mm ■P"' ■^-^ 1 >»: • ':; .A *. :•* $3i «5 J fl^is PJI •^x*>: M '•. ..!i1 l-^fll ^•j^&wy '"f^x %^f< «fcMi«* «^r ^f&S / rm \ mm* ^ PRIVATE LIBRARY RICHARD C. HALVERSON CYCLOPEDIA BIBLICAL, THEOLOGICAL, AND ECCLESIASTICAL LITERATURE. PREPARED BY THE REV. JOHN M'CLINTOCK, D.D., AND JAMES STRONG, S.T.D. Vol. I.— A, B. WARD C HAu NEW YORK: HARPER & BROTHERS, PUBLISHERS, FRANKLIN SQUARE. 18 80. Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year one thousand eight hundred and sixty-seven, by HARPER & BROTHERS, In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the Southern District of New York. P E E F A C E. This work was commenced in 1853. From that time to this, the editors have been engaged, with the aid of several regular collaborators, and of numerous contributors of special articles, in its preparation. The aim of the work is to furnish a book of reference on all the topics of the science of Theology, in its widest sense, under one alphabet. It includes, there- fore, not only articles on the Bible and its literature, but also upon all the subjects belonging to Historical, Doctrinal, and Practical Theology. There is no Dictionary in the English language which seeks to cover the same ground, except upon a com- paratively small scale. The Encyclopaedia of Religious Knowledge, published sev- eral years since, under the supervision of the Rev. J. Newton Brown, is, indeed, quite comprehensive in its aim ; but, as it is confined to a single volume, it could not give full treatment to the vast range of topics embraced in its plan. Besides this, there is but one other attempt in English at a comprehensive Dictionary of Theology, and that, unfortunately, remains incomplete. We refer to the translation of Herzog's Real-Encyklopadie, commenced in 1856 by the Rev. J. H. A. Bomberger, D.D., the publication of which was suspended during the war.* In the preparation of this Cyclopaedia, Dr. Strong has had exclusive charge of the department of Biblical literature, and for the articles in that field he is responsible. Twenty years ago, before the publication of Kitto's Cyclopaedia of Biblical Litera- ture, the student of the Bible had no better Dictionary to consult than the various re- censions of Calmet. The great work of Dr. Kitto brought together the results of the critical labors of the preceding century, in which Biblical literature had become substantially a new science. Notwithstanding many and grave defects, Kitto's Cy- dopaidia gave a new impulse to Biblical studies, and supplied a want almost univer- sally felt. The lapse of twenty years, in which vast advances have been made in the literature of the Bible, has made a new edition necessary, and it has been well pre- pared under the editorship of Dr. Alexander. In the mean time, Smith's Dictionary of the Bible (3 vols. imp. 8vo) has been issued, on a plan somewhat similar to Kitto's Cyclopaedia. It is the aim of the present work, as a Dictionary of the Bible, to com- bine the excellences of both the great works named, and to avoid their faults. Free use is made of their matter, so far as it has been found suitable to our plan ;f but every article has been thoroughly revised, and more than half the articles on Biblical topics are entirely original, while most of the others are so in part. We acknowledge similar, though not quite so extensive obligations to Winer's Biblisches Real-wbrter- buch, a book whose discrimination and compactness are unrivalled in this branch of literature. It will be perceived that the Biblical department of this Cyclopaedia embraces many subjects and names not contained in any of these three works. For the treatment of all the topics in Systematic, Historical, and Practical Theolo- gy, Dr. M'Clintock is responsible. In this field there has heretofore been no copi- ous Dictionary answering to the Bible Dictionaries of Kitto and Smith. The Real- Encyklopadie of Herzog, and Wetzer und Welte's Ivirchen-Zexikon, have been the fullest sources of material in this form. Besides these, all other Encyclopaedias and * It is to be hoped that the translation of this vast repository of modern theological science may be re- sumed and completed. t Due credit is given in, or at the end of each article, for the use made of the works cited. In some instances the above general credit to Kitto and Smith is all that could justly or conveniently be given. We have intended to reproduce all that is valuable in their works. iv PREFACE. Dictionaries of importance, both general and special, have been used in the prepara- tion of this work. Every article lias cither been written cle novo, or thoroughly revised, with reference to the more recent literature on each topic. Great pains have been taken with the verification of references, hut we cannot hope to have en- tirely avoided error in this, or in other points of minute detail in so vast a labor. The whole work is of course prepared from the editors' point of view as to theolo- gv, but, ;it the same time, it is hoped, in no narrow or sectarian spirit. The articles on the several Christian denominations have either been prepared by ministers belonging to them, or have been submitted to such ministers for examina- tion ami correction. Many of the papers on the various branches of Christian art and archaeology are written or revised by Professor George F. Comfort. Most of the articles on Bible Societies have been prepared by the Rev. Joseph Holdich, D.D. Many of the short biographical sketches of ministers of the Methodist Episcopal Church are due to the Rev. George Lansing Taylor; of the German Reformed Church, to the Rev. H. Harbaugh, D.D. ; of the Presbyterian and Congregational Churches, to Mr. A. Merwix ; of the Prot. Epis Church, to Mr. TV. Major. In this department Dr. Sprague's Annals of the American Pulpit have been of great service. Our thanks are due to the Rev. O. H. Tiffany, D.D., and to Mr. J. K. Johnston,' for contributions, especially in Church history and early ecclesiastical biography. Pro- fessor Alexander J. Schem and Mr. J. N. Proeschel (of Paris) have been regular collaborators throughout the work. The articles relating to Roman Catholic topics have all been prepared or revised by Professor Schem, who has also had entire charge of Church and national statistics, and of reading the proofs in all departments of the work except the Biblical Many of the articles drawn chiefly from German or French sources are due to Mr. Proeschel's careful and intelligent industry, both as compiler and translator. In succeeding volumes, articles will be found from other contribu- tors whose services were enlisted at a later period in the progress of the work than that covered in this volume. The literature of the subjects treated has been a special object of care. Our aim has been to give the names. of the most important works, both old and new; but we have especially sought, in view of the wants of the majority of those who will proba- bly use this Cyclopaedia, to refer, on all essential points, to accessible books, which ordinary students, seeking to enlarge their knowledge, would be likely to fall in with or could readily obtain. It would have been easy to enlarge the lists of books by emptying the works on Bibliography into them, but we have preferred the more la- borious, and, we trust, the more satisfactory plan of discrimination and selection. One of the greatest difficulties of such a task as this is the adjustment of the relative length of the articles. We have sought to keep in mind the relative importance and interest of the various topics as the only safe guide in this respect. Long articles are given on certain of the more important subjects; but we have never sacrificed to this end our chief purpose, viz., to give as complete a vocabulary as possible of all the branches of theological science. This is what, according to our riew,is mosl wanted in a Dictionary. No essay, however elaborate, in a Cyclopaedia, can satisfy the wants' of the student who seeks to master any special topic; he will and mas! go beyond the Dictionary to its sources. But students, and even theologi- ans, are in constant need of accurate information upon minor points; and upon all these we have sought to give, in all cases, statements that may be relied upon. If the work shall he found, in actual use, to have gathered into a convenient and char summary the mass of knowledge accumulated in its several departments, and shall likewise Berve, to some extent at least, to advance the cause of sacred truth, it will have nut the expectations of the authors, who have expended upon it many years of earnest toil and solicitude. LIST OF WOOD-CUTS IN VOL. I English Abbess Pag3 English Abbot Coin of Abila-Leucas Coin of Abila-Claudiopolis Vessels for Ablution Roman Standards Gnostic Gem Absalom's Tomb Akker-kuf Map of Acre Coins of Accho Roman Dinner-bed Family Eating-couch Kissing the Hand Coin of Adramyttium Map of Africa Rabbinical Planting Jewish Corn-field Oriental Hoeing Syrian Ploughing Egyptians Planting Egyptian Ploughing Egyptians Hoeing Egyptians Sowing Field in Clumps Treading in Grain : Harvest-scene Gathering Wheat Binding up Wheat Jewish Grain-field Egyptian Reapers Treading out Grain Egyptian Threshing-floor Egyptian Threshing-machine Egyptian Winnowing Coin of Agrippa I Coin of Agrippa II Aisle in Melrose Abbey Alabaster Vessels The Alb Badge of Alcantara Coin of Alexander the Great Coin of Alexander's Successor Coin of Alexander Balas Coin of Alexander Zebina Coin of Alexander Jannseus Medal of Alexander VI Map of Alexandria Alexandrian Ship Specim 'ii of Codex A lexandrinus . . . Map of Algeria Almond-tree Almond Branch Sandal-tree Eagle-wood Aloe Socotrina Forms of Alpha Christian Monograms Derivation of Alphabets Druidical Circle Druidical Cromlech Druidical Cairn Persian Fire-altar Egyptian Altar of bloody Offerings. Egyptian Altar of Burnt-offering . . . Gi se -ii- I Egyptian Altar of Incense . . . Altars on 1 ligh-places Altars on Roman Coins Various Heathen Altars Forms of the Altar of Burnt-offering. Jewish Altar of Incense Various Oriental Altars Amber containing Flies Ambo in St. Clement's Map of North America Map of South America c Image of Amnion , Coins of Amphipolis , Amphora Oriental Amulets Egyptian Ear-rings Cabalistic Amulet , Ancient Anchor Ancient Galley Egyptians Angling of the " Durham Book" . . 0 Animal Worship Page 6'Anetlmm Graveolens 17 ! Pimpinella A n isum 17 Oriental Anklets 22 " Love-knot" Star 25 Badge of Annunciada 34| Anointing a King 30 Perfuming a Guest 42 1 Anointing a Statue 45 Indian Ant 45 Brown Ant 47 Hills of Termites 4S White Antelope 79 1 Nubian Antelope 81 Pygarg Antelope 95 Map of Antioch 108 Coins of Antioch in Syria Ins (rate of St. Paul 109 Emblem of Antioch in Pisidia 109 Coin of Antioch in Pisidia 109 ( Join of Antiochus Theos 109 Coin of Antiochus the Great 110 Coin of Antiochus Epiphanes 110 Tetradrachm of Antiochus Epiphanes 110 Coin of Antiochus Eupator 111 Coin of Antiochus Dionysus . •. Ill Coin of Antiochus Sidetes 111 Coin of Antiochus Grypus 112 Coin of Antiochus Cyzicenus 112 Coin of Antiochus Eusebes 112 < ^oin of Antiochus Epiphanes II 112 Coin of Antiochus Callinicus 112 Coin of Antiochus of Commagene. . . 113 Coin of Herod Antipas US Coin with Bust of Antonia 114 Coin of L. and M. Antony 114 Coin of Antony at Antioch l'JO Coin of Antony as Bacchant 129 Image of A nubia 1 30 Vulcan at the Forge 135 Medal of Apamea Cibotus 139 Monkey on the Prsenestine Tablet . . 140 Baboons on the Egyptian Monuments 141 Monkeys on the Assyrian Monuments 141 Figure of Apis 141 Mummied Bull 145 Apothecary Shop 150 Arab of the Desert 151 Inhabitants of Nablous 155 Levantine Costumes 1C0 Mountaineer of Lebanon 170 Female of Lebanon 170 Apple of Sodom 173 Apse at Dalmeny 174 Map of Arabia 174 Bedouin Arabs 175 Mount Ararat 175 Norman Arcade 175 Arched Door-ways 17S Arched Ceiling 178 Stone Arch 178 Arched Roof 17s Arched Drain 17S Arched Wall 179 Arch of Titus 179 Coin of Herod Archelaus 179 Coin of Archelaus of Cappadocia lso Egyptian Archer ISO Assyrian Archer 181 Egyptian Villa IS!', Grecian Walls 183 Greek Orders of Architecture 191 Diocletian's Palace 191 Basilica of St. Peter 195 Court of the Lions 196 Apostles' < Ihurch at Cologne 202 Environs of Athens 200 Vicinitv of Areopagus 200 Acropolis of Athens 207 Coin of Aretas II 208 Coin of Aretas III 20S Coin of a later Aretas 220 Coin of Aria'athes V 220 Druidical Altars . 231 Coins representing the Ark 231 Ai k of the Covenant 233iEgyptian Ark Pag3 234 Ark in Procession 234 Egyptian Shrine 235 Map of Armenia 23S Assyrian Armlets 23S Egyptian Armlets 239 Oriental Armlets 240 Striking Weapons 241 Cutting Weapons 245 Projectile Weapons 240 Assyrian Bowmen 240 Implements of Archery 249 Stringing the Bow 249 Assyrian Row, etc 250 Egyptian Sling 267 Assyrian Slingers 208 Ancient Shields 208 Assyrian Shields 209 1 Armor for the Head 270 Ancient Armor 270 Coats of Mail 271 ' Parthian Horseman 271 Cuirasses and Helmets 272 Roman Armor 273' Egyptian Reed-arrows 273 Egyptian Sportsman 274 Egyptian Arrow-heads 274|Coin of Arsaces VI 2741 Cuneiform and Hieroglyph of Arta- 274J xerxes 275 Coin of Aradus 275' Map of Asher 275 Medal of Astarte 270 Medal of Ashtoreth 251 Medal of Female Baal 283 Map of Asia 284 Map of Asia Minor 284 Coin of Hypsepa 2S4The Asp 2S5! Asp as Agathoclcemon 285 I (omestic Ass 2S0 She-Ass 280 Wild Ass 286 Cuneiform of Asshur 28S Coin of Assos 289 Figure of Asshur 319 1 Map of Assyria 519 Assyrian Palace 319iGem of Astarte 320, Medal of Atergatis 320'Coin of Athens, 1 320'Coin of Athens, 2 325 Athens Restored 320 1 Map of Athens 330 1 Ancien t Oriental Attire 346 1 Modern Oriental Attire 357 \ Mohammedan Postures 361 Egyptians Praying G64 Persian and Roman Praying ; 04 Egyptian Kneeling 364 < Iriental Prostration 366 Smiting the Breast 365 Reverential Sitting 305 Egyptian Suppliants :r>5 Kissing the Feet 371 — 371 371 372 371 375 375 370 379 Kissing the Hand Orientals Bowing Egyptians Bowing Oriental Blessing Augustine Hermits Coin of Augustus Coin of Augustus with Agrippa. Map of Austria Badge of Avis Egyptian Aivh 379 Egyptian Axes, etc 382 Assyrian Axe-head 383 Egyptian Chariot 3-:: Medals of Baal 885 Gem of Baal 385 Ruins of Baalbek 3S0 Octagonal Temple at Baalbek . . 393 Plan of Temple at Baalbek 401 Effigies of Baal 402 Ruins of lirs Nimrud 402, Elevation of Bira Nimrud 530 545 54 s 54S 551 509 571 572 572 572 578 5S2 533 5Sfl 591 5.2 VI LIST OF WOOD-CUTS IN VOL. I. East Indian Pyramid Page 503 Mexican Pyramid 593 Plan of Ruins of Babylon 59S Portions of Ancient Babylon 599 View of Babil 599 View of the Kasr 6U0 Chart of Babylon 600 The Badger 614 Halirore Tabemaculi 615 The Tachaitze 615 Egyptian Money-bags 616 Egyptian Bakery 620 Egyptian Weighing 024 Egyptian Balls 626 Balm of Gilead 62T Balsam-twigs 628 Ancient Banners 634 Egyptian Banquet 636 Assyrians Drinking 638 Egyptian Barber 662 Shekel of Bar-cocheba 665 Dress of Barnabites 6T2 Specimen of L'ncial Basilian MS.... 684 Specimen of Cursive Basilian MS. . . 6S4 Habit of Basilian Nun 6S5 Basilica of St. Paul 6S5 Egyptian Bread-baskets 6S7 Egyptian Grape-baskets 687 Egypt ian Farm-baskets 68S Various Egyptian Baskets 688 Oriental Baskets 68S Egyptian Bastinado 692 Common Bat 693 Ancient Egyptian Bats 693 Modern Egyptian Bats 693 Egyptian Lady Bathing 694 Ordinary Battering-ram 696 Assyrian Battering-ram 696 Assyrians hewing a Figure 697 Egyptian Archers Page Oriental Battlement Bazaar at Alexandria Syrian Bear Beard of Assyrian King Ancient Beards Egyptian False Beards Oriental Sleeping-room Egyptian Lattice Bedstead Egyptian Couch Greek Couch Oriental Bed Honey-bee Truxalis Nasutus Egyptian Talismanic Beetle Oriental Santon Beguine of Amsterdam Inscriptions at Behistun Worship of Bel Map of Belgium Assyrian Bells Egyptian Bellows Early Benedictine English Benedictine Benedictine Nun Map of Benjamin Coin of Bercea Coin of Berytus Plan of Beirut Pool of Bethesda Bethlehemite Monk in England Bethlehemite Monk in Guatemala.. Bethlehemite Nun Coins of Bithynia Bittern Helix Ianthina Wild Boar Ancient Books Specimen of Boreel's MS 6.17 Egyptian Skin-bottles Page 69S Italian Skin-bottles Oriental Water-skins . 705 707 Egyptian Bottles Tin Assyrian Glass Bottles Tos stringing the Bow 7(i<) < >riental Bowing 7 1 6 Egyptian Bowls 718 Assyrian Bowls 7 111 Egyptian Toilet-box 719 Branch of Box-tree 7111 Egyptian Bracelets 719 Assyrian Bracelets 7_r> Unman Bracelets 7 •_'(', « »riental Bracelets 7'.'C. Southern Buckthorn 727 Brazen Sea 7'N Bread from Pmnpeii 7 -JO 1 1 igh-priest's Breastplate 7.': 1 Babylonian Brick 7.:5 Egyptian Brick-making 739 .Jacob's Bridge 7 10 Assyrian Bridle 740 Assyrian Bucket 710, Reman Buckles 754 ( 'ulossal Gotama 705 Buddhist Cave-temple 70S Buffalo of Palestine 709 Jewish Funeral Procession 777 Egyptian Mummy-pit 7s4 < iriental Grave-clothes 7s4 Sarcophagi in Palestine 784 Egyptian Bier s-25 Egyptian Females Mourning X'jo ( iriental Women at a Tomb S::9 Altar of Burnt-offering, according to S39| Meyer S51 Altar of Burnt-offering, according to S54 Friederich ABBREVIATIONS. A. V. stands for Authorized Version. eod. l eodem = in the same (year). ib. i ibidem = in the same (place). id. ' idem = the same i. q. idem quod = the same as. I.e. ' loc. Clt. = the passage quoted. n. d. ' no date. q. d. quasi dictum — as if it were said. q. v. quod vide = which see. s. a. ' sine anno sine loco ^ap&^P**"*-. 8. an. ' sub anno = under the year. eq. l sequent. = following. s. v. ' sub ixrbo = under the word. v. r. l various reading. CYCLOPAEDIA BIBLICAL, THEOLOGICAL, AND ECCLESIASTICAL LITERATURE. A. See Alpha. Aadrak. See Aazrak. A'alar ('AaAdp), a person -who (or a place from •which some of the Jews) returned after the captivity (1 Esdr. v, 36) ; more correcth- called in the parallel list (Neh. vii, 61) Islmer (q. v.). Aara (JOXX), a factitious term used by the Eab- bins (Lex. Talm. Aruch, s. v.) as an example of a ■word beginning with two X's, like Aazrak (q. v.). In the Talmud, according to Buxtorf {Lex. Talm. col. 2), it is written A vera (K^IX), perhaps only a sing. Chaldaic form of the plur. Urim (q. v.), light. A'aron [vulgarly pronounced Ar'ori] (Ileb. Aha- ron, ■pn.N, derivation uncertain : Gesenius, Thesaur. Heb. p. 33, thinks from the obsolete root "lilX, to be libidinous [so the Heb. Lex. Aruch, from !"H!~l, refer- ring (erroneously) to his conception during the Phara- onic edict] ; but in his Heb. Lex. s. v. compares with *|iin, mountaineer ; Filrst, Heb. Handwi'irterbuch, s. v., makes it signify enlightener, from an obsolete root *inx = "list, to shine. Sept., N. T., and Josephus, 'Aapwi'). I. History. — Aaron was the eldest son of the Levite Amram by Jochebed, and the brother of Moses (Exod. vi, 20; vii, '7- Num. xxvi, 59) ; born B.C. 1742. He is first mentioned in the account of Moses' vision of the burning bush (Exod. iv, 14), where the latter was reminded by the Lord that Aaron possessed a high degree of persuasive readiness of speech, and could therefore speak in His name in his behalf. Dur- ing the absence of Moses in Midian (B.C. 1698-1658), Aaron had married a woman of the tribe of Judah, named Elisheba (or Elizabeth), who had borne to him four sons, Nadab, Abihu, Eleazar, and Ithamar; and Eleazar had, before the return of Moses, become the father of Phinehas (Exod. vi, 23-25). Pursuant to an intimation from God, Aaron went into the wilderness to meet his long-exiled brother, and conduct him back to Egypt. They met and embraced each other at the Mount of Horeb*(Exod. iv, 27), B.C. 1658. When they arrived in Goshen, Aaron, who appears to have been well known to the chiefs of Israel, introduced his broth- er to them, and aided him in opening and enforcing his great commission (Exod. iv, 29-31). In the subse- quent transactions, Aaron appears to have been almost always present with his more illustrious brother, as- sisting and supporting him ; and no separate act of his own is recorded, although he seems to have been the actual instrument of effecting many of the miracles (Exod. vii, 19 sq.). Aaron and Hur were present on the hill from which Moses surveyed the battle which Joshua fought with the Amalekites (Exod. xvii, 10- 12) ; and these two long sustained the weary hands upon whose uplifting (in order to extend the official od, rather than in prayer, see ver. 9) the fate of the A AARON battle was found to depend. Afterward, when Moses ascended Mount Sinai to receive the tables of the law, Aaron, with his sons and seventy of the elders, accompanied him part of the way up, and were per- mitted to behold afar off the symbol of the Sacred Presence (Exod. xxiv, 1, 2, 9-11). During the ab- sence of Moses in the mountain the people seem to have looked upon Aaron as their head, and an occa- sion arose which fully vindicates the divine prefer- ence of Moses by showing that, notwithstanding the seniority and greater eloquence of Aaron, he wanted the high qualities which were essential in the leader of the Israelites (see Niemeyer, Charakt. iii, 238 sq.). The people at length concluded that Moses had perished in the fire that gleamed upon the mountain's top, and, gathering around Aaron, clamorously demanded that he should provide them with a visible symbolic image of their God, that they might worship him as other gods were worshipped (Exod. xxxii). Either through fear or ignorance, Aaron complied with their demand ; and with the ornaments of gold which they freely offered, cast the figure of a calf (see Kitto's Daily Bible Illnst. in loc). See Calf. However, to fix the meanin ; of this image as a symbol of the true God, Aaron was careful to proclaim a feast to Jehovah for the ensuing da}' (see Moncaeius, A aron pu iff it us she de vitulo aureo, Atreb. i605, Franckf. 1675). At this juncture, Moses' reappearance confounded the multitude, who were se- verely punished for this sin. Aaron attempted to ex- cuse himself by casting the whole blame upon the people, but was sternly rebuked by his brother, at whose earnest intercessions, however, he received the divine forgiveness (Deut. ix, 20). During this and a second absence in the mountain, Moses had received instructions regarding the ecclesiastical establishment, the tabernacle, and the priesthood, which he soon afterward proceeded to execute. See Tabernacle ; Worship. Under the new institution Aaron was to be high-priest, and his sons and descendants priests ; and the whole tribe to which he belonged, that of Levi, was set apart as the sacerdotal or learned caste. See Levite. Accordingly, after the tabernacle had been completed, and every preparation made for the commencement of actual service, Aaron and his sons" were consecrated by Moses, who anointed them with the holy oil and invested them with the sacred gar- ments (Lev. viii, ix), B.C. 1657. The high-priest ap- plied himself assiduously to the duties of his exalted office, and during the period of nearly forty years that it was filled by him his name seldom comes under our notice. But soon after his elevation his two eldest sons, Nadab and Abihu, were struck dead for daring, seemingly when in a state of partial inebriety, to con- duct the service of God in an irregular manner, by offering incense with unlawful fire. On this occasion it was enjoined that the priests should manifest none of the ordinary signs of mourning for the loss of those who were so dear to them. To this heavy stroke AARON ! Aaron bowed in silence (Lev. x, 1-11). Aarnn joined in, or at least sanctioned, the invidious conduct of his sister Miriam, who, after the wife of Moses had been brought to the camp byJethro, became apprehensive for her own position, and cast reflections upon Moses, much calculated to damage his influence, on account of his marriage with a foreigner — always an odious thing among the Hebrews. For this Miriam was struck with temporary leprosy, which brought the high- priest to a sense of his sinful conduct, and he sought and obtained forgiveness (Num. xii). See MlRIAM. Subsequently to this (apparently B.C. 1G20), a formi- dable conspiracy was organized against Aaron and his sons, as well as against Moses, l>y chiefs of influence and station — Korah, of the tribe of Levi, and Dathan and Abiram, ofthe tribe of Reuben. See Korah. But the divine appointment was attested and confirmed by the signal destruction of the conspirators ; and the next day, when the people assembled tumultuously, and murmured loudly at the destruction which had overtaken their leaders and friends, a fierce pestilence broke out among them, and they fell by thousands on the spot. When this was seen, Aaron, at the com- mand of Moses, filled a censer with fire from the altar, and, rushing forward, arrested the plague between the living and the dead (Num. xvi). This was, in fact, another attestation of the divine appointment ; and, for its further confirmation, as regarded Aaron and his famih', the chiefs of the several tribes were required to deposit their staves, and with them was placed that of Aaron for the tribe of Levi. They were, all laid up together over night in the tabernacle, and in the morn- ing it was found that, while the other rods remained as they were, that of Aaron had budded, blossomed, and yielded the fruit of almonds. The rod was preserved in the tabernacle (comp. Heb. ix, 4) as an authentic evidence of the divine appointment of the Aaronic fam- ily to the priesthood — •■huh, indeed, docs not appear to have been ever afterward disputed (Num. xvii). Aaron was not allowed to enter the Promised Land, on account ofthe distrust which he, as well as his 1 roth- er, manifested when the rock was stricken at Meribah (Num. xx, 8-13). When the host arrived at Mount Hor, in going down the Wady Arabah [see Exode], in order to double the mountainous territory of Edom, the divine mandate came that Aaron, accompanied by his brother Moses and by his son Eleazar, should ascend to the top of that mountain in the view of all the peo- ple ; and that he should there transfer his pontifical robes to Eleazar, and then die (Num. xx, 2"- 29). He was 123 years old when his career thus strikingly ter- minated; and his son and his brother buried him in a cavern of the mountain, B.C. 1619. See Hon. The Israelites mourned for him thirty days ; and on the first day ofthe month Ab the Jews yet hold a fast in commemoration of his death (Kitto, s, v."). The Arabs still Bhow the traditionary site of \'\- grave (Num. xx, 28; xxxiii, 38; Dent, xxxii, 5(1), which in the time of Etiseliius was reputed to be situated in Petra, in the modern Wady Mousa (ftnomast. s. v. < >r ; .1 m. Bib. Re- pos. 1838, p. 132, 640). lie is mentioned in the Koran (Hottinger, Hist. 0re'e«tf.p.85 sq.), ami the Rabbins have 'many fabulous stories relating to him (Eisenmenger, Ent.Judenth. 1,342,855,864). For Talmudical references, see Real-Enojld'ip. s. v. For an attempted identification with Mercury, Bee the Eur op. Mag. i, 1G. See Moses. In 1'sa. exxxiii, 2, Aaron's name incurs as that of the first anointed priest. I lis descendants ("sons of Aaron," Josh, xxi, 4, 10, 13, etc.; poetically, "house of Aaron." Pea, SPl "lEO, Venice, 1528-29, 2 vols. 4to). He also wrote com mi n- taries on the Pentateuch, the first prophets (Joshua, the Judges. Samuel, and the Kings), on Isaiah and the Psalms, and on Job, all of which are still inedited. — Hoefer, Biographie Generate, i, 6. Aaron ben-Aser, or Aaron t>ar-Moses, a celebrated Jewish rabbi, lived in the first half of the 1 1th century. He is the author of a Treatise on the Accents of the Hebrew Language, printed in 1517. Aaron collected the various readings of the Old Testa- ment in the manuscripts of the libraries ofthe West, while his colaborator, Ben-Nephthali, searched for va- rious readings in the Eastern libraries. These varia- tions of the text, though purely grammatical, gave rise to two celebrated sects among the Jews — that of the Occidentals, who followed Ben-Aser ; and that of AAROX BEN-CIIAYBI 3 ABADIAS the Orientals, which only admitted the authority of I Ben-Nephthali. Their editions give for the first time the vowel signs, the invention of which lias therefore frequently been ascribed to them. The works of Aaron ben-Aser have been printed, together with those of Moses ben-David, at the end of the Biblia Rab- binica of Venice. — Hoefer, Biographie Ghiercde, i, 7. Aaron ben-Chayirfl, a celebrated rabbi, born at Fez in the middle of the 16th century. He was the head of the synagogues of Fez and Morocco. In order to superintend the printing of his works, he made, in 1609, a voyage to Venice, where he died soon after. His works are (in Hebrew), The Heart of Aaron, con- taining two commentaries on Joshua and the Judges (Venice, 1609, fol.) ; The Offering of Aaron, or remarks on the book Siphra, an ancient commentary on Levit- icus (Venice, 1609, fol.); The Measures of Aaron, or an essay on the 13 hermeneutical rules of Rabbi Ismael. — Hoefer, Biographie Generate, i, 7 ; Fiirst, Bih.Jud. i,159. Aaron ben-Joseph Sason (Schascon), a rab- bi of Tbessalonica, lived at the close of the 16th cen- tury. He is the author of several celebrated Jewish works, among which are FiESt T'nip (the law of truth), a collection of 232 decisions on questions re- lating to sales, rents, etc. (Venice, 1616. fol.) ; and P"3X ~15S (the book of truth), explicatory of the Tosaphoth of the Gemara (Amsterd. 1706, 8vo). — Hoefer, Biographie Generate, i, 7. Aaron Zalaha, a Spanish rabbi, died 1293. He is the author of a commentary published under the title Sepher Hachinak, id est Liber Institutionis, recensio 613 legis Mosaicai prweeptorum, etc. (in Hebrew, Ven- ice, 1523, fol.) — Hoefer, Biographie Generate, i, 7. A'aronite (Heb. same as Aaron, used collective- ly), a designation of the descendants of Aaron, and therefore priests, who, to the number of 3700 fighting men, with Jehoiada the father of Bonaiah at their head, joined David at Hebron (1 Chron. xii, 27). Later on in the history (1 Chron. xxvii, 17) we find their chief was Zadok, who in the earlier narrative is distinguished as "a young man mighty of valour." They must have been an important family in the reign of David to be reckoned among the tribes of Israel. — Smith, s. v. See Aaron ; Priest. Aazrak (~plXX), a Cabalistic word found in the Talmudic Lexicon Aruch, and apparently invented by the Rabbins in order to correspond to a prohibition found in the Mishna {Shabbath, xii, 3) that no person should write on the Sabbath two letters, this word be- ginning with the letter X repeated. In the Talmud, however, it is written Aadrah (~T1XN). Buxtorf {Lex. Talmud, col. 2) thinks it is merely the Biblical word ""^XX, aiizzerlm', I loill gird thee (Auth. Vers. " I girded thee"), found in Isa. xlv, 5. Ab (-N, prob. i. q. "the season of fruit," from 22X, to ha fruitful, and apparently of Syriac origin, D'Herbelot, Bill. Orient, s. v. • romp. Abib ; Jose- phus, 'A[3[i(i, Ant. iv, 4, 7), the Chaldee name of the fifth ecclesiastical and eleventh civil month of the Jewish year (liuxtorf, Lex. Tahn. col. 2); a name introduced after the Babylonian captivity, and riot occurring in Scripture, in which this is designated simply as the fifth month (Num. xxxiii, 38; Jer. i, 3; Zech. vii, 3, etc.). It corresponded with the Macedo- nian month Lous (A woe), beginning with the new moon of August, and alwa3'S containing thirty days. The 1st day is memorable for the death of Aaron (Num. xxxiii, 38); the 9th is the date (Moses Cozenzis, in Wagenseil's Sota, p. 736) of the exclusion from ( !anaan (Num. xiv, 30), and the destruction of the Temple by Nebuchadnezzar (Zech. vii, 5 ; viii, 19 ; comp. Reland, Antiq. Sacr. iv, 10; but the 7th day, according to 2 Kings xxv, 8, where the Syriac and Arabic read 9th ; also the 10th, according to Jer. lii, 12, probabh'- refer- ring to the close of the conflagration, Buxtorf, Synag. Jtidenth. xxxv), and also by Titus (Josephus, War, vi, 1, 5); the 15th was the festival of the Xylophoria, or bringing of wood into the Temple (Bodenschatz, Kirch- liche Verfassung der Juden, ii, 106; comp. Neh. x, VA ; xiii, 31; on nine successive da3"S, according to Otho, Lex. Rail. p. 331 ; on the 14th, according to Josephus, War, ii, 17) ; the 18th is a fast in memory of the ex- tinction of the western lamp of the Temple (luring the impious reign of Ahaz (2 Chron. xxix, 7). — Kit- to, s. v. See Month. Ab- (3N, father), occurs as the first member of several compound Hebrew proper names, e. g. Abner, Absalom, etc. not as a patronymic [see Ben-], or in its literal acceptation, but in a figurative sense, to des- ignate some quality or circumstance of the person named ; e. g. possessor of or endowed with ; after the analogy of all the Shemitic languages (Gesenius, Thes. Heb. p. 7; in Arabic generally Abu-, see D'Herbelot, . Biblioth. Orient, s. v.). See Father ; Proper name. Hence it is equally applicable to females ; e. g. Abi- gail (as among the Arabs ; comp. Kosegarten, in Ewald's Zeitschrift fur die Kunde des Morgenl mdes, i, 297-317). In all cases it is the following part of the name that is to be considered as the genitive, the pre- fix 2X being "in the construct," and not the reverse. See Abi-. Ab'acuc (Lat. Abacuc, the Greek text being no longer extant), one of the minor prophets (2 Esdr. [in the Vulg. 4 Esdr.] i, 40), elsewhere Habakkuk (q. v.). Abad'don (AflaScwi>, for Heb. *"ri?x.i destruc- tion, i. e. the destroyer, as it is immediately explain- ed by 'AttoWvcov, Apollyon), the name ascribed to the ruling spirit of Tartarus, or the angel of death, described (Rev. ix, 11) as the king and chief of the Apocalyptic locusts under the fifth ti umpet, and as the angel of the abj'ss or " bottomless pit" (see Critica Bib- lica, ii, 445). In the Bible, the word abaddon means destruction (Job. xxxi, 12), or the place of destruction, i. e. the subterranean world, Hades, the region of the dead (Job xxvi, 6; xxviii, 22; Prov. xv, 11). It is, in fact, the second of the seven names which the Rab- bins apply to that region ; and they deduce it partic- ularly from Psa. lxxxviii, 11, " Shall thy loving-kind' ness be declared in the grave, or thy faithfulness in {abaddon) destruction?" See Hades. Hence they have made Abaddon the nethermost of the two regions into which they divided the under world. But that in Rev. ix, 11 Abaddon is the angel, and not the abyss, is perfectly evident in the Greek. There is a general connection with the destroyer (q. v.) alluded to in 1 Chron. xxi, 15 ; but the explanation, quoted by Ben- gel, that the name is given in Hebrew and Greek, to show that the locusts would be destructive alike to Jew and Gentile, is far-fetched and unnecessary. The popular interpretation of the Apocalypse, which finds in the symbols of that prophecy the details of national history in later ages, has usually regarded Abaddon as a symbol of Mohammed dealing destruction at the head of the Saracenic hordes (Elliott's Uora Apoca- hjpticcv, i, 410). It may well be doubted, however, whether this symbol is any thing more than a new and vivid figure of the same moral convulsions else- where typified in various ways in the Revelation, namely," those that attended the breaking down of Judaism and paganism, and the general establishment of Christianity (see Stuart's Comment, in loc). See Revelation, Book of. The etymology of Asmo- da>us, the king of the daemons in Jewish mythology, seems to point to a connection with Apollyon in his character as " the destroyer," or the destroying an- gel. Compare Ecclus. xviii, 22, 25. See Asmod.eus. Abadi'as {'Aftaciac), a son of Jazelus, and one of the descendants (or residents) of Joab, who returned ABAD Y QUEYPEO 4 with 212 males from the captivity with Ezra (1 Esdr. | viii, 35) ; evidently the same -with the Obadiah (q. v.) of the parallel list (Ezr. viii, 9). Abad y Queypeo, Manuel, a Mexican bishop, ) horn in the Asturias, Spain, about 1775. Having be- come priest, he went to Mexico, where he was at first judge of wills at Valladolid de Mechoacan, and, in 1809, appointed bishop of Mechoacan. Upon the out- [ break of the war of independence, Abad favored the national party, and declared himself against the In- quisition. When the restoration of Ferdinand VII was proclaimed, Abad was sent to Spain and impris- oned at Madrid. He succeeded in winning the favor of the king, and was not only released, but appointed minister of justice. In the night following, however, he was again arrested by order of the Grand Inquisitor, and shut up in a convent. He was liberated in conse- quence of the events of 1820, and elected a member of the provisional junta of the government. Subsequent- ly lie was appointed Bishop of Tortosa. In 1823 he was again arrested by order of the Inquisition, and j sentenced to six years imprisonment. He died be- fore this time had expired.' — Hoefer, Biographie Gent- rale, i, 17. Abaelard. See Abelard. Abagarus. See Abgarcs. Abag'tha (Heb. Abagtka, XP52X, prob. Persian [comp. BlGTHA, BlGTHAK, BlGTHAXA, BAGOAs], and, according to Bohlen, from the Sanscrit bagaddta, fortune-given ; Sept. 'AfiaTa^a), one of the seven chief eunuchs in the palace of Xerxes, who were commanded to bring in Vashti (Esth. i, 10), B.C. 483. Aba'na [many Ab'ana~] (Heb. Abanah', i"t3-X ; Sept. 'Ajiavct ; Vulg. A bana ; or rather, as in the mar- gin, Amanah [q. v.] ; Heb. Amanah' ', !t2"2X [comp. Isa. xxiii, 16], since the latter means perennial; Ge- senius, Thesaur. Heb. p. 116), a stream mentioned by Naaman as being one of the rivers of Damascus ; an- other being the Pharpar (2 Kings v, 12). The main stream by which Damascus is now irrigated is called Barada, the Chrysorrhoas, or "golden stream" of the ancient geographers (Strabo, p. 755), which, as soon as it issues from a cleft of the Anti-Lebanon mountains, is immediately divided into three smaller courses. The central or principal stream runs straight toward the city, and there supplies the different public cis- terns, baths, and fountains ; the other branches diverge to the right and left along the rising ground on either hand, and, having furnished the means of extensive irrigation, fall again into the main channel, after dif- fusing their fertilizing influences, and are at length lost in a marsh or lake, which is known as the Bahr el -Mi //, or Lake of the Meadow. Dr. Richardson (Travels, ii, 499) states that the " water of the Barada, like the water of the Jordan, is of a white, sulphureous hue, and an unpleasant taste." Some contend that the Barada is the Abana, and are only at a loss for the Pharpar; others find both in the two subsidiary streams, and neglect the Barada; while still others seek the Abana in the small river Fijik, which Dr. Richardson describes as rising near a village of the same name in a pleasant valley fifteen or twenty miles to the north-west of Damascus. It issues from the Limestone rock, in a deep, rapid stream, about thirty feet wide. It is pure and cold as iced water; and, after coursing down a stony and rugged channel for above a hundred yards, falls into the Barada, which comes from another valley, and at the point of junction is only half as wide as the Fijih. The Abana or Amana lias been identified by some (especially Ge- senius, Heb. Lex.') with the Barada, from the coinci- dence of the name Amana mentioned in Cant, iv, 8, as one of the tops of Anti-Lilianus, from which the Chrysorrhoas (or Barada) flows; and the ruins of ABAUZIT Abila, now found on the banks of that stream, are thought to confirm this view. A better reason for this identification is, that Naaman would be more likely to refer to some prominent stream like the Barada, rather than to a small and comparatively remote fountain like the Fijih. See Pharpar. The turbid character of the water of Barada is no objection to this view, since Naaman refers to Abana as important for its medicinal qualities rather than on account of its limpid coldness. The identification of the Abana with the Barada is confirmed by the probable coincidence of the Pharpar with the Arvaj ; these being the only consid- erable streams in the vicinity of Damascus {Bibliotheca Sacra, 1849, p. 371 ; Robinson's Researches, new ed. iii, 447). This is the view taken by the latest traveller who has canvassed the question at length (J. L. Por- ter, in the Jour. ofSacr. Literature, July, 1853, p. 245 sq.). According to Schwarz {Palest, p. 54), the Jews of Damascus traditionally identify the Barada with the Amana (q. v.). The Arabic version of the passage in Kings has Barda. According to Lightfoot {Cent. Ckor. iv) the river in question was also called Kirmi- jon CP'"?"1!?), a name applied in the Talmud to a river of Palestine (Buxtorf, Lex. Talm. col. 2138). See Damascus. Abarbanel. See Abrabenel. Ab'arim (Heb. Abarim', n"n2", regions beyond, i. e. east of the Jordan ; Sept. 'A/fopi/i, but to irtpav in Num. xxvii, 12, Vulg. Abarim; in Jer. xxii, 20, Sept. to Tvtpav TtiQ Sa\uoor)c,, Vulg. transeuntes, Auth. Vers, "passages"), a mountain (t^"i3"il in, Num. xxvii, 12; Deut. xxxii, 49), or rather chain of hills (n*n D","l3"fl, Num. xxxiii, 47, 48), which form or belong to the mountainous district east of the Dead Sea and the lower Jordan, being situated in the land of Moab (Num. xxi, 11), on the route to Palestine (Num. xxvii, 12). It was the last station but one of the Hebrews on their way from Egypt to Canaan (Num. xxxiii, 47, 48). See Ije-abarim. The range presents many distinct masses and elevations, commanding extensive views of the country west of the river (Irby and Man- gles, p. 459). From one of the highest of these, called Mount Nebo, Moses surveyed the Promised Land be- fore he died (Deut. xxxii, 49). From the manner in which the names Abarim, Nebo, and Pisgah are con- nected (Deut. xxxii, 49, and xxxiv, 1), it would seem that thejr were different names of the same general mountain chain. See Nebo. According to Josephus, who styles it Abaris {'A/iapiv, Ant. iv, 8, 48), it was "a very high mountain, situated opposite Jericho," and Eusebius {Onomust. 'Safiav) locates it six miles west of Heshbon. The name Abarim has been tor- tured by some disciples of the Faber and Bryant school of etymologists into a connection with the name of a district of Egypt called Abaris or Aran's (Josephus, Apicn, i, 14), and so with the system of Egyptian idol- atry, from the deity of the same name. Affinities be- tween the names of two of the peaks of this range, Nebo and Peor, have also been traced with those of other Egyptian deities, Anubis and Horis. There is no good foundation for such speculations. Abaris. See Abarim ; Avaris. Abauzit, Firmin, a French Unitarian, was born at I'/.cs, in Languedoc, Nov. 11, 1G79. Though his mother was a Protestant, he was forcibly placed in a Roman Catholic seminary, to be educated as a Papist. His mother succeeded in recovering him, and placed him at school in Geneva. At nineteen he travelled into Holland and England, and became the friend of Bayle and Newton. Returning to Geneva, he ren- dered important assistance to a society engaged in preparing a translation of the New Testament into French (published in 1726). In 1727 he was appointed public librarian in Geneva, and was presented with ABBA £ the freedom of the city. He died at Geneva, March 20, 1767. Though not a copious writer, he was a man of great reputation in his day, both in philosophy and theology. Newton declared him " a fit man to judge ; between Leibnitz and himself." Rousseau describes him as the '"wise and modest Abauzit," and Voltaire pronounced him " a great man." His knowledge was extensive in the whole circle of antiquities, in ancient history, geography, and chronology. His manuscripts were burned after his death by his relatives at Uzes, who had become Romanists ; his printed works are collected, in part, in (Euvres Diverses de Firmin Abauzit (Amsterdam, 1773, 2 vols.). Many of his theological writings arc contained in a volume entitled Misct lla- nies on Historical, Theological, and Critical Subjects, transl. by E. Harwood, U.D. (Lond. 1774, 8vo). A list of his works is given by Haag, La France Protes- tanie, i, 3. See, also, Hoefer, Biog. Generale, i, 38. Ab'ba ('A/3/35, N3X) is the Hebrew word ^fa- ther, under a form (the "emphatic" or definite state —the father) peculiar to the Chaldee idiom (Mark xiv, 36 ; Rom. viii, 15 ; Gal. iv, 6). 1. As such, it was doubtless in common use to express the paternal relation, in the mixed Aramaean dialect of Palestine, during the New Testament age. Especially would it be naturally employed from infancy in ad- dressing the male parent, like the modern papa ; hence its occurrence in the New Testament only as a vocative (Winer, Gram, of the New-Test. Diction, § 29). Its reference to God (comp. Jer. iii, 4; John viii, 41) was common among the later Jews (Hamburger, ReaU Encyklop. s. v.). To guard against the appearance of too great familiarity, however, the writers of the Newj Testament, instead of translating the title into its j Greek equivalent, ttu-ku, have retained it in its foreign form — one of emphasis and dignity ; but they have in ' all cases added its meaning, for the convenience of their merely Greek readers. Hence the phrase "Abba, I father" in its two-fold form (Critica Biblica, ii, 445). I 2. Through faith in Christ all true Christians pass j into the relation of sons ; are permitted to address God j ■with filial confidence in prayer ; and to regard them- J selves as heirs of the heavenly inheritance. This adoption into the family of God inseparably follows our justification ; and the power to call God our Father, in this special and appropriativc sense, results from the inward testimony of our forgiveness given by the Holy Spirit. See Adoption. 3. The word Abba in after ages came to be used in the Syriac, Coptic, and Ethiopic churches, in an im- proper sense, as a title given to their bishops (D'Her- belot, Bibl. Orient, s. v.), like padre, etc., in Roman Catholic countries. The bishops themselves bestow the title Abba more eminently upon the Bishop of Alexandria; which gave occasion for the people to call him Baba, or Papa, that is, grandfather — a title which he bore before the Bishop of Rome. Abbadie, James, born in 1654, at Nay, in Beam, studied at Saumur and Sedan. His proficiency was so early and so great, that at seventeen he received the title of D.D. from the Academy at Sedan. In 1676 he accepted an invitation from the Elector of Branden- burg, and was for some time pastor of the French Protestant church at Berlin. The French congrega- tion at Berlin was at first but thin ; but upon the rev- ocation of the edict of Nantes great numbers of the exiled Protestants retired to Brandenburg, where they were received with the greatest humanity ; so that Dr. Abbadie had in a little time a great charge, of which he took all possible care; and, by his interest at court, did many services to his distressed country- men. The Elector dying in 1688, Abbadie accepted a proposal from Marshal Schomberg to go with him to Holland, and afterward to England with the Prince of Orange. In the autumn of 1689 he accompanied the Marshal to Ireland, where he continued till after the ABBESS Battle of the Boyne, in 1609, in which his great patron was killed. This occasioned his return to London, where he was appointed minister of the French church in the Savoj\ Some years after, he was made Dean of Killaloe, in Ireland, and died at London, 1727. His chief work is his Traile de la Verite de la Religion Chre- tknne (Rotterd. 1692, 2 vols. 12mo), which has passed through several editions, and has been translated into several languages (in English, Lond. 1694-8, 2 vols. 8vo), Madame de Se vigne called it "the most charm- ing of books ;" and, though written by a Protestant, it found just favor among French Romanists, and even at the court of Louis XIV. His other principal writ- ings are : Reflexions sur la Presence du Corps de Jesus Christ dans V Eucharistie ; Les Caracteres du Chretien ct du Christianisme ; Traite de la Divinite de Notre Seigneur Jesus Christ; E Art de se connaitre (Rotterd. 1692, translated into different languages) ; La Verite de la Religion Reformee (Rotterd. 1718, 2 vols. 8vo) ; Le Triomphe de la Providence et de la Religion, an explana- tion of a portion of the Apocalypse (Amst. 1723, 4 vols. 12mo); Accomplishment of Prophecy in Christ (Lond. new ed. 1840, 12mo). A full list of his writings is given by Haag, La France Proteslante, i, 7. — Hoefer, Biog. Generale, i, 38. Abbas. Two different authors are frequently quoted by this title. 1. A celebrated canonist who flourished in 1250, and wrote a Commentary on the Five Books of Decre- tals, printed at Venice in 1588, folio. He is known as Abbas antiquus. 2. The celebrated Nicholas Tudeschi, the Panor- mitan, known as Abbas Siculus or Abbas junior. See Panormitan. Abbe, the French name for abbot (q. v.). It is used in France not only to designate the superior of an abbey, but is also the general title of the secular clergy. Before the French Revolution it was even sometimes assumed by theological students - (unor- dained) in the hope that the king would confer upon them a portion of the revenues of some abbey. There were at one time in France so many unordained abbes, poor and rich, men of quality and men of low birth, that they formed a particular class in society, and exerted an important influence over its character. The}' were seen everywhere ; at court, in the halla of justice, in the theatres, the coffee-houses, etc. In almost even' wealthy family was an abbe, occupying the post of familiar friend and spiritual adviser, and not seldom, that of the gallant of the lad}-. They corresponded, in a certain degree, to the philosophers who lived in the houses of the wealthy Romans in the time of the emperors. Abbe commendataire. See Abbott. Abbess (Lat. abbdtissa), the superior or head of an abbey of nuns, bearing the same relation to them as the abbot to the monks. An abbess possesses in general the same dignity and authority as an abbot, except that she cannot exercise the spiritual functions appertaining to the priesthood (Cone. Trident. Sess. xxv, c. vii). Generally the abbess must be chosen from the nuns of the same convent ; she must be sprung from legitimate marriage, must be over forty years old, and must have observed the vows for eight years. I n case of emergency, however, any nun of the order who is thirty years old, and has professed five years, may be elected. In Germany fifteen abbesses (of Essen, Elten, Quedlinburg, Herford, Gandersheim, etc.) had formerly the right of sending a representative to the German Dint, ami possessed a kind of episcopal jurisdiction, which they exercised through an official. After the Reformation the superiors of several German abbeys, which were changed into Protestant institu- tions of ladies living in common, retained the title "abbess." See Abbey ; Abbot. ABBEY Costume of an English Abbes?. Abbey (Lat. abbat'ut), a monastery of monks or nuns, ruled by an abbot or abbess [for the derivation of the name, see Abbot]. The abbeys in England were enormously rich. All of them, 100 in number, were abolished in the time of Henry VIII. The abbey lands were afterward granted to the nobility, under which grants they are held to the present da}-. Cran- mer begged earnestly of Henry VIII to save some of the abbeys for religious uses, but in vain. In most abbeys, besides the Abbot, there were the following officers or obedicntarii, removable at the ab- bot's will : 1. Prior, who acted in the abbot's absence as his locum tenens. In some great abbeys there were as many nsjive priors. 2. Eleemosynarius, or Almoner, who had the over- sight of the daily distributions of alms to the poor at the gate. 3. Pitantarius, who had the care of the pittances, which were the allowances given on special occasions over and above the usual provisions. •]. Sacrista, or Sacristan (Sexton), who had the care of the vessels, vestments, books, etc. ; he also provided for the sacrament, and took care of burials. 5. Camerarius, or Chamberlain, who looked after the dormitory. G. Cellararius, or Cellarer, whose duty it was to procure provisions for strangers. 7. Thesaurarius, or Bursar, who received rents, etc. 8. Precentor, who presided over the choir. 9. Hospitularius, whose duty it was to attend to the wants of strangers. 10. Iufirmarius, who attended to the hospital and sick monks. 11. Refectionarius, who looked after the hall, and provided every thing required there. For the mode of electing abbots, right of visitation. etc., Bee Cone. Trident. Sess. xxiv. <»n the most im- portant English abbeys, Bee Willis, History of Mitred Abbeys vol. i; A. Butler, Lives of Saints, ii, 638. See Cohvent; Monastery; Priory. Abbo, Abbot ofFleury, in France, born 958, slain in a tumult at Reole, in Gascony, 1004. lie presided two years cis.", 987) over a monastic school in Eng- land, and returned to Fleury, where he was made ab- bot. H«' was so celebrated for bis wisdom and virtues that people, even in far-distant parts, had recourse to him foi advice and assistance, especially in all ques- tions relating to monastic discipline, his Zeal for which caused the tumult in which lie was slain. — Neander, ABBOT Ch. Hist, iii, 404, 470; Mosheim, Ch. Hist. c. x, pt. ii, ch. i, § 5 ; Acta Sanctorum, t. viii. Abbot (Lat. abbas; from Chaldee N2X, the/o- ther'), the head or superior of an abbey of monks. 1. The title was originally given to every monk, but after the sixth century was restricted to the heads of religious houses. At a later period the title was not confined to the superiors of monasteries, but was also given to the superiors of other institutions (as abbas curice, palatii, seholarum, etc.), while, on the other hand, several other terms, as provost, prior, guardian, major, rector, etc., were adopted to designate the superiors of the convents of the several orders. The Greek Church uses generally the term archimaii- drite (q. v.). The name abbot was especially retained by the order of the Benedictines, and its branches, the Cistercians, Bernhardines, Trappists, Grandmontanes, Pramionstratenses. But the congregation of Clugny (q. v.) reserved the title abbot to the superior of the principal monastery, calling those of the other monas- teries coabbates and proabbates. The Abbot of Monte- Cassino assumed the title abbas abbatum. A number of religious orders are governed by an abbot-general, e. g. (according to the Kotizie per V Anno 1859, the Official Roman Almanac), the regular canons of Lat- eral!, the Camaldulenses, the Trappists, the Olive- tans, the (Oriental) order of St. Antonius, and the Ba- silians. Regular abbots are those who wear the re- ligious habit, and actually preside over an abbey, both in spiritual and temporal matters. Secular abbots are priests who enjoy the benefices, but employ a vicar (q. v.) to discharge its duties. Lag abbots are laymen to whom the revenues of abbeys are given by princes or patrons. Field abbots (abbates cast reuses) are regu- lar abbots appointed for army service. Arch abbot is the title of the abbot of St. Martini, in Hungary. The abbots are, in general, subject to the jurisdiction of the diocesan bishop, but formerly some were exempt, and had even a kind of episcopal jurisdiction (jurisdic- tio quasi episcopalis), together with the right of wear- ing episcopal insignia (mitred abbots, abbates mitrati). Some, as the abbot of St. Maurice, in Switzerland, have even a small territory. Abbots with episcopal jurisdiction have the right of taking part in general councils, and the right of voting in provincial synods. The privileges and duties of abbots are determined by the rules of the order to which they belong, as well as by canonical regulations. Mitred Abbot. The commendatory abbots (abbates commendatarU; Fr. abbes commendataires), in France and England, were secular ecclesiastics, to whom abbeys were given in commendam, who enjoyed a portion of the revenues, together with certain honors, but-without jurisdiction ABBOT ABBREVIATION over the inmates of the abbeys. This became latter- ly so common that most abbeys were thus held perpet- ually in cominendam. In England many abbots, among other privileges, had the right of sitting in the House of Lords. According to Fuller (Ch. Hist. b. vi, p. 292, ed. 1655), there were sixty-four abbots and thirty-six priors, besides the Master of the Temple summoned to Parliament, which he terms "a jolly number." Ed- ward III reduced them to twenty-six. In Germany, ten prince-abbots (of Fulda, Corvey, etc.) were mem- bers of the German Diet till 1803. See Bingham, Orig. Eccles. b. vii, ch. iii; Cone. Trident. Sess. xxv, and, for full details, Martene, De Ant. Monach. Bit. lib. v. The forms for the benediction of abbots (i. q. inauguration) are given in Boissonnet, Diet, des Cere- monies, i. 22 sq. 2. The title of Abbot is still used in some Protestant countries. - In Germany it is sometimes conferred upon divines, especially if they enjoy the revenues of former abbeys. Thus the late Professor Liicke of Gottingen was an abbot. Abbot, Abiel, D.D., a Unitarian minister, born in Wilton, N. H., Dec. 14, 17G5. He graduated at Harvard, 1787, was assistant in the Phillips Andover Academy from 1787 to 1789, and became pastor of Cov- entry, Conn., 1795. Having been brought up a Trini- tarian Calvinist, Mr. Abbot became, 1792, a decided anti-Trinitarian, and, in 1811, was deposed by the Con- sociation of Tolland County from the ministry on ac- count of heretical doctrines. From Sept. 1811 to 1819, he had charge of Dummer Academy, and from 1827 to 1839 he was pastor of Peterborough, N. II. He re- ceived the degree of D.D. from Harvard in 1838, and died Dec. 31,1859. He published in 1811 a "State- ment of the Proceedings in his Church at Coventry which terminated in his Removed,'''' and some occasion- al pamphlets. — Sprague, Unitarian Pulpit, p. 229 sq. Abbot, Abiel, D.D., a Unitarian minister, born at Andover, Mass., Aug. 17, 1770. He graduated at Harvard, 1792, and was pastor at Haverhill from 1794 to 1803, and at Beverley from 1803 until 1826. His health failing, he spent the winter of 1827-8 in Charles- ton, S. C, and in Cuba, but died just as the ship reached quarantine at New York, June 7, 1828. He was a man of taste and culture, and an eloquent preacher. His Letters from Cuba were published after his death (Boston, 1829, 8vo); and also a volume of Sermons, with a Memoir by Everett (Boston, 1831, 12mo). — Sprague, Unitarian Pulpit, p. 309 sq. Abbot, George, D.D., Archbishop of Canterbury, brother of Robert (inf.), one of the translators of the English Bible, and a man of great ability and learning, •was born at Guildford, October 29, 1562, and entered at Baliol College, Oxford, in 1578 ; subsequently was made Master of University College, and, in 1599, Dean of Winchester. At the university he was first brought into contact with Abp. Laud, whose ecclesiastical schemes he opposed through life. In 1601, Dr. Abbot was the second of eight learned divines at Oxford, chosen by King James, to whom the care of trans- lating all (but the Epistles of) the New Testament was committed. In 1608, he assisted in a design to unite the churches of England and Scotland ; in which bis prudence and moderation raised him high in the favor of the king, who bestowed upon him successively the bishoprics of Lichfield (1609) and of London (1010). In 1611 his majesty elevated him to the See of Can- terbury. As archbishop, he had the courage to dis- please the king by opposing the Book of Sports, the divorce of the Countess of Essex, and the Spanish match. In 1627, he ventured the displeasure of Charles I, by refusing to license a sermon, which Dr. Sibthorpe had preached, to justify one of Charles's un- constitutional proceedings. For this act he was sus- pended from his functions, but was soon, though no; willingly, restored to them. A cause of deep sorrow to him, in his latter days, was his having accidentally, while aiming at a deer, shot one of Lord Zouch's keep- ers, lie died in 1633. He was a Calvinist in theol- ogy, and, unfortunately, very intolerant toward Ar- minians and Arminianism. His Life, with that of his brother Thomas, was published at Guildford (1797. 8vo). His chief works are: Six L,ectures on Divinity (Oxford, 1598, 4to) ; Exposition of the Projilat Jon li (1600, 4to, new ed. Lond. 1845, 2 vols, with Life); A brief Description of the. World (Lond. 1617, 4to, et al.); Taatise of the perpetual Visibility and Succession of the trite Church (1624, 4to); Judgment of the Archbishop concerning Bowing at the Name of Jesus (Hamburg, 1632, 8vo). — Middleton, Evang. Biog. ; Collier, Eccl. Hist. vol. ii ; Neal, Hist, of Puriteins, i, 556 ; Mosheim, Ch. Hist, iii, 409. Abbot, Robert, D.D., Bishop of Salisbury, was born at Guildford, in Surrey, in 1560, took the degrees of M.A. in 1582, and that of D.D. in 1597. He won the good opinion of James I by a work in confutation of Bellarmine and Suarez, in defence of the royal au- thority, and was soon after made Master of Baliol Col- lege, and Regius Professor of Divinity at Oxford. As Vice-chancellor of the University, he favored the Cat vinistic theology, and opposed Laud to the utmost. In 1015 he was appointed by his brother (then Archbishop of Canterbury) to the bishopric of Salisbury, which, however, he enjoyed but a short time, and died on the 2d of March, 1617. His works are: 1. Mirror of Po- pish Subtilties (Lond. 1594, 4to) ; 2. Antichristi Demon- stratio, contra Fabulas Pontificias, etc. (1603, 4to) ; 3. Defence of the Reformed Catholic of W. Perkins against Dr. W. Bishop (1600, 1009, 4to); 4. The Old Way, a Sermon (1610, 4to) ; 5. The true Ancient Roman Catho- lic (1011, 4to) ; 6. Antilogia (against the Apology of the Jesuit Endemon, for Henry Garnett, 1613, ), a son of (Juui and father of Alii, one of tin' chief Gadites resident in Gilead (1 Chron. v, 15), B.C. between 1093 and 782. ABED-NEGO Ab'don (Heb. Abdon', I'faM and 1112?, servile; Sept. 'Aficuw), the name of four men and one city. 1. The son of Hillel, a Pirathonite, of the tribe of Ephraim, and the twelfth Judge of Israel for eight years, B.C. 1233-1225. His administration appears to have been peaceful (*A/3oW, Josephus, Ant. v, 7, 15); for nothing is recorded of him but that he had forty sons and thirty nephews, who rode on young asses — a mark of their consequence (Judg. xii, 13-15). He is probabty the Bedan referred to in 1 Sam. xii, 11. 2. The first-born of Jehiel, of the tribe of Benja- min, apparently by his wife Maachah, and resident at Jerusalem (1 Chron. viii, 30; ix, 36), B.C. ante 1093. 3. The son of Micah, and one of the persons sent ly King Josiah to ascertain of the prophetess Huldah the meaning of the recently-discovered book of the Law (2 Chron. xxxiv, 20), B.C. 628. In the parallel pas- sage (2 Kings xxii, 12) he is called Achbor, the son of Michaiah. 4. A "son" of Shashak, and chief Benjamite of Je- rusalem (1 Chron. viii, 23), B.C. ante 598. 5. A Levitical town of the Gershonites, in the tribe of Asher, mentioned between Mishal or Mashal and Helkath or Hukkok (Josh, xxi, 30; 1 Chron. vi, 74). The same place, according to several MSS., is men- tioned in Josh, xix, 28, instead of Hebron (Reland, Palast. p. 518). Under this latter form Schwarz (Pa- lest, p. 192) identifies it with a village, Ebra, which he affirms lies in the valley of the Leontes, south of Ku- lat Shakif; perhaps the place hy the name of Abnon marked in this region on Robinson's map (new ed. of Researches). It is probably identical with the ruined site A bdeh, 8 or 9 miles N. E. of Accho (Van de Velde, Memoir, p. 280). Abecedarians (Abecedarii), a branch of the sect of Anabaptists, founded by Stork, once a disciple of Luther, who taught that all knowledge served to hin- der men from attending to God's voice inwardly in- structing them ; and that the only means of prevent- ing this was to learn nothing, not even the alphabet, for the knowledge of letters served only to risk salva- tion. See Anabaptists. Abecedarian hymns or psalms — psalms, the verses of which commence with the consecutive letters of the alphabet. See Acrostic. In imitation of the 119th Psalm, it was customary in the early Church to compose psalms of this kind, each part having its prop- er letter at the head of it : the singing of the verses was commenced by the precentor, and the people join- ed him in the close. Occasionally they sang alternate verses. This mode of conducting the psalmody was sometimes called singing acrostics and acroteleutics, and is the apparent origin of the Gloria Patri repeated at the end of each psalm in modern liturgical services. See Chorus. Some of the psalms of David are abe- cedarian, and others so constructed as to be adapted to the alternate song of two divisions of precentors in the Temple. See PSALMS. The priests continued their services during the night, and were required oc- casionally to utter a cry to intimate that they were awake to duty. Psalm exxxiv appears to be of this order. The first watch address the second, remind- ing them of duty. "Behold, bless ye the Lord, all ye servants of the Lord, which by night stand in the house of the Lord. Lift up your hands in the sanc- tuary, and bless the Lord." The second respond, "The Lord that made heaven and earth bless thee out of Zion." This custom was probably introduced into the Christian church from the Hebrew service, and was intended to aid the memory. Hymns, com- posed in this manner, embodying orthodox sentiments, were learned by the people, to guard them against the errors of the Donatists (Bingham, Orig. Eccl. xiv, 1, 12). See Hymn ; Psai.ter. Abed'-nego (Heb. Abed' Xego' l."? IS?) servant ABEEL i of Nego, i. e. of Nebo, or the Chaklaic Mercury, Dan. i, 7, and Chald. id. X153 ^2"; Sept. and Josephus 'AflStvayw), the Chaklee name imposed by the king of Babylon's officer upon Azariah (q. v.), one of the three companions of Daniel (Dan. ii, 49; iii, 12-30). With his two friends, Shadrach and Meshach, he was miraculously delivered from the burning furnace, into which they were cast for refusing to worship the gold- en statue which Nebuchadnezzar had caused to be set up in the plain of Dura (Dan. iii). He has been sup- posed by some to be the same person as Ezra ; but Ezra was a priest of the tribe of Levi (Ezra vii, 5), while this Azariah was of the royal blood, and conse- quently of Judah (Dan. i, 3, 6). Abeel, David, D.D., an eminent missionary, was horn at New Brunswick, N. J., June 12th, 1804, stud- ied theology at the seminary in that place, and in 1826 was licensed to preach in the Dutch Reformed churches. In October, 1829, he sailed for Canton as a chaplain of the Seamen's Friend Society ; but at the end of a year's labor placed himself under the direc- tion of the American Board of Commissioners for For- eign Missions. He visited Java, Singapore, and Siam, studying Chinese, and laboring with much suc- cess, when his health failed him entirely, and he re- turned home in 1833 by way of England, visiting Hol- land, France, and Switzerland, and everywhere urg- ing the claims of the heathen. In 1838 he again re- turned to Canton. The "opium war" preventing his usefulness there, he visited Malacca, Borneo, and oth- er places, and settled at Kolongsoo. His health giv- ing way once more, he returned in 1845, and died at Albany, Sept. 4, 1846. He published Journal of Res- idence in China, in 1829-1833 (N. Y. 8vo) ; The Mis- sionary Convention at Jerusalem (N. Y. 1838, 12mo) ; Claims of the World to the Gospel (N. Y. 1838). See Williamson, Memoirs of the Rev. D. Abeel (N. Y. 1849, 18mo); Amer. Missionary Memorial, p. 338. Abeel, John Nelson, D.D., a minister of the Reformed Dutch Church, who was born in 1769, grad- uated in 1787 at Princeton, and was licensed to preach in April, 1793. In 1795 he became one of the clergy of the Collegiate Dutch Church in New York, where he continued until his death in 1812. He was an elo- quent preacher, and a man of great and deserved in- fluence. A'bel (Heb. He'bel, bltl, a breath, i. q. transitory; as Gesenius \Heb. Lex.^\ thinks, from the shortness of his life ; or, as Kitto \_Daily Bible Illust.~] suggests, per- haps i. q. vanity, from the maternal cares experienced during the infancy of Cain ; Sept. and N. T. "A/3f A ; Josephus, ' A/3tXoc), the second son of Adam and Eve, slain by his elder brother, Cain (Gen. iv, 1-16), B.C. cir. 4045. See Adam. I. History.— Cain and Abel, having been instructed, perhaps by their father, Adam, in the duty of worship to their Creator, each offered the first-fruits of his la- bors : Cain, as a husbandman, the fruits of the field ; Abel, as a shepherd, fatlings of his flock (see Fritzsche, De Sacrijiciis Caini et Habelis, Lips. 1751). God was pleased to accept the offering of Abel, in preference to that of his brother (Heb. xi, 4), in consequence of which Cain, giving himself up to envy, formed the desi-rn of killing Abel; which he at length effected, having invited him to so into the field (Gen. iv, 8, 9; comp. 1 John iii, 12). See Caix. The Jews had a tra- dition that Abel was murdered in the plain of Damas- cus ; and accordingly his tomb is still shown on a high hill near the village of Sinie or Seneiah, about twelve miles northwest of Damascus, on the road to Baalbek (Jerome, in Ezech. xxxvii). The summit of the hill is still called Nebi Abel; but circumstances lead to the probable supposition that this was the site, or in the vicinity of the site, of the ancient Abela or Abila (Po- cocke, East, ii, 168 sq. : Schubert, Rcis. iii, 286 sq.). See Abila. The legend, therefore, was most likely ABEL suggested by the ancient name of the place (see Stan- ley, Palest, p. 405). See Abel-. (For literature, see Wolf, Curce in N. T., iv, 749.) II. Traditional Views. — Ancient writers abound in observations on the mystical character of Abel; and he is spoken of as the representative of the pastoral tribes, while Cain is regarded as the author of the no- madic life and character. St. Chrysostom calls him the Lamb of Christ, since he suffered the most grievous injuries solely on account of his innocency (Ad Staffir. ii, 5) ; and he directs particular attention to the mode in which Scripture speaks of his offerings, consisting of the best of his flock, " and of the fat thereof," while it seems to intimate that Cain presented the fruit which might be most easily procured (Horn, in Gen. xviii, 5). St. Augustin, speaking of regeneration, al- ludes to Abel as representing the new or spiritual man in contradistinction to the natural or corrupt man, and says, " Cain founded a city on earth ; but Abel, as a stranger and pilgrim, looked forward to the city of the saints which is in heaven" (De Civitate Dei, XV, 1). Abel, he says in another place, was the first-fruits of the Church, and was sacrificed in testimony of the fu- ture Mediator. And on Psa. cxviii (Serm. xxx, § 9) ' he says: "This city" (that is, "the city of God") " has its beginning from Abel, as the wicked city from Cain." Irenanis says that God, in the case of Abel, subjected the just to the unjust, that the righteousness of the former might be manifested by what he suffered (Contra llmres. iii, 23). Heretics existed in ancient times who represented Cain and Abel as embodying two spiritual powers, of which the mightier was that of Cain, and to which they accordingly rendered divine homage. In the early Church, Abel was considered the first of the martyrs, and many persons were accus- tomed to pronounce his name with a particular rever- ence. An obscure sect arose under the title of Abelites (q. v.), the professed object of which was to inculcate certain fanatical notions respecting marriage ; but it was speedily lost amidst a host of more popular par- ties. For other mythological speculations respecting Abel, see ^\\ttmz.nn's-My1h<>logus, i, 55 sq. ; for Rab- binical traditions, see Eisenmenger, Entdeckt. Judenth. i, 462 sq., 832 sq. ; for other Oriental notices, see Ko- ran, v, 35 sq. ; Hottinger, Hist. Orient, p. 24 sq. ; comp. Fabric. Pstudepigr. i, 113; other Christian views may be seen in Irenaeus, v, 67 ; Cedrenus, Hist. p. 8 (Kitto). The general tenor of these Eastern traditionary fic- tions is that both Cain and Abel had twin sisters, and that Adam determined to give Cain's sister to Abel, and Abel's sister to Cain in marriage. This arrange, ment, however, did not please Cain, who desired his own sister as a wife, she being the more beautiful. Adam referred the matter to the divine arbitration, di- recting each brother to offer a sacrifice, and abide the result. Abel presented a choice animal from his flock, and Cain a few poor ears of grain from his field. Fire fell from heaven and consumed Abel's offering with- out smoke, while it left Cain's untouched. Still more incensed at this disappointment, Cain resolved to take his brother's life, who, perceiving his design, endeavor- ed to dissuade him from so wicked an act. Cain, how- ever, cherished his malice, but was at a loss how to execute it, until the devil gave him a hint by a vision of a man killing a bird with a stone. Accordingly, one night he crushed the head of his brother, while sleeping, with a large stone. He was now at a loss how to conceal his crime. He enclosed the corpse in a skin, and carried it about for forty days, till the stench became intolerable. Happening to sec a crow, which had killed another crow, cover the carcass in a hole in the ground, he acted on the suggestion, and buried his brother's body in the earth. He passed the rest of his days in constant terror, having heard a voire inflicting this curse upon him for his fratricide. (See D'Hcrbelot, Bibliotheque Orientate, s.v. Cabil.) III. Character of his Offering.— -The superiority of ABEL 10 ABELARD Abel's sacrifice is ascribed by the Apostle Paul to faith (Hcb. xi, 4). Faith implies a previous revelation : it comes by hearing, and hearing by the word of God. It is probable that there was some command of God, in reference to the rite of sacrifice, with which Abel complied, and which Cain disobeyed. The "more ex- cellent sacrifice" was the firstlings of his flock ; in the offering of which there was a confession that his own sins deserved death, and the expression of a desire to share in the benefits of the great atonement which, in the fulness of time, should be presented to God for the sins of man. By his faith he was accepted as "right- eous," that is, was justified. God testified, probably by some visible sign — the sending of fire from heaven to consume the victim (a token that justice had seized upon the sacrifice instead of the sinner) — that the gift was accepted. Cain had no faith : his offering was not indicative of this principle. Although it is doubt- ful whether we can render the clause in God's expos- tulation with him — "sin lieth at the door" — by the words, " a sin-offering lieth or croucheth at the door," that is, a sin-offering is easily procured, yet the sin of Cain is clearly pointed out; for though he was not a keeper of sheep, yet a victim whose blood could be shed as a typical propitiation could without difficulty have been procured and presented. The truths clearly taught in this important event are, confession of sin ; acknowledgment that the penalty of sin is death ; sub- mission to an appointed mode of expiation; the vica- rious offering of animal sacrifice, typical of the better sacrifice of the Seed of the woman ; the efficacy of faith in Christ's sacrifice to obtain pardon, and to admit the guilty into divine favor (Wesley, Notes on Heb. xi, 4). The difference between the two offerings is clear- ly and well put by Dr. Magee {On the Atonement, i, 58-61): "Abel, in firm reliance on the promise of God, and in obedience to his command, offered that sacrifice which had been enjoined as the religious ex- pression of his faith; while Cain, disregarding the gracious assurances which had been vouchsafed, or, at least, disdaining to adopt the prescribed method of manifesting his belief, possibly as not appearing to his reason to possess any efficacy or natural fitness, thought he had sufficiently acquitted himself of his duty in ac- knowledging the general superintendence of God, and expressing his gratitude to the supreme Benefactor, by presenting some of those good things which he thereby confessed to have been derived from His bounty. In short, Cain, the first-born of the fall, ex- hibits the first-fruits of his parents' disobedience, in the arrogance and self-sufficiency of reason, rejecting the aids of revelation, because they fell not within his ap- prehension of right, lie takes the first place in the annals of Deism, and displays, in his proud rejection of the ordinance of sacrifice, the same spirit which, in later days, has actuated his enlightened followers in re- jecting the sacrifice of Christ." See Sacrifice. There arc several references to Abel in the New Testament. Our Saviour designates him " righteous" (Matt, xxiii, 35 ; comp. 1 John, iii, 12). He ranks among the il- lustrious elders mentioned in Heb. xi. According to Heb. xii, 24, while the blood of sprinkling speaks for the remission of sins, the blood of Abel for vengeance : the blood of Sprinkling speaks of mercy, the blood of Abel of the malice of the human heart. — Watson, In- stitutes, ii, 171, 1D1 ; Whatclv, Prototype*, V- 29; Home, 1 Death of Abel, Wbrks,1812, vol. iv: Hunter, Sacred Biography, p. 17 sq. ; Robinson, Script. Charac- ter*,\, Williams, Char.ofO. T. p. 12; Simeon, Works, xix, 371; Close, Genesis, p. 46; Nicnieyer, Charakt. ii, 87. Abel, Thomas. See Able. A'bel- (Heb. .!/»/'-, ~b^X, a name of several villages in Palestine, with additions in the case of (he more important, to distinguish them from one another (sec each in its alphabetical order). From a compar- ison of the Arabic and Syriac, it appears to mean frsh grass ; and the places so named may be conceived to have been in peculiarly verdant situations (Gesenius, Thes. Heb. p. 14 ; see, however, other significations in Lengerke, Kenaan, i, 358; Hengstenberg, Pentat. ii, 201). See Abila. In 1 Sam. vi, 18, it is used as an appellative, and probably signifies a, grassy plain. In this passage, however, perhaps we should read (as in the margin) "2X, stone, instead of 73X, Abel, or meadow, as the context (verses 14, 15) requires, and the Sept. and Syriac versions explain ; the awkward insertion of our translators, "the great [stone of] Abel," would thus be unnecessary. In 2 Sam. xx, 14, 18, Abel stands alone for Abel- Beth-Maaciiaii (q. v.). Abela. See Aeel-beth-maachah. Abelard, Pierre [or Abaelard, Abaillard, Abelhardus], born at Le Pallet, or Palais, near Nantes, 1079, was a man of the most subtle genius, and the father of the so-called scholastic theology. In many respects he was far in advance of his age. After a very careful education, he spent part of his youth in the army, and then turned his attention to theological stud}', and had for his tutor in logic, at thirteen years of age, the celebrated Roscelin, of Compiegne. He left Palais before he was twenty j'ears of age, and went to Paris, where he became a pupil of William of Champeaux, a teacher of logic and philosophy of the highest reputation. At first the favorite disciple, by degrees Abelard became the rival, and finally the antagonist of Champeaux. To escape the persecution of his former master, Abelard, at the age of twenty- two, removed to Melon, and established himself there as a teacher, with great success. Thence he removed to Corbeil, where his labors seem to have injured his health ; and he sought repose and restoration by re- tirement to Palais, where he remained a few years, and then returned to Paris. The controversy was then renewed, and continued till Champeaux's schol- ars deserted him, and he retired to a monastery. Abelard, having paid a visit to his mother at Palais, found on his return to Paris in 1113 that Champeaux had been made Bishop of Chalons-sur-Marne. He now commenced the study of divinity under Anselm at Laon. Here also the pupil became the rival of his master, and Anselm at length had him expelled from Laon, when he returned to Paris, and established a school of divinity, which was still more numerously attended than his former schools had been. Guizot says, "In this celebrated school were trained one pope (Celestine II), nineteen cardinals, more than fifty bishops and archbishops, French, English, and German; and a much larger number of those men with whom popes, bishops, and cardinals had often to contend, such men as Arnold of Brescia, and many others. The number of pupils who used at that time to assemble round Abelard has been estimated at up- ward of 5000." Abelard was about thirty-five when he formed an acquaintance with Ileloise, the niece of Fulbert, a canon in the Cathedral of Paris. She was probably under twenty. He contracted with her a secret and unlawful connection, the fruit of which was a sen named Peter Astrolabus. Soon after Abelard mar- ried Ileloise; but the marriage was kept secret, and, at the suggestion of Abelard, Ileloise retired into the convent of Argenteuil, near Paris, where she had been, as a child, brought up. The relatives of Ileloise, en- raged at this, and believing that Abelard had de- ceived them, revenged themselves by indicting the se- verest personal injuries upon him. He then, being forty years old, took the monastic vows at S. Denys, and persuaded Ileloise to do the same at Argenteuil. From this time he devoted himself to the study of the- ology, and before long published his work Intruductio ABELARD 11 ad Theologiam, in which he spoke of the Trinity in so subtle a manner that he was openly taxed with heresy. Upon this he was cited to appear before a council held at Soissons, in 1121, by the pope's legate, where, al- though he was convicted of no error, nor was any ex- amination made of the case, he was compelled to burn his book with his own hands. After a brief detention at the abbey of St. Medard, he returned to his monas- tery, where he quarrelled with his abbot, Adamus, and the other monks (chiefly because he was too good a critic to admit that Dionysius, the patron saint of France, was identical with the Areopagite of the same name mentioned in the Acts), and retired to a solitude near Nogent-sur-Seine, in the diocese of Troves, where, with the consent of the bishop, Hatto, he built an oratory in the name of the Most Holy Trinity, which he called Paraclete, and dwelt there with another clerk and his pupils, who soon gathered around him again. His hearers, at various periods, were numbered by thousands. Being called from his retreat (A.D. 1125) by the monks of St. Gildas, in Bretagne, who had elected him their abbot, he abode for some time with them, but was at length compelled to flee from the monastery (about 1134) to escape their wicked designs upon his life, and took up his abode near Paraclete, where Heloise and her nuns were at that time settled. About the year 1140, the old charge of heresy was re- newed against him, and by no less an accuser than the celebrated Bernard of Clairvaux, who was his op- ponent in the council held at Sens in that year. Abelard, seeing that he could not expect his cause to receive a fair hearing, appealed to Borne, and at once set out upon his journey thither. Happening, how- ever, on his route, to pass through Cluny, ho was kindly received by the abbot, Peter the Venerable, by whose means he was reconciled to Bernard, and final- ly determined to pass the remainder of his days at Cluny. He died April 21, 1142, aged sixty-three years, at the monastery of S. Marcel, whither he had been sent for his health. As Bernard was the representative of Church au- thority in that age, so Abelard was the type of the new school of free inquiry, and of the use of reason in the- ology. His philosophy was chiefly, if not wholly, dia- lectics. In the controversy between the Realists and the Nominalists he could be classed with neither; his position was the intermediate one denoted by the mod- ern term Conceptualism. In theology he professed to agree with the Church doctrines, and quoted Augus- tine, Jerome, and the fathers generally, as authorities ; but held, at the same time, that it was the province of reason to develop and vindicate the doctrines them- selves. "At the request of his hearers he published his In- troductio ad Theologiam ; but in accordance with the stand-point of theological science in that atce, the idea of Theologia was confined, and embraced only Dogmat- ics. The work was originally, and remained a mere fragment of the doctrines of religion. He agreed so far with Anselm's principles as to assert that the In- tellects can only develop what is given in the Fides ; but he differs in determining the manner in which Faith is brought into existence ; nor does he recog- nize so readily the limits of speculation, and, in some points, he goes beyond the doctrinal belief of the Church; yet the tendency of the rational element ly- ing at the basis, and his method of applying it, are dif- ferent. The former was checked in its logical devel- opment by the limits set to it in the Creed of the Church ; many things also are only put down on the spur of the moment. The work not only created a prodigious sensation, but also showed traces of a pre- ceding hostility." He treated the doctrine of the Trinity (in his The- ologia Christiana) very boldlj'', assuming "unity in the Divine Being, along with diversity in his relations (relationum diversitas), in which consist the Divine ABEL-BETII-MAACIIAH Persons. He also maintains a cognition of God (as the most perfect and absolutely independent Being), by means of the reason, which he ascribes to the heathen philosophers, without derogating from the incompre- hensibility of God. He also attempted to explain (in his Etkica), on philosophical principles, the chief con- ceptions of theological morality, as, for instance, the notions of vice and virtue. He made both to consist in the mental resolution, or in the intention ; and main- tained, against the moral conviction of his age, that no natural pleasures or sensual desires are in themselves of the nature of sin. He discovered the evidence of the morality of actions in the frame of mind and max- ims according to which those actions are undertaken." A pretty clear view of Abelard's theology is given by Neander, Hist, of Christian Dogmas, 478 sq. (transl. by Ryland, Lond. 1858, 2 vols). Abelard founded no school, in the proper sense of the word ; the results of his labors were critical and destructive, rather than positive. The later scholastics, however, were greatly indebted to him, especially as to form and method. His writings are as follows ; Epistolce ad J/eloisam, 4 ; Epistolce alive- ad diversos; Historia Calamitatuni sita- rum , Apologia ; Expositio Orationis Dominica; ; E.iposi- tio in Symbolum Apostolorum ; Expositio in Symbolum Athanasii; Solutiones Problematum Helotsce; Adversus Ihereses liber; Commentariorum in Epistolam ad Roma- nos, libri 5 ; Sermones 32 ; Ad Heloisam ejusqiie Yirgines Paracletenses ; Introduetio ad Theologiam, libri 3 ; Epi- tome, Theologia Christiana. The philosophy and theology of Abelard have been recently brought into notice anew; in fact, the means of studying them fully have only of late been afford- ed by the following publications, viz. : Abaelai'di Epit- ome Theologian Christiana; nunc primum edidit F. H. Rheinwald (Berlin, 1835) ; Cousin's edition of his Ou- trages inedits (Paris, 1836. 4to); by the excellent Vie cT Abelard, par C. Remusat (Paris, 1845. 2 vols.); and by P. Abaelardi Sic ct X«n, primum ed. Henke et Lindenkohl (Marburg, 1851, 8vo). The professedly complete edition of his works by Amboesius (Paris, 1616, 4to) does not contain the Sic et Non. Migne's edition (Patrologice, torn. 178) is expurgated of certain anti-papal tendencies. A complete edition in three vols. 4to, was begun in 1859 by MM. Cousin, Jour- dain, and Despois. See Berington, History and Let- ters of Abelard and Heloise (Lond. 1784, 4to); Nean- der, Ch. Hist, iv, 373 ; Meth. Quar. Review, articles In- stauratio Nova, Jv\y and Oct. 1853 ; Bobringer, Kir- cheng. in Biog. vol. iv; Presb. Quarterly, Philada. 1858 (two admirable articles, containing the best view of Abelard's life and philosophy anywhere to be found in small compass) ; The English Cyclop. ; Wight, Ro- mance of Abelard and Heloise (N. Y. 1853, 12mo) ; Guizot, Essai sur Abelard et Heloise (Paris, 1839); Edinb. Rev. xxx, 352 ; Westm. Rev. xxxii, 146. A'bel-beth-ma'achah (Ileb. Abel' Beyth-Maa- hah', fcr^-mS biX, Abel of Beih-Maachah ; Sept. A/3i\ o'/ray Mox« in 1 Kings XV, 20, A/3tX Bai9/ja- axd v. r. Ocipaaxd in 2 Kings xv, 29), a city in the north of Palestine, in the neighborhood of Dan, Ka- desh, and Hazor. It seems to have been of considera- ble strength from its history, and of importance from its being called "a mother in Israel" (2 Sam. xx, 19), i. e., a metropolis ; for the same place is doubtless there meant, although peculiarly expressed (ver. 14, rt5^!< FDSB tVQI, toward Abel and Beth-Maachah, Sept. eig 'AftiX mi a'c Bai0/<«\'rf, Vulg. in Abelam et Beth- Maacha, Auth. Vers, "unto Abel and to Beth-Maa- chah;" ver. is, nzran nia n^xa, »'» AbeM of the house o/Maachah, Sept. tv 'A/3t\ Bai0/i«x«i VulS- in Abela et, in Beth-maacha, Auth. Vers, "in Abel of Beth-maachah"). See Beth-MAACHAH. The same place is likewise once denoted simply by Adel (2 Sam. xx, 18) ; and in the parallel passage (2 Chron. xvi, 4), ABEL-CERAMIM 12 ABEL-MIZRAIM Abel-maim, -which indicates the proximity of a foun- tain or of springs from which the meadow, doubtless, derived its verdure. See Abel-. The addition of "Maaehah" marks it as belonging to, or being near to, the region Maachah, which lay eastward of the Jordan under Mount Lebanon. See Maacah. It was besieged by Joab on account of its having shel- tered Sheba, the son of Bichri, a Benjamite, who had rebelled against David; but was saved from an as- sault by the prudence of a "wise woman" of the place, who persuaded the men to put the traitor to death, and to throw his head over the wall; upon which the siege was immediately raised (2 Sam. xx, 14-22). At a later date it was taken and sacked by Benhadad, king of Syria ; and 200 years subsequent- ly by Tiglath-pileser, who sent away the inhabitants captives into Assyria (2 Kings xx, 29). The name Belmen (BsXfiiv), mentioned in Judith (iv, 4), has been thought a corruption of Abel-maim; but the place there spoken of appears to have been much more southward. Josephus {Ant. vii, 11, 7) calls it Abel- machea CAj3iXi.iaxta), or (Ant. viii, 12, 4) Abellane C AjiiXXiwii) ; and Theodoret (Qua>st. 39 in 2 Reg.} says it was still named Abela (AfiiXci). Eeland (Palest. p. 520) thinks it is the third of the cities called Abela mentioned by Eusebius (Onomast.) as a Phoenician city between Damascus and Paneas; but Gesenius (Thes. Heb. p. 15) objects that it need not be located in Gali- lee (Harenberg, in the Nov. Miscel. Lips, iv, 470), and is, therefore, disposed to locate it farther north. See Abila. Calmet thinks it, in like manner, the same with Abila of Lysanias. But this position is incon- sistent with the proximity to Dan and other cities of Naphtali, implied in the Biblical accounts. It was suggested by Dr. Robinson (Eeseai-ches, iii, Appendix, p. 137) that Abil el-Karub, in the region of the Upper Jordan, is the ancient Abel-Beth-Maachah ; this con- clusion has recently been confirmed almost to certain- ty by Mr. Thomson (Bibliothecn Sacra, 1846, p. 202). It is so productive in wheat as to be called likewise Abel el-Kamch (ib. p. 204). This place "is situated on the west side of the valley and stream that descends from Merj-Ayun toward the Huleh, and below the opening into the Merj. It lies on a very distinctly marked tell, consisting of a summit, with a large offset from it on the south" (Rev. E. Smith, ib. p. 214). It is now an inconsiderable village, occupying part of the long oval mound (Thomson, Land and Book, i, 324 sq.). This identification essentially agrees with that of Schwarz (Palest, p. G5), although he seeks to find in this vicinity three towns of the name of Abel [Palest, p. 203), for the purpose of accommodating cer- tain Rabbinical notices. (See Eeineccius, De urbe Abel, Weissenfels, 1725.) A'bel-cera'mim (Heb. Abel' Keramim'. ^2i< b^XHS, meadow of vineyards; Sept. 'AfiiX dfjnrtXwvwv; Vulg. Abel awe est vineis consita; Auth. Vers, "plain of the vineyards"), a village of the Ammonites whither the victorious Jephthah pursued their invading forces with great slaughter; situate, apparently, between Aroer and Minnith (Judg. xi, 33). According to Eu- sebius (Onomast. " AfiiX), it was still a place rich in vineyards, (5 (Jerome 7) Roman miles from Philadel- phia or Rabbath-Ammon ; probably in a south-west- erly direction, and perhaps at the present ruins Merj (meadow) Ekkeh. The other "wine-bearing" village Abel mentioned by Eusebius, 12 If. miles E. of Ga- dara, is probably the modern Abil (Ritter, Erdk. xv, 1058); but cannot be the place in question, as it lies north of Gilead, which Jephthah passed through on his way south from Manasseh by the way of the Up- per Jordan. Sec Abila. Abelites, Abelians, or Abelonians, a sect of heretics who appeared in the diocese of Hippo, in Af- rica, about the year 870. They insisted upon marriage, but permitted no carnal conversation between man and wife, following, as they said, the example of Abel, and the prohibition in Gen. ii, 17. When a man and woman entered their sect they were obliged to adopt a boy and girl, who succeeded to all their property, and were united together in marriage in a similar manner. Augustine says (De Hair. cap. 87) that in his time they had become extinct. The whole sect was at last re- duced to a single village, which returned to the Church. This strange sect is, to some extent, reproduced in the modern Shakers.— Mosheim, Ch. Hist. c. ii, pt, ii, ch. v, § 18. Abellane. See Abel-beth-maachah. Abelli, Louis, Bishop of Rodez (South France), was born at Vez, 1604. He was made bishop in 1664, but resigned in three years, to become a monk in the convent of St. Lazare, at Paris. He was a violent op- 1 poser of the Jansenists, and author of a system of Dog- matic Theology, entitled Medulla Theologica (repub- lished in Mayence, 1839), and also of Vie de St. Vincent de Paul, 4to. He was an ardent advocate of the wor- ship of the Virgin Mary, and wrote, in its defence, La Tradition de. Veglise touchant le culte de la Vierge, 1652, 8vo. He died in his convent in 1691. i Abelmachea. See Abel-beth-maachaii. \ A'bel-ma'im (Heb. Abel Ma'yim, D^E ^SS, meadow of water ,• Sept. A/SfX^aiV, Vulg. Abelmain), one of the cities of Naphtali captured by Bendahad (2 . Chron. xvi, 4); elsewhere (1 Kings xv, 20) called \ Abel-beth-maachah (q. v.). Abelmea. See Abel-meholah. \ A'bel-meho'lah (Heb. Abel' Meclwlah', -l?a» tisinp, meadow of dancing; Sept. 'Aj5iXf.iiovXa and 'AfiiXpaov?.a, Vulg. Abelmehula and Abelmerda'), a place not far from the Jordan, on the confines of Issa- cliar and Manasseh, in the vicinity of Beth-shittah, Zeredah, and Tabbath, whither Gideon's three hun- dred picked men pursued the routed Midianites (Judg. , vii, 22). It was the birthplace or residence of Elisha the prophet (1 Kings xix, 16), and lay not far from Beth-shean (1 Kings iv, 12); according to Eusebius (Onomast. liift/.iatXa'), in the plain of the Jordan, 16 (Jerome 10) Roman miles south, probabh- the same with the village Abelmea mentioned by Jerome (ibid. Eusebius less correctly 'A(3tX via) as situated between Scythopolis (Cethshean) and Neapolis (Shechem). It is also alluded to by Epiphanius (whose text has inac- curately 'ApiXpoiiS v. r. 'A/.iinovi]X, and wrongly lo- cates it in the tribe of Reuben), and (as 'A/3fA/<«oi''A) in the Past hid Chronicle (see Reland, Palazst. p. 522). It Mas probably situated not far from where the Wady ! el-Maleh (which seems to retain a trace of the name) ! emerges into the Aulon or valley of the Jordan ; per- haps at the ruins now called Kkurbet esh-Shuk, which are on an undulating plain beside a stream (Van de I Velde, Narrative, ii, 340). This appears to agree with the conjectural location assigned by Schwarz (Palest. p. 159), although the places he names do not occur on any map. A'bel-miz'rai'm (Heb. Abel' Mitsra'yim, b^ 1 d^S'O, meadow rf Egypt; but which should probably be pointed D",^i^*2 ?3N, E'bel Mitsra'yim, mourning of the Egyptians, as in the former part of the same verse ; and so appear to have read the Sept. irivGoc, Aijvtctov, and Vulg. Planctus sEgypti), a place beyond (i. e. on the west bank of) the Jordan, occupied (perhaps sub- sequently) by the threshing-floor of Atad. where the Egyptians performed rheir seven days' mourning cer- emonies over the embalmed body of Jacob prior to in- terment (Gen. 1, 11). See Atad. Jerome (Onomast. Area Atad) places it between Jericho and the Jordan, at three Roman miles distance from the former and 1 two from the latter, corresponding (Reland, Pala?st. p. ! 522) to the later site of Beth-hoglah (q. v.). ABEL-SHITTIM 13 ABERNETHY A'bel-shit'tim (Heb. Abel' hash-Skittim', ^2X d^lSil, meadow of the acacias; Sept. 'A/SfArxarraV, Vulg. Abel-satini), a town in the plains of Moab, on the east of the Jordan, between which and Beth-Jesi- moth was the last encampment of the Israelites on that side the river (Num. xxxiii, 49). See Exode. The place is noted for the severe punishment which was there inflicted upon the Israelites when they were seduced into the worship of Baal-Peor, through their evil intercourse with the Moabites and Midianites. See Baal. Eusebius (Onomast. Saryeiv) says it was situ- ated near Mount Peor (Reland, Palcest, p. 520). In the time of Josephus it was a town embosomed in palms, still known as Abila or Abile ('A/3i\a or 'A/3i'X?;), and stood sixty stadia from the Jordan (Ant. iv, 8, 1 ; v, 1, 1). Rabbinical authorities assign it the same relative position (Schwarz, Palest, p. 229). It is more fre- quently called Shittim merely (Num. xxv, 1 ; Josh, ii, 1 ; Mic. vi, 5). From the above notices (which all refer to the sojourn of the Israelites there), it appears to have been situated nearly opposite. Jericho, in the eastern plain of Jordan, about where Wady Seir opens into the Ghor. The acacia-groves on both sides of the Jordan still " mark with a line of verdure the up- per terraces of the valley" (Stanley, Palestine, p. 292), and doubtless gave name to this place (Wilson, Lands of the Bible, ii, 17). Abendana (i. e. Son of Dana), Jacob, a Jewish rabbi, born in Spain about 1630, died in London in 1696. He was rabbi first in Amsterdam, and from 1685 till his death in London. He translated into Spanish the book of Cusari as well as the Mishna, with the commentaries of Maimonides and Bartenora. His Spicxleyium rerum prateritarum el intermissarum con- tains valuable philogical and critical notes to the cele- brated Michlal Jophi (Amsterdam, 1685). A selection from his works appeared after his death, under the title Discourses of the Ecclesiastical and Civil Polity of the Jews (Lond. 1706). Aben-Ezra (otherwise Aben-Esdra, or Ibn- Esra, properly, Abraham ben-Meir), a celebrated Spanish rabbi, called by the Jews the Sage, the Great, etc., was born at Toledo in 1092. Little is known of the facts of his life ; but he was a great traveller and student, and was at once philosopher, mathema- tician, and theologian. His fame for varied and accu- rate learning was very great in his own day, and has survived, worthily, to the present age. He died at Rome, Jan. 23, 1167. De Rossi, in his Hist. Diet, of Hebrew Writers (Parma, 1802), gives a catalogue of the writings attributed to him. Many of them still exist only in MS. A list of those that have been published, with the various editions and transla- tions, is given by Fiirst in his Bibliotheca Judaica (Lpz. 1849, i, 251 sq.). A work on astronomy, enti- tled fl-OSn rPdxna (the Beginning of Wisdom), part- ly translated from the Arabic and partly compiled by himself, greatly contributed to establishing his reputation (a Latin translation of it is given in Wolf, Bibliotheca J/ebraica, t. iii). He also wrote a " Com- mentary on the Talmud," and another work on the im- portance of the Talmud, entitled NTia TitJi (the Basis of Instruction), several times printed (in German, F. ad M. 1840). His most important work consists of " Com- mentaries on the Old Testament" ('b'J d^S, in several parts), a work full of erudition. Bom berg, Buxtorf, and Moses Frankfurter included it in their editions of Hebrew texts and annotations of the Bi- ble (Venice, 1526; Basil, 1618-19; Amst. 1724-7). His "Commentary on the Pentateuch" (rTiipn Ufo'lB) is very rare in its original form (fol. Naples, 1488; Constantinople, 1514), but it has often been reprinted combined with other matter, overlayed by later an- notations, or in fragmentary form. None of the other portions of his great commentary have been published separately from the Rabbinical Bibles, except in de- tached parts, and then usually with other matter and translated. Aben-Ezra usually wrote in the vulgar Hebrew or Jewish dialect ; but that he was perfectly familiar with the original Hebrew is shown by some poems and other little pieces which are found in the preface to his commentaries. The works of Aben- Ezra are thoroughly philosophical, and show a great acquaintance with physical and natural science. He also wrote several works on Hebrew Grammar (es- pecially D^tNt ^SO, Augsb. 1521, 8vo; nn? nso, Ven. 1546, 8vo ; fi^ia HEO, Constpl. 1530, 8vo), most of which have been re-edited (by Lippmann, Heidenhein, etc.) with Heb. annotations. Some of his arithmetical and astronomical works have been translated into Latin. — Hoefer, Biographic Generate. Abercrombie, James, D.D., an Episcopal divine and accomplished scholar, was born in Philadelphia in 1758, and graduated at the University of Pennsylva- nia, 1776. He then studied theology, but, on account of an injury to his eyes, he entered into mercantile pursuits in 1783. In 1793 he was ordained, and be- came associate pastor of Christ Church in 1794. From 1810 to 1819 he was principal of the "Philadelphia Acadenry." In 1833 he retired on a pension, and died at Philadelphia, June 26, 1841, the oldest preacher of that Church in the city. He was distinguished as well for eloquence and liberality as for learning. He wrote Lectures on the Catechism (1807), and published a number of occasional sermons. — Sprague, Annals, v, 394. Abercrombie, John, M.D., author of Enquiiies concerning the Intellectual Powers, published 1830, and | the Philosophy of the Moral Feelings, published 1833, i was born at Aberdeen, Nov. 11, 1781, and attained the highest rank as a practical and consulting physician at Edinburgh. He became Lord Rector of Marischal i College, Aberdeen, 1835. Besides the works above | named, he wrote Essays and Tracts on Christian Sub- jects (Edinb. 18mo) ; Harmony of Christian Faith and I Character (reprint from preceding, N. Y. 1845, 18mo). ! He died Nov. 14, 1844.— Quart. Rev. xlv, 341. Aberdeen (Aberdonia Dcvana), the seat of a Scotch bishopric, formerly suffragan to the Archbish- opric of St. Andrew. The bishopric was transferred to Aberdeen about the year 1130, by King David, from Murthilack, now Mortlick, which had been erected into | an episcopal see by Malcolm II in the year 1010, Bean- \ cus, or Beyn, being the first bishop. Aberdeen, Breviary of. While Romanism pre- vailed in Scotland, the Church of Aberdeen had, like 1 many others, its own rites. The missal, according to Palmer, has never been published ; but an edition of the breviary was printed in 1509. — Palmer, Orig. Li- turg. i, 188, who cites Zaccaria, Biblioth. Pituulis, torn. i; A. Butler, Lives >f Saints, i, 113. Abernethy, John, an eminent Presbyterian di- vine, educated at the University of Glasgow, and aft- erward at Edinburgh. Born at Coleraine, in Ireland, 1680 ; became minister at Antrim in 1708, and labored zealoush' for twenty years, especially in behalf of the Roman Catholics. The subscription controversy, which was raised in England by Hoadley, the 1 mous Bishop of Bangor, and the agitation of which kindled the flames of party strife in Ireland also, having led to the rupture of the Presbytery of Antrim from the General Synod in 1726, Abernethy, who was a warm supporter of the liberal principals of Hoadley. lost a large number of his people; and these having formed a new congregation, he felt his usefulness so greatly contracted that, on his services being solicited by a church in Wood Street, Dublin, he determined to ac- | cept their invitation. Applying himself with re- doubled energy to his ministerial work, he soon col- ABESAR 14 ABIASAPH lectcd a numerous congregation. His constitution tailed under his excessive labors, and he died sud- denly in December, 1740. His discourses on the be- ing and attributes of God have always been held in much esteem. His works are: 1. Discourses on the 1U ing and Perfections of God (Lond. 1743, 2 vols. 8vo) ; 2. Sermons on variant Subjects (Lond. 1748-'51, 4 vols. 8vo) ; 3. Tracts and Sermons (Lond. 1751, 8vo). Abesar. See Abez. Abesta. See Avesta. Abeyance signifies expectancy, probably from the French Layer, to gape after. Lands, dwelling-houses, or g Is, are said to be in abeyance when they are only in expectation, or the intendment of the law, and not actually possessed. In the Church of England, ■when a living has become vacant, between such time and the institution of the next incumbent, it is in abeyance. It belongs to no parson, but is kept sus- pended, as it were, in the purpose, as yet undeclared, of the patron. A'bez (Heb. E'bcfs, yzt<, in pause "j"3X, A'bets, lustre, and hence, perhaps, tin; Sept. 'Aeptx, Vulg. a 1 6i s), a town in the tribe of Issachar, apparently near the border, mentioned between Kishion and Remeth (Josh, xix, 20). It is probably the Abesar ('A/3ecra/)oc) mentioned by Josephus (Ant. vi, 13, 8) as the native city of the wife whom David had married prior to Ab- igail and after his deprival of Michal; possibly re- ferring to Ahinoam the Jezreelitess (1 Sam. xxv, 43), as if she had been so called as having resided in some town of the valley of Esdraelon. According to Schwarz (Palest, p. 167), "it is probably the village of Kwiebiz, called also Karm en-Abiz, which lies three English miles west-south-west from Iksal ;" meaning the Khuneifis or ULhneijis of Robinson (Research's, \\\, 167, 218), which is in the general locality indicated by the associated names. Abgarus (Abagarus, Agbarus ; sometimes de- rived from the Arabic AJcbar, "greater," but better from the Armenian Avag, "great," and air, "man;" see Ersch unci Gruber, s. v. Abgar), the common name of the petty princes (or Toparchs) who ruled at Edes- sa in Mesopotamia, of one of whom there is an East- ern tradition, recorded by Eusebius (Eccl. Hist, i, 13), that he wrote a letter to Christ, who transmitted a re- ply. Eusebius gives copies of both letters, as follows : " Abgarus, Prince of Edessa, to Jesus, the merciful Saviour, who has appeared in the country of Jerusa- lem, greeting. I have been informed of the prodigies and cures wrought by you without the use of herbs or medicines, and by the efficacy only of your words. I am told that you enable cripples to walk; that you tone devils from the bodies possessed; that there is no disease, however incurable, which you do not heal, and that you restore the dead to life. These wonders persuade me that you are some god descended from heaven, or that you are the Son of God. For this rea on 1 have taken the liberty of writing this letter to you, beseeching you to come and see me, and to cure me of the indisposition under which I have so long labored. I understand that the Jews persecute you, murmur at your miracles, and seek your destruc- tion. I have here a beautiful and agreeable city which, though it be not very large, will be sufficient to Bupply you with every thing that is necessary." To this letter it. is said Jesus Christ returned him an answer in the following terms : " You are happy, Abagarus, thus to have believed in me without having Been me : for it is written of me, that thev who shall see me will not believe in me, and that they who have never Been me shall believe and be saved." As to the desire you express in receiving a visit, from me, I must tell you that all things for which I am come must be fulfilled in the country where [ am ; when this is done, I must return to him who sent me. And when I am departed hence, I will send to yon one of my disciples, who will cure you of the disease of which you com- plain, and give life to you and to those that are with you." According to Moses of Chorene (died 470), the reply was written by the Apostle Thomas. Eusebius further states that, after the ascension of Christ, the Apostle Thomas sent Thaddasus, one of the seventy, to Abgar, who cured him of leprosy, and con- verted him, together with his subjects. The docu- ments from which this narrative is drawn were found by Eusebius in the archives of Edessa. Moses of Cho- rene relates further that Abgarus, after his conversion, wrote letters in defence of Christianity to the Empe- ror Tiberius and to the king of Persia. He is also the first who mentions that Christ sent to Abgarus, to- gether with a reply, a handkerchief impressed with his portrait. The letter of Christ to Abgarus was de- clared apocryphal by the Council of Rome, A.D. 494, but in the Greek Church many continued to believe in its authenticity, and the people of Edessa believed that their city was made unconquerable by the posses- sion of this palladium. The original is said to have later been brought to Constantinople. In modern times, the correspondence of Abgarus, as well as the portrait of Christ, are generally regarded as forgeries ; yet the authenticity of the letters is defended by Til- lemont, J/emoires pour Servir a VHist. Eccles. i, p. 362, 615 ; by Welte, Tubing. Quartalschrift, 1842, p. 335 et seq., and several others. Two churches, St. Sylvester's at Rome, and a church of Genoa, profess each to have the original of the portrait. A beauti- ful copy of the portrait in Rome is given in W. Grimm, Die Sage vom Ursprung der Christusbilder (Berlin, 1843). The authenticity of the portrait in Genoa is defended by the Mechitarist, M. Samuelian. Hefele puts its origin in the fifteenth century, but believes it to be the copy of an older portrait. See the treatises on this subject, in Latin, by Frauendorff (Lips. 1693) ; Albinus (Viteb. 1694); E. Dalhuse (Hafn. 1699), Schulze (Regiom. 1706) ; Semler (Hal. 1759) ; Heine (Hal. 1768) ; Zeller (I'rnkf. ad 0. 1798) ; in German, by Hartmann (Jena, 1796) , Rink (in the Morgenblalt, 1819, No. 110, and in Ilgen's Zeitschr. 1843, ii, 3-26) ; and comp. Bayer, Hist. Edessana, p. 104 sq., 358 sq. See, also, Neander, Ch. Hist, i, 80 ; Mosheim, Comm. i, 95; Lardner, Works, vi, 596 ; Stud. v. Kril. I860, iii ; and the articles Ciikist, Images of: Jesus. A'bi (Heb. Abi' ', "^X, my father, or rather father of [see Abi-]; Sept. 'A/3t, Vulg. Abi), a shortened form (comp. 2 Chron. xxix, 1) of Abijaii (q. v.), the name of the mother of King Hezekiah (2 Kings xviii, 2, where the full form is also read in some MSS.). Abi- (~^X> an old construct form of ZH, father, as is evident from its use in Hebrew and all the cog- nate languages), forms the first part of several Hebrew proper names (Bib. Repos. 1846, p. 760) ; e. g. those following. See Ab-. Abi'a ('Aftiu), a Grrccized form of the name Abi- jaii (Matt, i, 7 ; Luke i, 5). It also occurs (1 Chron. iii, 10) instead of Abiah (q. v.). Abi'ah, a less correct mode (1 Sam. viii, 2 ; 1 Chron. ii, 4 ; vi, 28 ; vii, 8) of Anglicizing the name Abijaii (q. v.). A'bi-al'bon (Heb. Abi'-ATbon', "pa^S-iaS, fa- ther of strength, i.e. valiant; Sept. 'Afil 'A/fit'ov v. r. 'A/31 'Apf3uv, Vulg. Abialboii), one of David's bouV- guard (2 Sam. xxiii, 31) ; called in the parallel passage (1 Chron. xi, 32) by the equivalent name ABIEL (q. v.). Abi'asaph (Heb. Abiasaph', t)OX"'3X, father of gathering, i. e. gatherer; Sept. 'Apiuaacj), Vulg. Abi- asaph), the youngest of the three sons of Korah the Levite (Exo'd. vi, 24); B.C. post 1740. He is differ- ent from the Ebiasaph of 1 Chron. vi, 23, 37 ; ix, 19. See Samuel. ABIATHAR ABIEZER Abi'athar (Heb. Ebyathar', "tt^ax, father of abundance, i.e. liberal; Sept. 'A/JmOup ur 'Afiiatlup, N. T. 'AjSiddap, Josephus 'AjhuOapoc'), the thirteenth high-priest of the Jews, being the son of Ahimelech, and the third in descent from Eli ; B.C. 1060-1012. When his father was slain with the priests of Nob, for suspected partiality to David, Abiathar escaped; and bearing with him the most essential part of the priestly raiment [see Ephod], repaired to the. son of Jesse, who was then in the cave of Adullam (1 Sam. xxii, 20-23 ; xxiii, 6). He was well received by David, and be- came the priest of the part)- during its exile and wan- derings, receiving for David responses from God (1 Sam. xxx, 7 ; comp. 2 Sam. ii, 1 ; v, 19). The cause of this strong attachment on the part of the monarch was the feeling that he had been unintentionally the cause of the death of Abiathar's kindred. When Da- vid became king of Judah he appointed Abiathar high- priest (see 1 Chron. xv, 11 ; 1 Kings ii, 26), and a member of his cabinet (1 Chron. xxvii, 34). Mean- while Zadok had been made high-priest by Sanl — an appointment not only unexceptionable in itself, but in accordance with the divine sentence of deposition which had been passed, through Samuel, upon the house of Eli (1 Sam. ii, 30-36). When, therefore, David acquired the kingdom of Israel, he had no just ground on which Zadok could be removed, and Abia- thar set in his place ; and the attempt would prob- ably have been offensive to his new subjects, who had been accustomed to the ministration of Zadok, and whose good feeling he was anxious to cultivate. The king appears to have got over this difficulty by al- lowing both appointments to stand ; and until the end of David's reign Zadok and Abiathar were joint high- priests (1 Kings iv, 4). As a high-priest, Abiathar was the least excusable, in some respects, of all those who were parties in the attempt to raise Adonijah to the throne (1 Kings i, 19) ; and Solomon, in deposing him from the high-priesthood, plainly told him that only his sacerdotal character, and his former services to David, preserved him from capital punishment (1 Kings ii, 26, 27). This completed the doom upon the house of Eli, and restored the pontifical succession — Zadok, who remained the high-priest, being of the elder line of Aaron's sons. See Eleazar. In Mark ii, 26, a circumstance is described as occur- ring "in the days of Abiathar, the. high-priest" (t7n 'Ajiia^ap too apx'tpiwg — a phrase that is susceptible of the rendering, in [the time'] of A biathar, [the son] of the high-priest), which appears, from 1 Sam. xxi, 1, to have really occurred when his father Ahimelech was the high-priest. The most probable solution of this difficulty (but see Alford's Comment, in loc.) is that which interprets the reference thus: " in the days of Abiathar, who was afterward the high-priest" (Mid- dleton, Greek Article, p. 188-190). But this leaves open another difficulty, which arises from the precise- ly opposite reference (in 2 Sam. viii, 17; 1 Chron. xviii, 16 ; xxiv, 3, 6, 31) to "Ahimelech [or Ahime- lech] the son of Abiathar," as the person who was high-priest along with Zadok, and who was deposed by Solomon; whereas the historj' describes that per- sonage as Abiathar, the son of Ahimelech. Another explanation is, that both father and son bore the two names of Ahimelech and Abiathar, and might be, and were, called by either (J. C. Leuschner, De Achime- lecho binomimi, Hirschb. 1750). But although it was not unusual for the Jews to have two names, it was not usual for both father and son to have the same two names. Others suppose a second Abiathar, the father of Ahimelech, and some even a son of the same name ; but none of these suppositions are war- ranted by the text, nor allowable in the list of high- priests. See High-priest. The names have prob- ably become transposed by copyists, for the Syriac and Arabic versions have " Abiathar, the son of Ahim- elech." The mention of Abiathar in the above pas- sage of Mark, rather than the acting priest Ahime- lech, may have arisen from the greater prominence of the former in the history of David's reign, and he ap- pears even at that time to have been with his father, and to have had some part in the pontifical duties. In additional explanation of the other difficulty above re- ferred to, it may be suggested as not unlikely that Ahimelech may have been the name of one of Abi- athar's sons likewise associated with him, as well as that of his father, and that copyists have confounded these names together. — Kitto, s.v. See Ahimelech. A'bib (Deb. Abib', 3"'3X, from an obsolete root 3^X, to fructify), property, a head or ear of grain (Lev. ii, 14, "green ears;" Exod. xiii, 31, "ear"); hence, the month of newly-ripe grain (Exod. xiii, 4; xxiii, 15 ; xxxiv, 18 ; Deut. xvi, 1), the first of the Jewish ecclesiastical year, afterward (Neh. ii, 1) called NiSAN (q. v.). It began with the new moon of March, accord- ing to the Rabbins (Buxtorf, Lex. Talm. col. 3), or rath- er of April, according to Michaelis (Comment, ih M< n- sibus Ilebrmor., comp. his Commentat. Bremae, 17<;'.>, p. 16 sq.) ; at which time the first grain ripens in Pales- tine (Robinson's Researches, ii, 99, 100). See Month. Hence it. is hardly to be regarded as a strict name of a month, but rather as a designation of the sea- son ; as the Sept.,Vulg., and Saadias have well render- ed, in Exod. xiii, 4, "the month of the new grain ;" less correctly the Syriac, "the month of flowers" (comp. Bochart, Jliei-oz. i, 557). Others (as A. MiiU ler, Gloss. Saa*a, p. 2) regard the name as derived from the eleventh Egyptian month, Epep Qeiri(j>i, Plot. de Iside, p. 372) ; but this corresponds neither to March or April, but to July (Fabricii Menologium, p. 22 27 ; Jablonsky, Opusc. ed. Water, i, 65 sq.). See Tel-aeib. Ablbas, a martyr of Edessa, burned in 322, under the Emperor Licinius. He is commemorated in the Greek Church, as a saint, on 15th November. Ab'ida [many AW da] (Heb. Abida, rn-zx. fa- ther of knowledge, i. e. knotting; 1 Chron. i, S3, Sei t. 'A/3idd ; Gen. xxv, 4, 'Afitida, Auth. Vers. "Abidah"), the fourth of the five sons of Midian, the son of Abra- ham by Keturah (Gen. xxv, 1 ; 1 Chron. i, 33), and apparently the head of a tribe in the peninsula of Arabia, B.C. post 2000. See Arabia. Josephus (A nt. i, 15, 1) calls him Ebidas ('E/M5t). For the city Abida, see Abila. Ab'idah [many Abi'dah], a less correct mode of Anglicizing (Gen. xxv, 4) the name Abida (q. v.). Ab'idan (Heb. Abida?/, 'fi^K, father of judg- ment, i. e. judge; Sept. 'AfiiSdv), the son of Gideoni, and phylarch of the tribe of Benjamin at the exodo (Num. i, 11 ; ii, 22 ; x, 24). At the erection of the Tabernacle he made a contribution on the ninth day, similar to the other chiefs (Num. vii, 60, 05), B.C. 1657. A'biel (Heb. AbieT, ^1% lit. father [i. e. pos, sessor] of God, i. e. pious, or perhaps/////* r ofstn ngth, i. e. strong; Sept. 'Apu)\), the name of two men. 1. The son of Zeror, a Benjamite (1 Sam. ix, 1 ), and father of Ner (1 Sam. xiv, 51), which last was the grandfather of Saul, the first king of Israel (1 Chron. viii, 33; ix, 39). B.C. 1093. In 1 Sam. ix, 1 he is called the "father" (q. v.) of Kish, meaning grand- father. Sec Nee. 2. An Arbathite, one of David's distinguished war- riors (1 Chron. xi, 32). B.C. 1053. In the parallel passage he is called Abi-ALBON (2 Sam. xxiii. 31). See David. Abie'zer (Heb. id., "j"*^ father of hip. i. e. helpful; Sept. 'A/3t6&p), the name of two men. 1. The second of the three sons of Hammoleketh, sister of Gilead, grandson of Manasseh (1 Chron. vii, 18). B.C. cir. 1618. He became the founder of a family that settled beyond the Jordan [see Opheah |, from which Gideon sprang (Josh, vii, 2), and which ABIEZRITE 16 ABI.TAH bore this name as a patronymic (Jndg. vi, 34), a cir- cumstance that is beautifully alluded to in Gideon's delicate reply to the jealous Ephraimites (Judg. viii, 2). See Abiezrite. He is elsewhere culled Jeezer, and his descendants Jeezerites (Num. xxvi, 30). 2. A native of Anathoth, one of David's thirty chief warriors (2 Sam. xxiii, 27; 1 Chron. xi, 28), B.C. 1053. He was afterward appointed captain of the ninth contingent of troops from the Benjamites (1 Chron. xxvii, 12), B.C. 1014. See David. Abiez'rite (Heb. Abi' ha-Ezri' , ^tSil "i^X, fa- ther of the Ezrite ; Sept. 7rar//p tov 'E£pi, Vulg. pater familiar Ezri ; but in Judg. viii, 32, 'Atji 'E£pt, de fa- milia Ezri), a patron}-mic designation of the descend- ants of Abiezer (Judg. vi, 2, 24 ; viii, 32). Ab'igail (Heb. Abiya'yil, ^"OX, father [i. e. source'] of joy, or peril, i. q. leader of the. dance, once contracted AbigaV ', br^N, 2 Sam. xvii, 25; Sept. 'AfiiydiX v. r. 'Afiiyaia, Josephus A/3(y«<«), the name of two women. 1. The daughter of Nahash (? Jesse), sister of Da- vid, and wife of Jether or Ithra (q. v.), an Ishmaelite, by whom she had Amasa (1 Chron. ii, 1G, 17 ; 2 Sam. xvii, 25). B.C. 1068. 2. The wife of Nabal, a prosperous but churlish sheep-master in the district of Carmel, west of the Dead Sea (1 Sam. xxv, 3). B.C. 10G0. Her prompti- tude and discretion averted the wrath of David, which, as she justly apprehended, had been violently excited by the insulting treatment which his messengers had received from her husband (comp. Josephus, Ant. vi, 13, 6-8). See Nabad. She hastily prepared a lib- eral supply of provisions, of which David's troop stood in much need, and went forth to meet him, attended by only one servant, without the knowl- edge of her husband. When they met, he was marching to exterminate Nabal and all that belonged to him ; and not only was his rage mollified by her prudent remonstrances and delicate management, but he became sensible that the vengeance which he had purposed was not warranted by the circumstances, and was thankful that he had been prevented from shed- ding innocent blood (1 Sam. xxv, 14-35). The beauty and prudence of Abigail (see 11. Hughes, Female Char- art '( r.-;, ii, 250 sq.) made such an impression upon Da- vid on this occasion, that when, not long after, he heard of Nabal's death, he sent for her, and she lie- came his wife ( 1 Sam. xxv, 39-42). She accompanied him in all his future fortunes (1 Sam. xxvii, 3 ; xxx, 5; 2 Sam. ii, 2). See David. By her he had one son, Chileab (2 Sam. iii, 3), who is probably the same elsewhere called Daniel (1 Chron. iii, 1). — Kitto, s. v. Abiha'il (Heb. Abicha'yil, ^Tl^^, father of [I e. endowed, with] might, or perhaps leader of the song), the name of three men and two women. 1. (Sept. 'AfitXai\.) The father of Zuriel, which latter was the chief of the Levitical family of Merari at the exode (Num. iii, 35). B.C. ante 1657. 2. (Sept. 'Aftiyaia v. r. 'Afiixaia.) The wife of Abishur (of the family of Jerahmeel), and mother of Ahban and Molid ( 1 Chron. ii, 29, where the name in some MSS. is A biha'yil, b^(l"2X, apparently by error). B.C. considerably post 1612. 3. (Sept. 'A/3iy/n'rr.) The son of Huri, and one of the family chiefs of the tribe of Gad, who settled in Bashan (1 Chron. v, 14), B.C. between 1093 and 7.S2. 4. (Sept. 'A(3ia'id\ v. r. 'Afitaia and 'Aftixaia.) The second wife of king Rehoboam, to whom she or the previous wife bore several sons (2 Chron. xi, 18). B.C. 972. She is there .ailed the "daughter" of Eliab, the son of Jesse, which must mean descendant [see Father], since David, the j-oungest of his fa- ther's sons, was thirty years old when he began to reign, eighty years before her marriage. 5. (Sept. 'Ajuvaddfi v. r. 'Afiixaia.) The father of Esther, and uncle of Mordecai (Esther ii, 15 ; ix, 29 ; comp. ii, 7). B.C. ante 479. Abi'hu (Heb. Abihu', &MSTOK, lit. father [i. e. worshipper] of Him, sc. God; Sept. 'Afiiove, Josephus 'Afiiovc, Vulg. Abiu), the second of the sons of Aaron by Elisheba (Exod. vi, 23 ; Num. iii, 2 ; xxvi, 60; 1 Chron. vi, 3; xxiv, 1), who, with his brothers Nadab, Eleazar, and Ithamar, was set apart and con- secrated for the priesthood (Exod. xxviii, 1). "With his father and elder brother, he accompanied the sev- enty elders partly up the mount which Moses ascend- ed to receive the divine communication (Exod. xxiv, 1, 9). "When, at the first establishment of the cere- monial worship, the victims offered on the great bra- zen altar were consumed bjr fire from heaven, it was directed that this fire should always be kept up, and that the daily incense should be burnt in censers fill- ed with it from the great altar (see Lev. vi, 9 sq.). But one day Nadab and Abihu presumed to neglect this regulation, and offered incense in censers filled with "strange" or common fire, B.C. 1657. For this they were instantly struck dead b}' lightning, and were tak- en away and buried in their clothes without the camp (Lev. x, 1-11 ; comp. Num. iii, 4 ; xxvi, 61 ; 1 Chron. xxiv, 2). See Aaron. There can be no doubt that this severe example had the intended effect of en- forcing becoming attention to the most minute observ- ances of the ritual service. As immediately after the record of this transaction, and in apparent reference to it, comes a prohibition of wine or strong drink to the priests whose turn it might be to enter the taber- nacle, it is not unfairly surmised that Nadab and Abi- hu were intoxicated when they committed this serious error in their ministrations. — Kitto, s.v. See Nadab. Abi'hvid (Heb. Abihud' ', "WmiS, father [i. e. pos- sessor] of renown, q. d. n«rpoic\oe ; Sept. and N. T. 'Af3touo), the name of two men. 1. One of the sons of Bela, the son of Benjamin (1 Chron. viii, 3) ; apparently the same elsewhere called Ahihud (ver. 7). B.C. post 1856. See Jacob. 2. The great-great-grandson of Zerubbabel, and fa- ther of Eliakim, among the paternal ancestry of Jesus (Matt, i, 13, where the name is Anglicized " Abiud") ; apparently the same with the Juda, son of Joanna and father of .Joseph in the maternal line (Luke iii, 26) ; and also with Obadiaii, son of Arnan and father of Shechaniah in the O. T. (1 Chron. iii, 21). B.C. ante 410. (See Strong's Harmony and Ej-pios. of the Gosp. p. 16.) Comp. Hodaiaii. Abi'jall (Heb. Abiyah' ' , fl*'2S..father [i. e. possess- or or worshipper] of Jehovah ; also in the equivalent protracted form Abiya'liu, ^in^HX^ 2 Chron. xiii, 20, 21 ; Sept. and N. T. 'Afiid, but 'Ajiia in 1 Kings xiv, 1 ; Neh. x, 7 ; 'Afiiac in 1 Chron. xxiv, 10 ; Neh. xii, 4, 17 ; 'Afiiou v. r. 'AfiiovS in 1 Chron. vii, 8 ; Jo- sephus, 'A/Sicrc, Ant. vii, 10, 3; Auth. Vers. "Abiah." in 1 Sam. viii, 2 ; 1 Chron. ii, 24 ; vi, 28 ; vii, 8 ; " Abia" in 1 Chron. iii, 10; Matt, i, 7 ; Luke i, 5), the name of six men and two women. 1. A son of Becher, one of the sons of Benjamin (1 Chron. vii, 8). B.C. post 1856. 2. The daughter of Machir, who bore to Hezron a posthumous son, Ashur (1 Chron. ii, 24). B.C. cir. 1612. 3. The second son of Samuel (1 Sam. viii, 2 ; 1 ( hron. vi, 12). Being appointed by his father a judge in Beer- sheba, in connection with his brother, their corrupt ad- ministration induced such popular discontent as to pro- voke the ciders to demand a royal form of government for Israel, B.C. 109;!. See Samuel. 4. One of the descendants of Eleazar, the son of Aaron, and chief of one of the twenty-four courses or orders into which the whole body of the priesthood was divided by David (1 Chron. xxiv, 10), B.C. 1014. Of these the course of Abijah was the eighth. Only four of the courses returned from the captivity, of ABTJAII 17 ABILA which that of Abijah was not one (Ezra ii, 36-39 ; Neh. vii, 39-42; xii, 1). But the four were divided into the original number of twenty-four, with the original names ; and it hence happens that Zacharias, the father of John the Baptist, is described as belong- ing to the course of Abijah (Luke i, 5). See Priest. 5. The second king of the separate kingdom of Ju- dah, being the son of Rehoboam, and grandson of •Solomon (1 Chron. iii, 10). He is also called (1 Kings xiv, 31 ; xv, 1-8) Am jam (q. v.). He began to reign B.C. 956, in the eighteenth year of Jeroboam, king of Israel, and he reigned three years (2 Chron. xii, 16; xiii, 1, 2). At the commencement of his reign, looking on the well-founded separation cf the ten tribes from the house of David as rebellion, Abijah made a vigorous attempt to bring them back to their allegiance (2 Chron. xiii, 3-19). In this he failed; although a signal victory over Jeroboam, who had double his force and much greater experience, enabled him to take several cities which had been held by Israel (see J. F. Bahrdt, Be bello Abice et Jerob. Lips. 1760). The speech which Abijah addressed to the opposing army before the battle has been much ad- mired (C. Simeon, Works, iv, 96). It was well suited to its object, and exhibits correct notions of the theo- cratical institutions (Keil, Apolog. d. Chron. p. 336). His view of the political position of the ten tribes with respect to the house of David is, however, obviously erroneous, although such as a king of Judah was like- ly to take. The numbers reputed to have been pres- ent in this action are 800,000 on the side of Jeroboam, 400,000 on the side of Abijah, and 500,000 left dead on the field. Hales and others regard these extraor- dinary numbers as corruptions, and propose to reduce them to 80,000, 40,000, and 50,000 respectively, as in the Latin Vulgate of Sixtus V, and many earlier edi- tions, and in the old Latin translation of Josephus ; and probably also in his original Greek text, as is collected by De Vignoles from Abarbanel's charge against the historian of having made Jeroboam's loss no more than 50,000 men, contrary to the Hebrew text (Kennicott's Dissertations, i, 533 ; ii, 201 sq., 564). See Number. The book of Chronicles men- tions nothing concerning Abijah adverse to the im- pressions which we receive from his conduct on this occasion ; but in Kings we are told that " he walked in all the sins of his father" (1 Kings xv, 3). He had fourteen wives, by whom he left twenty-two sons and sixteen daughters (2 Chron. xiii, 20-22). Asa suc- ceeded him (2 Chron. xiv, 1 ; Matt, i, 7). See Judah. There is a difficulty connected with the maternity of Abijah. In 1 Kings xv, 2, we read, " His mother's name was Maachah, the daughter of Abishalom" (comp. 2 Chron. xi, 20, 22) ; but in 2 Chron. xiii, 2, " His mother's name was Michaiah, the daughter of Uriel of Gibeah." Maachah and Michaiah are varia- tions of the same name ; and Abishalom is in all like- lihood Absalom, the son of David. The word (P2) rendered " daughter" (q. v.), is applied in the Bible not only to a man's child, but to his niece, grand- daughter, or great-granddaughter. It is therefore possible that Uriel of Gibeah married Tamar, the beautiful daughter of Absalom (2 Sam. xiv, 27 ), and by her had Maachah, who was thus the daughter of Uriel and granddaughter of Absalom. See Maachah. 6. A son of Jeroboam I, king of Israel. His se- vere and threatening illness induced Jeroboam to send his wife with a present [see Gift] suited to the dis- guise in which she went, to consult the prophet Abi- jah respecting his recovery. This prophet was the same who had, in the days of Solomon, foretold to Jeroboam his elevation to the throne of Israel. Though blind with age, he knew the disguised wife of Jero- boam, and was authorized, by the prophr tic impulse that came upon him, to reveal to her that, because there was found in Abijah only, of all the house of Jeroboam, "some good thing toward the Lord," he B only, of all that house, should come to his grave in peace, and be mourned in Israel (see S. C. Wilkes, Family Sermons, 12; C. Simeon, Works, iii, 385; T. Gataker, Sermons, pt. ii, 291). Accordingly, when the mother returned home, the youth died as she crossed the threshold of the door. ' ' And they buried him, and all Israel mourned for him" (1 Kings xiv, 1-18), B.C. cir. 782. — Kitto, s. v. feee Jeroboam. 7. The daughter of Zechariah, and mother of King Hezekiah (2 Chron. xxix, 1), and, consequently, the wife of Ahaz, whom she survived, and whom, if we may judge from the piety of her son, she excelled in moral character. She is elsewhere called by the shorter form of the name, Am (2 Kings xviii, 2). B.C. 726. Her father, may have been the same with the Zechariah, the son of Jebercchiah, whom Isaiah took as a witness of his marriage with " the prophet- ess" (Isa. viii, 2 ; comp. 2 Chron. xxvi, 5). 8. One of those (apparently priests) who affixed their signatures to the covenant made by Nehemiah (Neh. x, 7), B.C. 410. He is probably the same (not- withstanding the great age this implies ) who returned from Baln-lon with Zerubbabel (Neh. xii, 4), B.C. 536, and who had a son named Zichri (Neh. xii, 17). Abi'jam (Heb. Abiyam' ', ti^Ztk, father of the sea, i. q. seaman; Sept. 'A[3ta v. r. 'Afiwv, Vulg. Abiani), the name always given in the book of Kings (1 Kings xiv, 31 ; xv, 1, 7, 8) to the king of Judah (1 Kings xiv, 1, refers to another person), elsewhere (1 Chron. iii, 10; 2 Chron. xiii, 1-22) called Abijah (q. v.). Lightfoot (Harm. O. T. in loc.) thinks that the writer in Chronicles, not describing his reign as wicked, ad- mits the sacred Jah into his name ; but which the book of Kings, charging him with following the evil ways of his father, changes into Jam. This may be fanci- ful; but such changes of name were not unusual (comp. Bethavex ; Sychar). — Kitto, s. v. Abila (ra "AjStXa and r) 'Aj&Xif, Polyb. v, 71, 2; Ptol. v, 18), the name of at least two places. 1. The capital of the "Abilene" of Lysanias (Luke iii, 1), and distinguished (bvv Josephus, Ant. xix, 5, 1) from other places of the same name as the "Abila oi' Lysanias" ("AjSiXa r) Avoavlov). The word is evi- dently of Hebrew origin, signifying a grassy plain. See Abel-. This place, however, is not to be con- founded with any of the Biblical localities of the O. T. having this preiix, since it was situated beyond the bounds of Palestine in Coele-Syria (Antonin. Kin. p. 197, ed. Wessel), being the same with the "Abila of Lebanon" (Abila ad Libanum\ between Damascus and Baalbek or Heliopolis (Roland, Palcest. p. 317, 458). Josephus (see Hudson's ed. p. 864, note) and others also write the name Abella ('AfitWa), Abela (A/3s\o), and even Anbilla C AvfiikXa), assigning it to Phoenicia (Reland, ib. p. 527-529V A medal is extant, bearing a bunch of grapes, with the inscription, "Abila Leucas," nfAliila-Leuca which Believe (in the Transactions of the A cad. of Belles Lettres) refers to this city; but it has been shown to have a later date (Eckhel, iii, 337, 345); for there is another medal of the same place, which bears a half figure of the river-god, with the inscription " Chrysoroas Claudiaion," a title which, although iix- M Coin of Abila-Claudiopolie. ABILENE IS ABIMAEL ing the site to the river Chrysorrhoas, yet refers to the imperial name of Claudius. Perhaps Leucas and Claudiopolis were only later names of the same city ; for we can hardly suppose that two cities of the size and importance which each of these evidently had, were located in the same vicinity and called by the same name. The existence of a large and well-built city in this region (Hogg's Damascus, i, 301) is at- tested by numerous ruins still found there (Bankes, in the Quart. Review, vol. xxvi, p. 388), containing in- scriptions (De Saulcy, Narrative, ii, 453). Some of these inscriptions (tirst published by Lebronne, Jour- nal des Savans, 1827, and afterward by Urelli. Jnscr. Lat. 4997, 4998) have lately been deciphered (Trans. Roy. Geoff. Soc. 1851 ; Jour. Sac. Lit. July, 1853, p. 248 sq.), and one has been found to contain a definite ac- count of certain public works executed under the Em- peror M. Aurelius, "at the expense of the Abilenians;" thus identifying the spot where this is found with the ancient city of Abila (Bibliotheca Sacra, 1848, p. 85 sq.). It is the modern village Suk el-Barada, not far from the south bank of the river Barada (the ancient Chrysorrhoas), near the mouth of the long gorge through which the stream flows from above, and di- rectly under the cliff (800 feet high) on which stands the Wely of Nebi Abil, or traditionary tomb of Abel {Bib. Sacra, 1853, p. 144). This tradition is an an- cient one (Quaresmius, Eleucid. Terra Sanctm, vii, 7, 1 ; Maundrel, May 4), but apparently based upon an incorrect derivation of the name of the son of Adam. See Abel. This spot is on the road from Heliopolis (Baalbek) to Damascus, at a distance corresponding to ancient notices (Reland, Palast. p. 527, 528). The name Suk '(i. e. market, a frequent title of villages where produce is sold, and therefore indicating fertil- ity) of Wady Barada first occurs in Burckhardt ( Syria, p. 2), who speaks of the lively green of the neighbor- hood, which, no doubt, has suggested the name Abel in its Hebrew acceptance of meadow (see Robinson. Researches, new ed. iii, 480 sq.). See Abilene. 2. There are two or three other places mentioned in ancient authorities (Reland, PaUest. p. 523 sq.) by the general name of Abel, A beta, or Abila (once Abida, 'Aftica, apparently by error, Reland, ib. p. 459), as fol- lows : (a.) Abela of Phoenicia (Jerome, Onomast. s. v.), situated between Damascus and Paneas (Csesarea Philippi), and therefore different from the Abila of Lysanias, which was between Damascus and Heliop- olis (Baalbek). It is probably the same as Abel- BETH-MAACIIAH (q. v.). (6.) Abila of Per.ea, mentioned by Josephus {War, ii, 13, 2) as being in the vicinity of Julias (Bethsaida) and Besimoth (Bethjeshimoth) {ib. iv, 7, G). It is probably the same as Abel-siiittim (q. v.). (c.) Abila of Batan.ea, mentioned by Jerome {Onomast. s. v. Astaroth Carnaini) as situated north of Adara, and by Josephus (quoting Polybius) as be- ing taken with Gadara by Antiochus {Ant. xii, 3, 3). It is apparently the same with the "Abila of the De- capolis" (comp. Pliny, v, 18), named on certain Palmy- rene inscriptions (Reland, Paloest. p. 525 sq.), and probably is the Abel ('AjSfXa) of Eusebius (Onomast. s. v.), situated 12 miles E. of Gadara, now Abil. See under Abel-ceramim. Abilene {'AfiiSrjvri sc. xi''Pai Luke, iii, 1), the small district or territory in the region of Lebanon which took its name from the chief town, Abila (Po- lyb. v, 71, 2 ; Josephus, War, ii, 13, 2 ; iv, 7, 5 ; Heb. Abel', h^at, a, plain), which was situated in Coele-Syria (Ptolom. v, IS), and (according to the Antonine Itin.) 18 miles N. of Damascus, and 38 S. of Heliopolis (lat. 68° 45', long. 33° 20') ; but which must not be con- founded with Abila of the Decapolis (Burckhardt, p. 269; Bitter, xv, 1059). SeeAniLA. Northward it must have reached beyond the upper Barada, in order to include Abila; and it is probable that its southern border ma)r have extended to Mount Hermon (Jebel es-Sheikh). It seems to have included the eastern de- clivities of Anti-Libanus, and the fine valleys between its base and the hills which front the eastern plains. This is a very beautiful and fertile region, well wood- ed, and watered by numerous springs from Anti-Leb- anon. It also affords fine pastures; and in most re- spects contrasts with the stern and barren western slopes of Anti-Lebanon. This territory had been governed as a tetrarchatc by Lysanias, son of Ptolemy and grandson of Men- nanis (Josephus, A nt. xiv, 13, 3) ; but he was put to death, B.C. 33, through the intrigues of Cleopatra, who then took possession of the province (Ant. xv, 4, 1). After her death it fell to Augustus, who rented it out to one Zenodorus ; but as he did not keep it clear of robbers, it was taken from him, and given to Herod the Great (Ant. xv, 10, 1; War, i, 20, 4). At his death a part (the southern, doubtless) of the territory was added to Trachonitis and Iturrca to form a tet- rarchy for his son Philip ; but by far the larger por- tion, including the city of Abila, was then, or shoitly afterward, bestowed on another Lysanias, mentioned by Luke (iii, 1), who is supposed to have been a de- scendant of the former Lysanias, but who is nowhere mentioned by Josephus. See Lysanias. Indeed, noth- ing is said by him or any other profane writer respecting this part of Abilene until several years after the time referred to by Luke, when the Emperor Caligula gave it to Agrippa I as "the tetrarchy of Lysanias" (Jo- sephus, Ant. xviii, 6, 10), to whom it was afterward con- firmed by Claudius. At his death it was included in that part of his possessions which went to his son Agrippa II. (See Josephus, Ant. xiii, 10, 3; xiv, 12, 1 ; 3, 2 ; 7, 4 ; xv, 10, 3; xvii, 11, 4 ; xix, 5, 1 ; x, 7, 1 ; War, i, 13, 1; ii, G, 3; 11, 5 ; Dio Cass, xlix, 32; liv, 9.) This explanation as to the division of Abilene between Lysanias and Philip removes the apparent discrepancy in Luke, who calls Lysanias tetrarch of Abilene at the very time that, according to Josephus (a part of) Abilene was in the possession of Phil- ip (see Noldii Hist. Idum. p. 279 sq. ; Krebs, Observ. Flav. p. 110 sq. ; Siisskind, Symbol, ad Illustr. Quas- dam Evany. Loca, i, 21 ; iii, 23 sq. ; also in Pott, Syl- log. viii, 90 sq. ; also in the Stud. u. Krit. 183G, ii, 431 sq. ; Mi'inter, Be Rebus Iturceor. Hafn. 1824, p. 22 sq.; Wieseler, Chronol. Synopsis, p. 174 sq.; Ebrard, Wissenschaftl. Kritik, p. 181 sq. ; Hug, Gutachten iib. Strauss, p. 119 sq.). In fact, as Herod never actual- ly possessed Abilene (Josephus, Ant. xix, 5, 1 ; War, ii, 11, 5), and Zenodorus only had the farming of it, this region never could have descended to Herod's heirs, and therefore properly did not belong to Philip's tetrarchy. The same division of the territory in ques- tion is implied in the exclusion of Chalcis from the government of the later Lysanias, although included in that of the older (Josephus, .1 nt. xx, 7, 1). We find Abila mentioned among the places captured by Placi- dus, one of Vespasian's generals, in A.D. 69-70 (Jo- sephus, War, iv, 7, 5) ; and from that time it was per- manently annexed to the province of Syria (Smith's Diet, of Class. Geog. s. v.). The metropolis Abila is mentioned in the lists of the Christian councils as the seat of an episcopal see down to A.D. 634 (Reland, Palast. p. 529). — Winer, s. v. Ability. See Inability ; Will. Abim'ael (Heb. AbimaeV , \>\X^O»,, father of Maeli Sept. 'Aj3i/.tai\, 'A/3i/t«ijX, Josephus 'Afii/id- r/Xoc), one of the sons of Joktan in Arabia (Gen. x, 28 ; 1 Chron. i, 22). B.C. post 2414. See Arabia. He was probably the father or founder of an Arabian tribe called Ma'el (^X"0, of unknown origin), a trace of which Bochart (Phaleg, ii, 24) discovers in Theo- phrastus (Hist, riant, ix, 4), where the name Mali (MciXi) occurs as that cf a spice-bearing region. Per- ABIMELECH 1!) ABIMELECH haps the same is indicated in Eratosthenes (ap. Strabo, xvi, 1112) and Eustathius (ad Dionys. Periegetes, p. 288, ed. Bernhardy) b}r the Minwi, (Muraloi). So Diodorus Siculus (iii, 42); but Ptolemy (vi, 7) dis- tinguishes the Manitce (Mavlrai) from these, and at the same time refers to a village called Mamala (MdfiaXa taifirf) on the shore of the Red Sea. Hence Schneider proposes to read Mamali (Ma/.ui\i) in the above passage of Theophrastus ; perhaps we should rather read Mani (Mdvi), a natural interchange of liquids ; and then we may compare a place mentioned by Abulfeda (Arabia, ed. Gaguier, p. 3, 42), called Minay, 3 miles from Mecca (Michaelis, Sjncileg. ii, 179 sq.).— Gesenius, Thes. Heb. p. 9. Abim'elech (Heb. Abime'lek, T^^X, father [i. z. friend] of the king, or perhaps i.q. royal father ; Sept. 'Aj3iuE\ex, but 'AxipiXex in 1 Chron. xviii, 16 ; Josephus 'A/3(/., Solomon detected in this application a fresh aspiration to the throne, which lie visited with death (1 Kings ii, 17-22; Jose- phus, ' AfiijaciKi], Ant. vii, 14, 3). See Adonijaii. Ab'ishai [many Abish'a'i~\ (Heb.Abishay', "lia",2S, father [i. e. desirous] of a gift; Sept. 'Afiiffat, hut 'Afitrrcd in 1 Sam. xxvi, C, 7, 8, 1) ; 1 Chron. xix, 11, 15 ; 'Ajiiaaa in 1 Chron. ii, 10 ; 'Afitooui in 1 Chron. xi, 20 ; 'Ajiiaa in 1 Chron. xviii, 12 ; and 'Aftiact in 2 Sam. xx, G; also contracted Abshag', "I1I33K, in the text of 2 Sam. x, 10; 1 Chron. ii, 1G ; xi, 20 , xviii, 12 ; xix, 11, 15 ; Josephus 'A/3t?, father of elevation, or hgh father; Sept. " lf3pctfi) : but the extended form there given to it is significant of ABRAHAM 28 ABRAHAM the promise of a numerous posterity which was at the same time made to him. See infra. I. History. — Abraham was a native of Chahhea, and descended, through Heber, in the ninth generation, from Shem the son of Noah (see F. Lee, Disserta- tions, ii, 78 sq.). His father was Terah, who had two other sons, Nahor and Haran. Ilaran died pre- maturely " before his father," leaving a son, Lot, and two daughters, Milcah and Iscah. Lot attach- ed himself to his uncle Abraham ; Milcah became the wife of her uncle Nahor; and Iscah, who was also called Sarai, became the wife of Abraham (Gen. xi, 26-29; comp. Josephus, Ant. i, G, 5). See Iscah. Abraham was born A.M. 2009, B.C. 21G4, in " Ur of the Chaldees" (Gen. xi, 28). The concise history in Genesis states nothing concerning the portion of his life prior to the age of about 70. There are indeed traditions, but they are too manifestly built tip on the foundation of a few obscure intimations in Scripture to be entitled to any credit (see Weil's Biblical Legends'). Thus it is intimated in Josh, xxiv, 2, that Terah and his family " served other gods" beyond the Euphrates ; and on this has been found the romance that Terah was not only a worshipper, but a maker of idols ; that the youthful Abraham, discovering the futility of such gods, destroyed all those his father had made, and jus- tified the act in various conversations and arguments with Terah, which we find repeated at length. Again, " Ur of the Chaldees" was the name of the place where Abraham was born, and from which he went forth to go, he knew not whither, at the call of God. Now Ur (I^X) means fire; and we may therefore read that he came forth from the fire of the Chaldees, on which has been built the story that Abraham was, for his disbelief in the established idols, cast by king Nimrod into a burning furnace, from which he was by special miracle delivered. And to this the premature death of Haran has suggested the addition that he, by way of punishment for his disbelief of the truths for which Abraham suffered, was marvellously destroyed by the same fire from which his brother was still more mar- vellously preserved. Again, the fact that Chaldsea was the region in which astronomy wras reputed to have been first cultivated, suggested that Abraham brought astronomy westward, and that he even taught that science to the Egyptians (Josephus, Ant. i, 8). It is just to Josephus to state that most of these stories are rejected by him, although the tone of some of his remarks is in agreement with them. Abraham is, by way of eminence, named first, but it appears that he was not the oldest (nor probably the youngest, but rather the second) of Terah's sons, born (perhaps by a second wife) when his father was 130 years old (see N. Alexander, Hist. Eccles. i, 287 sq.). Terah was seventy years old when the eldest son was born (Gen. xi, 32; xii, 4; xx, 12; comp. Hales, ii, 107); and that eldest son appears to have been Haran, from the fact that his brothers married his daugh- ters, and that his daughter Sarai was only ten years younger than his brother Abraham (Gen. xvii, 17). Abraham must have been about 70 years old when the family quitted their native city of Ur, and went and abode in Charran (for he was 75 years old when he left Ilaran, and his stay there could not well have been longer than five years at most). The reason for this movement does not appear in the Old Testament. Josephus alleges that Terah could not hear to remain in the place where Haran had died (Ant. i, 0, 5); while the apocryphal book of Judith, in conformity with the traditions still current among the Jews and Moslems, affirms that they were cast forth because they would no longer worship the gods of the land (Judith v, G-8). The real cause transpires in Acts vii, 2-4: "The God of -lory appeared to our father Abraham while he was (at Ur of the Chaldees) in Mesopotamia, before h< da-ilt in Charran, and said unto him, Depart from thy land, and from thy kin- dred, and come hither to a land which / will shew thee. Then departing from the land of the Chaldees, he dwelt in Charran." This first call is not recorded, but onlj- implied in Gen. xii ; and it is distinguished by several pointed circumstances from the second, which alone is there mentioned. Accordingly Abra- ham departed, and his family, including his aged fa- ther, removed with him. They proceeded not at once to the land of Canaan, which, indeed, had not been yet indicated to Abraham as his destination ; but they ' came to Haran, and tarried at that convenient station for five current years, until Terah died, at the age of 205 years. Being free from his filial duties, Abraham, now 75 years of age, received a second and more pointed call to pursue his destination : " Depart from thy land and from thy kindred, and from thy father's house, unto the land which I will shew thee" (Gen. xii, 1). The difference of the two calls is obvious; in the former the land is indefinite, 1 icing designed only for a temporary residence ; in the latter it is definite, intimating a permanent abode. A third condition was also annexed to the latter call, that he should separate from his father's house, and leave his broth- er Nahor's family behind him in Charran. He, how- ever, took with him his nephew Lot, whom, having no children of his own, he appears to have regarded as his heir, and then went forth, " not knowing whither he went" (Heb. xi, 8), but trusting implicitly to the Divine guidance. (See Philo, Opera, i, 436; ii, 43; Saurin, Discours, i, 1G1 ; Dissert, p. 92 ; Simeon, Worhs, i, 100; Roberts, Semens, p. 52; Hunter, Sac. Biog. p. 55 sq.). See Ur ; Haran. Abraham probably took the same route as Jacob afterward, along the valley of the Jabbok, to the land of Canaan, which he found thinly occupied by the Ca- naanites, in a large number of small independent com- munities, who cultivated the districts around their sev- eral towns, leaving ample pasture-grounds for wander- ing shepherds. In Mesopotamia the family had been pastoral, but dwelling in towns and houses, and send- ing out the flocks and herds under the care of shep- herds. But the migratory life to which Abraham had now been called compelled him to take to the tent- dwelling as well as the pastoral life ; and the usages which his subsequent history indicates are therefore found to present a condition of manners and habits analogous to that which still exists among the nomadc pastoral or Bedouin tribes of south-western Asia. The rich pastures in that part of the countiy tempted Abraham to form his first encampment in the vale of Moreh, which lies between the mountains of Ebal and Gerizim. Here the strong faith which had brought the childless man thus far from his home was reward- ed by the grand promise : " I will make of thee a great nation, and I will bless thee and make thy name great, and thou shalt be a blessing ; and I will bless them that bless thee, and curse them that curse thee: and in thee shall all the families of the earth be blessed" (Gen. xii, 2, 3). It was further promised that to his posterity should be given the rich heritage of that beautiful country into which he had come (v. 7). It will be seen that this important promise consisted of two parts — the one temporal, the other spiritual. The temporal was the promise of posterity, that he should be blessed himself, and be the founder of a great na- tion ; the spiritual, that he should be the chosen an- cestor of the Redeemer, who had been of old obscurely predicted (Gen. iii, 15), and thereby become the means of I Jessing all the families of the earth. The implied condition on his part was that he should publicly pro- fess the worship of the true Cod in this more tolerant land; and, accordingly, " he built there an altar unto the Lord, who appeared unto him." He soon after, perhaps in consequence of the jealousy of the Canaan- ites, removed to the strong mountain-district between Bethel and Ai, where he also built an altar to that "Jehovah" whom the world was then hastening to ABRAHAM 29 ABRAHAM forget. His farther removals tended southward, until at length a famine in Palestine compelled him to with- draw into Egypt, where corn abounded. Here his ap- prehension that the beauty of his wife Sarai might bring him into danger with the dusk}' Egyptians over- came his faith and rectitude, and he gave out that she was his sister (comp. Josephus, Ant. i, 8, 1). As he had feared, the beauty of the fair stranger excited the admiration of the Egyptians, and at length reached the ears of the king, who forthwith exercised his regal Tight of calling her to his harem, and to this Abraham, appearing as only her brother, was obliged to submit (comp. Josephus, liar, v, 9, 4). As, however, the king had no intention to act harshly in the exercise of his privilege, he loaded Abraham with valuable gifts, suited to his condition, being chiefly in slaves and cat- tle. These presents could not have been refused by him without an insult which, under all the circum- stances, the king did not deserve. A grievous disease inflicted on Pharaoh and his household relieved Sarai from her danger by revealing to the king that she was a married woman ; on which he sent for Abraham, and, after rebuking him for his conduct, restored his wife to him, and recommended him to withdraw from the country. The period of his stay in Egypt is not re- corded, but it is from this time that his wealth and power appear to have begun (Gen. xii, 1C). If the do- minion of the Hyksos in Memphis is to lie referred to this epoch, as seems not improbable [sec Egypt], then, since they were akin to the Hebrews, it is not impossi- ble that Abram may have taken part in their war of conquest, and so have had another recommendation to the favor of Pharaoh. He accordingly returned to the land of Canaan, much richer than when he left it "in cattle, in silver, and in gold" (Gen. xiii, 2). It was probably on his way back that his sojourn in the ter- ritories of Abimelech, king of Gerar, occurred. This period was one of growth in power and wealth, as the respect of Abimelech, and his alarm for the future, so natural in the chief of a race of conquering invaders, very clearly shows. Abram*s settlement at Beershe- ba, on the borders of the desert, near the Amalekitc plunderers, shows both that he needed room, and was able to protect himself and his flocks. It is true, the order of the narrative seems to place this event some twenty-three years later, after the destruction of Sod- om ; but Sarah's advanced age at that time precludes the possibility of her seizure by the Philistine king. By a most extraordinary infatuation, Abraham allow- ed himself to stoop to the same mean and foolish pre- varication in denying his wife which had just occasion- ed him so much trouble in Egypt. The result was also similar [see Abimelech], except that Abraham answered the rebuke of the Philistine by stating the fears by which he had been actuated, adding, "And yet indeed she is my sister ; she is the daughter of my father, but not the daughter of my mother ; and she became my wife." This mends the matter very lit- tle, since, in calling her his sister, he designed to be understood as saying she was not his wife. As he elsewhere calls Lot his " brother," this statement that Sarah was his " sister" does not interfere with the probability that she was his niece. The occurrence, however, broke up his encampment there, and expe- dited the return of the entire party northward. Lot also had much increased his possessions ; and after their return to their previous station near Bethel, the disputes between their respective shepherds about water and pasturage soon taught them that the}- had better separate. The recent promise of posterity to Abraham himself, although his wife had been account- ed barren, probably tended also in some degree to weaken the tie by which the uncle and nephew had hitherto been united. The subject was broached by Abraham, who generously conceded to Lot the choice of pasture-grounds. Lot chose the well-watered plain in which Sodom and other towns were situated, and removed thither. See Lot. Thus was accomplished the dissolution of a connection which had been formed be- fore the promise of children was given, and the disrup- tion of which appears to have been necessary for that complete isolation of the coming race which the Divine purpose required. Immediately afterward the patri- arch was cheered and encouraged by a more distinct and formal reiteration of the promises which had been previously made to him of the occupation of the land in which he lived by a posterity numerous as the dust (see M. Weber, Proles et salus Abraham promissa, Viteb. 