PL 1 ' 87 L43 0G/CAL St 1200 MANDARIN SYLLABLES IN FIVE SYSTEMS OF SPELLING WITH EXPLANATION AND NOTES. CHAS. i EAMAN, Presbyterian Mission , Nanking. gfctja«0ljai : AMERICAN PRESBYTERIAN MISSION PRESS. Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2016 https://archive.org/details/1200mandarinsyll00leam PREFACE. The object of this pamphlet is not controversial but only a tabulated statement of tbe facts in regard to the sounds and syllables of the mandarin dialect, giving in Eomanization (the only possible way it could be done) all the sounds gathered up in all the large district, which has been now thoroughly can- vassed and tabulated by old and experienced workers at the language now for a half century. These carefully gathered facts are tabulated in five spellings in parallel columns and presented in a carefully prepared list, not for the purpose of adding confusion to the question of Eomanization but to pre- sent the gathered facts of the experience of all using the man- darin dialect from the beginning, that all may on the same page see the fully developed mandarin tongue as known to date by the workers in it. It is also presented in the hope that it may increase the interest in the subject already some- what aroused, so that in every place, especially where there are workers, or groups of workers, in large or influential districts, that they may be moved to and helped to carefully tabulate the spoken dialect of every such district, and if possible by the use of the systems of spelling here given, or by as little modi- fication of them as possible, bring their dialect in its best and most far reaching form to a tabulated statement, so that it can be compared with, and if possible uuited with what has been so thoroughly canvassed and tabulated, so as to develop, or rather to tabulate, in one rounded complete and consistent system all the various sounds and syllables of all the mandarin districts. This we confidently hope will be done, and with a little care by our workers and others than missionaries, dealing with the colloquial mandarin, this result can bo easily accorn- 2 plished, and it is hoped will be agreed by all, should be done for the sake of our common work for the development of this magnificent mandarin tongue, which in itself is surpassed only by the Greek and English tongues as a medium of thought, either in book, in conversation, or on the forum. Its in- strinsic beauty and power for use in music and poetry, as well as in practical use in trade, commerce and in all manner of teaching of the schools in arts and sciences, is enhanced by the wonderful fact that it is in use in the homes and by the fire sides of 200,000,000 of the people. While the above is hoped for, the immediate object of this tabulated statement is for a basis of work and action of the Romanization Committee of the last Conference of 1890, especi- ally for that portion of the committee which have been chosen from the mandarin district and have specially to do with that dialect. Thus in presenting the facts in a convenient form the committee can more easily and intelligently work and more clearly see wliab system to choose and what changes on ex- isting systems to make to suit their purpose, that the best may be adopted which will be general, and as far reaching as possible in romanizing books for the mandarin districts in all work of teaching and use among the natives. For the accuracy and reliability of the syllables here given we are greatly indebted to the careful canvass of the mandarin district from Peking to Nanking and from the Ocean to Hankow by Dr. C. W. Mateer, and the tabulated results as given in his Mandarin Lessons published in 1892. He has gone thoroughly over the whole district, and by the aid of brethren in the several places has given us a perfectly correct tabulated statement of the dialect, as found in these various great centres of Peking, Nanking, Kiukiang, also other minor centres, and thus has greatly increased the number of syllables above any lists previously given, and tabulated them in a Romanization better adapted to the increased knowledge. 3 Those sounds known to be in use found outside of his tables are also given, and all arranged according to the Nan- king system, which is the only one that gives all the syllables that have been gathered from whatever reliable source from all this large district. This system may be new to most, but it is easily understood, as it conforms largely to existing systems, and to the regular and leading sounds of the English letters, it is therefore simple. Then, again, no diacritic marks are used, except in two instances of ii and short e as in met, thus e marked in a few instances, where there is danger when the whole system is given together of confounding it with e long as a in say, but this mark in using the system in any locality would not be necessary. The ii has been introduced from the beginning and is universally used. This system then preserves its consistency not by diacritic marks but by using the English letters in their regular and leading uses, by giving them in certain positions uniform value as e medial before n is short e, other- wise it is long e as a in say. Where it is necessary to distin- guish more particularly the diagraph is preferred to a mark where it can well be done, as for short u in but the diagraph on is used in place of the short mark of u. These few expedi- ences as used in English and other tongues save the system from distinguishing and unseemly marks and preserves perfect- ly its consistency, and so each spelling is in these simple ways clearly distinguished from every other given in the system and can be easily learned. This system also without diacritic marks spells easily all the mandarin sounds of this large dis- trict, and it can be easily extended in the same way to cover and spell simply and as free as possible from diacritical marks all the mandarin syllables that need to be tabulated in all the mandarin portion of China. If any using this list should know any or all of the other systems the intended sounds will be easily understood, but if not any one desiring to know the sounds of all this large 4 mandarin district can easily do so by a careful consideration of the introduction and parallel lists of syllables given below. The character with these are omitted, as they afford no help in the least to the comparison of all the s}dlables here given. It is only possible to consider them in a consistent system of Bomanization, and as an aid to this understanding and com- parison of the syllables used in the various districts they are spelled in the several systems now generally used, and it is hoped there will be no trouble in determining the value of each. C. Leaman. Nanking, September 18 , 1893 . 3ntrot>uctton. In the following list of syllables it is believed we have practically all that may be called general mandarin, that is, all that are not of simply a local use. And indeed even in this list there are not a few which are of this character and might be properly omitted from the list as those of Wei Hien. But as they are found in Dr. Mateer’s list these colloquial syllables are retained, not only for completeness but to illustrate how these colloquial and all important local syllables* may be added to the list without materially affecting a system of spelling for the general mandarin. These syllables are given in five spellings — China Inland Mission, Wade, Williams, Mateer, and that spelling used for some time and to some extent in Nanking. These are abbreviated respectively C. I. M., W., Wm., M. and N. The list is arranged according to the latter, as it is the only one that contains all the syllables, and this will not be found incon- venient, as its extension to all the syllables of this large list has not altered its simplicity, or encumbered it with unintel- ligible marks. The value of the spellings in the following several lists may be known by reference to the several systems used. The C. I. M. system is thus explained by Dr. Mateer : “ The power of particular letters being left indefinite, so they may be varied according as the key characters vary in different dialects.” Here in this list they are given with uniform value according to the original intent as far as this could be known. For example e as in men is uniformly the short e as in the English met, and not the short sound of u as in but. The value of the spellings of the Nanking system will be given where it needs explanation to prevent confusion with these given systems, either by a note, or in this introduction, 6 yet any one having only these lists here given can know with bnt little effort the different values of all the sjdlables, as the sounds of the Nanking system here unexplained follow in the most part the regular and leading sounds of the same letters in English. Vowels. A. This letter is used for the various sounds of a as explained by Dr. Mateer. A as in ask is a, which sound is found in Wei Hien. This distinguishing mark might be omitted in the system when used for that place alone. Dr. Mateer uses an for a as in fall. But this is not used but simply the letter a, as there is no danger of confusion, as Dr. M. says its use is confined to the south. In the list below it has not been thought necessary, and in Nanking it is best not to use it E. This letter has two sounds : — The first, that of a in grave, graze and say, and second that of e in met or pen. This latter agrees with the use of e by Dr. M., W. and C. I. M. But for the long sound as a in say they use the diagraph ei, while Wm. marks the e thus e. It is thought best to leave ei for the representation of the two sounds of e as a in say and i short as in pin, as used by Wm. and also by Dr. M. and the others in certain instances as when a medial, in lein and meing, where the e and i have their separate sounds and e its regular and leading sound of a as in say. In the Nanking system therefore the letter e when alone, as medial or final is long a, except when medial before n, or marked short thus e. A little consideration of the list below will make apparent the necessity of using the letter e alone for long a, and not the diagraph ei ; as ei has other uses they should be left for that use. In the N. system the brief 7 rule is e=as in met when before n, or marked e ; in all other cases is long a, “ as generally in the leading modern languages of Continental Ear ope.” I. This the same as given by Dr. M. The leading sound is as i in machine. The short sound as i in pin, and when necessary to be distinguished marked thus i. 0 . This the same as Dr. M.’s long o in go. EO and EU. I will here speak of these, as there are no others of the nature of a diphthong. In the mandarin district there are really three of these sounds. Dr. Mateer gives and explains two of these spelt eo of middle district and on of Peking. The former of these is spelt by C. I. M. eo and the other by W. on, and Wm. eu. There is also this sound as found in Nanking spelt by Dr. M. eo, but it in reality resembles more the northern sound spelt on by Dr. M. and W. While there are these three sounds quite distinct, yet in the list below there are given only two spelt in the N. system by eo for the middle district, Dr. M.’s eo the same as C. I. M. and eu for the sound as found in Nanking and Peking spelt by Dr. M. and W. on and Wm. eu. Dr. M. uses eo and on for these two sounds, not as diphthongs or diagraphs but as spellings, and in his explanations analyzes the sounds of which each is composed. This may help those who use his book to understand the difference of each, yet is misleading even to a foreigner, and in a system for the use of the natives it would be best not to represent the three sounds spoken of above by different spellings, but one would be sufficient, and at most two as given below. The eo of C. I. M. or eu of Wm. would suffi- ciently represent the three variations of this sound as found in northern, middle and southern mandarin. But as Dr. M. 8 has clearly defined these two sounds spelt eo and on they are given in the N. system below eo and eu, and the Nanking sound as eu, not eo, and which is really another sound from the other two, and is properly a diphthong, and is given with one impulse of the voice, more of a guttural, and no distinct o sound in it, yet the tendency of all these three sounds is towards an o and combinations with o in it. It may be added the eo of C. L M. is not a spelling, but it represents an indescribable sound that has to be heard to be known, and this is true of the Nanking sound, and I think of the two sounds, eo and ou also, that Dr. M. explains so carefully and well. It is also true that after being heard and studied for a long while by some neither their tongue or ear lays hold of it, so it is no wonder that such experts as Wm., W. and M. should so differ in their explanations and spellings of it. u , ; This letter in the N. system has strictly but two sounds : the sound of u in rule, or oo in fool, and the short sound of u as in cut or hut and ou in touch. Dr. M. spells this latter with e as in peh. There are, however, really four different sounds of u in the lists below, as follows : — N. M. Wm. TV. C.I.M. 1 . The regular long u as in you, unite ... yu yu yu yu in 2. U as in rule ... u n n u u 3. U as oo in good ... 00 u u u u 4. The short u as in but, cut, or ou in touch : First as a final ou § 5 e ae Second as medial ... ... u or ou e a e „ In the first there is no disagreement. In the second there is uniformity, but in the third the sound of u, or really the short sound of oo ; before n or ng is represented in the N. system by oo, all ‘the others use u, and by doing so shut up this important letter to the use of this rather doubtful sound, 9 of very restricted use. In the Nanking system it has been thought best to relieve the letter n in this instance by oo, which really represents the sound better, as Mateer says it is the sound of oo in good which Webster’s dictionary says is the short sound of oo. This letter n can be the more easily relieved from use in this instance, as it only occurs in the North in one connection of this short oo sound before n or ng. The char- acter of this sound will be better understood when it is known that it is a sound which in the South in Nanking is a distinct long o sound, and this short oo sound is simply the intermediate stage of its change from the usual u sound as in rule or fool to the long o sound of the South. This again shows that oo more naturally and best represents it, and as in mandarin oo is in no other instance used its use in this instance is shown to be decidedly best. This then leaves the letter u free to be used for the short sound of u as in cut, hut or ou in touch. This is very important, as the above list shows the greatest confusion exists in the representation of this short u sound. Wade and Mateer use e for this short u sound in all its modifications by tone, emphasis and situation, both as a final and medial. The sound of e is represented by Mateer as being that of e in her or perch. Webster’s dictionary says this “ sound of e before r verges towards the sound of u in urge,” and it also says : “ Many cultivated speakers, both in England and America, give the e in such words the full sound of u in urge.” This is as true in Chinese as in English, especially in Nanking is the sound not that of e before r but the short sound of u. Dr. Mateer, however, spells this southern sound by e, as he does the corresponding sound in the North, whether rightly or wrongly I am not sufficiently versed in northern sounds to know. Yet even Dr. M. himself while he explains e as e in her and perch, yet in practice uses it for the short sound of u in various instances, and in his explanation of ei 10 says : “ Strike out n in money and yon have the syllable mei.” Again ; “ Omit nd and ne fVom mundane and you have the sound meei also of eo he says : “ The vowel sound in burrow when all the consonants are withdrawn.’’ All of which shows that he not only uses e for e as in her but also for short u* Other instances, as in meng and len of Nanking, shows this double use of the marked e and clearly shows the u sound is properly represented by it. Williams in using a for this short u sound as in sun, shows he agrees that this sound which Dr. M. spells with e is the short sound of u. Webster also as quoted above shows that the e in her and perch of Dr. M. is really the short sound of u as in urge, and Webster also says that “the regular short sound of u as in but, sun, touch, etc,” “ In its organic forma- tion it is essentially the same sound as u in urge.” Therefore as e in her and u in but and on in touch are verging towards and are really the short u in urge, Dr. M. is right in repre- senting them both by the same marked e. Therefore in the Nanking system the letter u and diagraph ou are used to represent the short sound of u as in cut, but, or ou iu touch, and this uniformly, however modified by tone or emphasis, as a medial or final, so then the letter u or the diagraph ou with the value of u in but or ou in touch, is given as the equivalent of W.’s and Dr. M.’s e, and this because there is no danger of confusion if the sound be either e before r of the North verging towards u in urge, or of the short u sound of the South as that of ou in touch. If this be kept in mind there will be no misunderstanding in reading u and ou of the N. system as equivalent of W.’s and M.’s e. Williams uses a for this short u sound, and remarks : “ a— The common use of u in English as in sun , to represent this sound has made it a perplexing one to write ; and the phrase, “ The mother bzrd flatters o’er her yewng,” shows that in that language it is very differently written. I prefer a to a, e, e, e, or u of other 11 authors, chiefly because it is less liable to be mispronounced by the general reader, except the last. But that letter is needed to write another sound.” This shows the importance of the sound of u and the necessity of a careful use of the letter u to represent it, and not any other letter as a or e. Evidently the letter e is too much, and unnecessarily burdened with these sounds of u, which are easily and more accurately represented by the letter u itself, as it is hoped its use in the lists below clearly shows, and to which the attention of those who are interested in a smooth and unmarked Romanization of the mandarin is particularly called. & This is but another and very peculiar sound of u, which has to be heard to be clearly understood. Wm. gives the sound as u in June or abuse, and says it has been generally written in this way, and is so written by all the systems below. W. This as a vowel is again but another well-known use of the letter u, either as an initial or medial. But as in English its real value varies, so in Chinese. The pronunciation of the Chinese in most everything is indefinite even in the same word by the same man, and this is so in this vowel sound of w, ranging from long o to the pure sound of u. In the N. system the w is used to represent all these various shades of sound as it would not only be impossible to represent them but no gain in practice if even done well, as the natives would not follow or understand it. The real sound of w in Nanking is the sound of u as in full, and tending towards the pure w sound as in wool. But as w is used for this sound of u generally, it is decidedly best to use it and not the letter u, even in Nanking as by Dr. M. and C. I. M. Dr. M. says all in the North agree it is best to use w, and so it is in the 12 South, and in the N. system it is therefore uniformly so used. See in list below, Nos. 503 — 516, for this use of w as u. All these various uses of the letter u, and variations in its sound above any of the