives of country clergymen; descriptions of rural life; Anderson's The Country Town; recent periodical literature. There are several memoirs of Oberlin, based on Stuber's Life; the most readable account is Beard's Story of John Frederick Oberlin. Suggestions for Study. — 1. Read the summaries of recent lessons. 2. Read the story of the present lesson, with special attention to (a) the story of Oberlin; (6) the task of the church in the country; (c) the story of an Illinois church; [d) the importance of rural service. 3. Think over the following special topic for class discussion : WTiat are some of the possible ways that a church may use to improve social conditions in a rural community? , 4. Note-book work: (a) Complete all summaries up to date. (6) Draw a diagram to show the streets or roads of a rural community with which you are familiar, and locate on it the principal public buildings. Mark with a cross those that ought not to be used for present purposes; mark with a circle those that are especially useful. On the margin make a list of improvements that are needed, (c) Make a list of the present activities of the church, and in, a parallel column note other desirable things that are not tried. 262 Landmarks in Christian History Lesson Note 1. The Setting of the Story. On the long-disputed border land between France and Germany rises a low range of mountains, none of them over four thousand feet high, on the slope of which was situated the village of Waldbach, the parish of John Frederick Oberiin. Above it climbed the ridge of the mountains, to a top that was covered with snow from September to May; below it lay the Ban-de-Ia-Roche, a valley named from a nobleman's castle, with nine thousand acres of partly wooded land. The climate among the hills was often severe. The cultivation of the land gave small return to the few families who Hved in the district. Deadly pestilence and the hardships of war vexed the country. Altogether it was one of the most discouraging parishes conceivable in which a country minister might set to work. Note 2. Christianity among the Hills. The parish possessed two advantages. Its type of religion was Protestant, and it enjoyed reli- gious liberty at a time when France was not friendly to that idea. Its pastors were content, however, to maintain the forms of religion and to do little else for their people. The result was that the people were untaught and uninspired, content to drag out a miserable existence among the hills. Christianity had no reality for them ; it did not enter helpfully into their lives. In the year 1750 there came into this parish a superior young clergy- man whose name was Stuber. He saw at once that the people could not be open-minded to spiritual influences unless they had more knowl- edge. So he established a school in each village at his own expense, introduced music and Bible instruction, and repaired the church. His was a hard-working but heart-breaking ministry, and little had been accomplished when Stuber was forced to withdraw from the field. Note 3. The Call of OberUn. John Frederick Oberiin was a young man of twenty-seven when Stuber laid down his enterprise at Wald- bach. He had been born in the border city of Strassburg into a family of distinction; he had been well educated and had obtained the uni- versity degree of doctor of philosophy; he had been a tutor, and was under engagement as an army chaplain, when Stuber found him out and presented to liim the claims of his poor parish in the Vosges Moun- tains. " The Master you have to serve calls you by my voice," said Stuber. " Listen! you must become pastor at Waldbach. There are a hundred poor and wretched families in want of the bread of life; four or five hundred to direct and save." "There are everywhere souls to save and direct," replied Oberiin, " and in the regiments of the king more than elsewhere; as a chaplain I am going to hunt Satan." After further conversation Stuber said, " I will not urge you now; I Forty-eight Christianity in the Rural Villages 263 will come to-morrow." '* It is not necessary to wait till to-morrow to ask God to enlighten us," was the response, and together they knelt on the attic floor of Oberlin's room and the call was confirmed by the inner spirit. It was not an attractive prospect. Few rural parishes are. Stuber presented hard facts, as did Wilham Booth when he called for Army volunteers in the words: " I want recruits. We cannot offer you great pay, social position, or any glitter and tinsel of man's glory; in fact we can promise little more than rations, plenty of hard work, and probably no little of worldly scorn; but if on the whole you believe you can in no other way help your Lord so well and bless humanity so much, you will brave the opposition of friends, abandon earthly pros- pects, trample pride under foot, and come out and follow him in this new crusade." In this spirit the cultured scholar went to live among the poor and ignorant people of the hills, and to be to them for many years a heroic man of God. Note 4. Instances of Applied Christianity. The ignorant parish- ioners of Waldbach had no desire for a pastor whose Christianity included