1787). Not long after, he removed to the pleas- ant valley of Mamrc, in the neighborhood of Hebron (then called Arba), situated in the direct line of com- munication with Egypt, and opening down to the wil- derness and pasture-land of Beersheba, and pitched his tent under a terebinth-tree (Gen. xiii). This very position, so different from the mountain-fastness of Ai, marks the change in the numbers and powers of his clan. It appears that fourteen years before this time the south and east of Palestine had been invaded by a king called Chedorlaomer, from beyond the Euphrates, who brought several of the small disunited states of those quarters under tribute (comp. Josephus, Ant. i, 10, 1). Among them were the live cities of the plain of Sod- om, to which Lot had withdrawn. This burden was borne impatiently by these states, and they at length withheld their tribute. This brought upon them a ravaging visitation from Chedorlaomer and four other (perhaps tributary) kings, who scoured the whole coun- try east of the Jordan, and ended by defeating the kings of the plain, plundering their towns, and carry- ing the people away as slaves. Lot was among the sufferers. When this came to the cars of Abraham he immediately armed such of his slaves as were lit for war, in number 318, and being joined by the friendly Amoritish chiefs, Aner, Eshcol, and Mamre, pursued the retiring invaders. They were overtaken near the springs of the Jordan ; and their camp being attacked on opposite sides by night, they were thrown into dis- order, and fled (see Thomson's Land and Bonk, i, 320 sq.). Abraham and his men pursued them as far as the neighborhood of Damascus, and then returned with all the men and goods which had been taken away (comp. Buckingham, Mesop. i, 274). Although Abra- ham had no doubt been chiefly induced to undertake this exploit by his regard for Lot, it involved so large a benefit that, as the act of a sojourner, it must have tended greatly to enhance the character and power of the patriarch in the view of the inhabitants at large. When they had arrived as far as Salem on their return (see Thomson, ii, 211 sq.), the king of that place, Melchizedek, who was one of the few native princes, if not the only one, that retained the knowl- edge and worship of "the Most High God," whom Abraham served, came forth to meet them with re- freshments, in acknowledgment for which, and in rec- ognition of his character, Abraham presented him with a tenth of the spoils. By strict right, founded on the war usages which still subsist in Arabia (Burckhardt's Notes, p. 97), the recovered goods became the property of Abraham, and not of those to whom they originally belonged. This was acknowledged by the king of Sodom, who met the victors in the valley near Salem. He said, " Give me the persons, and keep the goods to thyself." But with becoming pride, and with a disin- terestedness which in that country would now be most unusual in similar circumstances, he answered, " I have lifted up mine hand [i. e. I have sworn] unto Je- hovah, the most high God, that I will not take from a thread even to a sandal-thong, and that I will not take any thing that is thine, lest thou shouldest say, 1 have made Abram rich" (On. xiv). The history of his at- tack on Chedorlaomer gives us a specimen of the view which would be taken of him by the external world. By the way in which it speaks of him as "Abram the ABRAHAM 3d ABRAHAM Hebrew," it would seem to be an older document, a fragment of Canaanitish history preserved and sanc- tioned by Moses. The invasion was clearly another northern immigration or foray, for the chiefs or kings ■were of Shinar (Babylonia), Ellasar (Assyria?), Elam (Persia), etc. ; that it was not the first is evident from the vassalage of the kings of the cities of the plain ; and it extended (see Gen. xiv, 5-7) far to the south, over a wide tract of country. The patriarch appears here as the head of a small confederacy of chiefs, pow- erful enough to venture on a long pursuit to the head of the valley of the Jordan, to attack with success a large force, and not only to rescue Lot, but to roll back for a time the stream of northern immigration. His high position is seen in the gratitude of the peo- ple, and the dignity with which he refuses the charac- ter of a hireling. That it did not elate him above measure is evident from his reverence to Melehizedek, in whom he recognised one whose call was equal and consecrated rank superior to his own. See Melchize- DEK. Soon after his return to Mamre the faith of Abra- ham was rewarded and encouraged, not only by a more distinct and detailed repetition of the promises former- ly made to him, but by the confirmation of a solemn covenant contracted, as nearly as might be, "after the manner of men," between him and God. Sec ( 'ovicnan't. It was now that he first understood that his promised posterity were to grow up into a nation under foreign bondage ; and that, in 400 years after (or, strictly, 405 years, counting from the birth of Isaac to the exode), they should come forth from that bondage as a nation, to take possession of the land in which he sojourned (Gen. xiv). After ten years' res- idence in Canaan (B.C. 2078), Sarai being then 75 years old, and having long been accounted barren, chose to put her own interpretation upon the promised blessing of a progeny to Abraham, and persuaded him to take her woman-slave Hagar, an Egyptian, as a secondary, or concubine-wife, with the view that what- ever child might proceed from this union should be ac- counted her own. See Hagar. The son who was born to Abraham by Hagar, and who received the name of Ishmael [see Ishmael], was accordingly brought up as the heir of his father and of the prom- ises (Gen. xvi). Thirteen years after, when Abraham was 99 years old, he was favored with still more ex- plicit declarations of the Divine purposes. He was reminded that the promise to him was that he should be the father of man;) nations ; and to indicate this in- tention his name was now changed (see C. Iken, De mutation," nomvnum Abrakami et fiarce, in his Dissert. Philol. i) from Abram to Abraham (see Philo, Opp. i, 588; comp. Alian. Var. Il/'st. ii, 32; Euseb. Prcep. Ev. xi, 6; Ewald, Isr, Gesch. i, 373; Lengerke, Ken. i, 227). See Name. The Divine Being then solemn- ly renewed the coven mt to be a God to him and to the race that should spring from him ; and in token of that covenant directed that he and his should receive in their flesh the sign of circumcision. See Circum- cision. Abundant blessings were promised to Ish- mael ; but it was then first announced, in distinct terms, that the heir of the special promises was not yet born, and that the barren Sarai, then 90 years old, should twelve months thence be his mother. Then also her nune was changed from Sarai to Sarah (prin- cess); and, to commemorate the laughter with which the prostrate patriarch received such strange tidings, it was directed that the name of Isaac (Jauqhter) should be given to the future child. The very 'same day, in obedience to the Divine ordinance, Abraham himself, his son Ishmael, and his house-born and purchased slaves, were all circumcised (Gen. xvii), spring, B.C. 2004. Three mouths after this, as Abraham sat in his tent door during the heat of the day, he saw three travellers approaching, and hastened to meet them, and hospitably pressed upon them refreshment and rest (Dreist, De tribus viris Abrahamo appear. Eo:t. 1707). The}' assented, and under the shade of a terebinth, or rather an oak (q. v.) tree, partook of the abundant fare which the patriarch and his wife provided, while Abraham himself stood by in respectful attendance, in accordance with Oriental customs (see Shaw, Trav. i, 207 ; comp. Iliad, ix, 205 sq. ; xxiv, G21 ; Odyss. viii, 59 ; Judg. vi, 19). From the manner in which one of the strangers spoke, Abraham soon gathered that his visitants were no other than the Lord himself and two attendant angels in human form (see .1. B. Kiesseling, De divinis Abrahami hospitibus, Lips. 1748). The prom- ise of a son by Sarah was renewed ; and when Sarah herself, who overheard this within the tent, laughed in- wardly at the tidings, which, on account of her great age, she at first disbelieved, she incurred the striking rebuke, " Is any thing too hard for Jehovah?" The strangers then addressed themselves to their journey, and Abraham walked some way with them. The two angels went forward in the direction of Sodom, while the Lord made known to him that, for their enormous iniqui- ties, Sodom and the other "cities of the plain" were about to be made signal monuments of his wrath and of his moral government. Moved by compassion and by remembrance of Lot, the patriarch ventured, reverently but perseveringly, to intercede for the doomed Sodom ; and at length obtained a promise that, if but ten right- eous men were found therein, the whole city should be saved for their sake. Early the next morning Abra- ham arose to ascertain the result of this concession ; and when he looked toward Sodom, the smoke of its destruction, rising "like the smoke of a furnace," made known to him its terrible overthrow (Gen. xix,.l-28). See Sodom. Tradition still points out the supposed site of this appearance of the Lord to Abraham. About a mile from Hebron is a beautiful and massive oak, which still bjars Abraham's name (Thomson, Land and Book, i, 375 ; ii, 414). The residence of the patri- arch was called "the oaks (A. V. " plain") of Mamre" (Gen. xiii, 18 ; xviii, 1) ; but the exact spot is doubt- ful, since the tradition in the time of Josephus ( War, iv, 9, 7) was attached to a terebinth. See Mamre. This latter tree no longer remains ; but there is no doubt that it stood within the ancient inclosure, which is still called "Abraham's House." A fair was held beneath it in the time of Constantine ; and it remain- ed to the time of Theodosius (Hobinson, ii, 443; Stan- ley, Palestine, p. 142). — The same year Sarah gave birth to the lon^-promised son, and, according to pre- vious direction, the name of Isaac was given to him. See Isaac. This greatly altered the position of Ishmael, who had hitherto appeared as the heir both of the temporal and the spiritual heritage ; whereas he had now to share the former, and could not but know that the latter was limited to Isaac. This ap- pears to have created much ill-feeling both on his part and that of his mother toward the child ; which was in some way manifested so pointedly, on occasion of the festivities which attended the weaning, that the wrath of Sarah was awakened, and she insisted that both Hagar and her son should be sent away. This was a very hard matter to a loving father ; and Abra- ham was so much pained that he would probably have refused compliance with Sarah's wish, had he not been apprised in a dream that it was in accordance with the Divine intentions respecting both Ishmael and Isaac. With his habitual uncompromising obedience, he then hastened them away earl}- in the morning, with pro- vision for the journey (Gen. xxi, 1-21), B.C. 2061. (See Kitto's Daily Bible Must, in loc.) See Hagar, Attain for a long period (25 years, Josephus, Ant. x, 13, 2) the history is silent ; but, when Isaac was near- ly grown up (B.C. cir. 2047), it pleased God to subject the faith of Abraham to a most severe trial (see H. Ben- zenberg, Noch mehr Recensionen, Leipz. 1791, No. 5). He was commanded to go into the mountainous coun- try of Moriah (probably where the temple afterward ABRAHAM 31 ABRAHAM stood) [see Moriaii], and there offer up in sacrifice the son of his affection, and the heir of so many hopes and promises, which his death must nullify. (See Huf- nagel, Christtnth. Aufklar, i, vii, 592 sq. ; J. G. Gre- neri, Comment. Miscel. Syntag. Oldenb. 1794; Zeitschr. fur Phil. u. hath. Theol. 20.) It is probable that hu- man sacrifices already existed ; and as, when they did exist, the offering of an only or beloved child was con- sidered the most meritorious, it may have seemed rea- sonable to Abraham that he should not withhold from his own God the costly sacrifice which the heathen of- fered to their idols (comp. Hygin. Fab. 98 ; Tzetzes in Lycophr. 40, ed. Canter. ; see Apollodor. Bibl. i, 9, 1 ; Euscb. P?-. 2 sq. We are informed (D'Herbelot, ut sup.) that, A.D. 1119, Abraham's tomb was discovered near Hebron, in which Jacob, likewise, and Isaac were interred. The bodies were found entire, and many gold and sil- ver lamps were found in the place. The Mohamme- dans have BO great a respect for his tomb, that they make it their fourth pil rimage (the three others Icing Mi a, Medina, and Jerusalem). Sec Hebron: The Christians built a church over the cave of Machpelah, where Abraham was buried, which the Turks have changed into a mosque, and forbidden Christians from approaching (Quaresm. Elmid. ii. 772). The supposed oak of Mamre, where Abraham received the three angels, was likewise honored by Christians, as also by the Jews am. Pagans (see above), lie Koran (iv, 124) entitles him "the friend of God" (see Michaelis, ABRAHAM 32 ABRAHAM Orient. Bibl. iv, 1G7 sq. ; Withof, De Abrah. Amico Dei, Duisb. 1743; Kurtz, Hist, of Old Gov. § 51-68). III. Typical Character. — The life and character of Abraham were in many respects typical. 1. He and his family may be regarded as a type of the Church of God in after ages. They, indeed, constituted God"s ancient Church. Not that many scattered patriarch- al and family churches did not remain : such was that of Melchizedek ; but a visible church relation was established between Abraham's family and the Most High, signified by the visible and distinguish- ing sacrament of circumcision, and followed by new and enlarged revelations of truth. Two purposes were to be answered by this — the preservation of the true doctrine of salvation in the world, which is the great and solemn duty of every branch of the Church of God, and the manifestation of that truth to others. Both were done by Abraham. Wherever he sojourn- ed he built his altars to the true God, and publicly cel- ebrated his worship ; and, as we learn from the Apos- tle Paul, he lived in tents in preference to settling in the land of Canaan, though it had been given to him for a possession, in order that he might thus proclaim his faith in the eternal inheritance of which Canaan was a type (Gal. iii, 16-29). 2. The numerous natural posterity promised to Abraham was also a type of the spiritual seed, the true members of the Church of Christ, springing from the Messiah, of whom Isaac was the symbol. Thus the Apostle Paul expressly distin- guishes between the fleshly and the spiritual seed of Abraham (Gal. iv, 22-31). 3. The faithful offering up of Isaac, with its result, was probably the transaction in which Abraham, more clearly than in any other, "saw the day of Christ, and was glad" (John viii, 56). He received Isaac from the dead, says Paul, "in a figure" (Heb. xi, 19). This could be a figure of nothing but the resurrection of our Lord ; and if so, Isaac's being laid upon the altar was a figure of his sacrificial death, scenically and most impressively represented to Abra- ham. 4. The transaction of the expulsion of Hagar was also a type. It was an allegory in action, by which the Apostle Paul teaches us (Gal. iv, 22-31) to under- stand that the son of the bondwoman represented those who are under the law ; and the child of the freewom- an those who by faith in Christ are supernaturally be- gotten into the family of God. The casting out of the bondwoman and her son represents also the expulsion of the unbelieving Jews from the Church of God, which was to be composed of true believers of all nations, all of whom, whether Jews or Gentiles, were to become " fellow heirs." IV. Covenant Relation. — 1. Abraham is to be re- garded, further, as standing in a. federal or covenant relation, not only to his natural seed, but specially and eminently to all believers. "The Gospel," we are told by Paul (Gal. iii, 8), " was preached to Abra- ham, saying, In thee shall all nations be blessed." " Abraham believed in God, and it was accounted to him fur righteousness;" in other words, he was justi- fied (den. xv, 6). A covenant of gratuitous justifi- cation through faith was made with him and his be- lieving descendants ; and the rite of circumcision, which was not confined to his posterity by Sarah, but appointed in every branch of his family* was the sign or sacrament of this covenant of grace, and so remained till it was displaced by the sacraments ap- pointed by Christ. Wherever that sign was, it de- clared the dor! line and offered the grace of this cove- nant—free justification by faith, and its glorious re- sults— to all the tribes that proceeded from Abraham. This same grace is offered to us by the Gospel, who become "Abraham's seed," his spiritual children, with whom the covenant is established through the same faith, and are thus made "the heirs with him of the same promise." 2. Abraham is also exhibited to us as the represent- ative of true believers ; and in this especially, that the true nature of faith was exhibited in him. This great principle was marked in Abraham with the following characters : an entire, unhesitating belief in the word of God; an unfaltering trust in all his promises; a steady regard to his almighty power, leading him to overlook all apparent difficulties and impossibilities in everj' case where God had explicitly promised ; and habitual, cheerful, and entire obedience. The Apostle has described faith in Heb. xi, 1, and that faith is seen living and acting in all its energy in Abraham. (Kiemeyer, Charakt.u, 72 sq.) V. The intended offering up of Isaac is not to be supposed as viewed by Abraham as an act spring- ing out of the Pagan practice of human sacrifice, al- though this may have somewhat lessened the shock which the command would otherwise have occasion- ed his natural sympathies. The immolation of hu- man victims, particularly of that which was most precious, the favorite, the first-born child, appears to have been a common usage among many early na- tions, more especially the tribes by which Abraham was surrounded. It was the distinguishing rite among the worshippers of Moloch ; at a later period of the Jewish history, it was practised by a king of Moab ; and it was undoubtedly derived by the Carthagini- ans from their Phoenician ancestors on the shores of Syria. Where it was an ordinary usage, as in the worship of Moloch, it was in unison with the char- acter of the religion and of its deity. It was the last act of a dark and sanguinary superstition, which rose by regular gradation to this complete triumph oyer human nature. The god who was propitiated by these offerings had been satiated with moro cheap and vulgar victims ; he. had been glutted to the full with human suffering and with human blood. In general, it was the final mark of the subjugation of the national mind to an inhuman and domineering priest- hood. But the Mosaic religion held human sacrifices in abhorrence ; and the God of the Abrahamitic fam- ily, uniCormky beneficent, had imposed no duties which entailed human suffering, had demanded no offerings which were repugnant to the better feelings of our nature. The command to offer Isaac as a " burnt- offering" was, for these reasons, a trial the more se- vere to Abraham's faith. He must, therefore, have been fully assured of the Divine command, and he left the mystery to be explained by God himself. His was a simple act of unhesitating obedience to the com- mand of God ; the last proof of perfect reliance on tho certain accomplishment of the Divine promises. Isaac, so miraculously bestowed, could be as miraculously restored ; Abraham, such is the comment of the Chris- tian Apostle, " believed that God could even raise him up from the dead" (Heb. xi, 17). VI. The wide and deep impression made by the character of Abraham upon the ancient world is proved by the reverence which people of almost all nations and countries have paid to him, and the manner in which the events of his life have been interwoven in their mythology and their religious traditions. Jews, Magians, Sabians, Indians, and Mohammedans have claimed him as the great patriarch and founder of their several sects ; and his history has been embel- lished with a variety of fictions. The ethnological relations of the race of Abraham have been lately treated by Ewald (Oeschichte des Votkes Israel), and by Bertheau (Geschiehte der Israeliten), who maintain that Abraham was the leader of tribes who migrated from Chaldea to the south-west. See Arabia. VII. For further notices, see Staudlin, G( sch. der Sit- te/il. Jem, i, 93 sq. ; Eichhorn, Bibl. d. Bibl. Lit. i, 40 sq. ; Harenberg, in the Bib/loth. Brem. Nov. v, 499 sq. ; Stackhouse, Hist, of the Bible, i, 123 sq. ; Hottinger, Hist. Orient, p. 50; Ewald, Jsr. Gesch. i, 385 sq.; Ge- senius, in the Hall. Encycl. i, 155 sq. See likewise .1 eta Sanctorum, Oct. 9 ; Augusti, De Fatis et Factis Abrahami (Goth. 1730); Hebbing, Hist, of Abraham ABRAHAM 33 ABRAXAS (Lond. 1746); Gilbank, Hist, of Abr. (Lond. 1773); Hoist, Leben Abr. (Cherun. 1826); Michaelis, in the Biblioth. Brem. vi, 51 sq. ; Goetze, Be Cultu Abr. (Lips. 1702); Sourie, B. Gott Abr. (Hannov. 1806); Hauck, Be Abr. in Charris (Lips. 1776); the Christ. Month. Spect. v, 397 ; Beer, Leben Abr. (Leipz. 1859) ; Basil, Opera, p. 38 ; Ephraem Syrus, Opera, ii, 312 ; Philo, Opera, ii, 1 sq. ; Ambrose, Opera, i, 278 sq. ; Clirysostom, Opera {Spuria), vi, 646 ; Cooper, Brief Expos, p. 107; Whately, Prototypes, p. 93; Rabadan, Mahometism, p. 1; Debaeza, Comment, p. 3; J. H. Heidegger, Hist. Pat. p. 2 ; Abramus, Pharus V. T. p. 168; Dupin, Nouv. Bible, p. 4; Barrington, Works, iii, 61 ; Riccaltoun, Works, i, 291 ; Robinson, Script. Char- acters, p. 1; Rudge, Led. on Gen. i, 163; Buddieom, L'fe of Abr. (Lond. 1839); Evans, Script. Biog. p. 1; Williams, Characters of 0. T. p. 36; A. H. L., Life of Abr. (Lond. 1861); Adamson, Abraham (Lond. 1841); Blunt, Hist, of Abr. (Lond. 1856) ; Geiger, Ueber Abr. (Altd. 1830) ; Watson, Bid. s. v. ABRAHAM'S BOSOM (o ic6\ttoc 'Afoaap). There was no name which conveyed to the Jews the same associations as that of Abraham. As undoubtedly he was in the highest state of felicity of which departed spirits are capable, "to be with Abraham" implied the enjoyment of the same felicity; and "to be in Abra- ham's bosom" meant to be in repose and happiness with him (comp. Josephus, Be, Mace. § 13 ; 4 Mace, xiii, 16). The latter phrase is obviously derived from the custom of sitting or reclining at table whfeta pre- vailed among the Jews in and before the time of Christ. See Accubatiox. By this arrangement the head of one person was necessarily brought almost into the bosom of the one who sat above him, or at the top of the triclinium, and the guests were so ar- ranged that the most favored were placed so as to bring them into that situation with respect to the host (comp. John xiii, 23 ; xxi, 20). See Bosom. These Jewish images and modes of thought are amply il- lustrated by Lightfoot, Schottgen, and Wettstein, who illustrate Scripture from rabbinical sources. It was quite usual to describe a just person as being with Abraham, or lying on Abraham's bosom ; and as such images were unobjectionable, Jesus accommodated his speech to them, to render himself the more intelligible by familiar notions, when, in the beautiful parable of the rich man and Lazarus, he describes the condition of the latter after death under these conditions (Luke xvi, 22, 23).— Kitto, s. v. See Hades. Abraham, A Saxcta Clara, a Roman Catholic preacher, highly popular in Vienna, and remarkable for his eccentric writings. His family name was Ul- rich Megerle, and ho was born in Baden, 1042. In 1662 he entered the order of barefooted Augustinians, and became distinguished, as a preacher, for directness, tact, and pungency, mixed with rudeness. He died 1709. His sermons and other writings are contained in (unfinished) SammtUche Werke nach dem Original- texte (Lindau, 20 vols. 1835-50). His Grammatica Rel'glosa, containing 55 sermons, was reprinted in Latin, 1719 (Colon. 4to). Abraham, Ecchelexsis. See Ecchelexsis. Abraham, Usque, a Portuguese Jew, who trans- lated the celebrated Spanish Bible of the Jews, first printed at Ferrara, in 155:!. It is translated word for word from the original, which fact, with the use of many old Spanish words, only employed in the syna- gogues, renders it very obscure. Asterisks (mostly omitted in the Holland ed. of 1630) are placed against certain words to denote that the exact meaning of the original Hebrew words is difficult to determine. — Fiirst, Bib. Jud. iii, 463. Abrahamites (1), a sect of heretics, named from their founder Abraham (or Ibrahim), of Antioch, A.D. 805. They were charged with the Paulician errors, and some of them with idolatry and licentiousness ; C but for these charges we have only the word of their persecutors. See Pauliciaxs. (2), a sect of Deists in Bohemia, who existed as late as 1782, and professed the religion of Abraham before his circumcision, ad- mitting no scriptures but the decalogue and the Lord's prayer. They believed in one God, but rejected the Trinity, and other doctrines of revelation. They re- ceived the doctrines of original sin, the immortality of the soul, and future rewards and punishments. '1 hey were required by Joseph II to incorporate themselves with one of the religions tolerated in the empire ; and, in case of non-compliance, threatened with banishment. As the result of obstinate refusal to comply with the imperial command, they were transported to Transyl- vania. Many persons are still found in Bohemia, be- tween whom and the Abrahamites some connection may be traced. They are frequently called Nihilists and Deists. (See an anonymous Gesch. der Bohmu schen Beisten (1785) ; Gregoire, Hist, des Secies relig. v, 419 sq.) A'bram, the original name (Gen. xvii, 5) of Abba-, ham (q. v.). Abraxas (1) (a/3p«£ac or afipaaaF), a mystical word composed of the Greek letters a, /3, n, a, \, a, r, which together, according to Greek numeration, make up the number 365. Basilides taught that there were 365 heavens between the earth and the empyrean, and as many different orders of angels ; and he applied the Cabalistic name Abraxas to the Supreme Lord of all these heavens (B-enosris, lib. i, cap. xxiv, 67). See Basilides. In his sj'stem there was an imitation of the Pythagorean philosophy with regard to numbers, as well as an adoption of Egyptian hieroglvphical symbols. Jerome seems to intimate that this was done in imitation of the practice of thus representing Mithras, the deity of the Persians ; or the sun, other- wise Apollo, the god of healing. For instance : a — 1 ^ az 40 P = 100 , — 10 a - 1 0 =9 f = co p =100 ? = 200 r = 200 Abraxas = 365 Meithras, or Mithras — 3C5 Probably Basilides intended, in this way, to express the number of intelligences which compose the ITero- ma, or the Deity under various manifestations, or the sun, in which Pythagoras supposed that the intelli- gence resided which produced the world. — A few of the modes of deriving this term are subjoined. Bel- lerman takes it from the Coptic, the ancient language of Egypt; the syllable sadsch (which the Greeks were obliged to convert into irog,man (that is, God-man); Suffi'/n, Saviour. See ABRACADABRA. (2.) Abraxas Gems or Images. — A great number of relics (L'ems and plates, or tablets of metal) have been discovered, chiefly in Egypt, bearing the word abraxas, or an image supposed to designate the god of that name. There has been much discussion about these relics, some regarding them as all of Basilidian origin; others holding them, in part or in whole, to be Egyp- tian. Descriptions of them may lie found in Macarii Abraxas seu de Gem. Basil. Bisquisitio, edited by Chifnet (Antw. 1657, 4to) ; Montfaucon, Paheogr. ABRECH 34 ABSALOM Grcec. lib. ii, cap. viii; Passed, /> Gemini's Basilidianis, in Gori, Tin saurus Gt m. Astrif. (Flor. 1750, 3 vols. -1 to); Bellermann, Ueb.die Gemmen der A Iten mit dem A braxas- bilde (Berlin. 1817-1819) ; Walsh, Ancient Coins, Medals, etc. (Lond. 1828, 8vo); Kopp, Palceographia Critica (Mannh. 1827, pt. iv). Matter (in Herzog's Eeal-En- cyklopiidie, ami in his IHstoire du Gnostieisme, vol. iii) gives a elassilieation of them which will tend greatly to facilitate their study. Some of them contain the Abraxas image alone, or with a shield, spear, or other emblems of Gnostic origin. Some have Jewish words (e. g. Jehovah, Adonai. etc.) ; others combine the Ab- raxas with Persian, Egyptian, or Grecian symbols. Montfaucon has divided these gems into seven classes. 1. Those having the head of a cock, the symbol of the sun ; 2. Those having the head of a lion, expressive of the heat of the sun : these have the inscription Mi- thras ; 3. Serapis; 4. Sphinxes, apes, and other ani- mals ; 5. Human figures, with the names of Iao, Saba- oth, Adonai, etc.; (!. Inscriptions without figures; 7. Monstrous forms. He gives 300 fac-similes of gems with different devices and inscriptions, one of which is shown in the accompanying cut from the collection of Viscount Strangford. It is of an oval form, con- vex on both sides, and both the surface of the stone and the impression of the sculpture highly polished. Gno?tic Gem. On one side is represented a right, line crossed by three curved ones, a figure very common on gnos- tic gems, ami perhaps representing the golden "can- dlestick." This is surrounded by the legend AB- PACAS IAQ, words also of very common use, and which are to be found either by themselves, or ac- companied by every variety of figure. The word IAQ, in a variety of modifications, is also found on most of the gems of the Gnostics; and, next to Ab- rasax, seems to have been the most portentous and mysterious. It is generalb/ supposed to be a cor- ruption of the tctragrammaton, £, Vulg. iji mi j/i cterent), a word that occurs only in the original of Gen. xli, 43, where it is used in proclaiming the au- thority of Joseph. Something similar happened in the cise ofMordecai, bul then several words were em- ployed (Esth. vi, 11). If the word be Hebrew, it is I I probably an imperative (not directly, Buxtorf, Thes. Gramm. p. 134; nor the first pers. fut., as explained by A ben-Ezra, but the infin. absolute used imperative- ly, Gesenius, Thes. Ileb. p. 19) of tpS in Hiphil, and would then mean, as in our version, " bow the knee" (so the Vulg.. Erpenius, Luther, Aquila, and the Ven. Gr. version). We are indeed assured by Wilkinson (Anc. Egyptians, ii, 24) that the word abrelc is used to the present day by the Arabs when requiring a camel to kneel and receive its load. But Luther (subse- quently) and others (e. g. Onkelos, the Targum, Syr. and Persic versions) suppose the word to be a com- pound of TjH"X, " the father of the state," and to be of Chaldce origin. The Sept. and Samar. understand vaguely a herald. It is, however, probably Egyptian, slightly modified so as to suit the Hebrew ; and most later writers are inclined with De Kossi (Etym. Egypt. p. 1) to repair to the Coptic, in which Aberek or Abrek means " bow the head" — an interpretation essentially agreeing with those of Pfeiffer {Opp. i, 94) and Ja- blonski (Opzisc. i, 4, 5, cd. Water). See Salutation. But Origen (Hexapla, i, 49, ed. Montfaucon), a native of Egypt, and Jerome {Comment, in loc), both of whom knew the Semitic languages, are of the opinion that Abrech means "a native Egyptian;" and when we consider how important it was that Joseph should cease to be regarded as a foreigner [see Abomination], it lias in this sense a significance, as a proclamation of naturalization, which no other interpretation convej-s (see Ameside, Be Abrech sEgyptior. Dresd. 1750). Os- burn thinks the title still appears in Joseph's tomb as Itb-n sh, " royal priest" {Mon. Hist, of Eg. ii, 90). Abro'nali. See Ebuonaii. Abronas. See Arbonai. Ab'salom (Ileb. Abshalora , DlbdnX, fully Abi- shalomf, Oi5D*12X, 1 Kings, xv, 2, 10, father of peace, i. e. peaceful; Sept. 'AfSiao-aKriip, Josephus, 'AipdXw- poc, Ant. xiv, 4, 4), the name of three men. 1. The third son of David, and his only one (comp. 1 Kings i, G) by Maacah, the daughter of Talmai, king of Geshur (2 Sam. iii, 3; 1 Chron. iii, 2), born B.C. eir. 1050. He was particularly noted for his personal beauty, especially his profusion of hair, the incon- venient weight of which often (not necessarily " every year," as in the Auth. Vers.) compelled him to cut it off, when it was found to v.ci zh " 200 shekels after the king's weight" — an amount variously estimated from 112 ounces (Geddes) to 7| ounces (A. Clarke), and, at least, designating an extraordinary quantity (2 Sam. xiv, 25-26; see Journal de Trevoux, 1702, p. 17G; Diedrichs, TJeb. d. JIaara Absalom's, Gott. 1776; Handb. d.A. T. p. 142 sq. ; Bochart, Opp. ii, 384). David's other child by Maacah was a daughter named Tamar, who was also very beautiful. She be- came the object of lustful regard to her half-brother Amnon, David's eldest son ; and Mas violated by him, in pursuance of a plot suggested by the artful Jonadab (2 Sam. xiii, 1-20), B.C. cir. 1033. See Amnon. In all cases where polygamy is allowed we find that the honor of a sister is in the guardianship of her full In-other, more even than in that of her father, whose interest in her is considered less peculiar and intimate (see Niebuhr, Beschr. p. 39). ' We trace this notion even in the time of Jacob (Gen. xxxiv, 6, 13, 25 sq.). So in this case the wrong of Tamar was taken up by Absalom, who kept her secluded in his own house, and brooded silently over the injury he had sustained. It was not until two years had passed that Absalom found opportunity for the bloody revenge he had meditated. He then held a great sheep-shearing at Baal-hazoi near Ephraim, to which he invited all the king's sons j and, to lull suspicion, he also solicited the presence cf his father. As he expected, David declined for himself, but allowed Amnon and the other princes to attend. They feasted together; and when they were warm ABSALOM 35 with wine Amnon was set upon and slain by the ser- ! vants of Absalom, according to the previous directions j of their master. The others fled to Jerusalem, filling the king with grief and horror by the tidings which they brought. Absalom hastened to Geshur, and re- mained there three years with his grandfather, king Talmai (2 Sam. xiii, 23-38). See Geshdr. Absalom, with all his faults, was eminently dear to his father. David mourned every day after the ban- ished fratricide, whom a regard for public opinion and a just horror of his crime forbade him to recall. His secret wishes to have home his beloved though guilty son were, however, discerned by Joab, who employed a clever woman of Tekoah to lay a supposed case be- fore him for judgment; and she applied the antici- pated decision so adroitly to the case of Absalom, that the king discovered the object and detected the inter- position of Joab. Regarding this as in some degree expressing the sanction of public opinion, David glad- ly commissioned Joab to "call home his banished." Absalom returned ; but David controlled his feelings, and declined to admit him to his presence. After two years, however, Absalom, impatient of his disgrace, found means to compel the attention of Joab to his case; and through him a complete reconciliation was thus effected, and the father once more indulged him- self with the presence of his son (2 Sam. xiii, 39 ; xiv, 33), B.C. cir. 1027. Scarcely had he returned when he began to cherish aspirations to the throne, which he must have known was already pledged to another (see 2 Sam. vii, 12). His reckless ambition was probably only quickened by the fear lest Bath- sheba's child should supplant him in the succession, to which he would feel himself entitled, as of royal birth on his mother's side as well as his father's, and as be- ing now David's eldest surviving son, since we may infer that the second son, Chileab, was dead, from no mention being made of him after 2 Sam. iii, 3. It is harder to account for his temporary success, and the imminent danger which befell so powerful a govern- ment as his father's. The sin with Bathsheba had probably weakened David's moral and religious hold upon the people; and as he grew older he may have become less attentive to individual complaints, and that personal administration of justice which was one of an Eastern king's chief duties. The populace were disposed to regard Absalom's pretensions with favor ; and by many arts he so succeeded in winning their affections that when, four years (the text has erro- neously -10 years; comp. Josephus, Ant. vii, 9, 1 ; see Kennicott, Diss. p. 367 ; Ewald, Isr. Gesch. ii, 637) after his return from Geshur, he repaired to Hebron, and there proclaimed himself king, the great body of the people declared for him. It is probable that the great tribe of Judah had taken some offence at David's government, perhaps from finding themselves com- pletely merged in one united Israel ; and that they hoped secretly for pre-eminence under the less wise and liberal rule of his son. Thus Absalom selects Hebron, the old capital of Judah (now supplanted by Jerusalem), as the scene of the outbreak ; Amasa, his chief captain, and Ahithophel of Giloh, his principal counsellor, ai-e both of Judah, and, after the rebellion was crushed, Ave see signs of ill-feeling between Judah and the other tribes (xix, -11). But whatever the causes may have been, the revolt was at first com- pletely successful. David found it expedient to quit Jerusalem and retire to Mahanaim, beyond the Jordan. "When Absalom heard of this, he proceeded to Jeru- salem and took possession of the throne without oppo- sition. Among those who had joined him was Ahith- ophel, who had been David's counsellor, and whose profound sagacity caused his counsels to be regarded like oracles in Israel. This defection alarmed David more than any other single circumstance in the affair, and lie persuaded his friend Hushai to go and join Ab- salom, in the hope that he might be made instrumen- ABSALOM tal in turning the sagacious counsels of Ahithophel to foolishness. The first piece of advice which Ahitho- phel gave Absalom was that he should publicly take possession of that portion of his father's harem which had been left behind in Jerusalem; thus fulfilling Na- than's prophecy (2 Sam. xiii, 11). This was not only a mode by which the succession to the throne might be confirmed [see Abisiiag ; comp. Herodotus, iii, 68], but in the present case, as suggested by the wily counsellor, this villanous measure would dispose the people to throw themselves the more unreservedly into his cause, from the assurance that no possibility of reconcilement between him and his father remain- ed. But David had left friends who watched over his interests. Hushai had not then arrived. Soon after he came, when a council of war was held to con- sider the course of operations to be taken against Da- vid. Ahithophel counselled that the king should be pursued that very night, and smitten while he was " weary and weak handed, and before he had time to recover strength." Hushai, however, whose object was to gain time for David, speciously urged, from the known valor of the king, the possibility and disas- trous consequences of a defeat, and advised that all Israel should be assembled against him in such force as it would be impossible for him to withstand. Fa- tally for Absalom, the counsel of Hushai was pre- ferred to that of Ahithophel ; and time was thus af- forded for the king, by the help of his influential fol- lowers, to collect his resources, as well as for the peo- ple to reflect upon the undertaking in which so many of them had embarked. David soon raised a large force, which he properly organized and separated into three divisions, commanded severally by Joab, Abish- ai, and Ittai of Gath. The king himself intended to take the chief command ; but the people refused to allow him to risk his valued life, and the command then devolved upon Joab. The brttle took place in the borders of the forest of Ephraini ; and the tactics cf Joab, in drawing the enemy into the wood, and there hemming them in, so that they were destroyed with ease, eventually, under the providence of God, decided the action against Absalom. Twenty thou- sand of his troops were slain, and the rest fled io their homes. Absalom himself fled on a swift mule ; but as he went, the boughs of a terebinth (or oak ; see Thomson's Land and Look, i, 374 ; ii, 234) tree caught the long hair in which he gloried, and he was left suspended there (comp. Josephus, Ant. vii, 10, 2; Celsii llierob. i, 43). The charge which David had given to the troops to respect the life of Absalom pre- vented any one from slaying him ; but when Joab heard of it, he hastened to the spot and pierced him through with three darts. His bed}' was then taken down and cast into a pit there in the forest, and a heap of stones was raised upon it as a sign of abhor- rence (see Thomson, ibid, ii, 231). David's fondness for Absalom was unextinguished by all that had pass- ed; and as he sat, awaiting tidings of the battle, at the gate of Mahanaim, he was probably more anx- ious to learn that Absalom lived than that tie battle was gained ; and r.o sooner did he hear that Absalom was dead, than he retired to the chamber above the gate, to give vent to his paternal anguish. The victors, as they returned, slunk into the town like criminals when they heard the bitter wailings of the king: "0 my son Absalom ! my son, my son Absa- lom ! would God 1 had died for thee, O Absalom, my son, my son!" The consequences of this weakness might have been most dangerous, had nit Joab gone up to him, and, after sharply rebuking him for thus discouraging those who had risked their lives in his cause, induced him to go down and cheer the return- ing warriors by his presence (2 Sam. xv, 1 ; xix, * ; comp. Psa. iii, title), B.C. cir. 1023.— Kitto, s. v. Absalom is elsewhere mentioned only in 2 Sam. xx, 6; 1 Kings ii, 7, 28; xv, 2, 10 ; 2 Chron. xi, 20, 21 ; ABSALOM 36 ABSOLUTION" from the last two of which passages he appears to have left only a daughter (having lost three sons, 2 Sam. xiv, 27 ; comp. xviii, 18), who was the grand- mother of Abijah (q. v.). See, generally, Niemeyer, Charakt. iv, 319 sq.; Kitto, Dai/// Bible Must, in loc. ; Debaeza, Com. Allegor. p. 5; Evans, Script. Biog. p. 1; Lindsay, Led. ii ; Dietric, Antiq. p. 353; Laurie, Led. p. 63; Harris, Works, p. 209; Spencer, Ser- mons, p. 273; Simeon, Works, iii, 281, 294; Dibdin, Sermons, iii, 410 ; Williams, Sermons, ii, 190. See David ; Joab. Absalom's Tomb. A remarkable monument bear- ing this name makes a conspicuous figure in the Val- ley of Jehoshaphat, outside Jerusalem ; and it has been noticed and described by almost all travellers. It is close by the lower bridge over the Kedron, and is a square isolated block hewn out from the rocky ledge so as to leave an area or nich3 around it. The body of this monument is about 24 feet square, and is ornamented on each side with two columns and two half columns of the Ionic order, with pilasters at the corners. The architrave exhibits triglyphs and Doric ornaments. The elevation is about 18 or 20 feet to the top of the architrave, and thus far it is wholly cut from the rock. But the adjacent rock is here not so high as in the adjoining tomb of Zecharias (so called), and therefore the upper part of the tomb has been car- ried up with mason-work of large stones. This con- sists, tirst, of two square layers, of which the upper one is smaller than the lower ; and then a small dome or cupola runs up into a low spire, which appears to have spread out a little at the top, like an opening flame. This mason-work is perhaps 20 feet high, giv- ing to the whole an elevation of about 40 feet. There is a small excavated chamber in the body of the tomb, into which a hole had been broken through one of the sides several centuries ago. Its present Mohamme- dan name is Tantur Faraon (Biblioth. Sac. 1843, p. 34). The old travellers who refer to this tomb, as well as Calmet after them, are satisfied that they find the history of it in 2 Sam. xviii, 18, which states that Ab- salom, having no son, built a monument to keep his name in remembrance, and that this monument was called "Absalom's Place" (Di?'32X *P, Absalom's Hand, as in the margin ; Sept. Xtlp A/3f(7poc.) The father of Matathias (1 Mace, xi, 70) and Jonathan (1 Mace, xiii, 11), two of the generals under the Maccabees. 3. (Sept. 'AiSsciraXioj.!.) One of the two Jews sent by Judas Maccabeus with a petition to the viceroy Lysias (2 Mace, xi, 17, in some "Absalon"). Absalon, or Axel, archbishop of Lund, in Swe- den, and primate of the kingdoms of Denmark, Swe- den, and Norway, was born in the island of Zealand, in 1128. After finishing his studies at Paris, he de- voted himself to the priesthood, and was appointed bishop of Roeskilde in 1158. He was at the same time made prime-minister and general of the armies of Waldemar. In the latter capacity he overcame the Wends, and established Christianity there. In 1178 he was made archbishop of Lund, but still retained the see of Roeskilde, and remained in Zealand until 1191. He also quelled a rebellion in the district of Schoonen ; and after Canute VI had ascended the throne he help- ed tins prince in repulsing his rival, the Duke of Pome- rania, and in conquering Mecklenbourg and Estonia. These occupations did not prevent his attending dili- gently to his clerical duties. In 1187 he called a national council to regulate the ceremonial of the churches. He was also a patron of the sciences and of literature. He died in the convent of Soroe in 1201. — Neander, Ch. Hist, iv, 31 ; Illgen, Zeitschrft. 1832, i. Absinthium. See Wormwood. Absolution, the act of loosing or setting free. In civil law it is a sentence by which the party accused is declared innocent of the crime laid to his charge, and is equivalent to acquittal. In the Roman theol- ogy it signifies the act by which the priest declares the sins of penitent persons to be remitted to them. ABSOLUTION 3? ABSTEMII 1. In the first centuries, the restoration of a peni- tent to the bosom of the Christian Church was deemed a matter of great importance, and was designed not only to be a means of grace to the individual, but also a benefit to the whole body. Absolution was at that time simply reconciliation with the Church, and res- toration to its communion, without any reference to the remission of sins. Early writers, such as Tertullian, Novatian, Cyprian, Athanasius, Basil, Chrysostom, Jerome, and Cyril, lay great stress on the fact that the forgiveness of sins is the prerogative of Cod only, and can never belong to any priest or bishop. After the fourth century, as the practice of private penance pre- vailed, the doctrine of ministerial absolution of sins began to gain ground, and was at length exalted to the rank of a sacrament. 2. Five kinds of absolution are mentioned by the early writers, a. That of baptism, b. The eucharist. c. The word and doctrine, d. The imposition of hands, and prayer, e. Reconciliation to the Church by re- laxation of censures. Baptism in the ancient Church was called absolution, because remission of sins was supposed to be connected with this ordinance. It is termed by Augustine " absolutio ,' or, " sacr amen- tum absohitionis et remission is peccatarum.'''' It had no relation to penitential discipline, being never given to persons who had once received baptism. The ab- solution of the eucharist had some relation to peni- tential discipline, but did not solely belong to it. It was given to all baptized persons who never fell under discipline, as well as to those who fell and were restored. In "both respects it was called the perfection or consummation of a Christian (to Tt- X(ioj'). The absolution of the word and doctrine was declarative. It was that power which the minis- ters of Christ have, to make declaration of the terms of reconciliation and salvation to mankind. The ab- solution of intercession and prayer was generally con- nected with all other kinds of absolution. Prayers always attended baptism and the Eucharist, and also the final reception of penitents into the Church. The absolution of reconcilement to the Church took place at the altar, after canonical penance, and is often refer- red to, in earlier writers, by the terms, "granting peace," "restoring to communion," "reconciling to the church," "loosing bonds," "granting indulgence and pardon." Some councils enacted that the absolu- tion of a penitent should only be granted by the bishop who had performed the act of excommunication, or by his successor. Severe penalties were inflicted on any who violated this regulation. Various ceremonies ac- companied this act. The time selected was usually Passion-iceek ; and, from this circumstance, the restora- tion is called hebdomas iudulgintiiv. If not in Passion- week, it took place at some time appointed by the bishop. The act was performed in the church, when the people were assembled for divine worship, and usually immediately before the administration of the Lord's supper. The penitent, kneeling before the al- tar-table, or the reading-desk (ambo), was absolved by the bishop, by the imposition of hands, and by prayer. As the act was designated by the phrase Dare pacem, it is probable that a form was used which contained in it the expression, " Depart in peace." The fifty-first Psalm was usually sung on the occasion, but not as a necessary part of the service. Immediately after the ceremony, the absolved were admitted to the sacra- ment of the Lord's supper, and from that moment re- stored to all church privileges, with one exception, that a minister, under these circumstances, was reck- oned among the laity, and a layman disqualified for the clerical office. In the case of heretics, chrism was added to the imposition of hands, to denote their re- ception of the Holy Spirit of peace on their restoration to the peace and unity of the Church. The bishop touched with oil the forehead, eyes, nose, mouth, and ears of the penitent, saying, " This is the sign of the gifts of the Holj' Ghost." The Roman Church has also a form of absolution for the dead (absolutio - at least in this particu- lar, an arbitrary rule has been invented and •^' '-. - ,\^± .^^i. i*~" , generally acceded to by scholars of all nations, by which the tone is placed upon every lung penult, and upon the an- tepenult of words hav- decay of the superincumbent structure (Bonomi's | ing a short or doubtful (" common") vowel in the pe- Nineveh, p. 41). In the ruin itself, the layers of sun- j nult. Many apply the same rule to the Greek lan- dried bricks can be traced very distinctly. They are \ guage; but, as this has a written accent, the custom, cemented together by lime or bitumen, and arc divided j still preserved among the modern Greeks, is gradually into courses varying from 12 to 20 feet in height, and , prevailing, of conforming the spoken to the written fM^- Moiinil i if Akker-ku are separated by layers of reeds, as is usual in the more ancient remains of this primitive region (Buck- ingham, Mesopotamia, ii, 217 sq.). Travellers have been perplexed to make out the use of this remarkable monument, and various strange conjectures have been hazarded. The embankments of canals and reservoirs, and the remnants of brick -work and pottery occupying the place all around, evince that the Tel stood in an important city ; and, as its construction announces it to be a Babylonian relic, the greater probability is that it was one of those pyramidal structures erected upon high places, which were consecrated to the heav- enly bodies, and served at once as the temples and the observatories of those remote times. Such build- ings were common to all Babylonian towns; and those which remain appear to have been constructed more or less on the model of that in the metropolitan city of Babylon. — Kitto, s. v. See Babel. Ac'caron (1 Mace, x, 89). See Ekron. Accensorii. In the early Church there was a class of officers called acolyths, corresponding to the Unman apparitor or pi dellus, In dellus, beadle. In their ordination, the bishop, after informing them as to the duties of their office, placed in the hands of each a can- dlestick with a lighted taper in it, intimating that it was their duty to light the candles of the church; hence they were sometimes called accensorii, taper- lighters. Jerome says it. was a custom in the Oriental churches to set up lighted tapers when the Gospel was read, as a demonstration of joy ; but it does not ap- pear that there was a peculiar order of acolyths for this purpose. The duty in question seems to have been nothing more than lighting the candles at night, when the church was to meet at evening prayer. The Romanists contend that their cero-ferarii, taper-bear- tone. In Hebrew the place of the accent is carefully designated in the common or Masoretic text (see R. Jehuda Ibn Balam, Treatise on the Poetic Accents, in Hebrew, Paris, 155G; reprinted with annotations, Amst. 1858), although the Jews of some nations, dis- regarding this, pronounce the words with the accent on the penult, after the analogy of modern languages, and as is done b}' natives in speaking Syriac and Arabic (see J. D. Michaelis, Anfaiigsgriinde der Heir. Accentuation, Hall. 1741; Hirts, Einleit. in d. Flebr. Abtkeilungskunst, Jena, 17G2; Spitzner, Idea Analytical V, T. ex Accentibus, Lips. 1709 ; Stem, Grundl, Lehre d. Ilebr. Accentuation, Frankf. 1840). In words angli- cized from the Greek the Latin rules arc observed for the accent; and in those introduced from the Hebrew, as they have mostly come to us through the Vulgate, the same principle is in the main adhered to. so far as applicable, though with great irregularity and disa- greement among orthoepists, and generally to the ut- ter neglect of the proper Hebrew tone. In pronounc- ing Scripture and other foreign names, therefore, care should be taken to conform to the practice of the best speakers and readers, rather than to any affected or pedantic standard, however exact in itself (see Wor- cester's Kurj. Dirt. 1860, Append.). Accept-- Acceptable — Accepted (properly fiSH, ratsah'. to take pleasure in; ci\ofiat). To accept is not only to receive, but. to receive with pleasure and kindness (Gen. xxxii. 20). It stands opposed to re- ject, which is a direct mode of refusal, and implies a positive sentiment of disapprobation (Jer. vi, 30; vii, 20). To receive, is an act of right — we receive what is our own ; to act ept, is an act of courtesy — we accept what is offered by another. Hence an acceptable, time, or accepted time (Psa. lxix, 13: 2 Cor. vi, 2), signifies ACCEPTANCE 4:5 ACCHO a favorable opportunity. " No prophet is accepted in his own country" (Luke iv, 24), that is to say, his own countrymen do not value and honor him as they ought. " Neither acceptesl thou the person of any" (Luke xx, 21). The word person hero is intended to denote the outward appearance in contrast with inward charac- ter. See Access. Acceptance, (1) a term which imports the ad- mission of man into Ihc favor of God. As things are best understood by contrast with their opposites, so acceptance is to be understood from its opposite, re- jection, the sense of which will be found by reference to .Tcr. vi, 30 ; vii, 2ft. To understand aright the Scriptural idea of acceptance with God, we must keep in mind the fact that sin is highly displeasing to Cod. and is attended by the hiding of his face or the with- holding of his favor. Sin causes God to refuse to hold friendly intercourse with man; but the mediation of the Son of God restores this intercourse. Sinners are said to be " accepted in the Beloved" ( Eph. i, G) ; that is, in Christ. Thejr are no longer held in a state of rejection, but arc received witli approbation and kind- ness. It is to be noticed that it is an idea of a positive kind which the word acceptance contains. As the re- jection which sin occasioned was express, equally ex- press and positive is the acceptance of which Christ is the author. One who had disgraced himself before his sovereign would be particularly refused any share in the favors of the court. When this breach was re- paired, the excluded party would again be favorably received (Eden). See Accept. (2.) Acceptance (Eph. i, G), in theology, is nearly synonymous with justification. We mistake the terms of acceptance with God icJien ice trust in, 1, the supe- riority of our virtues to our vices (Horn, iii, 20 ; Jas. ii, 10) ; 2, in a faith in Christ which does not produce good works (Jas ii, 11) ; 3, in the atonement, without personal repentance from sin (Luke xiii, 5) ; 4, in the hope of future repentance, or conversion on a dying bed (Prov. i, 24-31). See Adoption ; Justification. Acceptants, a name that arose in the second pe- riod of the Jansenist controversy in France. The bull Uniijenkus (q. v.) of Clement XI, 1713, was ac- cepted by some of the French clergy unconditionally ; by others only on condition of its reference to a gen- eral council. The former were called acr< plants or con- stitutionalists ; the latter appellants. See Jansf.nists. Acceptilation (acceptilatid), a term in theology, used, with regard to redemption, to denote the accept- ance on the part of God of an atonement not really equal to that in place of which it is received, but equiv- alent, not because of its intrinsic value, but because of God's determination to receive it. The term is bor- rowed fift>m the commercial law of the Romans, in which it is defined "an acquittance from obligation, by word of mouth, of a debtor by a creditor" (Pandects of Justinian), or '"an imaginary payment" (Institutes of Justinian). In the theology of the Middle Ages, the term was first used and the theory developed by Duns Scotus in his controversy with the followers of Thomas Aquinas He defended the proposition that ' every created oblation or offering is worth what God is pleased to accept it for and no more." The doe- trine continued to lie a subject of dispute between the followers of -Duns Scotus and those of Thomas Aquinas throughout the Middle Ages, and still divides the Ro- man ( 'alholie theologians, as the Popes have never au- thoritatively settled it The Lutheran and Calvinistic theologians mostly adopted the doctrine of a strict sat- isfaction; but the theory of a relative necessity found eloquent defenders in Hugo Grotius (q. v.), and the Arminian theologians Episcopius (q. v.), Limborch (q. v.), and Curccllaeus (q. v.). See Shedd, History of Doctrines, ii, 347 sq. Access (Trpoaaywy);, a. bringing toward) is the privilege of approaching a superior with freedom. It is distinguished from admittance thus : " We have ad- mittance where we enter; we have access to him whom we address. There can be no access where there is no admittance; but there may bo admittance without ac- cess. Servants or officers may grant us admittance into the palaces of princes; the favorites of princes only have access to their persons" (Crabbe, Engl. Syn. s. v.). See Acceptance. (1.) Introduction, free admission into the presence of a superior. In the New Testament it signifies the free intercourse which we enjoy with Cod in the exer- cise of prayer, resulting from our having entered into a state of friendship with him (Rom. v, 2 ; Eph. ii, 18 ; iii, 12). It is more than simple admittance ; it is such an introduction as leads to future and frequent inter- course. When the vail of the temple was rent at the death of Christ, a new and living way of access to God was opened. Under the law, the high-priest alone had access into the holy of holies. By the death of Christ the middle wall of partition was broken down, and Jew and Gentile have both free access to God ; before this, the Gentiles, in the temple-worship, had no nearer access than to the gate of the court of Israel. All the privileges of Christianity arc equally bestowed on all believers of all nations. Sec PkAyer. (2.) In Roman ecclesiastical usage — 1, a collection of preparatory prayers, used by the priests before the celebration of the mass ; 2, in the election of the pope, a transfer of votes from one candidate to another to secure the necessary number is called an access. If a voter wishes to change his vote to another person, he writes on his paper accedo domino, etc. Ac'cho (Hcb. Alko, i2.V, from an Arab, root sig- nifying to be hot [sec Drummond, Origines, v, 3], re- ferring to the sultry sand in the neighborhood, used by the Phoenicians in the manufacture of glass [Pliny, v, 19 ; Strabo, xvi, 877] ; Sept. Akyw, Josephus, "Aki\ Ant. ix, 11, 2), a town and haven within the nominal territory of the tribe of Asher, which, however, never acquired possession of it (Judg. i, 31). It is, perhaps, likewise mentioned in Micah i, 10 ("i-3, prob. i~2 for 13?2l, in Acclio; Sept. iv 'Aiciip, Vulg. Idchrymis, Auth. Vers, "at all;" see Henderson, Comment, in loc). The Greek and Roman writers call it Am;, Ace (Strab. xvi, 877; Diod. Sic. xix, 93 ; C. Nep. xiv, 5); but it was eventually better known &&Ptolemais ( 1'lin. Hist. Nat. v, l!i), which name it received from the first Ptolemy, king of Egypt, by whom it was much im- proved. By this name it is mentioned in the Apocry- pha (1 Mace, x, 56; xi, £2, 24; xii, 45, 48; 2 Mace, xiii, 14), in the New Testament (Acts xxi, 7), ami I y Josephus (Ant. xiii, 12, 2 sq.). It was also called Colonia Claudii Ccesaris, in consequence of its receiv- ing the privileges, of a Roman city from the emperor Claudius (I'lin. v, 17; xxxvi, G5). It continued to lie called Ptolemais by the Greeks of the lower empire, as well as by Latin authors, while the Orientals ad- hered to the original designation (see Mishna, Ab< , " sit at meat," " sit down") on couches at table, which prevailed among the Jews in and before the time of Christ ; a custom apparently derived from Persian luxury, but usual among the Romans like- wise. The dinner-bed, or triclinium, stood in the mid- dle of the dining-room (itself hence called "triclinium" also), clear of the walls, and formed three sides of a square which enclosed the table. The open end of the square, with the central hollow, allowed the serv- ants to attend and serve the table. In all the exist- ing representations of the dinner-bed it is shown to have been higher than the enclosed table. Among Ancient Roman dinner-bed. the Romans the usual number of guests on each couch was three, making nine for the three couches — equal to the number of the Muses ; but sometimes there were four to each couch. The Greeks went beyond this number (Cic. In Pis. 27) ; the Jews appear to have had no particular fancy in the matter, and wc know that at our Lord's last supper thirteen persons were pi-esent. As each guest leaned, during the great- er part of the entertainment, on his left elbow, so as to leave the right arm at liberty, and as two or more lay on the same couch, the head of one man was near the breast of the man who lay behind him, and he was, therefore, said "to lie in the bosom" of the oth- er. This phrase was in use among the Jews (Luke xvi, 22, 23; John i, 18; xiii, 23), and occurs in such a manner as to show that to lie next below, or "in the bosom" of the master of the feast, was considered the most favored place ; and is shown by the citations of Kypke and Wetstein (on John xiii, 23) to have been usually assigned to near and dear connections. So it was "the disciple whom Jesus loved" who "reclined upon his breast" at the last supper. See Lord's Sup- per. Lightfoot and others suppose that as, on that occasion, John lay next below Christ, so Peter, who was also highly favored, lay next above him. This conclusion is founded chiefly on the fact of Peter beck- I oning to John that he should ask Jesus who was the traitor. But this seems rather to prove the contrary \ — that Peter was not near enough to speak to Jesus himself. If lie had been there, Christ must have lain near his bosom, and he would have been in the best position for whispering to his master, and in tie' worst for beckoning to John. The circumstance that Christ was able to reach the sop to Judas when he had dip- ped it, seems to us rather to intimate that he was the one who tilled that place. The morsel of favor was likely to be given to one in a favored place ; and Ju- das, the treasurer and almoner of the whole party might be expected to till that place. This also ag ACCUBATION. 4S ACCURSED. gravates by contrast the turpitude and treachery of his conduct. See Banquet. The frame of the din- ner-bed was laid with mattresses variously stuffed, and, latterly, was furnished with rich coverings and hangings. Each person was usually provided with a cushion or bolster on which to support the upper part of his person in a somewhat raised position, as the left arm alone could not long without weariness sustain the weight. The lower part of the body being ex- tended diagonally on the bed, with the feet outward, it is at once perceived how easy it was for " the wom- an that was a sinner" to come behind between the dinner-bed and the wall and anoint the feet of Jesus (Matt, xxvi, 7 ; Mark xiv, 3). The dinner-beds were so various at different times, in different places, and under different circumstances, that no one description can apply to them all (see Critica Bibliea, ii, 481). Even among the Romans they were at first (after the Punic war) of rude form and materials, and covered with mattresses stuffed with rushes or straw; mat- tresses of hair and wool were introduced at a later pe- riod. At first the wooden frames were small, low, and round; and it was not until the time of Augustus that square and ornamental couches came into fash- ion. In the time of Tiberius the most splendid sort were veneered with costly woods or tortoise-shell, and were covered with valuable embroideries, the richest of which came from Babylon, and cost large sums (Soc. Useful Knowl. Pompeii, ii, 88). The Jews per- haps had all these varieties, though it is not likely that the usage was ever carried to such a pitch of lux- ury as among the Romans ; and it is probable that the mass of the people fed in the ancient manner — seated on stools or on the ground. It appears that couches were often so low that the feet rested on the ground ; and that cushions or bolsters were in general use. It would also seem, from the mention of two and of three couches, that the arrangement was more usually square than semicircular or round (Lightfoot, I/or. Heb. in John xiii, 23). See Divan. It is utterly improbable that the Jews derived this custom from the Romans, as is constantly alleged. They certainly knew it as existing among the Per- sians long before it had been adopted by the Romans Family eating-couch. From Pompeii. themselves (Esth. i, G ; vii, 8) ; and the presumption is that they adopted it while subject to that people. The Greeks also had the usage (from the Persians) be- fore the Romans ; and with the Greeks of Syria the Jews had very much intercourse. Besides, the Ro- mans adopted the custom from the Carthaginians (Val. Max. xii, 1, 2; Liv. xxviii, 28); and that they had it, implies that it previously existed in Phoenicia, in the neighborhood of the .Tews. It is also unlikely that, in so short a time, it should have become usual and even (as the Talmud asserts, see Otho, Lex. Until). p. 447) obligatory to cat the Passover in that pos- ture of indulgent repose, and in no other (Gizring, Accuhit. a*! Patch. Vit. 1735). The literature of this subject has been brought together by Stuckius {Antiq. Concivalium, ii, 34) ; and the works on Pompeii and Herculaneum (see Cockburn's Pompeii Illustrated, ii, 5) supply the more recent information. (See Smith's Diet, of Class. Antiq. s. v. Ccena, Deipnon, Triclin- ium.)— Kitto, s. v. See Eating. Accursed (in general designated by some form of ??p, kalal' , Gr. Kcirapdopai, to " curse"), a term used in two senses. See Oath. (1.) Anathema (D"?n, che'rem, avdBi^a), a vow (Num. xxi, 2), by which persons or things were devo- ted to Jehovah, whose property they became irrevoca- bly and never to be redeemed (sacer, sacrum esto Je- hovse; comp. Cassar, Bell. Gall, vi, 17; Tacit. Annul. xiii, 57; Lev. iii, 55; Diod. Sic. xi, 3; see Mayer, De Nomin. Piacularibus. in Ugolini Thesaur. xxiii). Per- sons thus offered were doomed to death (Lev. xxvii, 29 ; see Judg. xi, 31 sq. ; 1 Sam. xiv, 44). Cattle, land, and other property were appropriated for the use of the temple, i. e. of the caste of the priests (Lev. xxvii, 28 ; Num. xviii, 14 ; Ezek. xxiv, 20). Originally such vows were spontaneous on the part of the Israelites (see Num. xxi, 2; 1 Sam. xiv, 24 [in this latter case, all the individual warriors of an army were bound by the vow made by the leader]) ; but occasionally the anath- ema, losing its votive character, assumed that of a theocratic punishment (see Ezra x, 8), in consequence of the prescriptions of the law, as, for example, in the case of the anathema (capital sentence) pronounced against an idolatrous Israelite (Exod. xxii, 20), or against a whole idolatrous city (Dent, xiii, 10 sq.), which was ordered to be destroyed utterly by fire with all that was therein, and the inhabitants and all their cattle to be put to the sword (see Judg. xx, 48; xxi, 10, 19 ; comp. Appian. Pun. 133 ; Mithrid. 45 ; Liv. x, 29 ; see Miller, Devotiones veterum in bellis, Lips. 1730). Essentially identical with this was the anathema against the Canaanitish cities, to be execu- ted by the Israelites when they should enter the land (Deut. ii, 34 sq. ; iii, 6 ; Josh." vi, 17 sqq. ; x, 28, 35, 37, 40; xi, 11), [in consequence of a vow (Num. xxi, 2 sq.), or upon the express command of Jehovah (Deut. vii, 2; xx, 16 sq. ; see 1 Sam. xv, 3)], in order that they should be secured against all manner of tempta- tion to enter into nearer relations with the idolatrous natives (Deut. xx, 18 ; see Exod. xxiii, 32 sq.). Such city, therefore, was burned with all things therein, and the inhabitants and their cattle were killed, while all metals and metallic utensils were delivered up to the sanctuary (Josh, vi, 21, 24). At times (when the wants of the army made it desirable ?) the cattle was spared, and, like other spoils, divided among the war- riors (Josh, viii, 2G sq. ; Dent, ii, 34 sq. ; iii, 6 sq.). Finally, in some cities merely the living things were destroyed (Josh, x, 28, 30, 32, 37, S9, 40), but the cities themselves were spared. Those who were guilt}' of any sort of violation of the laws of the anathema were put to death (Josh, vii, 11 sq. ; see vi, 18; Deut. xiii, 17; Caesar, Bell. Gall, vi, 17). In the anathema pro- nounced by a zealous enforcer of the law (Ezra x, 8) against the property of such Jews as had married for- eign wives and refused to divorce them, the banish- ment of such persons themselves was comprehended. It does not appear, however, whether their property was destroyed or (as H. Michaelis understood) given to the priests : the latter case would be inconsistent with a strict interpretation of Deut. xiii, 1G. See Anath- ema.— We translate from Winer, s.v. Bann. (2.) Different from this is the Ban of the later Jews, mentioned in the Now Testament as a sort of ecclesi- astical punishment (for hei-esy), Luke vi, 22 (dtpopi- Z,HV)\ John ix, 22; xii, 42; xvi, 2 (aTroovvdywyuv yiveoSai or ttoihi'), viz., the exclusion of a Jew from the congregation, and all familiar intercourse with oth- ers, by a resolution. "Excommunicated" (JTI^^, me- nudeh') and " excommunication'' C^S, n'ddu'y) are ACCURSED 49 ACELDAMA also frequent terms in the Mishna (Taanith, iii, 8 ; Moed Katon, iii, 1). Stones were thrown (a mark of dishon- or) over the graves of those who died in excommuni- cation (Eduyoth, v, G. The excommunicated person was not permitted to enter the Temple by the common door with others, but was admitted by a separate one (Middoth, ii, 2). He was also prohibited from shaving during the time of his excommunication {Moed. Kat. iii, 1 ; see Selden, Jus Nat. et Gent, iv, 8 sq.). There is mention in the Gemara, as well as in other rabbin- ical writings, of another sort of excommunication, C*in, che'rem (the person thus excommunicated was called Dini'Q, mucharam'), more severe than the "^ID, niddu'y. The difference between the two — according to Maimonides — was, [1,] that the nidduy was valid only for the thirty days following its date, and was pro- nounced without accursing ; but the cherem was al- ways connected with a curse : [2,] that cherem could be pronounced only by several, at least ten, members of the congregation; but the nidduy even by a single Is- raelite (e. g. by a rabbi) : [3,] that the mucharam was excluded from all intercourse with others ; but it was permitted to converse with the menudeh at a distance of four cubits, and his household was not subjected even to this restriction. According to the Gemara, the latter was compelled to wear a mourning dress, in order to be distinguished outwardly from others. Elias Levita (in Tisbi, under "'IT'S) and later rabbis speak of a third and still higher degree of excommunication, NFlSrJ, shammata' , execration (see Buxtorf, Lex. Talm. col. 24G3 sq.), by which an obdurate sinner was delivered up to all sorts of perdition. It does not appear, how- ever, that older Talmudists used this word in a sense different from nidduy, [the formula declarations quoted by Maimonides in the case of the latter, however, is KFiaoa il.Tl'1, let him be in "shammata,"] (see Sel- den, De Synedr. i, 7, p. 64 sq ; Ugolino, in Pfeiffer's Antiqu. Ebr. iv ; Thesaur. p. 1294); or perhaps it was the generic term for excommunication (see Danz, in Meuschen, Ar. T. Talm. p. 615 sq.), and the hypoth- esis of Elias seems, in fine, to have been founded upon a whimsical etymology of the word shammata (q. d. WQ, there, and HtVm, the death). But it may even be questioned whether nidduy and cherem were distin- guished from each other in the age of Jesus, or in the first centuries after the destruction of Jerusa- lem, in the sense asserted by Maimonides. In gen- eral, it is not improbable that there were even then degrees of excommunication. The formal ex- clusion from the Hebrew congregation and nation- ality is mentioned already by Ezra x, 8 (see above). In the passages of John foregoing a minor excom- munication is spoken of; while iii that of Luke, with- out doubt, a total exclusion is understood ; even if we take merely the ct(papi£nv in this sense, or (with Liicke, Commentar zum Ev. Joh. ii, 387) we suppose that there is a gradation in the passage, so that dehopiZ,. re- fers to 1*1^3, 6vuc"iZ,. Kai ItcjidW. to Q'nrl. Many were of the opinion that the highest degree of excommunica- tion, KF)5aTa, according to the classification of Elias Levita, is to be found in the formula wapaSiSovai r<,J Zarava (1 Cor. v, 5 ; 1 Tim. i, 20). But there is no firm historical ground for such explanation, and the above expression should be explained rather from the usual idiomatic language of the apostle Paul, accord- ing to which it cannot mean, surely, a mere excom- munication, as has been satisfactorily proved by Flatt (Vorles. ub. d. Br. an die Kor. i, 102 sq.), and concurred in by later commentators. See Devil. Finally, it is not les-s improbable that, in Rom. ix, 3, avdQtfia dirb roil Xparrov should refer to the Jewish excom- munication (as was asserted of late by Tholuck and Ruckert; see Fritzsche, in loc.). See Execution. (For the Jewish excommunication in general, see Carp- zov, Appar. p. 554 sq. ; Witsii Miscell. ii, p. 47 sq. ; D Vitringa, De synag. vet. p. 739 sqq. ; Pfeiffer, Antiqu. Ebr. c. 22; Bindrim, De gradib. excommun'cot. up. Ilebr. in Ugolini Thesaur. xxvi ; Otho, Lexic. Iiabb. p. 212 sq. ; Beer, in the Hall. Encyklop. xvi, 278 sq. ; [the last vary uncritical.]) See Excommunication. Accuser Cjfflfe, lashan', in Iliph. "accuse," Prov. xxx, 10; and other terms signifying to slander ; more properly denoted by some form of the verb 2"1"!, rib, to plead a cause, also in defence ; Sept. and N. T. dvriSiKOQ, "adversary," or Kari'iyopoc, prosecutor}. (1.) The original word, which bears this leading signi- fication, means one who has a cause or matter of con- tention ; the accuser, opponent, or plaintiff in any suit (Judg. xii, 2; Matt, v, 25; Luke xii, 58). We have little information respecting the manner in which causes were conducted in the Hebrew courts of justice, except from the rabbinical authorities, who, in matters of this description, may be supposed well informed as to the later customs of the nation. See Trial. Even from these we learn little more than that great care was taken that, the accused being deemed innocent until convicted, he and the accuser should appear under equal circumstances be- fore the court, that no prejudicial impression might be created to the disadvantage of the defendant, whose interests, we are told, were so anxiously guarded, that any one was allowed to speak what- ever he knew or had to say in his favor, which priv- ilege was withheld from the accuser (Lewis, Orig- ines Hebram, i, 68). See Advocate. (2.) The word is also applied in Scripture, in the general sense, to any adversary or enemy (Luke xviii, 3 ; 1 Pet. v, 8). In the latter passage there is an allusion to the old Jewish opinion that Satan was the accuser or calum- niator of men before God (Job i, G sq. ; Rev. xii, 10 sq. ; comp. Zech. iii, 1). In this application the fo- rensic sense was still retained, Satan being represent- ed as laying to man's charge a breach of the law, as in a court of justice, and demanding his punishment. — Kitto, s. v. See Satan. Ace. See Accho. Acel'dama CkK*\capd, from the Syro-Chaldaic !n"C'1 3£n, chahal' dema ' , field of the blood, as it is ex- plained in the text, dypug a'ip.aroc, see Critica Biblica, ii, 447), the field purchased with the money for which Judas betrayed Christ, and which was appropriated as a place of burial for strangers — that is, such of the nu- merous visitors at Jerusalem as might die during their stay, while attending the festivals (Matt, xxvii, 8 ; Acts i, 19 ; the slight discrepancy between these pas- sages has been unduly magnified by Alford, Comment. in loc. post. ; see Olshausen, Comment, iii, 61, Am. ed.). It was previously "a potter's field." The field now shown as Aceldama lies on the slope of the hills be- yond the valley of Hinnom, south of Mount Zion. This is obviously the spot which Jerome points out (Onomast. s. v. Acheldamach) as lying on the south (Eusebius, on the north) of Zion, and which has sinco been mentioned (although with some variation) by al- most every one who has described Jerusalem. San- dys describes it (Relation of a Journey, p. 187), and relates the common story that the Empress Helena caused 270 ship-loads of its flesh-consuming mould to be taken to Rome, to form the soil of the Campo Santo, to which the same virtue is ascribed. Cas- tela affirms that great quantities of the wondrous mould were removed by divers Christian princes in the time of the Crusades, and to this source assigns the similar sarcophagic properties claimed not only by the Campo Santo at Rome, but by the cemetery of St. Innocents at Paris, by the cemetery at Naples (La Sainct Voyage, de Hierusalcui, 1603, p. 150; also Roger, p. 160), and by that of the Campo Santo at Pisa. This plot seems to have been early set apart by the Latins, as well as by the Crusaders, for a place of burial for pilgrims (Jac. de Vitriaco, p. 64). The ACEPIIALI 50 ACHAIA charnel-house is mentioned by Maundeville (Travels, I 1822, p. 175, Bohn's ed.) as belonging to the Knights Hospitallers. Sandys shows that, early in the seven- teenth century, it was in the possession of the Arme- nians. Roger (La Terre Saincte, p. 1G1) states that ! they bought it for the burial of their own pilgrims, and ascribes the erection of the charnel-house to them. They still possessed it in the time of Maundrell, or, rather, rented it, at a sequin a day, from the Turks, j Corpses were still deposited there ; and the traveller observes that they were in various stages of decay, I from which he conjectures that the grave did not make that quick dispatch with the bodies committed to it which had been reported. "The earth, here- abouts," be observes, "is of a chalky substance; the | plot of ground was not above thirty yards long by lifteen wide ; and a moiety of it was occupied by the charnel-house, which was twelve yards high" (Jour- ney, p. 136). Richardson (Travels, p. 5C7) affirms that bodies were thrown in as late as 1818 ; but Dr. Robinson alleges that it has the appearance of having been for a much longer time abandoned: "The iield or plat is not now marked by any boundary to distin- guish it from the rest of the hill-side ; and the former I charnel-house, now a ruin, is all that remains to point out the site. . . . An opening at each end enabled us to look in; but the bottom was empty and dry, ex- cepting a few bones much decayed" (Biblical Re- searches, i, 524; comp. Wilde's Shores of the Mediter- ranean, 184-4 ; Barclay's City of the Great Kin//, p. 207). Its modern name is Hah ed-damm. It is sep- arated by no enclosure; a few venerable olive-trees (see Salzmann's photograph, " Champ du sang") occu- py part of it, and the rest is covered by the " charnel- house," a ruined square edifice — half built, half exca- vated—perhaps originally a church (Pauli, Cod. Di- plom. i, 28), but which the latest conjectures (Schnltz, Williams, and Barclay) propose to identify with the tomb of Ananus (Joseph. War, v, 12, 2). It is said (Kraft, Topogr. p. 193) to contain the graves of sev- eral German pilgrims ; but the intimation (Hitter, Erdk. xv, 463) that a pottery still exists near this spot does not seem to be borne out by other testimony. (See, on the subject generally, Schlegel, De agro San- guinis, Hamb. 1705 ; Worgcr, Ilakeldama, in Meneltici Tkesaur. p. 222.)— Kitto, s. v. See Potter's Field. Acepllali (d and tctrpaXi)'), literally, those who have no chief. The term is applied to various class- es of persons (see Biedermann, De Acephalis, Freiberg, 1751). 1. To those at the Council of Ephesus who re- fused to follow either St. Cyril or John of Antioch. 2. To certain heretics in the fifth century who denied, with Eutyches, the distinction of natures in Jesus Christ, and rejected the Council of Chalcedon. About the year 482 the Emperor Zeno endeavored to extin- guish these religious dissensions by the publication of an edict of union, called Henoticon. The more mod- erate of both parties subscribed the decree, but the ob- ject was generally unsuccessful. The Monophysite patriarch of Alexandria was among those who sign- ed the decree ; which so greatly displeased many of his party that they separated from him, and were denominated Accphali, that is, without a head. See Moxophysites and Henotkox. These Acephali were condemned in the synod of Constantinople, 536. 3. To bishops exempt from the ecclesiastical jurisdic- tion of their patriarch. 4. To the Flagellants (q. v.). Acesius, a Novatian bishop, present at NicaBa, in 325, who agreed with the decisions of the council con- cerning the time for celebrating Easter, and the doc- trine of the consubstantiality of the Son, but never- theless refused to communicate with the other bish- ops. When the emperor asked of him his reason for so doing, he replied (according to the heresy of Nova- tian) that he could not communicate with those who had fallen after baptism. "Then, Acesius," answer- ed Constantino, "set up a ladder for yourself, and mount up to heaven alone." — Soc. Eccl. Hist. lib. i, cap. 10 ; Soz. Eccl. Hist. lib. i, cap. 22. Achabara (Axdfiapa), a name designating a cer- tain rock ('Aya/Sapiuv ir'trpa) mentioned by Josephus (War, ii, 20, 6) as one of the spots in Upper Galilee fortified by him on the approach of the Romans under Cestius ; probably the same place with the Chabare (Xafiapt}, prob. by erroneously annexing the initial a to the preceding word, see Reland, Palcest. p. 705, a suggestion followed by Hudson and Havercamp, who write 'Axafidpii), mentioned likewise bj- Josephus (Life, 37) as a place of naturally great strength. Re- land (ib. p. 542) thinks it is identical with a place called Akbara (X""iaD3>) by Hottinger, situated be- tween Tiberias and Zephath (Sepphoris ?), and perhaps also the residence of the Akbarites (N^iSS? "C5l) mentioned in the Gemara (Baba Metsia, lxxxiv, 2). But the place named by Hottinger would be in Loner Galilee. The cliff in question (associated in both pas- sages of Josephus with Jamnia, or Jamnith, and Me- roth) appears to have been some eminence of Middle Galilee ; probably (as suggested by Schwarz, Palest. p. 188) the Tell Akhbarah (Van de Velde, Memoir, p. 281), about two miles south-east of Safed, having a fine spring (Ritter, Erdk. xvi, 687, 771). A'chad (Heb. Achad' , 1HX, the "constr." of llnS, one, v. v.Achath', HPIX, id.), thought by some to be the name of a heathen deity mentioned in the diffi- cult phrase,' Isa. lxvi, 17, Tj'Pl? IHX ^HX, after one (of them) in the midst, Sept. icai iv role 7rpoSri/poic, Vulg. post januam intrinsecus, Auth. Vers, "behind one (tree) in the midst." According to Gesenius (Commentar, in loc.) the phraseology is susceptible of three interpretations: («) "One after another in the midst ;" (6) " After Achad in the midst ;" (c) "After one (of their number) [i. e. a priest leading the idola- trous rites] in the midst," a rendering which he pre- fers (comp. Rosenmuller, Scholia in loc). In favor of the allusion to a heathen deity is only the slender analogy with the name Adad, as a Syrian divinity. See Hadad. (See Mill, De Idolo 1HX, in his Dissert. Sdect. Lugd. Bat. 1743, p. 137-1GG ; Doderlein, Pkilol. Abhandl. v. d. Gott Achad, in his Verm. Abhandl. Halle, 1755, pt. iii). See Idolatry. Achai'a (Axa'ia, derivation uncertain), a region of Greece, which in the restricted sense occupied the north-western portion of the Peloponnesus, including Corinth and its isthmus (Strabo, vii, p. 438 sq.). By the poets it was often put for the whole of Greece, whence 'AYCtioi, A chazans, i. e. Greeks. The cities of the narrow slip of county, originally called Achaia, were confederated ?n an ancient league, which was renewed in B.C. 280 for the purpose of resisting the Macedonians. This league subsequently included several of the other Grecian states, and became the most powerful political bod}' in Gree/:e ; and hence it was natural for the Romans to apply the name of Achaia to the Peloponnesus and the south of Greece, when they took Corinth and destroyed the league in B.C. 146 "(Pausan. vii, 16, 10). Under the Romans, Greece was divided into two provinces, Macedonia and Achaia, the former of which included Macedonia prop- er, with Illyricum, Epirus, and Thessaly; and the lat- ter, all that lay southward of the former (Cellar, i, p. 1170, 1022). It is in this latter acceptation that the name of Achaia is always employed in the New Tes- tament (Acts xviii, 12, 16 ; xix, 21 ; Rom. xv, 26; xvi, 25 ; 1 Cor. xvi, 15 ; 2 Cor. i, 1 ; ix, 2 ; xi, 10 ; 1 Thess. i, 7, 8). In the division of the provinces by Augustus between the emperor and the senate in B.C. 27, Achaia was made a senatorial province (Strabo, xvii, p. 840), and, as such, was governed by proconsuls (Dion. Cass. liii, p. 704). In A.D. 16 Tiberius changed the two into one imperial province under procurators (Tacit. Annal. i, 76) ; but Claudius restored them to the senate ACHAICUS 51 ACIII01! and to the proconsular form of government (Suet. ) whom Josiah sent to Huldah to inquire the course to Claud. 25). Hence the exact and minute propriety \ be pursued respecting the newly-discovered book of with which Luke expresses himself in giving the title the law (2 Kings xxii, 12, 14), B.C. 623. In the paral of proconsul (avSvirctTog, "deputy") to Gall'io (q. v.), who was appointed to the province (see Smith's Diet, of Class. Ant. s. v.) in the time of Claudius (Acts xviii, 12). (See generally Smith's Diet, of Class. Geog. s. v.) Acha'icus (Axa'iicoc, an Achaean), a Christian of Corinth, who, with Fortunatus, was the bearer of Paul's first epistle to the Church there, to whom he kindly commends them as having rendered him personal as- sistance (1 Cor. xvi, 17, subscription ; comp. ver. 15, 1G), A.D. 54. A'clian (Heb. Akan' , *35, prob. troubler ; Sept. 'Av/'»' in Josh, xxii, 20, elsewhere "A,\"o), a son of Carmi, called also Acuak (1 Chron. ii, 7), in com- lel passage (2 Chron. xxxiv, 20) he is called Annus, the son of Micah. His son Elnathan was a courtier of Jehoiakim (Jer. xxvi, 22 ; xxxvi, 12). Achery, John Litre d', a learned Benedictine, of the congregation of Saint Maur, born at St. Quentin, in Picardy, 1609. At a very early age he entered the order of St. Benedict, and devoted himself to study, and his whole after life was passed in entire abstrac- tion from the world. He died at the abbej' of St. Ger- main-des-Prcs, in April, 1G85. To the labors of this learned writer we owe the publication of many MSS. which, but for him, would probably have still remain- ed buried in the libraries. His principal published works arc the following : 1. S. Barnabce Epistola memoration of his crime and awful doom, as related in | 6We etLat;n IIuovn;s Memrdinotls Ulustratn ( Paris Josh, vii (see Kitto's Daihj Bible Illust. in loc). the city of Jericho, before it was taken, was put under that awful ban, of which there are other instances in the early Scripture history, whereby all the inhabi- tants (excepting Rahab and her family) were de 1645) ; 2. Lamfranci Cantuar. Episcopi Opera, together with Chronleon Beccense; B. Ilclluini et 4 priorum Beccensium Abbatum ; S. Augustini Anglorum Apos- toli vita; duo de Eucharistia Tractalus Hugonis Lrn- colnmsis Epis. et Durandi abbat. Ti-oarnensis, adver- voted to destruction all the combustible goods to be- J mg B arium (Paris 1C48, foL). 3. Indfcuhu As- consumed by lire, and all the metals to be consecrated ; ce(icormi etc_ (Pari 1G71 4to 2d ed.) ; 4. Acta Sane to God (see Deut. vii, 16, 23-26). fins vow of de- I ,- - „ Rfinprl;rl; ;- .„„./„„..„ classes distnbw 0 votement was rigidly observed by all the troops when Jericho was taken, save by one man, Achan, a Judah- ite, who could not resist the temptation of secreting an ingot of gold, a quantity of silver, and a costly Babylonish garment, which he buried in his tent, deeming that his sin was hid. The Israelites were defeated, with serious loss, in their lirst attack upon Ai ; and as Joshua was well assured that this humilia- tion was designed as the punishment of a crime which had inculpated the whole people, he took immediate measures to discover the criminal by means of the lot (q. v.). The conscience-stricken offender then con- fessed his crime to Joshua ; and his confession being verified by the production of his ill-gotten treasure, the people hurried away not only Achan, but his tent, his goods, his spoil, his cattle, his children, to the val- ley (hence afterward called) of Aehor (q. v.), near Jericho, where the}' stoned him, and all that belonged to him ; after which the whole was consumed with lire, and a cairn of stones raised over the ashes, B.C. 1618. (See Pyle, Sermons, iii, 185 ; Saurin, Disc. Hist, iii, 78 ; Simeon, Works, ii, 574 ; Buddicom, Christ. Exod. ii, 350 ; Origen, Opp. ii, 415). The severity of this act, as regards the family of Achan, has provoked some remark (see A. Clarke and Keil, in loc). In- stead of vindicating it, as is generally done, by the al- legation that the members of Achan's family were probably accessories to his crime after the fact, we prefer the supposition that they were included in the doom by one of those stern, vehement impulses of semi- martial vengeance to which the Jewish (like all ( (rien- tal) people were exceedingly prone, and which, though extreme (comp. Deut. xxiv, 1G), was permitted (for the terms "all that he hath" did not necessarily prescribe it) as a check to a cupidity that tended so strongly both to mutiny and impiety. — Kitto. See Accursed. torum ordinis S. Benedict i in sceculorum classes distribu- ta. Although D'Achery made the necessary collec- tions for this work, it was published with notes and observations by Mabillon, after his death, at various periods [see Acta Sanctorum] ; 5. Veterum aliquot Scriptorum qui in Gallice Bibliothecis delituerant, max- ime Benedictinorum, Spicilegium. Published at Paris, at different periods, from 1655 to 1677, by different printers, in 13 vols. 4to. A new and improved edi- tion was published by M. de la Barre, at Paris, in 1723, 3 vols, fol., with this title, Spicilegium, sive CoU lectio veterum aliquot Scriptorum qui in Gallia; Biblio- thecis delituerant, olim editum opera • t studio D. Luca; d' Achery, etc., ed. Baluze, Martene, et de la Barre. This collection contains a vast number of works of dif- ferent authors, Acts and Canons of Councils, Histories, Chronicles, Lives of Saints, Letters, Poems, and Doc- uments, which had not previously appeared. The ob- ligations of subsequent scholars have been so great to the indefatigable industry of d' Achery, that almost every one who has treated of the antiquities of medie- val and modern European history has been obliged to acknowledge the debt due to him. Achiach'arus (Ayi«y«(>0Ci for Heb. "plrlNpflN, brother of the following, perh. i. q. posthumous or latest), the son of Anael (or Ananiel), and the uncle of Tobit (Tob. i, 21), as also of Nasbas (Tob. xi, 18). He had experienced ingratitude at the hands of Aman (Tob. xiv, 10), but became the cup-bearer and vizier of Sarchedon (Tob. i, 22), and befriended Tobit (Tob. ii, 10). See Horde, ai. Achi'as (Lat. id., for the Or. text is no longer extant; prob. for Ahijah), a person named as son of Phinees (Phinehas), and father of Achitob (AhitulO in the list of sacerdotal ancestors of Esdras or Ezra (2 [Vulg. 4] Esdr. i, 2); but, as the parallel list (Ezra ) gives no corresponding name, it is either an in- A'char (Heb, Akar' , 13-", troubler; Sept. ' A\un~), the son of Carmi, who was punished for violating the ' terpolation or, perhaps, a corruption for the Ahimaaz anathema respecting Jericho (1 Chron. ii, 7); else- oi 1 Chron. vi, 8, 9. where (Josh, xxii, 20) called Achan (q. v.), Achashdarpenim. See Satrap. Achashteranim. Sec Mule. A'cliaz (Matt, i, 9), elsewhere Aiiaz (q. v.). Ach'bor (Heb. Akbor , liMS, gnawing, i. q. mouse ,- Sept. 'Ayo/3wo, v. r. in Jer. and Chron. 'Ayoj- j3wp), the name of two men. 1. An Idumaean, father of Baal-hanan, one of the Edomitish kings (Gen. xxxvi, 38; 1 Chron. i, 49), B.C. prob. considerably ante 1619. Achilles Tatius. See Tatius. A'chim ('Ayh7<, perh. for "pS^, Jachin [a con- tracted form of Jehoiachim], which the Sept., in 1 Chron. xxiv, 17, Grascizes 'Ayi> [so the Vactican, but other texts have T«xa'i']), the son of Sadoc and father of Eleazar, among the paternal ancestors of Christ (Matt, i, 14), B.C. long ante 40, and post 410. See Genealogy (of Christ). A'chior (A\id>p, for Heb. Achior, "fi^HX, broth- er [i. e. full] of light; comp. Num. xxxiv, 27, where 2. The son of Michaiah, and one of the courtiers ! the Sept. has 'Ax^p for Ahihud, apparently reading ACHISH 52 ACHMETHA *",'in^nx), the name given in the Apocrypha as that cf the sheik of the Ammonites, who joined Holofernes ■with auxiliary troops during his expedition into Egypt, and who, when called upon to account for the opposi- tion made by the inhabitants of Bethulia to that gen- eral, did so in a speech recounting the history of the country, and the national abhorrence of foreign idol- atry (Judith v). According to the narrative, this so incensed the haughty general and his associates that they demanded the life of Achior by exposure to his enemies, who thereupon befriended and preserved him (chap, vi) till he was eventually released on the death of Holofernes, and then embraced Judaism (chap. xiv). See Judith. A'chish (Heb. Akish', n^-X, perhaps angry; Sept. 'Akxiq v. r. Ay^of-c), a name which, as it is found applied to two kings of Gath, was perhaps only a general title of royalty, like " Abimelech" (q. v.), another Philistine kingly name, with Avhich, indeed, it is interchanged in the title of Psa. xxxiv. 1. A Philistine king of Gath, with whom David sought refuge from Saul (1 Sam. xxi, 10-15). By this act he incurred imminent danger; for he was rec- ognised and spoken of by the officers of the court as one whose glory had been won at the cost of the Phi- listines. This filled David with such alarm that he feigned himself mad when introduced to the notice of Achish, who, seeing him "scrabbling upon the doors of the gate, and letting his spittle fall down upon his heard," rebuked his people sharply for bringing him to his presence, asking, " Have 1 need of madmen, that ye have brought this fellow to play the madman in my presence ? Shall this fellow come into my house?" B.C. 1061. After this David lost no time in quitting the territories of Gath (see Kitto's Daily Bible Must, in loc). This prince is elsewhere called Abimelech (Psa. xxxiv, title), possibly a corruption for "Achish the king" ("^"2 ttJ'OK). David's con- duct on this occasion has been illustrated by the sim- ilar proceeding of some other great men, who feigned themselves mad in difficult circumstances — as Ulysses (Cic. Off. iii, 2G; Hygin. f. 05, Sckol. ad Lycophr. 818), the astronomer Meton (.Elian, Hist, xiii, 12), L. Junius Brutus (Liv. i, 5G; Dion. Hal. iv, 68), and the Arabian king Bacha (Schultens, Anth. Yet. Hamasa, p. 535). Sse Mad. The same Philistine king of Gath is probably meant by Achish, the son of Maoch, to whom, some time af- terward, when the character and position of David became better known, and when he was at the head of not less than 600 resolute adherents, he again re- paired with his troop, and by whom he was received jn a truly royal spirit, and treated with a generous confidence (1 Sam. xxvii, 1-4), of which David took rather more advantage than was creditable to him by making excursions from the city of Ziklag, which had been assigned him, against the neighboring nom- ades, under pretence of carrying on depredations upon Judah (1 Sam. xxvii, 5-12), B.C. 105-1. In the final conflict with Saul, although the confidence of Achish remained so strong in David that he proposed to appoint him captain of his body-guard, the courtiers revived the old reminiscences against him with such force that the king was compelled to give him leave of absence — a circumstance that spared David a par- ticipation in tin' fatal battle (1 Sam. xxviii, 1, 2: sxix, 2-11 ), B.C. 1053.— Kitto, s. v. See David! 2. Another king of Gath, the son of Maachah, to whom the two servants of Shimei tied, and thereby oc- casioned their master the journey which cost him his life (1 Kings ii, 39, 40), B.C. cir." 1012. Ach'itob ('AxtrwjS), the Graecized form (1 Esdr. viii, 2 ; 2 Esdr. i, 1) of the name of Aiiitub (q. v.). Achlamah. See Amethyst. Ach'metha (Hob. Achmetha', xn^nx, Ezra vi, 2 ; Sept. 'AuaSd, Vulg. EcbatancC), the Ecbatana of classical writers (to. 'Ek^utuvu, 2 Mace, ix, 3; Ju- dith xi, 1 ; Tob. v, 9; Josephus, Ant. x, 11, 7 ; xi, 4, 6 ; also, in Greek authors, 'liyfidrava and Ay/3oroj'«), a city in Media. The derivation of the name is doubt- ful (see Gesenius, Thes. Heb. p. 70) ; but Major Bawlin- son (Geogr. Journal, x, 134) has left little question that the title was applied exclusively to cities having a fortress for the protection of the royal treasures. '1 he ancient orthography of this name is traced by Lassen (Jud. Biblioth. iii, 36) in the Sanscrit airadhana, i. e. 'iirwooTaoia, stable. In Ezra we learn that, in the reign of Darius Hystaspis, the Jews petitioned that search might be made in the king's treasure-house at Babylon for the decree which Cyrus had made in fa- vor of the Jews (Ezra v, 17). Search was according- ly made in the record-office ("house of the rolls"), where the treasures were kept at Babylon (vi, 1); but it appears not to have been found there, as it was eventually discovered " at Achmetha, in the palace of the province of the Medes" (vi, 2). Josephus (Ant. x, 11, 7 ; xi, 4, 6), while retaining the proper name of Ecbatana, yet (like the Sept., which adds the generic name jroAic) employs the word ftapa; to express the Chaldee Xr"P2, Birtha' ("the palace"), which is used as the distinctive epithet of the city (Ezra vi, 2). In Judith i, 2-4, there is a brief account of Ecbatana, in which we are told that it was founded by Arphaxad (Phraortes), king of the Medes, who made it his cap- ital. It was built of hewn stones, and surrounded by a high and thick wall, furnished with wide gates and strong and lofty towers. Herodotus ascribes its foundation to Dcjcccs, in obedience to whose com- mands the Medes erected "that great and strong city, now known under the name of Agbatana, where the walls are built circle within circle, and are so construct- ed that each inner circle overtops its outer neighbor I y the height of the battlements alone. This was effect- ed partly bjr the nature of the ground — a conical hill — and partly by the building itself. The number cf the circles was seven, and within the innermost Avas the palace of the treasury. The battlements of the first circle were white, of the second black, of the third scarlet, of the fourth blue, of the fifth orange; all these were brilliantly colored with different pigments ; but the battlements of the sixth circle were overlaid with silver, and of the seventh with gold. Such were the palace and the surrounding fortification that De- joecs constructed for himself; but he ordered the mass of the Median nation to construct their houses in a circle around the outer wall" (Herodot. i, 08). It is contended by Rawlinson (Geogr. Jour, x, 127) that this story of the seven Avails is a fable of Sabaean origin — the seven colors mentioned being precisely those employed by the Orientals to denote the seA'on great heavenly bodies, or the se\'en climates in which they reA'olve. This Ecbatana has been usually identified with the present Hamad in (see Journal of Education, ii, 305), which is still an important town, and the seat of one of the governments into which the Persian king- dom is divided. It is situated in north lat. 34° 53', east long. 40°, at the extremity of a rich and fertile plain, on a gradual ascent, at the base of the Elwund mountains, Avhose higher summits are coA-ered with perpetual snoAV. Some remnants of ruined Avails of great thickness, and also of to Avers of sun-dried bricks, afford the only positive evidence of a more ancient city than the present on the same spot. Although still declining, it has a population of about 25,000, and contains excellent and Avell-supplied bazaars, and nu- merous khans of rather a superior description — it be- ing the great centre Avhere the routes of traffic between Persia, Mesopotamia, and Persia converge and meet. Its oavii manufactures are chiefly in leather. Many JeAvs reside here, claiming to be descended from those of the captivity Avho remained in Media. Benjamin of Tudela says that in his time the number Avas 50,000. ACHMETHA 5 Rabbi David dc Beth Hillel (Travels, p. 85-87, "Madras, 1832) gives them but 200 families. The latest authority (J. J. Benjamin, Eight Yearn in Asia and Africa, Han- over, 1859, p. 201) reckons them at 500 families. They are mostly in good circumstances, having line houses and gardens, and are chiefly traders and goldsmiths. They speak the broken Turkish of the country, and have two synagogues. They derive the name of the town from "Hainan" and " Mede" and say that it was given to that foe of Mordecai by King Ahasuerus. In the midst of the city is a tomb, which is in their charge, and which is said to be that of Mordecai and Esther. It is a plain structure of brick, consisting of a small cylindrical tower and a dome (the whole about twenty feat high), with small projections or wings on three sides. An inscription on the wall in bass-relief de- scribes the present tomb as having been built by two devout Jews of Kashan, in A.D. 714. The original structure is said to have been destroyed when Hama- dan was sacked by Timour. As Ecbatana was an- ciently the summer residence of the Persian court, it is probable enough that Mordecai and Esther died and were buried there (see Kinneir's Persia, p. 126; Mo- rier's Second Journey, p. 264 sq. ; Southgate's Tour, ii, 102 sq. ; Buckingham, Assyria, i, 284 sq. ; M'Culloch's Gazetteer, s. v. Hamadan). — Kitto, s. v. The door of the tomb is very small, and consists of a single stone of great thickness, turning on its own pivot from one side. On passing through the little portal, the visitor is introduced into a small arched chamber, in which are seen the graves of several rab- bis, some of which may contain the bodies of the first rebuilders of the tomb, after the destruction of the original one by Timour. A second door, of very con- fined dimensions, is at the end of this vestibule, by which the entrance is made into a large apartment on bands and knees, and under the concave stand two sarcophagi, made of very dark wood, curiously and richly carved, with a line of Hebrew inscription run- ning round the upper ledge of each. Other inscrip- tions, in the same language, are cut on the walls, while one of the most ancient, engraved on a white marble slab, is let into the wall itself. This slab is traditionally alleged to have been preserved from the ruins of the edifice destroyed by Timour, with the sar- cophagi in the same consecrated spot. This last in- scription is as follows: "Mordecai, beloved and hon- ored by a king, was great and good. His garments were as those of a sovereign. Ahasuerus covered him with this rich dress, and also placed a golden chain around his neck. The city of Susa (or Shushan) re- joiced at his honors, and his high fortune became the glory of the Jews." The inscription which encom- passes the sarcophagus of Mordecai is to the following effect: " It is said by David, Preserve me, O God! I am now in thy presence. I have cried at the gate of heaven that thou art my God, and what goodness I have received from thee, O Lord ! Those whose bod- ies are now beneath, in this earth, when animated by thy mercy, were great; and whatever happiness was bestowed upon them in this world came from thee, O God! Their griefs and sufferings were many at the first, but they became happy, because they always called upon thy name in their miseries. Thou liftedst me up, and I became powerful. Thine enemies sought to destroy me in the early times of my life; but the shadow of thy hand was upon me, and covered me as a tent from their wicked purposes. — Mordecai." The following; is the inscription carved round the sarcoph- agus of Esther: " I praise thee, O God, that thou hast created me. I know that my sins merit punishment, yet I hope for mercy at thy hands ; for whenever I call upon thee, thou art with me; thy holy presence secures me from all evil. My heart is at ease, and my fear of thee increases. My life became, through thy goodness, at the last, full of peace. <> God! do not shut my soul out from thy divine presence. Those ! ACHSAIT whom thou lovest never feel the torments of he',!. Lead me, O merciful Father, to the life of life, that 1 may be filled with the heavenly fruits of Paradise.— Esther" (Ker Porter's Travels, ii, 88 sq.). See Es- ther. Ecbatana, or Hamadan, is not without other lo- cal traditions connected with sacred history. On the mountain Orontcs, or Elwund, the bocky of a son of King Solomon is pretended to be buried, but what son is not mentioned. It is a large square platform, a little raised, formed by manual labor out of the native rock, which is ascended by a few rugged steps, and is assuredly no covering of the dead. It is a very an- cient piece of workmanship, but how it came to be con- nected with a son of the Jewish monarch does not ap- pear. The Jewish natives of Hamadan arc credulous as to the reputed story, and it is not unlikely that it was originally a mountain altar to the sun, illustrating what we often read in Scripture respecting the idola- trous sacrificial worship in "high places." The na- tives believe that certain ravines of the mountain pro- duce a plant which can transform all kinds of metal into gold, and also cure every possible disease. They admit that no one had ever found it, but their belief in its existence is nevertheless unshaken. They also have a fabulous legend respecting a stone on the side of this mountain, which reminds the English reader of the celebrated story of AH Baba and the Forty Thieves in the Arabian Nights. This stone contains an inscription in cabalistic characters, unintelligible to every one who has hitherto looked on it; hut it is believed that if any person could read the characters aloud an effect would be produced which will shake the mountain to its centre, it being the protecting spell of an immense hidden treasure ; and these characters once pronounced, would procure instant admittance from the genii of this subterranean cavern, and the wealth it contains would be laid at the feet of the for- tunate invoker of this golden " Sesame !" See Ecba- tana. Historj' mentions another Ecbatana, in Palestine, at the foot of Mount Carmel, toward Ptolemais, where Cambyses died (Herodot. iii, G4 ; Plin. v, 19). It is not mentioned by this or any similar name in the He- brew writings. (See Poland, Pahtst. p. 745.) A'chor (Heb. Alcor', "H-2, trouble; Sept. 'A^wp), the name of a valley (p^", Sept. fapayS,, KoiKac, "E/iiK-) not far from Jericho, given in consequence of the trouble occasioned to the Israelites by the sin of Achan (q. v.), who was stoned to death and buried there (Josh, vii, 24, 26). It was known by the same name in the time of Jerome (Onomast. s. v.). The prophets more than once allude to it typically in pre- dicting the glorious changes under the Messiah, either on account of its proverbial fertility (Isa. xlv, 10) or by way of contrast with the unfortunate entrance of the Israelites near this pass into Canaan on their first approach (IIos. ii, 15). It was situated on the bound- ary of Judah and Benjamin, between the stone of Ben- Bonan and Dcbir, south of Gik'al (Josh, xv, 7), and was probably the same now called (see Zimmerman's Map) Wady Dabr, running into the Dead Sea east of Ain Jehair (Robinson's Researches, ii, 254). See Tribe. Thomson (Land and Book, ii, 185) says vague- ly that " it runs up from Gil gal toward Bethel ;" but this is inconsistent with the above notices of location (comp. Keil, Comment, on Josh. p. 201). See Cherith. Ach'sa, a less correct mode (1 Chron. ii, 49) of Anglicizing the name ACHSAH (q. v.). Ach'sah (Heb. Aksah', i"»D3?, anklet; Sept. A\ffo), the daughter of Caleb (and apparently his only daughter, 1 Chron. ii, 49, "Achsa"), whose hand her father offered in marriage to him who should lead the attack on the city of Debir, and take it, B.< '. 1612. The prize was won by his nephew Othniel ; and as the ACHSHAPH 54 ACOLYTH bride was conducted with the usual ceremony to her future home, she alighted from the ass which she rode, and sued her father for an addition of springs of water (as being peculiarly necessary, Stanley, Palest, p. 161) to her dower in lands, which were situated in the southern part of Judah See Guli.otii. It is prob- able that custom rendered it unusual, or at least un- gracious, for a request tendered under such circum- stances by a daughter to be refused, and Caleb accord- ingly bestowed upon her '• the upper and the nether springs" (Josh, xv, 16-19; Judg. i 9-15) — Kitto,s.v. Ach'shaph (Heb. Akshapli , "d"^, fascination ; Sept. 'A\affa), a royal city of the Canaanites, in the northern part of Palestine (Josh, xi, 1). whose king was overthrown by Joshua (Josh, xii, 20). It was situated on the eastern boundary of the tribe of Asher, and is named between Beten and Alammelech (Josh. xix, 25). By some (see Keland, Palast, p. 543) it has been regarded as the same as Achzib, but this is men- tioned separately (Josh, xix, 29). By others (e. g. Hammesveld, iii. 237) it has been assumed to be the same as A echo or Acre, and Sehwarz {Palest, p. 101) thinks it is the modern village Kefr-Yasif, five miles north-east of that town ; but this region is too far west for the Biblical notices. Eusebius and Jerome (Ono- mast. s. v. 'A*c) locate it at the foot of Mount Ta- bor, eight miles from Dioeaesarea , but they have evi- dently confounded it with Chesulloth (see Keil's Com- ment, on Josh, xi, 1). Dr. Robinson is probably cor- rect in identifying it with the ruined village Kesaf around a large tree, two miles north-east of Kubrikah, a little south of the Litany, and nearly midway be- tween the Mediterranean and the Upper Jordan (new ed. of Researches, iii, 55). Achterieldt, Johann Hetxrich, a Roman Cath- olic theologian of Germany, born 1788, at Wesel ; died at Bonn, 1804. He was ordained priest in 1813 ; and, in 1817, was appointed professor of theology at the seminary of Braunsberg, from which he was called, in 1820. to the chair of dogmatics at the university of Bonn. He was an intimate friend of Professor Her- mes (q.v.), and after the death of the latter published his famous work on Systematic Theology (Christl.-Ka- tholisckc Dogmatik, 1831). Achterfeldt was regarded, with his colleague Braun, as the leader of the Her- mesian School (q. v.) ; and when the system of Her- mes was condemned by Rome, and he refused to com- ply with the demands of Rome, he was suspended from his chair. He wrote Lehrbuch der Christlich-Kathnl. Ghmbens- unci Sittenlihre (Braunsberg, 1825) ; Kate- ckismus der Christlich-Kaiholischen Lekre (Braunsberg, 1826); and was, after 1832, one of the editors of a theological and philosophical quarterly {Ze.itsch.rift fur Philosophic und Kalholische Theolcffie), the chief organ of the Hermesian School. — Pierer, i, 88 ; Vapereau, p. 14. Achu. See Flag. Ach'zib (Heb. Al~.il/. --* = X, falsehood; Sept. 'Ay-f.;-!. but in Mic ju'traioc and Vulg. mendaciurri), the name of two places, sometimes Latinized Aczib. 1. A town in the plain of Judah, adjoining the Highlands, mentioned between Keilah and Maveshah (Josh, xv, 14). It appears to have proved faithless to the national cause on the Assyrian invasion (Mic. i, 14); hence this passage contains a play on the name: "the houses of Achzib (""SO shall be a lie (~TZX).-' It is probably the same as the Chezib in Canaan where Shelah was horn (Gen. xxxviii. 5), and perhaps also the CHOZEBA where his descendants were finally located (1 Chron. iv, 22). In the time of Eusebius, OfWmast. s. v. Xaofili) it Mas a deserted village near Eleutheropolis toward Adullam. Prom the associated localities, also, it appears to have been situated not far north-east of the former. 2. A maritime city assigned to the tribe of Asher (Josh, xix, 2D), but from which the Israelites were never able to expel the Phoenicians (Judg. i, 31). Ac- cording to Eusebius (Onom. s. v. 'Ays) it was 9 (ac- cording to the Jerusalem Itinerary 12) Roman > miles north of Accho or Ptolemais. In the Talmud (She- biifh, vi, 1 ; Challah, iv, 8) it is called Kezib (2"n2), and in later times Ecdippa (r« "EKCi—Tra. Josephus, War, i, 13, 4; Ptol. v, 15; Pliny, v, 17), from the Aramaean pronunciation (2"H-X). Josephus also (Ant. v, 1, 22) gives the name as Arce or Actippvs ('Aokij ....?/ icai 'Aktittovq). In the vicinity (at the mouth of the Nabr Herdawil, comp. Wilson, Lands of the Bible, ii, 233) was the Casale Huberti of the Cru- saders (Ritter, JErdh. xvi, 782). It was first identi- fied by Maundrell {.Tourney, March 21) in the modern es-Zib (comp. Vit. Salad, p. 98), on the Mediterranean coast, about ten miles north of Acre (Robinson's Re- searches, iii, Append, p. 133 ; new ed. iii, 628). It stands on an ascent close by the sea-side, overhanging the ancient Roman road, and is a small place with a few palm-trees rising above the dwellings (Pococke, East, ii, 115 ; Richter, WaVf. p. 70 ; Irby and Mangles, p. 196; Buckingham, Palest, i, 99; Legh, in Mach- michael's Journey, p. 250; De Saulcy's Narrative, i, 66; comp. Lightfoot, Opp. ii, 219 ; Fuller, Miscel. p. 4. 15; Cellarii Notit. ii, 481; Reland, Pala-st. p. 544; Gesenius, Thcs. Heb p. 674). It has evident traces of antiquity, but could never have been a large city (Thomson's Land and Book, i, 471). Ac'iplia ('Am/Scv, but most copies 'Ayi^r', for Heb. Chalupha SBIpn), the head of one of the families of Nethinim (iepwWXoi, ' ' temple-servants") that return- ed from the captivity (1 Esdr. v, 31); evidently the Hakupha (q. v.) of the parallel lists (Ezra ii, 51 ; Neb. vii, 53). Ac'itho CAjciS'wv, v. r. 'Akicmv, while other copies omit entirely , perh. for Heb. hak-katan ', IIDJ?!!, the little; or [as Fritzsche thinks, IJandb. in loc] for Ahi- tub, which some copies of the Gr. with the Syr. and Ital. have), the son of Eliu and father of Raphaim, among the ancestors of Judith (Judith viii, 1). Ackermann, Peter Folrer, a Roman Catholic theologian of Germany, born Kov. 17, 1771, at Vien- na; died Sept. 9, 1831, at Klosterneuburg. He was ordinary professor of Old-Testament language, litera- ture, and theology at Vienna, and choir master of the monastery cr cathedral of Klosterneuburg. He was the author of an Iniroductio in libros sacros V. T. vsibits academids accommodata (Vien. 1825), and an Arc/ue- vlogia lihlica breriter exposita (Vienna, 1826), both of which works are not much more than revised editions of Jahn expurgated, so as to rescue them from the Roman Index into which they had been put by Pius VII. His commentary on the Minor Prophets, Fro* phetm Minores perpetua annotatione il/usiruti (Xh'iina, 1830), has some value, on account of the extracts it gives from older writers of the Roman Catholic Church. Accemetae (aKoifiifral, watchers), an order of monks instituted at the beginning of the fifth century by Alexander, a Syrian monk (Burger, De Acometis. Sehneeberg, 1686). They Merc divided into three classes, who performed divine service in rotation, and so continued, night and day, without intermission. They were condemned by a synod held at Rome in 534 for maintaining that Mary was not the mother of God.— Helyot, Ordres Relig. i, 4 sq. Acolyth or Acolyte (cuc6\ov9oq, follower), the name of an inferior order of clergy or servitors. It is not known in the Greek Church, but appears to be of very ancient establishment in the Latin Church, .since mention is made of it in the epistles of Cyprian. Their office in the ancient Church was to light the candles and to pour the wine intended to be conse- crated into the proper vessels ; to wait upon the bish- ACONTIUS 55 ACRABBATTINE ops and their officers, presenting to them the sacer- dotal vestments; and to accompany the bishop every- where, acting as witnesses of his conduct. At present their duties in the Papal Church arc to attend upon the deacon and sulWleacon at the altar, to make ready the wine and water at mass, to carry the thurible, and to light and earn' the candles, especially at the chant- ing of the Gospel. At Rome there are three kinds of Acolyths: the Acolyths of the palace,- palatini, who wait on the pope ; those who serve the churches, sta- tionririi, when they are stationed ; and regionarii, who serve with the deacons in different quarters of the city. The order of Acolytes is the fourth of the ordines mi- nores, through which a Romish priest must pass. For a full account of the office and its functions, see Bois- sonnet, Diet, des Rites, i, 87 ; Bingham, Orig. Eccl. bk. iii, ch. iii. Acontius or Aconzio, James, a native of Trent, and the intimate friend of Francis Betti, a Roman. They both quitted Italy on account of their religion, having both left the communion of the Church of Rome. Betti, who left first, waited for Acontius at Basle; this was in the year 1557. Hence they went together to Zurich, where the}' parted, and Acontius, after visiting Strasburg, journeyed into England, where he was well received by queen Elizabeth, who employed him as an engineer. He was a member of the Dutch congregation in Austin-Friars, but falling under the suspicion of " Anabaptistical and Arian prin- ciples," proceedings were taken against him before Grindal, bishop of London, who sentenced him to be refused the Holy Sacrament, and forbade the Dutch congregations to receive him. He died in 15G6, ac- cording to Niceron. He inclined toward moderation and principles of tolerance in matters of religion. Ar- minius styled him "divinum prudential ac modera- tionis lumen." He wrote Dz Method), hoc est, de recte invest' gandarum tradendarumque Scientiarum rations (8vo, Basle, 1558); Strategemita Salanx (8vo, Basle, 15G5. Transl. into French, 4to. There is also an Eng- lish translation of the four first books, London, 1648). — Richard and Giraud, Bib. Saer. ; New General Bio- graphical Dictionary, i, 3G; Landon, Feci. Diet. s. v. Acosta, Gabriel (afterward Uriel), a Portu- guese, of Jewish extraction, born at Oporto, and brought up in the Roman Catholic Church. About the age of twenty-two he began to entertain doubts first as to the doctrine of indulgences, and, finally, as to the truth of Christianity; and being unable to sat- isfy himself, he returned to the religion of his ances- tors, became a Jew, retired from Portugal to Amster- dam, and was circumcised. He soon, however, be- came disgusted with the Pharisaism of the Jews of Amsterdam, and advocated a doctrine like that of the ancient Sadducees. He wrote in the Portuguese lan- guage a treatise entitled " The Traditions of the Phar- isees compared with /If written Law" (Amsterd. 1624), which so exasperated the Jews that the}' accused him of atheism before the civil tribunals. His book was confiscated, he was imprisoned ten days, and fined 300 guilders. He was also expelled from the Jewish syn- agogue. After seven years he submitted to a painful penance, and was readmitted, though it docs not ap- pear that he really changed his views. He died, ac- cording to Fabricius, in 1047, whether by suicide or not is uncertain. He left an autobiography which fell into the hands of Limborch, and was reprinted in 1847 (Uriel Acosta's Selbs/biographie, Lat. u. Deutsch, Leipzig). His life afforded Gutzkow the material for a novel, "The Sadducees in Amsterdam'" (1834), and for a drama, "Uriel A cos/a" (Leips. 1847). — Jellinck, Ueber Acosta's Leben uml Lehre (Zerbst, 1847). Acosta, Joseph, a Spanish Jesuit, born about 1539, appointed provincial of the Jesuits in Peru, and died rector of the university of Salamanca in 1600. He wrote The Natural awl Moral History of the Indies (Seville, 1590, 4to); a treatise De Christo Revelato li- bri novem (Lugd. 1592, 8vo) ; De Promulgalione Eran- gelii opud Barbaros (Cologne, 1596, 8vo). Acra ("A/v-po), a Greek word, signifying a summit or citad I, in which sense its Hebraized form Chakra (K^pn) also occurs in the Syriac and Chaldaic (Bux- torf, Lex. Talm. col. 818). Hence the name of Acra was acquired by the eminence north of the temple at Jerusalem, on which a- citadel was built by Antiochus Epiphanes, to command the holy place (1 Mace, iii, 45 ; iv, 2, 41 ; vi, IS, -JO, 32 ; ix, 52 sq. ; x, G ; xi, 41 ; 2 Mace, iv, 12, 27, etc.). It thus became, in fact, the Acropolis of Jerusalem (see Michaelis, in Mace. p. 30 sq. ; Crome, in the Hall. Eneykl. ii, 291 sq.). Jose- phus describes this eminence as semicircular (see Re- land, Palais/, p. 852); and reports that when Simon Maccabseus had succeeded in expelling the Syrian garrison, he not only demolished the citadel, but caused the hill itself to be levelled, that no neighbor- ing site might thenceforth be higher than or so high as that on which the temple stood. The people had suf- fered so much from the garrison, that they willingly la- bored day and night, for three years, in this great work [Ant. xiii, G, G; 117/?-, v, 4, 1). At a later period the palace of Helena, queen of Adiabene, stood on the site, which still retained the name of Acra, as did also, probably, the council-house, and the repository of the archives [War, vi, G, 3; see also Descript. Urbt's lero- solmyce, per J. Ileydenum, lilt, iii, cap. 2). — Kitto,s.v. A good deal of controversy has lately arisen as to the position of this eminence, Dr. Robinson (Bib. Pes. i, 414; new ed. iii, 207-211) strongly contending for the sloping eminence now occupied by the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, and others (especially Williams, Holy City, ii, 25, 49) placing Acra more northwardly from the temple. The latter position, in the middle of the Mohammedan quarter, on the whole, seems best to accord with the present state of the surface and the ancient notes of place (see Strong's Harmony and Ex- pos, of /he Gospels, Append, ii, p. 4, 5) ; especially with Josephus's statements ( War, v, 4, 1) respecting; the valley of the Tyropceon (q. v.). See Jerusalem. A place by the name of Acra ("Aiepa) is mentioned by Josephus (War, ii, 2, 2) as having been taken by Simon Maccaba?us, in connection with Gazara, Joppa, and Jamnia; which some suppose to mean Ekron (by a change of reading), while others take the word in the ordinary sense of tower. The passage is evident- ly parallel with 1 Mace, xiv, 7, where Simon is said, after having taken Gazara and Bethsura, to have cleansed "the tower" (dicpa); which, by a compari- son with chap, xiii, 49, appears to mean no other than the above fortress in Jerusalem. See Baris. For the Acra or Acre (Hebraized -npX l>y Benja- min of Tudela) of the Crusades, see Accho. Acrabbattine ('AicpafiaTTivn sc, xi''P"^ tne name of two regions in Palestine. 1. A district or toparchy of Judaea, extending be- tween Shechem (Nablous) and Jericho eastward, be- ing about 12 miles long (see Reland, Palcest. p. 192). It is mentioned by Josephus (War, ii, 12, 4 : 20, I; 22, 2 ; iii, 3, 4, 5), and doubtless took its name from a town called Acrabbi, mentioned by Eusebius (Ono- mast. s. v. 'AicpafSfiiiv, Jerome corruptly "Adorabi," see Clerici ed. Amst. 1707, p. 17, note 5) as a large village 9 Roman miles east of Neapolis, on the road to Jericho; probably the same found by Dr. Robinson under the name Ahrabeh (Researches, iii, 103), and de- scribed as a considerable town, finely situated on the slope of a fertile hill, with a mosque (new ed. of Re- searches, iii. 296, 297) and a ruined fort (Van de Velde, Narrative, ii, 304 -307). 2. Another district of Judaea toward the southern end of the Dead Sea, occupied by the Edomites dur- ing the captivity (1 Mace, v, 3, Autli. Vers. "Ara- battine;" comp. Joseph, Ant. xii, 8, 1). It is sup- ACRABBIM 5(1 ACTA MARTYRUM posed to have taken its name from the Maaleh-ac- RABbim (q. v.) of Num. xxxiv, 4; Josh, xv, 3, which lay in this vicinity. Acrab'bim. See Maaleh-acrabbim. Acre is put by our translators (Isa. v, 10) for *ip2J, tse'med, which properly means a yoke, i. e. as much land as a yoke of oxen can plough in a day. So the Latin jugerum, an acre, from jugum, a yoke. See Measure. In 1 Sam. xiv, 14, the word "acre" is supplied in our translation after !"t3"^a, a furrow, which is omitted (see margin). Acre. See Accho. Acrostic (from aicpov, extremity, and arixoc, verse"). The word commonly signifies the beginning of a verse ; but it is sometimes taken for the end or close of it. It ordinarily signifies an ode in which the initial letters of the verses in their order spell a certain word or sentence. In this form acrostics do not occur in the Bible. There are certain parts of the poetical compositions of the Old Testament, however, in which the successive verses or lines in the original begin with the letters of the Hebrew alphabet; these may be called alphabetical acrostics. For instance, in Psalm cxix, there are as many stanzas or strophes as there are letters in the alphabet, and each strophe consists of eight double lines, all of which, in each case, begin with that letter of the alphabet corresponding to the place of the strophe in the Psalm — that is, the first eiy;ht lines begin each with X, Aleph, the next eight with ", Beth, and so on. See Abecedarian. Other Psalms have only one verse to each letter, in its order, as Psalms xxv, xxxiv. In others, again, as Psalms cxi, exii, each verse is divided into two parts, and these hemistichs follow the alphabetical arrangement, like the whole verses of the last mentioned Psalms. The Lamentations of Jeremiah are mostly acrostic, some of the chapters repeating each letter one or more times. The last chapter of Proverbs also has the ini- tial letters of its last twenty-two verses in alphabeti- cal order. See Poetry. The term acrostic is used in ecclesiastical history to describe a certain mode of performing the psalmody of the ancient Church. A single person, called the precentor, commenced the verse, and the people join- ed with him at the close. We find also the words hy- popsalma and diapsalma, likewise dicportXtvriov and kQ&ftviov, almost synonymous with acrostic, used to describe the same practice. The}' do not always mean the end of a verse, but sometimes what was added at the end of a psalm, or something repeated in the mid- dle of it, e. g. the phrase "for his mercy endureth fur- ever" repeated or chanted by the congregation. The Glori i 1'a.tri is by some writers called the epode or aeroieleutic, because it was always sung at the end of the psalms (Bingham, Orig. Eccl. i, xiv). Act, Conventicle, see Conventicle. Act, Corporation, " Corporation. Act, Five-Mile, " Five-Mile. Act of Faith, " Auto da Fe. Act, Test, " Test. Act, Toleration, " Toleration. Acta Mart^rum (Acts of the Martyrs), the title of the record of the lives and actions of martyrs kept in the ancient Church for the edification of the faith- ful. Whenever a Christian was apprehended, the ac- cusation, defence, and verdict were noted in these Acts. Some of the martyrs also wrote accounts of their own sufferings, or this was done for them by a regular offi- cer of the Church acting as notary, who took down the facts in a prescribed form ; and these reports were also designated as acta martyrii or martyrwn. Comp. Calendaria; Martyrologia; Meneion; Mf.no- louhm. The oldest are those referring to the death of St. Ignatius (q. v.), Bishop of Antioeh (died 107), and of i'olycarp (q. v.) (died about 165), both of which are given in Dressel's and Hefele's editions of the Pa- tres Apostolici. The oldest collection of Acts of the Martyrs was compiled by the Church historian Euse- bius, in his two works d?. Martyribus Paliestinee and Synagoge Martyriorum. The latter, a martyrology of the Church universal, was lost as early as the end of the sixth century ; the former has reached us as an appendix to the eighth book of the author's Church history. A second large collection of 12 volumes was in existence at Constantinople in the ninth century, and probably formed the basis of the work of Simeon Metaphrastes, de Actis Sanctoru?n, in the tenth century. In the Latin Church a catalogue of martyrs, contain- ing the names of martyrs from different countries ar- ranged according to the days on which the}' were com- memorated in the mass, as also the place and the day, but not the details, of their martyrdom, was, at the close of the sixth century, in extensive use. It was, though without good reason, ascribed to Jerome. The particular churches used to add to this general cata- logue of martyrs their local calendars, a circumstance which explains the diversity of the different copies of this work still extant (ed. by Fr. Mar. Florentinius, Luca?, 1G68 sq. ; d'Achery, Spicileg. ed. Nov. ii, p. 27, ac- cording to a manuscript of the French convent Gellou, written about 804; J. B. Sallerius, Act. Sanctorum, June torn, vi, according to copies of Beichenau, St. Ulric's at Augsburg, Corvey, etc.). "While this woik excludes all historical accounts of the lives of mar- tyrs, giving only their names and the place and day of their martyrdom, there are indications that detailed historical works were also compiled at an early period. A council at Carthage 397 permits the reading of the Passiones Martyrwn on the days of their commemora- tion, besides the reading-lessons from the Scriptures. Pope Gelasius, on the contrary, excludes this kind of literature from ecclesiastical use, on the ground that the names of the authors were unknown, and that in- fidels, heretics, and unlearned persons (id'iota) had in- serted man}' superfluous and improper things, a con- clusive proof of the untrustworthy condition in which this literature, even at that early time, was found. The heads of the monastic orders were in general very urgent in recommending to their monks the reading of the Gesta Martyrwn, the history of their sufferings. Besides the two classes of works just named, there was a third class, the so-called Yitce Patrnm, whose object was more literary than edifying, and some of which belong among the most valuable sources of the early Church history. To this class of works belong the very valuable history of Severin, by his disciple Eugippius, the biographies of Columban, Callus, etc. Collections of accounts of this kind are extant by Palladius (about 420), in his Ilistoria Lausiaca (Aav- aaiKov) ; by Heraclides, in his Paradisus, s. de Yitis Patrum; by Johannes Moschus (died about G20), the author of the lives of the monks, under the title Atifiwv, Atipiovdpiov, or Ntoc, Tlapc'icticoc. These works are designated in the Greek Church under the name of TtpovriKd, KXipaiceg, AavnaiKu, and Uanpi- kcl. They were followed by Simeon Metaphrastes (q. v.), about 901, of whose biographies of saints wc have 122 left, while a much larger number have been erroneously ascribed to him. In the Latin Church we have the 14 hymns of Prudentius (q. v.), entitled Peristephanon s. de Coronis et Pasdonilus Martyruni ; the Collationrs Patrnm, by Cassian (q. v.); and sever- al historical works of Gregory of Tours (q. v.), as de Miracalis, Yilie Pa/rum, de Gloria Marfyrum. The biographical material contained in this class of works was gradually worked into the martyrologies. That known under the name of Beda is mostly restricted to statistical statements ; yet a copy of it at the begin- ning of the ninth century received considerable ad- ditions from Floras, a sub-deacon at Lyons. Consid- ACTA SANCTORUM 57 ACTS erable additions to the martyrologies were also made by Hrabanus Maurus (q. v.); Ado, archbishop of Vi- enna, about 860 ; Usuard, a monk at Paris (875) ; and Notker (died 912). This enlargement of the ancient martyrologies forms the transition to the legends of the Middle Ages, which are generally nothing but ec- clesiastical novels, and have no claim whatever to credibility. The "Acts of the Martyrs" had, more- over, gradually been enlarged into "Acts of the Saints," as other saints than martyrs had been added to the catalogues of the latter. See Acta Sancto- rum. The most valued collection is Ruinart's Acta Martyrum sincera (Paris, 1689, fol. ; 2d ed. Amst. 1713," fol. ; B. Galura, Augsb. 1802, 3 vols. 8vo). It is more critical than most Roman biographies, but nevertheless contains many incredible legends. A large collection was also published by the learned Stephen Evodius Assemanni, under the title Acta Sanctorum Martyrum Orientaliitm et Occidentalium (Roma;, 1718, 2 vols, fol.). — Herzog, i, 100; Wetzer and Wclte, i, 88. See Martyrologv. Acta Sanct5rum {Acts of the Saints), the title given to collections of the lives of martyrs [see Acta Martyrum] and of saints in the ancient Church. (1.) We first find the title Acta Sanctorum in Euse- bius (fourth century). In consequence of an edict of Diocletian, of the year 303, which commanded the de- struction of all the Christian records, a great gap was created in the records of the Church, which was after- ward filled with legends and traditions, abounding in errors, omissions, and exaggerations. Collections of the Acta Sanctorum, principally for edification, were made in the Vita? Patrum, probably by Jerome of Dal- matia ; by Gregory of Tours in the sixth century ; in the Si/naxarium (q. v.) of the Greek Church, in the eighth century, by John of Damascus ; by Simeon Metaphrastes in the tenth century; in the Golden Le- gend of Jacob of Viraggio in the thirteenth, which went through 71 editions from 1474 to 1500; and in the Catalorjus Sanctorum of Peter de Natalibus (Vicenza, 1493). A more critical treatment is found in the Sanctuarium of Boninus Mombritius (Venice, 1474, 2 vols.) ; in Lipoman, Vita; Sanctor. (Rome, 1551-1560, 8 vols.); and particularly in Ruinart, Acta Martyrum sincera (Paris, 1689, fob). Compare Martyrology. (2.) The most celebrated collection of the Acta Sanctorum is that commenced by Bollandus, and still continued by a society of Jesuits. It is one of the most remarkable works ever produced, whether regarded as to the labor and time spent upon it, or to the comparative worthlessness of its matter. It has been two hundred years in progress, has reached the fifty-fifth folio volume, and is still in progress. This stupendous undertaking originated with Ros- weyde, a Jesuit, who announced his intention in a Fasti Sanctorum quorum vitm in Belgicis biblioth°cis manuscripts asservantur (Antwerp, 1607) ; but he died in 1629, before any part was printed. After his death his materials came into the hands of Johannes Bollan- dus, who established .correspondence with all parts of Europe, in order to obtain information from every possible source. In 1635 he associated with himself Godcfridus Henschenius; and these two published at Antwerp in 1643 the first two volumes, in folio, under the title of '■'■Acta Sanctorum quotquot toto orbe, coluntur vel a Catholicis Scriptoribus celeb?-antur.'" These vol- umes contain the lives of the saints who are com- memorated by the Roman Church in the month of January only. In 1658 three more volumes appeared, embracing February. After this, Daniel Papebrochius was associated as coeditor ; but Bollandus himself died, Sept. 12, 1665, before the vol. for March appeared. As the work proceeded, other editors were appointed, and generation after generation sank into the grave during its long progress. It would occupy too much time and space to enumerate the separate labor of each. The work itself was published in the following order : Jan- uary, 2 vols. 1643; February, 3 vols. 1658 ; March, 3 vols. 1668; April, 3 vols. 1675; May (with a Propy- laeum), 8 vols. 1685-1688; June, 6 vols. 1695-1715; July, 7 vols. 1719-1731 ; August, 6 vols. 1733-1743 ; September, 8 vols. 1746-1762 ; October, vol. i, 1765 ; ii, 1768; iii, 1770; iv, 1780; v, 1786; vi, 1794: this volume ended at the 15th of October (see Walch, Bibl. Theol. iii, 657 sq.). The work was stopped by the sup- pression of the Jesuits, and it appeared to be altogether extinguished by the French Revolution ; but in 1838 it revived, and there was printed at Namur a prospectus, De prosecutione operis Eollandiani quod Acta Sancto- rum inscribitur. In 1845 appeared vol. vii of October, in two parts— the first containing the saints of the 15th of October; the second the saints of the 16th. New editions of the first 4 volumes of October appeared in 1859 and 1860. The work is still in progress, and the Jesuits receive for its continuation an annual stipend from the Belgian government. Some idea of its vast extent may be gathered from the fact that the lives of more than 2000 saints remain, and that 50 mora vols. fol. may be expected to complete the work. The editors are as follow, with the number of years and volumes on which they were engaged : Jo. Bol- landus (died 1065), 34 years, 8 vols. ; Godefr. Hensche- nius (died 16^1), 46 years, 24 vols. ; Daniel Papebro- chius (died 1714), 55 jrears, 19 vols. ; Conrad Jannin- gus (died 1723), 44 years, 13 vols. ; Franc. Baertius (died 1719), 38 years, 10 vols. ; Joan. Bapt. Sollerius (died 1740), 38 years, 12 vols. ; Joan. Pinius (died 1749), 35 years, 14 vols. ; Gull. Cuperus (died 1741), 21 years, 11 vols. ; Petrus Boschius (died 1736), 15 3'ears, 7 vols. ; Joan. Stiltingus (died 1762), 25 years, 11 vols.; Constant. Suyskenus (died 1771), 26 years, 11 vols. ; Joan. Perierus (died 1762), 15 years, 7 vols.; Urban. Stickerus (died 1753), 2 years, 1 w>l. ; Joan. Limpenus (retired 1750), 9 years, 3 vols. ; Joan. Vel- dius (retired 1747), 5 years, 2 vols. ; Joan. Cleus (re- tired 1760), 7 years, 3 vols. ; Corn. Bueus (died 1801), 33 years, 6 vols. ; Jacob. Bueus (died 1808), 32 years, 6 vols. ; Joseph Guesquierus (died 1802), 10 years, 4 vols. ; Ignat. Hubenus (died 1782), 10 years, 1 vol. The renewal of the work was undertaken in 1838 by Jo. Bapt. Boone, Joseph. Vandermoere, Prosper Cop- pens, and Joseph. Vanhecke, Jesuits of the college of St. Michael at Brussels. The first 42 vols., coming down to Sept. 14, were reprinted at Venice in 1734 sq. ; but in inferior style. A new edition of the entire work has been commenced by Ceimandet, in 1863. (Paris, torn, i, p. 821, embracing the first eleven days of January). See Saints. Action in Speaking. See Homieetics. Action Sermon, an old Scottish term for the ser- mon immediately before the Lord's Supper. Actippus. See Achzib. ActS OF THE APOSTLES (IT(K 'A 7700-7-0- \wv), the fifth book of the New Testament, and the last of those properly historical. It ol itained this title at a very early period, though sometimes the epithet holy was prefixed to apostles, and sometimes also it was reckoned among the gospels, and called the Gospel xon. 1838, 8vo) ; Mene, Commeiitariits (Vitemb. 1524, 8vo); Bugenhagen, Commentarius (Vitemb. 1521, lfi'24, 8vo); Lambert, Comm ntarius (Arg. 1526 ; Francf. 1539, 4to) ; Card. Cajetan, Actus Apostolor. (Venice, 1530; Par. 1532, fol.j Par. 1540, 8vo); Gagnaeus, Scholia (Par. KiGO, 8vo); *Calvin, Commentaria, in bis Opera (Gen. 15G0, fol. ; tr. into Bug., Loud. 1585, 4to; Edinb. 1844, 2 vols. Svo); Bullinger, Commentaria (Tiguri, 1540, fob); Jonas, Adnotationes (Norib. 1524; Basil. 1525, ACTS 00 ACTS 1567, 8vo); Salmeron, Opera, p. 12 sq. ; Brent, Predig- ten (Norimb. 1554, fol.) ; Camerarius, Notationes (Lips. 1556, 8vo) ; Capito, Explicatio (Venice, 1561, 8vo) ; *Gualtherus, llomilia? 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Y. 1857, 2 vols. 8vo) ; Bouchier, Exposition (Lond. 1858, 12mo) ; Macbride, Lectures (Lond. 1858, 8vo) ; McGarvej', Commentary (Cincin. 1864, 12mo) ; Gloag, Commentary (Edinb. 1810, 2 vols. 8vo). See New Testament. Acts, Spurious or Apocryphal, ancient writings purporting to have been written by or respecting our Saviour, his disciples, etc. Of these several are still extant; others are only known by the accounts in an- cient authors (Hase, Hist, of Chr. Church, p. 90, 102). See Canon {of Scripture). ACTS OF'CHRIST, Spurious. Several sayings attributed to our Lord, and alleged to be handed down by tradition, may be included under this head, as they are supposed by some learned men to have been de- rived from histories no longer in existence (comp. Luke i, 1). See Apocrypha. (1.) The only saying of this kind apparently genuine is the beautiful sentiment cited by Paul (Acts xx, 35), " It is more blessed to give than to receive," to which the term apocryphal has been sometimes applied, inas- much as it is not contained in any of the Gospels ex- tant (so Gausen, in his Thcopnenstia, Engl. tr. 1842). Heinsius is of opinion that the passage is taken from some lost apocryphal book, such as that entitled, in the Recognitions of Clement, " the Book of the Sayings of Christ, " or the pretended Constitutions of the Apostles. Others, however, conceive that the apostle does not re- fer to any one saying of our Saviour's in particular, but that he deduced Christ's sentiments on this head from several of his sayings and parables (see Matt. xix, 21 ; xxv ; and Luke xvi, 9). But the probabili- ty is that Paul received this passage by tradition from the other apostles. ACTS 61 ACTS (2.) There is a saying ascribed to Christ in the Epistle of Barnabas, a work at least of the second cen- tury: ''Let us resist all iniquity, and hate it;'' and again, "So they who would see me, and lay hold on my kingdom, must receive me through much suffering and tribulation;" but it is not improbable that these passages contain merely an allusion to some of our Lord's discourses. (3.) Clemens Romanus, the third bishop of Rome after St. Peter (or the writer who passes under the name of Clement), in his Second Epistle to the Corin- thians, ascribes the following saying to Christ : " Though ye should be united to me in my bosom, and yet do not keep my commandments, I will reject you, and say, Depart from me, I know not whence ye are, ye workers of iniquity." This passage seems evi- dently to be taken from Luke's gospel, xiii, 25, 26, 27. There are many similar passages which several em- inent writers, such as Grabe, Mill, and Fabricius, have considered as derived from apocryphal gospels, but which seem, with greater probability, to be nothing more than loose quotations from the Scriptures, which were very common among the apostolical Fathers. There is a saying of Christ's, cited by Clement in the same epistle, which is found in the apocryphal Gospel of the Egyptians : "The Lord, being asked when his kingdom should come, replied, When two shall be one, and that which is without as that which is within, and the male with the female neither male nor female." See Gospels (Spurious). We may here mention that the genuineness of the Second Epistle of Clement is itself disputed, and is rejected by Eusebius, Jerome, and others; at least Eusebius says of it, "We know not that this is as highly approved of as the former, or that it has been in use with the ancients" {Hist. Eccles. iii, 38, Cruse's tr. 1842). See Clement. {4.) Eusebius, in the last chapter of the book just cited, states that Papias, a companion of the apostles, "gives another history of a woman who had been ac- cused of many sins before the Lord, which is also con- tained in the Gospel according to the Nazarenes." As this latter work is lost, it is doubtful to what woman the history refers. Some suppose it alludes to the history of the woman taken in adultery ; others, to the woman of Samaria. There are two discourses ascribed to Christ by Papias preserved in Irenaeus (Adversus Hares, v, 33), relating to the doctrine of the Millen- nium, of which Papias appears to have been the first propagator. Dr. Grabe has defended the truth of these traditions, but the discourses themselves are un- worthy of our blessed Lord. (5.) There is a saying ascribed to Christ by Justin Martyr, in his Dialogue with Trypho, which has been supposed by Dr. Cave to have been taken from the Gospel of the Nazarenes. Mr. Jones conceives it to have been an allusion to a passage in the prophet Ezekiel. The same father furnishes us with an apoc- r3rphal history of Christ's baptism, in which it is as- serted that "a fire was'kindled in Jordan." He also acquaints us that Christ worked, when he was on earth, at the trade of a carpenter, making ploughs and yokes for oxen. (6.) Thera are some apocryphal sayings of Christ preserved by Irenams, but his most remarkable ob- servation is that Christ "lived and taught beyond his fortieth or even fiftieth year." This he founds partly on absurd inferences drawn from the character of his mission, partly on John viii, 57, and also on what he alleges to have been John's own testimony delivered to the presbyters of Asia. It is scarcely necessary to refute this absurd idea, which is in contradiction with all the statements in the genuine gospels. There is also an absurd savins; attributed to Christ by Athe- nagoras (Jsgat. pro Christian's, cap. 28). (7.) There are various sayings ascribed to our Lord by Clemens Alexandrinus and several of the fathers. One of the most remarkable is, "Be ye skilful money- changers." This is supposed to have been contained in the Gospel of the Nazarenes. Others think it is an early interpolation into the text of Scripture. Origen and Jerome cite it as a saying of Christ's. (8.) In Origen, Contra Celsum, lib. i, is an apocry- phal history of our Saviour and his parents, in which it is reproached to Christ that he was born in a mean village, of a poor woman who gained her livelihood by spinning, and was turned off by her husband, a car- penter. Celsus adds that Jesus was obliged by pov- erty to work as a servant in Egypt, where he learned many powerful arts, and thought that on this account he ought to be esteemed as a god. There was a similar account contained in some apocryphal books extant in the time of St. Augustine. It was probably a Jewish forgery. Augustine, Epiphanius, and others of the fathers, equally cite sayings and acts of Christ, which they probably met with in the early apocryphal gospels. (9.) There is a spurious hymn of Christ's extant, ascribed to the Priscillianists by St. Augustine. There are also many such acts and sayings to be found in the Koran of Mahomet, and others in the writings of the Mohammedan doctors (sec Toland's Nazarenus'). (10.) There is a prayer ascribed to our Saviour by ! the same persons, which is printed in Latin and Arabic in the learned Selden's Commentary on Euty chins' s An- nals of A lexandria, published at Oxford, in 1650, by Dr. Pococke. It contains a petition for pardon of sin, such as is sufficient to stamp it as a forgery. (11.) There is a curious letter said to have been written to our Saviour by Agbarus (or Abgarus), king of Edessa, requesting him to -come and heal a disease under which he labored. The letter, together with the supposed reply of Christ, are preserved by Eusebius. This learned historian asserts that he obtained the documents, together witli the history, from the public registers of the city of Edessa, where they existed in his time in the Syriac language, from which he trans- lated them into Greek. See Abgaius. These letters are also mentioned by Ephracm Syrus, deacon of Edessa, at the close of the fourth century. J Jerome refers to them in his comment on Matt, x, and | they are mentioned by Pope Gclasius, who rejects them as spurious and apocryphal. They are, however, referred to as genuine by Evagrius and later histo- 1 rians. Among modern writers the genuineness of these letters has been maintained by Dr. Parker (in ' the preface to his Demonstration of the Lair of Nature | and the Christian Religion, part ii, § 1G, p. 285) ; by Dr. Cave (in his Historia Lilcraria, vol. i, p. 23); and by I Grabe (in his Spicilegrxm Putrum, particularly p. 319). : On the other hand, most writers, including the great majority of Roman Catholic divines, reject them as spurious. Mr. Jones, in his valuable work on the Ca- nonical Authority of the New Testament, although he does not venture to deny that the Acts were contained j in the public registers of the city of Edessa, yet gives l it, as a probable conjecture, in favor of which he ad- ' duces some strong reasons, drawn from internal evi- ' dence, that this whole chapter (viz. the 13th of the first book) in the Ecclesiastical History of Eusebius is : itself an interpolation. See Epistles (Spumous). I (12.) The other apocrypha] history related by Eva- 1 grius, out of Procopius, states that Agbarus sent a limner to draw the picture of our Saviour, but that not being able to do it by reason of the brightness of j Christ's countenance, our " Saviour took a cloth, and laying it upon his divine and life-giving face, lie im- pressed his likeness on it." This story of Christ's picture is related by several, in the Second Council of Nice, and by other ancient writers, one of whom (Leo) asserts th.it he went to Edessa, and saw " the image of Christ, not made with hands, worshipped by the people." This is the first of the four likenesses of Christ mentioned by ancient writers. The second is that said to have been stamped on a handkerchief ACTS G2 ACTS by Christ, and given to Veronica, who had followed him to his crucifixion. The third is the statue of Christ, stated by Eusebius to have been erected by the woman whom he had cured of an issue of blood, and which the learned historian acquaints us he saw at Ca?sarea Philippi (Eusebius, Hist. Eccles. vii, IS). Sozomen and Cassiodorus assert that the emperor Julian took down this statue and erected his own in its place. It is, however, stated by Asterius, a writer of the fourth century, that it was taken away by Max- imums, the predecessor of Constantine. The fourth picture is one which Nicodemus presented to Gamaliel, which was preserved at Berytus, and which having been crucified and pierced with a spear by the Jews, there issued out from the side blood and water. This is stated in a spurious treatise concerning the passion and image of Christ, falsely ascribed to Athanasius. Eusebius, the historian, asserts (1. c.) that he had here seen the pictures of Peter, Paul, and of Christ himself, in his time (see also Sozomen, Hist. Eccles. v, 21). That such relics were actually exhibited is therefore indubitable, but their genuineness is quite another question. They were probably of a piece with the papal miracles and pious frauds of superstitious times. — Kitto, s. v. See Jesus Christ. ACTS OF THE APOSTLES, Spurious. Of these several are extant, others are lost, or only fragments of them have come down to us. Of the following we know little more than that they once existed. They are here arranged chronologically: — (1.) The Preach- ing of Peter, referred to by Origen (in his Commentary on St. Joints Gospel, lib. xiv), also referred to by Clemens Alexandrinus. (2.) The Acts of Peter, sup- posed by Dr. Cave to be cited by Serapion. (3.) The Acts of Paul and Thecla, mentioned by Tertullian (Lib. de Baptismo, cap. xvii). This is, however, supposed by some to be the same which is found in a Greek MS. in the Bodleian Library, and has been published by Dr. Grabe (in his Spicil. Patrum Soecul. I.). (4.) The Doctrine of Peter, cited by Origen (" Prooem." in Lib. de Princip."). (5.) The Acts of Paul (id. de Princip. i, 2). ((3.) The Preaching of Paul, referred to by St. Cyprian (Tract, de non iterando Baptismo). (7.) The Preaching of Paul and Peter at Pome, cited by Lactan- tius (De vera Sap. iv, 21). (8.) The Acts of Peter, thrice mentioned by Eusebius (/list. Eccles. iii, 3) ; " as to that work, however, which is ascribed to him, called 'The Acts' and the 'Gospel according to Peter,' wc know nothing of their being handed down as Catholic writings, since neither among the ancient nor the ec- clesiastical writers of our own day has there been one that has appealed to testimony taken from them." (9.) The Acts of Paul (ib.). (10.) The Revelation of Peter (ib.). (11.) The Acts of Andrew and John (ib. cap. 25). " Thus," he says, "we have it in our power to know .... those books that arc adduced by the heretics, under the name of the apostles, such, viz., as compose the gospels of Peter, Thomas, and Matthew, . . . and such as contain the Acts of the Apostles by Andrew and John, and others of which no one of those writers in the ecclesiastical succession has condescend- ed to make any mention in his works ; and, indeed, the character of the style itself is very different from that of the apostles, and the sentiments and the purport of those that are advanced in them deviating as far as possible from sound orthodoxy, evidently proves they are the fictions of heretical men, whence they are to be ranked not only among the spurious writings, but are to be rejected as altogether absurd and im- pious." (12.) The Acts of Peter, John, and Thomas (Athanasius, Synops. § 76). (13.) The Writings . B.C. ante 648. 5. (Sept. 'Adata v. r. 'Avni'«.) A son of Joiarib and ADALBERT 64 ADAM father of Hazaiah, of the tribe of Judah (Neh. xi, 5). B.C. considerably ante 536. 6. A priest, son of Jeroham, who held a prominent post in defending the second temple while building (1 Chron, ix, 12, Sept. UlaCia v. r. 'Avaia ; Neh. xi, 12, 'Acuta), B.C. 518. 7. (Sept. 'Adata.) A "son" of Bani, an Israelite who divorced his Gentile wife after the captivity (Ezra x, 29), B.C. 459. 8. (Sept. 'AiViac v- r- 'Aeaia.) Another of the '• sons" of Bani, who did likewise (Ezra x, 39), B.C. 459. Adalbert. See Adelbert. Adalbert, archbishop of Prague, was born of a princely Slavonic family, about the year 95G, at Prague. His parents sent him to Magdeburg to enter upon his studies under the archbishop Adalbert, who gave him his own name at confirmation. Upon his return into Bohemia, touched by the death-bed remorse of Diet- mar, bishop of Prague, for not having led a life of greater piety and activity, he at once assumed a peni- tential dress, praying fervently and giving great alms. In 983 he was elected bishop of Prague with the unanimous consent of the people. He made great ef- forts to promote the spiritual welfare of his flock, which was in a fearful state of immorality: among the laity polygamy, and among the clergy inconti- nence were general. Had he been less impatient, he might doubtless have accomplished much more than he did. Finding all his labor in vain, he left his see in 989 by permission of Pope John XV, and retired into the monastery of St. Boniface, at Rome. He was, however, constrained to return to his bishopric, which he again quitted for his monastic retreat; and again was on the point of returning to it, when, finding his people set against him, he finally forsook it, in order to preach the Gospel in Prussia, where he suffered mar- tyrdom, April 23, 997 (after making many converts at Dantzic and in Pomerania), at the hands of seven assassins, whose chief was an idol-priest, and who pierced him with seven lances. Since that period Adalbert has been the patron saint of Poland and Bo- hemia. For a graphic account of him, see Neander, Light in Dark Places, 272. The Martyrologies com- memorate him on the 23d of April. — Neander, Ch. Hist. iii, 322 ; Butler, Lives of Saints, April 23. Adalbert, archbishop of Bremen and Hamburg, was descended from a noble Saxon family. lie served as subdeacon to archbishop Hermann for several years, and himself received that office in 1043 from Henry III, whom in 1046 he accompanied to Rome. There he barely failed of election to the papal throne. Pope Leo IX, in whose behalf he had spoken in the synod at Mentz in 1049, made him in 1050 his legate in the North. Adalbert intended, with the support of the Emperor Henry, to convert the archdiocese of Bre- men into a northern patriarchate, which was to be in- dependent of Rome, and embrace the sees of Northern Germanv, of Denmark, Sweden, Norway, and Eng- land. Henry III compelled the pope, Clement II (one of the three German popes who were in succession elevated to tip. papal throne by Henry), to recognize Adalbert as his p<-cr. A bull is still extant in which the pope addressed Adalbert with " Vos," while gen- craUy the popes addressed every bishop with "Tu" (hence the principle, Papa neminem vossitat). But this was all ended by a bull of Pope Leo IX, recog- nizing Adalbert as apostolic vicar, but demanding fealty to the Roman see. During the minority of the Emperor Henry IV he usurped, together with arch- bishop Hanno of Cologne, the administration of the empire. His ambition and violence made him so ob- noxious to the German princes that, in 1066, they forcibly separated him from the emperor; but in 1069 he regained his former power, and kept it until his death, March 16, 1072.