other vowels, shows the great import- ance of a careful use of this letter in order to save the confusion and misunderstanding of the sounds, which is inevitable when carelessly represented by e, e, ae, a, etc. The letter e is also required for its own important uses, and to use it marked for certain regular sounds of u adds great difficulty to the practical use of the Romanization in printing, type-writing, telegraphing, etc. It is also very plain that by using other letters marked for this u sound in letters and papers home, and in books the uninstructed reader would never imagine a u sound is meant by unsightly and unmeaning marks over a letter arbitrarily and unnecessarily written out of its well known use. Anomalous Vowels. This name is given by Williams. They comprise all those initial sounds which are used without their finals or any added vowel sound, as a word, just the same as the combination with any of their finals is used as a word. They are here given in the five spellings as found in the list below : — 1 Ch Ch’i C’h’ Ch’ih Ch’i 2 J Chi Ch’ Chih Chi o Jr er ’rh er ri O lrh Jih Zhih n rih 4 S Si Sz’ Ssu or Szu Si 5 Sh Shi Sh’ Shih Shi- 6 Sr Sri Sr’ 11 ii 7 Ts Ts’i TsV Ts’u or T’zu Ts’i 8 Tsr Ts’r TsY ii 9 Z Tsi Tsz’ Tsu or Tzu Tsi 10 Zrw Tsrwi Tsrw’ 15 ii This list gives all those peculiar sounds in mandarin, which represent the initial or key sound as a syllable or word. In English we have no example of the kind in consonants, but 13 we have in vowels as a, i, o ! These are the simple sounds of the vowel letters used as words. In the monosyllabic Chinese this is carried into the consonants. In English we have nothing nearer to it than be, tea, he, etc., but in Chinese the pure and simple consonant sounds are used as words as well as initials. In colloquial districts these initials being pronounced and used alone their sound is variously modified as seen in the above list in the initial r. In Peking, where there is only this one instance and one sound of r, it is differently spelt by all the systems in the above list, and in combination with finals in the North it is changed to zh, but retains the r sound in the South with all its finals. Each one of these ten sounds are thus used as syllables with definite meaning and use, the same as every one of the syllables which they head as initials. While the sound of these vocalized consonants may vary in different parts of the mandarin district, yet they do not differ sufficiently to require another letter to represent them, nor does the sound of the initial when alone differ so from its sound when followed by any of its finals as to require another representation by diagraph or newly-invented letter. It is hoped a careful examination of the above list will show this clearly. If it be kept in mind that these syllables are merely the initial consonant of a list of syllables with various finals, the sound of each and the best spelling will be more clearly seen, and their use and why called auomalous vowels more easily understood. The sound of any of these alone is practically the same as when in combination with their different finals. For example ch alone is quite exactly the same sound as it is when pro- nounced with any of its finals as in chang, so with r, j, s, sh and all the rest. That is the sound of each is practically the same as that initial consonant when followed by any of its finals. When thus used alone as a monosyllabic word with its u natural articulate sound it then is practically a semi or anomalous vowel, that is, a consonant or initial with the usual articulate sound of that consonant as it is said in Webster’s dictionary. “The diagraph sh represents the simple sound heard in shelf, flesh, usher.” This is as true in the Chinese as it is in English. If so, is it any more necessary to represent the articulate sound of these consonants by an extra semi-vowel mark, as I in Chinese any more than English ? But it is said it is only a consonant and must have a vowel to be pronounced, which is not necessary, as Williams and others show, and of course all letters, consonants as well as vowels have a well known articulation. If the elementary sound of sh is that of sh in shelf as above what is the value of this newly-made vowel i added to it ? Dr. M. says : “ The final vowel sound heard in such words as table, noble, etc., when separated from the preceding bl.” But what is this final vowel sound when separated from bl ? The sound of bl in this is clear as it is also in the word bliss, but the following vowel i in bliss is unlike that of e in table for an obvious reason. But Dr. M. is right, the double dotted i in Chinese is the same value as the e in table and noble, that is, it is silent, and consequently of no practical value, and of course silent letters, when not used for diagraphs, had not best be deliberately introduced in the Chinese in the first instance. To represent this natural articulate sound of the consonant by a new and arbitrary vowel mark is not only not necessary but misrepresents the sound as it is not an open vowel, but simply the emphasized articulate sound of the consonant when used alone as a word . To make a vowel mark to the China- man as well as the foreigner, practically, adds nothing, but on the other hand to both native and foreigner obscures the real sound by adding a silent, new and unknown letter without any example in English or any tongue. 15 This making a new vowel for this use also obscures the real sound and use of these syllables, because all are in that way given as separate and independent sounds when in reality they stand at the head of a long and important list of sounds, out of which position their own sound and use is misunder- stood, nor is the list of syllables of which they are the head and initial key complete. These remarks are true of all this list of sounds given as anomalous vowels. The Nanking system follows Williams in using the consonants simply which represent\the sound with their natural articulate sound with- out mark or new-made vowel, which puts them at the head of the list of sounds of which they are the head and key sound. 1. Ch in the Nanking system stand for the aspirated ch of the others, and in Nanking is not materially different from its value in English. 2 . J in the Nanking system is for the same unaspirated, and spelt by the diagraph ch in the other systems, and in N. is well represented by this letter as in jar, jeer, joke. 3. B. This letter, as in English, may be considered in several aspects according to its position, and in Chinese modi- fied by tone emphasis. But for all these it is thought the simple letter r sufficiently represents them, and when uniformly used is liable to be less misunderstood. In Nanking the proper sound of it as in the word son is simply that of the letter r pronounced alone with its natural articulate sound. So the letter r alone sufficiently represents it. The C. I. M. adds simply the double dotted i. Williams also spells it with the letter r thus, ’rh, both for northern and southern. Dr. M. follows Wade in spelling it with e thus, er, Wade thus, without the mark er. Dr. M. also uses this for the northern and southern. I take it then that the sound north and south and in all the mandarin district is not greatly different, and not sufficiently so to require separate letters to represent it. So the letter r is used for this sound 16 in all its shades, both as an initial or as standing alone when used as a word. In this latter use it is used both north and south, but as an initial only in the south. ilh. This is simply to represent the 5th tone of the previous sound r as found in the word sun, spelt by Dr. M. and 0. 1. M. thus rih, and the northern by Williams zhih. It will be seen from this that Dr. M uses for this sound, when alone, one representation ; when in the fifth tone another, and when it is used as an initial he agrees with C. I. M. and the Nanking system in using simply the letter r. In this last instance there is uniformity of usage and no doubt the correct representation of this initial sound of r. According to the principles given above in regard to these anomalous vowels, when this initial sound of r stands alone and used as a word it needs no other representation than the letter itself, and this either in the north or south, or in any part of the mandarin district. It is thus used in Nanking system below, which will show the letter r alone answers all the needs of a proper representation of the sound, either in a local or general system of spelling. 4. S. This as a vowel when standing alone in Nanking does not materially differ from the sound of s as in same and yes. 5. Sh. The sound of this diagraph does not differ in Nan- king from its sound in English as heard in shelf, flesh. 6. Ts. The same value as the aspirate in the other systems, both in the north and south, and when standing alone as a word retains the same articulate sound. 7. Z. In the Nanking system represents the unaspirate sound of ts as given by all the systems below. Williams says : “ It is the sound of ts in wits, written z by De Guignes.” In Nanking it is the sound of z as heard in winds, maid’s? loads, which is the regular leading sound of the letter z in English as heard in zone, maze, hazy. Dr. M. thinks this 17 sound would be more properly represented by ds. This may be in some places, but the difference in this sound anywhere no doubt is not such as to need a separate spelling. The letter z sufficiently represents it, and as this letter has no other use to cause confusion, and if not used here to represent the regular leading sound of this letter in Chinese the letter z would then have no proper use in the mandarin, therefore it is thought best to use it in place of the rather uncertain diagraphs ts or as suggested by Dr. M. ds. Certainly in a system of spelling designed entirely for use among the Chinese the letter z answers all the needs of the system, and really is better than either the above diagraphs, especi- ally does it represent the sound better in Nanking, and its use in the general system and for all the various shades of these aspirate and unaspirate sounds no representations will be more convenient or practical for the Chinese to use than ts for the aspirate and z for the unaspirate, as given in the Nanking system below. This of course, when used alone as a word, is spelt in analogy with the above anomalous vowels by the letter z alone with its natural articulate sound of z in zone. 8. Sr. 9. Tsr. 10. Zrw. These are all anomalous vowels of the colloquial district of Wei-hien, and are given to represent the sounds as indicated in Dr. M.’s list by sri, tsr’i and tsrwi. Their use in the Nanking system is the same as that of the other anomalous vowels as explained above. The Aspirates and Unaspirates. The above remarks on the anomalous vowels anticipated to some extent, and naturally run into, the question as to the proper representation of these sounds in the mandarin. They 18 have uniformly, in all systems, except the Nanking system, represented the aspirates by a mark and not by a letter. But there has been a growing feeling in the mandarin districts, both north and south, that this is not the best either for foreigners or Chinese. That it does not in all places represent it the best, and that as by the use of marks letters are thrown out of use, which could be retained with great advant- age to an easy and proper spelling of the mandarin and a great advantage in the use of a Romanized system in the mandarin district. For some excellent remarks on these aspirates and un- aspirates see Dr. M.’s “ Mandarin Lessons,” Intro., p. xix ; notice specially the note at the bottom of the page. This advice should be heeded by all using a Romanization of the mandarin in any locality. List of aspirates and unaspirates in the Jive spellings . N. M. JVm. IF. C. I. M. 1 B P P P P *9 JCh Ch’i C’h’ Ch’ih Ch’i tok Ch’ Ch’ Ch’ Ch’ 3 D T T T T 4 G K K K K fJ Chi Ch’ Chih Chi 0 Ch Ch Ch Ch 6 K K’ K’ K’ K’ 7 P P’ P’ P’ r 8 T T’ T’ T T’ 9 JTs Ts’i TsY Ts’u Ts’i t Ts Ts’ Ts’ Ts’ Ts’ 10 fZ Tsi Tsz’ Tsu Tsi iz Ts Ts Ts Ts * In this list Nos. 2, 5, 9 and 10 give two spellings for each ; the first is the spelling for the initial when used as a word, as explained in the anomalous vowels above ; the second is the initial when used in combination with its final. The others are not used as separate words, and so have not this double spelling, but these that have it the two together shows more clearly what the aspirate or unaspirate as an initial really is. 19 These sounds have been greatly misunderstood and by many mispronounced, because of the name aspirates and unaspirates and because written together with only an aspirate mark of doubtful meaning to distinguish which is meant. Dr. M. says of the unaspirates : “ Ch, k, p, t and ts are somewhat softened . . . , yet not so much as to quite pass into the corresponding j, g, b, d and dz. In some words and in some localities they do, however, become very nearly equivalent to these sounds.” This is true, and especially so in Nanking, where these sounds are much better, both for foreigners and natives spelt with their corresponding letter or diagraph in English, that is, as in the Nanking system below with b, ch, d, g, j, k, p, t, ts and z, and not represented as aspirates and unaspirates but as distinct independent sounds, as they are given in English, and accurately enough represented by the above letters when these letters are pronounced in English in their regular and leading sound. This remark is not only true for the south but practically so for the north and all the mandarin districts, and as there are no other sounds as in the dialects to be spelt or confounded with them it is by far the best to use these letters and diagraph s for these so-called aspirates and unaspirates. This adds several letters — b, d and z — to the mandarin Romanization, in itself a gain, and if possible in Romanizing the Chinese none of the letters should be given up for a simple mark, and the system that uses most of the letters is by far the best. If these letters be used all the letters of the alphabet will be in use in mandarin, except q, v and x. The last two only used in Roman figures. So using letters for the unaspirates gives to mandarin the important letters of the alphabet, and really only q is not used. Their use will be of great advantage also to foreigners getting a clear and practical use of these sounds when with the present spelling many fail, which defect clings to them all their stay in China ; and certainly the use of them will be no 20 difficulty to the natives, but as shown by their use in Nanking is great gain in various ways to the natives as well as the foreigners. And in use and practical work as in printing, type-writing, and when used in telegraphing, &c., is of im- mense gain and relief, both to the hand in writing and the eye in beholding the clean page free from all the marks the aspirate system requires. For these and various other practical reasons for the use of the system among the Chinese, and for their benefit alone, the letters are used in place of aspirate marks by the Nanking system, the beauty and practicability of which, it is hoped, will be easily seen by the unprejudiced examination of the lists below. E . The final h perhaps needs the remark of Dr. M. in Intro, that “ it is required in southern mandarin as the distinctive mark of the fifth tone. It has been assigned to this office ever since Chinese sounds began to be spelled with foreign letters.” This marking of the fifth tone by this letter in Nanking and where the tone is emphatic is not only best since it is so universally used and understood, but is quite necessary, as this tonal emphasis so modifies the regular pronunciation as sometimes to be difficult to tell what the fundamental sound of which it is the fifth tone is. Since this use of the letter h is so universal it would be a great loss to any system not to use it in those districts where it is emphasized as in Nanking. The final h can be added in most every case as an appropriate ending to the spellings of the other tones. But in the case of ch, j and sh the h added alone is in the cases of ch and sh somewhat unsightly, and in all three cases does not so well represent the fifth tone as when the h is proceeded by an i, thus — chili, jih and shih. They are thus spelt in the N. system, when properly they would be chh, jh and shh. The i is introduced because if not two h letters would come together, 21 and because there is in this fifth tone of these really i short as in pin. This short i is not marked, as there is no other sound with which to be confused, and the principle of the system is where a mark is not necessary omit it. The fifth tone of r, however, is rh, because in this there is not that intermediate sound of i, and followed by h as purely a silent tone mark and also it presents no difficulty to the eye or use. All these fifth tones in final h are in the list just after their other tones, whatever the spelling, in order that all the tones may be given and seen together. This in looking them up will present no difficulty, and in their use, if what has been said is remembered, there will be no confusion in these instances introduced by Williams, and for the above reasons followed in the N. system. W and Y. These letters are used as consonants and not as by W. and C. I. M. the vowels u and i. This is more in accordance with English usage, and is by far the best as initials, however near the sounds may be to the vowels u or i (see note on 1083 of the syllable below). Zh. This is really the vocal correspondent of sh, and is spelt by Dr. M. and Wade by j, but Williams writes it with zh. This spelling has been followed in the Nanking system as being a more accurate representation of the sound ; more in accord with the sound as heard in English, less liable to be misunderstood, and also is necessary in the Nanking system, as it uses j in its regular and leading sound as an unaspirate (see above). The power of zh is : Wm., “ z in azure ; ” M., “ s in fusion, or z in brazier.” The following aspirate and unaspirate initial syllables are given by Dr. M. as belonging to Wei-hien principally:—* 22 Aspirates. Unaspircites. N. M. Zh Tsh Zhr Jr Zr Tsr N. M. Tsh Tsh’ Tsr Tsr* Tsrw Ts’rw Zrw Tsrw In the aspirates there seems to be no difficulty worthy of remark, but in the unaspirates there is an apparent confusion, where zh in n= iM.’s tsh, where in the list zh has already been used for j of the north. This is seen in the zhr here given= M.’s jr not tshr, which it is to be noted Dr. M. does not give us of Wei-hien or any other place. Dr. M. explains the j and tsh thus : “ j is approximately s in fusion, or z in brazier.” “Tsh as tsh in potsherd.” J and tsh unaspirate, therefore as explained and spelt by Dr. M. does not differ greatly, not enough certainly to require a different spelling in the Chinese. Zh in the N. system equals both the j and tsh unaspirate of Dr. M. and also zhr=his jr according to the explanation of zh above. Dr. M. spells this tsh unaspirate, but for the unaspirate ts the N. system adopts z, so tsh would naturally be zh in the N. system, which has been shown to be equal to and is so used by Wm. as spelling the northern j. In this case, if accuracy be required, the spelling dsh for the unaspirate might be used as tsh is for the aspirate, but in the N. system below this distinction has been thought unnecessary, as these local Wei-hien sounds tsh and jr (Dr. M.) seem nearly enough indicated by the unaspirate ts, followed by h, which in N. is spelt by zh, the same as the northern j and zhr=jr. The peculiarity of these Wei-hien sounds seems to be in the local coloring by the colloquial pronunciation. This slurring of regular sounds is a fruitful cause of variations and permanent colloquialisms, and they should not be introduced into the general system of mandarin unless they are used in large districts and are of a permanent and valuable character. 