schooHng as an essential. Like many modern Christians they believed in the regular performance of certain rehgious ceremonies, but their Christianity was not expansive enough to include the activities of every day. Nevertheless Oberhn followed in the path of Stuber in providing schools, even though he had to meet most of the expense. Then he saw that the farming district needed to be improved. Only good methods joined with the most diligent cultivation would reward the inhabitants with good crops in such a difficult country. Pastor Oberhn made it his business to encourage the irrigation of the dry fields and the draining of the wet meadows; he instructed them in methods of fertilizing the land; he introduced new grasses and a more general use of the potato; he induced them to plant orchards, and to introduce better cattle; he brought improved agricultural implements from Strass- burg, and sold them to the people on instalments. They were very slow to put confidence in all these proposed improvements, and re- quired ocular demonstration before they believed in him. His crown- ing success was the building of a difficult road and bridge which they had never believed possible. With all this practical ministry he re- mained a simple, earnest preacher of eternal verities, and a faithful shepherd of the souls of his humble folk. Note 5. Rural Parishes. Not many rural districts have been socially and economically transformed by the efforts of one pastor like Oberlin's parish in the Ban-de-la-Roche. Yet Christian ministry has had' its place of service more often in the country than in the town. 264 Landmarks in Christian History ^^^'"^ Charles Kingsley spent many years in the rural parish of Eversley at the middle of the nineteenth century in England, and used similar means to uplift the common folk. There have been later instances in more than one country of a rural Christianity that benefited the hfe of the whole community. But applied Christianity has been tried most often in the modern city, and especially in connection with insti- tutional churches. In recent years the American countryside has been receiving more attention. It is realized that the strength of the cities has come from the rural districts, and that it is the homes and churches of the country that have supplied the moral nurture so necessary to the building of personal character and the achievement of success. It is now seen that the quality of Christianity in the rural villages is more important than that of Christianity in the city slums. Note 6. The Task of the Rural Church. It has become apparent to some of those who are best informed that the church has a duty to take the lead in a definite plan for rural betterment. There must be investigation of actual conditions, instruction of the people in the methods of improving conditions that are not right, and constant inspi- ration that the enthusiasm of the reformers may not flag. In this task the church has a right to expect the co-operation of all organizations that have a vital interest in the prosperity of the country. This co- operation has been given already. During his administration Presi- dent Roosevelt emphasized the importance of dealing with pressing rural problems, and to make plain the needs of the country he appointed a Rural Life Commission which made an extensive investigation and reported its findings. More local investigation has been made by other interested organizations. Churches themselves organized rural departments, and the Presbyterian Board has carried on thorough investigations in certain counties in Pennsylvania, the South, and the Middle West. Though the movement is recent, plans for the instruc- tion of church people in methods of community betterment have been inaugurated, and in some instances have been worked out successfully through a term of years. Witli this investigation and instruction ministers have not failed to give the spiritual inspiration, without which every plan of practical reform would be fruitless. Note 7. A Country Church in Illinois. A striking example of the expansion of Christianity that is needed in the rural villages of the United States is furnished by the experience of a rural minister during the first decade of the twentieth century. He became pastor of a Pres- byterian church that had been conservatively pursuing its halting way for nearly seventy years. There was great difficulty in maintaining Farty^ight Christianity in the Rural Villages m5 the regular functions of the organization, and no thought of campaign- ing for community welfare. But youthful zeal had ambitions, and the minister, fresh from the theological school, boldly introduced larger plans. His first enterprise was to develop the musical talent of the community. This he did until individuals gained proficiency, and quartettes and choruses became expert in their ministry to church and neighborhood. Athletics interested the young people. Various kinds of entertainments with local talent took the place of questionable amuse- ments. Young men's and young women's classes and clubs were or- ganized and given work to do as well as study. The church became the social center