— Adam Bremensis, Gista Hun- naburg. pont'f. ,• Lappenberg, Hamburgisehes Urkun- denbuch ; Stenzel, Gesch. Deutschlands unter den friin- kischen Kaiser n. Adaldagus, archbishop of Hamburg and Bremen, lived during the reigns of the three emperors Otho (the last of whom died 1002), and enjoyed great influ- ence at court, where he held the office of chancellor. After the victory which Otho I gained over the Danes, he established three episcopal sees in Jutland, viz., Sleswick, Ripen, and Arhusen. He baptized Harold, king of Denmark, and sent missionaries among the northern nations. — Mosheim, Ch. Hist. cent, x, pt. i, ch. i, § 7. Adalgar, a Benedictine monk of Corby, and the companion of Rembertus, or Rheinbertus, whom he succeeded, in 888, in the archiepiscopal chair of Ham- burg and Bremen. The archbishop of Cologne claim- ed supremacy over Cologne, and Pope Formosus cited Adalgar to appear at Rome to prove his rights to the archbishopric, but he refused both to attend in person and to send a deputy. The investigation was intrust- ed to the archbishop of Mayence, who decided against Adalgar, who was placed among the lowest bishops. The archbishopric was restored by a bull of Sergius III, A.D. 905. Adalgar established a seminary of priests for the propagation of the Gospel in the North, and died May 9, 909, after holding the see for nineteen years. Adalhard, abbot of Corbie, born about 753, died in 826. He was a son of Count Bernard, and a rela- tive of Charles Martel. He was one of the first to op- pose the pretensions of the nobility, and to preach openly that the laws must be equally obeyedby pa- tricians and commoners. Charlemagne confided to him important missions, and appointed him his del- egate at the Council of Rome in 809. After the death of this emperor he fell into disfavor, having been rep- resented by the nobility to Louis the Debonair as an ambitious demagogue. Mabillon promised to publish the 52 sermons of Adalhard, but did not keep his promise. His Statuta Corbiensis ecclesice was publish- ed, but very incorrectly, by d'Achery. Many other writings of Adalhard are still scattered and inedited. Some extracts of his Libellus de Online Palatii were given by Hincmar. See Radbert, Vita 8. Adalhard* abbatis Corbiensis, 1G17. — Hoefer, Biog. Gem-rale, i, 218. Adali'a (Heb. Adalya', N^x; probably of Per- sian origin; Sept. BapiX v. r. Bapsa, Vulg. Adaljd), the fifth of the ten sons of Hainan slain by the Jews under the royal edict at Shushan (Esth. ix, 8), B.C. ,473. Ad'am (Heb. A dam', CIS, red [see Edom] ; hence iTC"1N, the ground, from the ruddiness of flesh and of clayey soil, see Gesenius. Thes. Heb. p. 24, 25 ; comp. Josephus, Ant. ii, 1; Jonathan's Targum on Gen. ii, 7 ; Leusden, Onomast, s. v. ; Marek, Hist. Paradisi, ii, 5), the name of a man and a place. 1. The first man, whose creation, fall, and history are detailed by Moses in Gen. ii-v, being in fact the same Hebrew word usually rendered "man" (includ- ing woman also, Gen. v, 1, 2), but often used distinc- tively with the article (CiNri, ha-Adam', "the man," Sept. and N. T. 'Aiu'tp, Josephus "Aca/ioc, Ant. i, 1, 2), as a proper name (comp. Tobit viii, 0). It seems at first thought somewhat strange that the head of the human family should have received his distinctive name from the affinity which he had, in the lower part of his nature, to the dust of the earth — that he should have been called Adam, as being taken in bis bodily part from adamah, the ground; the more especially as the name was not assumed by man himself, but im- posed by God, and imposed in immediate connection with man's destination to bear the image of God: "And God said, Let us make man (Adam) in our image, after our likeness," etc. This apparent incon- ADAM 65 ADAM gruit}' has led some, in particular Eichcrs (Die ScTwp- fungs-, Paradieses- und Siindfiuthsgesckichtc, p. 163), to adopt another etymology of the term — to make Adam a derivative of dainnh (H^'l, to be like, to resemble). Delitzseh, however (System der Bibl. Psychologie, p. 49), has objected to this view, both on grammatical and other grounds ; and though we do not see the force of his grammatical objection to the derivation in ques- tion, yet we think he puts the matter itself rightly, and thereby justifies the received opinion. Man's name is kindred with that of the earth, adamah, not because of its being his characteristic dignity that God made him after his image, but because of this, that God made after his image one who had been taken from the earth. The likeness to God man had in common with the angels, but that, as the possessor of this likeness, he should be Adam — this is what brought him into union with two worlds — the world of spirit and the world of matter — rendered him the centre and the bond of all that had been made, the fitting topstone of the whole work of creation, and the motive principle of the world's history. It is precisely his having the image of God in an earthen vessel, that, while made somewhat lower than the angels, he occupies a higher position than they in respect to the affairs of this world (Psa. viii, 5 ; Heb. ii, 5). I. History. — In the first nine chapters of Genesis there appear to be three distinct histories relating more or less to the life of Adam. The first extends from Gen. i, 1 to ii, 3, the second from ii, 4 to iv, 26, the third from v, 1 to the end of ix. The word (mSbin) at the commencement of the latter two nar- ratives, which is rendered there and elsewhere genera- tions, may also be rendered history. The style of the second of these records differs very considerably from that of the first. In the first the Deity is designated by the word Elohim; in the second he is generally spoken of as Jehovah Elohim. The object of the first of these narratives is to record the creation ; that of the second to give an account of paradise, the original sin of man, and the immediate posterity of Adam ; the third contains mainly the history of Noah, referring, it would seem, to Adam and his descendants, princi- pally in relation to that patriarch. The first account of the creation of man is in general terms, the two sexes being spoken of together (ch. i, 27) as a unit of species ; whereas in the second, or resumptive account, the separate formation of the man and the woman is detailed. This simple consideration reconciles all ap- parent discrepancy between the two narratives.— Smith, s. v. See Genesis. The representation there given is that Adam was absolutely the first man, and was created by the di- rect agency of God; that this act of creation, including the immediately subsequent creation of Eve, was the last in a series of creative acts which extended through a period of six literal days. See Creation. This Scriptural account is, of course, entirely opposed to the atheistic hypothesis, which denies any definite be- ginning to the human race, but conceives the succes- sive generations of men to have run on in a kind of infinite series, to which no beginning can lie assigned. Such a theory, originally propounded by heathen phi- losophers, has also been asserted by the more extreme section of infidel writers in Christian times. But the voice of tradition, which, in all the more ancient na- tions, uniformly points to a comparatively recent pe- riod for the origin of the human family, has now re- ceived conclusive attestations from learned research and scientific inquiry. Not only have the remains of human art and civilization, the more they have been explored, yielded more convincing evidence of a pe- riod not very remote when the human family itself was in infanc}% but the languages of the world also, when carefully investigated and compared, as they have of late been, point to a common and not exceed- ingly remote origin. This is the view of Sir William Jones, and, later, of Bunsen also. The same conclu- sion substantially is reached by Dr. Donaldson, who, after stating what has already been accomplished in this department of learning, expresses his conviction, on the ground alone of the affinities of language, that "investigation willfully confirm what the great apos- tle proclaimed in the Areopagus, that God hath made, of one blood all nations of men for to dwell on all the face of the earth" (New Cratylus, p. 19). The i option is still further confirmed by the results that have been gained in the region of natural science. The most skilful and accomplished naturalists — such as Cuvier, Blumenbach, Pritchard— have established beyond any reasonable doubt the unity of the human family as a species (see particularly Pritchard's History of Man); and those who have prosecuted geological researches, while the)' have found remains in the different strata of rocks of numberless species of inferior animals, can point to no human petrifactions — none, at least, but what appear in some comparatively recent and local formations — a proof that man is of too late an origin for his remains to have mingled with those of the ex- tinct animal tribes of preceding ages. Science gen- erally can tell of no separate creations for animals of one and the same species ; and while all "geologic his- tory is full of the beginnings and the ends of species, "it exhibits no genealogies of development" (Miller's Testimony of the Rocks, p. 201). That, when created, man must have been formed in full maturity, as Adam is related to have been, was a necessity arising from the very conditions of existence. It has been discov- ered, by searching into the remains of preceding ages and generations of living creatures, that there has been a manifest progress in the succession of beings on the surface of the earth — a progress in the direction of an increasing resemblance to the existing forms of being, and in particular to man. But the connection between the earlier and the later, the imperfect and the perfect, is not that of direct lineage or parental ' descent, as if it came in the way merely of natural growth and development. The connection, as Agassiz has said in his Principles of Zoology, "is < f a higher and immaterial nature ; it is to be sought in the view of the Creator himself, whose aim in forming the earth, in allowing it to undergo the successive changes which geology has pointed out, and in creating succcs- ' sively all the different types of animals which have ' passed away, was to introduce man upon the surface of our globe. Man is the end toward which the animal creation has tended from the first appearance of the first \ pnlceozoic fishes."— Ya.ixha.irn, s. v. See Geology. ! The Almighty formed Adam out of the dust of the earth, breathed into his nostrils the breath of life, and gave him dominion over all the lower creatures (Gen. i, 26 ; ii, 7), B.C. 4172. He created him in his own image [see Perfection], and, having pronounced a blessing upon him, placed him in a delightful garden, that he might cultivate it and enjoy its fruits. See Eden. At the same time, however, he gave him the ! following injunction: "Of the tree of knowledge of good and evil thou shalt not eat; for in the day thou eatest thereof thou shalt surely die." The first re- corded exercise of Adam's power and intelligence was I his giving names to the beasts of the field and fowls of the air, which the Lord brought before him for this purpose. The examination thus afforded him having shown tint it was not good for man to lie alone, the Lord caused a deep sloop to fall upon Adam, and while he remained in a semi-conscious state took one of hill ribs, and closed up the flesh ; and of the rib thus taken from man he made a woman, whom he presented to him when he awoke. See Eve. Adam received her, saying, "This is now bone of my bone, and flesh of my flesh j she shall be called woman, because she was taken out of man." See MARRIAGE. This woman, being seduced by the tempter, per- ADAM ADAM suaded her husband to eat of the forbidden fruit (eomp. Theuer, De Adamo lapso, divortiwm c. Eva cogitante, Jen. 1759). When called to judgment for this trans- gression before God, Adam blamed his wife, and the woman blamed the serpent-tempter. God punished the tempter by degradation and dread [see Serpent] ; the woman by painful travail and a situation of submis- sion ; and the man by a life of labor and toil- — of which punishment every day witnesses the fulfilment. See Fall. As their natural passions now became irregu- lar, and their exposure to accidents great, God made a covering of skin for Adam and for his wife. He also expelled them from his garden to the land around it, where Adam had been made, and where was to be their future dwelling ; placing at the east of the garden a flame, which turned every way, to prevent access to the tree of life (Gen. iii).— Calmet, s. v. See Death. It is not known how long Adam and his wife con- tinued in Paradise : some think many years ; others not many days ; others not many hours. Shortly after their expulsion Eve brought forth Cain (Gen. iv, 1, 2). Scripture notices but three sons of Adam, Cain, Abel, and Seth (q. v.), but contains an allusion (Gen. v, 4) to " sons and daughters ;" no doubt several. He died B.C. 3242, aged 930 (see Bruckner, Ob Adam wirk- lich iib. 900 J. alt geworden, Aurich, 1799). See Lon- gevity. Such is the simple narrative of the Bible relative to the progenitor of the human race, to which it only re- mains to add that his faith doubtless recognised in the promise of "the woman's seed" that should "bruise the serpent's head" the atoning merits of the future Redeemer. See Messiah. Whatever difficulties we may find in the Scriptural account, we accept it as a literal statement of facts, and shall therefore dismiss the rationalistic theories and speculations to which it has given rise. The results are of the utmost import- ance to mankind, and the light that the Bible thus sheds upon the origin of the race and the source of human depravity is of inestimable value even in a historical and philosophical point of view. See Man. See, generally, Eichhorn's Urgesch. ed. Gabler (Nurnb. 1790); Hug, Mos. Gesch. (Frankf. und Leipz. 1790). Buttman has collected the parallels of heathen mythology in the Neue Berl. Monatsschr. 1804, p. 261 sq. ; also in his Mythologus, i, 122 sq. ; comp. Gesenius, in the Hall. Encylcl. i, 358. In the Hindoo sacred books the first human pair are called Meshii and Meshiam {Zend Avesta, i, 23 ; iii, 84). For the Talmudic fables respecting Adam, see Eisenmenger, Enldecht. Judenth. i, 84-365, 830; ii, 417; Otho, Lex. Rabb. p. 9 sq. Those of the Koran arc found in Sura ii, SO sq. ; vii, 11 sq. ; see Hottinger, Hist. Orient, p. 21 ; comp. D'Herbelot, Biblioth. Or. s. v. Christian traditions may be seen in Epiphan. Har. xlvi, 2 sq. ; Augustine, Civ. He!, xiv, 17 ; Cedrenus, Hist. p. 6, 9 ; see espe- cially Fabricii Codex Pseudepiffrapkus Vet. Test, i, 1 sq. The Vulgate, in Josh, xiv, 15, ranks Adam among the Anakim ; see Gotze, Quanta Aelami siatura fuerit (Lips. 1722); comp. Edzardi, Ad Cod. Avoda Sara, p. 530 sq. See Antediluvians. II. The question of the unity of the human race, or the descent of the race from a single pair, has given rise to much discussion of late, after it had been thought to be finally settled. It may be stated thus : " Did the Almighty Creator produce only one man and one woman, from whom all other human beings have descended? or did he create several parental pairs, from whom distinct stocks of men have been derived? The question is usually regarded as equivalent to this : whether or not there is more than one species of men? But we cannot, in strict fairness, admit that the ques- tions are identical. It is hypothetieally conceivable that the adorable God might give existence to any number of creatures, which should all possess the properties that characterize identity of species, even without such differences as constitute varieties, or with any degree of those differences. But the admis- sion of the possibility is not a concession of the reality. So great is the evidence in favor of the derivation of the entire mass of human beings from one pair of an- cestors, that it has obtained the suffrage of the men most competent to judge upon a question of compara- tive anatomy and physiology. " (1.) The animals which render eminent services to man, and peculiarly depend upon his protection, are widely diffused — the horse, the dog, the hog, the do- mestic fowl. Now of these, the varieties in each species are numerous and different, to a degree so great that an observer ignorant of physiological history would scarcely believe them to be of the same species. But man is the most widely diffused of an}- animal. In the progress of ages and generations, he has natu- ralized himself to every climate, and to modes of life which would prove fatal to an individual man sudden- ly transferred from a remote point of the field. The alterations produced affect every part of the body, in- ternal and external, without extinguishing the marks of the specific identity. " (2.) A further and striking evidence is, that when persons of different varieties are conjugally united, the offspring, especially in two or three generations, be- comes more prolific, and acquires a higher perfection in physical and mental qualities than was found in either of the parental races. From the deepest African black to the finest Caucasian white, the change runs through imperceptible gradations ; and, if a middle hue be assumed, suppose some tint of brown, all the varieties of complexion may be explained upon the principle of divergence influenced by outward circum- stances. Mr. Poinsett saw in South America a fine healthy regiment of spotted men, quite peculiar enough to be held by Professor Agassiz a separate race. And why were they not? Simply because they were a known cross-breed between Spaniards and Indians. Changes as great are exhibited by the Magyars of Europe, and by the Ulster Irish,.as quoted b}r Miller. Sir Charles Lyell was of opinion that a climatic change was already perceptible in the negro of our Southern states. Professor Cabell {Testimony of Modem Science, etc.) ably and clearly sustains the doctrine that propa- gability is conclusive proof of sameness of species. He denies, on good authority, that the mulatto is feebler or less prolific than either unmixed stock. He furnishes abundant proof of the barrenness of hybrids. The fact that the connection of different varieties of the human species produces a prolific progeny, is proof of oneness of species and family. This argument, sustained by facts, can hardly be considered less than demonstration. " (3.) The objection drawn from the improbability that the one race springing from a single locality would migrate from a pleasanter to a worse region is very completely dispatched. Ample causes, proofs, facts, and authorities are furnished to show that, were mankind now reduced to a single family: only time would be wanting, even without civilization, to over- spread the earth. European man and European- American man, as all history agrees, came from Asia. Whence came our aboriginal men? As Professor Cabell shows, they came by an antipodal route from the same Asia. Pursue the investigation, and the clue of history will lead our tremulous feet to about the Mosaic cradle of man. " (4.) Ethnology, or rather Glottology, the gradu- ally perfecting comparison of languages, is bringing us to the same point. The unscientific attempt to trace the striking analogies of languages to the mere similarity of human organs, and the still more unscien- tific attempt of Professor Agassiz to attri Irate them to a transcendental mental unity in races sprung from dif- ferent original localities, look like desperation. Mean- while, comparison is educing wonderful yet rarely ADAM 67 ADAM demonstrative laws, and laws are guiding threads con- verging to unity. " (5.) Another argument is derived from the real mental unity of the universal human soul. Races dif- fer, indeed, in mental power, as do individuals, wide- ly, even in the same family. But there is the same programme of mental philosophy for all. The same intellect, affections, instincts, conscience, sense of su- perior divine power, and susceptibility of religion. For the European, the Esquimaux, the Hottentot, there is the same power in the cross of Christ. "(6.) Finally, Geology, with her wonderful demon- stration of the recent origin of man, proves the same thing. The latest attempts to adduce specimens of fossil man have been failures. Not far back of the period that our best but somewhat hypothetical cal- culations from Mosaic chronology would assign, Geol- ogy fixes the birth of man. " The conclusion may be fairly drawn, in the words of the able translators and illustrators of Baron Cuvier's great work : ' We are fully warranted in concluding, both from the comparison of man with inferior ani- mals, so far as the inferiority will allow of such com- parison, and, beyond that, by comparing him with him- self, that the great family of mankind loudly proclaim a descent, at some period or other, from one common origin.' " Thus, by an investigation totally independent of historical authority, we are brought to the conclusion of the inspired writings, that the Creator ' hath made of one blood all nations of men, for to dwell on all the face of the earth' (Acts xvii, 26)." The more recent authorities on this question are : Prichard, Researches into the Physiological History of Mankind (Lond. 4 vols. 8vo, 1836-44) ; also Natural History of Man (London, 3d ed. 8vo, 1848) ; Bachman, Unity of the Human Race (Charleston, 1850, 8vo) ; Smyth, Unity of the Races (New York, 1850) ; Johnes, Philological Proofs of the Unity of the Human Race (London, 1846) ; Meth. Qu. Rev. July, 1851, p. 345; Jan. 1859, p. 162; Cabell, Testimony of Modern Science to the Unity of Mankind (New York, 1858, 12mo). See also Blumenbach, De gen. hum. Var. Nativa (Gott. 1776, 8vo) ; Quatrefages, in Rev. des Deux Mondes, L861 ; and the article Man. III. The original capacities and condition of the first human pair have also formed the subject of much dis- cussion. It will be found, however, that the best con- clusions of reason on this point harmonize fully with the brief Scriptural account of the facts as they were. 1. It is evident, upon a little reflection, and the closest investigation confirms the conclusion, that the first human pair must have been created in a state equivalent to that which all subsequent human beings have had to reach by slow degrees, in growth, experi- ence, observation, imitation, and the instruction of others ; that is, a state of prime maturity, and with an infusion, so to speak, of knowledge and habits, both physical and intellectual, suitable to the place which man had to occupy in the system of creation, and ade- quate to his necessities in that place. Had it been otherwise, the new beings could not have preserved their animal existence, nor have held rational converse with each other, ncr have paid to their Creator the homage of knowledge and hive, adoration and obedi- ence; and reason clearly tells us that the last was the noblest end of existence. The Bible coincides with this dictate of honest reason, expressing these facts in simple and artless language : " And Jehovah God formed the man [Heb. the Adam], dust from the ground [ka-adamali], and blew into his nostrils the breath of life ; and the man became a living animal" (Gen. ii, 7). Here are two objects of attention, the organic mechanism of the human bod}-, and the vitality with which it was endowed, (a.) The mechanical material, formed (moulded, or arranged, as an artificer models clay or wax) into the human and all other animal bodies, is called "dust from the ground." This ex- pression conveys, in a general form, the idea of earthy ■matter, the constituent substance of the ground on which we tread. To say that of this the human and every other animal body was formed, is a position which would be at once the most easily apprehensible to an uncultivated mind, and which yet is the most exactly true upon the highest philosophical grounds. We now know, from chemical analysis, that the ani- mal bod}- is composed, in the inscrutable manner call- ed organization, of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, lime, iron, sulphur, and phosphorus. Now all these are mineral substances, which in their various combi- nations form a very large part of the solid ground. (b.) The expression which we have rendered "living animal" sets bef.ire us the organic life of the animal frame, that mysterious something which man can- not create nor restore, which baffles the most acute philosophers to search out its nature, and which rea- son combines with Scripture to refer to the immediate agency of the Almighty — " in him we live, and move, and have our being." 2. But the Scripture narrative also declares that " God created man in his own image: in the image of God created he him ; male and female created he them" (Gen. i, 27). The image (resemblance, such as a shadow bears to the object which casts it) of God is an expression which breathes at once primitive sim- plicity and the most recondite wisdom ; for what term could the most cultivated and copious language bring forth more suitable to the purpose ? It presents to us man as made in a resemblance to the Author of his being, a true resemblance, but faint and shadowy ; an outline, faithful according to its capacity, yet infinite- ly remote from the reality : a distant form of the in- telligence, wisdom, power, rectitude, goodness, and do- minion, of the Adorable Supreme. As to the precise characteristics of excellence in which this image con- sists, theologians have been much divided. Tertuh- lian (Adv. Marc, ii, 5, 6) placed it in the faculties of the soul, especially in the power of choice between good and evil. Among the fathers generally, and the schoolmen after them, there were many different the- ories, nor are the later theologians at all more unani- mous. Many unnecessary disputes would have been avoided by the recognition of the simple fact that the phrase the image of God is a very comprehensive one, and is used in the Bible in more than one sense. Ac- cordingly, the best writers speak of the image of God as twofold, Natural and Moral. (a.) Natural. — The notion that the original resem- blance of man to God must be placed in some one quality is destitute of proof either from Scripture or reason ; a*nd we are, in fact, taught that it comprises also what is so far from being essential that it may be both lost and regained. (1.) When God is called "the Father of Spirits," a likeness is suggested be- tween man and God in the spirituality of their nature. This is also implied in the striking argument of St. Paul with the Athenians: "Forasmuch, then, as we are the offspring of God, we ought not to think that the Godhead is like unto gold, or silver, or stone, graven by art and man's device;" plainly referring to the idolatrous statues by which God was represent- ed among heathens. If likeness to God in man con- sisted in bodily shape, this would not have been an argument against human representations of the Deity ; but it imports, as Howe well expresses it. that "we are to understand that our resemblance to him, as we arc his offspring, lies in some higher, more noble, and more excellent thing, of which there can be no figure ; as who can tell how to give the figure or image of a thought, or of the mind or thinking power?" In spirituality, and, consequently, immateriality, this im- age of God in man, then, in the first instance, consists. (2.) The sentiment expressed in Wisdom ii, 23, is an evidence that, in the opinion of the ancient Jews, tin image of God in man comprised immortality also. ADAM 68 ADAM " For Gud created man to be immortal, and made him to be an image of his own eternity ;" and though oth- er creatures were made capable of immortality, and at least the material human frame, whatever we may think of the case of animals, would have escaped death had not sin entered the world ; yet, without admitting the absurdity of the "natural immortality" cf the human soul, that essence must have been con- stituted immortal in a high and peculiar sense, which has ever retained its prerogative of continued dura- tion amid the universal death not only of animals but of the bodies of all human beings. There appears also a manifest allusion to man's immortality, as be- ing included in the image of God, in the reason which is given in Genesis for the law which inflicts death on murderers: "Whoso sheddeth man's blood, by man shall his blood be shed : for in the image of God made he man." The essence of the crime of homicide is not confined here to the putting to death the mere animal part of man ; and it must, therefore, lie in the pecu- liar value of life to an immortal being, accountable in another state for the actions done in this, and whoso life ought to be specially guarded for this very reason, that death introduces him into changeless and eternal relations, which were not to be left to the mercy of human passions. (3.) The intellectud faculties of man form a third feature in his natural likeness to God. Some, indeed (e. g. Philo), have placed the whole like- ness in the vovq, or rational soul. (4.) The will, or power of choice and volition, is the last of these fea- tures. They are all essential and ineffaceable. Man could not be man without them. (b.) Moral. — (1.) There is an express allusion to the moral image of God, in which man was at first cre- ated, in Colossians iii, 10: "And have put on the new man, which is renewed in knowledge, after the image of Him that created him ;" and in Ephesians iv, 24: "Put on the new man, which after God is created in righteousness and true holiness." In these passages the apostle represents the change produced in true Christians by the Gospel, as a "renewal of the image of God in man ; as a new or second creation in that image;" and he explicitly declares, that that image consists in "knowledge," in "righteousness," and in " true holiness." (2.) This also may be final- ly argued from the satisfaction with which the histo- rian of the creation represents the Creator as viewing the works of his hands as "very good," which was pronounced with reference to each of them individ- ually, as well as to the whole: "And God saw even/ thing that he had made, and behold it was very good." But, as to man, this goodness must necessarily imply moral as well as physical qualities. A rational crea- ture, as such, is capable of knowing, loving, serving, and living in communion with the Most Holy One. Adam, at first, did or did not exert this capacity; if he did nut, he was not very good— not good at all. 3. On the intellectual and moral endowments of the progenitor of the human race, extravagant views have been taken on both sides, (a.) In knowledge, some have thought him little inferior to the angels; others, as furnished with but the simple elements of science and of language. The truth seems to be that, as to capacity, his intellect must have been vigorous be- yond that of any of his fallen descendants ; which it- self givea us very high views of the strength of his understanding, although we should allow him to have been created " lower than the angels." As to his act- in i! knowledge, that would depend upon the time and opportunity lie had for observing the nature and laws of the objects around him; and the degree in which he was favored with revelations from God on moral and religious subjects. The "knowledge" in which the Apostle Paul, in the passage quoted above from Colossians iii, 10, places " the image of God" after which man was created, dors not merely imply the faculty of understanding, which is a part of the natu- ral image of God, but that which might be lost, be- cause it is that in which we may be "renewed." It is, therefore, to be understood of the faculty of knowl- edge in right exercise ; and of that willing reception, and firm retaining, and heart}- approval of religious truth, in which knowledge, when spoken of morally, is always understood in the Scriptures. We may not be disposed to allow, with some, that Adam under- stood the deep philosophy of nature, and could com- prehend and explain the sublime mysteries of religion. The circumstance of his giving names to the animals is certainly no sufficient proof of his having attained to a philosophical acquaintance with their qualities and distinguishing habits, although we should allow their names to be still retained in the Hebrew, and to be as expressive of their peculiarities as some exposi- tors have stated. Sufficient time appears not to have been afforded him for the study of the properties of animals, as this event took place previous to the for- mation of Eve ; and as for the notion of his acquiring knowledge by intuition, this is contradicted by the revealed fact that angels themselves acquire their knowledge by observation and stud}', though, no doubt, with great rapidity and certainty. The whole j of this transaction was supernatural; the beasts were " brought" to Adam, and it is probable that he named them under a Divine suggestion. That his under- standing was, as to its capacity, deep and large be- yond any of his posterity, must follow from the per- fection in which he was created ; and his acquisitions of knowledge would, therefore, be rapid and easy. It was, however, in moral and religious truth, as being of the first concern to him, that we are to suppose the excellency of his knowledge to have consisted. " His reason would be clear, his judgment uncorrupted, and his conscience upright and sensible." The best knowl- edge would, in him, be placed first, and that of every other kind be made subservient to it, according to its relation to that. The apostle adds to knowledge "righteousness and true holiness;" terms which ex- press, not merely freedom from sin, but positive and ■ active virtue. Sober as these views of man's primitive state are, I it is not, perhaps, possible for us fully to conceive of so exalted a condition as even this. Below this stand- i ard it could not fall ; and that it implied a glory, and J dignity, and moral greatness of a very exalted kind, I is made sufficiently apparent from the degree of guilt j charged upon Adam when he fell ; for the aggravating j circumstances of his offence may well be deduced from the tremendous consequences which followed. I (6.) As to Adam's moral perfection, it has sometimes | been fixed at an elevation which renders it exceed- ingly difficult to conceive how he could fall into sin at all. On the other hand, those who deny the doc- trine of our hereditary depravity, delight to represent Adam as little superior in moral perfection and capa- bility to his descendants. But if we attend to the passages of Holy Writ above quoted, we shall be able, on this subject, to ascertain, if not the exact degree of his moral endowments, yet that there is a certain standard below which they cannot be placed. Gen- erally, he was made in the image of God, which, we have already proved, is to be understood mora!/// as well as naturally. To whatever extent it went, it nec- essarily excluded all which did not resemble God ; it was a likeness to God in "righteousness and true holiness," whatever the degree of each might be, and excluded all admixture of unrighteousness and unho- liness. Man, therefore, in his original state, was sin- less, both in act and in principle. 4. The rabbis and the Arabians relate many absurd traditions about Adam's personal beauty, endowments, etc., and such are still current among the Eastern na- tions. An account of many of them may be found in Bayle (s. v.\ 5. That Adam was a type of Christ is plainly af- ADAM ADAMI firmed by Paul, who calls hiin "the figure of him ■who was to come." Hence our Lord is sometimes call- ed, not inaptly, the second Adam. This typical rela- tion stands sometimes in similitude, sometimes in con- trast. Adam was formed immediately by God, as was the humanity of Christ. In eacli the nature was spotless, and richly endowed with knowledge and true holiness. Both are seen invested with dominion over the earth and all its creatures ; and this may ex- plain the eighth Psalm, where David seems to make the sovereignty of the first man over the whole earth, in its pristine glory, the prophetic symbol of the do- minion of Christ over the world restored. Bej'ond these particulars fancy must not carry us ; and the typical contrast must also be limited to that which is stated in Scripture or supported by its allusions. Adam and Christ were each a public person, a federal head to the whole race of mankind ; but the one was the fountain of sin and death, the other of righteous- ness and life. By Adam's transgression " many were made sinners" (Rom. v, 1-1-19). Through him, "death passed upon all men, because all have sinned" in him. But he thus prefigured that one man, by whose right- eousness the "free gift comes upon all men to justifi- cation of life." The first man communicated a living soul to all his posterity ; the other is a quickening Spirit, to restore them to newness of life now, ami t<> raise them up at the last day. By the imputation of the first Adam's sin, and the communication of his fallen, depraved nature, death reigned over those who had not sinned after the similitude of Adam's trans- gression ; and through the righteousness of the sec ond Adam, and the communication of a divine nature by the Holy Spirit, favor and grace shall much more abound in Christ's true followers unto eternal life. — Watson, Tkeol. Diet. s. v. ; Hunter, Sac. Biog. p. 8 ; Williams, Characters of 0. T. i ; Kurtz, Hist, of Old Cor. § 21, 22. See Fall and Redemption. 2. (Sept. 'Ac«//, but most copies omit; Vulg. .1 dom.) A city at some distance from the Jordan, to which (according to the test, C~N2, in Adam), or beyond which (according to the margin, ~7^> "from Adam," as in our version^, the overflow of the waters of that stream extended in its annual inundation, at the time when the Israelites passed over (Josh, iii, 1G). The name of the city (red) may have been derived from the alluvial clay in the vicinity (comp. 1 Kings vii, 4G). It has been incorrectly inferred from the above text that the city Adam was located east of the river, whereas it is expressly stated to have been beside (~E"C) Zarcthan (q. v.), which is known to have been on the west bank, not far from Bethshean (1 Kings iv, 12). It hence appears that the " heap" or accumu- lation of waters above the Israelites' crossing-place, caused by the stoppage of the stream, reached back on the shore and many miles up the river, over the sec- ondary banks of the Ghor, on which Zarethan stood, as far as the higher ground on which Adam was lo- cated (see Keil, Comment, in loe.) ; probably the ridge immediately north of Bethshean, which closes the plain of the Jordan in this direction. Adam of Bremen, born in Upper Saxony, came to Bremen in 1067, and was made magister scholarum in 1069 — hence often named Magister. He died about the year 1076. (See Asmussen, De fontilus Adami firemen*. Kilion. 1834.) He wrote the Ges'a Ilommen- burgensis ecclesiee pontificum, which is our chief source of information for the Church history of Northern Europe from 788 to 1072, the period over which it ex- tends. The best edition is that of Lappenberg, in the Monumenta Germanice (ed. Pertz, torn, vii, p. 266 389 I : also published separately. " in usum scholarum" (Han- over, 1846). The best treatise on his life, his trust- worthiness as a historian, and his sources of informa- tion, is the introduction of Lappenberg to his edition. Corrections of some of his statements may be found in V. Comm. Sjc. Goett. I, ii, 12G sq. ; and in Staphorst, Hist. Eccles. Hamburg. Adam, Melchior, born in Silesia, obtained about 1G00 the headship of a college, and finally a professor- ship in the University of Heidelberg. His chief works are Vitce Germanorum Philosophorum, Theologorum, etc. (Heidelberg, lG15-'20, 4 vols. 8vo), and Decades dues continentes vitas Theologorum erterorum Principum (Franc. 1G18, 8vo), published together, under the title Dign man laude virorum immortaUias (Francf. 1653, 5 vols. 8vo, and 17n6. fob) — a great repository, from which compilers of church history and of biographical dictionaries have since drawn their materials. He died in 1622 at Heidelberg. Adam, Thomas, born at Leeds, 1701, was rector of Wintringham, England, fifty-eight years, and died 1784. He was a sensible and voluminous writer: his "Works" (Lond. 1822, 3 vols. 8vo) contain a Para- phrase on the Romans, Lectures on the Church Catechism, and a number of Sermons. His Life, with his Exposi- tion of the Gospels, was published in London in 1837 (2 vols. 8vo). Ad'amall (Heb. Adamah', ft'2'1 X, ground, as oft- en ; Sept. 'Acapi v. r. 'ApfiaiS, Vulg. Edema), a forti- fied city of Naphtali, 'mentioned between Chinnereth and Eamah (Josh, xix, 36) ; probably the same as Adami (q. v.) of the same tribe (ver. 33). Schwarz, however (Palest, p. 183), thinks it is the present vil- lage Duma, situated, according to him, 5 English miles W.N.W. from Safed ; but no such name is given by other travellers. Adamannus or Adamnanus, a Scoto-Irish priest and monk, made in G79 abbot of Hy. In 701 he was sent on a mission to Alfred, king of Northumber- land, and on his return endeavored in vain to induce his countrymen to observe Easter after the Roman fashion, which he had learned in England. He then passed over into Ireland, where he persuaded nearly all the people to follow the Roman custom. From Ireland he returned to Hy, and having again tried, but with as little success, to bring his monks round to his newly-adopted views, he died there, aged 80, in 704. He edited a Life of St. Columba, in three books, which is given by Canisius, torn, v, part ii, p. 562 (or in the new ed. torn, i, p. 680); also De Locis Terras Sanctce, libri 3, published by Serarius, at Ingolstadt, 1619, and by Mabillon, in his Scec. Bened. iii, part ii, p. 502. He is also said to have written a book, De Pascha'e Legitimo, and some canons. See Sir James Ware's Irish Writers, lib. i, cap. iii, p. 35. — Cave, Hist. Lit. anno 679 ; Bede, Hist. lib. v, cap. xvi. Adamant, a term vaguely used to describe any very hard stone, and employed in the Auth. Vers, in Ezek. iii, 9; Zech. vii, 12, as the rendering of — ~r (shamir'), elsewhere (Jer. xvii, 1) rendered diamond (q. v.). 'ASdpag, Ecclus. xvi, 16, in some copies. Ad'ami (Heb. Adami' ,'"^, reddish ; Sept.'Aft/i- iii, Vulg. Adami), a city near the border of Naphtali, mentioned between Zaanaim and Nekeb (Josh, xix, 33). The best interpreters (e. £. Rosenmuller, Keil, in loc.) join this with the following name, Nekeb (-prn, i. q. in the hollar ; so the Vulg. qua est Nea b, but the Sept. distinguishes them,r«« NdwjS), as if an epithet of the same place ; although the Jerusalem Talmud (Megillah, lxx, 1) makes them distinct, and calls the former Damin ( *~~~% which Schwarz (Palest. p. 181) supposes identical with a " village Dami 5 Eng- lish miles west of the S.W. point of the Sea of Tibe- rias," mean in-; the ruined site Dameh (Robinson, Re- searches, iii, 237), falling on the limits of Naphtali. See Tribe. The place appears to be the same else- where (Josh. xix. 36) called Adamah (q. v.). and the enumeration in ver. 38 requires the collocation Adami- nekeb as one locality. See Nekeb. ADAMIC ADAR Adatnic Constitution. See Covenant. Adamites, 1, a sect of heretics in Northern Africa in the second and third centuries. They pretended to the primitive innocence which Adam had before the fall ; and, in imitation of his original condition, they appeared naked in their religious assemblies, which they called Paradises. The author of this abominable heresy was a certain Prodicus, a disciple of Carpocrates (August. Be Hares. 31). 2. A similar heresy, under the same name, appeared in Bohemia in the fifteenth century. (See Picard, Ceremonies Rellgieuses, fig. 215.) Their founder was a Frenchman, John Picard, after whom they were also called Picardists. From France they spread over a large portion of Germany, especial- ly over Bohemia and Moravia. Their chief seat was a fort on an island of the river Lusinicz, from whence they frequently set out for plundering and murdering. Fiska suppressed them in 1421. For a long time they seemed to be extinct, but in 1781, when Joseph II is- sued his patent of toleration, the Adamites came again forward and claimed toleration of their principles and meetings. But when they made known the character of both, the government speedily suppressed them. Also this time their extinction was only apparent, and in 1849, after the publication of the edict of toleration, they again showed themselves in public, especially in the district of Chrudim, Bohemia. In five villages they were very numerous, and in one, Stradau, they even succeeded in making many converts. All their members belong to the Czechic (Slavonian) national- ity, and are mostly mechanics or peasants. They deny the existence of a personal God, but assume a Supreme Power (Moc) which has created the world, which henceforth exists through itself. Every Adamite claims a spirit who cleanses him from sins. They re- ject sacraments and worship, but expect a saviour (Marokan) from whose appearance they hope the real- ization of their communistic ideas. Their meetings and the public confession of their principles have been again suppressed by the government, but they are known still to exist in secret. (See Beausobre, Sur /< -■ A d< unites en Boheme, in L'Enfant, Hist. Buss, i, 304 sq. ; Pertz, Script, rer. Austria!, sect, xiv.) — Mosheim, Ch. Hist. cent, ii, pt. ii, ch. v, § 18; Lardner, Works, viii, 425; Wetzer and Welte, xii, 11 sq. Adamnanus. See Adamaxxus. Adams, Eliphalet, an eminent Congregational minister, was born at Dedham, Mass., March 26, 1677, and graduated at Harvard College in 1694. After preaching in various places for ten years without set- tlement, he was ordained pastor of the church in New London, Conn., February, 1709, and died April, 1753. He was a man of learning, and was very much inter- ested in the Indians, whose language he had acquired. He published a number of occasional sermons. — Allen, Amer. Biog. ; Sprague, Annals, i, 234. Adams, Hannah, was born at Medfield, near Bos- ton, in 1756. She learned Greek and Latin from stu- dents who lodged in her father's house. In 1784 she published a View nf all Religions, which went through several editions in America, and was reprinted in Eng- land. In her fourth edition she changed the title to Dictionary <; Suppl. p. 25; Golius, in Lex. ad Mfrg. p. 17, 34; Hyde, Be rel. ret. Pers, p. 63.) The following are the chief days in it which are set apart for commemoration: The 7th is a fast for the death of Moses ( Deut. xxxiv, 5, 6). There is somo difference, however, in the date assigned to his death by some ancient authorities. Josephus {Ant, iv, 8, 49) states that he died on tho first of this month ; which ADARCONIM U ADDO also agrees with Midrash Megillath Esther, cited by Beland (Antiq. Hebr. iv, 10) ; whereas the Talmudical tracts Kiddushim and Sotah give the seventh as the day. It is at least certain that the latter was the day on which the fast was observed. On the 9th there was a fast in memory of the contention or open rupture of the celebrated schools of Hillel and Shammai, which happened but a few j'ears before the birth of Christ. The cause of the dispute is obscure (Wolf's Biblioth. Hebr. ii, 826). The loth is the so-called " Fast of Esther." Iken observes {Antiq. Hebr. p. 150) that this was not an actual fast, but merel}' a commemora- tion of Esther's fast of three days (Esth. iv, 10), and a preparation for the ensuing festival. Nevertheless, as Esther appears, from the date of Hainan's edict, and from the course of the narrative, to have fasted in Nisan, Buxtorf adduces from the rabbins the follow- ing account of the name of this fast, and of the foun- dation of its observance in Adar {Synag. Jud. p. 554) ; that the Jews assembled together on the 13th, in the time of Esther, and that, after the example of Hoses, who fasted when the Israelites were about to engage in battle with the Amalekites, they devoted that day to fasting and prayer, in preparation for the perilous trial which awaited them on the morrow. In this sense, this fast would stand in the most direct relation to the feast of Purim. The 13th was also, " by a com- mon decree," appointed as a festival in memory of the death of Nicanor (2 Mace, xv, 30). The 14th and 15th were devoted to the feast of Purim (Esth. ix, 21 ). See Purim. In case the year was an intercalary one, when the month of Adar occurred twice, this feast was first moderately observed in the intercalary Adar, and then celebrated with full splendor in the ensuing Adar. See Ve-adAb. The former of these two celebrations was then called the lesser, and the latter the great Purim. llorne has erroneously stated {Introduction, iii, 177) that these designations apply to the two days of the festival in an ordinary year. For the Scripture les- sons of this month, see Otho, Lex. Eabb. p. 8. — Kit- to, s. v. See Calendar ; Month. 2. (Heb. Addar', ^THX, splendor, otherwise thresh- ing-floor; Sept. 'AcSapa, apparently mistaking the ap- pended n local for a part of the word ; Vulg. Addar) a contracted form (Josh, xv, 3) of the name elsewhere (Num. xxxiv, 4) written Hazar-addar (q. v.). See also Ataroth-adar. Adarconim. Sec Daric. Adargazerin. See Treasurer. Ad'asa (AcW«), a village of Judsea, where Ju- das the Maccabee slew the Assyrian general Nicanor (1 Mace, vii, 40, 45), and where he was himself after- ward slain by the generals of Antiochus (Joseph us, War, iii, G). It was situated, according to Josephus {Ant. xii, 10, 5), 30 stadia from Bethhoron, and, ac- cording to Jerome {Onomast. s. v.). not far from Goph- na, but was hardly the Hadashah (q. v.) of the tribe of Judah (Josh, xv, 37). See Laish. Adashim. See Lentil. Adauctus, an Italian and steward of certain of the royal domains, in a city of Phrygia, the name of which is unknown. He perished during the persecu- tion of Diocletian, about 303. His memory is cele- brated by the Latin church on the 7th of February ; by the Greeks, October 3d. — Eusebius, Eccl. Hist, viii, 11; Butler, Lives of Saints, Feb. 7. Ad'beel (Heb. AdbeeY ' , fcgSl'IK, prob. miracle of God, the first member being by Syriasm for "2^N, finger; or progeny of God, the first member being Arab, adb, offspring ; Sept. Na/3et >)\ [Josephus 'Afici- j;\oc, Ant. i, 12, 4], Vulg. Adbeel), the third named of the twelve sons of Ishmael, and head of an un- known Arabian tribe (Gen. xxv, 13; 1 Chron. i, 29). B.C. post 2061. See Arabia. Ad'dail (Heb. Addan, "pX; Sept. 'UCav), an- other form (Ezra ii, 59) of the name (Neh. vii, 61) Addon (q. v.). Ad'dar (Heb. Addar', THX, ample or splendid, otherwise [from the Chald. ~pX] threshing -floor ; Sept. 'Apid v. r. 'Acip, Vulg. Addar), a son of Bela and grandson of Benjamin (1 Chron. viii, 3) ; else- where (Gen. xlvi, 24) called Ard (q. v.). See also Ataroth-addar ; Hazar-addar. Adder, in the general sense of a venomous ser- pent [see Serpent], is the rendering in the Auth. Vers, of the following Heb. words in certain passages : 211233 {akshub' , perhaps so called from coiling and lying in wait), an asp, or other venomous reptile, only found in Psa. cxl, 3; "PS {pe'then, probably from twisting itself), an equally indefinite term for a viper or venomous serpent, Psa. lviii, 4 ; xci, 13 (elsewhere "asp," Deut. xxxii, 33; Job xx, 14, 1G; Isa. xi, 8); "^"SS {tsiphonV, so called from hissing), a basilisk, or other poisonous serpent, Prov. xxiii, 32 (elsewhere "cockatrice," Isa. xi, 8; lix, 5; Jer. viii, 17; like the kindred 3>BS, tse'pha, Isa. xiv, 29) ; 'p2'12d {shephiphon' , so called from ci'eejnng), apparently an adder, or small speckled venomous snake, occurs only in Gen. xlix, 17. Few, if any, of these terms are de- scriptive of a particular species of serpent, although special traits are given in connection with some of them that enable us to make an approximation toward their identification witli those described by modern naturalists. See Snake. The terms adder and viper are nearly interchangeable in modern science, the lat- ter being strictly the name of a genus of serpents hav- ing the head covered with scales. See Viper. The true adders are classed under the sub-genus Berus, and are of several species, properly distinguished by the granular scales of the head, sometimes with larger scales intermixed, and having nostrils of a moderate size. See Asp. Ad'di {'Acci, probably for Heb. Adi , "p", orna- ment, as in Exod. xxxiii, 4, etc.), the name of one or two men. 1. An Israelite, several of whose descendants, on returning from Babylon, married heathen women (1 Esdr. ix, 31) ; for which the parallel text (Ezra x, 30) has more correctly Paiiath-moab (q. v.). 2. The son of Cosam and father of Melchi (i. e. probably Maaseiah, 2 Chron. xxxiv, 8) in the mater- nal ancestry of Christ (Luke iii, 28). B.C. ante 623. Addison, Joseph, one of the most eminent of British writers, was the son of Dean Addison, and was born at Milston in 1G72. He was educated at the Charter House and at the colleges of Queen's and Magdalen at Oxford. Of his contributions to general literature we do not speak. In the course of his writ- ings in the Toiler, Spectator, and Guardian, appeared a series of papers, afterward collected, and often re- printed, under the title of "Addison's Evidences of the Christian L'lligiou." In his latter years he projected a paraphrastical version of the Psalms of David, of which he gave a beautiful specimen in his metrical translation of Psalm xxiii: "The Lord my pasture shall prepare," etc. But a long illness prevented the I completion of this design. Addison died at Holland House, Kensington, June 17th, 1719. During his lin- . gering decay he sent for a young nobleman of very ir- regular life and of loose opinions to attend him ; and when the latter, with great tenderness, requested to receive his last injunctions, Mr. Addison told him, "I have sent for you that you may see how a Christian can die." The best edition of his Whole Works is that of Bishop Hurd (Lond. 1711, G vols. 8vo). — Jones, Chr. Biog. p. 5. Ad'do ('Aiien';, comp. Addon), the "father" of the prophet Zeehariah (1 Esdr. vi, 1), called in the gen- uine text (Ezra v, 1) Iddo (q. v.). ADDON ADIDA Ad'don (Heb. Addon', "pIX, low or lord, or per- haps i. q. Iddo ; Sept. 'Hpwv), the second of three persons mentioned in Neh. vii, 61, who, on returning from the captivity to Palestine, were unable to " show their father's house or their seed, whether they were of Israel," B.C. 536. This probably means that they were unable to furnish such undeniable legal proof as was required in such cases. And this is in some de- gree explained by the subsequent (v. 63) mention of priests who were expelled the priesthood because their descent was not found to be genealogical^ registered. These instances show the importance which was at- tached to their genealogies by the Jews. See Gene- alogy. In Ezra ii, 59, he is called Addas, but in 1 Esdr. v, 36, his name is contained in Ciiara-atha- LAR. According to others, this is the name of a place in the land of the captivity, like Tel-melah and Tel-haresha preceding; but the names Cherub and Immer immediately adjoining appear to be those of men, and the Masoretic punctuation rather favors the distinction of these three names as residents of the two places just named. Ad'dus, a name twice occurring in the Apocrypha, but in both cases by interpolation. 1. (ASdovQ, perhaps for Addon.) One of the " chil- dren of Solomon's servants," whose sons are said to have returned from Babylon (1 Esdr. v, 34) ; but the genuine text (Ezra ii, 51) has no such name. 2. {'laSdov, as if for Jaddua.) A priest, after the captivity, who is said to have married a daughter of Berzelus, and hence assumed his name (1 Esdr. v, 38) ; evidently a corruption for Barzillai (q. v.) of the genuine text (Ezra ii, 61). Adelaide, a city and capital of South Australia, which had, in 1855, a population of 20,000 souls and 15 churches. It is the see of a bishop of the Church of England, as well as of a Roman Catholic bishop. The former was established in 1847, and had, in 1859, 30 clergymen, among whom were 1 dean, 1 archdeacon, and 4 honorary canons. Adelaide had also an Episco- palian literary institution, called St. Peter's Collegiate School. See" Clergy List for 1800 (London, 1860, 8vo)- Adelbert [Aldebert or Adalbert], a priest and irregular bishop of the eighth century, who obtain- ed great celebrity from his piety and zeal, and from his strifes in ecclesiastical matters with Boniface, the (so- called) apostle of Germany. Our knowledge of him is derived mostly from the account of his adversary, Boniface, who paints him in dark colors ; but the truth seems to be that he had much more of the spirit of the Gospel than was usual in his times. He opposed, for instance, pilgrimages to Rome, and advised sinners to " seek relief from the omnipresent God, or from Christ alone." Boniface charged him with various supersti- tious practices, and he was condemned by the Synod of Soissons, 744. — Neander, Ch. Hist, iii, 56 ; Mosheim, Ch. Hist. cent, viii, pt. ii, ch. v, § 2. Adelm or Adhelm. See Aldiielm. Adeodatus, Pope, a Roman by birth, the son of Jovinian, succeeded Vitalianus in the papal chair, April 11, 672 ; governed four years, two months, and six days, and died June 17, 676. Nothing remains to us of Pope Adeodatus but his letters (Labbe, Concilia, vi, 523). See also Eder. A'der (Heb. E'der, "in?, in pause A 'der, "ITS, a flock, i. q. Eder; Sept. 'QSip v. r. "Ec>ep), a chief Ben- jamite, " son" of Beriah, resident at Jerusalem (1 Chron. viii, 15), B.C. ante 588. Adessenarii, or Impanators, a sect in the 16th century, who believed in the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist, but not in the full Roman dogma on that subject. The name is derived from the Latin word Adesse, "to be present." They held the so-called doc- trine of impanation, scil. "non adesse in Eucharistia Humanum seu Carneum C'hristi Corpus sumptum ex B. Virgine Matre sed Corpus panaceum assumptum a Verbo." See Impanation. Adiabene ('A&a/Jjji/q, sc. \iopa, probably from the river Zab or Diab), the principal of the six prov- inces into which Assyria was divided. Pliny {Hist. Nat. v, 12) and Ammianus (xxiii, 6, § 20) comprehend the whole of Assyria under this name, which, however, properly denoted only the province which was watered by the rivers Diab and Adiab, or the Great and Little Zab (Dhab), which flow into the Tigris below Nineveh (Mosul), from the north-east. The queen of this re- gion, Helena, and her son Izates, who became converts to Judaism, are very often named by Josephus {Ant. xx, 2, 4; War, ii, 16, 19; v, 4, 6, 11). Adiaphora {acic'upopa), things indifferent. In eth- ics the term has been applied to actions neither ex- pressly commanded nor prohibited by the moral law, which may or may not be done. The question wheth- er such actions are possible, is affirmed by the Stoics, and, among the Scholastics, by Dun Scotus, but denied by Thomas Aquinas. At the time of the Reformation it gave rise to the Adiaphoristic Controversy (q. v.). The Pietists of the 17th and 18th centuries and the philosophers Wolf and Fichte rejected it. Modern writers on ethics generally agree with Schleiermacher, who {Phil. Sehriften, ii, 418) shows that this distinction can and ought to exist in state law, but cannot in the court of conscience. See, generally, Schmid, Adia- phora, wissenschaftlich und historisch untersucht (Leinz. 1809). Adiaphoristic Controversies I. A dispute which arose in 1548 among the Lutheran reformers. The Augsburg Interim (q. v.) gave great offence to the Lutherans, as well as to the pope. Melancthon, Cam- erarius, Bugenhagen, and other divines were summon- ed by the Elector Maurice of Saxony to consider how far the Interim might be adopted in Germany. They decided that in "things indifferent" {in rebus adia- phoris) the emperor might be obeyed ; and they pre- pared the " Leipsic Interim," as a formula concordix and rule, especially, for the churches of Saxony. While it professed to yield no point of Protestant faith, it admitted the use of some of the Roman ceremonies, e. g. confirmation, use of candles, gowns, holidays, etc., matters which Melancthon considered adiaphora. The strict Lutherans charged their opponents (and justly) with Romanizing, not merely in things indifferent, but also in matters of faith ; e. g. with granting that the pope is head of the Church, even though not jure di- vino; allowing that there are seven sacraments; ad- mitting the use of extreme unction, and of other cere- monies. The controversy was continued with great bitterness until the adoption of the Augsburg Formida Concordia', 1555 ; but the topics of the Interim afforded matter for internecine strife among the Protestant theologians long after. See, generally, Schmid, Con- troversia de Adiaphoris (Jen. 1807).— Mosheim, Ch. Hist. cent, xvi, § 3, pt. ii, ch. i : Planck, Geschichte der Protestant. Theol. i, p. 151-248 ; iii, p. 801-804, addit. on second Adiaphor. Controversy ; Hase, Ch. Hist. § 348, 351. Compare Flaci us; Interim; Melancthon; Synergistic Controversy. II. A second controversy, called "Adiaphoristic," arose among the Pietists and their opponents. The former urged an abandonment of such secular amuse- ments as dancing, playing (especially at cards), joking, visiting theatres, etc. See Pietism. Ad'ida {ASrfa, Josephus also rd 'ASiSa or *Afi- StSa, probably of Heb. origin; Vulg. Acldus), a forti- fied town in the tribe of Judah (1 Mace, xii, 38), which Simon Maccabseus set up " in Sephela" {h> ry 2f ^//An), a.nd made it strong with bolts and bars. Eusebius {Onomast. s. v.) says that Sephela was the name given in his time to the open country about Eleutheropolis (see Reland, Paloest. p. 187). This Adida is probablj' the "Adida over against the plain," where Simon ADIEL \ Maccabauis encamped to dispute the entrance into Judaea of Tryphon, who had treacherously seized on Jonathan at Ptolemais (1 Mace, xiii, 13). Josephus {Ant. xiii, G, 4) adds that this Adida was upon a hill, before which lay the plains of Jiuhea. It is scarcely (see Reland, Palaest. p. 540) the same as Adithaim (Josh. xv, 36), but may be the ancient Adatha ('ASaSra of Eu- sebius, Onomast. s. v. 'AoiaSaiv) and the modern Eddis (Schwarz, Palest, p. 102), near Gaza. See Adithaim. It was apparently here that Aretas defeated Alexander (Josephus, Ant. xiii, 15, 2). Lightfoot, however, con- trives to multiply the place mentioned in the Maccabees and Josephus into four or five different towns (see Chorog. Decad. § 3). Another place of the name of Ad- ida, mentioned by Josephus (War, iv, 9, 1) as having been garrisoned by Vespasian, is thought by Cellarius (Geogr. Ant. p. 338) to have been near Jericho; but Reland (Palcest. p. 546) argues that it was precisely in the opposite direction from Jerusalem, perhaps iden- tical with the Hadid (q. v.) of Ezra ii, 32 Kitto. A'diel (Hcb. Adiel' , hVP'lS, ornament of God), the name of three men. 1. (Sept. 'Qdit)\ v. r. 'OSi>)\.) The father of Az- maveth, which latter was treasurer under David and Solomon (1 Chron. xxviii,~25). B.C. ante 1014. 2. (Sept. 'E&r/X v. r. 'ItA^X.) One of the family- heads of the tribe of Simeon, who seem to have dis- possessed the aborigines of Gedor (1 Chron. iv, 36), B.C. cir. 711. 3. (Sept. 'Acn'jX.) A priest, son of Jahzcrah and fa- ther of Maasiai, which last was one of those most ac- tive in reconstructing the Temple after the captivity (1 Chron. ix, 12). B.C. ante 536. A'din (Heb. Adin', '"''}>, effeminate, as in Isa. xlvii, 8 ; Sept. 'Aciv, 'ASSiv, 'HSlv, 'HSeiv), the head of one of the Israelitish families, of which a large num- ber (454, according to Ezra ii, 15, but 655, according to Neh. vii, 20— the discrepancy being occasioned by an error in the hundreds, and the including or exclud- ing of himself) returned from Babylon with Zerubba- bel (B.C. 536) and fifty more (with Elied the son of Jonathan) under Ezra (B.C. 459, Ezra viii, 6). He appears to have been the same with one of those who subscribed the religious covenant with Nehemiah (Neh. x, 16, B.C. cir. 410). His name occurs in the paral- lel passages of the Apocrypha (Adivov, 1 Esdr. v, 14 ; 'Adiv, 1 Esdr. viii, 32). Ad'ina (Heb. Adina ', M"1"??., delicate ; Sept. 'ASiva), son of Shiza, a Reubenite, captain of thirty of his tribesmen, and second of the sixteen additional to the thirtv-seven principal warriors of David (1 Chron. xi, 42), B.C. 1045. Ad'ino (Heb. Adino' ', i^1?", perhaps for ',i3'1'7S>, i. q. Adina; Sept. 'Aciviov, Vulg. tenerrimus), a name that occurs in the common version of 2 Sam. xxiii, 8, as one of the might}' men of King David. Instead of the confused translation, " The Tachmonite that sat in the seat, chief among the captains ; the same [was] Adino the Eznite, [he lifted up his spear] against eight hundred, whom he slew at one time," the margin translates: " Joshebassebeth the Tachmonite, head of the three [captains]," etc., which makes the sense no better, unless (by placing the pause after XI!"!) we transpose the words " the same was," like the Sept., which translates, "Jebosthe the son of Thecemani [v. r. the Canaanite], he [was] ruler of the third. Adino the Asonite, he brandished his sword," etc. But this still distinguishes Jashobeam and Adino as two men, whereas the list seems to require but one. The marginal reading on this text conforms it to that of the parallel passage (1 Chron. xi, 11), which has, "Jashobeam, a Hachmonite, the chief of the captains ; he lifted up his spear," etc. See Jashobeam. Ge- senius renders the words translated "the same [was] Adino the Eznite" by " the brandishing of his spear J ADLAI [fell]." It is clear that these words are not proper names, although their grammatical construction is not very easy. The meaning, according to the above view, omitting the words supplied in the common ver- sion, would be, "Joshebassebeth the Tachmonite, chief of the three, he brandished it, his spear, against," etc. This seems the best mode of disposing of this difficult passage, which others resolve by supposing some corruption in the text. See Ezxite. Ad'inus ('lactiwc), one of the Levitce who inter- preted the law as read by Ezra (1 Esdr. ix, 48) ; evi- dently a corruption for Jajiin (q. v.) of the genuine text (Neh. viii, 7). Adite. See Ad. Aditha'im (Heb. Aditha'yim, D'1^'1'!", double prey or double ornament; Sept. 'ASiaSaift, but some copies omit; Vulg. Adithaim), a town in the plain of Judah, mentioned between Sharaim and Gederah (Josh, xv, 36). Eusebius (Onomast. s. v.) mentions two places of the name of Adatha ('Ac?nSrr, Jerome, Aditha and Adia), one near Gaza, and the other near Diospolis (Lydda) ; the former being commonlv supposed to be the same with Adithaim, and the latter with Hadid; and probably corresponding respectively to the two places called Adida (q. v.) by Josephus. Schwarz (Palest, p. 102) accordingly thinks that Adithaim is represented by the modern village Eddis, 5 Eng. miles east of Gaza (comp. Robinson's Researches, ii, 370 sq.); but this is too far from the associated localities of the same group [see Tribe], which require a position not far from Moneisin, a village with traces of antiquity, about 5 miles south of Ekron (Van de Velde, Memoir, p. 114). Adjuration (the verb is expressed by fl^N, alah' ', in Hiph., to cause to swear, as rendered in 1 Kings viii, 31 ; 2 Chron. vi, 22 ; also S31U, shaba' , in Hiph., to make sicear, or charge with an oath, as often ren- dered ; Gr. t£op/c<'i'(t>, to bind by oath), a solemn act or appeal, whereby one man, usually a person vested with natural or official authority, imposes upon anoth- er the obligation of speaking or acting as if under the solemnity of an oath (1 Sam. xiv, 24; Josh, vi, 26; 1 Kings xxii, 16 ; 2 Chron. xviii, 15). See Swear. (1.) A striking example of this occurs in the N. T., where the high-priest calls upon Christ, in the presence of the Sanhedrim, to avow his character as the Messiah (Matt, xxvi, 63 ; Mark v, 7 ; see Acts xix, 13 ; comp. 1 Thess. v, 27). An oath, although thus imposed upon one without his consent, was not only solemn, but binding in the highest degree ; and when con- nected with a question, an answer appears to have been compulsory, and, if false, chargeable with per- jury. Thus our Saviour, who had previously dis- dained or declined to reply to the charges brought against him, now could not avoid an answer. 1 ho impropriety, however, of thus extorting truth must be evident ; and in the case of Christ it was an outrage against the commonest principle of judicial fairness, by which a prisoner is never to be put in a position to inculpate himself. But the hierarchy, having failed to elicit any reliable evidence that would condemn Jesus, at last resorted to this base method of compel- ling him to declare his Messiahship, -with a view to convict him upon his own testimony. See Jr.srs. (2.) The term also occurs (Acts xix, 13) with refer- ence to the expulsion of daemons. See Exorcist. (3.) In the Roman Church, an act by means of which the name of God, or some other holy thing, is made use of, in order to induce any one to do what is required of him. An adjuration is said to be earpresa when the majesty of God, or any one of his attributes, is interposed for the purpose, as adjurn ti per l)i urn vivum; implicit, when not the majesty of Cod, but any one of his more marked productions is made use of, as adjuro te per Erangelium Christi. See Oath. Ad'la'i (Heb. Au'ay', ^"}2,just; Sept. 'ASat v. r. ADMAH 74 ADONI-BEZEK 'AB\i and 'ASXai, Vulg. AM), the father of Shaphat, which latter was herdsman under Uavid (1 Chron. xxvii, 29). B.C. ante 1014. Ad'mah (Heb. Admak', tV2*}i<, property earth; Sept. 'ASapa, but 'Addfia in Hos.), one of the five cities in the vale of Siddim (Gen. x, 19), which had a king of its own (Gen. xiv, 2, 8). It was destroyed along with Sodom and Gomorrah (Gen. xix, 24 ; Deut. xxix, 23 ; Hos. xi, 8). Near the south-west end of the Dead Sea, M. De Saulcy passed through a place mark- ed with the effects of volcanic agency, called et Thce- mah, where his guides assured him were ruins of a city anciently overthrown by the Almighty {Narra- tive, i, 425) ; but its identification with Admah needs corroboration. Reland (Palccst. p. 545) is inclined to infer, from the constant order of the names, that it was situated between Gomorrah and Zeboim ; but even these sites are so uncertain that we can only con- jecture the locality of Admah somewhere near the middle of the southern end of the Dead Sea. See Sodoji. Ad'matha (Heb. Admatha', xr^X, prob. from Persic thma, "the Highest," and ta-data, "given;" i. q. Theodore; Sept. 'ASfiaSd, but most copies omit; Vulg. Admatha), the third named of the seven princes or courtiers of Xerxes (Esth. i, 14), B.C. 483. Admedera, a town, according to the Peutinger Table, on the route from Damascus to Palmyra ; lo- cated by Ritter (Erdk. xvii, 1457) at Kuteifeh, but, according to Van de Velde {Memoir, p. 282), to be found at the present Jubb-Adin, between Yabrud (Je- bruda) and Saidnaya. Admission, (1) a term in use among English and Scotch Presbyterians, to denote the service and act b}- which a minister is publicly introduced into a new charge. (2.) In the Church of England, when the bishop accepts a candidate presented for a benefice as sufficient, he is said to admit him. The canon and common law allow the bishop twenty-eight da)-s after presentment, during which to examine him and in- quire into his life and doctrine. A bishop may refuse to admit the candidate presented on account of per- jury, schism, heresy, or any other crime on account of which he might be deprived. Bastardy, without a dispensation, is a just cause of refusal, but not so the fact of the person presented being the son of the last incumbent — the canon ne filins succedat patri not having been received in England ; still, if the bishop refuse on this account, and the patron thereupon pre- sent another, the former nominee has no remed)'. When the bishop refuses to admit he is bound, within a reasonable period, to send notice to the lay patron in person. Admoni. See Ruddy. Admonition, an act of discipline much used in the ancient Church: the first step toward the recov- er)- or expulsion of delinquents. In case of private offences it was performed, according to the evangeli- cal rule, privately ; in case of public offence, openly before the Church. If either of these sufficed for the recovery of the fallen person, all further proceedings in a way of censure ceased ; if they did not, recourse was then had to excommunication (Tit. iii, 10 ; 1 Thess. v, 14; Eph. iii, 4; Matt, iii, 18). Bingham, Orig. Eccl. bk. xvi, ch. ii, § C. It is still exercised in the Methodist Episcopal Church {Discipline of M. E. Church, pt. iii, ch. i, § 5). Admonitionists, a name given by the High Church party to Fidd, Cartwright, and other Puritans in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, who sent in two "Admonitions to the Parliament," 1571, in which were set forth the abuses of the hierarchy and the grievances under which non-subscribing Protestants labored (Neal, Hist, of Puritans, i, 188). Adna (Heb. Adna' ', Ml;', pleasure ; Sept. 'EcW, but in Neh. Mavvc'uf), the name apparently of two men. 1. A chief-priest, son of Harim, and contemporary with Joiakim (Neh. xii, 15), B.C. cir. 500. 2. An Israelite of the sons (i. e. inhabitants) of Pa- hath-moab, who divorced the Gentile wife married by him after the captivity (Ezra x, 30), B.C. 459. Ad'nah (Heb. Adnah' ', hi1??, i. q. Adna), the name of two men. 1. A chiliarch of the tribe of Manasseh, who joined David at Ziklag (1 Chron. xii, 20, where the text has erroneously HD*!?, Adnach' ; Sept. 'Evvc'i, Vulg. Ed- nas), B.C. 1054.' 2. (Sept. litivac:, Vulg. Ednas.) A Judahite, and principal general under Jehoshaphat, with a force of 300,000 (?) men (2 Chron. xvii, 14), B.C. cir. 908. Ado, St., archbishop of Vienne, France, born about 800, made archbishop in 8G0, and noted for his zeal in reforming the morals of the people and in enforcing Church discipline. He died 875. His memory is celebrated by the Roman Church on Dec. 16. His principal works are a Martyroloyium (Paris, 1(348, fol. ; also, with notes, ed. Georgius, Roma?, 1745, 4to) and a Breviarium Chronicorum de 6 Mundi ^Etatibus (Basil, 1568 ; also in Bibl. Max. Patr. 16, 768). Ad'onai (Heb. Adonaif, "13"tX, prob. my master, in the plur. form for the sake of intensity ; see Gese- nius, Thes. Heb. p. 329; Sept. Kvpiog, Vulg. Domi- nus, Auth. Vers. "Lord," not in small capitals; but " God," when that term has just preceded as a translation of Jehovah), a term employed in the Heb. Scriptures by way of eminence to God, especiaiky (in the Pentateuch always) where he is submissively or reverent!)' addressed in his character of sovereign ; frequently with other titles added. See Jehovah. The simple form "(TIN, Adon (either with or without suffixes), is spoken of an mener or possessor in gen- eral, e. g. of property (1 Kings xvi, 21), of slaves (Gen. xxiv, 14, 27 ; xxxix, 2, 7) ; hence, of kings, as rulers over their subjects (Isa. xxvi, 13), and of hus- bands, as lords of their wives (Gen. xviii, 12) ; also of God, as proprietor of the world (Josh, iii, 13 ; Exod. xxiii, 17 ; Psa. cxiv, 7). It is also used of a ruler or governor (Gen. xlv, 8); and hence as a title of re- spect in addressing, e. g. a father (Gen. xxxi, 35), a brother (Num. xii, 11), a royal consort (1 Kings i, 17, 18), and especially kings or nobles (2 Sam. xiv, 9; 1 Kings iii, 17). The plural is employed in a similar manner. The distinctive form, Adonai, never has the article ; it is twice applied by God to himself (Job xxviii, 28, where, however, many copies have "Jehovah;" Isa. viii, 7, where, however, the expres- sion may be only the prophet's); a circumstance that may have arisen from the superstition of the Jews, who always point the sacred name Jehovah with its vowels, and even substitute it for that name in read- ing, so that in some cases it appears to have supplant- ed it in the text (Dan. ix, 3, 7, 8, 9, 15, 16, 19). It seems to have been written peculiarly COTX) to dis- tinguish it from the regular form ("'2LIX), which never- theless occurs in its ordinary sense, once with a plur. sense (Gen. xix, 2), but elsewhere as a sing. (Gen. xviii, 3; xix, 8). See Lord. Adon'i-be'zek (Heb. Adoni'-Be'zek, pn—nx, lord of Bezelc ; Sept. ' A§Mvi$iZ,iK), a chieftain of Be- zek (q. v.), who had subdued seventy of the petty kingdoms around him, and, after barbarously cutting off their thumbs and great toes, had compelled them to gather their food under his table (Judg. i, 5-7). Elated with this success, he ventured, at the head of the confederate Canaanites and Perizzites, to attack the army of the tribes of Judah and Simeon, after the death of Joshua; but was himself defeated, captured, and served in the same manner as he had treated his ADONICAM 1 own captives — a fate which his conscience compelled him to acknowledge as a righteous retribution for his inhumanity. He died of these wounds at Jerusalem, whither he was taken, B.C. cir. 1590. (See Kitto's Daily Bible Illust. in loc. ; and comp. /Elian, Var. Hist, ii, 9.) Adoni'cam (1 Esdr. viii, 39). See Adonikam. Adoni'jah (Heb. Adoniyah' ', fT'3"1N, my lord is Jehovah, otherwise lord [i. e. worshipper, comp. An-] of Jehovah, also in the prolonged form Adoniya'hu, ilpronx, 1 Kings i, 8, 17, 24, 25, 41-51; ii, 13-24; 2 Chron. xvii, 8; Sept. 'Adwviac, but in 2 Sam. iii, 4; 1 Chron. iii, 2, 'Aciopia ; in Neh. x, 16, 'ASavict v. r. 'Aavaa, 'Aavia), the name of three men. See also ToB-ADONIJAH. 1. The fourth son of David, and his second by Ilag- gith ; born while his father reigned over Judah only (2 Sam. iii, 4). B.C. cir. 1050. According to Orient- al usages, Adonijah might have considered his claim superior to that of his eldest brother Amnon, who was horn while his father was in a private station ; but not to that of Absalom, who was not only his elder broth- er, and born while his father was a king, hut was of royal descent on the side of his mother. When, how- ever, Amnon and Absalom were both dead, he became, by order of birth, the heir-apparent to the throne. But this order had been set aside in favor of Solomon, who was born while his father was king of all Israel. Unawed by the example of Absalom (q. v.), Adonijah took the same means of showing that he was not dis- posed to relinquish the claim of primogeniture which now devolved upon him (comp. Joscphus, Ant. vii, 14, 4). But it does not appear to have been his wish to trouble his father as Absalom had done ; for he waited till David appeared at the point of death, when he call- ed around him a number of influential men, whom he had previously gained over, and caused himself to be proclaimed king. In all likelihood, if Absalom had waited till a similar opportunity, Joab and Abiathar would have given him their support; but his prema- ture and unnatural attempt to dethrone his father dis- gusted these friends of David. This danger was avoided by Adonijah ; but his plot was, notwithstand- ing, defeated by the prompt measures taken by David, who, at the instance of Nathan and Bathsheba, direct- ed Solomon to be at once proclaimed king, with solemn coronation by Zadok, and admitted to the real exercise of the sovereign power. Adonijah then saw that all was lost, and fled to the altar [see Asylum], which he refused to leave without a promise of pardon from King Solomon. This he received, but was warned that any further attempt of the same kind would be fatal to' him (1 Kings i, 5-53), B.C. cir. 1015. Ac- cordingly, when, some time after the death of David, Adonijah covertly endeavored to reproduce li is claim through a marriage with Abishag (q. v.), the virgin Avidow of his father, his design was at once penetrated by the king, by whose order he was instantly put to death (1 Kings ii, 13-25), B.C. cir. 1012. See Solo- mon. Far from looking upon this as " the most fla- grant act of despotism since Doeg massacred the priests at Saul's command" (Newman, Hebrew Monarchy, ch. iv), we must consider that the clemency of Solomon, in sparing Adonijah till he thus again revealed a trea- sonable purpose, stands in remarkable contrast with the almost universal practice of Eastern sovereigns. Any one of these, situated like Solomon, would prob- ably have secured his throne by putting all his broth- ers to death, whereas we have no reason to think that any of David's sons suffered except the open pretender Adonijah, though all seem to have opposed Solomon's claims; and if his execution lie thought an act of se- verity, we must remember that we cannot expect to find the principles of the Gospel acted upon a thousand years before Christ came, and that it is hard for us, in this nineteenth century, altogether to realize the posi- tion of an Oriental king in that remote age. (See > ADONIS Niemeyer, Ghdrakterist. iv, 349 sq. ; Kitto, Daily Bible Illust. in loc.) — Kitto, s. v. ; Smith, s. v. 2. One of the Levites sent by Jehoshaphat to assist in teaching the law to the inhabitants of Judah (2 Chron. xvii, 8), B.C. 909. 3. A chief Israelite after the captivity (Neh. x, 16) ; probably the same elsewhere (Ezra ii, 13; viii, 13; Neh. vii, 18) called Adonikam (q. v.). Adoni'kam [many A don' ikani] (Heb. Adonikam', Ui^-JX, probably, whom the Lord sets up ; Sept. Aew- viKafx'), one, whose retainers, to the number of 666, re- turned (B.C. 506) to Jerusalem with Zerubbahel (Ezra ii, 13), besides himself (Neh. vii, 18), and somewhat later (B.C. 459) his three immediate descendants, with 60 male followers (Ezra viii, 13). In the Apocryphal text (1 Esdr. viii, 39) his name is once Anglicized A n- donicam ('ASwvuccifi, comp. 'Aomukuv, 1 Esdr. v, 14). He appears (from the identity of the associated names) to have been the Adonijah who joined in the religious covenant of Nehemiah (Neh. x, 16), B.C. 410. Adcmi'ram (Heb. Adoniram, fiT'3"IX, lord of height, i. e. high lord; Sept. 'ASojvipafi), a person men- tioned as receiver-general of the imposts [see Tax] in the reigns of David (1 Kings iv, 6, where he is said to have been the son of Abda; 2 Sam. xx, 24, where he is called Adoram, by contraction), Solomon (1 Kings iv, 14), and Reboboam (1 Kings xii, 18, where he is called Adoram; 2 Chron. x, 18, where he is called Hadoram, q. v.), for an extended term (B.C. 1014- 973), during which he had rendered himself, as well as the tribute itself, so odious to the people (comp. 1 Kings xii, 4), in sustaining the immense public works of Solomon (q. v.), that, when Rehoboam rashly sent him to enforce the collection of the taxes, the exas- perated populace rose upon him and stoned him to death, as a signal for the revolt under Jeroboam (1 Kings, xii, 18). Adonis ("AcWic, pro'i. from a Phoenician form of the Heb. *"HM, lord), was, according to Apollodorus (iii, 14, 3), the son of Cinyrus and Medaue, or, accord- ing to other accounts (Hesiod and Panyasis in Apol- lod. ut sup. 14), of Phoenix and Alphesibcea, or of an Assyrian king, Theias, by his own daughter, Smyrna, who was changed into a myrrh-tree (pfivpva) in en- deavoring to escape her father's rage on discovering the incest. The beauty of the youth made him a fa- vorite with Venus, with whom he was permitted to spend a portion of each year after his death, which occurred from a wound by a wild boar in the chase. (See Smith's Diet, of Class. Biog. and Mythol. s. v.) This event was celebrated by a yearly festival, origi- nally by the Syrians, who called a river near which the fatal accident occurred (Keland, Palasst. p. 269) by his name (Robinson's Researches, new ed. iii, 606), and thence by all the nations around the Mediterranean. See Braun, Selecta Sacra, p. 376 sq, ; Fickensecher, Erlliir. d. Mythus Adonis (Gotha, 1800); Groddeck, Ueb. d. Fest des Adonis, in his Antiquar. Vermche (Lemberg, 1800), p. 83 sq. ; Moinichen, De Adonidfi Phmnicum (Hafn. 1702); Maurer, De Adonide ejvsque cultu (Erlang. 1782). The Vulg. gives Adonis as a rendering for Tammuz or Thammuz (IISR ; Sept. Uaftfiov'S), a Syrian deity, for whom the Hebrew idolatresses were accustomed to hold an annual lamentation (Ezek. viii, 14). This idol was doubtless the same with the Phoenician Adon or Adonis, and the feast itself such as they celebrated. Silvestre de Sacy thinks that the name Taramuz was of foreign origin, and probably Egyptian, as well as the god by whom it was borne. In fact, it would prob- ably not be difficult to identify him with Osiris, from whose worship his differed only in accessories. The feast held in honor of Tammuz was solstitial, and commenced with the new moon of July, in the month also called Tammuz. It consisted of two parts, the one ADONISTS 76 ADOPTION consecrated to lamentation, and the other to joy ; in the days of grief they mourned the disappearance of the god, and in the clays of gladness celebrated his discovery and return. Adonis or Tammuz appears to have been a sort of incarnation of the sun, regard- ed principally as in a state of passion and sufferance, in connection with the apparent vicissitudes in its ce- lestial position, and with respect to the terrestrial met- amorphoses produced, under its influence, upon vege- tation in advancing to maturity. (See Lucian, De Dea Syra, § vii, 19 ; Selden, De Diis Syr-is, ii, 31 ; Creuzer, Symbolik, iv, 3.) See Tammuz. Adonists, critics who maintain that the Hebrew points ordinarily annexed to the consonants of the word Jehovah are not the natural points belonging to that word,"but to the words A donai (q. v.) and Elohim ; and that they are applied to the consonants of the inef- fable name Jehovah, to warn the readers that, instead of the word Jehovah, which the Jews were forbid to pronounce, they are always to read A donai. They are opposed to Jehovists, who maintain the opposite view. See Jehovah. Adon'i-ze'dek (Heb. Adoni'-Tse'dek, pn^-^snx, lord of justice, i. e. just lord; Sept. 'AcwvHjiSac v. r. 'AouvifitZix, Vulg. Adonisedec), the Canaanitish king of Jerusalem when the Israelites invaded Palestine (Josh, x, 1, 3), B.C. 1618. After Jericho and Ai were taken, and the Gibeonites had succeeded in forming a treaty with the Israelites, Adonizedek was the first to rouse himself from the stupor which had fallen on the Canaanites (Josh, i, 9-11), and he induced the other Amoritish kings of Hebron — Jarmuth, Lachish, and Eglon — to join him in a confederacy against the ene- my. They did not, however, march directly against the invaders, but went and besieged the Gibeonites, to punish them for the discouraging example which their secession from the common cause had afforded. Josh- ua no sooner heard of this than he marched all night from Gilgal to the relief of his allies ; and falling un- expectedly upon the besiegers, soon put them to utter rout. The pursuit was long, and was signalized by Joshua's famous command to the sun and moon, as well as by a tremendous hail-storm, which greatly distressed the fugitive Amorites. See Joshua. The five kings took refuge in a cave, but were observed, and by Joshua's order the mouth of it was closed with large stones, and a f^uard set over it, until the pursuit was over. When the pursuers returned, the cave was opened, and the five kings brought out. The Hebrew chiefs then set their feet upon the necks of the pros- trate monarchs — an ancient mark of triumph, of which the monuments of Persia and Egypt still afford illus- trations. See Triumph. They were then slain, and their bodies hung on trees until the evening, when (comp. Deut. xxi, 23) they were taken down and cast into the cave, the mouth of which was filled up with large stones, which remained long after (Josh, x, 1-27). The severe treatment of these kings by Joshua has been censured and defended with equal disregard of the real circumstances, which are, that the war was avowedly one of extermination, no quarter being giv- en or expected on either side ; and that the war-usages of the Jews were neither worse nor better than those of the people with whom they fought, who would most cer- tainly have treated Joshua and the other Hebrew chiefs in the same manner had they fallen into their hands. (Simeon's Works, ii, 592.) — Kitto. See Canaanites. Adoptianists or Adopt! vi, a sect which orig- inated with Elipandus, archbishop of Toledo, and his in- structor, Felix, bishop of Urgel, in Spain. They taught that Jesus Christ, as to his human nature, was not the natural, but merely the adopted Sun of God, whence they were called Adoptivi or Adoptiani. This error was brought before the Council of Narbonne in 791; but it does not appear that Felix, who was present, was then condemned, as was the case at Ratisbon in j the following year, at Frankfort in 794, and at Urgel ' in 799. The Adoptian doctrine had existed before in the East, but this development of it in Spain seems to have been aboriginal there, though it is not impossible that Felix may have seen some of the writings of Theodore of Mopsuestia (q. v.). By the use of the term A doptio this school wished to mark the distinction of proper and improper in refer- S ence to the Son. They made use of the illustration ' that, as a son cannot have two fathers, but may have one by birth and the other by adoption, so in Christ a distinction must be made between his proper sonship ' and his sonship by adoption. Still, they regarded as the important point the different relation in which Christ is called the Son of God according to his divine or his human nature. The former relation marked something founded in the nature of God, the second ! something that was founded not in his nature, but in a free act of the Divine will, by which God assumed human nature into connection with himself. Accord- | ingly Felix distinguished between how far Christ was the Son of God and God according to nature (natura, genere), and how far he was so by virtue of grace, by an act of the Divine will {gratia, roluntate), by the Divine choice and good pleasure {electione, placito) ; and the name Son of God was given to him only in consequence of his connection with God {nuncupative'); and hence the expressions for this distinction, secun- dum naturam and secundum adoptionem. The sect is full}- treated by Walch, Historia Adoptianorum (Get- ting. 1755, 8vo). See also Neander, History of Dog- : mas, 337, 432, 442 (transl. by Ryland, Lon'd. 1858, 2 , vols. 12mo). Neander, Ch. Hist, iii, 156, 157-; Hase, [ Ch. Hist. § 1G9 ; Mosh. Ch. Hist. bk. iii, c. viii, pt. ii, ch. v, § 3. See Elipandus ; Felix. Adoption {inoQiaia, Rom. viii, 15, 23; ix, 4; j Gal. iv, 5 ; Eph. i, 5), the placing as a son of one who ! is not so by birth or naturally. I. Literal. — The practice of adoption had its origin in the natural desire for male offspring, the operation of which is less marked in those countries where the equalizing influences of high civilization lessen the pe- culiar privileges of the paternal character, and where the security and the well-observed laws by which estates descend and property is transmitted withdraw one of the principal inducements to the practice, but was peculiarl}- prevalent in the patriarchal period. The law of Moses, hy settling the relations of families and the rules of descent, and by formally establishing the Levirate law, appears to have put some check upon this custom. The allusions in the New Testa- ment are mostly to practices of adoption which then existed, but not confined to the Romans. In the East the practice has always been common, especially among the Semitic races, although the additional and peculiar stimulus which the Hebrews derived from the hope of giving birth to the Messiah was inapplicable to cases of adoption. But, as the arrangements of so- ciety became more complicated, some restrictions were imposed upon the power of adoption, and certain pub- lic forms were made necessary to legalize the act: precisely what these were, in different ages, among the Hebrews, we are mostly left to gather from the anal- ogous practices of other Eastern nations. For the practice had ceased to be common among the Jews by the time the sources of information became more open ; and the culpable facility of divorce in later times ren- dered unnecessary those adoptions which might have arisen, and in earlier times did arise, from the sterility of a wife. Adoption was confined to sons ; the case of Esther affords the onty example of the adoption of a female ; for the Jews certainly were not behind any Oriental nation in the feeling expressed in the Chinese proverb, " He is happiest in daughters who has only sons" {Mini, sur les Chinois, x, 149). 1. The first instances of adoption which occur in Scripture are less the acts of men than of women, who, ADOPTION vr ADOPTION being themselves barren, give their female slaves to their husbands, with the view of adopting the children they may bear. Thus Sarah gave her handmaid Ha- gar to Abraham ; and the son who was born, Ishmael, appears to have been considered as her son as well as Abraham's until Isaac was born. In like manner Ra- chel, having no children, gave her handmaid Bilhah to her husband, who had by her Dan and Naphtali (Gen. xxx, 5-9) ; on which his other wife, Leah, although she had sons of her own, yet fearing that she had left off bearing, claimed the right of giving her handmaid Zilpah to Jacob, that she might thus increase their number ; and by this means she had Gad and Asher (Gen. xxx, 9-13). In this way the child was the son of the husband, and, the mother being the property of the wife, the progen}- must be her property also ; and the act of more particular appropriation seems to have been that, at the time of birth, the handmaid brought forth her child " upon the knees of the adoptive moth- er" (Gen. xxx, 3). In this case the vicarious bearing of the handmaid for the mistress was as complete as possible ; and the sons were regarded as fully equal in right of heritage with those bj- the legitimate wife. This privilege could not, however, be conferred by the adoption of the wife, but by the natural relation of such sons to the husband. Sarah's case proves that a mistress retained her power, as such, over a female slave whom she had thus vicariously employed, and over the progeny of that slave, even though by her own husband (Gen. xxi, 10). Still earlier Abraham appears to have adopted a house-born slave, his faithful and devoted steward Eliezer, as a son (Gen. xv, 2) — a practice still very common in the East. A boy is often purchased young, adopted by his master, brought up in his faith, and ed- ucated as his son ; or if the owner has a daughter, he adopts him through a marriage with that daughter, and the family which springs from this union is count- ed as descended from him. But house-born slaves are usually preferred, as these have never had any home but their master's house, are considered mem- bers of his family, and are generally the most faithful of his adherents. This practice was very common among the Romans, and is more than once referred to by Paul (Rom. viii, 15; 1 Cor. ii, 12); the transition from the condition of a slave to that of a son, and the privilege of applying the tender name of "father" to the former " master," affording a beautiful illustra- tion of the change which takes place from the bond- age of the law to the freedom and privileges of the Christian state. As in most cases the adopted son was considered dead to the family from which he sprung, the separa- tion of natural ties and connections was avoided by this preference of slaves, who were mostly foreigners or of foreign descent. For the same reason the Chi- nese make their adoptions from children in the hospi- tals who have been abandoned by their parents [Mem. sur les Chinois, vi, 325). The Tartars prefer to .adopt their near relatives — nephews or cousins, or, failing them, a Tartar of their own banner (ib. iv, 13G). In like manner Jacob adopted his own grandsons Ephraim and Manasseh to be counted as his sons (Gen. xlviii, 6). The object of this remarkable adoption was, that, whereas Joseph himself could only have one share of his father's heritage along with his brothers, the adop- tion of his two sons enabled Jacob, through them, to bestow two portions upon his favorite son. The adop- tion of Moses by Pharaoh's daughter (Exod. ii, 1-10) is an incident rather than a practice ; but it recalls what has just been stated respecting the adoption of outcast children by the Chinese. A man who had only a daughter often married her to a freed slave, and the children were counted as those of the woman's father, or the husband himself is adopted as a son. Thus Sheshan, of the tribe of Ju- dah, gave his daughter to Jarha, an Egyptian slave (whom, as the Targum premises, he no doubt liberated on that occasion) : the posterity of the marriage are not, however, reckoned to Jarha, the husband of the woman, but to her father, Sheshan, and as his descend- ants they take their heritage and station in Israel (1 Chron. ii, 34 sq.). So Machir (grandson of Joseph) gave his daughter in marriage to Hezron, of the tribe of Judah. She gave birth to Segub, who was the la- ther of Jair (q. v.). This Jair possessed twenty-three cities in the land of Gilead, which came to him in right of his grandmother, the daughter of Machir ; and he acquired other towns in the same quarter, which made up his possessions to threescore towns or vil- lages (1 Chron. ii, 21-24 ; Josh, xiii, 9 ; 1 Kings iv, 13). Now this Jair, though of the tribe of Judah by his grandfather, is, in Num. xxxii, 41, counted as of Manasseh, because through his grandmother he inher- ited the property, and was the lineal representative of Machir, the son of Manasseh. This case illustrates the difference between the pedigree of Christ as given by Matthew and that in Luke — the former being the pedigree through Joseph, his supposed father, and the latter through his mother, Mary. This opinion [see Genealogy] supposes that Mary was the daughter of Heli, and that Joseph is called his son (Luke iii, 23) becaiise he was adopted by Heli when he married his daughter, who was an heiress, as has been pre- sumed from the fact of her going to Bethlehem to be registered when in the last stage of pregnancy. Her heirship, however, is not essential to this relation, and her journey may rather have been in order to continue under the protection of her husband during such a pe- riod of suspicion. By the time of Christ the Jews had, through various channels, become well acquainted with the more re- markable customs of the Greeks and Romans, as is ap- parent particularly from the epistles of Paul. In John viii, 3G, " If the son shall make you free, ye shall be free indeed," is supposed by Grotius and other com- mentators to refer to a custom in some of the cities of Greece and elsewhere, called act\papi\tx\ the name of a deity, and also of a man. See Cuneiform Inscriptions. 1. An idol worshipped by the sacrifice of children in the fire, in connection with Anammelech, by the in- habitants of Sepharvaim, who were transported to Sa- maria by the king of Assyria (2 Kings xvii, 31). Sel- den (J)e Biis Syris, ii, 9) has confounded the two idols, being misled by a corrupt reading of the text (rt?X, god, instead of "^'X, gods of, as in the margin). The above etymology (making the name equivalent to the splendid ting), first proposed by Jurieu (Hist, des cultes, iv, G53) favors the reference of this divinity to the sun, the moon perhaps being denoted by the associated Anammelech (as the female companion of the sun, comp. Rawlinson's Herodotus, i, 611), in general ac- cordance with the astrological character of Assyrian idolatry (Gesenius, Comment, ub. Jesaias, ii, 327 sq.), and seems preferable to the Persian derivation (i. q. adar or azar,Jire) proposed by Reland (Z>c vet. ling. Pers. 9). The kind of sacrifice has led to the conject- ure (Lette,Z)e idolo Adrammelech, in the Bibl.Bremcns. nov. fasc. i, p. 41 sq.) that Saturn is meant ; but Sel- den (De Diis Syris, i, G) and others have identified him with Moloch, chiefly on the ground that the sacrifice of children by fire, and the general signification of the name, are the same in both (see Gregorius, Feuergot- zen d. Samaritaner, Lauban, 1754). Little credit is due to the rabbinical statements of the Bab. Talmud, that this idol was worshipped under the form of a pea- cock, or, according to Kimchi, that of a mule (Carpzov, Apparatus, p. 51G) ; but it is probable that the former notion may have arisen from a confusion with some other ancient idol of the Assyrians of that form. The Yezidees, or so-called devil-worshippers of the same region, appear to retain a striking vestige of such a species of idolatry in their sacred symbol called Melek Tai/s, or king peacock, a name by which the}' personify Satan, the chief object of their reverence (Layard's Nineveh, 1st ser. i, 245; 2d ser. p. 47). 2. A son of Sennacherib, king of Assyria. Both he and Sharezar were probably the children of slaves, and had therefore no right to the throne. Sennacherib, some time after his return to Nineveh, from his disas- trous expedition against Hezekiah, was put to death by them while worshipping in the temple of his god Nisroch ; having accomplished this crime, they fled for safety to the mountains of Armenia, and their brother Elsarhaddon succeeded to the throne (2 Kings xix, 37 ; Isa. xxxvii, 38; comp. 2 Chron. xxxii, 21), B.C. G80. ADRAMYTTIUM 81 ADRIAN See Sennacherib. Moses Chorensis (p. GO) calls him Adramelus ; so, also, Abydenus (in Euseb. Chrvn. Ar- men. i, 53), who makes him the son and murderer of Ncrgal, Sennacherib's immediate successor (see Hit- zig, Begriff d. Kritik, p. 194 sq.) ; while, according to Alexander Polyhistor (in Euseb. Chrvn. Arm. i, 43), Sennacherib was assassinated by his son A rdumusanus. Col. Rawlinson (Outlines of Assyrian History, also in the Land. Athenazum, March IS and April 15, 1854) thinks he has deciphered the names of two Assyrian kings called Adrammelech, one about 300 and the other 15 years anterior to Sennacherib ; but neither of them can be the one referred to in Scripture. Adramyt'tium {AtipafivTTiov or 'Adpauvrrtiov [also 'ArpctfivTTiov, see Poppo's Tkucyd.ii,4Al sq. ; and Adramytleos, Plin. v, 32], in the N. T. only in the adj. 'A^pauvrr>]voQ, Adramyttene), a city of Asia Minor, on the' coast of Mysia, (vEolis, according to Mela, i, 18), and at the head of an extensive bay (Sinus Adramyt- tenus) facing the island of Lesbos and at the foot of Mount Ida. See Mitylene. Strabo (xiii, p. 606) and Herodotus (vii, 42) make it an Athenian colony (comp. Pausan.iv,27,5; Xenoph. Anab. vii, 8, 8; Livy, xxxvii, 19). Stephanus Byzantinus follows Aristotle, and mentions Adramys, the brother of Croesus, as its founder (hence the name). This last is more probably the true account, especially as an adjacent district bore the name of Lydia. According, however, to Eusta- thius and other commentators, the place existed before the Trojan war, and was no other than the Pedasus of Homer (Plin. v, 33). Thucydides (v, 1 ; viii, 108) also mentions a settlement made here by those inhabitants of Delos who had been expelled by the Athenians, B.C. 422. The city became a place of importance under the kings of Pergamus, and continued so in the time of the Roman power, although it suffered severe- ly during the war with Mithridates (Strabo, 605). Under the Romans it was the seat of the Conventus Juridicus for the province of Asia (q. v.), i. e. the court- town of the district (Pliny, v, 32). It is mentioned in Scripture only (Acts xxvii, 2) from the fact that the ship in which Paul embarked at Ca:sarea as a prisoner on his way to Italy, belonged to Adramyttium (irXoiov 'Acpcif.iDTTijvuv v. r. 'ArpajWT)]Vov, see Wetstein in loc). It was rare to find a vessel going direct from Palestine to Italy. The usual course, therefore, was to embark in some ship bound to one of the ports of Asia Minor, and there go on board a vessel sailing for Italy. This was the course taken by the centurion who" had charge of Paul. Ships of Adramyttium must have been frequent on this coast, for it was a place of considerable traffic. It lay on the great Roman road between Assos, Troas, and the Hellespont on one side, and Pergamus, Ephesus, and Miletus on the other, and was connected by similar roads with the interior of the country. The" ship of Adramyttium took them to Myra, in Lycia, and here they embarked in an Alex- andrian vessel bound for Italy (see Conybeare and Howson, Life of St. Paul, ii, 310). Some commmen- tators (Hammond, Grotius, Witsius, etc.) strangely suppose that Adrametum (see Tzchucke, ad Mel. i, 7, 2) in Africa (Plin. v, 3; Ptol. iv. 3; Appian, Syr. xxxiii, 47 ; comp. Shaw, Trav. p. 96 sq.) was the port to which the ship belonged. Adramyttium is still called Edramit or Adramiti (Fellows, Asia Minor, p. 39 ; comp. Pococke, Trav. II, ii, 16). It is built on a hill, contains about 1000 houses, and is still a place of some commerce (Turner, Tour, iii, 265). The general appearance of the place, however, is poor, the houses being meanly built, and inhabited principally by Greek fishermen (Biisching, Erdbesch. v, 1, 91). From medals struck in this town, it appears that it celebrated the worship of Castor and Pollux (Acts xxviii, 11), as also that of Jupiter and Minerva (whose effigies appear in the preceding cut). A'dria, or Adriatic Sea (Acpiac, Acts xxvii, 27), the modern Gulf of Venice (Forbiger, Alte Geogr. ii, Id sq.). It derives its name from the city Adria, in Cis- alpine Gaul, on the river Po, now called A tri. The name Adriatic is now confined to the gulf lying be- tween Italy on one side and the coasts of Dalmatia and Albania on the other .(comp. Plin}', iii, 10, 29). But in Paul's time it extended to all that part of the Mediterranean between Crete and Sicily (Smith's Diet, of Class. Geogr. s. v.). Thus Ptolemy (iii, 1G) says that Sicily was bounded on the east by the Adriatic, and that Crete was bounded by the Adriatic on the west ; and Strabo (ii, p. 185 ; vii, p. 488) says that the Ionian Gulf was a part of what was in his time called the Adriatic Sea (comp. Eustath. ad Dionys. Perieg. p. 103, 168, ed. Bernhardy; Josephus, Life, 3). This obviates the necessity of finding the island of Melita (q. v.), on which Paul was shipwrecked, in the present Adriatic gulf (Hacketfs Comment, in loc.) See Ship- wreck. On the modern navigation, see M'Culloch's Gazetteer, s. v. Adrian, Emperor. See Hadrian. Adrian, abbot of the monastery of Neridan, near Naples. Pope Vitalian selected him to fill the vacant see of Canterbury, but he refused, and induced the pope to select Theodore instead, promising that he would ac- company him. Accordingly Theodore was consecrated in 668 ; and upon their arrival in England, after a very long journey, Adrian was made abbot of the monastery of St. Augustine at Canterbury. By their united ef- forts the Church in England was brought into strict conformity with that of Rome. He died January 9th, 709.— Bede, Hist. Eccl. iv, 1 ; Hook, Eccl. Biog. i, G6. Adrian I, Pope, elected in the room of Stephen III, Feb. 9th, 772. He was a man of large mental en- dowments and great perseverance, and all his powers were studiously devoted to the enlargement of the pa- pal power. Charlemagne, after defeating Desiderius and destroying the power of the Longobards in Italy in 774, went to Rome, where Adrian received him with high honors, acknowledging him king of Italy and patrician of Rome. Charlemagne, in turn, confirmed the grants made by Pepin to the Roman See, ami added also Ancona and Benevento. In a letter to Charle- magne, Adrian flatters him with the title of norm Chnstianissimus Cmstantinus. Charlemagne visited Rome again in 787, when Adrian christened his son Pepin. In the same year, upon the invitation of the Empress Irene of Constantinople, Adrian sent legates to the Second CEcumenical .Synod of Nice, by which image-worship was sanctioned. See Nice. In 794 he sent legates to the synod of Frankfort, which was presided over by Charlemagne, and condemned the Adoptianists (q. v.), but also image-worship, although Adrian, in a letter to the king (Mansi, xiii, p. 795), had declared, "Si quis sunrtas imagines Domini nostri Jesu Christi tt ejus genetrieu atque omnium, sanctorum secundum ,st. Patrum doctrinam w m rari noluerit, an iih- cma sit." Adrian wrote against the theological opin- ions of Felix of Urgel, and through his endeavors the Gregorian chant and rite were introduced, first at Metz, and subsequently in other churches of the em- pire. His fame is tarnished (sec Rudolph, De Codice Canonum quern Adrianus I Caroh Magna dedit, Erl. 1777) by the use which he made of the Pseudo-Isido. rian Decretals (q. v.). He died Dec. 26, 795, having occupied the see twenty-three years. Iu spite of his ADRIAN S2 ADRIAN dispute with Charlemagne about image-worship, and also of the fact that he attempted a reply to the " Car- oline books" (q. v.) in his Libelhts responsorius ad Car- olum Magnum pro Synodo Nic. II, it is certain that Charlemagne was greatly distressed by his death. His Isagoge SS. Literarum may be found in the Critici Sacri, vol. viii. — Hoefer, Biographie Generate, s. v. ; Herzog, Rcal-Encyldopiidie, v, 447. II, Pope, a native of Rome, elected Dec. 14th, 867, at the age of seventy-five, having twice before refused the pontificate. His term of office was almost wholly occupied in disputes with Lothaire, Charles the Bald, and the Greek Church. In the war of Charles the Bald against Louis II, Adrian declared in favor of the latter, and threatened every one with the "censure of the apostolic vengeance" (apostoliea? uttumis censurd) who should dare to invade the country " contrary to the divine and the apostolical will." This papal inter- ference in secular affairs was, however, sternly opposed by Archbishop Hincmar (q. v.) of Rheims. In letters to Charles the Bald and the synod of Duziacum (871), which had deposed Bishop Hincmar of Laon, notwith- standing his appeal to the pope, Adrian put forth the claim that bishops should be only deposed by the pope, not by particular s3rnods. Charles the Bald remon- strated, however, so energetically against this claim, that Adrian endeavored to gain his object by flatter- ies instead of threats. Adrian was called upon to act as arbiter between the Patriarch Photius of Constan- tinople and his opponent Ignatius. Adrian deposed Photius in a synod at Rome, and he sent delegates to the synod of Constantinople (869), which repeated the sentence against Phocius. During the pontificate of Adrian a synod was held at Rome which prohibited the marriage of priests. He died Nov. 25, 872. — Her- zog, Real-Encyklopadie, v, 448. III, Pope, a Roman, elected March 1, 884, and oc- cupied the see only a year and four months. He was the first pope to change his name, having been called Agapetus before his elevation to the papal see. A de- cree is also attributed to him which provides that the emperor shall not meddle in the election of a pope. The Emperor Basilius urged him to admit the right of Photius to the see of Constantinople, and to admit him into communion, but Adrian steadiky refused. He died July 8, 885. IV, Pope, an Englishman named Nicholas Break- speare, who raised himself from actual beggary and servitude to the highest place of dignity in the Church. He was a servant in the monastery of St. Rufus, near Avignon, and subsequently became its abbot in 1137. AVhen the monks denounced him to Pope Eugene III for his severit)', the pope, a disciple of Bernard of Clair- vaux, made him a cardinal, and legate to Norway. He possessed learning, eloquence, and generosity, but, at the same time, an extreme attachment to the privileges of the papal chair. In the year 1154, December 4, he was elected pope, and received the felicitations of Henry II of England, whose ambassadors were ac- companied by the monks of St. Al ban's, whom he mildly rebuked for having rejected him from their so- ciety in his youth on account of his ignorance. In the following year he placed under an interdict the city of Rome, because the followers of Arnold of Bres- cia had wounded a cardinal. The Romans were com- pelled to expel Arnold, who fell into the hands of Fred- eric Barbarossa, and the latter was prevailed upon by the pope to deliver Arnold over to him. Adrian then met the emperor at Lutri, and compelled him to hold his stirrup. Frederic accompanied the pope to Rome, and was crowned emperor (1155). Adrian also ex- eommuiih .itril King William of Sicily as a usurper of church property, raised his subjects against him, and put himself at the head of an army against the king. The latter finally had to consent to receive his king- dom as a papal lief. A letter of Adrian's to the empe- ror and the German bishops, in which he stated that he had conferred the crown upon the emperor, and that the emperor had received benefices from him, led to a new conflict between him and the emperor, in which the German bishops generally sided with the emperor. Adrian, on his part, complained of the ex- actions of the imperial commissioners who were sent to administer justice at Rome without his participa- tion ; he maintained that the patrimony of the Church should be exempt from paying foderum, or feudal tribute to the emperor; and, lastky, he claimed the restitution of the lands and revenues of Countess Ma- tilda, of the duchy of Spoleti, and even of Corsica and Sardinia. Thus arose that spirit of bitter hostility between the popes and the house of Hohenstautfen, which lasted until the utter extinction of the latter. The pope was on the point of excommunicating the emperor when he died, September 1, 1159, so poor that he commended the support of his mother to the church of Canterbury. He transferred the pontifical see first to Orvieto, and afterward to Anagni, where lie resided until his death. He was the founder of the penny trib- ute to the papal chair in Ireland. He was also the author of dispensations concerning the accumulation of ecclesiastical benefices, and the residence-duty of the beneficiate, and the originator of papal mandates. Adrian probably did as much to extend the papal power as any other pope except perhaps Gregory VII. — Herzog, Real-Encyklopadie, v, 449 ; English Cyclo- paedia; Raumer, Geschichte der Hohenstaufen. V, Pope, Othobon, of Fieschi. Was a native of Genoa, the son of Theodore of Fieschi, nephew of Pope Innocent IV. Having taken orders, he obtained, by the influence of his family, many valuable preferments, and was made a canon of Placenza, and archdeacon of Rheims, Parma, and Canterbury. In the latter capac- ity he held a synod in the church of St. Paul at London in 1268, where the Thirty-six Constitutions, known as those of Othobon, were published. On the 12th of July, 1276, he was elected pope, but was carried off by a sudden illness on the 18th of August in the fame year, before his consecration. — Biog. Univ. vol. i ; Lan- don, Eccles. Dictionary, i, 110. VI, Pope, born at Utrecht, in 1459, of very humble parents, who could not afford to educate him. He was placed, however, in one of the charitable foundations at Louvain, arid was soon distinguished for piety and diligence in study. He was professor of theology, and subsequently chancellor of the university of Louvain. In 1507 he was appointed tutor to Charles V, who was ever after his friend, and aided in raising him to the papal chair (Rosch, Jets over Pans Adriaan VI Utrecht, 1836 ; Hotter, Die deutschen Papste). He had, in 1517, been created cardinal by Leo X, and on his death Adrian was elected pope, January 9, 1522, at a time when all German}' was in the flame of the Lutheran Reformation. Adrian set himself to reform the clergy, and to put down the Reformation. In his letter to the Diet of Nuremberg, 1522, in which he urged that Luther should be cut off as Huss and Je- rome had been, he still admitted that Luther's charges against the corruptions of the Church were just. "Confess," said he to the legate, ''without disguise, that God hath permitted this schism and this persecu- tion for the sins of mankind, and above all for those of the priests and prelates of the Church ; for we know that many scandalous things have been done in this holy see, abuses of spiritual matters, and ex- cesses in ordinances and decrees which have emanated from it," etc. He always refused to advance his own relations to an)' dignity in the Church. After filling the papal chair during twenty months, he died, Sep- tember 1-4, 1523. He was greatly hated by the Ro- mans, whom his dislike to all luxuries and vain ex- penses offended. In December, 1515, when the death of Ferdinand the Catholic was considered to be immi- ADRIANISTS 8:3 ADULLAM nent, Adrian was sent by Charles to Castile, and au- thorized to take possession of the kingdom in the name of Charles as soon as Ferdinand should die. On the death of Ferdinand, January 23, 1516, Cardi- nal Ximenez, who, in the will of Ferdinand, had heen appointed regent of Spain until the arrival of Charles, disputed the claims of Adrian, but finally compro- mised the matter by agreeing with him upon a joint administration until they should hear from Charles. Charles decided that Ximenez should remain regent, and that Adrian should be regarded as his ambassador. In the same year (1516) Adrian was made, through the influence of Ximenez, bishop of Tortosa, in Spain, and grand inquisitor of Aragon. The relations of Ximenez and Adrian were, however, not always friend- ly, Adrian striving to obtain a greater influence upon the administration of the kingdom than Ximenez per- mitted ; and when, in 1517, Adrian was made a car- dinal, Ximenez endeavored to make him quit Castile altogether. After the death of Ximenez, November 8, 1517, Adrian was appointed by Charles regent of Spain. On the death of Pope Leo X, Adrian, through the influence of Charles, was made his successor. Adrian greatty misunderstood the character of the Ref- ormation, maintaining that no one seriously believed in the doctrines of the Reformers, and that a removal of the corruption in the Church would put an end to the reform agitation. He proposed to Erasmus to write against Luther. To please Duke George of Sax- ony, he canonized Bishop Benno of Misnia. Adrian was the author of Qucestiones Quodlibttictp, printed at Louvain (1515, Paris, 1516 and 1531), Epistolw, and Bisputatiunes hi lib. quartum Mag'stri Sententiarum, which last work, when pope, he caused to be reprinted, without making any alteration in the opinion he had originally expressed on the papal infallibility, viz., " The pope may err even in what belongs to the faith." A collection of historical papers relating to him may be found in Burmann, Hadrianus VI (Utrecht, 1727, 4to). Ranke gives a very favorable sketch of him {History of the Papacy, i, 75 sq.). — Mosheim, Ch. Hist. cent, xvi, j § 1, ch. ii ; Jovius, Vita Hadriani VI, in his Vita Viror. Illustr. ii, 221 ; Danz, Be Hadriano VI (Jen. 1813). Adrianists, a name given to certain disciples of Simon Magus, who flourished about A.D. 34. Their name and memory have been preserved by Theodoret, but he gives no account of their origin. It is probable that the}' were a branch of the Simonians, and took their name from some prominent and active disciple. (See Walch, Hist, der Ke/zereien, i, 160.) Adrichomius, Christian, a Roman Catholic theologian of Holland, born at Delft in 1533, died at Cologne on June 20, 1585. His most celebrated work is the Theatrum Terra; Sancta>, with geographical maps (Colon. 1590), containing very minute descriptions of places mentioned in Scripture, drawn chiefly from the writings of the Fathers and the classics.' — Dupin, Eccl. Writers, 16th cent. A'driel (Heb. Adriel', "b>^-\yj,JlockofGod; Sept. 'ASpirjX, '£(\ou'/X), a son of Barzillai the Meholathite. Saul gave him in marriage his daughter Merab, who had been originally promised to David (1 Sam. xviii, 19), B.C. cir. 1062. The five sons sprung from this union were taken to make up the number of Saul's de- scendants, whose lives, on the principle of blood-re- venge, were required by the Gibeonites to avenge the cruelties which Saul had exercised toward their race (2 Sam. xxi, 8). See Gibeonite. In this passage the name of Michal occurs as the mother of these sons of Adriel ; but as it is known that Merab was the wife of Adriel, and that Michal never had any children (2 Sam. vi. 23), there only remains the alternative of sup- posing either that Michal's name has been substituted for Merab's by some ancient copyist, or that the word which properly means bare (m?1, yaledah' ' , Sept. jV«/cf,Vulg. genuerat) should be rendered brought up or educated, as in the Auth. Vers, after the Targum. The Jewish writers conclude that Merab died early, and that Michal adopted her sister's children, and brought them up for Adriel (Bab. Talm. Sanhed. xix, 2); but the word illb^ will not bear this interpretation. — Kit- to, s. v. See Michal. Adu'el (Acovi)\, prob. for Adiel, q. v.), the son of Gabael, and father of Ananiel, in the ancestry of Tobit (Tob. i, 1). AdulTam (Heb. Adullam' , 135*12, prob. justice of the people ; Sept. 'OvoWap, Odoltam ; and so in the Apocrypha, 2 Mace, xii, 38, and Josephus, Ant. viii, 10, 1 ; but Adullam'e, 'AiovWaptj in Ant. vi, 12, 3), an old city (Gen. xxxviii, 1, 12, 20) in the plain country of the tribe of Judah (Josh, xv, 35), and one of the royal cities of the Canaanites (Josh, xii, 15). It was one of the towns which Rehoboam fortitied (2 Chron. xi. 7 : Micah i, 15), and is mentioned after the captivity ( Xeh. xi, 30 ; 2 Mace, xii, 38). Eusebius and Jerome (Ono- mast. s. v.) state that it existed in their time as a large village, ten miles to the east of Eleutheropolis, by which (unless, as Reland thinks, Palast. p. 547, they confound it with Eglon) they probably mean north-east (Keil, Comment, in loc. Josh. ; Schwarz, Palest, p. 87), possi- bly at el-Keishum, near Timnath (comp. Gen. xxxviii, 12); or perhaps (see Tobler, Drit. Wandertrng, p. 150) at the present village Beit Via (Van de Velde, Mt moir, p. 282). It is evident that Adullam was one of the cities of "the valley" or plain between the hill coun- try of Judah and the sea ; and from its place in the lists of names (especially 2 Chron. xi, 8), it appears to have been not very far from the Philistine city of Gath. This circumstance would suggest that the cave of Adullam (2 Sam. xxiii, 13; 1 Chron. xi, 15), to which David withdrew immediately from Gath ( 1 Sain. xxii, 1), was near the city of that nime (see Stanley, Palestine, p. 254, note). But there is no passage of Scripture which connects the city and the cave, and it is certainly not in a plain that one would look for a cave capable of affording a secure retreat to 400 men ; nor has any such cave been found in that quarter. It is therefore far from improbable that the cave of Adul- lam was in the mountainous wilderness in the east of Judah toward the Dead Sea, where such caves oc- cur, and where the western names (as Carmel) are sometimes repeated. Accordingly, we actually find in this very region the name Dhullam, belonging to a tribe of Arabs who encamp here for pasturage, but prop- erly belong to a more western district around Beer- sheba (Robinson's Researches, ii, 473), and whose pre- datory character well befits the ancient notoriety of the spot (De Saulcy's Narrative, i, 434, 435). May not this same nomadic habit have transferred the name of the city to the cave in former times likewise ? This view is favored by the fact that the usual haunts of David were in this quarter (1 Chron. xi, 15) ; whence he moved into the land of Moab, which was quite contigu- ous, whereas he must have crossed the whole breadth of the land, if the cave of Adullam had been near the city of that name. Tradition (William of Tyre, De Bella Sacro, xv, 6) fixes the cave on the borders of the Dead Sea, about six miles south-east of Bethlehem, in the side of a deep ravine (Wady Khureitun) which passes below the Frank mountain on the south (Robin- son's Researches, ii, 176). It is an immense natural cavern, the mouth of which can be approached only on foot along the side of the cliff. Irby and Mangles. who visited it without being aware that it was the re- puted cave of Adullam, state that it "runs in by a long, winding, narrow passage, with small chambers or cavities on either side. We soon came to a large chamber with natural arches of great heigh* ; from this last there were numerous passages, leading in all di- rections, occasionally joined by others at right angles, and forming a perfect labyrinth, which our guides as- ADULLAMITE 84 sured us had never been perfectly explored, the people being afraid of losing themselves. The passages are generally four feet high by three feet wide, and were all on a level with each other. There were a few petrifactions where we were ; nevertheless the grotto was perfectly clean, and the air pure and good" {Trav- els, p. 340, 341). It seems probable that David, as a native of Bethlehem, must have been well acquainted with this remarkable spot, and had probably often availed himself of its shelter when out with his fa- ther's flocks. Dr. Thomson, who explored it to some extent, thinks that it corresponds to the Biblical ac- count of David's fastness {Land and Book, ii, 427). Others (as Stanley, Palestine, p. 254) think the cave in question was one of the numerous excavations found in the soft lime-stone hills along the eastern edge of the " plain" of Judah, particularly those at Deir Dub- ban (Van de Velde, Narrative, ii, 15G, 157) ; but these are evidently artificial, being apparently enlargements of naturally small crevices for the purpose of maga- zines of grain (Robinson, Researches, ii, 352-354, 395, 31)6).— Kitto, s. v. See Cave {ofAduUain) : Odollam. Adul'lamite (Heb. Adullami', "."zhl", Sept. 'OroAArras in their computations: 1. From Gen. vii, 11, and viii, 13, it appears that they reckoned from the lives of the patriarchs, or other illustrious persons. 2. From their departure out of Egypt, and the first institution of their polity (Exod. xix, 1 ; Num. i, 1 ; xxxiii, 38 ; 1 Kings vi, 1). 3. Afterward, from the building of the temple (1 Kings ix, 10; 2 Chron. viii, 1), and from the reigns of the kings of Judah and Israel. 4. From the commencement of the Babylonian captivity (Ezek, i, 1 ; xxxiii, 21 ; xl, 1), and, perhaps, also from their return, and the dedication of the second temple. In process of time they adopted, 5, the /Era of the Seleu- cida;, which, in the books of Maccabees is called the /Era of the Greeks, and the Alexandrian /Era ; it be- gan from the year when Seleucus Nicanor attained the sovereign power ; that is, about 312 years before the birth of Jesus Christ. This ajra continued in gen- eral use among the Orientals, with the exception of the Mohammedans, who employed it, together with their own a?ra, from the flight of Mohammed. The Jews had no other epoch until A.D. 1040, when, being expelled from Asia by the caliphs, they began to date from the Creation, though still without entirely drop- ping the /Era of the Seleucida:. 6. They were accus- tomed, also, to reckon their years from the years when their princes began to reign. 1 hus, in 1 Kings xv, 1 ; Isa. xxxvi, 1 ; and Jer. i, 2, 3, we have traces of their anciently computing according to the years of their kings; and, in later times (1 Mace, xiii, 42; xiv, 27), according to the years of the Asmonean princes. Of this mode of computation we have vestiges in Matt, ii, 1 ; Luke i, 5; and iii, 1. 7. Ever since the compila- tion of the Talmud, the Jews have reckoned their years from the creation of the world, which they fix at B.C. 3761. (See Reland, Antiq. Hebr. ; Schulzii Compend. Arch. Hebr.; Jahn, Arch. Bibl.) See Chro- nology. II. The ancient Heathens used the following aeras: 1. The /Era of the First Olympiad is placed in the year of the world 3228, and before the Vulgar /Era 776. 2. The taking of Troy by the Greeks, in the year of the world 2820, and before Christ 1884. 3. The voyage undertaken for the purpose of bringing away the gold- en fleece, in the year of the world 2760. 4. The foundation of Borne, in B.C. 753. 5. The /Era of Na- bonassar, in B.C. 747. 6. The /Era of Alexander the Great, or his last victory over Darius, B.C. 330. 7. The Julian /Era, from B.C. 45. 8. In a great part of India, the /Era of Sulwanah, from A.D. 78. 9. In the later Roman empire, the /Era of Diocletian, from A.D. 284. 10. Among the Mohammedans, the Hegira, from A.D. 622. 11. Among the modern Persians, the /Era of Yezdcgird, from A.D. 632. See Age. III. The Christians for a leng time had no a?ra of their own, but followed those in common use in the several countries. 1. In the western part of the Roman empire the Consular /Era remained in use until the sixth century after Christ. Frequently, also, the years were counted from the accession of an emperor to the throne. 2. The.iVa Diocletiana, beginning with the ac- cession of Diocletian to the throne (284), came into use first, and became very common in Egypt. The Chris- tians who used it gave to it the name ^Era Martyrvm, on account of the great number of those who suffered martyrdom under the reign of that emperor. It is still used by the Abyssinians and Copts. 3. In the da}-s of Constantine the custom arose to count the years according to Indictions. A cjxlc of indiction is a period of fifteen years, and the first year of the first cycle is generally considered to correspond with the year 313 of the Christian /Era. This sera was very common in the Middle Ages. 4. The jEra Ilispaniea was in use in Spain from the 5th until the 14th cen- tury, when it gave way to the Dionysian /Era. It begins with the year 38 B.C., i.e. the year following the conquest of Spain by Augustus. 5. The /Era of the Seleucida', or Macedonian /Era, begins, according ^ERE 91 AFFECTION to the computation generally followed, with September 1, B.C. 812, the epoch of the first conquests of Seleucus Nicator in Syria. It is still used in the church year of the Syrian Christians. G. The /Era of Antioch, which was adopted to commemorate the victor}' of Caesar on the plains of 1'harsalia, begins with Sept. 1, B.C. 49, according to the computation of the Greeks, but 11 months later according to that of the Syrians. It is followed by Evagrius in his Ecclesiastical History. 7. The /Era of the Armenians begins with the year A.D. 552, in which the Armenians, at the council of Tiben, separated from the main body of the Eastern Church by rejecting the council of Chalcedon. 8. The /Era of Constantinople, or Byzantine /Era, begins with the creation of the world, which it fixes 5508 years before the Christian or Vulgar /Era. It is still in use among the Albanians, Servians, and modern Greeks. 9. The most common a;ra among Christians is the Dio- nysian /Era (/Era Dionysiana), so called after Diony- sius Exiyuus (q. v.), who proposed it in the sixth cen- tury. It counts the years from the birth, or rather the conception of Christ, designating the January of the year in the December of which Christ was born, as the January of the first year post Christum. Christ, according to this calculation, was born at the close of the first year '"post incarnationem" (i. e. the concep- tion). As the first year ])ost Christum, Dionysius as- sumes the year 75-1 from the foundation of Rome, an opinion which has long ago been shown to be incor- rect. See Nativity. The Dionysian /Era was adopt- ed in Rome as early as the middle of the 6th century. The first public transaction which was dated according to it is the Concilium German, a. 742 ; and the first sov- ereign who used it is Charlemagne. In the 11th cen- tury it was adopted by the popes, since which time its use in the Western Church has been universal. 2Ere, a city noted in the Antonlne Itinerary on the way from Damascus to Scythopolis (Bethshean) ; identified, from an inscription found in its extensive ruins, with the Sanamein of Abulfeda (Tabula Syria;, ed. Koehler, p. 97), now Sununein, a large Moslem village in the district of Jedur ^Bitter, Erdk. xv, 812- 817). See Asiiteroth-karnaim. Aerians, a sect which arose about the middle of the fourth century, being the followers of Aiirius (who must be distinguished from Arius and Aetius), a monk and a presbyter of Sebastia, in Pontus. He is charged by Epiphanius with being an Arian, or Semi-Arian, without just ground. The real cause, perhaps, of the accusation against him was his attempt to reform the Church, by maintaining that a presbyter or elder dif- fers not in order and degree from a bishop ; and by rejecting prayers for the dead, with certain fasts and festivals then superstitiously observed. Epiphanius attributes the zeal of Aiirius to his being disappointed of the bishopric of Sebaste, which was conferred on his friend Eustathius ; but the statements of Epipha- nius are evidently colored by his personal prejudice against Aerius. His followers were driven from the churches, and out of all the towns and villages, and were obliged to assemble in the woods, caverns, and open defiles. The sect was still in existence at the time of Augustine. — Epiphanius, Adv. Hares, lvi ; Neander, Ch. Hist, ii, 342, 343; Bingham, b. xv, ch. 3 ; Lardner, Works, iv, 179 ; Walch, Hist. d. Ketzer. iii, 321. Aerius. See Aerians. ^Ethiopia, etc. See Ethiopia, etc. Aetians, a branch of Arians, named from Aetius of Antioch, one of the most zealous defenders of Arian- ism, who, after being servant to a grammarian, of whom he learned grammar and logic, was ordained deacon, and at last bishop, by Eudoxus, patriarch of Constantinople (about A.D. 356). He wrote about 300 theological treatises, one of which has been pre- served by Epiphanius, who reports that he held that the Son was of a nature inferior to the Father (ktigtoc, kcli i'i oi'K oPtwv, and avofiotoq t^> narpi icai irepovr aioc) ; that the Holy Spirit was but a creature, made by the Father and the Son before all other creatures. Socrates (Ch. Hist, ii, 35) says that, though his "doc- trines were similar to those of the Arians, yet, from the abstruseness of his arguments, which they could not comprehend, they pronounced him a heretic." He was said to be well versed in the Aristotelian logic. His doctrine and his disciples were condemned by the Council of Seleucia, A.D. 359. — Sozomen, Ch. Hist, iii, 14 ; Theodoret, ii, 24 ; Neander, Ch. Hist, ii, 399, 409 ; Cave, Hist. Lit. anno 359; Lardner, Works, iii, 584; Walch, Hist. d. Ketzereien, ii, GGO. See Anomieans. Aetius. See Aetians. Affection, in a philosophical sense, refers to the manner in which we are affected by any thing for a con- tinuance, whether painful or pleasant ; but in the most common sense it may be defined to be a settled bent of mind toward a particular being or thing. It holds a middle place between disposition on the one hand and passion on the other. It is distinguishable from dis- position, which, being a branch of one's nature original- ly, must exist before there can be any opportunity to exert it upon any particular object ; whereas affection can never be original, because, having a special rela- tion to a particular object, it cannot exist till the ob- ject has once at least been presented. It is also dis- tinguishable from passion, which, depending on the real or ideal presence of its object, vanishes with its object ; whereas affection is a lasting connection, and, like other connections, subsists even when we do not think of the object. See Disposition and Passion. The affections, as they respect religion, may be de- fined to be the " vigorous and sensible exercises of the inclination and will of the soul toward religious ob- jects." Whatever extremes Stoics or enthusiasts have run into, it is evident that the exercise of the affec- tions is essential to the existence of true religion. It is true, indeed, "that all affectionate devotion is not wise and rational ; but it is no less true that all wise and rational devotion must be affectionate." The af- fections arc the springs of action : they belong to our nature, so that, with the highest perceptions of truth and religion, we should be inactive without them. They have considerable influence on men in the com- mon concerns of life ; how much more, then, should ■ the}- operate in those important objects that relate to the Divine Being, the immortality of the soul, and the happiness or misery of a future state ! The religion of the most eminent saints has always consisted in the exercise of holy affections. Jesus Christ himself af- j fords us an example of the most lively and vigorous affections; and we have every reason to believe that the employment of heaven consists in the exercise of them. In addition to all which, the Scriptures of truth [ teach us that religion is nothing if it occupy not the affections (Dent, vi, 4, 5 ; xxx, G ; Rom. xii, 11 ; 1 I Cor. xiii, 13 ; Psa. xxvii, 14). A distinction, however, must be made between what I may be merely natural and what is truly spiritual. The affections may be excited in a natural way under or- dinances 1)}' a natural impression (Ezek. xxxiii, 32), by a natural sympathy, or by the natural temperament of our constitution. It is no sign that our affections are spiritual because they are raised very high, produce great effects on the body, excite us to lie very zealous in externals, to be always conversing about ourselves, etc. These things are often found in those who are mere professors of religion (Matt, vii, 21, 22). Now, in order to ascertain whether our affections are excited in a spiritual manner, we must inquire whether that which moves our affections be truly spiritual ; whether our consciences be alarmed, and our hearts impressed; whether the judgment be en- lightened, and we have a perception of the moral ex- cellency of divine things ; and, lastly, whether our af- AFFENDOFULO AFFIRMATIVE fections have a holy tendency, and produce the happy effects of obedience to God, humility in ourselves, and justice to our fellow-creatures. Consult Lord Kaimes' Elements of Criticism, ii, 517 ; Edwards On the Affec- tions; Pike andHayward's Cases of Conscience ; Watts' Use and Abuse of the Passions; M'Laurin's Essays, § 5 and 6, where this subject is ably handled ; Jeremy Tay- lor's Works, ii, 114, 164; Buck. Affendofulo, Caleb, a Jewish rabbi, who flour- ished at Adrianople, Belgrade, and Constantinople in the present centur}'. The name Affendofulo is a com- pound of the Turkish effendi and the Greek ttovXoq (son). He wrote a commentary (nil -X"2 !T"0") on the Song of Solomon and Psalm cxi\, with introduc- tions and epilogues to each section, having reference to the divergence of the Karaites from the Rabbins (Vienna, 1830, 4 to), besides two other works of a po- lemical character. — See Fiirst, Bibliotheca Judaica, i, 20, 21. Affinity (designated in Hebrew by some form of the verb "JHri, chathan , to give in marriage) is relation- ship by marriage, as distinguished from consanguinity, which is relationship by blood. 1, Marriages between .persons thus related, in va- rious degrees, which previous usage, in different con- ditions of society, had allowed, were forbidden by tho law of Moses. These degrees are enumerated in Lev. xviii, 7 sq. The examples before the law are those of Cain and Abel, who, as the necessity of the case re- quired, married their own sisters. Abraham married Sarah, the daughter of his father by another wife ; and Jacob married the two sisters Leah and Rachel. In the first instance, and even in the second, there was an obvious consanguinity, and only the last offer- ed a previous relationship of affinity merely. So also, in the prohibition of the law, a consanguinity can be traced in what are usually set down as degrees of affin- ity merely. The degrees of real affinity interdicted are, that a man shall not (nor a woman in the corre- sponding relations) marry, (1), his father's widow (not his own mother) ; (2), the daughter of his father's wife by another husband ; (3), the widow of his pater- nal uncle ; (4), nor his brother's widow if he has left children by her ; but, if not, he was bound to marry her to raise up children to his deceased brother. See Levirate Law. The other restrictions are connect- ed with the condition of polygamy, and they prohibit a man from having, (1), a mother and her daughter for wives at the same time, (2), or two sisters for wives at the same time. These prohibitions, although founded in Oriental notions, adapted to a particular condition of society, and connected with the peculiarities of the Levitical marriage law, have been imported wholesale into our canon law. The fitness of this is doubted by many ; but as, apart from any moral or sanitary ques- tions, the prohibited marriages are such as few would, in the present condition of Occidental society, desire to contract, and such as would be deemed repugnant to good taste and correct manners, there is little real matter of regret in this adoption of the Levitical law. Indeed the objections have arisen chiefly from a mis- understanding of the last of the above prohibitions, which, under permitted polygamy, forbade a man to have two sisters at once — an injunction which has been construed under the Christian law, which allows but one wife, to apply equally to the case of a man marrying the sister of a deceased wife. The law it- self is rendered in our version, "Neither shalt thou take a wife to her sister, to vex her, to uncover her na- ' kedness, beside the other in her lifetime" (Lev. xviii, 18). j Clear as this seems, it is still clearer if, with Gesenius j and others, we take the word "^U. tsarar', rendered to vex, to mean to rival, as in the Sept., Arabic, and Vul- gate. The Targum of Jonathan, the Mishna, and the cslebrated Jewish commentators Jarchi and Ben Ger- ! I son, are satisfied that two sisters at once are intended •, and there seems an obvious design to prevent the oc- [ currence of such unseemly jealousies and contentions between sister-wives as embittered the life of the pa- triarch Jacob. The more recondite sense has been ex- tracted, with rather ungentle violence to the principles of Hebrew construction, by making "vex her" the an- tecedent of "in her lifetime," instead of "take her sister to her, in her lifetime." Under this view it is explained that the married sister should not be "vex- ed" in her lifetime by the prospect that her sister might succeed her. It may be safely said that such an idea would never have occurred in the East, where unmarried sisters are far more rarely than in Europe brought into such acquaintance with the husband of the married sister as to give occasion for such "vexa- tion" or " rivalry" as this. Yet this view of the mat- ter, which is completely exploded among sound Bib- lical critics, has received the sanction of several Chris- tian councils (Condi. Illiher. can. 61; Aurat. can. 17; Auxer. can. 30), and is perhaps not calculated to do much harm, except under peculiar circumstances, and except as it may prove a snare to some sincere but weak consciences. It may be remarked that, in those codes of law which most resemble that of Moses on the general subject, no prohibition of the marriage of two I sisters in succession can be found. (See Westhead, Marriage Code of Israel, Lond. 1850 ; Critici Sac. Thes. I Nov. i, 379.)— Kitto, s. v. See Marriage. 2. The substance of the Levitical law is adopted in England, and ma}7 be found in the "table of degrees" within which persons may not marry, which was set forth by Archbishop Parker in 1563, and was confirm- ed by can. xcix of the synod of London, 1604. See . Incest. I 3. According to the Roman canon law, affinity arises from marriage or from an unlawful intercourse be- tween the one party and the blood relations of the other party ; but in cither case it is necessary that cop- ' ula sit completa (.5. Thomas, 4to, dist. 41, qu. 1, art. 1). Persons related to each other may contract affinity, as the husband with the relations of his wife, without the relations of the parties becoming bound together b3r any affinity ; e. g. two brothers may marry two sis- ! ters, a father and bis son ma}' marry a mother and her daughter. The impediment of affinity, arising from marriage consummated, extends canonicallv, as in natural relationship, to the fourth dejrree inclusive. The impediment of affinity arising ex coitu illicito only extends to the second degree (Cone. Trid. sess. 24, de reform, cap. 4). It is ruled in the Latin Church that the pope cannot dispense in the first degree of affinity in the direct line, but he can in the indirect; thus he can grant a dispensation to a man to marry his broth- er's widow. See Consanguinity. Affirmative (Gr. ciajitjiaio^tai, diiaxvpi&fiat, etc.). Among the Jews the formula of assent or af- firmation was Fl'na'l "3, av HTrac, thou hast said, or thou hast rightly said. It is stated by Aryda and oth- ers that this is the prevailing mode in which a person expresses his assent, at this day, in Lebanon, especial- ly when he does not wish to assert any thing in ex- press terms. This explains the answer of our Saviour to the high-priest Caiaphas (Matt, xxvi, 64), when he was asked whether he was the Christ, the son of God (see also Matt, xxvi, 25, and comp. John xviii, 37). Instances occur in the Talmud : thus, "A certain man was asked, ' Is Rabbi dead ?' He answered, ' Ye have said:' on which they rent their clothes" — taking it for granted from this answer that it was so (Jerusalem Talmud, Kila'im, xxxii, 2). — All readers even of trans- lations are familiar with a frequent elegancy of the Scriptures, or rather of the Hebrew language, in using an affirmative and negative together, by which the sense is rendered more emphatic : sometimes the neg- ative first, as Psa. cxviii, 17, "I shall not die, but AFFRE 03 AFRICA live," etc. ; sometimes the affirmative first, as Isa. xxxviii, 1, " Thou shalt die, and not live." In John i, 20, there is a remarkable instance of emphasis pro- duced by a negative being placed between two affirm- atives, "And he confessed, and denied not, but con- fessed, I am not the Christ." — Kitto. See Oath. Affre, Denis Auguste, archbishop of Paris, was bom at St. Roma du Tarn, 1793. He became in 1811 professor of philosophy at Nantes ; and, after having been, in 1816, ordained priest, in 1818 was made pro- fessor of theology at the seminary of St. Sulpice in Paris ; in 1821, vicar-general of the diocese of Lueon ; in 1823, vicar-general at Amiens ; in 1834, canon and honorary vicar-general of Paris. In 1839 he was ap- pointed coadjutor of the bishop of Strasburg, but, be- fore entering upon his episcopal duties at Strasburg, he was, after the death of Archbishop Quelen, of Paris, appointed one of the three vicars capitular of the dio- cese, and in 1840 appointed by Louis Philippe arch- bishop of Paris. He had several conflicts with the government of Louis Philippe, especially upon the emancipation of the Church and school from the state. During the insurrection of 1848, he climbed upon a barricade in the Place de la Bastille, carrying a green bough in his hand, as a messenger of peace, and wish- ed to persuade the insurgents to lay down their arms. He had scarcely uttered a few words when the insur- gents and the troops commenced firing again, and he fell, mortally wounded by a musket ball, coining ap- parently from a window above. He was carried by the insurgents into the house of a priest, and the next day was removed to his palace, where he died, June 27, 1848. On the 28th of June the National Assembly passed the following resolution : " The National As- sembly considers it a duty to proclaim the sentiments of religious gratitude and of profound grief which all hearts have felt at the saintly and heroical death of the archbishop of Paris." His writings include Traite de I' adm in >'st ratio?i des Paroisses (1827) ; Traite des holes primaries (1826) ; Traite des appels comma d'ahns; Su premalie temporelle du Pape (1829, in the Gallican in terest) ; Propriete des Mens ecclesiastiques ; Essai sur les Hieroglyphes Egyptiem (1834, maintaining the insuffi ciency of the system of Champollion to explain the hieroglyphics) ; Introduction Philosophique a I' etude du Christianisme. See biographies of Archbishop Affre by Henry de Rianc}r, and Abbe Cruice (subsequently bishop of Marseilles). Afghanistan, a country of Asia. Its area is esti- mated at 225,000 square miles, and its population at about 4,000,000, most of whom are Mohammedans, be- longing partly to the Soonite and partly to the Shiite sect. Hindoos, Christians, and Jews are tolerated. There are besides two Indian sects, which have adhe- rents in India, the Sufis, who hold pantheistic views, and the Mullah Fukkis, who are freethinkers. The clergy (Mullah) are, at the same time, also teachers Schools, in which reading and the Mohammedan re- ligion are taught, are found in almost every village. The Presbyterian Mission in Northern India has di- rected its attention also to the neighboring Afghans, and established, in 1856, the first mission among them. Their missionary, the Rev. Isidor Lowenthal (q. v.), took up his residence at Peschawur, and en tered at once with ardor upon his work. Having acquired the difficult language of the Afghans, the Pushtoo, he translated and published in it the New Testament. The first native convert was baptized by him in 1859. — Pierer; Xeirs of the Churches, 1859. See Asia. Afra, martyr of Augusta Vindelicorum (Augs burg"), is reported to have been originally a common prostitute, but Rettberg (Kircheng. Deutschlands, i, 144) denies it. When the persecution in the time of Dio- cletian and Maximianus Herculius reached Augsburg, Afra was seized and carried before Gaius the judge, as a Christian ; when Gaius could by no means prevail upon her to deny the faith, he condemned her to be burned alive, which sentence was speedily executed (the 7th of August, 304) upon her, continually, during her agony in the flames, glorifying and blessing God. Her festival is kept on the 5th of August. — Butler, Lives of Saints, iii, 327. Africa, one of the four principal divisions of the globe, and the third in magnitude. The origin of its name is uncertain. Its general form is triangular, the northern part being the base, and the southern ex- tremity the vertex. Its length may be reckoned about 70 degrees of latitude, or 4990 miles ; and its greatest breadth something more than 4090 miles. Until the late researches of Livingstone and Barth, its interior was almost unknown. Only very rough estimates can be made of the pop- ulation of Africa. They vary from 60,000,000 to 200,000,000 and more. Most of the recent discoveries indicate, however, the existence of a dense population in the interior of Africa, and favor the highest esti- mates of the aggregate population. The natives are partly negroes, comprising the negroes proper, the Caffres, Betchuanas, Foolahs, Fellatas, Hottentots, Bushmen., etc. ; partly Caucasians, among whom be- long the Copts, Moors, Barbarians, Arabs, Abyssinians, Nubians, etc. Malays are to be found in Madagas- car, and numerous Europeans have settled in the Eu- ropean colonies. Until the beginning of the present centuiy a very large portion of Africa was yet entirely unknown to the civilized world. The Arabs, who had extended their rule in Africa in the 7th century, conquered the whole of the northern coast, and became acquainted with the western coast as far as the Senegal, and the eastern coast nearly as far as the Cape of Good Hope. For a better knowledge of the western coast we are indebted to the Portuguese, who, after the expulsion of the Moors from their country, pursued them to Africa, and gradually advanced routhward on the western coast. Steadily pushing forward, they cir- cumnavigated, in 1497, under Vasco de Gama, the Cape of Good Hope, and soon after explored the south-east- ern shore. The Portuguese were soon followed by English travellers (since 1550), who considerably con- tributed to a better knowledge of the entire coast. But the interior still remained an unknown land ; and even the bold travellers who were sent out by the African Society of London (established in 1788) could not overcome the immense obstacles, and many of them, as Ledyard, Lucas, Houghton. Mungo Park, Horne- mann, and Rontgen, lo>t their lives. Since the beginning of the present century the explo- rations into the interior of Africa have grown rapidly in number and in importance. The progress of the French rule in Algeria and in Senegambia, the increased pros- perity of the English colonies, the success of the numer- ous missionary societies, many of whose missionaries, as Livingstone, Moffat, Knoblecher, Kray.f, and Isen- berg, belong among the chief explorers of the interior, the construction of the Suez Canal, and the efforts made by European governments and the Geographical Societies of London, Paris, Berlin, etc., have given a wonderful impulse to the exploration of the interior. Important discoveries have quickly succeeded each other; and quite recently (1862) even the great prob- lem of many centuries, the discovery of the sources of the Nile, has been successfully solved by Captains Grant and Speke. All these discoveries and explora- tions have an important bearing upon the prospects of Christianity, for they give us a better knowledge of the religious views of the natives, of their habits and their languages, and thus teach the missionaries and the missionary societies what they have to over- come. The political divisions of Africa are much more nu- merous than those of any other of the grand divisions AFRICA 04 AFRICA of the earth's surface. On the north we have the em- pire of Morocco, the French province of Algeria, the pashaliks of Tunis, Tripoli, and Barca, and the oasis of Fezzan, dependencies of the Turkish empire ; Egypt, a vice-royalty of the Turkish empire, though in a state of quasi independency. On the east, Nubia and Kor- dofan, dependencies of Egypt; the empire of Abys- sinia, which has been recently enlarged by the subjec- tion of a number of savage tribes ; the countries bor- dering on the Gulf of Aden and the Indian Ocean, and stretching south-westward for more than 1000 miles. The names of the principal countries are Adel, Ajan, Berbera, Zanguebar, and Mozambique, the coast of which is held by the Portuguese. East of Mozam- bique is the populous island of Madagascar. In South Africa Great Britain has several important colonies. Cape Colony is the oldest of these, and occupies the southern portion of the continent ; above it, on the south-east, are Caffraria, Natal, and the Zulu country ; west of these, and separated from them by the Kalamba Mountains, are the Orange River and Transvaal re- publics, composed mostly of Dutch settlers and their Hottentot or Bechuana dependants. On the west coast, north of the Orange River, and extending about 300 miles into the interior, is the Hottentot country ; and lying between this and the Transvaal republics is the land of the Bechuanas. North of the Hottentot country is Lower Guinea, a country composed of nu- merous chieftaincies and some Portuguese colonies. Among the best known of these chieftaincies are An- gola, Congo, and Loango. Between this and the east- ern coast lies a vast tract, varying in width from ten to twenty-eight degrees of longitude, and extending from nearly ten degrees above to sixteen degrees be- low the equator, almost wholly unexplm-ed by Euro- peans. Upper Guinea, long known as the slave coast, is occupied by several native states, the largest being the kingdom of Dahomey. North of these is that re- gion known formerly as Soudan and Nigritia, com- posed of numerous and constantly changing states (Bornou, Timbuctoo, etc.), part of them Mohammedan, and part pagan. Turning again northward, we find the republic of Liberia and the British colony of Sierra Leone, both settled in great part by free negroes. Lying between this and the Great Desert is the coun- try of Senegambia ; the larger portion has already be- come a dependency of France. England has a settle- ment, Bathurst, at the mouth of the Gambia. The Great Desert, which extends eastward from this coun- try to the confines of Egypt and Nubia, is inhabited by tribes of Arab, or half Arab origin. 1. Biblical Notices. — Africa was peopled principally by Ham, or his descendants ; hence it is called the " land of Ham" in several of the Psalms. See Ham. Mizraim peopled Egypt (Gen. x, G, 13, 14), and the Pathrusim, the Naphtuhim, the Casluhim, and the Ludim, peopled other parts ; but the situations the}' occupied are not now known distinctly. It is thought that man}' of the Canaanites, when expelled by Joshua, retired into Africa; and the Mohammedans believe that the Amalekites, who dwelt in ancient times in the neighborhood of Mecca, were forced from thence by the kings descended from Zioram. — Pococke, Spec. Hist. Arab. See Canaanite. The necessary information relative to those places in Africa which are spoken of in Scripture will be found under their respective names, Abyssinia, Alex- andria, Egypt, Ethiopia, Libya, Cyrexe, etc. II. Early Christian Church in Africa.