23 The Arrangement of the Syllables Is according to the N. system, the only one that has given all the syllables. The aspirates and unaspirates are not given together as in those systems which use the aspirate marks, but all are arranged according to the alphabet, except in the single instance of the fifth tone, which necessitates a different spelling, and they all are marked by and have the final h. But whatever may be the spelling the fifth tone is given in order next after the other tones, for example chih and shih ; the fifth tones of ch and sh in the list immediately follow ch and sh, although other syllables, according to a proper alphabetic order, would intervene. This is done for the obvious reason of convenience in giving the several tones together, and when it is known the displacement creates no trouble in looking up the fifth tone syllables, but on the contrary, in giving all the tones together, whatever the spelling, is of great advantage in looking up a syllable and studying the list. The initial sh and ts sounds are not given under the letters s and t as by Dr. M. and others but are given a primary place as the initials f, 1 and others and for the obvious reason of their great importance, being initials followed by all the finals as any other. This arrangement is the best and on the whole more convenient, and it serves to give these initials their due position of importance and not as a syllable under the letter s. The systems of spelling are placed side by side in parallel columns, so the different spellings of each syllable are given together, and anyone knowing the spellings of either system can know all as far as the system will carry him. There are no syllables given in any of the systems which have not been found spelt in that system, hence the blank spaces found in all the lists, except the list under N. A glance therefore at these lists show what syllables are given by C. I. M., W. and M., but this remark is not true of the syllables under Wm. since 24 these syllables are given as in William’s spelling according to the genius of the system, whether found already spelt by Wm. or not. Accordingly in every case where the spelling of Wm. is not given it indicates that it is uncertain how Wm. would have spelt it according to his system. This liberty of using Wm.’s system has been taken, in order to show as far as possible what the sound intended is to those who are acquainted with his system. This liberty has not been taken with the other systems, but each gives those syllables which have been found recorded by each. It is hoped the liberty taken with William’s spelling in giving all the sounds as spelt by him, or as far as possible according to the genius of the system, will enable a large number of those using only some one of the other dialects to know what sound is meant and what are the nature of our mandarin sounds. By this arrangement of the syllables it will be easily seen the sounds of the north as given by Wade’s list, those sounds gathered up and used by the C. I. M. in their southern mandarin, the local sounds confined to Wei-hien district are given sepa- rately, and in the Nanking system will be observed those sylla- bles in small capitals, which indicate they are the syllables found in Nanking. Those in Dr. M.’s column are those syllables which he has gathered up in all this eastern district of man- darin. All these then given together, the relation of each to the whole can be easily seen. One can easily compare his own tongue and see if it is largely Pekinese or Nankinese and what relation his speech has to the body of mandarin here tabulated. For the sake of clearness the following summary is given of the principles of pronunciation as used in The Nanking System. This system is the only one intended solely for the Chinese and for use among them in our work, but the system is believed to be practicable, and the little it has been used 25 shows it is best also for foreigners learning the language, or in work among the natives. The object has been to avoid all marks as far as possible, and in this it has succeeded so far as to have practically none ; this desirable result has been reached with but a limited use of diagraphs which, when well chosen, are far preferable to unintelligible and arbitrary marks. The spellings follow their regular and leading sounds in English, but of course there is a limit to pressing any letter or spelling into a fixed and unchangeable power in Chinese ; there must be given “ a certan margin or suppleness ” (see Dr, M.’s remarks in Intro., pages xi and xv.) But with this understood the N, system can be easily known from this summary : — A. stands for all the sounds of a, except a long as in say, for which e is used, but e is short as in met when before n or marked thus e. I is for long sound of e as in Eve, and when before n or marked thus i, is i as in pin, o as in go, oo as in good, u as in rule, u and ou as u in fun and ou in touch. Yu as English you. W is also used for u, medial ; b, d, g, j and z are used for the unaspirates, and p, t, k, ch and ts for their aspirate sounds. All the other spellings are accord- ing to their regular and leading English sounds. The powers of ti, eo and eu must be heard to be under- stood ; the sounds are not spelt but only thus represented. Then there are various modifications of these sounds in practice by tonal emphasis, by position as medial, final and alone, and also for euphony, all of which must be heard to be known, and which it is not practicable to represent in a system of spelling. 26 N. M. Wm. w. C. I. M. 1 A A A A A 2 A* An 9 3 Ah # 9 t , # Ah 4 AI Ai Ai Ai Ai 5 An An An An An 6 ANG Ang Ang Ang Ang 7 AO Ao Ao Ao Ao 8 Ba Pa Pa Pa Pa 9 BA Pau m 9 # # # 9 10 BAH Pauh Pah Pah 11 BAI Pai Pai Pai Pai 12 BAN Pan Pan Pan Pan 13 BANG Pang Pang Pang Pang 14 BAO Pao Pao Pao Pao 15 Bah Pah .. # 9 9 16 Bet Peif P6 Pei Pei 17 BEH Peih Peh , # 9 9 18 BEIN Pein P6in 9 # 19 BEING Peing P6ing , , . . 20 Beh m 9 Peh m , Peh 21 Ben Pen Pen Pen 22 Beng . . Peng , # Peng 23 Beo a Peo m m # Peo 24 BEU° # # Peu , , 25 BI Pi Pi Pi Pi 26 B1H Pih Pih Pih 27 Bian Pian Pian 9 9 28 BIAO Piao Piao Piao Piao 29 Bieh Pieih Pi6h .. 30 Bie Pie Pie Pieh 9 9 31 Bieh # m Pieh Pieh 32 Bien Pien Pien Pien Pien 33 Bin Pin Pin Pin Pin 34 BING Ping Ping Ping Ping 35 BIU . . Piu m m . , 36 BO Po Po Po 37 BOH Poh Poh . Poh 38 Boa Poa Po Po 39 Boan Poan P6an 9 9 # 9 40 Boong Pung Pnng • % # • 41 Bon Pe P6 # , * All small capitals indicate those syllables in use in Nanking, f See e and ei in Intro. a See eo and #u in Intro. N. M. Wm, w . C. I. M. 42 BOUH Peh , # m # 43 Bone Peei • . • • • 44 BOUI m # • • 45 BU Pn Pu Pn Pu 46 BUH Puh Puh # ; Puh 47 BUN Pen Pan Pen 48 BUNG Peng Ch’i Pang C’h’ Peng • • 49 CH Ch’ih Ch’i 50 CHIH Ch’ih Ch’ih Ch’ih 51 Cha Ch’a Ch’a Ch’a Ch’a 52 CHA Ch’au , # • • 53 CHAH Ch’auh Ch’ah • . Ch’ah 54 CHAI Ch’ai Ch’ai Ch’ai Ch’ai 55 CHAN Ch’an Ch’an Ch’an Ch’an 56 CHANG Ch’ang Ch’ang Ch’ao Ch’ang Ch’ang 57 CHAO Ch’ao Ch’ao Ch’ao 58 Chah Ch’ah • • 59 Che Ch’ei Ch’6 # ' • •- 60 Chein Ch’ein Ch’4in • • • • 61 Che Ch’e Ch’e # # # * 62 Cheh Ch’eh Ch’eh m m Ch’eh 63 Chen Ch’en Ch’en 9 % Ch’en 64 Cheng Ch’eng • • Ch’eng 65 Cheo Ch’eo Ch’eo 66 Cheoh Ch’eoh . # • • • • 67 CHEU Ch’ou Ch’eu Ch’ou 68 Chi Ch’i Ch’i Ch’i 69 Chia Ch’ia Ch’ia Ch’ia 70 Chiai Ch’iai Ch’iai Ch’iai 71 Chian Ch’ian Ch’ian # # 72 Chiang Ch’iang Ch’iao Ch’iang Ch’iang 73 Chiao Ch’iao Ch’iao . . 74 Chie Ch’ie Ch’ie Ch’ieh • • 75 Chien Ch’ien Ch’ien Ch’ien • • 76 Chin Ch’in Ch’in Ch’in 77 Ching Ch’ing Ch’oa Ch’ing Ch’io Ch’ing 78 Chioa m # 79 Chioong Ch’iung Ch’iung Ch’iung 80 Chiu Ch’iu Ch’iu Ch’iu 81 Chi Ch’i 82 CHOH Ch’oh Ch’dh .. Ch’oh 83 Choa Ch’oa Ch’o Ch’o 84 CHONG Ch’ong Ch’ong • « Chong 28 N. M. Wm. W. a i. m. 85 Choon Ch’un Ch’un Ch’un 86 Choong Ch’ung Ch’ung Ch’6 . . 87 CHOU Ch’e Ch’e Ch’ae 88 CHOUH m # , , 89 CHU Ch’u Ch’u Ch’u Ch’u 90 CHUH Ch’uh Ch’uh . , Ch’uh 91 Chni Ch’ui Ch’ui Ch’ui Ch’ui 92 Chnn Ch’6n Ch’an Ch’en 93 CHUNG Ch’eng Ch’ang Ch’il Ch’eng 94 Chii Ch’u Ch’ll 95 Chiih Ch’uh Ch’uh . # 96 Chiian Ch’iian Ch’uan Ch’uan 97 Chile Ch’iie Ch’ile Ch’iieh 98 Chiien Ch’tien Ch’ilen # 9 99 Chiin Ch’iln Ch’iin 100 Chiioa Ch’lloa Ch’iio # . 101 Chwa Ch’wa Ch’wa Ch’ua 102 *CHWAI ^ ' Ch’uai 1 [ Ch’wai J Ch’wai Ch’uai Ch’uai 103 CHWAN -j f Ch’uan 1 [ Ch’wan J Ch’wan Ch’uan Ch’uan 104 CHWANG j f Ch’uang 1 [ Ch’wang J Ch’wang Ch’uang Ch’uang 105 Chwah Ch’wali 106 ChwaA , , Ch’weh m 9 Ch’ueh 107 Chwen j f Ch’uei \ [ Ch’wei J Cli’we 108 Chwen Cli’wen Ch’wen Ch’uen 109 Chwoa Ch’woa Ch’wo m # , , 110 Chwoan Ch’woan Ch’woan . , 111 CHWOI Ch’woi # , # , 112 CHWUN Ch’uen Ch’wan # # 113 CHWUNG , , Ch’wang . # 114 Da Ta Ta Ta Ta 115 DA Tau # , m 116 DAH Tauh Tah Tah 117 DAI Tai Tai Tai’ Tai 118 DAN Tan Tan Tan Tan 119 DANG Tang Tang Tang Tang 120 DAO Tao Tao Tao Tao * This one spelling stands for the two of Dr. M. for reasons explained in introduction, and so below. 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 129 130 131 132 133 134 135 136 137 138 139 140 141 142 143 144 145 146 147 148 149 150 151 152 153 154 155 156 157 158 159 160 29 N. M. Wm. W. c. /. m. Dah Tah DE Tei Te Tei DEH Teih Teh * m DEIN Tein Tein # # DEING Teing • • Deh Teh , , Teh Deng . . Teng Teng Deo Teo # # Teo Deoh Teoh . , # . . DEU Ton Teu Ton # # DI Ti Ti Ti Ti DIH Tih Tih Tih Dian Tian Tian , # Diang Tiang Tiang DIAO Tiao Tiao Tiao Tiao Die Tiei Tie # # Dieh Tieih Tieh # , . # Die Tie Tie Tieh Tie Dieh Tieh Tieh Dien Tien Tien Tien Tien DING Ting Ting Ting Ting DIU Tiu Tiu Tiu Tiu DO To To To DOH Toh T5h # , Toh Doa Toa To To , . Doan Toan Toan , # DONG Tong Tong , , Tong Doon Tun Tun Tun • • Doong Tung Tung Tung • . Don Te To T6 # g DOUH Teh , . . . , , DU Tu Tu Tu Tu DUH Tuh Tuh , # Tuh Dui Tui Tui Tui Tui Dnn Ten Tan . . . . DUNG Teng Tang Teng • • DWAN (Tuan 1 \ Twan J Twan Tuan Tuan DWANG Twang # « # * Dwe ( Tuei \ \ Twei J Twe • • • • Dwen Twen Twen • • Tuen 30 M. Wm. w. C. /. M. 161 DWOI , , Twoi % % 162 DWUN Tuen Twan ■ % # 163 DWUNG Twang # % 164 Eh Eh Eh 165 En En • • En 166 Eng • • Eng Eng 167 Eo Eo # # Eo 168 EU On En On 169 FA Fa Fa Fa Fa 170 FAH Fauh Fah # , Fah 171 FAN Fan Fan Fan Fan 172 FANG Fang Fang Fang 173 Fe Fei Fe Fei Fei 174 Fen Fen Fen Fen 175 Feng • . Feng Feng 176 Feo Feo , , Feo 177 FEU Fou Fen Fon 178 Fo Fo F 6 179 Foa Foa Fo Fo 180 Foong Fnng Fung • • 181 Foue Feei , # 182 FOUI m m # # 183 FU Fu Fn Fn Fn 184 FUH Fuh Fuh Fuh 185 Fun Fen Fan Fen . . 186 FUNG Feng Fang Feng . . 187 Ga Ka Ka Ka . . 188 GAI Kai Kai Kai Kai 189 Gan Kan Kan Kan Kan 190 GANG Kang Kang Kang Kang 191 GAO Kao Kao , . Kao 192 Gah Kah „ # • • 193 Ge Kei Ke , , 194 GEH , , Keh , , 195 GEIN # , Kein . , 196 GEING , # Keing . . 197 Geh • . Keh , . Keh 198 Gen Ken Ken . . Ken 199 Geng Keng . . Keng 200 Geo Keo , # Keo 201 GEU Kou Keu , , . # 202 GI Ki Ki 4 , Ki 203 GIH Kih Kih , , Kih 204 205 206 207 208 209 210 211 212 213 214 215 216 217 218 219 220 221 222 223 224 225 226 227 228 229 230 231 232 233 234 235 236 237 238 239 240 241 242 243 244 245 246 31 N. M. Wm. W. C. I. M. Gia Kia Kia Kia GIA Kiau Kia , . GIAH Kiauh Kiah Kiah GIAI Kiai Kiai Kiai GIAN Kian Kian . . GIANG Kiang Kiang Kiang GIAO Kiao Kiao Kiao Gieh Kieih Kieh . . Giein Kiein Kiein . . Gie Kie Kie a a Gieh Kieh Kieh Gien Kien Kien Kien Gin Kin Kin Kin GING King King King GIOH Kioh Ki6h Kioh Gioa Kioa Kio , # GIONG Kiong Ki6ng Kiong Gioong Kiung Kiung . . GIU Kiu Kiu Kiu Giuh Kinh Kiuh , # GO Ko K5 Ko GOH Koh K6h Koh Goa Koa Ko GONG Kong K6ng Kong Goon Knn Kun Kun Goong Kung Kung Kung , f GOU Ke Ko Ke , , GOUH Keh # # - , # GU Ku Ku Ku Ku GUH Kuh Kuh Kuh Gun Ken Kan Ken # m GUNG Keng Kang Keng . . GU Kh Ku Kii GUH Kiih Kiih Kiih Giian Ktian Kiian GUE Ktiei Kiie # 9 GUEH Kiieih Kiieh . . GUEIN Ktiein Ktiein GUEING . . Kiieing . . Giie Kiie Kiie # # Gheh Kiieh Kiieh Ghen Kiien Kuen Kiien GUIN Kiiin Kiiin Kiiin 32 N. M. Wm. w. C. I. M. 247 GUING . . Ktiing , . 248 Giioa KtiOa Kilo 249 Gwa Kwa Kwa Kna Kna 250 GWA < f Kuan 1 t Kwan J Kwa . * 251 GWAH i fKuauh ) l Kwauh J Kwah . . Knah 252 GWAI j f Knai \ [ Kwai J fKnan | [ Kwan J Kwai Knai Knai 253 Gwan j Kwan Knan Kuan 254 GWANG j f Knang ) [ Kwang j Kwang Knang Knang 255 Gwah Kwah # . 256 Gwe j f Kuei 1 [ Kwei J Kwe Knei Kuei 257 Gweh Kweh Kneh 258 Gwen Kwen Kwen Kuen 259 Gwoa Kwoa Kwo Kuo 260 Gwoan Kwoan Kwoan 261 GWOI Kwoi 262 GWOUH Kueh m m m 263 Gwu Kwn Kwn 264 GWUN } \ Kuen \ i Kwen ) Kwan . , 265 \ GWUNG Kwang .. 266 Ha Ha Ha Ha Ha 267 HA Han , # . 268 HAI Hai Hai Hai Hai 269 HAN Han Han Han Han 270 HANH Hang Hang Hang Hang 271 HAO Hao Hao Hao Hao 272 Hah Hah , , 273 He Hei He Hei 274 Heh m m Heh Heh 275 Hen Hen Hen Hen 276 Heng # # Heng • # Heng 277 Heo Heo Heo 278 HEU Hou Hen Hon 279 HI Hi Hi Hi 280 HIH Hih Hih 281 Hia Hia Hia 282 HIA Hiau Hia * ? • • 83 N. M. 283 HIAH Hiauh 284 HIAI Hiai 285 Hian Hian 286 HIANG Hiang 287 HIAO Hiao 288 Hie Hiei 289 HIEH Hieih 290 HIEIN Hiein 291 HIEING # # 292 Hie Hie 293 Hien Hien 294 Hin Hin 295 HING Hing 296 HIOH Hioh 297 Hioa Hioa 298 HIONG Hiong 299 Hioong Hiung 300 HIU Hiu 301 HIUH Hiuh 302 HO Ho 303 HOH Hoh 304 Hoa Hoa 305 HONG Hong 306 Hoon Hun 307 Hoong Hung 308 Hon He 309 HOUH Heh 310 HU Hu 311 HUH Huh 312 Hui Hui 313 Hun Hen 314 HUNG Heng 315 HU Hii 316 Hiian Hiian 317 HUE Hliei 318 HUEH Hiieih 319 HUEIN Hiiein 320 HUEING 321 Hiie Hiie 322 Hiien Hiien 323 Hiiin Hiiin 324 HUING 325 Hwa Hwa Wm. W. C I M. Hiah Hiai Hian Hiang Hiao Hie Hieh Hiein Hieing Hie Hien Hin Hing Hihh Hio Hiong Hiung Hin Hiuh Ho Ho Hoh Hoh Ho Ho , # Hong Hong Hun Hun •• • Hung Hung # # Ho He •• Hu Hu • •- Hu Huh Huh Hui Hui Han Hen Hang Heng Hii Hiian Hue Hii6 Hii6in Hii&ng Hiie Hiien Huin Hiiing Hwa Hua Hua 34 ft. M. Wm. W. c. i. m. 326 HWA ( Huau 1 \ Hwau J Hwa •• • • 327 HWAH ( Huauh ) ( Hwauh J Hwah Huah 328 HWAI f Huai \ \HwaiJ Hwai Hwai Huai 329 Hwan fHuan 1 \ Hwan J Hwan Hnan Huan 330 HWANG f Huang \ \ Hwang j Hwang Hnang Huang 331 Hwah V O J Hwah 332 Hwe f Huei \ \ HweiJ Hw6 Huei Huei 333 Hweh Hweh % m Hueh 334 Hwen Hwen Hwen 9 m Huen 335 Hwoa Hwoa Hwo Huo # # 336 Hwoan Hwoan Hwoan . . 337 HWOI # , Hwoi , # 9 9 338 HWOUH Hueh , 9 . # # 339 Hwu Hwn Hwu 9 9 340 HWUN fHuen \ \ Hwen J Hwan Huen . . 341 HWUNG Hwang H’i . . 342* Hsi Hsi Hsi Hsi 343 Hsih Hsih H’ih . . Hsih 344 Hsia Hsia H’ia Hsia Hsia 345 Hsia Hsian . . . . . . 346 Hsiah . # H’iah » • Hsiah 347 Hsiai Hsiai H’iai . . Hsiai 348 Hsian Hsian H’ian , . . . 349 Hsiang Hsiang H’iang Hsiang Hsiang 350 Hsiao Hsiao H’iao Hsiao Hsiao 351 Hsie Hsie H’ie Hsieh , . 352 Hsieh H’ieh . . Hsieh 353 Hsien Hsien H’ien Hsien Hsien 354 Hsin Hsin H’in Hsin Hsin 355 Hsing Hsing H’ing Hsing Hsing 356 Hsioh Hsioh Hhoh . . Hsioh 357 Hsioa Hsioa H’io . . . . 358 Hsin Hsiu H’iu Hsiu Hsiu 359 Hsinh Hsiuh H’iuh Hsiuh * This hs sound is not properly used in Nanking, although sometimes heard as other northern sounds are heard, and sometimes used by those known as Nanking people. 360 361 362 363 364 365 366 367 368 369 370 371 372 373 374 375 376 377 378 379 380 381 382 383 384 385 386 387 388 389 390 391 392 393 394 395 396 397 398 399 400 401 402 35 N. M. Wm. W. 0. I. M. Hsiong . . H’i6ng Hsiong Hsioong Hsiung H’iung Hsiung . . Hsu Hsii H’ii Hsii Hsii Hsiian Hsiian H’iian Hsiian .. Hsiie Hsiie H’iie Hsiieh Hsiie Hsiieh m # H’iieh Hsiieh Hsiien H'iien Hsiien Hsiien Hsiiin Hsiiin H’iiin Hsiiin Hsiiin Hsiin Hsiin H’iin Hsiin , # Hsiioa Hsiioa H’iio . . i I I i” I IH Ih Ih Ih J Chi Ch’ Chih Chi JIH Chili Chih , Chih J a Cha Cha Cha Cha JA Chau Cha JAH Chanh Chah t 9 Chah JAI Chai Chai Chai Chai Jan Chan Chan Chan Chan JANG Chang Chang Chang Chang JAO Chao Chao Chao Chao Jah Chah . # m , Je Chei Che Chei Chei Jein Chein Chein # # Je Che Che # # Jeh Cheh Cheh .. Cheh Jen Chen Chen # m Chen Jeng . . Cheng • . Cheng Jeo Cheo # # Cheo Jeoh Cheoh # # JETJ Chou Chen Chou Ji Chi Chi Chi Jia Chia Chia Chia Jian Chian Chian Jiang Chiang Chiang Chiang Jiao Chiao Chiao Chiao Jie Chie Chie Chieh Jien Chien Chien Chien Jin Chin Chin Chin Jin g Ching Ching Ching Jioa Chioa Chio Jioong Chiung Chiung Chiung Jin Chiu Chiu Chiu C. /. M. 36 N. 403 Ji 404 Jo M. Chi Clio Wm. Chh W. 405 JOH Choh Ch6h Choh 406 Joa Choa Cho Cho 407 JONG Chong Ch6ng Chong 408 Joon Chun Chun Chun 409 Joong Chung Chung Chung m 410 JOU Che Cho Che Chae 411 JOUH . . m , , , 412 JU Chu Chu Chu Chu 413 JUH Chuh Chuh , # Chuh 414 Jui Chui Chui Chui Chui 415 Jun Chen Chan Chen # # 416 JUNG Cheng Chang Cheng 417 Jii Chii Chii Chu 418 Jiili Chiih Chiih 419 Juan Chiian Chiian Chuan . , 420 Jiie Chiie Chiie Chiieh # # 421 Jim Chiin Chiin Chiin m 422 Jiioa Chiioa Chiio m . 423 J wa Cliwa Chwa Chua Chua 424 JWA *| f Chuau 1 [ Chwau / Chwa •• 425 Jwai Chwai Chwai Chuai Chuai 426 Jwan -j fChuan 1 1 Chwan j Chwan Chuan Chuan 427 JWANG j f Chuang ) [ Chwang J - Chwang Chuang Chuang 428 Jwah Chwah . . . . • • 429 Jwe -j f Chuei ) [ Chwei J Chw6 • • 430 Jweh Chweh . . Chueh 431 Jwen Chwen Chwen Chuen 432 Jwoan 433 jwoi 434 Jwouh 435 jwun 436 jwung 437 Ka 438 Ka 439 Kah 440 kai Chwoan Chueh ( Chuen 1 ( Chwen J K’a K’an K’auh K’ai Chw6an Chwoi Chwan Chwang K’a K’a K’ali K’ai K’ai K’ai 441 442 443 444 445 446 447 448 449 450 451 452 453 454 455 456 457 458 459 460 461 462 463 464 465 466 467 468 469 470 471 472 473 474 475 476 477 478 479 480 481 482 483 37 N. M. Wm. W. C. I. M. Kan K’an K’an K’an K’an KANG K’ang K’ang K’ang K’ang KAO K’ao K’ao K’ao K’ao Kah K’ah . . # , Ke K’ei K’6 K’ei , , KEH K’eh KEIN K’ein KEING K’eing . . Keh K’eh K’eh Ken K’en K’en K’en Keng . . K’eng K’eng Keo K’eo . . K’eo KEU K’ou K’en K’on KI K’i K’i K’i KIH K’ih K’ih K’ih Kia K’ia K’ia K’ia KIA K’ian K’ia , , KIAH K’ianh Khali K’iah KIAI K’iai K’iai K’iai KIAN Khan K’ian . . KLANG K’iang K’iang K’iang KIAO K’iao K’iao K’iao Kie K’iei Khe # , Kieh K’ieih K’i6h Kiein K’iein K’iein m Kie K’ie K’ie m m Kieh K’ieh K’ieh Kien K’ien K’ien K’ien Kin K’in Khn K’in KING K’ing K’ing K’ing KIOH K’ioh K’ioh K’ioh Kioa K’ioa K’io . # KIONG K’iong K’iong K’iong Kioong K’inng K’inng m 9 KIU Khn Khn K’in Kiuh K’inh K’inh m 9 KO K’o K’o K’o KOH K’oh K’oh K’oh Koa K’oa K’o 0 9 KONG K’ong K’ong K’nn K’ong Koon K’nn Khin Koong K’nng K’nng K’nng # , Kou K’e K’o K’e . , 484 485 486 487 488 489 490 491 492 493 494 495 496 497 498 499 500 501 502 503 504 505 506 507 508 509 510 511 512 513 514 515 516 517 518 519 520 C. i. M. 38 N. M. Wm. W. KOUH K’eh . # , , KU K’u K’u K’u KUH K’uh K’uh . . KUN K’en K’an K’en KUNG K’eng K’u K’ang K’eng KU K’ii KUH K’uh K’uh Kuan K’uan K’iian KUE K’uei K’iie KUEH K’iieih K’ueh KUEIN K’iiein K’iiein KUEING . # K’ueing Kile K’iie K’iie Kiieh K’ueh Kiien K’iien K’iien KUIN K’iiin K’iiin KUING . , K’iiing K’iio Kiioa K’lioa Kwa KVa KVa K’ua Kwa f K’uau 1 [ K’wauJ KVa Kwai -j \ K’uai \ [ K’wai J K’wai K’uai Kwan -j f K’uan 1 [ K’wan j KVan K’uan Kwang j f K’uang 1 [ K’wang J KVang K’uang Kwah K’wah . , , , Kwe i C K’uei \ [K’wei J K’we K’uei Kweh K’weh Kwen K’wen K’wen Kwoa K’woa K’wo K’uo Kwoan K’woan K’woan • • KWOI # # K’woi • • KWOUH K’ueh # m • • Kwu K’wu K’wu • • KWUN j d a it MW KVan • • KWUNG . , K’wang • • La La La La LA Lau # # LAH Lauh Lah 4 i K’u K’uh K’ii K’iih Kue Kiieh K’iien K’iiin K’ua K’uai K’uan K’uang K’uei K’ueh K’uen La Lah 521 522 523 524 525 526 527 528 529 530 531 532 533 534 535 536 537 538 539 540 541 542 543 544 545 546 547 548 549 550 551 552 553 554 555 556 557 558 559 560 561 562 563 39 N. M. LAI Lai LAN Lan LANG Lang LAO Lao Lah Lah Le Lei LEH Leih LEIN Lein LEING • • Leh • • Leng • # Leo Leo Leoh Leoh LEU Lou LI Li LIH Lih Lia Lia LIAN Lian LIANG Liang LIAO Liao Lieh Lieih Lie Lie Lieh Lien Lien Lin Lin LING Ling LIOH Lioh Lioa Lioa Lioong Liung LIU Liu LO Lo LOH Loh Loa Loa Loan Loan LONG Long Loon Lun Loong Lung Lou Le LOUH Leh LU Lu LUH Luh LUI Lun Len Wm. W. Lai Lai Lan Lan Lang Lang Lao Lao Le* • • Lei Leh Lein • * Leing • • Leh • • Leng « • • • Leu Lou Li Li Lih # # Lia Lia Lian Liang Liang Liao Liao Lieh Lie Lieh Lieh • • Lien Lien Lin Lin Ling Ling Lioh Lio • ft Liung • ft Liu Liu Lo # L6h Lo Lo Loan L6ng Lun Lun Lung Lung Lo Le Lu Lu Luh Lui • • Lan C. I. M. Lai Lan Lang Lao Leh Leng Leo Li* Lih Liang Liao Lieh Lien Lin Ling Lioh Liu Lo Loli Long Lu Luh Lui • • 40 X. M . Wm. w. C. I. J/. 