of the neighborhood, and once a year the whole com- munity came together for a " round-up of the year's work." The people of the community were given new subjects of interest to think about; they were taught improved methods of living; with all the rest they were inspired to do things. The reward came to tlie church in enlarged resources which made possible a new meeting-house, and in a double membership; but even more in the consciousness that its applied Christianity had become a power for good to the people of that whole countryside. Note 8. The Need of Leadership. The tide of modern life sets towards the city. The country villages have been drained of much of their best blood. It is the task of the rural church to strengthen the things that remain. Unless the American social stock is enriched at its roots, it can hardly be expected to dominate the millions of immi- grants from oversea. It is coming to be a serious question whether the country districts can continue to supply brain and brawn for the consumption of the town. Clean-limbed, keen-eyed, and quick-witted must be the men who attain the national leadership in the twentieth century. Back of them must be pure, intelligent homes, well-equipped schools, and up-to-date churches, if the supply is to be equal to the demand. The rural communities greatly need leaders with the devo- tion of John Frederick Oberlin, who will catch a vision of a broad mission, and who will not be content until they see the routine Chris- tianity of the normal rural church expand into a larger ministry to the whole community. Questions on the Recent Lessons. 1. How do body and mind affect each other? 2. How has brotherly love found Christian expression.? 3. Explain why such expression is needed in these days. ^66 Landmarks in Christian History ^"^ 4. Who founded the Salvation Army? 5. What was its object? 6. How has it enlarged its usefulness? Question? on the Present Lesson. 1. Describe the country into which Oberlin went. 2. What has been done for the people? 3. Who was Oberlin? 4. Why did he not choose to go elsewhere? 5. Describe the methods that he employed to improve the district in which he ministered. 6. Why are rural villages as important fields of Christian service city slums? 7. What are the special tasks of the rural church? 8. What are some of the agencies that have been at work? 9. Tell the story of the rural church in Illinois. 10. What are the qualities needed for leadership? Forty nine Christianity in Education 267 Reading References. (1) Beard: The Story of John Frederick Oberlin. {2) Butterfield: The Country Church and the Rural Problem, ch. 5. (3) Wilson: The Church of the Open Country. {4) Hoyt: The Call of the Country Church, Lesson 49. CHRISTIANITY IN EDUCATION. The Christian Schools and the Christian Press. Sources. — Reports of English and American governments, education socie- ties, and private foundations; Proceedings of the Religious Education Associa- tion; catalogues of acstdemies and colleges; religious periodicals. Suggestions for Study. — 1. Read over the summary of the last lesson. 2. Read the story of the present lesson, giving special attention to (a) the origin of the Sunday school; (6) Sunday school methods in the United States; (c) the establishment of schools of higher learning; (d) college Christianity; (c) the Christian press. 3. Think over the following topics for special discussion: How can a person with an ordinary education broaden his Christian ideas? How can the Sunday school help him? 4. The following exercises are suggested for the note-book: (a) Complete the summary of the last lesson. (6) Write a description of the methods used in this lesson with those used in some other system, like the International, (c) Prepare an outline of a lesson on the education of Jesus, as told in the gospels. Note 1. Two Realms of Christian Expansion. Up to this point the story of the expansion of Christianity in the nineteenth century has been a story of the expansion of interests. The motives that have led to larger activity have been stimulated by a broader sympathy than most Christians previously had felt. The humanitarian impulse found its outlet in many directions, — in foreign and home missions, in emanci- pation and temperance efforts, in charity and social betterment. The last four lessons of this quarter describe an expansion of ideas that has been taking place concurrently with an enlargement of interests. Tliis expansion of ideas is partly the result of the schools and the press, partly of the new scientific spirit, and partly of the close-knit associa- tions of business and society. It is the union of the broader interests and the larger ideas that has tended to make religion less a matter of personal and selfish interest, and instead has socialized it. Note 2. Experiments in Christian Education. It has been a prin- ciple of Christian people in all the centuries that their children should be instructed in right living and in the fundamentals of the Christian faith, but they have not been agreed as to how it should be done. In earlier 268 Landmarks in Christian History Lesson times Christian education was the task of the