— The conti- nent of Africa, in the ancient Church, contained: 1. The Exarch'Ue of Africa Proper. This contained, in Africa Proconsularis, fourteen dioceses; in Numidia, fifteen ; in Mauritania, eighteen ; in Tripoli, five. A list of these is given, from the Xn/itia of Leo, by Bing- ham (Prig. Kecks, bk. ix, ch. vii; see also ch.'ii, § 5). 2. The Patriarchate of Alexandria, called also the Egyptian Patriarchate. It comprehended Libya, Pen- tapolis, Egypt, from Tripolis to the Red Sea, and Abyssinia, and contained more than a hundred Epis- copal sees. Thus the whole of the north of Africa was, in the early ages, Christian. In the fifth cen- tury the Vandals, who were Arians, founded an em- pire there. The worst enemies, however, of the Church in Africa were the Saracens, or Oriental Arabs, who, in the seventh and eighth centuries, overran the coun- try, and almost entirely extinguished the light of Christianity. The ancient sees which still remain are filled by Coptic prelates [see Copts], the chief of whom is the patriarch of Alexandria, and dependent upon him is the abuna, or patriarch of the Abyssini- ans. Of the ancient sees, although the names are known to us, the situation is entirely lost, owing to the change wrought in the names of places by the Arabs. Little, then, can be said of the geography, and as little of the chronology, of these bishoprics ; for, as to the former, all that we know is the provinces in which they were situated ; as to the latter, we have no proofs of the most ancient before the third century, and of very few later than the seventh. — Bingham, Oriff. Eccl. ix, 7. See Abyssinia ; Alexandria ; Ethiopia ; Carthage. III. The Roman Catholic Church. — The circumnavi- gation of Africa in the fifteenth century led to con- quests of the Portuguese and Spaniards, and, in con- nection with them, to the establishment of Roman Catholic missions. In Western Africa the population of several entire kingdoms [see Angola ; Congo], and of a large number of islands, became, at least nominally, connected with the Roman Church. In Eastern Africa, Mozambique and the islands Bourbon and Mauritius were the principal missionary fields. In Northern Africa several bishoprics were establish- ed in the Spanish possessions. The establishment of the French dominion in several parts of Western and Northern Africa, especially in Algeria, likewise en- larged greatly the territory of the Roman Catholic Church and improved its prospects. Also in the Eng- lish possessions a considerable Roman Catholic popu- lation gradually gathered, especially among the Irish immigrants. Great efforts were also made by the Roman missionaries to eft'ect a union of the Copts and Abyssinians with their Church, but without much per- manent success. See Copts; Abyssinia. Repeat- edly Roman missionaries penetrated farther into the interior, but no great results have as yet been obtain- ed. In 1859 there was, outside of the possessions of Christian nations and of Tunis, Tripolis, and Egypt, only one vicariate apostolic for the Gallas. IV. The Protestant Missions. — Protestantism got a firm footing in Africa after the beginning of the seven- teenth century, in the possessions of the Dutch, English, and Danes. The foundation of another Protestant state was laid in 1823 by the establishment of the negro republic Liberia, whose growth and prospective influ- ence is entirely under the control of Protestant Chris- tianity. See Liberia. Missionary operations among the natives were commenced in South Africa, in 1737, by the Moravians. Their early operations, however, were greatly embarrassed by the Dutch colonial gov- ernment, and, for fifty years (1744 to 1792), entirely interrupted. During all this time nothing was done for the conversion of the pagans. The London Mis- sionary Society established its first mission in 1795, the Wesleyan Missionary Society in 1814. In 1820 a mission was established by the Glasgow Missionary Society, a union of members of the Established Church of Scotland and Dissenters. In 1838 this union was dissolved, the members of the Established Church re- taining the old name, and the Dissenters taking the name of the Glasgow African Missionary Society. After the division in the Church of Scotland in 1843, the Glasgow Missionary Society became merged in the foreign mission scheme of the Free Church of Scot- land. The Glasgow African Missionary Society trans- AFRICA 05 AFRICA .L.rstf OLONGITUDE EAST 20 FROM GREENWICH -10 Map of Modern Africa. ferred its operations, in 1847, to the care of the United Presbyterian Church. The first missionaries of the Paris Evangelical Missionary Society came to Africa in 1822, and commenced, in 1830, their present mis- sion among the Bechuanas. The American Board re- solved in 1834 on a mission among the Zulus, which was commenced in 1835. The Rhenish Missionary Society sent to Africa, in 1829, four graduates of their Mission Seminary at Barmen. Most of the flourish- ing stations founded by it are within the limits of the territory of the Dutch Boers. The operations of the Berlin Society commenced in 1833 ; those of the Nor- wegian Missionary Society, near Port Natal, in 1853. In West Africa the first efforts to introduce the Gos- pel were singularly disastrous. Attempts made by the Moravians in 1736, and by several English soci- eties since 1795, had soon to lie relinquished as hope- less. A permanent settlement was effected by the Church Missionary Society in 1804, which has I n very successful, and is still extending its operations on every side. A bishop for Sierra Leone was conse- crated in 1852. The English Baptist Missionary So- ciety established in 1841 a flourishing mission at the island of Fernando Po, hut it was almost entirely sup- pressed in 1858 by a new Spanish governor. The missions of the Wesleyan Missionary Society of Eng- land commenced as early as 1796, but until 1811 there was only one missionary. They have since become the most flourishing among all the Protestant missions in West Africa. The missions of the American Bap- tist Missionary Union, in Liberia and among the Bas- sas, commenced in 1821 ; those of the (American) AFRICA OG AFRICA Pres by terian Board, in Liberia, in 1832 ; of the Amer- ican Board, at Cape Palmas, in 1834 ; of the Metho- dist Episcopal Church, in Liberia, in 1833; of the Southern Baptist Convention of America, in Liberia and Yoruba, in 1853 ; of the American Missionary Association in the Sherbro country, in 1842; of the Basle Missionary Society, at the Gold Coast, in 1828; of the Protestant Episcopal Church of America, at Cape Palmas, in 1836. A new interest in the mis- sions of Western Africa was awakened in England by the return of Dr. Livingstone, and an enlargement of the missionary operations resolved upon. In Eastern Africa, the island of Madagascar was visited in 1818 by missionaries of the London Missionary Society, and a large number of the natives were converted to Chris- tianity. But the premature death of King Radama in 1828 put a stop to the progress of Christianity, and, in 1836, the mission schools were closed and the mission- aries driven from the island. The persecution lasted until the death of Radama's widow, Ranavalona, and the accession to the throne of Radama II in 1861, un- der whom Christianity was again tolerated, and began to make new progress. The assassination of Radama in 1863 had no influence on the legal condition of the Christians, who, in 1864, were supposed to number about 7000. See Madagascar. In Abyssinia, Ger- man missionaries of the Basle society have labored in behalf of Protestantism since 1830, without, however, achieving any permanent result. See Abyssinia. Egypt has some flourishing churches, schools, and be- nevolent institutions for the Protestant residents of foreign countries, and the United Presbyterians of America sustain there a prosperous mission. See Egypt. V. Ecclesiastical Statistics. — The entire population of the Cape Yerde, St. Thomas, and Prince's Islands (Portuguese), of the Spanish Presidios and Guinea Islands, and of the French island of Bourbon, belong to the Roman Catholic Church. The same is the case with a majority of the population of the English island of Mauritius and of the European population in Al- geria. In Angola and Benguela the Portuguese claim dominion over 657,000, in Mozambique, over 300,000 subjects ; but with the decline of the Portuguese pow- er also, the connection of the natives with the Roman Church has to a great extent ceased. Angola had, in 1857, only 6 priests, Mozambique only 3. See also Egypt and Abyssinia. The Roman Church had, in 1859, 5 bishoprics in the Portuguese possessions, 2 in the French, 1 in the English, 2 in the Spanish ; and 12 vicariates apostolic, viz., 2 in Egypt (1 Latin and 1 Copt), 1 in Tunis, 1 in Abyssinia, 1 for the country of the Gallas, 2 for the Cape of Good Hope, 1 for the two Guineas, 1 for Sierra Leone, 1 for Madagascar, 1 for Natal. See Algeria. The African missions of the Roman Church are mostly supported by the General Missionary Society for the Propagation of Faith. There are, besides, spe- cial missionary societies for Africa in France and Aus- tria. The Church of England had, in 1864, the follow- ing dioceses: Capetown, Grahamstown, Sierra Leone, St. Helena, Natal, Zambesi, Orange River, Niger, the last three of which are outside of the British domin- ions. These bishoprics constitute the "Ecclesiastical Province of South Africa," with the Bishop of Cape- town as metropolitan. The Wesleyan Methodists, in 1864, had 6 missionary districts (Cape of Good Hope, Grahamstown, Natal, Sierra Leone, Gambia, and the Gold Coast), 75 circuits, 204 chapels, 366 other preach- ing places, 95 missionaries and assistant missionaries, 17,955 members, 18,059 scholars in schools, and 76,485 attendants on public worship. The missions of the Methodist Episcopal Church in "Western Africa are organized into an Annual Conference, which, in 1864, had 19 travelling preachers, 1351 members, 142 proba- tioners, 36 local preachers, 98 native members, 20 schools, 1334 scholars, and 19 churches. The statistics of the other missionary societies were given by the Journal of Missions, in 1859, as follows : American. American Hoard Presb'n Board (including Reformed Presbyter'us) Episcopal Board Southern Baptists Amer. Miss. Association . Total of American. . . London Missionary Soc. . . Baptist Missionary Soc . Church of Scotland Free Church of Scotland. United Presb. of Scotland Moravians Basle Missionary Society. Rhenish Missionary Soc. . French Evangelical Mis- sionary Society Berlin Missionary Society Norwegian Miss. Soc. North Gorman Miss. Soc. . Total of European. . . Grand total. . 20S 207 2S6 1,1S5 4S 1,934 3,ss3 '35- l,!i7G 1TI 1.70 I 3 |10 ! 5 ; 39 S,-'Si) 10,214 175 1213 r:;3 ?5C0 "?2 1555 3S71 Other Christian denominations are found only in Egypt and Abyssinia (q. v.). Jews are numerous in all Northern Africa, especially in Morocco, where, be- fore the persecution in 1859, they counted over 300,000 souls. Mohammedanism prevails in Egypt, Tunis, Tripolis, Algeria, Morocco, Fez, and also throughout Soudan. Dieterici estimated this part of the popu- lation at about 100 million souls. The rest are pa- gans. The following table, taken from Schem's Ec- clesiastical Year-book for 1859, presents the statistics of the Roman Catholic, Protestant, and Christian pop- ulation in the various portions of Africa : 1 Roman 1 Protes- | Catholics. | tants. Christians. 201,000 Other English Possessions 1-20,001) 133,000 439,000 12,000 noo.ooo igo,ooo 27.000 30,000 ' '200 10.000 400,003 10,000 2,000 ?50,o6o 534,000 140,000 Portuguese Possessions 439,000 12,000 Angola, Benguela, Mozambique 100,00 1 170,000 200,000 3,000,000 53,000 200 Tunis and Tripolis 10,000 Total 1,051,200 720,000 See Newcomb, Cyclopedia of Missions. VI. Literature. — The religious aspects of the sub- ject are treated in the following works : Sanchez, Hist. Eccles. Africans (Madrid, 1784) ; Morcelli, Africa Christiana (Bresc. 1816, Gott. 1820); Munter, Primor- dia Eccles. Africanee (Hafn. 1829) ; Loscher, De patrum j Africanor. meiitis (Roehlitz, 1712) ; Kellner, Nord-Af- rika's Eelig. in the Deutsche* Magaz. v, 256 sq. ; Von Gerlach, G'esch. d.Ausbreit. d. Christenth. in Siid-Afrika (Berl. 1832). The most recent geographical informa- tion is contained in Livingstone's Travels in S. Africa \ (Lond. 1857, N. Y. 1858); Zambesi (Loud, and N. Y. 1865) ; Barth's Travels in Ar. and Cent. Africa (Lond. and N. Y. 1857-1850) ; Krapf 's Trar. and Afissions in Ens/em Africa (Lond. and N. Y. 1860); Burton, Lake Reports of Cent. Africa (Lond. and N. Y. 1860); An- dersson, Lake Ngami (Lond. and N. Y. 1850) ; Bald- win, South Africa (Lond. and N. Y. 1863) ; Cumminir, Hunter's Life in Africa (Lond. and N. Y. 1850) ; Wil- son, Western Africa (N. Y. 1856) ; Dti Chaillu, Equa- torial A frica (N. Y. 1>-'61) ; Moffat, Adventures in South | Africa (Lond. and N. Y. 1865). AFRICAN M. E. CHURCH 97 AFRICAN M. E. Z. CHURCH African Methodist Episcopal Church, a body of Christians composed entirely of colored peo- ple in the United States and Canada. I. History. — The early Methodists labored zealous- ly for the welfare of the Africans, both slaves and free, in the United States. Multitudes of them be- came Methodists, and thousands are now in the fel- ' lowship of the Methodist Episcopal Church (q. v.), which, at its General Conference of 1864, organized two new conferences, consisting exclusively of col- ored members. In 1810, a number of these Metho- dists, believing that they could be freer and more use- ful in a separate communion, called a convention in Philadelphia, which, in April of that year, organized the "African Methodist Episcopal Church." The Rev. Richard Allen (q. v.) was elected first bishop, ! and was ordained by five presbyters. He served until his death in 1831. In 1828 the Rev. M. Brown was also elected bishop. In 183G the Rev. E. Waters was ordained bishop. The growth of the Church has been steady, and man}' of its preachers have been men of ability. It had, in 1858,8 conferences: Baltimore, Philadelphia, New York, Ohio, Indiana, New Eng- land, Missouri. In 185G the Canada Conference was organized as a separate body. The civil war which broke out in the United States in 1861, and the grad- ual destruction of slaver}', greatly enlarged the terri- tory of this Church and added to its membership. In May, 1864, the Quadrennial General Conference of the Church was held at Philadelphia, simultaneously with the General Conferences of the Methodist Epis- copal Church and of the African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church. The General Conference was visited by a deputation from the General Conference of the Methodist Episcopal Church, and, to reciprocate this act of fraternal sentiment, appointed in its turn a committee, consisting of five members, to visit the latter body. A committee was also appointed to ma- ture, with a similar committee appointed by the Afri- can Methodist Episcopal Zion Church, a plan of union of these two denominations, to be laid before the next General Conferences of both. On June 14, 1864, twenty -five delegates of this Church met, with an equal number of the African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church, at Philadelphia, to | consider the terms upon which the two bodies could unite. The session of the joint convention was en- tirely harmonious. All the arrangements for the con- summation of a union were perfected, and all were satisfied that at the next meeting of the General Con- ferences of the two Churches in 1863 the union would be effected. On May 15, 1865. Bishop Payne reorganized the South Carolina Annual Conference of the A. M. E. Church. This Church was first established in Charles- ton forty years ago. Among those concerned in the movement was Morris Brown, the second bishop of the connection. The church then founded existed in pros- perity for six years, worshipping in a house erected by themselves, when the African M. E. Church as a sepa- rate organization was overthrown, and ever since, un- til the breaking out of the rebellion, the colored people were compelled to worship with the whites, and were brought under the pastoral care of the white pastors. Upon the fall of Charleston, Bishop Payne proceeded to that city, and, the laws of South Carolina to the contrary notwithstanding, reorganised an Annual Con- ference. II. Doctrines. — The doctrines are the same as those of the Methodist Episcopal Church (q. v.). III. Government.— The bishops preside in the con- ferences and station the ministers; they are styled " Right Reverend." The General Conference is com- posed of travelling preachers of two years' standing, and of local preachers delegated by the Annual Con- ference, in the ratio of one to every five travelling preachers. Its sessions are quadrennial. The An* G nual Conference consists of all the travelling preach- ers in full connection, and of all local preachers who have been licensed a certain period, and can pass a satisfactory examination. In other respects the gov- ernment resembles that of the M. E. Church. IV. Statistics. — From the reports made at the Gen- eral Conference of 1864 on the constitution of the Church, it appears that in that year the real estate and church property was estimated at about $2,000,000, lo- cated in the New England States, the North-western States, in Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, Kentucky, Missouri, Kansas, Arkansas, Tennessee, Mississippi, Louisiana, South Carolina, and California. The mem- bership of the connection was about 50,000 ; the num- ber of those attending the Church, 300,000 ; local preachers, 1000 ; travelling preachers, 500 ; ordained ministers, 200 ; and 3 bishops. Missions had been es- tablished in nearly all of the states above named, and the number of missionaries was about 20. The Church had about 1200 day-schools, and 1000 teachers of color, educated at the various institutions of learning in the United States and Canada. Sunday-schools had been established in connection with nearly all of the meet- ing-houses. They were attended by about 200,000 children, and some 200,000 volumes of Sunday-school books were used. The highest literary institution of the denomination is Wilberforce University, which is under the control of the General Conference, and lo- cated three miles north of Xenia, Green County, Ohio. It had, in 1864, about 100 students. There are also seminaries at Baltimore, Columbus (O.), Alleghany, and Pittsburg. The school near Columbus has a farm of 172 acres. There are two religious papers, the Christian Recorder, a weekly, issued by the Book Concern at Philadelphia, and the Repository. African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church , a religious denomination con posed entirely of colored Methodists. I. History. — This denomination originated in the secession, in 1820, of the Zion congregation of African Methodists, in the city of New York, from the Meth- odist Episcopal Church. The congregation assigned as the cause of its separation some resolutions passed by the General Conference of the Methodist Episco- pal Church, in 1820, concerning Church government. Zion congregation was soon joined by several other congregations, and in 1821 the first Annual Conference was held in the city of New York, which was attended by 22 ministers, and repoi'ted the number of members connected with the Conference as being 1426. For seven more years successively an Annual Conference was convened, each of which appointed its president. At the Annual Conference of 1838, the Rev. Christo- pher Rush was elected permanent superintendent for four years. In 1817 the denomination had 2 general superintendents, 4 annual conferences ■ ( New York, Philadelphia, Boston, and Baltimore), 75 travelling ministers, from 150 to 200 local preachers and exhort- ers, 5000 lay members, 50 churches, and many congre- gations without churches, in 11 states of the Union, the District of Columbia, and Nova Scotia. The Gen- eral Conference of 1864, held at Philadelphia, declared in favor of a union with the African Methodist Epis- copal Church (q. v.). II. Doctrines. — The doctrines are the same as those ■ of the Methodist Episcopal Church (q. v.). III. Government, — The highest functionaries of the Church are general superintendents, who are elected to their office every four years by the suffrage of the members of the General Conference. They may be re-elected at the expiration of their term. The Gen- eral Conference meets every four years, and is com- posed of all the travelling ministers of the connection. The Annual Conference is composed of all the travel- ling ministers of a district. See Rev. Christopher Rush's Hut. of the African Methodist Church (N. Y.). AFRICAN US I Africanus, Julius (called by Suidas Sexius Ju- lius), was an intimate friend of Origen, an eminent Christian chronographer, and flourished about the year 220. Having been attracted by the fame of Her- aclas, a celebrated philosopher, and pupil of Origen, he came to Alexandria to study with him, but he seems to have lived chiefly at Nicopolis (the ancient Emmaus), in Palestine, and to have exerted himself for its restoration ; for which purpose, in 220, he made a visit to Antoninus Heliogabalus, to obtain from him permission that the walls of the ruined city should be rebuilt. According to one writer (Hebedjesu, Cat. lib. Chald. xv, 18), he was bishop of Nicopolis. He died about 232. Africanus wrote a chronological work in five sections under the title of Pentabiblos — a sort of universal history, composed to prove the antiquity of true religion and the novelty of paganism. Frag- ments of this chronology are extant in the works of Eusebius, Syncellus, Malala, Theophanes, Cedrenus, and in the " Chronicon Pasehale." The "Pentabib- los" commences with the creation, B.C. 5499, and closes with A.D. 221. The chronology of Africanus places the birth of Christ three years before the com- mencement of our era. But under the reign of Dio- cletian ten years were taken from the number which had elapsed, and thus the computation of the Church- es of Alexandria and Antioch were reconciled. Ac- cording to Fabricius {Bibl. Gr. ed. nova, viii, 9), there exists at Paris a manuscript containing an abstract of the " Pentabiblos." Scaliger has borrowed, in his edition of Eusebius, the chronology of Africanus ex- tant in "Geo. Syncelli Chronographia ab Adaino ad Dioclesianum, k Jac. Goar" (Gr. et Lat., Paris, 1652, fol.). Africanus wrote a learned letter to Origen, in which he disputes the authenticity of the apocryphal history of Susannah (Basle, Gr. and Lat. 1674," 4to). A great part of another letter of Africanus to Aristides, reconciling the disagreement between the genealogies of Christ in Matthew and Luke, is extant in Eusebius (bk. vi, ch. xxxi). It is believed that Africanus was still a pagan when he wrote his work entitled Cestus (Kiaroc, girdle of Venus), in which he treats of agriculture, medicine, physics, and especially the military art. Hebedjesu, in his catalogue of Chaldean works, mentions a com- mentary on the N. T. by Africanus, bishop of Emmaus. Finally, a translation of the work of Abdias of Baby- lon, entitled Historia certaminis apost-olici, has been at- tributed to Africanus, but probaldy erroneously. The fact of a man so learned and intelligent as the chronologer Africanus being a Christian, refutes the error of those who think that all Christians in the first centuries of our era were illiterate. The criticisms of Africanus upon the apocryphal books seem to attest that he did not receive the canonical writings of the New Testament without previous examination ; and, from his manner of reconciling the different genealo- gies of Christ, it appears certain that he recognised the authenticity of the Gospels in which they occur. — Cave, Hist. Lit. ann. 220; Lardner, Works, ii, 457. Afternoon (D^tl rVlBS, netotli ha-yom', the day's declining, Judg. xix, 8, as in the margin). The He- brews, in conformity with the Mosaic law, reckoned the day from evening to evening, and divided it into Bix unequal parts : 1. The break of day. 2. The morning, or sunrise. 3. The heat of the day. It begins about nine o'clock (Gen. xviii, 1 ; 1 Sam. xi, 11). 4. Midday. 5. The cool of the day, literally the wind of the day, from the fact that in Eastern countries a wind com- mences blowing regularly for a few hours before sun- Bet, and continues till evening. 6. The evening. See Day. Ag'aba (AKKafia, prob. i. q. Agabus), one of the 1 AGAG temple servants, whose " sons" returned from Baby- lon (1 Esdr. v, 30), evidently the Hagab (q. v.) of the genuine text (Ezr. ii, 46). Agaba ("Aya/3a), a fortress near Jerusalem, which Galesius, its governor, restored to Aristobulus, the son of Alexander Jannasus (Josephus, Ant. xiii, 24, 5). The place cannot well be identified on account of the various readings (see Hudson's ed. i, 602, note), one of which (ra/3a3«) even seems to identify it with Gab- batha (q. v.). It was perhaps the eminence of Gib- eah (q. v.). Ag'abus ("Aya/3oc ; either from the Heb. 2511, a locust [which even occurs as a proper name, Ezra ii, 46], or 23?, to love; Simon. Onom. N. T. 15, and Wolf, Cur. ii, 1167), the name of "a prophet," supposed to have been one of the seventy disciples of Christ (AValch, Be Agabo Vate, Jen. 1757, and in his Diss, ad Act. Ap. ii, 131 sq.). He, with others, came from Judaea to Antioch, Avhile Paul and Barnabas (A.D. 43) were there, and announced an approaching famine, which actually occurred the following year (Acts xi, 27, 28). Some writers suppose that the famine was general ; but most modern commentators unite in understanding that the large terms of the original (oXi/v ti)v oiKovfiivrjv) apply not to the whole world, nor even to the whole Roman empire, but, as in Luke ii, 1, to Judaea only. Statements respecting four fam- ines, which occurred in the reign of Claudius (Oros. vii, 6; Euseb. Hist. Eccl. ii, 8-; Chron. Arm. ii, 269), are produced by the commentators who support this view (Wesseling, Obserr. i, 9, p. 28) ; and as all the countries put together would not make up a tenth part of even the Roman empire, they think it plain that the words must be understood to apply to that famine which, in the fourth year of Claudius (Suetonius, Claud. 18), overspread Palestine (see Kuinol, Comment. in loc). The poor Jews, in general, were then relieved by the queen of Adiabene, who sent to purchase corn in Egypt for them (.Josephus, Ant. xx, 2, 6 ; 5, 2) ; and for the relief of the Christians in that country con- tributions were raised by the brethren at Antioch, and conveyed to Jerusalem by Paul and Barnabas (Acts xi, 29, 30). Man}' years after, this same Agabus met Paul at Caesarea, and warned him of the sufferings which awaited him if he prosecuted his journey to Jeru- salem (Acts xxi, 10-12), A.D. 55. (See Conybeare and Howson's St. Paul, i, 127; ii, 233; Baumgarten, Apostelgesihichte, i, 270 sq. ; ii, 113.) The Greek Church assert that he suffered martyrdom at Antioch, and hold his festival on the 8th of March ( Eichhom, Bibl. d. bibl. Lit. i, 22, 23 ; vi, 20).— Kitto, s. v. A'gag (Heb. Agag', XIX, perh. fame, from an Arab, root, in 1 Sam. always written 53X ; Sept. Ay«y, but Tu>y in Num.), the name of two kings of the Ama- lekites, and probably a common name of all their kings (Hengstenberg, Pcntat. ii, 307), like Pharaoh in Egypt, and Achish or Abimelech among the Philis- tines. See also Agagite. 1. The king apparently of one of the hostile neigh- boring nations, at the time of the Exode (B.C. 1618), referred to by Balaam (Num. xxiv, 7) in a manner implying that the king of the Amalekites was, then at least, a greater monarch, and his people a greater people, than is commonly imagined. See Amalekite. 2. A king of the Amalekites, who was spared by Saul, contraiy to the solemn vow of devotement to de- struction [see Anathema] whereby the nation, as such, had of old precluded itself from giving any quar- ter to that people (Exod. xvii, 14 ; Num. xiv, 45). Hence when Samuel arrived in the camp of Saul he ordered Agag to be brought forth. He came " pleas- antly," deeming secure the life which the king had Spared. But the prophet ordered him to be cut in pieces; and the expression which he employed — "As th}' sword hath made women childless, so shall thy mother be childless among women" — indicates that, AGAGITE 99 AGAPE apart from the obligations of the vow, some such ex- ample of retributive justice was intended as had been exercised in the case of Adonibezek; or, in other words, that Agag had made himself infamous by the same treatment of some prisoners of distinction (prob- ably Israelites) as he now received from Samuel (see Diedrichs, Hinrichtung Agag's, Gott. 1776). The un- usual mode in which his death was inflicted strongly supports this conclusion (1 Sam. xv, 8-33). B.C. cir. 1070.— Kitto, s. v. See Samuel. Ag'agite [others A'gaijite~\ (Hob. Agag'i ' , ^SJX, Sept. Bovycaoc, 'Mcikscuiv, Vulg. Agagites), the name of the nation to which Haman (q. v.) belonged (Esther iii, 1, 10; viii, 3, 5; ix, 24). Josephus explains it as meaning Amalekite {Ant. xi, 6, 5). See Agag. Agalla or Agallim. See EglaIm. Agam. See Reed. Agape, plural Agap.e («ya7r>;, aydirat), the Greek term for love, used by ecclesiastical writers (most fre- quently in the plural) to signify the social meal of the primitive Christians, which generally accompanied the Eucharist. The New Testament does not appear to give it the sanction of a divine command : it seems to be attributable to the spirit of a religion which is a bond of brotherly union and concord among its pro- fessors. See Eucharist. 1. Much learned research has been spent in tracing the origin of this custom; but, though considerable obscurity may rest on the details, the general histor- ical connection is tolerably obvious. It is true that the tpavot and iratpiai, and other similar institutions of Greece and Rome, presented some points of resem- blance which facilitated both the adoption and the abuse of the Agapa: by the Gentile converts of Chris- tianity ; but we cannot consider them as the direct models of the latter. If we reflect on the profound impression which the transactions of "the night on which the Lord was betrayed" (1 Cor. xi, 23) must have made on the minds of the apostles, nothing can be conceived more natural, or in closer accordance with the genius of the new dispensation, than a wisli to perpetuate the commemoration of his death in con- nection with their social meal (Neander, Leben Jesu, p. 643 ; Planting of the Christian Church, i, 27). The primary celebration of the Eucharist had impressed a sacredness on the repast of which it formed a part (comp. Matt, xxvi, 2G ; Mark-xiv, 22, with Luke xxii, 20 ; 1 Cor. xi, 25) ; and when to this consideration we add the ardent faith and love of the new converts on the one hand, and the loss of property with the disrup- tion of old connections and attachments on the other, which must have heightened the feeling of brother- hood, we need not look farther to account for the insti- tution of the Agapte, at once a symbol of Christian love and a striking exemplification of its benevolent energy. However soon its purity was soiled, at first it was not undeserving of the eulogy pronounced by Chrysostom : "A custom most beautiful and most ben- eficial ; for it was a supporter of love, a solace of pov- erty, a moderator of wealth, and a discipline of humil- ity." Thus the common meal and the Eucharist formed together one whole, and were conjointly denominated Lord's Supper (cuttvov too Kvpiov, cti-vov Kvptaieuv) am\ feast of love (dyenrn). They were also signified (according to Mosheim, Neander, and other eminent critics) by the phrase, breaking of bread (kK&vtiQ ap- rov, Acts ii, 4G ; tXaaic rov apron, Acts ii, 42 ; Kkaacu aprov, Acts xx, 7). We find the term (lyi'nrat thus applied once, at least, in the New Testament (.hide 12), "These are spots in your feasts of charity" (iv rale nyrtVnic vpiov). The reading in 2 Pet. ii, 13, is of doubtful authority : " Spots and blemishes, living lux- uriously in their Agapre" (IvrpvQ&VTtQ iv rate ayu- Traig avruiv) ; but the common reading is iv rale cnrciTaig avrwv, "in their own deceivings." The phrase ayenrnv 7ro(f7i'was early employed in the sense of celebrating the Eucharist; thus in the epistle of Ig- natius to the church at Smyrna, § viii. In § vii romisctium tamen et innoxium." By the | ihrase " cibum promiscuum" (Augustine remarks) we are not to understand merely food partaken in common witli others, but common food, such as is usually eaten ; the term innoxium also intimates that it was perfectly wholesome and lawful, not consisting, for example, of human flesh (for, among other odious imputations, that of cannibalism had been cast upon the Christians, which, to prejudiced minds, might derive some appar- ent support from a misinterpretation of our Lord's lan- guage in John vi, 53, " Unless ye eat the flesh and drink the blood of the Son of man"), nor of herbs pre- pared with incantations and magical rites. I.ucian also, in his account of the philosopher Peregrinus, tells us that, when imprisoned on the charge of being a Christian, ho was visited by his brethren in the faith, who brought with them Btlirva irouciXa, which is generally understood to mean the provisions which were reserved for the absent members of the church at the celebration of the Lord's Supper, ( iesner remarks on this expression, uAgapiTcti et "SvvEiffaicroi (Viteb. 1708); Larroquanus, De Mulieribus Clericorum avvtiaaKralc (Viteb. 1708). Agapetus I, pope, son of Gordianus, a priest, by birth a Roman; succeeded John II in the papacy, April 21st (29th, Cave), 535. Theodatus, the king of the Goths in Italy, alarmed at the conquests of Belisa- rius, obliged Agapetus to proceed to Constantinople to sue for peace from the Emperor Justinian. This the pope was unable to obtain ; but he signalized his zeal for religion by refusing to communicate with Anthimus the Eutychian, then patriarch of Constantinople. The emperor endeavored to compel Agapetus to receive him into communion, but he resolutely persisted in his AGAPETUS 101 AGE refusal. Induced by this bold conduct to look more closely into the question, Justinian became convinced of the error that had been committed in elevating An- thimus to the patriarchal see, and by his order a coun- cil was held at Constantinople in 536, in which Aga- petus presided, where Anthimus was deposed, and Mennas elected in his stead, and consecrated by the pope. Agapetus died at Constantinople in that same year, on the 17th day of April, after having held the see eleven months and three weeks, according to the most probable opinion. His body was carried to Rome, and buried in the church of St. Peter, in the Vatican, September 20th, on which day his festival is marked in the Roman Martyrology. Five of his epistles re- main, viz., one to Justinian, two to Cresarius, bishop of Aries, and two to Eeparatus, bishop of Carthage. The epistle to Anthimus, given together with these in the Collections of Councils, is spurious. He was suc- ceeded by Silverius. — Biog. Univ.\o\.'\; Baronius, A.D. 535, 536 ; Cave, Hist. Lit. ann. 535. Agapetus II, pope, A.D. 946, was a Roman by birth, and was chosen, like his predecessor, by the fac- tion of Alberic. The first action of the pope was to establish his political rule over the churches of the em- pire. For this purpose he sent Marinus, bishop of Bormazo, in Tuscany, as a legate to the Emperor Otho I, to assemble a synod. This convention, composed of French and German prelates, was held at Ingelheim, in the church of St. Remi, on the 7th of June, 948, in the presence of Kings Otho and Louis. Marinus pre- sided over it. Notwithstanding the opposition of the synod, the legate re-established in his episcopal digni- ty Artaud, the former bishop of Rheims, who had been removed from his see by Hugo, count of Paris. In order to break down the powerful house of Maro- zia in Italy, Agapetus favored the claims of Otho to the imperial dignity, and was about to summon him to Rome, when the pope himself died, A.D. 955. His successor, John XII, placed the crown of Charlemagne on Otho's head. — Baronius, Annul. 951 ; Mosheim, Ch. Hist. cent, x, pt. ii, ch. ii. A'gar C'Ayap), a Grcecized form (Gal. iv, 24, 25) of the name Hagak (q. v.). Agard, Horace, an esteemed Methodist Episcopal minister, entered the itinerancy in the Genesee Con- ference in 1819. In 1821 he was ordained deacon, and in 1823 elder. In 1826 he was made presiding elder of the Susquehanna district, which he served for seven years, and then was transferred to Berkshire district. He filled the various posts to which he was called with great credit and success. In 1838 he was superannu- ated. His later years were clouded by nervous disease, which abated, so as to leave his mind clear and hap- py, a few days before his death in 1850. — Minutes of Conferences, iv, 498 ; Peck, Early Methodism, p. 457. Agareue (ul6g "Ay«p), a Graecized form (Baruch iii, 23) of the name Hagarene (q. v.). Agate (1l3tt5, shebo', signif. unknown ; Sept. a\d- tt]c, Vulg. achates), a precious, or rather ornamental stone, which was one of those in the breastplate (see Braunii Vest. Sacerd. Heb. ii, 15) of the high-priest (Exod. xxviii, 19; xxxix, 12). The word agate, in- deed, occurs also in Isa. liv, 12, and Ezek. xxvii, 6, in our translation ; but in the original the word is 13*7?, kadkod' . See Ruby. Theophrastus describes the agate as "an elegant stone, which took its name from the river Achates (now the Drillo, in the Val di Noto), in Sicily, and was sold at a great price" (58). But it must have been known long before in the East, and, in fact, there are few countries in which agates of some quality or other are not produced. The finest are those of India ; they are plentiful, and sometimes fine, in Italy, Spain, and Germany. We have no evi- dence that agates were found in Palestine. Those used in the desert were doubtless brought from Egypt. Pliny says that those found in the neighborhood of Thebes were usually red veined with white. He adds that these, as well as most other agates, were deemed to be effectual against scorpions, and gives some curi- ous accounts -of the pictorial delineations which the variegations of agates occasionally assumed. Agate is one of the numerous modifications of form under which silica presents itself, almost in a state of purity, forming 98 per cent, of the entire mineral. The sili- cious particles are not so arranged as to produce the transparency of rock crystal, but a semi-pellucid, some- times almost opaque substance, with a resinous or waxy fracture, and the various shades of color arise from minute quantities of iron. The same stone some- times contains parts of different degrees of translucen- cy, and of various shades of color; and the endless combinations of these produce the beautiful and sin- gular internal forms, from which, together with the high polish they are capable of receiving, agates ac- quire their value as precious stones. Agates are usually found in detached rounded nodules in that variety of the trap rocks called amygdaloid or man- delstein, and occasionally in other rocks. Some of the most marvellous specimens on record were proba- bly merely fancied, and possibly some were the work of art, as it is known that agates may be artificially stained. From Pliny we learn that in his time agates were less valued than they had been in more ancient times (Hist. Nat. xxxvii, 10). The varieties of the agate are numerous, and are now, as in the time of Pliny, arranged according to the color of their ground. The Scripture text shows the early use of this stone for engraving ; and several antique agates, engraved with exquisite beauty, are still preserved in the cab- inets of the curious. (For a further account of the modern agate, see the Penny Cyclopadia, b. v.) — Kit- to, s. v. See Gem. Agatha, a female Christian martyr, horn at Paler- mo, in the third century. Quint: nus, the pagan governor of Sicily (A.D. 251), captivated with her charms, and incensed by her rejection of his illicit overtures, tortured her in the most brutal manner. By his order she was first scourged with rods, then burnt with red-hot irons and cruelly torn with sharp hooks ; after which she was laid upon a bed of live coals mingled with glass. She died in prison Febru- ary 5, A.D. 251. The history of Agatha, however, given by the Bollandists, is suspected of corruption. — Tillemont, iii, 209; Butler, Lives of Saints, Feb. 5. Agatho, Pope, surnamed Thaumaturgus, on ac- count of his pretended gift of working miracles. He was a native of Palermo, in Sicily. On the 27th of June, 678, he was elected pope on the death of Donus. He is remembered mainly for his efforts against the Monothelite heresy. Chiefly by his instrumentality the 6th and last (Ecumenical Council was assembled in 680 at Constantinople against these opinions, to which he sent four legates ; and at that council the doctrine sanctioned by Pope Honorius was renounced by Pope Agatho — infallibility against infallibility. He died January 10th, 682. His letters against the Monothelites are preserved in the records of the 6th council (Hardouin, Concilia, torn. iii). Agathopolis, a diocesan town of Palestine re- ferred to in the records of the Council of Chalcedon, probably for " Azotopolis" (Reland, Palcest. p. 550) or Ashdod (q. v.). Age (represented by several Heb. and Gr. words), sometimes signifies an indefinite period ; at others, it is used for: 1. A generation (q. v.) of the human race, or thirty years ; 2. As the Latin smculum, or a hund- red years"; 3. The maturity of life (John ix, 21); 4. The latter end of life (Job xi, 17). See jEon. Old Age. The strong desire of a protracted life, and the marked respect with which aged persons were treated among the Jews, are very often indicated in the Scriptures. The most striking instance which AGEE 102 AGG.EUS Job can give of the respect in which he was once held, is that even old men stood up as he passed them in the streets (Job xxix, 8), the force of which is illustrated by the injunction in the law, " Before the hoary head thou shalt stand up, and shalt reverence the aged" (Lev. xix, 30). Similar injunctions are repeated in the Apocrypha, so as to show the deportment expected from young men toward their seniors in company. Thus, in describing a feast, the author of Ecclesiasticus (xxxii, 3, 7) says, " Speak thou that art the elder, for it becometh thee. Speak, young man, if there be need of thee, and yet scarcely when thou art twice asked." See Elder. The attainment of old age is constantly promised or described as a blessing (Gen. xv, 15 ; Job v, 2G), and communities are represented as highly favored in which old people abound (Isa. lxv, 20 ; Zech. viii, 4, 9), while premature death is denounced as the greatest of calamities to individuals, and to the families to which they belong (1 Sam. ii, 32) ; the aged are constantly supposed to excel in understanding and judgment (Job xii, 20; xv, 10; xxxii, 9 ; 1 Kings xii, 6, 8), and the mercilessness of the Chaldeans is expressed by their having " no com- passion" upon the " old man, or him who stooped for age" (2 Chron. xxxvi, 17). See Longevity. The strong desire to attain old age was necessarily in some degree connected with or resembled the respect paid to aged persons ; for people would scarcely desire to be old, were the aged neglected or regarded with mere sufferance. See Old. Attention to age was very general in ancient times ; and is still observed in all such conditions of society as those through which the Israelites passed. Among the Egyptians, the young men rose before the aged, and always yielded to them the first place (Herod, ii, 80). The youth of Sparta did the same, and were silent — or, as the Hebrews would say, laid their hand upon their mouth — when- ever their elders spoke. At Athens, and in other Greek states, old men were treated with correspond- ing respect. In China deference for the aged, and the honors and distinctions awarded to them, form a capital point in the government (Mem. sur les Chinois, i, 450) ; and among the Moslems of Western Asia, whose usages offer so many analogies to those of the Hebrews, the same regard for seniority is strongly shown. Among the Arabs, it is ven- seldom that a youth can be permitted to eat with men (Lane, Arabi- an Nights, c. xi, note 2G). With the Turks, age, even between brothers, is the object of marked deference (Urquhart, Spirit of the East, ii, 471). — Kitto, s. v. Canonical Age, i. e. proper for receiving orders. In the Latin Church it is forbidden to give the tonsure to any one unless he be seven years of age, and have been confirmed {Cone. Trid. sess. xxiii, cap. 4). The proper age for conferring the four minor orders is left to the discretion of the bishop ; but it is forbidden to promote any one to the rank of subdeacon under twenty-two years of age, to that of deacon under twenty-three, and to that of priest unless in his twen- ty-fifth year (Ibid; cap. 12). A bishop must be at least in his twenty-seventh year, or, more properly, thirty. In the Church of England a deacon may be admit- ted to the priesthood at the expiration of one year from the time of receiving deacon's orders, and not before, i. e. at twenty-four years of age at the earliest ; and it is to be noted that the stat. 13 Eliz. 12 declares all dis- pensations to the contrary to be absolutely void in law. The preface to the ordination service declares that every man, to be consecrated bishop, must be full thirty years of age. Adult Age, or that at which marriage may be contracted or religious vows made. The canonists agree that men may contract marriage at fourteen years of age, and women at twelve. Until the con- tracting parties are each twenty-one years of age, no marriage can be legally contracted without the con- sent of the parents or guardians of the party which is a minor. Ages of the World. The time preceding the birth of our Saviour has been generally divided into six ages : 1. From the beginning of the world to the Deluge ; 2. From the Deluge to the entrance of Abra- ham into the land of promise ; 3. From the entrance of Abraham into the land of promise to the Exodus ; 4. From the Exodus to the foundation of the Temple by Solomon ; 5. From the foundation of the Temple of Solomon to the Babylonian captivity ; 6. From the Babylonian captivity to the birth of our Lord. See Chronology. 'Hebrew; Jewish Account. Hebrew ; TJssher's Account. Samaritan. Septuajrint, Alexandrian. Josephus, as cor- rected by Hales. True Reckoning:. A.M. B.C. v£T A.M. B.C. Inter- val. A.M. B.C. Inter- vnl. A.M. B.C. vri." A.M. B.C. Inter- val. A.M B.C. Inter- 1650 2018 -'44 - 292 s 3358 3700 3700 ■J H )4 174-' 1312 S32 422 1656 302 430 480 410 4-22 1656 •_'iis:i •251 3 2992 :■',::'.><; 4000 MM 14 234S 1922 1491 1012 588 4 1656 426 430 4S0 424 5>8 1 1307 2::s4 2s 14 32! '4 371s i::i>5 4305 2998 1021 1411 loll 5ST 1307 1077 430 4S0 424 587 22112 3i:;:i 38 >4 4495 4910 55 >8 5508 3210 •2H39 1614 1013 539 2262 1207 425 001 424 589 1 2 2 02 331 8 5701 4184 4825 5411 5411 3155 2093 104s 1027 5^0 2250 1002 445 021 441 586 1657 20-5 2515 5105 55-5 4167 4172 1510 MIS- 165S 10111 588 0 1050 428 430 648 422 582 (Jiill of Abraham Solomon's Temple founded. . Solomon's Temple destroyed Birth of Christ (exact) Ag'ee (Heb. Age, MM; fugitive, Sept. 'Ayd v. r. Ao-rt), a Hararite, father of Shammah, which latter was one of David's chief warriors (2 Sam. xxiii, 11). B.C. ante 104G. Agellius, or Agelli, Antonio, born at Sorrento, in Naples, a bishop of Acerno. An account of him will be found in the letters of Peter Morin (Paris, 1G75). He was remarkable for his extensive knowl- edge of languages. He died at Acerno in 1G08. His works are : 1. A Commentary on the Psalms and Can- tieles I Rome, 1606, fob); 2. A Commentary on the Book of I. a in ntations, taken from the Greek writers and trans- lated ( Rome, 1589, 4to); 3. A Commentary on the Book of Proverbs I Verona, 1649, fol.) ; 4. .1 Commentary on Habakkuk (Antwerp, 1097, 8vo). lie was employed by Gregory XIII upon the beau- tiful Greek edition of the Septuagint, published at Rome, and was a member of the institution of persons called Scholastic!, who were charged with the office of superintending the printing establishment of the Vat- ican.— Landon, Eccl. Diet. s. v. Agenda (Lat. things to be don'?), among ecclesias- tical writers of the ancient Church, denotes (1,) divine service in general ; (2,) the mass in particular. We meet with agenda matutina and vespertina— morning and evening prayers ; agenda diet — the office of the da}-, whether feast or fast day ; agenda moriuorum — the ser- vice of the dead. It is also applied to church-books, compiled by public authority, prescribing the order to be observed by the ministers and people in the cere- monies and devotions of the Church. In this sense agenda occurs for the first time in a work of Johannes de Janua, about 1287. The name was especially used to designate a book containing the formulas of prayer and ceremonies to be observed by priests in their sev- eral ecclesiastical functions. It was generally adopted in the Lutheran Church of Germany, in which it is still in use, while in the Roman Church it has been, since the lGth century, supplanted by the term ritual (q. v.). For the history of the Lutheran Agendas, see Liturgy. Aggse'us (Ayya7oe), the Graicized form (1 Esdr. vi, 1 ; vii, 3; 2 Esdr. i, 10) of the name of the proph- et Haggai ^q. v.). AGIER 103 AGONISTICI Agier, Peter John, a French jurist, was born at Paris December 28th, 1748, of a Jansenist family. When forty years old he commenced the study of He- brew, and gave translations and comments on the prophets (principally on the four greater). In 1789 appeared his Vues sur la reformation des lois civiles, suivies d'un plan el d'tme classification de ces lois (Paris, 2 vols. 8vo), followed by his Psaumes nouvellenunt tra- duits en Francois sur VHebren, etc. (Paris, 1800, 3 vols. 8vo) ; Psalmi ad Jlebraicam veritatem translati, etc. (Paris, 1818, 1 vol. 16mo); Vues sur le second avenement de Jesus-Christ (Paris, 1818, 1 vol. 8vo) ; Propheties concernant Jesus-Christ et VEglise, eparses dans les Livres saints (Paris, 1819, 8vo) ; Les Prophetes nouvellement traduits de l Jlebreu, avec des explic. et des notes critiques (Paris, 1820-1822, 9 vols. 8vo) ; Com- mentaire sur V Apocalypse (Paris, 1823, 2 vols. 8vo). In all these works the Jansenist doctrines are strong- ly upheld. It is said of him that Napoleon, on seeing him once, said, "Voilh. un magistrat!" He died at Paris September 22d, 1823. — Mahul, Annuaire necrolo- gique (Paris, 1823). Agion, or rather Hagion (uyiov or liytov ayiwvi the holy or the most holy place). See Temple. A name anciently given to the inner portion of the church, which was appropriated to the clergy. See Adytum. It was so called because the most sacred services, especially the consecration of the Eucharist, were per- formed within it. This place had various names. See Bema. Agmon. See Rush. Agnes, saint and martyr. The acts of her mar- tyrdom which have come down to us as written by Ambrose are spurious, and nothing further is know n of her history than what Prudentius relates in the 14th Hymn, Trspi arecpdviov, and Ambrose in lib. i, de Vir- ginibus, which amounts to this : Agnes, at the early age of twelve or thirteen, having made profession of the Christian faith at Rome, was put to the torment to induce her to retract, in vain, and the judge ordered her to be conveyed to a house of ill fame, hoping that fear for her chastity might force her to recant. But God preserved his servant in this trial ; for, according to the tradition, the first man who cast his eyes upon her was struck with blindness, and fell nearly dead at her feet! Nevertheless the saintly story adds that she was immediately delivered over to the executioner and was beheaded, according to Ruinart, in 304, or, according to Bollandus, in the preceding century. Augustine, in his 273d Sermon, declares that he made that discourse on the anniversary of the passion of St. Agnes, St. Fructaosus, and St.Eulogius, viz., Jan. 21st, on which day her festival is celebrated by the Latin, Greek, and English Churches. Many churches con- tend for the honor of possessing her remains. — Butler, Lices of Saints, Jan. 21. Agnoe'tae (from ayvoUo, to be ignorant of), a sect which appeared about A.D. 370, adopting the opinions of Theophronius of Cappadocia. They questioned the omniscience of God, alleging that He knew things past only by memory, and things future only by uncertain prescience. Ecclesiastical historians mention another sect, which in the sixth century followed Themistins, deacon of Alexandria. They maintained that Christ was ignorant of man}- things, and particularly of the day of judgment (see Colbe, Agnoetismus, Giess. 1654). Eulogius, patriarch of Alexandria, ascribes this opin- ion to certain solitaries in the neighborhood of Jerusa- lem, who cited, in vindication of their opinion, Mark xiii, 32 : " Of that day and that hour knoweth no man, no, not the angels which are in heaven, neither the Son, but the Father." — Baronius, A.D. 535 ; Mosheim, Ch. Hist. cent, vi, pt. ii, ch. v, § 9 ; Walch, Hist, der Ketzereien, viii, 644. Agnus Dei (Lat. Jamb of God). (I.) A hymn gen- erally supposed to have been introduced into the Ro- man Mass service by Pope Sergius I in 688. It is more probable that before his time it had been sung by the clergy alone, and he only required the laity to join. The hymn is founded on John i, 29, begins with the words Agnus Dei, and is sung at the close of the mass. For a full account of the hymn and its varieties, see Pascal, Jiturg. Cathol. p. 51. (II.) A cake, of wax used in the Romish Church, stamped with the figure of a lamb supporting the ban- ner of the cross. These cakes, being consecrated by the pope on the Tuesday after Easter in the first and seventh years of his pontificate, are supposed by Ro- manists to possess great virtues. They cover them with a piece of stuff cut in the form of a heart, and carry them very devoutly in their processions. From selling these Agni Dei to some, and presenting them to others, the Romish clergy and religious officers de- rive considerable pecuniary advantage. The practice of blessing the Agnus Dei took its rise about the 7th or 8th, according to others, about the 14th century. Though the efficacy of an Agnus Dei has not been declared by Romish Councils, the belief in its vir- tues has been strongly and universally established in the Church of Rome. Pope Urban V sent to John Palaiologus, emperor of the Greeks, an Agnus fold- ed in fine paper, on which were written verses ex- plaining all its properties. These verses declare that the Agnus is formed of balm and wax mixed with chrism, and that being consecrated by mystical words, it possesses the power of removing thunder and dis- persing storms, of giving to women with child an easy delivery, of preventing shipwreck, taking away sin, repelling the devil, increasing riches, and of securing against fire. See Lamb. (III.) It also signifies, like the Greek word Poterio- calymma (7ror»/pio-/c«Ai>/(ju«), a cloth embroidered with the figure of a lamb, with which, in the Greek Church, the cup at the Lord's Supper is covered. See generally Fabricius, Bibliogr. Antiquar. ed. Schaffhausen, p. 522; Pope Sixtus V, Breve de more benedicendi et consecrandi ceream qua; Agnus Dei vaca- tur, in the Giornale de1 Jetterati d' Italia, xvii, 435 ; Heine, Dissertt. Sacrar. (Amst. 1736), 1. ii, c. 12; Munter, Sii.nbilder d. ersten Christen, i, 80 sq. ; Ger- bert, De caniu et musica saci-a, i, 454 sq. Agobard (Agobertus, Agobaldus, or Ague- baudus), archbishop of Lyons, was bom in 779, but whether in France or Spain is uncertain. In 813 he was appointed coadjutor of Leidradus, the archbishop of Lyons, who was very far advanced in years ; and in 816 the archbishop retired into the monaster}' of Soissons, having appointed Agobard his successor in the episcopal chair. Agobard was driven from his see by Louis-le-Debonnaire for having taken an active share in deposing him in the assembly of bishops, held at Compiegne in 833. "When peace was restored be- tween Louis and his sons, Lothaire and Pepin, Ago- bard recovered his see. He died at Saintonges, June 5th, 840. He was considered a man of much genius, and of no small learning in theological questions. He held liberal views with regard to inspiration. He wrote against the Adoptionists, against Ordeal by duel, and against various superstitions of the time. (See Hundeshagen, De Agobardi vita et scriptis, Giess. 1831.) His works have been preserved to us by a singular accident. Papyrius Massonus, happening to enter the shop of a bookbinder at Lyons, as the latter was on the point of tearing up a MS. which he held in his hands, asked permission to look at it first, which he did, and, soon perceiving its value, he rescued it from its impending destruction, and shortly after pub- lished it. The MS. itself is preserved in the Bibli- otheque du Roi at Paris. His works were edited Paris, 1606, and again by Baluze (2 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1666), and by Masson (Paris, 1605). They may also be found in Bib. Max. Patr. torn. xiv. Agonistici, a branch of the Donatists who spread AGOXIZANTS 104 AGONY themselves through Africa to preach the opinions of Donatus, and committed many crimes under pretext of doing justice at fairs and such places. Desirous of becoming martyrs, they exposed themselves to the greatest dangers, and sometimes even killed them- selves. They were forcibly suppressed under Emperor Constans, but existed till the inroad of the Vandals. See Donatists. Agonizants (Confraternity of the), a society of Roman Catholic penitents at Rome (and elsewhere, as at Lima in South America), whose chief duty is that of prayer for persons condemned to death by the law. On the eve of an execution the}' give notice of it to several nunneries, and on the day on which the crim- inal is to suffer they cause a great number of masses to be said for him. Another confraternity under the same name assist at death-beds generally. Agony (aywvia), a word generally denoting con- test, and especially the contests by wrestling, etc., in the public games ; whence it is applied metaphorically to a severe struggle or conflict with pain and suffering (Robinson's Lex. of the N. T. s. v.). Agony is the actual struggle with present evil, and is thus distin- guished from anguish, which arises from the reflection on evil that is past (Crabb's Eng. Sgnonym.es, s. v.). In the New Testament the word is only used by Luke (xx, 44) to describe the fearful struggle which our Lord sustained in the garden of Gethsemane (q. v.). The circumstances of this mysterious transaction are recorded in Matt, xxvi, 36-46; Mark xiv, 32-42; Luke xx, 39-48 ; Heb. v, 7, 8. Luke alone notices the agony, the bloody sweat, and the appearance of an angel from heaven strengthening him. Matthew and Mark alone record the change which appeared in his countenance and manner, the complaint which he ut- tered of the overpowering sorrows of his soul, and his repetition of the same prayer. See Bloody Sweat. All agree that he prayed for the removal of what he called " this cup," and are careful to note that he quali- fied this earnest petition by a preference of his Father's will to his own ; the question is, what does he mean by "this cup?" Doddridge and others think that he means the instant agony, the trouble that he then act- ually endured. But Dr. Mayer (of York, Pa.) argues (in the Am. Bill. Repos. April 1841, p. 294-317), from John xviii, 11, that the cup respecting which he prayed was one that was then before him, which he had not yet taken up to drink, and which he desired, if possi- ble, that the Father should remove. It could, there- fore, be no other than the death which the Father had appointed for him — the death of the cross — with all the attending circumstances which aggravated its horror ; that scene of woe which began with his arrest in the garden, and was consummated by his death on Cal- vary. Jesus had long been familiar with this pros- pect, and had looked to it as the appointed termination of his ministry (Matt, xvi, 21 ; xvii, 9-12 ; xx, 17, 19, 28; Mark x, 32-34; John x, 18; xii, 32, 33). But when he looked forward to this destination, as the hour approached, a chill of horror sometimes came over him, and found expression in external signs of distress (John xii, 27 ; comp. Luke xii, 49, 50). But on no occasion did he exhibit any very striking evidence of perplexity or anguish. He was usually calm and col- lected ; and if at any time he gave utterance to feel- ings of distress and horror, ha still preserved his self- possession, and quickly checked the desire which na- ture put forth to be spared so dreadful a death. It is, therefore, hardly to be supposed that the near approach of his sufferings, awful as they were, apart from every thing else, could alone have wrought so great a change in the mind of Jesus and in his whole demeanor, as soon as lie had entered the garden. It is manifest that something more than the cross was now before him, and that lie was now placed in a new and hither- to untried situation. Dr. Mayer says: "I have no hesitation in believing that he was here put upon the trial of his obedience. It was the purpose of God tc subject the obedience of Jesus to a severe ordeal, in order that, like gold tried in the furnace, it might be an act of more perfect and illustrious virtue ; and for this end he permitted him to be assailed by the fiercest temptation to disobey his will and to refuse the ap- pointed cup. In pursuance of this purpose, the mind of Jesus was left to pass under a dark cloud, his views lost their clearness, the Father's will was shrouded in obscurity, the cross appeared in tenfold horror, and nature was left to indulge her feelings, and to put forth her reluctance." See Jesus (Christ). Dr. Mayer admits that the sacred writers have not explained what that was, connected in the mind of Jesus with the death of the cross, which at this time excited in him so distressing a fear. " Pious and holy men have looked calmly upon death in its most terrific forms. But the pious and holy man has not had a world's salvation laid upon him ; he has not been re- quired to be absolutely perfect before God ; he has known that, if he sinned, there was an advocate and a ransom for him. But nothing of this consolation could be presented to the mind of Jesus. He knew that he must die, as he had lived, without sin ; but if the extremity of suffering should so far prevail as to provoke him into impatience or murmuring, or into a desire for revenge, this would be sin ; and if he sin- ned, all would be lost, for there was no other Saviour. In such considerations may probably be found the re- mote source of the agonies and fears which deepened the gloom of that dreadful night." — Kitto, s. v. This, however, is not entirety satisfactory. Doubt- less there was much of this obscuration of our Saviour's mind [see Crucifixion] ; but it would appear to have had reference to another point, and one connected with his condition and circumstances at the time, rather than with any future act or consequences. The apostle's inspired remark in Heb. v, 7, has not been sufficiently attended to by interpreters, " Who in the days of his flesh, when he had offered up prayers and supplications with strong crying and tears, unto Him that was able to save him from death, and was heard in that [i. e. as to what] he feared." We arc here distinctly informed, respecting this agony of Christ, that he u-as delivered from the object of dread, what- ever it was ; but this was not true in any sense of his future passion, which he suffered, and could not con- sistently have expected to have avoided, in its full ex- tent. The mission of the angels, also, shows that some relief was administered to him on the spot : "There appeared an angel unto him from heaven strengthening him" (Luke xxii, 43). The strength imparted appears to have been physical, thus, as the passage in Hebrews intimates, saving him from the death which would otherwise have instantly super- vened from the force of his emotions. This death Jesus was anxious to avoid jtist at that time; his work was not yet done, and the "cup" of sacrificial atone- ment would have been premature. His heavenly Fa- ther, in answer to his prayer, removed it for the time from his lips, by miraculously sustaining his bodily powers, and his mind soon recovered its usual tone of equanimity. The emotions themselves under which he labored were evidently the same as those that op- pressed him while hanging on the cross, and on other occasions in a less degree, namely, a peculiar sense of abandonment by God. This distress and perplexity cannot be attributed to a mere dread of death in how- ever horrid a form, without degrading Christ's magna- nimity below heathen fortitude, and contradicting his usually calm allusions to that event, as well as his collected endurance of the crucifixion tortures. Nei~ ther can they well be attributed (as above) to any un- certainty as to whether he had thus far fulfilled the will of God perfectly, and would be enabled in any future emergency to fulfil it as perfectly, without a gratuitous contradiction of all his former experience AGORA 105 AGRICOLA and statements, and assigning him a degree of faith unworthy of his character. The position thus assign- ed him is incompatible with every thing hitherto in his history. Some other explanation must be sought. The state of mind indicated in his expiring cry upon the cross, " My God, my God, why hast Thou for- saken me?" seems to betray the secret ingredient that gave the atoning cup its poignant bitterness. This appears to have been the consciousness of enduring the frown of God in the place of sinful man ; without which sense of the divine displeasure, by a temporary withholding of his benign complacency, personally ex- perienced by the Redeemer, although in others' be- half, the full penalty of transgression could not have been paid. See Atonement. Jesus must suffer (in character) what the sinner would have suffered, and this with the concentrated intensity of a world's in- finite guilt. The sacrifice of his human body could only have redeemed man's body ; his soul's beclouded anguish alone could represent the sentence passed upon men's souls. This view essentially agrees with that taken by Olshausen (Comment, in loc). See Posner, De sudore Chr. sanguineo (Jen. 1665); Bethem, id. (ib. 1607) ; Clotz. De Moribus animm J. C. (Hamb. 1670) ; Hasaeus, De Jesu patiente in horto (Brem. 1703) ; Hekel, Iter Christi trans Cedron (Cygn. 1676) ; Hoffman, Jesu anxietas ante mortem, (Lips. 1330); Koepken, De, Servatore dolente (Rost. 1723); Krackewitz, De Sponsoris animi doloribus (Rost. 1716) ; Lange, De Christi angoribus (Lips. 1666) ; Nitzsche, De horto Gethsemane (Viteb. 1750) ; Voetius, De agonia Christi, in his Disputt. Theol. ii, 161 sq. ; Wolftlin, Christus agonizans (Tubing. 1668) ; Ziebich, In hist. Servatoris dywvi&pkvov (Viteb. 1744); Zorn, Opusc. ii, 530 sq., 300 sq. ; Buddensieg, Matth. (in loc.) enarratus et defcnsus (Lips. 1818); Gurlitt, Ex- plicate (in loc.) Matth. (Magdeb. 1800); Schuster, in Eichhorn's Bibl. ix, 1012 sq. ; Baumgarten, De preca- tione Ch. pro avertendo calice (Hal. 1785) ; Kraft, De Ch. calicem deprecante (Erlang. 1770); Ncunhofcr, De precibus Chr. Gethsemaniticis (Altenb. 1760); Qucn- stedt, De deprecatione calicis Christi (Viteb. 1675, and in Ikenii Thes. dispp. ii, 204 sq.) ; Scepseophilus, Christus in Gethsemane precans (Essl. 1743); Schinid, De Chr. calicem passionis deprecante (Lips. 1713) ; Nehring, De precatione Chr. pro avertend) calice (Hal. 1735) ; Cyprian, De sudor iis Christi (Helmst. 1098, 1726, also in his Pent. Diss, ii) ; Gabler, Ueber d. Engel der Jesum gestdrkt habin soil (in his Theol. Journ. xii, 109 sq.) ; Hilscher, De angelo luctante cum Christo (Lips. 1731) ; Huhn, De apparitione angeli Chr. confortantis (Lips. 1747); Pries, Modus confortationis angelica; illuslratus (Rost. 1754) ; Rosa, Chr. in horto Getks. afflictissimus (Rudolphop. 1744) ; Carpzov, Spi- cileg. ad verba (in loc.) Luc. (Helmst. 1784) ; Bossuet, inflexions sur Vagonie de J. C. (in his QCuvres, xiv, 240) ; Moore, The Nature and Causes of the Agony in the Garden (Lond. 1757) ; Mayer, De confortatione an- gelica agonizantis Jesu (Viteb. 1674, 1735). Agora, Agoraeus. See Market. Agrammatus. See Unlearned. Agrarian Regulations. See Land. Agreda, Maria de, abbess of the Franciscan convent of the Immaculate Conception of Agreda, in Aragon. She was born April 2d, 1602, of rich and pious parents. Her mother, influenced by some dream or supposed vision, conceived it to lie her duty to found a convent of the Immaculate Conception ; and, having induced her husband to consent to it, they began to build the new monastery on the site of their own house. Subsequently, the father assumed the Franciscan habit, as his two sons had done previously, and Maria, with her mother and younger sister, took the veil in the new monastery. She was elected su- perior, by dispensation, at twenty-five years of age. She believed herself commanded from heaven to write the life of the Virgin, but seems to have resisted the impression for ten years, for it was not till 1637 that she commenced it. When it was finished she 1 mined it, by direction of her temporary confessor, who exer- cised, in so doing, a more sound discretion than her ordinary confessor, who directed her to write it again, which she did, and finished it in 1060. As soon as it appeared it was justly condemned by the censors in Spain, Portugal, Rome, and Germany, and by the Faculty of Theology at Paris (the Sorbonne), in 1696. The title of the book, which is written in Spanish, and is filled with the wildest extravagances and much that is immodest, is " The Mystical City of God" (Mistica Ciudad de Dios, Perpignan, 1690, 4 vols. Ant- werp, 1692, 3 vols, and oft. ; French translat. by Croi- zet, Marseilles, 1696, 3 vols.). Eusebius Amort, theolo- gian of Cardinal Lercari, declares that the book was inserted in the Index at Rome in 1710, but that sub- sequently, during the pontificate of Benedict XIII, there appeared a decree permitting it to be read. Nevertheless, he asserts that he saw in the hands of Nicolas Ridolphus, then the secretary of the con- gregation of the Index, another and later decree, an- nulling the first, and declaring that it had been sur- reptitiously obtained. "At first," says Amort, "I wondered why this latter decree of Benedict XIII had not been published ; but my surprise ceased when I found that the}' had already commenced the process of the beatification of the venerable Maria de Agreda !" See Amort, De licrelationibus, etc., Augsburg, 1744, and, on the other side, a long series of articles by Don Gueranger, Benedictine of Solesmes, in Unirers, 1859. Agricola, Francis, canon and curate of Rodin- ges, and afterward of Sittarden, in the duchy of Ju» liers, celebrated for his erudition. He died in 1621, leaving the following works: 1. Libri quatuor Evt.n- gelicarum Demcnstrationum (Cologne, 1578) ; 2. Loci prazcipui S. Scrip, de Sacerdotii IiMitutione it Officio (Lugd. 1597). Agricola, John (called Magister Islebivs), said to be the founder of the sect of Antinomians (q. v.) ; born April 20th, 1492, at Eisleben, in Upper Saxony. His real name was Scknitter or Schneider, which he Latinized, according to the custom of the time. He studied philosophy and theology at Wittenberg, where he was distinguished for his learning and virtue, and taught in the university for several years. At Eisle- ben he became distinguished as a preacher. In 1526 he was present at the diet of Spires, with the elect- or of Saxony and the count of Mansfeld ; he also subscribed the confession of Augsburg, although he subsequently differed from it in many things. In 1538 he began to preach " against the Law," and, for a time, Antinomianism appeared likely to spread ; but Luther opposed the new error with so much force that the sect was suppressed in its infancy ; and Agricola, at least in form, renounced his heresy (see Nitzsche, De Antinomismo Jo. Agricola;, Viteb. 1804). Having retired to Berlin, he became preacher to the elector of Brandenburg, in 1540. In 1537 he signed the Arti- cles of Smalcald, excepting, however, the additional article on the primacy of the pope. Together with Julius Phlugius (Pflug), bishop of Nuremberg, and Michael Helden, titular bishop of Sidon, he composed the celebrated Interim of Charles V. He endeavored, in vain, to appease the Adiaphoristic controversy (q. v.), and died at Berlin, September 22d, 1566. His works are : 1. Comment, in Evany. Lucas (Nurem. 1525 ) ; 2. Comment, in Ep. Pauli ad Colons. (Wittenb. 1527); 3. A Collection and Explication of thru hundred Ger- man Proverbs (Magdeburg, 1526. The be^t edition, Wittenberg, 1592, contains seven hundred and fifty proverbs) ; 4. Comment, in Ep. Pauli. ml Titum (Ha- guenan. 1530); 5. Refutation of Thomas Sfvncer's Ex- plication of Psalm xix; 6. Antinomia, with its Refuta- tion by Luther (Wittenb. 1538); 7. Autinomicie Theses; AGRICULTURE 106 AGRICULTURE 8. Historia Passionis et Mortis Christi (Strasb. 1543) ; 9. Formula Pueriles (Berlin, 15G1) ; 10. Epistola de Cagiiibtis Doctrince Eccl. (Wittenb. 1613) ; 11. The Lives of the Saints, in German (Cologne, 1(518). — Cor- des, Joh. Agricola's Schr. moglkhst verzekhnet (Alton. 1817) ; Mosheim, Ch. Hist. cent, xvi, § 3, part ii, ch. 25 ; Hook, Ecc. Biog. vol. i, s. v. ; Bretschneider, in the Theol. Stud, ii, 741. See Antinomianism. Agriculture, the art or profession of cultivating the soil. See Farm ; Tillage. I. History. — The antiquity of agriculture is indi- cated in the brief history of Cain and Abel, when it tells us that the former was a "tiller of the ground," and brought some of the fruits of his labor as an offer- ing to God (Gen. iv, 2, 3), and that part of the ultimate curse upon him was, " When thou tillest the ground, it shall not henceforth yield to thee her strength" (iv, 12). Of the actual state of agriculture before the Del- uge we know nothing. See Antediluvians. What- ever knowledge was possessed by the Old World was doubtless transmitted to the New by Noah and his sons ; and that this knowledge was considerable is im- plied in the fact that one of the operations of Noah, when he "began to be a husbandman," was to plant a vineyard, and to make wine with the fruit (Gen. ix, 2). There are few agricultural notices belonging to the patriarchal period, but they suffice to show that the land of Canaan was in a state of cultivation, and that the inhabitants possessed what were at a later date the principal products of the soil in the same country. It is reasonable, therefore, to conclude that the modes of operation were then similar to those which we afterward find among the Jews in the same country, and concerning which our information is more exact. See Arabia. Agriculture was little cared for by the patriarchs ; more so, however, by Isaac and Jacob than by Abra- ham (Gen. xxvi, 12 ; xxxvii, 7), in whose time prob- ably, if we except the lower Jordan valley (xiii, 10), there was little regular culture in Canaan. Thus Gerar and Shechem seem to have been cities where pastoral wealth predominated. The herdmen strove with Isaac about his wells ; about his crop there was no contention (xx, 14 ; xxxiv, 28). In Joshua's time, as shown by the story of the " Eshcol" (Num. xiii, 23-24), Canaan was found in a much more advanced agricultural state than when Jacob had left it (Deut. viii, 8), resulting probably from the severe experience of famines, and the example of Egypt, to which its peo- ple were thus led. The pastoral" life was the means of keeping the sacred race, while yet a family, distinct from mixture and locally unattached, especially while in Egypt. When, grown into a nation, they conquer- ed their future seats, agriculture supplied a similar check on the foreign intercourse and speedy demoral- ization, especially as regards idolatry, which com- merce would have caused. Thus agriculture became the basis of the Mosaic commonwealth (Michaelis, xxxvii-xli). It tended to check also the freebooting and nomad life, and made a numerous offspring prof- itable, as it was already honorable by natural senti- ment and by law. Thus, too, it indirectly discouraged slavery, or, where it existed, made the slave some- what like a son, though it made the son also some- what of a slave. Taken in connection with the in- alienable character of inheritances, it gave each man and each family a stake in the soil, and nurtured a hardy patriotism. "The land is Mine" (Lev. xxv, 23) was a dictum which made agriculture likewise the basis of the theocratic relation. Thus every family felt its own life with intense keenness, and had its di- vine tenure which it was to guard from alienation. The prohibition of culture in the sabbatical vear form- ed, under this aspect, a kind of rent reserved by the Divine Owner. Landmarks were deemed sacred (Dent. xix. 14), and the inalienability of ttie heritage was in- sured by its reversion to the owner in the year of ju- bilee ; so that only so man}7 years of occupancy could be sold (Lev. xxv, 8-16, 23-35). The prophet Isaiah (v, 8) denounces the contempt of such restrictions by wealthy grandees who sought to "add held to field," erasing families and depopulating districts. See Land. In giving to the Israelites possession of a country already under cultivation, it was the Divine intention that they should keep up that cultivation, and become themselves an agricultural people ; and in doing this thej' doubtless adopted the practices of agriculture which they found already established in the country. This may have been the more necessary, as agriculture is a practical art ; and those of the Hebrews who were acquainted with the practices of Egyptian husbandry had died in the wilderness ; and even had they lived, the processes proper to a hot climate and alluvial soil, watered by river inundation, like that of Egypt, al- though the same in essential forms, could not have been altogether applicable to so different a country as Pal- estine. See Egypt. II. Weather, etc. — As the nature of the seasons lies at the root of all agricultural operations, it should be noticed that the variations of sunshine and rain, which with us extend throughout the year, are in Palestine confined chiefly to the latter part of autumn and the winter. During all the rest of the year the sky is al- most uninterruptedly cloudless, and rain very rarely falls. The autumnal rains usually commence at the latter end of October or beginning of November, not suddenly, but by degrees, which gives opportunity to the husbandman to sow his wheat and barley. The rains continue during November and December, but afterward they occur at longer intervals, and rain is rare after March, and almost never occurs as late as May. The cold of winter is not severe ; and as the ground is never frozen, the labors of the husbandman are not entirely interrupted. Snow falls in different parts of the country, but never lies long on the ground. In the plains and valleys the heat of summer is op- pressive, but not in the more elevated tracts. In these high grounds the nights are cool, often with heavy dew. The total absence of rain in summer soon destroys the verdure of the fields, and gives to the general landscape, even in the high country, an aspect of drought and barrenness. No green thing remains but the foliage of the scattered fruit-trees, and occasion- al vineyards and fields of millet. In autumn the whole land becomes dry and parched, the cisterns are nearly empty, and all nature, animate and inanimate, looks forward with longing for the return of the rainy season. In the hill-country the time of harvest is later than in the plains of the Jordan and of the sea- coast. The barley harvest is about a fortnight earlier than that of wheat. In the plain of the Jordan the wheat harvest is early in May ; in the plains of the ccast and of Esdraelon, it is toward the latter end of that month, and in the hills not until June. The gen- eral vintage is in September, but the first grapes ripen in July ; and from that time the towns are well sup- plied with this fruit. — Robinson, Biblical Researches, ii, 96-100. See Palestine. The Jewish calendar (q. v.), as fixed by the three great festivals, turned on the seasons of green, ripe, and fully-gathered produce. Hence, if the season was backward, or, owing to the imperfections of a non-as- tronomical reckoning, seemed to be so. a month was intercalated. This rude system was fondly retained long after mental progress and foreign intercourse placed a correct calendar within their power ; so that notice of a Veadar, i. e. second or intercalated Adar, on account of the lambs being not yet of a paschal size, and the barley not forward enough for the Abib (green sheaf), was sent to the Jews of Babylon and Egypt (Ugol. de Re Rust, v, 22) early in the season. See Time. The year, ordinarily consisting of twelve months, was divided into six agricultural periods, as follows (Mishna, Tosajthta Taanith, ch. i) : Tisri, latter half, AGRICULTURE (1.) SOWING TIME. fbeginning about au- 107 AGRICULTURE au- i tumnal equinox . f EarJy raiQ due_ Kisleu, latter half. Tebeth. Sebat, former half. (2.) UNRII'E TIME. (3.) COLD SEASON. Sebat, latter half . . Adar [Veadar] Nisan, former half. ■ Latter rain due. (■4.) HARVEST TIME. (Beginning about ver- J „„i „,.,.;„ I nal equinox, Uarley een. Passover. Nisan, latter half Ijar. . ... (Wheat ripe. Sivan, former half ■> cost Sivan, latter half. Tammuz. Ab, former half. Ab, latter half. Klul. Tisri, former half. (G.) SULTRY 8EA30N. Thus 1 Ingathering of fruits. six months from mid Tisri to mid Nisan were were heated with such things as dung and hay (Ezek. iv, 12, 15 ; Mai. iv, 13) ; and, in any case of sacrifice on an emergency, some, as we should think, unusual source of supply is constantly mentioned for the wood (1 Sam. vi, 14 ; 2 Sam. xxiv, 22 ; 1 Kings xix, 21 ; comp. Gen. xxii, 3, 6, 7). All this indicates a non- abundance of timber, and implies that nearly all the arable soil was under culture, or, at least, used for pas- turage. See Forest. The geological characters of the soil in Palestine have never been satisfactorily stated; but the differ- ent epithets of description which travellers employ, enable us to know that it differs considerably, both in its appearance and character, in different parts of the land ; but wherever soil of any kind exists, even to a very slight depth, it is found to be highly fertile. As parts of Palestine are hilly, and as hills have seldom much depth of soil, the mode of cultivating them in terraces was anciently, and is now much employed. A series of low stone walls, one above another, across the face of the hill, arrest the soil brought down by the rains, and afford a series of levels for the opera- tions of the husbandman. This mode of cultivation is usual in Lebanon, and is not unfrequent in Palestine, where the remains of terraces across the hills, in vari- mainly occupied with the process of cultivation, and | ous parts of the country, attest the extent to which it the rest with the gathering of the fruits. Rain was was anciently carried. This terrace cultivation has commonly expected soon after the autumnal equinox, , necessarily increased or declined with the population, or mid Tisri; and if by the first of Kisleu none had If the people were so few that the valleys afforded fallen, a fast was proclaimed (Mishna, Taanith, ch. i). sufficient food for them, the more difficult culture of The common Scriptural expressions of the " early" I the hills was neglected ; but when the population was and the " latter rain" (Deut. xi, 14; Jer. v, 24; Hos. too large for the valleys to satisfy with bread, then vi, 3; Zech. x, 1; Jam. v, 7) are scarcely confirmed the hills were laid under cultivation. See Vineyard. by modern experience, the season of rains being un- broken (Robinson, i, 41, 429 ; iii, 9G), though perhaps the fall is more strongly marked at the beginning and the end of it. The consternation caused by the fail- ure of the former rain is depicted in Joel i, ii ; and this prophet seems to promise that and the latter rain to- gether "in the first month," i. e. Nisan (ii, 23). See Rain. Its plenty of water from natural sources made Ca- naan a contrast to rainless Egypt (Deut. viii, 7 ; xi, 8--12). Nor was the peculiar Egyptian method of hor- In such a climate as that of Palestine, water is the great fertilizing agent. The rains of autumn and winter, and the dews of spring, suffice for the ordinary objects of agriculture ; but the ancient inhabitants were able, in some parts, to avert even the aridity which the summer droughts occasioned, and to keep up a garden-like verdure, by means of aqueducts com- municating witli the brooks and rivers (Ps. i, 3; lxv, 10 ; Prov. xxi, 1 ; Isa. xxx, 25 ; xxxii, 2, 20 ; Hos. xii, 11). Hence springs, fountains, and rivulets were as much esteemed b}' husbandmen as by shepherds ticulture alluded to in Deut. xi, 10 unknown, though (Josh, xv, 19 ; Judg. i, 15). The soil was also clear- less prevalent in Palestine. That peculiarity seems ed of stones, and carefully cultivated ; and its fertility to have consisted in making in the fields square shal- was increased by the ashes to which the dry stubble low beds, like our salt-pans, surrounded by a raised and herbage were occasionally reduced by being burn- border of earth to keep in the water, which was then i ed over the surface of the ground (Prov. xxiv, 31 ; turned from one sqnare to another by pushing aside Isa. vii, 23; xxxii, 13). Dung and, in the neighbor- the mud, to open one and close the next, with the j ho.od of Jerusalem, the blood of animals were also used foot. Robinson, however, describes a different proc- to enrich the soil (2 Kings ix. 37 ; Ps. lxxxiii, 10 ; ess, to which he thinks this passage refers {Res. i, Isa. xxv, 10; Jer. ix, 22 ; Luke xiv, 34, 35). A rabbi 542 ; ii, 351 ; iii, 21), as still in use likewise in Pales- ] limits the quantity to three heaps of ten half-cors, or tine. There irrigation (including under the term all \ about 380 gallons, to each seah (q. v.) of grain, and appliances for making the water available) was as ! wishes the quantity in each heap, rather than their essential as drainage in our region ; and for this the number, to be increased if the field be large (Mishna, large extent of rocky surface, easily excavated for cis- ' Shebiith, iii, 2). Nor was the great usefulness of terns and ducts, was most useful. Even the plain of sheep to the soil unrecognised (jb. 4), though, owing Jericho is watered not by canals from the Jordan, to the general distinctness of the pastoral life, there since the river lies below the land, but by rills con- was less scope for it. See Manure. verging from the mountains. In these features of the That the soil might not be exhausted, it was order- country lay its expansive resources to meet the wants ed that every seventh year should be a sabbath of rest of a multiplying population. The lightness of agri- ! to the land : there was then to be no sowing or reap- cultural labor in the plains set free an abundance of ing, no pruning of vines or olives, no vintage or guth- hands for the task of terracing and watering, and the result gave the highest stimulus to industry. See Ir- rigation. III. Soil, etc. — The Israelites probably found in Ca- naan a fair proportion of woodland, which their neces- sities, owing to the discouragement of commerce, must have led them to reduce (Josh, xvii, 18). But even ering of fruits ; and whatever grew of itself was to be left to the poor, the stranger, and the beasts of the field (Lev. xxv, 1-7 ; Deut. xv, 1-10). But such an observance required more faith than the Israelites were prepared to exercise. It was for a long time utterly neglected (Lev. xxvi, 34, 35; 2 Chron. xxxvi, 21), but after the captivity it was more observed. Bv this in earl}' times timber seems to have been far less used remarkable institution the Hebrews were also trained for building material than among Western nations ; to habits of economy and foresight, and invited to ex- the Israelites were not skilful hewers, and imported , ercise a large degree of trust in the bountiful provi- both the timber and the workmen (1 Kings v, G, 8). ' dence of their Divine King. See Sabbatical Year. No store of wood-fuel seems to have been kept ; ovens A change in the climate of Palestine, caused by in- AGRICULTURE 108 AGRICULTURE crease of population and the clearance of trees, must have taken place before the period of the N. T. A further change, caused by the decrease of skilled agri- cultural labor, e. g. in irrigation and terrace-making, has since ensued. Not only this, but the great varie- ty of elevation and local character in so small a com- pass of country necessitates a partial and guarded ap- plication of general remarks (Robinson, i, 507, 553, 551; iii, 595; Stanley, Palestine, p. 118-126). Yet wherever industry is secure, the soil still asserts its old fertility. The Hauran (Pera?a) is as fertile as Damascus, and its bread enjoys the highest reputation. The black and fat, but light soil about Gaza, is said to hold so much moisture as to be very fertile with little rain. Here, as in the neighborhood of Bevrut, is a vast olive-ground, and the very sand of the shore is said to be fertile if watered. See Water. IV. Crops and Fields. — Under the term *51, dagan , which we translate "grain" and "corn," the He- brews comprehended almost every object of field cul- ture. Syria, including Palestine, was regarded by the ancients as one of the first countries for corn (Pliny, Hist. Nat. xviii, 7). Wheat was abundant and excellent ; and there is still one bearded sort, the ear of which is three times as heavy, and contains twice as many grains as our common English wheat (Irby and Mangles, p. 472). Barley was also much cultivated, not only for bread, but because it was the only kind of corn which was given to beasts ; for oats and rye do not grow in warm climates. Hay was not in use ; and therefore the barley was mixed with chop- ped straw to form the food of cattle (Gen. xxiv, 25, 32; Judg. xix, 19, etc.). Other kinds of field culture were millet, spelt, various species of beans and peas, pepperwort, cummin, cucumbers, melons, flax, and perhaps cotton. Many other articles might be men- tioned as being now cultivated in Palestine ; but, as their names do not occur in Scripture, it is difficult to know whether they were grown there in ancient times or not. The cereal crops of constant mention arc wheat and barley, and more rarely rye and mil- led?). Of the two former, together with the vine, olive, and fig, the use of irrigation, the plough and the h arrow, mention is found in the book of Job (xxxi, 40; xv, 33; xxiv, G; xxix, 9; xxxix, 10). Two kinds of cummin (the black variety called " fitches," Is. xxviii, 27), and such podded plants as beans and lentiles, may be named among the staple produce. To these, later writers add a great variety of garden plants, e. g. kidney-beans, peas, lettuce, endive, leek, garlic, onion, melon, cucumber, cabbage, etc. (Mishna, Kilaim, i, 2). The produce which formed Jacob's present was of such kinds as would keep, and had kept during the famine (Gen. xliii, 11). The ancient Hebrews had little notion of green or root crops grown for fodder, nor was the long summer drought suitable for them. Barley supplied food both to man and beast, and the plant called in Ezek. iv, 9 ''millet," "jni, dochan' (the holcus dochna of Linn, according to Gesenius, Jleb. Lex. s. v.), was grazed while green, and its ripe grain made into bread. In the later pe- riod of more advanced irrigation the 'Tibpi, tiltan ', "fenugreek" (Buxtorf. Lex. Talm. col. 2601), occurs (Mishna, Maaseroth, i), also the PHd, shack'ath, a clover, apparently, given cut (Mishna, Peak, v, 5). Mowing (n, gez, Am. vi, 1 ; Ps. lxxii, 6) and ha}'- making were familiar processes, but the latter had no express word ; I^Sh, chatsir', standing both for grass and hay, a token of a hot climate, where the grass may become hay as it stands. The yield of the land, besides fruit from trees, was technically distinguished as ns- HO, tebuah' , produce, including apparently all cereal plants, lTVl*OBp, lcitmyoth', pod-fruits (nearly equivalent to the Latin legumen), and XS^a 1 3 12 IT zarunetf ginna' ', garden seeds (Buxtorf, ib. col. 693), while the simple word seeds (1p3!l"'lT, zarunin") was used also generically for all seed, including all else which was liable to tithe, for which purpose the dis- tinction seems to have existed. (See Otho, Lex. Rabb. p. 17 sq.). See Botany. The rotation of crops, familiar to the Egyptians (Wilkinson, ii, p. 4), can hardly have been unknown to the Hebrews. Sowing a field with divers seeds was forbidden (Deut. xxii, 9), and minute directions arc given by the rabbis for arranging a seeded surface with great variet}', yet avoiding the juxtaposition of heterogenea. Some of these arrangements are shown in the annexed drawings (from Surenhusius's Mischna, Rabbinical Forms of Planting. i, 120). Three furrows' interval was the prescribed margin {Kilaim, ii, 6). The blank spaces represent such margins, often tapering to save ground. In a vineyard wide spaces were often left between the vines, for whose roots a radius of four cubits was allowed, and the rest of the space cropped ; so herb-gardens stood in the midst of vineyards (Peak, v, 5). Similar arrangements were observed in the case of a field of grain with olives about and amidst it. ■?"\ £9 \JS Jewish Corn-field, with Olive-trees. Anciently, as now, in Palestine and the East the arable lands were uot divided into fields by fences, as in most countries. The ripening products therefore presented an expanse of culture unbroken, although perhaps variegated, in a large view, by the difference of the products grown. The boundaries of lands were therefore marked by stones as landmarks, which, even in patriarchal times, it -was deemed a heinous wrong to remove (Job xxiv, 2); and the law pronounced a curse upon those who, without authority, disturbed them (Deut. xix, 14; xxvii, 17). The walls and hedges which are occasionally mentioned in Scripture AGRICULTURE 109 AGRICULTURE belonged to orchards, gardens, and vinej'ards. See Garden. Fields and floors were not commonly en- closed ; vineyards mostly were, with a tower and oth- er buildings (Num. xxii, 24 ; Psa. lxxx, 13 ; Isa. v, 5 ; Matt, xxi, 33; comp. Jud. vi, 11). Banks of mud from ditches were also used. See Wall. With regard to occupancy, a tenant might paj- a fixed moneyed rent (Cant, viii, 11) — in which case he was called "cVc'i, soke/ , a mercenary, and was com- pellable to keep the ground in good order — or a stipu- lated share of the fruits (2 Sam. ix, 10; Matt, xxi, 3-1), often a half or a third ; but local custom was the only rule ; in this case he was called ?3|""*"2, mekabbel' , lessee, and was more protected, the owner sharing the loss of a short or spoiled crop ; so, in case of locusts, blight, etc., the year's rent was to be abated; or he might receive such share as a salary — an inferior po- sition— when the term which described him was iZin. choker' , manager on shares (Buxtorf, Lex. Talm, col. 1955). It was forbidden to sow flax during a short occupancy (hence leases for terms of years would seem to have been common), lest the soil should be unduly exhausted (comp. Virgil, Georg. i, 77). A passer-by might eat an}- quantity of corn or grapes, but not reap or carrv oft* fruit (Deut. xxiii, 24, 25 ; Matt, xii, 1). The rights of the corner (q. v.) to be left, and of gleaning (q. v.), formed the poor man's claim on the soil for support. For his benefit, too, a sheaf forgot- ten in carrying to the floor was to be left ; so, also, with regard to the vineyard and the olive-grove (Lev. xix, 9, 10; Deut. xxiv, 19). Besides, there seems a probability that even' third year a second tithe, be- sides the priests', was paid for the poor (Deut. xiv, 28 ; xxvi, 12 ; Amos iv, 4 ; Tob. i, 7 ; Joseph. Ant. iv, 8, 22). On this doubtful point of the poor man's tithe (i|JS "i'^""?, maasar' ant") see a learned note by Su- renhusius, ad Peak, viii, 2. See Tithe. These rights, in case two poor men were partners in occu- pancy, might be conveyed by each to the other for half the field, and thus retained between them (Mai- mon. ad Peak, v, 5). Sometimes a charitable owner declared his ground common, when its fruits, as those of the sabbatical year, went to the poor. For three years the fruit of newly-planted trees was deemed un- circumcised and forbidden ; in the fourth it was holy, as first-fruits ; in the fifth it might be ordinarily eat- en (Mishna, Orluh, passim). See Poor. V. Agricultural Operations and Implements. — Of late years much light has been thrown upon the agricultu- ral operations and implements of ancient times, by the discover}' of various representations on the sculp- tured monuments and painted tombs of Egypt, and (to some degree) of Assyria. As these agree sur- prisingly with the notices in the Bible, and, indeed, differ little from what we still find employed in Syria and Egypt, it is very safe to receive them as guides on the present subject (see also Corse's Assyria, p. 560). 1. Ploughinghas always been a light and superficial operation in the East. At first, the ground was open- ed with pointed sticks; then a kind of hoe was em- ployed ; and this, in many parts of the world, is still Oriental Hoein used as a substitute for the plough. But the plough was known in Egypt and Syria before the Hebrews cultivators (Job i, 14). At first it was little more than a stout branch of a tree, from which pro- jected another limb, shortened and pointed. This, being turned into the ground, made the furrow; while at the farther end of the larger branch was fast- ened a transverse yoke, to which the oxen were har- nessed. Afterward a handle to guide the plough was added. The Syrian plough is, and doubtless was, light enough for a man to carry in his hand (Russell's Nat. llist. of Aleppo, i, 73). The plough, probably, Modern Syrian Ploughin was like the Egyptian, and the process of ploughing like that called scarijicatio by the Romans (" Syria tenui sulco arat," Plin. xviii, 47), one yoke of oxen mostly sufficing to draw it. Mountains and rough places were hoed (Isa. vii, 5 ; Maimon. ad Mishn. vi, Ancient Egyptians II and Sowing the Land, Trees. 2 ; Robinson, iii, 595, 002-3). The breaking up of new land was performed, as with the Romans, in " early spring" (vere novo). Such new ground and fallows, the use of which latter was familiar to the Jews (Jer. iv, 3; IIos. x, 12), were cleared of stones and of thorns (Is. v, 2 ; Gemara Hierosol. ad loc.) early in the year, sowing or gathering from "among thorns" being a proverb for slovenly husbandry (Job v, 5 ; Prov. xxiv, 30, 31 ; Robinson, ii, 127). Virgin land was ploughed a second time. The proper words are firs, pathach! ', to open, and T"jfcj, sadad' , to level (by cross ploughing, Varro, De Re Rustica, i, 32) ; both are dis- tinctively used in Is. xxviii, 24. Land already tilled was ploughed before the rains, that the moisture might the better penetrate (Maimon. ap. Ugol. De lie Rttst. v, 11). Rain, however, or irrigation (Is. xxxii, 20) prepared the soil for the sowing, as may be inferred from the prohibition to irrigate till the gleaning was over, lest the poor should suffer (Peah, v, 3); and such sowing often took place without previous plough- ing, the seed, as in the parable of the sower, being scattered broadcast, and ploughed in afterward, the Ancient Egyptian Ploughing alter Suwing. roots of the late crop being so far decayed as to serve AGRICULTURE 110 AGRICULTURE for manure (Fellows, Asia Minor, p. 72). Where the soil was heavier, the ploughing was best done dry ("dum sicca tellure licet," Virg. Georg. i, 214); and there, though not generally, the hoeing (sarritio, 1^:', iddur', dressing), and even the liratio, or ridg- ing, of Roman husbandry, performed with tabulm af- fixed to the sides of the share, might be useful (see Smith's Diet, of Class. Antiq. s. v. Aratrum). But the more formal routine of heavy western soils must not be made the standard of such a naturally fine tilth as that of Palestine generally (comp. Columella, ii, 12). During the rains, if not too heavy, or be- tween their two periods, would be the best time for these operations ; thus 70 days before the passover was the time prescribed for sowing for the " wave- sheaf," and, probably, therefore, for that of barley generally. The plough was drawn by oxen, which were sometimes urged by a scourge (Isa. x, 2G ; Na- hum Hi, 2), but oftener by a long staff, furnished at one end with a flat piece of metal for clearing the plough, and at the other with a spike for goading the oxen. This ox-goad (q. v.) might easily be used as a spear (Judg. iii, 31 ; 1 Sam. xiii, 21). Sometimes men followed the plough with hoes to break the clods (Isa. 1 2 Ancient Egyptians Ploughing and Hoeing. 1. Breaks the clods of earth after the plough has passed: •!. Holds the plough; 3. The driver; 4. A ban-el, probably contain- ing the seed; 5. Talks with another ploughman. xxviii, 24) ; but in later times a kind of harrow was employed, which appears to have been then, as now, merely a thick block of wood, pressed down by a weight, or by a man sitting on it, and drawn over the ploughed field. See Plough. 2. Sowing. — The ground, having been ploughed as soon as the autumnal rains had mollified the soil, was fit, by the end of October, to receive the seed ; and the sowing of wheat continued, in different situations, through November into December. Barley was not generally sown till January and February. The seed appears to have been sown and harrowed at the same time, although sometimes it was ploughed in by a cross furrow. See Sowing. Occasionally, however, the sowing was by patches only in well-manured spots, a process called ^«3"0, menammer' , variegating like a leopard, from its spot- ted appearance, as represented in the accompanying drawing by Surenhusius (i, 45) to illustrate the Mishna. mm Jewish Field sown in Clumps. 3. Ploughing in the Seed. — The Egyptian paintings illustrate the Scriptures by showing that in those soils which needed no previous preparation by the hoe (for breaking the clods) the sower followed the plough, holding in the left hand a basket of seed, which he Ancient Egyptians 1' scattered with the right hand, while another person fillcil a fresh basket. We also see that the mode of sowing was what we call "broadcast," in which the 6eed is thrown loosely over the field (Matt, xiii, 3-8). In Egypt, when the levels were low, and the water had continued long upon the land, they often dispensed with the plough altogether; and probably, like the present inhabitants, broke up the ground with hoes, or simply dragged the moist mud with bushes after the seed bad been thrown upon the surface. To this cultivation without ploughing Moses probably alludes (Deut. xi, 10), when lie tells the Hebrews that the land to which they were going was not like the land of Egypt, where they "sowed their seed, and watered it with their foot, as a garden of herbs." It seems, however, that even in Syria, in sandy soils, the}' sow without ploughing, and then plough down the seed (Russell's Ar. //. of Aleppo, i, 73, etc.). It does not appear that any instrument resembling our harrow was known ; the word TT-- sadad' ', rendered to har- loughing and Sowing. row, in Job xxxix, 10, means literally to break the clods, and is so rendered in Isa. xxviii, 24; Hos. x, 11; and for this purpose the means used have been already indicated. The passage in Job, however, is important, It shows that this breaking of the clods was not always by the hand, but that some kind of in- strument was drawn by an animal over the ploughed field, most probably the rough log which is still in use. See Harrow, The readiest way of brushing over the soil is by means of a bundle composed simply of thorn bushes. In highly-irrigated spots the seed was trampled in by cattle (Isa. xxxii, 20) as in Egypt by goats (Wilkinson, i, p. 39, 2d ser.). I. Harvest.— The custom of watching ripening crops and threshing-floors against theft or damage ^Robin- son, i, 400 ; ii, 18, 83, 99) is probably ancient. Thus Boaz slept on the floor (Ruth iii, 4, 7). Barley ripen- ed a week or two before wheat; and, as fine harvest weather was certain (Prov. xxvi, 1; 1 Sam. xii, 17; Amos iv, 7), the crop chiefly varied with the quantity AGRICULTURE 111 AGRICULTURE Ancient Egyptians Treading in the Grain. 4. Goats tramping in the grain, when sown in the field, after the water had subsided: 0 is sprinkling the seed from the basket lie holds in his left band, the others are driving the goats over the ground. The hieroglyphic wind above, Sk, or Skai\ signifies •' tillage," and is followed by the demonstrative sign, a plough. of timely rain. The period of harvest must always have differed according to elevation, aspect, etc. (Rob- inson, i, 430, 551). The proportion of harvest gather- ed to seed sown was often vast, a hundred-fold is men- tioned, but in such a way as to signify that it was a limit rarely attained (Gen. xxvi, 12; Matt, xiii, 8). Among the Israelites, as with all other people, the har- vest was a season of joy, and such is more than once alluded to in Scripture (Psa. cxxvi, 5; Isa. ix, 13). See Harvest. 5. Reaping. — In the most ancient times the corn ■was plucked up by the roots, which continued to be the practice with particular kinds of grain after the sickle was known. In Egypt, at this day, barley and " door- 13 12 11 10 as joins. Ancient Egyptian Harvest-scene, t. The reapers; 2. A reaper drinking from a cup: 3, 4. Gleaners — the first of these asks the reaper to allow him to drink; 5. Carrying the ears in a rope basket — the length of the stubble showing the ears alone are cut off; S. Winnowing; 10. The tritura, answering to our threshing; 12 drinks from a water-skin suspended in a tree; 14. Scribe who notes down the num- ber of bushels measured from the heap ; 16 checks the account by noting those taken away to the granary. Palestine, by the consideration pointed out by Russell (Ar. //. of Aleppo, i, 74), who states that " wheat, as well as barley in general, does not grow half as high as in Britain ; and is therefore, like other grain, not reaped with the sickle, but plucked up by the roots with the hand. In other parts of the country, where the corn grows ranker, the sickle is used." When the sickle was used, the wheat was either cropped off under the ear or cut close to the ground. In the former case, the straw was afterward plucked up for use ; in the latter, the stubble was left and burned on the ground for manure. As the Egyptians needed not such manure, and were 1 1 economical of straw, they generally followed J the former method ; while the Israelites, whose j lands derived benefit from the burned stub- ble, used the latter, although the practice of i- cutting off the ears was also known to them (Job xxiv, 24). Cropping the ears short, Ancient Egyptians gathering the Dcora and Wheat. \ > ' '' & ,. . . , , ' 1. Plucking up the plant bv the roots; 2. Striking off the earth from fhe Egyptians did not generally bind hem the roots; 3. Reaping wheat. into sheaves, but removed them in baskets. Sometimes, however, the}- bound them into ra" are pulled up by the roots. The choice between I double sheaves ; and such as they plucked up were these modes of operation was probably determined, in | bound into single long sheaves. The Israelites ap- AGRICULTURE 112 AGRICULTURE 12 3 4 Ancient Egyptians binding Wheat in Sheaves. 1. Reaping; 2. Carrying the ears; 3. Binding them in sheaves put up at 4. pear generally to have made up their corn into sheaves (Gen. xxxvii, 7; Lev. xxiii, 10-15; Ruth ii, 7, 15; Job xxiv, 10; Jer. ix, 22; Mich, iv, 12), which were collected into a heap, or removed in a cart (Amos ii, 13) to the threshing-floor. The carts were probably similar to those which are still employed for the same purpose. See Wagon. The sheaves were never made up into shocks, as with us, although the word occurs in our translation of Judg. xv, 5 ; Job v, 26 ; for the orig- inal term signifies neither a shock composed of a few sheaves standing temporarily in the field, nor a stack of many sheaves in the home yard, property thatched, to stand for a length of time ; but a heap of sheaves laid loosely together, in order to be trodden out as quick- ly as possible, in the same way as is done in the East at the present day (Brown, Antiq. of the Jews, ii, 591). Such heaps were sometimes fancifully arranged in the form of helmets (PliSSlpi, lehubaoth") or of turbans ("ID^:?, lekumasoth') [but see other explanations of these terms in Buxtorf, Lex. Talm. col. 1960, 1051], or of a cake (XTin!?, lecharara'), as in the following illustration from Surenhusius (iMischna, ut sup.). See Sheaf. Jewish Grain-field, with the Sheaves in Heaps of various Kinds. With regard to sickles, there appear to have been two kinds, indicated by the different names IBE^rl, chermesh', and ?373, maggal'; and as the former occurs only in the Pentateuch (Deut. xvi, 9 ; xxiii, 20), and the latter only in the Prophets (Jer. ii, 16 ; Joel i, 17), it would seem that the one was the earlier and the other the later instrument. But as we observe two very different kinds of sickles in use among the Egyp- tians, not only at the same time, but in the same field, it may have been so with the Jews also. The figures of i hese Egyptian sickles probably mark the difference between them. One was verv much like our common reaping-hook, while the other had more resemblance in its shape to g a scythe, and some of the Egyptian examples appear to have been P toothed. This last is probably the same as the Hebrew maggal, which is indeed rendered by scythe in the | margin of Jer. 1, 16. See Sickle. The reapers were the owners and their children, men-servants £j and women-servants, and day-la- borers (Ruth ii, 4, 6, 21, 23 ; John iv, 36; James v, 4). Refresh- ments were provided for them, especially drink, of which the gleaners were allowed to partake (Ruth ii, 9). So in the Egyptian harvest-scenes (as above depicted), wo perceive a provision of water in skins, hung against trees or in jars upon stands, with the reapers drink- ing, and gleaners applying to share the draught. Among the Israelites, gleaning was one of the stated provisions for the poor ; and for their benefit the cor- ners of the field were left unreaped, and the reapers might not return for a forgotten sheaf. The gleaners, however, were to obtain in the first place express per- mission of the proprietor or his steward (Lev. xix, 9, 10 ; Deut. xxiv, 19 ; Ruth ii, 2, 7). See Reaping ; Gleaning. 6. Threshing. — Formerly the sheaves were convey- ed from the field to the threshing-floor in carts ; but now the}' are borne, generally, on the backs of camels and asses. The threshing-floor is a level plot of Orientals treading out Grain. ground, of a circular shape, generally about fifty feet in diameter, prepared for use by beating down the earth till a hard floor is formed (Judg. vi, 37). Such floors were probably permanent, and became well- known spots (Gen. 1, 10, 11 ; 2 Sam. xxiv, 16, 18). Sometimes several of these floors are contiguous to each other. The sheaves are spread out upon them ; and the grain is trodden out by oxen, cows, and young Ancient Egyptian Threshing-floor. The oxen driven round the heap, contrary to the usual custom. cattle, arranged usually five abreast, and driven in a circle, or rather in all directions, over the floor. This was the common mode in the Bible times ; and Moses forbade that the oxen thus employed should be muz- zled to prevent them from tasting the corn (Deut. xxv, 4 ; Isa. xxviii, 28). See Muzzle. Flails, or sticks, were only used in threshing small quantities, or for the lighter kinds of grain (Ruth ii, 17 ; Isa. xxviii, 27). There were, however, some kinds of threshing instruments, such as are still used in Egypt and Palestine. One of them is composed of two thick planks, fastened together side by side, and AGRICULTURE 113 AGRIPPA bent upward in front. Sharp fragments of stone are fixed into holes bored in the bottom. This ma- chine is drawn over the corn by oxen — a man or boy someti.nes sitting on it to increase the weight. It not only separates the grain, but cuts the straw and makes it tit for fodder (2 Kings xiii, 7). This is, most probably, the M1H, eharuts' , or "corn-drag," which is mentioned in Scripture (Isa. xxviii, 27; xli, 15; Amos i, 3; rendered "threshing instrument"), and ■would seem to have been sometimes furnished with iron points instead of stones. The Bible also notices a machine called a jMo, morag' (2 Sam. xxiv, 22 ; 1 Chron. xxi, 23 ; Isa. xli, 15), which is unquestionably Egyptian Nor the same which bears in Arabic the name of noreg (Wilkinson, ii, 100). It appears to have been similar to the Roman tribulum and the plostellum Punicum (Varr. de R. R. i, 52). This machine is not now often seen in Palestine ; but is more used in some parts of Syria, and is common in Egypt. It is a sort of frame of wood, in which are inserted three wooden rollers armed with iron teeth, etc. It bears a sort of seat or chair, in which the driver sits to give the benefit of his weight. It is generally drawn over the corn by two oxen, and separates the grain, and breaks up the straw even more effectually than the drag. In all these processes, the corn is occasionally turned by a fork, and, when sufficiently threshed, is thrown up" by the same fork against the wind to separate the grain, which is then gathered up and winnowed. Barley was sometimes soaked and then parched before treading out, which got rid of the pel- licle ( f the grain. (See fur- g =. ._ ther the Antiquitates Triturcu, Ugolini, xxix.) See Thresh- ing. 7. Winnoicing was general- ly accomplished by repeating the process of tossing up the grain against the wind with a fork (Jer. iv, 11, 12), by which the broken straw and chaff were dispersed, while the grain fell to the ground. After this it underwent a still further purification, by being tossed ■liine. up with wooden scoops or short-handed shovels, such as we see in Egyptian paintings (Isa. xxx, 24). See Winnowing. The " shovel" and " fan" (respectively Ml'l, rach'- ath, and !"HT"3, mizreh', Isa. xxx, 24, but their precise 3 2 1 Ancient Egyptian Tri/urct, or Threshing; and Winnowing. 1. Raking up ears to the centre; 2. The driver; 3. Winnowing with wooden shovels. Though the custom of treading out the grain was general, the expression "thresh" or "beat," in the song of the threshers, showed that the Egyptians origi- nally threshed with the Hail or stick. difference is very doubtful) indicate a conspicuous I part of ancient husbandly (Psa. xxxv, 5 ; Job xxi, 18 ; ' Isa. xvii, 13), and important, owing to the slovenly threshing. Evening was the favorite time (Ruth iii, j 2), when there wras mostly a breeze. The mizreh [ (scatierer, prob. = irruov, Matt. iii, 12 ; Horn. Iliad, xviii, 588) was perhaps a broad shovel which threw the grain up against the wind ; while the rackath (blower) may have been a fork (still used in Palestine for the same purpose) or a broad basket, in which it was tossed. The heap of produce customarily rendered in rent was [ sometimes so large as to cover the rachath (Mishna, Baba Metsiih, ix, 2); this favors the latter view; again, the irrvov was a corn-measure in Cyprus (see Liddell and Scott, Lex. s. v. tttvov). The last process was the shaking in a sieve, !"I"Q3, kebarah' (cribrum), to separate dirt and refuse (Amos ix, 9). — Kitto, s. v.; Smith, s. v. See Fan; Shovel; Sieve. VI. For the literature of the subject, see Husband- by. I H Agrip'pa (AyniTr— ac, a frequent Roman name, signif. unknown [see Smith's Diet, of Class. Biog. s. v.]), the name of two of the members of the Hero- dian family (q. v.). 1. Grandson of Herod the Great, and son of Aris- tobulus and Berenice (Josephus, Ant. xvii, 1, 2 ; Wars, i, 28, 1). After various fortunes in Rome and Ju- daea (Josephus, Ant. xviii, G; Wars, ii, 9, 5), he re- ceived from Caligula, soon after his accession, the original territories of Philip (Batanasa, Trachonitis, and Auranitis) and the tetrarchy of Lysanias, with the title of king (Josephus, Ant. xviii, G, 10; Wars, ii, 9, 6 ; Philo, 6pp. ii, 520). Returning to Palestine in the second year of Caligula (Josephus, Ant. xviii, G, 11), A.D. 38, he was soon afterward invested likewise with the tetrarchy of the banished Antipas (Galilee and Perasa), and finally by Claudius (to whom he had rendered important services at Rome during the changes of succession, Josephus, Ant. xix, 4; Wars, ii, 11) also with Samaria and Judaea (Josephus, Ant. AGRIPPA 114 AGRIPPA xix, 5, 1 ; xix, G, 1 ; War, ii, 11, 5 [see Dahl, Ere. in his Chrestom. T'hilon. p. 377 sq.] ; conip. Dio Cass. lx, 8), so that he became monarch of all Palestine, and enjoyed great celebrity (Josephus, Ant. xix, 8, 2). He sought to conciliate the Jews (Josephus, Ant. xix, 7, 3) not only by public munificence, but also by perse- cuting bigotry, as instanced by his murder of James and imprisonment of Peter (Acts xii, 1 sq.). His death at Caesarea (Josephus, War, ii, 12, C), in a terrible Coin of Herod Agrippa \.— Obverse : Head of Agrippa, with the Inscription (in Greek), u King Agrippa the Great, Lover of Caesar." Reverse : Figure of Fortune, standing with her At- tributes, with the Inscription (in Greek), " Caesarea at the Harbor of Sebastse." agony caused by worms (axuiXnieeg, Acts xii, 23 ; not vermin [see Worm]), is related by Josephus (Ant. xix, 8, 2) in almost the same terms. (See Ernesti, De morte Jlerodis Agrippce, Lips. 1745 ; Ranisch, De Lucce et Jo- seph! in morte Agr. consensu, Lips. 1745; Guericke, Beitr. z. N. T. Einleit. p. 189 sq. ; comp. Eusebius, Hist. Eccl. ii, 10 ; and see Heinecken, Ercurs. in Euseb. iii, 35G sq.)— Winer, i, 484. See Herod. 2. The Agrippa before whom Paul was brought (Acts xxv, 13, 2G) was the son of the foregoing, who died when he was only seventeen years old (Josephus, Ant. xix, 9, 1), and hence he did not succeed to his fa- ther's dominions (Joseph. Ant. xix, 9, 2); but he was allowed by Claudius (A.D. 48) to enjoy the principality of Chalcis, which his uncle Herod had held (Josephus, Ant. xx, 5, 2; War, ii, 12, 1), together with the su- perintendence of the Temple at Jerusalem, and the. privilege of nominating the high-priest (Josephus, Ant. xx, i, 3), and four years afterward he was instated into the sovereignty of the former tetrarchy of Philip and Lysanias, with the title of king (Josephus, Ant. xx, 7, 1 ; War, ii, 12, 8)— an appellation that is ap- plied to him likewise in the Mishna (Sotah, vii, 8). Still later Nero added Tiberias, Tarichaea, Julias, and fourteen neighboring villages to his jurisdiction (Jo- sephus, Ant. xx, 8, 4). Agrippa contributed much to the adornment of Jerusalem and other cities (Josephus, Ant. xx, 8, 11 ; 9, 4) ; but yet he was held in no spe- cial esteem by the Jews, on account of his arbitrary appointment and deposition of the high-priests, and other mistakes in his administration (Josephus, War, iii, 17, 1). When the last war with the Romans broke out, he firmly joined their cause. He died at the age of nearly seventy years, in the fifty-first year of his reign (Phot. Bill. 33) — Winer, i, 485. See Herod. Coin of Herod Agrippa II.— Obverse: Figure of the "Taber- imculmii," or Umbrella (an Oriental Representation of Pow- er), with the Inscription (in Greek), "Of King Agrippa." AViviw: Three F.ars of Grain bound together (perhaps a Symbol of the Jewish Oblations), with the Date partially obliterated. 3. A son of Felix by Drusilla, who perished in an eruption of Vesuvius (Josephus, Ant. xx, 7, 2). Agrippa, Marcus Vipsanius, bom at Rome of an obscure family B.C. 63, and educated in com- pany with Octavianus, afterward Augustus, by whom he was appointed to various responsible positions, which he filled with honor (Smith's Diet, of Class. Ant. s. v.). At the close of B.C. 17 he visited Jerusalem, j at the invitation of Herod the Great, and conferred many privileges upon the Jews of Palestine (Josephus, Ant. xvi, 2) as well as in Ionia (Ant. xii, 3, 2, 1-4) and other provinces (Ant. xvi, G, 4-7). He died, | B.C. 12, in his 51st year, greatly lamented by his im- perial patron. (Dio Cass. lib. 45-54 ; Liv. Epit. 117- I 137 ; Appian, Bell. Civ. lib. 5 ; Suet. Octav. ; Trand- sen, Hist. Untersuchung iib. M. Vip. Agrippa, Altona, j 1836.) See Augustus. Agrippa, Fonteius, probably the son of a Ro- man of the same name (Tacitus, Ann. ii, 30, 86), was proconsul of Asia Proconsularis in A.D. 67, and was recalled by Vespasian, who placed him over Moesia, A.D. 70 (Tacit. Hist, iii, 46). He was shortly after- ward killed in battle with the Sarmatians (Josephus, War, vii, 4, 3). Agrippa, Henry Cornelius, was horn at Co- logne Sept. 14th, 1487. He first followed the profes- sion of arms, and served in the armies of Italy seven years with credit. Subsequently he took the degrees of doctor in law and medicine, and in 1509 had tho chair of Professor of Sacred Literature at Dole, in Franche-Comte. After passing over into England on some secret mission, he took up his abode at Cologne, where he delivered some theological lectures called Quodlibe tales. His active mind was early turned to the so-called secret arts, and he belonged to a society for the promotion of them. In 1509-10 he wrote his treatise De Occulta Philosophia, which was kept in MS. until 1531. But now he appears, to have return- ed to his first profession of arms, and served again with the Emperor Maximilian I, until he was called to the Council of Pisa, in 1511, by the cardinal of St. Croix. In 1515 he taught theology at Turin and Pavia, where he explained Mercurius Trismegistus. After his wife's death in 1519 he wandered about for the following twelve years from place to place, and eventually, in 1535, returned to France, where he was imprisoned for having written against Louisa of Savoy, the mother of Francis I. As soon as he was set at libertj' he pro- ceeded to Grenoble, where he died in the same year, 1535. It has been said that he became a Calvinist or Lutheran, but without foundation. Many authors ac- cuse him of dealing in magic ; and Paul Jovius, Del- rio, and others speak harshly of him. He was styled the Trismegistus of his time, because he was learned in theology, medicine, and law. Agrippa was a man of quick intellect and of varied knowledge : in many respects he was far in advance of his age. His Occulta Philosophia is a system of vis- ionary philosophy, in which magic, the complement of philosophy, as he terms it, and the key of all the se- crets of nature, is represented under the three forms of natural, celestial, and religious or ceremonial, agreeably to the threefold division of the corporeal, celestial, and intellectual worlds. He there enumer- ates, with a superficial show of scientific classification, the hidden powers which the Creator has assigned to the different objects of the creation, through the agency of the Spirit of the World. It was natural that Agrip- pa should become a partisan of Raymond Lull (q. v.), and he accordingly wrote a commentary on his Ars Magna. Nevertheless his caprice sometimes inclined him to opinions directly the reverse ; and in such a ' mood he composed his cynical treatise, as he terms it, ; De Incertitudine et Vanitate Scientiarum, This work, which had great reputation in its day, occasionally j presents us admirable remarks on the imperfections 1 and defects of scientific pursuits. It contains also se- vere rebukes of the superstitions of Romish worship. J He insisted on the Bible as the only rule of faith, and taught the necessity of a moral change through the Holy Spirit. Still he remained a Romanist to the end. Agrippa and his follower, John Weir, were of ' service to philosophy by opposing the belief in witch- craft. A full account of Agrippa is given in Meiners' Lives of Eminent Mai, vol. i. His writings are collect- AGRIPPIAS 115 AHAB ed in Opera H. C. Agrlppm (Lugd. 1560, 2 vols. 8vo) ; and a translation of the treatise Dc Incertitudine, etc., under the title The Vanity of Arts and Sciences, ap- peared in London (1684, 8vo). See also Morley, Life of C. Agrlppa (Lond. 2 vols. 1856) ; Tennemann, Hist. Phil. §289; Ritter, Geschlchte d. Phil. ix. Agrippias. See Anthedon. Agrippinus, a bishop of Carthage in the 3d cen- tury. He maintained, in opposition to Bishop Stephen of Rome, that apostates had to be baptized anew. His adherents were called Agrippinians. Ague, a disease of the fever kind, in which a cold shivering fit is succeeded bj- a hot one ; in the Heb. pri^i?, laddach' ath, a kindling, a burning or inflam- matory fever (Levit. xxvi, 1G ; Deut. xxviii, 22). See Disease. Aguirre, Joseph Saenz d', an eminent Spanish prelate, was born at Logrofio, 1630, assumed the hab- it of the order of St. Benedict, and in 1668 took the degree of doctor at Salamanca, where he was chosen professor. He was afterward inquisitor, and in 1686 Innocent XI gave him the cardinal's hat as a return for the book which he had written against Gallicanism (q. v.). He was a man of acquirements, but strongs- biassed in favor of ultramontane views. He died at Rome August 19th, 1699. In 1671 he published three folios on philosophy, and in 1675 a work on Aristotle's Morals. His Treatise on the Virtues and Vices ap- peared in 1677 ; in this work he followed the princi- ples of probability, which he abandoned in 1679. Dur- ing the following two years he put forth at Salamanca his Theologia St. Anselml, which he afterward printed at Rome, in three vols. fol. In 1683 he published his Defence of the Chair of St. Peter against the Decla- ration of the Galilean Clergy ; but another work, en- titled Be Llbertatibus Eccl. Gallicana>, is incorrectly attributed to him, having been written by M. Charlas, a priest of the diocese of Pamiers, who composed it at Rome. He is, however, perhaps best known by his Collection of the Councils of Spain (Rome, 1693-4), and in which he inserted many original dissertations, some of which are attempts to defend the false decretals at- tributed to the early popes. A'gur (Heb. Agur' ' , "H3N, gathered), the author of the sayings contained in l'rov. xxx, which the in- scription describes as composed of the precepts deliv- ered by "Agur, the son of Jakeh," to his friends " Ithiel and Ucal." Some writers have regarded the name as an appellative, but differ as to its significa- tion (Gesenius," Thes. Heb. p. 22). The Vulg. has "Verba Congregantis filii Vomentis." Most of the rabbins and fathers think that Solomon himself is des- ignated under this name, which they render collector, i. e. holder of a congregation (comp. Eccles. xii, 19) ; and if the word is to be understood as an appellative, it may be as well to look for its meaning in the Syriac, where, according to Bar Bahlul (in Castell. Lex.), agur means qui sapiential studiis se appllcat, a sense that aptly designates Solomon. Most copies of the Sept. omit the chapter ascribed to Agur, as well as the first nine verses of the following chapter; but insert verses 1-14 of this chap, between verses 23 and 24 of chap. xxiv. That version renders the present verse thus : Touc St ifiuve. Aoyouc;, v'n, <5o/3//£//n, Kai Ct'ia- ptvoc aurovg ptravuei. Tate Aiy«t ti av>)p role ttkt- tivovoiv Offij, Kai iravoi.ua. Son, fear my words, and receive them with penitence. These things says the man to those that believe God, and I cease. Winer (Realwort. s. v.) argues that by Agur must be desig- nated some otherwise unknown Israelite, since he is designated as the son of Jakeh (i"liT^~"3, a rarer form for "2), and not Solomon, who, even in Eccles. (i, 1), is stvled by his proper patronymic, "the son of David" (see'Bertholdt, Einl. v, 2193). See Jakeh. This ar- gument, however, especially the latter part of it, is not of much force, since Solomon is elsewhere desig- nated in Prov. by a symbolical name, in connection with his parentage (xxxi, 1). See Lemuel. Prof. Stuart {Comment, in loc.) understands by Agur the son of a queen of Massa, a place which he locates near the head of the eastern fork of the Red Sea, and supposes to have been peopled by a Jewish colon y. See Massa. Agur. See Swallow. Agynians or Agyniani (from a negative, and yvvr], a woman), a sect belonging to the seventh cen- tury, and chiefly distinguished by their condemnation of marriage, and of the use of certain meats. Ah- (Heb. Ach-, -nx, or Achi, -ifiK, brother of) occurs as the former part of many Heb. proper names, with a signification of relationship or property, simi- lar to that contained in Ab- (q. v.) or Abi-, father (Gesenius, Thes. Heb. p. 64). e. g. the names follow- ing; and likewise applied to females, e. g. Ahinoam, comp. Abinoam; indeed in some cases they are near- ly interchangeable, e. g. Abimelech, Ahimelech. A'hab (Heb. AchaV ', nXHX, father 'sbrother; Sept. 'Axaafi, Josephus "Axafioe), the name of two men. 1. The son of Omri, and the eighth king of Israel, who reigned twenty-one }'ears (current, B.C. 915-895, the preceding year apparently as viceroy in his fa- ther's old capital Tirzah), the weakest of all the Israel- itish monarchs, although not Avithout occasional good feelings and dispositions (Kitto's Daily Bible Illustr. in loc). Many of the evils of his reign may be ascribed to the close connection which he formed with the Phoenicians (Ewald, Isr. Gesch. iii, 169 sq.). There had long been a beneficial commercial intercourse be- tween that people and the Jews, and the relations arising thence were very close in the times of David and Solomon. This connection appears to have been continued by the nearer kingdom of Israel, but to have been nearly, if not quite, abandoned by that of Judah. The wife of Ahab was Jezebel (q. v.), the daughter of Ethbaal or Ithobaal, king of Tyre, who had been priest of Astarte, but had usurped the throne of his brother Phalles (compare Josephus, Ant. viii, 13, 2, with Aplon. i, 18). She was a woman of a de- cided and energetic character, and soon acquired such influence over her husband that he sanctioned the in- troduction, and eventually established the worship of the Phoenician idols, and especially of the sun-god Baal. Hitherto the golden calves in Dan and Bethel had been the only objects of idolatrous worship in Israel, and they were intended as symbols of Jeho- vah. But now the king built a temple at Samaria, and erected an Image and consecrated a grove to Baal. A multitude of the priests and prophets of Baal were maintained. Idolatry became the predom- inant religion ; and Jehovah, with the golden calves as symbolical representations of him, were viewed with no more reverence than Baal and his image. But a man suited to this emergency was raised up in the person of Elijah, who boldly opposed the regal authority, and succeeded in retaining many of his countrymen in the worship of the true God. — Kit- to, s. v. See Elijah. The histon- of King Ahab is given in detail in the sacred narrative, 1 Kings xvi-xxii (see Obbarius, Gesch. d. Hauses Ahab, Nordh. 1754). One of his chief tastes was for splendid architecture, which he showed by building an ivory house and several cities, and also by ordering the restoration and fortification of Jericho, which seems to have belonged to Israel, and not to Judah, as it is said to have been rebuilt in the days of Ahab rather than in those of the con- temporary king of Judah, Jehoshaphat (1 Kings xvi, 34). But the place in which he chiefly indulged this passion was the beautiful city of Jezreel (now Zerln), in the plain of Esdraelon, which he adorned with a palace and park for his own residence, though Samaria remained the capital of his kingdom. Desiring to add AHAB 116 AHASUERUS to his pleasure-grounds there the vineyard of his neighbor Naboth, he proposed to buy it or give land in exchange for it; and when this was refused by Naboth, in accordance with the Mosaic law, on the ground that the vineyard was " the inheritance of his fathers" (Lev. xxv, 23), a false accusation of blas- phemy was brought against him, and not only was he himself stoned to death, but his sons also, as we learn from 2 Kings ix, 26. Elijah, already the great vindi- cator of religion, now appeared as the asserter of mo- rality, and declared that the entire extirpation of Allah's house was the penalty appointed for his long course of wickedness, now crowned by this atrocious crime. The execution, however, of this sentence was delayed in consequence of Ahab's deep repentance. (See Niemeyer, Chardkt. v, 101). See Naboth. We read of three campaigns which Ahab undertook against Benhadad II, king of Damascus, two defensive and one offensive. See Benhadad. In the first, Benhadad laid siege to Samaria, and Ahab, encour- aged by the patriotic counsels of God's prophets, who, next to the true religion, valued most deeply the in- dependence of his chosen people, made a sudden attack on him while, in the plenitude of arrogant confidence, he was banqueting in his tent wfith his 32 vassal kings. The Syrians were totally routed, and fled to Damas- cus. Next year Benhadad, believing that his failure was owing to some peculiar power which the God of Israel exercised over the hills, invaded Israel by way of Aphek, on the east of Jordan. Yet Ahab's victory was so complete that Benhadad himself fell into his hands, but was released (contrary to the will of God as announced by a prophet) on condition of restoring all the cities of Israel which he held, and making " streets" for Ahab in Damascus ; that is, admitting into his capital permanent Hebrew commissioners, in an independent position, with special dwellings for themselves and thoir retinues, to watch over the com- mercial and political interests of Ahab and his sub- jects. This was apparently in retaliation for a simi- lar privilege exacted by Benhadad's predecessor from Omri in respect to Samaria. After this great success Ahab enjoyed peace for three years, and it is difficult to account exactly for the third outbreak of hostilities, Which in Kings is briefly attributed to an attack made by Ahab on Ramoth in Gilead on the east of Jordan, in conjunction with Jehoshaphat, king of Judah, which town he claimed as belonging to Israel. But if Ra- moth was one of the cities which Benhadad agreed to restore, why did Ahab wait for three years to enforce the fulfilment of the treaty ? From this difficulty and the extreme bitterness shown by Benhadad against Ahab personally (1 Kings xxii, 31), it seems probable that this was not the case (or at all events that the Syrians did not so understand the treaty), but that Ahab, now strengthened by Jehoshaphat, who must have felt keenly the paramount importance of crip- pling the power of Syria, originated the war by as- saulting Ramoth without any immediate provocation. In any case, God's blessing did not rest on the expe- dition, and Ahab was told by the prophet Micaiah that it would fail, and that the prophets who advised it were hurrying him to his ruin. For giving this warn- ing .Micaiah was imprisoned; but Ahab was so far roused by it as to take the precaution of disguising himself, so as not to offer a conspicuous mark to the archers of Benhadad. But lie was slain by a " certain man who drew a bow at a venture;" and, though stayed up in his chariot for a time, yet he died toward evening, and liis army dispersed. When he was brought to be buried in Samaria, the dogs licked up his blood as a servant was washing his chariot; a par- tial fulfilment of Elijah's prediction (1 Kings xxi, 19), which was more literally accomplished in the case of his son {_' Kings ix, 26). Josephus, however, substi- tutes Jezreel for Samaria in the former passage (Ant. viii, 15, G).— 3»iith. See Israel, Kingdom of. 2. A false prophet who deceived the Israelites at Babylon, and was threatened by Jeremiah, who fore- told that he should be put to death by the king of Babylon in the presence of those whom he bed be- guiled ; and that in following times it should become a common malediction to say, " The Lord make thee like Ahab and Zedekiah, whom the king of Babylon roasted in the fire" (Jer. xxix, 21, 22), B.C. 594. The rabbins, followed by several expositors, believe that this Ahab and his associate Zedekiah were the two elders that conspired against the chastity and life of Susanna, as related in the Apocrypha ; but their pun- ishment appears to have been by stoning (Penz, De gupplicw Achabi, etc. Lpz. 1736). See Susanna. Ahad. See Achad. Ahalim and Ahaloth. See Aloe. Ahar'all (Heb. Achrach' , ITnnx, perh. offer the brother; Sept. 'Actpa), the third son of Benjamin (1 Chron. viii, 1), elsewhere called Em (Gen. xlvi, 21), Ahiram (Numb, xxvi, 38), and Aher (1 Chron. vii, 12). See Ahiram. Ahar'hel (Heb. Acharchel', brnnx, appar. born behind the breastwork ; Sept. dSe\//poc), the name, or rather the title, of three or four Median and Persian monarchs in the Bible. See Media ; Persia. The true native orthography of the name Xerxes, long a subject of dispute (Simonis Lex. V. T. p. 580; Jahn, Einleit . ins A . T. p. 299; Pott, Etymol. Forsch. i, 65 ; Hyde, Eel. Vet. Pers. p. 43), has recent- ly been brought to light from the cuneiform inscrip- tions of Persepolis (Grotefend, in Heeren's Ideen, i, 2, pi. 4), where it is written khshyarsha (Niebuhr, ii, p. 24), or Ksharsa (Lassen, Keilschr. p. 23), which seems to correspond to the modern Persian shyr-shah, lion- king (Gesenius, Thes. Heb. p. 75), corresponding near- ly to the interpretation, cipifioc, given by Herodotus (vi, 98). It maj"- be of service here to prefix a chro- nological table of the Medo-Persian kings from C}T- axares to Artaxerxes Longimanus, according to their ordinary classical names. The Scriptural names con- jectured to correspond to them are added in italics. See Cuneiform Inscriptions; Hieroglyphics. 1. Ovaxares, king of Media, son of Phraortes. grand- son of Deioces, and conqueror of Nineveh, began to reign B.C. 634. "Ahasuerus" 4. 2. Astyages his son, last king of Media, B.C. 594. "Ahastterw" 1. 3. Cyrus, son of his daughter Mandane and Cam- byses, a Persian noble, first king of Persia, 559. "Cy- rus." 4. Cambyses his son, 529. "Ahasuerus" 2. 5. A Magian usurper, who personates Smerdis, the younger son of Cyrus, 521. "Artaxerxes" 1. 6. Darius Hystaspis, raised to the throne on the overthrow of the Magi, 521. "Darius" 2. 7. Xerxes, his son, 485. "Ahasuerus" 3. K. Artaxerxes Longimanus (Macrocheir), his son, 465-495. "Artaxerres" 2. 1, The Jirst Ahasucrus (Sept. 'Acrovripoc, Theodo- AHASUERUS 117 AIIAVA tion Espfyc) is incidentally mentioned in Dan. ix, 1 as the father of Darius (q. v.) the Mede. It is gener- ally agreed that the person here referred to is the As- tyages (q. v.) of profane history. (Jehring, in the Biblioth. Brem. viii, 565 sq. ; Bertholdt, Excurs. zum Dan. ii, 848 sq.) According to others, however (Raw- linson's Herodotus, i, ess. 3, § 11), his father, Cyaxares (q. v.), is meant, as in Tobit xiv, 15. 2. The second Ahasuerus (Sept. ' \ooovr)poiS) occurs in Ezra iv, G, where it is said that in the beginning of his reign the enemies of the Jews wrote an accusation against them, the result of which is not mentioned (Haverniek, Einleit. ii, i, 29C). Chronologers have been very much divided in identifying this prince with those mentioned in profane history (Prideaux's Connection; Gray's Key ; Tomline's Elements ; Hale's Analysis; Ussher's Annals) ; so much so that some au- thor or another has sought to identify him in turn with each personage in the line of Persian kings, unless it be Cyrus and Smerdis. The form of the word favors Xerxes, but this is inconclusive, as it is rather a title than a distinctive proper name. The account of Jo- sephus (Ant. xii, 6) favors the popular identification with Artixerxes Longimanus, but his testimony is mere opinion in such a case, and this king is elsewhere mentioned in this very book of Scripture (Ezra vii, 1) by his usual name. The order of time in the sacred narrative itself requires us to understand Cambyses (q. v.), son of Cyrus, who came to the throne B.C. 529, and died after a reign of seven years and five months. His character was proverbially furious and despotic. Much confusion has been caused by mis- taking this Ahasuerus for the following (Stud. u. Krit. 1847, iii, 6G0, 669, 678). 3. The third Ahasuerus (Sept. 'ApraZlp&ic) is the Persian king of the book of Esther. The chief facts recorded of him there, and the dates of their occurrence, which are important in the subsequent inquiry, are these : In the third year of his reign he made a sump- tuous banquet for all his nobility, and prolonged the feast for 180 days. Being on one occasion merry with wine, he ordered his queen, Vashti, to be brought out, to show the people her beaut.y. On her refusal thus to make herself a gazing-stock, he not only indignant- ly divorced her, but published an edict concerning her disobedience, in order to insure to every husband in his dominions the rule in his own house. In the sev- enth year of his reign he married Esther, a Jewess, who, however, concealed her parentage. In the twelfth year of his reign his minister Haman, who had received some slights from Mordecai the Jew, offered him 10,000 talents of silver for the privilege of ordering a massa- cre of the Jews in all parts of the empire on an appoint- ed day. The king refused this immense sum, but ac- ceded to his request ; and couriers were despatched to the most distant provinces to enjoin the execution of this decree. Before it was accomplished, however, Mordecai and Esther obtained such an influence over him that he so far annulled his recent enactment as to despatch other couriers to empower the Jews to defend themselves manfully against their enemies on that day ; the result of which was that the}* slew 800 of his native subjects in Shushan, and 75,000 of them in the provinces. (See Jour. Sac. Lit. July, I860, p. 385 sq.) The same diversity among chronologers has existed with reference to the identification of this Ahasuerus as with the preceding, with whom he has usually been confounded. But the circumstances under which he is mentioned do not well comport with those under which any other of the Persian kings are introduced to us in Scripture. Now from the extent assigned to the Per- sian empire (Esth. i, 1), "from India even unto Ethi- opia," it is proved that Darius Hystaspis is the earli- est possible king to whom this history can apply, and it is hardly worth while to consider the claims of any after Artaxerxes Longimanus. But Ahasuerus can- not be identical with Darius, whose wives were the daughters of Cyrus and Otanes, and who in name and chai-acter equally differs from that foolish tyrant. Josephus (Ant. xi, 6, 1) makes him to be Artaxerxes Longimanus ; but as his twelfth year (Esth. iii, 7) would fall in B.C. 454, or 144 years after the deporta- tion by Nebuchadnezzar, in B.C. 598 (Jer. Iii, 28), Mordecai, who was among those captives (Esth. ii, 6), could not possibly have survived to this time. Be- sides, in Ezra vii, 1-7, 11-2G, Artaxerxes, in the sev- enth year of his reign, issues a decree very favorable to the Jews, and it is unlikely, therefore, that in the twelfth (Esth. iii, 7) Haman could speak to him of them as if he knew nothing about them, and persuade him to sentence them to an indiscriminate massacre. Nor is the disposition of Artaxerxes Longimanus, as given by Plutarch and Diodorus (xi, 71), at all like that of this weak Ahasuerus. It therefore seems nec- essary to identify him with Xerxes (q. v.), whose regal state and affairs tally with all that is here said of Ahasuerus (the names being, as we have seen, iden- tical) ; and this conclusion is fortified by the resem- blance of character, and by certain chronological in- dications (see Rawlinson's Hist. Evidences, p. 150 sq.). As Xerxes scourged the sea, and put to death the en- gineers of his bridge because their work was injured by a storm, so Ahasuerus repudiated his queen, Vashti, because she would not violate the decorum of her sex, and ordered the massacre of the whole Jewish people to gratif}- the malice of Haman. In the third year of the reign of Xerxes was held an assembly to arrange the Grecian war (Herod, vii, 7sq.); in the third year of Ahasuerus was held a great feast and assembly in Shushan the palace (Esth. i, 3). In the seventh year of his reign Xerxes returned defeated from Greece, and consoled himself by the pleasures of the harem (Herod, ix, 108) ; in the seventh year of his reign "fair young virgins were sought" for Ahasuerus, and he replaced Vashti by marrying Esther. The tribute he "laid upon the land and upon the isles of the sea" (Esth. x, 1) may well have been the result of the. expenditure and ruin of the Grecian expedition. Throughout the book of Esther in the Sept. Artaxerxes is written for Ahasuerus, but on this no argument of any weight can be founded. See Esther, Xerxes was the second son of Darius Hystaspis, whom he succeeded on the throne about B.C. 486, and was succeeded by his son Artaxerxes Longimanus about B.C. 4G6 (omitting the seven months' reign of the usurper Artabanus). He is famous in history from his memorable invasion of Greece at the head of an army of more than three millions, who were repulsed by the little band of Spartans at Thermopylas, and, after burning the city of Athens, were broken to pieces, and the remnant, with the king, compelled to return with disgrace to Persia (Baumgarten, De fide Esth. p. 141 sq. ; De Wette, Einleit. i, 274 ; Petavius, Doctrina Temp, xv, 27 ; Kelle, Vindic. Esth. Freib. 1820; Eambach, Annotat. ii, 1046; Bertholdt, Einleit. v, 2422 ; Scaliger, Emend. Temp. 1. vi ; Justi, Ntue Abhandl. i, 38 sq. ; Gesenius, Thes. Heb. i, 75). 4. The fourth Ahasuerus ('Awo/u-por) is mentioned (Tobit xiv, 15), in connection with Nabuchodonosor (i. e. Nabopolassar), as the destroyer of Nineveh (Herod, i, 106) ; a circumstance that points to Cya- xares (q. v.) I (Polyhistor ap. Syncell. p. 210}, a Me- dian king, son of Phraortes, and father of Astyages (Ilgen, Comment, in loc). Aha'va (Heb. Ahava', N1!~!X, prob. water ; Sept. 'Aove in Ezra viii, 21, 31, but 'Evei v. r. 'Evi in verse 15), the " river" ("iHD) by which the Jewish exiles assembled their second caravan under Ezra, in re- turning from Babylon to Jerusalem ; or, rather, as appears from verse 15 ("the river that runneth to Ahava"), the name of some spot (according to Mi- chaelis, a city ; comp. De Wette, Einhit. ii. i, 289; but more probably the river Euphrates itself, which AHAZ 118 AHAZIAH is still called " the river" by way of eminence, Gese- nius, Heb. Lex. s. v.), in the direction of which the stream where the}' encamped ran. Some have infer- red from the mention of Casiphia (q. v.), apparently in the same neighborhood (ver. 17), that the place in question was situated near the Caspian Sea, or, at least, in Media ; but this would be entirely out of the required direction, and no corresponding name has been found in that vicinity. Others have sought the Ahava in the Lycus or Little Zab, finding that this river was anciently called Adiaba or Diaba (i. e. of Adiabene, Ammian. Marcel, xxiii, 6; comp. Mannert, v, 429). But these names would, in Hebrew, have no resemblance to SO SIX ; and it is exceedingly un- likely that the rendezvous for a Palestine caravan should have been in the north-eastern part of Assyria, with the Tigris and Euphrates between them and the plains they were to traverse (Le Clerc, in loc). Ros- enmuller, on the other hand, supposes (Bibl. Geogr. I, ii, 93) that it lay to the south-west of Babylonia, be- cause that icas in the direction of Palestine ; but cara- van routes seldom run straight between two places. In this case a straight line would have taken the car- avan through the whole breadth of a desert seldom traversed but by the Arabs ; and to avoid this the usual route for large caravans lay, and still lies, north- west through Mesopotamia, much above Babylonia; and then, the Euphrates being crossed, the direction is south-west to Palestine. The greater probability, therefore, is that the "river" in question (whether the Ahava itself or a branch running into it) was one of the streams or canals of Mesopotamia communicat- ing with the Euphrates, somewhere in the north-west of Babylonia. The name, however, may be the des- ignation of a place, and the latest researches are in fa- vor of its being the modern Hit, on the Euphrates, due east of Damascus, the name of which is known to have been in the post-biblical times lh;, or Jehe de-kera (Talm. SOPp? SOfT), " the spring of bitumen" (Raw- linson's Herodotus, i, :M6, note). But this is rather the Ava (q. v.) or Ivah of 2 Kings xvii, 24, 30. In the parallel passage of the Apocrypha (1 Esdr. viii, 41, GO) the name is given Theras (0£p«e). Josephus (Ant. xi, 5, 2) merely says " beyond the Euphrates" («i'c to Ttipav Toil Eutpparou). A'haz (Heb. Avhaz', TnN, possessor), the name of two men. 1. (Sept. XaaZ v. r. 'Aj£a£.) A great grandson of Jonathan, son of King Saul, being one of the four sons of Micah, and the father of Jehoiadah or Jarah (1 Chron. viii, 35 ; ix, 42). B.C. post 1037. 2. (Sept. and N. T.'AxpZ, Josephus 'A\d^r]Q, Auth. Vers. " Achaz," Matt, i, 9.) The son and successor of Jo- tham, being the twelfth king of the separate kingdom of Judah, who reigned fourteen years, B.C. 740-726 (besides two years as vicero}' under his father). In 2 Kings xvi, 2, he is said to have ascended the throne at the age of 20 j-ears. This has been regarded as a transcriber's error for 25, which number is found in one Hebrew MS., the Sept., the Peshito, and Arabic version of 2 Chron. xxviii, 1 ; for otherwise his son Hezekiah was born when he was eleven years old (so Clinton, Fasti Hell, i, 318). But it more probably re- fers to a -till earlier viceroyship at. the. date of Ids fa- ther's full coronation (2 Kings xv, 32, 33), B.C. 750. At the time of his accession, Rezin, king of Damascus, and Pekah, king of Israel, had recently formed a league against Judah, and they proceeded to lay siege to Je- rusalem, intending to place on the throne Ben-Tabeal, who was not a prince of the royal family of Judah, but probably a Syrian noble. Upon this the prophet Isaiah, full of zeal for God and patriotic loyalty to the house of David, hastened to e;ive advice and encourage- ment to Ahaz (see Richardson's Sermons, ii, 186), and it was probably owing to the spirit of energy and re- ligious devotion which he poured into his counsels l that the allies failed in their attack on Jerusalem. j Thus much, together with anticipations of danger from the Assyrians, and a general picture of weakness and unfaithfulness both in the king and the people, we find in the famous prophecies of the 7th, 8th, and 9th chapters of Isaiah, in which he seeks to animate and support them by the promise of the Messiah. From 2 Kings xvi, and 2 Chron. xxviii, we learn that the allies took a vast number of captives, who, how- ever, were restored in virtue of the remonstrances of the prophet Oded ; and that they also inflicted a most severe injury on Judah by the capture of Elath, a flourishing port on the Red Sea, in which, after ex- pelling the Jews, they re-established the Edomites (according to the true reading of 2 Kings xvi, 6, EPOilX for QipilX), who attacked and wasted the east part of Judah, while the Philistines invaded the west and south. The weak-minded and helpless Ahaz sought deliverance from these numerous troubles by appealing to Tiglath-pileser, king of Assyria, who freed him from his most formidable enemies by in- vading Syria, taking Damascus, killing Rezin, and depriving Israel of its northern and Transjordanic dis- tricts— an extension of their dominions for which the AssjTians had been already preparing (see Kitto's Daily Bible, lllustr. in loc). But Ahaz had to pur- chase this help at a costly price : he became tributary to Tiglath-pileser, sent him all the treasures of the Temple and his own palace, and even appeared before him in Damascus as a vassal. He also ventured to seek for safety in heathen ceremonies, despite the ad- monitions of Isaiah, Hosea, and Micah ; making his 1 son pass through the fire to Moloch, consulting wizards I and necromancers (Isa. viii, 19), sacrificing to the Syrian gods, introducing a foreign (originally Assyr- | ian, apparently, Rawlinson, Hist. Evidences, p. 117) altar from Damascus, and probably the worship of the heavenly bodies from Assyria and Babylon, as he would seem to have set up the horses of the sun men- tioned in 2 Kings xxiii, 11 (comp. Tacit. Ann. xii, 13) ; and " the altars on the top (or roof) of the upper cham- ber of Ahaz" (2 Kings xxiii, 12) were connected with the adoration of the stars. See Astrology. The worship of Jehovah became neglected, and the Temple at length altogether closed. We see another and blameless result of this intercourse with an astronom- ical people in the "sundial of Ahaz" (Is. xxxviii, 8). See Dial. He died at the age of fifty years, and his j body was refused a burial in the roj'al sepulchre (2 Kings xvi; 2 Chron. xxviii; Isa. vii). He was suc- ceeded by his son Hezekiah (see Simeon's Works, iv, 177).-— Smith, s. v. See Judah, Kingdom of. Ahazi'ah (Heb. Achazyah' ', rpmx, held by Je- hovah, 2 Kings i, 2 ; ix, 16, 23, 27, 29'; xi, 2 ; 2 Chron. xx, 35; elsewhere in the prolonged form, Achazya'hu, >l!"r"ns< • Sept. 'Ovo^'ar, but v. r. 'O^iag in 1 Chron. iii, 11), the name of two Jewish kings. 1. The son and successor of Ahab, and ninth king of Israel, who reigned two years (current, B.C. 895-4). Under the influence of his mother, Jezebel, Ahaziah pursued the evil courses of his father. The most signal public event of his reign was the revolt of the vassal king of the Moabites, who took the opportunity of the defeat and death of Ahab to discontinue the tribute which he had paid to the Israelites, consisting of 100,000 lambs and as many rams, with their wool (comp. Isa. xvi, 1). The difficulty of enforcing this tribute was enhanced by the fact that after the battle of Ramoth in Gilead [see Ahab] the Syrians had the command of the country along the east of Jordan, and they cut off all communication between the Israelites and Moabites. Ahaziah became a party in the at- tempt of Jehoshaphat, king of Judah, to revive the maritime traffic bj' the Red Sea, in consequence of which the enterprise was blasted, and came to nothing (2 Chron. xx, 35-37). Soon after, Ahaziah, having AHBAN 119 AHIJAH been much injured by a fall from the roof-gallery of his palace, had the infatuation to send to consult the oracle of Baal-zebub, the god of Ekron, respecting his recove^'. But the messengers were met and sent back by Elijah, who announced to the king that he should rise no more from the bed on which he lay (1 Kings xxii, 51, to 2 Kings i, 50). — Kitto, s. v. See Iskael, Kingdom of. 2. The son of Jehoram by Athaliah (daughter of Ahab and Jezebel), and sixth king of the separate kingdom of Judah ; otherwise called Jehoahaz (2 Chron. xxi, 17; xxv, 23), and Azariah (2 Chron. xxii, 6). In 2 Kings viii, 2G, we read that he was 22 years old at his succession, but in 2 Chron. xxii, 2, that his age at that time was 42. The former number is certainly right (comp. ver. 1), as in 2 Chron. xxi, 5, 20, we see that his father Jehoram was 40 when he died, which would make him younger than his own son, so that a transcriber must have confounded 23 (22) and 3.^2 (42). (See the treatises on this difficulty in Latin by Lilienthal [Regiom. 1750], and in German by Miihlenfeld [Nordhaus. 1753].) He reigned but one year (B.C. 884-883), and that ill, being guided by his idolatrous mother (2 Kings viii, 24-29). He joined his uncle Jehoram of Israel in an expedition against Hazael, king of Damascene-Syria, for the recovery of Ramoth-Gilead, and afterward paid him a visit while he la}' wounded in his summer palace of Jezreel. The two kings rode out in their several chariots to meet Jehu (q. v.) ; and when Jehoram was shot through the heart Ahaziah attempted to escape, but was pursued as far as the pass of Gur, and being there mortally wounded, had only strength to reach Mcgiddo, where he died (Granmiiller, llarmonia vitas Achasiie, Jen. 1717). His bodj' was conveyed by his servants in a chariot to Jerusalem for interment (2 Kings ix, 22-28). The variation in 2 Chron. xxii, 7-9, is not substantial (see Poole's Synopsis, in loc.). It appears from the latter passage that Jehu was right in considering Ahaziah as included in his commission to root out the house of Ahab, his presence in Jezreel at the time of Jehu's op- erations being an arrangement of Providence for ac- complishing his doom. See Judah, Kingdom of. Ah'ban (Heb. Achban', "|3HX, brother o/"the wise, i. e. discreet, otherwise = "3f"!X, amiable; Sept. 'Ay_«/3«P v. r. 'OZ,a, Vulg. Ahobban), the first named of the two sons of Abishur bv Abihail, of the descendants of Ju- dah (1 Chron. ii, 29), B.C. long after 1612. A'her (Heb. Acker', ^nx, after; Sept. 