564 LUNG Leng Lang Leng 565 LU Lu Lii Lu Lii 566 LUH Luh Liih Luh 537 Man Liian Liian Luan 568 Me Liie Liie Lueh 569 Liin Liin Lun Liin 570 Moa Liioa Luo 571 LUUN . . Liian . . . . 572 LWAN fLuan 1 ( Lwan J Lwan Luan Luan 573 LWANG Lwang 574 Lwe fLuei \ \ Lwei J Lwe . . . . 575 Lwen Lwen Lwen , . Lnen 576 LWUN Lnen Lwan . . 577 LWUNG . . Lwang , . 578 Ma Ma Ma Ma Ma 579 MA Man 580 MAH Mauli Mah . . Mah 581 MAI Mai Mai Mai Mai 582 MAN Man Man Man Man 583 MANG Mang Mang Mang Mang 584 MAO Mao Mao Mao Mao 585 ME Mei Me Mei Mei 586 MEH Meih Meh 587 MEIN Mein Mein . . 588 MEING Meing . . 589 Meh Meh Meh 590 Men Men Men Men 591 Meng Meng Meng 592 Meo Meo Meo 593 MEU Mou Men Mon 594 MI Mi Mi Mi Mi* 595 MIH Mih Mih Mih 596 Mian Mian Mian # 597 MIAO Miao Miao Miao Miao 598 Mie Miei Mie m m m # 599 Mieh Mieih Mieh . . . . 600 Mie Mie Mie meh 601 Mieh Mieh Mieh 602 Mien Mien Mien Mien Mien 603 Min Min Min Min Min 604 ming Ming Ming Ming Ming * Practically the same Syllables as 562. 41 N. M. Wm. w. G. I. M. 605 MIU Miu Miu Miu Miu 606 MO Mo Mo Mo 607 MOH Moll Moh , # Moh 608 Moa Moa Mo Mo 609 Moan Moan Moan 610 Moong Mung Mung • # 611 Mou Me Mo 612 MOUH Meh , . 613 Moue Meei , # # , 614 MOUI . # m m 615 MU Mu Mu Mu Mu 616 MUH Muh Muh m # Muh 617 Mnn Men Man Men 618 MUNG Meng Mang Meng 619 Na Na Na Na Na 620 * NA Nan 621 NAH Nanh Nah . . Nah 622 NAI Nai Nai Nai Nai 623 NAN Nan Nan Nan Nan 624 NANG Nang Nang Nang Nang 625 NAO Nao Nao Nao Nao 626 Ne Nei Ne Nei 627 Neh Neih Neh 628 Nein Nein Nein # # 629 NEING , , Neing . m 630 Neng . # Neng Neng 631 Neo Neo . # Neo 632 Neu Nou Neu Nou 633 NI Ni Ni Ni Ni 634 NIH Nih Nih , , Nih 635 NIAN Nian Nian m m 636 NIANG Niang Niang Niang Niang 637 NIAO Niao Niao Niao Niao 638 Nieh Nieih Nieh 639 Nie Nie Nie Nieh 640 Nieh m # Nieh # , Nieh 641 Nien Nien Nien Nien Nien 642 Nin Nin Nin Nin Nin 643 Ning Ning Ning Ning Ning 644 Nioh Nioh Nioh , m Nioh 645 Nioa Nioa Nio m m * Properly in Nanking there is no initial n, but these few are marked used in n, because used by some foreigners and other strangers. 646 647 648 64 $ 650 651 652 653 654 655 656 657 658 659 660 661 662 663 664 665 666 667 668 669 670 671 672 673 674 675 676 677 678 679 680 681 682 683 684 685 686 687 42 i\ T . M. Wm. TV. c. i. m. Nioong Niung Niung Nil! Niu Niu Niu Niu NO No No No NOH Noh Noh 9 . Noa Noa No No 9 9 Noan Noan Noan 9 9 9 9 NONG Nong Nong . . Nong Noon Nun Nun Nun 9 m Noong Nung Nung Nung m NU Nu Nu Nu Nu Nui Nui Nui Nun Nen Nan Nen NUNG Neng Nang Neng . , NtJ Nil Nii Nu Nil Nile Nile Nue Nueh 9 9 Niioa Nuoa Niio 9 % 9 9 Nwan fNuan 1 \ Nwan J Nwan Nuan Nuan Nwe Nwei Nw6 • • . 9 Nwen • • Nwen Nuen Ngai Ngai Ngai # 9 # # Ngan Ngan Ngan 9 # 9 9 Ngang Ngang Ngang • . • . Ngao Ngao Ngao # 9 9 9 Ngah Ngah 9 9 9 9 Nge Ngei Ng<5 9 9 9 9 Ngen Ngen Ngen , m . , Ngeo Ngeo # 9 9 9 Ngo Ngo Ng6 9 # 9 9 Ngoh Ngoh Ngoh • • , , Ngun Ngen Ngen • . 0 0 6 0 O* OH Oh Oh 9 9 Oh Oa Oa 0 9 9 , , ONG Ong 9 n s • . Ong On E 0 E , , OUH Eh # , . 9 . . Pa P’a P’a P’a P’a PA P’au P’a . . . . Pah P’ah , 9 P’ah PAI P’ai P’ai P’ai P’ai PAN P’an P’an P’an P’an PANG P’ang P’ang P’ang P’ang 43 N. M. Wm. w. C. L M, 688 PAO P’ao P’ao P’ao P’ao 689 Pah P’ah # . . . . . 690 Pe P’ei P’e P’ei P’ei 691 PEH P’eih P’eh # # . . 692 PEIN P’ein P’ein . . 693 PE1NG . . P’eing # # . . 694 Peh . . P’eh P’eh 695 Pen P’en P’en , , P’en 696 Peng # # P’eng P’eng 697 Peo P’eo , . P’eo 698 PEU Pou P’eu P’ou . . 699 pi Pi P’i P’i P’i 700 PIH P’ih P’ih # # P’ih 701 Pian P’ian P’ian . . 702 PIAO P’iao P’iao P’iao P’iao 703 Pieh Pieih Pieh . . . . 704 Pie P’ie P’ie P’ieh . . 705 Pieh .. Pieh m m P’ieh 706 Pien P’ien P’ien P’ien P’ien 707 Pin P’in P’in P’in P’in 708 PING P’ing P’ing P’ing P’ing 709 PO P’o P’6 # # P’o 710 POH P’oh P’oh # m P’oh 711 Poa P’oa P’o P’o 9 9 712 Poan P’oan P’oan m 713 Poong P’ung P’ung • • 9 9 714 Pou P’e P’o 715 POUH P’eh 0 # • « 716 Pone P’eei . . 717 POUI , , . . • • . . 718 PU P’u P’u P’u P’u 719 PUH P’uh P’uh . , P’uh 720 Pun P’en P’an P’en • • 721 PUNG Peng P’ang P’eng • • 722 R Er ’Ph Er Pi 723 RH Pih # , # Pih 724 Pan Pan Pan Ran 725 RANG Rang Rang Pang 726 RAO Rao Pao • • Rao 727 Pah Rah 728 Re Pei Re* 729 Peh Peh Peh 730 Pen . . Pen Pen 44 N. M. Wm. w. C. I. M. 731 Reng . . Reng Reng 732 Reo Reo Reo 733 Reoh Reoh m m 734 REU 9 Ren • • • 735 ROH Roh Roh Roh 736 Roan Roan Roan 737 RONG Rong Rong Rong 738 ROU Ro Rae 739 ROUH Reh , , 740 Roue Reei # # 741 RU Ru Ru Ru 742 RUH Ruh Ruh Ruh 743 Rui . m Rni Rni 744 RUN Ren Ran 745 RUNG Reng Rang 746 Rii ' Rii Rii m # 747 Ruh Ruh Ruh 748 Rwan Ruan Rwan Ruan 749 RWANG . . Rwang m # 750 Rwe Ruei Rwe # m 751 Rwen Rwen Ruen 752 RWOI Rwoi 753 RWUN Ruen Rwan 754 RWUNG . . Rwang 755 s Si Sz’ Ssu or Sz u Si 756 Sa Sa Sa Sa Sa 757 SA San • • m # 758 SAH Sauh Sah . , Sah 759 SAI Sai Sai Sai Sai 760 SAN San San San San 761 SANG Sang Sang Sang Sang 762 SAO Sao Sao Sao Sao 763 Sah Sah m m , # 764 SE Sei Se # # 765 SEH Seih Seh • • # 9 766 SEIN Sein Sein . t m m 7 67 SEING _ Seing , , # . 768 Sell # , Seh # , Seh 769 Sen Sen Sen 770 Seag . # Seng # . Seng 771 Seo Seo # . • • Seo 772 Seoh Seoh . • , . 773 SEU Sou Seu Sou , • 45 N. M. Wm. W. C. I. M. 774 SI Si Si . . Si 775 SIH Sih Sih , , Sih 776 SIAN 9 9 Sian # # 777 SIAN a Siang Siang m Siang 778 SIAO Siao Siao m # Siao 779 Sie Siei Sie m 780 Sieh Sieih Sieh 781 Sie . # Sie # # Sie 782 Sieh % # Sieh m Sieh 783 Siea Sien Sien Sien 784 Sin Sin Sin 9 Sin 785 SING Sing Sing Sing 786 Sioh Sioh Sioh Sioh 787 SIU Siu Siu m 9 Siu 788 Siuh Siuh Siuh m # . 789 so So So 9 # So 790 SOH Soh Soh Soh 791 Soa Soa So So 9 792 Soan Soan Soan 793 SONG Song Song . , Song 794 Soon Sun Sun Sun 9 9 795 Soong Sung Sung Sung 9 # 796 Sou Se So . . . # 797 SOUH Seh . . 798 SU Su Su Su Su 799 SUH Suh Suh , # Suh 800 Suan Suan Suan # m 801 Sue Suei Su6 # . m # 802 Sui Sui Sui Sui Sui 803 Sun S6n San Sen 804 SUNG Seng Sang Seng 805 su Sii Sii . . Sii 806 SUH Siih Siih # # Siih 807 8UEH Siieih Sueh _ 808 SUEIN Siiein Siiein # # 809 SUEING . . Siieing m 9 810 Siieh . , Siieh # m Siieh 811 Siien Siien Siien 812 SUIN Siiin Suin Siiin 813 SUING , , Suin g , , 9 9 814 SUUN Siian 9 # 815 SUUNG 9 # Siiang # # 816 Swa Swa Swa ^ • 46 817 2T. Swai M. Swai Wm. Swai IF. C. /. M. 818 SWAN Swan Swan Snan Snan 819 SWANG Swang Swang • •- # 9 820 Swe Swei Sw6 • . 821 Swen Swen Swen • . Suen 822 SWOI . . Swoi • • • • 823 SWUN f Suen 1 \ Swen J Swan • . • • 824 SWUNG Swang .. .. 825 SII Shi Sh’ Shih Shi 826 SHIH Shih Shih .. Shih 827 Sha Sha Sha Sha Sha 828 SHA Shan Sha , # 829 SHAH Shah Shah , , Shah 830 SHAI Shai Shai Shai Shai 831 Shan Shan Shan Shan Shan 832 SHANG Shang Shang Shang Shang 833 SHAO Shao Shao Shao Shao 834 Shah Shah # , # . # 835 She Shei Sh6 m _ 836 Shei'n Shein Sh6in • •- m 9 837 She She She m m 838 Sheh Sheh Sheh • • Sheh 839 Shen Shen Shen • • Shen 840 Sheng . # Sheng Sheng 841 Sheo Sheo # # Sheo 842 Sheoh Sheoh , # _ _ 843 SHEU Shou Shea Shou 844 Shi Shi Shi # 845 Shfan Shian Shian ## 846 Shie Shie Shie • • • • 847 Shien Shien Shien , . 848 Shin Shin Sbin • • 849 Shing Shing Shing • #- 850 Shiu Shiu Shiu # 851 Shi Shi m -• • • 852 Sho Sho Sh6 # 853 SHOH Shoh Shoh • • Shoh 854 Shoa Shoa Sho m m 855 Shoon Shun Shun Shun 856 Shoong Shung Shung 857 SHOU She Sho She Shae 858 SHOUH . . . , # * 9 m 47 N. M. Wm. W. C. I. M. 859 SHU Shu Shu Shu Shu 860 SHUH Shuh Shuh Shuh 861 Shui Shui Shui Shui Shui 862 Shun Shen Shan Shen 863 SHUNG Sheng Shang Sheng 864 Shli Shii Shii 865 Shuh Shuh Shiih . . 866 Shue Shiie Slide # % 867 Shiiin Shiiin Shiiin • . 868 Shwa Shwa Shwa Shua Shua 869 SHWA Shwan Shwa # • 870 SHWAH Shwauh Shwah * # Shuah 871 SHWAI Shuai Shwai J Shwai Shuai Shuai 872 Shwan Shuan ) Shwan J Shwan Shuan Shuan 873 SHWANG Shuang 1 Shwang J Shwang Shuang Shuang 874 Shwah Shwah , # m • • 875 876 Shwe Shwen Shuei \ ShweiJ Shwd Shwen •• Shuen 877 Shwoa Shwoa Shwo Shuo 9 # 878 Shwoan Shwoan Shw6an m % 879 SHWOI # # Shwoi • t # 9 880 SHWUN Shuen \ Shwen J Shwan • • • • 881 SHWUNG . , Shwang 882* Sr Sri Sr’ • • . . 883 Sra Sra Sra 884 Srai Srai Srai • - 885 Sran Sran Sran .. . . 886 Srao Srao Srae # # • • 887 Sre Srei Sre # m # # 888 Sren Sren Sren # # • • 889 Sreo Sreo # m • • # # 890 Sru Sru Sru , # , , * These Syllables under Sr as an initial are put here separate from their natural position in the list under S as a distinct list under their anomalous vowel initial Sr. This is the same as Sh above, and for the same reasons, because the lists under them as a heading are quite complete, and because the initial of each heads their list making them anomalous vowels. These pecu- liarities are so marked in each as to make it best to give them in separate lists. The same is also true of the initials Ts, Tsh, Tsr, Zh, Zhr and Zr. 891 892 893 894 895 896 897 898 899 900 901 902 903 904 905 906 907 908 909 910 911 912 913 914 915 916 917 918 919 920 921 922 923 924 925 926 927 928 929 930 931 932 933 48 N. M. JVm. w. C. I. M. Srnng Sreng Srang • • # # Srwa Srwa Srwa # # m 9 Srwai Srwai Srwai , # m 9 Srwang Srwang Srwang « • , # Srwe Srwei Srwe m m # Srwoa Srwoa Srwo # # Ta T’a T’a T’a T’a TA T’an . # TAH T’auh T’ah , # T’ah TAI T’ai T’ai T’ai T’ai TAN T’an T’an T’an T’an TANG T’ang T’ang T’ang T’ang TAO T’ao T’ao T’ao T’ao Tah T’ah # 9 Te T’ei T’6 # - . . TEH T'eih T’eh . , TEIN T’ein T’ein TEING m T’6ing , # Teh , # T’eh # T’eh Teng m # T’eng , # T’eng Teo T’eo , # T’eo Teoh T’eoh , # TEU T’ou T’eu Ton , # TI T’i T’i T’i T’i TIH T’ih T’ih . . T’ih Tian T’ian T’ian 9 Tiang T’iang T’iang • • . • TIAO T’iao T’iao T’iao T’iao Tieh T’ieih T’ieh -• • Tie T’ie T’ie T’ieh Tieh . 9 T’ieh T’ieh Tien T’ien T’ien T’ien T’ien TING T’ing T’ing T’ing T’ing TO T’o T’o T’o TOH T’oh T’oh T’oh Toa T’oa T’o T’o # m Toan T’oan T’oan • • , . TONG T’ong T’ong # . T’ong Toon T’un T’un T’nn Toong Thing T’uug T’ung # # Tou T’e T’o T’e # 0 TOUH T’eh . . . m 9 TU T’u T’u T’u T’u 49 N. M. Wm. W. C. T. M. 934 Tuh T’nh T’nh T’llh 935 Tui T’ui T’ni T’ui T’ui 936 Tun T’en T’an • • 937 TUNG T’6ng T’ang T’eng 938 TWAN f T’nan 1 \ T’wan j T’wan T’tian T’uan 939 TWANG . . T’wang . * . . 940 Twe ( T’uei \ ^T’wei j T’w6 •• 941 Twen Twen T’wen • • T’uen 942 TWOI . . T’woi • • . . 943 TWUN T’uen T’wan • • . . 944 TWUNG T’wang # , . . 945 TS Ts’i Ts’z’ Ts’u Ts’i 946 Tsa Ts’a Ts’a Ts’a Ts’a 947 TSA Ts’an Ts’a # , 948 TSAH Ts’auh Ts’ah Ts’ah 949 TSAI Ts’ai Ts’ai Ts’ai Ts’ai 950 Tsan Ts’an Ts’an Ts’an Ts’an 951 TSANG Ts’ang Ts’ang Ts’ang Ts’ang 952 TSAO Ts’ao Ts’ao Ts’ao Ts’ao 953 Tsah Ts’ah # # . # 954 TSE Ts’ei Ts’6 # # , 955 TSEH Ts’eih Ts’6h # # 956 TSEIN Ts’ein Ts’ein 957 TSEING # # Ts’4ing 958 Tseh Ts’eh Ts’eh 959 Tsen , # Ts’en Ts’en 960 Tseng . . Ts’eng # # Ts’eng 961 Tseo Ts’eo , , # 9 Ts’eo 962 Tseoh Ts’eoh 963 TSEU Ts’ou Ts’eu Ts’ou 964 TSI Ts’i Ts’i Ts’i 965 TSIH Ts’ih Ts’ih Ts’ih 966 TSIAN Ts’ian 967 TSIANG Ts’iang Ts’iang Ts’iang 968 TSIAO Ts’iao Ts’iao Ts’iao 969 Tsie Ts’iei Ts’ie 970 Tsieh Ts’ieih Ts’ieh 0 971 Tsie Ts’ie Ts’ie 972 Tsieh. Ts’ieh . . Ts’ieh 973 Tsien Ts’ien Ts’ien .. Ts’ien 974 Tsin Ts’in Ts’in • * Ts’in 50 N. M. }Vm. W. C, I. M. 975 TSING Ts’ing Ts’iu g m 9 Ts’ing 976 Tsioh Ts’ioh Ts’ioh , # Ts’ioh 977 TSIU Ts’iu Ts’iu 9 9 Ts’iu 978 TSO Ts’o Ts’o # # Ts’o 979 TSOH Ts’oh Ts’oh . . Ts’oh 980 Tsoa Ts’oa Ts’o Ts’o 9 9 981 Tsoan Ts’oan Ts’oan _ # 9 m 982 TSONG Ts’ong Ts’ong , , Ts’ong 983 Tsoon Ts’un Ts’un Ts’un 984 Tsoong Ts’ung Ts’nng Ts’ung ... 985 Tsou Ts’e Ts’o Ts’e 9 9 986 TSOUH Ts’eh 9 9 987 TSU Ts’u Ts’u Ts’u Ts’u 988 TSUH Ts’uh Ts’uh Ts’uh 989 Tsai Ts’ui Ts’ui Ts’ui Ts’ui 990 Tsun Ts’eu Ts’an Ts’en , 9 991 TSUNG Ts’eng Ts’ang Ts’eng 9 # 992 TSU Ts u Ts’u , , Ts’ii 993 TSUEIN Ts’iiein Ts’iiSin • . . . 994 TSUEING m 9 Ts hieing 9 # . . 995 Tsiien Ts’iien . • Ts’uen 996 TSWAN -| f Ts’uan [ r IV wan i Ts’wan Ts’uan Ts’uan 997 TSWANG Ts’wang Ts’wang # # 998 Tswai Ts’wai Ts’wai , # 999 Tswe ^ r Ts’uei 1 i Ts’wei j Ts’w6 • • 1000 Tswea Ts’wen Ts’wen 1001 TSWOI , # Ts’woi 1002 TSWUN -j \ Ts’uen ' Ts’wen j* Ts’wan • * 1003 TSWUNG Ts’wang # v 1004 Tshi Tsh’i Tsh’i • • 1005 Tshian Tsh’ian Tsh’ian # . • • 1006 Tshiang Tsh’iang Tsh’iang • • 1007 Tshiao Tsb’iao Tsh’iao # _ 1008 Tshie Tsh’ie Tsh’ie m 1009 Tshin Tsh’in Tsh’in m 1010 Tsliiug Tsh’ing Tsh’iu g 9 # 1011 Tshioong Tsh’iung Tsh’iung # # 1012 Tshiu Tsh’iu Tsh’iu , . 1013 Tshii Tsh’ii Tsh’ii • • 1014 Tsliiiaa Tsh’uan Tsh’uan • « • • 51 1015 .V. Tslitioa M. TslTiioa Wm. Tsh’iio If. C. I. M . 1016 Tsr Tsr’i Ts’r’ 1017 Tsra Tsr’a Tsr’a 1018 Tsrai Tsr’ai Tsrai 1019 Tsr an Tsr’an Tsr’an 1020 Tsrao Tsr’ao Tsr’ao 1021 Tsre Tsr’ei Tsr’6 1022 Tsren Tsr’en Tsr’en 1023 Tsroa Tsr’oa Tsr’o 1024 Tsroong Tsr’ ung Tsr’ ung 1025 Tsru Tsr’u Tsr’u 1026 Tsrun Tsr’en Tsr’an 1027 Tsrung Tsr’eng Ts’rwai Tsr’ang Tsr’ wai 1028 Tsrwai 1029 Tsrwang Ts’rwang Tsr’wang 1030 Tsrwe Ts’rwei Tsr’w5 1031 u U U U* 1032 UH Uh Eh Uh 1033 Un En An tin . . 1034 UNG Eng Ang Eng . . 1035 Wa Wa Wa Wa Ua 1036 WA Wau Wa # # m # 1037 WAH Wauh Wah Uah 1038 WAI Wai Wai Wai Uai 1039 Wan Wan Wan Wan Uan 1040 WANG Wang Wang Wang Uang 1041 We Wei We Wei Uei 1042 Wen Wen Wen Wen Uen 1043 Wo Wo W6 1044 Woli Woh Woh # 9 1045 Woa Woa Wo Wo . . 1046 Woan Woan Woan , # 1047 WOI Woi # # 1048 Woong Wung Wung , # 1049 Wone Weei # # 1050 Wu Wn Wu Wu 1051 Wuh Wuh Wuh 1052 WUN Wen Wan Wen 1053 WUNG Weng Wang Weng 9 1054 Ya Ya Ya Ya la 1055 YA Yau Ya 1056 YAH Yauh Yah lah 1057 YAI Yai Yai Yai Iai 52 N. M. Wm. IF. C. I. M. 1058 YANG Yang Yang Yang Iang 1059 YAO Yao Yao Yao Iao 1060 YE Yei Ye 1061 YEH Yeik Yell m 1062 YEIN Yein Yein m 9 1063 YEING 9 9 Yeing . , 1064 Ye m 9 Ye Yek Ie 1065 Yek 9 9 Yek , , Iek 1066 Yen Yen Yen Yen Ien 1067 Yeo Yeo m m # 9 1068 Yeok Yeok # # 1069 Yian Yian Yian , , 1070 Yie Yie Yie • • 1071 Yien Yien Yien • • 1072 Yin Yin Yin Yin In 1073 YING Yiug Ying Ying Ing 1074 Yin Yin Yiu 9 9 Iu 1075 Yo Yo Yo 9 1076 YOH Yok Y6k 9 _ Iok 1077 Yoa Yoa Yo Yo 1078 YONG Yong Y6ng , , long 1079 Yoong Yung Yung Yung 1080 YU Yu Yu Yu Iu 1081 YUH Yuk 9 _ lull 1082 Yuek Yuek Yuek . . 1083* YU Yii Yii Yii ii 1084 Yiik Yiik 9 , Uk 1085 Yuan Yiian Yiian Yuan m 1086 YUEH 9 9 Yiiek 9 m 1087 YUEIN Yiiein Yiiein 1088 YUEING . . Yiieing . , 1089 Yiie Yiie Yiie Yiiek 1090 Yuek Yiiek 9 9 tfek 1091 Yuen Yiien Yiien Uen 1092 Yuin Yiiin Yiiin , , Uin 1093 YUING # # Yiiing 9 9 9 9 1094 Yiin Yiin Yiin Yiin 9 9 * The y in all these before ii is more properly perhaps, in some cases certainly, silent, as indicated by C. I. M. spelling, but as y, as the lists show, is generally used and is in no danger of confusion, and so no necessity of indicating when it is silent, and when its proper sound combines with the ii it has been considered best to use y as the initial before ii in the N. system, as by Dr. M and the others. Yii is the better spelling, as yu is of its correspond- ing sound. 53 1095 N. Yiioa M. Yiioa 1096 z Tsi 1097 Za Tsa 1098 ZA Tsaa 1099 ZAH Tsauh 1100 ZAI Tsai 1101 Zan Tsan 1102 ZANG Tsang 1103 ZAO Tsao 1104 Zah Tsah 1105 ZE Tsei 1106 ZEH Tseih 1107 ZEIN Tsein 1108 ZEING # , 1109 Zeli 1110 Zen Tsen 1111 Zeng 1112 Zeo Tseo 1113 Zeoli Tseoh 1114 ZEU Tsou 1115 ZI Tsi 1116 Z1H Tsih 1117 ZIAN 1118 ZIANG Tsiang 1119 ZIAO Tsiao 1120 Zie Tsiei 1121 Zieh Tsieih 1122 Zie 1123 Zieh 1124 Zien Tsien 1125 Zin Tsia 1126 ZING Tsing 1127 Zioh Tsioh 1128 ZIU Tsiu 1129 zo Tso 1130 ZOH Tsoh 1131 Zoa Tsoa 1132 Zoan Tsoan 1133 ZONG Tsong 1134 Zoa Tse 1135 ZOUH Tseh 1136 Zoon Tsan 1137 Zooug Tsung Wm. W. C I. M. Ylio • • Tsz’ Tsu Tsi Tsa Tsa Tsa Tsa # , Tsah , , Tsah Tsai Tsai Tsai Tsan Tsan Tsan Tsang Tsang Tsang Tsao Tsao Tsao Te4 Tsei * • Ts6h . . . # Ts6in . . m m Tseing . . Tseh . . Tseh Tsen . • Tsen Tseug . . 'I’seng •• •• Tseo Tsen Tsou * * Tsi # # Tsi’ Tsih # , Tsih Tsian Tsiang . « Tsiang Tsiao Tsiao Tsie 9 # 9 m Tsieh , , Tsie • * Tsie Tsieh , , Tsieh Tsien _ - Tsien Tsin , , Tsin Tsing # Tsing Tsioh , # Tsioh Tsia # # Tsiu Tso Tso Tsoh Tsoh Tso Tso Tsoan ... # , Tsong # m Tsong Tso Tse •• Tsan Tsan Tsang Tsang . . 1138 1139 1140 1141 1142 1143 1144 1145 1146 1147 1148 1149 1150 1151 1152 1153 1154 1 155 1156 1157 1158 1159 1160 1161 1162 1163 1164 1165 1166 1167 1168 1169 1170 1171 1172 1173 1174 1175 1176 1177 54 N. M. Wm. w. a i. m. zu Tsu Tsu Tsu Tsu ZUH Tsuh Tsuh , . Tsuh Zui Tsui Tsui Tsui Tsui ZUN Tsen Tsan Tsen # 9 ZUNG Tseng Tsang Tseng . # ZU Tsii Tsii # 9 Tsu ZUE Tsiiei Tsii6 # # ZUEH # # Tsii^h # # , , Ziieh Tsiieh # # Tsiieh ZUIN Tsiiin Tsuin # , Tsiiiu ZUING Tsiiing m 9 # # Zwa Tswa Tswa , . Zwai Tswai Tswai # # ZWAN (Tsuan \ ( Tswan J Tswan Tsuan Tsuan ZWANG Tswang Tswang . . • • Zwe \ Tsw6 l Iswei j Zweh Tsweih Tsweh m m , , Zwen Tswen Tswen Tsuen ZWOI . . Tswoi ZWUN (Tsuen ) ( Tswen J Tswan ZWUNG . . Tswang . . • • Zh Ji Zh Jih # # Zhan Jan Zhan Jan # # Zhang Jaug Zhang Jang , # Zhao Jao Zhao Jao 9 # Zheu Jou Zheu Jou Zhoon Jun Zhun Jun Zhoong Jung Zhung Jung .. Zhou Je Zho Je Zhoa Joa Zho Jo • • Zhu Ju Zhu Ju Zhui Jui Zhui Jui Zhun Jen Zhan Jen • • Zlmng Jeng Zhang JSug Zhwan Jwan Zhwan Juan Zhi Tshi Tshi • • Zhian Tshian Tshian • • Zhiang Tshiang Tshiang Zhiao Tshiao Tshiao Zhie Tshie Tshie # # 55 1178 N. Zhin M. Tsliin Wm. Tshin 1179 Zliing Tshing Tshing 1180 Zhioong Tshiung Tshiung 1181 Zhiu Tshiu Tshiu 1182 Zhii Tshti Tshii 1183 Zhiiin Tshiiin Tshiiin 1184 Zlitioa Tshiioa Tshiio 1185 Zhran Jran Zhran 1186 Zb rang Jrang Zhrang 1187 Zhrao Jrao Zhrao 1188 Zhreo Jreo 1189 Zhrie Jrie Zhrie 1190 Zhrin Jrin Zhrin 1191 Zhroong Jrnng Zhrung 1192 Zhru Jru Zhru 1193 Zhrwan Jr wan Zhrwan 1194 Zra Tsra Tsra 1195 Zrai Tsrai Tsrai 1196 Zran Tsran Tsran 1197 Zrao Tsrao Tsrao 1198 Zren Tsren Tsren 1199 Zroong Tsrung Tsrung 1200 Zrn Tsru Tsru 1201 Zrun Tsren Tsran 1202 Zrnng Tsreng Tsrang 1203 Zrw Tsrwi Tsrw’ ^ 1204 Zrwa Tsrwai Tsrwai 1205 Zrwang Tsrwang Tsrwang 1206 Tsrwei Tsrwei 1207 Zrwoa Tsrwoa Tsrwo The above lists are comprehensive and reliable. They have been carefully prepared from all the tabulated and reliable quarters now at hand. There is good reason to believe they contain the large and main portion of all the syllables that are to be found in all mandarin-speaking districts that are of a pure and important mandarin character. As far as spelling is concerned, or a sys- tem of spelling desirable, it can be quite confidently affirmed that the syllables, as found in the above list, contain quite all the separate and important sounds with which we will have to do, however much the number of the syllables may be increased, 56 and this is no doubt true, because in the list here given are found all the main sounds that are to be found in the English tongue, which indicates that the natural and important sounds of the human voice are to be found in this list. The sounds of the vowels are especially complete, and the consonants are nearly so. This list shows that in the mandarin the vowel and con- sonant souuds correspond quite entirely with those found in English, and this, notwithstanding the English tongue, has appropriated the sounds and syllables of all the best tongues, ancient and modern, kuown to the human race. We can con- fidently suppose then that the mandarin districts still to be canvassed and tabulated will not, to any great extent, add to the number of the pure sounds of the human voice as found in the mandarin gathered up into the above lists. Committee on Romanization. The appointment by the last Conference of a Romanization Committee seems to be opportune. And while before, in