church. The catechetical schools of the Roman period, and the cathedral and monastic schools of the Middle Ages, are examples of that kind of training. The Refor- mation gave a new impetus to the instruction of children, and each of the great Reformed churches produced its catecliism, which was used in the home and by the teacher in the church to train the minds of the cliildren. In modern times national systems of education have come into existence, but the schools have been secularized to such an extent in the United States that religious and even moral instruction is largely left out. This has thrown back the responsibility upon the home and the church. The church has attempted to meet the responsibility by inaugurating a system of Sunday schools for elementary instruction in the Bible, and privately endowed schools of higher learning for the perpetuation of Christian ideas in the midst of the broad system of modern education. Note 3. Robert Raikes and the Sunday School. In England m the eighteenth century there was no adequate system of education for all the children of the nation. Village schoolmasters on small pay taught in rural districts wherever money was provided by individuals or churches for such instruction, and charity schools abounded; but there was need of a better organization when Robert Raikes introduced his Sunday school plan. Robert Raikes was a printer and editor in Gloucester, England, in the year 1780. He was walking one morning in a factory district, when he was disturbed by the apparent degradation of the children in the street, and after musing upon what his investigation disclosed, he planned to open a school for their benefit. He found four women who were wilHng to teach the children on Sundays for the wage of a shilling. The children were willing to attend, and the plan proved a success. Elementary instruction was given in reading and in the catechism. The cliildren were required to appear with clean hands and faces, and those who made most satisfactory progress were rewarded with shoes and clothing and with Bibles. A large part of the day was given up to the teaching and to religious exercises. After its success was estab- lished beyond a doubt, Raikes published the story, and the scheme was widely adopted. In some cases the school was held on Saturday as well as on Sunday, but with the increase of day schools, the Sunday school became restricted to religious instruction. Note 4. Religious Education in the United States. Before the Revolution there was less need of the Sunday school in America than in England. The religious training of the children of Puritan New FoHy-nine Christianity in Education 269 England, at least, was carefully provided for in the home and the church. But after the Revolutionary War it was very apparent that just such an institution was needed, and the American Sunday school was started on the same plan as the English. Then the churches took it up, and drew into their Sunday school sessions all classes of people. Local church initiative was followed by the organization of Sunday School Unions, and eventually by the adoption of an International System of lessons for the use of all denominations. Improvement in method of instruction kept pace with the progress of organization. At first the memorizing of Bible verses or the use of a catechism was the prevaihng method of instruction. This was supplemented by the use of question books with regularly scheduled lessons in the teaching of the Bible. In 1865 John H. Vincent, a Methodist preacher, introduced the plan of a lesson quarterly, and this was developed into the system now generally in use. A uniform plan was adopted by a National Sunday School convention tlirough the efforts of B. F. Jacobs, and all the leading evangelical denominations proceeded to publish the International lessons as planned by an inter- denominational committee. In recent years the uniform system has been giving way to a better graded, more flexible arrangement in many schools. In 1903 the Christian educational agencies of the United States united in a ReHgious Education Association, which aims to improve and aflfiliate all educational efl^orts in Sunday schools, colleges, and professional schools in the interests of rehgious efficiency. Note 5. The Net Result of Sunday School Teaching. The idea of an educational department of the church is a most valuable conception. The Sunday school in actual practice has had only a partial success. The schools have depended mainly on volunteer teachers who are untrained in methods of teaching, and in an adequate knowledge of the Bible. The result has been that pupils have gained little real knowledge of their one text-book. The Sunday school has served as a feeder to the church through the earnest efforts of teachers to impress upon their pupils the need of personal religion. The net result of the Sunday school movement therefore has been the encouragement of good motives, but little real education in the truths of religion. The main expansion of ideas has come through the schools of higher learning. Note 6. Academies and Colleges. Two motives prompted the organization of academies and