'Aop), a de- scendant of Benjamin (1 Chron. vii, 12), the same per- son as Aharaii (1 Chron. viii, 1), or Ahiram (q. v.). A'hi (Heb. Achi', ^HX, my brother [comp. Am-], the name of two men. 1. (Sept. 'A^i.) The first named of the four sons of Shamer. a chieftain of the tribe of Asher (1 Chron. vii, 34), B.C. long post 1612. 2. (Sept. dde\yah' , !"I*Hit, brother [i. e. friend] of Jehovah, also in the prolonged form Achiya'hu, ilVt^-IX, 1 Kings xiv, 4, 5, 6, 18 ; 2 Chron. x, 5 ; Sept. 'A\td or 'A\ia, but omits in 1 Chron, ii, 25, oi Atmrat dSt\7 : ami other members of his family were equally humane (Jer. xxxix, 1-1). He was the son of Shaphan, the royal secretary, and father of Geda- liah, the viceroy of Judaja after the capture of Jeru- salem bv the Babvlonians (2 Kings xxv, 22; Jer. xl, 5-16 ; xli, 1-18 ; xliii, 6). Ahi'lud (Heb. Achilud' ', "t^nx, perh. brother of the Lydian; Sept. 'AxCKovi, but 'hxikovS in 1 Kings iv, 12), the father of Jehoshaphat, chronicler under David and Solomon (2 Sam. viii, 16; xx, 24; 1 Kings iv, 3 ; 1 Chron. xviii, 15), and also of Baana, one of Solomon's purveyors (1 Kings iv, 12), B.C. ante 1014. Ahim'aaz (Heb. Achima ats, "(""^riX, brother of anger, i. e. irascible; Sept. 'Ayijudac), the name of three men. 1. The father of Ahinoam, wife of King Saul (1 Sam. xiv, 50), B.C. ante 1093. 2. The son and successor of Zadok (1 Chron. vi, 8, 53) in the high-priesthood (B.C. cir. 972-956), in which he was succeeded by his son Azariah (1 Chron. vi, 9). See High-priest. During the revolt of Ab- salom, David having refused to allow the ark of God to be taken from Jerusalem when he fled thence, the high-priests Zadok and Abiathar necessarily remain- ed in attendance upon it ; but their sons, Ahimaaz and Jonathan, concealed themselves outside the city, to be in readiness to bear off to David any important information respecting the movements and designs of Absalom which they might receive from within. See Absalom. Accordingly, Hushai having communi- cated to the priests the result of the council of war, in which his own advice was preferred to that of Ahitho- phel (q. v.), the)- instantly sent a girl (probably to avoid suspicion) to direct Ahimaaz and Jonathan to speed away with the intelligence. The transaction, however, was witnessed and betrayed by a lad, and the messengers were so hotly pursued that the}- took refuge in a dry well, over which the woman of the house placed a covering, and spread thereon parched corn. She told the pursuers that the messengers had passed on in haste ; and when all was safe, she re- leased them, on which they made their way to David (2 Sam. xv, 24-37; xvii, 15-21). B.C. cir" 1023. As may be inferred from his being chosen for this serv- ice, Ahimaaz was swift of foot. See Runner. Of this we have a notable example soon after, when, on the defeat and death of Absalom, he prevailed on Joab to allow him to carry the tidings to David. Another messenger, Cushi, had previously been despatched, but Ahimaaz outstripped him, and first came in with the news. He was known afar off by the manner of his running, and the king said, "He is a good man, and cometh with good tidings ;" and this favorable character is justified by the delicacy with which he waived that part of his intelligence concerning the death of Absalom, which he knew would greatly dis- tress so fond a father as David (2 Sam. xviii, 19-33). — Kitto, s. v. See David. 3. Solomon's purveyor in Naphtali, who married Basmath, Solomon's daughter (1 Kings iv, 15), B.C. post 1014. Ahi'man (Heb. Achiman , "jB^rlSj!, in pause "■^nN, brother of a gift, i. e. liberal; Sept. 'A\ifiav, but in 1 Chron. ix, 17, Alfidv v. r. Aifiav), the name of two men. 1. One of the three famous giants of the race of Anak, who dwelt at Hebron when the first Hebrew spies explored the land (Num. xiii, 22), B.C. 1657; and who (or their descendants, Keil, Comment, in loc.) were afterward expelled by Caleb (Josh, xv, 14), B.C. 1612, and themselves eventually slain by the Juda- ites (Judg. i, 10), B.C. cir. 1593." 2. One of the Levitical Temple wardens after the exile (1 Chron. ix, 17), B.C. cir. 51.6. Ahim'elech (Heb. Achime'lek, Tj^inx, brother [i. e. friend^ of the king; Sept. Ayi/uAfY, but 'Afiipi- \(\ in Psa. lii, title ; Josephus 'Axifik\i\og), tne name of two men. AHIMOTH 121 AHITIIOPIIEL 1. The twelfth high-priest of the Jews, B.C. cir. 1085-1060, son of Aliitub (q. v.), and father of Abi- athar (q. v.) ; apparently called also Ahiah (q. v.). See High-priest. (On the difficulties involved in these names see Kuindl, Comment, ad Marc, ii, 20 ; Korb, in the Krit. Journ. d. Theol. iv, 295 sq. ; Fritzsche, Comment, in Marc. p. 72 sq. ; Hitzig, Begriff d. Krit. p. 1-16 ; Ewald, hr. Gesch. ii. 596 ; Engstrcim, Be Ahimeleche et Abjathare, Lund. 1741; Wolf, Cur. i, 439 sq.) He was a descendant of the line of Itha- mar through Eli (1 Chron. xxiv, 2-6; comp. Jo- sephus, Ant. v, 11, 5; viii, 1, 3). When David fled from Saul (B.C. 1062), he went to Nob, a city of the priests in Benjamin, where the tabernacle then was, and, by representinLC himself as on pressing business from the king, he obtained from Ahimelech, who had no other, some of the sacred bread which had been re- moved from the presence-table (see Osiander, Be Ba- vide panes propositions aecipiente, Tub. 1751). He was also furnished with the sword which he had himself taken from Goliath, and which had been laid up as a tropin' in the tabernacle (1 Sam. xxi, 1-9). These circumstances were witnessed by Doeg, an Edomite in the service of Saul, and were so reported by him to the jealous king as to appear acts of connivance at, and support to, David's imagined disloyal designs. Saul immediately sent for Ahimelech and the other priests then at Nob, and laid this treasonable offence to their charge ; but they declared their ignorance of any hos- tile designs on the part of David toward Saul or his kingdom. This, however, availed them not, for the king commanded his guard to slay them. Their re- fusal to fall upon persons invested with so sacred a character might have brought even Saul to reason; but he repeated the order to Doeg himself, and was too readily obeyed by that malignant person, who, with the men under his orders, not only slew the priests then present, eighty-six in number, but march- ed to Nob, and put to the sword even' living creature it contained (1 Sam. xxii ; Psa. lii, title). The only priest that escaped was Abiathar. Ahimelech's son, who fled to David, and afterward became high-priest (1 Sam. xxiii, 6 ; xxx, 7). See Abiathar. Some have supposed from Mark ii, 26, that there was another Ahimelech, a son of Abiathar, and grandson of the preceding, and that he officiated as one of the two high- priests in the time of David (2 Sam. viii, 17 ; 1 Chron. xxiv, 3, 6, 31) ; but the two may be identified by read- ing in these passages, "Abiathar the son of Ahime- lech," instead of the reverse. In 1 Chron. xviii, 16, he is called Abimelech (q. v.). lie is probably the same as the Ahiah who officiated for Saul (1 Sam. xiv, 3, 18). — Kitto, s. v. See Ahijah. 2. A Hittite, one of David's followers whom he in- vited to accompany him at night into the camp of Saul in the wilderness of Ziph, but Abishai alone ap- pears to have had sufficient courage for the enterprise (1 Sam. xxvi, 6), B.C. 1055. Ahi'moth (Heb. Achimoth', r^'flX, brother of death, i. e. perh. destructive; Sept. 'Ay//), a town of Ashcr, appar- ently near Zidon and Achzib, the native inhabitants of which the Israelites were unable to expel (Judg. i, 31). Its lying thus within the unconquered Phoeni- cian border may be the reason of its omission in the list of the Asherite cities (Josh, xix, 24-31). It is supposed (see Schwarz, Palest, p. 198) that Achlab re- appears in later history as Gnsh-Chalab (2^n d'lJ) or Giscala (Reland, Palcest. p. 813, 817), a place lately identified by Robinson under the abbreviated name of el-Jish, near Safed, in the hilly country to the north- west of the sea of Galilee (Researches, new ed. ii, 44G ; iii, 73). This place was in rabbinical times famous for its oil, and the old olive-trees still remain in the neighborhood (Reland and Robinson, ib.). From it came the famous John, son of Levi, the leader in the siege of Jerusalem (Joseph. Life, 10 ; War, ii, 21, 1), and it had a legendary celebrity as the birth-place of the parents of no less a person than the Apostle Paul (Jerome, Comment, ad Ep. ad Philem."). But this can- not be the Ahlab of Asher. See Gisciiala. Ah'lai (Heb. Achlay' , h3riX, perh. ornamental), the name of a woman and also of a man. 1. (Sept. 'AaSa't v. r. AaCai.) The daughter and only child of Sheshan, a descendant of Judah, mar- ried to her father's Egyptian slave Jarha (q. v.), by whom she had Attai (1 Chron. ii, 31, 34, 35). B.C. prob. ante 1658. 2. (Sept. 'OXi v. r. AyaYa.) The father of Zabad, which latter was one of David's bod3r-guard (1 Chron. xi, 41). B.C. ante 1046. Aho'ah (Heb. Acho'ach, IjlHN, brotherly; Sept. Ayid v. r. AynjA), one of the sons of Bela, the son of Benjamin (1 Chron. viii, 4) ; called also Ahiah (ver. 7), and perhaps Iri (1 Chron. vii, 7). B.C. post 1856. It is probably he whose descendants are called Aiiohites (2 Sam. xxiii, 9, 28). Aho'hite (Heb. AchocW ', "TTinN ; Sept. irapa- StXtpog, 'AywiV/7c [v. r. 'AuAthq], 'Aywy/', 'Aywp [v. r. 'Aywi'i'], 'Audi [v. r. Xwy, 'Lvwy]), an epithet ap- plied to Dodo or Dodai, one of the captains under Sol- omon (1 Chron. xxvii, 4), and his son Eleazar, one of David's three chief warriors (2 Sam. xxiii, 9; 1 Chron. xi, 12), as well as to Zalmon or Ilai, another of his body-guard (2 Sam. xxiii, 28 ; 1 Chron. xi, 29) ; doubtless from their descent from Ahoah (1 Chron. viii, 4) the Benjamite (comp. 1 Chron. xi, 26). Aho'lah (Heb. Oholah' , f&nx, i. q. ^^?' she has her own tent, i. e. tabernacle, for lascivious rites ; Sept. 'OoXci v. r. 'OXXo, 'OoXAd ; Vulg. Oolla), the name of an imaginary harlot, used by Ezekiel (xxiii, 4, 5, 36, 44) as a symbol of the idolatry of the northern kingdom, the apostate branch of Judah being desig- nated, by a paronomasia, Aholibah (q. v.). These terms indicate respectively that, while the worship at Samaria had been self-invented, and never sanctioned by Jehovah, that at Jerusalem was divinely instituted and approved, so long as pure, but now degraded and abandoned for foreign alliances (Henderson, Comment. in loc). They are both graphically described as sis- ters who became lewd women, adulteresses, prostitut- ing themselves to the Egyptians and the Assyrians, in imitating their abominations and idolatries ; where- fore Jehovah abandoned them to those very people for whom they showed such inordinate and impure affec- tion. The}' were carried into captivity, and reduced to the severest servitude. But the crime of Aholibah was greater than that of Aholah, for she possessed more distinguished privileges, and refused to be in- structed by the awful example of her sister's ruin. The allegory is an epitome of the history of the Jew- ish Church. — Kitto, s. v. See Idolatry. Aho'liab (Heb. Oholiab' , 2X^nX, tent of his father; Sept. EXio/S), the son of Ahisamach, of the tribe of Dan, one of the two artificers in the precious metals and other materials, appointed to superintend the preparation of such articles for the tabernacle (Exod. xxxi. 6 ; xxxv, 34 ; xxxvi, 1, 2 ; xxxviii, 23), B.C. 1657. See Bezaleel. Ahol'ibah (Heb. Oholibah' , rta^hK, for ^t» rT3, my tent, is in her; Sept. 'OoXijia v. r. "OXtjSd; Vulg. Ooliba), a symbolical name given to Jerusalem (Ezek. xxiii, 4, 11, 22, 36, 44) under the figure of an adulterous harlot, as having once contained the true AHOLIBAMAH 123 AI worship of Jehovah, hut having prostituted herself to foreign idolatries (Havernik, Comment, in loc). See Aholah. Aholiba'mah [many Aholib'amah~] (Heb. Oholi- bamah', H^^bnX, tent of the height), the name, ap- parently, of a woman (Sept. 'OXtfit^ta), and of a man or district (Sept. 'E\t/3a/«i(.-) named after her, in connec- tion with the family and lineage of Esau (q. v.). She was the granddaughter of Zibeon (q. v.) the Hivite (of the family of Seir the Horite) by his son Anah (q. v.), and became one (probably the second) wife of Esau (Gen. xxxvi, 2, 25). B.C. 1964. It is doubtless through this connection of Esau with the original inhabitants of Mount Seir that we are to trace the subsequent oc- cupation of that territory by him and his descendants, and it is remarkable that each of his three sons by this wife is himself the head of a tribe, while all the tribes of the Edomites sprung from his other two wives are founded by his grandsons (Gen. xxxvi, 15-19). In the earlier narrative (Gen. xxvi, 34) Aholibamah is called Judith (q. v.), daughter of Beeri (q. v.) the Hittite (q. v.). 1 he explanation of the change in the name of the woman seems to be that her proper per- sonal name was Judith, and that Aholibamah was the name which she received as the wife of Esau and foundress of three tribes of his descendants ; she is, therefore, in the narrative called by the first name, while in the genealogical table of the Edomites she appears under the second. This explanation is con- firmed by the recurrence of the name Aholibamah in the concluding list of the genealogical table (Gen. xxxvi, 40-43), which, with Hengstenberg (Die Au- thentie d. Pent, ii, 279; Eng. transl. ii, 228), Tuch (Comm. vh. d. Gen. p. 493), Knobel {Genes, p. 258), and others, we must therefore regard as a list of names of places, and not of mere persons, as, indeed, is express- ly said at the close of it : "These are the chiefs (heads of tribes) of Esau, according to their settlements in the land of their possession." The district which re- ceived the name of Esau's wife, or, perhaps, rather from which she received her married name, was no doubt (as the name itself indicates) situated in the heights of the mountains of Edom, probably, there- fore, in the neighborhood of Mount Hor and Petra, though Knobel places it south of Petra, having been misled by Burckhardt's name Hesma, which, however, according to Robinson (Resea?-ches, ii, 552), is " a sandy tract with mountains around it . . . but not it- self a mountain, as reported by Burckhardt." It seems not unlikely that the three tribes descended from Aholibamah, or, at least, two of them, possessed this district, since there are enumerated only eleven districts, whereas the number of tribes is thirteen, ex- clusive of that of Korah, whose name occurs twice, and which we may further conjecture emigrated (in part at least) from the district of Aholibamah, and became associated with that of Eliphaz. — Smith. See Edom. Ahriman. See Ormuzd. Ahu'mai (Heb. Achumay', "wWN, brother of wa- ter, i. e. living near a stream; otherwise, swarthy; Sept. 'A'xtpai), the first named of the two sons of Ja- hatli, a Zorathite, of the tribe of Judah (1 Chron. iv, 2), B.C. post 1012. Alru'zam (Heb. Achuzzam', CJHX, their posses- sion; otherwise, tenacious; Sept. '£2y«s«V v-r- &Xa'a)i the first named of the four sons of Ashur (" father" of Tekoa) by one of his wives, Naarah, of the tribe of Judah (1 Chron. iv, G), B.C. cir. 1G12. Ahuz'zath (Heb. Aehuzzath' , TjPlX, possession, as often in the constr. of Wnx ; otherwise, tenacious [the termination "-ath" being frequent in Philistine nouns, comp. Gath, Goliath, etc.] ; Sept. 'Oxo^a'3-, Vulg. Ochozath), the "friend" (V"^ ; Sept. w^tpayw- y6g, bridesman ; but rather, evidently, that unofficial but important personage of ancient Oriental courts called "the king's friend" or favorite) of Abimelech (q. v.) II, king of Gerar, who attended him on his visit to Isaac (Gen. xxvi, 26), B.C. cir. 1985. A'i (Heb. Ay, ""V, ruin, perh. so called after its destruction, Gen. xii, 8 ; xiii, 3 ; Josh, vii, 2-5 ; viii, 1-29; ix, 3; x, 1, 2; xii, 9; Ezra ii, 28; Neh. vii, 32 ; Jer. xlix, 3 ; always with the art., *Vi~t, except in the passage last cited ; Sept. Tea in Josh., 'Ayyai in Gen., 'Aid in Ezra, 'At in Neh., Tat in Jer. ; Vulg. Hai ; Auth. Vers. " Hai" in Gen.: also in the pro- longed forms Aya' ' , X'S;, Neh. xi, 31, Sept. 'Aid, Vulg. Hai, Auth. Vers. "Aija;" Ayath' , FVS, Isa. x, 28, Ayyai, Ajath, " Aiath ;" v. r. "P2, text Josh. viii, 16 ; fli"1?, Samar. Gen. xii, 8, comp. 'Aivd, Jo- sephus, Ant. v, 1, 12 ; Jerome Gai), the name of one or two places. See also Avim. 1. A royal city of the Canaanites (Josh, x, 1), the site of which (not necessarily then a city) is mentioned as early as the time of Abraham, who pitched his tent between it and Bethel (Gen. xii, 8 ; xiii, 3) ; but it is chiefly noted for its capture and destruction by Joshua (vii, 2-5;. viii, 1-29). See Ambush. At a later pe- riod Ai appears to have been rebuilt, for it is men- tioned by Isaiah (x, 28), and it was inhabited by the Benjamites after the captivity (Ezra ii, 28 ; Neh. vii, 32 ; xi, 31). The site was known, and tome scant}' ruins still existed in the time of Eusebius and Jerome (Onomast. s. v. 'Ayycti), but Dr. Robinson was unable to discover an)' certain traces of either. He remarks (Bib. Researches, ii, 313), however, that its situation with regard to Bethel may be well determined by the facts recorded in Scripture. That Ai lay to the east of Bethel is certain (comp. Josh, xii, 9 ; " beside Beth- aven," Josh, vii, 2 ; viii, 9) ; and the two cities were not so far distant from each other but that the men of Bethel mingled in the pursuit of the Israelites when they feigned to flee before the king of Ai, and thus both cities were left defenceless (Josh, viii, 17) ; yet they were not so near but that Joshua could place an ambuscade on the west (or south-west) of Ai, without its being observed by the men of Bethel, while he himself remained behind in a valley to the north of Ai (Josh, viii, 4, 11-13). A little to the south of a village called Deir Diwan, and one hour's journey from Bethel, the site of an ancient place is indicated 1 y reservoirs hewn in the rock, excavated tombs, and foundations of hewn stone. This, Dr. Robinson in- clines to think, may mark the site of Ai, as it agrees with all the intimations as to its position. Near it, on the north, is the deep Wady el-Mutyah, and toward the south-west other smaller wadj-s, in which the am- bushed party of Israelites might easily have been con- cealed. According to Schwarz (Palest, p. 84), the ancient name is still preserved in some ruins called Khirbet Medinat Gai, near the edge of a valley, two English miles south-east of Bethel ; a position which he thinks corresponds with a rabbinical notice of Ai (Shemoth Rabbah, c. 32) as lying three Roman miles from Bethel (erroneously written Jericho). Thenius, however (in Kauffer's Exeget. Studien, ii, 127 sq.), lo- cates Ai at Tvrmus Aya, a small reeky mound east of Sinjil (Robinson's Researches, iii, 85), a position which is defended by Keil (Comment, on Josh, vii, 2) ; but in which he has been influenced by an incorrect loca- tion of Bethel (q. v.). Stanley (Palest, p. 200 note) places it at the head of the 1 1 'ady llarith. lor Krufi't's identification with Kirbet el-IIaiy h, see Pol inson (new ed. of Researches, iii, 288). Van de Velde, after a care- ful examination, concludes that no spot answers the. conditions except Tell el-Hajar, about 40' E. by S. of Beitin, on tha southern border of Wady el-Mutyah, with no remains but a broken cistern (Narrative, ii, 278-282). This position essentially corresponds to that assigned by Robinson. It is the opinion of some that the words Avim in AIAH 124 AILLY Josh, xviii, 5.3, and Gaza in 1 Chron. vii, 28, arc cor- ruptions of Ai. 2. A city of the Ammonites, apparently opposite Heshbon, and devastated next to it by tbe Babyloni- ans on their way to Jerusalem (Jer. xlix, 3). Others, however, regard the name as an appellative here. Ai'ah, another mode (2 Sam. iii, 7 ; xxi, 8, 10, 11 ; i Chron. i, 40) of Anglicizing the name Ajah (q. v.). Ai'ath, another form (Isa. x, 28) of the name of the city Ai (q. v.). Aichrnalotarch («/YuaXwr«nY»;c) an imaginary title (Carpzov, Apparat. Crit. p. 8 sq.), signifying chief of the captives, assigned to the heads of the Jewish families during the captivity (q. v.). Aidan, a native of Ireland, who was sent, accord- ing to Bede, by the Scottish bishop, at the request of Oswald, king of Northumbria, as missionary bishop to the Northumbrians, about A.D. 635. Upon his ar- rival in Northumbria, he was appointed, at his own request, to the see of Lindisfam, then first erected, on the island of that name. Here he set up the rule of St. Columban, and persuaded the king to establish the Church in his kingdom. "Often," says Bede, " might be seen a beautiful sight — while the bishop (who was but imperfectly acquainted with the English tongue) preached, the king and his officers, who, owing to their long exile in Scotland, had acquired the language of that country, interpreted his words to the people." Bede says that " nothing more commended his doctrine to the attention of his hearers than the fact that, as he taught, so he himself lived, seeking for nothing and attaching himself to nothing which belonged to this world. All that the king gave him he quickly dis- tributed to the poor ; and never, unless when com- pelled to do so, did he travel through his diocese ex- cept on foot." He died August 31, Col, apparently broken-hearted at the de..th of the king, who, as he had predicted, perished by treachery twelve days be- fore. He is commemorated in the Romish martyr- ology on the 31st of August. — Bede, Eccl. Hist. lib. iii, cap." 3, 5. 14-17; Neander, Ck. Hist, iii, 21; Collier, Eccl. Hist, i, 203. Aigenler, Adam, a German Jesuit, born in the Tyrol, 1633, who became professor of Hebrew at In- golstadt. In 1073 he was sent out to China as mis- sionary, and died on the voyage, August 16, 1073. Among other writings, he left Fundamenta Vnguce sancia (Dillingen, 1670, 4to). — Jocher, Attg. Gelehrten- Lexicon, Hoefer, Nouv. Biog. Ginercde, i, 454. Ai'ja, another form (Neh. xi, 31) of the name of the city Ai (q. v.). Ai'j alon, another mode (Josh, xxi, 24 ; Judg. i, 35 ; xii, 12 ; 1 Sam. xiv, 31 ; 1 Chron. vi, 69 ; viii, 13 ; 2 Chron. xi, 10) of Anglicizing the name of the city Ajalon (q. v.). A'ij'eleth Sha'har (Heb. Aye'leth ha?h-Shach'ar, *in'i"!"J rb^X, hind of the dawn, in which signification the terms often occur separately ; Sept. ») ovriAn^ic »'/ iwSivrf, Vulg. susceptio matutind) occurs in the title of Psa. xxii, and is apparently the name of some other poem o? song, to the measure of which this ode was to lie performed or chanted (Aben Ezra, in loc. ; Bochart, l/ieroz. i, 8*8; Eichhorn, Pr' (Petrus de Alliaco), a noted car- dinal and learned theologian of the fourteenth cen- tury, surnamed the " Hammer of Heretics. He was born at Compicgne in 1350, of humble parentage, and completed his studies at the college of Navarre in ; Paris. The dispute between Nominalism and Realism J had not yet died out, and D'Ailly threw himself with ardor into philosophical study. He soon became noted among the students for the skill and subtlety with which he advocated the nominalist theory, and for the i wide extent of his general knowledge. At twenty- five he lectured in the university of Paris on Peter i Lombard's Sentential, and soon obtained a brilliant rep- utation. In 1377, while yet a subdeacon, he was sent as delegate to the Provincial Council of Amboise, a rare distinction for one so young. In 1380 he was made doctor of the Sorhonne. In his inaugural ad- dress he extolled tl.e study of Holy "Writ, and after- ward held lectures upon the New Testament and the i nature of the Church. D'Ailly declared that the pas- I sage, " Upon this rock," etc., Matt, xvi, 18, was to be taken in a spiritual sense, asserting that the Bible alone is the everlasting rock upon which the Church is built, as Peter and his successors could not be such, on I account of their human frailty. He also distinguished i between the universal Church of Christ and the Church j of Rome as a particular Church, and maintained that ; the latter had no precedence before the universal Church, and that another bishop than that of Rome might be the head of the Church. In 1384 D'Ailly was made the head of the College of Navarre, where i Gerson (q. v.) and Nicholas de Clemange (q. v.) were ! among his pupils. When in the university of Paris, he defended the doctrine of the Immaculate Concep- i tion against the Dominicans, and especially against I John de Montcon ; and when the latter appealed from an ecclesiastical censure to Pope Clement VII, the university sent D'Ailly to the pope to defend before him the doctrine of the Immaculate Conception, as also the opinion that the right to decide in such questions ! ('' circa ea qua sunt fidei doctrinaliter definire"} does not belong to the pope alone, but also to the doctores eccle- s/cp. The pope approved both opinions; and the uni- versity of Paris elected D'Ailly, in reward for his vic- tor}', chancellor. Soon afterward he was made con- • fessor and almoner of Charles VI, archdeacon at Cam- bray, and treasurer of the Holy Chapel at Paris. In 1394 he was sent by Charles VI to Peter de Luna (Benedict XIII), to prevail upon this antipope to re- sign, but Benedict succeeded in bringing D'Ailly over to his side, and, through him, was recognised by France as the legitimate pope. He appointed D'Ailly, in 1398, bishop of Cambray. D'Ailly continued to take an active and prominent part in the endeavors made for a restoration of the ecclesiastical unity. In 1409 he was a leading member of the Council of Pisa, and prevailed upon the council to depose all the popes who at that time claimed the Papal See. Alexander V was nominated in their place, but died soon after. AILLY 125 AIN His successor, John XXIII, made D'Ailly a cardinal, and papal legate in Germany. As such, he took part in the Council of Constance, where he was again very conspicuous. See Constance, Council of. Soon after his arrival, and through his influence, the Coun- cil adopted a resolution that the vote on the reforma- tion of the Church should be taken, not according to heads, but according to nations — a decision which at once fixed the fate of John XXIII. He again urged the resignation or deposition of all the popes, and the election by the Council of a new pope, who should pledge himself to carry out the reformatory decrees of the Council. He strongly maintained the superiority of a general council over the pope, and under the in- fluence of his views Benedict XIII was deposed. He was one of the Committee to investigate the case of John Huss, and it is a stain upon his great name that he voted for the condemnation of the reformer. In the question whether the election of a new pope was to take place before or after the completion of the reformatory decrees of the Council, D'Ailly separated from the reformatory party (the Germans, Gerson, etc.), carried the priority of the papal election, and thereby neutralized to a large extent the beneficial effects which otherwise the Council might have pro- duced. Martin V appointed him legate at Avignon ; he died there in 1425; or, according to another ac- count, on a legative mission in the Netherlands, 1420. DAilly is one of the most remarkable dignitaries of the Church of the Middle Ages, and greatly distin- guished both as a theologian and orator. He was, however, addicted to a belief in astrology, maintaining that important events might be predicted from the conjunctions of the planets. A very remarkable co- incidence appears in the case of one of his predictions, viz., that in the year 1789, "si mundus usque ad ilia tempora duraverit, quod solus Deus novit, multa? tunc et magna? et mirabiles alterationes mundi et muta- tiones faturae sunt, et maxime circa leges et sectas." This prediction was written in 1414, in his Concord, astronomire cum historica narrat'ove (published in Augs- burg, 1490, 4to). D'Ailly may be considered as a predecessor of that liberal p..rty in the Roman Cath- olic Church afterward represented by Bossuet and Fenelon. His principal writings were published at Douay, 1634, 8vo; but there is no full collection of his works. Among them are : 1. Commentarii Breves in libros 4 Sentent. (1500, 4to) : — 2. Quatuor Principia in 4 libros Sentent. : — 3. Recommendatio S. Scriptura : — 4. Principium in cursum Bibliorum : — 5. Qucestio Ves- periarum, utrum Petri Eccl. lege reguletur :— 6. Qucestio resumpta, utrum P. E. Rege gubernetur, lege reguletur, fide confirmetur, et jure dominetur :— 7 '. Speculum Con- sider at'umis : — 8. Compendium Contemplationis, in 3 trac- tatus: — 9. Be 4 Gradibus Scalce Spiritualist — 10. Epit- ome Quadruplicis Exercitii Spiritiialis : — 11. De Oratione Dominica Tractatus 2. — 12. Salulationis Angelica; Ex- poskio devota: — 13. Verbum abbreviatum super libros Psalmorum: — 14. Meditationes 2 in Psa. xxx : — 15. Med- itat. in Psa. "Judica me, Deus:,, — 16. Meditat. in vii Psa. Penitentiales : — 17. Meditat. in Cantica, Magnificat, Benedictus, et Nunc Dimit. .-—18. Expositio in Cantica Canticorum Solomonis : — 19. 12 Honores S. Joseph! Spon- si Virginis. All the above, from the Speculum Consid- erationis to the last, inclusive, were published at Douay in 1634 (8vo):— 20. Tractatus de Anima (Paris, 1494, 8vo; 1505): — 21. Sermones, varii' Argument! , 20: — 22. Modus seu Eorma eligend! Summ. Pontif. : — 23. Libellus de Emendatione Eccl., in the "Fasciculus rerum expeten- darum" (Cologne, 1535): — 24. Be Ecclesice et Cardina- lium auctoritate libellus (in Gerson's works, Paris, 1606, torn, i, p. 895). — 25. Sacramentale (Louvain, 1487) : — 26. Vita S. Petri de Morono, afterward Celestine V (Paris, 1539). — Dupin, Eccl. Writers, cent, xv, ch. iv; Mosheim, Ch. Hist. cent, xiv, pt. ii, ch. ii, § 38; Cave, Hist. Lit. ann. 1396 ; Dinaud, Notice historique et lite- raire, sur P. D'Ailly (Cambray, 1824, 8vo) ; Hoefer, Nmiv. Biog. Generah, i, 125 ; Landon, Eccl. Dictionary, i, 169. Ailredus, Aelredus, an English historian, born in 1109, and said to have died in 1166. According tu Cave, he was an Englishman, educated in Scotland, having been educated together with Henry, son of David, king of Scotland. When he was of the proper age a bishopric was offered to him, but he refused it ; and, returning to England, he took the monastic vows among the Cistercians of Revesby Abbe}-, in Lincoln- shire. He became abbot of this monastery, and after- ward of Rievaux, and made Bernard of Clairvaux his model both as to his life and style of writing. His works include Historia de Vita et Miraculis S. Ed- wardi R. et Confess, (among the " Decern Scriptores" of England, edited by Twisden, Lond. 1652) ; Genea- logia Regum Anglorum ; De Bel'o Standard!; Historia de Sanctimoniali de Watthun (all in Twisden); Ser- mones de Tempore et de Sanctis (in Bibl. Claras Vallis) ; In Isaiam Prophetam Sermones 31 ; Speculum Charita- tis, libris 3 ; Tractatus de puero Jesu duodecenni (ed. by David Camerarius, de Scot, fortitud, Paris, 1031); De, Spirituali Amicitia, libri 3. The latter four treatises were edited by Gibbon, a Jesuit, and printed at Douay in 1631;' also in the Biblioth. Cisternen. torn, v, 16, and Bibl. Patr. torn, xxiii, 1. — Cave, Hist. Lit. sec. xii, vol. ii, 227 ; Dupin, Hist. Eccl. Writers, cent, xii ; Lan- don, Eccl. Dictionary, i, 170 ; Clarke, Sacred Litera- ture, ii, 696. Aimo. See Haymo. Aimon, also called Aimoin, Aymoin, a French Benedictine of the convent of Fleuiy, died 1008. He was a pupil of Abbo of Fleury, at whose request he wrote the work Historia Francorum, which extends from 253 to 654. A continuation by another author, which is more valuable than the original, carries the narrative to the year 727. It is contained in Bouquet's Collection des historiens de France (Paris, 1738, 8 vols.). Aimon also wrote Vita Abbonis Floriaeencis, and sever- al works on St. Bernard. — Herzog, i, 198. A 'ill (Heb. A'yin, }*2, a fountain) signifies liter- ally an eye, and also, in the simple but vivid imagery of the East, a spring, or natural burst of living water, always contradistinguished from the well or tank of artificial formation, and which latter is designated by the word "Beer" 0X2) or "Bor" (1X2 and 113). Ain still retains its ancient and double meaning in the Arabic 'Ain. Such living springs abound in Palestine even more than in other mountainous districts, and, apart from their natural value in a hot climate, form one of the most remarkable features of the country. Prof. Stanley- (Palest, p. 147, 509) has called attention to the accurate and persistent use of the word in the original text of the Bible, and has well expressed the inconvenience arising from the confusion in the Auth. Vers, of words and things so radically distinct as Ain and Beer. The importance of distinguishing between the two is illustrated by Exod. xv, 27, in which the word Ainoth (translated "wells") is used for the springs of fresh water at Elim, although the rocky soil of that place excludes the supposition of dug wells. Ain oftenest occurs in combination with other words, forming the names of definite localities: these will bo found under En- (q. v.), as En-gedi, En-gannim, etc. It occurs alone in two cases. See Fountain. 1. (Sept. at Josh, xxi, 16, 'Arra, at 1 Chron. iv, 32, "Hi/; elsewhere it blends as a prefix with the follow- ing names, 'Ep-tflwB, 'Ep-i/uov.) A city at first as- signed to the tribe of Judah, on its southern border . (Josh, xv, 32), but afterward to Simeon (Josh, xix, 7 ; 1 Chron. iv, 32). In all these passages it is inentinni'd as adjoining Remmon or Eimmon (q. v.), and it seems to be the En-Rimmon (q. v.) of Neh. xi, 29. It was one of the Levitical cities (Josh, xxi, 16). Reland (Palcrst. p. 554, 625) thinks it the same with the Betane (UtTta'))) AINSWORTH 126 AISLE of Judith i, 0, and the Bethanht (BnSaviv) located by Eusebius (Onomast. s. v. 'Api, i. e. 'At v) at four Koman miles from Hebron. But these are rather the Beth- anoth (q. v.) of Josh, xv, 59. Dr. Robinson conjectures it may have been the same with the modern village el- Ghuwein, the ruins of which he saw in a valley a short distance to the right of the road a few hours south of Hebron {Researches, ii, 625). But this again is prob- ably the Anim (q. v.) of Josh, xv, 50. The margin of our Bibles identifies this Ain with the Ashan of Josh, xv. 42, but in 1 Chron. iv, 32 both are mentioned. In the list of priests' cities in 1 Chron. vi, 59, Ashan (q. v.) appears to take the place of Ain. 2. (With the art., 'C.Vtl, Ha-A'yin.') One of the landmarks on the northern or eastern boundary of Palestine as described by Moses (Num. xxxiv, 11), near the lake Gennesareth, adjoining Shephan, and apparently mentioned to define the position of Rib- lah, viz. "on the east side of 'the spring'" (Sept. tizi 7r»;yfic). But the ambiguous phrase '^vb C*1~"2 (literally, from the east as to the spring), rather refers directly to the boundary as extending in general terms easterly to Ain, in the direction of Riblah (q. v.). By Jerome, in the Vulgate, it is rendered con- tra fontem Daphnin, meaning the spring which rose in the celebrated grove of Daphne dedicated to Apollo and Diana at Antioch. Riblah having been lately, with much probability, identified (Robinson, Research. new ed. iii, 542-6 ; Porter, ii, 335) with a place of the same name on the north-east slopes of the Lebanon range, "the spring" of the text is probably the mod- ern Ain, in Ccele-Syria, between the Orontes and the Litany (Biblioiheca Sacra, 1847, p. 405, 408) ; so call- ed from a large fountain of the same name a little to the north of the village, which " is strong enough to drive several mills, and about it are heavy blocks of hewn stone of a verj- antique appearance" (ibid. 1848, p. 698). Dr. Robinson, however, thinks it is rather an appellative, and refers to the fountain of the Oron- tes still farther south-west of Riblah (new ed. of Re- searches, iii, 534). Ainsworth, Henry, D. D., one of the earliest leaders of the Independents, then called Brownists ; a celebrated nonconformist divine of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. The time and place of his birth are unknown. In early life he gained great reputation by his knowledge of the learned languages, and particularly of Hebrew. He removed about 1593 to Amsterdam, and had a church there (with an inter- val spent in Ireland) until his death, which occurred suddenly in 1622. Suspicion of his having been poi- soned was raised by his having found a diamond, of great value, belonging to a Jew, and his refusing to return it to him till he had confessed with some of the rabbins on the prophecies of the Old Testament relating to the Messiah, which was promised; but the Jew not having sufficient interest to obtain one, it is thought he was the instrument of his death. Ains- worth was a man of profound learning, well versed in t he Scriptures, and deeply read in the works of the rabbins. His much celebrated " Annotations on several Books of the Bible" were printed at various times and in many sizes. In those on the five Books of Moses, Psalms, and the Canticles, the Hebrew words are compared with and explained by the ancient Greek and Chaldee versions, and other records and monuments of the Hebrew. The " Annotations <»i the Pentateuch" were republished in Edinburgh (Blackie and Sen, 2 vols. 8vo) in 1843.— Neal, Hist, of the Puri- tans, ii, 43 ; Wilson, Dissenting Churches, i, 22. Ainsworth, Laban, a Congregational minister, was born at Woodstock, Conn., July 19th, 1757. He graduated at Dartmouth College in 1778, and became pastor of the church at Jaffrey, N. H., Dec. 10th, 1782. Here he continued in the pastoral relation un- til his death, March 17th, 1858. He was an evangel- ical preacher of more than ordinary ability, and a man of great humor in his social intercourse, but ear- nestly intent in his great calling. He retained the respect and affection of his people to the last. — Amer. Cong. Year Book (vol. vi, 1859, p. 117). Aionios. See Eternal. Air (_cn)p), the atmosphere, as opposed to the ether (aiOiip), or higher and purer region of the sky (Acts xxii, 24 ; 1 Thess. iv, 17 ; Rev. ii, 2 ; xvi, 17). The Heb. term nil, ru'ach, occurs in this sense but onco (Job xli, 16) ; " air" is elsewhere the rendering of C^'.y, shama'yim, in speaking of birds of the heavens. The later Jews (see Eisenmenger, Entd. Jud. ii, 437 sq.), in common with the Gentiles (see Eisner, Obs. ii, 205; Dougttei Annul, p. 127), especially the Pytha- goreans, believed the air to be peopled with spirits, under the government of a chief, who there held his seat of empire (Philo, 31, 28; Diog. Laert. viii, 32; Plutarch, Qua;st. Rom. p. 274). These spirits were sup- posed to be powerful, but malignant, and to incite men to evil. That the Jews held this opinion is plain from the rabbinical citations of Lightfoot, Wetstein, etc. Thus in Pirke Aboth, lxxxiii, 2, they are described as filling the vhole air, arranged in troops, in regular subordination (see Rosenroth, Cabbala denud. i, 417). The early Christian fathers entertained the same be- lief (Ignat. ad Ephes. § 13), which has indeed come down to our own times. It is to this notion that Paul is supposed to allude in Epb. ii, 2, where Satan is called " prince of the power (i. e. of those who ex- ercise the power) of the air" (see Stuart, in the Biblioth. Sacra, 1843, p. 139). Some, however, explain " air" here by darkness, a sense which it bears also in profane writers. But the apostle no doubt speaks according to the notions entertained by most of those to whom he wrote, without expressing the extent of his own belief (see Bloomfield, Rcc. Sgn., and Meyer, Com- ment, inloc). See Power; Principality. The sky as the midst of heaven, or the middle station between heaven and earth, may symbolically represent the place where the Divine judgments are denounced, as in 1 Chron. xxi, 16. See Angel. The phrase tic c'i'tpa A«ahj', to speak into the air (1 Cor. xiv, 9), is a proverbial expression to denote speaking in vain, like rentis verba prof undere in Latin (Lucret. iv, 929), and a similar one in our own lan- guage ; and tic aipa ciptn; t) beat the air (1 Cor. ix, 26), denotes acting in vain, and is a proverbial allu- sion to an abortive stroke into the air in pugilistic contests (comp. Virgil, sEn. v, 377). See Games. Ai'rus ('Ia'ipoc, comp. Jairus of the N. T.), one of the temple-servants whose " sons" are said to have returned from the captivity (1 Esdr. v, 31) ; probably a corruption for Gahar (q. v.) of the genuine text (Ezra ii, 47). Aisle is derived from the Latin ala, French aile, a wing, and signi- fies the wings or side- passages of the church. The term is incorrectly applied to the middle av- enue of a church, which its derivation shows to be wrong. Where there is but one aisle to a tran- sept, it is always to the east. In churches on the continent of Europe the number of aisles is frequently two on either side of the nave and choir, and at Cologne there are even three. See Church Architecture. Aisle in Melrose Abbey. AIX-LA-CHAPELLE •2 7 AKIXS Aix-la-Chapelle (Aquis-gramtm or Aqtue-gra- 7ii, Germ. Aachen), a large city of Germany, dependent on the archbishopric of Cologne in spiritual matters. As the favorite abode of Charlemagne, it acquired great ecclesiastical importance ; and many councils were held there. From the time of Otho I (937) to Ferdinand 1,1558, twenty- nine German emperors were crowned in this city. The first Council of Aix-la-Chapelle was held in 780, on discipline ; in the council held in 799 Felix of Urgel renounced Agnoetism, which he previously upheld. The others are that of 803, where the Bene- dictines received their religious regulations ; of 809, on the procession of the Holy Ghost ; 813, when the canons of the preceding council were published ; 816, confirmatory of the rules of Chrodegang ; 817, on St. Benedict's rule, etc. ; 825, on the same subjects ; 831, declaring the innocence of the Empress Judith ; 83G, on the restoration of Church property ; 837, on Epis- copal controversies ; 842, by Kings Louis and Charles, on the division of Lothaire's possessions ; two sessions in 860, against Queen Thetburga ; 862, allowing King Lothaire to contract a new marriage ; 992, forbidding marriages during Advent, from Septuagesima to East- er, etc.; 1165, to canonize Charlemagne. — Smith, Tables of Church Hist. A'jah (Heb. Ayah', JT'X, prop, a cry, hence a hawk, as often), the name of two men. 1. (Sept. 'AVf ; but Aid, Auth. Vers. " Aiah8' in Chron.) The first named of the two sons of Zibeon the Horite or rather Hivite (Gen. xxxvi, 24 ; 1 Chron. i, 40), B.C. ante 1964. 2. (Sept. Aid, but in 2 Sam. iii, 7 v. r. 'Iw\, Auth. Vers. "Aiah.") The father of Rizpah, King Saul's concubine (2 Sam. iii, 7; xxi, 8-11), B.C. ante 1093. Aj'alon (Heb. Ayalon', "|"1^X, place of deer, or of oaks), the name of two towns. 1. (Sept. AiXibv, but 'E\wj/ in Josh, xix, 42, iv (p at dptcoi in Judg. i, 35, omits in 1 Sam. xiv, 31, 'KXwv v. r. AlXwv in 1 Chron. vi, 69, Ai\d/.i v. r. 'AXcip and 'Addfi in 1 Chron. viii, 13, 'A'iaXtbv v. r. A/Aoj/t in 2 Chron. xi, 10, 'A'iXiov in 2 Chron. xxviii, 18 ; Josephus 'HXwfi, Ant. viii, 10, 1; Auth. Vers. "Aijalon" in all the passages except Josh. x. 12 ; xix, 41 ; 2 Chron. xxviii, 18.) A town and valley in the tribe of Dan (Josh, xix, 42), which was given to the Levites (Josh, xxi, 24; 1 Chron. vi, 69). The native Amorites for a long time retained possession of it, although reduced to the condition of tributaries by the neighboring Ephr.iimites (Judg. i, 35). Being on the very frontier of the two kingdoms, we can understand how Ajalon should be spoken of sometimes (1 Chron. vi, 69, comp. with 66) as in Ephraim, and sometimes (2 Chron. xi, 10 ; 1 Sam. xiv, 31) as in Judah and Benjamin. It was not far from Bethshemesh (2 Chron. xxviii, 18), and was one of the places which Rehoboam fortified (2 Chron. xi, 10) during his conflicts with the new king- dom of Ephraim (1 Kings xiv, 30), and among the Strongholds which the Philistines took from Ahaz (2 Chron. xxviii, 18). Saul pursued hither the routed Philistines from Miehmash (1 Sam. xiv. 31), and some of its chiefs appear to have subsequently defeated an incursion of the same enemies from Gath (1 Chron. viii, 13). But the town, or rather the valley to which the town gave name, derives its chief renown from the circumstance that when Joshua, in pursuit of the five kings, arrived at some point near Upper Beth-horon, looking back upon Gibeon and down upon the noble valley before him, he uttered the celebrated command, " Sun, stand thou still on Gibeon, and thou moon, in the valley of Ajalon" (Josh, x, 12). From the indica- tions of Jerome (Onomast. and Epitaph. Paul.), who places Ajalon two Roman miles from Nicopolis, on the way to Jerusalem (comp. 'InrXw in Epiphan. Opp. i, 702), joined to the preservation of the ancient name, Dr. Robinson {Bibl. Researches, iii, 63) appears to have identified the valley and the site of the town. From a housetop in Beit Ur (Beth-horon) he looked down upon a broad and beautiful valley, which lay at his feet, toward Ramleh. This valley runs out west by north through a tract of hills, and then bends off south- west through the great western plain. It is called Merjlbn 'Omeir. Upon the side of the long hill which skirts the valley on the south a small village was per- ceived, called Yah, which cannot well be any other than the ancient Ajalon ; and there can be little ques- tion that the broad wady to the north of it is the val- ley of the same name (see Thomson's Land and Book, ii, 304, 546). Keil, however {Comment, in Josh, x, 12), controverts the above view (from Lengerke, after Lapide and Ee Clerc, in loc.) respecting the position of Joshua on this occasion, maintaining that if Joshua really saw both the sun and moon when he delivered this memorable address, it must have been in the early part of the day, and during the engagement before Gibeon itself; for then the sun might have been visi- ble on the east or south-east of Gibeon, and the moon in the south-west, above the valley of Ajalon, as it would then be about to set. See Jasiiek. According to Schwarz {Palest, p. 141), a person on the summit of Upper Beth-horon can see at once Gibeon on the east and Ajalon on the west. The village of Yalo is situated on the northern declivity overlooking the plain, between two ravines, the western one of which contains a fountain that supplies the village. It has an old appearance, and contains several caverns in the clifTs (new ed. of Robinson's Researches, iii, 144). 2. (Sept. AlXwv, Auth. Vers. "Aijalon.") A city in the tribe of Zebulon, where Elon the judge was buried j (Judg. xii, 12). It is probably the modern Jalun, j about four hours east of Akka, and a short distance I south-west of Mejdel Kerum (Van de Velde, Memoir, ! p. 283) ; for this place, although really within the bounds of Naphtali, is sufficiently near, perhaps, to the I border of Zebulon to be included in that region, ac- cording to the indefinite mention of the text. Aj'ephim (Heb. Ayephvm', tl^SW, weary ones ; Sept. UXi\v pivot, Vulg. lassus, Auth. Vers, "weary") occurs in the original, 2 Sam. xvi, 14, where, although rendered as an appellative in the versions, it has been regarded by many interpreters (e. g. Michaelis, Dathe, Thenius, in loc.) as the name of a place to which the fugitive David and his company retired from Jerusa- lem on the approach of the rebellious Absalom, and where they made their halt for the night, but from which they were induced to remove by the news sent them by Hushai. This view is favored by the phrase- ology, X2*\ " and he came," dtij, " there," evident- ly referring to some locality, which must be sought east of Jerusalem, beyond the Mount of Olives, toward the ford of the Jordan ; perhaps between Bethany and Khan Hudrur, on the S.W. bank of Wady Sidr. A'kan (Heb. Akan , '^'J, twisted; Sept. 'lovKafi), the last named of the three sons of Ezer, son of the Horite Seir of Idumaea (Gen. xxxvi, 27) ; elsewhere called Jakan (1 Chron. i, 41). See Jaakan. Akbar. See Mouse. Akbara. See Achabara. Akiba, a learned Jewish rabbi of the second centu- ry. He was president of the seminary at Bene Berak (Josh, xix, 45), near Jamnia. As a teacher he wield- ed great influence, especially in developing and dif- fusing the Talmudic learning and the Cabbala. Among his scholars were Rabbi Meir, one of the originators of the Mishna, and Rabbi S. ben-Joehai, author of the Cabbalistic work Zohar. He is said to have joined the rebel Barchochebas, and to have been taken and Hay- ed by the Romans in his 120th year. See Jost, Ge- schichte d. Israeliten, p. 252 ; Fiirst, Bib. Jud. i. Akins, James, one of the early Methodist minis- ters, was born in Ireland 1778, removed to America AKKAB1SH 128 ALABARCH in 1792, and entered the itinerant ministry in 1801. He labored for over twenty years with success, chiefly In Maryland, Pennsylvania, and New Jersey, and died at Haverstraw, Aug. 9, 1823. — Minutes of Conferences, lt24, p. 439. Akkabish. See SriDER. Akko. See Goat. Ak'kub (Heb. Akkub' , Wp?, a contracted form of Jacob ; Sept. 'Aicovji, sometimes 'Ak-koiI/3 v. r. usu- ally 'Aicovft), the name of at least three men. 1. The head of one of the families of Nethinim that returned from Babylon (Ezra ii, 45), B.C. 536 or ante. 2. One of the Levitical gatewardens of the Temple on the return with many of his family from the cap- tivity (1 Chron. ix, 17; Ezra ii, 42; Neh. vii, 45; ix, 19 ; xii, 25) ; and probably one of those who expound- ed the law to the people (Neh. viii, 7), B.C. 53G-440. 3. The fourth named of the seven sons of Elioenai or Esli, a descendant of David (1 Chron. iii, 24), B.C. cir. 410. • Akrab. See Scorpion. Akrab'bim (Heb. Akrabbim', C2^pi', scor- pions, as in Ezek. ii, G; Sept. 'Aicpafiiv, ' kKoafttiv), only in the connection Maaleh-acrabbim (q. v.), i. e. Scorpion-Height (Josh, xv, 3; "ascent of Akrab- bim" Num. xxxiv, 4; "going up to Akrabbim," Judg. i, 36), an ascent, hill, or chain of hills, which, from the name, would appear to have been much in- fested by scorpions and serpents, as some districts in that quarter certainly were (Dent, viii, 15; comp. Volney, ii, 256). It is only mentioned in describing the frontier-line of the promised land southward in the region of the Amorites (Num. xxxiv, 4; Josh, xv, 3; Judg. i, 36). Shaw conjectures that Akrabbim may be the same with the mountains of A kabah, by which he understands the easternmost range of the " black mountains" of Ptolemy, extending from Paran to Ju- daea. This range has lately become well known as the mountains of Edom, being those which bound the great valley of Arabah on the east (Travels, ii, 120). More specifically, he seems to refer Akrabbim to the southernmost portion of this range, near the fortress of Akabah, and the extremity of the eastern gulf of the lied Sea; where, as he observes, "from the bad- ness of the roads, and many rocky passes that are to be surmounted, the Mohammedan pilgrims lose a num- ber of camels, and are no less fatigued than the Israel- ites were formerly in getting over them." Burck- hardt (Syria, p. 509) reaches nearly the same conclu- sion, except that he rather refers "the ascent of Akrabbim" to the acclivity of the western mountains from the plain of Akabah. This ascent is very steep, '• and lias probably given to the place its name of Akabah, which means a cliff or steep declivity." But the south-eastern frontier of Judah could not have been laid down so far to the south in the time of Moses and Joshua. The signification of the names in the two languages is altogether different. M. Do Saulcy finds this " Scorpion-steep" in the Wad;/ es-Zuu-eirah, running into the S.W. end of the Dead Sea; a pre- cipitous, zigzag ascent, up which a path marked with ancient ruins is cut in the flanks of the hard rock, and which is peculiarly infested with scorpions (Narrative, i, 361, 41*. 121 I. Schwarz, on the other hand, locates it at the Wady eLKurahy, running into the south-east- ern extremity of the Dead Sea (Palest, p. 22). Both these litter positions, however, seem as much too far north as the preceding are too far south, since the place in question appears to have been situated just beyond the point where the southern boundary of Palestine turned northward; and we know from the localities of several towns in Judah and Simeon (e. g. Kadesli, Beersheba, etc.) that the territory of the promised land extended as far southward as the ridfie bounding the depressed level of the desert et-Tih. The conclusion of Dr. Eobinson is, that in the absence of more positive evidence the line of cliffs separating the Ghor from the valley of the Akabah may be re- garded as the Maaleh-Akrabbim of Scripture (Re- searches, ii, 501). This, however, would be a descent and not an ascent to those who were entering the Holy Land from the south. Perhaps the most feasible sup- position is that Akrabbim is the general name of the ridge containing the steep pass cs-Snfih, by which the final step is made from the desert to the level of the actual land of Palestine. As to the name, scor- pions abound in the whole of this district. The same spot may be that alluded to in the Mishna (Maaser Sheni, v. 2), as "Akrabah (iTZ^V) on the south." The district of Acrabattine mentioned in 1 Mace, v, 3, and Josephus, Ant. xii, 8, 1, as lying on the frontier of Idumtea, toward the southern extremity of the Dead Sea, may have derived its name from this ridge. But Dr. Eobinson thinks that the toparchy referred to took its name from Akrabeh, now a large and flourishing village a little east of Nablous, the ancient Shechem (Bibliotheca Sacra, 1853, p. 132; and see the authori- ties in his Researches, iii, 103). This "Acrabattine" of the Apocrypha, however, was probably a different place. See Acrabattine. Akrothinion (AicpoGivwv, from the top of the heap). This Greek word (usually in the plur. aspo- Sivia), which occurs in Heb. vii, 4, means the best of the (fruits of the earth, hence) spoils (Smith's Diet. ']Kv3roe,, ampulla). Horace {Od. iv, 12) uses onyx in the same way. Alabaster is a calca- reous spar, resembling marble, but softer and more easily worked, and therefore very suitable for being wrought into boxes (Pliny, iii, 20). The alabastra were not usually made of that white and soft gypsum to which the name of alabaster is now for the most part confined. Dr. John Hill, in his notes on Theo- T Alabaster Vase bearing the name of Sargon, from Nim- roud (Layard's Bab. and Sin. p. 167). phrastus, sets this matter in a clear light, distinguish- ing the alabastrites of natu- ralists as bard, and he adds : " This stone was by the Greeks called also some- times onyx, and by the Lat- ins marmor onychites, from its use in making boxes to preserve precious oint- ments, which boxes were commonly called ' onyxes' and 'alabasters.' So Di- oscorides interprets." It is apprehended that, from certain appearances com- mon to both, the same name was given not only to the common alabaster, called by mineralogists gypsum, and by chemists sulphate «f lime, but also to the car- bonate of Ume, or that hard- er stone from which the al- abastra were usually made. {Penny Cychpmlia, s. v.). By the English word ala- baster is likewise to be understood both that kind which is also known by the name of gypsum, and the Oriental alabaster which is so much valued on account of its translucency, and for its variety of colored streakings, red, yellow, gray, etc., which it owes for the most part to the admixture of oxides of iron. The latter is a fibrous carbonate of lime, of which there are many va- rieties, satin spar being one of the most common. The former is a hydrous sulphate of lime, and forms, when calcined and ground, the well-known substance called plaster of Paris. Both these kinds of alabaster, but especially the latter, are and have been long used for various ornamental purposes, such as the fabrication of vases, boxes, etc., etc. The ancients considered alabaster (carbonate of lime) to be the best material in which to preserve their ointments (Pliny, //. N. xiii, 3). Herodotus (iii, 20) mentions an alabaster vessel of ointment which Cambyses sent, among other things, as a present to the /Ethiopians. Hammond (Annctat. ad Matt, xxvi, 7) quotes Plutarch, Julius Pollux, and Athenauis, to show that alabaster was the material in which ointments were wont to be kept. Pliny (ix, 56) tells us that the usual form of these alabaster ves- I sels was long and slender at the top, and round and full at the bottom. He likens them to the long pearls, called elenchi, which the Roman ladies suspended from their fingers or dangled from their ears. He com- pares also the green pointed cone of a rose-bud to the form of an alabaster ointment-vessel (//. N. xxi, 4). The onyx (Hor. Od. iv, 12, 17, "Nardi parvus onyx"), which Pliny says is another name for alabastrites, must not be confounded with the precious stone of that name, which is a sub-species of the quartz family of minerals, being a variety of agate. Perhaps the name of onyx was given to the pink-colored variety of the calcareous alabaster, in allusion to its resembling the finger-nail {onyx) in color, or else because the calca- reous alabaster bears some resemblance to the agate- onyx in the characteristic lunar-shaped mark of the last-named stone, which mark reminded the ancients of the whitish semicircular spot at the base of the finger-nail. See Marble; Vase. Alabaster, William, a learned but erratic di- vine, born in Suffolk 1567, and studied both at Cam- bridge and Oxford. In 1596 he went to Cadiz as chaplain to the Earl of Essex, and there joined the Church of Pome. A few years of Romish life dis- gusted him, and in 1610 he returned to the Church of England. He obtained a prebend in St. Paul's, and afterward was made rector of Therfield, where he died ! in 1640. He was a great student of the so-called ca- ALAH 130 ALB balistic \eaming. His works are (1) Lexicon Penta- glotton (Heb., Chald., Syr., etc.), Lond. 1637, fol. ; (2) Comm. de Bestia Apocalyptica, 1621. He also wrote a tragedy, ' ' Roxana," of which Dr. Johnson spoke high- ly.—Wood, Athen. Oxon. , Hook, Eccl. Biog. i, 102. Alah. See Oak. Al'ameth, a less correct mode (1 Chron. vii, 8) of Anglicizing the name Alemeth (q. v.). Alam'melech (Heb. Allamme'lek, T^H^X, per- haps king's oak; Sept. 'EAjtuAfx), a town on the border of the tribe of Asher, mentioned between Achshaph and Amad (Josh, xix, 26). Schwarz remarks (Palest. p. 191) that the name may be indicative of a location on the branch of the Kishon still called Nahr eUMelek ; perhaps at the ruins el-IIarbaji (Van de Velde, Memoir, p. 283). Al'amoth (Heb. A lamoth', Tn~zbv, virgins, as oft- en; Sept. aXiifuuS v. r. dXaipioS and d\i/.iw3r, Vulg. arcana), a musical term used in 1 Chron. xv, 20, ap- parently to denote that the choristers should sing in the female voice, i. e. our treble, or soprano. So Lafage (Hist. Gen. da la Musique) renders it " chant superieur ou a 1' octave" (comp. Mendelssohn, Introd. to Psalms). The word occurs in the same form and signification in the inscription of Psa. xlvi (where the Sept. and Vulg. translate Kpixpta, arcana, i. e. secrets, as if indicative of the contents of the Psalm), and twice again in near- ly the same form (ME^S), namely, in the inscription of Psa. ix (where it has the same sense, but is differ- ently rendered by our translators " upon Muth-," Sept. again inrip rwv Kpv(picoi>, Vulg. occultis), and in Psa. xlviii, 15 (where the context requires the meaningyor- ever, but our version has uunto death," Sept. correctlj- tig rovg aitovaq, Vulg. in scecula). See Muth-labben. Forkel (Gesch. der Musik, i, 142) understands virgin measures (Germ. Jungfernueise), i. e. in maidenly style, but against the propriety of the usage. See Psalms. Alan, Cardinal. See Allan. Alan de l'Isle (Alarms de Insulis), so called be- cause, as most writers say, he was a native of Ryssel, in Flanders, now Lille (L'Isle, Insula) in France, or it was the name of his family. He obtained the name of "the Universal Doctor," being equally well skilled in theology, philosophy, and poetry. It is said that a great part of his life was spent in England. The opinion that he was the same as Alan of Flanders (q. v.) is now generally rejected. He was born in 1114, and died about 1200. Having been appointed to the episcopal see of Auxerre or Canterbury (the place is as uncertain as the fact), he soon resigned his func- tions in order to retire to the monastery of Citeaux, where he seems to have devoted himself to alchemy. Of his alchemical labors, we only know his aphorism (dicta) on the philosopher's stone. Alan calls the amalgam resulting from the union of gold or of silver with mercury the "solution of philosophers" (solutio philosophorum), and adds that great advantages may be derived therefrom. His works are, 1. Doctrinale Mi- nns, or the book of parables (Gons. 1491, 4to) ; 2. Doc- trinale Minus Alterum, or Liber Sententiarum et Dicto- rum, Memordbilium (Paris, 1492, 4to) ; 3. Elucidatio supra Cant'ica Canlicorum (Paris, 1540) ; 4. Lib. de Planctu Naturae, on the vices of the age and their rem- edy ; 5. A nt id audi anus, sive, de officio viri in omnibus vir- tutibusperfecti: libri ix (Hasle,'l53G, 8vo; Ant, 1621): this work is also called the " Encyclopedia," from its professing to contain every thing divine and human which man ought to meditate upon and admire; 6. De arte seu articulis Catholicw fidei (published by Masson, Paris, 1612, 8vo); 7. Aluni Magru 'do Insulis explana- tionum in prophet iam Merlini Ambrosii, Britanrti, libri vii ( Francfort, 1607, 8vo) ; 8. Liber pwi/itintialis, ded- icated to Henry de Sully, archbishop of Bourges. Sev- eral other works of Alan are found in manuscript in the libraries of France and England. Another work of his on morals has been discovered during the pres- ent century at Avranches (see Kavaisson, Rapport sur Us Bibliotheques de VOuest de la France, Paris, 1841, p. 157). The work Opus Quadrijiartitum def.de Catholica contra Valdenses, Albigcnses et alios hujus temporis he- reticos, which was formerty enumerated among his works, is probably not from him, but from Alan de Podio (q. v.). — Cave, Hist. Lit. ann. 1151 ; Mosheim, Ch. Hist. cent, xiii, pt. ii, ch. ii. Alan de Podio, an ecclesiastical writer, who is probably the author of the work Opus Quadiipartitum dejide Catholica. See Alan de l'Isle. No partic- ulars of the life of this author are known. His sur- name points to Provence. Another work of his has been discovered during the present century at Av- ranches (see Ravaisson, Rapport sur les Bibliotheques de VOuest de la France, Paris, 1841, p. 157); and he is also supposed to be the author of a work dedicated to the Abbot Ermengaldus, of St. Gilles, and designated in the manuscript as Oculus, Oraculum Scriplurce Sa- cra; AHquivoca, etc. Alan of Flanders (Alanus Flandriensis), bishop of Auxerre, born in Flanders at the beginning of the 12th century, died in 1182. Some historians, as Oudin (q. v.), identify him with Alan de l'Isle (q. v.), while others, like Cave and the authors of the Histoire Lit- teraire de France, regard them as different persons. He became a monk at Clairvaux, under St. Bernard, in 1128 ; was, about 1139, made the first abbot of Ri- voir or Rivour, in the diocese of Troves, in Champagne, and, in 1151 (or 1152), bishop of Auxerre. H.e is the author of a life of St. Bernard (included in Opera St. Bemardi, torn, ii, 1690, fol.). Alarm (HWltn, teruah', a loud sound or shout, as often), a broken quivering sound of the silver trum- pets of the Hebrews, warning them in their journey in the wilderness (Num. x, 5, 6; comp. Lev. xxiii, 24; xxv, 9; xxix, 1). When the people or the rulers were to be assembled together, the trumpet was blown softty ; when the camps were to move forward, or the people to march to war, it was sounded with a deeper note (Jahn, Bibl. Archdol. § 95, v). Hence a war- note or call to arms, or other public exigency in gen- eral (Jer. iv, 19; xlix, 2; Zeph. i, 16). See Trum- pet. Alasco, John. See Lasco. Alb, Alba, a long white tunic in the Church of Rome, worn by all ecclesiastics during service, and answering to the surplice in the Church of England, excepting that the alb is narrower in the sleeves, and fits the body more closely, being often gathered at the waist by a girdle. The ornaments at the bot- tom and wrists are call- ed apparels, and it is also sometimes em- broidered with a cross upon the breast. See Vestment. It was an ancient custom to clothe the newly-baptized in al- bis, in white garments. These garments were delivered to them, with a solemn charge to keep their robes of in- nocence unspotted un- til the day of Christ. This dress was worn from Easter-eve until the Sunday after East- er, which was called Dominica in albis ; that is, the Sunday in white, whence the namo Whitsunday. The garment was usually made The Alii. ALBAN 131 ALBER of white linen, but occasionally of more costly mate- rials.— Bingham, Orig. Eccl. lib. xiii, cap. viii, § 2. Alban, St., protomartyr of England, is said to have serred seven years with Diocletian, after which, returning to his country, he took up his abode at Veru- lamium, in Hertfordshire, his birth-place. Shortly after this the persecution of Diocletian broke out, which drove Amphibalus, who had been the compan- ion of Alban, on his journey to Rome, and his fellow- soldier, to Britain for safety, where he at once betook himself to Verulamium. When the persecution of the Christians commenced in Britain, the name of Am- phibalus was brought before the prefect, Asclepiodotus, as that of a man guilty of following the new religion ; but, when he could not be found, Alban voluntarily presented himself to the judge, and was put to the tor- ment and imprisoned. Shortly after, both he and his friend, who had been discovered, were condemned to die as being Christians : Alban was put to death by the sword on a small hill in the neighborhood, called afterward by the Saxons Holmehurst, and where his body was also buried. When tranquillity had been restored to the Church, great honors were paid to the tomb of Alban, and a chapel was erected over it, ■which Bede says was of admirable workmanship. About 795, Offa, king of the Mercians, founded here a spacious monastery in honor of St. Alban, and soon after the town called St. Alban arose in its neighbor- hood. Pope Adrian IV, who was born in this neigh- borhood, directed that the abbot of St. Alban's should hold the first place among the abbots of England. He is commemorated by the Roman Church on June 22d. — Gough's Camden' s Britannia,!, 336; Tanner, Biblioth. Brit. p. 18 ; Collier, Eccl. Hist, i, 48 ; Landon, s. v. Albanenses, a sect of the Cathari, which appear- ed toward the close of the eleventh century, and de- rived its name from Albania, where Dualism was quite prevalent ; others say, from Albano, in Italy. They held the Gnostic and Manichtean doctrines of two prin- ciples, one good and the other evil. They denied the divinity of Jesus Christ, and rejected the account of his sufferings, death, resurrection, and ascension. They rejected the doctrine of the resurrection of the dead, affirmed that the general judgment was already pass- ed, and that the torments of hell are the pains which men feel in this life. They denied man's free will, did not admit the doctrine of original sin, and held that man can impart the Holy Spirit to himself. — Mo- sheim, Ch. Hist. cent, xii, pt. ii, ch. v, § 5 ; Gieseler, Ch. Hist. per. iii, § 87. See Cathari. Albati, a sect so called from the white, garments they wore. They entered Italy from the Alps about 1400, having as their guide a priest clothed in white, and a crucifix in his hand. He was deemed a saint, and his followers multiplied so fast that Pope Boniface IX, growing jealous of the augmenting power of the leader, sent soldiers, who put him to death and dis- persed his followers. (See Siber, De Albatis, Lips. 1736.) They are said (by their enemies and perse- cutors, however) to have been dissolute in their hab- its, while, at the same time, the}' professed to weep and sorrow for the sins and calamities of the times. — Mosheim, Church History, ii, 467. Alber, Erasmus, a German Protestant theolo- gian, born at Sprendingen, near Frankfort on the Main, and educated at Wittenberg. In 1528 he was called by Landgrave Philip of Hesse as pastor to Sprendin- gen. Subsequently, he was court preacher to Elector Joachim II of Brandenburg, by whom he was again dismissed on account of the violence of language with which he combated the taxation of the clergy. In 1543 he received from Luther the title of doctor of di- vinity. In 1545 he was called by the count of Hanau- Lichtenberg to carry through the reformation in his land. From Magdeburg, to which city he was subse- quently called as pastor, he was expelled on account of his opposition to the Interim. In 1553 he was ap- pointed superintendent at Neu-Brandenburg, in Meck- lenburg, where he died, May 5, 1553. While court preacher of the elector of Brandenburg, he found in a Franciscan convent a work by a Franciscan monk, Bartholomew Albizzi (q. v.), entitled Liber Cimformi- tatum S. Francisci ad vitam Jesu Christi. This induced him to write his celebrated work, DerBarfmserMonclw Eulenspiegel und Alcoran, which was published, with a preface from Luther, at Wittenberg, in 1542, and soon appeared in a French, Latin, and Dutch translation. He wrote several other works against the Interim, against Andreas Osiander, against the followers of Karlstadt, against Witzel, fables for the youth in rhymes, and religious songs, published by Stromber- ger, in Geistliche Sanger der christlichen Kirche deutscher Nation, vol. x (Halle, 1857). A complete list of his works is in Strieder, Grundlage zu einer llessischen Gelehrten- und Schriftstellergesehichte (Gott. 1781), i, 24 sq. — See Herzog, Supplem. i, 33 ; Biog. Univ. i, 394. Alber, John Nepomuk, a Roman Catholic theo- logian, was born at Ovar, July 7, 1753, died about 1840. He wrote a large work on Hermaneutics, in 16 vols. (Interpretatio Sacra Scripttine, Pesth, 1801-'4), which Home recommends as an able refutation of the opin- ions of the anti-supernaturalist divines of Germany. He also wrote Institutiones Historic Eccles. (Vienna, 1793); Institutiones Hermeneuticce, 1817; and Institu- tiones Linguce Hebraicce, 1826. — Hoefer, Biog. Generate, ii, 539. Alber, Matthew, one of the leaders of the Ref- ormation in Southern Germany, born at Reutlingen, 1495, studied at Tubingen, and was ordained priest about 1521. He received a call as preacher to his na- tive town, where he labored so faithfully in behalf of the Reformation, that, in 1523, the people generally were favorable to it. In 1524, Alber, notwithstanding the remonstrances of the abbot of Konigsbronn, the patron of the churches of Reutlingen, was appointed by the city authorities the first pastor of the city. At the instigation of the abbot of Konigsbronn, he was summoned before the bishop of Constance, but, owing to the urgent solicitations of his friends, did not go. He was therefore put under the ban by the bishop, by Pope Leo X, and bj' the imperial court of Rothweil. The three decrees were simultaneously posted on all the church doors, but failed to produce any effect. Alber, with the applause of the people, proceeded un- dauntedly on the way of reformation. He abolished the Latin mass, introduced the use of the native lan- guage at divine service, removed the images from the churches, and got married. In December, 1524, he was summoned before the Imperial Chamber of Esslingen, where he was charged with 68 heresies, all of which he acknowledged, except the charge that he had spoken disrespectfully of the Virgin Mary. The court, after examining him three days, dismissed him unpunished. The Anabaptists, who at this time endeavored to es- tablish themselves at Reutlingen, were prevailed upon by the sermons of Alber to leave the city. He also succeeded in keeping the citizens of Reutlingen from joining in the peasants' war. Zuingle, in a letter of November 16, 1526, endeavored to gain Alber over to his view of the Lord's Supper; but Alber, like his friend Brentz, remained on the side of Luther, with whom he became personally acquainted in Wittenberg in 1536. In 1537 Alber took part in the colloquy of Urach, when he zealously combated the use of images in the churches. In 1539 he received from the uni- versity of Tubingen the title of doctor of divinity. When the Interim was forced upon Reutlingen, he left the. city on June 25, 1548, and was called by Duke Ulric as antistes (first pastor) of the collegiate church (Stiftskirche) of Stuttgart. Duke Christopher ap- pointed him church counsellor, and, in 1563. lie was made abbot of Blaubeuren. He died Dec. 2, 1570. He ALBERT 132 ALBERT •published several sermons, a catechism (GrundJicher Bericht des wahren Christenthumes), and a work on Providence (Vom rechten Brauch der ewigen Vorsehung Gottes). See Hartmann, Matthias Alber, der Reforma- tor der Reichsstadt L'eutli/ig> n ^Tubingen, 1863) ; Her- zog, Real EncyMopadie, i, "202. Albert, bishop of Liege (saint and martyr of the Roman Church), was the son of Godfrey, duke of Bra- bant, lie was unanimous]}' chosen to succeed Ra- dulphus, bishop of Liego, who died on the 5th of Au- gust, 1191. The Emperor Henry VI opposed this election with all his power, but Celestin II confirmed Albert in the see, and made him cardinal. Henry still persisted in his opposition ; and to carry it out fully, three German gentlemen followed Albert to Rheims, whither he had retired, and in his own house, where they had been kindly and generously received, they murdered him, piercing him with thirteen mortal wounds. His body was at first interred at Rheims ; but, under Louis XIII, it was translated to Brussels, where it is still preserved. The Roman Mart}'rology commemorates him on the 21st of November. His life, written by one of his attendants, is in the history of the bishops of Liege, by Gilles, monk of Orval. — Landon, Eccles. Diet, i, 202 ; Hoefer, Biog. Generate, i, 597. Albert, "the Great" (Albertcs Magnus), so called on account of his vast erudition, was born at Lauingen, Suabia. The date of his birth is variously given, by some 1193, by others 1205. He studied at Padua; and entered the order of St. Dominic in 1221. His abilities and learning were of the highest class, and he was deemed the best theologian, philosopher, and mathematician of the age ; indeed, his knowledge of mathematics was such, that the people, unable to comprehend the intricate mechanism which he used in some of his works, regarded him as a magician. An automaton which he made was so exquisitely con- trived that it seemed to be endowed with powers of spontaneous motion and speech, and deceived even St. Thomas Aquinas, his pupil, who broke it in pieces with a stick, thinking it to be an emissary of the evil one. He was a strong Aristotelian, and his authority con- tributed greatly to uphold the reign of Aristotlein the schools at that period, in opposition to the papal bull against him. When Jordanus, general of the Do- minicans, died in 1236, Albert governed the order for two years as vicar-general. Being afterward made provincial for Germany, he established himself at Co- logne, where he publicly taught theology to an infinite number of pupils who flocked to him from all parts; and from this school proceeded Thomas Aquinas, Am- brose of Siena, and Thomas of Cantimpre. In 1260 he was nominated to the bishopric of Ratisbon, and re- luctantly consented to accept it ; he did not, however, long retain it, and in 1263 obtained permission to leave it, ami retire into his convent, where he occupied him- self entirely in prayer and study until his death, which happened on the 15th of November, 1280. Albert was certainly one of the most cultivated men of his age ; but yet he was rather a learned man, and a compiler of the works of others, than an original and profound thinker. He wrote commen- taries on most of the works of Aristotle, in which he makes especial use of the Arabian commentators, and blends the notion of the Neoplatonists with those of his author. Logic, metaphysics, theology, and ethics were rather externally cultivated by his labors than effectually improved. With him began those minute and tedious inquiries and disputes respect- ing matter and form, essence and being (Essentia or Quidditas, and li.ndentia, whence subsequently arose tin- further distinction of Esse Essmtiir and /■>- isti nttCB ). Of the universal, lie assumes that it exists parti; in external things and partly in the understand- ing. Rational psychology aud theology are indebted to him for many excellent hints. The latter science he treated in his Summa Theologies, as well according to the plan of Lombardus as his own. In the former he described the soul as a totam potestativum. His gen- eral relation to theology is thus stated by Neander History of Dogmas (ii, 552): "Albert defines Chris' ! tianity as practical science ; for although it is occupied j with the investigatien of truth, yet it refers every thing to the life of the soul, and shows how man, by the truths it reveals, must be formed to a divine life. ] It treats of God and his works, not in reference to ab- stract truth, but to God as the supreme good, to the salvation of men, to the production of piety in the in- ner and outer man. He also distinguishes various kinds of certainty : the theoretical, which merely re- lates to knowledge (informatio mentis'), and the certain- ty of immediate consciousness (Jnformatio conscientiai). The knowledge obtained by faith is more certain than that derived from other sources ; but we must distin- guish between the fides in for mis and the fides formata ; the first is only a means to knowledge, but the second is an immediate consciousness. Man is attracted by the object of faith just as moral truth leads him to mo- rality. All knowledge and truth come from God, but they are imparted in different ways ; our reason has the capacity to perceive truth, as the eye possesses the faculty of sight. Natural light is one thing, and the light of grace is another. The latter is a higher stage, an assimilation between him who knows rnd the thing known, a participation of the divine life." In his theology he labored to define our rational knowledge of the nature of God, and enlarged upon i the metaphysical idea of him as a necessary Being (in | whom pure Esse and his determinate or qualified na- ture [Seyn und Wesen~\ are identical), endeavoring to develop in this manner his attributes. These inquiries are often mixed up with idle questions and dialectic absurdities, and involve abundant inconsistencies ; as for instance, when he would account for the creation bj' the doctrine of emanation (eausatio univoea), and nevertheless denies the emanation of souls, he in- sists upon the universal intervention of the Deity in the course of nature, and yet asserts the existence of natural causes defining and limiting his operations. In treating of the Trinity, he traced an analogy be- tween the divine and the human as follows: "There is no excellence among the creatures which is not to be found in a much higher style, and as an archetype, in the Creator; among created beings it exists only in foot-marks and images. This is true also of the Trinity. No artistic spirit can accomplish his work without first forming to himself an outline of it. In the spirit, therefore, first of all, the idea of its work is conceived, which is, as it were, the offspring of the spir- it, in even' feature resembling the spirit, representing it in its acting. (Format ex se rationem operis et spe- ciem, qure est sicut proles ipsius intellectus, intellectui agenti similis in quantum agens est.) Thus, there- fore, the spirit reveals himself in the idea of the spirit. Now, from the acting spirit this idea passes into real- ity, and for this purpose the spirit must find a medium in outward action. This medium must be simple, and of the same substance with him who first acted, if in- deed the latter is so simple that being, nature, and activity are one in him. From this results the idea in reference to God, of the formative spirit, of the planned image, and of the spirit by which the image is realized. (Spiritus rector formse.) The creation in time is a revelation of the eternal acting of Cod, the eternal generation of his Son. The revelation of God in time for the sanctification of nature, is an image of the eternal procession of the spirit from the Father and the Son. Our love is only a reflection of the di- vine love ; the archetype of all love is the Holy Spirit, who, like all love, proceeds from God. The one love spread abroad through all holy souls proceeds from the Holy Spirit. (Una caritas diffusa per omnes ani- ALBERT 133 ALBIGENSES mas sanctas per spiritum sanctum, ad quam sicut ex- empla omnia dilectio refertur et comparatione illius et assimilatione caritas dici meretur.) Love in God nei- ther diminishes nor increases, but we diminish or in- crease it in ourselves according as we receive this love into our souls, or withdraw from it." With reference to original sin, he taught that mankind were materially embodied in Adam : Omne genus huma- num secundum corpulentam substaniiam in Adamo fuit. He considered conscience to be the highest law of reason, and distinguished the moral disposition (syn- teresis, !■ Tmaginibus, at- tributed by Roger dc Hoveden, in his Annals, to Al- cuin. 6. Poema Heroicum de Pontficibus Anglis et SS. Eeclesiw Eboracensis, containing 1658 verses. Thomas Gale, dean of York, caused this to be printed from two ' MSS. Oudinus attributes this poem to Fridegodus, a Benedictine, who lived about 960. 7. Commentaries ! Brevis in Cantica Canticorum. Cave and others regard this as the same originally with the explication of the text, "Sexaginta sunt reginse," etc., in the first part of Duchesne's volume. 8. Breviarium filei adversus A rianos, by Sirmondus (Paris, 1630) ; attributed to Al- cuin by Chifilet, on the authority of a MS. 9. The cat- alogue of the library of Centula mentions a Lcctionary, indicating the epistles and gospels for every festival and day in the year, which was corrected and put in order by Alcuin. This is given by Pamelius in his collection of liturgical works (Cologne, 1561, 1571, and 1609, p. 1309). 10. A Booh of Homilies, attributed to Alcuin by the author of his life, although probably ho only corrected the Homiliary of Paul, the deacon, ALDEN" 137 ALEMBERT which was in two volumes, as well as that attributed to Aleuin. If the latter wrote a homiliary, it has not yet seen the light. (See Mabillon, Analecta, p. 18.) The Book of Homilies attributed to Aleuin, but really the work of Paul, was printed at Cologne in 1539. 11. Confessio Fidei ; published as the work of Aleuin, with other treatises by Chifflet, at Dijon, 1050, 4to. It has been doubted by some writers whether Aleuin was really the author. Mabillon (Analecta, i, 178, or 490 in the folio edition) gives proofs to show that he was so, one of which is, that the MS. itself from which Chifflet printed it assigns it to him by name. Besides all these works, some of the writings of Aleuin have been lost, others still remain in MS. only, and others again have been erroneously ascribed to him. Some of them have been recently discovered by Pertz. — See Monnier, Aleuin and Charlemagne (with fragments of an unpublished commentary of Aleuin on St. Matthew, and other pieces, published for the first time (Paris, 2d ed. 1864, 32mo) ; Biog. Univ. i, 466 ; Pochard and Gi- raud, who cite Ceillier, Hist, des A ut. Sacr. and Eccl. xviii, 248 ; Landon, Eccl. Diet. s. v. ; Cave, Hist. Lit. ann. 780 ; Mosheim, Ch. Hist. c. viii, pt. ii, ch. ii, § 18 ; Christian Rev. vi, 357 ; Presb. Rev. Oct. 1862. Alden, Noah, a Baptist minister, was born at Middleborough, Mass., May 30, 1725. At 19 he mar- ried and removed to Stafford, Conn., connecting him- self at that time with the Congregational Church. In 1753 he became a Baptist, and was ordained in 1755 pastor of the Baptist church in Stafford. In 1766 Mr. Alden was installed pastor of the church in Bellint:- ham, Mass. ; from which place he was sent as a dele- gate to the convention which formed the constitution of the state. He was also a member of the conven- tion to which was submitted the Constitution of the U. S. Mr. Alden remained pastor at Bellingham un- til his death in 1797. — Sprague, Annals, vi, 67. Alden, Timothy, was born at Yarmouth, Mass., Aug. 28, 1771, and graduated in 1794 at Harvard, where he was distinguished for his knowledge of Oriental languages. In 1799 he was ordained pastor of the Congregational church at Portsmouth, N. H., but in 1805 devoted himself to teaching. He conduct- ed female schools successively in Boston, Newark, New York, and in 1817 was appointed president of Meadville College, Penn., which office he held till 1831. He died at Pittsburg, 1839. He published a number of occasional sermons and pamphlets. — Sprague, Annals, ii, 452. Aldhelm or Adelme, an early English bishop, born in Wessex about 656, educated by Adrian in Kent, embraced the monastic life, and founded the abbey of Malmesbury, of which he was the first abbot. He became bishop of Sherborne 705, and died 709. He is said to have lived a very austere life, "giving him- self entirely to reading and prayer, denying himself in food, and rarely quitting the walls of the monas- tery. If we maj' believe the account of William of Malmesbury, he was also in the habit of immersing himself as far as the shoulders in a fountain hard by the abbey, and did not come forth until he had com- pletely repeated the Psalter; this he did not omit, summer or winter." The first organ used in England is said to have been built under the directions of Aid- helm. According to Camden (Britannia in Wilt. p. 116), he was the first Englishman who wrote in Latin, and taught his people to compose Latin verses. His works have recently been collected and published un- der the title Aldhelmi opera. qwe extant, omnia e codici- bus MSS. emendavit, nonmdla nunc primum edidit J. A. Giles, LL.D. (Oxon. 1844, 8 vo).— Collier, Eccl. Hist. i, 283 ; Cave, Hist. Lit. anno 680 ; Landon, Eccles. Diet. i, 91. Aldrich, Henry, was born at Westminster, 1647, and studied at Christ Church, Oxford. He was cele- brated for the zeal and ability which he displayed as a controversialist against the Romish writers of his time. After the Revolution he was made dean of Christ Church, Oxford (1089), and was presented to the liv- ing of Wcm, in Shropshire. He was a great lover of church music, and has left twenty anthems ; he was also the author of the well-known glee, "Hark, the bonny Christ Church Bells." Himself a sound and accomplished scholar, he endeavored by every means in his power to foster the love of classical learning among the students of his college, and presented them annually with an edition of some Greek classic, which he printed for this special purpose. He also published a system of logic for their use, and at his death be- queathed to his college his valuable classical library. Dr. Aldrich was a proficient in more than one of the arts : three sides of what is called Peckwater Quad- rangle, in Christ Church College, and the church and campanile of All Saints in High Street, Oxford, were designed by him ; and he is also said to have furnished the plan, or at least to have had a share in the design of the chapel of Trinity College, Oxford. He died Dec. 14, 1710. Among his writings are, 1. .1 Reply to two Discourses [by Abr. Woodhead] concerning the Adoration of our Blessed Saviour in the Holy Eucharist (1687):— 2. A Defence of the Oxford Reply (1088):— 3. Artis Logical Compendium (1691, and often reprint- ed) ; it is still in use at Oxford as a manual for begin- ners.— English Cyelopmlia, s. v. ; New Gen. Diet, i, 142. Aleander, Jerome, Cardinal, born February 13, 1480, at Motta, on the confines of Friuli and Istria. Ho studied at Venice, where he became acquainted with Erasmus, and applied himself with great success to the Chaldee and Arabic languages. In 1508 Louis XII called him to France, where he became rector of the university of Paris. In 1519 Pope Leo X sent him as nuncio into Germany to oppose Luther, and, during his absence, in 1520, made him librarian of the Vatican. Aleander, who was papal legate at the diet of Worms, spoke for three hours against Luther, and drew up the edict which condemned him (Munter, Beitr. zur Kirch.-Gesch. p. 48). In 1523 he caused the burning of two monks at Brussels. He afterward be- came archbishop of Brindisi and nuncio in France, and was made prisoner by the Spaniards at the battle of Pavia, 1525. After his liberation he was created car- dinal of St. Chrysogono, 1538, and died at Rome, Feb- ruary 1, 1542. — Landon, Eccles. Diet, i, 227. Alegambe, Philip, born at Brussels in January, 1592, became a Jesuit at Palermo in 1613, theological professor at Gratz, 1629, and finally prefect of the German Jesuits. He died 1651. He made large ad- ditions to Ribadaneira's Catalogns Scriptt. Soc. Jesu, of which he published a revised edition at Antwerp, 1643. P. Sotuel (Southwell) in 1675 published at Rome a new edition of the book, with the last additions and corrections of Alegambe. He also wrote Heroes et Yictimm charitatis Soc. Jesu (Rome, 1G58, 4to) and Mortes Illustres et Gesta eorum de Soc. Jesu, qui in odium fidei occisi sunt (Rome, 1657, fol.). — Landon, Eccles. Diet, i, 228 ; New General Biog. Diet, i, 148. Al'ema (only in the dat. plur. iv 'AXiyuo(c), one of the fortified cities in Gilead beyond the Jordan, oc- cupied in the time of Judas Maccabaeus, to the oppres- sion of the Jews, by the Gentiles, in connection with certain neighboring towns (1 Mace, v, 26). Grimm (Handb. zu d. Mace, in loc.) thinks it is probably the Beer-elim (q. v.) of Isa. xv, 8 (cornp. Beer simply in Num. xxi, 16), an identification favored by the as- sociated names (Bozrah and Carnaim) known to be in the same locality. Alembert, Jean le Rond d', a French mathe- matician and philosopher of the empirical school, was born in Paris, Nov. 16, 1717, and died in the same city Oct. 29, 1783. He was the illegitimate child of the Chevalier Destouches-Canon, and of the celebrated Madame de Tencin, sister of the archbishop of Lyons. ALEMETH 138 ALEXANDER His unnatural parents exposed him, soon after his birth, near the church of St. Jean le Rond, and hence his Christian name. After he became eminent, his father recognised him and gave him a pension. In childhood he displayed great precocity of talent, and in 1730 he entered the College Mazarin, where he had a Jansenist tutor, studied mathematics and philosophy, and wrote a commentary on the Epistle to the Romans. After leaving college he attempted to study medicine, and afterward law; but rinding his turn for mathe- matics all-powerful, he determined to live on his small pension of 1200 francs a year and devote himself to free studies. At twenty-three he was admitted a mem- ber of the Academy of Sciences, and in 1741 he pub- lished his "Treatise on Dynamics," which was fol- lowed by successive publications in mathematical science, all of the first rank, but which do not fall within our province to notice. About 1750 he joined with Diderot in the Encyclopcedk, to which he com- municated many articles, and also the preliminary "Discourse." In 1754 he became a member of the French Academy; and in 1759 he published his Ele- ments of Philosophy. After the peace of 1763 D'Alem- bert was invited by Frederick the Great to fill the office of president of the Academy of Berlin, and tho empress of Russia had also solicited him to superin- tend the education of her children. Having refused, however, both these appointments, he was, in 1772, nominated perpetual secretary to the French Academy, a position in which he wrote seventy eloges of deceased members. In the latter part of his life he was at- tacked with calculus, and died of that disease in his sixty-sixth year. His miscellaneous writings are col- lected in CEuvrcs litteraires, edited by Bastien (Paris, 1805, 18 vols. 8vo ; new ed. Paris, 1821, 5 vols. 8vo, the best). As a philosopher, D'Alembert was a disci- ple of Locke, and carried out his principles to their ul- timate conclusion in scepticism and materialism. He never wrote as vulgarhy or violently against Chris- tianity as Voltaire, but he was quite as far gone in unbelief. As to the existence of God, he thought the "probabilities" were in favor of Theism ; as to Chris- tianity, he thought the "probabilities" were against Revelation. — Hoefer, PAog. Generale, i, 783; Tenne- mann, Manual Hist, of Philosophy, § 379. Ale'meth, the name of two persons, and also of a place ; of two forms in the original. 1. (Heb. Ale'meth, TX&V, in pause Ala'meth, nX&S, covering, otherwise adolescence ; Sept. 'E\i)tp.'t3 v. r/EX/^fStju, Vulg. Almath, Auth. Vers. "Alameth.") The last named of the nine sons of Becher the son of Benjamin (1 Chron. vii, 8), B.C. post 1856. 2. (Ileb. same as preced. ; Sept. VaXsped and r«X«- fiad, v. r. SaXaijuoS', Vulg. Ala?nath.) The first named of the two sons of Jehoadah or Jarah, son of Ahaz, of the posterity of King Saul (1 Chron. viii, 36 ; ix, 42), B.C. post 1037. 3. (Heb. Alle'meth, PlttkS, but other copies same as the foregoing, with which the signif. agrees ; Sept. rnX>nit3 v. r. r«Xtjua'3, Vulg. Almath.) A sacerdotal city of the tribe of Benjamin (1 Chron. vi, 60) ; doubt- less the same elsewhere (Josh, xxi, 18) called Almon (q. v.). Aleph. See Ai.niA. Aleppo. See Helbon. Ales, or Alesius, Alexander, a Lutheran di- vine, born at Edinburgh 1500, and educated at St. An- drew's, where lie afterward became canon. Employ- ed to influence Patrick Hamilton (q. v.) to recant, he was so impressed by Hamilton's arguments, and by his constancy at the stake, that he embraced the reformed doctrines himself. In 1532 he went to Germany, and visited Luther and Melancthon, with whom he became intimate. In 1534 he came to England on the invita- tion of Cranmei, and was appointed professor of theol- ogy at Cambridge. Cranmer employed him in trans- lating the English liturgy into Latin. In 1540 he re- turned to Germany, and was professor first at Frank- fort-on-the-Oder and afterward at Leipsic, where he died 1565. In the Synergestic controversy (q. v.) he maintained the necessity of good works. His principal works are, 1. De necessitate et merito bonorum operum (1560) : — 2. Commentarii in Evangelium Joannis, et in utramque Epistolam ad Timotheum: — 3. Eupositio in Psalmos Davidis : — 4. De Justifcatione, contra Osian- drum: — 5. DeSancta Trinitate, cum confutatione erroris Valentini : — 6. Eespo7isio ad triginta et duos art&ulos theologorum Loveniensum. Also a Latin work on the right of the laity to read the Scriptures in the vernac- ular tongue, and a defence of that work against Coch- laeus.— Hook, Eccl. Biog. i, 130 ; Burnet, Hist, of Ref- ormation, i, 345 ; ii, 247 ; Proctor on Common Prayer, 65, 66. Alexan'der CA\i'£av?(iov., man-defnder, a title often bestowed by Homer upon Paris, son of Priam, and hence a frequent Grecian name), the name of sev- eral men mentioned or involved in Biblical histor}", or in the Apocrypha and Josephus. 1. The third of the name, surnamed The Great, son (by Olympias) and successor of Philip, king of Macedon. He is not expressly named in the Bible, but he is denoted in the prophecies of Daniel by a leopard with four wings, signifying his great strength, and the unusual rapidity of his conquests (eh. vii, 6); also by a one-horned he-goat, running over the earth so swiftly as not to touch it, attacking a ram with two horns, overthrowing him, and trampling him under foot, without any being able to rescue him (viii, 4-7). The he-goat prefigured Alexander; the ram Darius Codomannus, the last of the Persian kings. In the statue beheld by Nebuchadnezzar in a dream (ii, 39), the belly of brass was the emblem of Alexander, and the legs of iron designated his successors (Lengerke, Dan. p. 95 sq.). He is often mentioned in the books of the Maccabees (Wernsdorf, Dejidc libror. Mace. p. 40 sq.) ; and his career is detailed hy the historians Arrian, Plutarch, and Quintus Curtius (Droysen, Gesch. Alex. d. Gr. Berl. 1833, Hamb. 1837). Alexander was born at Pella B.C. 356 (eomp. 1 Mace, i, 7; Euseb. Chron. Ann. ii, 33). At an early age he was placed under the care of Aristotle ; and while still a youth he turned the fortune of the day at Cha?ronea (B.C. 338). Philip was killed at a marriage feast when Alexander was about twenty. After he had performed the last duties to his father, and put down with resolute energy the disaffection and hostility by which his throne was menaced, he was chosen by the Greeks general of their troops against the Persians, and entered Asia with an army of 34,000 men, B.C. 334. In one cam- paign he subdued almost all Asia Minor. In the bat- tle of Granicus he defeated Orobates, one of Darius's generals ; and Darius himself, whose army consisted of 400,000 foot and 100,000 horse, in the narrow pass of Issus, which leads from Syria to Cilicia. Darius fled, abandoning his camp and baggage, his children, wife, and mother, B.C. 333. After he had subdued Syria, Alexander came to Tyre, and the Tyrians op- posing his entrance into their city, he besieged it. At the same time he is said to have written to Jaddus, high-priest of the Jews, that he expected to be ac- knowledged by him, and to receive those submissions which had hitherto been paid to the king of Persia. Jaddus refusing to comply, as having sworn fidelity to Darius, Alexander resolved to march against Jerusalem when he had reduced Tyre (q. v.). After a protracted siege, the latter city was taken and sacked, B.C. 332. This done, Alexander entered Palestine and reduced it. Egypt next submitted to him ; and in B.C. 331 he found- ed Alexandria (q. v.), which remains to the present day the most characteristic monument of his life and work. In the same year he finally defeated Darius at Gau- gamela; and in B.C. 330 his unhappy rival was niur- ALEXANDER 139 ALEXANDER dered by Bessus, satrap of Bactria. The next two years were occupied by Alexander in the consolida- tion of his Persian conquests, and the reduction of Bactria. In B.C. 327 he crossed the Indus, penetrated to the Hydaspes, and was there forced by the discon- tent of his army to turn westward. He reached Susa, B.C. 325, and proceeded to Babylon, B.C. 324, which he chose as the capital of his empire. In the next year he died there (B.C. 323) in the midst of his gigan- tic plans ; and those who inherited his conquests left his designs unachieved and unattempted (comp. Dan. vii, 6 ; viii, 5 , xi, 3). His death is attributed to intem- perance ; and upon his death-bed he sent for his court, and declared that " he gave the empire to the most de- serving." Some affirm, however, that he regulated the succession by a will. The author of the first book of Maccabees (i, G) says he divided his kingdom among his generals while he was living ; and it is certain that a partition was eventually made of his dominions among the four principal officers, of his army. He died at the age of thirty-three, after reigning twelve years — six as king of Macedon and six as monarch of Asia. He was buried at Alexandria. See Mace- donia. Coin of Alexander the Great. The famous tradition of the visit of Alexander to Jerusalem during his Phoenician campaign (Josephus, Ant. xi, 8, 1 sq.) has been a fruitful source of contro- versy. The Jews, it is said, had provoked his anger by refusing to transfer their allegiance to him when summoned to do so during the siege of Tyre, and after the reduction of Tyre and Gaza (Josephus, 1. c.) he turned toward Jerusalem. Jaddua (Jaddus) the high- priest (Neh. xii, 11, 22), who had been warned in a dream how to avert the king's anger, calmby awaited his approach ; and when he drew near went out to Sapha ('"!S^, he watched), within sight of the city and temple, clad in his robes of hyacinth and gold, and ac- companied by a train of priests and citizens arrayed in white. Alexander was so moved by the solemn spec- tacle that he did reverence to the holy name inscribed upon the tiara of the high-priest ; and when Parmenio expressed surprise, he replied that " he had seen the god whom Jaddua represented in a dream at Dium, en- couraging him to cross over into Asia, and promising him success." After this it is said that he visited Je- rusalem, offered sacrifice there, heard the prophecies of Daniel which foretold his victor}', and conferred im- portant privileges upon the Jews, not only in Judaaa, but in Babylonia and Media, which they enjoyed during the supremacy of his successors. The narrative is re- peated in the Talmud (Yoma, G9, ap. Otho, Lex. Rabb. b. v. Alexander; the high- priest is there said to have been Simon the Just), in later Jewish writers (Vajikra K. 13 ; Joseph ben Gorion, ap. Ste. Croix, p. 553), and in the chronicles of Abulfeda (Ste. Croix, p. 555). The event was adapted by the Samaritans to suit their own history, with a corresponding change of places and persons, and various embellishments (Aboul'lfatah, quoted by Ste. Croix, p. 209-212) ; and in due time Alexander was enrolled anions,' the proselytes of Juda- ism. On the other hand, no mention of the event oc- curs in Arrian, Plutarch, Diodorus, or Curtius ; and the connection in which it is placed by Josephus is alike inconsistent with Jewish history (Ewald, Gesch. d. Volkes Isr. iv, 124 sq.) and with the* narrative of Ar- rian (iii, 1). See Jaddua. But admitting the incorrectness of the details of the tradition as given by Josephus, there are several points which confirm the truth of the main fact. Justin says that "many kings of the East came to meet Alexan- der wearing fillets" (xi, 10) ; and after the capture of Tyre "Alexander himself visited some of the cities which still refused to submit to him" (Curt, iv, 5, 13). Even at a later time, according to Curtius, he executed vengeance personally on the Samaritans for the mur- der of his governor Andromachus (Curt, iv, 8, 10). Besides this, Jewish soldiers were enlisted in his army (Hecat. ap. Josephus, Apion, i, 22) ; and Jews formed an important element in the population of the city which he founded shortly after the supposed visit. Above all, the privileges which he is said to have con- ferred upon the Jews, including the remission of trib- ute every sabbatical year, existed in later times, and imply some such relation between the Jews and the great conqueror as Josephus describes. Internal ev- idence is decidedly in favor of the story even in its pic- turesque fulness. From policy or conviction, Alexan- der delighted to represent himself as chosen by destiny for the great act which he achieved. The siege of Tyre arose professedly from a religious motive ; the battle of Issus was preceded by the visit to Gordium ; the invasion of Persia by the pilgrimage to the temple of Ammon. And if it be impossible to determine the exact circumstances of the meeting of Alexander and the Jewish envoys, the silence of the classical histo- rians, who notoriously disregarded (e. g. the Macca- bees) and misrepresented (Tac. Hist, v, 8) the fortunes of the Jews, cannot be held to be conclusive against the occurrence of an event which must have appeared to them trivial or unintelligible (Jahn, Arcfoeol. iii, 300 sq. ; Ste. Croix, Examen critique, etc., Paris, 1810 [in Eng. Bath, 1793] ; Thirl wall, Hist, of Greece, ii, 193 sq.; and, on the other side, Ant. van Dale, Dissert, super A ristea, Amstel. 1705, p. G9 sq. ; Favini, Be A lex. M. ingress. Hierosolyma, Flor. 1781). See Persia. The tradition, whether true or false, presents an aspect of Alexander's character which has been fre- quently lost sight of by his recent biographers. He was not simply a Greek, nor must he be judged by a Greek standard. The Orientalism, which was a scan- dal to his followers, was a necessary deduction from his principles, and not the result of caprice or vanity (comp. Arr. vii, 29). He approached the idea of a universal monarchy from the side of Greece, but his final object was to establish something higher than the paramount supremacy of one people. His purpose was to combine and equalize, not to annihilate ; to wed the East and West in a just union — not to enslave Asia to Greece (Plut. dc Alex. Fort, i, 6). The time, indeed, was not yet come when this was possible, but if he could not accomplish the great issue, he prepared for its accomplishment. The first and most direct consequence of the policy of Alexander was the weakening of nationalities, the first condition necessary for the dissolution of the old religions. The swift course of his victories, the con- stant incorporation of foreign elements in his armies, the fierce wars and changing fortunes of his successors, broke down the barriers by which kingdom had been separated from kingdom, and opened the road for larger conceptions of life and faith than had hitherto been possible (comp. Polyb. iii, 59). The contact of the East and West brought out into practical forms thoughts and feelings which had been confined to the schools. Paganism was deprived of life as soon as it was transplanted beyond the narrow limits in which it took its shape. The spread of commerce followed the progress of arms ; and the Greek language and literature vindicated their claim to be considered the most perfect expression of human thought by becoming practicalhy universal. The Jews were at once most exposed to the powerful influences thus brought to bear upon the East, and most able to support them. ALEXANDER 140 ALEXANDER In the arrangement of the Greek conquests which ! followed the battle of Ipsus, B.C. SOI, Judaea was ; made the frontier land of the rival empires of Syria j and Egypt, and though it was necessarily subjected to the constant vicissitudes of war, it was able to make | advantageous terms with the state to which it owed allegiauce from the important advantages which it offered for attack or defence. See Antiochus. In- ternally also the people were prepared to withstand the effects of the revolution which the Greek dominion ! effected. The constitution of Ezra had obtained its full development. A powerful hierarchy had succeed- ed in substituting the idea of a church for that of a stats, and the Jew was now able to wander over the world and yet remain faithful to the God of his fathers. See Dispersion. The same constitutional change j had strengthened the intellectual and religious position I of the people. A rigid " fence" of ritualism protected the course of common life from the license of Greek manners ; and the great doctrine of the unity of God, which was now seen to be the divine centre of their system, counteracted the attractions of a philosophic pantheism. See Simon the Just. Through a long course of discipline, in which they had been left un- guided by prophetic teaching, the Jews had realized the nature of their mission to the world, and were waiting for the means of fulfilling it. The conquest of Alexander furnished them with the occasion and the power. But, at the same time, the example of Greece fostered personal as well as popular independence. Judaism was speedily divided into sects, analogous to the typical forms of Greek philosophy. But even the rude analysis of the old faith was productive of good. The freedom of Greece was no less instrumental in forming the Jews for their final work than the con- templative spirit of Persia, or the civil organization of Rome ; for if the career of Alexander was rapid, its ef- fects were lasting. The city which he chose to bear his name perpetuated in after ages the office which he providentially discharged for Judaism and mankind ; and the historian of Christianity must confirm the judgment of Arrian, that Alexander, " who was like no other man, could not have been given to the world without the special design of Providence" (Arr. vii, 30). See Alexandria. And Alexander himself appreciated this design better even than his great teacher ; for it is said (Plut. De Alex, i, G) that when Aristotle urged him to treat the Greeks as freemen and the Orientals as slaves, he found the true answer to this counsel in the recognition of his " divine mission to unite and reconcile the world." — Smith. See Sects, Jewish. Tetradrachm (Attic Talent) of one of the Successors of Alex- ander.— Obverse; Head of Alexander the Great as a young Jupiter Ammon. fteveme: Pallas seated, holding a Victory, with Monogram and Letter (I); Inscription (in Greek), " Of King Lysimachna." In the prophetic visions of Daniel the influence of Alexander is necessarily combined with that of his successors. They represented with partial exaggera- tion the several phases of his character; and to the Jews nationally the policy of the Syrian kings was of greater importance than the original conquest of Asia. But some traits of " the first mighty lung" (Dan. viii, 21 ; xi, 3) are given with vigorous distinctness. The emblem by which he is typified (~'Z'S, a he-gnat, from IBS, he leaped, Gesenius, Then. s. v.) suggests the no- tions of strength and speed ; and the universal extent (Dan. viii, 5, . . .from, the west on the face of the whole earth) and marvellous rapidity of his conquests (Dan. 1. c. he touched not the ground) are brought forward as the characteristics of his power, which was directed by the strongest personal impetuosity (Dan. viii, 6, in the fun/ of his power). He ruled with great dominion, and did according to his will (xi, 3) ; " and there was none that could deliver . . . out of his hand" (viii, 7). See Goat. The name of Alexander is equally celebrated in the writings of the Orientals, as in those of the Greeks and Romans ; but they vary extremely from the accounts which Western historians give of him (D'Herbelot, Bibl. Orient, s. v. Escander; Moses Choren. p. 82). They call him Iscander Dulkarnaim (see Golii, Lex. Arab. 1896), " double-horned Alexander," alluding to the two horns of his empire (or his power) in the East and West. For further details, see Anthon's Class. Diet. ; Smith's Diet, of Class. Biog. s. v. See Greece. 2. Surnamed Balas (Josephus, Ant. xiii, 4, 8, 'AXiZcivSpoc o BdXag Xtyvpti'oe. ; Strab. xiv, p. 751, rbv BdXav ' A\k£avc~ pov ; Justin, xxxv, 1, Subornant pro eo Balam quendam . . . et . . . nomen ei Alexan- dri inditur ; comp. the Aramaean X3"?, the lord), a per- | sonage whose history is detailed in the Maccabees and I Josephus (comp. Justin, xxxv ; Polyb. xxxiii, 14, 16 ; i Liv.Epit.l, liii; Appian. *S'#n'acef,lxvii; Euseb. Chron.). He likewise assumed the titles " Epiphanes" (tTTi^ttw/r, illustrious), " Euergetes" {tinnyeTi;c, benefactor), etc. His extraction is doubtful ; but he professed to be the | natural son of Antiochus Epiphanes, and in that ca- pacity, out of opposition to Demetrius Soter, he was recognised as king of Syria by the king of Egypt, by the Romans, and eventually by Jonathan Maccabams (Strab. xiii; Josephus, Ant. xiii, 2, 1), but he was more generally regarded as an impostor, who falsely assumed the connec'.ion (App. Syr. 67; Justin. 1. c. comp. Polyb. xxxiii, 16). He claimed the throne of Syria in B.C. 152 in opposition to Demetrius Soter, who had provoked the hostility of the neighboring kings and alienated the affections of his subjects (Josephus, 1. c). His pretensions were put forward by Heraclides, for- merly treasurer of Antiochus Epiphanes, who obtained the recognition of his title at Rome by scandalous in- trigues (Polyb. xxxiii, 14, 16). After landing at Ptolemais (1 Mace, x, 1) Alexander gained the warm support of Jonathan, who was now the leader of the Jews (1 Mace, ix, 73) ; and though his first efforts were unsuccessful (Justin, xxxv, 1, 10), in B.C. 150 he completely routed the forces of Demetrius, who himself fell in the retreat (1 Mace, x, 48-50 ; Josephus, Ant. xiii, 2, 4 ; Strab. xvi, p. 751). After this Alex- ander married Cleopatra, the daughter of Ptolemams VI Philometor ; and in the arrangement of his king- dom appointed Jonathan governor (pipiaipxt]c, 1 Mace, x, 65) of a province (Judaea ; comp. 1 Mace, xi, 57). But his triumph was of short duration. After obtain- ing power, he gave himself up to a life of indulgence (Liv. Epit. 50 ; comp. Athen. v, 211), leaving the gov- ernment in the hands of ministers whose misrule ren- dered his reign odious (Diod. Sic. Fragments, xxxiii). Accordingly, when Demetrius Nicator, the son of Demetrius Soter, landed in Syria in B.C. 147, the new pretender found powerful support (1 Mace, x, 67 sq.). At first Jonathan defeated and slew Apollonius, the governor of Ceele-Syria, who had joined the party of Demetrius, for which exploit he received fresh favors from Alexander (1 Mace, x, 69-89) ; but shortly after- ward (B.C. 146) Ptolemy entered Syria with a large force, and after he had placed garrisons in the chief cities on the coast, which received him according to the commands of Alexander, suddenly pronounced himself in favor of Demetrius (1 Mace, xi, 1-11 ; Jo- sephus, Ant. xiii, 4, 5 sq.), alleging, probably with truth, the existence of a conspiracy against his life (Josephus, 1. c. ; comp. Diod.ap. Muller, Fragm. ii, 16). Alexander, who had been forced to leave Antioch (Jo- sephus, 1. c), was in Cilicia when be heard of Ttole- ALEXANDER 141 ALEXANDER my's defection (1 Mace, xi, 14). He hastened to meet him, but was defeated (1 Mace, xi, 15 ; Justin, xxxv, 2), and fled to Aba?, in Arabia (Diod. 1. c), where he was murdered, B.C. 14G (Diod. 1. c. ; 1 Mace, xi, 17, differ as to the manner; and Euseb. Chron. Arm. i, 349, represents him to have been slain in the battle). The narrative in 1 Mace, and Josephus show clearly the partiality which the Jews entertained for Alexan- der "as the first that entreated of true peace with them" (1 Mace, x, 47) ; and the same feeling was ex- hibited afterward in the zeal with which they support- ed the claims of his son Antiochus. Balas left a young son, who was eventually made king of Syria by Tryphon, under the name of Antiochus Theos (1 Mace. xi, 13-18; Josephus, Ant. xiii, 4). See Antiochus. Tetradrachm (Ptolemaic Talent) of Alexander Balas.— Ob- verse: Bust of King. Reverse : Eagle upon Rudder, and Palm-branch, with the Monogram and Symbol of Tyre; Date TEP (103 JEr. Seleurid), etc. ; Inscription (in Greek), u Of King Alexander." 3. Surnamed Zebina (or Zabinas, Zaftivac, said to signify "purchased," from a report that Ptolemy had bought him as a slave), the son of a merchant named I'rotarchus ; he was set up by Ptolemy Physcon, king of Egypt, as a pretender to the crown of the Greek kingdom of Syria shortly after the death of An- tiochus Sidetes and the return of Demetrius Nicator from his captivity among the Parthians (B.C. 128). Antioch, Apamea, and several other cities, disgusted with the tyranny of Demetrius, acknowledged the au- thority of Alexander, who pretended to have been adopted by Sidetes ; but he nev^r succeeded in obtain- ing power over the whole of Syria. In the earlier part of the year 125 he defeated Demetrius, who fled to Tyre, and was there killed ; but in the middle of the same year Alexander's patron, the king of Egypt, set up Antiochus Gryphus, a son of Demetrius, by whom he was defeated in battle. Alexander fled to Antioch, where he attempted to plunder the temple of Jupiter in order to pay his troops ; but the people rose against him and drove him out of the city. He soon fell into the hands of robbers, who delivered him up to Antio- chus, by whom he was put to death, B.C. 122. He was weak and effeminate, but sometimes generous. (Justin, xxxix, 1, 2; Josephus, Ant. xiii, 9, 10; Clin- ton, Fasti, iii, 334.) Coin of Alexander Zebina.— The reverse having a Statue of Jupiter holding an Image of Victory, with the Inscription (in Greek), "■ Of King Alexander." 4. Surnamed Jann.eus (lavvaloc), the first prince of the Maccabsean dynasty who for any considerable period enjoyed the title of king. See" Maccabees. Coins of his reign are extant, from which it appears that his original name was Jonathan, which he ex- changed for the Greek name Alexander, according to the Hellenizing custom of the age. His history is detailed by Josephus (Ant. xiii, 12-16). He was the Coin of Alexander Jannams— bearing on the obverse the in- scription (in Greek), " Of King Alexander;" on the reverse (in Samaritan-IIeb.), u King Jonathan." third son of John Hyrcanus, who left three sons, or five, according to Josephus ( War, i, 2, 7). The father was particularly fond of Antigonus and Aristobulus, but could not endure his third son, Alexander, because he had dreamed that he would reign after him, which implied the death of his two brothers. Antigonus nev- er reigned, and Aristobulus reigned but for a short time. After his death, Salome, or Alexandra, his widow, liberated Alexander, whom Aristobulus had confined in prison since their father's death, and made him king, B.C. 104. Alexander put to death one of his brothers, who had formed a design on his life, and heaped favors on another, called Absalom, who, being contented with a private condition, lived peaceably, and retired from public employments. Alexander was of a warlike, enterprising disposition ; and when he had regulated his dominions he marched against Ptolemais, but was soon compelled to relinquish the object of his expedition in order to defend his own ter- ritories against Ptolemy Lathyrus, who had marched a powerful army into Galilee. Alexander gave him battle near Asophus, not far from the Jordan ; but Ptolemy killed 30,000, or, as others say, 50,000 of his men. After this victory the latter met with no re- sistance. His mother, Cleopatra, however, apprehen- sive for the safety of Egypt, determined to stop his further progress, and for this purpose levied a numer- ous arm}', and equipping a large fleet, soon landed in Phoenicia, B.C. 102. Ptolemais opened its gates to receive her; and here Alexander Jannauis presented himself in her camp with considerable presents, and was received as an unhappy prince, an enemy of Ptol- emy, who had no refuge but the queen's protection, B.C. 101. Cleopatra made an alliance with him in the city of Scythopolis, and Alexander marched with his troops into Ccele-Syria, where he took the town of Gadara after a siege of ten months, and after that Amathus, one of the best fortresses in the country, where Theodoras, son of Zeno, had lodged his most valuable property as in absolute security. This The- odoras, falling suddenly on Alexander's army, killed 10,000, and plundered his baggage. Alexander, how- ever,, was not deterred by this disaster from prosecut- ing his purposes : having recruited his army, he be- sieged Raphia, Anthedon, and Gaza- — towns on the Mediterranean — and took them ; the latter, after a desperate resistance, was reduced to a heap of ruins, B.C. 96. After this Alexander returned to Jerusalem, but the Jews had revolted ; and on the feast of tabernacles, while he, as high-priest, was preparing to sacrifice, the people asseml lad in the temple had the insolence to throw lemons at him, taken from the branches which they carried in their hands. Alexander put the sedi- tious to the sword, and killed about 6000. Afterward he erected a partition of wood before the altar and the inner temple to prevent the approach of the people ; and to defend himself in future against such attempts, he took into his pay guards from Pisidia and Cilicia. Finding Jerusalem likely to continue the seat of clam- or and discontent, Alexander quitted the metropolis, at the head of his arm}-, B.C. 93 ; and, having crossed the Jordan, he made war upon the Moabites and Am- monites, and obliged them to pay tribute; attacked Amathus, the fortress beyond Jordan before mention- ed, and razed it ; and also made war with Obeda, king of the Arabians, whom he subdued. On his return to Jerusalem he found the Jews more incensed against ALEXANDER 142 ALEXANDER him than ever, and a civil war shortly ensued, in which he killed above 50,000 persons. All his en- deavors to bring about a reconciliation proving fruit- less, Alexander one day asked them what the}- would have him do to acquire their good-will. They an- swered unanimously " that he had nothing to do but to kill himself." After this they sent deputies to desire succors from Demetrius Eucaerus against their king, who marched into Judaea with 3000 horse and 40,000 infantry, and encamped at Sichem. A battle ensued, in which Alexander was defeated and compelled to fly to the mountains for shelter, B.C. 88. This occur- rence, however, contributed to his re-establishment, for a large number of the Jews, touched with the un- happy condition of their king, joined him ; and Deme- trius, retiring into Syria, left the Jews to oppose their king with their own forces. Alexander, collecting his army, marched against his rebellious subjects, whom he overcame in every engagement, and having shut up the fiercest of them in Bethom, he forced the town, made them prisoners, and carried them to Jerusalem, where he ordered eight hundred of them to be cruci- fied before him during a great entertainment which he made for his friends ; and before these unhappy wretches had expired he commanded their wives and children to be murdered in their presence— an unheard- of and excessive cruelty, which occasioned the people of his own party to call him " Thracides," meaning " as cruel as a Thracian," B.C. 86. Some time after- ward Antiochus, surnamed Dionysius, having conquer- ed Damascus, resolved to invade Judaea ; but Alexan- der defeated his intention, and compelled him to return into Arabia, where he was killed. Aretas, the suc- ceeding king of Damascus, however, came into Judaea, and defeated Alexander in the plain of Sephala, B.C. 82. A peace being concluded, Aretas returned to Da- mascus, and Alexander ingratiated himself with the Jews, B.C. 81. Having given himself up to excessive drinking, he brought on a violent quartan fever, which terminated his life. His queen, Alexandra, observing him to be near his end, and foreseeing all she had to fear from a mutinous people not easily governed, and her children not of age to conduct her affairs, was greatly distressed. Alexander told her that, to reign in peace, she should conceal his death from the army till Bagaba, which he was then besieging, was taken ; that, when returned to Jerusalem, she should give the Pharisees some share in the government; that she should send for the principal of them, show them his dead body, give them permission to treat it with what indignities they pleased in revenge for the ill-treat- ment they had received from him, and promise that she would in future do nothing in the government without their advice and participation. He died at the age of forty-eight, after a reign of twenty-seven years, B.C. 78. This admission of the Pharisees into the government demands the especial notice of the reader, as it accounts not only for their influence over the minds of the people, but also for their connection witli the rulers, and their power as public governors, which appear so remarkably in the history of the Gos- pel.-— much beyond what might be expected from a sect merely religious. Alexander left two sons, Ilyr- Canus and Aristohulus, who disputed the kingdom and high-priesthood till the time of Herod the Great, and whose dissensions caused the ruin of their family, and were the means of Herod's elevation. — Calmet, s. v. See Alexandra. 5. The son of Aristohulus and Alexandra, and grandson of Alexander Jannseus. He was to have been carried captive to Home, with his brother Antig- onus, when Pompey took Jerusalem from Aristohulus (B.C. C3) ; on the way, however, he found means to escape, and, returning to Judaea (B.C. 57), raised an army of 10,000 foot and 15,000 horse, with which he performed many gallant actions, and seized the for- tresses of Alexandrium and Machaerus. Hyrcanus ap- | plied for aid to Gabinius, the general of the Roman ; troops, who drove him from the mountains, beat him near Jerusalem, killed 3000 of his men, and made j many prisoners. By the mediation of his mother, Al- j exandra, matters were accommodated with Gabinius, J and the Romans marched into Egypt, but were soon 1 compelled to return by the violent proceedings of Al- I exander. Wherever he met with Romans he sacri- ficed them to his resentment, and a number were com- pelled to fortify themselves on Mount Gerizim, where Gabinius found him at his return from Egypt. Being apprehensive of engaging the great number of troops who were with Alexander, Gabinius sent Antipater with offers of general pardon if they laid down their arms. This had the desired success ; many forsook Alexander, and retired to their own houses ; but with 30,000 still remaining he resolved to give the Romans ! battle. The armies met at the foot of Mount Tabor, where, after a very obstinate action, Alexander was overcome, with the loss of 10,000 men. Under the government of Crassus (B.C. 53) Alex- ander again began to embroil affairs ; but after the un- happy expedition against the Parthians Cassius obliged him, under conditions, to continue quiet (B.C. 52) while he marched to the Euphrates to oppose the pas- sage of the Parthians. During the wars between Cae- sar and Pompey, Alexander and Aristohulus, his fa- ther, espoused Caesar's interest, B.C. 49. Aristohu- lus was poisoned, and Alexander beheaded at Antioch. B.C. 48. (Josephus, Ant. xiv, 5-7 ; War, i, 8 and 9.) 6. The son of Jason, sent to Rome to renew friend- ship and alliance between the Jews and Romans : he is named in the decree of the senate directed to the Jews in the ninth year of Hyrcanus's pontificate, B.C. 60 (Josephus, Ant. xiv, 8, 5). 7. The son of Dositheus, another Jewish ambassa- dor on the same occasion (Josephus, ib.). Perhaps identical with the following. 8. The son of Theodoras, sent to Rome by Hyrca- nus to renew his alliance with the senate. He is named in the decree of the senate addressed to the magistrates of Ephesus, made in the consulship of Dolabella (B.C. 43), which specified that the Jews should not be forced into military service, because they could not bear arms on the Sabbath-day, nor have, at all times, such provisions in the armies as were author- ized by their law (Josephus, Ant. xiv, 10, 10 and 11). 9. A son of Herod the Great by Mariamne. The history of this prince, which is given by Josephus (Ant. xv, xvi; War, i, 22-27), can hardly he sep- arated from that of Aristobulus, his brother and com- panion in misfortune. After the tragical death of their mother, Mariamne (Josephus, Ant. xv, 7), Herod sent them to Rome to be educated in a manner suita- ble to their rank (ib. 10, 1). Augustus allowed them an apartment in his palace, intending this mark of his consideration as a compliment to their father Herod. On their return to Judaea (ib. xvi, 1, 2) the people re- ceived the princes with great joy ; but Salome, Her- od's sister, who had been the principal cause of Ma- riamne's death, apprehending that if ever the sons of the latter possessed authority she would feel the effects of their resentment, resolved by her calumnies to alien- ate the affections of their father from them. This she managed with great address, and for some time dis- covered no symptoms of ill-will. Herod married Al- exander to Glaphyra, daughter of Archelaus, king of Cappadocia, and Aristobulus to Berenice, daughter of Salome. Pheroras, the king's brother, and Salome, his sister, conspiring to destroy these j'oung princes, watched closely their conduct, and often induced them to speak their thoughts freely and forcibly concerning the manner in which Herod had put to death their mother Mariamne. Whatever they said was imme- diately reported to the king in the most odious and ag- gravated terms, and Herod, having no distrust of his brother and sister, confided in their representations as ALEXANDER 143 ALEXANDER to his sons' intentions of revenging their mother's death. To check in some degree their loft}' spirits, he sent for his eldest son, Antipater, to court — he having been brought up at a distance from Jerusalem, because the quality of his mother was much inferior to that of Mariamne — thinking that, by thus making Aristobulus and Alexander sensible that it was in his power to pre- fer another of his sons before them, the}' would be ren- dered more circumspect in their conduct. The con- trary, however, was the case. The presence of An- tipater only exasperated the two princes, and he at length succeeded in so entirely alienating his father's affection from them, that Herod carried them to Rome to accuse them before Augustus of designs against his life, B.C. 11 (ib. 10, 7). But the young princes de- fended themselves so well, and affected the spectators so deeply with their tears, that Augustus reconciled them to their father, and sent them back to Judaea, ap- parently in perfect union with Antipater, who express- ed great satisfaction to see them restored to Herod's favor. When returned to Jerusalem Herod convened the people in the temple, and publicly declared his in- tention that his sons should reign after him — first An- tipater, then Alexander, and afterward Aristobulus. This declaration exasperated the two brothers still further, and gave new occasion to Pheroras, Salome, and Antipater to represent their disaffection to Herod. The king had three confidential eunuchs, whom he em- ployed even in affairs of great importance. These were accused of being corrupted by the money of Al- exander, and, being subjected to the rack, the extrem- ity of the torture induced them to confess that they had often been solicited by Alexander and Aristobulus to abandon Herod and join them and their party, who were ready for any undertaking in asserting their in- disputable right to the crown. One of them added that the two brothers had conspired to lay snares for their father while hunting, and were resolved, should he die, to go instantly to Rome and beg the kingdom of Augustus. Letters were produced likewise from Alexander to Aristobulus, wherein he complained that Herod had given fields to Antipater which produced an annual rent of 200 talents. This intelligence confirm- ed the fears of Herod, and rendered him suspicious of all persons about his court. Alexander was put under arrest, and his principal friends to the torture. The prince, however, was not dejected at this storm. He not only denied nothing Avhich had been extorted from his friends, but admitted even more than they had alleged against him, whether desiring to confound the credulity and suspicions of his father, or to in- volve the whole court in perplexities, from which they should be unable to extricate themselves. He conveyed letters to the king, in which he represented that to torment so many persons on his account was useless ; that, in fact, he had laid ambuscades for him ; that the principal courtiers were his accomplices, naming, in particular, Pheroras and his most intimate friends, adding that Salome came secretly to him by night, and that the whole court wished for nothing more than the moment when they might be delivered from that pain in which they were continually kept by his cruelties. In the mean time, Archelaus, king of Cappadocia, and father-in-law of Alexander, informed of what was passing in Judaea, came to Jerusalem for the purpose of effecting, if possible, a reconciliation between Herod and his son. Knowing the violence of Herod's tem- per, he feigned to pity his present situation, and to condemn the unnatural conduct of Alexander. The sympathy of Archelaus produced some relentings in the bosom of Herod, and finally led to his reconcilia- tion with Alexander and the detection of the guilty pirties. But this calm did not long continue. One Eurycles, a Lacedemonian, having insinuated himself into Herod's favor, gained also the confidence of Alex- ander; and the young prince opened his heart freely concerning the grounds of his discontent against his fa- ther. Eurycles repeated all to the king, whose sus- picions against his sons were revived, and he at length ordered them to be tortured. Of all the charges brought against the young princes, nothing could be proved except that they had formed a design to retire into Cappadocia, where they might be freed from their father's tyranny, and live in peace. Herod, however, having substantiated this fact, took the rest for grant- ed, and dispatched two envoys to Rome, demanding from Augustus justice against Alexander and Aristo- bulus. Augustus ordered them to be tried at Berytus, before the governors of Syria and the tributary sov- ereigns of the neighboring provinces, particularly men- tioning Archelaus as one, and giving Herod permis- sion, should they be found guilty, to punish them as he might deem proper. Herod convened the judges, but basely omitted Archelaus, Alexander's father-in- law ; and then, leaving his sons under a strong guard at Platane, he pleaded his own cause against them be- fore the assembly, consisting of 150 persons. After adducing against them every thing he had been able to collect, he concluded by saying that, as a king, he might have tried and condemned them by his own au- thority, but that he preferred bringing them before such an assembly to avoid the imputation of injustice and cruelty. Saturnius, who had been formerly con- sul, voted that they should be punished, but not with death, and his three sons voted with him ; but they were overruled by Volumnius, who gratified the father by condemning his sons to death, and induced the rest of the judges to join with him in this cruel and unjust sentence. The time and manner of carrying it into execution were left entirely to Herod. Damascenus, Tyro, and other friends interfered in order to save the lives of the unfortunate princes, but in vain. They remained some time in confinement, and, after the re- port of another plot, were conveyed to Sebaste, or Sa- maria, and there strangled, B.C. 5 (ib. 11, 7). — Calmet. The leading incidents of this narrative, which is chiefly interesting as confirmatory of the barbarous character attributed to Herod in the Gospels, are con- firmed by Strabo (xvi, 7G5). It is probably this event to which Macrobius alludes (Saturn, ii, 4) when speak- ing of the jocose remark that Augustus is said to have made on hearing that in the massacre of the Bethle- hemite children (Matt, ii, 16) one of the kind's own sons had perished, " It were better to be Herod's swine than his son!" Perhaps, however, the son referred to may be Antipater (q. v.), whom he also ordered to ex- ecution just before his death. See Herod. 10. A son of Alexander Herod (above) by Glaphyra (Josephus, War, i, 18, 1). See Herod. 11. A son of Phasaelus (son of Phasaelus, Herod's brother) by Salampsio, Herod's daughter (Josephus, Ant, xviii, 5, 4). See Herod. 12. A relative of the high-priest, and a leading Jew, present at the examination of Peter and John before the Sanhedrim for the cure of the lame man (Acts iv, G), A.D. 29. Many (Kuinol, in loc.) suppose he was the Alexandrian alabarch Alexander Lysima- chus (below), who was a brother of the well-known Philo, and an old friend of the Emperor Claudius (Jo- sephus, Ant. xviii, 8, 1 ; xix, 5, 1), and whose son, Al- exander Tiberius (below), was procurator of Judaea and afterward of Egypt (Josephus, War, ii, 11, 6; 15, 1, etc.). 13. A man whose father, Simon, a Cyrenian Jew, was compelled to bear the cross of Christ behind him from the gate to Calvary (Mark xv, 21). A.D. post 29. From the manner in which he and his brother Rufus are mentioned, it is not unlikely that they were afterward known as Christians. 14. An alabarch (q. v.) of Alexandria, surnamed Lysimaciius, steward of Antonia the mother of Clau- dius, who freed him from the incarceration to which he had been subjected by the preceding emperor (Jo- ALEXANDER 144 ALEXANDER sephus, Ant. xix, 5, 1). It -was through him that Agrippa received the loan of 200,000 drachmae (ib, xviii, 6, 3). Some have thought him the same with No. 12, above. 15. A son of the foregoing, surnamed Tiberius (Josephus, Ant. xx, 5, 2). His uncle was Philo, the celebrated Jewish author. Alexander, however, did not continue in the faith of his ancestors, and was re- warded for his apostasy by various public appoint- ments. In the rei^n of Claudius he succeeded Fadius as procurator of Judasa, about A.D. 46, and was pro- moted to the equestrian order. He was subsequently appointed by Nero procurator of Egypt; and by his order 50,000 Jews were slain on one occasion at Alex- andria in a tumult in the city. It was apparently during his government in Egypt that he accompanied Corbulo in his expedition into Armenia, A.D. 64 ; and he was, in this campaign, given as one of the hostages to secure the safety of Tiridates when the latter visit- ed the Roman camp. Alexander was the first Roman governor who declared in favor of Vespasian ; and the day on which he administered the oath to the legions in the name of Vespasian, the kalends of July, A.D. 69, is regarded as the beginning of that emperor's reign. Alexander afterward accompanied Titus in the war against Judaea, and was present at the taking of Jerusalem. (Josephus, War, ii, 11, 6; 15, 1; 18; 7, 8; iv, 10, 6; vi, 4, 3; Tacitus, Ann. xv, 28; Hist. i, 11; ii, 74, 79; Suetonius, Vesp. 6.) 16. A Jew of Ephesus, known only from the part he took in the uproar about Diana which was raised there by the preaching of Paul (Acts xix, 33), A.D. 54. As the inhabitants confounded the Jews and Jewish Christians, the former, apprehensive lest they might be involved in the popular commotion as oppo- nents of the prevalent idolatry, put forward Alexan- der, apparently one of their own number, and perhaps a practised speaker, to defend them from any connec- tion with the Christians (Conybeare and Howson's St. Paul, ii, 87 note) ; but his interference only inflamed the mob the more, so that he was unable in the tumult to obtain a hearing (Neander, Planting of the Church, i, 318, Edinb. ed.). Some suppose that this person is the same with "Alexander the coppersmith" of 2 Tim. iv, 14; but this is by no means probable: the name of Alexander was in those times very common among the Jews. 17. A coppersmith or brazier (mentioned in 1 Tim. i, 20; 2 Tim. iv, 14), who, with Hymenaeus and oth- ers, broached certain heresies touching the resurrec- tion, for which they were excommunicated by the Apostle Paul, A.D. 54-64. These persons, and espe- cially Alexander, appear to have maligned the faith they had forsaken and the character of the apostle. As ever}' Jew learned some trade, it has been imagined that Alexander was really a man of learning, and not an artisan, although acquainted with the brazier's craft. But we are not aware that it was usual to des- ignate a literate person by the name of the trade with which he was acquainted, although this may possibly have been the case when a man bore a name so com- mon and so undbtinguishing as that of Alexander. The supposition of some (Neander, Planting, i, 407 note), that different persons are alluded to in the two passages cited, is not the more probable one (Matthies, Pastoralbrkfe, p. 259 sq.). Alexander I, bishop of Rome, succeeded Evaris- tus in that see 110. He ruled for eight years and five months, and is said to have suffered martyrdom under Hadrian in 119, though this is doubted (Euseb. II. E. iv, I ; hen. iv, 3). Alexander is said by some writers to have been the 6rst who directed that water should lie mixed with the wine in the Eucharist, and also to have introduced holy water; but it is the usual cus- tom of Roman Catholic writers to attribute the events of later periods to earlier ones. The epistles attrib- uted to him are spurious. II, Tope (originally called Anselm Badagus), a na- tive of Milan. As priest of his native town, he began, about the middle of the 11th century, to preach against the marriage of the clergy. Archbishop Guido, of Milan, who sympathized with the married clergy, ob- tained for him from the Emperor Henry and the Pope Stephen II, the diocese of Lucca, in order to remove him. Anselm, however, in his new position, vigorous- \y pursued his attacks upon the married clergy, and became intimate with the leaders of the hierarchic. 1 party, Hildebrand and Petrus Damiani. On the death I of Pope Nicholas II (10G1), Hildebrand, who was al- ready all-powerful at Rome, succeeded in elevating Anselm to the papal throne under the name of Alexan- der II. The part)1 of the count of Tusculum, in union with the married clergy, opposed to him Bishop Ca- dolous of Parma as antipope under the name of Ho- norius II, but Alexander was generally recognised in Germany by the Sj'nod of 1062. As pope, Alexander endeavored to enforce all the exorbitant pretensions of the papacy, and in this effort was supported by Hil- debrand and Damiani, who acted as his legates and ! councillors. He forbade King Henry II of Germany to divorce his wife Bertha, excommunicated the coun- cillors of the king, and summoned the latter to Rome. He died before Henry had resolved to go, April 20, ! 1073, and was succeeded hy Hildebrand under the name of Gregory VII. Forty-five of his epistles are extant {Concilia, torn, ix, p. 1115). — Neander, Ch. Hist. iii, 395-398; iv, 100; Cave, Hist. Lit. anno 1061; Wetzer and Welte, i, 154. III, Pope (originally called Rolandus Bandinelli), a i Tuscan. In 1159 he was made pope, but was driven out of Rome by the antipope Victor III. The Emperor Frederick Barbarossa convoked the Council of Pavia ' in 1160, in which Victor was confirmed, and Alexander j deposed and excommunicated. Alexander and his party, in their turn, excommunicated Victor and his ' abettors. Alexander was recognised bj' the kings of France, England, Spain, Sicily, Jerusalem, and Hun- ! gary ; while Victor, who claimed to have been elected ; by the clergy, the Senate, and the barons of Rome, was only recognised by Germany and Lombardy. Alexander had to flee to France, where, at a council held at Tours (1162), he declared all the ordinations made bv the antipope sacrilegious, and condemned the Albigenses as heretics. After the death of Victor, April 20, 1164, Frederick had a new antipope elected, who assumed the name of Pascal III. In 1165 Alex- ander returned to Rome, where he met with an en- thusiastic reception. Against the advancing armies of the emperor he was supported by the king of Sicily. In 1166 the Greek emperor, Manuel, opened negotia- tions with Alexander for the purpose of bringing about a union of the Greek and Latin Churches, as well as of the two empires ; but the negotiations led to no per- manent result. In 1166 he was again ejected from ! Rome by the emperor, who was crowned there by i Pascal, while Alexander excommunicated him, and absolved his subjects from the oath of allegiance. Alexander also allied himself with the League of the Lombardian cities which rose against Frederick, and established a new federal city, which they called, in honor of the pope, Alexandria. The antipope Pascal died Sept, 26. 1168, but his partisans elected in his place John, abbot of Sturm, in Hungary, who assumed the name of Calixt III. In 1171 Alexander was in- formed of the murder of Thomas a. Beckct. He put all England under the ban, and sent two cardinals to England to examine the whole matter, which termi- nated in the absolution of the king and the canoniza- tion of Thomas a Becket. In 1177 the emperor got reconciled with Alexander at Venice. The emperor threw himself upon his knees and kissed the foot of the pope, while the latter gave to the emperor the kiss of peace, and pave him his arm to conduct him into the church. The antipope Calixt abdicated in 1178, ALEXANDER 145 ALEXANDER and was appointed by Alexander governor of Bene- vent. The opponents of Alexander elected, however, another antipope (Sept. 29, 1178), who assumed the name of Innocent III, but was soon after captured by order of Alexander, and imprisoned in a monastery, where he died. In 1179 Alexander held at Rome the third general council of Lateran (q. v.), which issued a number of decrees on church discipline and excom- municated the Albigenses. In 1180 Alexander pre- vailed upon the kings of France and England to un- dertake a new crusade for the purpose of aiding the king of Jerusalem against Saladin. Alexander even endeavored to convert the sultan of Iconium by ad- dressing to him a kind of catechism under the name of Instructio Fidei. Alexander reserved the canoniza- tion of saints, which had formerly been practised also by the metropolitans, to the popes, and introduced the LitercB Mcmitoriales. Several Epistles of Alexander are found in the Concilia of Labile, and his bulls have been printed in the Bullarium of Cherubini, and in the Italia Sacra of Ughelli. Alexander died at Rome in 1181. — The best work on the history of Alexander is by Renter, Geschichle Alexander III und der Kirche seiner Zeit (3 vols. Berl. 1845-'64). See also Turner, Hist. Engl. vol. iv; Neander, Ch. Hist, iv, 168. IV, Pope (originally Reinwald, count of Segni), a man of worldly spirit, ascended the throne in 1254, at a period of great disturbance. Alexander, like his predecessor, endeavored to confiscate the entire king- dom of Sicily on the ground that the Emperor Fred- erick II, who was also king of Italy, had died excom- municated. When Manfred, an illegitimate son of Frederick, maintained himself against the papal troops as ruler of Sicily, Alexander excommunicated him, proclaimed against him a crusade, and put the entire kingdom under the ban. At the same time he asked considerable sums from Henry III, king of England, in order to defray the expenses of the crusade, and, as an indemnification, offered the kingdom of Sicily to Edmund, the second son of Henrj\ A legate gave to this young prince in advance the investitirre. Man- fred, however, maintained himself, and, aided by the Saracens, conquered the pope, and compelled him to take refuge at Viterbo, where he died, May 25, 1261, leaving the papal authority greatly enfeebled. At the beginning of his pontificate, Alexander, at the re- quest of Louis XI, sent inquisitors to France. He was very partial to the Dominicans, and condemned a work by William of St. Amour against the mendi- cant orders (" On the Dangers of the last Times") and a work entitled "The Everlasting Gospel," and as- cribed to John of Parma, the general of the Francis- cans. Like his predecessors, he endeavored to bring about a union between the Greek and the Roman Churches. Several letters and bulls of this pope have been printed in Labbe's Concilia, Ughelli' s Italia Sacra, d' Acherv's Spicilegium, and other collections. — Hoefer, JBiog. Gine.rale, i, 878 ; Neander, Ch. Hist, iv, 188, 283, 421. V, Pope (originally Peter Philargus), a Franciscan monk from Candia, was raised to the papal throne in 1409 by the Council of Pisa, which deposed the popes Gregory XII and Benedict XIII. His prodigality of gifts and offices during his pontificate was so unbound- ed that he used to say, "When I became a bishop I was rich; when a cardinal, poor; and when a pope, a beggar." He died 1410, it was supposed from poison administered by his successor, John XXII. He was regarded as one of the most learned men of his age. He translated several works from Greek into Latin, which, however, have never been printed. Mazzu- chelli (in his work Scrittnri d' Italia) gives a list of the writings of this pope, but he only published his letters, his bulls, and a little treatise on the conception of the Virgin Mary. — Hoefer, Biotj. Generate, i, 879. VI, Pope (originally Roderic Lenzuoli, but after- ward Borgia, from his mother's familv), was born at K Valentia, Spain, in 1431. His mother, Jane Borgia, was the sister of Pope Calixtus III. Roderic first studied law, but entered on a military career at the age of 18. His youth was a very dissolute one ; and he early formed a criminal connection with a Roman lady living in Spain with her two daughters. He soon seduced the daughters also; and one of them, Rosa Vanozza, became his life-long mistress. By her he had five children, two of whom, Cffisar Borgia and Lucretia, surpassed their father, if possible, in abom- inable crimes. In 1455, while Roderic was living in adultery in Spain, his uncle became pope. This open- ed to him a new career of ambition. He went to Rome on a promise from the pope of an office worth 12,000 crowns a year ; and at the same time his mistress and her children went to Venice, under the charge of an intendant, Manuel, who afterward passed as her hus- band, to shield the amours of Roderic. The pope was charmed with the pleasing manners and apparent piety of his nephew, and made him cardinal and vice-chan- cellor in 1456. Roderic affected great piety, visited the prisons and the poor, was diligent in keeping church services, and soon beguiled the Romans into confidence in his purity. During the pontificates of Pius II, Paul II, and Sixtus IV, successors of Calixtus, he remained quiet. In the pontificate of Innocent VIII, which began in 1484, he brought his mistress to Rome, and put her in a house near St. Peter's, when he passed his nights with her, the days being devoted ostentatiously to his public duties and acts of piety! In the mean time he was busy buying up votes for the papal chair, and when Innocent died (1492), he had purchased a sufficient number of cardinals to se- cure his election. This statement rests on the author- Alexander VI. ity of Burchard, master of ceremonies to Alexander VI, who left a journal, which was afterward published in 1696 (Hanover, ed. by Leibnitz) in part, and has recently been published in full (Florence, 1854, 8vo). Burchard states the price paid by Roderic for the votes of the cardinals as follows : to Cardinal Orsino, the castles of Monticelli and Sariani; to Ascanius Sforza, the vice-chancellorship of the Church ; to the cardinal of Colonna, the rich al >bey of St. Benedict, as well as the domains and right of patronage for himself and family forever ; to the cardinal of St. Angelo, the bishopric of Porto, and the tower which was a dependency on it, with a cellar full of wine. The cardinal of Parma re- ceived the city of Nepi : Savelli received the govern- ment of Citta Caetellana, and of the church of St. Mary the Greater ; a monk of Venice, who had obtained the cardinalate, sold his vote for five thousand ducats of gold. Roderic became pope August 2, 1492, and took the name of Alexander VI. His pontificate of eleven years was a stormy one, as he made every thing sub- ALEXANDER 146 ALEXANDER ordinate to the purpose of raising his bastard children above the heads of the oldest princely houses of Italy. Of the crimes alleged against Alexander and his chil- dren, Cassar and Lucretia, this is not the place to speak in detail ; it is enough to say that this pontificate ri- valled the worst periods of the Roman Empire in de- bauchery, venality, and murder. It was in 1492 that Columbus discovered America, and the Portuguese were soon after disputing with the Spaniards as to their claims through Vasco de Gama. The dispute was re- ferred to Alexander. He traced a line which passed from pole to pole through the Azores, or Western Islands, and decreed that all the countries which were beyond this line, that is, the West Indies, or America, should belong to Spain ; and all east of it, i. e. the East Indies and the African coast, to Portugal. The censorship of books forms one of the man}- claims of Alexander to the gratitude of posterity, as he is said to have originated it in 1502. The monk Savonarola (q. v.) fearlessly exposed the wickedness of Alexander, who caused him to be burnt in 1498. The wits of the time did not fail of their dutj' in pasquinades, one of which runs thus : Pe vitio in vitium, de flamma transit in isnem. Vendit Alexander clave?, altaria, Christum ; Vendere jure potest, emerat ille prius; Etc. The death-scene of this wretch is stated by Tom- masi, in substance, as follows : After the marriage of his daughter Lucretia, the pope requested Cardinal Corneto to lend him his palace for a great feast, to which all the cardinals and nobility were to be invited, and at which some of them were to be poisoned. By mistake the poisoned wine was handed to the pope and his son Csesar. Both were soon taken ill ; Ca;sar re- covered, but the pope died the same night, August 18, 1503. Of course there have not been wanting apologists even for such a monster as Alexander YI. Among those who doubt, or affect to doubt, the stories of his great crimes, are Voltaire, Roscoe, the Biographie Uni- verselle of Michaud, and Appleton's Cyclopwdia. But the evidence of contemporary writers is not to be shaken by the kind of criticism employed by those who would whitewash the Borgias. See, as the chief authorities, Burchai'd, Diarium, mine primum pub. juris factum ab A. Gennarelli (Florence, 1854, 8vo) ; Tom- masi, Vita di Ccesare Borg'a. The chief points of Bur- chard's diary are given in Gordon, Life of Alexander VI and CG.—Biog. Univ. i, 526; Ranke, Hist, of Papacy, ii, 191 ; Pallavicino, Delia Vita di Alessandro VII libri v (Prato, 1840, 2 vols.); Hoefer, Biographie Generale, i, 903. VIII, Pope (originally Ottoboni), born at Venice 1610, made pope 1689, died 1691, having held the chair long enough to advance hie own family, and secure for himself an enduring reputation for avarice and du- plicity. He declared the decrees of 1682 which guar- aranteed the independence of the Gallican Church, to be null and void. This pope, though opposed to the Jansenists, nevertheless condemned the doctrine of " philosophical sin," as taught by the Jesuit professor, Bongot, of Dijon. The Vatican Library is indebted to him for the acquisition of the magnificent collection of books and manuscripts of the Queen Christina. — Hoefer, Biog. Generale, i, 905 ; Ranke, Hist, of Papacy, ii, 279. Alexander, Saint, bishop of Cappadocia, and af- terward of Jerusalem : first, as colleague of the aged Narcissus, and afterward alone. Eusebius (lib. vi, ch. xi) gives an account of his call to the episcopacy of Jerusalem, and of his service there. He protected Origen, whose fellow-disciple he had been, and or- dained him priest. Under Alexander Severus he was imprisoned for seven years. He suffered a second per- secution under Decius, and died in prison at Cffisarea in 251. He is the first bishop who has been a coadju- tor. He was a friend of literature, and established a library at Jerusalem. He is commemorated by the Roman Church on March 18; by the Greek, on De- cember 22. — Dupin, Eccl. Writers, 3d cent. Alexander patriarch of Alexandria from A.D. 312 to 326 ; he succeeded Achillas, and his appoint- ment excited the envy and hatred of Arius, who had himself aspired to the episcopal throne. His doc- trines were attacked by Arius, Avhom, after mildly ex- horting to return to the truth, he cited before an as- sembly of the clertry at Alexandria, and, on his re- fusing to recant his errors, excommunicated him and his followers. This sentence was afterward confirmed by above a hundred bishops in the Council of Alex- andria, A.D. 320. One of his epistles against Arius may be found in Socrates, Hist. Eccl. i, 6, and another in Theodoret, Hist. Eccl. i, 4. Alexander, first bishop of Constantinople after its name was changed from Byzantium. Alexander resolutely opposed the Arian heresy; and when Euse- bius of Nicomedia insisted upon Arius being received into the Church of Constantinople, Alexander, in the deepest affliction, ordered public fasting and pra}rer to be made to God to avert it ; and himself passed whole nights before the altar, with his face upon the ground. Arius died on the day before that fixed for his restora- tion. Alexander died in 3-10. — Socrates, Hist. Eccl. i, 37, 38; ii, 6; Acta Sanctorum. Alexander, bishop of Hierapolis, an adherent of Ne.storius. At the Council of Ephesus (431), where he had been sent as a delegate, he signed, with eight oth- er bishops, a letter addressed by Ncstorius to the Em- peror Theodosius, for the purpose of obtaining the con- vocation of another synod, to which Cyril of Alexan- dria and the Egyptian bishops should not be invited. Pope Sixtus III, to whom Alexander at a later date appealed, refused him a heai-ing, and at length the emperor banished him to Famothis in Egypt. Twen- ty-three letters, existing in a Latin translation (Epist. Lupi Ephe dance), arc ascribed to him as author ; and Suidas reports a discourse of his, Quid novi Christus in mundum intulerit. — Herzog, Real- En a young Christian (Phila.): — Annals of the Juris/, Nation (N.Y.): —Bible Diet. (18mo, Phila.):— Christian Experience (Phila. 1840, 12mo): — Evidences of Christianity (12mo, Phila. 1825; often reprinted): — Hist, of the Patriarchs (1833, Phila.) :— Canon of 0. and X. T. (Phila. 1851, 12mo) -.—History of Colonization (8vo, 1846) :— History of the Israelitish Nation (Phila. 