the mandarin districts especially, facts were not sufficiently gather- ed to make a working basis, or decide on anything definite, either as to the character of the sounds, the number of them, or a proper spelling of the whole, yet now it would seem that delay is unnecessary, as we have practically gathered up all the facts necessary to make a beginning, and they are now presented in this tabulated form for convenience of consideration. The appointment of a committee and thus securing united action is also in its favor, and it is hoped that this committee, by wise action, will be able to secure as far as possible a consensus of opinion of all those in different parts of the mandarin district, and be able to settle on a general and practical system^of spell- ing and course of action that will be generally approved, and will eveutually secure united action in this important depart ment of evangelistic effort in and with the spoken tongue in all this large and influential mandarin district in China. This 57 united action is the more necessary and desirable, since now the Conference Committees on Bible Revision are well started in their work, and it is hoped that especially the mandarin division will give us a union version of easy, graceful and noble colloquial that can be romanized by the general system in any locality and be well understood among all the people. Notwithstanding the important place that the spoken tongue and its Romanization should have in all our work, yet the most important task before this Romanization Committee is to prepare for and bring the result of their efforts in unison with the work of the revision of the Mandarin Bible. When this version is finished in its final and accepted form it will then be ready for its Romanization and use as far as needed in that form. In order to this it is extremely desirable that a general and practicable Romanization be adopted and generally agreed on, so that those in the large and influential mandarin centres, whose special phase of mandarin is peculiar, and at the same time important, as being a pure dialect of the general mandarin, and also covering a large district, may romanize the one version, so as to be used throughout that large district. One Romanized Bible. This is practicable, for these districts, however many they may be, and are only so many, because of the vast extent of country and the untold millions that use the mandarin. It is believed that practically there will not be such variation through- out the mandarin district as to require many, or indeed any entire separate Romanization of our revised mandarin version, in order to be used in all the mandarin district. One Romanization of the version would be all that is necessary if it were not that the same character and word is so variously pronounced in different parts. While the pronunciation of the same character differs greatly, the same sound iu different places is not so greatly 58 | * ■ n \ different, and so the spelling of it need not always be changed. This difficulty, from whatever cause, in romanizing a version can be overcome much as it is done in the character. For example the Shanghai and Soochow versions are not entirely new ver- sions. But the Soochow is different from the Shanghai by the changes only, which are necessary to suit the necessities in Soochow. This, it is thought, can also be done in Romanization of the version, not a new one will be necessary for Peking or Nanking but the one will only differ from the other in such places where it is required to suit the necessities of the place. This, it must be remembered, is not a new Romanization of each place but only in the necessary changes, which will be fewer no doubt than most anyone would suppose, which can be judged from the fact that any one from any of these great centres can preach acceptably in any of the others before he changes his dialect. This plan is made the more practicable from the fact that one spelling of the same sound can be used in a large district. The C. I. M. for example have thought it practicable to make a system on the basis that one and the same spelling will do for words and whole sets of words pro- nounced entirely different in different places, and to a certain extent this is practicable. And while it is not the best and cannot be carried out everywhere over the mandarin district yet it has no doubt proved practicable in a large degree. This at least shows that for small and unimportant districts it will not be necessary to make special Romanizations for all, but that of any large centre as Peking or Nanking will cover a large district. Experience in Nanking shows it can be widely used. The Nan- king books in Romanization can be used by all those here from Hupeh, Ningpo, or across the river, and old women from these distant places can learn our Nanking Romanization quickly and easily. Then again the practicability of the Romanization and the extent over which a version can be used is shown from the experience already in its use. We have found in this place that 59 those acquainted with the Ningpo Romanization can take up out? Nanking books and read and teach in them without using any perceptible time or making any great effort. This facility with which the natives taught any Romanization, even of the dialects, can change to that of another entirely different, makes it very plain that a Romanization of the mandarin, as herein suggested, not of a new version entire or a new spelling but in one uniform system of spelling, in which necessary changes to suit great districts had been made, would not prevent any one in any district, who had been taught to read the Romanization from going to any of the others, however distant, and immediately use the romanized version of the new place. And I am free to assert that not only would it be easy for one to pass from one mandarin district to another and easily use the mandarin version of another district, but the use of the Romanization in any dialect as Ningpo or Canton will enable any native to be at home in his romanized version of the Bible in a distant province in a very short time. These considerations relieve largely the practical difficulties in the way of using the romanized version of the Bible and other books. It is to this problem a uniform romanized version of the revised mandarin Bible for all the mandarin districts of China that it is hoped the Conference Committee will address itself and call to its aid all the brethren now scattered over all the mandarin district. To this most desirable end what is necessary to be undertaken and accom- plished ? System of Spelling, The first thing necessary is to decide on a system of spelling. The confusion in this matter only makes it the more necessary as far as our work with the natives go and the task proposed of one union romanized version of our revised mandarin Bible. It is true any Romanization will do if agreed upon ; the worst of the five above adopted would do very well for practical purposes 60 if only agreed on. So then practically it does not matter what is settled on, so that something is settled on. While this is so, yet no one can agree to allow such an important work as the Roman- ization of our Bible to be dismissed in so summary a way. This should receive the first and best thought of the committee. And all interested in the Bible and its future in Chiua should be willing to help in every way and not in the least obstruct the selection and settling of that system of spelling which shall best further the producing of that romauized version of manda- rin in China, which will be best to meet the difficulties to be overcome, and which will best secure to the millions of the mandarin-speaking people a simple Romanizatiou of the Bible in their own and best form of their spoken tongue. This glo- rious consummation is not so utopian as many would think, or as any might suppose, who have not given the matter considerable thought based on the careful consideration of all the facts in the case. All the 1,200 mandarin syllables are given here in a list with five different spellings; besides these systems everyone professes to have his own spelling, but when examined all private spellings do not differ greatly from one or other of the five systems above given, and in reality these five spellings do not differ greatly among themselves. It will be no difficult task for the committee, properly helped and supported by their brethren in all the mandarin districts, to harmonize the systems of spelling in the above tables. With this printed list before them the points needing consideration can be easily seen, and the consideration and settlement of each and all should take no wearisome length of time if the help and sympathy of brethren in every place be heartily extended, as we have no doubt it will. The differences in the systems given relate to only a few points, and the nature and sum of them can be easily seen from the following comparative differences of the five spellings given in a complete table of 61 Different Spellings. First . — The Vowels . 1. A, Dr. M., unlike the others, uses au for a as in fall. 2. E, as in prey and grey. Win. uses e, N. e, the others ei. 3. Eo, by C. I. M. and N.=Dr. M.’s eo. 4. Eu, by Wm. and N.=ou of W. and M. 5. 0, as in go, by M., C. I. M. and N., but 6 by Win. 6. Oa, by N.=oa by M.=o by Wm. and W. 7. Oo, as in good, by N.=the u before n and ng of the others. 8. Ou, as in touch, when a final, by N.=e by M. and W.=o by Wm. and ae by C. I. M. 9. U, medial as in suu, is a by Wm. ; u and ou by N. and e by W. and M. The variation of this sound, the e before r, as in her or perch, is e by W. and M., but u and ou is used by N., the same as for the sound of short u. 10. W and y for u and i by all, except C. I. M. Second. — Anomalous Vowels. 11. For these Wm. and N. use the consonants alone; W. u, and C. I. M. and M. i added to the consonants. Third. — Consonants. 12. Aspirates and unaspirates are distinguished by diacritical marks only by all, except N., which uses in their stead the letters p, t, k, ch and ts for the so-called aspirates, and j, g, b, d and z for the corresponding unaspirates. 13. J, as z in brazier or azure, by W. and M., and zh by Wm. and N. 14. H, when final, is the fifth tone of the south by all but W. 15. Hs is used by all but Wm. These are all the differences in the several systems needing consideration. They are very few and not difficult to har- monize. In the attempt it should be remembered that the object is for its use among the natives and by them, and not for foreigners. None of the above systems but N. were made exclusively for the natives. The others have answered their 62 purpose well, and now serve to assist in the selecting and adopting that system which most naturally and consistently spells all the syllables for this native use alone. This is differ- ent from a scientifically accurate system like Dr. M’s. for the accurate and schooled ear of the foreigner. For example the N. system being for use among the natives is less accurate, but is freer from diacritical marks, and while sufficiently exact is more practicable for use among the natives, but perhaps not so good for the foreign student of the language. With this kept in view a harmony of the above points will not be difficult, and I will give what seems to be best for the native use : — Harmony. 1. It would not seem necessary to introduce au for a in fall in any district, yet if found absolutely necessary in any locali- ty it might be used as in the dialects. In Nanking it is not necessary or best. 2. It would be best to introduce the continental use of e as in grey and prey. 3 and 4. Eo and eu. Either of these would probably represent this sound in its various phases, which are given above as being three, but represented only in these two ways. It has a distinct o sound in the north, and perhaps eo might be best for general use, but if in any locality two spellings are necessary, which is not at all likely, both could be used. 5. 0 as in go. 6. Oa, and not oa. 7. Oo, and not u. Oo has no other use ; well represents the sound and produces no confusion, and also will then leave the letter u free for its natural, varied and important uses. 8. Ou as in touch as a final in N.=e of M. and W.=o of Wm. and=ae of C. I. M. There is therefore considerable con- fusion in this sound, because a final, and it is also so modified by tone and euphonic emphasis and so variously 63 pronounced in different places, and besides is a sound while" not in some varieties unknown to us, this use is entirely ! peculiar to the Chinese, hence the differences in the lists above given, and the difficulty of determining exactly ' what it is. Dr, M. remarks, Intro., p. x. ii. : ‘ There is a difference of opinion in Nanking as to whether it is e as in met, or her and perch/ and says he himself hears it e in * met. The truth is it is neither. The real and older sound is that of short u as ou in touch, as if doubled or held on to in its pronunciation and variously modified by the em- phasis of tone and euphony in the various connections in which it is used. It is also true that now it may be heard in all three sounds : e in met and her and ou in touch, by strangers in the city and careless speakers from the city or the north and other places. As this difficulty exists in the * nbrth and south it will give no great trouble if each district use that spelling which most nearly represents it after carefully determining what the sound really is. If e in met, use e alone, or if necessary e. If the sound is a very emphatic e as in her or perch, so as to need distinction from u in urge or sun, let it be written as by W. or M. thus e. But if it be short u as in sun or ou in touch, however inodified by tone or position, or if even it be the sound of e before r as in her or perch, then write it with u or ou as in the N. system above. These e before r sounds and varia- tions of short u should not be spelt differently for native use, as they are kindred and essentially the same, and more- over the short u represents them sufficiently near in all their variations (see Intro, above) for practical use among the natives. 9. U, medial as in sun, is by Wm. a, by M. and W. e, and by N. u and ou. This as just explained is best represented by its proper letter u and ou as seen in N. system above and not by e. 64 10. Refers to the use of w and y, as vowels in place of u and which is generally admitted to be best, yet in application there are some few exceptions in the lists above, but these do not alter the rule as generally accepted. 11. The matter of these anomalous vowels is discussed in Intro, above, and it needs only to be said here : The con- sonants alone fully represent the sound, and to add u or i with silent value is useless, hut if anything is added i would seem the better, hut the consonants alone answer all the purpose necessary and in many ways for the natives is best as in Wm. and N. above. 12. On the aspirates and unaspirates see remarks of Dr. M. and those in Intro, above. It would seem probably best for the purpose of this proposed system for use exclusively among the natives, to use the letters given in place of the aspirate marks, but in any locality where the three sounds occur, for example the b, p and p* as in the dialects, why in that locality use the three, but where only the two, either b and p, or p and p J , or b and p’ are found, then use the b and p, etc., and not the aspirate mark p\ etc. This would seem by a great deal the best for the natives, who of course have no choice in the matter and do not appreciate these differ- ences, and we should yield our own preferences of scientific accuracy and give them what is practically the best. The aspiration, also, it may be remarked, is not a developed sound, and its absence in English shows it does not belong to a developed tongue, and if by introducing the letters in place of the marks will assist them to drop these sounds it will be of great advantage to their tongue in speaking, and no doubt when developed these sounds will largely, if not entirely, drop out, and the letters will then have their proper value. 13. This if the aspiration marks be not used, must be changed from j to zh, which latter accurately enough represents it and is less liable to be misunderstood. 65 14. This final h as representing the fifth tone had better be re- tained for use in those districts where this tone is so em- phatic and plays so important a part in the spoken tongue. This can be easily adopted ; if W.’s use of final h or ih be dropped out it will then cause no confusion to use it where needed as in Nanking. I will now try to give according to the harmony of the five systems given in the above lists the systems and principles governing a Romanization, which I think will, in the most part, be acceptable to all those interested and, with, probably but few alterations, it is hoped, will be agreed to by all in the mandarin district. A General System of Romanization. Vowels • 1. A. For all sounds of a, except those otherwise mentioned in this below. The au for a as in fall and a as in ask and last, if very necessary to distinguish it in the Romanization of any locality. 2. E . Its leading sound as in its continental use as e in prey and obey. 3. E. When a medial or marked (e) and always before n as e in met. The letter e should be uniformly used for these sounds and not for the sounds of u and variations of it, especi- ally not for the short sound of u as in sun. 4. E. This sound of e as in her or perch, that is, the sound of e before r, if in any locality is so emphatic as to make it desirable to have it distinguished in the Romanization it can be thus used as by "W. and M. But, as is most likely, in any case the letter u as u in urge or sun or touch can be used as well and without confusion then the marked e had best be dropped. See explanations above and how it is practically the short sound of u and had best be represented by the letter u and not burden the Romanization with the marked e. 66 5 1. The leading sound as in machine, and second as in chin and pin, and if necessary in any instance to distinguish it marked thus i. 6. 0. This as in go. 7. U. When alone or as a final is as u in rule for the leading sound. 8. U. When as a final is prolonged and emphasized and modified by tone, etc., then it is practically the short sound of u as in sun, or ou in touch, and is well represented by the diagraph ou. I cannot think of a better mode of representing it. All represent it different: Wm. by 6, W. and M. by e and C. I. M. by ae. Dr. M.’s and W.’s is to represent the e as in her or perch. If in any locality this sound is emphatic it might be thus represented, and Dr. M. gives it as e in met, and if this is the distinct pronunciation then the e should be used, but unless the sound of e in her is emphatic it will be best to nse the short sound of u and the diagraph ou as in touch is oufficiently accurate for practical purposes among the natives. 9. U. When a medial as u in sun or touch by the letter u, and when needed to distinguish by ou as in touch. 10. W and Y. As vowels for u and i. Diagraphs and Diphthongs. 1. Ai. The long sound of i as in ice. This has generally been used for this vowel. 2. Ao. As ou in loud and proud this is also generally used. 3. Ei. It is best not to use these as a diagraph for the con- tinental e for long a, but to reserve these letters when they come together for separate use in their leading sounds, e for long a as in prey and i as in machine. This remark is made neces- sary on ei, because of its use in some of the systems for the long sound of a. 4. Eo and Eu . See explanation of these above ; although there are three distinct shades of this sound yet these two 67 spellings of it will be sufficient ; indeed one of them would do very well to represent the three sounds to the natives, especial- ly as never more than one is found in a locality. But perhaps where there is an o in it the eo would be best, and where it is more of a guttural and but slight if any o sound, and especially when more of u sound then eu would be best. These two diagraphs ought to be sufficient to represent the variations of this peculiar sound in any locality. 