colleges. One was to provide a train- ing for boys and girls that should be Christian in its spirit but broad in its culture. Sometimes these academies were day schools, sometimes 270 Landmarks in Christian History Lesson boarding schools, but the essential thing about them was that they were under denominational auspices and included religious instruction. The other motive that promoted higher education was the desire for a trained clergy. Harvard College, tlie first of American colleges, was founded as such a training school. In time the colleges broadened out into schools for general culture, but for some time they were little more than divinity schools. One reason for the establishment of academies was because the colleges were narrow in their scope, and a more prac- tical training was thought desirable for the young people. With the progress of the nineteenth century the colleges felt the cur- rents of thought that flowed from the universities of the Old World. Some of the American schools were ambitious enough to become universities, and with the advent of the study of the natural sciences and modern language and philosophy, the professional character of the earlier colleges ceased, and theology found its place in purely professional schools. Even the theological schools came to feel the impact of modern thought, and enlarged the sphere of their instruction and broadened the ideas of those who came to them for ministerial training. Note 7. College Christianity. The type of Cliristianity to be found in the colleges is not the same as that in the churches, and therefore there has been a tendency for the college and the church to part com- pany. The relation of college Christianity to the conventional type is maintained by means of daily religious worship in the college chapel, and frequent addresses by eminent divines. A medium of communi- cation with the outside Christian agencies is kept up through the college Young Men's Christian Association. But the college interprets its Christianity in different terms. It must be a religion of reality first of all. Theological speculation does not interest the average college man, and mysticism has difficulties for him; but a Christianity in terms of life appeals to him, and he seeks a basis for it in a science and philoso- phy that he can understand. His gospel is one which teaches a love for truth, for liberty, and for brotherhood ; but not for these as abstract ideals, but as concrete realities. He will toil in the gutter to lift out the drunkard, or work with the settlement forces in tlieir clubs, or join indifferently with the Salvation Army or the Socialists in their practical efforts, if they are at the moment living out his ideals. His interests are with the people who walk this earth, while the interests of the churches are primarily unworldly, or, as far as they pertain to social affairs, institutional. When he gets out of college halls into the larger social life he settles down in the traces, but his ideas are broader than Foriy-nine Christianity in Education 271 those of the man who has not had the training, and his Christianity remains of a more liberal type. Note 8. The Christian Press. As Christian education was run in the denominational mould in the nineteenth century until it broadened out into unconventional channels, so Christian iliinkers gave expres- sion to their opinions in denominational newspapers and reviews and in books that were issued by denominational publishing houses. The stamp of the denomination was put upon the output of the minds of its members. The religious press had great influence with its own constituents, but it was not a liberalizing influence. The expansion of ideas of Christians in more recent years has come through a freer expression of Christian thought in undenominational and secular peri- odicals, and in the numerous books on rehgious subjects that are pub- lished through a non-subsidized publishing house. The later nineteenth century marks an important change in Christian thought, that has been greatly aided by an untrammeled press. Note 9. The Religious vs. the Secular. The most profound change that has come over Christianity in the expansion of the nineteenth century is the revolution of thought regarding its relation to the life of the world. A hundred years ago there was a great gulf fixed be- tween the religious and the secular. The world was very sinful; the average man was common and unclean. It was the task of Christianity to woo men from the secular to the religious attitude of mind and con- duct. A broader education has led thoughtful Christians to see that the religious sphere is involved with the secular, and that part of the task of Christianity is to sweeten and purify commonplace duties, and to brighten the every day life of humankind, while at the same time religion keeps as its prime function the task of interpreting God to man and revealing the reality of a future life. Questions on the Summary of the Last Lesson. 1. Who set an example of a practical ministry in rural France? 2. What methods did he use? 3. Why is rural betterment important? Questions on the Present Lesson. 