1853, 8vo). His " Moral Sc;ence" (12mo) was a post- humous publication. He left also many MSS., which will, it is to be hoped, be published hereafter. — Sprague, . I nrvals, iii, 612 ; Memoir, by Rev. J. W. Alex- ander (X. Y. 1854, 8vo); Brit, and For. Evang. Revietc, 1854, p. 584 ; Meth. Quar. Rev. 1862, p. 250. Alexander, Caleb, a Presbyterian minister of the last century, born at Northfield, Mass.. in 1755, and graduated at Yale in 1777. was licensed to preach in 177H. He was instrumental in founding Hamilton College, a seminary at Auburn, and other institutions. Died in 1828. — Sprague, Annuls, iii, 406. Alexander, James W., D.D., eldest sun of Dr. Archibald Alexander (q. v.), was born March 13, 1801, in Louisa Co., Ya. He received his academical train- ing miller .lames Ross in Philadelphia, and graduated A. IS. at Princeton in 1820. lie was appointed tutor in the college at the age of twenty, having in the mean time pursued his theological studies at the seminary under the instruction sar (Josephus, Ant. xiv, 10, 1) and Augustus confirmed to them the privi- leges which they had enjoyed before, and they retain- ed them, with various interruptions, of which the most important, A.D. 39, is described by Philo (1. e.), during the tumults and persecutions of later reigns (Josephus, Ap. ii, 4; War, xii, 3, 2). They wen' represented (at least from the time of Cleopatra to the reign of Claudius, .Tost, Gesch. >l. .hrl, nth. p. 363) by their own officer [see Alabarch] (tQvapxris, Strab. ap. Jose- phus, Ant. xiv, 7, 2; a\a(Sapxqs, #. xviii, 7, 3; 9, 1 ; xix, 5, 1 ; comp. Rup. ad Juv. Sat. i, 130 ; yivdp\i]c, Philo, In Flacc. § 10, p. 975), and Augustus appointed a council (ytpovaia, i. e. Sanhedrim ; Philo, 1. c.) " to superintend the affairs of the Jews," according to their own laws. The establishment of Christianity altered the civil position of the Jews, but they maintained their relative prosperity ; and when Alexandria was taken by Amrou, 40,000 tributary Jews were reckoned among the marvels of the city (Gibbon, cli). They enjoyed their privileges undisturbed until the time of Ptolemy Philopator, who, being exasperated at the re- sistance he had met with in attempting to enter the temple at Jerusalem, wreaked his wrath upon the Jews of Alexandria on his return to Egypt. He reduced to the third or lowest class all but such as would consent to offer sacrifices to the gods he worshipped ; but of the whole body only 300 were found willing to aban- don their principles in order to preserve their civil ad- vantages. The act of the general body in excluding the 300 apostates from their congregations was so rep- resented to the king as to move his anger to the ut- most, and he madly determined to exterminate all the Jews in Egypt. Accordingly, as many as could be found were brought together and shut up in the spa- cious hippodrome of the cit^-, with the intention of let- ting loose 500 elephants upon them ; but the animals refused their horrid task, and, turning wildly upon the spectators and soldiers, destroyed large numbers of them. This, even to the king, who was present, seemed so manifest an interposition of Providence in favor of the Jews, that he not only restored their priv- ileges, but loaded them with new favors. This story, as it is omitted by Josephus and other writers, and only found in the third book of Maccabees (ii-v), is considered doubtful. The dreadful persecution which the Jews of Alex- andria underwent in A.D. 39 shows that, notwithstand- ing their long establishment there, no friendly rela- tions had arisen between them and the other inhabi- tants, by whom, in fact, they were intensely hated. This feeling was so well known that, at the date indi- cated, the Roman governor, Avillius Flaccus, who was anxious to ingratiate himself with the citizens, was persuaded that the surest way of winning their affec- tions was to withdraw his protection from the Jews, against whom the emperor was alreadj' exasperated by their refusal to acknowledge his right to divine honors, which he insanely claimed, or to admit his images into their synagogues. The Alexandrians soon found out that they would not be called to account for any pro- ceedings they might have recourse to against the Jews. The insult and bitter mockery with which they treat- ed Herod Agrippa, when he came to Alexandria before proceeding to take possession of the kingdom he had received from Caligula, gave the first intimation of their dispositions. Finding that the governor connived at their conduct, thej' proceeded to insist that the em- peror's images should be introduced into the Jewish synagogues ; and on resistance being offered, they de- stroyed most of them, and polluted the others by intro- ducing the imperial images by force. The example thus set by the Alexandrians was followed in other cities of Egypt, which contained at this time about a million of .lews ; and a vast number of oratories — of which the largest and most beautiful were called syn- agogues— were all either levelled with the ground, con- sumed by tire, or profaned by the emperor's statues ( Philo, in Flacc. p. 968-1009, ed. 1640 ; De Leg. ix ; Euseb. ( hron. 27. 28). Flaccus soon after published an edict depriving the Jews of the rights of citizenship, which they had so long enjoyed, and declaring them aliens. The Jews then occupied two out of the five quar- ters (which took their names from the first five letters of the alphabet) into which the city was divided ; and as they were in those times by no means remarkable for their submission to wrong treatment, it is likely that they made some efforts toward the maintenance of their ALEXANDRIA 153' ALEXANDRIA rights, which Philo neglects to record, but which gave some pretence for the excesses which followed. At all events, the Alexandrians, regarding them as abandon- ed by the authorities to their mercy, openly proceeded to the most violent extremities. The Jews were forcibly driven out of all the other parts of the city, and confined to one quarter ; and the houses from which they had been driven, as well as their shops and ware- houses, were plundered of all their effects. Impover- ished, and pent up in a narrow corner of the city, where the greater part were obliged to lie in the open air, and where the supplies of food were cut oft*, many of them died of hardship and hunger ; and whoever was found beyond the boundary, whether he had escaped from the assigned limits or had come in from the country, was seized and put to death with horrid tortures. So likewise, when a vessel belonging to Jews arrived in port, it was boarded by the mob, pil- laged, and then burnt, together with the owners. At length King Herod Agrippa, who staid long enough in Alexandria to see the beginning of these atroci- ties, transmitted to the emperor such a report of the real state of affairs as induced him to send a centu- rion to arrest Flaccus, and bring him a prisoner to Rome. This put the rioters in a false position, and brought some relief to the Jews ; but the tumult still continued, and as the magistrates refused to acknowl- edge the citizenship of the Jews, it was at length agreed that both parties should send delegates, five on each side, to Rome, and refer the decision of the con- troversy to the emperor. At the head of the Jewish delegation was the celebrated Philo, to whom we owe the account of these transactions ; and at the head of the Alexandrians was the noted Apion. The latter chiefly rested their case upon the fact that the Jews were the only people who refused to consecrate images to the emperor, or to swear by his name. But on this point the Jewish delegates defended themselves so well that Caligula himself said, "These men are not so wicked as ignorant and unhappy in not believing me to be a god." The ultimate result of this appeal is not known, but the Jews of Alexandria continued to be harassed during the remainder of Caligula's reign ; and their alabarch, Alexander Lysimachus (brother of Philo), was thrown into prison, where he remained till he was discharged by Claudius, upon whose acces- sion to the empire the Alexandrian Jews betook them- selves to arms. This occasioned such disturbances that they'attracted the attention of the emperor, who, at the joint entreaty of Herod and Agrippa, issued an edict conferring on the Jews of E<_rypt all their ancient privileges (Philo, In Flacc. p. 1019-1043; Josephus, Ant. xviii, 10 ; xix, 4). The state of feeling in Alex- andria which these facts indicate was very far from be- ing allayed when the revolt of the Jews in Palestine caused even those of the nation who dwelt in foreign parts to be regarded as enemies both by the populace and the government. In Alexandria, on a public oc- casion, they were attacked, and those who could not save themselves by flight were put to the sword. Only three were taken alive, and they were dragged through the city to be consigned to the flames. At this spec- tacle the indignation of the Jews rose beyond all bounds. They first assailed the Greek citizens with stones, and then rushed with lighted torches to the amphitheatre to set it on fire and burn all the people who were there assembled. The Roman prefect, Ti- berius Alexander, finding that milder measures were of no avail, sent against them a body of 17,000 sol- diers, who slew about 50,000 of them, and plundered and burned their dwellings (Josephus, War, ii, 18, 7 ; comp. Matt, xxiv, 6). After the close of the war in Palestine, new disturb- ances were excited in Egypt by the Sicarii, many of whom had fled thither. They endeavored to persuade the Jews to acknowledge no king but God, and to throw off the Roman yoke. Such persons as opposed their designs, and tendered wiser counsels to their brethren, they secretly assassinated, according to their custom. But the principal Jews in Alexandria hav- ing in a general assembly earnestly warned the peo- ple against these fanatics, who had been the authors of all the troubles in Palestine, about GOO of them were delivered up to the Romans. Several fled into the Thebaid, but were apprehended and brought back. The most cruel tortures which could lie devised had no effect in compelling them to acknowledge the emperor for their sovereign ; and even their children seemed endowed with souls fearless of death and bodies inca- pable of pain. Vespasian, when informed of these transactions, sent orders that the Jewish temple in Egypt should be destroyed. Lupus, the prefect, how- ever, only shut it up, after having taken out the con- secrated gifts ; but his successor, Paulinus, stripped it completely, and excluded the Jews entirely from it. This was in A.D. 75, being the 343d year from its erec- tion by Onias. The Jews continued to form a princi- pal portion of the inhabitants, and remained in the en- joyment of their civil rights till A.D. 415, when they incurred the hatred of Cyril, the patriarch, at whose instance they were expelled, to the number of 40,000, and their synagogues destroyed. However, when Am- rou, in A.D. G40, took the place for the Caliph ( (mar, he wrote to his master in these terms : " I have taken the great city of the "West, which contains 4000 pal-" aces, 4000 baths, 400 theatres, 12,000 shops for the sale of vegetable food, and 40,000 tributary Jews." From that time the prosperity of Alexandria very rapidly declined; and when, in 9G9, the Fatemite caliphs seized on Egypt and built New Cairo, it sunk to the rank of a secondary Egyptian city. The discovery of the pas- sage to the East by the Cape in 1497 almost annihilated its remaining commercial importance ; and although the commercial and maritime enterprises of Mehemet Ali have again raised it to some distinction, Alexan- dria must still be accounted as one of those great an- cient cities whose glory has departed. "When Benja- min of Tudela visited the place (Itin. i, 158, ed. Asher), the number of Jews was not more than 3000, and does not now exceed 500 families of African Jews, besides about 150 families of the Italian community (Benja- min's Eight Years in Asia and Africa, Hannov. 1859, p. 2S0). The entire population, at present, is rapid- \y increasing, but the statistical statements greatly vary. Pierer's Universal Lexicon (Altenburg, 1857) gives G0,C00; Chambers's Encydopadia (Edinburgh and New York, 1860, vol. i), 80,000; the Almanac de Ontha for 18G0, 400,000. It is now called Scanderia or El-Iskenderiyeh (Mannert, x, 615 sq. ; Forbiger, Handb. d. alt. Geogr. ii, 777; Rtippell, Abyssinien, i. 82; Nie- buhr, Trav. i, 32 sq. ; Ukert, Erdbesehr. v. AfriJca, i, 183 sq. ; Descr. de VEgypte, xviii, 83 sq. ; Olivier, Voyage, iii, 1 sq. : Schubert, Rets, i, 484 sq. ; comp. Penny C'/clopmlia, s. v. ; Smith's Diet, of Class. Geogr. s. v. ; M'Culloch's Gazetteer, s. v.). See Egypt. ALEXANDRIA, CHURCH OF. Christianity was early introduced into Alexandria, probably by some of the Jews converted by the preaching of Peter on the day of Pentecost; but its progress was slow ; for it had to struggle against all the varieties of wor- ship and opinion known to exist, and the spirit of the Neo-Platonic philosophy, which, by forcing every creed to bear an allegorical signification, represented each as a variety of itself. See Alexandrian Schools. In consequence of the disputations to which the at- tempt to blend the simple truths of Christianity with the abstruse speculations of the Platonic philosophy gave rise, the Church of Alexandria was early divided into sects and parties, whose violent controversies soon engaged the attention of the whole Christian world. In Alexandria itself the rivalry between the follow- ers of Athanasius and Arius led to deeds of atrocious violence on both sides, and inflicted a schism on the Christian community which lasted for several centu- ALEXANDRIA 154 ALEXANDRIAN ries. The final triumph of the orthodox party was followed by a manifest decay of piety, and when the Saracens introduced the religion of Islam by the sword, they found little obstinacy in the Alexandrian Chris- tians, the greatest portion of whom became apostates. Since that time a Christian Church has only had a nominal existence in the city, where the slightest va- riation in a single article of faith was once deemed of sufficient importance to require the interference of a general council. Ecclesiastical historians generally attribute most of the early heresies which divided the Christian Churches, not only of Asia, but of Europe, to the influence of the Alexandrian Platonists. Alexandria was the scene of some of the fiercest per- secutions which wasted the early Church ; and among the sufferers in the time of the Emperor Severus was Leonides, father of the celebrated Origen, and Pota- miaena, a woman not less distinguished for her chastity than her beauty, who, with her mother, Marcella, was burned to death, boiling pitch being poured over their naked bodies. These calamities induced Tertullian to compose his "Apology." Alexandria was the source, and for some time the principal stronghold, of Arianism, as Anus was a pres- byter of the Church of this city about the year 315. His doctrines were condemned by a council held here in the year 320, and afterward by a general council of three hundred and eighty fathers held at Nice, by order of Constantine, in 325. These doctrines, how- ever, which suited the reigning taste for disputative theology and the pride and self-sufficiency of nominal Christians better than the unsophisticated simplicity of the Gospel, spread widely and rapidly notwithstand- ing that Arius was steadfastly opposed by the cele- brated Athanasius, bishop of Alexandria, the intrepid champion of the Catholic faith, who was raised to the archiepiscopal throne of Alexandria in 326. This city was, in 415, distinguished by a fierce per- secution of the Jews by the Patriarch Cyril. They who had enjoyed the rights of citizens and the freedom of religious worship for seven hundred years, ever since the foundation of the city, incurred the hatred of this ecclesiastic, who, in his zeal for the exter- mination of heretics of every kind, pulled down their synagogues, plundered their property, and expelled them, to the number of forty thousand, from the city. Alexandria, Patriarchate of. I. Alexandria was the metropolis of Egypt, which was divided after the time of Marcellinus into nine provinces : 1, Egyptus Prima ; 2, Augustamnica Prima ; 3, Augustamnica Secunda; 4, Egyptus Secunda; 5, Arcadia; 6, Thebais Inferior; 7, Libya Superior ; 8, Thebais Superior ; and 9, Libya Inferior. Libya was also called Cyrenaica. The number of bishops in these provinces was, early, very numerous. At a synod held in 321, about 100 were present. At that time the bishop of Alexandria held the second rank in the Christian Church, next to the bishop of Rome. Later, the}' had to yield this place to the bishop of Constantinople. See Patri- ARCH, During the Arian and Monophysite contro- versies the patriarchate was sometimes temporarily in the hands of these sects; and the latter obtained the permanent possession of it about the middle of the Till century. The orthodox Greek (Melchite) Church established a second patriarchate of their own; and a third, though only nominal, was created by the Roman ( Ihurcb ( Neale, Hist, of A lex. Patriarchate., Lond. 1847). II. In modern days the number of dioceses within this patriarchate is miserably reduced. The Jacobites (< 'opts), who prevail in number, had in 1G80 but eleven virtual sees, viz. : 1, Neggadei ; 2, Girge; 3, Abuteg; 4, Siut (to which Girge and Abuteg are united) ; 5, Monfallut; 6, Koskam; 7, Melave; K, Rehnese; 9, At- fish; 10, Tahla, with Aschumin ; 11, Fium; 12, Bil- beis; 13, Mansoura ; 11, Damietta, to which the last mentioned two are united; 15, Menuf. See Copts. The Melchites, or Catholics, had but four sees be- sides Alexandria : 1, that of Libya, or ./Ethiopia ; 2, Memphis, or Old Cairo; 3, Pelusium, or Damietta; and, 4, Rosetta. These four sees, Mr. Neale informs us, have now virtually ceased to exist (Hist. East. Ch. ii, 474). See Greek Church. Roth the patriarchs, viz., the Melchite, or orthodox, and the Jacobite, reside at present at Cairo. The title of the Jacobite patriarch, as given by Le Quien, is "Pater N . . . . , sanctissimus archiepiscopus magnae urbis Alexandria? Eabylonis et Nomorum, vEgypti, Thebaidis," etc. Wiltsch, Geogr. and Stat, of the Church (Lond. 1860). ALEXANDRIA, COUNCILS OF. The following councils were held at Alexandria: 1, A.D. 231, in which Origen was deposed from the priesthood ; 2, A.D. 235, against Ammonius ; 3, A.D. 258, against No- vatus ; 4, A.D. 263, against Nepotianus and Cerinthus {Fabric, ii, 292) ; 5, A.D. 305, 306, or 308, against Me- letius, bishop of Lycopolis, in Egypt ; 6, A.D. 315, against Arius, St. Alexander presiding; 7, A.D, 319 or 320, against Arius and the Meletians and Sabellians — Hosius of Cordova was present ; 8, A.D. 321, against Arius ; 9, A.D. 326, in which St. Athanasius was elect- ed patriarch ; 10, A.D. 340, in favor of St. Athanasius ; 11, A.D. 362, in which the divinity of the Holy Spirit, the Incarnation, the term Hypostasis, and other mat- ters, were treated of; 12, A.D. 363, in which St. Athanasius drew up a confession of faith, which was presented to the Emperor Jovianus ; 13, A.D. 399, in which the Origenists were condemned; 14, A.D. 430, in which St. Cyril condemned Nestorius ; 15, A.D. 451, against the Eutychians ; 16, A.D. 578, by Damianus, the Eutychian patriarch, against Peter of Antioch ; 17, A.D. 633, under Cyrus the Monothelite, in which the Monothelite errors were adroitly defended. For a good summary of the doings of these councils, see Lan- don, Manual of Councils, p. 17 sq. Alexan'drian ('AXt 'iav^gt vq), an inhabitant of Alexandria in Egypt, spec, a Jew living there (Acts vi, 9 ; xviii, 24). Alexandria was much frequented by Jews, so that 10,000 of them are said to have been numbered among its inhabitants (Philo, In Flacc. p. 971 ; Josephus, Ant. xix, 5, 2). See Alexandria. It appears from Acts vi, 9, that the}' were accustomed to attend the festivals at Jerusalem, and that they even had a synagogue there for their special use (Kuinol, Hackett, in loc). See Synagogue. ALEXANDRIAN CHRONICLE, the name given to a MS. found in Sicily by Jerome Surita, and carried to Rome, and preserved by Antonio Augustine, auditor of the Rota. Charles Sigonius and Onuphrius Pan- vinius made considerable use of it in the composition of their Consular Fasti, and published it in Greek and Latin. The name "Sicilian Fasti''' was given to these annals because of their having been found in that isl- and. It is not so easy to assign a reason for the name of " ihs Chronicle of 'Alexandria" except that the name of Peter of Alexandria is at the head of the Augsburg MS. found in the library of Augsburg by Casaubon. Mattheus Raderus, a Jesuit, published the first com- plete edition of this chronicle at Munich, in 1615, in Greek and Latin. Dufresne, who published an im- proved edition (Gr. and Lat. with notes, Paris, 1688), gives it the name of the Paschal Chronicle, because it treats of the time of celebrating Easter. Cave and Usshcr attribute, it to George Pisides, A.D. 640 ; Cas- imir Oudin to George of Alexandria, A.D. 620. This chronicle begins at the creation, and is carried up to the tenth year of the consulate of the Emperor Ilerac- lius, or A.D. 628. It seems to have been written by two authors, of whom one carried the work on to the year of Christ 354, and the other completed it. It is compiled without any great judgment or research, but the writer evidently had access to many ancient mon- uments, which are now lost. — Cave, Hist. Lit. anno 640. ALEXANDRIAN 155 ALEXANDRIAN ALEXANDRIAN LIBRARY. This remarkable I however, in several passages of the N. T. (Matt, i, collection of books, the largest of the ancient world, 1-xxv, G ; John vi, 50-viii, 52 ; 2 Cor. iv, 13-xii, G), was founded by Ptolemy Soter, in the city of Alexan- and in part of the Psalms, where the leaves are total! dria, in Egypt. Even in the time of its first man- ~ ager, Demetrius Phalereus, a banished Athenian, the number of volumes or rolls already amounted to 50,000; and during its most flourishing period, under the direction of Zenodotus, Aristarchus of Byzantium, Apollonius Rhodius, and others, is said to have con- tained 400,000, or, according to another authority, 700,000. The greater part of this library, which em- braced the collected literature of Rome, Greece, India, and Egypt, was contained in the Museum, in the quar- ter of, Alexandria called Brucheium. During the siege of Alexandria by Julius Cassar this part of the library was destroyed by fire ; but it was afterward replaced by the collection of Pergamos, which was presented to Queen Cleopatra by Mark Antony, to the great annoyance of the educated Romans. The other part of the library was kept in the Serapeion, the tem- ple of Jupiter Serapis, where it remained till the time of Theodosius the Great. When the emperor permit- ted all the heathen temples in the Roman empire to be destroyed, the magnificent temple of Jupiter Sera- pis was not spared. A mob of fanatic Christians, led on by the Archbishop Theophilus, stormed and de- stroyed the temple, together, it is most likely, with the greater part of its literary treasures, in A.D. 391. It was at this time that the destruction of the library missing. Letters here and there have also been cut away in binding; and in a considerable part of the N. T. one of the upper corners of the leaves is gone. The N. T. books are found in the order in which they are arranged in the other ancient MSS. : the Catholic Epistles follow the Acts ; then come the Pauline Epistles, but with that to the Hebrews before the Pas- toral Epistles ; the Apocalypse, so rare in extant an- cient codices, stands as usual at the close of the N. T. ; and in this copy it has been preserved from the injury which has befallen both ends of the volume by reason of the Epistles of Clement having been added. The MS., which is on thin vellum and in semi-folio form, is now bound in four volumes, the first three of which contain the O. T. The pages are about thirteen inches long and ten broad ; the writing on each is divided into two columns of fifty lines each, having about twenty letters or upward in a line. These letters are continuously written in uncial characters, without any space between the words, the uncials being of an ele- gant yet simple form, in a firm and uniform hand, though in some places larger than in others. The punctuation merely consists of a point placed at the end of the sentence, usually on a level with the top of the preceding letter, but not always, and a vacant space follows the point at the end of the paragraph, was begun, and not at the taking of Alexandria by the the space being proportioned to the break in the sense. Arabians, under the Caliph Omar in A.D. 612. The Capital letters of various sizes abound at the begin- story, at least, is ridiculously exaggerated which re- ning of books and sections, not painted as in later kites that the Arabs found a sufficient number of books copies, but written by the original scribe in common remaining to heat the baths of the city for six months, j ink. Vermilion is freely used in the initial lines of The historian Orosius, who visited the place after the j books. Accents and breathings are found in the be- destruction of the temple by the Christians, relates that j ginning of Genesis only. At the end of each book are he then saw onlv the empty shelves of the library neat and unique ornaments in the ink of the first hand. (Gibbon, Decline and Fall, c. 51). See Petit-Radel, \ Contractions occur as in other very ancient MSS. It Recherches sur les BibUoth'»ques Anciennes et Modernes I has the Ammonian divisions of the Gospels, with ref- ( Paris, 1819); and Ritschl, Die Alexandriniscken Bib- ! erencestothe canons of Eusebius ; the headings of the liotheken (Berlin, 1838). Compare Alexandria. j large sections are placed at the top of the page, the ALEXANDRIAN MANUSCRIPT (Codex Alex- places where they begin being indicated in the text, andkTnus, so called from its supposed origin at Alex- and in Luke and John the numbers being set in the andria), one of the three or four most famous copies of i margin of the column. The subdivisions of the Acts, the Holy Scriptures, and designated as A of the N. T. I Epistles, and Apocalypse, by Euthalius and others, are It contains the whole Bible in Greek, including the ! not indicated ; a cross occasionally appears as a sepa- Septuagint version of the O. T., with the first (or j ration of the chapters of the Acts— a large initial de- genuine) Epistle of Clement to the Corinthians, and j noting a paragraph throughout (Davidson, Bib. Cut. part of his second (or apocrvphal). It is defective, | ii, 271 sq ). This MS. is now in the manuscript- room of the British Museum, where it was placed on the formation of that li- brary in 1753. It previously belonged to the king's private collection, having been presented to Charles I through Sir Thomas Roe, En- glish ambassador t<> Turkey, by Cyril Lu- car, patriarch of Con- stantinople. An Ara- bic inscription, sev- eral centuries old, at the back of the table of contents, on the first leaf of tli.' MS., states that it was written by the hand of Thecla the mar- tyr, and given to the Patriarchal Chamber in the year of the e MONK^ITHlsirHH HA.6THHNAO »ATOCKMAl<^TA.CKeyACn OC' KAIC |<0'T0C£nANaJ..THCABYccOY' i* Ttpo c exexe e xyto s c \<** "ixnw^rrrru '-TTO I (Vfl B^B B ^O V M XCTOTrNWo ^rioNe66ToeTnciexefe eauroia km Train tw | irot^ius- ev w vixac to irva to | ayiov etiero eiricKonovc- | 7ro• Civ. Dei, xviii, 5; S. maximus ^Egi/ptiorum Dew). This catholicity of worship was further combined with the spread of universal learning. The same monarchs who favored the worship of Serapis (Clem. Al. Protr. iv, § 48) founded and embellished the museum and library; and part of the library was deposited in the Serapeum. The new faith and the new literature led to a common issue, and the Egyptian Jews necessarily imbibed the spirit which prevailed around them. The Jews were, indeed, peculiarly susceptible of the influences to which they were exposed. They pre- sented from tha first a capacity for Eastern or Western development. To the faith and conservatism of the Oriental they united the activity and energy of the Greek. The mere presence of Hellenic culture could not fail to call into play their powers of speculation, which were hardly repressed by the traditional legal- ism of Palestine (comp. Jost, Gesch. d. Judenth. p. 293 sq.l : and the unchanging element of divine revelation, which they always retained, enabled them to harmon- ize new thought with old belief. But while the inter- course of the Jew and Greek would have produced the same general consequences in an}' case, Alexandria was peculiarly adapted to ensure their full effect. The result of the contact of Judaism with the many creeds wdiich were current there must have been speedy and powerful. The earliest Greek fragment of Jewish writing which has been preserved (about 160 B.C.) [see Aristobulus] contains large Orphic quotations, which had been already moulded into a Jewish form (comp. Jost, Gesch. d. Judenth. p. 370) ; and the at- tempt thus made to connect the most ancient Hellenic traditions with the law was often repeated afterward. Nor was this done in the spirit of bold forgery. Or- pheus, Musajus, and the Sibyls appeared to stand in some remote period anterior to the corruptions of poly- theism, as the witnesses of a primeval revelation and of the teaching of nature, and thus it seemed excusa- ble to attribute to them a knowledge of the Mosaic doctrines. The third book of the Sibyllines (cir. B.C. 150) is the most valuable relic of this pseudo-Hellenic literature, and shows how far the conception of Juda- ism was enlarged to meet the wider views of the re-« ligious condition of heathendom which was opened by a more intimate knowledge of Greek thought ; though the later Apocalypse of Ezra [see Esdras, 4] exhibits : a marked reaction toward the extreme exclusiveness : of former times. But the indirect influence of Greek literature and ' philosophy produced still greater effects upon the Alexandrine Jews than the open conflict and combi- nation of religious dogmas. The literary school of Alexandria was essentially critical and not creative. For the first time men labored to collect, revise, and classify all the records of the past. Poets trusted to their learning rather than to their imagination. Lan- guage became a study ; and the legends of early my- thology were transformed into philosophic mysteries. The Jews took a vigorous share in these new studies. The caution against writing, wdiich became a settled law in Palestine, found no favor in Egypt. Numerous authors adapted the history of the Patriarchs, of Moses, and of the Kings to classical models (Euseb. Prop. Ev. ix, 17-39. Eupolemus, Artapanus [?], Demetrius, Aristajus, Cleodemus or Malchas, "a prophet'-). A poem which bears the name of Phocylides gives in verse various precepts of Leviticus (Daniel, sec. LXX, Apolog. p. 512 sq. Roma;, 1772); and several large fragments of a "tragedy" in which Ezekiel (cir. B.C. 110) dramatized the Exodus have been preserved by Eusebius (1. c), who also quotes numerous passages in heroic verse from the elder Philo and Theodotus. This classicalism of style was a symptom and a cause of classicalism of thought. The same Aristobulus who gave currency to the J udreo-Orphic verses endeavored to show that the Pentateuch was the real source of Greek philosophy (Euseb. Prcep. Ev. xiii, 12; Clem. Al. Strom, vi, 98). The proposition thus enunciated was thoroughly con- genial to the Alexandrine character; and henceforth it was the chief object of Jewish speculation to trace out the subtle analogies which were supposed to exist between the writings of Moses and the teaching of the schools. The circumstances under which the philo- sophical studies first gained a footing at Alexandria favored the attempt. For some time the practical sciences reigned supreme, and the issue of these was scepticism (Matter, Hist, de Vecole d'Alex. iii, 162 sq.). Then at length the clear analysis and practical moral- ity of the Peripatetics found ready followers, and, in the strength of the reaction, men eagerly trusted to those splendid ventures with which Plato taught them to be content till they could gain a surer knowledge (Ph(vd. p. 85). To the Jew this surer knowledge seemed to be already given, and the belief in the ex- istence of a spiritual meaning underlying the letter of Scripture was the threat principle on which all his in- vestigations rested. The facts were supposed to lie essentially symbolic ; the language the veil (or some- times the mask) which partly disguised from common sight the truths which it enwrapped. In this way a twofold object was gained. It became possible to withdraw the Supreme Being (to ov, o u»v) from im- mediate contact with the material world, and to apply the narratives of the Bible to the phenomena of the soul. It is impossible to determine the process by which these results were embodied ; but, as in parallel cases, they seem to have been shaped gradually in the minds of the mass, and not fashioned at once by one great teacher. Even in the Sept. there are traces of an endeavor to interpret the anthropomorphic imagery ALEXANDRIAN 158 ALEXANDRIAN of the Hebrew text [see SeptuAgixt], and there can I at Alexandria, is extremely doubtful. The testimony be no doubt that the Commentaries of Aristobulus of Philip of Sida is not very trustworthy, and the si- gave some form and consistency to the allegoric sys- j lence of Eusebius, and Athenagoras's way of teaching, tern. In the time of Philo (B.C. 20-A.D. 50) the , which is by no means Alexandrine, speak against it. theological and interpretative systems were evidently About A. I). 190 Clement became assistant to Pantre- fixed even in many of their details, and he appears in i nus, and, about 203, head of the school. Origen be- both cases only to have collected and expressed the j came connected with the school as teacher when only popular opinions of his countrymen. See Philo. \ a youth of 18 years, and he labored then, with some In each of these great forms of speculation — the { brief interruptions, until 232, when he was expelled theological and the exegetical — Alexandrianism has i from Alexandria. In the later years of his stay at an important bearing upon the apostolic writings. Alexandria he was assisted by his disciple and succes- But the doctrines which are characteristic of the Alex- sor Heraclas, who subsequently became bishop of andrian school were by no means peculiar to it. The \ Alexandria. Heraclas was succeeded by Dionysius, same causes which led to the formation of wider I also a disciple of Origen, and later, likewise a bishop views of Judaism in Egypt, acting under greater re- : of Alexandria. The celebrity of the Alexandrian straint, produced corresponding results in Palestine. ! school continued for some time after the death of Dio- A doctrine of the Word (Memrd), and a system of j nysius, notwithstanding the rival institution which mystical interpretation grew up within the rabbinic < arose at Caesarea Palaestina?, and which was for some schools, which bear a closer analogy to the language time conducted by Origen. It did not cease until the of the Apostle John and to the "allegories" of Paul close of the fourth century. than the speculations of Philo. See Logos. j Of the history of the school after the death of Dio- The speculative doctrines which thus worked for the j nj-sius we are, however, but imperfectly informed, general reception of Christian doctrine were also em- | Eusebius (//. E. vii, 32) names among the successors bodied in a form of society which was afterward trans- I of Dionysius only Achillas, whose name is wholly ferred to the Christian Church. Numerous bodies of omitted by Philip of Sida, and who, at all events, was ascetics (Therapevtce), especially on the borders of I less prominent than Pierius, who is mentioned by Lake Mareotis, devoted themselves to a life of cease- ' Philip and by Photius (Cod. 118). The names of less discipline and study. See Therapeut.e. Un- j Theognostus and Serapion are given as principals of like the Essenes, who present the corresponding phase I the school only by Philip. It is possible, as Philip in Palestinian life, they abjured society and labor, and j states, that about the close of the third century the often forgot, as it is said, the simplest wants of nature ' Alexandrian bishop and martyr, Peter (Euseb. //. E. in the contemplation of the hidden wisdom of the vii, 32), gave catechetical instruction, and later, about. Scriptures (Philo, De Vit. Contempt, throughout). The the middle of the fourth century, an Alexandrian description which Philo gives of their occupation and monk, Macarius. Arius, the originator of Arianism, character seemed to Eusebius to present so clear an image of Christian virtues that he claimed them as Christians ; and there can be no doubt that some of the forms of monasticism were shaped upon the model of the Therapeutae (Euseb. //. E. ii, 16). At the beginning of the second century the number of Christians at Alexandria must have been very large, and the great leaders of Gnosticism (q. v.) who arose there (Basilides, Valentinus) exhibit an exag- seems to have likewise been for some time principal of the school. The name of the learned and pious Didymus is mentioned as an Alexandrian catechist not only by Philip, but by Sozomen (//. E. iii, 15) and Putin (II. E. ii, 7), and there is reason to believe that he presided over the school during the long period from 340 to 395. His assistant in later years, and his successor as catechist, was Rhodon, the teacher of Philip of Sida, and his withdrawal from Alexandria geration of the tendency of the Church. But the later ! to Sida about 395 led, according to the testimony of forms of Alexandrine speculation, the strange varieties \ Philip, to the close of the Alexandrian school. It is of Gnosticism, the progress of the catechetical school, I more probable that other causes had a greater share the development of Neoplatonism, the various phases I in bringing about this event. The controversies con- of the Arian controversy, belong to the history of the eerning Origen, and later, concerning Nestorianism Church and to the history of philosoplry. To the last and Monophysitism, in which the Alexandrian spirit Alexandria fulfilled its mission; and we still owe degenerated and became extinct; the complete vie- much to the spirit of its great teachers, which in later tory of Christianity, which diminished the number of ages struggled, not without success, against the stern- ; adult converts and lessened the need of catechetical er systems of the West. — Smith, Diet, of Bible, i, 46. I instruction for adults, and the prosperous development See Kirchbaum, D. Jiklische. A lexandrinismirs (Lpz. J of Christian science, gradually undermined the prom- 1841) ; Diihne, Geschichtliche Darstelhuig der Judisch- ! inent position of the Alexandrian school in the Church. Alexandrinischcn ReVgions-rhilosojihie (Halle, 1834); , It again became what it had been at the beginning, a Gfrorer, Philo, und die Jiidisch-Alexandrinische Theoso- ' school in which children received catechetical instruc- phie (Stuttgart, 1835). To these may be added, Ewald, tion. Gesch. des VoUces Israel (Giittingen, 1852), iv, 250 sq., j In the best days of the school the number of stu- 393 sq. ; Jost, Gesch. des Judenthums (Leipzig, 1857), : dents was very great, but it seems never to have had i, 344 sq., 388 sq. ; Schaff, Hist, of the Church, § 126. j buildings or endowments. The head master chose his III. Christian. — The Christian school of Alexandria J own assistants ; the teachers were paid onty by presents at first aimed only at the instruction of converts from '■ from the scholars ; and the students lodged where they heathenism, and the instruction was catechetical. It could. The manner of teaching was as in the schools was afterward developed into a theological seminary. ' of the ancient philosophers, accommodated in many Jerome dates its origin from the time of St. Mark, but i cases to the needs of individuals, and frequently it was there is no authority for his statement. Eusebius j catechetical. Whoever wished it received instruction (Hist. Eccl. v, 10) states that it had existed from " an- : in philosophj' also. In general the instruction was cient times;" but the first definite account dates from related to the Christian Gnosis, as milk to more sub- stantial food. It did not depart from the plainness of faith; and the speculative doctrines of the essence of God, the origin of the world, the relation of reason to revelation, were excluded (Stmm. v, 685). Probably what is contained in the Cohortatio of Clement consti- tuted the contents of his introductory catechetical lec- tures; and it was followed by instructions in a pious, about 181, when Pantsenus, a philosopher who had abandoned first Stoicism and then Platonism, and had been a Christian missionary in India, commenced lec- turing in Alexandria (Euseb. loc. cit.). Whether Athenagoras, a philosopher who embraced Christianity about the middle of the 2d century, and who is called by Philip of Sida (see Dodwell, Dissert, in Ircn. Oxon. 1689, p. 488, 497) a predecessor of Pantamus, was ever ! moral life, as we find them in the Pcedagogus, and by ALEXANDRIAN 159 ALEXAS a discussion of the fundamental doctrines of Chris- tianity. To impart a more profound "gnostic" in- sight into Christianity, he reserved for private con- versations. The following chronological list of the catechists is given in Guerike, De Schola Alexandrina (Halle, 1824-25, 2 pts.) : Veahs. PRINCirALS. Assistants. 160*-181* Athenngoras.t 181*-190* Panta?nus. 190*-203* Pantasmis. Clement. 203 Pantsenus Clement. 203 -20(1* Origen. 206 -Jll* Panta>nus Clement. Origen. 211*-213* Clement. Origen. 21 3* Origen. 213*-232 Origen. lleraclas. 232 Ileraclas. 233 -265* Dionysius. 265*-280* Pierius.* 280*-282* Pierius.* Achillas.t 2S2*-2J0* Theognostus.* Achillas, t 2;:o* Theognostus.* 290 -295* Serapion.t 295*-312 Peter Martyr.* 313 -320* Arius.* 320*-330* 330*-340* Macarius.t 340"-390* Didymus. 3 0 -3: 5 Didymus. Rhode* 395 Rhodo.* This .-ign (lciintfs probability as regards the dates and the to which it is affixed. t The cross denotes doubt. Schaff gives the following brief but clear account of the influence of the Alexandrian school on theolo- gy : " From this school proceeded a peculiar theology, the most learned and genial representatives of which were Clement and Origen. This theology is, on the one hand, a regenerated Christian form of the Alex- andrian Jewish religious philosophy of Pliilo; on the other, a Catholic counterpart and a positive refutation of the heretical Gnosis, Avhich reached its height also in Alexandria but half a centurj' earlier. The Alex- andrian theology aims at a reconciliation of Christian- ity with philosophy, or, subjectively speaking, of pistis with the gnosis ; but it seeks this union upon the basis of the Bible and the doctrine of the Church. Its cen- tre, therefore, is the Logos, viewed as the sum of all reason and all truth, before and after the incarnation. Clement came from the Hellenic philosophy to the Christian faith ; Origen, conversely, was led by faith to speculation. The former was an aphoristic thinker, the latter a systematic. The one borrowed ideas from various systems; the other followed more the track of Platonism. But both are Christian philosophers and churchly gnostics. As Philo, long before them, in the same city, had combined Judaism with Grecian culture, so now they carried Grecian culture into Christianity. This, indeed, the apologists and con- troversialists of the second century had already done as far back as Justin the ' philosopher.' But the Alex- andrians were more learned and liberal-minded, and made much freer use of the Greek philosophy. They saw in it, not sheer error, but in one view a gift of God, and a theoretical schoolmaster for Christ, like the law in the practical sphere. Clement compares it to a wild olive-tree, which can be ennobled by faith; Origen (in the fragments of an epistle to Gregory Thaumaturgus) to the jewels which the Israelites took with them out of Egypt, and turned into ornaments for their sanctuary, though they also wrought them into the golden calf. It is not necessarily an enemy to the truth, but may, and should be its handmaid, and at least neutralize the attacks against it. The elements of truth in the heathen philosophy they at- tributed partly to the secret operation of the Logos in the world of reason, partly to acquaintance with the Jewish philosophy, the writings of Moses and the prophets. So with the Gnostic heresy. The Alex- andrians did not successively condemn it, but recog- nised the desire for deeper religious knowledge which lay at its root, and sought to meet this desire with a wholesome supply from the Bible itself. To the yviLcric ^/tvSutvvfioq they opposed a yvixicic aXnGivr). Their maxim was, in the words of Clement, ' No faith without knowledge, no knowledge without faith ;' or, 'Unless you believe, you will not understand' (Isa. vii, 9, in the Sept. iuv pt) Tnortvoijre, oi) avvi}Ti). Faith and knowledge have the same substance, the saving truth of God, revealed in the Holy Scriptures, and faithfully handed down by the Church; they dif- fer only in form. Knowledge is our consciousness of the deeper ground and consistency of faith. The Christian knowledge, however, is also a gift of grace, and has its condition in a holy life. The ideal of a Christian gnostic includes the perfect love as well as the perfect knowledge of God. Clement describes him as one 'who, growing gray in the study of the Scrip- tures, and preserving the orthodoxy of the apostles and the Church, lives strictly according to the Gospel.' The Alexandrian theology is intellectual, profound, stirring, and full of fruitful germs of thought, but rather unduly idealistic and spiritualistic, and, ill ex- egesis, loses itself in arbitrary allegorical fancies. In its efforts to reconcile revelation and philosophy, it took up, like Philo, many foreign elements, especially of the Platonic and Gnostic stamp, and wandered into views which a later and more orthodox, but more nar- row-minded and less productive age, condemned as heresies, not appreciating the immortal service of this school to its own and after times" (History of the Chris- tian Church, § 12G). A full account of the (Christian) Alexandrian school is given in the Am. Bib. JRepos. Jan. 1834, art. i; and its doctrines, and their influence on Christian- ity, in the same journal, April, 1834, art. i. See also Herzog, Real-Ena/clopadie, i, 239 sq. ; Michaelis, De Sckol. Alex. etc. (Halle, 1739); Neander, Ch. Hist, i, 527-557 ; Hist, of Dogmas, i, 62 sq. ; Mosheim, Comm. ii, ICG; Prat, Ilisto're de I'eclectisme Alexandrine con- sidere dans sa Lntte avec le Christian'' sme (Lyon, 1813, 2 vols. 8vo); comp. Prof. Jowett, 1 kilo and St. rani; St. Paul's Epistles to the Thessalonians, etc. (London, 1855), i, 363 sq. Other treatises, bearing more or less directly upon the subject, are the following: Feuer- lein, De ratione docendi theologiam in schola Alexan- drina (Gotting. 1756); Hilscher, De Schola Alexan- drina (Lips. 1776) ; Bitter, Gesch. d. christl. I'hilos. i, 421 sq. ; Hasselbach, De schola qucs Alex, floruit (Stet- tin, 1826); Henry, Epit. of Hist, of Phil'os. (from the French), i, 207-220 ; Hase, Hist. ofChr. Ch. (Am. cd.), § 85 ; Weichmann, De schola Origans sacra (Viteb. 1744). ALEXANDRIAN VERSION, another name for the Septuagist (q. v.). Alexandrium £A\t£avSpuov), a place frequent- ly referred to by Josephus as having been originally built by Alexander (hence, doubtless, the name), ap- parently Janna'us (Ant. xiii, 16, 3), on a hill near Co- res (q. v.), toward Jericho (Ant. xiv, 3, 4); fortified by Alexander the son of Aristobulus (Ant. xiv, 5, 2; War, i, 8, 2), and demolished by Gabinius (Ant. xiv, 5, 4; War, i, 8, 5), but again restored by Herod (Ant. xiv, 15,4). It was the burial-place of the founder's family, and here accordingly the bodies of Herod's sons, Alexander and Aristobulus, were removed by night for interment (Ant. xvi, 11, 7; War, i, 17, 6). It has been identified by Sehultz (Hitter, Erdh. xv, 452-454) as the modern village Kefr Istuna, about four miles S.E. of Shiloh, containing the ruins of an an- cient castle built with very large stones (Van de Velde, Memoir, p. 284). Alexandroschene (for 'A\e%di>$pov OKtjvi), Al- exander's t(n/), a place mentioned in the Jerusali m Itinerary as 12 B. miles from Tyre, and the same dis- tance from Ecdippa ; evidently the ruin now called Tskanderuna, at the southern foot of Ras el-Abiad on the Mediterranean. Alexas CA\it,ac, contracted from Alexander, q. ALEXIANS 160 ALIEN" v.), a favorite of Herod the Great, and by his influence the husband of Salome (Josephus, Ant. xvii, 1, 1; War, i, 28, 6), by whom he had a son, also named Alexas, and married to Cypros, a daughter of Antipa- ter {Ant. xviii, 5, 4). See Herodian Family. Alexians, or "Brethren and Sisters of St. Alex- ius," so called from their patron saint, Alexius, said to have been a Roman senator of the tilth century, who gave up the world for a life of poverty and celibacy. They were also called Cellites, and a fuller ac- count of them will be found under that title. Alexius. See Alexians. Alfred the Great, king of England, was born in 849, his parents being Ethehvulf, king of the West Saxons, and Asburga, his first wife. He mounted the throne in 871, and during the thirty years in which he held the reins of government he experi- enced the greatest vicissitudes of fortune. As king, he was a great benefactor of the Church; he built many monasteries and churches, and founded the University of Oxford, which has been, under God, through all ages, the main support of the true faith in that kingdom. He died in November, A.D. 900, be- ing then fifty-one years old. Besides drawing learn- ed men to his court, Alfred himself was devoted to let- ters. He translated Boethius, De Consolations (pub- lished by Cordale, London, 1829, 8vo). Several other works are attributed to Alfred; among them, 1. A Saxon Paraphrase of the History of Bede, given in the Cambridge edition of Beck's History (1722, fol.) : — 2. Various Laws relating to the Church, contained in the same work (Appendix) : — 3. A Saxon Translation of the Liber Pastoralis of St. Gregory (in MS. at Cam- bridge) : — 1. The Psalter of David, partly translated into Saxon (printed at London, with the Latin text, in 1G40, 4to) : — 5. Anglo-Saxon Translation of Orosius (given at the end of Pauli's "Life of Alfred," in Bonn's Library). He is also said to have translated the Four Dialogues of St. Gregory, which are lost. — Powell, Life of Alfred the Great (Lond. 1G34, 12mo); Cave, Hist. Lit. anno 871 ; Weisz, Geschichte Alfred's (Schaffhau- sen, 1852, 8vo) ; Pauli, Life of Alfred (Berl. 1851), trans, by Thorp (Lond. 1853, 12mo). Algeria, a country of Northern Africa, which forms now (since 1830) a French possession. Its area is about 150,000 square miles ; population, in 1858, 3,250,000, most of whom are Mohammedans. The European population has rapidly increased since 1830. In 1832 it was only 5919 souls; in 185G, 155,007, among whom were 8G,9G9 French, and 42,569 Span- iards. Among the Europeans were, in 1857, about 10,000 Protestants, with eleven clergymen. The rest are mostly Roman Catholics, who have one bishopric at Algiers. There are several convents, among which a large agricultural and educational institution of the Trappists is celebrated. There were, in 1855, 178 boys' and 119 girls' schools, with 10,672 boys and 8986 girls. Four towns had Arabic-French schools, with 400 scholars. An Association of St. Louis was formed in 1859 for the civilization of the Mohamme- dans, and had commenced the publication of an Arabic paper, Birgys Barys (the Eagle of Paris'). — Schem's Ecclesiastical Year-book for 1859 ; Behaghel, V Algirie (Par. 1865). See Africa. V- Al'gum, a transposed form (2 Chron. ii, 8 ; ix, 10, 11) of the Heb. termALMUG (q. v.). Ali'ah, a less correct form (1 Chron. i, 51) of the name Alvah (q. v.). Ali'an, a less correct form (1 Chron. i, 40) of the name Alvan (q. v.). Alien ("13, ger, also 133, nelar', or i"03, noh-i', both meaning stronger, as often rendered ; aWorpioc), a foreigner, or person born in another country, and not having the usual rights and privileges of the citi- zens of the country in which he lives. Among the Hebrews there were two classes of persons denom- inated thus: 1. The proper aliens (D"1"!?), those who were strangers generally, and who possessed no land- ed property, though they might have purchased houses; 2. Those less properly so called (D'OOipl, toshabim ' , sojourners'), i. e. strangers dwelling in another country without being naturalized (Lev. xxii, 10 ; Psa. xxxix, 12). Both of these classes were to be treated with kindness, and were to enjoy the same rights with oth- er citizens (Lev. xix, 33, 34 ; Deut. x, 19 ; xxiii, 7 ; xxiv, 17). Strangers might be naturalized, or per- mitted to enter into the congregation of the Lord, \>y submitting to circumcision and renouncing idolatry (Deut. xxiii, 1-8). The Edomites and Egyptians were capable of be- coming citizens of Israel after the third generation. It appears also that other nations were not entirely excluded from being incorporated with the people of Israel. But the Ammonites and Moabites, in conse- quence of the hostile disposition which they had man- ifested to the Israelites in the wilderness, were abso- lutely excluded from the right of citizenship (Michaelis, Mos. Recht, § 63). ALISGEMA 161 ALLATIUS In the earlier periods of the Hebrew state, persons ■who were natives of another country, but who had come, either from choice or necessity, to take up their residence among the Hebrews, appear to have been placed in favorable circumstances. At a later period, viz., the reigns of David and Solomon, they were com- pelled to labor on the religious edirices which were erected by those princes (2 Chron. ii, 1, 17, 18, comp. with 1 Chron. xxii, 2). These, however, were prob- ably prisoners of war (Jahn, Bill. Archeeol. § 181). See Citizenship ; Gentile. The term alien is used figuratively in Eph. ii, 12, to denote those persons who were without Christ, and who had no interest in the blood of the covenant. See Adoption. Alisgema (a\iayr][ia), a Hellenistic word (Ste- phens, Thes. Gr. s. v.) which occurs in Acts xv. 20, Auth. Vers, "pollution" (comp. ver. 29 and 1 Cor. viii), with reference to meat sacrificed to idols, and there means defilement, pollution. The apostle in these passages alludes to the customs of the Gentiles, among whom, after a sacrifice had been concluded and a portion of the victim had been assigned to the priests, it was usual to hold a sacrificial feast in honor of the god, on which occasion they ate the residue of the flesh (comp. Homer, Odys. iii, 470). This feast might take place either in the temple or in a private house (see Smith's Diet, of Class. Ant. s. v. Sacrificium). But there were many who, from need or avarice, salt- ed and laid up the remnants for future use (Theoph. Char. c. x), or even gave them to the butchers to sell in the shambles (Schottg. Ilor. Heb. ad Act. xv, 20; 1 Cor. viii). This flesh, having been offered to idols, was held in abomination by the Jews ; and they con- sidered not only those who had been present at these feasts, but also those who ate the flesh which had been offered up, when afterward exposed for sale in the shambles, as infected by the contagion of idolatry (q. v.). The council at Jerusalem, therefore, at the suggestion of James, directed that converts should re- fuse all invitations to such feasts, and abstain from the use of all such meat, that no offence might be given to those Christians who had been Jews. See Kuinol, ad Act. xv, 20. — Kitto, s. v. Comp. Decree. Alkali, the oxide or carbonate of one of the metallic bases, having a strong caustic power ; usually applied to soda, potash, and ammonia. Of these substances the Hebrews appear to have been acquainted with two forms (see Thomson's Land and Book, ii, 302), concern- ing which we translate from Winer, ii, 9 sq. 1. Mineral alkali seems to have been designated b}' the term ne'ther ("IM, "nitre," Prov. xxv, 20; Jer. ii, 22; virpov, Attic Xirpor). It was found at all times in large quantities in two lakes of the valley of the Nile west of the river (Strabo, xvii, 803; Plin. xxxi, 46), and is still obtained there from the water under the name of natrum (Paulus, Samml. v, 182 sq. ; Forskal, Flor..Eg.p. 45; Andreossy, in the Memoires sur VEgypte, ii, 27 sq. ; comp. Deseript. de VEgypte, xii, 1 sq. ; Hasselquist, Reisen, p. 548). The Egyp- tians used nitre for embalming dead bodies (Herod, ii, 87) ; it was also employed instead of soap for washing (Jer. ii, 22 ; comp. Jerome, ad Prov. xxv, 20), as still appears to be customary in Egypt (Hasselquist, ut sup. • Forskal, Flor. p. 46). The property of this min- eral, when dissolved in vinegar, of effervescing and losing its cleansing power, is alluded to in Prov. xxv, 20. (See generally Michaelis, Comment, in Soc. Gott. prmlect. Brem. 177, p. 134 sq. ; Beckmann, Gesch. d. Erfind. v, 517 sq.) See Nitre. 2. Vegetable alkali is denoted by the Hebrew term horitlif (r^'a, " soap," Jer. ii, 22 ; Mai. iii, 2), and by the Greeks and Romans likewise nitre (comp. Plin. xxxi, 46). It was obtained by water (lye) from the ashes of the soap-wash (Arabic kali), of which Forskal (Flor. p. lxiv sq., 54 sq., 98) fouju' yarious kinds in L Eg3*pt, e. g. the Salsola kali, or the Mesembryanthcum nodifiorum of Linnaeus (comp. Hasselquist, Reistn, p. 225 ; Raffenan Delile, Flora JEg. illustr. in the De- script, de VEgypte, xix, 81 ; see Oken, Botan. ii, i, 584 ; ii, 856 ; Schkuhr, Botan. Handb. i, 174 sq.). The saline plants indigenous in Palestine from which bo- rith was obtained were also, according to the Talmud- ists (see Celsii Hierobot. i, 450) and Jerome {in loc. Jer.), called by the same name, and are the same as those called by the Arabs ashnan. Of these plants Rauwolf {Reisen, p. 37) found in Syria two species ; one was a thick bushy shrub, with numerous slender branches, surmounted by thick tufts, and furnished with narrow pointed leaves ; the other in stem and top resembles " sheep-dew," with thick ash-colored roots (see his figures of each under Nos. 37, £8). The distinction of the various kinds of Oriental saline plants requires a new botanical treatment (Kitto, Phys. Geogr. of Holy Land, p. eclxvii ; Pliny, xix, 18, mentions anions; the plants growing in Syria one " which yields a juice useful for washing wool," under the name vadicida, Gr. arpoi&iov, comp. Dioscorides, ii, 193 ; Beckmann, Gesch. d. Erfind. iv, 18 sq. ; Spren- gel, ad Dioscor. ii, 478, regards this as no other than the Sapcnaria ojjicinalis). Formerly, as at the present day (Rauwolf, ut sup. ; Arvieux, Reisen, ii, 163 ; Be- lon, in Paulus's Samml. iv, 151), the ashes of these plants formed an important article of commerce in Oriental markets (thus their name al-kali is Arabic) ; end it is not onh- employed (in the form of lye or soap) as a means of cleansing clothes and the skin (Jer. ii, 22 ; Mai. iii, 2 ; Job ix, 30), but also in the reduction of metals, e. g. silver and lead (Isa. i, 25), and in the manufacture of glass (comp. generally Celsius, i, 449 sq. ; Michaelis, Commentat. ut sup.). See Soap. Alkoran. See Koran. Allah (contracted from the Arabic al ilah, " the God"), the usual name for God among the Mohamme- dans. It is commonly used in connection with one or several of the 99 epithets or attributes of God. Allah. See Oak. Allan, William (Cardinal), born in Lancashire in 1532, and educated at Oriel College, Oxford, where he afterward became, in Queen Mary's time, principal of St. Mary's Hall, and was also made canon of York. At Queen Elizabeth's accession he retreated to Lou- vain, and then became professor at Douay, canon of Cambray and 'Rheims, and lastly, in 1587, he was made cardinal-priest of St. Martin's in Rome, and in 1588 archbishop of Mechlin. He was very active in collecting the English Romanists abroad into one body, and in establishing a college, first at Douay and then at Rheims. His zeal against Queen Elizabeth show- ed itself in two bitter works, which he published be- fore the invasion of England by the Spaniards, en- couraging King Philip to that enterprise, and urging the subjects of Queen Elizabeth to consider themselves absolved from their allegiance, and to execute the pa- pal ban dethroning Elizabeth and putting Philip II in her stead. This treason greatly embittered the Eng- lish people against Allan, and the Earl of Arundel was afterward condemned to death for corresponding with him. He died at Rome in 1594, and the Jesuits were charged with poisoning him. They, in turn, charged the crime against Dr. Lewis, bishop of Cassona, who, they said, hoped to succeed Allan as English cardinal. —Hook, Eccl. Biog. i, 103; Collier, Eccl. Hist, vii, 180. Allatius, Leo (Leo Allacci in Italian), was born in 1586 of Greek parents in the island of Chio, went to Rome in 1600, and studied at the Greek College in that city. When his course of studies was completed, Ber- nard Justiniani, bishop of Anglona, selected him for his grand-vicar. In 1621 Pope Gregory XV sent him into Germany to bring to Rome the Palatinate Library of Heidelberg, and Alexander VII made him librarian of the Vatican in 1601, He died in January, 1669, ALLEGORY 162 ALLEMANNI aged eighty-three, having founded several colleges in his native island. According to Niceron, he was in- defatigable in his labors, and possessed a prodigious memory, stored with every kind of knowledge, but he wanted judgment and critical acumen. A list of his writings may be found in Niceron, Memoires, viii, 10. The most important of them are, 1. Be Ecclesice Occi- dent, et Orient. Perpetud Consensione (Cologne, 1648, 4to) : — 2. De utriusque Eccl. etc. in dor/mate de Purgato- rio Consensione (Rome, 1655, 8vo) : — 3. De Libris Eccl. Grcecorum (Paris, 1645, 8vo) : — 4. Be Templis Grceco- rum recentioribus (Cologne, 1645, 8vo) : — 5. Grcecia Or- thodoxy Scrip/ores (Rome, 1652, 2 vols. 4to) : — 6. De Octavo Synodo Pkotiana (Francf. 1666, 4to). Allegory (dWijyopia) occurs in the Bible only in the participial form, dWijyopovpivog, allegorized (Gal. iv, 24), where the apostle cites the history of the free- born Isaac and the slave-born Ishmael, and onl}r speaks of it as allegorically applied. Allegories themselves are, however, of frequent occurrence in Scripture. An allegory has been sometimes considered as only a lengthened metaphor ; at other times as a continua- tion of metaphors. But, according to its original and proper meaning, as shown by its derivation, the term denotes a representation of one tiling which is intended to excite the representation of another thing. In most allegories the immediate representation is made in the form of a narrative ; and, since it is the object of the allegory itself to convey a moral, not a historic truth, the narrative is commonly fictitious. The immediate representation is understood from the words of the al- legory ; the ultimate representation depends upon the immediate representation applied to the proper end. The interpretation of the former is commonly called the grammatical or the literal interpretation, although we should speak more correctly in calling it the verbal interpretation, since, in the plainest narratives, even in narratives not designed for moral application, the use of words is never restricted to their mere literal senses. ■ Every parable is a kind of allegory ; e. g. in the parable of the sower (Luke viii, 5-15) we have a plain narrative — a statement of a few simple and intel- ligible facts, such, probably, as had fallen within the observation of the persons to whom our Saviour ad- dressed himself, followed by the explanation or alle- gorical interpretation. The impressive and pathetic allegory addressed by Nathan to David affords a sim- ilar instance of an allegorical narrative accompanied with its explanation (2 Sam. xii, 1-14). Allegories thus accompanied constitute a kind of simile, in both parts of which the words themselves are construed either literally or figuratively, according to the re- spective use of them ; and then we institute the com- parison between the things signified in the former part and the things signified in the latter part. The most frequent error in the interpretation of allegorical rep- resentations is the attempt to discover too minute co- incidences, or to apply them in all their details. See Parable. But allegorical narratives are frequently left to ex- plain themselves, especially when the resemblance between the immediate and ultimate representation is sufficiently apparent to make an explanation unneces- sary. Of this kind we cannot have a more striking example than that beautiful one contained in the 80th Psalm, " Thou broughtest a vine out of Egypt," etc. The allegorical delineation of old age by Solomon (Keel, xii, 2-6) is perhaps one of the finest'of the Old Testament. The use of allegorical interpretation is not, however, confined to mere allegory, or fictitious narratives, but is extended also to history, or real narratives. And in this case the grammatical mean- ing of a passage is called its historical, in contradistinc- tion to its allegorical meaning. There are two modes in which Scripture history has been thus allegorized. According to one, facts and circumstances, especially those recorded in the Old Testament, have been ap- plied to other facts and circumstances, of which they have been described as representative. According to the other, these facts and circumstances have been de- scribed as mere emblems. The former is warranted by the practice of the sacred writers themselves; for when facts and circumstances are so applied, they are applied as types of those things to which the applica- tion is made. But the latter has no such authority in its favor, though attempts have been made to procure such authority. For the same things are there de- scribed, not as types or as real facts, hut as mere ideal representations, like the immediate representations in allegory. By this mode, therefore, history is not treated as allegory, but converted into allegory — a mode of interpretation that cannot claim the sanction of Paul from the above treatment of the history of Isaac and Ishmael. — Marsh, Criticism and Interpretation of the Bible, lect. v. See Interpretation. Alleine, Joseph, an eminently pious non-conform- ist divine, was born at Devizes in 1623. His piety and love of learning displayed themselves very early, and at sixteen he was sent to Lincoln College, Oxford, but in 1651 he removed to Corpus Christi College, a Wiltshire scholarship being then vacant. In 1653 he was admitted bachelor of arts, and in 1655 he became co-pastor with the Rev. George Newton, at Taunton, where he labored with great diligence and success un- til 1662, when he was deprived of his office for non-con- formity, and on the 26th of May, 1663, was committed to Ilchester jail, where, after being treated with great indignity, together with seven ministers and fifty Quakers, he was indicted at the assizes for preaching on the 17th of May, of which he was found guilty, and fined one hundred marks. He declared in court " that, whatsoever he was charged with, he was guilty of noth- ing but doing his duty." He continued in prison a year, and, after his release, he was even more zealous in propagating the Gospel, till his exertions brought on illness. In 1665 he was again apprehended, and, with some of his friends, was committed to prison for sixty days. The confinement increased his disorder, and he rapidly became worse, and died November, 1668. His Alarm to the Unconverted is one of the most useful and most widely circulated books of practical religion ever published.— Lfe of Alleine, with Letters (N."y. 1840, 12mo) ; Stanford, Life of Alleine (Lond. 1864). Allelu'ia (d\\i]\ovia), a Grrecized form (Rev. xix, 1, 3, 4, 6) of the Heb. exclamation Hallelujah (q. v). Allernanni, a confederacy of German tribes, among which, probably, the Tencteri, Usipeti, Chatti, and Vangiones were the most important. The name denotes either (according to Zeuss) a confederacy of men of different nations, or (according to Grimm) the true descendants of Manus, real German men. They appear for the first time on the stage of history under the reign of Caracalla (211), who assumed the title of Allemanicus because he pretended to have conquered the Allernanni on the Maine. Toward the close of the 3d century they took possession of the country be- tween the Rhine, Maine, and Danube. There thej' ex- isted under this distinctive name until the beginning of the 10th century, when Duke Erchinger was exe- cuted, and his successor Burcard proclaimed Duke of Suabia. The Roman provinces on the Rhine and Danube, at the time of their occupation by the Allernanni, were partly inhabited by Christians. The Allernanni sup- pressed in some districts Christianity altogether, while in others it was strong enough to withstand all perse- cutions. Thus Paganism and Christianity existed side by side until the battle of Zulpich (496), in con- sequence of which the Allernanni became subject to the Franks, who now entered the Christian Church. The connection of the Allemannic dukes and grandees with the Prankish kings, the Prankish legislation, ALLEN 163 ALLEN especially the lex Allemannica of Dagobert the Great (630), and the efforts of the bishops of the neighboring sees of Augsburg and Vindenissa, greatly promoted the spreading of Christianity. When the latter see ■was transferred to Constance, an Allemannic city, the growth of Christianity became still more rapid. Among the missionaries who labored for the conversion of the Allemanni, Fridolin (550), Columban and Callus (610), Trudpert (640), and Pirminius (724), are best known. (See these articles.) At the time of Boniface (740) the Christianization of the country seems to have been completed. See Hefele, E'mfuhrmig des Christen/hums im siidwestlichen Deutschland (Tubing. 1837); Stalin, Wurtemb. Gesch. i. Compare Germany ; Baden ; WURTEMBERG. Allen, Benjamin, a Protestant Episcopal minis- ter, was born at Hudson, N. Y., September 29, 1789, was bred a Presbyterian, and obtained his education under many difficulties by strenuous exertion. In 1814 he entered the Protestant Episcopal Church, and was licensed as a lay reader in Charlestown, Va., where he gave special attention to the instruction of the col- ored people. He was ordained deacon in 1816 and priest in 1818. In 1815 he published (for one year) a ■weekly paper called the '■'Layman's Magazine" and in 1820 an A bridgment of Burnet's History of the Refor- mation (1 vol.), which had a very large sale. In 1821 he was chosen rector of St. Paul's Church, Philadel- phia, as successor to the Rev. Dr. Pilmore. Here his labors as pastor and preacher were incessant, and he added to them a great deal of literary work. In 1822 he published Christ and Him Crucified (12mo), and Living Manners, a tale (12mo) ; in 1823-4, a History of the Church of Christ (2 vols. 8vo) ; in 1825, The Pa- rents' Counsellor; a Narrative of the Newton Family; and a Sketch of the Life of Dr. Pilmore. In 1827 he es- tablished a publishing house, called " The Prayer-book and Missionary House," to cheapen prayer-books, tracts, etc., and wrote for publication several small practical and biographical works. Under these accu- mulated labors his health broke down, and he sailed for Europe in March, 1828. In England he impru- dently allowed himself to be called into frequent ser- vice at anniversaries and public meetings, and his strength failed entirely by midsummer. He died on the return voyage to America, Jan. 13, 1829. Besides the publications above named, he published also a num- ber of separate sermons, and several small volumes of poems, written in early life. — Sprague, Annals, v, 591. Allen, Cardinal. See Allan. Allen, David Oliver, D.D., a Congregational minister and missionary, was born in 1800 at Barre, Mass. He graduated at Amherst College in 1823, studied theology in Andover Theological Seminary, .1824-27, went, with his wife, as missionary to India in 1827. In 1844 he took charge of the printing estab- lishment in Bombay, employing at that time one hun- dred persons. He published several tracts in the Mah- ratta language, and superintended a revised and cor- rected edition of the whole Scriptures in that language. He returned, on account of enfeebled health, to Amer- ica in June, 1853, and published in 1856 a ^History of India, Ancient and Modern." He was a member of the " Royal Asiatic Society" and the " American Oriental Society." He died in Lowell, July 17, 1863. Allen, Henry. See Allenites. Allen, James, a Puritan minister, was born in England in 1632. He was a fellow of New College, Oxford, but was ejected for non-conformity in 1662, came to America, and was ordained teacher of the First Church, Boston, December 9, 1668, as colleague with Mr. Davenport, who was at the same time or- dained pastor. He served this church for forty years with dignity and industry, but without remarkable suc- cess. Several of his occasional sermons were printed. He died September 22, 1710.— Sprague, Annals, i, 163. Allen, John, one of the early ministers of Massa- chusetts, was born in England in 1596, and was driven from his native land during the persecution of the Pu- ritans. Removing to New England, he was settled pastor of the church at Dedham, April 24, 1639, where he continued till his death, August 26, 1671. He was a man of considerable distinction in his day. He pul>- lished a defence of the nine positions, in which, with Mr. Shepard of Cambridge, he discusess the points of Church discipline, and a defence of tho synod of 1662, against Mr. Chauncy, under the title of Animadver- sions upon the Antisynodalia (4to, 16ii4). — Allen, Bio- graphical Diet. s. v. ; Allibone, Diet, of Authors, i, 53. Allen, John, chancellor of Ireland, was born in 1476, was educated at Oxford, and took his bachelor's degree at Cambridge. He soon obtained several ben- efices, and was sent by Archbishop Warham to Rome on ecclesiastical affairs; he spent nine years there, and, on his return, "Wolsey made him his chaplain. He was made archbishop of Dublin in 1528, and soon after chancellor. He was an active assistant of Car- dinal Wolsey in the spoliation of the religious houses, and was a learned canonist. Allen was murdered by Thomas Fitzgerald, son of the earl of Kildare, July 28, 1534, and his death was regarded by the people as a di- vine judgment upon him for having been instrumental in the destruction of forty monasteries. He wrote Epist. de Pallii Signification, and other pieces relating to ecclesiastical subjects. — Biog. Univ. torn, i, p. 590 ; Rose, Biog. Dictionary- Landon, Eccles. Diet. s. v.; Wood, Atheiue Oxonienscs. Allen, John, a learned layman, was born at Truro, in Cornwall, England, in 1771, and conducted for up- ward of thirty years a private school in London, where he died in 1839. He published a work on Modem Judaism (8vo, London, 1816 and 1830). Bickersteth calls it the best work on the subject in the English language. In 1813 he published a translation of Cal- i vin's Institutes of the Christian Religion, which has con- 1 turned to be the standard English version of that great i work, though it may now, perhaps (1862), be super- I seded by Beveridge's new translation. Allen's edition of the Institutes was reprinted at New York (1819, 4to), and often since in 2 vols. 8vo, in which form it is is- sued by the Presbyterian Board of Publication, Phila- delphia.— Darling, Cyclopcedia Bibliographica, i, 49 ; Allibone, Dictionary of Authors, i, 53. Allen, John, was pastor of a Baptist eongrega- i tion at Spitalfields, 1764 to 1767. Engaging in busi- I ness, he became involved in difficulties, was tried for forgery, and was acquitted. He subsequently went | to New York, and had some reputation as a preacher ; there until his death. He published The Sjriritual Magazine, or the Christian' s Grand Treasure, wherein the Doctrines of the Bible are unfolded (Lond. 1752 ; re- printed, with preface by Romaine, Lond. 1810, 3 vols. 8vo) ; Chain of Truth, a dissertation on the Harmony , of the Gospels (1764). — Wilson, Dissenting Churches, j iv, 426 ; Darling, Cyclop. Bibliographica, i, 49. ! Allen, Moses, a minister of the Protestant Epis- copal Church, was born in Northampton, Massachu- setts, September 14, 1748. He was educated at Prince- ton, where he graduated in 1772. He was ordained at Christ's Church parish, about twenty miles from Charleston, S. C, March 26, 1775. In 1777 he re- moved to Midway, Georgia. The British arm}' from ' Florida, under General Prevost, dispersed his society I in 1778, and burned the church, almost every dwell- ing-house, and the crops of rice then in stacks. In | December he was taken prisoner by the British, and i treated with great severity. Seeing no prospect of release from the prison-ship where he was confined, , he determined to attempt the recover}' of his liberty by jumping overboard and swimming to an adjacent point; but he was drowned in the attempt, February i 8, 1779. — Allen, Biog. Dictionary, s. v. ALLEN 164 ALLENITES Allen, Richard, first bishop of the African Meth- odist Episcopal Church, was born in 17G0. After 17 years' service in the Methodist ministry, to which he had been ordained by Bishop Asbury, he was elected bishop of the newly-formed "African Methodist Epis- copal Church" (q. v.) in 1816. He died in Phila- delphia, March 26, 1831. — Gorrie, Churches and Sects, p. 54. Allen, Solomon, a useful minister of the Gos- pel, brother of Moses Allen (q. v.), was born at North- ampton, Februarj' 23, 1751. He, with four of his brothers, entered the army in the Revolutionary war, and rose to the rank of major. At 40 he was convert- ed, and was made deacon of the church at Northamp- ton. Soon after he felt it his duty to preach the Gos- pel, but the neighboring clergy discouraged him, on account of his great age and his want of theological learning. But he was not to be hindered ; he devoted himself to the study of the Bible, and went for his theology to the works of Hoar and Baxter. At fifty years of age he entered upon a career of voluntary la- bor as a preacher, which lasted, chiefly in the new set- tlements in Western New York, for 20 years. " He rejoiced in fatigues and privations in the service of his beloved Master. Sometimes, in his journeys, he re- posed himself with nothing but a blanket to protect him from the inclemencj' of the weather. But though poor, he was the means of enriching many with the inestimable riches of religion. Four churches were established by him, and he numbered about two hun- dred souls as by his preaching reclaimed from perdi- tion. Though poor himself, there were those con- nected with him who were rich, and by whose liber- ality he was enabled to accomplish his benevolent purposes. From such sources he expended about a thousand dollars in books and clothing for the people in the wilderness." In 1820 he returned to Massachu- setts. " At Pittsli Id, where some of his relations lived, and where his brother had been the minister, Mr. Allen went through the streets, and entering each house, read a chapter in the Bible, exhorting all the members of the family to serve God, and praying fervently for their salvation. In like manner he visited other towns. He felt that the time was short, and he was constrained to do all the good in his power. With his white locks, and the strong, impressive tones of his voice, and having a known character for sanctity, all were awed at the presence of the man of God. He went about with the holy zeal and authority of an apostle. In prayer Mr. Allen displayed a sublimity and pathos which good judges have considered as un- equaled by any ministers whom they have known. It was the energy of true faith and strong feeling. In November he arrived at New York, and there, after a few weeks, he expired in the arms of his children, Jan. 28, 1821."— Allen, Biog. Dict'.onary, s. v. Allen, Thomas, a non-conformist minister, was born at Norwich, England, 1608, and educated at Cam- bridge. He was afterward minister of St. Edmond's, in Norwich, but was silenced by Bishop Wren, about 1636, for refusing to read the* Book of Sports. In 1638 be fled to New England, and was installed in < Ibarlestown, where he preached the Gospel till about 1651, when lie returned to Norwich, and continued the exercise of his ministry till 1662, when he was ejected for non-conformity. He died September 21, 1673. He published a Chain of Scripture Chronology, from the Creation till th, Death of Christ (Lond. 1659, 4to), and a number of practical writings. — Darling, Cyclop. BibUographica, i, 51 ; Allen, /lie;/. Diet, s. v. Allen, Thomas, a Church of England divine, was born .it t (xford in 1682, and was educated at Wadham College. He became rector of Kettering in 1714, and continued to serve that parish until his death, May .il, 1755. lie published .1» Apology for the Church of England (Lond. 1725, 8vo) ; The Christian s sure Guide to eternal Glory, Expositions of Rev. ii, iii (Lond. 1733, 8vo); The Practice of a Holy Life (Lond. 1716, 8vo). —Darling, Cyclop. BibUographica, i, 51; Nichols, Il- lustrations, iii, 789. Allen, Thomas, brother of Moses, and first min- ister of Pittsfield, Mass., was born January 7, 1743, at Northampton. He was educated at Harvard Col- lege, and passed A.B. in 1762. After studying theol- ogy under the direction of Mr. Hooker of Northamp- ton, Mr. Allen was ordained April 18, 1764. During a ministry of forty-six years he was unwearied in his sacred calling. Besides his stated labors on the Sab- bath, he frequently delivered lectures, and in the course of his life preached six or seven hundred fu- neral sermons. During the war of the Revolution he went out twice as a volunteer chaplain. He died February 11, 1810.— Sprague, Annals, i, 608; Allen, Biog. Dictionary, s. v. Allen, "William (Cardinal). See Allan. Allen, William, a tradesman of London, whose works were highly esteemed by Bishop Kidder and others, was originally an Independent, but from con- viction joined the Church of England in 1658. He died in 1686, at an advanced age. His Works were published at London, folio, in 1707, with a preface con- cerning the author and his writings, by the bishop of Chichester. Bishop Kidder preached his funeral ser- mon.—Darling, Cyclop. BibUographica, i, 51. Allen, "William, a member of the Society of Friends, and a distinguished Christian philanthropist, was born, in 1770, at Spitalfields. He founded, in 1797, with Mr. Philips, the "Spitalfields Soup So- ciety," exerted himself for the abolition of the slave- trade, and of capital punishment in the case of minor offences, for the improvement of primary schools and prisons, for the establishment of saving funds and other similar purposes. From 1816 to 1833 he visited four times the principal countries of Europe in behalf of his philanthropic enterprises. Many years before his death, Mr. Allen purchased an estate near Lind- field, Sussex, and withdrew from business. Here, while still zealously engaging in public schemes of usefulness and benevolence, he carried out various philanthropic plans for the improvement of his imme- diate dependents and poorer neighbors. He erected commodious cottages on his property, with an ample allotment of land attached to each cottage ; and he established schools at Lindfield for boys, girls, and in- fants, with workshops, out-houses, and play-grounds. About three acres of land were cultivated on the most approved system by the boarders, who also took a part in household work. The subjects taught were land- surveying, mapping, the elements of botany, the use of the barometer, rain-gauge, etc., and there was a good library with various scientific and useful appa- ratus. He died at his house near Lindfield, Decem- ber 30, 1843.— Sherman, Life of William Allen (1857, 8vo) ; English Cyclvpadia, s. v. ; Allibone, Dictionary <>f A uthors, i, 54. Allenites, the followers of Henry Allen, born at Newport, R. I., June 14, 1748, a man of natural capacity but undisciplined mind, who, about the year 1774, jour- neyed through most parts of the province of Nova Sco- tia, and, by his popular talents, made many converts. He also published several treatises and sermons, in which he maintains that the souls of all the human race are emanations, or rather parts, of the one Great Spirit, but that originally they had individually the powers of moral agents — that they were all present with our first parents in the garden of Eden, and were actually in the first transgression. He supposes that our first parents in innocency were pure spirits; that the ma- terial world was not then made; but, in consequence of the fall, mankind being cut off from God, that they might not sink into immediate destruction, the world wag produced, and they were clothed with hard bod- ALLESTREE 165 ALLIANCE ies ; and that all the human race will in their turns, by natural generation, be invested with such bodies, and in them enjoy a state of probation. He main- tains that the body of our Saviour was never raised from the grave, and that none of the bodies of men ever will be ; but when the original number of souls have had their course on earth they will all receive their reward or punishment in their original unem- bodied state. He held baptism, the Lord's Supper, and ordination, to be matters of indifference. Allen died in 1784, after which his part}' greatly declined. — Adams's Did. of Religions ; Gregoire, Hist, des Sectes, v, 110 sq. Allestree, Richard, D.D., an eminent English divine, born at Uppington, Shropshire, 1619, and edu- cated at Oxford. In 1(541 he took up arms for the king, and, after the royal downfall, he took orders. In 1660 he was made regius professor of divinity at Oxford and canon of Christ Church. In 1665 he was elected pro- vost at Eton, where he died 1680. He was a laborious scholar, and did a great deal for Eton College. He published Forty Sermons (Oxf. 1684, 2 vols, fol.).— Hook, Eccl. Biog. i, 142. Alley, William, bishop of Exeter, was born about 1512 at Great Wycomb, Bucks; he,was edu- cated at Eton, from whence, in 1528, he went to King's College, Cambridge ; after having taken his degree of A.B. in that university, he removed to Oxford. At this time the contest between the Romish and the re- forming part}' in the Church of England was carried on with much violence on both sides. Alley attached himself zealously to the reformers, and, on the acces- sion of Queen Mary, thought it expedient to conceal himself, and earned an honorable maintenance in the north of England by practising physic and educating youth. When Queen Elizabeth came to the throne, he returned to London, and read the divinity lecture in St. Paul's. He is said to have discharged this office with great ability ; and he is also distinguished as the translator of the Pentateuch for Archbishop Parker's Bible. On the 14th of July, 1560, he was consecrated bishop of Exeter, and discharged his duties faithfully until his death in 1571. He published an exposition of 1 Peter in The Poor Man s Library (Lond. 1565, fol.). Alliance, a confederacy formed by treaty between two nations for their amicable intercourse and mutual advantage. Compacts of this character are designated in Scripture by various terms, e. g. league ; cove- nant ; TREATY, etc. 1. History of Jcicish Treaties. — Anterior to the Mo- saical institutions, such alliances with foreigners were not forbidden. Abraham was in alliance with some of the Canaanitish princes (Gen. xiv, 13) ; he also en- tered into a regular treaty of alliance with the Philis- tine king Abimelech (ch. xxi, 22 sq.), which was re- newed by their sons (ch. xxvi, 26-30). This primitive treaty is a model of its kind ; it leaves all details to the honest interpretation of the contracting parties. Abimelech says: "Swear unto me here by God that thou wilt not deal falsely with me, nor with my son, nor with my son's son ; but according to the kindness that I have done unto thee thou shalt do unto me, and unto the land wherein thou hast sojourned." Even after the law it appears that such alliances with dis- tint nations as could not be supposed to have any dangerous effect upon the religion or morals of the people were not deemed to be prohibited. Thus, in the case of the treaty with the Gibeonites, Joshua and the elders are condemned for it only on the ground that the Gibeonites were in fact their near neighbors (Josh, ix, 3-27). On the first establishment of the Israelites in Pal- estine, lest the example of foreign nations should draw them into the worship of idols, intercourse and alli- ance with such nations were strongly interdicted (Lev. sviii, 3, 4 ; xx, 22, 23). For the same object of po- litical isolation a country was assigned to them shut in by the sea on the west, by deserts on the south and east, and by mountains and forests on the north. But with the extension of their power under the kings, the Jews were brought more into contact with foreigners, and alliances became essential to the security of their commerce (q. v.). These diplomatic arrangements may primarily be referred to a partial change of feel- ing which originated in the time of David, and which continued to operate among his descendants. During his wanderings he was brought into association with several of the neighboring princes, from some of whom he received sympathy and support, which, after he ascended the throne, he gratefully remembered (2 Sam. x, 2). He married the daughter of a heathen king, and had by her his favorite son (2 Sam. iii, 3) ; the king of Moab protected his family (1 Sam. xxii, 3, 4) ; the king of Amnion showed kindness to him (2 Sam. x, 2); the king of Gath showered favors upon him (1 Sam. xxvii ; xxviii, 1, 2) ; the king of Hamath sent his own son to congratulate him on his victories (2 Sam. viii, 15); in short, the rare power which David possessed of attaching to himself the good opinion and favor of other men, extended even to the neighboring nations, and it would have been difficult for a person of his disposition to repel the ad- vances of kindness and consideration which they made. Among those who made such advances was Hiram, king of Tyre; for it eventually transpires that "Hi- ram was ever a lover of David" (1 Kings v, 2), and it is probable that other intercourse had preceded that relating to the palace which Hiram's artificers built for David (2 Sam. v, 11). The king of Tyre was not disposed to neglect the cultivation of the friendly in- tercourse with the Hebrew nation which had thus been opened. He sent an embassy to condole with Solomon on the death of his father, and to congratu- late him on his own accession (1 Kings v, 1). The plans of the young king rendered the friendship of Hiram a matter of importance, and accordingly "a league" was formed (1 Kings v, 12) between them ; and that this league had a reference not merely to the spe- cial matter then in view, but was a general league of amity, is evinced by the fact that more than 250 years after a prophet denounces the Lord's vengeance upon Tyre, because she "remembered not the brotherly covenant" (Amos i, 9). Under this league large bod- ies of Jews and Phoenicians were associated, first in preparing the materials for the Temple (1 Kings v, 6-18), and afterward in navigating the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean (1 Kings ix, 26-28). Solomon also contracted an alliance with a Pharaoh, king of Egypt, which was cemented by his marriage with a princess of the royal family ; by this he secured a monopoly of the trade in horses and other products of that coun- try (1 Kings x, 28, 29). After the division of the kingdom the alliances were of an offensive and defen- sive nature ; they had their origin partly in the inter- nal disputes of the kingdoms of Judah and Israel, and partly in the position which these countries held rela- tively to Egypt on the one side, and the great Eastern monarchies of Assyria and Babylonia on the other. The scantiness of the historical records at our com- mand makes it probable that the key to many of the events that, occurred is to be found in the alliances and counter-alliances formed between these people, of which no mention is made. Thus the invasion of Shishak in Rehoboam's reign was not improbably the result of an alliance made with Jeroboam, who had previously found an asylum in Egypt (1 Kings xii, 2 ; xiv, 25). Each of these monarchs sought a connec- tion with the neighboring kingdom of Syria, on which side Israel was particularly assailable (1 Kings xv, 19); but Asa ultimately succeeded in securing the active co-operation of Benhadad airainst Baasha (1 Kings xv, 16-20). Another policy, induced probably by the encroaching spirit of Syria, led to the formation ALLIANCE 166 ALLIANCE of an alliance between the two kingdoms under Ahab and Jehoshaphat, which was maintained until the end of Ahab's dynasty ; it occasionally extended to com- mercial operations (2 Chron. xx, 36). The alliance ceased in Jehu's reign ; war broke out shortly after between Amaziah and Jeroboam II ; each nation look- ed for foreign aid, and a coalition was formed between Rezin, king of Syria, and Pekah on the one side, and Ahaz and Tiglath- Piles sr, king of Assyria, on the other (2 Kings xvi, 5-9). By this means an opening was afforded to the advances of the Assyrian power; and the kingdoms of Israel and Judah, as they were successively attacked, sought the alliance of the Egyp- tians, who were strongly interested in maintaining the independence of the Jews as a barrier against the en- croachments of the Assyrian power. Thus Hoshea made a treat}- with So (Sabaco, or Sevechus), and re- belled against Shalmaneser (2 Kings xvii, 4) ; Heze- kiah adopted the same policy in opposition to Sen- nacherib (Isa. xxx, 2): in neither case was the alliance productive of much good — the Israelites were aban- doned by So ; it appears probable that his successor Sethos, who had offended the military caste, was un- able to render Hezekiah any assistance ; and it was only when the independence of Egypt itself was threat- ened that the Assyrians were defeated by the joint forces of Sethos and Tirhakah, and a temporary relief afforded thereby to Judah (2 Kings xix, 9, 36 ; Herod, ii, 141j. The weak condition of Egypt at the begin- ning of the 26th dynasty left Judah entirely at the mercy of the Assyrians, who, under Esarhaddon, sub- dued the country, and by a conciliatory policy secured the adhesion of Manasseh and his successors to his side against Egypt (2 Chron. xxxiii, 11-13). It was apparently as an ally of the Assyrians that Josiah re- sisted the advance of Necho (2 Chron. xxxv, 20). His defeat, however, and the downfall of the Assyrian empire, again changed the policy of the Jews, and made them the subjects of Egypt. Nebuchadnezzar's first expedition against Jerusalem was contempora- neous with and probably in consequence of the expe- dition of Necho against the Babylonians (2 Kings xxiv, 1 ; Jer. xlvi, 2) ; and lastly, Zedekiah's rebel- lion was accompanied with a renewal of the alliance with Egypt (Ezek. xvii, 15). A temporary relief ap- peals to have been afforded by the advance of Hophrah (Jer. xxxvii, 11), but it was of no avail to prevent the extinction of Jewish independence. <)u the restoration of independence, Judas Maeca- baius sought an alliance with the Romans, who were then gaining an ascendency in the East, as a counter- poise to the neighboring state of Syria (1 Mace, viii ; Joseph. Ant. xii, 10, 6) : this alliance was renewed by Jonathan (1 Mace, xii, 1; Ant. xiii, 5, 8), and by Si- mon (1 Mace, xv, 17 ; Ant. xiii, 7, 3); on the last oc- casion the independence of the Jews was recognised and formally notified to the neighboring nations, B.C. 110 (1 Mace, xv, 22, 23). Treaties of a friendly na- ture were at the same period concluded with the Lac- edemonians under an impression that they came of a common stock (1 Mace, xii, 2; xiv, 20; Ant. xii, 4, 10; xiii, 5, 8). The Roman alliance was again re- newed by Hyrcanus, B.C. 128 (Ant. xiii, 9, 2), after his defeat by Antiochus Sidetes, and the losses he had sustained were repaired. This alliance, however, ul- timately proved fatal to the independence of the Jews : the rival claims of Hyrcanus ami Aristobulus having been referred to Pompey, B.C. 63, lie availed himself of the opportunity of placing the country under trib- ute (Ant. xiv, 4, 1). Finally, Herod was raised to the sovereignty by the Roman senate, acting under the advice of M. Antony (Ant. xiv, 14, 5). 2. Their. Religious and Political Effects. — This inter- course with the heathen appears to have considerably weakened the sentiment of separation, which, in the case of the Hebrews, it was of the utmost importance to maintain. The disastrous consequences of even the seemingly least objectionable alliances may be seen in the long train of evils, both to the kingdom of Israel and of Judah, which ensued from the marriage of Ahab with Jezebel, the king of Tyre's daughter. See Ahab ; Jezebel. These consequences had teen manifested even in the time of Solomon ; for he form- ed matrimonial alliances with most of the neighboring kingdoms, and to the influence of his idolatrous wives are ascribed the abominations which darkened the lat- ter days of the wise king (1 Kings xi, 1-8). The prophets, who were alive to these consequences, often raised their voices against such dangerous connections (1 Kings xx, 38 ; 2 Chron. xvi, 7 ; xix, 2 ; xxv, 7, etc. ; Isa. vii, 17) ; but it was found a difficult matter to induce even the best kings to place such absolute faith in Jehovah, the Head of their state, as to neglect altogether those human resources and alliances by which other nations strengthened themselves against their enemies. Remarkable instances of this are those of Asa, one of the most pious monarchs of Judah (1 Kings xv, 16-20), and, in a less degree, of Ahaz (2 Kings xvi, 5, etc. ; 2 Chron. xviii, 16, etc.). In later times the Maccabees appear to have considered them- selves unrestrained by any but the ordinary pruden- tial considerations in contracting alliances ; but they confined their treaties to distant st:.tes, which were by no means likely ever to exercise th:;t influence upon the religion of the people which was the chief object of dread. The most remarkable alliances of this kind in the whole Hebrew history are those which were contracted with the. Romans, who were then begin- ning to take a part in the affairs of Western Asia. Judas claimed their friend!}' intervention in a nego- tiation then pending between the Jews and Antiochus Etipator (2 Mace, xi, 34 sq.) ; and two years after he sent ambassadors to the banks cf the Tiber to propose a treaty of alliance end amity. By the terms of this treaty the Romans ostensibly threw over the Jews the broad shield of their dangerous protection, promising to assist them in their wars, and forbidding any who were at peace with themselves to be at war with the Jews, or to assist directly or indirectly those who were so. The Jews, on their part, engaged to assist the Iiomans to the utmost of their power in any wars they might wage in those parts. The obligations of this treaty might be enlarged or diminished by the mutual consent of the contracting paitics. This mem- orable treaty, having been concluded at Rome, was graven upon brass and deposited in the Capitol (1 Mace, viii, 22-28; Joseph. Ant. xii, 10; ether treaties with the Romans are given in lib. xiii). 3. Rites by which they were ratified. — From the time of the patriarchs a covenant of alliance was sealed by the blood of some victim. A heifer, a goat, a ram, a turtle-dove, and a young pigeon were immolated in confirmation of the covenant between the Lord and Abraham (Gen. xv, 9). The animal or animals sac- rificed were cut in two (except birds, ver. 10), to typ- ify the doom of perjurers. Between the two parts the contracting parties passed, involving imprecations of a similar destruction upon him who should break the terms of the alliance (Gen. xv, 10; cf. Liv. i, 24); hence the expression T'1~'2 T^3 (= optua Ti^iveiv, fcedus Icere), to make (lit. to cut) a treaty; hence, also, the use of the term i~l2N: (lit. imprecation) for a covenant. This usage often recurs in the prophets, and there are allusions to it in the New Testament (Jer. xxxiv, 18 ; Dan. xiii, 55 ; Matt, xxiv, 51 ; Luke xii, 46). The perpetuity of covenants of alliance thus contracted is expressed by calling them " covenants of salt" (Num. xviii, 19; 2 Chron. xiii, 5), salt being the symbol of incorruption, or fidelity, inasmuch as it was applied to the sacrilices (Lev. ii, 13), and proba- bly used, as among the Arabs, at hospitable entertain- ments. Sec Salt. Occasionally a pillar or a heap of stones was set up as a memorial of the alliance ALLIANCE 167 ALLOX (Gen. xxxi, 52). Presents were also sent by the par- ty soliciting the alliance (1 Kings xv, 18 ; Isa. xxx, C ; 1 Mace, xv, 18). The event was celebrated by a feast (Exod. xxiv, 11 ; 2 Sam. iii, 12, 20). The fidelity of the Jews to their engagements was conspicuous at all periods of their history. The case of the Gibeonites affords an instance scarcely equalled in the annals of any nation. The Israelites had been absolutely cheated into the alliance ; but, having been confirmed by oaths, it was deemed to be inviolable (Josh, ix, 19). Long afterward, the treaty having been violated by Saul, the whole nation was punished for the crime by a horrible famine in the time of Da- vid (2 Sam. xxi, 1 sq.). The prophet Ezekiel (xvii, 13-1(5) pours terrible denunciations upon King Zede- kiah for acting contrary to his sworn covenant with the king of Babylon. From numerous intimations in Josephus, it appears that the Jewish character for the observance of treaties was so generally recognised after the captivity, as often to procure for them con- sideration from the rulers of Western Asia and of Egypt. — Kitto, s. v. ; Smith, s. v. ALLIANCE, EVANGELICAL. See Evangeli- cal Alliance. ALLIANCE, HOLY, a league entered into by the Emperor Alexander of Russia, the Emperor Francis of Austria, and Frederic William, king of Prussia, after the defeat of Napoleon in 1815, consisting of a declaration signed by them personally, that, in ac- cordance with the precepts of the Gospel of Jesus Christ, the principles of justice, charity, and peace should be the basis of the internal administration of their empires and of their international relations; and that the happiness and religious welfare of their subjects should be the great objects they should ever keep in view. It originated with Alexander, who, it is said, imagined that it would introduce a new era of Christian government ; but whatever may have been the original intention, it soon became, in the hands of the wily Metternich, an instrument for the support of tyranny and oppression, and laid the foundation of the Congressional system of politics, which, while it professes to have for its object the support of legitima- cy, is a horrid conspiracy against the rights and priv- ileges of the people. See Holy Alliance. Allison, Burgess, D.D., a Baptist minister and successful teacher, was born at Bordentown, N. J., Aug. 17, 1753, and died at Washington Feb. 20, 1827. At the age of sixteen he was baptized, and immediate- ly began to preach. Desirous of classical and theo- logical education, he placed himself, in 1774, under the instruction of Dr. Samuel Jones, of Lower Dublin, near Philadelphia. In 1777 he studied a short time at Ilhode Island College, and on his return became pastor of the feeble congregation at Bordentown. Re- ceiving but little compensation, he opened a classical boarding-school, which attained great reputation. Mr. Allison retired from this post in 179G for a few years, which time he devoted to various inventions, and especially to the improvement of the steam-engine and its application to navigation. Resuming his school in 1801, he afterward reaccepted the pastorship, but was soon compelled by ill health to relinquish his la- bors. In 1816 he was elected chaplain to the House of Representatives, and was afterward appointed chap- lain at the Nav}' Yard in Washington, in which office he died. Dr. Allison was offered, at different times, the presidency of three colleges, all of which he declined. He was a man of great mechanical and artistic genius, and was for a long time one of the secretaries of the American Philosophical Society. He kept up a large foreign correspondence, and wrote mucli for the pe- riodicals of the day.— Sprague, Annals, vi, 121. Allison, Francis, D.D., an eminent Presbyte- rian minister, was born in Donegal County, Ireland, in 1705, educated at the University of Glasgow, and came to America in 1735. He became ppstor at New London, Chester Co., Pa., in 1737, where he opened an academy in 1743. He removed to Philadelphia in 1752, and took charge of an academy there. In 1755 he was appointed vice-provost and Professor of Moral Philosophy in the newly-established University of Pennsylvania. He died in 1779. Dr. Allison was very active in the events which led to the " Groat Schism" in 1744. His reputation as a classical scholar was very great. — Sprague, Annals, iii, 73. Allison, Patrick, D.D., an eminent Presbyterian minister, born in Lancaster Co., Pa., in 1740, and graduated at the University of Pennsylvania in 17C0. He was licensed to preach in 17G3, and became pastor of a church in Baltimore in 17C5, and continued in its service till within two years of his death in 1802. He was a man of great influence, and especially distin- guished as a deliberative speaker. — Sprague, Annals, iii, 257. Allix, Peter, a learned French Protestant divine, born in 1G41 at Alencon, educated at Saumur and at Sedan. So highly was he esteemed by those of his own opinions that, in 1670, he was invited to Charen- ton to succeed the learned Daille. Here he engaged with Claude in the French translation of the Bible. The revocation of the Edict of Nantes drove him into England, where he founded a church, in which the services were carried on in French, but according to the English ritual, and in 1G90 Burnet, bishop of Salis- bury, gave him a canonry and the treasure rship of his cathedral. He died in 1717. He was a man of great learning, well acquainted with Greek, Hebrew, Sj'riac, and Chaldee, and a voluminous writer. His most valuable productions are, 1. lie/legions critiques et the- ologiques sur la controverse de, VEglise: — 2. Reflexions sur tons les livres de V A ncicn et du Nouveau Testament (Amst. 1689, 2 vols. 8vo) :— 3. The Judgment of the an- cient Jewish Church against the Unitarians (Oxford, new ed. 1821, 8vo) : — 4. Remarks upon the Ecclesiastical History of the Churches of Piedmont (1690, new ed. Ox- ford, 1821, 8vo). In this treatise he seeks to show, in opposition to Bossuet, that these churches were not in- fected with Manichajism, and had from the apostles' time maintained the pure faith. 5. History of the Al- bigenses (new ed. Oxf. 1821, 8vo). He also published a translation of the book of Ratramnus, " On the Body and the Blood of Jesus Christ," with an essay, in which he attempts to show that the views of this au- thor are contrary to the doctrines of the Roman Cath- olic Church. To the same end, Allix published (Lond. 1686), from a manuscript of the library of St. Victor, a work by the Dominican John of Paris, entitled De Modo existendi corporis Chrisii in sacramento altaris; and a little book of Roman Catholic origin (the au- thorship of which was attributed to the Abbe de Lon- guerue), intended to prove that transubstantiation was not a Catholic doctrine. He wrote several works in favor of the revolution in England to allay the scru- ples of those who hesitated to take the oath of alle- giance. A full list of his works is given by Haag, La France Protestante, i, 61. — Jones, Christian Biog. p. 8. Allocution (Lat. allocutio, i. e. an "address') is applied, in the language of the Vatican, to denote specially the address delivered by the pope at the Col- lege of Cardinals in a public consistory. The publica- tion of the resolutions taken in the secret consistories is generallj* accompanied by an allocution, and fre- quently the condition of the Roman Church in the va- rious countries furnishes the subject for it. It may be considered as corresponding in some measure to the official explanations which constitutional ministers give when questions are asked in Parliament, or to the political messages of the French emperor. The court of Rome makes abundant use of this method of address when it desires to guard a principle which it is com- pelled to give up in a particular case, or to reserve a ALLOM 168 ALLWOERDEN claim for the future which has no chance of recogni- tion in the present. — Wetzer and Welte, ii, 345. Al'lom ('AAAw/i v. r. 'ASXwv), one of the "ser- vants of Solomon," whose descendants are said to have returned from the captivity (1 Esdr. v, 34) ; but as the genuine text (Ezra ii, 57) has no such (nor the preceding) name, it is probably an error of copyists or editors for the appellative dWuiv, "of others'" (Fritzsche, Handb. in loc), unless for Amon. Al'lon (Heb. Allon , "jikx, oak, as often), the name of a place and of a man. See also Allon-bachuth ; Oak. 1. A town on the border of Naphtali, according to the Auth. Vers., between Heleph and Zaanannim (Josh. xix, 33) ; but perhaps rather designating only some remarkable tree as a landmark near the latter place (nm^a yfcxv [v. r. ^feara] r,h«tj tfbaa ^\ and their border ran from Cheleph, thence from the oak that is by Zaanannim ; Vulg. et ceepit terminus de Heleph, et Eton in Saanim; Sept. icai iytvifir) rd opia uvtojv Mt£\t

u\ut), a Greek term which sig- nifies properly strangers; but is generally taken (not only in the Sept., but by classical writers) to signify the Philistines (Reland, Palcest. p. 41, 75, 7G). See Alien. Alloy. Sec Tin. All-saints' Day, a festival celebrated by the Greek Church the week after Whitsuntide, and by the Roman Catholics on the 1st of November, in honor of all saints and martyrs. Chrysostom {Horn. 74 de Jfarfyribus) seems to indicate that it was known in the fourth cen- tury, and that it was celebrated on Trinity Sunday, called by the Greeks KvpiaKt) twv dyiwv (the Sunday of the Martyrs). It was introduced into the "Western Church in the beginning of the seventh century by Boniface. The number of saints being excessively multiplied, it was found too burdensome to dedicate a feast-day to each, there being, indeed, scarcely hours enough in the year to distribute among them all. It was therefore resolved to commemorate on one day all who had no particular days. By an order of Gregory IV, it was celebrated on the 1st of November, 834 ; formerly the 1st of May was the day appointed. It was introduced into England (where it is usually called All-hcdloumias) about 870, and is still observed in the English and Lutheran Churches, as well as in the Church of Borne, on 1st November. — Itlig, De Festo Omnium Sanctorum, in the Miscell. Lips, i, 300 sq. ; Far- rar, Eccles. Dictionary, s. v. ; Bingham, Orig. Eccles. b. lxx, ch. vii, § 14. All-souls' Day, a festival held by Roman Cath- olics on the day after All-saints' Da}', for special pray- er in behalf of the souls of all the faithful dead. It was first introduced in 998, by Odilon, abbot of Clugni, who enjoined it on his own order. It was soon after adopted by neighboring churches. It is the day on which, in the Romish Church, extraordinary masses are repeated for the relief of souls said to be in purga- tory. Formerly, on this day, persons dressed in black perambulated the towns and cities, each provided with a bell of dismal tone, which was rung in public places, by way of exhortation to the people to remember the souls in purgatory (Farrar, Eccl. Dictionary, s. v.). In some parts of the west of England it is still "the cus- tom for the village children to go round to all their neighbors souling, as they call it — collecting small con- tributions, and singing the following verses, taken down from two of the children themselves : Soul ! soul ! for a soul-cake ; Pray, good mistress, for a soul-cake, One for Peter, two for Paul, Three for Them who made us all. Soul ! soul ! for an apple or two ; If you've got no apples, pears will do, Up with your kettle, and down with your pan ; Give me a good big one, and I'll be gone. The soul-cake referred to in the verses is a sort of bun which, until lately, it was an almost general custom for people to make, and to give to one another on the 2d of November." — Notes and Queries, 1st ser. vol. iv. Allud, Alius. See Chellus. Allut, Jean, surnamed VEclaireur (the Enlight- I ener), a pseudonym adopted by a French fanatic, who, ! at the beginning of the 18th century, attempted at London the establishment of a new sect. His real name was FJie Marion, and he was a native of Barre, a village in the vicinity of Montpelier. His apostles or associates were Nicolas Fatio, Jean Dande, and Charles Portales. His works, which are now very rare, are as follows : 1. Discernement des tenebres cVavec la lumiere, afin d- exciter les homines it, chercher la lumiere (Loud. 1710, 8vo): — 2. Eclair de lumiere descendant des cieux, et du rel'evement de la chute de I'homme par son peche (without name of place, 1711, 8vo) : — 3. Plan de la justice de Dieu sur la terre dans ces derniers jours (1714, 8vo) : — 4. Quand vous aurez saccage, vous serez saccage (1714, 8vo) ; the latter work consists of letters signed Allut, Marion, Fatio, and Portales :— 5. Aver- tissement Prcphetique d'Elie Marion (Lond. 1707, 8vo) : — 6. Cri (Polar me, ou avertissement aux nations qu'ils sortent de Babi/lone (1712, 8vo). — Hoefer, Biographie Generale, ii, 169. Allwoerden, Heinricii von, a German theo- logian, a native of Stade, lived in the first half of the 18th century. He studied at Helmstedt, under the celebrated Mosheim, and, upon the advice of the lat- ter, published a life of Servetus under the following ALLYN 169 ALMODAD title, Ilistoria Michaelis Serveti (Helmstedt, 1728, 4to), with a portrait of Servetus. An abstract of this work is given in the.itfu Eruditorum (Leipsie, 1728), and in the Biblioth'equc raisonnee des ouvragea des savants (i, 328).— Hoefer, Biog. Generate, ii, 169. Allyn, John, D.D., a Unitarian minister, born in Barnstable, Mass., March 21, 17G7. He graduated at Harvard 1785, and in 1788 became pastor in Duxbury, Mass., which position he retained until his death, July 19, 1833. In 1820 he was the delegate from Duxbury in the Constitutional Convention of Massachusetts. He published several of his sermons and charges. — Sprague, Unitarian Pulpit, p. 207. Almain, Jacques, a French theologian, was born at Sens, became professor in the college at Navarre, where he had studied under John Major, in 1512. He was one of the greatest theologians of his time, and a follower of Scotus and Occam. In 1511 he took his doctor's degree, and very shortly after was chosen by the faculty of theology to reply to the work of Cajetan, on the superiority of the pope to a general council. In 1515 he died, in the very prime of life. Among his works are De A uctoritate Ecclesia sen S. Conciliorum earn reprcesentanlium, etc., contra Th. de Vio (Par. 1512, and in Gerson's works, Dupin's edition) ; De Potestate Ecclesiastica ct laicali (an exposition of the decisions of Occam ; in Gerson, and also in the edition of his works published at Paris in 1517) ; M< ralia (Paris, 1525, 8vo). — Cave, Hist. Lit. ; Landon, Eccks. Diet, i, 270 ; Hoefer, Biog. Generate, ii, 179 ; Dupin, Ecd. Writers, cent. xvi. Almah. See Virgin. Almeida, Emmanuel, was born at Viseu, in Port- ugal, in 1580. He entered the order of Jesuits at the age of eighteen, and in 1G22 was sent by Vitelleschi, the general of the order, as ambassador to Ethiopia, where he remained ten years, catechizing the people, and gaining an insight into their manners and customs. He died at Goa in 1G46, leaving collections for a llis- toire de la haute Ethiopia, which Balthasar Teller ar- ranged, augmented, and published at Coimbra, in 1G60, in folio. He also wrote Lettres Historiqucs (Pome, 1629, 8vo), correcting the false statements of the Do- minican Urreta concerning Ethiopia. — Hoefer, Biog. Generate, ii, 181. Almericians or Amauricians, a short-lived sect of the thirteenth century, which derived its name from Amalric (Almeric or Amauric, of Bena), a theo- logian whose doctrines (approaching to Pantheism) were prohibited and condemned at Paris by a public decree in the year 1204. The followers of Almeric, after his death, led by David of Dinanto (q. v.), car- ried his doctrines out to their full consequences. Re- specting the Trinity, they held and taught that the power of the Father had continued only during the Mosaic dispensation, that of the Son twelve hundred years after his incarnation ; and that in the thirteenth century the age of the Holy Ghost commenced, in which all sacraments and external worship were to be abolished, and the salvation of Christians was to be accomplished entirely by the internal operation of the Holy Spirit, without any external acts of religion. "Although an abstract speculative system was not calculated in that age to spread among the laity, yet, through the element of mysticism, these doctrines were diffused quite widely among the people. Books ; unfolding the system and its practical aims were writ- ! ten in French, and widely circulated. Pantheism, with ail its practical consequences, was more plainly expressed than Amalric had probably ever intended or expected. The members of the sect were claimed to be subjects in which the incarnation of the Holy Ghost was begun. Ca;sarius of Heisterbach charges the sect with teaching that God had spoken in Ovid as well as in Augustin; that the only heaven and the only hell are in the present life ; that those who pro- I fess the true knowledge no longer need faith or hope ; they have attained already to the true resurrection, the true Paradise, the real heaven; that he who lives in mortal sin has hell in his mouth, but that it is much the same thing as having a rotten tooth in the mouth. The sect opposed the worship of saints as idolatry, called the ruling church Babylon, and the pope Anti- Christ" (Neander, Ch. History, iv, 448). See Hahn, Gesch. derPasagur, etc. (Stuttgart, 1850, Svo). A gold- smith by the name of William of Aria was the prophet of the sect. He claimed to be one of seven personages in which the Holy Ghost was to incarnate himself, and, besides many other prophecies, predicted to the king of France that the French empire would embrace the entire globe. As many of the followers of Amalric concealed their doctrines, commissioners were sent out into several French dioceses to discover them by pro- fessing adhesion to the views of Amalric. In 1209 fourteen of the foremost followers of Amalric were summoned before a Council of Paris, sentenced, and delivered over to the secular arm. They were kept imprisoned until the return of King Philip Augustus, when, on Dec. 20, 1210, ten of them were burned and two exiled. The council again condemned the works of Amalric, together with those of David of Dinanto, with all books of theology written in the vulgar lan- guage, and the metaphysical works of Aristotle. The physical works of Aristotle were prohibited for three years. In 1215 the fourth general council of the Lat- crans again condemned Amalric and his followers. In many instances it is difficult to determine which doc- trines belong to Amalric himself and which to his fol- lowers. Some of the latter, it is certain, had very loose notions of morality. The sect of the Free Spirit owes its origin chiefly to the impulse given by Amal- ric.—Neander, Ch. Hist, iv, 446 sq. ; Mosheim, Ch. Hist. cent, xiii, pt. ii, ch. v, § 12; Hahn, in Stud. u. Krit. 1846, p. 184; Hagenbach, Hist, of Doctrines, ii, 127. See Amalric. Almeyda, Francisco de, a Portuguese theolo- gian, was born at Lisbon, July 31, 1701. He gained a great reputation as a writer on ecclesiastical law, and, on May 13, 1728, became a member of the Poyal Academy. He wrote several learned works on the (rigin and ecclesiastical law of the churches of the Iberian Peninsula, the most important of which is en- titled Aparatopara a disc'plina e ritos ecclesiasticos de Portugal (Lisbon, 4 vols. 1735-87, 4to).— Hoefer, Biog. Generate, ii, 193. A]mici, Pietro Camillo, an Italian oratorian, was born at Brescia, Nov. 2, 1714, died Dec. £0, 1779. He wrote, among other books, Rejlexions Critiques on the celebrated work of Febronius (q. v.), Dp Statu Ecclesue. Some of his works have not yet been published, among them one, entitled Meditations sur la vie et sur les ecriis de Fr. Paoli Surp>. — Hoefer, Biog. Generate, ii, 193. Almighty. See Shaddai; Attributes; Om- nipotence. Almo'dad (Heb. Almodad' , nnirlpX, signif. un- known; Sept. 'EXfiwdaS, Vulg. Elmcdad, Josephus 'EXpoCaSor, Ant. i, 6, 4), the first named of the thir- teen "sons" of Joktan (Gen. x, 26 ; 1 Chron. i, 20), doubtless founder of an Arabian tribe. B.C. post 2384. See Arabia. The ancient interpreters afford no light as to the location of the tribe, either simply retaining the name (Sept., Vulg., Syr., Samar.), or giving fanciful etymological paraphrases (Saad., Pseu- dojon.). Syncellus (p. 46) understands the inhabi- tants of India (IvCm). Bochart {Phahg, ii, 16) sup- poses the Allummotee ('AWovpaiCJTat) of Ptolemy (vi, 7, 24) to be meant; a people in the middle of Arabia Felix, near the sources of the river Lar, which emp- ties into the Persian Gulf. The early Arabian gene- alogies contain the name Modad {At- I eing the Arabic article) as that of at least two kings of the Jorbamida] reigning in Hejaz (Caussin de Perceval, Essai sur ALMON 170 ALMONER I'Hist. des Arabes avant I'Islamisme, i, 33 sq., 168, 194 sq.), one of whom is said to have married the daugh- ter of Ishmael (Pococke, Specim. p. 80) ; while anoth- er named Modar was the grandson of Adnan (Pococke, p. 46; Ibn Coteiba, in Eichhorn's Monum. Arabum, p. 63). Gesenius (Thes. Ileb. p. 93) rejects both these names, as less likely than a corruption from Morad, the name of a tribe in the mountains of Arabia Felix near Zabid (see Abulfeda, Hist. Anteislamica, p. 190, ed. Fleischer), so called from their progenitor, a son of Kahlan, son of Saba, son of Jashhab, son of Jaarab, son of Kachtan, i. e. Joktan (Pococke, S])ecim. p. 42, ed. White ; Abulfeda, p. 478, ed. De Sacy ; Eichhorn, ut sup. p. 141 ; comp. generally Michaelis, Spicileg. ii, 153 sq.). Al'mon (Heb. Almon ', tJl"a*>3>, hidden; Sept. 'EX/xwv v. r. rdfidKa), the last named of the four sac- erdotal cities of the tribe of Benjamin (Josh, xxi, 18), called Alemeth (q. v.) in the parallel passage (1 Chron. vi, 60), where it is named second of the three there mentioned ; it is omitted in the general list of the Benjamite cities (Josh, xviii, 21-28). Jarchi and Kimchi, after the Targum of Jonathan, confound it with the Bahurim (q. v.) of 2 Sam. iii, 16. Schwarz (Pal- est, p. 128) says he discovered the ruins of ancient buildings bearing the name Al-Muth, which he regards as Almon, on a hill one milo north-east of the site of Anathoth ; doubtless the Almit similarly identified by Dr. Robinson (new ed. of Researches, iii, 287 ; comp. Tobler, Denkblcitter, p. 631). See also Almon-dibla- THAIM. Almond 0£'^?, shalced', wakeful, from its early blossoming, comp. Plin. xvi, 25, 42) occurs as the name of a tree in Eccles. xii, 5 : " The almond-tree (Sept. dfivydaXov, Vulg. amygdalum) shall nourish, and the fruit of the caper (q. v.) droop, because man goeth to his long home." This evidently refers to the profuse flowering and white appearance of the almond- tree when in full bloom, and before its leaves appear. It is hence adduced as illustrative of the hoary hairs of age (Thomson's Land and Book, i, 496). Gesenius, however, objects (Thes. Heb. p. 1473) that the blos- soms of the almond are not white, but roseate, like the peach-blow; but see Knobel, Ewald, Hitzig, in loc. In Jer. i, 11, a "rod of an almond-tree" (Sept. KapvivoQ, Vulg. vif/ilans) is made an emblem of prompt vigilance and zeal, according to the inherent force of the original term (Henderson, Comment, in loc). The produce of the tree is also denoted by the same term, evidently some species of nut, in Gen. xliii, 11 (Sept. Kapvov, Aquila and Symmachus cifivydaXov), where Jacob desires his sons to take into Egypt of the best fruits of the land, almonds, etc. As the almond-tree is a native of Syria and Palestine, and extends from thence to Afghanistan, and does not appear to have been indigenous in Egypt, almonds were very likely to form part of a present from Jacob, even to the great men of Egypt ; the more especially as the practice of the East is for people to present what they can afford in their respective stations. In Num. xvii, 8, the rod of Aaron is described as having " brought forth buds, and bloomed blossoms, and yielded almonds" (Sept. Kapva, Vulg. amygdalas). In Exod. xxv, 33, 34; xxxvii, 19 (where the derivative verb TjSEJ is used), bowls are directed to be made like almonds (Sept. KapvivKovc.). The form of the almond would lead to its selection for ornamental carved work, independent- ly of its forming an esteemed esculent, as well as probably yielding a useful oil. See Nut. The word X*tb, luz, translated " hazel," also occurs in Gen. xxx, 37, as the name of some tree, rods of which Jacob peeled and set before his ewes at the time of their conception ; and was probably another term for the almond, of which the Arabic name is still luz (For- skal, Flora sEg. p. 67). Some think this was the wild almond, while shaked designates the cultivated variety (Rosenmuller, Alterth. IV, i, 263 sq.). See Hazel. The almond-tree very closely resembles the peach-tree both in form, blossoms, and fruit; the last, however, being des- titute of the pulpy flesh covering the peach-nut. It is, iu fact, only an- other species of the same genus {Amygdalus com- munis, Linn.). It is a native of Asia and Af- rica, but it may be culti- vated in the south of Eu- rope, and the hardier va- rieties even in the mid- dle portions of the Unit- ed States. The flowers appear as early as Feb- ruary (Thomson, Land and Book, i, 495), or even January ( Pliny, xvi, 42; comp. Buhle, Calend. Palast. p. 5 sq. ; Schu- bert, Reis. iii, 114), the fruit in March (Kitto, Phys. Hist, of Pah sf.). For a general discussion of the subject, see Celsius, Hierob. i, 297 sq. ; Hayne, Beschreib. d. in d.Arzneikunde gebrauchlichen Gewdchse, iv, No. 39; Strumpf, Hand- buch der Arzneimittellehre (Berlin, 1848), i, 93 sq. ; Martius, Pharmakogn. p. 254 sq. ; Loudon, Arboret. Britann. (Lond. 1838), ii, 637 sq. ; Penny Cyclopedia, s. v. Amygdalus. See Botany. Armon-diblatha'im (Heb. Almon' -Diblatha'- yim, found only with !~l- local and in pause, "jlobs ita^nsa1?, [to the] covering of the two fig-cakes ; Sept. TAfuhv Af/i\a3-«i//,Vulg. ffehnondeblathaim),the fifty- first station of the Israelites [see Exonr,] between Di- bongad and the well (Beer) in the wilderness east of the Dead Sea (Num. xxxiii, 46, 47); probably the same elsewhere called Beth-diblathaim (Jer. xlviii, 22) and DiBLATH (Ezek. vi, 14). See Diblathaim. It appears to have lain in a fertile spot not far north of Dibon-gad, perhaps on the edge of the eminence over- looking the Wady Waleh. See Dibon-gad. Almoner is the name given originally to that member of a religious order who had the distribution of the money and other things set apart for alms, which, by canonical law, was to amount to at least a tenth of the revenues of the establishment. After- AlmnnJ Branch. ALMS 171 ALMS ward, those ecclesiastics also received this name who were appointed by princes to the same office in their households. The Grand Almoner of France was one of the principal officers of the court and of the king- dom, usually a cardinal, and, in right of his office, commander of all the orders, and also chief director of the great hospital for the blind. Queens, princes, and princesses had also their almoners, and bishops were usually appointed to this office. In England the office of hereditary grand almoner is now a sinecure, his only duty being to distribute the coronation medals among the assembled spectators. The lord high almoner, who is usually a bishop, distributes twice a year the queen's bounty, which consists in giving a silver penny each to as many poor persons as the queen is years of age. See Alms. Alms (tXstjfioavvT], mercifidness, i. e. an act of charity, Matt, vi, 1-4 ; Luke xi, 41 ; xii, 23 ; Acts iii, 2, 3, 10; x, 2, 4, 31; xxiv, 17; "almsdeeds," Acts ix, 36), beneficence toward the poor, from Anglo-Sax. almesse, probably, as well as Germ, almoscn, from the corresponding Greek word t\et]ftocivi>7); Vulg. eleemo- syna (but see Bos worth, Anglo-Saxon Diet.). The word "alms" is not found in our version of the canonical books of the O.T., but it occurs repeatedly in the N. T., and in the Apocryphal books of Tobit and Ecclesiasti- cus. The Heb. fip"!X, tsedakah', righteousness, the usu- al equivalent for alms in the 0. T., is rendered by the Sept. in Deut. xxiv, 13, and elsewhere, i\erj[io(Tvvt], while the best MSS., with the Vulg. and Khem. Test., read in Matt.vi, 1, Sikcuouiivi), righteousness. See Poor. I. Jewish Alms-giving. — The regulations of the Mo- saic law respecting property, and the enjoining of a general spirit of tender-heartedness, sought to prevent destitution and its evil consequences. The law in this matter is found in Lev. xxv, 35 : " And if thy brother be waxen poor, and fallen into decay with thee, then shalt thou relieve him ;" and it is liberally added, "yea, though he be a stranger or a sojourner, that he maj' live with thee." The consideration by which this merciful enactment is recommended has pe- culiar force : " I am the Lord your God, which brought you forth out of the land of Egypt to give you the land of Canaan, and to be your God." The spirit of the He- brew legislator on this point is forcibly exhibited in Deut xv, 7 sq. : " If there be among you a poor man .... thou shalt open thine hand wide unto him .... Beware that thine eye be not evil against thy poor brother, and thou givest him naught; and he cry unto the Lord against thee, and it be sin unto thee. Thou shalt surely give him, and thine heart shall not be grieved when thou givest unto him : because that for this the Lord thy God shall bless thee in all thy works." The great antiquity of the practice of benev- olence toward the poor is shown in Job xxix, 13 sq. How high the esteem was in which this virtue contin- ued to be held in the time of the Hebrew monarchy may be learnt from Psa. xli, 1: "Blessed is he that considereth the poor; the Lord will remember him in time of trouble" (comp. Psa. cxii, 9 ; Prov. xiv, 31). The progress of social corruption, however, led to the oppression of the poor, which the prophets, after their manner, faithfully reprobated (Isa. lviii, 3) ; where, among other neglected duties, the Israelites are re- quired to deal their bread to the hungry, and to bring the outcast poor to their house (comp. Isa. x, 2 ; Amos ii, 7 ; Jer. v, 28 ; Ezek. xxii, 20). However favora- ble to the poor the Mosaic institutions were, they do not appear to have wholly prevented beggary ; for the imprecation found in Psa. cix, 10, " Let his children be vagabonds and beg," implies the existence of beg- gary as a known social condition (comp. generally Carpzov, Eleemosynm Judceor. ex antiquitate Jud. de- lineates, Lips. 1728). Begging naturally led to alms- giving, though the language of the Bible does not pre- sent us with a term for "alms" till the period of the Babylonish captivity, during the calamities attendant on which the need probably introduced the practice (Gesenius, Carm. Samar. p. 63). In Dan. iv, 24, we find the Chald. word np*I^ (tsidkah' ' , lit. righteousness), rendered iXirjpoavvai in the Sept., and the ensuing member of the sentence puts the meaning beyond a question : " O king, break off thy sins by righteous- ness, and thine iniquities b}r showing mercy to the poor, if it may be a lengthening of thy tranquillity." A new idea is here presented, namely, that of merit and purchase. Alms-giving had come to be regarded as a means of conciliating God's favor and of warding off evil. At a still later period this idea took a firm seat in the national mind, and almsdeeds were re- garded as a mark of distinguished virtue (Tobit ii, 14 ; iv, 11). That begging was customary in the time of the Saviour is clear from Mark x, 46, " Blind Barti- nifflus sat by the wayside begging;" and Acts iii, 2, "A lame man was laid daily at the gate of the temple called Beautiful to ask alms" (comp. ver. 10). And that it was usual for the worshippers, as they entered the temple, to give relief, appears from the context, and particularly from the fine answer to the lame man's entreaty made by the Apostle Peter. See Beggar. Charity toward the poor and indigent— that is, alms-giving — was probably among the later Jews a highly-honored act of piety (see Buxtorf, Fhrileg. Heb. p. 88 sq. ; Otho, Lex. Uabb. p. 196 sq.), and hence is named even in connection with prayer and fasting (Tobit, xii, 9). It Avas regarded as especially agree- able to God (comp. Acts x, 4, 31 ; Heb. xiii, 16 ; Thilo, Apocr. p. 324), as meritorious in the divine sight (Prov. x, 2 ; xi, 4 ; Tob. ii, 14), even availing to blot out sins (Tob. iv, 10; Sir. xxix, 10-13; comp. Dan. iv, 24), in short, as a fulfilment of the whole law (Talm. Jerus. Peah, i). Children were early trained up to it (Tob. xiv, 11), and among the enco- miums of pious persons their charitableness was al- most always enumerated (Sir. xxxi, 11; Acts ix, 36; x, 2). Exhortations to this virtue are especially fre- quent in the Proverbs of Solomon (iii, 27 sq. ; xxii, 9 ; xxviii, 27), and in the book of Sirach (iii, 23 sq. ; vii, 36), and the latter gives practical hints for the performance of this duty (xii, 1 sq. ; xviii, 14 ; xx, 13 sq.). Accordingly, there were arrangements in the synagogues for the collection of alms on the Sabbath (Matt, vi, 2 ; comp. Yitringa, Synag. p. 811), and in the temple was a chamber (D^Xdn PS'ib) where alms not specially designated for the poor Jews (d"arj "03 tSl^y) were deposited (Mishna, Shek. v, 6) ; on the other hand, the trumpet-shaped vessels (ri-lSVJ, to which some have erroneously referred the term aaXiriZoj in Matt, vi, 2) served for the reception of those that individuals contributed for the support of divine worship. See Tejiple. In the communi- ty, according to Maimonides, eleemosynan- contribu- tions were so arranged that almoners (" "N2 J, collectors, fully >"!£7"-£ "^Sli Talm. Jerus. Demay, fol. xxiii, 2) sometimes took up collections of money in a box (tlS^p) on the Sabbath, and sometimes received daily from house to house voluntary offerings, consisting of victuals, in a vessel (^W^P) carried for that purpose (see, [Eck or] Werner, De jisco et paropside paupe- rum duab. specieb. eleemosynar. vet. Ebrceor. Jen. 1725). By far the foremost in alms-giving were the Pharisees, but they did it mostly in an ostentatious manner. The charge laid against them in Matt, vi, 2, has not yet been fully explained, on account of the obscurity of the expression "do not sound a trumpet before thee" (p>) (mXTrioyc. tpTrpoirSii' gov), which can hardly refer to the modern Oriental practice (Nie- buhr, Reisen, i, 181) of beggars (as in some parts of Switzerland) demanding charity by making music, since in that case the " trumpeting" would not pro- ceed from the donor, nor would he be at all in fault. The language conveys the idea that the Pharisees as- ALMS 172 ALMS sembled the poor in the synagogues and streets by the sound of a trumpet, which naturally attracted also spectators thither ; but this custom would be too cer- emonious to be probable, because it would require these individuals to have an attendant with a trum pet, as they could not well have blown it themselves By the term "synagogues" here could not be meant the audience-room, at least during divine service, but only the porch or immediate vicinity of the edifice. On the whole, the expression " sound a trumpet" may more easily be interpreted metaphorically (with the Church fathers, also Grotius, Fritzsche, Tholuck, and others), q. d., don't make a flourish of music in front of you, i. e. do not proclaim your liberality in a noisy manner. See generally Aster, Ds Eleemosynis Juda- orum (Lips. 1728) ; Maimonides, De Jure Pauperis, vii, 10; ix, 1, G; Jahn, Arch. Bibl. iv, 371; Lightfoot; Horce Ilebr. on Matt, vi, 2, and Descr. Templi, 19; and comp. Smith's Diet, of Class. Antiq. s. v. Tuba. See Offerings ; Tithes ; Temple. II. Apostolical. — The general spirit of Christianity, in regard to succoring the needy, is nowhere better seen than in 1 John iii, 17 : " Whoso hath this world's good, and seeth his brother have need, and shutteth up his bowels from him, how dwelleth the love of God in him?" With the faithful and conscientious ob- servance of the " royal law" of love, particular mani- festations of mercy to the poor seem to be left bv Christianity to be determined by time, place, and cir- cumstances ; and it cannot be supposed that a re- ligion, one of whose principles is " that, if any would not work, neither should he eat" (2 Thess. iii, 10), can give any sanction to indiscriminate alms-giving, or intend to encourage the crowd of wandering, idle beggars with which some parts of the world are f till infested. The emphatic language employed by the Lord Jesus Christ and others (Luke iii, 11 ; vi, 30 ; xi, 41 [see the treatise on this text by Somnel, Lond. and Goth. 1787]; xii, 33; Matt, vi, 1; Acts ix, 37; x, 2, 4) is designed to enforce the general duty of a merciful and practical regard to the distresses of the indigent — a duty which all history shows men have been lamentably prone to neglect ; while the absence of ostentation and even secrecy, which the Saviour enjoined in connection with alms-giving, was intend- ed to correct actual abuses, and bring the practice into harmony with the spirit of the Gospel. In the inim- itable reflections of Jesus on the widow's mite (Mark xii, 42) is found a principle of great value, to the ef- fect that the magnitude of men's offerings to God is to be measured by the disposition of mind whence they proceed ; a principle which cuts up by the very roots the idea that merit attaches itself to alms-giving as such, and increases in proportion to the number anl costliness of our almsdeeds. Accordingly, we find that the duty of relieving the pour was not neglected by the early Christians (Luke xiv, 13 ; Acts xx, 35 ; Gal. ii, 10). Every individ- ual was exhorted to lay by on the Sunday in each week some portion of his profits, to be applied to the wants of the needy (Acts xi, 30 ; Rom. xv, 25-27 ; 1 Cor. xvi. 1-4). It was also considered a duty specially incumbent on widows to devote themselves to such ministrations (1 Tim. v, 10). One of the earliest effects of the working of Christianity in the hearts of its professors was the care which it led them to take of the poor and indigent in the "house- hold of faith." Neglected and despised by the world, cut off from its sympathies, and denied any succor it might have given, the members of the early churches were careful not only to make provision in each case for its own poor, but to contribute to the necessities of other though distant communities (Acts xi, 29; xxiv, 17 ; 2 Cor. ix, 12). This commendable prac- tice seems to have had its Christian origin in the deep- ly interesting fact (which appears from John xiii, 29) that the Saviour and his attendants were wont, not- withstanding their own comparative poverty, to con- tribute out of their small resources something for the relief of the need}'. See generally Gude, Eleemosy- nm Eccles. Apostolicce ex Antiquitate Saci-a (Lauban. 1728).— Winer, i, 46 ; Kitto, s. v. ; Smith, s. v. III. Ecclesiastical Alms-giving. — In the early ages of Christianity alms were divided in some provinces into four portions ; one of which was allotted to the bishops, another to the priests, a third to the deacons and sub-deacons, which made their whole subsistence, and a fourth part was employed in relieving the poor and in repairing churches. These alms were given to the poor at their entrance into the church. The reasons assigned for this practice by Chrysostom in- dicate on his part a very defective view of Gospel truth. He says, " For this reason our forefathers ap- pointed the poor to stand before the door of our church- es, that the sight of them might provoke the most backward and inhuman soul to compassion. And as, by law and custom, we have fountains before our ora- tories, that thejr who go in to worship God may first wash their hands, and so lift them up in prayer, so our ancestors, instead of fountains and cisterns, placed the poor before the door of the church, that, as we wash our hands in water, we should cleanse our souls by beneficence and charity first, and then go and offer up our prayers. For water is not more adapted to wash away the spots of the body than the power of almsdeeds is to cleanse the soul. As, therefore, ytu dare not go in to pray with unwashen hands, though this be but a small offence, so neither should you without alms ever enter the church for prayer" (Horn. xxv, de verb. Apost.). The period of Lent was par- ticularly fruitful in alms. During the last week Chrysostom enjoins a more liberal distribution than usual of alms to the poor, and the exercise of all kinds of charity. The reason he assigns is, the nearer men approach to the passion and resurrection of Christ, by which all the blessings of the world were poured forth on men, the more they should feel themselves obliged to show all manner of acts of mercy and kindness to- ward their brethren (Bingham, bk. xxi, ch. i, § 25). At the time of marriage, as a substitute for the old Roman practice of throwing about nuts, the early Christians were accustomed to distribute alms to the poor and to children. The distribution of alms at funerals was associated with the unscriptural practice of praying for the dead. In one of Chrysostom's " Homilies," he says, " If many barbarous nations burn their goods together with their dead, how much more reasonable is it for you to give your child his goods when he is dead ! Not to reduce them to ashes, but to make him the more glorious ; if he be a sinner, to procure him pardon ; if righteous, to add to his reward and retribution." In several of the fathers alms-giving is recommended as meritorious ; and the germ of Romish teaching on the subject of salvation by the merit of good works may be clearly found in them. — Bingham, Orig. Eccl. xiii, viii, § 14; Coleman, Anc. Christianity, ch. iv, § 3; Honing, Lchre d. alt. Kirche v. Opfer. See Almoner. The order in the Church of England is, that alms should be collected at that part of the communion- service which is called the offertory, while the sen- tences are reading which follow the place appointed for the sermon. In the Methodist Episcopal Church alms are col- lected at the sacrament of the Lord's Supper and at the love-feasts. On the Christian duty of alms-giving see Taylor, Holy Living and Dying, ch. iv, § 8 ; Saurin, Sermons (Serm. ix); Barrow's Sermon on Bounty to the Poor (Works, ii, (59); Wayland's Moral Science, p. 376 sq. See Charity, and Poor. IV. Civil. — The poor-laics of modern times have brought up anew the whole question of alms-giving in its relation to Christian ethics, and it requires a ALMUG 173 ALOE thorough investigation. — Chalmers on the Scottish Poor- laws (Ed. Rev. xli, 228). See Hospitals; Pauper. Al'mug (Heb. only in the plural almuggim', d^SppX, according to Bohlen, from the Sanscrit mi- cata, a similar wood, al- being the Arab, article, 1 Kings x, 11, 12 ; Sept. tci £i>\a rd 7ri\tKi]rd, Vulg. ligna thyina, Auth. Vers, "almug- trees"), or ALGUM (Heb. likewise only in plur. algummim', Q^HIi&X, by transposition from the preceding, 2 Chron. ii, 8, Vulg. ligna pinea ; 2 Chron. ix, 10, 11, ligna thyina ; Sept. %i)\a rd irtvKtva, Auth. Vers. " algum-trees"), a kind of precious wood brought along with gold and precious stones from Ophir by the navy of Hiram in the time of Solomon, and employed by him for the ornaments of the temple and palace, as well as for making musical instruments (1 Kings x, 11, 12), and previously un- known to the Israelites (2 Chron. ix, 10, 11), although it is stated to have been also procured from Lebanon (2 Chron. ii, 8). The Sept. translators of Kings un- derstand "heini ivood" to be meant, but in Chron. it is rendered "pine wood" as by the Vulg. in one pas- sage, although elsewhere " thyine-wood" (conip. Rev. xviii, 12), or citron-wood. See Thyine. Its occur- rence in 2 Chron. ii, 8 (whence the inference that it was a species of pine, see Biel, De lignis ex Libano petitis, in the Musceum Ilagan. iv, 1 sq., or cedar, as Abulwalid, in loc.) among the trees procurable from Lebanon (comp. its omission in the parallel passage, 1 Kings v, 8) is probably an interpolation (Rosenmul- ler, Bib. Bot. p. 245), since it would not in that case have afterward become unknown (1 Kings x, 12). Dr. Shaw supposes it to have been the cypress, be- cause the wood of that tree is still used in Italy and elsewhere for violins, harpsichords, and other string- ed instruments. Hiller (Hierophyt. xiii, § 7) supposes a gummy or resinous wood to be meant, but this would be unfit for the uses to which the almug-tree is said to have been applied. Josephus (Ant. viii, 7, 1) describes the wood as that of a kind of p>ine, which he distin- guishes from the pine of his own days. Many of the rabbins (e. g. E. Tanchum) understand pea?-ls, for which the word in the sing, (almug, MOSSt) occurs in the Talmud (Mishna, Kelim, xiii, G ; comp. Maimon- ides and Bartinora, in loc.) ; but these are not a wood (B^XS), and are obtained from the Red and Mediterranean seas, whence .they are even exported to India (Pliny, xxxii, 2) ; so that we must probably un- derstand the Talmudists as only referring to the red or coralline hue of the wood. The interpretation of Kimchi (Targum, in loc. 2 Chron.), that it was a red dye-wood, called albaccum in Arabic, and commonly Brazil-icood (Abulfadli and Edrisi, ap. Celsius), has been followed by most moderns since Celsius (Iliero- lot. i, 171 sq.), who refer it to the sandal-wood of com- merce (in Sanscrit, raktd), a view which is corrobo- rated b)r the position of Ophir (q. v.), probably south- ward and eastward of the Bed Sea, in some part of India (Pict. Bible, ii, 349-3GG), whence alone the as- sociated products, such as gold, precious stones, ivory, peacocks, apes, and tin, could have been procured. Among those, however, who have been in favor of sandal-wood, many have confounded with the true and far-famed kind what is called " red sandal-wood," the product of Pterocarpus santalinus, as well as of Adenanthera pavonina (Beckmann, Waarrnkunde, II, i, 112 sq. ; Wahl, Ostindien, ii, 802 ; Faber, Archdolo- gie, p. 374). But the most common sandal-wood is that which is best known and most highly esteemed in India. It is produced by the Santalum album,, a native of the mountainous parts of the coast of Mala- bar, v/here large quantities are cut for export to China, to different parts of India, and to the Persian and Arabian gulfs. The outer parts of this tree are white and without odor; the parts near the root are most fragrant, especially of such trees as grow in hilly sit- uations and stony ground. The trees vary in diame- Branch of the Srimbil-tive (Santalum Album). ter from 9 inches to a foot, and are about 25 or 30 feet in height, but the stems soon begin to branch. This wood is white, fine-grained, and agreeably fragrant, and is much employed for making rosaries, fans, ele- gant boxes, and cabinets. The Chinese use it also as incense both in their temples and private houses, and burn long slender candles formed bj' covering the ends of sticks with its sawdust mixed with rice-paste. As sandal-wood has been famed in the East from very early times, it is more likely than any other to have attracted the notice of, and been desired by, more northern nations. We do not, however, trace it by its present or any similar name at a verj' earl)' period in the writings of Greek authors; it may, however, have been confounded with agila-wood, or agallochum, which, like it, is a fragrant wood and used as incense. See Aloe. Sandal-wood is mentioned in early San- scrit works, and also in thote of the Arabs. Actuarius is the earliest Greek author that expressly notices it, but he does so as if it had been familiarly known. In the Periplus of Arrian it is mentioned as one of the ar- ticles of commerce obtainable at Omana, in Gedrosia, by the name £v\a aaydXtva, which Dr. Vincent re- marks may easily have been corrupted from aavddXi- va. As it was produced on the Malabar coast, it could readily be obtained by the merchants who con- veyed the cinnamon of Ceylon and other Indian prod- ucts to the Mediterranean (comp. Gesenius, Thcs. Heb. p. 93 ; Penny Cyclopedia, s. v. Santalaceaj, Santalum). See Botany, and comp. Sandal-wood, Al'nathan ('AXvaSrav v. r. 'EXvaSav), one of the popular chiefs at the return from Babylon (1 Esdr. viii, 1G) ; evidently the first Elnathan (q. v.) of the parallel text (Ezra viii, 44). Aloe, Aloes, or Lign-Aloe, an Oriental tree, having a fragrant wood, but entirely different from the plant from which the bitter resin aloes is obtained, used in medicine. The Hebrew words ahalim' and ahaloth' (Q^HX, PibrtN) occur in Psa. xlv, 8, "All thj' garments smell of myrrh, and aloes (Sept. arrtfer//), and cassia ;" Prov. vii, 17, " I have perfumed my bed with myrrh, with cinnamon and aloes" (Sept. omits); Cant, iv, 14, " Spikenard and saffron, calamus and cinnamon, with all trees of frankincense, myrrh and aloes (Sept. dXioSr), with all the chief spices." From the articles which are associated with them (both names indicating the same thing), it is evident that it was some odoriferous substance probably well known in ancient times. See Aromatics. This tree or wood was called by the Greeks dyc'iX- \o\oi', and later Zv\a\ X A Jf -V ^ ^4 5 4 3 2 1 2' 3' mar as a consonant of the guttural class, although a very soft one, corresponding to the "smooth breath- ing" in Greek ('), and cannot therefore be readily rep- resented in English. Like all the other letters of the Hebrew alphabet, it is frequently employed in the Psalms and Lamentations to indicate a division of the stanzas in the manner of an acrostic (q. v.). A re- markable instance occurs in Psa. cxix, which is di- vided into as many sections of several verses each as there are letters in the alphabet, the first word of each verse beginning with the letter appropriate to the section. The Hebrew name has passed over along with the letter itself into the Greek alpha. Loth the Hebrews and Greeks employed the letters of their alphabets as numerals; and A, therefore (aleph or aljiha), denoted one, the first. Hence our Lord says of himself that he is (to A) Alpha and (to £2) Omega, i. e. the first and the last, the beginning and the ending, as he himself explains it (Rev. i, 8, 11 ; xxi, 6 ; xxii, 13). This expression, which in the O. T. had already been employed to express the eternity of God (Isa. xliv, 6), was in the patristic period more definitely employed with the same significance (Tertul. De monog. c. 5 ; Prudentius, Cathemer. Hymn, ix, 11) ; and its applications were traced out with puerile mi- nuteness (see Primasius, in the Bibl. Pair. Max. x, 338), especially by the Gnostic Marcus (Iren. Uteres. i, 14; Tertul. Prcescr. c. 50). Traces of this signifi- cance as a symbol of the divinity of Christ (Rhaban, De laud. s. Crucis, i, fig. 1 ; Didron, Tconogr. Chret. p. 601) have been found in the following interesting monograms, which occur on the catacombs of Melos (Ross, Reisen auf d. Inseln d. dgeischen Meeres, iii, 149) and Naples (Aginc. Pitt, xi, 9), and in the ceme- teries of Rome (Mamachi Orig. et antiq. Christ, iii, 75), as well as on coins and inscriptions elsewhere. A+d 4a J* Early Christian Symbols, containing the Greek letters A and il, with the cross or the sign XP (for Xp«rT6s). They are sometimes enclosed in a circle. See Bey- schlag, De sigillo nominis Dei hominis (Viteb. 1692) ; Ewald, De a et 10 nomine Chr. mystico, in his Embl. ii, 169 sq. ; Pfeiffer, De a et w (Regiom. 1677) ; Rudiger, De Christo per primum (niDX^a) et ultimum (A/»» S. S. vocem indicato (Giess. 1724). See Omega. Alphabet (from the first two Greek letters, alpha and beta), the series of characters employed in writing any language. The origin of such written signs is unknown, having been ascribed by some to Adam and other antediluvians (Bangii Exercitationes de ortu et progressu literarum, Hafnias, 1657, p. 99 sq.), and lately to an astronomical observation of the relative position of the planets in the zodiac by Noah at the deluge (Seyft'arth, Unser Alphabet ein Abbild des Thier- kreises, Leipz. 1834). See Language. The earliest and surest data, however, on which any sound speculation on this subject can be based, are found in the genuine paloeographical monuments of the Phoenicians; in the manifest derivation of all oth- er Syro-Arabian and almost all European characters from that type, and in the testimonj- which history bears to the use and transmission of alphabetical writ- ing (Carpzov, Crit. Sacr. p. 227; Kopp, Bilder und Schriften der Vorzeit, Mannh. 1819 ; and especially Gesenius, Scrijiturce linguwque Phanicm monumcnta, Lips. 1837). See Writing. The earlie-t I'huTiiri.in. Ancient Greek. Ancient Persian Ancient Hebrew Aramaean, Later Himyarite. on Asmon. coins. on Egypt, mon. Phoenician, Kufic. Peshito. Uigur or Old Turkish Historical derivation of Alphabets. There are only three nations which can compete for the honor of the discover)', or rather the use and transmission of letters— the Babylonians, the Phoeni- cians, and the Egyptians. The chief arguments in favor of the first (Kopp, Bilder und Schriften, ii, 147; Hoffmann, Gram. Syr. p. 61) are based on the very early civilization of Babylon ; on numerous passages which attribute the discovery to the 2dpot, Syri, and ALPHABET 176 ALPH^EUS X«\<^i7 0 Phi. 0 (harder sound) 22 X X Chi. 24 X x X x (Compound) 23 * l/, Psi. i (as u mater lectionis") 24 n u> O'mega. modern European, as represented by the three forms of character employed in this work, namely, the He- brew, Greek, and English, to which all the others bear a well-known and mostly obvious relation. The sounds attributed to them respectively, however, were in many cases different. Another and more funda- mental variation arises from the fact that in the He- brew all the letters are regarded as consonants, "the vowels being designated by certain additional marks called " points," of late invention. See Hebrew LANGUAGE. For a view of the printed characters of all languages with their powers, see Ballhorn, Alpha- bete orientalischer und occidentalischer Sprachen (Leipz. and Lond. 1859). This (and still more the above) classification must be understood as applying only to the written symbols, and not to the etymological af- finities of languages, which depend upon national deri- vation. See Ethnology. Alphabetical Poems. Hymns. See Abecedarian Alphce'us ('AX^atof), the name of two men. 1. The putative father of James the Less (Matt, x, 3; Mark iii, 18; Luke vi, 15; Acts i, 13), and hus- band of Mary, the sister-in-law of our Lord's mother (John xix, 25) [see Mary] ; for which reason James is called "the Lord's brother" (Gal. i, 19). See James. A.D. ante 2G. It seems that he was a (per- haps elder) brother of Joseph, to whom, on bis de- cease without issue, his widow was married according to the Levirate Law (q. v.). By comparing John xix, 25, with Luke xxiv, 10, and Matt, x, 3, it appears that Alphtms is the Greek, and Cleophas or Clopas (q. v.) the Hebrew or Syriac name of the same person, ac- cording to the custom of the provinces or of the time, when men had often two names, by one of which they ALPHAGE 177 ALTAR were known to their friends and countrymen, and by the other to the Romans or strangers. More prob- ably, however, the double name in Greek arises, in this instance, from a diversity in pronouncing the H in his Aramajan name, "'S^Pt (chalphay', changing, as in the Talmudists, Lightfoot, ad Acts, i, 13), a diversity ■which is common also in the Septuagint (Kuinol, Comment, on John xix, 25). See Name. Or rather, perhaps, CI* pis was a Greek name adopted out of re- semblance to the Jewish form of Alpkaus (like '' Paul" for "Saul"), if, indeed, the former be not the original from which the latter was derived by corruption. 