5. Oo. This for the sound of oo in good. This will libe- rate the letter u for its very important regular and leading uses. 6. Ou. Always for the short sound of u and its variations when necessary to distinguish it. 7. Yu. For the sound of the regular long u as in unite and you. It is a compound sound as in English. 8. Yil. For the peculiar sound of ii. It is the corresponding sound of the last yu, and is like it given with initial y and for the same reasons. This is used generally iffithe above systems. Vowels and Consonants and their Compounds used as Words . The Vowel Words. A, ah, ai, ao, e, e, eh, eo, eu, i, ih, o, oh, oa, ou, ouh, u, uh, yu, yuh, yii, yuh. These twenty-two vowel sounds are used as words in the list of syllables given above. The Consonant Words or Anomalous Vowels. Ch, j, r, rh, s, sh, ts, z, tsr, sr, zrw. These are all used as words and constitute the anomalous vowels which some would indicate by the l after the consonants to represent the peculiar sound of each as a vowel or word. But this in a system for the Chinese would be unnecessary and confusing. The natural and simple sounds of these consonants is sufficiently represented by the consonants themselves for practical use among the natives. 68 r : The Initials. B, ch, d, f, g, h, hs, j, k, 1, m, n, p, r, s, sh, t, ts, w, y, z, zh. Tki8 gives the letters for the aspirated sounds. But if in any locality the three sounds as b, p and p 5 are emphatic and require to be represented as in the dialects then the aspirate marks had best be used, but if in any given district only two are known, as is mostly the case, and especially when the pronunciation is emphatic, being nearly the English b and p, d and t, etc., then the initial letter and not aspirate marks is best. The aspirated letters then are : — Ch*, k\ p, t 5 and ts\ On these, however, Dr. M. in Intro., p. xix., remarks : “ Seeing that neither j, g, b, d and ds, nor ch, k, p, t and ts perfectly represent the true sounds it is a question whether in mandarin it would not be better to write the unaspirated sounds with the former letters and simplify the system of spelling by abolishing that awkward it is as easy to vary from j, g, b, d and ds as it is to vary from ch, k, p, t and ts.” There are still a few initials given in the above list, which are of a colloquial nature and of a limited local use, which are here given : — Ng, sr, tsh, tsr, zhr, zr and zrw. These initials are thus given by Dr. M.: Ng, sr, tsh’, tsr’, jr, tsr and tsrw. The Finals . A, ah, ai, an, ang, ao, ah, e, eh, ein, eing, e, eh, en, eng, eo, eoh, eu, h, i, ih, !, ia, iah, iai, ian, iang, iao, ie, ieh, iein, ieing, ie, ieh, ien, in, ing, ioh, ioa, iong, ioong, iu, iuh, o, oh, oa, oan, oi, ong, oon, oong, ou, ouh, oue, oui, u, uh, uan, ue, ueh, ui, un, ung, ii, uh, uan, iie, ueh, iiein, tieing, iie, iieh, iien, iiin, iiing, un, tioa, tiun, iiung, wa, wah, wai, wan, wang, wah, we, weh, weh, wen, woa, woan, woi, wouh, wu, wun, wung. 69 This list of finals does not give the sound of e as in her or perch, marked by W. and M. thus E. If in any locality this sound is so different from u in urge or sun and touch as to require its separate spellings then in that locality the spelling 6 would run through all those sounds spelt by u in this list of finals. However, unless very emphatic, e had best not be used, and if used to any extent then in those syllables which have short u use the letter u or ou, and not 6. In this list of finals also w is given for u, but in any locality where the u is so emphatic as to need to be distinguished the u may be used. Dr. M. thinks the w, uniformly used, would be best,’;and unless in very special cases should be, and y of course should be always used as an initial and not i. These then give the principles of a complete and practic- able system of spelling for the natives to be used in the Romanization of our Revised Mandarin Bible and all mandarin books that are needed to teach the natives, especially those of them who are shut up by many barriers from using the char- acter, even in those of our best and simplest mandarin books. These changes suggested give us the principles of a system the freest possible from diacritical marks, simple, that is, the powers of the letters being the regular and leading sounds of the letters in English, except the one long a sound of e in grey and prey which follows the use of e in the leading modern languages of Continental Europe. It accurately enough repre- sents all the sounds, and is easily learned, and the natives in learning the powers of the letters in their own tongue practically learn their use in English. The system is also of course consistent with itself, as no system in the first intro- duction should be made inconsistent with itself as our English spelling notably is. It is comprehensive, embracing practical- ly all the necessary mandarin syllables, and is capable of easy extension on the same lines, and will be able to spell, by application of the principles here given, all the mandairn 70 sounds which our increased knowledge may make it necessary to add, without being burdened with diacritical marks, at least to any great extent. No doubt the sounds and syllables yet to be canvassed of real important and proper mandarin sounds will not increase the number here given in the above lists very greatly, and certainly, however increased, will not require any great departure from the system indicated in this explanation of a general Romanization. And as these principles of ro- manizing all the sounds and syllables of the entire body of mandarin contain all the important parts of the five systems of spelling here given, and harmonizes the differences in a simple and practical way for the use of it among the natives, and as the real genius of each system remains untouched, but only adapted to the larger knowledge of mandarin sounds, and as a large liberty is allowed by the suggested system to each loca- lity constituting a centre of important mandarin for those of such district to decide what is the important sounds of it, their nature, and how best represented by the system here suggested, for all these reasons it is hoped no serious objection can be raised to the system here indicated, and especially as it romani- zes all the mandarin here tabulated so simply, consistently and so free from all those awkward and unseemly diacritical marks which in a system for the natives are so unnecessary and confusing. There is one more important point in connection with this general system that needs remark. The Tones. In romanizing mandarin will it be necessary to use marks for tones ? If not all agree it will add greatly to the simplicity of the Romanization and also to the looks of the page, and I may add do away with a great deal of the practical difficulties in making a general Romanization for all places. It is hard to see how any degree of unanimity or consensus could be 71 reached in regard to the tones as they vary so in the same locality, and the same character in its different uses and connections differ so greatly, and the natives are so indefinite themselves in their use. And while any one learning a special mandarin needs to pay great attention to the tones, for the language is essentially a tone language, and without them the ring of the Chinese tongue cannot be secured, yet in a Roraaniza- tion it would seem certainly best not to represent them in any locality, even though they are marked in emphasis, and quite uniform in usage. The fifth tone, by common consent, is used in the south, and this for certain reasons best be retained, but tones in general, unless it may be a special case as when two sounds may come together all the same, except in tone and meaning, then perhaps an exception might be made in the use of a tone. The system in Nanking, without tone marks, except the fifth, is used without the least trouble, and it is believed the tone marks would not only spoil the page but confuse the reader. When the writing is understood by a native the tones according to his own tongue are naturally put to it, and if marked would not prevent his using his own tongue as he was brought up. No doubt this is true throughout the man- darin district, which makes the addition of tone marks entirely unnecessary. The Romanization for the Natives. But after all perhaps will come the old objection, why add any more to the Romanizations we have ? These old systems are in use ; why not use one of them p But this is no objection to our present purpose ; what we want to do is to establish one for use among the natives and not foreigners. We do not wish to change any existing system as explained above ; none of them will be really changed, yet all adapted to the wider district and increased sounds and syllables and har- monized with the essential principles of each preserved and all united in a general system, specially intended for and adapted 72 to the needs of the natives and not foreigners, nor do we want to change those spellings long used in English and well known, such as geographical names, etc. and all those spellings generally adopted in papers, reviews and books. What we establish for the natives will not interfere with these, and need not be adopted for such use. Neither will these established usages interfere with what we want to introduce for native use, and if even it does, and after while what has been used by foreigners be- comes adopted in China’s accepted system, this will not be a great mistake or inconvenience, but on the contrary will be a great gain to the practicability of a Romanization in China, The adoption of a Romanization by the Chinese will be slow, and in any case must be historically developed ; it cannot be put on them like their long garments. This development will, no doubt, yield various spellings for the same sounds and syllables as in English to, too, two and tu as in tune, etc., and if the future Romanization of China is such so much the better, since they have so many sounds the same with different mean- ings to a greater extent than in English. It is not best, however, to introduce these various spellings at the first. Therefore if any one studying the language chooses to use W.’s or Wm.’s or C. I, M.’s or M.’s system, or even make a new one for themselves, this will perhaps be best. This, our purpose, however, is entirely different ; we want to select and settle on what is best for the natives and what suits the mandarin district as a whole as far as we can. These systems are all good for their purpose, but all but Dr. M.’s are eminently im- practicable for this larger and particular aim for obvious reasons. Neither is this system for the natives to follow any previous historical model of the natives as Kang Hi’s, but its object is to represent the living sounds as heard to-day among the people ; what the sounds have been or how represented is not considered, but what is best and most practical now in representing the living sounds of the mandarin district. 73 Now the Pkoper Time. These few changes suggested above, in order to harmonize the five given systems, can be easily made, as shown in the general system proposed. And now this can be the more easily done, as no systems for the natives have yet been introduced, no books, to speak of yet, romanized. The time for romanizing the Bible has not yet come, and will not until the mandarin Bible has reached its final form and have been accepted by tbe Bible societies. No school books have been put in it. The C. I. M. have done a little, but a very little has been done in Peking, and in Nanking only the Gospel of Luke, a hymn book and a catechism, so practically nothing has been done. But now before the Bible is revised the Conference Committee can have a general system, by the aid of all in the mandarin district, settled and ready to romanize the Bible and other books at the earliest opportunity. The Romanized Bible. The time seems to have arrived to begin and carry on this work, and it is hoped the committee will realize the importance of the task imposed upon them by the conference. Second only to the revision of the Bible is the task of putting it in a form which will make it accessible to all the people. As in the dialects so in the mandarin districts the Bible in character is out of reach of a large portion of those who have been in school a few years and know some characters, and those who cannot read are a vast majority of the people. This proportion is vastly increased when you come to that class who largely compose our Churches. The character is utterly inadequate to meet the needs of teaching our members of all classes to read the Bible, while Romanization has been known to put the New Testament and a hymn book in the hands of an old woman in six months when in character the merest memory knowledge 74 only could be hoped to have been given, not only in six months but in the remainder of her life. Then to tabulate this magni- ficenfe mandarin tongue used by over 200 millions of China and do it in a simple and consistent system and make it take a form practicable in the Bible and in school books, in science and trade, in newspaper and telegraph, this certainly is a work of vast proportions and far reaching results, and needs to be done at once and done well. Before this the time had not come, but now the ripe time has come delay is impracticable, and every energy of the committee should be put forth, and every prejudice put down, and all should unite in this one aim, that this great part of China should have the whole Bible in its best translated form and in the best, smoothest, simplest and most practicable Romanization that our experience and knowledge up to this present can give them. The Language of China. This then is not a matter of simply another Romanization, simply how to best spell the given sounds of the mandarin district, but this is a question of a language for China. The book style is entirely inadequate to the needs of China in any single department. It does not fit into the new teachings of the schools, the new daily paper and periodicals ; it does not suit in trade, telegraph or international intercourse. The book style in short suits nowhere ; it has been tried and found wanting in the new order of things. The same is true of char- acter as a means of writing. It suits nowhere, and will suit less and less the needs of China in schools and all literature, and above all in practical communication in letter and telegraph for various and well-known reasons. But one of the greatest lacks is in its failure to record and in its impracticability in developing this glorious tongue of so many millions of the human race. It is the spoken tongue as heard in the peculiar combinations of the sound, full vowel sounds, in short syllables, 75 that combine in infinite variety and capable of practically unlimited development, that is, the language of China. The : character gives the meaning, but in it the sounds, the real language, its beauty and power, is all passed by and lost in the old and effete picture writing of the most ancient times. This style of character writing has had its use and still retains its old fascination, but it is entirely unequal to writing the varied and beautiful tongue as heard among the people. It is to the i gathering up and recording this ancient tongue with its short, full and open voweled syllables that we are doing for China iu giving her the Bible and other books in the very best and most general romanized system of the mandarin. In complet- ing this task for China we will do over again for her what Luther did for the German language and what our English Bible has done for our English tongue. This and nothing less. It is the inevitable necessity of a successful missionary work to give to the people among whom they labor not only the best means of writing and a Bible in it, but a language in which to express the wonderful Words of God. And this is the task before us in China as well as in any kingdom, and is especially laid on this Committee on Romanization, for it is only in the proper Romanization of the mandarin tongue that this glorious consummation can be reached. The Necessity of a Romanization. This of course cannot be attained at once. China moves slowly. It will take her a long while to realize and act on the fact that her high style of composition is impracticable and a great barrier to progress. It will perhaps be a longer time before they will admit that their worshiped character is not only not worshipful, but for them to keep up with the progress now flooding in upon them they must give it up entirely and accept what is easier learned and more conveniently used in the practical ' walks of life and more efficient in schools and in all teaching 70 purposes. When would it ever be possible for a paper to be published in Shanghai in character in the simplest style and read by the peasants of Szchwen ? When in our Church work would it be possible to put the charactered Bible and hymn book in the hands of all our simple-minded and life-burdened members of city and country ? This has shown itself impossible in colloquial districts, and is impossible in our mandarin dialect as well, notwithstanding for present purposes the mandarin, when written simply, does so well, yet it is far from satisfactory, and in no case or place, is it so efficient to teach all classes as the romanized would be, if only one-tenth of the effort was put on the Romanization that now it is necessary to do with the char- acter to make it at all practicable. The present need of Romani- zation of course is limited, and perhaps will be for some time, because of prejudice of the Chiuese for the character. The in- difference of missionaries to its practical use as an evangelistic agency and as an instrument of education in all grades of schools, the lack of books in it and the want of teachers to introduce it, all these reasons, for the present make the introduction hard and the demand for it limited. Yet its need is an urgent one, and needed at once in all the mandarin district, not of course for distribution of books in it, nor for new missionaries or others to learn the language, most all of the latter make their own Ro- manization as they need it, but For The Bible. Romanized books, especially the Bible, is a great and im- mediate need for all those in every station, whose capacity, time or lack of energy make the learning of character impossible. I have seen Church members quite earnest and diligent in the midst of their work learning to read the Bible, who at the end of five years could not be said to be able to read the N. T. in simple mandarin. This is not to be wondered at by those who know the task of learning two or three thousand characters, and this moreover, in the midst of daily toil. It is not too much to say that the large part of all our Church members, men and women, who are gathered from the laboring classes in city and country, and who are tied down from suurise to sunset with the daily and necessary tasks, must all their days remain ignorant of that blessing of a Bible in their own tongue, in which they were born, if it is to be kept shut up, even in the simplest mandarin in the character. This makes a generally accepted Romanization of the Mandarin Bible an im- mediate necessity . For in no