1. In what two ways was there an expansion of Christianity in the nineteenth century? 272 Landmarks in Christian History Leaton 2. Name some of the educational experiments of the pas*. 3. How did Robert Raikes become famous? 4. What improvements in method took place in America': 5. What must be said as to the net result of Sunday school teaching? 6. What motives led to the planting of academies and colleges? 7. What was the course of their development? 8. Explain how college Christianity differs from that of the churches. 9. What has been the influence of the Christian press? 10. Describe the changing ideas about the religious and the secular. Reading References. (1) Cope: The Modern Sunday School in Principle and Practice, chs. 2, 3. (2) Article on Schools in the Encyclopedia Britannica, 11th edition. (S) Cooper: College Men and ilie Bible. (Ji) Peabody: The Religion of an Educated Man. ^'^'^ The Old Faith and the New Learning 27S Lesson 50. THE OLD FAITH AND THE NEW LEARNING. The Place of Evolution in Modem Christianity. Sources.- — The writings of Darwin and Spencer; reports of scientific investi- gations; controversies of scientists and theologians; recent writings on theology and the Bible. Suggestions for Study. — 1. Read over the summary of the preceding lesson. 2. Read the story of the present lesson, noting especially: (a) the meaning of evolution; (6) its relation to religion; (c) how it has affected the interpreta- tion of the Bible and Christian history; {d) the attitude of the church towards the new idea. 3. Think over the following topic for special discussion: Can the facts dis- closed by natural science ever be really hostile to religious truth.'' Why? 4. Note-book work: (a) Complete the summary of the last lesson. (6) Write a review exercise of Christian history in not less than three hundred words, showing how the ideas and forms characteristic of Christianity in the different ages have grown out of those which preceded, (c) Write in the note- book a definition of evolution. Note 1. Getting Adjusted. When Jesus in His early ministry climbed one day the Horns of Hattin and seated Himself to talk in leisurely fashion with His disciples about religious things, the question came up whether He could square His teachings with the law of Judaism. His reply was in terms of evolution: " Think not that I came to destroy the law or the prophets; I came not to destroy, but to fulfil." Not infrequently since then the Christian church has asked the scientist and the pliilosopher whether he could meet the tests of orthodoxy with his new teachings. Such a challenge has sometimes provoked discus- sion and even persecution, but out of the melee has come a readjust- ment of ideas, and the old faith and the new learning have had to find a way to jog on side by side. Several striking revolutions in scientific thought have occurred in the last three hundred years. Copernicus declared, against the seeming evidence of the Bible and the teaching of the church, that the sun and not the earth is the center of the solar system. Newton proclaimed a universal law of gravitation that seemed to destroy the possibility of miracle. The geologists discovered that the earth was millions of years in the making, and they discredited the historical character of the first chapter of Genesis. The anthropolo- gists decided that there was good evidence that man has existed for hundreds of thousands of years, thus annihilating all accepted schemes of reckoning historic time. Finally Darwin worked out from abundant evidence a theory of evolution that seemed to strike at the very roots of revealed religion, and the faith of many a Christian reeled under the attack. Nevertheless the foundations of faith stand secure, though the expressions of faith have changed their terms, as men have learned to adjust their theories to the new interpretations. 274 Landmarks in Christian History Note 2. Some Definitions. It helps in the adjustment to define terms. It is well to remember that religion means a relationship of the individual to God and his fellows determined by experience, and interpreted by creeds, organizations, and forms of worship; that these forms can change without destroying the relationships; and that the important thing is to make certain that the relationships are rightly adjusted. It is well to remember that science stands for the organized body of knowledge that comes from old experiences, and helps to inter- pret new experiences; that it has helped in the past to clear up many difficulties; that in the present it is teaching us about the process of life into which are woven so many rich experiences. It is very neces- sary to remember that the latest great scientific discovery — that of evolution — means simply that a theory has been worked out, which seems to be well founded, that the method by which our relationships are improved and our experiences interpreted, is through a gradual development of the forces that are within us. This does not mean that God is left out. The divine is back of and resident in the forces that make for our progress. But the wonderful truth seems to be that all that belongs to us — our bodies, the world