2. The father of the evangelist Levi or Matthew (Mark ii, 14). A.D. ante 26. Alphage or Elphegus, archbishop of Canter- bury, distinguished for humility and piety. Being infected with the views of the ago, he took the habit in the monastery of the Benedictines, and afterward shut himself up in a cell at Bath. Here he remained until, the see of Winchester being vacated by the death of Ethelwold, Dunstan, archbishop of Canter- bury, called him to the vacant bishopric. In 1005 he was elevated to the see of Canterbury. After he had governed this metropolitan see some years, the Danes made an irruption into the city, burned the cathedral, and having put to death upward of seven thousand of the inhabitants, seized the archbishop, whom they kept in bonds seven months, and then murdered ; this was on the 19th April, 1012. Godwin remarks that the murderers did not escape the penalty of their sacri- legious act, scarcely one in the whole Danish army having escaped. — Collier, Eccl. Hist, i, 487-493. Alphen, Jerome Simon Van, a German theo- logian, was born at Hanau, May 23, 16G5; studied at Franeker and Leyden; became pastor at Warmond, and afterward at Amsterdam; and finally, in 1715, professor of theology at Utrecht, which office he filled until his death at Utrecht, Nov. 7, 1742. His principal work is Specimina Analytica, in Epist. Fault. (Utrecht, 1742, 2 vols. 4to). — Drakenborch, Oratio Funebris in Van Alphen (Utrecht, 1743); Hoefer, Biog. Generate, i, 210. Alphery, Nicephorus (or Mikipiier), a Rus- sian, allied by birth to the imperial family. In con- sequence of political troubles, he went to England, studied theology, and, in 1618, became curate of War- len, Huntingdonshire. It is said that he was repeat- edly called from his retirement to return to Russia, even with offers of the imperial throne; but he pre- ferred his quiet duties in England. In 1G43 he was deprived of his living, but it was restored to him after the Restoration, and he lived, greatly respected, to a great age. — Biographia Britannica, s. v. ; Walker, Suf- ferings oftJie Clergy in the Great Rebellion, pt. ii. Alphitomancy, a kind of divination (q. v.) per- formed with barley, first among the pagans, and from them introduced among Christians. A person sus- pected of crime was brought before a priest, who made him swallow a piece of barley-cake ; if this was done without difficulty, he was declared to be innocent; otherwise, not. — Delrio, Disq. Magic, lib. iv, cap. 11 ; Landon, Eccl. Diet. s. v. Alphonso de Alcala (in Latin Alphonsus Complutensis), a Spanish rabbi, was a native of iWcala de Henares, and lived toward the close of the 15th century. He embraced Christianity, and was employed by Cardinal Ximenes in the revision of the celebrated Polyglot.— Wolf, Bibl. Hebr. i, 193. Alphonso de Zamora, a Spanish Jew and dis- tinguished rabbi, converted to the Catholic faith, and baptized in 1506. Cardinal Ximenes employed Iiini for fifteen years upon his celebrated Polyglot, after which he composed a Dictionary of the Chaldee and Hebrew words of the Old Testament, and other works relating to the text of the Holy Scriptures. In these labors he had some assistance from others ; but he composed many other works by himself, mostly on the Hebrew tongue. He wrote also, from Spain, a lettei to the Roman Jews, in Hebrew and Latin interlined, reproaching them for their obstinacy. — Cave, Hist. Lit anno 1506; Wolf, Bibl. Hebr. i, 193. Alphonsus of Liguori. See Liguori. Alsted, Joiiannis Heinrich, a German Protestant divine, born in 1588 at Herborn, in Nassau, professor of philosophy and theology in his native town, and sub- sequently at Weissembourg, in Transylvania, where he died in 1638. He represented the Reformed Church of Nassau at the Synod of Dort. Among his numer- ous works may be mentioned, Tractatus de Milk Annis (1618; a treatise on the Millennium, translated and published in London in 1643, 4to) ; Encyclopaedia Bib- lica (Francof. 1620, 1642), in which he attempts to prove that the principles and materials of all the arts and sciences should be sought for in the Scriptures. He wrote also a general Encyclopedia (Lyons, 1649, 4 vols, fol.), and other works, of which a list may be found in Niceron, Mernoires, t. xli. Altanae'us ('AArfuwoc, prob. for MaXrayatoQ, and this, by resolution of the dagesh, for Mar7-«va, a&*" ^~ ■ ■ ' -"' s -: ' ■ "' § - " * -r ■ Whtrf^~'-~ ''- ••- >*'""' IwSjw^^P--- 1 '"'^V"-^-''' '"■ I '■"r-,! 7C~-;~ ^"""'*'-"£-l^"i ^^g^co.;,.V-, circle There is a small cavity on the top, as if to contain fire. The pyramids (q. v.) of Egypt may like- wise have been originalh' sites of worship. Passing by the early and rude forms of altars still extant of the Mexican worship, since too little is known of the history and application of these to illus- trate our subject in any definite manner, we notice those of Egypt as being first both in point of aptness \VJ> ^S Ancient Kgyptian Altar of bloody Offerings. ALTAR 179 ALTAR and antiquity. The first of the accompanying speci- mens is of a purely Egyptian character, and is taken from the representations of sacrifice upon the monu- ments. Among the ancient Egyptian pictures that have been dis- covered at Hercula- neum are two of a very curious descrip- tion, representing sa- cred ceremonies of the Egyptians, prob- ably in honor of Isis. In one the scene is in the area before a tem- ple (as usual) ; the congregation is nu- merous, the music va- Egyptian Altar of Burnt-offering. riouS) flnd thfl pdests engaged are at least nine persons. The temple is raised, and an ascent of eleven steps leads up to it. In the entire painting, of the birds or ibises one i.< lying down at ease, another is standing up without fear or apprehension ; a third, perched on some paling, is looking over the heads of the people ; and a fourth is standing on the back of a Sphinx, nearly adjacent to the temple, in the front of it. It deserves notice that this altar (and the other also) has at each of its four corners a rising, which continues square to about half its height, but from thence is gradually sloped off to an edge or a point. ' These arc no doubt the horns of the attar, and probably this is their true figure (see Exod. xxvii, 2, etc. ; xxix, 12 ; Ezek. xliii, 15). The priest is blowing up the lire, apparently with a fan, so as to avoid the pollution of the breath. The other figure, which we give more in full, shows the horns of the altar, formed on the same principle as the foregoing ; but this is seen on its angle, and its gen- eral form is more elevated. It has no garlands, and perfumes appear to be burning on it. In Vnh picture the assembly is not so numerous as in the other ; but almost all, to the number of ten or a dozen persons, are playing on musical instruments. Grseco-Egyptian Alt The idolaters in the first ages of the wrorld, who generally worshipped the sun, appear to have thought it improper to confine the supposed infinity of this imaginary deity within walls, and therefore they gen- erally made choice of woods and mountains, as the most convenient places for their idolatry ; and when, in later times, they had brought in the use of temples, yet for a long time they kept them open- roofed. With such a form of worship notions of gloomy sub- limity were associated, and so prevalent was the cus- tom, that the phrase " worshipping on high places," is frequently used to signify idolatry in the Old Tes- r Antique Altars on High-plaops. From Ker Porter'B Travels in Persia. tament. The worshipping on high-places was strict- ly forbidden to the Jews ; not merel}' because the cus- tom had a tendency to produce idolatry, but also be- cause the customary form of that idolatry was the worst, the most cruel, and the most debasing. See High-place. It was before these altars, in groves and mountains, that human sacrifices were most fre- quently offered, that parents whose natural affections were blighted and destroyed by dark superstitions made their children pass through the fire to Moloch ; and it was in such places that licentiousness and de- pravity were systematically made a part of public worship. See Idolatry. It does not appear from the monuments that altars on high-places were com- mon in Egypt, though there are some traces of wor- ship in groves. See AsHERAH. The heathens at first made their altars only of turf, afterward of stone, marble, wood, and other materials. They differed in form as well as material, some being round, some square, and others triangular. All their altars turned toward the east, and stood lowTer than the statue of the god, and were adorned with sculp- tures representing the deity to whom erected, or the appropriate symbols. These altars were of two kinds, the higher and the lower; the higher were intended for the celestial gods, and were called by the Romans at/aria ; the lower were for the terrestrial and infer- nal gods, and were called ararts ; Sept. acvrdXai) made of shittim-wood overlaid with gold, to bear it withal" 1 (Exod. xxx, 1-5; Josephus, Ant. iii, 6, 8). (6.) The altar in Solomon's temple was similar, but l made of cedar (1 Kings vi, 20 ; vii, 48 ; 1 Chron. xxix, 18) overlaid with gold (comp. Isa. vi, 0). (c.) The altar in the second temple was taken away by Antiochus Epiphanes (1 Mace, i, 23), and restored by Judas Maccabseus (1 Mace, iv, 49). On the arch of Titus there appears no altar of incense; it is not mentioned in Heb. ix, nor by Joseph. Ant. xiv, 4, 4. According to the Mishna (Ckagigah, iii, 8; Tumid, vi, 2), it was overlaid with metal. From the circum- stance that the sweet incense was burnt upon it every day, morning and evening (Exod. xxx, 7, 8), as well as that the blood of atonement was sprinkled upon it (v, 10), this altar had a special importance attached to it. It is the only altar which appears in the Heav- enly Temple (Isa. vi, G ; Lev. viii, 3, 4). It was ALTAll 183 ALTAR Supposed Form of the Jewish Altar of Incense, doubtless this altar at which Zaeharias was minister- ing when the angel appeared to him (Luke i, 11). See generally Hamm, Be Ara suffitus (Herborn, 1715); Cremer, Antiq. Sacr. i, 297 sq. ; Schlichter, in the Symbol. Lit. Br em. ii, 401 sq. ; Ugolini Altare In- terim, in his Thesaur. xi; Bahr, Symbol, i, 419 sq., 470 sq. See Incexse. 3. Of other Jewish altars, we read only of (1.) Al- tars of brick. There seems to be an allusion to such in Isa. lxv, 3. The words are, D^r&in ^? EP"^!^, " offering incense on the bricks" gen- erally explained as referring to altars made of this mate- rial, and probably situated in the "gardens" men- tioned just before. Rosenmuller sug- gests, however, that the allusion is to some Babylonish custom of burning incense on bricks „ „ .. . covered over with Various Altars. 1, 2. 1-^vptian, from . bass-reliefs (Rossellini). '3. Assyrian, maglc formulas or found at Khorsabad (Layard). 4. cuneiform inscrip- Babylonian, Biblintheque Rationale flons This is also (Layard). 5. Assyrian, from Khorsa- . , '. . "c bad (Layard). tlle A lew oi ^esc- nius and Maurer. (2.) The Assyro-Damascene altar erected by Ahaz for his own use (2 Kings xvi, 10-13). See Ahaz. It probably resembled one of those in the annexed cut. — Winer, i, 49, 194 sq. ; ii, 303 ; Kitto, s. v. ; Smith, s. v. III. Christian. — 1. Significance. — The word altar is used, figuratively, to denote the Lord's table, not, how- ever, in a sacrificial sense. As there is but the one sac- rificing priest, the Lord Jesus, and the one propitiatory sacrifice, namely, the sacrifice of himself, so there is but the one altar, that upon which he gave himself a ransom for all. The apostles in no instance call the bread and wine a sacrifice, or the Lord's table an al- t ir, or the Christian minister a priest. And this is the more remarkable in this case ; for they do speak of priests, and sacrifices, and altars under the Chris- tun dispensation, but never in reference to the Lord's Supper. There cannot but have been design in this omission. In the earliest age of Christianity the table was not called altar (Lardner, Works, iv, 212) at a later period both altar and table were used in differently, the former word, however, not in a Jew- ish or pagan sense. When the ancient apologists were reproached with havin ; no temples, no altars, was table, with the addition of some epithet imply- ing the peculiar use of it in a Christian church. In Chrysostom it is termed the mystical and tremen- dous table ; sometimes the spiritual, divine, royal, immortal, heavenly table. Wherever the word altar was used, it was carefully distinguished from the Jewish altar on which bloody sacrifices were laid, and from heathen altars, connected with absurd idolatries. The Church of England never uses the word " al- tar" for communion-table in her rubrics, and she carefully excludes the notion of a literal sacrifice, which altar would imply, by expressly referring in her communion -service to the sacrifice of Christ ("who, by his one oblation of himself once ottered, made a full, perfect, and sufficient sacrifice for the sins of the whole world") ; and by studiously intro- ducing into the same service the word " sacrifice" in the several figurative senses (warranted by Scrip- ture) which it will bear ; applying the word to our alms, to our offering of [ raise and thanksgiving, to the offering of ourselves, souls and bodies, but never applying it to the elements. That the English re- formers wished to discountenance the notion of al- tars, and sacrifices thereon, appears from the fact that at- the Reformation altars were ordered hence- forth to be called tables, in consequence of a sermon preached by Bishop Hooper, who said, "that it would do well, that it might please the magistrate to turn 'altars' into 'tables,' according to the first insti- tution of Christ ; to take away the false persuasion of the people, which they have of sacrifice to be done upon the altars; for as long as altars remain, both the ignorant people and the ignorant and evil-per- suaded priest will always dream of sacrifice" {Hoop- er's Writings, Parker Society, p. 488 ; Burnet, Hist, of Reformation, ii, 252, 253). Other Protestant Church- es, in particular the Lutheran, have retained the use of' an altar, at which the Liturgy is read, the Lord's Supper celebrated, and other ecclesiastical actions per- formed. 2. Material and Form. — In the time of Augustine it appears that the altars in the churches of Africa were of wood, and it is commonly thought that stone altars began to be used about the time of Constantine. In the time of Gregory Nyssen altars began to be made generally of stone ; and the twenty-sixth canon of the council of Epaone, A.D. 517, forbids to conse- crate any but a stone altar; from which and other evidence (see Martene, lib. i, cap. iii, art. 6, No. 5) it appears that wooden altars were in use in Erance till that and a much later period. In England wooden altars were originally in common use (William of Malmesbury, iii, 14, Be Vita Wulstani, Ep. Wigorn. : " Erant tunc temporis altaria lignea, jam inde h pris- cis diebus in Anglia, ca ille per dicecesin demolitus, ex lapidibus compaginavit alia"). At the English Reformation stone altars were removed and wooden taldes substituted. The eighty-second canon of the synod of London, 1G03, orders that a convenient and decent table shall be provided for the celebration of the holy communion, covered with a carpet of silk, or other decent stuff, and with a fair linen cloth at the time of communion. As to its position, the rubric be- fore the communion-service states that it may stand in the body of the church, or in the chancel. Altars in the Romish Church are built of stone, to represent Christ, the foundation-stone of the spiritual building, the Church. Every altar has three steps going up to it, covered with a carpet. It is decked with natural and artificial flowers, according to the season of the year, and no cost is spared in adorning it with gold, silver, and jewels. The tabernacle of the Holy Sacrament is placed on the holy altar, on each side* of which are tapers of white wax, except at all offices for the dead, and during the last three days of Passion-week, at which time they are yellow. A cruci- no shrines, the}- simply replied, " Shrines and altars we have not." The more common word employed I fix is placed on the altar. There is a copy, written in a ALTAR 184 ALTING legible hand, of the Te igitur, a prayer addressed only to the first Person of the Trinity. * The altar is fur- nished with a little bell, which is rung thrice when the priest kneels down, thrice when he elevates the host, and thrice when he sets it down. There is also a portable altar or consecrated stone, with a small cavity in the middle of the front side, in which are put the relics of saints, and it is sealed up by the bishop. Should the seal be broken, the altar loses its consecra- tion. The furniture of the altar consists of a chalice and paten for the bread and wine, both of gold or sil- ver; a pyx for holding the wafer, at least of silver- gilt ; a veil, in form of a pavilion, of rich white stuff to cover the pyx ; a thurible, of silver or pewter, for the incense ; a holy-water pot, of silver, pewter, or tin ; also corporals, palls, purificatories, etc. About the time of Charlemagne it became common to have several altars in one church, a custom which spread, especially since the eleventh century. The side al- tars were usually erected on pillars, side walls, or in chapels, while the main or high altar stands always in the choir. — The Greek churches have generally only one altar. 3. The portable altar (altare portatile, gestatorium, or itinerariuin) was one that might be carried about at convenience. These altars Martene refers to the very earliest ages of the Church, maintaining, with some reason, that during times of persecution portable al- tars were much more likely to be used than those which were fixed and immovable. The use of such portable altars was afterward retained in cases of ne- cessity. The order of benediction is given by Mar- tene, Be Ant. Eccl. Rit. (ii, 291).— Bingham, Orig. Eccl. bk. viii, cb. vi, § 11-15; Procter, on Common Prayer, p. 29, 58 ; Collier, Eccl. Hist, vi, 257 ; Butler, Lives' of Saints, iv. 418 ; Neal, Hist, of Puritans, i, 44, ii, 306. 4. The privileged altar (ara prierogativa) was one to which peculiar privilege* are granted ; e. g. an altar at which, by privilege of the pope, masses for the dead may be said on days when they are not permitted at other altars, and where, according to the modern Bo- man doctrine, the Church applies, in a peculiar man- ner, the merits of Jesus Christ and the saints to the souls in purgatory ; " but not so that a soul is infalli- bly delivered from purgatory at each mass that is said, as some may imagine, because indulgences can only avail the dead in the way of suffrages." — Richard and Giraud. The origin of privileged altars in the Boman Church dates as lately as the time of Gregory XIII ; i. e. be- tween 1572 and 1585, although some writers have en- deavured to assign them to an earlier period. — Landon. In the earliest ages, the clergy only were allowed to approach the altar; not even the emperor himself, at first, was allowed this privilege, but afterward the rule was relaxed in favor of the imperial dignity (Canon 09, iu Trullo). The approach of women to the altar was, if possible, even more strictly prohibited than that of men (Can. 44 of Laodicea, can. 4 of Tours, etc.). "In these days," says Martene, "the licentiousness of men lias arrived at that pitch in the churches, that not only emperors and princes, but the very common people so fill the choir that scarcely is there sitting room left for the ministering clergy. Kay, more; with shame be it spoken, often women are found no lost to all reverence and shame, as not to hes- itate to sil on the very steps of the altar!"— Martene, Be Ant. Eccl. Hit. lib. i, cap. :i ; Landon, Eccl. Diet. s.v. Farther literature on tin- subject of altars is con- tained in th,. treatises of Batellus, Ablutio basilica- Vat. (Rom. 170i'): Bebel, De mensis tuck. vett. (Ar- gent. 1668); Chladenius, De altaragio, (Vit. 174C); Clcftel, I) expurg. altaris (Viteb. 1718); Pabricius, De altaribus < Helm. 1698 I ; Fries, Altare in ev. Kirchen (Flensb. 1776); Gattico, De oratoriis (Rom. 1741) ; Ge- ret. Ih- vet. eh,-, altaribus (Onold. 1755); Maii, Dins. (h aria tt altaribus vett. (Giess. 1732); Mizler, be avis et altaribus (Viteb. 1G9G) ; Molinreus, De altaribus vet. Chr. (Hannov. 1607) ; Orland, De expiando altaria (Flor. 1709) ; Schmid, De altar, jwrtatilibm (Jen. 1695) ; Schonland, Nachricht von Altdren (Leipz. 1716); Sle- vogt, Reclite der Altare (Jena, 1726, 1732) ; Tarpagius, De sepnlchro altarium (Hafn. 1702) ; Thiers, A utels des eglises (Par. 1688) ; Tilemann, De altellis (Ulad. 1743) ; Treiber, De situ altarium (Jen. 1668) ; Voigt, Thysia- steriologia (Hamb. 1709); Wildvogel, De jure altarium (Jen. 1716) ; Hoffmann, De Ara Victoria Imperatori- bus Christ, odiosa (Wittenb. 1760) ; Heideloff, D. Christl. Altar (Niirnb. 1838). See Temple. Al-tas'chith (Heb. al-tashchelh', nTOFr^tf, de- stroy not ; Sept. /.u) dicKpStipyc.), in the title of Psalms lvii, lviii, lxix, lxxv, seems to have been the com- mencement or name of a kind of poem or song, to the melody of which these Psalms were to be sung or chanted. This is the view taken by Aben-Ezra (Com- ment, on Psa. lvii). Others, however, of the Jewish interpreters (e. g. Bashi and Kimchi) regard these words as a compendium or motto to the contents of the Psalms to which it is prefixed. See Psalms. Altenburg, Duchy of. See Saxe-Altenburg. Alter, Franz Carl, a German Jesuit, and pro- fessor of Greek at the gymnasium in Vienna, was born at Engelberg, in Silesia, Jan. 27, 1749, and died March 29, 1804. He published a new critical edition of the New Testament (Novum Testamentum, 2 vols. Vienna, 1786-87) on the basis of the Codex Lambecii I, with which he collated 24 manuscripts, and the Slavic and Coptic versions of some parts of the N. T. Bishop Marsh, in his supplement to the Introduction of Mi- chajlis, lays clown the advantages and disadvantages of this edition. He also wrote an essay on Georgian Literature (in German, Vienna, 1798), published an edition of a number of Latin and Greek classics, and translated into German "The Classical Bibliography of Edward Harwood." He was a frequent contribu- tor to the Memorabilien of Paulus and the Leipzig All- gemeiner Literatur-Anzeiger, two Protestant papers. — Hoefer, Bivgraphie Generale, ii, 229 ; Landon, Eccl. Dictionary, s. v. Althamer, Andreas, one of the German reform- ers, was born in 1498, at Brenz, in Suabia, and from this circumstance he is sometimes called Andreas Brentius. In 1527 and 1528 he assisted at the con- ferences at Berne on the mode of Christ's presence in the Eucharist, where he held with Luther the doctrine of consubstantiation. He died in 1564. Althamer published, 1. Conciliationes locorum scr/ptune (1528, 8vo) : — 2. A nnotationes in Jacobi Epistolam : — 3. De Peccato Originali: — 4. De Sacramento Altaris: — 5. Scholia in Taciti Germania: — 6. Sylva bibl. nominum (1530). J. A. Ballenstadt published a life of him in 1740 (Wolfenbiittel).— Hook, Eccl. Biog. i, 151 ; Bal- lenstadt, Vita Althamer/, 1740 ; Bayle, Dictionary, s. v. Alting, James, a Dutch theologian, son of the fol- lowing, was born at Heidelberg, Dec. 27,1618; made professor of Hebrew at Groningen 1667; died Aug. 20, 1679. He was an eminent Oriental scholar. His works are published under the title, Opera omnia theologica, ancdytica, exegi t',ca,practica, problematic!!, et philologica (Amst. 1687, 5 vols. fol.). The}' include, among other writings, 1. Historia A cade mica rum in Populo llcbric- orum: — 2. Dissertatio maxime de Rebus llebraiorum : — 3. Commentaries on most of the Books of the Bible : — 1. A Syro-Chaldaic Grammar: — 5. A Treatise on Hebrew Points. — Hoefer, Nouv. Biog. Generale, ii, 235. Alting, Joh. Heinrich, a learned reformed di- vine, was born at Emden, in Friesland, Feb. 17, 1583. In 1612 he went over into England with the electoral prince palatine; when he returned to Germany he was appointed professor of theology at Heidelberg. He was one of the deputies to the synod of Dort. After the sacking of Heidelberg by Tilly he retired to ALUKAII 185 ALYPIUS Emden, and afterward to Groningen, where he became I professor in 1(527, and died Aug. 25, 1044. Among his works are, Methodus Theologue didactical (Amst. 1050) : — Scriptorum Theologicorum Heidelbergensium (3 vols. 4to, Amst. 1040) : — Exegesis logica et theologica Augus- tana? Confessionis (Amst. 1047, 4to) -.—Tkeohgia prob- lematica nova (Amst. 1002, 4to): — Theologiu hist mica (Ibid. 1GG4) :— Tkeohgia elenctica nova (Basle, 1079, 4to). — Bayle, Dictionary, s. v. ; Hoefer, Biog. Generate, ii. 234. Alukah. See House-leech. A'lush (Heb. Alusk', ttWbX; perhaps desolation, according to the Talmud, a crowd of men ; Sept. Ai'- \ovc), the eleventh place at which the Hebrews rested on their way to Mount Sinai (Num. xxxiii, 13). It was between Dophkah and Rephidim, and was proba- bly situated on the shore of the Red Sea, just south of lias Jthan. See Exode. The Jewish chronology (Seder Olam, ch. v, p. 27) makes it twelve miles from the former and eight from the latter station. The Targum of Jonathan calls it "a strong fort;" and it is alleged (upon an interpretation of Exod. xvi, 30) that in Alush the Sabbath was instituted, and the first Sabbath kept. Eosebius (Onomast. s. v. 'AWou?) has only this notice, "a region of leaders (?) in what is now Gebalene, near the city Petra." — Kitto, s. v. Alva y Astorga, Peter of, a Spanish Francis- can, who assumed the habit of that order in Peru, and flourished in the seventeenth century. Upon his re- turn to Spain, he spent his time chiefly in traveling about to obtain all the information in his power which might tend to support the privileges of his order. He published at Madrid in 1051 an absurd work, similar in design to the notorious Conformities of Albizzi (see Albizzi): it is entitled Naturce Prodighim et Gratia: Portentum, and contains 4000 pretended conformities between our Lord and St. Francis. Some years after he published another extraordinary work, " Funiculi nodi indissolubiles de conceptu mentis et conceptu ventris ab Alexandro Magno VII, Pont. Max. solvendi aut scindendi'' (Brussels, 1001, 8vo). It is a collection of all the opinions and disputes on the sub- ject of the conception of the Blessed Virgin. He published on these and other matters an immense mass of writings, which amount to forty folio volumes. He died in the Low Countries in 1067. — Richard and Gi- raud, who cite Antonio, Bibl. Script. Hisp. ; Landon, Eccl. Diet. s. v. Al'vah (Heb. Ah-ah\ hli?, perh. evil; Sept. r«A«), the second named of the Edomitish chieftains descended from Esau (Gen. xxxvi, 40 ; 1 Chron. i, 51, in which latter passage the name is Anglicized, " Ali- ah," after the text !"$??, Alyah'), B.C. post 1905. Al'van (Heb. Alvan , "jtb?, tall; Sept. FaiXafi), the first named of the five sons of Shobal the Horite, of Mount Seir (Gen. xxxvi, 23) ; called less correctly Alian (Heb. Alyan, '^", Sept. TwXo/x) in the par- allel passage (1 Chron.V 40). B.C. cir. 1927. Alvarez of Cordova, (St.), was born at Cor- dova ; a scion of the ancient house of the dukes of Cordova. He took the habit of the Dominicans in the convent of St. Paul, at Cordova, in 1308. Far from being satisfied with closely adhering to the rule of his order, he added to the strictness of it whatever was not actually forbidden. To the hair shirt he add- ed commonly a chain of iron round his bod}' ; his fasts were rigorous, his watchings long, and his self-mortifi- cation continual ; and he went throughout Spain, and even into Italy, proclaiming the Gospel (as he under- stood it) with the fervor of an apostle. He afterward proceeded to the Holy Land, and upon his return was selected first by Catherine, the wife of King Henry II, of Castile, and afterward by her son John II, to be their confessor. Alvarez, however, pined to be re- leased from the worldly pomp and splendor of a court, and obtained permission to depart, for the purpose of building a new convent according to his own views and plan. This he did upon a mountain a short distance from Cordova, and gave to the new sanctuary the name of Scala call. He died Feb. 19, 1420. His tomb became a great place of resort to persons of all ranks, even to ecclesiastics and bishops. Benedict XIV au- thorized the worship of this saint (!), and extended the worship to the whole order of St. Dominic. His fes- tival is held on the 19th of February. — Touron, Hist. of Illustrious Men of the Order of St. Dominic ; Lan- don, Eccl. Diet. s. v. Alvarez, Diego (Jesuit), born at Toledo, 1560; after finishing his studies he went to Peru, and there became provincial of his order, which office he held until his death in 1620. A complete edition of his works was published under the title, Opera recognita et nunc pri- mum in Germania cdita (Mogunt. 1614-19, 3 vols. fob). Alverson, John B., a Methodist Episcopal min- ister, was born in Ontario County, N. Y., in 1793, and died at Perry, N.Y., April 21, 1850. At the age of twenty he joined the Church, and at twenty-four was admitted into the Genesee Conference as an itinerant preacher. After twenty years' service in circuits and stations he was appointed presiding elder of Genesee district in 1838, and of Rochester district in 1842. He possessed a discriminating mind, a prompt yet cautious judgment, a high sense of honor and integri- ty, a correct taste, and a well-furnished understand- ing, by which he secured for himself a high position in the confidence and affection of his brethren ; in tes- timony of which he was intrusted with many offices of responsibility. In 1824, 1844, and 1848, he was a delegate to the General Conference, by the last of which he was appointed a member of the committee for the revision of the hymn-book. He was a man of commanding eloquence and power in the pulpit. For eight years he was president of the board of trustees of Genesee Wesleyan Seminary. — Minutes of Confer- ences, iv, 522. Alypius, St., of Tagaste, in Numidia, was SQme years younger than Augustine, to whom he was strong- ly attached. From Carthage, whither he followed Augustine, he went to Rome to study the law, and there obtained a place in the imperial treasury. This charge he gave up in order to follow Augustine to Milan. Both of them up to this time had been Mani- chseans, and both were at this time converted to the Catholic faith, and baptized in the church of St. Am- brose on Easter-eve, A.D. 387. Upon their return to Africa the}' withdrew into a solitude near Tagaste ; but when Augustine was ordained a priest of the church of Hippo, he drew Alypius from his solitude to take charge of the monastery which he had just built in Hippo. After this Alypius visited the Holy Land, and upon his return in 394 was elected bishop of Tagaste. In 403 he was present at a council held at Carthage in which the Donatists were invited to a conference, but refused; and in 411 he was named, with six others, to represent the Catholics in the cele- brated conference between the Catholics and Donatists which the Emperor Honorius enjoined. It is believed that he was with Augustine at Hippo at the time of his death in 430, and it is uncertain how long he sur- vived him. The Roman Martyrology commemorates him on the 15th of August. — S. August. Confess, lib. vi; Ep. 22, etc. ; S. Jerome, Ep. 81 ; Baillet, Aug. 15; Butler, Lives of Saints, iii, 375. Alypius, St., the Stylite, so called because he re- mained for more than fifty years on the top of a pil- lar, like Simeon and the other Stylites. He was born at Adrianople. At thirty-two years of age, having distributed to the poor all his property, he took up i his abode at the top of a pillar, where he remained till his death, about 010, the precise date being un- AMAD 186 AMALEKITE known. His day in the Greek calendar is Nov. 26.— ' Josephus 'Afia\rjKirr]c, Auth. Vers, often " Amalek- Baillet Nov. 2G. ites"), the title of a powerful people who dwelt in A'mad (Heb. Amad', V-V, people of duration; \ Arabia Petrrca, between the Dead Sea and the Bed , ,;■ , '_.T: . -r. . I Sea, or between Havilah and Shur (1 Sam. xv. 7), Sept. 'A,M«h- r. A^nX.J dig. Amaad), a town near ; >fa Idam Qf ^ * the border of Asher mentioned between Alamme lech Amalekites are generally sup- and Misheal as if in a southerly or westerly course , descendants of Amalek, the (Josh, xix, 20) Schwarz (Palest p. 192 thinks it is V ^ > the modern village AUMead a few mdes north of , P £ ^ ^^ Acco. meaning apparently the place called £m d- Ufore tins Amalek was born, i. e. in the Awed, wnh extensive nuns near the sea-coast, the Uys of Abraham , wh, identity of which with the ancient Amad is also sug- rhen Chedorlaomer, king of Elam, devastated their country (Gen. xiv, 7) ; from which gested by Thomson (Land and Loot, i 469); but we { ^^ .^^ thaUh^ wag gome ^ and more Should otherwise look for a more south-easterly posi- tion, and one on the boundary, applies to the location proposed (Memoir, p. 284) at Urn el-' Amad, on the shore south . UJ .g fa a Batisfacto golution of of Tyre, which, however, contains no rums (hobmson, , ^ » ^ ^ ^ ^.^ 3ii ater fl,,Mrf A« ... 113). It may not i improbably be ^ historians represent them as original! identified with S«r/« 'tW or Shefa Amar (perhaps | ^.^ on tfae sl]oreg of ^ pergian ^ ^^ hffip for nSaS), a large market-town on a ridge east they were prcBSed westward by the growth of the As- rri .-. '. ancient Amalek from whom this people strung. The The same objection . ... .. . ., . . * * ' p .. ,. I i „ y , y .1 j supposition that this people are there prolephcally • nnthi^Wp Bn,,th sP°ken of (Hengstenberg, Genuineness of the Penta- of Haifa, with streets of shops and a large deserted castle (Robinson, later Peseairhes, iii, 103). Amad atha CApaSaSa, Esth. xvi, 10, 17) or syrian empire, and spread over a portion of Arabia at a period antecedent to its occupation by the descend- ants of Joktan. This account of their origin harmo- Amad'athus ('A/>( the Horite population, a "remnant" only being mentioned as existing in Edom in the time of Hezekiah, when they were dispersed by a band of the tribe of Simeon (1 ( Ihron. iv. 13). Am'alelrito (Heb. Amaleki', "■""""', also the simple Amalek, used collectively; Sept. 'AjuaX^K, in Amalek, Danz. 1736.) Aaron and Hur, seeing this, held up his hands till the latter were entirely defeated with great slaughter (Exod. xvii, 8-13 ; comp. Deut. xxv. 17; 1 Sam. xv, 2). In union with the Canaan- ites they again attacked the Israelites on the borders of Palestine, and defeated them near Hormah (Num. xiv, 45). Thenceforward we hear of them only as a secondary power, at one time in league with the Moab- itcs (Judg. iii, 13), when they were defeated by Ehud near Jericho ; at another time in league with the Mid- ianites (Judg. vi, 3), when they penetrated into the AMALEKITE 187 AMAMA plain of Esdraelon, and were defeated by Gideon. Saul in his expedition overran their whole district and inflicted immense loss upon them, but spared Agag, their king, and the best of the cattle and the mova- bles, contrary to the divine command (1 Sam. xiv, 48 ; xv, 2 sq.). After this the Amalekites scarcely appear any more in history (1 Sam. xxvii, 8; 2 Sam. viii, 12). Their power was thenceforth broken, and they degen- erated into a horde of banditti ("Nia, predatory band). Such a "troop" came and pillaged Ziklag, which be- longed to David (1 Sam. xxx) ; but he returned from an expedition which he had made in the company of Achish into the valley of Jezreel, pursued them, over- took and dispersed them, and recovered all the booty which they had carried off from Ziklag. This com- pleted their political destruction, as predicted (Num. xxiv, 20) ; for the small remnant of Amalekites whose excision by the Simeonites is spoken of in 1 Chron. iv, 43, were the descendants of another family. See Amalek. Yet we meet again with the name of Am- alek (according to Josephus, Ant. xi, 6, 5) in the his- tory of Esther, in the person of Hainan the Agagite, in Esth. iii, 1, 10 : viii, 3, 5, who was most likely an Amalekite of the royal house of Agag (Num. xxiv, 7; 1 Sam. xv, 8), that fled from the general carnage, and escaped to the court of Persia. The Arabians relate of the Amalek destroyed by Saul that he was the father of an ancient tribe in Arabia, which contained only Arabians called pure, the remains of whom were mingled with the posterity of Joktan and Adnan. According to Josephus (Ant. iii, 2, 1), the Amalekites inhabited Gobolitis (Psa. lxxiii, 8) and Petra, and were the most warlike of the nations in those parts (comp. Ant. ii, 1, 2); and else- where he speaks of them as "reaching from Pelusium of Egypt to the Red Sea" (Ant. vi, 7, 3). We find, also, that they had a settlement in that part of Pal- estine whicli was allotted to the tribe of Ephraim (Judg. xii, 15; see also v, 14). According to Schwarz (Palest, p. 219), traces of this name are preserved in that region to this day. The editor of Calmet sup- poses that there were no less than three distinct tribes of Amalekites : (1.) Amalek the ancient, re- ferred to in Gen. xiv; (2.) A tribe in the region east of Egypt, between Egypt and Canaan (Exod. xvii, 8; 1 Sam. xv, etc.); (3.) Amalek, the descendants of Eliphaz. No such distinction, however, appears to be made in the biblical narrative, at least as re- gards the former two of these tribes ; their national character is everywhere the same, and the different localities in which we find these Amalekites may be easily explained by their habits, which evidently were such as belong to a warlike nomade people (lieland, Palwst. p. 78 sq. ; Mannert, Geogr. VI, i, 183 sq.). Arabian writers mention Amalika, Amalik, Imlik, as an aboriginal tribe of their country, descended from Ham (Abulfeda says from Shem), and more ancient than the Ishmaelites (D'Herbelot, Bib!. Orient, s. v. Amlac; De Sacy, Excerpta ex Abulf. in Poeocke's Specim. p. 513 sq. ; Miehaelis, Spicileg. i, 170 sq.). They also give the same name to the Philistines and other C'anaanites, and assert that the Amalekites who were conquered by Joshua passed over to North Af- rica (Ewald, Isr. Gesch. i, 300, 450). Philo (Vita Moysis, i, 39) calls the Amalekites who fought with the Israelites on leaving Egypt Phoenicians. The same writer interprets the name Amalek as meaning "a people that licks up or exhausts" (Legis Allegm iii, 66). From the scriptural notices of their location south of Palestine (Num. xiii, 2V), in the region trav- ersed by the Israelites (Exod. xvii, 8 sq.), and their connection with the Ammonites (Judg. iii, 13), Midian- ites (Judg. vi, 3; vii, 12), Kenites (1 Sam. xv, 6), as well as their neighborhood to the Philistines (1 Sam. xxvii, 8), Mount Soir (1 Chron. v, 43), and the city of Shur or Pelusium (1 Sam. xv, 7), it is evident that their proper territory was bounded by Philistia, Egypt, Idumrea, and the desert of Sinai. — Van Iperen, Histor. Crit. Edom. et Amalecitar. (Leonard. 1768) ; Jour, of Sac. Lit. Apr. 1852, p. 89 sq. ; Noldeke, Ueber die Amulekiter. etc. (Gotting. 1863). See Canaanite. On the apparent discrepancy between Deut. i, 44 and Num. xiv, 45, see Amorite. Amalric of Bena, or of Chartres (in Latin, Amal- ricus or Emelricus ; in French, Amaury), a celebrated theologian and philosopher of the Middle Ages, born at Bena, a village near Chartres, lived at Paris toward the close of the twelfth and the beginning of the thir- teenth century. He gave instruction in dialectics and other liberal arts comprised in the Trivium and Quadririum. He undertook to explain the metaphys- ical works of Aristotle, which had just been translated into Latin, partly from some new copies, partly from Arabic versions, which had been imported from the East. In these works Amalric advances the opinion that all beings proceed from a first matter, which in itself has neither form nor figure, but in which the motion is continual and necessary. The Arabs had long before begun to introduce this philosophy into Western Europe; for as earl}' as the ninth century Scotus Erigena (q. v.) taught that the first matter was every thing, and that it was God. Although the te- merity of this language was frequently complained of, the doctrine of Erigena was never expressly con- demned, and Amalric was therefore not afraid of again professing it. He also maintained the ideality of God and the first matter, but he pretended to reconcile this view with the writings of Moses and the theology of the Catholic Church. From the continual and neces- sary movement of the first matter, he concluded that all particular beings were ultimately to re-enter the bosom of the Being of Beings, which alone is inde- structible, and that before this ultimate consummation the vicissitudes of nature would have divided the his- tory of the world and of religion into three periods corresponding to the three persons of the Trinity. See Almericians. He developed his ideas especially in a work entitled ' ' Physion, a Treaty of Natural Things " This book was condemned by the University of Paris in 1204. Amalric appealed from this sentence to the pope, and went himself to Rome ; but Pope Innocent III confirmed the sentence in 1207. Amalric was compelled to retract, which he did with great reluc- tance. He died from grief in 1209. In 1210, when ten of his chief followers were burned, the body of Amalric was also exhumed, and his bones burned, to- gether with his books, inclusive of the metaphysics of Aristotle. — Herzog, Real-Encyklopadie, i, 268 ; Hocfer, Biog. Generate, ii, 305. A'mam (Heb. Amam', C2X, gathering; Sept. 'Apap), a city in the southern part of the tribe of Ju- dah, mentioned between Hazor and Shema (Josh, xv, 26), being apparently situated in the tract afterward assigned to Simeon (Josh, xix, 1-9); probably about midway on the southern border between the Mediter- ranean and the Dead Sea. The enumeration in Josh. xv. 32, shows that this name is to be taken in connec- tion with the preceding, i. e. Hazor- Amain [see Ha- zor], which probably designates the same place as Keriotii-Hezrom (q. v.). See Tribe. Amama, Sixtin, a Protestant theologian, and pro fessor of Hebrew at Franecker, was born there Oct. 15, 1593, and died Nov. 9, 1639. He visited England in 1613. He wrote Censura Vulgatce Latins Editiorm Pentateuchi (1620), and, in reply to Mersenne, his An- tibarbarus Bibhcus (Franc. 1628, 4to), containing stric- tures on other books of the Vulgate, namely, the His- torical Books, Psalms, Solomon's writings, and (in a posthumous edition) Isaiah and Jeremiah. He pub- lished also a collation of the Dutch version with the originals (Bybehche Conferencie, Amst. 1623), and a Hebrew grammar (Amst 1625) ; and edited some posthumous works of Drusius. AHAN 188 AMASA A'man ('Auav), the Graecized form (Tobit xiv, 10 ; E), because they are appointed by God to declare his will to men, and to promote a spiritual alliance with Him (2 Cor. v, 20 ; Eph. vi, 20). See Alliance. The relations of the Hebrews with foreign nations were too limited to afford much occasion for the ser- vices of ambassadors. Still, the long course of their history affords some examples of the employment of such functionaries, which enable us to discover the position which they were considered to occupy. Of ambassadors resident at a foreign court they had, of course, no notion, all the embassies of which we read being "extraordinary," or for special services and oc- casions, such as to congratulate a king on his acces- sion or victories, or to condole with him in his troubles (2 Sam. viii, 15; x, 2; 1 Kings v, 1), to remonstrate in the case of wrong (Judg. xi, 12), to solicit favors (Num. xx, 14), or to contract alliances (Josh, ix, 3 sq. ; 1 Mace, viii, 17). The notion that the ambassador represented the person of the sovereign who sent him, or the dignity of the state from which he came, did not exist in an- cient times in the same sense as now. He was a highly distinguished and privileged messenger, and his dignity (2 Sam. x, 1-5) was rather that of our heralds than of our ambassadors. It may have been owing, in some degree, to the proximity of all the nations with which the Israelites had intercourse that their ambassadors were intrusted with few-, if any, discre- tionary powers, and could not go beyond the letter of their instructions. In general, their duty was limited to the delivering of a message and the receiving of an answer ; and if this answer was such as required a re- joinder, they returned for fresh instructions, unless thej* had been authorized how to act or speak in case such an answer should be given. The largest act performed by ambassadors appears to have been the treaty of alliance contracted with the Gibeonitcs (Josh, ix), who were supposed to have come from "a far country;" and the treaty which they contracted was in agreement with the instruc- tions with which they professed to be furnished. In allowing for the effect of proximity, it must be remem- bered that the ancient ambassadors of other nations, even to countries distant from their own, generally adhered to the letter of their instructions, and were reluctant to act on their own discretion. Generals of armies must not, however, be confounded with ambas- sadors in this respect. The precept given in Deut. xx, 10, seems to imply some such agency ; rather, how- ever, that of a mere nuncio, often bearing a letter (2 Kings v, 5 ; xix, 14), than of a legate empowered to AMBER 191 AMBROSE treat. The inviolability of such an officer's person ma}- perhaps be inferred from the only recorded infrac- tion of it being followed with unusual severities toward the vanquished, probably designed as a condign chas- tisement of that offence (2 Sam. x, 2-5 ; comp. xii, 26-31). The earliest examples of ambassadors em- ployed occur in the cases of Edom, Moab, and the Amorites (Num. xx, 14 ; xxi, 21 ; Judg. xi, 17-19), afterward in that of the fraudulent Gibeonites (Josh. ix, 4, etc.), and in the instances of civil strife men- tioned in Judg. xi, 12, and xx, 12 (see Cunanis de Rep. Hebr. ii, 20, with notes by Nicolaus in Ugolini The- saur. iii, 771-774). They are mentioned more frequent- ly during and after the contact of the great adjacent monarchies of Syria, Babylon, etc., with those of Ju- dah and Israel, e. g. in the invasion of Sennacherib. They were usually men of high rank, as in that case the chief captain, the chief cup-bearer, and chief of the eunuchs were deputed, and were met by delegates of similar dignity from Hezekiah (2 Kings xviii, 17, 18 ; see also Isa. xxx, 4). Ambassadors are found to have been employed, not only on occasions of hostile chal- lenge or insolent menace (2 Kings xiv, 8 ; 1 Kings xx, 2, C), but of friendl}- compliment, of request for alliance or other aid, of submissive deprecation, and of curious inquiry (2 Kings xiv, 8 ; xvi, 7 ; xviii, 14 ; 2 Chron. xxxii, 31). The dispatch of ambassadors ■with urgent haste is introduced as a token of national grandeur in the obscure prophecy in Isa. xviii, 2. Kitto, s. v. ; Smith, s. v. See Messenger. Amber (Heb.^':Jn,c£a^??;ar,Ezek.i,4,27; viii, 2) is a yellow or straw-colored gummy substance, originally a vegetable production, but reckoned to the mineral kingdom. It is found in lumps in the sea and on the shores of Prussia, Sicily, Turkey, etc. Ex- ternally it is rough ; it is very transparent, and on be- ing rubbed yields a fragrant odor. It was formerly supposed to be medicinal, but is now employed in the manufacture of trinkets, ornaments, etc. {Penny Cyclo- iia, s. v). Ambo, a raised platform or reading-desk, from which, in the primitive Church, the gospel and epistle were read to the people, and sometimes the sermon preached. Its position appears to have varied at dif- ferent times ; it was most frequently on the north side of the entrance into the chancel. The singers also had their separate ambo. — Bingham, Oritj. Eccl. bk. iii, ch. vii. Baldus and Durandus derive the name from the circumstance of there being a double flight of steps to the ambo; others, with more probability, from the Greek civafiaivio, to ascend. Treatises on this subject Lr- In the above passages of Ezekiel, the Hebrew word is translated by the Sept. yXacrpoi', and Vulgate elec- trum, which signify not only " amber," but also a very brilliant metal, composed of silver and gold, much prized in antiquity (Pliny, xxxiii, 4, p. 23). Others, as Bochart (Ilieroz. ii, p. 877), compare here the mix- ture of gold and brass, aurhhalcum, of which the an- cients had several kinds ; by which means a high de- gree of lustre was obtained ; e. g. as pyropum, ccs Corinthiurri, etc. (Smith's Diet, of Class. Antiq. s. v. Bronze). Something similar to this was probably also denoted by the difficult term xa\ico\lj3avov, " fine brass," in Rev. i, 15 (comp. Ezra viii, 27). See Brass. The Hebrew word chashmal probably signifies smooth (i. e. polished) brass. — Calmet, s. v. See Metal. Ambidexter. See Left-handed. Ambivius (a Latin name, signifying doubtful as to the way; Gra;cized 'AfifiiovioQ), surnamed Mar- cos, procurator of Juda?a, next after Coponius, and before Kufus, A.D. 9 to 12 (Josephus,.lw<. xviii, 2, 2). Ambo in the ( liurch of St. Clement at Rome. are by Geret, De vet. ecclesim ambonibus (Onold. 1757) ; Weidling, De ambonibus vet. ecelesice (Lips. 1687). See Lesson ; Pulpit. Ambrose, deacon of Alexandria, flourished chief- ly about the year 230 ; he was a man of wealth, and by his wife, Mavella, had many children. For some time he was entangled in the errors of the Valentin- ians and Marcionites, but Origen brought him to the true faith. With Origen he became closely intimate, and they studied together. He is said to have fur- nished Origen with seven secretaries, whom he kept constantly at work. Ambrose died about 250, after the persecution of Maximinus, in which he confessed the faith boldly with Protoctetes, a priest of Gesarea in Palestine. His letters to Origen, which St. Jerome commends highly, are lost. The Roman Church com- memorates him as confessor on March 17. — Euseb. Ch. Hist, vi, 18 ; Landon, Eccl. Dictionimj, i, 302. Ambrose, bishop of Milan, was born about 340, at Treves (Augusta Trevirorum), where his father re- sided as prefect of the Prfetorium, among the Gauls. It is said that while he was yet an infant a swarm of bees settled upon his mouth, which his father inter- preted as a portent of future greatness. After his fa- ther's death his mother took him to Rome, where he received the education of an advocate under Anicius Probus and Symmachus. For some time he pleaded at the bar, and his success, together with his family influence, led to his appointment (about A.D. 370) as consular prefect of Liguria and Emilia, a tract of Northern Italy which extended, as near as can be as- certained, to Bologna. It is said that Anicius Probus, the prefect, when he sent him to his government, did so in these remarkable words, which may well be called prophetic, "Go, then, and act, not as a judge, but as a bishop." Ambrose made Milan his residence ; and when Auxentius the bishop died, the people of Milan assembled to elect a successor. This the cruel divisions made in the Church by the Arian heresy rendered no easy matter ; and the contest was carried on between Catholics and Arians with such violence that Ambrose was obliged to proceed himself to the church to exhort the people to make their election quietly and in order. At the close of his speech the whole assembly, Arians and Catholics, with one voice demanded him for their bishop. Believing himself to be unworthy of so high and responsible an office, he tried all means in his power to evade their call, but AMBROSE 192 AMBROSE in vain, and he was at last constrained to yield (A.D. 374). He was yet only a catechumen ; he had then to be baptized, and on the eighth day after he was consecrated bishop. He devoted himself to his work with unexampled zeal ; gave all his property to the Church and poor, and adopted an ascetic mode of life. He opposed the Arians from the very beginning of his episcopacy, and soon acquired great influence both with the people and the Emperor Valentinian. In 382 he presided at an episcopal synod in Aquileia (summoned by the Emperor Gratian), at which the Arian bishops Palladius and Secundianus were de- posed. In 385 he had a severe conflict with Justina (mother of Valentinian II), who demanded the use of at least one church for the Arians ; but the people sided with Ambrose, and Justina desisted. In the year 300 he excommunicated the Emperor Theodosius for the massacre at Thessalonica, and did not absolve him till after a penance of eight months and a public humilia- tion. Ambrose was the principal instructor of Au- gustine in the Christian faith. He died at Milan, April 4, 397, and is commemorated in the Roman Church as a saint Dec. 7. His writings abound in moral lessons, plentifully interspersed with exhorta- tions to celibacy and the other superstitions of the day. It is also recorded that he performed many astonishing miracles — stories that throw disgrace on an elevated character, which really needed not the aid of impos- ture to secure respect or even popularity. He has deserved from succeeding generations the equivocal praise that he was the first effectual assertor of those exalted ecclesiastical pretensions so essential to the existence of the Romish system, and so dear to the ambitious ministers of every Church. His services to church music were very great ; he was the father of " hymnology" in the Western Church. The writings of the early fathers concur in recording the employ ment of music as a part of public worship, although no regular ritual was in existence to determine its precise form and use. This appears to have been first supplied by Ambrosius, who instituted that method of singing known by the name of the "cantus A brosianus," which is said to have had a reference to the modes of the ancients, especially to that of Ptole- mauis. This is rather matter of conjecture than cer- tainty, although the Eastern origin of Christianity and the practice of the Greek fathers render the supposition probable. The effect of the Ambrosian chant is de- scribed in glowing terms by those who heard it in the cathedral of Milan. "The voices," says Augustine, "flowed in at my ears, truth was distilled into my heart, and the affection of piety overflowed in sweet tears of joy.'' Whether any genuine relics of the mu- sic tli us described exist at the present time is exceed- ingly doubtful ; the style of singing it may, however, have been preserved ; and this is still said to be ap- plied at Milan to compositions of adate comparatively recent I Biog. Diet. Soc. Useful Knowledge). His writ- ings are mine numerous than valuable. Ten of the many hymns which are ascribed to him are generally admitted to lie genuine, but it is doubtful whether the Ambrosian Hymn or the Tv Deum is by him. The best edition of his complete works has been published by the Benedictines under the title, Opera, ad manu- tcriptos codices Vaticanos, GaUicanos, Belgicos, etc., nee- nm ad editiones veteres emendata, studio monachorum ordmis Benedicti (Par. 1686-90, 2 vols, fob; also printed without the Indexes, Paris, 1836, 4 vols, large 8vo). The Appendix contains three lives of Ambrose. His writings are arranged as follows in the edition of 1686, •-' vols.: Vol. I contains ffexcemeron, lib. 3; De Paradiso; /><■ ('■'in ,/ Abel; he Woe et Area; De Abra- ham: De Isaac ei Anima; De /.'»//<< Mortis; l>< Fuga Scscvli : De Jacob et Vitabeata; De Josepho Patriarcha /!, Benedtetionibus Patriarcharum ; De Elia et Jejimio j> Vabuth TsraeUta, DeTobia; De InterpeUaHone Job et David; Apologia Prcpheta David; Enarrationes in Psalmos i, axxv-xl, xliii, xlv, xlvii, xlviii, hi, E.rpositio in Psalmum civiii; Expositio in Lucam. Vol.11 con- tains De Officiis Mlnistrorum ; De Virginibus ; De Vi- dws; De Virginitate; De Jnstitutione Virginis ; Exhor- tatio Virginitatis : De Lapsu Virginis; De Mysteriis; De Sacramentis ; De Panitentia ; De Fide ; De Spiritu Sanc- to; De Incarnationis Dominicce Sacramento; Frag. Am- brosianum ex Theodoreto desumptum ; Epistolce ; De cx- cessu Fratris siti Satyri; De Obitu Valentiniani Conso- latio ; De Obitu Theodosii Oratio ; Hymni aliquot Ambro- siani. — Waddington, Ch. Hist. ch. iv ; Heinze, Beschr. d. Backer d. Ambrosius "cfe offieiis" (Weimar, 1790); Michelsen, De Ambrosio fidei vindice (Hann. 1825); Bohringer, Kirche Christi, I, iii, 1-98. Ambrose the Camaldule, a French ecclesias- tical writer, was born at Portico, a little town near Florence. He was but fourteen years of age when he entered the order of Camaldules, and afterward be- came one of the first men of his age in theology and Greek literature; his master in the latter was Em- manuel Chrysolares. In 1431 he became general of his order, and afterward was several times appointed to the cardinalate ; but, whether or not he refused it, he never possessed that dignity. Eugenius IV sent him to the Council of Basle, where, as well as at Fer- rara and Florence, he supported the pope's interests. He did all in his power to bring about the union of the Greek and Latin Churches, and he drew up the for- mula of union at the desire of the council. He died October 21, 1439. His works are, 1. Ilodceporicon ; an A ccount of a Journey taken to visit the various Monas- teries of Italy, ly the Pope's command (1G78 ; Florence and Lucca, 1681, 4to) : — 2. Formula of union between the Churches (in the Coll. of Councils) :— 3. Life of St. Chrysostom, by Palladius ; translated from the Greek into Latin (Venice, 1533) : — 4. The Four Books of Manuel Calecas against the Errors of the Greeks (Ingolstadt, 1608) : — 5. Nineteen Sermons of St. Ephrem Syrus: — 6. St. Dionysius the A reopngite on the Celestial Hierarchy : — 7. The Book of St. Basil on Virginity, and many other translations of the Greek Fathers, which have been printed at different times. The library of St. Mark at Florence contains also many MSS. by this writer, viz. : 1. A Chronicle of Monte-Cassino : — 2. Two Books of his Proceedings while General of the Camaldules: — 3. The Lives of certain Saints: — 4. A Treatise of the Sacrament of the Body of Christ : — 5. A Treatise against the, Greek Doctrine of the Procession: — 0. A Discourse made at the Council of Florence : — 7. A Treatise against those who blame the monastic state. Besides these, Mabillon and Martene have discovered various other smaller works by this author, exclusive of twenty books of his let- ters given in the third volume of the Veterum Scrip torum, etc Ampl. Collectio, of the latter. — Lan- don, Eccl. Diet, i, 306 ; Hoefer, Biog. Generate, ii, 343. Ambrose, Autpert, a French Benedictine monk, and abbot of St. Vincent de Voltorne, about 760, in the time of Pope Paul, and Desiderius, king of the Lom- bards, as he himself tells us. He died July 19, 778. He wrote a Commentaries in Apocalypsin (Col. 1536, fob), also published in the Bibl. Patrum. xiii, 403, and some other works, viz., Commentaries on the Psalms and Song of Solomon, the Combat, betivecn the Virtues and Vices, which goes under the names of St. Ambrose, and is inserted in the works of Augustine; a Homily on the Leading of the Holy Gospel (among the works of St. Ambrose), and another on the Assumption of the Virgin (which is the eighteenth of Augustine de Sanc- tis), and others. Mabillon gives as his, the Lives of SS. Pablo, Tvto, an, I Vaso, together with the History of his Monastery.— Cave, Hist. Lit. i, 631 ; Hist. Lit. de la France, t. iv ; Landon, Eccl. Diet, i, 305. Ambrose, Isaac, a Presbyterian minister, born in Lancashire, 1591, and educated at Oxford. He officiated ao minister in Preston, and afterward at Garstang in Lancashire, from which he was ejected hi AMBROSE 193 AMBUSCADE 1662 for non-conformity. He was a man of great Wood), Order of, monks of. The origin of the or- learning, which he adorned by sincere and ardent piety, der is known from a bull of Gregory XI, addressed in He died in 1674. Amid the labors of an active min- i 1375 to the monks of the church of St. Ambrose with- istry he found time to prepare several works of prac- ' out the walls of Milan ; from which it appears that Ideal religion for the press. He was the author of these monks had for a long time bee*i subject to a The First, Middle, and Last Things, viz. Regeneration, prior, but had no fixed rule, in consequence of which Sanctification, ami Meditations on Life, Death, and the pope, at the prayer of the archbishop, had ordered Judgment, etc. But his book entitled Looking unto them to follow the rule of Augustine, permitted them Jems is the one which has most of all received, and : to assume the above name, to recite the Ambrosian longest retained, the award of popular favor. Both office, and directed that their prior should be confirm- these, with other writings, may be found in his Com- j ed by the archbishop of Milan. They afterward had plete Works (Dundee, 1759, fob). many establishments in different parts of Italy ; but Ambrose, archbishop of Moscow, with his family ' they were independent of one another until Eugenins name Andrew Sertis-Kamensky, was born at Nejine, j IV' m lini un,ted them lnto one congregation, and in the government of Tchernigoff, in 1708. After | exempted them from the jurisdiction of the ordinaries, studying at the seminary of St. Alexander Nevski, he making the convent at Milan the chief of the order, became, in 1735, one of its teachers. In 1739 he en- ] In lo'■ , , V. make a false attack, necessarily appeared to disad- jateof the ., , . , - , . " , , . • vantage, the enemy being above him, and Ins retreat , toward his own camp rendered difficult bv its being to receive once more the eucharist ; this was granted ... . . ,. ' ., .. ., . f, ., . ,° m, , , I, , , ° „ likewise above him on the other side, and both sides outside of the city. The populace followed him, and broke open the gates of the monastery. The arch- they found him out, and dragged him to the gat temple. The archbishop begged them for enough time ! to him. The populace remained silent spectators of the ceremony ; the archbishop was then dragged out of the church and strangled. Ambrose published a large number of translations from the Church fathers, some sermons, and a liturgy. — Hoefer, Biog. Generale, ii, 341. no doubt very steep, as they are in general in the hills of this region. His men therefore fled, as directed, not toward the north, where the camp was, but east- ward, toward the plain and desert; while in the hills, not behind, but on the west side, lay the ambuscade, in sufficient force alone to vanquish the enemy. This body of Israelites had not therefore the objectionable route to take from behind the city, a movement that must have been seen from the walls, and would have given time to close the gates, if not to warn the citi- Ambrosiaster, a Pseudo-Ambrosius, the usual zeng 1>ack. bnt) risinff from the woody hills it ha(1 Ambrosian Chant. Ambrosian Hymn. Ambrosian Music. See Ambrose. See Te Deum. See Music (Church). name of the unknown author of the Commentaria in mii Epistolas B. Pauli, which is contained in the second volume of the Benedictine edition of the works of Ambrose. It appears from the book itself that it was compiled while Damasus was bishop of Rome. Au- gustine quotes a passage from this book, but ascribes it to St. Hilary, from which circumstance many have concluded that Hilary, a deacon of the Roman Church under Damasus, who joined the schism caused by Bishop Lucifer of Cagliari, was the author. But against this opinion it may be adduced that Augustine would not have given to a follower of Lucifer the title Of saint. — Herzog, i. 277. Ambrosius - ad - Nemus (Ambrose- at- the- N the shortest distance to pass over to come down di- rectly to the gate ; and, if an accident had caused fail- ure in the army of Joshua, the detachment could not itself be intercepted before reaching the camp of the main body; while the citizens of Ai, pursuing down hill, had little chance of returning up to the gates in time, or of being in a condition to make an effectual onset (see Stanley, Sinai and Palest, p. 198). In the attempt to surprise Shechem (Judg. ix, 30 sq.) the operation, so far as it was a military manoeuvre, was unskilfully laid, although ultimately successful in con- sequence of the party spirit within, and the intelli- gence which Abimeleeh (q. v.) maintained in the for tress. Kitto, s. v. See War. AMEDIANS 194 AMERICA Amedians, Amadeists, an order of minor friars, instituted about 1452; so called from their pro- fessing themselves amantes Deum, loving God; cr amati Deo, loved by God. Others derive the name from their founder, Amadeus or Amedeus, a Portu- guese nobleman. They wore a gray habit and wood- en shoes, and girt themselves with a cord. They had twenty-eight convents in Italy, besides others in Spaing and were united by Pope Pius V partly with the Cistercian order, and partly with that of the Soc- colanti, or wooden-shoe wearers.— Helyot, ed. Migne, i, 200. A'men' (Heb. amen', "jW, «/">). a particle of at- testation adopted into all the languages of Christen- dom. (I.) This word is strictly an adjective, signifying -•/>/»." and, metaphorically, "faithful." Thus, in Rev. iii, 14, our Lord is called "the amen, the faithful and true witness." In Isa. lxv, 1G, the Heb. has "the God of amen," which our version renders "the God of truth," i. e. of fidelity. In its adverbial sense amen means certainly, truly, surely. It is used in the beginning of a sentence by way of emphasis — rarely in the Old Test. (Jer. xxviii, G), but often by our Sav- iour in the New, where it is commonly translated '• verUy." In John's Gospel alone it is often used by him in this way double, i. e. "verily, verily." In the end of a sentence it often occurs singly or repeat- ed, especially at the end of hymns or prayers, as "amen and amen" (Psa. xli. 14; lxxii, 19; lxxxix, 53). The proper signification of it in this position is to confirm the words which have preceded, and invoke the fulfilment of them: "so be it," fiat, Sept. y'ii'oiro. Hence in oaths, after the priest has repeat- ed the words of the covenant or imprecation, all those who pronounce the amen bind themselves by the oath (Num. v, 22; Deut. xxvii, 15, 17; Neh. v, 13; viii, 6; 1 Chron. xvi, 36; comp. Psa. cvi, 48).— Kit- to, s. v. See Oath. (II.) In the public worship of the primitive churches it was customary for the assembly at large to say Amen at the close of the prayer; a custom derived from apostolic times (1 Cor. xiv, 16). Several of the fathers refer to it. Jerome says that in his time, at the conclusion of public prayer, the united voice of the people sounded like the fall of water or the noise of thunder. Great importance was attached to the use of this word at the celebration of the eucharist. At the delivery of the bread the bishop or presbyter, ac- cording to the Apostolical Constitutions, is directed to say, '• The body of Christ;" at the giving of the cup the deacon is instructed to say, "The blood of Christ, the cup of life ;" the communicant is directed on each occasion to say "Amen." This answer was univer- sally given in the early Church. See Response. (III.) It is used as an emphatic affirmation, in the sense "so be it," at the end of all the prayers of the Church of England. It is sometimes said in token of nndonbting assent, as at the end of the creed, Amen, '• So I believe." The order of the Church of England directs that " the people shall, at the end of all prayers, answer Amen." — Bingham, bk. xv, ch. iii, § 25. Special treatises on the subject are Kleinschmidt, ]i, particuh .\m1,000 2,2-27,000 21,278,743 301,323 85,792 47,029 IS, 000 2,032,002 500,000 319,1100 2,590,000 25,00(1,0011 50^000 32°600 | 55,000 10,000 1,760-000 3,000,00:1 7,661,000 2,227,000 21,200,(1(1(1 289,«00 30,000 10,000 2,032,000 550,000 10,700 4,350,000 '.'8,000,(1(111 7,00 1,01 Ml 2,227,000 21,250,000 289,000 62,000 65,00) 2,032,000 560,000 Central America . South America. . . French Possess' ns Dutch m Danish " Swedish u Spanish " Hayti Free Indians Total i0,415,153|27,737,600 b8,75»,OuO|66,516,600 It appears from the above table that Protestant Christianity prevails in the United States, in British America, and in the Dutch, Danish, and Swedish pos- sessions in the West Indies and South America. In the rest of America the Protestant population consists mostly of foreigners. But in Brazil a large immigra- tion from Germany and Switzerland has already estab- lished the foundation of a native Church ; and in New Granada, Chili, the Argentine Confederation, Uruguay, and Hayti flourishing congregations labor for the same end. The Roman Church prevails in Mexico, the West Indies, and all the Central and South American states, and is also numerously represented in the United States and in the British possessions. In Rus- sian America all the native Russian population lie- longs to the Greek Church. A number of pagan In- AMERICAN 196 AMERICAN 3f WFSr FROM CREENWICH 50 ; jfcjt W'KSi 2'' IN^DtE S ^(S;atfe in id a A ,tf°fI° sb bs. Guayaquil «■ \ u o w % - 1 ^apeBlftutof j !r«^ TruxilloV? ^ zonjk Map of South America dians still live in nearly all parts of America. Their I number is estimated at about 1,000,000. Jews, Mor- mons, and Spiritualists are found almost only in the United States, where there are also a number of other congregations which expressly place themselves out- side of Christianity, without haying established any other positive creed (see Schem, Ecclesiastical Year- book for 1859, p. 14-1G). American and Foreign Bible Society. See Bible Societies. American and Foreign Christian Union, a religious association of the United States, organized in the city of New York in May. 1849. It was form- ed by the fusion of three societies which had existed for several years, the Foreign Evangelical Society, the American Protestant Society, and the Phi/o-Jtalian So- ciety. The Foreign Evangelical Society was organized in 1839 to advance the work of evangelization in pa- pal countries generally. It had been preceded by the French Association, which was founded in 1834, in order to assist the evangelical efforts made by the French Protestants, and, in 1830, changed its name into that of Evangelical Association. The receipts of the French Association and the Evangelical Association were $19,759, those of the Foreign Evangelical Society during the ten years of its existence, $154,345. At the request of the French Assaciation, Rev. Dr. Baird went, in ls:!5, for three years to Paris, for the purpose of learning what could be done by the American AMERICAN 197 AMETHYST churches to aid their Protestant brethren in France, ami later, at the request of the Foreign Evangelical Society, travelled for four more years extensively on the Continent in prosecution of the same work. In 1849 the society had missionaries in France, Belgium, Sweden, Canada, Hayti, and South America, besides having aided the work in Germany, Poland, Russia, and Italy. The American Protestant Society was formed in 1843 in consequence of the large immigra- tion of Roman Catholics into the United States. Its objects were : To enlighten Protestants of this coun- try in regard to the errors of Rome, and to convert and save the members of the Roman Church in the United States. A number of colporteurs and other missionaries were maintained, laboring mostly among the Irish and German immigrants. The total receipts from 1843 to 1849 were $92,100. The Philo-ltalian Society, which later took the name of the Chris- tian Alliance, was also founded in 1843. As the pro- ceedings of this society were not published, little is known of it farther than that it employed an active agent, a Protestant Italian, for years on the confines of Italy. The A merican and Foreign Christian Union, which arose in 1849 out of a union of these three socie- ties, undertook the work and assumed the responsibil- ities of them all combined. Its objects are "to diffuse and promote, by missions, colportage, the press, and other appropriate agencies, the principles of religious liberty, and a pure and evangelical Christianity, both at home and abroad, wherever a corrupted Christianity exists." In the first two years of its existence, 1850 and '51, it expended nearly $15,000 for the removal to Illinois of some 500 or GOO Portuguese exiles, who had been exiled from Madeira for having embraced Prot- estantism. The receipts from 1849 to 1859 have ranged from $45,000 to $*0,000, making a total of OA-er 6 (100, 000 in ten years. In 18G3 they were $59,C63 ; in 1864, $73,778. It publishes a monthly magazine of 32 pages, the " Christian World'' (formerly the "A m. and For. Chr. Un."), which has a large circulation. The so- ciety has also published a Sabbath-school library, con- sisting of 21 volumes, mostly exposing the doctrines and usages of the Roman Church. The agents of the society in the home field preach the Gospel to Roman Catholics, viz., English, Irish, French, Italian, Span- ish, German, and Bohemian. In the foreign field, the society sustains missionaries itself, or supports the Protestant missions of other societies in Canada, Hayti, Mexico, South America, Ireland, Western or Azore Islands, Sweden, Belgium, Switzerland, Pied- mont, France. The number of laborers employed in the home field was, in 1859, G3 ; the number of teach- ers, male and female, 375 ; making a force of 438 per- sons endeavoring to counteract the influence of the papacy. The aggregate number of children and youth which were reported, up to May, 1859, as having been brought under evangelical influences, was up- ward of 14,250. The total number of converts from the Roman Catholic Church amounted, in 1859. to 1404. American Baptist Missionary Union. See Missions (Baptist). American Baptist Publication Society. See Baptists. American Bible Society. See Bible So- cieties. American Bible Union. See Bible Socie- ties. American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions. See Missions (American Board). American Home Mission Society. See Missions. American Missionary Society. Sec Mis- sions (American Missionary Society). American Reform Tract and Book Socie- ty. See Tract Societies. American Sunday-school Union. See Son- day-school. American Tract Society. See Tract So- cieties. Amerytha (AptpvSd according to some copies, see Hudson, in loc, while others have 'ApipwSa ; ac- cording to Reland, Palmst. p. 5G0, both by erroneous transcription for M>;pw3-, which most editors give ; see Achabara), a town of Upper Galilee, which Josephus fortified against the Romans (Life, 37) ; probably the same as Merotii (q. v.), which terminated Upper Galilee westward (Josephus, War, iii, 3, 1); and con- jectured by Reland (Palcest. p. 875) to have been the Mearah of the Sidonians (Josh, xiii, 4). Ames (or Amesius), William, a celebrated Puri- tan divine, born in Norfolk, 1576, and educated at Christ's College, Cambridge, undeF Dr. Perkins, bj- whom he was taught evangelical religion. Appointed chaplain to the university, he gave great offence by a sermon in which he inveighed against some of the bad practices of the university, e. g. card-playing, etc., and, to avoid expulsion, he left England and became English chaplain at the Hague, and afterward divinity professor at Franeker in Friesland. He attended the synod of Dort, and died at Rotterdam in 1633. He wrote many works, among them, 1. Puritanismus An- glicanus (1623, in English, 1641) : — 2. Da Conscientia (1630, in English, 1643) :— 3. A Reply to Bishop Mor- ton (on Ceremonies) : — 4. Fresh Suit against human Ceremonies in God's Worship (1633): — 5. Antisynodalia, 1G29 (against the Remonstrants): — 6. Medulla Theo- logica (1623 and often after, both Lat. and Eng.). His Latin works are collected under the title Opera, quce Lat. scripsit, omnia (Amst. 1658, 5 vols. 12mo). Ames was eminent in casuistry (q. v.), and was a strong op- ponent of Arminianism. — Neal, Hist, of Puritans, i, 572 sq. ; Brooks, Lives of Puritans, ii, 405; Mosheim, Ch. Hist. c. xvi, sec. iii, pt. ii, ch. ii, § 371 n. Am'ethyst (rrabnx, achlamah' ; Sept. and N. T. apsQuarog, Vulg. amethystus), a precious stone men- tioned in Scripture as the ninth in the breastplate of the high-priest (Exod. xxviii, 19; xxxix, 12), and the twelfth in the foundations of the New Jerusalem (Rev. xxi, 20). The transparent gems to which this name is applied are of a color which seems composed of a strong blue and deep red, and, according as either of these prevails, exhibit different tinges of purple, sometimes approaching to violet, and sometimes de- clining even to a rose color. From these differences of color the ancients distinguished five species of the amethyst; modern collections afford at least as many varieties, but the}- are all comprehended under two species — the Oriental amethyst and the Occidental am- ethyst. These names, however, are given to stones of essentially different natures, which were, no doubt, anciently confounded in the same manner. The Ori- ental amethyst is verj' scarce, and of great hardness, lustre, and beauty. It is, in fact, a rare variety of the adamantine spar, or corundum. Next to the dia- mond, it is the hardest substance known. It contains about 90 per cent, of alumine, a little iron, and a little silica. Of this species emery, used in cutting and polishing glass, etc., is a granular variety-. To this species also belongs the sapphire, the most valuable of gems next to the diamond, and of which the Ori- ental amethyst is merely a violet variety. Like other sapphires, it loses its color in the fire, and comes out with so much of the lustre and color of the diamond that the most experienced jeweller may lie deceived by it. The more common, or Occidental amethyst, is a variety of quartz, or rock crj-stal, and is found in various forms in many parts of the world, as India, Si- beria, Sweden, Germany, Spain ; and even in England very beautiful specimens of tolerable hardness have been discovered. This also loses its color in the fire (Penny Cyclopaedia, s. v.). Amethysts were much used AMHARIC LANGUAGE 198 AMMAII by the ancients for rin^s and cameos ; and the reason ' given by Pliny, because they were easily cut (Hist. Nat. xxxvii, 9), shows that the Occidental species is to be understood. The ancients believed that the amethyst possessed the power of dispelling drunken- ness in those who wore or touched it (Anthol. Or. iv, 38 ; Pliny, xxxvii, 9 , Marbodius, De Gemmis, c. 4) and hence its Greek name (" from a privative, and ptOino, to get drunk," Martini, Excurs. p. 158). In like man- ner the rabbins derive its Jewish name (from CsH, to dream), from its supposed power of procuring dreams to the wearer. (See Briickmann, Abhandlung von den Edelsteinen ; Hill's Thenphrastus, notes ; Hillier, De gemmis in pector. pnntif. , Rosenmuller, Mineralogy of the Bible; Braun, De vestitu sacerd. ii, 1G; Bellarmin, I'rim und Thummim, p. 55; Moore's Anc. Mineralogy, p. 1G8.)— Kitto, s. v. See Gem. Amharic Language, a degenerate Shemitic dia- lect, mixed with many African words, spoken with the greatest purity in Amhara, one of the principal divisions of the Abyssinian empire. See Abyssinia. It is apparently referred to by Agatharcides (Hudson, Geogr. Min. i, 46), about B.C. 120, under the name Kapapa At £ic, as the language of the Troglodytes of Ethiopia. It began to prevail in Abyssinia over the Geez language about A.D. 1300, and is more or less prevalent throughout that country to the present day. Its literature is nearly confined to a few theological treatises and translations of portions of the Holy Scriptures, which have been printed mostly by the British and Foreign Bible Society, in Ethiopic char- acters. (See Gesenius, in Ersch and Gruber's Ency- clopddie, s. v. Amharische Sprache.) The Amharic has the same alphabet as the Ethiopic, with the addition of 6even characters, which have, respectively, the sound nearly of sh, ch (soft), nasal n, guttural (German) ch, weak (French) ch, g (soft), and z (as in azure'). The vowels and diphthongs are the same in number and sound as in Ethiopic ; also the same rules of pronun- ciation prevail as in that language. The formation of nouns differs very little from the Ethiopic. The indication of gender is the same. Declension takes place by means of certain particles ; but the accusa- \ five case exhibits the peculiar Arabic "nunnation." See Arabic Language. The verb appears in four modifications, as active (neuter), a two-form /active, and passive. The prate-rite, present, and future are clearly distinguished by a change in formation. Be- sides the "conjunctive" form of the present impera- tive and infinitive, there is also a peculiar kind of par- ■ ticiple. Numerals and pronouns are, as to their form and use, entirely after the Shemitic analogies. The same is almost universally true of the particles. In the arrangement of words the nominative follows the other cases, and some of the conjunctions are placed at the end of the sentence. The best known specimens of Amharic literature are contained in Ehbragzer's ( 'at: ,/ii sis ( 'hrist. lingua .1 mharica (Borne, 1787). Lu- 1 dolph prepared a brief Grammatica lingua; Amharico-. with a Lexicon Amharico-latmum attached (Frcf. 1GD8, fol.). The Church Mission Society (of Great Britain) has published a Grammar if tin- Amharic Language, by Isenberg ( Lond. 1842, 8vo). Further detail's may be found in Jowett's Chiistian Researches, p. 197-213; Piatt, Ethiopic MSS. (Lond. 1823); Sectzen, Linguis- tischer Nachlass (Leipz. 181G-18), p. 115 sq. ; Schmid's Bibl.f. KritiL i, 307-310. See Ethiopic Language. A'mi (Heb. Ami', i»st, prob. a corrupted form of the name Aman; Sept. 'H/uQ, the chief of a family that, returned from Babylon (Ezra ii, 57); more prop- erly called Amon (q. v.) in the parallel passage (Neh. vii, 59). Amianthus (Aptavroe, unstained, i. e. by sin ; Heb. vii. ;:, "undented," and so tropically, Jas. i, 27; undecaying, 1 Pet. i, 4; chaste, Heb. xiii, 4), the name of a fibrous mineral substance commonly called asbestos. This extraordinary mineral was well known to the ancients. It occurs in long, parallel, extreme- ly slender and flexible fibres ; it is found in all coun- tries more or less abundantly, and exists, forming veins, in serpentine, mica, slate, and primitive lime- stone rocks ; the most delicate variety comes most plentifully from Savoy and Corsica. Its fibrous tex- ture, and the little alteration it undergoes in strong heats, caused it to be used by the Eastern nations as an article for the fabrication of cloth, which, when soiled, was purified by throwing it into the fire, from whence it always came out clear and perfectly white ; hence it obtained the name of amianthus, or unsoiled. By the Romans this cloth was purchased at an exor- bitant price, for the purpose of wrapping up the bodies of the dead, previous to their being laid upon the fu- neral pile, in order to prevent their ashes from being mingled with those of the wood. — Smith's Diet, of Class. Ant. and Penny Cyclopaedia, s. v. Asbestus. Amiatine Manuscript (Codex AmiatTnus), the most valuable of the Latin uncial MSS. of the Vulgate translation, of which it is designated as am (Tischendorf, A. T. Gr. 7th ed. proleg. p. ccxlvii; Scrivener, Introd. to N. T. Crit. p. 264). Its name is derived from the Cistercian Monastery of Monte Ami- atino in Tuscany, whence it was brought into the Laurentian Library at Florence, where it still remains. It was written by the Abbot Servandus about A.D. 541, and contains both Testaments, with scarcely any defect, in one very large volume, stichometrically written in a good bold hand. Bandini first pointed out its value, although it had been slightly used for the Sixtine ed. of the Vulg. in 1587-90. Fleck wretch- edly edited the N. T. part in 1840; Tischendorf col- lated it in 1843, and Tregelles in 1846 (Del Furea com. paring it for the differences) ; and it was published by Tischendorf in 1850 (Testamentum Novum, Laline in- terprets Hieronymo ; ex celeberrimo cod. Amiatino, etc., Lips. 4to), and again in 1854. The O. T. has been but little examined. The Latin text of Tregelles' N. T. is taken from this MS. (Davidson, Bib. Criticism, ii, 254 ; Tregelles, in Home's Lntrod. iv, 253). See Vulgate. Amice (amictus, amieidum sacrum). In Roman antiquity, this was an upper garment worn over the tunic. In ecclesiastical writers, it is a square-shaped linen cloth worn by the clergy. It is called by Isi- dore the anabologium, and, he says, was originally a veil worn by women to cover the shoulders. Its use was formerly, as now, different in different places; sometimes it was worn round the neck, and sometimes over the head. When worn over the shoulders and neck, it was called the super-humemle , or simply hu- memle. It was originally worn under the alb, not, as now, over it — a custom which is still preserved among the Maronites. It is still in use in the Roman Cath- olic Church, but not in the Church of England. Amin'adab (Apivaeafi'), a Groecized form (Matt, i, 4) of the name of Amminauab (q. v.). Am'inon (2 Sam. xiii, 20). See Amnon. Amir. See Bough. Amit' tai (Hah. A mittay', "'Fl'CX, true; Sept. 'Apa- •&/), the father of the prophet Jonah, a native of Gath- hepher (2 Kings xiv, 25; Jon. i, 1). B.C. ante 820. Am'mah (Heb. Ammah' ', i"I!S&t, a cubit, as often ; Sept. 'Ap/ic'i v. r. 'A/ifidv), a hill "that lieth before Giah by the way of the wilderness of Gibeon:" the sun went down as Joab and Abishai reached this place in pursuit of Abner (2 Sam. ii, 24). The description appears to indicate some eminence immediately east of Gibeon (q. v.). Josephus (Ant. vii, 1, 3) renders, "a place called Ammata" (ro7roc rig, Bv 'Appdrav KaXoii- <7i); compare the Anita (XFl^N) of Jonathan's Tar- gum. Both Symmachus (vd-irij) and Theodotion (vcpa- AMMAH 199 AMMINADIB vtityog) agree with the Vulgate in an allusion to some water-course here. It is possibly to the "excavated fountain" "under the high rock," described as near Gibeon (El- Jib) by Robinson (Researches, ii, 136). See also Metheg-ammah. Ammah. See Cubit. Ammaius. See Hammatii ; Emmaus. Am'mi (Heb. Ammi', ^BJJ, my people, Sept. Xaug fiov), a figurative nanie given by Jehovah to the peo- ple of Israel (Hos. ii, 1) to denote their restoration from Babylon (Henderson, Comment, in loc). See Lo- Ammi. Ammianus Marcellinus, a Latin historian, "the last subject of Rome who composed a profane history in the Latin language," was a native of An- tioch, born in the fourth century, and, in his youth, served with distinction in Germany, Gaul, and Persia. Retiring from a military life, he went to reside at Rome, where he wrote a valuable history of the Ro- man emperors, from Nerva, A.D. 01, where the An- nals of Tacitus end, to Valens, A.D. 378. It consist- ed of thirty-one books, of which the first thirteen are lost. He died A.D. 390 or 410. The value of his writings for general history are full}' acknowledged by Gibbon (ch. xxvi), and they are important to Church history for their details as to Julian and the state of Christianity in his time. There has been much con- troversy as to the question whether Ammianus him- self was a Christian or not. Chifflet (De Ammiani Marcellini vita et libris rerum, gestarum monoUhlion, Lovan. 1627) advocated the opinion that Ammianus was a Christian ; while Moller (Dissertat. cle Ammiano Marcellino, Altdorf. 1G85, 4to), Ditki (De A mmiano Mar- cell. Comment. Rossel, 1841), and Heyne (Censura In- genii et Historiar. Ammian. Mar cell. p. 3 sq.) combated it. It is now generally admitted that he was not a member of the Christian Church. His work contains many caustic remarks on the doctrines of Christianity. When speaking of the martyrs, of synods and other points of the Christian system, he frequently adds re- marks which clearly point to a non-Christian author. It is, however, on the other hand, equally certain that he was not addicted to the then common belief of pa- ganism. He recognised a supreme numen which curbs human arrogance and avenges human crime, and, in general, professes views which we find in Herodotus, Sophocles, and others of the best Greek writers, and which approach a monotheistic stand-point. It seems probable that he believed primitive, unadulterated Christianity to have been, as well as the philosophy of enlightened pagans, a form of deism. From this point of view Ammianus could consistently speak fa- vorably of many things he found among the Chris- tians. He censures Constantine's interference in the Arian controversy, and calls it a confusion of the ab- solute and plain Christian religion with obsolete su- perstition (Christianam religionem absolutam et simpli- cem anili superstitione confundens). By this obsolete superstition, as the connection shows, he meant in particular the controversy concerning the Trinity and Divinity of Christ. He censured Julian the Apos- tate for forbidding the Christians to receive instruc- tion in liberal studies, while he did not blame the restoration of pagan sacrifices. He was not opposed to the paganism of Julian, but to the violation of re- ligious toleration. — See Rettberg, in Herzog, Rea'-En- cyl-lopiidie, i, 279 sq. The best edition of his history is that of Wagner (Leipz. 1808, 3 vols. 8vo). An Eng- lish translation was published by Philemon Holland (Lond. 1609). Bahr, Gesch. der rdm. Literatur (Carls- ruhe, 1845), ii, 194. Ammid'ioi [some editions corruptly Ammidior] Chufiiciioi v. r. 'Appica7oi), one of the persons whose descendants (or rather places whose inhabitants) are said to have returned from the captivity (1 Esdr. v, 20) ; but the name is apparently an interpolation, or at least inextricably confused, as nothing correspond- ing to it is found in the genuine texts (Ezra ii, 25 ; Neh. vii, 29) ; this, with the previous two names (Pira and Chadias), being inserted between Beroth (Beeroth) and Cirama (Ramah). Perhaps it is compounded of the following names, Harim and Hadid, which other- wise are not given in the list of Esdras. Am'miel (Heb. Ammiel' , PX",533', people [i. e. fricnd~\ of God: Sept. AptiiX), the name of four men: 1. The son of Gemalli, of the tribe of Dan, one of the twelve spies sent by Moses to explore the land of Canaan (Num. xiii, 12), B.C. 1657. He was, of course, among the ten who perished by the plague for their unfavorable report (Num. xiv, 37). 2. The father of Machir of Lo-debar, which latter was one of David's friends (2 Sam. ix, 4, 5 ; xvii, 27). B.C. ante 1023. 3. The father of Bathsheba, wife of Uriah, and afterward of David (1 Chron. iii, 5). In 2 Sam. xi, 3, he is called (by transposition) Eliam (q. v.). 4. The sixth son of Obed-edom, the Levite (1 Chron. xxvi, 5), B.C. 1014. Ammi'hud (Heb. Ammihud', ^ft^HS1, people of glory, i. e. renowned; Sept. E/iioik'?, but in 1 Chron. 'A/iiovS), the name of five men. 1. The father of Elishama, which latter was the Ephraimite chief in the time of the Exode (Num. i, 10 ; ii, 18 ; vii, 48, 53 ; x, 22). He was the son of Laadan, and the fifth or sixth in descent from Ephraim (1 Chron. vii, 26). B.C. ante 1658. 2. The father of Shemuel, which latter was a Sim- eonite chief of the period of the Exode (Num. xxxiv, 20). B.C. ante 1618. 3. The father of Pedahel, which latter was the chief of the tribe of Naphtali at the same period (Num. xxxiv, 28). B.C. ante 1618. 4. The father of Talmai, the king of Geshur, to whom Absalom fled after his murder of Amnon (2 Sam. xiii, 37, where the text has ""n IT1 13 2, Ammichur', margin "Ammihur"). B.C. ante 1033. 5. The son of Omri the descendant of Pharez, and the father of Uthai, which last was one of those who lived at Jerusalem on the return from Babylon (1 Chron. ix, 4). B.C. ante 536. Ammin'adab (Heb. Amminadah' , 3'12'153?, kin- dred of the prince, Gesen. ; man of generosity, Fiirst, who ascribes to E3 the sense " homo" as its primitive meaning ; the passages, Psa. ex, 3 ; Cant, vi, 12, mar- gin, seem, however, rather to suggest the sense my people is willing; Sept. and New Test. 'ApivaSdfi, but in Exod. vi, 23, ' AfiuvaSafi), the name of three men. See Amminadib. 1. The father of Nahshon, which latter was phy- larch of the tribe of Judah at the time of the Exode (Num. i, 7 ; ii, 3 ; vii, 12, 17 ; x, 14). B.C. ante 1658. His father's name was Ram, and he was the fourth in descent from Judah, the sixth in ascent from Da- vid, and the forty-sixth from Christ (Ruth iv, 19, 20 ; 1 Chron. ii, 10 ; Matt, i, 4 ; Luke iii, 33). His daugh- ter Elisheba was married to Aaron (Exod. vi, 23). 2. A son of Kohath, the second son of Levi (1 Chron. vi, 22, 2, 18, in which latter two verses he seeirs to be called Izhar, q. v.). 3. A leader of the 112 descendants of Uzziel the Levite, who were appointed by David to remove the ark to Jerusalem (1 Chron. xv, 10, 11), B.C. cir. 1043, Ammin'adib (Sl'll-lSaS, perhaps another form of the name Amminadab ; Sept. 'Afiivaddfi), a person whose chariots are mentioned as proverbial for their swiftness (Cant, vi, 12) ; from which he appears to have been, like Jehu, one of the most celebrated char- ioteers of his day. In man}' MSS. the Hebrew term is divided into two words, S^S "^"i ammi nadib, "of my willing" or " loyal people," which has beer AMMISHADDAI 200 AMMONITE followed in the Syriac, by the Jews in their Spanish version, and by many modern translators ; but, taken in this way, it is difficult to assign any satisfactory meaning to the passage. — Good's Song of Songs, in loc. Ammishad'dai (Heb. Ammishadday' ', "Hd"'53", people [i. e. servants] of the Almighty; Sept. 'A^uaa- cai), the father of Ahie'zer, which latter was the chief of the Danites at the Exode (Num. i, 12 ; ii, 25). B.C. ante 1658. Ammiz'abad (Heb. Ammizabad", "Ct^S", people of the Giver, i.e. servant of Jehovah; Sept. 'A/npa^c'iS v. r. Za/3a$), the son and subaltern of Benaiah, which latter was the third and prominent captain of the host under David (1 Chron. xxvii, 6), B.C. 1014. Amnion (Heb. Amnion', "jislS, another form of the name Ben-Ammi; Sept. 'A^pc'tv), the son of Lot by his younger daughter (Gen. xix, 38), B.C. 2063. See Ben-Ammi. It also stands for his posterity (comp. Psa. lxxxiii, 7, 8), usually in the phrase "-children of Amman." See Ammonite. The expression most commonly employed for this nation is (in the original) " Bene- Amnion;" next in frequency comes "Ammo- ni" or ll Ammonim ;" and least often "Amnion." The translators of the Auth. Vers, have, as usual, neg- lected these minute differences, and have employed the three terms, children of Ammon, Ammonites, Am- nion, indiscriminately. For No-Ammon, see Amos, and No. The name is perpetuated in the modern ruins called Amman, which represent Rabbah-Am- MON (q. v.). Ammon, Jupiter. See Amos. Ammon, Christopher Frederick, a German theologian, born at Bayrcuth, January 16, 1766. He became, in 1789, professor of philosophy in Erlan- gen ; in 1792, professor of theology at the same uni- versity; in 1794, professor of theology at Gottingen. In 1804 he was called back to Erlangen, and was at the same time appointed superintendent and consis- torial councillor at Ansbach. In 1813 he was called as chief court-preacher (Oberhofprediger) and chief- consistorial councillor to Dresden. In 1831 he be- came a member of the state council of Saxony, and of the ministry of worship and public instruction, and, subsequently, vice-president of the supreme consistory. He resigned in 1849, and died at Dresden on May 21. 1850. He is chiefly known by bis work on the Devel- opment of Christianity as a Universal Religion (Fort- hi Idling il. ( "hristenthvms zur Weltreligion, 4 vols. Leip. 1833-1840), in which he argues in favor of such a de- velopment of doctrine as may keep theology in harmony with the progress of science. Ammon was a leader of the Rationalist school. He was a man of extensive learning, and a copious author. Among his writings are Gesehkhte d. HomUetih (Gott. 1804); Kanzelbevedt- tamkeit (1799 and 1812, 8vo) ; Opuscula Theoloqica (2 vols. 179:'., 1803) ; Ml,!. Theohgice. (2d ed. 1801-2, 3 vols. 8vo); Summa Theologies (3d ed. 1816); Christologie (Erl. 1794, 8vo); besides many minor works. He was regarded as one of the first pulpit orators of Germany, and is the author of many volumes of sermons. He also edited the Magazin fi'tr christliche Prediger (Mag- azine for Christian preachers, Hanover, 1816-21, 6 vols.). A biographical sketch of Amnion is given in the pamphlet "Christoph Friedrich ven Amnion nach J.i h< a. Ansichfen mid Wirken" ( Leipsic, 1850). See also B'Miotheca Sacra, x, 211. — Winer, Theol. Literatur. Am'monite (Heb. Ammoni', "^'iB?, Sept. 'Afi- uwvirr]e, and 'Appavirrjc,', also \\VS9 "23, "children of Ammon;" Sept. viol 'Appv)f the usual designa- tion of the people descended from Ben-Ammi, the son of Lot by his younger daughter (Gen. xix, 38; comp. Psa. lxxxiii, 7, 8), as Moab was by the elder; and dating from (ho destruction of Sodom. The near re- lation between the two peoples indicated in the story of their origin continued throughout their existence ; from their earliest mention (Deut. ii) to their disap- pearance from the biblical history (Jud. v, 2) the brother-tribes are named together (comp. Judg. x, 10 ; 2 Chron. xx, 1 ; Zeph. ii, 8, etc.). Indeed, so close was their union, and so near their identity, that each would appear to be occasionally spoken of under the name of the other. Thus the "land of the children of Ammon" is said to have been given to the "chil- dren of Lot," i. e. to both Ammon and Moab (Deut. ii, 19). They are both said to have hired Balaam to curse Israel (Deut. xxiii, 4), whereas the detailed nar- rative of that event omits all mention of Ammon (Num. xxii, xxiii). In the answer of Jephthah to the king of Ammon the allusions are continually to Moab (Judg. xi, 15, 18, 25), while Chemosh, the peculiar deity of Moab (Num. xxi, 29), is called "thy god" (ver. 24). The land from Arnon to Jabbok, which the king of Amnion calls "my land" (ver. 13), is else- where distinctly stated to have once belonged to a "king of Moab" (Num. xxi, 26). " Land" or " coun- try" is, however, but rarely ascribed to them, nor is there any reference to those habits and circumstances of civilization — the "plentiful fields," the "hay," the "summer fruits," the "vineyards," the "presses," and the "songs of the grape-treaders" — which so con- stantly recur in the allusions to Moab (La. xv, xvi; Jer. xlviii) ; but, on the contrary, we find everywhere traces of the fierce habits of marauders in their incur- sions, thrusting out the right eyes of whole cities (1 Sam. xi, 2), ripping up the women with child (Amos i, 13), and displaying a very high degree of crafty cru- elty (Jer. xii, 6, 7; Jud. vii, 11, 12) to their enemies, as well as a suspicious discourtesy to their allies, which on one occasion (2 Sam. x, 1-5) brought all but extermination on the tribe (xii, 31). Nor is the con- trast less observable between the one city of Ammon, the fortified hold of Rabbah (2 Sam. xi, 1 ; Ezra xxv, 5; Amos i, 13), and the "streets," the "house-tops," and the "high-places" of the numerous and busy towns of the rich plains of Moab (Jer. xlviii ; Isa. xv, xvi). Taking the above into account, it is hard to avoid the conclusion that, while Moab was the settled and civilized half of the nation of Lot, the Bene-Am- mon formed its predatory and Bedouin section. A remarkable confirmation of this opinion occurs in the fact that the special deity of the tribe was worshipped, not in a house or on a high place, but in a booth or tent designated by the very word which most keenly expressed to the Israelites the contrast between a no- madic and a settled life (Amos v, 26 ; Acts vii, 43). See Succoth. (See Stanley, Palest. App. § 89.) On the west of Jordan they never obtained a footing. Among the confusions of the times of the judges we find them twice passing over; once with Moab and Amalek, seizing Jericho, the "city of palm-trees" (Judg. iii, 13), and a second time "to fight against Judah and Benjamin, and the hoiue of Ephraim ;" but they quickly returned to the freer pastures of Gilead, leaving but one trace of their presence in the name of Chephar ha-Ammonai, "the hamlet of the Ammonites" (Josh, xviii, 24), situated in the portion of Benjamin somewhere at the head of the passes which lead up from the Jordan valley, and form the natural access to the table-land of the west country. Unlike Moab, the precise position of the territory of the Ammonites is not ascertainable. They origi- nally occupied a tract of country (sometimes called Ammonitis, 'Afipavlnc., 2 Maco. iv, 26; comp. Joseph. Ant. v, 7, 9; xi, 2, 1) east of the Amorites, and sepa- rated from the Moabites by the river Arnon, and from Bashan or Gilead by the Jabbok (Deut. iii, 16; Josh, xii, 2). The capital of this naturally well-fortified territory (Num. xxi, 24) was Rabhath-Ammon (Deut. iii, 11; Amos i, 14; comp. Behind, Palccst. ]. 103 sq. ; Cellarii Notit. ii, 671 sq.). It was previously in the possession of a gigantic race called Zamzmnmim AMMONITE 201 AMMONIUS /Deut. ii, 20), "but the Lord destroyed them before the Ammonites, and they succeeded them and dwelt in their stead." The Israelites, on reaching the bor- ders of tbe promised land, found Sihon, king of Hesh- bon, in possession by conquest of the district adjoin- ing the Dead Sea (Num. xxi, 26), but were command- ed not to molest the children of Ammon, for the sake of their progenitor Lot (Deut. ii, 19). But, though thus preserved from the annoyance which the passage of such an immense host through their country might have occasioned, they showed them no hospitality or kindness; they were therefore prohibited from "en- tering the congregation of the Lord" (i. e. from being admitted into the civil community of the Israelites) "to the tenth generation forever" (Deut. xxiii, 3). This is evidently intended to be a perpetual prohibi- tion, and was so understood by Nehemiah (Neh. xiii, 1). The first mention of their active hostility against Israel occurs in Judges iii, 13: "The king of Moab gathered unto him the children of Ammon and Ama- lek, and went and smote Israel." Later we are in- formed that the children of Israel forsook Jehovah and served the gods of various nations, including those of the children of Ammon, and the anger of Jehovah was kindled against them, and he sold them into the hands of the Philistines and of the children of Am- mon. The Ammonites crossed over the Jordan, and fought with Judah, Benjamin, and Ephraim. so that "Israel was sore distressed." In answer to Jeph- thah's messengers (Judg. xi, 12), the king of Ammon charged the Israelites with having taken away that part of his territories which lay between the rivers Anion and Jabbok, which, in Joshua xiii, 25, is called "half the land of the children of Ammon," but was in the possession of the Amorites when the Israelites invaded it ; and this fact was urged by Jephthah, in order to prove that the charge was ill-founded. Jeph- thah "smote them from Aroer to Minnith, even twenty cities, with a very great slaughter" (Judg. xi, 33 ; Jo- sephus, Ant. v, 7, 10). The Ammonites were again signally defeated by Saul (1 Sam. xi, 11), and, accord- ing to Josephus, their king, Nahash, was slain (Ant. vi, 5, 3). His successor, who bore the same name, was a friend of David, and died some years after his acces- sion to the throne. In consequence of the gross in- sult offered to David's ambassadors by his son Hanun (2 Sam. x, 4: Joseph. Ant vii, C, 1), a war ensued, in which the Ammonites were defeated, and their allies, the Syrians, were so daunted "that they feared to help the children of Ammon any more" (2 Sam. x, 19). In the following year David took their metropolis. Rabbah, and great abundance of spoil, which is prob- ably mentioned by anticipation in 2 Sam. viii, 32 (2 Sam. x, 14 ; xii,* 26-31 ; Joseph. Ant. vii, 7, 8). In the reign of Jehoshaphat the Ammonites joined with the Moabites and other tribes belonging to Mount Seir to invade Judah; but. by the divine intervention, were led to destroy one another. Jehoshaphat and his people were three days in gathering the spoil (2 Chron. xx, 25). The Ammonites "gave gifts" to Uzziah (2 Chron. xxvi, 8), and paid a tribute to his son Jotham for three successive years, consisting of 100 talents of silver, 1000 measures of wheat, and as many of barley When the two and a half tribes were carried away captive, the Ammonites took possession of the towns belonging to the tribe of Gad (Jer. xlix, 1). " Bands of the children of Ammon" and of other nations came up with Nebuchadnezzar against Jerusa- lem, and joined in exulting over its fall (Ezrk. xxv, 3, 6). Yet they allowed some of the fugitive Jews to take refuge among them, and even to intermarry (Jer. xl, 11 ; Neh. xiii, 13). Among the wives of Solomon's harem are included Ammonita women (1 Kings xi, 1), one of whom, Naamab, was the mother of Rehoboam (1 Kings xiv, 31 ; 2 Chron. xii, 13), and henceforward traces of the presence of Ammonite women in Judah are not wanting (2 Chron. xxiv, 26; Neh. xiii, 23 ; Ezra ix, 1 ; see Geiger, Ursckrift, p. 47, 49, 299). In the writings of the prophets terrible denunciations are uttered against the Ammonites on 1 account of their rancorous hostility to the people of Israel, and the destruction of their metropolis, Kab- bah, is distinctly foretold (Zeph. ii, 8 ; Jer. xlix, 1-6 ; Ezek. xxv, 1-5, 10; Amos i, 13-15). See Rabbah. On the return of the Jews from Babylon the Ammon- ites manifested their ancient hostility by deriding and opposing the rebuilding of Jerusalem (Neh. iv, 3, 7, 8). Both Ezra and Nehemiah expressed vehement indignation against those Jews who had intermarried with the heathen (Ezra x ; Neh. xiii, 25), and thus transgressed the divine command (Deut. vii, 3). The last appearances of the Ammonites in the biblical nar- rative are in the books of Judith (v, vi, vii) and of the Maccabees (1 Mace, v, G, 30-43), and it has been al- ready remarked that their chief characteristics — close alliance with Moab, hatred of Israel, and cunning cru- elty— are maintained to the end. Judas Maccabaeus fought many battles with the Ammonites, and took Jazer, with the towns belonging to it (1 Mace, v, 6, 3-43). In the time of Antiochus Epiphanes, Josephus (Ant. xiii, 8, 1) speaks of a certain Zeno Cotylas as ruler of ' Philadelphia (the older Rabbah). Justin Martyr affirms that in his time the Ammonites were numerous (Dial, cum Tryph. § 119). Origen speaks of their country under the general denomination of Arabia (In Job. c. i). Josephus says that the Moab- ites and Ammonites were inhabitants of Ccele-Syria (Ant. i, 11, 5 ; xi, 5, 8). See Ammon. The tribe was governed by a king (Judg xi, 12, etc. ; 1 Sam. xii, 12; 2 Sam. x, 1; Jer. xl, 14) and I by "princes," D^lb (2 Sam. x, 3; 1 Chron. xix, 3). 1 Their national idol was Molech or Milcom (see Jouv. i Sac. Lit. 1852, p. 365 sq.), whose worship was intro- duced among the Israelites by the Ammonitish wives of Solomon (1 Kings xi, 5, 7) ; and the high-places built by that sovereign for this " abomination" were not destroyed till the reign of Josiah (2 Kings xxiii, i 13). Besides Nahash and Hanun, an Ammonitish king, Baalis, is mentioned by Jeremiah (xl, 14) and Josephus (Ant. x, 9, 3). The following Ammonite names are pi-eserved in the sacred text : Achior (Judith v, 5, etc.), Baalis (Jer. xl, 14), Hanun (2 Sam. x, 1, | etc.), Molech, Naamah (1 Kings xiv, 21, etc.), Nac- . hash (1 Sam. xi, 1, etc.), Shobi (2 Sam. xvii, 27), Ti- ' motheus (1 Mace, v, 6. etc.), Tobijah (Neh. ii, 10, etc.), Zelek (2 Sam. xxiii, 37); to which may probably be added the name Zamzummim, applied by the Am- monites to the Rephaim whom they dispossessed.— Kit- to, s. v. ; Smith's, v. Canaanite. Am'monitess (Heb. Ammonith', rV^lB? or T^ITS" ; Sept. 'AnfjuuviTig, in Chron. 'Aft/iavIng and 'A^/ttvir/;c), a female (1 Kings xiv, 21. 31 ; 2 Chron. xii, 13; xxiv, 26) Ammonite (q. v.). Ammomtis. See Ammonite. Ammonius, a Christian philosopher, sometimes confounded with Ammonius Saccas, lived at Alexan- dria in the third century. He is the author of a " Har- mony in the Gospel," a work which by several critics is attributed to Tatian, and which is said to have in- duced Eusebius to write his "Canons." There is a Latin translation of this work by Victor of Capua, en- titled Ammonii, vulgo Tatiuni, diatessarnn, me har- monics in qualuor evangelia (Mayence, 1524, 8vo). A life of Christ was extracted from this work by Nach- tigal (Latinized Luscinius), under the title Vita Jesu C/iristi, ex quatuor evangelistis ex Ammonii Alex, frag- ments gnvcis latine versa, per 0. Luscinmm (Erfurt, 1544). This Ammonius is perhaps also the author of a metaphrase of the gospel of John, which is gen- erallv attributed to Nonnus, and which is found in MS. in the library of St. Mark at Venice.— Hoefer, Biogrnphie Generate, ii, 384. AMMONIUS SACCAS 202 AMON Ammonius Saccas, or Saccophorus (so call- ed because he was a porter in early life), a philosopher of Alexandria toward the end of the second century. He is considered as the founder of the Neo-Platonic Philosophy. Plotinus, Longinus, and Origen, were among his pupils. His object was to reconcile Plato and Aristotle, and hence his school was called eclectic. Ammonius had been educated in Christianity ; and he seems never to have abandoned the name of the faith, while he was disparaging its doctrines and its essence. Porphyry asserts that Ammonius deserted Christian- it}-, Eusebius (Hist. Eccles. vi, 19) that he adhered to it. To these two opinions, variously advocated by most modern divines, others have added a third, that Eusebius mistook a Christian writer of the same name for the heathen philosopher ; and this is warmly main- tained by Lardner (Works, ii, 439; vii. 446). He was a man of great talents and energy, and indefatigable in the pursuit of knowledge. — Waddington, Ch. Hist. ch. iii; Tennemann, Hist Phil. § 203 ; Brucker, Hist. Phil, ii, 205 ; Mosheim, Comm. ii, 348, 7 ; Simon, Hist, de Vecole d1 Alexandrie, i, 204 ; Dehaut, Essai sur Am- monius Saccas (Bruxelles, 1836, 4to). See Alexan- drian School ; Eclectics ; New Platonists. Am'non (Heb. Amnon , "p^X [2 Sam. xiii, 20, "p^aSt, A minon'], faithful; Sept. 'A/xvwv), the name of two men. 1. The first named of the four sons of Shimon or Shammai, of the children of Ezra, the descendant of Judah (1 Chron. iv, 20, comp. ver. 17), B.C. prob. post 1612. 2. The eldest son of David by Ahinoam of Jezreel (1 Chron. iii, 1), born at Hebron (2 Sam. iii, 2), B.C. cir. 1052. He is only known for his violation of his half sister Tamar, B.C. cir. 1031, which her full 1 roth- er Absalom revenged two years after, by causing him to be assassinated while a guest at his table (2 Sam. xiii). See Absalom. The Sept. (in a clause added in 2 Sam. xiii, 21, but wanting in the Hebrew) assigns as the reason for David's refraining from executing the penalty due to Amnon, that "he loved him be- cause he was his first-born" — a fact that no doubt formed an additional incentive to the ambitious Ab- salom for putting him out of the way. See David. A'mok (Heb. Amok', pi03>> &ep; Sept. 'Ajuoi',y, 'Aui\), the father of Eber, and a chief among the priests that returned from Babvlon with Zerubbabel (Neh. xii, 7, 20), B.C. 536. Amolo or Amulo, archbishop of Lyons, A.D. 841, was one of the opponents of Gotteschalcus, but seems to have been of a different spirit from some of them, Hincmar cspeeialh\ He wrote, 1. An Epistle to Theobald, about certain pretended relics of saints and the false miracles which were promulgated by the scoundrels who sold them. Amolo declared it all im- posture. 2. To Gotteschalcus, an epistle (Sismondi, Opera, ii, 893) written with a great deal of brotherly love, and declaring that "God had predestinated no man to damnation." Also "Opuscula duo de Prcedes- Hnatione," to be found in Bib. Max. Pair, xiv, 329. Amomitm (ufiwfiov). This word is only found in Rev. xviii, 13 (between "cinnamon" and "odors"), and is even there omitted in the received text. It de- noted an odoriferous plant or seed, used in preparing precious ointment. It probably differed from the mod- ern amomum of the druggists (Pinny Cyclopaedia, s. v.), tint the exact species is not known. It was of various qualities, growing in Armenia and Media, and also in Pontus. with seeds in clusters like grapes (Pliny, Hist. Nat. xii, 28 ; Theophrastus, Hist. Plant, ix, 7). A'mon ( IIcli. Amon', 7"N:, builder [the deriv. of Ho. 3 is prob. different]), the name of three men and a deity. 1. (Sept. 'AfifUJV and 'l'///;n v. r. Sf/n'/o.) The gov- ernor of the city of Samaria in the time of Ahab, to whose custody the prophet Micaiah was delivered (1 Kings xxii, 20 ; 2 Chron. xviii, 25), B.C. 895. 2. (Sept. 'A/mov v. r. Afiiog.) The son of Manasseh (by Meshullemeth the daughter of Haruz of Jotbah), and fifteenth separate king of Judah, B.C. 642-640. He appears to have derived little benefit from the in- structive example which the sin, punishment, and re- pentance of his father offered ; for he restored idolatry, and again set up the images which Manasseh had cast down. To Anion's reign we must refer the terrible picture which the prophet Zephaniah gives of the moral and religious state of Jerusalem ; idolatry supported by priests and prophets (i, 4; iii, 4), the poor ruthless- ly oppressed (iii, 3), and shameless indifference to evil (iii, 11). He was assassinated in a court conspiracy; but the people put the regicides to death, and raised to the throne his son Josiah, then but eight years old (2 Kings xxi, 18-26 ; 2 Chron. xxxiii, 20-25). He is mentioned among the ancestors of Christ ('A/tup, Matt, i, 10 ; comp. 1 Chron. iii, 14 ; Jer. i, 2 ; xxv, 3 ; Zeph. | i, 1). See Judah, Kingdom of. 3. (Sept. 'Appwv.) Ammon, an Egyptian and Lib- yan god, in whom the classical writers unanimously recognise their own Zeus and Jupiter (Ajuoi'i-, Herod, ii, 42 ; "Apuwv, Diod. Sic. i, 13). The primitive seat of his worship appears to have been at Meroe, from which it descended to Thebes, and thence, according to Herodotus (ii, 54), was transmitted to the oasis of Siwah and to Dodona ; in all which places there were celebrated oracles of this god (Plut. Isid. c. 9; Alex. c. 72; Arnolius, vi, 12; Justin, xi, 11; Strabo, i, 49 sq. ; xvii, 814). His chief temple and oracle in Egypt, however, were at Thebes, a city peculiarly consecrated to him, and which is probably meant by the No and No-Amon of the prophets, the Diospolis of the Greeks. He is generally represented on Egyptian monuments Image of Amnion. From the Egyptian Monuments. by the seated figure of a man with a ram's head, or by that of an entire ram, and of a blue color (Wilkinson, 2 ser. i, 243 sq.). In honor of him, the inhabitants of the Thebaid abstained from the flesh of sheep, but they annually sacrificed a ram to him and dressed his im- age in the hide. A religious reason for that ceremony is assigned by Herodotus (ii, 42); but Diodorus (iii, 72) ascribes his wearing horns to a more trivial cause. There appears to be no account of the manner in which his oracular responses were given ; but as a sculpture at Karnak, which Creuzer (Symbol, i, 507) has copied from the Description de VEgypte, represents his portable tabernacle mounted on a boat and borne on the shoul- ders of forty priests, it may be conjectured, from the resemblance between several features of that repre- sentation and the description of the oracle of Jupiter Amnion in Diodorus, xvii, 50, that his responses were communicated by some indication during the solemn transportation of his tabernacle. (See Smith's Dirt. of Class. Bioff. s. v. Amnion.) That the name of this god really occurs in the passage " Behold, I will pun- AMORITE 203 AMORITE ish the multitude (literally, Amori) of No" (Jer. xlvi, 25), is a view favored by the context and all internal grounds ; but in the parallel passage, Ezek. xxx, 15, the equivalent hamon, "|150i"I, is employed. Comp. also Ezek. xxx, 4, 10, for the use of the latter word with reference to Egypt. These cases, or at least the for- mer two, seem therefore to be instances of paronomasia (comp. Isa. xxx, 7; lxv, 11, 12). It is also undoubt- edly referred to in the name No-Am mon [see No], given to Thebes (Nahum iii, 8, where the English text translates "populous No"). The etymology of the name is obscure. Eustathius (ad Dionys. Perieg. p. 125, ed. Bernhardy) says that, according to some, the word means shepherd. Jablonski (Panth. sEggpt. i, 181) proposed an etymology by which it would signify producing light ; and Champollion originally regarded it as meaning glory (Egypte sous les Pharaons, i, 217), but, in his latest interpretation (after Manetho in ITut ), assigned it the sense of hidden. The name accompa- nying the above figure on the monuments is written Am?i, more fully Amn-Re, i. e. "Amon-Sun" (Gese- nius, Thcs. Heb. p. 115). Macrobius asserts (Satumal. i, 21) that the Libyans adored the sun under the form of Amnion ; and he points to the ram's horns as evi- dence of a connection with the zodiacal sign Aries (Muller, Archaol p. 276; Pauly, Real-Encgcl. i, 407 sq.) ; but this has been disputed (Jomard, Descr. de VEgypte ; Bahr, Symbolik d. Mos. Cultus, ii, 296, 641), although it would seem unsuccessfully (Creuzer, Sym- bolik, ii, 205 ; Schmidt, Be Zodiaci origine sEg. p. 33, in his Opusc. quibus res ^Eg. illustrantur, Carolsr. 1765). — Kitto, s. v. See Egypt ; Hieroglyphics. 4. (Sept. 'H/xti/i v. r. 'Bfjui/i.) The head or ances- tor of one of the families of the Ncthinin that returned from Babylon (Neh. vii, 59) ; called Ami in Ezra ii, 57. B.C. ante 536. Am'orite (Heb. Emori' , ^bX, Sept. 'A^oppai- oc), the designation of the descendants of one of the sons of Canaan (Gen. x, 16, in like manner, with the art., ihaXtt, Sept. 6 'Afioppawc, Auth. Vers, "the Am- orite." Gesenius, however, prefers the derivation sug- gested by Simonis, from an obsolete ION, height, q. d. mountaineer; comp. Ewald, Isr. Gesch. i, 279 sq.). They were the most powerful and distinguished of the Canaanitish nations (Gen. x, 16 ; Exod. iii, 8 ; xiii, 5 ; xxxiii, 2). We find them first noticed in Gen. xiv, 7, "the Amorites that dwelt in Hazezon-tamar" (q. v.), afterward called Engedi, a city in the wilderness of Judasa not far from the Dead Sea (Num. xiii, 29 • Deut. i, 7, 20). In the promise to Abraham (Gen xv, 21), the Amorites are specified as one of the nations whose country would be given to his posterity. But at that time three confederates of the patriarch be- longed to this tribe— Mamre, Aner, and Eshcol (Gen. xiv, 13, 24). When the Israelites were about to enter the promised land, the Amorites occupied a tract on both sides of the Jordan. Josephus calls it Amoritis (A/uuplnc, Ant. iv, 5, 1 ; 7, 3) and Amoria ('A/Aopia v. r. 'A/tonaia, 'Afiwpaia, Ant. v, 1, 1). They seem to have originally inhabited the southern slopes of the mountains of Judaea (hence called the mount of the Amorites, Deut. i, 7; xix, 20), but whether as abo- rigines or as dispossessors of an earlier race is uncer- tain, probably the former. It appears, therefore, that from the barren heights west of the Dead Sea (Gen. xiv, 7) they had stretched west to Hebron (Gen. xiv, 13; comp. xiii, 18). From this, their ancient seat, they may have crossed the valley of the Jordan, tempt- ed by the high table-lands on the east, for there we next meet them at the date of the invasion of the coun- try. Sihon, their then king, had taken the rich pas- ture-land south of the Jabbok, and had driven the Moabites, its former possessors, across the wide chasm of the Anion (Num. xxi, 26, 13), which thenceforward formed the boundary between the two hostile peoples (Num. xxi, 13). That part of their territories which lay to the east of the Jordan was allotted to the tribes of Reuben, Gad, and half the tribe of Manasseh. This district was under two kings — Sihon, king of Heshbon (frequently called king of the Amorites), and Og, king of Bashan, who "dwelt at Ashtaroth [and] in [at] Edrei" (Deut. i, 4, compared with Josh, xii, 4 ; xiii, 12). The Israelites apparently approached from the south- east, keeping "on the other side" (that is, on the east) of the upper part of the Anion, which there bends southward, so as to form the eastern boundary of the country of Moab. Their request to pass through his land to the fords of Jordan was refused by Sihon (Num. xxi, 21; Deut. ii, 20); he "went out" against them (xxi, 23; ii, 32), was killed with his sons and his peo- ple (ii, 33), and his land, cattle, and cities, taken pos- session of by Israel (xxi, 24, 25, 31 ; ii, 34-56). This rich tract, bounded by the Jabbok on the north, the Arnon on the south, Jordan on the west, and "the wil- derness" on the east (Judg. xi, 21, 22) — in the words of Josephus, " a land lying between three rivers after the manner of an island" {Ant. iv, 5, 2) — was, perhaps, in the most special sense, the "land of the Amorites" (Num. xxi, 31 ; Josh, xii, 2, 3 ; xiii, 9 ; Judg. xi, 21, 22) ; but their possessions are distinctly stated to have extended to the very foot of Hermon (Deut iii, 8; iv, 48), embracing "all Gilead and all Bashan" (iii, 10), with the Jordan valley on the east of the river (iv, 49), and forming together the land of the " two kings of the Amorites," Sihon and Og (Deut. xxxi, 4; Josh. ii, 10 ; ix, 10 ; xxiv, 12). Og also gave battle to the Israelites at Edrei, and was totally defeated. After the capture of Ai, five kings of the Amorites, whose dominions lay within the allotment of the tribe of Judah, leagued together to wreak vengeance on the Gibeonites for having made a separate peace with the invaders. Joshua, on being apprised of their design, marched to Gibeon and defeated them with great slaughter (Josh, x, 10). Another confederacy was shortly after formed on a still larger scale ; the asso- ciated forces are described as "much people, even as the sand upon the sea-shore in multitude, with horses and chariots very manv" (Josh, xi, 4). Josephus says that they consisted of 300,000 armed foot-soldiers, 10,000 cavalry, and 20,000 chariots {Ant. v, 1, 8). Joshua came suddenly upon them by the waters of Merom (the lake Semechonitis of Josephus, Ant. v, 5, 1, and the modern Bahr el-Huleh), and Israel smote them until they left none remaining (Josh, xi, 8). Still, after their severe defeats, the Amorites, by means of their war-chariots and cavalry, confined the Danites to the hills, and would not suffer them to settle in the plains ; they even succeeded in retaining possession of some of the mountainous parts (Judg. i, 34-36). It is mentioned as an extraordinary circumstance that in the days of Samuel there was peace between Israel and the Amorites (1 Sam. vii, 14). In Solomon's reign a tribute of bond-service was levied on the rem- nant of the Amorites and other Canaanitish nations (1 Kings ix, 21 ; 2 Chron. viii, 8). See Canaan. A discrepancy has been supposed to exist between Deut. i, 44, and Num. xiv, 45, since in the former the Amorites are said to have attacked the Israelites, and in the latter the Amalekites ; the obvious explanation is, that both terms are used synonymously for the "Canaanites" named in the same connection. Thus the Gibeonites in Josh, ix, 7, are called Hivites, yet in 2 Sam. xxi, 2, they are said to be " of the remnant of the yl worses," probably because they were descended from a common stock, and were in subjection to an Amoritish prince, as we do not read of any king of the Hivites. The Amorites, on account of their prominence among the Canaanitish tribes, sometimes stand (Josh, xxiv, 18 ; Amos ii, 9 ; 1 Kings xxi, 26) as the representa- ! tives of the Canaanites in general (Hamelsweld, iii, 56 sq. ; Kurtz, on the primitive inhabitants of Pales- : tine, in the Luther. Zeitschr. 18-15, iii, 48 sq. ; Jour, of AMORT 204 AMOS Sac. Lit. Oct. 1851, p. 166 ; Apr. 1852, p. 76 ; Jan. 1853, p. 306; Rosenmiiller, Bibl. Geogr. II, i, 255; Reland, Palast. p. 138). But although the name generally de- notes the mountain tribes of the centre of the country, yet this definition is not always strictly maintained, varying probably with the author of the particular part of the history, and the time at which it was written. Nor ought we to expect that the Israelites could have possessed very accurate knowledge of a set of small tribes whom they were called upon to exterminate — with whom they were forbidden to hold any inter- course— and, moreover, of whose general similarity to each other we have convincing proof in the confusion in question. Thus, Hebron is "Amorite' in Gen. xiii, 18; xiv, 13, though "Hittite" in xxiii, and "Canaanite" in Judg. i, 10. The " Hivites" of Gen. xxxiv, 2, are " Amorites" in xlviii, 22; and so also in Josh, ix, 7; xi, 19, as compared with 2 Sam. xxi, 12. Jerusalem is "Amorite" in Josh, x, 5, 6, but in xvii, 63; xviii, 28; Judg. i, 21 ; xix, 11 ; 2 Sam. v, 6, etc., it is "Jebusite." The "Canaanites" of Num. xiv, 45 (comp. Judg. i, 17), are "Amorites" in Deut. i, 44. Jarmuth, Lachish, and Eglcn were in the low country of the Shfela (Josh. xv. 35, 39), but in Josh, x, 5, 6, the)' are "Amorites that dwelt in the mountains;" and it would appear as if the "Amorites" who forced the Danites into the mountain (Judg. i, 34, 35) must have themselves remained on the plain. Notwith- standing these few differences, however, from a com- parison of the passages previously quoted, it appears plain that "Amorite" was in general a local term and not the name of a distinct tribe. This is con- firmed by the following facts : 1. The wide area over which the name was spread. 2. The want of connec- tion between those on the east and those on the west of Jordan — which is only once hinted at (Josh, ii, 10). 3. The existence of kings like Sihon and Og, whose territories were separate and independent, but who are j-et called "the two kings of the Amorites," a state of things quite at variance with the habits of Semitic tribes. 4. Beyond the three confederates of Abram and these two kings, no individual Amorites appear in history (unless Araunah or Oman the Jebusite be one) 5. There are no traces of any peculiar govern ment, worship, or customs, different from those of the other "nations of Canaan." See Canaanite. All mountaineers are warlike ; and, from the three confederate brothers who at a moment's notice accom- panied "Abram the Hebrew" in his pursuit of the five kings, down to those who, not depressed by the slaughter inflicted by Joshua and the terror of the name of Israel, persisted in driving the children of Dan into the mountain, the Amorites full}' maintain- ed this character. From the language of Amos (ii 9) it has been inferred that the Amorites in general were men of extraordinary stature, but perhaps the allusion is to an individual, Og, king of Bashan, who is described by Moses as being the last "of the rem- nant of the giants." His bedstead was of iron, " nine cubits in length and four cubits in breadth" (Deut iii, 21). One word of the "Amorite" language ha: survived — the name Senir (not " Shenir") for Mount Hermon (Deut. iii, 9); but may not this be the Ca- naanitish name as opposed to the Phoenician (Sirion) on the one side and the Hebrew on the other ?— Kit- tu, s. v. ; Smith, s. v. See HeEMON. Amort, Eusebius, a Roman Catholic theologian of Germany, was born at the Bibermiihlo (beaver mill) near Toelz, Bavaria, Nov. 15, 1692. He entered the order of the Augustines as Pollingen, when he subse- quently became professor of philosophy, theology, and ecclesiastical law. ile followed Cardinal Cervari to Borne, where he gained the favor of Pope Clement XIT. He returned to Bavaria in 17:;."), and died Feb. 5, 1775. He wrote two works to vindicate the authorship of Thomas a Kempis to the book llDe Imitaiione Christ!'" (Scutum Kempense, Cologne, 1728, 4to; and Deductio Critica, Augsburg, 1761, 4to). Among his numerous other works are a manual of theology in four volumes (Theologia eclectica, moralis et scholastica, Augsb. 1751), ind a defence of the Roman Catholic Church (Demon- stratio critica Religionis Catholicce, Augsb. 1751). See Hoefer, Biographic, Generate, ii, 393 ; Wetzer and Welte, Kir chen- Lexicon, i, 208. Amortization. See Mortmain. Amory, Thomas, D.D., an English dissenting minister, born at Taunton, Jan. 28, 1701, and educated under the care of his uncle, Mr. H. Grove, who had an academy for training young ministers at Taunton. In 1730 he was ordained to the pastoral office. On the death of Mr. Grove, in 1738, Mr. Amory succeeded him as chief tutor in the academy at Taunton, where he was greatly esteemed, not only by his own congre- gation and sect, but by all the neighboring congre- gations and ministers, as well of the Independent and Baptist denominations as of the Church of England. In October, 1759, he removed to London, as afternoon preacher to the society in the Old Jewry, belonging to Dr. S. Chandler. In London he was not popular; his sermons, though practical and affecting to the at- tentive hearer, were rather too close, judicious, and philosophical for the common run of congregations. "When the dissenting ministers, in 1772, formed a de- sign of endeavoring to procure an enlargement of the Toleration Act, Dr. Amory was one of the committee appointed for that purpose. He died on the 24th of June, 1774. He was a good Biblical critic, and an excellent scholar. His principal works are, Sermons (5 vols. v. y.) ■ — A Letter to a Friend on the Perplex- ities to which Christians are exposed: — A lHalogue on Devotion after the manner of Xenophon (Lond. 1746) : — Farms of Devotion for the Closet. He also wrote the Life and edited the Writings of the Rev. Henry Grove (Lond. 1740) ; also edited the Sermons of Grove, and Grove's System of Moral Philosophy : he wrote the Life and edited the Writings of Dr George Benson, and ed- ited the Posthumous Sermons of Dr. Chandler. — Jones, Chr. Biog. A'mos (Heb. Amos', Bl^l?, borne \; Sept. and New Test. 'Apwc), the name of two men. 1. One of the twelve minor prophets, and a contem- porary of Isaiah and Hosea. He was a native of Te- koah, about six miles south of Bethlehem, inhabited chiefly by shepherds, to which class he belonged, be- ing also a dresser of sycamore trees, and not trained in any of the prophetical schools (i, 1 ; vii, 14, 15). Though some critics have supposed that he was a na- tive of the kingdom of Israel, and took refuge in Te- koah when persecuted by Amaziah, yet a comparison of the passages Amos i, 1 ; vii, 14, with Amaziah's lan- guage, vii, 12, leads us to believe that he was born and brought up in that place. The period during which he filled the prophetic office was of short dura- tion, unless we suppose that he uttered other predic- tions which are not recorded. It is stated expressly that he prophesied in the days of Uzziah, king of Ju- dah, and in the days of Jeroboam, the son of Joash, king of Israel, two years before the earthquake (Amos i, 1). This earthquake, to which there is an allusion in Zechariah (xiv, 5), is represented b}' Josephus (Ant. ix, 10, 4) and some other Jewish writers as a mark of the divine displeasure against Uzziah (in addition to his leprosy) for usurping the priest's office some time be- fore his death. This agrees with the sacred narrative, which informs us that Jotham, his son, acted as regent during the remainder of his reign ; for we must under- stand the accession spoken of in 2 Kings xv, 33, when he was twenty-five years old, to refer to this associa- tion with his father. See Jotham. As Uzziah and Jeroboam were contemporaries for about twenty-seven years (B.C. 80S-7S2), the latter part of this period will mark the tl.it > when Amos prophesied. This agrees with the intimation in ch. vii, 10, of the proximity of AMOS 205 AMOZ Jeroboam's death. Amos speaks of the conquests of this warlike king as completed (vi, 13 ; comp. 2 Kings xiv, 25) ; on the other hand the Assyrians, who toward the end of his reign were approaching Palestine (Hos. x, G ; xi, 5), do not seem as yet to have caused any alarm in the country. Amos predicts, indeed, that Israel and other neighboring nations will be punished by certain wild conquerors from the north (i, 5 ; v, 27 ; vi, 14), but does not name them, as if they were still unknown or unheeded. (See Niemeyer, Charakt. d. Bibel, v, 302 sq.) Book of Amos. — When Amos received his commis- sion (B.C. 783), the kingdom of Israel, which had been " cut short" by Hazael (2 Kings x, 33) toward the close of Jehu's reign, was restored to its ancient limits and splendor by Jeroboam II (2 Kings xiv, 25). But the restoration of national prosperity was followed by the prevalence of luxury, licentiousness, and oppression, to an extent that again provoked the divine displeas- ure ; and Amos was called from the sheepfolds to be the harbinger of the coming judgments. The poor were oppressed (viii, 4), the ordinances of religion thought burdensome (viii, 5), and idleness, luxury, and extravagance were general (iii, 15). The source of these evils was idolatry, of course that of the gold- en calves, not of B.ial, since Jehu's dynasty occupied the throne, though it seems probable from 2 Kings xiii, 6, which passage must refer to Jeroboam's reign [see Benhadad III], that the rites even of Astarte were tolerated in Samaria, though not encouraged. Calf-worship was specially practised at Bethel, where was a principal temple and summer palace for the king (vii, 13; comp. iii, 15), also at Gilgal, Dan, and Beersheba in Judah (iv, 4 ; v, 5 ; viii, 14), and was offensively united with the true worship of the Lord (v, 14, 21-23; comp. 2 Kings xvii, 33). Amos went to rebuke this at Bethel itself, but was compelled to return to Judah by the high-priest Amaziah, who pro- cured from Jeroboam an order for his expulsion from the northern kingdom. Not that his commission was limited entirely to Israel. The thunder-storm (as Biiekert poetically expresses it) rolls over all the sur- rounding kingdoms, touches Judah in its progress, and at length settles upon Israel. Chapters i ; ii, 1-5, form a solemn prelude to the main subject ; nation after na- tion is summoned to judgment, in each instance with the striking idiomatical expression (similar to that in Prov. xxx, 15, 18, 21), " For three transgressions — and for four — I will not turn away the punishment there- of." Israel is then addressed in the same style, and in chap, iii (after a brief rebuke of the twelve tribes collectively) its degenerate state is strikingly portray- ed, and the denunciations of divine justice are inter- mingled, like repeated thunder-claps, to the end of chap. vi. The seventh and eighth chapters contain various symbolical visions, with a brief historical epi- sode (vii, 10-17). In the ninth chapter the majesty of Jehovah and the terrors of his justice are set forth with a sublimity of diction which rivals and partly copies that of the royal Psalmist (comp. ver. 2, 3, with Psa. cix, and ver. G with Psa. civ). Toward the close the scene brightens ; and from the eleventh verse to the end the promises of the divine mercy and returning favor to the chosen race are exhibited in imagery of great beauty taken from rural life. The allusions in the writings of this prophet are numerous and varied ; they refer to natural objects, as in iii, 4, 8 ; iv, 7, 9 ; v, 8; vi, 12; ix, 3: to historical events, i, 9, 11, 13; ii, 1; iv, 11; v, 2G : to agricultural or pastoral employ- ments and occurrences, i, 3 ; ii, 13 ; iii, 5, 12 ; iv, 2, 9 ; v, 19 ; vii, 1 ; ix, 9, 13, 15 : and to national insti- tutions and customs, ii, 8 ; iii, 15 ; iv, 4 ; v, 21 ; vi, 4-6, 10 ; viii, 5, 10, 14. The book presupposes a pop- ular acquaintance with the Pentateuch (see Hengsten- berg, Bcitrdge zur Einleitung ins Alte Testament, i, 83- 125), and implies that the ceremonies of religion, ex- cept where corrupted by Jeroboam I, were in accord- ance with the law of Moses. As the book is evidently not a series of detached prophecies, but logically and artistically connected in its several parts, it was prob- ably written by Amos as we now have it after his re- turn to Tekoah from his mission to Bethel (see Ewald, Propheten des Alien Bundes, i, 84 sq.) (Smith, s. v.). The canonicity of the book of Amos is amply sup- ported both by Jewish and Christian authorities. Philo, Josephus, and the Talmud include it among tho minor prophets. It is also in the catalogues of Melito, Jerome, and the 60th canon of the Council of Laodicea. Justin Martyr, in his Dialogue with Trypho (§ 22), quotes a considerable part of the fifth and sixth chap- ters, which he introduces by saying, " Hear how he speaks concerning these by Amos, one of the twelve." There are two quotations from it in the New Testa- ment ; the first (v, 25, 26) by the proto-martyr Ste- phen, Acts vii, 42; the second (ix, 11) by the Apostle James, Acts xv, 16. (See, generally, Knobel, Prophet. ii, 147 sq. ; Hitzig, Kl. Proph. p. 29 ; Carpzov, Inlrod. iii, 314 sq. ; Eichhorn, Einkit. iv, 307 sq. ; Jahn, II, ii, 401 sq. ; Bertholdt, iv, 1G11 sq. ; Davidson, in Home's Jntrod. new ed. ii, 9G0 sq.). — Kitto, s. v. Special exegetical works on the book of Amos are the following, of which the most important are desig- nated by an asterisk [*] prefixed: Ephraem Syrus, Explanatio (in Opp. v, 255); *Kimchi, Commentaiius (in Hebr. ed. Minister, Basil, 1531, 8vo); Luther, En- arratio (in Opp. iii, 513) ; Brent, Commentarius (in Ojp. iv); (Ecolampadius, Adnotationes (Basil. 1535, fob); Quinquaboreus, Notce (Par. 1556, 4to) ; Mercer, Com- mentarius (Genev. 1574, fol. ; Giess. 1595, 4to) ; Daneau, Commentarius (Genev. 1578, 8vo) ; Lively, Adnotationes (Lond. 1587, 8vo ; also in the Critici Sacri, iii) ; Schade, Commentarius (Argent. 1588, 4to) ; Tarnovius, Commen- tarius (Lips. 1622, 4to) ; Benefield, Sermons (Lond. 1629, 3 vols. 4to); Hall, Exposition (Lond. 1661, 4to); Gerhard, Adnotationes (Jen. 16G3, 1676, 4to) ; *Van Toll, Vitlegginge (Ultraj. 1705, 4to) ; Michaelis, Exer- citatio (Hal. 1736, 4 to) ; Hase, Stilus Amosi (Hal. 1755, 4to) ; *Harenberg, Amos expositus (L. B. 1763, 4to); Uhland, Animadversiones (Tub. 1779, 1780, 4to) ; *Dahl, Amos iibers. u. erldut. (Cott. 1795, 8vo); *Horsley, Notes (in Bib. Crit. ii, 391); *Justi, Amos fibers, u. er- ldut. (Lpz. 1799, 8vo); Berg, Specimen (in Roscnmul- ler's Pepertor. ii, 1 sq.) ; Swanborg, Amos illustr. (Ups. 1808 sq. 4to) ; *Vater, Amos ubers. u. erldut. (Hal. 1810, 4to ; also with Latin title, ib. eod.) ; *Rosenmuller, Scholia (Lips. 1813, 8vo) ; Juynboll, De Amoso (L. B. 1828, 4to) ; Faber, Abweichungen d. Gr. Uebers. (in Eich- horn's Pcpertor. vi, 288 sq.) ; *Baur, Amos erkldrt (Lpz. 1847, 8vo); Kyan, Lectures (Lond. 1850, 12mo). See Prophets (Minor). 2. The ninth in the maternal line of ascent from Christ, being the son of Nahum (or Johanan), and the father of Mattathiah (Luke iii, 25), B.C. cir. 400. His name perhaps would be more properly Anglicized Amoz, and in that case it would have the same deri- vation as under that article. Amour, Saint. See Saint Amour. A'moz(Heb. Amots', VION, strong; Sept. Ajuwo), the father of the prophet Isaiah (2 Kings xix, 2, 20 ; xx, 1 ; 2 Chr. xxvi, 22 ; xxxii, 20, 32 ; Isa. i, 1 ; ii, 1 ; xiii, 1 ; xx, 2), B.C. ante 756. He is also tradition- all}- said to be the son of King Joash, and brother of Amaziah. The rabbins assort that the father of Isaiah was also a prophet, according to a rule among them, that when the father of a prophet is called in Scripture by his name it is an indication that he also had the ^rift of prophecy (Clem. Alex. Stromat. 1). Augustine conjectured {De Civit. Dei, xviii, 27) that the prophet Amos was the father of Isaiah ; but the names of these two persons are written differently. Besides, the fa- ther of Isaiah, as well as Isaiah himself, was of Jeru- salem. Some arc of opinion that this Amoz was the man of God who spoke to King Amaziah, and obliged him to send back the hundred thousand men of Israel, AMPIIIBALUM 206 AMRAM whom he had purchased to march against the Edom- ites (2 Chron. xxv, 7, 8) ; but this opinion is support- ed by no proofs. Amphibalum (outer coat, from dptt ; Sept. 6 'Afipufi tig and 'Afipafii), a title of the descendants of the Levite Amraji (Num. iii, 27 ; 1 Chron. xxvi, 23). Am'raphel (Heb. AmrapheV, ^S"n"SX, apparently the Sanscrit amarapala, " keeper of the gods;" Sept. 'ApapQak, Josephus 'A/upa0/;\oc, Ant. i, 9, 1), a king (perhaps Hamite, comp. Rawlinson's Herodotus, i, 446) of Shinar (i. e. Babylonia), confederated with Chedorlaomer (q. v.), king of Elam, and two other kings, to make war against the kings of Pentapolis, viz., Sodom, Gomorrah, and the three neighboring cities, which they plundered ; among the captives whom they carried off was Lot, Abraham's nephew ; but Abraham (q. v.) pursued them, retook Lot, and recovered the spoil (Gen. xiv, 1, 4), B.C. cir. 2080. Amsdorf, Nicolas, born near Wurtzen, in Mis- nia, Dec. 3, 1483, was a celebrated disciple and warm supporter of Luther. Educated at Leipsic and Witten- berg, he became licentiate of theology in 1511, and ac- companied Luther in 1519 to the Leipsic disputation, and in 1521 to Worms. He was greatly instrumental in introducing the Reformation into Magdeburg and Goslar. In 1542 he was consecrated bishop of Naum- burg by Luther ; but his life in this office was embit- tered by strife, and in 1548 he had to flee to Jena. In the adiaphoristic controversy he opposed Melanc- thon strenuously. A work having a title purporting that good works are pernicious, and a hindrance to sal- vation, came from his pen (reprinted in Baumgarten, Geschichte der Religiy it simply that God desires the happiness of all men, provided they will receive his mercy in faith ; that none can obtain salvation without faith in Christ ; that God refuses to none the power of believing, but that he does not grant to all his as- sistance, that they may improve this power to saving purposes ; that none can so improve it without the Holy Spirit, which God is not bound to grant to any, and, in fact, only does grant to those who are elect according to his eternal decree. "In defending his doctrine of universal atonement, Amyraut appealed confidently to the authority of Calvin; indeed, he wrote a treatise, entitled Echanlillon de la doctrine de Calvin touchant la Predestination, to show that Calvin supported his views concerning the extent of the atone- ment, and was in all respects a very moderate Cal- vinist" (Cunningham, The Reformers, p. 395). Uni- versal grace (as Amyraut held the doctrine of it) is of no actual saving benefit to any. He distinguished between objective and subjective grace. Objective grace offers salvation to all men on condition of repentance and faith, and is universal; subjective grace operates morally in the conversion of the soul, and is particular, i. e. only given to the elect. The aim of Amyraut was to reconcile the Lutherans and Calvinists; and his views were received widely, as seeming to soften down the rigid Predestinarianism of Dort. The true pecu- liarity of Amyraut's theology is the combination of a real particularism, in the full Calvinistic sense, with an ideal universality of grace, which, in fact, never saves a single soul (Schweizer, in Herzog, Real-En- cyclop. s. v.). Charges were brought against him by Du Moulin and others, but he was acquitted of heresy by the Synod of Alencon (1637), and afterward at Charenton (1644). Daille and Blondel favored the views of Amyraut. He died in 1664. Eleven years after (1675) the Formula Consensus Ihlvitica (q. v.) was drawn up and published, chiefly against the so- called heresies of the Saumur professor. Amyraldism was, in substance, the theory adopted by Baxter (q. v.), and has been sustained, with various modifications, in recent times, by Williams (Essay on Sovereignty, 1813), Payne (Lectures on Sovereignty and Election, 1838), Wardlaw (On the Atonement, 1844); by Fuller and Hinton among Baptists; by T. Scott and Milner in the Church of England; by many Congregational- ists and New-School Presbyterians in America ; and, of late, by many ministers of the U. P. Church of Scot- land. Among his writings are, 1. Paraphrases , gi-npe-tov,'n ; Sept. 'Avc'ifi v. r. 'Av, / bap- tize), a name given to those who reject infant-baptism, because they rebaptize such as join their communion; and who maintain that this sacrament is not valid if it be administered by sprinkling and not by immersion, and if the' persons baptized be not in a condition to give the reasons of their faith. The name is some- times given reproachfully to the modern Baptists (q. v.) ; but, as they disclaim the title, it should not be applied to them. 1. The term Anabaptists, or Rebaptizers, is con- nected with the controversies of the third century. In Asia Minor and in Africa, where the spirit of con- troversy had raged long and bitterly, " baptism was considered to be only valid when administered in the orthodox church." In the Western Church the great principle of baptism rested on the invocation of the name of Christ or of the Trinity ; and, therefore, "any baptism administered in the name of Christ or of the Trinity, let it be performed by whomsoever it might, was held valid," so that heretics baptized by heretics, coming over to the Church, were received as baptized Christians. So high were the disputes on this ques- tion, that two synods were convened to investigate it, one at Iconium, and the other at Synnada, in Phrygia, which confirmed the opinion of the invalidity of hereti- cal baptism. From Asia the question passed to North- ern Africa: Tertullian accorded with the decision of the Asiatic councils in opposition to the practice of the Roman Church. Agrippinus convened a council at Carthage, which came to a similar decision with those of Asia. Thus the matter rested, till Stephen, bishop of Rome, prompted by ambition, proceeded to excom- municate the bishops of Asia Minor, Cappadocia, Gala- tia, and Cilicia, and applied to them the epithets of Rebaptizers and Anabaptists, A.D. 253. 2. A fanatical sect of Anabaptists arose in Germany in the early part of the sixteenth century who brought the name into great disrepute. It originated at Zwick- au, in Saxony, in the year 1520, and its leaders, by their lawless fanaticism, completely separated them- selves from the cause of the reformers, and with the subject of adult baptism connected principles subver- sive of all religious and civil order. The vast increase of their adherents from the year 1524, especially among the common people on the Rhine, in Westphalia, Hol- stein, Switzerland, and the Netherlands, was soon met by severe measures on the part of the magistrates. Imperial and ecclesiastical decrees were issued against them, and many were put to death, after being urged to recant. But persecution produced its usual fruits. Still new associations were perpetually formed by itinerant prophets and teachers, whose doctrines con- sisted of the following propositions: "Impiety pre- vails everywhere. It is therefore necessary that a new family of holy persons should be founded, enjoy- ing, without distinction of sex, the gift of prophecy, and skill to interpret divine revelations. Hence they need no learning : for the internal word is more than I the outward expression. No Christian must lie suf- ; fered to engage in a legal process, to hold a civil office, to take an oath, or to hold any private property ; but all I things must be in common." With such sentiments, John Bochhold, or Bockel, a tailor, of Leyden, aged J 26, and John Matthias, or Matthiesen, a baker, of '■■ Harlem, came, in 1553, to Miinster, in Westphalia, a city which had adopted the doctrines of the Reforma- ! tion. Here they soon gained over a portion of the j excited populace, and among the rest, Rothmann, a Protestant clergyman, and the councillor Knipper- j dolling. The magistrates in vain excluded them from ! the churches. They obtained possession of the coun- ! cil-house by violence. Their numbers daily increased, and toward the end of the year they extorted a treaty, securing the religious liberty of both parties. Being strengthened by the accession of the restless spirits of the adjacent cities, they soon made themselves mas- ters of the town by force, and expelled their adver- saries. Matthiesen came forward as their prophet, and persuaded the people to devote their gold, and silver, and movable property to the common use, and to burn all their books but the Bible ; but in a sally against the bishop of Miinster, who had laid siege to the city, he lost his life. He was succeeded in the ' prophetic office by Bochhold and Knipperdolling. The churches were destroyed, and twelve judges were set over the tribes, as in Israel; but even this form of government was soon abolished, and Bochhold, under the name of John of Leyden, raised himself to the dig- nity of king of New Zion (so the Anabaptists of Miin- ster styled their kingdom), and caused himself to be formally crowned. From this period (1534) Minister ; was a theatre of all the excesses of fanaticism, lust, and cruelty. The introduction of polygamy, and the I neglect of civil, order, concealed from the infatuated people the avarice and madness of their young tyrant i and the daily increase of danger from abroad. Boch- hold lived in princely luxury and magnificence; he sent out seditious proclamations against neighboring rulers — against the Pope and Luther; he threatened to destroy with his mob all who differed in opinion from him ; made himself an object of terror to his sub- jects by frequent executions, and while famine and pestilence raged in the city, persuaded the wretched, deluded inhabitants to a stubborn resistance of their besiegers. The city was at last taken, June 24, 15S5, by treachery, though not without a brave defence, in which Rothmann and others were killed, and the king- dom of the Anabaptists destroyed by the execution of ■ the chief men. Bochhold, and two of his most active companions, Knipperdolling and Krechting, were tor- tured to death with red-hot pincers, and then hung up in iron cages on St. Lambert's steeple, at Miinster, as a terror to all rebels. In the mean time, some of the twenty-six apostles, who were sent out by Bochhold to extend the limits of his kingdom, had been success- ! ful in various places ; and many independent teachers, who preached the same doctrines, continued active in the work of founding a new empire of pure Christians, and propagating their visions and revelations in the countries above mentioned. It is true that they re- jected the practice of polygamy, community of goods, j and intolerance toward those of different opinions, which had prevailed in Miinster ; but they enjoined upon their adherents the other doctrines of the early Anabaptists, and certain heretical opinions in regard ANACIIORETS 211 ANACLETUS to the humanity of Christ, occasioned by the contro- versies of that day about the sacrament. The most celebrated of these Anabaptist prophets were Melchior Hoffmann and David Joris. The former, a furrier from Suabia, first appeared as a teacher in Kiel in 1527; afterward, in 1529, in Emden ; and finally in Stras- burg, where, in 1540, he died in prison. He formed, chiefly by his magnificent promises of a future eleva- tion of himself and his disciples, a peculiar sect, whose scattered members retained the name of Hoffmannists in Germany till their remains were lost among the Anabaptists. They have never owned that H.offinann recanted before his death. David Joris, or George, a glass-painter of Delft, born 1501, and rebaptized in 1534, showed more depth of mind and warmth of im- agination in his various works. Amid the confusion of ideas which prevails in them, they dazzle by their elevation and fervor. In his endeavors to unite the discordant parties of the Anabaptists, he collected a party of quiet adherents in the country, who studied his works (as the Gichtelians did those of Bonnie), especially his book of miracles, which appeared at Deventer in 1542, and revered him as a kind of new Messiah. Unsettled in his opinions, he travelled a long time from place to place, till at last, to avoid per- secution, in 1554, he became a citizen of Basil, under the name of John of Bruges. In 1556, after an honor- able, life, he died there among the Calvinists. In 1559 his long-concealed heresy was first made public. He was accused, though without much reason, of profligate doctrine and conduct, and the Council of Basil con- demned him, and ordered his body to be burnt. A friend of Joris was Nicholas, the founder of the Fami- lists, who do not, however, belong to the Anabaptists. It must not be supposed that all the Anabaptists of Germany were engaged in the excesses above recited. In fact, between these excesses and the doctrines of the Anabaptists, properly so termed, there does not seem to be the slightest connection. The fanaticism of some of the early Anabaptists is sufficiently ex- plained b}r the obvious tendency which exists in hu- man nature to rush into extremes. The. iron hold of the papacy, which had cramped the church for ages, being suddenly relaxed, men had yet to learn what were the true conditions whether of civil or religious liberty. But these considerations were overlooked, and the reformed churches, with one consent, regard- ed the Anabaptists with horror and disdain. The cor- respondence of the Reformers is full of allusions to the subject. They are seldom spoken of but with the se- verest reprobation, and no distinction is drawn be- tween the sober Christians and the worst fanatics of the party. It is probable, at least, that their faults have been exaggerated even by the best writers. A modern writer on their own side asserts that " it has been proved by irrefragable evidence from state pa- pers, public confessions of faith, and authentic books, that the Spanheims, Heidegger, Hoffmann, and others, have given a fabulous account of the German Baptists, and that the younger Spanheim had taxed them with holding thirteen heresies, of which not a single socie- ty of them believed one word ; yet later writers quote these historians as devoutly as if all they affirmed were allowed to be true." — Robinson, History of the Baptists; Marsden, Churches and Sects, i, 81; Ottii Annal. Anabaptist. (Basil. 1672) ; Cornelius, Gcschichts- quellen des Bisthums Miinster (Miinst. 1853): Hase, Dm Reich der Wiedertaufer (Leipz. 2d edit. 1860); Cornelius (Rom. Cath.), Geschickte des Miinsteriscken Anfrvhrs (Leipz. 1860). See Baptists; Dunkers; Hoffmann ; Mennonites. Anachorets or Anchorets (avaxopew, *° sepa- rate, to retire, to withdrmc), monks, so called from their retiring from society, and living privately in cells. AVhen the ascetics withdrew to the lonely and remote districts of the Egyptian desert, they assumed particular appellations, expressive of their solitary I mode of life : monks, from the Greek fiovoc, alone, one who dwells alone; eremites, corrupted into hermit*, from ipiifioc, a desert; and anchorets, those who with- draw from society. These terms were afterward em- ployed to define more accurately the various shades of austerity by which these ascetics were distinguished. Thus, monks denoted those who adopted a secluded habit of life, but were still disposed occasionally to hold intercourse with society, and later, as canohites, to dwell in communities; the hermits were those who withdrew to sequestered places, but who did not deny themselves a fixed place of shelter, or that supply of food which might be obtained from cultivating the ground; the anchorets were most excessive in their austerities, and chose the wildest localities as their re- treats. Many of the anchorets voluntarily subjected themselves to the vicissitudes of the weather, without proper habitation or clothing, restricted themselves to coarse and scanty fare, wore chains and iron rings, and even throughout many years maintained painful postures, such as standing on the top of a pillar [see Stylites], thus displaying an earnestness which greater enlightenment might have directed to the good of mankind. Paul (q. v.) the Hermit, and Antony (q. v.), were among the first and most celebrated an- chorets. The anchorets were not able always to pre- serve their solitude unbroken. The fame of their sanc- tity drew many to visit them ; their advice was often sought ; and the number of their visitors was much in- creased by the belief that maladies, particularly men- tal diseases, were cured by their blessing. Sometimes, also, they returned for a short time to the midst of their fellow-men to deliver warnings, instructions, or encouragements, and were received as if the}- had been inspired prophets or angels from heaven. The num- ber of anchorets, however, gradually diminished, and the religious life of convents was preferred to that of the hermitage. The Western Churn, indeed, at no time abounded in anchorets like the Eastern, and per- haps the reason may in part be found in the difference of climate, which renders a manner of life impossible in most parts of Europe that could be pursued for many years in Egypt or Syria. — Helyot, Ordres Relig. t. i. See Ccenobite ; Monachism; Asceticism. Anacletus or Cletus, bishop of Rome, said to have been elected in A.D. 83, and to have died A.D. 86. The Roman Church honors him as a martyr, as she does the other popes who lived during this period, upon the ground that those among them who were not actually put to death by the sword did not suffer less for the faith. — Baillet, July 13 ; Eusebius, lib. iii, cap. 13, 15. Anacletus II, Antipope. His name was Peter of Leon, cardinal of Santa Maria beyond the Tiber, and upon the death of Honorius II he was elected in op- position to Innocent II. A part of the cardinals at the same time seceded and elected Innocent. Anacletus kept Innocent besieged in the palace of the Lateran, and obtained possession of the city of Rome and the en- tire papal dominions. He wrote to all the princes of Europe in order to be recognised, but in this he met with no success. He was condemned by the Councils of Rheims and Pisa, rejected by the larger portion of the clergy of the Roman Catholic world, not recognised by any sovereign except Roger of Sicily, to whom he had given his sister in marriage, and the duke of Aqui- tania ; but in Rome he maintained himself, notwith- standing the arms of the Emperor Lothaire, who pro- tected Innocent. This schism lasted eight years, un- til the death of Anacletus in 1138. Voltaire calls him, ironically, the Jewish pope, because he descended from a Jewish family which had grown rich at the expense of the church. Anacletus was a disciple of Arnold of Brescia (q. v.), and found implacable enemies in St. Bernard and Arnoul, archdeacon of Seez. — Hoefer, Biog. Ginirale, ii, 408 ; Riddle, Hist, of Papacy, ii, 169. AlVAEL 212 ANAKIM An'ael ('AiW/X, prob. contracted for Anaiiief), the "brother of Tobit, and father of Achiacharus (Tob. i, 21). AnagllOStes (avayv(i)aTi]c), reader, the name of a class of officers in the early church. In the Greek Church they held the first rank in the lower order of Officers ; in the Roman Church they were next to the Bab-deacons. The)' have sometimes been regarded as an order instituted by the apostles, and by them de- rived from the Jewish synagogue. Compare Luke iv, 16 ; Acts xiii, 15, 27 ; 2 Cor. iii. There were among the Jews persons who performed the same office as readers among the Christians. There is not, how- ever, any proof of the early appointment of a special minister in the capacity of reader: the office was prob- ably instituted in the third century. Tertnllian distin- guishes the lector from the episcopus, presbyter, and dia- conus; and the church observed a fixed rule respecting the office and duty of these respective ministers. Both in the synagogue and in the early Christian Church, any person who was able to discharge the duty was allowed to hold the office of reader, without reference to age. Boys of twelve, ten, and eight years of age, were frequently employed in this manner. The office was a favorite one with youths in the higher classes of society. Julian, afterward the apostate, in his younger years was reader in a church in Nicomedia. — Bingham, On'//. Eccles. bk. iii, ch. v. Anagogical (avayw, to lead or bring up), in the older writers on interpretation, is one of the four senses of Scripture, viz. the literal, allegorical, anagogical, and tropical. The anagogical sense is when the sa- cred text is explained with regard to eternal life ; for example, the rest of the Sabbath, in the anagogical sense, signifies the repose of everlasting happiness. A'nah (Hcb. Anah', i"l3S, speech or affliction; Sept. 