other way than by Romanization can this great boon of The Book be given to the majority of our Church members. Any one by"gathering up a few statistics in his own work, and observing a little in his own locality, can find abundant proof of this great lack of any Bible but the romanized meeting the entire needs of our Church work. For Communication. But not only to give all our Church members a Bible is it necessary, but what is only next in importance for a means of communication of our Church members among themselves. How often we are grieved at our members going to a heathen teacher to have a letter written to his or her Christian brother, when the necessity might be so easily relieved by a Romanizatiou, which would make communication as easy and general as known among us, in a short space of time. With a Romanization such ability might be made one of the requirements of Church membership, and so easy is the task of learning it, that but few members would be lost by it. Yet communication first hand among our members is an impossibility, because of the impossible task of learning the character and especially to write it, and a decent letter in it. And this leads to another reason why a Romanization and a general one in mandarin is of immediate necessity, because not only have our Church members no practicable means of com- munication but we have none with them. Where is the mission- 78 ary who has not been grieved over this, and where is the pro- fessor of our best schools and teachers of natives ever} r where who is so utterly dead to the need of a Romanization that he does not mourn for the lack of an instrument of communication with the students who have graduated under his care and are in distant places. It is fair to say there is not a single teacher or professor or president of a single one of our schools, high or low, who can write himself and does write a private letter to any of his gra- duates. And this is no wonder, for it is an impossible task when character has to be used, and so every teacher is humiliated, because he has no means of communicating privately with the absent boys or girls, just as the pastors have no means of private communication with the absent members of his flock. But how easily all this might be relieved and is relieved in all those schools in colloquial districts that have a Romanization as in Ningpo. With a Romanization, and a generally accepted one of course is best while not an absolute necessity, this sad difficulty would at once be relieved and made as practicable and easy as it is in English or any other alphabetic tongue. A few minutes a day in any school for three months with a good or any Romanization, would at once relieve this great obstacle to the Gospel in China, which comes from its use of the character. The last time I was in Japan I wrote a letter every mail to the natives under my care, and that with the type writer. It would seem that anyone interested in the natives as pastor or teacher would teach them a Romanization of some kind just for this one purpose if it was no other use. But how much better if all would agree on an acceptable system such as the committee can, and it is hoped will propose, and know ourselves, and have all our natives instructed in a general, carefully selected Romanization. A few months is sufficient for a whole school to learn it by using a few minutes a day, and any of our Church members can learn it, even if before they have never studied and feel there is no use in beginning or trying it. 79 For School Work. But not only is Romanization useful and a necessity in all these ways, but what may not be supposed by many, it is indis- pensable iu the work of our schools of all grades, and the higher the grade the more it is needed. It cannot be omitted from a proper and complete curriculum of any school. If there were school books in a well selected Romanization no books in char- acter would be needed in Chinese any more than English. But at present in mandarin there are no books at all, and this is a great drawback. But without books and outside of the purpose of teaching in it what is the urgent need of Romanization in all our school work of whatever grade? I will mention one important and necessary use. The one of teaching them their own spoken tongue and language. This may be said is unimportant ; they are taught their language in their own books best and by means of the character. But this answer is unsatisfactory, because their own books, classical and mandarin, only teach the language of the books, but do not pretend to and cannot teach the language of every-day life, either in its sounds or colloquial construction. Therefore it is only by means of a proper Romanization that the living mandarin can be taught in our schools in its sounds or in its best grammatical spoken form. It is needed in schools to know their own tongue which they speak. There are none of us but are tried by our teachers in their utter unreliability in giving us the sounds of their own tongue. They pronounce at random lo and no and give the same character widely different sounds in two successive efforts, yu is next ru, and minor variations without end, so that in some places a concensus of what the sound is, is quite impossible to determine, and there are places where missionaries gathered in goodly numbers in one city for a score of years cannot agree among themselves as to whether door is pronounced by the people tnung or men ; the e as in met and u as in sun. Now this indefinite- 80 ness should be relieved in our schools, and can only be by teaching them the nature of a sound by the means of a Romani- zation. What are considered our best graduates at our best schools when they go to another place cannot learn the language of that place and do not seem to take in that it makes a great difference how they pronounce their words. This is because in the schools where they have had our highest education the Romanization has not been taught ; they have not been taught the language of their own homes, and do not know the relation of it and its sounds to the rest of the dialects nor the value of the sounds they utter to the proper expression of thought in their own tongue. Now this lack is the same as if a boy or girl at home had gone through all the study of the schools and had not learned English, and in going around, talked the colloquial of their father’s home and was unable to appreciate the accepted pronunciation of a word or to learn it, that their speech might be in accord with the standard English. Now this lack in the education of our mission schools can only be remedied by the use of Romanization and a thorough drilling of the students in the study of their own spoken tougue with its help, without which it would be impossible to do it. The urgent necessity of a Romani- zation at once for this purpose can be easily seen, and I suppose there is no one so blind as to deny it, for with only the character it is impossible to impart this knowledge. It is needed further in this line to teach them other dialects of the mandarin than their own. They of our schools should be instructed in the sounds of their own colloquial of home or the school they are at, but they should also know the best mandarin of all China, and for this purpose the character is utterly useless ; there must be a Romanization and that not only of the local mandarin or part of China as in W.’s system or C. I. M.’s, but rather a comprehensive system as Dr. M ’s., and still better one, as it is hoped, the committee will settle upon and be generally accepted by all, which can be used in our schools to teach the 81 boys and girls the entire number of mandarin syllables and the relation of their own dialect to this general mandarin, and what constitutes an accepted sound of standard mandarin, and what is of the nature of a slur and colloquialism, and what is a real vulgarism to be discarded except for practical use in that locality, where the people do not know the proper and standard sounds. This use then of a Romanization is also a present one and a very urgent one, and to meet which a generally adopted system of the very best we can select should be settled at once. Again this is necessary in our schools to teach this magnificent mandarin tongue the 1,200 syllables, which are here tabulated. These in their wonderful combinations each syllable of which having one or more full vowel sounds and run together in terse sentences, which seem sometimes arbitrary, but all according to the laws of accepted usage. This compounding of syllables and construction of sentences must be known by a student before he can be said to have an educated command of his own tongue, and this know- ledge can best be secured by the use of a Romanization. To know these various sounds, to study their various combinations as sounds, and to know the laws of and the rhythm of their union in sentences can only be known by their study in and by means of a Romanization. This seems too plain to need any explanation, and the importance of such knowledge and its necessity needs no enforcement to those who know the value of an English education in the proper construction and rhythm of accepted standard English. Certainly no one will deny that only by the use of a Romanization is it possible to instruct the Chinese in such knowledge of their own spoken language in the man- darin as well as any other district. This then again is a present and urgent need in all our mission schools of what- ever grade or locality, of the very best and most practicable Romanization, and that not of any special locality as Peking or southern mandarin but a general Romanization of all the mandarin sounds. 82 English Insufficient. It may be thought the study of English in the schools answers this purpose, hut it will be seen on second thought that the study of English in the native schools cannot take the place of the study of their own spoken tongue. This cannot be the case in China any more than anywhere else, that the study of a foreign tongue, however helpful, will take the place of the study of the orthography and construction of your own tongue. What- ever use English may have it is certain this is not one of them, and for the student in any of our schools to know and get a proper command of his own spoken language he must use a Romanization. While the study of English does not take the place of the study of the vernacular in a Romanization yet on the contrary the study of the vernacular Romanization prepares the way for an easy introduction to the study of English if desired. Indeed it would be well for everyone about to study English to first learn the use and meaning of a system to represent sounds as applied in Romanization to his own vernacular. The advantage of this can be easily seen, which will be shown by good fruits in a fair trial. Various Uses. There are some other minor uses of a Romanization which also go to show an immediate necessity for its adoption and introduction into all our work in the mandarin district as well as in regions of the dialects. In the dialects the use of a Romani- zation can be easily seen, and no dialect should be without its Romanization, but in the mandarin a very important present need is by it to gather up the sounds and syllables of any locality and fix them in a permanent tabulated form. An- To develop 1 me language, ot k er j s ^ assist in the developing of the language and fix the terminations as to sounds; this is a very important point, and so fruitful would a use of Romanization be, if univer- sally adopted, that it would gradually transform the whole language of the people from its present monosyllabic form into 83 combinations of various lengths, and also to a greater or lesser degree make the whole language an inflected one in place of a monosyllabic one as it now is, and preserved so by its being written in character. But as soon as it is relieved from this iron bond of a character form it will begin to develop into words of several syllables and into inflecting endings. In short it will become a language based on sound and not on shape. It will gradually appeal more to the ear and less to the eye. It will become more a language of the forum than that of the book. It will be more suited to and of the present age than a fossil of past generations. This is an incidental use of a Romaniza- tion, and it indicates the grand results to follow the introduction and general use of a system of Romanization of the mandarin. Then also in a Romanization the Chinese can be developed by transfer in or near their original sound of words from any foreign tongue. Any one that has done anything at Romaniza- tion will see how useful it is and what an important part it would play in the transfer of words, proper names and others. If a Romanization was introduced then the Chinese language would become a rival of the English in its power to transfer words and naturalize them as her own, where with the char- acter nothing satisfactory can be done at it, and hence the difficulties in regard to terminology which are now facing us. It would also be very acceptable if the graduates of To prepare for personal our schools would be fitted for personal teachers and teachers. _ _ 1 proper amanuensis, for which a knowledge of Romanization is so necessary, both for his preparation for the teacher’s work and for transcribing purposes. It saves an immense lot of time to use Romanization with your teacher, and it would be invaluable to him if by learning his own tongue and the mandarin in general and if possible the dialects in a good Romanization, he knew what it is to learn the sounds of a new tongue, he would be then better fitted to teach and would be able to appreciate a sound and in various ways to be a better and real 84 teacher of his own dialect, which notably, now, none of them are. Also in study, especially for the itinerant mission- ufnera^t 6 ary, the street preacher, or the medical missionary, it is of great advantage to have a knowledge of the general mandarin, and to this a general system giving in a consistent spelling all the sounds he will likely meet is of great advantage, and a generally accepted system for this purpose is much better, even if not so good for scientific purposes, and if this is a system especially for use among the natives and generally known by them, it is better even if it is not so scientifically accurate. Heipp th© Those in charge of Bible distributors will find it a Colporteur. kelp, an d w hen once introduced indispensable in this important part of our work. I knew an agent of a Bible Society in Shanghai who had as many as eight or ten native colpor- teurs in the Ningpo district, and they were all superintended from Shanghai in the midst of the work of the office in the Ningpo Romanization ; all correspondence and direction was done directly with the natives. This can be also done as well in the mandarin Romanization, without which nothing of the kind can be done, as the charactor is too impracticable and impossible both for the foreigner and natives. But with a Romanization it is as easy and practicable as in English, and all in charge of native distributors should have them instructed in a good and if possible a general Romanization. These then are some of the minor reasons why in the mandarin district this matter of a Romanization should be taken up at once, a general system agreed on and its introduction made in every locality and in all spheres of our work. This is Easiij learned. more desirable since Romanization is learned so easily by the natives. I know one who now teaches school, who began first with Romanization, and this first because it was supposed he had not ability or energy to overcome the difficulties in learning the character, but in learning the Romanization it cultivated a taste ; it was so easy as to encourage and also stirred 85 Unlimited use. his ambition to attack the character, and also gave him help in it by giving him the sounds of the characters as they were parallel to the Romaniza*ion of it, so he without urging went on, passed into character, studied and now is able to teach a day- school of small children in our Christian books. So easy is it to be learned and so valuable in practice. But while all this is agreed to it may be said, “ yes, but still its use is limited and always will be ; it cannot be generally used.” Supposing this were really so, yet the uses and necessities indicated are sufficient for all the effort necessary to put on it. Yet it is not so that its use is limited, and when once introduced it is no more limited than our own English. It is not too much to hope for ; certainly it is not im- possible, and in some future day is very probable, especially if we all help as here suggested that China can have one romanized Bible for all her mandarin district, and intelligently read among 250 millions of her people. I confidently believe more. I can see no reason at all why in a reasonable period of historical development, for it thus must be developed, that one romanized Bible will be used in the entire middle kingdom, and. certainly it is possible, and I am not without a good hope it may be that a Daily News published in Shanghai will be easily read in ail parts of the empire, and will not look unlike the one we have. And it is no more impossible and just as probable as that a paper in English could be read around the world to those at the time when Augustine was missionary to England and Archbishop Most practic- Canterbury. The Romanization is as easily read as English, and it is as easily understood as the same sentences when heard in conversation. That so many do not understand it is because they have not used it, and it is also •true that, in colloquial what cannot be understood from the romanized page is not properly understood, that is to say, if you are not able to understand the romanized colloquial books of the place you are in, you can be assured you have not ^mastered 86 the colloquial of that district, just as one would not be said to have mastered English if he could not read and understand the English Bible. What missionary in Ningpo would be considered to have mastered the dialect if he could not read the romanized Bible. And this holds good in man- darin as well as in the dialects or in our own English tongue. The reason in mandarin districts that so many are masters in their dialect and affirm they cannot understand the Romanization is simply they have never familiarized themselves with it, but knowing the dialect, a Romanization of it and books in it and the use of it could be easily learned in a short time. For example I know a missionary lady that without study of or a particle time spent in looking over the Romanization, began and taught a class in it without any inconvenience ; new missionaries begin work in Ningpo in a couple of months ; while their sisters in the mandarin district have not yet made a beginning, their trunks are not yet unpacked and the 214 radicals only half learned. It is very evident that for anyone familiar with any dialect the learning of the Romanization of it and the using of the Romanization in it is as simple a matter as it is in English, and it is just as practicable. In the telegraph it is just as intelligible as English, and for that purpose the Chinese romanized mandarin surpasses English as it is so very brief. A word in English is called ten letters. In mandarin I have telegraphed a whole sentence with those ten letters, and this not once but over and over again. Most practicable would it be if the Chinese gevernment would take it up and introduce a Romanization in that service, which could be done in the shortest time. All should help. The Romanization of the mandarin being so important as shown above, in its