in which we live, the society in which we move, the ideas that we think, even the religion in which we believe, — ^have been wrought out by a long, slow process of development, and that the force that has brought it to pass is God, in whom we live and move and have our being. Note 3. The Theory of Evolution a Landmark in Christian His- tory. Such a discovery as this was one of the most profound discover- ies in history. It meant a rearrangement of ideas about so many things. It had been hinted at ages ago by Aristotle and Lucretius. It had been talked about scientifically by Laplace and Lamarck, It became a modern sensation when Charles Darwin tried to show that all forms of animal life are akin to each other, that the origin of sepa- rate species came about by natural variations from a normal type, and that the maintenance of animal life was possible only by constant struggle and the destruction of the unfit. All this seemed so contrary to what Christianity had taught about the creation of life, and about love and not strife as a guiding principle in fife. Then the philosopher, Herbert Spencer, attempted to fit the key of evolution into all the doors of knowledge, and by this master key to unlock all the mysteries of science, until history, philosophy, theology, and the Bible were all undergoing new interpretation. The result has been an entirely new outlook upon the whole field of rehgious life and history. Most of this has happened within the last fifty years, and it is one of the greatest ^^^ The Old Faith and the New Learning 275 revolutions of thought that religion has encountered since Jesus lived among men. Note 4. The Meaning of the New Outlook. The idea of evolution has greatly broadened Christianity. It therefore fills a large place in the story of the nineteenth century expansion of Christianity. It does not mean that the old faith in God has been lost, but it means that God works differently from the way in which men formerly supposed He worked. It does not mean that the Bible has ceased to be of use, but it means that it is to be read as a record of human experience more than as a law-book prepared in heaven. It does not mean that religion is a worn-out myth, but it means that religion is a vital part of all life, necessary for this world as well as for the world that is to come. It does not mean that faith is to be thrown away as unscientific, or that immortahty is no longer to be thought of, or that love is dead. A true understanding of evolution makes faith the forerunner of every scien- tific discovery, gives a new hope for a fuller life in the beyond, and teaches a struggle for the life of others that wins out over those who struggle for their own selfish ends. The new learning has but illumined and ennobled the old faith. It is hke the sun when it tips the shadowy mountain peaks with light, and disperses the long accumulated clouds. Note 5. Evolution and the Bible. The evolutionary conception has made the Bible a new book. It contains the story of a race with all the hmitations of its primitive ideas struggling to find for itself a place in the world, and discovering through the aid of its prophets and priests that it had a mission to interpret God to the world. According to the newer thought Jehovah and Israel were not at odds in the Old Testa- ment period, but the people were trying to understand His nature, which was the same then as now. Jesus had no desire to break with Judaism in the New Testament period, but to show how the Jews should find their duty fulfilled in living up to the light they had and in passing it on to others. Increasingly through the pages of the Bible there appears a development of moral ideas, until in the teaching of Jesus there are raised moral standards that surpass those of all other teachers of mankind. The Bible remains therefore an inspiration to all people in all ages because it reveals the real experiences of real human beings, and at the same time points out and stimulates to higher ideals. Note 6. Evolution and Christian History. Before the period of evolution made its contribution to history, it was customary to look upon the human story as a series of striking events, like stereopticon pictures thrown upon a screen. There was little thought of connec- 276 LandmarJcs in Christian History ^^"'^^ tions or of the development of certain movements that had their natural outcome in results that could have been reasonably anticipated. Now all history is changed, and the change is illustrated in the interpreta- tion of the story of Christianity. It is seen now that the Christianity that we own today is not the simple faith of the first disciples. It has received the contributions of thinkers who were trained in the Greek schools, of practical men of affairs who used Roman methods in the organization of an efiicient church, of independent Germans who could not always be patient with foreign authority in rehgion, of modern men of scientific temper who wanted to revise many of the ideas of the past, and out of all these influences has come the Christianity of the twentieth century. On this theory every age has its lessons to learn and its vision of