several and immediate uses so easily learned, and so desirable and practicable in all our work in every locality, it would seem very desirable that all located in 87 any mandarin district should assist as far as possible in securing a uniform system of spelling, as this seems eminently practicable for all the mandarin district. A single system of spelling for all does not mean one system with so large a liberty that the one spelling answers for entirely different sounds. But one uniform system so comprehensive in the range of its initials and finals as to embrace all portions of the mandarin districts that contain variations of the mandarin of sufficient importance in practical use as to extent of district, and of a pure mandarin character of sound, te be taken note of and embodied in the list of standard and important general mandarin. A good basis for this general system is already gathered comprehensive enough to cover a third of the mandarin district, and containing initials and finals sufficient to give all the full and desirable sounds that are known to the human voice, and so is practically a complete list of the various initials and finals that will be met with in all this large mandarin district. To TABULATE THE SYLLABLES. While this is so, and for a working basis sufficient, yet it is desirable that those in every important centre make lists of their special dialect of good and acceptable mandarin spelt as near as may be by the system generally adopted, and tabulate the sound gathered up. This, not only for use in the locality and in the work of that district, but, so the results of the tabulation of the sounds of such district may be sent to the central committee and embodied in this list of general mandarin, and if necessary so the system of spelling may be adjusted to the larger district and more accurate knowledge of the whole. It is necessary to be observed that this list of sounds is different from a syllabary as urged upon and explained by Dr. M. at p. xv. of Intro. I would also urge the gathering 88 of a syllabary. All situated in large central districts should do this for the sake of the knowledge of the dialect in its written form of that district. Dr. M. gives a syllabary of several places in his Intro., which are very accurate and useful. But to do this best a consistent system of spelling the syllables as so gathered is necessary, for until the syllabary is arranged according to the spelling of its syllables it is not very manage- able. Both of these then should be done in every large district of this immense mandarin portion of China. A syl- labary should be gathered up in the character as far as possible. It may be so ; in some districts there are syllables which have no well known or authorized character for them, if so then the Bomanization alone will be best used, and all the words of a locality should be gathered up, and each arranged under its sound and the tone of each marked. And then all the different sounds of the locality, whether they have characters to write them or not, gathered and put into a consistent system and both syllabary and list of sounds arranged according to the system of general spelling adopted. This will make the Bomauization of any locality an easy and definite matter, and with these syllabaries and carefully selected lists of sounds spelt according to a general system in the hands of the central committee would assist greatly in securing the best system and uniformity of action in every place. And these lists, added to those already given in Intro, to Mandarin Lessons, would be invaluable to students of the spoken tongue in every place, as well as promote a uniform spelling, which is so desirable and of first importance. Help of the Translators. It is desirable also that the translators, especially of the mandarin Bible, regard the necessities of a Bomanization in fixing the character of their translation. A due regard to give that style which, if read, will be most generally under- 89 stood is all that may be particularly necessary, but this is neces- sary. A proper translation of the Mandarin Bible should be made to stand the test of being understood generally if read. ' This desirable object cannot be secured absolutely, but as far as possible it should be. Who has not felt how impracticable it is to read some parts of the Mandarin Bible in the con- gregation. So great is this difficulty that long readings in the pulpit of the Scripture lessons I have always omitted, ; even before the instructed congregation, and if done it is always with unsatisfactory results ; except it may be to the very few who I are very familiar with the Bible. Attention in the translation should therefore be given to the character of the translation that when read (as far as a faithful translation will admit) it will be understood in any locality, and this can better be | secured, because the idiom does not differ so much in any part ; of China, and when the local sounds are given it can be equally understood in any place. And if it can be understood when read a Romanization of it will be equally understood and practicable. So then translators observing especially this one point can secure, to a great extent, the best advantage in a translation for the Romanization of it. This should also be observed by those translating into mandarin other books of whatever class. Hymns especially should be translated and written with reference to their being understood by the hearer or the reader of it in a Romanization. This should be observed in all translations and works in the mandarin. To secure this, distinctively book terms should be avoided and those words, and the characters for them, used which are most generally known. It is, as a rule, best to take it that in our Churches the characters and words used in the mandarin Bible will be best and most easily and generally understood. So translations of any work or the words of any writing, as as far as consistent with the nature of the case, should be conformed to the words, characters and style of the Mandarin 90 Bible. In this way will be secured uniformity of style, the use of a limited number of characters, and thus the reading and hearing understandingly will be best secured, and that form of mandarin best suited to its Romanization adopted. It is in these ways the translators of our Bible and all other translators and authors of mandarin books can help in this great matter of a simple mandarin, easily understood when read in any place, and practical when romanized by the general system in any locality. All should observe these considerations who have anything to do with the translation and publication of anything in mandarin, as in our Suuday School Lessons, which, as a rule, when only heard, cannot be generally understood, and so far as they are thus, they would be inpracticable in a Romanization. As a rule when the style of the mandarin is so bookish or classical , and in such unfamiliar book characters so as not to be easily understood when read it should not be used as a 'proper style for books in our work , either in character or Romanization . What can be understood with the ear when read will be, as a rule, understood with the eye in a Romanization. Aud as good mandarin, which can be under- stood when heard and read in a Romanization can be used, and much of this style abounds in the Mandarin Bible and other books, attention should be paid to it that as far as possible this easy and understood style become universal. This at- tention to the character and style of the mandarin we use in the Bible and all our work can be best attained, and what will be most practical as far as our evangelistic work is concerned is for the translators of our Mandarin Bible to pay particular regard to the style of our Bible as suited to be read in the congregation and taught among all the members, and in other mandarin books, for the style and characters to be used, be that of the style and characters of our Mandarin Bible as far as possible. There are certain portions of our Mandarin Bible that are models of what the mandarin we use in our Bible and 91 Christian books should be. These special and best models with reference to their being generally understood and not with reference to their agreement to the easy or high classical style, should be made uniform in all the Bible, and the committee of translators should see that the translations of the several parts agree in this particular and not parts of the same chapter, and even verses, in the two styles of easy and acceptable man- darin and high classical styles. In writing hymns especially should this be observed. We have mandarin hymns that are acceptable models as to their easy style in being understood when read or sung in the congregation, or when used in a Romanization. This in hymns is especially desirable, as the use of the high classical or even easy book style is especially impracticable in the congregation, and however it may offend the classical ear, the thing of first importance in a hymn is its being understood when heard read or sung. While this is dif- ficult to secure, in all instances, yet we have models where it is reached especially in didactic hymns, and it should be the chief aim in every instance, even at the expense of offending the hyper-critic of the classical school. We in hymns sing unto the Lord from the heart and with the understanding, and not to the critics, either foreign or Chinese. It will be a great day in the congregations of China, especially of the mandarin districts, when the hymns made to suit a pedantic taste be banished. When we have an acceptable mandarin style easily understood why not use it ? It needs to be observed that we plead not for no style whatever in our Bible and hymns and other books, but for that which we in English consider the most desirable in style, perspicuity, not the old classical or easy book but the highest and best mandarin style as spoken among the people and well understood. Schools and Text Books. Those engaged in school work can help by trying to in- troduce and cultivate in schools of all grades that best and most 92 acceptable mandarin, purest in sound and most perfect in form. This can be done by making the best styles of colloquial mandarin a study as well as by discarding all books of the classical style. How very trying to one’s patience and how absurd and wrong it is to put a school book, gotten up in our own tongue, in the easiest and simplest style to teach the young, but translated into a style which is not only not good easy mandarin, but difficult book style, and abounding in unfamiliar characters that the scholars of many years in the schools can- not read. How absurd to have a child’s paper abounding with such a style that old students can’t read, when if it was in easy mandarin it would be accessible to all ; not only does this style abound in our Church papers, but our tract societies and those in charge of our text books insist that even arithmetics be put in a classical style. Such books of course are not practicable in a Romanization, as they are not even in character. IIow much then these societies and all those in charge of schools could help our evangelistic work if they would only insist on and use a style easily learned and understood in all the work. A proper education in our Christian schools will or should gradually cultivate a standard of good easy mandarin that in the music of it, its beauty and expression will be un- surpassed, easily and generally understood from the platform and pulpit, and as practicable in a Romanization as our own English. All can help in every locality by introducing and cultivating and using that style of mandarin which is more nearly conformed to the general and best mandarin, and in every way to try to control, and if possible overcome that indifference to, and ignorance of, using different words for the same meaning, or pronouncing the same word differently. This should be fought against in schools, especially of the higher grade schools, but much can also be done by introducing the Romani- zation in our work that has been carefully romanized in the best form and then try to get the natives to conform their pro- 93 nunciation and use of words to the style of the book. This they will naturally do if they have the books. This needs especially to be observed in Nanking, where for many reasons the tongue is indefinite in some respects, perhaps more than any other locality. They seem incapable of distinguishing the initial 1 and n, and yet they at times use the n, but when they do are unconscious of it. Then the final g is generally used, but it depends upon connection and euphony if used or not. Then there is the interchange of the use of ruh and yuh, and the same man will pronounce the same word sometimes with r and at others the y, and some folks raised in the city scarcely if ever use the yuh, yet of course it is best to learn and use dis- creetly both the 1 and n, the final n and ng, the ruh and the yuh. Then in the city there are the sounds of those coming from distant places, especially Hupeh and the north, but it is best to use neither of these but the purer southern dialect, which experience has shown to be true what Dr. M. says in Intro., p. ix., “ Southern mandarin is more widely used and is spoken by a larger number of people than northern mandarin.” Notwith- standing these and all the difficulties found in the various localities, yet it is not impracticable to choose the best pro- nunciation and keep the language of all your work in schools or Churches of a good general type of colloquial mandarin. With care and united action, and especially with the faithful use of a good Homanization a good result within the influence of our work could be attained in the difficult task of developing and beautifying their already wonderful and powerful spoken tongue. The Dialects. In this matter also those who are engaged in romanizing the dialects can render material help in trying to relieve as far as possible this one difficulty in Romanization of the Chinese, because of the many dialects. This can be done by, if possible, studying our mandarin dialect and conforming as far as possible to it, so 94 that the differences will be as few as possible. Every locality has to do the best it can in romanizing its own for the lack of knowledge of any other. But it is hoped that now we are able to give anyone a pretty good idea of our mandarin as is seen in the above tables, and with but little trouble such a knowledge of the mandarin, fas tabulated, could be got as to guide to a good harmony in many instances in the romanizing of the dialects, and with this, if in romanizing the dialects the language chosen would be as far as practicable that of our best form of mandarin easily understood, say as the style of our revised mandarin Bible will be, then the gap between our mandarin and any of the dialects would be greatly diminished, without interfering with the clearness of the style or its practical use in any locality. I am quite sure if care was taken in the romanizing and care in the style of the language, to have all conformed as far as practicable to the Romanization and style of the mandarin all would be wonderfully surprised what a great likeness would be between them. I have never seen any Romanizations of the dialects of a familiar passage of Scripture or hymn, however badly it may be defaced by diacritrical and tone marks, but that I have been able to make out considerable of it, and this when no care had been taken with the dialect to make it general or in the least conformed to the mandarin. But if care was taken I am sure the differences could be reduced greatly. So in this, those working in the dialects, either introducing a Romanization, or applying one introduced, can help us and the cause of Romani- zation much in these and other ways I will not now mention. The Help of the Bible Society. If all in every place thus in all ways lend a helping hand the committee will be able, by the time the Mandarin Bible is revised, to have ready a system and secure its Romanization in the best and generally accepted form. The Bible societies can then be asked for their assistance, as all will be done by united action. This generally accepted form of the Romanization, also, 95 will not change the form of the Bible as revised in any particular, of word or construction, but simply in romanizing it, as it stands, to suit the needs of the mandarin districts, in as few different editions as is necessary, to suit the various mandarin centres as explained above, and with as few changes in each as possible, and all romanized according to the one general system and the principles agreed on by the committee, with the con- sensus of opinion of all. With such unanimity of action there is no doubt the Bible societies will lend all the aid necessary to give to these millions of the mandarin district the Bible in a form that will be easily accessible to the most ignorant and down trodden of the people, in the same sense that this is true in English or other tongues, which in character it is not, and in the nature of the case never can be, even in the mandarin district where the mandarin character goes so far, and is thought by some to be so practicable. The Spoken Language. The immense value by such co-operation and united action for these ends suggested to our evangelistic work, and eventually to the kingdom and people of China on that day she adopts her spoken tongue and uses it in a practically written form in all the land, can be easily seen by those of us who know the power of a language in an easy written form to unify a nation and build up a great and homogeneous people. It will now be clear in the matter presented in this imperfect way in this pamphlet that a new and living way is opened up in all China, but especially in the mandarin districts of it to help first in a thorough and complete evangelization of the whole people down to the most humble peasant. And second to ameliorate the multitudinous and wonderful people by restoring to its proper place that which they are so proud of themselves, the spoken language of their flowery kingdom and making it a practical instrument in all public and private walks of life, even as our English is to us, and in the same way by writing it in an alphabetic form. It is true that in this we make a death blow at their worshiped character and idolized classical style. But we replace it by more than double, and when it is over and they come to themselves, they will no more remember the anguish at giving up the idols of their fossilized character and books for the excellency of the new and life giving way. The language of China is not in its books but in its spoken tongue, especially in the best forms of its mandarin dialect as found in the various great centres of the country and heard in their marts and homes. It is this we must bring out and make a practical living thing to them, and then no douht they will be as surprised as the island cannibal when he first sees his rude tongue looking him in the face and standing out before the eye as his speech does to the ear, and this not another tongue as in the character of the book, but the same language in which he was born. This new field then we should cultivate, even at the risk of losing the character and the terse and beautiful book style, and let the living people of the coming new and regenerated China have their own beautiful and unsurpassed spoken tongue in a practi- cal and living form, and this can he and only can be in the writing and using their spoken language in a proper, simple and comprehensive romanized form. GAYLORD #3523PI Printed in USA PL1187 .L43 1200 Mandarin syllables in five systems 1 1012 00074 0086