truth to give, and every individual either finds his place in the established order and does his duty along conventional lines, or he resents authority and uniformity, and insists on blazing new trails for himself. Christian thought and Christian institutions alike show traces of growth through the labor of individual minds and the struggles of contending groups. This conception encourages the student to hope for a better future because the imperfect is continually growing nearer to the perfect ideal. Note 7. Evolution and Social Service. The old idea of religion was that it was mainly a personal affair between a man and God ; that it had its birth in heaven and was httle concerned with earth. In the early presentation of the evolutionary idea, Darwin seemed to make science teach that one's existence anywhere depends on the strength of his push against other men in behalf of his own rights. Religion and evolutionary science have been drawing together. The later teaching of both is that the secret of life anywhere lies in a willingness to surrender selfish interests for a greater good, the welfare of others. The competition taught by Darwin and the co-operation taught by Jesus must find a way to exist together. There must be a striving, but it must be a striving for efficiency of service. In this way there comes about an evolution that is directed by the conscious purpose of noble men and women, and that will far outrun in its achievements the slow processes of the past, because God and man are working together for one end. Note 8. The Attitude of the Church to Science. Christian history shows that the spirit which vitalizes Christianity helps forward meas- ures of progress which the church as a conservative institution does not always favor. It has been so in the case of the theory of evolution. Such a theory seemed to threaten so much that the church held dear. ''^'^ The Old Faith and the New Learning 277 that, organized Christianity attacked it as an enemy. It has opposed in a similar way other great discoveries of science. The church has yet to learn to adapt itself fast enough to the changes of thought and method that are sure to be demanded as mankind moves out of its lesser ranges up to its higher plateaus. But the attitude of the church cannot long be hostile to teachings that reveal God as greater and nobler than He used to seem. Evolution is finding its place as an inspiring idea to those who are seeking to know Him whom to know aright is life eternal. Questions on the Summary of the Preceding Lesson. 1. How has education been affected by Christianity? 2. Who made the Sunday school systematic and popular? 3. What is the emphasis of college Christianity? 4. What has been the task of the Christian press? Questions on the Present Lesson. 1. What was the attitude of Jesus towards orthodoxy in religion? 2. Name some of the revolutionary ideas of natural science. 3. Define religion, science, evolution. 4. What did Darwin and Spencer try to show ? 5. Explain the meaning of evolution in its relation to religion. 6. How has the evolutionary idea affected the Bible? 7. How has evolution modified Christian history? 278 Landmarks in Christian History 8. How does the evolutionary thought encourage social service? 9. How has the church felt towards the new influences? 10. What is the value of evolution in personal religion? Reading References. (1) Ellwood : Sociology and Modern Social Problems, ch. 2. (2) Chad- wick: Evolution as related to Religious Thought, a chapter in Evolution, a book consisting of addresses before the Brooklyn Ethical Association. (S) Maclaurin: Science and Religion: the End of the Battle in the Out- look, September 9, 1911. Lesson 51. CHRISTIANITY AND NATIONAL PROBLEMS. The Christian Spirit in Government and Business. Sources. — Matt. 25:14-29; government reports; recent periodical literature; Studies in the Gospel of the Kingdom; Rauschenbusch's Christianity and the Social Crisis. Suggestions for Study. — 1. Read over the summary of the preceding lesson. 2. Read the story of the present lesson, noting especially: (a) the need of political reform; (6) the spirit of business; (c) the co-operative experiment in Great Britain; {d) the purposes of the socialists; (e) the necessity of individual morality. 3. Think over the following topic for special discussion in class: How can the public be educated so as to enforce the Christian spirit in government and business? 4. The following exercises are suggested for the note-book: (a) See that the summary of the last lesson is made complete. (6) Make a Ust of government offices; in a parallel column note some of the evils of past politics; and in a third column suggest improvements, (c) Write a brief sketch of socialism in Europe, (cf. especially a series of articles on Socialism in World's Work, 1912.) Vote I. " I am the State." Proud in his achievements as a suc- tressful king, Louis XIV of France exclaimed in a moment of enthusiasm, ** I am the State." In all France his will was law. He ruled for his own pleasure and to suit his own ambition, not to secure the best interests of his people. Napoleon, in a similar spirit, cared nothing Fifty-