'Avc'i), the name of one or two Horites. 1. The fourth mentioned of the sons of Seir, and head of an Idumaean tribe preceding the arrival of Esau (Gen. xxxvi, 20, 29; 1 Chron. i, 38), B.C. much ante 1964. It seems most natural to suppose him to he also the one referred to in Gen. xxxvi, 25, as other- wise his children are not at all enumerated, as are those of all his brothers (Hengstenberg, Genuineness of the Pentateuch, ii, 229), although from ver. 2 some have inferred that another person of the same name is there meant. See also Dishon; Aholibamah. 2. The second named of the two sons of Zibeon the Hivite, and father of Esau's wife Aholibamah (Gen. xxxvi, 18, 2-1). B.C. ante 1964. While feeding asses in the desert he discovered "warm springs" (aqua: calidae), as the original, t^H?, yemim' ', is rendered by Jerome, who states that the word had still this signi- fication in the runic language. Gesenius and most modern critics think this interpretation correct, sup- ported as it is by the fact that warm springs are still found in the region east of the Dead Sea. The Syriac lias simply " waters," which Dr. Lee seems to prefer. Most of the Greek translators retain the original as a proper name, 'Ia/ui'/t, probably not venturing to trans- late. The Samaritan text, followed by the Targums, has " Emiiiis," giants. Our version of ''mules'' is now generally abandoned, but is supported by the Arabic and Ycneto-Greck versions.— Kitto. See Mule. In verse 2, 14, of the above chap. Anah is called the daughtt r of Zibeon, evidently by an error of transcrip- tion, as the Samaritan and Sept. have son; or (with "Winer, Hengstenberg, Tuch, Knobel, and many oth- ers) we may here understand it to mean granddaugh- ter, still referring to Aholibamah (Turner's Compan. to Gen. p. 331). See Zibeon. He had but one son, Dishon (ver. 25; 1 Chnm. i, in, 41). who appears to be named because of his affinity with Esau (q. v.) through bis sister's marriage. We may further con- clude, with Hengstenberg {Pent, ii, 280; Engl, transl. ii, 229), that the Anah mentioned among the sons of Seir in v. 20 in connection with Zibeon is the same person as is here referred to, and is therefore the grandson of Seir. The intention of the genealogy plainly is not so much to give the lineal descent of the Seirites as to enumerate those descendants who, being heads of tribes, came into connection with the Edomites. It would thus appear that Anah, from whom Esau's wife sprang, was the head of a tribe in- dependent of his father, and ranking on an equality with that tribe. Several difficulties occur in regard to the race and name of Anah. By his descent from Seir he is a Horite (Gen. xxxvi, 20), while in v. 2 he is called a Hivite, and again in the narrative (Gen. xxvi, 24) he is called Beeri the Hittite. Hengstenberg's explanation of the first of these difficulties, by sup- posing that one of the descendants of Seir received the specific epithet Hori (i. e. Troglodyte, or dweller in a cave) as a definite proper name (Pent, ii, 228), is hard- ly adequate, for others of the same family are similar- ly named; it is more probable that the word Hivite O^Hil) is a mistake of transcribers for Horite fj^Hft), or rather that all the branches of the Hivites were, in course of time, more particularly called Horites, from their style of habitation in the caves of Mt. Seir. See Horite. As the name Beeri signifies fontanus, i. e. "man of the fountain" ("iX3), this has been thought to be his designation with reference to the above noticed "warm springs" of Callirrhoe discovered by him ; whereas in the genealogy proper he is fitly called by his original name Anah. — Smith. See Beeri. Anaha'rath (Heb. Anacliaruth', ' — in:x, pass, Fiirst ; Sept. 'AvaxepeS-, Vulg. Anaharatlt), a town on or within the border of Issachar, mentioned between Shihon and Rabhith (Josh, xix, 19). Its site was ap- parently unknown in the time of Eusebius and Jerome (Onomast. s. v. 'AvtpS, Anerith). It was, perhaps, in the northern part of the tribe, possibly at Meskarah, where there are ruins (Van de Velde, Map). Anai'all (Heb. Anayah' ', IT1^?., answered by Je- hovah ; Sept. 'Avaviag, 'Avaia), one of those who stood on the right hand of Ezra while he read the law to the people (Neh. viii, 4), and probably the same with one of the chief Israelites who joined in the sacred cove- nant (Neh. x, 22). B.C. cir. 410. A'liak (Heb. Anal/, piS [in Josh. xxi. 11, Ann//, pT3"], long-necked, i. e. a giant ; Sept. 'Evaic), the son of Arba, who founded Kirjath-Arba (afterward He- bron), the progenitor of a race of giants called Anakim (Josh, xv, 13). B.C. ante 1658. Anakah. See Ferret. Art'akim (Heb. Analim', O^pSS, Deut. ii, 10, 11, 21; Josh, xi, 21, 22; xiv, 12, 15; also called sons of Anal; p3S 1351, Num. xiii, 33; piSri 132, Josh, xv, 14; children of Anah, p3STl iYV3"i, Num. xiii, 22; Josh, xv, 14; sons of the Analim, t^pSS 132, Deut. ix, 2; Sept. 'Evaai/j. i'ioi "Evan, yiviai 'Evdic, ytvta 'EvaK, yiycivrtg; Vulg. Enacim, filii Enalim, filii Enac, stirps Enac; Auth. Vers. "Anakims," "sons of Anak," "children of Anak," "sons of the Anak- ims"), a nomadic tribe of giants (Num. xiii, 34 ; Deut. ix, 2) [see Nephilim] descended from a certain Arba (Josh, xiv, 15; xv, 13; xxi, 11), and bearing the name of their immediate progenitor, Anak (Josh, xi, 21), dwelling in the southern part of Palestine, partic- ularly in the vicinity of Hebron (q. v.), which was called Kirjath-Arba (city of Arba) from their ancestor (Gen. xxiii, 2; Josh, xv, 13). These designations serve to show that we must regard Anak as the name of the race as well as that of an individual, and this is continued by what is said of Arba, their progenitor, that he " was a great man among the Anakim" (Josh, xiv, 15). '1 he Anakim appear (see Bochart, Cha- nuan, i, 1) to have been a tribe of Cushite wanderers ANALOGY 213 ANAM from Babel, and of the same race as the Philistines, | the Phoenicians, the Philistim, and the Egyptian shep- j herd-kings (see Jour. Sac. Lit. inly, 1852, p. 303 sq. ; ! Jan. 1853, p. 293 sq.)- The supposition of Michaelis (Syntag. Comment, i, 196; also Lowth, p. 133) that j they were a fragment of the aboriginal Troglodytes ' is opposed to Josh, xi, 21 (see Faber, Arckoeol. p. 44 sq.). They consisted of three tribes, descended from and named after the three sons of Anak — Ahiman, | Sesai, and Talmai (Josh, xv, 14). When the Israel- j ites invaded Canaan, the Anakim were in possession of Hebron, Debir, Anab, and other towns in the coun- try of the south (Josh, xi, 21). Their formidable stat- ure and warlike appearance struck the Israelites with terror in the time of Moses (Num. xiii, 28, 33; Deut. ix, 2) ; but they were nevertheless dispossessed by Joshua, and utterly driven from the land, except a small remnant that found refuge in the Philistine cities, Gaza, Gath, and Ashdod (Josh, xi, 22). Their chief city, Hebron, became the possession of Caleb, who is said to have driven out from it the three sons of Anak mentioned above — that is, the three families or tribes of the Anakim (Josh, xv, 14 ; Judg. i, 20). The Philistine giants [see Goliath] that David on several occasions encountered (2 Sam. xxi, 15-22) seem to have sprung from the remnant of this stock. Josephus says {Ant. v, 2, 3) that their bones were still shown at Hebron, and Benjamin of Tudela tells a story respecting similar relics at Damascus (Itin. p. 56). See Giant. According to Arabic tradition, Ov, king of Bashan, was of this race, and the same dubious au- thority states that the prophet Shoaib or Jethro was sent by the Lord to instruct the Anakim, having been born among them (D'Herbelot, Bibliotheque Orientate, p. 105). They are thought to be depicted on the Egyptian monuments. See Talmai. Analogy (avaXoyla), proportion. I. As applied to the works of God generally, it leads to the conclu- sion that since He is the chief of intelligent agents, a part of any system of which He is the author must, in respect of its leading principles, be similar to the whole of that system ; and, farther, that the work of an intelligent and moral being must bear in all its lineaments the traces of the character of its author. In accordance with these principles of analogy, it is maintained that the revelation of God in the Holy Scriptures is in all respects agreeable to what we know of God, from the works of nature and the order of the world, and that such agreement amounts to a strong evidence that the book professing to contain this rev- elation of God's mind and purposes is really and truly indited by Him. The best exposition of this argu- ment is to be found in Bishop Butler's immortal Anal- °fJ'J of Religion to the Constitution and Course, of Nature (best ed. by Crooks, N. Y. 12mo). See Butler. 2. The analogy of faith is the correspondence of the several parts of divine revelation in one consistent ■whole. Its use is pointed out by the apostle in his di- rection (Rom. xii, 6) that "prophecy" — that is, preach- ing— be according to "the proportion of faith." His rule, of course, extends to all interpretation and ex- position of Scripture. The parts of Scripture must be explained according to the tenor of the whole; and, in order to his doing this, the reader must understand the design of the whole. If he do not, he will be con- tinually liable to fall into error. Prejudices and lean- ings of our own will dispose us to interpret particular parts of the word of God according to the analogy of our own system, rather than according to the total sense of the divine word. Almost every sect and school of divinity has fallen into this error. A pre- requisite for following the analogy of faith is the sim- ple love of truth for its own sake. This, more than any thing else, will protect the mind of a student, of Scripture from destroying the proportions of sacred truth. The course necessary to avoid these errors is well stated by Dr. Campbell, as follows : "In vain do we search the Scriptures for their testimony concern- ing Christ, if, independently of these Scriptures, we have received a testimony from another quarter, and are determined to admit nothing as the testimony of Scripture which will not perfectly quadrate with that formerly received. This was the very source of the blindness of the Jews in our Saviour's time. They searched the Scriptures as much as we do; but, in the disposition they were in, they would never have dis- covered what that sacred volume testifies of Christ. Why ? Because their great rule of interpretation was the analogy of the faith ; or, in other words, the system of the Pharisrean scribe, the doctrine then in vogue, and in the profound veneration of which they had been educated. This is that veil by which the under- standings of that people were darkened, even in read- ing the law, and of which the apostle observed that it remained unremoved in his day, and of which we ourselves have occasion to observe that it remains un- removed in ours. Is it not precisely in the same way that the phrase is used by every sect of Christians for the particular S}-stem or digest of tenets for which they themselves have the greatest reverence? The Latin Church, and even the Greek, are explicit in their dec- larations' on this article. With each, the analogy of the faith is their own system alone. That different par- ties of Protestants, though more reserved in their man- ner of speaking, aim at the same thing, is undeniable ; the same, I mean, considered relatively to the speak- ers ; for, absolutely considered, every party means a different thing." But Chalmers remarks on this, "I think Dr. Campbell sets too little value on the analogy of faith as a principle of interpretation. He seems never to speak of a system of divinity without the lurk- ing imagination that there must be human invention in it, whereas such a system may be as well grounded as Scripture criticism" (Chalmers, Institutes of Theolo- gy, i, 370 ; and see further at that place). There has just appeared (1864) a work entitled Analogy considered as a Guide to Truth, and applied as an Aid to Faith, by J. Buchanan, D.D., professor of theology, New College, Edinburgh. The following notice of it is from the Bibliotheca Sacra, January, 1865 : "Archbishop King, and after him Dr. Copleston and Archbishop Whately, define analogy as ' a resemblance of relations or ratios,' so that there may be an analogy between things that have no direct resemblance at all. Between the seed and the plant, the egg and the bird, there is a resemblance of ' relations,' although no ex- ternal likeness. 'A sweet taste gratifies the palate,' says Dr. Whately, ' so does a sweet sound gratify the ear, and hence the same word " sweet" is applied to both, though no flavor can resemble a sound in itself.' This limitation Dr. Buchanan thinks is too narrow. While it is true to a certain extent, it omits the use which we make of analogy in connection with concrete objects and substantive realities. It is liable also, he thinks, to the objection that is founded on a compara- tive!}' small part of human knowledge, viz. the sciences of number and quantity. Without attempting a log- ical definition, the author of this volume seems to ap- ply the term to all cases where a resemblance exists." — Campbell, Prelim. Dissert, iv, § 13; Home. Infrod. ii, 342 ; Knapp, Theol. Introd. § 5 ; Ana;us, Bible Hand- book, § 304-307 ; Home, Introd. ii, 243. See Faith. Anara or Annam, an empire of Farther India. The statements of its extent and population greatly differ. The latter amounts, according to the report of the missionaries, to more than twenty millions, while many geographers give to all Farther India not more than fifteen millions. It is divided into four different realms: Tonkin, Cochin China, Cambodia, and Laos. Most of the inhabitants profess Buddhism, although also the Kami religion, which before the spreading of Buddhism prevailed in all Farther India, still has adherents. Anam is one of the principal mis- sionary fields of the Roman Church. The first mis- ANAMIM 214 ATAXIAS sions were established by Spanish Dominicans, who came from the Philippine Islands, more than 200 years ago, ami they have survived to the present day, in spite of frequent and cruel persecutions. Especially since 1820 the persecution has raged with great in- tensity, and thousands of Christians have been either put to death or forced into apostasy. In 1858 France and Spain sent a joint expedition against Cochin Chi- na, which, in September of that year, conquered the fort and the bay of Turon. The war continued until 1862, when the power of the emperor of Anam Avas so completely broken that he made overtures for the ces- sation (jf hostilities. On June 5, 1862, a treaty of peace was signed, by which the provinces of Saigon, Bienhoa, and Mytho were ceded to France; three ports of Tonkin were opened to commerce ; the other provinces of Lower Cochin China not ceded to France were to reserve only such number of troops as the French government should permit ; Christianity was to be tolerated, and the Christians protected in their lives and property throughout the empire. In 1863 the French concluded a special treaty with the king of Cambodia, by which this whole kingdom was placed under the protectorate of France, and liberal stipula- tions were made in favor of Roman Catholic mission- aries. The Roman Church had, in 1859, eight vica- riates apostolic, viz. : 1. Eastern Tonkin ; 2. Middle Tonkin: 3. Western Tonkin; 4. South Tonkin; 5. North Cochin China; 6. Eastern Cochin China; 7. Western Cochin China; 8. Cambodia. The first two are under the administration of Spanish Dominicans, the others under that of French Lazarists. The num- ber of native converts was estimated in 1854 at about 500,000 or 600,000, but has since considerably decreased, in consequence of the persecution. The number of the native priests amounted to about 300, and there were also numerous congregations of native nuns. In 1859 the letters of several missionaries represented the churches of Tonkin and Cochin China as being almost a complete wreck. — Wetzer and Welte, s. vv. Tunkin ami Aden (in vol. xii); Schem, Ecclesiastical Year- booh for 1859, p. 18, 33; Annual American Encyclop, 1862, p. 224 ; 1863, p. 148. See India. Aii'aimm (Heb. Anamim', t"1"^:", signif. un- known ; Sept. 'EvffttTtdfi v. r. AiVf^mti'/i, in Chron. 'Ava/xieift, Vulg. Anamim), the name of some Egyp- tian tribe, descended from Mizraim (Gen. x, 13; 1 Chron. i, 11). Some compare the city Anem (q. v.) in Palestine (Josh, xv, 34) as having possibly been settled by an Egyptian colony. Others (as Bochart, Phali //, i v, 30), on very precarious etymological grounds (Aral), anam, a shepherd; transposed, aman), refer the name to the nomadic custodians of the temple of Jupiter Amman (hut see Michaelis Suppl. 1932 sq.). Still others (as Calmet) regard the Anamim as the 1 manians or Garamantes in the oasis Phazania on the river Cinyphus (q. d. tn,?3". *&) in north-western Africa (Strabo, xvii, 835; Ptol. iv, 6; Plin. v, 4; Mel. i, 8), but with little probability (see Schulthess, Parad. p. 154). Gesenius (Tkes. Heb. p. 1052) calls especial attention to a geographical name, Benemis, found on the Egyptian monuments (Champollion, Cram. i. 150) as perhaps meaning these people (/>' be- ing the article); or else he thinks they may be the Blemyes, a people of Upper Egypt (Champollion, VEgypte sous les Pharaons, i, 2561. Among the old > i io is, Saadias interprets Alirmidrim-s, the Chaldee paraphrasts (comp. Heck, (ul Targ. Chron. i, 9 sq.) inhabitant* o/MareotU C^a'Pla or ^X'JN— 3). (See generally Michaelis, Spicileg. i. 260 sq. : Xutcr, Comm. i, 131.)— Winer, s. v. Anam'melech (Heb. Anamme'lek, TyZ'Z".". Sept. Ai7///.':aankfort, and blessed the marriage of the king with Gisella, sister of the Emperor Hen- ry. When the archbishop of Strigonia recovered his sight, Anastasius retired into his diocese, when he de- voted himself until his death to the propagation of the Christian faith. — Oesterreichisches biographisches Lexi- con (Vienna, 1851) ; Hoefer, Biog. Generate, ii, 480. Anastasius Sinaita, a monk of Mt. Sinai, born, it is supposed, about GOO, though the date is undecided. He is said to have travelled much in Egypt and Syria, defending the faitli against the Acephalists, Severians, and Theodosians. In his "Odegos," or "Guide to the Right Path," he speaks of John who was the The- odosian patriarch of Alexandria from G77 to 686; he was consequently alive about that period, but when he died is not known. He is honored as a saint in the Greek Church. His principal work, the Odegos just mentioned, has been attributed by some writers to the patriarch Anastasius, who died in 598; but the fact just mentioned, viz., that John of Alexandria, who was patriarch from 677 to 686, is spoken of in it, will prove the impossibility of this. This work was pub- lished by Gretser, at Ingolstadt, in 1606. Some of the MSS. do not, however, contain the Exposition of the Faith, which is contained in Gretser's edition at the beginning, and differ in many other particulars. The complete works of Anastasius Sinaita have been published bv Migne, in Patrologia Grceci, torn, lxxxix (Paris, I860). Anastasius, a Persian martyr who was baptized at Jerusalem. After his baptism he retired into the ' monaster}' of Anastasius, and thence imbibing the superstitious desire of martyrdom, he journeyed to Caesarea. When there, he was brought before the governor Barzabanes, who endeavored, first by bribes, and afterward by tortures, to induce him to forsake the faith ; failing in his attempts, he sent him into Persia, where he was first strangled, and then behead- ed by order of Chosroes, January 22, 628, the day on which he is commemorated as a saint both in the East and West. — Baillet, Vies des Saints, Jan. 22 ; Landon, Eccl. Diet. s. v. Anastasius (Bibliothecnrius), librarian of the Vat- ican, and abbot of St. Maria Trans-Tiberim at Rome, a celebrated and learned writer of the ninth century. The dates of his birth and death are unknown. He was on terms of intimacy with the learned men of his age, especially with Photius and Hincmar. He was present in 869 at the eighth council of Constantinople, where Photius was condemned. He translated the Acts of the Council from Greek into Latin. He wrote a Historia Ecclesiaslica (Paris, ed. by Fabrotti, 1649, fol.) ; but the most important of his writings is a His- tory of the Popes, under the title De Vitis Romanorum pontificum, a Petro Apostolo ad Nicolaum T, adjeetis vitis Hadiiani II et Stephani IV (Roma?, 1718-1735, 4 vols, fol., and several other editions). — Cave, Hist. Lit. aim. 870 ; Hoefer, Nouv. Biog. Generate, ii, 479. A'liath (Heb. Anath', P5S, an ansiver, i. e. to prayer; Sept. 'Ava3f),the father of Shamgar, one of the judges of Israel (Judg. iii, 31 ; v, 0). B.C. ante 1429. Anath'ema (avdOijia), literally any thing laid tip or suspended (from avariQrifii, to lay up), and hence any thing laid up in a temple set apart as sacred (2 Mace, ix, 16). In this general sense the form em- ployed is avaQrjua, a word of not unfrequent occur- rence in Greek classic authors, and found once in the N. T., Luke xxi, 5. The form dvdOipa, as well as its meaning, appears to be peculiar to the Hellenistic dialect (Valckenaer, Schol. i, 593). The distinction has probably arisen from the special use made of the word by the Greek Jews. In the Sept. avdOsfia is the ordinary rendering of the Hebrew word Cltt, eke' rem (although in some instances it varies between the two forms, as in Lev. xxvii, 28, 29), and in order to ascertain its meaning it will be necessary to inquire into the signification of this word. The Alexandrine writers preferred the short penultimate in this and other kindred words (e. g. iiriQifia, ovv9i/ja); but occasionally both forms occur in the MSS., as in Judg. xvi, 19; 2 Mace, xiii, 15; Luke xxi, 5: no distinc- tion therefore existed originally in the meanings of the words, as had been supposed by many early writers. The Hebrew Q*?n, cherem, is derived from a verb signifying primarily to shut up, and hence to (1) consecrate or devote, and (2) exterminate. Any ob- ject so devoted to the Lord was irredeemable : if an inanimate object, it was to be given to the priests (Num. xviii, 14) ; if a living creature, or even a man, J it was to be slain (Lev. xxvii, 28, 29) ; hence the idea j of extermination as connected with d< voting. Gener- i ally speaking, a vow of this description was taken only with respect to the idolatrous nations who were mark- i ed out for destruction by the special decree of Jehovah, j as in Num. xxi, 2; Josh, vi, 17; but occasionally the vow was made indefinitely, and involved the death of j the innocent, as is illustrated in the case of Jephthah's daughter (Judg. xi, 31), according to many, and cer- I tainly in that of Jonathan (1 Sam. xiv, 24), who was I only saved by the interposition of the people. The breach of such a vow on the part of any one direct- I ly or indirectly participating in it was punished with ! death (Josh, vii, 25). In addition to these cases of ; spontaneous devotion on the part of individuals, the verb C^n, ckaram', is frequently applied to the ex- termination of idolatrous nations: in such cases the idea of a vow appears to be dropped, and the word assumes a purely secondary sense (Sept. i£,o\oQp£vw) ; or, if the original meaning is still to lie retained, it may be in the sense of Jehovah (Isa. xxxiv, 2) shut- thig up. i. e. placing under a ban, and so necessitating the destruction of them, in order to prevent all contact. The extermination being the result of a positive com- mand (Exod. xxii, 20), the idea of a vow is excluded, ANATHEMA 21S ANATHEMA although doubtless the instances already referred to (Num. xxi, 2 ; Josh, vi, 17) show how a vow was oc- casionally superadded to the command. It may be further noticed that the degree to which the work of destruction was carried out varied. Thus it applied to the destruction of (1) men alone (Deut. xx, 13); (2) men, women, and children (Deut, ii, 34) ; (3) vir- gins excepted (Num. xxxi, 17; Judg. xxi, 11); (4) all living creatures (Deut. xx, 1G; 1 Sam. xv, 3) ; the spoil in the former cases were reserved for the use of the arm)r (Deut. ii, 35 ; xx, 14 ; Josh, xxii, 8), instead of being given over to the priesthood, as was the case in the recorded vow of Joshua (Josh, vi, 19). See Vow. I. We thus find that the ckerem was a person or thing consecrated or devoted irrevocably to God, and that it differed from any thing merely vowed or sanctified to the Lord in this respect, that the latter could be re- deemed (Lev. xxviii, 1-27), while the former was irre- claimable (Lev. xxvii, 21, 28) ; hence, in reference to living creatures, the devoted thing, whether man or beast, must be put to death (Lev. xxvii, 29). The prominent idea, therefore, which the word conveyed was that of a person or thing devoted to destruction, or accursed. Thus the cities of the Canaanites were anathematized (Num. xxi, 2, 3), and, after their com- plete destruction, the name of the place was called Hormah (!T2"iri; Sept. avaBtfia). Thus, again, the city of Jericho was made an anathema to the Lord (Josh, vi, 17) ; that is, every living thing in it (except Rahab and her family) was devoted to death; that ■which could be destroyed by fire was burnt, and all that could not be thus consumed (as gold and silver) ■was forever alienated from man and devoted to the use of the sanctuary (Josh, vi, 24). The prominence thus given to the idea of a thing accursed led naturall)' to the use of the word in cases where there was no reference whatever to consecration to the sei'vice of God, as in Deut. vii, 26, where an idol is called E"?H, or dvddefia, and the Israelites are warned against idolatry lest they should be anathema like it. In these instances the term denotes the object of the curse, but it is sometimes used to designate the curse itself (e. g. Deut. xx, 17, Sept. ; comp. Acts xxiii, 14), and it is in this latter sense that the English word is generally employed. In this sense, also, the Jews of later times use the Hebrew term, though with a somewhat different meaning as to the curse intended. The Cin, cherem, of the rabbins signifies excommunication or exclusion from the Jewish Church. The more recent rabbinical writers reckon three kinds or degrees of excommuni- cation, all of which are occasionally designated by this generic term (Elias Levita, in Sej>her Tisbi). (1.) The first of these, "^3, niduui, separation, is merely a temporary separation or suspension from ecclesiasti- cal privileges, involving, however, various civil in- conveniences, particularly seclusion from society to the distance of four cubits. The person thus excom- municated was not debarred entering the temple, but instead of going in on the right hand, as was custom- ary, he was obliged to enter on the left, the usual Way of departure : if he died while in this condition there was no mourning for him, but a stone was thrown on his coffin to indicate that he was separated from the people and bad deserved stoning. Buxtorf (Lex. Taltn. col. L304) enumerates twenty-four causes of this kind of excommunication: it lasted thirty days, and was pronounced without a curse. If the individual did not repent at the expiration of the term (which, however, according to Buxtorf, was extended in such cases to sixty or ninety days), the second kind of excommunication was resorted to. (2.) This was called simply and more properly C*J"I, cherem, curse. It could onty be pronounced by an assembly of at least ten persons, and was always ac- companied with curses. The formula employed is given at length by Buxtorf (Lex. col. 828). A per- son thus excommunicated was cut off from all religious and social privileges : it was unlawful either to eat or drink with him (comp. 1 Cor. v, 11). The curse could be dissolved, however, by three common persons, or by one person of dignity. (3.) If the excommuni- cated person still continued impenitent, a yet more severe sentence was, according to the rabbins, pro- nounced against him, which was termed JtPfi'J, sham- mata', imprecation (Elias Levita, in Tisbi). It is de- scribed as a complete excision from the Church and the giving up of the individual to the judgment of God and to final perdition. There is, however, reason to believe that these three grades are of recent origin. The Talmudists frequently use the term by which the first and last are designated interchangeably, and some rabbinical writers (whom Lightfoot has followed in his Ilorce Ilebr. et Talm. ad 1 Cor. v, 5) consider the last to be a lower grade than the second ; yet it is probable that the classilication rests on the fact that the sentence was more or less severe according to the circumstances of the case ; and though we cannot ex- pect to find the three grades distinctly marked in the writings in the N. T., we may not improbably consider the phrase " put out of the synagogue," d-oavvdya- yov Troitiv, John xvi, 2 (comp. ix, 22 ; xii, 42), as re- ferring to a lighter censure than is intended by one or more of the three terms used in Luke vi, 22, where perhaps different grades are intimated. The phrase "deliver over to Satan" (1 Cor. v, 5 ; 1 Tim. i, 20) has been by many commentators understood to refer to the most severe kind of excommunication. Even admitting the allusion, however, there is a very im- portant difference between the Jewish censure and the formula employed by the apostle. In the Jewish sense it would signify the delivering over of the trans- gressor to final perdition, while the apostle expressly limits his sentence to the "destruction of the flesh" (i. e. the depraved nature), and resorts to it in order "that the spirit may be saved in the day of the Lord Jesus." See Accursed. II. But, whatever diversity of opinion there may be as to the degrees of excommunication, it is on all hands admitted that the term i2*?H, with which we are more particularly concerned as the equivalent of the Greek dvdOt/ia, properly denotes, in its rabbinical use, an excommunication accompanied with the most severe curses and denunciations of evil. We are therefore prepared to find that the anathema of the N. T. always implies execration ; but it yet remains to be ascertained whether it is ever used to designate a judicial act of excommunication. That there is fre- quently no such reference is very clear : in some in- stances the individual denounces the anathema on himself, unless certain conditions are fulfilled. The noun and its corresponding verb are thus used in Acts xxiii, 12, 14, 21, and the verb occurs with a similar meaning in Matt, xxvi, 74; Mark xiv, 71. The phrase " to call Jesus anathema" (1 Cor. xii, 3) refers not to a judicial sentence pronounced by the Jewish authori- ties, but to the act of any private individual who exe- crated him and pronounced him accursed. That this was a common practice among the Jews appears from the rabbinical writings. The term, as it is used in reference to any who should preach another gospel, " Let him be anathema" (Gal. i, 8, 9), has the same meaning as let him be accounted execrable and ac- cursed. In none of these instances do we find any reason to think that the word was employed to desig- nate specifically and technicalby excommunication either from the Jewish or the Christian Church. There remain only two passages in which the word occurs in the N. T., both presenting considerable diffi- culty to the translator. ANATHEMA 21! ANATHOTH (a.) With regard to the first of these (Rom. ix, 3), Grotius and others understand the phrase "accursed from Christ," dvdQifia uvea c'nrb too Xpiorov, to sig- nify excommunication from the Christian Church, •while most of the fathers, together with Tholuck, Riickert, and a great number of modern interpreters, explain the term as referring to the Jewish practice of excommunication. On the other hand, Deyling, Olshausen, De Wette, and many more, adopt the more general meaning of accursed. The great difficulty is to ascertain the extent of the evil which Paul expresses his willingness to undergo ; Chrysostom, Calvin, and many others understand it to include final separation, not, indeed, from the love, but from the presence of Christ ; others limit it to a violent death ; and others, again, explain it as meaning the same kind of curse as that under which they might be delivered by repent- ance and the reception of the Gospel (Deylingii Ob- servatt. Sacrce, pt. ii, p. 495 and sq.). It would oc- cupy too much space to refer to other interpretations of the passage, or to pursue the investigation of it further. There seems, however, little reason to sup- pose that a judicial act of the Christian Church is in- tended, and we may remark that much of the difficulty which commentators have felt seems to have arisen from their not keeping in mind that the apostle does not speak of his wish as a possible thing, and their consequently pursuing to all its results what should be regarded simply as an expression of the most in- tense desire (rjb\6firiv=ri{)'x6firiv dv, I could wish, i. e. were such a thing proper or available, see Winer, Idioms, p. 222). Some have even thought (taking the verb as a historical Imperfect) that the apostle was simply referring to his former detestation of Christ, when yet unconverted (see Bloomrleld, Iieccnsio Sy- nopt. in loc), and Tregelles proposes (Account of Gr. Text ofN. T. p. 219) to remove the difficulty alto- gether in this way, by enclosing the clause in ques- tion in a parenthesis. See AVoltii Curce, in loc. ; Poli Synopsis, in loc. ; Trautermann, lllustratio (Jen. 1758) ; Me/h. Quart. Rev. 1863, p. 420 sq. Comp. Ban. (b.) The phrase Anathema Maras-atha, uvdQtpa p.apdv dBd (1 Cor. xvi, 22), has been considered by many to be equivalent to the KPlHUJ, shammata, of the rabbins, the third and most severe form of excom- munication. This opinion is derived from the sup- posed etymological identity of the Syriac phrase itself, maran-atha (q. v.), NinX "pO, "the Lord cometh," with the Hebrew word which is considered by these commentators to be derived from firx C"c3, sheni atha, "the Name (i. e. Jehovah) cometh." This explana- tion, however, can rank no higher than a plausible conjecture, since it is supported by no historical evi- dence. The Hebrew term is never found thus divided, nor is it ever thus explained by Jewish writers, who, on the contrary, give etymologies different from this (Buxtorf, Lex. col. 24C6). It is, moreover, very un- certain whether this third kind of excommunication was in use in the time of Paul ; and the phrase which he employs is not found in any rabbinical writer (Lightfoot, Ilorm Hebr. et Talm. on 1 Cor. xvi, 22). The literal meaning of the words is clear, but it is not easy to understand why the Syriac phrase is here em- ployed, or what is its meaning in connection with anathema. Lightfoot supposes that the apostle uses it to signify that he pronounced this anathema against the Jews. However this may be, the supposition that the anathema, whatever be its precise object, is in- tended to designate excommunication from the Chris- tian Church, as Grotius and Augusti understand it, appears to rest on very slight grounds : it seems pref- erable to regard it, with Lightfoot, Olshausen, and most other commentators, as simply an expression of detestation. Though, however, we find little or no evidence of the use of the word anathema in the N. T. as the technical term for excommunication, it is certain that it obtained this meaning in the early ages of the Church; for it is thus employed in the apostolic canons, in the canons of various councils, by Chrysos- tom, Theodoret, and other Greek fathers (Suiceri The- saurus Eccl. s. vv. dvdQtfia and aQopiopoe.). — Kitto, s. v. See Excommunication. III. Anathema, in ecclesiastical usage, is the cut- ting off any person from the communion or privileges of a society. The anathema differed from simple ex- communication in being attended with curses and execrations. It signifies not only to cut oft" the living from the Church, but the dead from salvation. It was practised in the early Church against notorious offenders. The form has been preserved : the follow- ing was pronounced by Synesius against one Androni- cus : "Let no Church of God be open to Andronicus and his accomplices, but let every sacred temple and church be shut against them. I admonish both pri- vate men and magistrates to receive them neither under their roof nor to their table ; and priests, more especially, that they neither converse with them liv- ing nor attend their funerals when dead." When any one was thus anathematized, notice was given to the neighboring churches, and occasionally to the churches' over the world, that all might confirm and ratify this act of discipline by refusing to admit such a one into their communion. The form of denounc- ing anathemas against heresies and heretics is very ancient. But as zeal about opinions increased, and Christians began to set a higher value on trifles than on the weightier matters of the law, it became a com- mon practice to add anathemas to every point in which men differed from each other. At the Council of Trent a whole body of divinity was put into canons, and an anathema affixed to each. How fearful an in. strument of power the anathema was in the hands of popes in the Middle Ages is attested by history. Popes still continue to hurl anathemas against here- tics, which are little retrard^d. — Bingham, Orig. Eccles. bk. xvi, ch. ii, § 16. See Interdict. Treatises on this subject are the following: Diirr, De anathemate (Alta. 1662) ; Baldwin, De anathema- tismis (Viteb. 1620); Bose, in Winckler's Tempe sacr. p. 231 sq. ; Fecht, De precibus contra alios (Rost. 1708) ; Pipping, De imprecntionibus (Lips. 1721) ; Pi- sanski, Vindicias Psulmorum oh execrationes (Regiom. 1779) ; Poncarius, Da imprecationibus in impios, in the Bibl. Lubec. p. 565 sq. See Imprecation. An'athoth (Heb. Anathoth' ', MMS, answers, i. e. to prayers ; Sept. 'AvaSnoS:), the name of one city and of two men. 1. One of the towns belonging to the priests in the tribe of Benjamin, and as such a city of refuge (Josh, xxi, 18). It is omitted from the list in Josh, xviii, but included "suburbs" (1 Chron. vi, 60 [45]). Hither, to his "fields," Abiathar was banished by Sol- omon after the failure of his attempt to put Adonijah on the throne (1 Kings ii, 26). This was the native place of Abiezer, one of David's 30 captains (2 Sam. xxiii, 27; 1 Chron. xi, 28; xxvii, 12), and of Jehu, another of the mighty men (1 Chron. xii, 3). The "men" (D"*b3N, not D"03, as in most of the other cases; compare, however, Netophah, Michmash, etc.) of Anathoth returned from the captivity with Zerub- babel (Ezra ii, 23 ; Neb. vii, 27 ; 1 Esdr. v, 18). It is chiefly memorable, however, as the birthplace and usual residence of the prophet Jeremiah (Jer. i, 1 ; xi, 21- 23; xxix, 27; xxxii, 7-9), whose- name it seems to have borne in the time of Jerome, " Anathoth of Jer- emiah" (Onomast. s. v.). The same writer (Comment, in Jer. i, 1) places Anathoth three Roman miles north of Jerusalem, which correspond with the twenty stadia assigned by Josephus (Ant. x, 7, 3). In the Talmud (Yoma, 10)it is called Anath (T1V). (For other no- tices, see Reland's Palcest. p. 561 sq.) Anathoth lay on or near the great road from the north to Jerusalem ANATOLIUS 220 ANCILLON (Isa. x, 30). The traditional site at Kuriet el-Enab does not fulfil these conditions, being 10 miles distant from the city, and nearer west than north. Dr. Rob- inson {Researches, ii, 109) appears to have discovered this place in the present village of Anata, at the dis- tance of an hour and a quarter from Jerusalem (To- bler, Topogr. v. Jerus. ii, 394). It is seated on a broad ridge of hills, and commands an extensive view of the eastern slope of the mountainous tract of Benjamin, including also the valley of the Jordan, and the north- ern part of the Dead Sea (see Hackett's Illustr. of Script, p. 191). It seems to have been once a walled town and a place of strength. Portions of the wall still remain, built of large hewn stones, and apparent- ly ancient, as are also the foundations of some of the houses. It is now a small and very poor village ; yet the cultivation of the priests survives in tilled fields of grain, with figs and olives. From the vicinity a favorite kind of building-stone is carried to Jerusalem. Troops of donkeys are employed in this service, a hewn stone being slung on each side ; the larger stones are transported on camels (Raumer's Paliistina, p. 169 ; Thomson's Land a?id Book, ii, 548). Its inhabitants were sometimes called Anathoth- ites (Annethothi' ', ^f\riS3>, " Anethothite," 2 Sam. xxiii, 27 ; or Anthothi' ', "Vr?", " Antothite," 1 Chron. xi, 28.; " Anetothite, xxvii, 12). See Axtothite. 2. The eighth named of the nine sons of Becher, the son of Benjamin (1 Chron. vii, 8). B.C. post 185G. 3. One of the chief Israelites that sealed the cov- enant on the return from Babylon (Neh. x, 19), B.C. cir. 410. Anatolius, bishop of Laodicea, in Syria, was born at Alexandria, in Egypt, about 230. He excelled, ac- coi-ding to Jerome, in arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, physics, logic, and rhetoric. About 204 he travelled into Syria and Palestine; and while at Cffisarea, Theocte- nus, liishop of that see, made him his coadjutor, mean- ing that he should have succeeded him ; but as he pass- ed through Laodicea, on his way to the council of An- tioch in 269, he was retained to be bishop of that see. lie signalized his episcopate by his constant endeavors to destroy heresy and idolatry, and to cause virtue to flourish. He seems to have lived until the time of Diocletian, and to have died in peace. The Roman Martyrology marks his festival on the 3d of Jul}'. He left a Treatise on Arithmetic, in ten books, and one on Easter, Canon Paschalis, a fragment of which is given by Eusebius. A Latin translation of the entire Canon Paschalis, published by ^Egidius Bucher (Am- sterd. 1034; reprinted in Gallandii Bibl. Patr. t. iii), has been shown by Ideler (Handbuch der Chronologie, ii, 266 sq.) to be spurious. — Eusebius, Hist. Eccl. vii, 32. Anchieta, Jose de, a Jesuit, born in 1533 at Teneriffe, was from 1554 to 1558 missionary in Brazil, where lie distinguished himself more than any other mem her of his order. He is often called the Apostle of Brazil. lie had an extraordinary influence over the Indians, who, under his guidance, aided in estab- lishing the city of Rio, and in expelling the French from the country. He is the author of a grammar of the Brazilian Indians, which is still regarded as a classic work on that subject (see Ausland, 1835, p. 650 sq.). Although a large number of miracles were re- ported df him, he has nut yet been canonized. He died in 1597. A Latin biography of him was pub- lished by Beretarius in Cologne, 1617. Anchor (aytcvpa), the instrument fastened in the bottom of the sea to hold a vessel firm during a storm (Acts xxvii, 29, 30, 40); from which passage it ap- pears that the vessels of Roman commerce had several anchors, and that they were attached to the stern as well as prow of the boat (see Convbeare and Ilowson, St. Paul, ii, 335). The anchors used by the Romans were for the most part made of iron, and their form resembled that of the modern anchor. The anchor as here represent- ed, and as commonly used, was called bidens, because it had two teeth or flukes. Sometimes it had one only. The fol- lowing expressions were used for the three princi- pal processes in managing the anchor: Ancoram sol- vere, dyKvpav x«X«»/, "to loose the anchor;" Anco- ram jacere, ficiWtiv, piirrtn>, "to cast anchor;" An- coram tollere, a'ipfiv, (h'aiptlaBai, (waoTraaOai, " to weigh anchor." The anchor usually lay on the deck, and was attached to a cable (funis), which passed through a hole in the prow, termed oculus. In the Ancient Anchor. Ancient Galley, with the Cable to which the Anchor is attach- ed passing through the Prow. heroic times of Greece we find large stones, called ivvai (sleepers), used instead of anchors (Horn. Iliad, i, 436). See Ship. In Heb. vi, 19, the word anchor is used metaphori- cally for a spiritual support in times of trial or doubt ; a figure common to modern languages. See Hope. Anchorets. See Anachorets. Ancient of Days (Chald. "paii p^PiS, Sept. ira\aihc. r/fiip&v, Vulg. antiquus dieruni), an expression applied to Jehovah thrice in a vision of Daniel (eh. vii, 9, 13, 22), apparently much in the same sense as Eternal. See Jehovah. The expression, viewed by itself, is somewhat peculiar ; but it is doubtless em- ployed by way of contrast to the successive monarchies which appeared one after another rising before the ej'e of the prophet. These all proved to be ephemeral ex- istences, partaking of the corruption and evanescence of earth; and so, when the supreme Lord and Gov- ernor of all appeared to pronounce their doom, and set up his own everlasting kingdom, He is not unnaturally symbolized as the Ancient of Days — one who was not like those new formations, the offspring of a particular time, but who had all time, in a manner, in his pos- session— one whose days were past reckoning. See Daniel (Book of). Ancillon, David, was born March 17, 1617, at Metz, where his father was an eminent lawyer. After studying at the Jesuits' College in Metz, he went to Geneva in 1633, to complete his studies in philosophy and theology, and in 1611 was licensed to preach by the Protestant Synod of Charenton, and appointed minister of Meaux, where he remained till 1653, when he returned to Metz ; and here he continued to officiate with great reputation till the revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1685, when he retired to Frankfort, and afterward to Berlin, where he was received with great favor by the Elector of Brandenburg. He died Sept. 3, 1692. Among his writings are, Traiti de Tradition (Sedan, 1657, 4to) ; Vie de Fare!, (Amst. 1691, 12mo), etc. Perhaps, however, the most favorable impression ANCILLON 221 ANDREA of his varied learning is to be obtained from the work entitled "Melanges Critiques ele Littirature, recueilli eles Conversations de feu M. Aneillon." published at Basle in 1698 h\ his son Charles, who was a man of literary distinction (see Haag, La France Protestante, i, 80; Bayle, Diet. s. v.). Ancillon, Jean Pierre Frederic, a descend- ant of David Ancillon, was born at Berlin on the 30th of April, 176G. He studied theology, and on his return from the university he was appointed teacher at the military academy of Berlin, and preacher at the French church of the same town. He began his lit- erary career by a work entitled "Melanges ele Littera- ture et de Philosopkie (Berlin, 1801, 2 vols. 8vo) ; and a few years after he was elected a member of the Acad- emy of Sciences of Berlin, and was, at the same time, appointed its historiographer. His preaching at Ber- lin attracted the attention of the king, and he was drawn into political life. In 1806 he was appointed instructor of the Crown Prince of Prussia, and was fur- ther distinguished by the title of Councillor of State. In 1825 he was made Minister of Foreign Affairs, in which office he died, April 10, 1837. — Biog. Diet. Soc. Useful Knowledge ; Haag, La France Protestante, i, 90. Ancyra, a eitj' in Galatia (see Smith's Diet, of Class. Geog. s. v.), where three councils were held : I. In 314, attended by twelve or eighteen bishops ; the subject of apostates was discussed, and twenty-five canons framed. II. Semi-Arian, in 358, on the sec- ond formula of Sirmium (q. v.). III. In 375, when Hypsius, bishop of Parnassus, was deposed. — Smith, Tables of Church Hist. Anderson, Christopher an English Baptist minister, born at Edinburgh, and educated at the Bap- tist College, Bristol, under Dr. Ryland. In 1806 he commenced his labors as a city missionary in Edin- burgh at his own expense; and in ten years a church was established, of which he remained pastor until his death. He was one of the principal founders of the Edinburgh Bible Society (1800) and of the Gaelic School Society (1811). He died Feb. 21, 1852. Be- sides fugitive essays on missions, etc. he wrote " The Design of the Domestic Constitution '' (Loud. 8vo) : — Historical Sketches of the Ancient. Irish (Edinb. 1828, 12mo)-— Annals of the English Bible (Lond. 1845, 2 vols. 8vo). — Jamieson, Relig. Biog. p. 16 Anderson, John, D.D., an eminent Presbyte- rian minister, born in Guilford, N.C., April 10, 1767. Licensed to preach in 1791, he itinerated in Kentucky, Tennessee, and Ohio until 1801. when he became pas- tor at Upper Buffalo, Washington Co.. Pa., where he remained till 1833. He was made D.D. by Washing- ton College, 1821. He died Jan. 5, 1835. Many min- isters of eminence studied in Dr. Anderson's house. — Sprague, Annals, iii, 588. Anderson (or Andreae), Lars (or Laurent), chancellor of Gustavus Vasa, born in Sweden in 1-180. He was at first a priest at Strengnes, and became sub- sequently archdeacon at Upsal. On his return from a journey to Rome he passed through Wittenberg, and became convinced of the truth of Luther's doctrines. Arriving in Sweden, he was made chancellor by Gus- tavus Vasa, who readily seconded all his efforts for promoting the Reformation in Sweden. At the re- quest of the king, Anderson, together with Olaus Petri, translated the Bible into Swedish. The Reformation was established by the Diet of Westeras in 1527. An- derson was high in office and favor until 1540, when he was charged with having failed to disclose a con- spiracy against the king of which he had knowledge, and he was sentenced to death. He was, however, let off for a sum of money, and retired to Strengnes, where he died in 1552. — Hoefer, B'ug. Generate, ii, 520. Anderson, Peyton, a Methodist preacher of Virginia, born 1795, entered the Virginia Conference at nineteen, and preached in the principal cities and stations until his death in 1823, aged twenty-eight. Mr. Anderson was a teacher previous to his ministry, and, being well-educated, modest, faithful, and cir- cumspect, and greatly devoted to his calling, his prom- ise of future usefulness to the church was rapidly ma- turing, when he died. — Minutes of Conferences, 1824. Andrada, Antonio i>', a Portuguese Jesuit and missionary, born at Villa de Oleiros about 1580. died August 20, 1633. He entered the order of Jesuits at Coimbra in 1596, and was. in 1601, sent as missionary to India. Having been appointed superior of the mis- sions of Mongolia, he learned that in Thibet certain vestiges of Christianity, or some form of religious wor- ship similar to that of the Roman Catholic Church, was to be found. He accordingly concluded to visit that, until then, almost entirely unknown country. He successfully accomplished the hazardous jour- nej', and reached Caparanga, a city which was the residence of the military chief of Thibet. It is said that he was well received by the grandees and the court, and that he was allowed to preach and to erect a temple to the Virgin Mary. He returned to Mon- golia in order to associate with himself other mission- aries. With these he went a second time to Thibet, where he again met with a favorable reception. Sub- sequently he was elected provincial of the residence of Goa, where he remained until his death. Andrada published an account of his first journey to Thibet un- der the title Novo Descobrimento do Grao Ca.tayo, ou dos lieynos ele. Thibet (Lisb. 1626, 4to) — {New Discovery of the Great Cathay, or the Kingdoms of Thibet"). This work was translated into man}' other languages — into French in 1629. — Hoefer, Biog. Generate, ii, 546. Andrade, Diogo Payva d', a Portuguese theo- logian, was born at Coimbra in 1528, and became grand treasurer of King John. He distinguished him- self at the Council of Trent, concerning which he wrote Qucesiionuni Orthodoxarum libri x, against Chemnitz Examen Cone. Triel. (Venice, 1 564, 4to) ; also Defensio Fielei Trident, lib. vi (Lisb. 1578, 4to) : De Conciliorum Auctoritate; and several volumes of sermons. He died in 1575.— Alegambe, Bibl. Script. Soc. Jesu; Hoefer, Now. Biog. Generate, i, 533. Andrade, or Thomas de Jesus, brother of the last, and monk of the Augustine monastery at Coimbra. He laid the foundation in 1578 of the Disealceats. He followed King Don Sebastian into Africa, and was taken prisoner at the battle of Alcacer, August 4, 1578, and thrown by the infidels into a dungeon, where no other light penetrated but that which came to him through the cracks in the door. Here he wrote, in Portuguese, The Labors of Jesus, which obtained great celebrity, and has been translated into Spanish, Ital- ian, and French. He died April 17. 1582, in the place of his confinement, where, in spite of the ransom sent \>y his sister, the Countess of Linhares, he preferred to remain, that he might comfort, during the remain- der of his days, the Christian captives imprisoned with him. Father Alexis de Meneses has written his Life, which is appended to " The Labors of Jesus," printed in 1631. — Landon, Eccles. Diet, i, 350. Andrea, Jakob, a celebrated Lutheran theologian, born at Waiblingen, in Wiirtemberg, March 25, 1528. In 1543 he took the degree of B.A. in the University of Tubingen, and in 1553 that of doctor in theology. In 1546 he became deacon in Stuttgart; and when the Spanish troops took the town, he alone, of all the Protestant pastors, remained. In 1555 and 1556 he labored successfully in planting the Reformation in Oettingen and Baden. In 1557 he attended the diets of Frankfort and Ratisbon, and was one of the secre- taries at the Conference of Worms. In 1557 he pub- lished his work De Coma Domini, and in the year fol- lowing he published a reply to the work of Staphylus (who had gone over to the Roman Church) against ANDREAE 222 ANDREW Luther, in which that writer had made a collection of the various opinions of all the different Protestant sects, and attributed them to Luther as the origin of all. In 1562 he was made professor of theology and chancellor of the University of Tubingen. He went, in 1563, to Strasburg, where Zanchius had been pro- pounding the doctrine that the elect cannot fall from grace, sin as they will, and persuaded Zanchius to sign a confession of faith which he drew up. See Zan- chius. During the next eight years be travelled largely in Germany and Bohemia, consolidating the Reformation. In 1571 he combated the notion of Flaccius Illyricus that sin is a substance. But the most important labor of his life was his share in the prepa- ration of the Formula Concordia, composed by a meet- ing of divines at Torgau, 157G, and revised in April, 1577. at the monastery of Berg, by Andrea, Chemnitz, and Selnekker. This Liber Bergensis was accepted by Augustus, elector of Saxony, who caused his clergy to sign it, and invited those of other German states to sign also. Many refused. The book, previously re- vised by Musculus, Cornerus, and Chytraeus, with a preface by Andrea, was printed in 1579. (See Francke, Libri Symbolici, part iii, Prolegom. ; and see Formu- la Concordle.) It is thoroughly polemical, on the Lutheran side, against the Calvinistic view of the sac- raments. An account of the controversies caused by the Formula is given by Mosheim (Ch. Hist. cent, xvi, sec. iii, pt. ii. ch. i). Andrea labored earnestly to gain general assent to the Formula ; for five years he trav- elled widely, conferring with princes, magistrates, and pastors. In 1583 and 1584 he labored at a voluminous work on the ubiquity of Christ. In 158(3 he disputed with Beza at the colloquy of Montbelliard, and died at Tubingen Jan. 7. 1590. He wrote more than one hundred and fifty different works, chiefly polemical —Mosheim, Ch. Hist. cent, xvi, pt. ii, ch. i, § 38-40; Niedner's Zeitsclirift, 1853, Heft iii ; Herzog, Real- Encyklopadie, s. v. Andreae, Abraham, Lutheran archbishop of Up- sala, a nati%-e of Angermannland, died in 1G07. "While rector of the university of Stockholm he offended King John, the son of Gustavus Wasa, who washed to re- establish the Roman Catholic Church in Sweden. In order to escape imprisonment he fled to Germany, where he spent thirteen years, during which time he published most of his works. In 1593, after the death of John, and during the absence of Sigismund, his suc- cessor, who was at the same time king of Poland, the Swedish clergy met at Upsal, resolved to maintain the Confession of Augsburg, and unanimously elected An- dreae archbishop. King John Sigismund, on his ar- rival at Stockholm, had to confirm the election, and he was crowned by Andreae. Duke Charles, the prince regent of Sweden, charged him with reorgan- izing the church affairs ; but on the tour which he un- dertook to this end he raised the indignation of the people by his rigor, and incurred the displeasure of the regent. Being moreover accused of a secret under- standing with Sigismund, he was deprived of his office and imprisoned in the Castle of Gripsholm, where he died. Andreae wi-ote a work against the Adiaphorists {Forum A diapkororum, Wittenberg, 1587, 8vo), with several other works. He also translated a commen- tary on Daniel by Draconitis, and published several works of his father-in-law, Laurentius Petri de Nerike. — Hoefer, Biog. Can rale, ii, 574. Andreas Cbetensis {Andrew of Crete), so called because he was archbishop of that island. Born at Damascus about 035, he embraced the monastic state at Jerusalem, for which reason he is sometimes styled Ilierosolymitamis. lie was a vehement antagonist of the Monothelites, was ordained deacon at Constanti- nople, and shortly alter was mad" archbishop of Crete, which church lie governed for many years, and died at Mitylene at the end of the seventh century. Be- sides his sermons, homilies, and orations, he wrote many hymns, some of which are still sung in the Greek churches. The Greek Church commemorates him as a saint on July 4. His remains are gathered under the title Opera Gr. et Lat. cum notis Combejis, fol. (Paris, 1G44). — Cave, Hist. Lit. anno 635 ; Land'on, Eccles. Diet, i, 352. Andreas, archbishop of Grain in Austria, one of the forerunners of Luther, lived in the second half of the fifteenth century. Having been sent by the Em- peror Frederick III to Rome, he was scandalized at the manners of the Roman court. Andreas urged the necessity of a reform of the church upon the cardinals and the pope, who at first praised his zeal, but when Andreas became more urgent had him put in prison in 1482. Having been liberated through the interven- tion of Emperor Frederick III, he went to Basle, and attempted to convoke another general council. Pub- lic opinion and the universities showed to him a great deal of sympathy, but the pope excommunicated him and all who would give him an asylum. When the city of Basle refused to expel Andreas, the papal leg- ate put it under the interdict, to which, however, no one paid any attention except the Carmelite monks, who on that account were refused any alms b}' the cit- izens, and nearly starved to death. After a long ne- gotiation between the pope and the emperor, Andreas was summoned to retract, and when he refused he was put in prison, where, after a few months, he was found hung, in 1484 — on the same day, it is said, when Lu- ther was born. His body was put in a barrel, and, through the executioner, thrown into the _ Rhine. — Hoefer, Biog. Gin: rule. Andreas, or Andrea . Johann Valentin, grand- son of James, was born at Herrenberg, Aug. 17, 1586. After completing his academic course at Tubingen, he travelled for some j'ears as tutor. In 1614 he became deacon at Vaihingen, where he labored zealously six years as preacher and writer, directing his efforts mainly against formalism and mysticism. Himself a practical Christian, he mourned over the frivolous learning and pedantry of the time, and directed his life and labors against it. But instead of attacking them in the usual way, he adopted wit and satire as his weapons. He wrote Menippus, sive Satyrieorum dialogorum centuria against unpractical orthodoxy, and Alethea E.< id against cabalistic theosophy. His Fama Fratemitatis Rosee Crucis (1614), and Con/issio frater- niiatis R. C. (1615), were an ironical attack on the se- cret societies of his times. Those who did not under- stand the mystification ascribed to him the foundation of the Rosicrucians (q. v.). He wrote again, and book after book, to show that his first work was fictitious, and designed to teach a useful lesson; but nobody would believe him at first. But finally he was under- stood, and " no satire was probably ever attended with more beneficial results." His real object was to over- throw the idols of the time in literature and religion, and to bring the minds of men back to Christ ; and no writer of his time did more to accomplish this end. He removed to Calv in 1620, where, after the battle of Nbrdlingen, 1631, he lost his library and other prop- erty. He died at Adelsberg, June 27, 1654. For a further account of him, sec Ilossbach, Andrea und sein Zeitidter (Berlin, 1819); Hurst, History of Rationalism, chap, i; Rheinwald, Andrea? Vita ab ipso conscripta (Berl. 1819) ; Hase, Church History, § 380. An'drew ('Avc*peac, manly), one of the twelve apostles. His name is of Greek origin (A then, xv, 675 ; vii, 312), but was in use among the later Jews (Josephus, Ant. xii, 2, 2; see Dio Cass, lxviii, 32; comp. Diod. Sic. Exverpta Vat. p. 14, ed. Lips.), as appears from a passage quoted from the Jerusalem Talmud by Lightfoot (Harmony, Luke v, 10). He was a native of the city of Bethsaida in Galilee (John i, 44), and brother of Simon Peter (Matt, iv, 18 ; x, ANDREW 223 ANDREWS 2 ; John i, 41). He was at first a disciple of John the I Baptist (John i, 39), and was led to receive Jesus as the Messiah in consequence of John's expressly point- ing him out as "the Lamb of God" (John i, 30), A.D. 26. His first care, after he had satisfied himself as to the validity of the claims of Jesus, was to bring to him his brother Simon. Neither of them, however, became at that time stated attendants on our Lord ; for we find that they were still pursuing their occupa- tion as fishermen on the Sea of Galilee when Jesus, after John's imprisonment, called them to follow him (Matt, iv, 18 sq. ; Mark i, 16, 17). A.D. 27. See Peter. In two of the lists of the apostles (Matt, x, 2 ; Luke vi, 13) he is named in the first pair with Peter, but in Mark iii, 18, in connection with Philip, and in Acts i, 13, with James. In accompanying Jesus he appears as one of the confidential disciples (Mark xiii, 3; John vi, 8 ; xii, 22), but he is by no means to be confound- ed (as by Lutzelberger, Kirchl. Tradit. fiber Joh. p. 199 sq.)\vith the beloved disciple of the fourth Gospel (see Liicke, Comm. ub. Joh. i, 653 sq. ; Maier, Comm. zu Joh. i, 43 sq.). Very little is related of Andrew by any of the evangelists : the principal incidents in which his name occurs during the life of Christ are the feeding of the five thousand (John vi, 9), his in- troducing to our Lord certain Greeks who desired to see him (John xii, 22), and his asking, along with his brother Simon and the two sons of Zebedee, for a further explanation of what our Lord had said in ref- erence to the destruction of the temple (Mark xiii, 3). Of his subsequent history and labors we have no au- thentic record. Tradition assigns Scythia (Eusebius, iii, 1, 71), Greece (Theodoret, i, 1425 ; Jerome, Ep. 148 ad Mara.), and, at a later date, Asia Minor, Thrace (Hippolytus, ii, 30), and elsewhere (Niceph. ii, 39), as the scenes of his ministry. It is supposed that he founded a church in Constantinople, and ordained Stachys (q. v.), named by Paul (Rom. xvi, 9), as its first bishop. At length, the tradition states, he came to Patraj, a city of Achaia, where YEgeas, the procon- sul, enraged at his persisting to preach, commanded him to join in sacrifices to the heathen gods ; and upon the apostle's refusal, he ordered him to be severely scourged and then crucified. To make his death the more lingering, he was fastened to the cross, not with nails, but with cords. Having hung two days, prais- ing God, and exhorting the spectators to the faith, he is said to have expired on the 30th of November, but in what year is uncertain. The cross is stated to have been of the form called Crux decussata ( X ), and com- monly known as " St. Andrew's cross;" but this is doubted by some (see Lepsius, De cruee, i, 7 ; Sagittar. De cruciatib. martyr, viii, 12). His relics, it is said, were afterward removed from Patrrc to Constantinople. (Comp. generally Fabric. Cod. Apocr>/ph. i, 45G sq. ; Salut. Lux Evimrj. p. 98 sq. ; Menolog. Grcecor. i, 221 sq. ; Perionii Pit. Apostol. p. 82 sq. ; Andr. de Sassy, An- dreasf rater Petri, Par. 1646.) See Apostle. An apocryphal book, bearing the title of "The Acts of Andrew," is mentioned by Eusebius (iii, 25), Epi- phanius (Her. xlvi, 1 ; lxiii, 1), and others. It seems never to have been received except by some heretical sects, as the Encratites, Origenians, etc. (Fabric. Cod. Apocryph. ii, 747 ; Kleuker, Ueb. die Apocr. d. N. T. p. 331 sq.). This book, as well as a " Gospel of St. Andrew," was declared apocrypha] by the decree of Pope Gelasius (Jones, On the Canon, i, 179 sq.). Tisch- endorf has published the Greek text of a work bear- ing the title "Acts of Andrew, "and also of one entitled "Acts of Andrew and Matthew" (Acta Apostolorum Apocrypha, Lpz. 1841). See Hamniersehmid, Andreas descriptus (Prag. 1699) ; Hanke, De Andrea apostolo (Lips. 1698); Lemmius, Memoria Andrew apostoli (Viteb. 1705) ; Wbog, Presbyterorum et diaconorum Achaue de martyrio S. Andrea epistola (Lips. 1749). See Acts, spurious; Gospels, spurious. Andrew, bishop of Cresarea, in Cappadocia, lived at the close of the fifth century (according to others, toward the close of the ninth). See Auetas. He wrote in the Greek language a commentary on the Apocalypse, which was translated into Latin by Pelta- nus, and published under the title, Andrea', CcesarecB Cappndoci tavrwv cipxuv), and that they are now "angels of the devil" (Matt. xxv, 41 ; Rev. xii, 7, 9), partaking therefore of the falsehood, uncleanness, and hatred, which are his pe- culiar characteristics (John viii, 44). All that can be conjectured must be based on the analogy of man's own temptation and fall. On the other hand, the title especially assigned to the angels of God, that of the " holy ones" (see Dan. iv, 13, 23 ; viii, 13 ; Matt. xxv. 31), is precisely the one which is given to those men who are renewed in Christ's image, but which be- longs to them in actuality and in perfection only here- after. (Comp. Heb. ii, 10; v, 9 ; xii, 23.) Its use evidently implies that the angelic probation is over, and their crown of glory won. In the Scriptures angels appear with bodies, and in the human form ; and no intimation is anywhere given that these bodies are not real, or that they are only assumed for the time and then laid aside. It was manifest, indeed, to the ancients that the matter of these bodies was not like that of their own, inasmuch as angels could make themselves visible and vanish again from their sight. But this experience would suggest no doubt of the reality of their bodies; it would only intimate that they were not composed of gross matter. After his resurrection, Jesus often ap- peared to his disciples, and vanished again before them; yet they never doubted that they saw the same body which had been crucified, although they must have perceived that it had undergone an important change. The fact that angels always appeared in the human form does not, indeed, prove that they really have this form, but that the ancient Jews believed so. That which is not pure spirit must have some form or other ; and angels may have the human form, but other forms are possible. See Cherub. The question as to the food of angels has been very much discussed. If they do eat, we can know noth- ing of their actual food ; for the manna is manifestly called " angels' food" (Psa. lxxviii, 25 ; Wisd. xvi, 20) merely by way of expressing its excellence. The only real question, therefore, is whether they feed at all or not. We sometimes find angels, in their terrene manifestations, eating and drinking (Gen. xviii, 8 ; xix, 3) ; but in Judg. xiii, 15, 16, the angel who ap- peared to Manoah declined, in a very pointed manner, to accept his hospitality. The manner in which the Jews obviated the apparent discrepancy, and the sense in which they understood such passages, appear from the apocrj-phal book of Tobit (xii, 19), where the angel is made to sajr, " It seems to you, indeed, as though I did eat and drink with you ; but I use in- visible food which no man can see." This intimates that they were supposed to simulate when they ap- peared to partake of man's food, but that yet they had food of their own, proper to their natures. Mil- ton, who was deeply read in .the " angelic" literature, derides these questions (Par. Lost, v, 433—439). But if angels do not need food ; if their spiritual bodies arc inherently incapable of waste or death, it seems not likely that they gratuitously perform an act design- ed, in all its known relations, to promote growth, to repair waste, and to sustain existence. The passage already referred to in Matt, xxii, 30, teaches by implication that there is no distinction of sex among the angels. The Scripture never makes mention of female angels. The Gentiles had their male and female divinities, who were the parents of other gods, and Gesenius {Thes. Heb. s. v. "2, 12) in- sists that the "sons of God" spoken of in Gen. vi, 2, as the progenitors of the giants, were angels. But in the Scriptures the angels are all males ; and they ap- pear to be so represented, not to mark any distinction of sex, but because the masculine is the more honor- able gender. Angels are never described with marks of age, but sometimes with those of youth (Mark xvi, 5). The constant absence of the features of age indi- cates the continual vigor and freshness of immortali- ty. The angels never die (Luke xx, 36). But no being besides God himself has essential immortality (1 Tim. vi, 16) ; every other being, therefore, is mor- tal in itself, and can be immortal only by the will of God. Angels, consequently, are not eternal, but had a beginning. As Moses gives no account of the cre- ation of angels in his description of the origin of the world, although the circumstance would have been too important for omission had it then taken place, there is no doubt that they were called into being before, probably very long before the acts of creation which it was the object of Moses to relate. See Sons of Gon. That they are of superhuman intelligence is implied in Mark xiii, 32 : " But of that day and hour knoweth no man, not even the angels in heaven." That their power is great may be gathered from such expressions as "mighty angels" (2 Thess. i, 7); "angels, power- ful in strength" (Psa. ciii, 20); " angels who are great- er [than man] in power and might." The moral per- fection of angels is shown by such phrases as "hoby angels" (Luke ix, 26) ; "the elect angels" (2 Tim. v, 21). Their felicity is beyond question in itself, but is evinced by the passage (Luke xx, 36) in which the blessed in the future world are said to be iadyyeXot, kcu viol too Otov, "like unto the angels, and sons of God." (See Timpson, Angels of God, Lond. 1837.) III. Their Functions.— Of their office in heaven we have, of course, only vague prophetic glimpses (as in 1 Kings xxii, 19; Isa. vi, 1-3; Dan. vii, 9, 10; Rev. vi, 11, etc.), which show us nothing but a never-ceas- ing adoration, proceeding from the vision of God. Their office toward man is far more fully described to us. (See Whately, Angels, Lond. 1851, Phil. 1856.) 1. They are represented as being, in the widest sense, agents of God's providence, natural and super- natural, to the body and to the soul. Thus the opera- tions of nature are spoken of, as under angelic guid- ance fulfilling the will of God. Not only is this the case in poetical passages, such as Psa. civ, 4 (com- mented upon in Heb. i, 7), where the powers of air and fire are referred to them, but in the simplest prose history, as where the pestilences which slew the first- born (Exod. xii, 23 ; Heb. xi, 28), the disobedient peo- ple in the wilderness (1 Cor. x, 10), the IsraeHtes in the days of David (2 Sam. xxiv, 16 ; 1 Chron. xxi, 16), and the army of Sennacherib (2 Kings xix, 35), as also the plague which cut oft' Herod (Acts xii, 23), are plainly spoken of as the work of the "Angel of the Lord." Nor can the mysterious declarations of the Apocalypse, by far the most numerous of all, be resolved by honest interpretation into mere poetical ANGEL 228 ANGEL imagery. (See especially Rev. viii and ix.) It is evident that angelic agency, like that of man, does not exclude the action of secondary, or (what are call- ed) ''natural" causes, or interfere with the directness and universality of the providence of God. The per- sonifications of poetry and legends of mythology are obscure witnesses of its truth, which, however, can rest only on the revelations of Scripture itself. 2. More particularly, however, angels are spoken of as ministers of what is commonly called the "su- pernatural," or, perhaps, more correctly, the "spirit- ual" providence of God ; as agents in the great scheme of the spiritual redemption and sanctification of man, of which the Bible is the record. The representations of them are different in different books of Scripture, in the Old Testament and in the New ; but the rea- sons of the differences are to be found in the differ- ences of scope attributable to the books themselves. As different parts of God's providence are brought out, so also arise different views of His angelic ministers. (1.) In the Book of Job, which deals with "Natural Religion," they are spoken of but vaguely, as sur- rounding God's throne above, and rejoicing in the com- pletion of His creative work (Job i, 6 ; ii, 1 ; xxxviii, 7). No direct and visible appearance to man is even hinted at. (See Rawson, Holy Angels, N. Y. 1858.) (2.) In the Book of Genesis there is no notice of angelic appearances till after the call of Abraham. Then, as the book is the history of the chosen family, so the angels mingle with and watch over its family life, entertained by Abraham and by Lot (Gen. xviii, xix), guiding Abraham's servant to Padan-Aram (xxiv, 7, 40), seen by the fugitive Jacob at Bethel (xxviii, 12), and welcoming his return at Mahanaim ( xxxii, 1). Their ministry hallows domestic life, in its trials and its blessings alike, and is closer, more familiar, and less awful than in after times. (Con- trast Gen. xviii with Judg. vi, 21, 22 ; xiii, 16, 22.) (3.) In the subsequent history, that of a chosen nation, the angels are represented more as ministers of wrath and mercy, messengers of a King, than as common children of the One Father. It is, moreover, to be observed that the records of their appearance belong especially to two periods, that of the judges and that of the captivity, which wrere transition pe- riods in Israelitish history, the former destitute of di- rect revelation or prophetic guidance, the latter one pf special trial and unusual contact with heathenism. During the lives of Moses and Joshua there is no record of the appearance of created angels, and only obscure references to angels at all. In the Book of Judges angels appear to rebuke idolatry (ii, 1-4), to call Gideon (vi, 11, etc.), and consecrate Samson (xiii, 3, etc.) to the work of deliverance. (4.) The prophetic office begins with Samuel, and immediately angelic guidance is withheld, except when needed by the prophets themselves (1 Kings xix, 5; 2 Kings vi, 17). During the prophetic and kingly period angels are spoken of onlj' (as noticed above) as ministers of God in the operations of nature. But in the captivity, when the Jews were in the pres- ence of foreign nations, each claiming its tutelary dei- ty, then to the prophets Daniel and Zechariah angels are revealed in a fresh light, as watching, not only over Jerusalem, but also over heathen kingdoms, un- der the providence, and to work out the designs, of the Lord. (See Zech. passim, and Dan. iv, 13, 23; x, 10, 13, 20, 21, etc.) In the whole period they, as truly as the prophets and kings, are God's ministers, watch- ing over the national life of the subjects of the Great King. (See Ileigel, Di angeh foederis, Jen. 1660.) (5.) The Incarnation marks a new epoch of angelic ministration. " The Angel of Jehovah," the Lord of all created angels, having now descended from heaven to earth, it was natural that His servants should con- tinue to do Him service here. Whether to predict and glorify Ilis birth itself (Matt, i, 20; Luke i, ii), to minister to Him after His temptation and agony (Matt, iv, 11 ; Luke xxii, 43), or to declare His res- urrection and triumphant ascension (Matt, xxviii, 2 ; John xx, 12; Acts i, 10, 11), they seem now to be in- deed " ascending and descending on the Son of Man," almost as though transferring to earth the ministra- tions of heaven. It is clearly seen that whatever was done by them for men in earlier days was but typical of and flowing from their service to Him. (See Psa. xci, 11 ; comp. Matt, iv, 6.) (6.) The New Testament is the history of the Chur-ch of Christ, every member of which is united to Him. Accordingly, the angels are revealed now as "minis- tering spirits" to each individual member of Christ for his spiritual guidance and aid (Heb. i, 14). The rec- ords of their visible appearance are but unfrequent (Acts v, 19 ; viii, 2G ; x, 3 ; xii, 7 ; xxvii, 23) ; yet their presence and their aid are referred to familiarly, almost as things of course, ever after the Incarnation. They are spoken of as watching over Christ's little ones (Matt, xviii, 10), as rejoicing over a penitent sin- ner (Luke xv, 10), as present in the worship of Chris- tians (1 Cor. xi, 10), and (perhaps) bringing their prayers before God (Rev. viii, 3, 4), and as bearing the souls of the redeemed into paradise (Luke xvi, 22). In one word, they are Christ's ministers of grace now, as they shall be of judgment hereafter (Matt, xiii, 39, 41, 49; xvi. 27; xxiv, 31, etc.). By what method they act we cannot know of ourselves, nor are we told, j perhaps lest we should worship them instead of Him, whose servants they are (see Col. ii, 18 ; Rev. xxii, 9) ; but, of course, their agency, like that of human ministers, depends for its efficacy on the aid of the Holy Spirit. The ministry of angels, therefore, a doctrine implied in their very name, is evident, from certain actions which are ascribed wholly to them (Matt, xiii, 41, 49 ; xxiv, 31 ; Luke xvi, 22), and from the scriptural nar- ratives of other events, in the accomplishment of which they acted a visible part (Luke i, 11, 26; ii, 9 sq. ; Acts v, 19, 20 ; x, 3, 19 ; xii, 7 ; xxvii, 23), prin- cipally in the guidance of the destinies of man. In those cases also in which the agency is concealed from our view we may admit the probability of its exist- ence, because we are told that God sends them forth "to minister to those who shall be heirs of salvation" (Heb. i, 14 ; also Psa. xxxiv, 8, 91 ; Matt, xviii, 10). But the angels, when employed for our welfare, do not act independently, but as the instruments of God, and by His command (Psa. ciii, 20; civ, 4; Heb. i, 13, 14) : not unto them, therefore, are our contidenee and adoration due, but only to him (Rev. xix, 10; xxii, 9) whom the angels themselves reverently wor- ship. (See Mostyn, Ministry of Angels, Lond. 1841.) 3. Guardian Angels. — It was a favorite opinion of the Christian fathers that every individual is under the care of a particular angel, who is assigned to him as a guardian. See Guardian Angel. They spoke also of two angels, the one good, the other evil, whom they conceived to be attendant on each individual : the good angel prompting to all good, and averting ill, and the evil angel prompting to all ill, and avert- ing good (Hermas, ii, 6). See Abaddon. The Jews (excepting the Sadducees) entertained this belief, as do the Moslems. The heathen held it in a modified form — the Greeks having their tutelary danwn (q. v.), and the Romans their genius. There is, however, noth- ing to support this notion in the Bible. The ] assages ( I'sa. xxxiv, 7; Matt, xviii, Id) usually referred to in support of it have assuredly no such meaning. The former, divested of its poetical shape, simply de- notes that God employs the ministry of angels to de- liver his people from affliction and danger; and the celebrated passage in Matthew cannot well mean any thing more than that the infant children of believers, or, if preferable, the least among the disciples of Christ, whom the ministers of the Church might be ANGELA ANGELUS disposed to neglect from their apparent insignificance, are in such estimation elsewhere that the angels do not think it below their dignity to minister to them. — Kitto, s. v. ; Smith, s. v. See Satan. IV. Literature. — For the Jewish speculations on Angelology, see Eisenmenger, Entdecktes Judenthum, ii, 370 sq. ; the Christian views on the subject may be found in Starr and Flatt's Lehrbuch der Chr. Dogma/ik, § xlviii; Scriptural views respecting them arc given in the A merican Biblical Repository, xii, 356-368 ; in the Bibliotheca Sacra, i, 766 sq. ; ii, 108 sq. ; on the ministry of angels, see Journal Sac. Lit. January, 1852, p. 283 sq. ; on their existence and character, ib. October, 1853, p. 122 sq. Special treatises are the following, among others : Loers, Be angelorum cor- porib. et natura (Tuisc. 1719, F. a. Rh. 1731) ; Goede, Demonstrationes de existentia corporum angelicor. (Hal. 1744) ; Hoffmann, Num angeli boni corpora hominum interdum obsideant (Viteb. 1760); Sehulthess, Engel- welt, Engslgesetz u. Engeldienst (Ziir. 1833); Cotta, Doctrines de Angelis historii (Tub. 1705); Damitz, De lapsu angelorum (Viteb. 1693) ; Wernsdorf, De com- mercio angelor. c. filiabus hominum (Viteb. 1742) ; Schmid, Enarralio de lapsu dasmonum (Viteb. 1775); Maior, I>e natura et cultu angelor. (Jen. 1653) ; Mer- heim, Hist, angelor. spec. (Viteb. 1792) ; Seiler, Erron&e doctrine de angelis (Erlang. 1797) ; Driessen, Angelor. corpa (Gron. ,1740) ; Beyer, De Angelis (Hal. 1698); Carhov's ed. of Abarbanel, De creatione angelorum (in Lat. Lpz. 1740); Mather, Angiography (Bost. 1096); Ambrose, Ministration of and Communion with Angels (in Works, p. 873); Cam field, Discourse of Angels (Lond. 1678); Lawrence, Communion and Warre with Angels (s. 1. 1646); Gasman, Angehgraphia (Frcft. 1 597) ; Herrenschmidt, Theatrum angelorum (Jen. 1629) ; Clotz, Angehgraphia (Rost. 1636); Dorsche, Singula- rium angelicorum septenarius (Argent. 1045) ; Muskus, Angelogia apostolica (Jen. 1G64) ; Schmid, Senarius an- gelicas (Helmst. 1695); Meier, De archangelis (Hamb. 1695); Oporin, Lehre von den Engeln (ib. 1735); Stro- dimann, Cute Engel (Guelph. 1744) ; Renter, Reich des Tenfels (Lemg. 1715) ; Nieolai, De grarlbus nequitice dia- bolicee (Magd. 1750) ; Herrera, De angelis (Salam. 1595) ; Grasse, Biblioth. magica (Lpz. 1843). See Spirit. On the worship of angels, as practised in the Roman Church, treatises exist in Latin by the following au- thors: ^Epinus (Rost. 1757); Beciimann (Jen. 1001); Clotz (Rost. 1636); Osiander (Tubing. 1670); Pfef- finger (Argent. 1708, Helmst. 1731); Reusch (Helmst. 1739); Schultze (Lips. 1703); Quistorp (Gryph. 1770); Thomasius, in his Dissert, p. 89-103; Wildvogel (Jen. 1692) ; Willisch (Lips. 1723). See Invocation. Angela, Merici, better known as Angela of Bres- cia, founder of the order of the Ursulines, was born in 1511, at Dezenzano. She entered a Franciscan con- vent, and made a journey to the Holy Land. On her return, in 1537, she assembled at Brescia a company of women, to whom she gave the name of St. Ursula, whom she made the patron of the order. During her lifetime they lived each in the house of her parents ; but after her death, which happened Mar. 21, 1540, the Ursulines began to live together. Paul III approved the institution in 1544. So rapid was the growth of the order, that within a cent.urj' there were 350 con- vents in France alone. — Landon, Eccl. Diet, i, 318; Helyot, Orel. Monastiques, iv, 150. See Ursulines. Angeli. See Angelis. Angelical Hymn, the hymn or doxology (q. v.) Gloria in Excehis, beginning with " Glory be to God on high," etc. It is so called from the former part of it having been sung by the angels to announce the birth of the Redeemer. The Greek original, as restored by Bunsen from the Cod. Alex., is given in his Analecta Antenicevna, iii, 87; also in Procter, On Common Pray- er, p. 354.— See Palmer, Orig. Liturg. iv, § 23; Bing- ham, Orig. Eccks. bk. lxiv, eh. ii, § 2. See Gloria. Angelici, a heretical sect of the 3d century, sup- posed to have gained the appellation in consequence of their worship of angels. The practice was imitated in the time of Chrysostom, and called forth his ani- madversions in his Homilies on the Colossians; and the Council of Laodicea enacted a severe canon accom- panied with the denunciation of anathema to restrain it. That council says, "Christians ought not to for- sake the Church of God, and go aside, and hold con- venticles to invocate or call upon the names of angels ; which things are forbidden. If any one, therefore, be found to exercise himself in this private idolatry, let him be accursed, because he hath forsaken our Lord Jesus Christ, the Son of God, and gone over to idol- atry."— Epiphanius, liar. 60 ; Lardner, Works, ii, 602. Angelic Order, Nuns of. See Guastalines. Angelique. See Arnaulp. Angelis (or Angeli Degli), Girolamo, a Jesuit born at Castro Giovanni, in Sicily, in 1567, died Dec. 4, 1623. He entered the order of the Jesuits in 15*5, and prepared himself for the Eastern missions. He embark- ed in 1596, and, after a long navigation, was cast upon the coast of Brazil, where he was seized by pirates and brought to England. Having from thence returned to Portugal, he was, in 1002, sent to Japan, in which country he labored as a missionary until the expulsion of the Jesuits in 1614. "With the permission of his superiors, Angelis put on a Japanese dress, and re- mained on the island of Niphon for nine moi-e years. He is said to have been the first European who visited the neighboring islands. In Jeddo he is said to have converted ten thousand natives to Christianity. Ulti- mately he was arrested, imprisoned, and burned alive, with ninety of his converts, after a stay in Japan of twenty-two years. A work on Jeddo (Relazione del regno di YtZ'i), which was published at Rome in 1625, is attributed to him. — Hoefer, Biog. Generale, ii, 646. Angelites, a sect in the reign of the Emperor Anastasius, about the year 494, so called from An- gelium, a place in the city of Alexandria, where they held their first meetings. They held that the persons of the Trinity are not the same ; that neither of them exists of himself, and of his own nature; but that there is a common God or Deity existing in them all, and that each is God by a participation of this Deity. — Buck, Theol. Diet. s. v. See Sabellians. Angelo, Rocca, of the order of St. Augustine, ed- ucated at Rome, Venice, Perugia, and Padua. Pope Sixtus V employed him to superintend the printing of the Bible, Councils, and Fathers ; and to his care the Augustines of Rome owe " the Bibliotheea Angel- ica," the " Librarj' of the Vatican," that " of Theology and Holy Scripture," etc. He died at Rome, April 7, 1620.— Landon, Eccl. Diet. s. v. Angelus, a prayer to the Virgin, commonly said in the Roman Church three times a day, viz., in the morning, at noon, and in the evening, when the bell is sounded thrice, three strokes each time. Pope John XXII instituted this office in 1316, and several popes have granted indulgences to those who say the An- gelus on their knees. — Landon, Eccl. Diet, i, 370. Angelus, Christopher, a Greek scholar, bom in the Peloponnesus about the middle of the 16th cen- tury, died Feb. 1, 1638. Being compelled by the Turks to leave his country, he fled to England, where he was enabled by the support of the bishop of Norwich ami of several members of the clergy to study at the uni- versities of Cambridge and Oxford. He was subse- quently appointed teacher of Greek in Baliol College, Oxford, which position he retained until his death. He published an account of his flight from Greece (Ox- I ford. 1619, in Greek and in English); a work on the 1 Greek religion (Enchiridion de Institutes Grcecis, Cam- | bridge, 1619, in Greek and Latin) ; Encomium, on the I Kingdom of Great Britain (Cambridge, 1619) ; De Apos ANGER 230 ANGLING ttma Eccleske et de Homme 2>eccat!, scilicet Antlchristo (London, 1624, 4to).— Wood, Atken. Oxon. vol. i ; Gen- tian m's Mag. lxiv, 785 ; Hoefer, Biog. Generate, ii, G51. Anger (usually TX, aph, dp-/))'), the emotion of in- stant displeasure, which arises from the feeling of in- jury done, or the discovery of injury intended, or, in many cases, from the discovery of the omission of good offices to which we supposed ourselves entitled ; or, it is simply the emotion of displeasure itself, inde- pendent of its cause or its consequences. " Like most other emotions, it is accompanied by effects on the body, and in this case they are of a very marked kind. The arterial blood-vessels are highly excited; the pulse, during the paroxysm, is strong and hard, the face becomes red and swollen, the brow wrinkled, the eyes protrude, the whole body is put into commotion. The secretion of bile is excessive, and it seems to as- sume a morbid consistency. In cases of violent pas- sion, and especially in nervous persons, this excite- ment of the organs soon passes to the other extreme of depression ; generally, this does not take place till the anger has subsided, when there follows a period of general relaxation. The original tendency to anger differs much in individuals according to temperament ; but frequent giving way to it begets a habit, and in- creases the natural tendency. From the nature of anger, it is easy to see that it must be — often at least — prejudicial to health. It frequently gives rise to bile-fever, inflammation of the liver, heart, or brain, or even to mania. These effects follow immediately a lit of the passion ; other evil effects come on, after a time, as the consequence of repeated paroxysms, such as paralysis, jaundice, consumption, and nervous fe- ver. The milk of a mother or nurse in a fit of passion will cause convulsions in the child that sucks ; it has been known even to occasion instant death, like a strong poison. The controlling of anger is a part of moral discipline. In a rudimentary state of society, its active exercise would seem to be a necessity ; by imposing some restraint on the selfish aggressions of one individual upon another, it renders the beginnings of social co-operation and intercourse possible. This is its use, or, as it is sometimes called, its final cause. But the more social intercourse comes to be regulated by customs and laws, the less need is there for the vindictive expression of anger. It seems an error, however, to suppose that the emotion ever will be — or that it ought to be — extirpated. Laws themselves lose their efficacy when they have not this feeling for a background ; and it remains as a last resource for man, when society — as it does every now and then — resolves itself into its elements. Even in the most artificial and refined states of society, those minor mo- ralities on which half the happiness of social inter- course depends, are imposed upon the selfish, in great measure, by that latent fund of anger which every man is known to carry about with him." — Chambers, Encyclopaedia, s. v. Anger is not evil per se. The mind is formed to be angn- as well as to love. Both are original suscepti- bilities of our nature. If anger were in itself sinful, how could God himself be angry? How could He, who was separate from sin and sinners, have looked round upon men with anger? An essentially immoral character cannot attach to it if it be the mere emotion of displeasure on the infliction of any evil upon us. Anger may lie sinful, when it arises too Boon, without reflection, when the injury which awakens it is only apparent, and was designed to do good. The disposi- tion which becomes speedily angry we call passionate. When it is disproportionate to the offence; when it is transferred from the guilt}' to the innocent; when it is too long protracted, it then becomes revengeful (Eph. iv, 1T,; Matt, v, 22; Col. iii, 8). When anger, hatred, wrath, are ascribed to God, they denote his holy and just displeasure with sin and sinners. In him they are principles arising out of his holy and just. nature, and are, therefore, steady and uniform, and more terrible than if mere emotions or passions. See Pale}', Mar, Phil. ch. vii, vol. i; Seeker, S.rmons, serm. xxviii ; Fawcett, Essay on Anger ; Seed, I'osth. Serm. 11 ; Buck, Diet. s. v. Angers (Axdegavense), a town in France, where the following councils were held: 453, for celibacy; 1055, against Berengar, archdeacon of Angers, for heresy ; 1062, on the same subject ; 1270, where four canons were made for the regulation of the clergy; 1306, on discipline ; 1448, for reforms. — Smith, Tables of Church Hist. ; Landon, Manual of Councils. Angilbert, St., a noble Frank, first councillor of the Italian King Pepin and of Charlemagne. He is said to have been married to Bertha, the daughter of Charlemagne, but to have retired in 790, with the con- sent of his wife, to the convent of Centule (now St. Riquier). In 794 he became abbot of this convent, and died Feb. 18, 814. He is the author of a history of the abbey of Centule and of several poetical works, and was surnamed the Homer of his times. See Acta Sanctorum, Feb. 18; Ccillier, Auteurs sacres, vol. xviii. Angilram, bishop of Metz from 768 to 791, also abbot of the monaster}- Senones, and arch-chaplain of Charlemagne. After 789 he bore the title archbishop as a personal distinction. His name is celebrated in the history of the Canon Law by a collection of laws respecting legal proceedings against bishops, called Capitula Angilrami. According to some Codd. they were presented by Angilram to Pope Adrian, but, ac- cording to others, presented by Adrian to Angilram. They are generally regarded as spurious (see Rett- berg, Kirchengeseliichte Deutschlands, i, 501 ; and Her- zog, s. v. Angilram"), and as extracts from the Pseu- do-Decretals ; but their authenticity has been defended by Wasserschleben, Beitrdge zur Geschichte derfalschen Decretalen. — Hase, Church History, p. 185. See De- cretals. Anglican Church, another name of the Estab- lished Church of England. The phrase "Anglican Churches" is coming into general use as the collective title of the Established Church of England and Ire- land, the Scottish Episcopal Church, the Protestant Episcopal Church of the United States, and the mis- sionary churches established by any of these three bodies. The Churchman's Calendar for 1865 gives the following synoptical view of the Anglican Churches: 1. England, 2 archbishops, 26 bishops; 2. Ireland, 2 archbishops, 10 bishops; 3. Scotland, 8 bishops; 4. Mediterranean, 1 bishop; 5. United States, 38 bishops; 6. British America, 9 bishops ; 7. West Indies, 6 bish- ops ; 8. Asia, 8 bishops ; 9. Africa, 8 bishops ; 10. Oceanica, 14 bishops. Sec England, Church of. Angling, the art of taking fish with a hook and line. The word i"T2n, chaklcah' ', which the Auth. Vers, renders "angle" in Isa. xix, 8; Hab. i, 15, is the same that is rendered "hook" in Job xli, 1, 12. The Scriptures contain several allusions to this mode of taking fish. The first of these occurs as early as the time of Job: "Canst thou draw out leviathan witli an hook ; or his tongue [palate, which is usually pierced by the hook] with a cord [line], which thou lettest down ? Canst thou put a hook into his nose, or bore his jaw through with a thorn ?" (Job xli, 1, 2). This last phrase obviously refers to the thorns which were sometimes used as hooks, and which are long after mentioned as the thorns off siting (Amos iv, 2), in the Auth. Vers, "fish-hooks." -Of the various passages relating to this subject, the most remarkable is that which records, as an important part of the "burden of Egypt," that "the fishers also shall mourn ; and all they that cast angle [the hook] into the brooks shall lament, and they that spread nets upon the waters shall languish" (Isa. xix, 8). In this ANGLO-CATHOLIC CHURCH 231 ANGLO-SAXON VERSIONS poetical description of a part of the calamities which were to befall Egypt, we are furnished with an ac- count of the various modes of fishing practised in that country, which is in exact conformity with the scenes depicted in the old tombs of Egypt. See Fish. Angling appears to have been regarded chiefly as an amusement, in which the Egyptians of all ranks found much enjoyment. The Egyptian hooks were of bronze, as appears* from the specimens that have been found. Insects, natural or artificial, were not used in angling, ground bait being exclusively employed ; and the float of the Vulgate into the vernacular tongue of our an- cestors, began to be made by the monks. Some of these are still extant. The oldest is the celebrated Durham Bool; preserved among the Cotton MSS. in the British Museum. The Latin text of this MS. was written by Eadfrith, bishop of the Church of Holy Isle, some time before the year . In China this is frequently used for seasoning dishes, etc. ; but the species of this genus are not natives of the Bible lands, and must not be confused with the umbellifer- ous plants noticed in this article. See Botany. Anklet. This word does not occur in Scripture, but the ornament which it denotes is clearly indicated by "the tinkling (or jingling) ornaments (OZ", e'kes) about the feet" mentioned in the curious description of female attire which we find in Isa. iii. See Attire. Even in the absence of special notice, we might very safely conclude that an ornament to which the Orien- tal women have always been so partial (Thomson's j Land and Book, i, 182) was not unknown to the Jew- I ish ladies. The Egyptian monuments represent them as worn by men likewise (Wilkinson, iii, 375). The j figures below represent different styles of anklets, as found on the Egyptian monuments, and in use at pres- Oriental Anklets. 1, 2, 5, C, 7, Ancient ; o, 4, S, Modern. ent (particularly by females) among the Egyptians, Persians, Arabs, and Hindoos. Anklets of solid gold or silver are worn by some ladies, but are more un- common than they formerly were. They are, of course, very heavy, and knocking together as the wearer walks, make a ringing noise ; hence it is said in a song, "The ringing of thy anklets has deprived me of reason" (Lane's Mod. Egyptian?, ii, 410). This practice, nevertheless, is forbidden in the Koran (xxiv, 31). This prohibition, however, perhaps rather refers (see Chardin, i, 133, 148, 104) to the small bells used by females, especially dancing girls, around the ankles (Lane, ib. ii, 368). To increase this pleasant sound, pebbles were sometimes enclosed in them (Calmet, s. v. Periscelides, Bells). Tertullian discountenances them (De eult.femin. ii, 13). They were sometimes of great value, but the poorer village children wear them of iron. For their use among the ancient Egyptians, see Wilkinson, iii, 374, and among the ancient Greeks and Romans, Smith's Did. of Class. Ant. s. v. Peri- scelis. They do not, Ave believe, occur in the Nineveh sculptures. Livingstone writes of the favorite wife of an African chief, "She wore a profusion of iron rings on her ankles, to which were attached little pieces of sheet iron to enable her to make a tinkling as she walked in her mincing African style" (p. 273). On the weight and inconvenience of the copper rings worn by the chiefs themselves, and the odd walk it causes them to adopt, see id. p. 276. See Bracelet. An'na ("Avi/a, the Greek form of the name Han- nah [q. v.] ; it also occurs in the cognate Punic as that of the sister of Dido, Virgil, jEn. iv, 9), the name of two women. 1. The wife of Tobit, whose history is contained in the apocryphal book that bears his name (Tob. i, 9 sq.). 2. An aged widow, daughter of Phanuel, of the tribe of Asher. She had married earhT, but after seven years her husband died, and during her long widow- hood she daih' attended the morning and evening ser- vices of the temple. Anna was eighty-four years old when the infant Jesus was brought to the temple by his mother, and, entering as Simeon pronounced his thanksgiving, she also broke forth in praise to God for the fulfilment of his ancient promises (Luke ii, 36, 37), B.C. 6. See Maver, De Anna prophetissa vidua (Gryph. 1706). Anna, St., the name, according to tradition, of the mother of the Virgin Mary, and wife of Joachim. The names of Anna and Joachim are not found in Holy Scripture, but are gathered from the fathers. Ac- cording to a legend, her body was brought, in 710, from Jerusalem to Constantinople, and from that time many churches of Europe pretended to possess some relic of it. Her festival is kept in the Greek Church July 25th, in the Roman, July 2Gth.— Butler, Lives of Saints, iii, 212; comp. Binerus, De Joachimo, Anna et Josepho (Antw. 1638); Goetze, Da cultu Annas (Lips. 1702); Willisch, Ehemal. St. Annenbriiderschaft (An- nab. 1723) ; Franz, Versuch einer Geschichte des Marien- und Annen-Cultus (Halberst. 1854); and see the Le- genda matronm Anna (Lips. 1502). An'naas (2rn'««c), a man whose posterity (or a place whose residents) returned from the captivity (1 Esdr. v, 23^1; evidently the Senaah (q. v.) of the genuine text (Ezra ii, 35). Amiales Ecclesiastici. See Baroxius. Annam. See Anam. An'nas C'Avvaq, probably a contracted form of the name Ananiahm its Greek form,* Avavoe), a high- priest of the Jews mentioned in Luke (iii, 2) as being high-priest along with Caiaphas his son-in-law. Our Lord's first hearing (John xviii, 13) was before Annas, who then sent him bound to Caiaphas. In Acts iv, 6, he is plainly called the high-priest, and Caiaphas merely named with others of his family. He is called by Josephus Ananus (q. v.) the son of Seth ; and was first appointed to that office in his 37th year by Quiri- nus, proconsul of Syria, about A.D. 7 (Ant. xviii, 2, 1), but was afterward deprived of it by Valerius Gratus, procurator of Judaea (A.D. 14), who gave the office first to Ismael the son of Phabasus, and a short time after to Elenzar the son of Annas (Josephus, Ant. xviii, 2, 1 and 2). He held the office one year, and was then succeeded by Simon the son of Camitlius, who, after another year, was followed by Joseph, also called Caiaphas, the son-in-lawr of Annas, A.D. ante 27, who continued in office until A.D. 37. In the passages of the New Testament above cited, therefore, it is apparent that Caiaphas was the only actual and proper high-priest; but Annas, being his father-in- law, and having been formerly himself high-priest, and being also perhaps his substitute (saga it), bad great influence and authority, and could with great propriety be still termed high-priest along with Caia- ANNAS 236 AN NIHIL ATIONISTS phas. (See Anger, De temp. p. 185: Lightfoot, IJor. ! Heb. p. 744 sq. ; Rus, Harmon. Evany, i, 313 sq. ; I IT, ii, 962 sq. ; Vitringa, Observ. Sacr. vi, 529 sq. ; Ca- saubon, Exerc. antibar. p. 21 G sq. ; Wieseler, Chronol. Synops. p. 186 sq. ; Selden, De Synedrm, ii, 655; Sau- bert, De Sacerdotio Ebra-or. i, 5; Kuinol, Comment. on Luke iii, 2.) See High-priest. He died at an say the last, is a state of violence ; all things are con- tinually endeavoring to return to their primitive noth- ing ; no power is required to effect it ; it would be ac- complished of itself; nay more, an infinite power is required to prevent it. As to human beings, the ma- jority of the Greek philosophers opposed the doctrine ; the Brahmins held that at stated intervals all created advanced age, and was succeeded by his first son in things are annihilated; the Siamese hold annihilation the sacerdotal dignity (Josephus, Ant. xx, 9, 1). to be the greatest reward of virtue (Buck, Theol.Dic- An'nas QAvav v. r. "Avvae) likewise occurs in the tlonary, s. v.). The theory of the annihilation of the Apocrypha (Vulg. Nuas) as one of the Israelites who had married Gentile wives after the captivity (1 Esdr. ix, 32) ; evidently a corruption for the Hakim (q. v.) of the genuine text (Ezra x, 31). Annates, or First-fruits, in the ecclesiastical law, means the value of every spiritual living for a whole year (hence the name, from the Latin word annus a year), which the pope, claiming the disposi- ^'^""tf £ in Justin (D!alog, cum Tryph tion of every spiritual benefice within Christendom, reserved out of every living. This impost was at first only levied from persons appointed to bishoprics ; but it was afterward extended to the inferior clergy. The value of these annates was calculated according to a rate made under the direction of Pope Innocent IV (A.D. 1253), but which was afterward increased by Pope Nicholas III (A.D. 1292). This papal exaction was abolished in England by the act 25 Henry VIII, j c. 20, and by an act passed in the following year of ^ ££ZT£ England bv a few writers of in the same reign, 26 Henry \ III, c. 3), the right toan- nQ^ ag Samuel Bourne (sermons), J. N. Scott, and eked has been set on foot at different periods, and has recently been revived. See Annihilationists. Annihilation! sts, a name given to the holders of the theory that the, wicked will not be kept in eter- nal misery, but will suffer a total extinction of being. See Annihilation. 1. There are only a few traces of this doctrine in earlv church histor}'. Some are disposed to find the 5), where it is said that the souls of the wicked should be punished as long as tar civ uvtuq Kai tivai Kai Ko\a- ZfaSai 6 Qtog 0i\u (as long as God wishes them to exist and to be punished). Similar expressions are used by Irenseus (ii, 34 : Quoadusque ea Deus et esse et persecerare voluerit), and Clem. Horn, iii, 3. In clearer terms the doctrine was propounded by Arnobius (q. v.) at the beginning of the 1th century. See Hell. 2. The theorv of annihilation was maintained in the nates, or first-fruits, was annexed to the crown. ..« otherg Thcv took th(J name of Destnicti(mists, ns various statutes subsequently passed on this subject sumin the point in dispute, viz., that the word dc have all been consolidated by an act (the 1 \ ict. c. 20) stmction in Scripture means annihilation. Their prop er designation is " Annihilationist regulating the collection of the money so levied Gieseler, Ch. Hist, iii, 54-63. See First-fruits; Queen Anne's Bounty. Annesley, Samuel, D.D., maternal grandfather of John Wesley, was one of the leading non-conform- ist divines of his day, and a man of good family, being a nephew of the earl of Anglesea. He was born near Warwick in 1G20, and educated at Oxford, where, like his grandson, he Avas noted for his piety and dili- gence. He served the national church as chaplain at sea, and as parish priest at Cliff, in Kent, at St prop- Among the more eminent supporters of this doctrine was Taylor of Norwich (q. v.) ; and Macknight is also claimed as among its advocates. Jonathan Edwards, in his an- swer to Dr. Chauncey, on the salvation of all men, says that this scheme was provisionally retained by Dr. Chauncey, i. e. in case the scheme of universal salvation should fail him ; and Edwards, in his exam- ination of that work, appropriates a chapter to the con- sideration of it. Among other reasonings against it are the following: "1. The different degrees of pun- John the Apostle's and at St. Giles's, two of the jghment which the wicked will suffer according to their largest congregations in London. He refused to " con- J workSj proves that it does not consist in annihilation, form" to the "Act of Uniformity," and endured a ] yr^ich admits of no degrees. 2. If it be said that the series of severe persecutions, which were attended by j pUni§hment of the wicked, though it will end in anni- many of those "remarkable interpositions" that dis- hilation, yet shall be preceded by torment, and that tinguish the later history of the family. One of his tnjs WQ] De 0f different degrees, according to the de- persecutors fell dead while preparing a warrant for ^rees 0f sjnj it maT be replied, this is making it to be bis apprehension. He became a leader of the Puri- j compounded partly of torment and partly of annihi- tans during the troubles of the times, preaching most daily, providing pastors for destitute congrega- tions, and relief for his ejected and impoverished brethren. After a ministry of more than half a cen- tury, and of sore trials, under which he never once fal- tered, he died in 1696, exclaiming, " I shall be satisfied with thy likeness; satisfied, satisfied." De Foe, who sat under his preaching, has drawn his character as perfect, in an elegy. The non-conformists considered him a second St. Paul. Richard Baxter pronounced him totally devoted to God (Clarke, Wesley Family, p. 298). He was endeared to all who knew him inti- mately; and his noble relative, the countess of An- lation. The latter also appears to be but a small part of future punishment, for that alone will be inflicted on the least sinner, and on account of the least sin ; and that all punishment which will be inflicted on any person above that which is due to the least sin is to consist in torment. Nay, if we can form any idea in the present state of what would be dreadful or desira- ble in another, instead of its being any punishment to lie annihilated after a long series of torment, it must be a deliverance, to which the sinner would look for- ward with anxious desire. And is it credible that this was the termination of torment that our Lord held up to his disciples as an object of dread ? Can this be glesea, desired, on her death-bed, to be buried in his ; tne destruction of body and soul in hell? Is it cred grave. He had a manly countenance and dignified person ; a rich estate, which he devoted to charity ; robust health, which was capable of any fatigue. Cal- amy (Non-conformist's Memorial, vol. i) calls him an Israelite indeed. — Stevens, Hist, of Methodism, i, 35; Crowther, Portraiture <;/' M< thodism, p. 3. Annihilation, the act of reducing any thing to nothing. Whether matter can be utterly destroyed or not, is a question that has been much agitated in the schools. According to some, nothing is so difficult; according to others, nothing is so easy. Existence, that everlasting destruction from the presence of the Lord, and from the glory of his power, should con- stitute only a part, and a small part, of future punish- ment ; and such too as, after a series of torment, must, next to being made happy, be the most acceptable thing that could befall them ? Can this be the object threatened by such language, as recompensing tribu- lation, and taking vengeance in flaming fire ? (2 Thess. 1). Is it possible that God should threaten them with putting an end to their miseries? Moreover, this de- struction is not described as the conclusion of a sue- ANNIHILATIONISTS 237 ANNIVERSARY cession of torments, but as taking place immediately I spectable advocates of the doctrine, and a very mod- after the last judgment. When Christ shall come to erate one, is Dr. McCulloh, of Baltimore, in his Aria- be glorified in his saints then shall the wicked be de- lytical Investigations concerning the Scriptures (Balti- Stroyed. 3. Everlasting destruction from the presence more, 1852, 2 vols. 8vo). He maintains that after the of the Lord, and from the glory of his power, cannot final decisions of the judgment, the wicked will be ut- mean annihilation, for that would be no exertion of terly destroyed by a dreadful visitation of Almighty divine power, but merely the suspension of it ; for let wrath. The ablest work produced on the side of de- the upholding power of God be withheld for one mo- structionism is Hudson, Debt and Grace, as related to ment, and the whole creation would sink into nothing. ' the Doctrine of a Future State (Boston, 1857, 12mo). 4. The punishment of wicked men will be the same as This work "denies that the natural immortality of the that of wicked angels (Matt, xxv, 41) : Depart, ye \ soul is ever expressed or even implied in the Bible, cursed, into everlasting fire, prepared for the devil and \ On the contrary, life and immortality are brought in his angels; But the punishment of wicked angels j fulness by the Redeemer to the redeemed alone ; while consists not in annihilation, but torment. Such is all others are not only naturally mortal, soul and body, their present punishment in a degree, and such, in a j at death, but, after that mortal suspension of positive greater degree, will be their punishment hereafter. J existence, are raised at the final resurrection and cast They are ' cast down to hell ;' they ' believe, and trem- | into the lake of fire as the second death. It denies ble ;' they are reserved in chains under darkness to that endless conscious suffering is ever affirmed to be the judgment of the great day; they cried, saying, the nature of future penalty ; but affirms that the pen- ' What have we to do with thee ? Art thou come to I alty consists in privation, and in its perpetuity consists torment us before our time?' Could the devils but I the eternity of future punishment. The class of Scrip- persuade themselves they should be annihilated, they ture terms by which eternal misery is usually under- would believe, and be at ease rather than tremble. 5. stood to be designated, such as condemnation, damna- The Scriptures explain their own meaning in the use J tion, perdition, destruction, the writer understands to of such terms as death, destruction, etc. The second express the painful and penal consignment of the en- death is expressly said to consist in being cast into j tire nature to the disorganization and complete non- the lake of fire and brimstone, and as having a part existence from which it sprung" (Meth. Quar. Rev. in that lake (Rev. xx, 14 ; xxi, 8), which does not describe annihilation, nor can it be made to consist with it. The phrase cut him asunder (Matt, xxiv, 51) is as strong as those of death or destruction ; j'et that is made to consist of having their portion with hypocrites, where shall be weeping and gnashing of teeth. G. The happiness of the righteous does not consist in eternal being, but eternal well-being; and as the punishment of the wicked stands everywhere opposed to it, it must consist, not in the loss of being, but of well-being, and in suffering the contrary." Jan. 1858, p. 149). An exhaustive reply to Mr. Hud- son, and a thorough examination of the whole contro- versy, is given by Landis in his treatise On the Immor- tality of the Soul and the final Condition of the Wicked (N. Y. 1859, 12mo). The subject is also ably treated by Mattison in his work, The Immortality of the Soul (Philad. 1864). See also Alvah Hovey, State of Im- penitent De.id (1859) ; J. R. Thompson, Law and Pen- alty; Meth. Quar. Rev. 1852, p. 240 ; 1858, p. 149 ; 1861, p. 31 ; 1864, p. 689 ; Presb. Quar. Rev. April, 1860 ; Am. Theol. Rev. April, 1861 ; Bibliotheca Surra, April, 1858, Bishop Law (f 1789) maintained that spiritual death ; p. 395 sq., and April, 1863, art. v; Buck, Theol. Diet.; is an entire destruction — an annihilation of the soul, \ Smith's Hagenbach, i, 226; ii, 451. Compare Immor- with the resolution of the body into its original dust tality. (Theory of Religion, 7th ed. p. 339-351). The name of j Annius, or John Nanni, born July 7, at Viterbo, Archbishop Whately is probably to be enrolled among j in 1432. Having entered the order of Dominicans, he the modern supporters of annihilationism in England, became a proficient in the Latin, Greek, and Oriental In his work on the future state (.4 View of the Scripture i languages, and in theology. He published two works, Revi lotions concerning a Future State, Philad. 1855) he [ entitled, 1. Tractalus de Imperio Turcarum; and 2. argues the opinion fully. He says, that in the passages De Futuris Christianorum triumph', etc. (Genoa, 1480, in which the words " death," " destruction," " eternal | 4to), in which he endeavors to show that Mahomet was death," are spoken of, these words may be taken as | the Antichrist of the Apocalypse. But the work by signifying literal death, real destruction, an utter end ; which he is chiefly known is his seventeen books of of things. The "unquenchable fire" may mean that Antiquities (Rome, 1498, fob), in which he pretended fire which utterly consumes what it is burning upon. \ to give the works of Berosus, Marsylus of Lesbos, Ca- The " worm that"dieth not" may be that which entire- 1 ton, Sempronius, Archilochus, Xenophon, Metasthenes ly devours what it feeds upon. " Everlasting perdi- or Megasthenes, Manetho, and others. These writings tion" may mean that perishing from which the soul were the cause of a dispute among the learned at the cannotbe saved, but it will be final annihilating. The time, some, as Pineda, Louis Viveza, the Spaniard, passage " The last enemy that shall be destroyed is ', Vossius, Melchior Canus, and others, maintained the death," affords, according to Whately, some ground for utter falsity of all these pieces, and declared Annius to thinking that there may be a "final extinction of evil I be a sheer impostor; while others, who had among and suffering by the total destruction of such as are in- | them such men as Nauderius, Leander Albert, Sixtus capable of good and happiness. If eternal death means of Siena, Alph. Maldonatus, etc., declared themselves final death— death without any revival— we can un- in his favor. Annius was master of the palace for Al- derstand what is meant by death being destroyed, viz., exander VI, and was, it is supposed, poisoned by Ca> that none henceforth are to be subjected to it" (p. 184). sar Borgia, whom he had offended. He died Nov. 13, And Whately concludes this scriptural argument by I 1502. — Hoefer, Biog. Generate, ii, 729; Landon, Feci. this sentence : " On the whole, therefore, I think we Diet. s. v. are not warranted in concluding, as some have done \ Anniversary, in the Greek and Romish Church- so positively concerning the question, as to make it j es, a name given to the day on which a martyr or saint a point of Christian faith to interpret figuratively the is commemorated. Also, those days on which special 'death and destruction' spoken of in the Scriptures as ! prayer is made, year by year, for the souls of deceased the doom of the condemned, and to insist on the belief that they are to be left alive forevermore." 3. The revival of annihilationism in this country seems to have begun with the publication of Six Ser- mons on the Question "Are the wicked immortal?" by George Storrs, answered by Prof. Post, in the New Englander, Feb. and May, 1856. One of the most re- persons, and masses said and alms distributed, are in the Romish Church called anniversaries. The anni- versary office {officium anniversariwn) is a double of- fice, said only on the first anniversary day after the death. On all succeeding anniversary days, the sim- ple office is said, as in the daily office for the dead. — Landon, Feci. Diet. s. v. ANNO 23 S ANNUNCIATION Anno or Hanno (St.), archbishop of Colore in the 11th century. Belonging to the Suabian family of Sonneberg, he was at first devoted to a military life ; but, after a short career of arms, he entered the church. The emperor Henry III, the Bhick, appoint- ed him to the see of Cologne upon the death of arch- bishop Hermann in 1055. He applied himself with diligence to his duties, both temporal and spiritual. He reformed many of the monasteries of his diocese, and built five or six others, among the latter the ab- bey of Siegberg. After the death of Henry III the empress made him regent. His zeal for the church outran his discretion, especially in the excessive en- ergy with which he seconded the measures of Gregory VI I (q. v.). The emperor Henry IV, though his pu- pil, was so dissatisfied with his conduct that he drove him from his see. He died December 4th, 1075, on which day he is commemorated. — Hoefer, Nouv. Bio- graphk Ginhxde, ii, 730 ; Baillet, Vies des Saints, De- cember -1. Annual Conference, the name of the territorial synods or councils of the Methodist Episcopal Church, which are held every year, as distinguished from the general synod (General Conference) held quadrennial- \y. The Annual Conference is composed of all the ministers in full connection within certain territorial limits. Preachers "on trial" are required to attend the sessions, but are not allowed to vote. The times of holding the Annual Conferences are fixed by the bishops, the place by the Conference itself. The pre- siding officer is the bishop ; but, in case of his absence, some "member of the Conference appointed by the bishop shall preside ; but if no appointment be made, the Conference elects a president by ballot among the elders, without debate." The duties of the Annual Conference, and the limits of its authority, are pre- scribed by the Discipline. A record of its proceed- ings is sent to each General Conference for revision, if necessary. The territorial boundaries of the An- nual Conferences are fixed by the General Confer- ence. There are now (1866) sixty annual conferences (including mission conferences) of the Methodist Epis- copal Church in America, Europe, Africa, India, and China. — Discipline of the Methodist Episcojxd Church, pt. ii, ch. i ; pt. vi, ch. iv ; Baker, On the Discipline ; Minutes of the Annual Conferences (New York, 1866, 8vo). See Conferences; Methodist Episcopal Church. Annulus, a ring. The clergy do not appear to have worn any badge of office until the fourth cen- tury ; but subsequently various insignia or emblems of office were appropriated. The ring is now given to Romish bishops on their investiture, as emblemati- cal of the bishop's espousals to the Church, in imita- tion of the ancient ceremony of presenting a ring in marriage. It was called " the ring of his espousals," annulus sponsalitius, or annulus pronubus ; but some- times, also, annulus palatii. The pope wears a ring with the device of Peter fishing; and papal briefs, stamped with this seal, are said to be given sub an- nul) pucatorio. The Usher-ring has been used for this purpose since the 13th century. Annunciad or Annunciada, Order of, a mili- tary order, founded by Amedeus, count of Sa- voy, in 1350 or 1360, called at first the order of the hnots if lure, lie cause of a hair bracelet formed in love-knots, given to the count by a lady. Amedeus VIII, duke of Savoy (created Pope Felix III at the council of Basle), in 1494, changed the name of the ■ l.nw-kii'it" Slar. Badge of the Order of the Annunciada. order to that of the Annunciad. The figure of the Virgin was appended to the collar, in which the love- knots were changed into a pattern in twisted cord, and which bore the initials F. E. R. T., supposed to mean Fortitudo ejus Rhodum tenuit, in reference to the val- iant defence of Rhodes by Amedeus the Great in 1310. The cloak of the knights was first red, afterward blue, and now of the color of amaranth, lined with cloth of silver. It still exists in Sardinia as an order of merit. — Helyot, Ordres Religieux, i, 224 ; Burke, Orders of Knighthood, p. 350. Annunciade, the name of two orders of nuns. 1. That founded at Bourges in 1500, by Jeanne, queen of France, after her divorce from Louis XII. These nuns also call themselves the nuns of the ten virtues, viz., the virtues exhibited, as they say, in the mysteries which the Roman Church commemorates in the ten festivals of the Virgin Mary. Their rule is formed upon the idea of an initiation of these virtues. They wear a gray habit, a red scapulary, a cross of gold or silver, suspended from the neck, and a ring of one of those metals on the finger. At the Revolu- tion they had 45 nunneries in France and Holland, all of which were suppressed. — Helyot, Ordres Relig. i, 227. 2. Another order of nuns, otherwise called Celes- tines (Ccelestes or Cceleslince), from the girdle and mantle of sky-blue which thejr wear over their white habit. A Genoese widow, named Maria Victoria For- nari, instituted this order in 1602 or 1604. The consti- tution of the order, approved by Clement VII, enjoins poverty and separation from the world. They are al- lowed to speak to persons out of their house only six times a year, and then only to their nearest relatives. In 1860 they had three nunneries in Italy, six in Bel- gium, and five in France. In Rome they arc called Turchine (i. e. the "violet-blue" ones). — Helyot, Ordres Religieux, i, 236 ; P. Carl vom heil. Aloys, /Statislisches Jahrbuch der Kirche (Regensbg. 1860). Annunciation, Feast of the (from the Lat. annunciatio, announcement), a festival observed in hon- or of the tidings which the angel Gabriel brought to the Virgin Mary of the incarnation of our Saviour. It is called by various names in church history, e. g. 'Huipa atnrarrpov, "the day of salutation ;" Xaanff- fioc, in reference to the epithet Ke\aptriopfi'ii, employ- ed by the angel (Luke i, 28) ; also EvayycXiapoc., with reference to the subject of the announcement. Some doubt exists as to the date of its establishment. Au- gust! is of opinion that the festival was celebrated at the time of the council of Laodicea, cir. 364. In the homily ascribed to Athanasius it is called one of our Lord's festivals. After the fifth century, in conse- quence of what passed during the Nestorian contro- versies, this festival was referred to Man*, and its ob- servance fixed for the 25th of March, on which day it is now celebrated by the Greek, Roman, and English Churches. It seems to have been generally observed in the sixth century, but the first formal mention that we meet with of its being commemorated among the festivals of the Church is in the decrees of the council of Trullo, convened at the close of the seventh cen- tury. Chrysostom, and Bernard after him, call it ANNUUS 239 ANOINT "the root of all festivals." — Bingham, Orig. Eccl. bk. xx, ch. viii, § 4. The following writers treat on this subject : Kci- cher, Be salutatione angelica (Jen. 17G0-1) ; Myslenta, Be angelica annunciatione (Regiom. 1623); Rancke, Be locutione angelorum (Lips. 1678) ; Sonntag, Be charetismo (Altdorf. 1709); Zeibich, Be verbis Gabrieli ad Mariam (Viteb. 1754). See Mary. Annu'us (*Avvovog, Vulg. Amin), given (1 Esdr. viii, 48) as the name of one of the Levites sent to ac- company the captives returning from Babylon; but it is evidently an error of the translator for iPlfcjfi, veitto', " and with him," of the original text (Ezra viii, 19). Anoint (usually 1112333, mashach' , xpiio). The practice of anointing with perfumed oils or ointments appears to have been very common among the He- brews, as it was among the ancient Egyptians. See Unguent. The practice, as to its essential meaning, still remains in the East; but perfumed waters are now far more commonly employed than oils or oint- ments (q. v.). See Perfume. It is from this source that the usage has extended to other regions. Among the Greeks and Romans oil was emploj-ed as a lubri- cator for suppling the bodies of the athletes in the games (q. v.), and also after the bath (q. v.). I. In the Scriptures several kinds of anointing are distinguishable (Scacchi, Myrotkeca, iii, Rom. 1637). 1. Consecration and Inauguration. — The act of anointing appears to have been viewed as emblemati- cal of a particular sanctification, of a designation to the service of God, or to a holy and sacred use. Hence the anointing of the high-priests (Exod. xxix, 29 ; Lev. iv, 3), and even of the sacred vessels of the tabernacle (Exod. xxx, 26, etc.); and hence also, probably, the anointing of the king, who, as "the Lord's anointed," and, under the Hebrew constitution, the viceroy of Jehovah, was undoubtedly invested with a sacred character. This was the case also among the Egyptians, among whom the king was, ex officio, the high-priest, and as such, doubtless, rather than in his secular capacity, was solemnlj' anointed at his inauguration. See Unctions (of Christ). As the custom of inaugural anointing first occurs among the Israelites immediately after they left Egypt, and no example of the same kind is met with previously, it is fair to conclude that the practice and the notions connected with it were acquired in that country. With the Egyptians, as with the Jews, the investiture to any sacred office, as that of king or priest, was confirmed by this external sign ; and as the Jewish lawgiver mentions the ceremony of pour- ing oil upon the head of the high-priest after he had put on his entire dress, with the mitre and crown, the Egyptians represent the anointing of their priests and kings after they were attired in their full robes, with Ancient Egyptians (as Representatives of Iloru*) anointing a King. the cap and crown upon their heads. Some of the sculptures introduce a priest pouring oil over the mon- arch (Wilkinson's Anc. Egyptians, iv, 280). It is from this that the high-priest, as well as the king, is called " the anointed" (Lev. iv, 3 ; v, 16; vi, 15; Psa. cxxxiii, 2). In fact, anointing being the principal ceremony of regal inauguration among the Jews, as crowning is with us, " anointed," as applied to a king, has much the same signification as " crowned." It does not, however, appear that this anointing was re- peated at every succession, the anointing of the found- er of the dynasty being considered efficient for its pur- pose as long as the regular line of descent was undis- turbed (Jahn, Bill. Archilol. § 223); hence we find no instance of unction as a sign of investiture in the roy- al authority, except in the case of Saul, the first king of the Jews, and of David, the first of his line; and, subsequently, in those of Solomon, Joash, and Jehu, who ascended the throne under circumstances in which there was danger that their right might be forcibly disputed (1 Sam. xix, 24; 2 Sam. ii, 4; v, 1-3; 1 Chron. xi, 1, 2; 2 Kings xi, 12-20; 2 Chron. xxiii, 1-21). Those who were inducted into the royal office in the kingdom of Israel appear to have been inaugu- rated with some peculiar ceremonies (2 Kings ix, 13). But it is not clear that they were anointed at all ; and the omission (if real) is ascribed by the Jewish writers to the want of the holy anointing oil which could alone be used on such occasions, and which was in the keep- ing of the priests of the temple In Jerusalem. The private anointing which was performed by the proph- ets (2 Kings ix, 3; comp. 1 Sam. x, 1) was not un- derstood to convey any abstract right to the crown, but was merely a symbolical intimation that the per. son thus anointed should eventually ascend the throne. The following species of official anointing appear to have prevailed among the Jews : (a.) Prujihets were occasionally anointed to their office (1 Kings xix, 10), and are called messiahs, or anointed (1 Chron. xvi, 22 ; Psa. cv, 15). (b.) Priests, at the first institution of the Levitical priesthood, were all anointed to their offices, the sons of Aaron as well as Aaron himself (Exod. xl, 15; Num. iii, 3); but afterward anointing seems not to have been repeated at the consecration of ordinary priests, but to have been especially re- served for the high-priest (Exod. xxix, 29 ; Lev. xvi, 32) ; so that " the priest that is anointed" Cj<12H rP'd53il, Lev. iv, 3) is generally thought to mean the high-priest (Sept. ti ap\nptvq 6 Kixpiaf'tvoc. ; comp. verses 5, 16, and c. vi. 22 [15]). (c.) Kings. The Jews were familiar with the idea of making a king by anointing before the establishment of their own mon- archy (Judg. ix, 8, 15). Anointing was the divinely- appointed ceremony in the inauguration of their own kings (1 Sam. ix, 16; x,l; 1 Kings i, 34, 39); indeed, so pre-eminently did it belong to the kingly office, that "the Lord's anointed" was a common designation of the theocratic king (1 Sam. xii, 3, 5 ; 2 Sam. i, 14, 16). The rite was sometimes performed more than once. David was thrice anointed to be king: first, privately by Sam- uel, before the death of Saul, by way of conferring on him a right to the throne (1 Sam. xvi, 1, 13); again over Judah at Hebron (2 Sam. ii, 4), and finally over the whole nation (2 Sam. v, 3). After the separation into two kingdoms, the kings both of Judah and of Israel seem still to have been anointed (2 Kings ix, 3 ; xi, 12). So late as the time of the captivity the king is called "the anointed of the Lord" (Psa. lxxxix, 38, 51 ; Lam. iv, 20). Besides Jewish kings, we read that Hazael was to be anointed king over Syria (1 Kings xix, 15). Cyrus also is called the Lord's anointed, as having been raised by God to the throne for the special purpose of delivering the Jews out of captivity (Isa. xlv, 1). (rf.) Inanimate objects also were anoint- ed with oil in token of their being set apart for re- ligious service. Thus Jacob anointed a pillar at ANOINT 240 ANOINT Bethel (Gen. xxxi, 13) ; and, at the introduction of the Mosaic economy, the tabernacle and all its furni- ture were consecrated by anointing (Exod. xxx, 26- 28). The expression "ano:nt the shield" (Isa. xxi, 5; Sept. tTOifiaaitTt Qvptouc.; Vulg. arripite clypeum) refers to the custom of rubbing oil into the hide which, stretched upon a frame, formed the shield, in order to make it supple and lit for use. (See the treatises in Latin, on the priestly anointing, by Clasing [Lemgon. 1717 ] ; Sehwarz [Viteb. 1755] ; Ziegra [Viteb. 1682]; Zoega [Lips. 1680] ; on the royal anointing, by Wey- mar [Jen. 1629] ; and among other nations, by Eschen- bach [Jen. 1687] ; Speckner [Viteb. 1716]). 2. As an Act of Hospitality. — The anointing of our Saviour's feet by "the woman who was a sinner" (Luke vii, 38) led to the remark that the host himself had neglected to anoint his head (ver. 46) ; whence Ave learn that this was a mark of attention which those who gave entertainments paid to their guests. As this is the only direct mention of the custom, the Jews are supposed by some to have borrowed it from the Romans at a late period, and Wetstein and others have brought a large quantity of Latin erudition to bear on the subject. (See the treatises, on this in- stance, in Latin, by Baier [Altdorf. 1722] ; Goetze [Lips. 1687 ; and in Menethii Thesaur. ii, 200-204] ; Jaeschke [Lips. 1700] ; Krackewitz [Rost. 1703] ; Polchow [Jen. 1755] ; Ries [Marb. 1727] ; Sonnucl [Lond. 1775, 1794] ; Trautermann [Jen. 1749].) But the careful reader of the O. T. knows that the custom was an old one, to which there are various indirect al- lusions. See Hospitality. The circumstances con- nected with feasts and entertainments are, indeed, rare- ly intimated ; nor would the present direct reference to this custom have transpired but for the remarks which the act of the woman in anointing the feet of Jesus call- ed forth. (See Waldo, De unctionibus Vett. Ebrceorum convivialibus, Jen. 1751.) Such passages, however, as Psa. xxiii, 5 ; Prov. xxi, 7 ; xxvii, 9 ; Wisd. ii, 7 ; as well as others in which the enjoyments of oil and wine are coupled together, may be regarded as containing a similar allusion. It is, therefore, safer to refer the origin of this custom among the Hebrews to their nearer and more ancient neighbors, the Egyptians, than to the Romans or the Greeks, who themselves had probably derived it from the same people. Among the Egyptians the antiquity of the custom is evinced by their monuments, which offer in this respect anal- ogies more exact than classical antiquity or modern usage can produce. With them "the custom of anoint- ing was not confined to the appointment of kings and priests to the sacred offices they held. It was the or- dinary token of welcome to guests in every party at the house of a friend ; and in Egypt, no less than in Judaea, the metaphorical expression ' anointed with the oil of gladness' was fully understood, and applied to the ordinary occurrences of life. It was customary for a servant to attend every guest as he seated hirn- Aucient Egyptian Servant purfuinii | self, and to anoint his head" (Wilkinson's Anc. Egyp- tians, iv, 279 ; ii, 213). See Spikenard. It is prob- able, however, that the Egyptians, as well as the Greeks and Jews, anointed themselves at home, be- fore going abroad, although they expected the observ- ance of this etiquette on the part of their entertainer. That the Jews thus anointed themselves, not only when paying a visit, but on ordinary occasions, is shown by many passages, especially those which de- scribe the omission of it as a sign of mourning (Deut. xxviii, 40 ; Ruth iii, 3 ; 2 Sam. xiv, 2 ; Dan. x, 3 ; Amos vi, G ; Mic. vi, 15 ; Esth. ii, 12 ; Psa. civ, 15 ; Isa. lxi, 3; Eccles. ix, 8; Cant, i, 3; iv, 10; also Ju- j dith x, 3 ; Sus. 17 ; Ecclus. xxxix, 26 ; Wisd. ii, 7). j One of these passages (Psa. civ, 15, "oil that maketh the face to shine") shows very clearly that not only the hair but the skin was anointed. In our northern climates this custom may not strike us as a pleasant one ; but as the peculiar usages of most nations are found, on strict examination, to be in accordance with the peculiarities of their climate and condition, we maj' be assured that this Oriental predilection for ex- ternal unction must have arisen from a belief that it contributed materially to health and cleanliness. Niebuhr states that " in Yemen the anointing of the body is believed to strengthen and protect it from the heat of the sun, by which the inhabitants of this prov- ince, as they wear but little clothing, are very liable to suffer. Oil, by closing up the pores of the skin, is supposed to prevent that too copious transpiration which enfeebles the frame ; perhaps, too, these Ara- bians think a glistening skin a beauty. When the in- tense heat comes on they always anoint their bodies with oil." See Oil. 3. Anointing the Sick. — The Orientals are indeed strongly persuaded of the sanative properties of oil ; and it was under this impression that the Jews anoint- ed the sick, and applied oil to wounds (Psa. cix, 18; Isa. i, 6; Luke x, 34; Rev. iii, 18). Anointing was used in sundry disorders, as well as to promote the general health of the body. It was hence, as a sal- utary and approved medicament, that the seventy J disciples were directed to "anoint the sick" (Mark ; vi, 13) ; and hence also the sick man is directed by I the apostle (James v, 14) to send for the elders of the Church, who were "to pray for him, anointing him with oil in the name of the Lord." The Tal- . mudical citations of Lightfoot on Matt, vi, 16, show j that the later Jews connected charms and supersti- l tious mutterings with such anointings, and he is there- I fore probably right in understanding this text to mean, "It is customary for the unbelieving Jews to i use anointing of the sick, joined with a magical and enchanting muttering ; but how infinitely better is it to join the pious prayers of the elders of the Church to the anointing of the sick." Niebuhr assures us that at Sana (and doubtless in other parts of Arabia) the Jews, as well as many of the Moslems, have their bodies anointed whenever they feel themselves indis- posed. Analogous to this is the anointing with oil practised by the twelve (Mark ix,. 13), and our Lord's anointing the eyes of a blind man with clay made from saliva, in restoring him miraculously to sight (JLir'cXP'Gi) John ix, 6, 11). See Medicine. 4. Anointing the Dead. — The practice of anointing the bodies of the dead is intimated in Mark xiv, 8, and Luke xxiii, 56. This ceremony was performed after the body was washed, and was designed to check the progress of corruption. Although, from the mode of application, it is called anointing, the substance employed appears to have been a solution of odor- iferous drugs. This (together with the laying of the bodj' in spices) was the only kind of embalmment in use among the Jews. See Burial ; Embalming. 5. Spiritual. — (1.) In the O. T. a Deliverer is prom- ised under the title of Messiah, or Anointed (Psa. ii, 2 ; Dan. ix, 25, 26) ; and the nature of his anointing ANOINT 241 ANOINT is described to be spiritual, with the Holy Ghost (Isa. I lxi, 1 ; see Luke iv, 18). As anointing with oil beto- kened prosperity, and produced a cheerful aspect (Psa. civ, 15), so this spiritual unction is figuratively de- : scribed as anointing "with the oil of gladness" (Psa. j xlv, 7 ; Heb. i, 9). In the N. T. Jesus of Nazareth is shown to be the Messiah or Christ, or Anointed of the 0. T. (John i, 41 ; Acts ix, 22 ; xvii, 2, 3 ; xviii, 5, 28) ; and the historical fact of his being anointed with the Holy Ghost is recorded and asserted (John i, 32, 33; j Acts iv, 27 j x, 38). (2.) Spiritual anointing with the Holy Ghost is conferred also upon Christians by God (2 Cor. i, 21), and they are described as having an unc- tion (xpiffj.ia) from the Holy One, by which they know all things (1 John ii, 20, 27). To anoint the eyes with eye-salve is used figuratively, to denote the process of obtaining spiritual perception (Rev. iii, 18). 6. Religious Significance of the Act. — It is somewhat remarkable that the first Biblical instance of anoint- I ing — that of Jacob's unction of his pillow at Bethel ; (Gen. xxviii, 18) — has reference to an inanimate ob- ject ; yet the sacred import of the ceremony is obvi- ous, and must have been derived from primeval cus- tom. At a later date, the formal agreement noticed by Sir G. Wilkinson, between the use of oil among the Egyptians and the Israelites in consecrating to an of- fice, may undoubtedly be regarded as evidence that the Mosaic prescription was framed with some regard Ancient Egyptian King anointing the Statue of the God Kham. to the observances in Egypt ; for by the time the for- mer was instituted, the Israelitish people had been long habituated to the customs of Egypt; and it was the part of wisdom, when setting up a better polity, to take advantage of what existed there, so far as it could be safely employed. The king so anointed was sol- emnly recognised as the guest and protege of the lord of the temple ; the statue was set apart for, and so far identified with the god it represented, and both were stamped as fit for their respective destinations. But in the true religion something more and higher was involved in the act of consecration. The article or subject was brought into contact with the holiness of Jehovah, and was made a vessel and instrument of the Spirit of God. Hence, anointing with oil in the times of the old covenant was always a symbol of the gift and grace of the Holy Spirit — in the case of inanimate objects imparting to them a ceremonial sacredness, so as to fit them for holy ministrations ; and in the case of persons, not only designating them to a sacred of- fice, but sealing to them the spiritual qualifications needed for its efficient discharge. — Kitto, s. v. ; Smith, s. v. ; Fairbairn, s. v. See Consecration. II. Modern. — 1. In the Romish Church the custom of anointing priests is still continued. The ordaining bishop anoints with the holy oil called chrism (q. v.) the palm of both hands, the thumb, and the forefinger of the person to be ordained ; and thus, according to Q the expression in the ritual of ordination, the hands receive power to bless, to consecrate, and to make holy. If a clergyman is excommunicated these spots are rub- bed off. This custom, like many others, is a perver- sion of the sacred ceremony by which the Jewish priests and kings were inducted into office. 2. The history of extreme unction (q. v.) in its pres- ent form can be traced back no further than the twelfth century. When the ceremony of anointing is men- tioned at an earlier period, the reference is to the offi- ces of baptism and confirmation. There is no mention of extreme unction in Justin Martyr, Irenaeus, Tertul- lian, or Cyprian, or in any of the writers of the first three centuries. In the fourth century Epiphanius makes no mention of it. It is not found in the " Apos- tolical Constitutions," a work in which all church forms are minutely described, nor in the biographies of the first six centuries. After the twelfth century it was universally adopted in the Western Church. 3. The only occasion on which anointing is used in the Church of England is at the coronation of the sovereigns, when the archbishop solemnly anoints the king or queen, after the ancient practice of the He- brews. ANOINTING OIL. The "oil of holy ointment" prescribed by divine authority (Exod. xxx, 23-25) for the consecration of the Jewish priests and kings was compounded of the following ingredients : Hebrew weight. English weight. Pure myrrh 500 shekels=18 11 13 13 2-3 Sweet cinnamon 250 " =9 5 10 18 1-24 Sweet calamus 250 " =9 5 16 IS 1-24 Cassia 500 " =18 1113 13 2-3 Olive oil, 1 hin=5 quarts . . . £5U " =13 4 0 0 1851* shekels=70 3 0 15J- The shekel is here estimated at 9 dwts. and 2 4-7 grains {Troy). Under the law persons and things set apart for sa- cred purposes were anointed with this " holy oint- ment" (Exod. xxix, 7), which appears to have been a typical representation of the communication of the Holy Ghost to the Church of Christ (Acts i, 5 ; x, 38). Hence the Holy Spirit is called an unction (q. v.), whereby believers were divinely inspired and guided into all" truth (2 Cor. i, 21; 1 John ii, 20, 27). The profane or common use of the holy ointment was ex- pressly forbidden, on pain of being excommunicated (Exod. xxx, 33; Ezek. xxiii, 31). It was command- ed to be kept by the Hebrews throughout their gener- ations ; it was therefore laid up in the most holy place. Prideaux observes that it was one of those things which was wanting in the second temple. There is an allusion to the ingredients of this sacred perfume in Eccles. xxiv, 15. The use of aromatics in the East may be dated from the remotest antiquity. " Oint- ment and perfume," says Solomon, "rejoice the heart" (Prov. xxvii, 9). They are still introduced, not only upon everj' religious and festive occasion, but as one essential expression of private hospitality and friend- ship. See Ointment. THE ANOINTED. The prophets, priests, and kings were anointed at their inauguration ; but no man was ever dignified by being anointed to hold the three of- fices in himself, so no person ever had the title of the Messiah, the Christ, the Anointed One, but Jesus the Saviour. He alone is king of kings and lord of lords : the king who governs the universe, and rules in the hearts of his followers ; the prophet, to instruct men in the way wherein they should go ; and the great high-priest, to make atonement and intercession for the whole world. Of him, Melchizedck, Abraham, Aaron, David, and others were illustrious types ; but none of these had the title of " The Anointed of God." This does, and ever will, belong exclusively to Jesus the Christ, who was consecrated in our nature by the anointing of the Holy Ghost (Psa. ii, 2 ; Isa. lxi, 1 ; Dan.ix,24; Matt, iii, 16, 17; Luke iv, 18-21 ; Acts iv, 27 ; x, 38). See Messiah. ANOMOEAXS 242 ANSELM Anomoeans (c'wofioioc, dissimilar), the name by which the stricter Arians, who denied the like?iess of the Word to the Father, were distinguished from the Semi-Arians, who merety denied his consiibstantiality. — Gieseler, Ch. Hist, i, 198. See Arians. A'nos ("Avwc), one of the " sons" of Maani (Bani), who divorced his Gentile wife (1 Esdr. ix, 34) ; appar- ently the Vaniah (q. v.) of the true text (Ezra, x, 36). Ansarians or Assassins, inhabitants of a dis- trict in Syria (called also Ensariaxs). Their religion is a compound of paganism and Mohammedanism, which they are said to have been taught by an old man who in 891 inhabited the village of Nasar, near Koufa, and passed for a saint and a prophet. Some of them wor- ship the sun, others the dog and other material objects. A special work on them has been published by the Rev. Samuel Lycle (see a valuable summary of this work in the AT. Amer. Review, Oct. 18G2). According to Lyde, ' ' they number about 200,000, for the most part rude and vicious. They are divided into Shemseeh (men of the sun, Northerners) and Kumrecl (men of the moon, Southerners) ; the former may be descendants of the Canaanites ; the latter, foreigners, brought their pres- ent religion into the land. The name Ansaireeh is probably derived from the founder of the sect, Nusari, dating from the ninth century. Their sacred name is Khaseebeeh, from the apostle of the sect. In many points they have affinities with the Assassins. They believe in the divine unity — in three personalities, the second and third being created. The first person, the su- preme deity, is Manna, or Meaning ; the second, Ism, or Name; the third, Bab, or Dove. Of the supreme deity there have been seven manifestations ; the last is Ali, Mohammed, and Salman il Farisee. Ali is the high- est manifestation of God, alone to be adored. There is also a system of hierarchies, bewildering in num- bers : 14,000 Near Ones, 15,000 Cherubim, 16,000 Spir- ituals, 17,000 Saints, 18,000 Hermits, 19,000 Listeners, 20,000 Followers— in all, 119,000— besides prophets, apostles, and heroes. The doctrine of metempsycho- sis is strictly held, and minutely delineated. Thev receive the Old and New Testaments, and the Koran, with many apocryphal work?." An account of them is given in Chesney's Expedition to the Euphrates and the Tigris. See also Walpole's Travels in the East, and Blachcood's Magazine, lxx, 719. See Assassins. Anschar, Ansgar, or Anschairius, St., the first archbishop of Hamburg, bishop of Bremen, and so-call- ed apostle of Sweden and Denmark. The most prob- able opinion is that he was born in Picardy about 801. In 821 he went from the abbey of Corbie, in Picar- dy, to that in Saxony. Having from his youth been desirous to labor in a missionary field, he was sent in 826 to Denmark, and thence to Sweden, where he preached the Gospel with wonderful success. After this he was made bishop of Hamburg, which see he governed until the destruction of the city by the Nor- mans in 845 ; four years after this, Louis, king of Ger- many, made him bishop of Bremen, where he died, Feb. 3, 865, regretting that he was not called to seal his profession by martyrdom. He wrote a life of St. Willehad (in Pertz, Monumenta German, ii, 683 sq.). For a glowing account of him, sec Neander, Light in Dark Places, p. 264 sq. ; comp. Neander, Ch. Hist, iii, 27:.', 28 i ; Gieseler, Cfi. Hist, ii, 29. See also Brit, and For. Eomig, Heal Rem w, July, 1865. The first biogra- phy of Anschar was written by his successor, Rimbert (published by Dahlmann, in" Pertz, Monnm. Germ.;\ translated into German by Misegais, Bremen, 1826). ] See also Kruso, St. Anschar (Altona, 1823); Krum- macher, St. Ansgar (Brera. 1828); Reuterdahl, An.-ga- rius (Berl. 1837); Klippel, Letensbeschreibung des Ere- bischofs Ansgar (Brem. 1845) ; Cave, Hist. Litt. i. 523; | Bohringc-r, Kircheng. in j:i<>gr. ii, 170. Ansegis. 1. A Benedictine monk, born of noble parents at Lyons, was, together with Eginhard, super- i intendent of the royal edifices ; became in 817 abbot at Luxen, and in 827 at Fontanelles. Charlemagne and Louis the Pious employed him for important em- bassies. He died in 833. " He is the author of that important collection of imperial laws known as Libri III Capitidarium, containing a number of decrees is- sued by Charlemagne and Louis the Pious. The Ger- man kings had to take an oath upon this book as con- taining the laws of the empire. The best edition of it is contained in Pertz, Monumenta Germanhe legum, vol. i. — Acta Sanctorum, saec. iv, 1 ; D'Achery, fpici- leg. t. iii. 2. Abbot of St. Michael's (probably at Beauvais) ; was sent in 870 by Charles the Bald as ambassador to Rome ; appointed in 871 archbishop of Sens, and used as a tool by the pope against the clergy. John VIII appointed him in 876 primate of the French Church and vicar-general of the apostolic see, but a synod of Pontion protested against this, and recognised him only as metropolite. He died in 883, and his successors had to abandon the distinction, which the pope had intended to connect forever with the see. — Gfrorer, Kirehengeschichte, vol. ii ; Gallia Christiana. Anselrn of Canterbury (commonly called St. Anselm) was born at Aosta, a town of the Alps, in Savoy, A.D. 1033. He was treated harshly by his fa- ther, and travelled early into France, and afterward into Normandy, where he took the monastic habit in 1060, at Bee, where Lanfranc, afterward aixhbishop of Canterbur}*, was prior. Three years after, when Lanfranc was promoted to the abbacy of Caen, Anselm succeeded him as prior of Bee, and became abbot in 1078. Anselm came to England while prior of Bee, and afterward in 1092 by the invitation of Hugh Lu- pus, earl of Chester, who requested his aid in sickness. Soon after his arrival William Rufus also required An- selm's assistance, and finally nominated him (though with great difficulty of acceptance on Anselm's part) to the see of Canterbuiy, which had lain vacant from Lanfranc's death in 1089. Anselm was consecrated j with great solemnity December 4, 1093. In the fol- ; lowing j'ear a stinted offer, as the king thought it, of £500 from the archbishop, in aid of the war which William was carrying on against his brother Rob- ert, was the first cause of the royal displeasure to- ward Anselm, followed by further discontent when An- j selm desired leave to go to Rome to receive the pall ; from Pope Urban II, whom the king refused to ac- knowledge as pope. Anselm proposed a visit to Rome j to consult the pope, but was refused permission. He j went a second time to court to ask for leave, and was again refused, but gave his blessing to the king, and embarked at Dover. The king seized upon the arch- bishopric, and made every act of Anselm's administra- tion void. The archbishop got safe to Rome, and was honorably received by the pope. He lived quietly, at Rome and other places, and finished his treatise Cur Deus Homo at a monastery in Champagne. He assist- ed the pope at the synod or council of Bari, where he prevented Urban from excommunicating the king of England for his various and frequent outrages upon religion. The king, however, finally bribed the court of Rome to desert Anselm, who retired to Lyons, where (with the interval of an attendance at a council at Rome in 1099) he continued to reside till he heard of William Rufus's death, with that of Pope Urban short- ly after. Henry I, immediately upon his accession, invited Anselm to return. The archbishop was re- ceived in England with extraordinary respect both by the king and people, but refusing to be reinvested by the king, and to do the same homage with his prede- cessors, he again fell under the displeasure of the court. In 1103, at the request of the king and barons, Anselm went to Rome to arrange an accommodation; | the kins at the same time, in distrust, dispatching an a'j-ent of his own, who arrived before the archbishop. The pope still continued inexorable, but wrote to the AXSELM 243 AXSELM king, promising compliance in other matters if the king would but waive the matter of investiture. An- selm in chagrin again took up his residence at Lyons, while a fresh embassy to Rome from the king was still more unsuccessful than the former. Anselm now re- moved to the court of Adela of Blois, the king's sister, who, during a visit which Henry I made to Norman- dy, contrived an interview between him and Anselm July 22, 1105, when the king restored to him the rev- enues of the archbishopric, but refused to allow him to return to England unless he would comply with the investiture. Anselm remained in France, retiring to the abbey of Bee. At length the pope, adopting a middle course, refused to give up the investitures, but was willing so far to dispense as to give leave to bish- ops and abbots to do homage to the king for their tem- poralities. This was in 1106. The king now invited Anselm to England ; but the messenger finding him sick, the king himself went over into Normandy, and made him a visit at Bee, where all their differences were adjusted. Anselm, being recovered, embarked for England, and, landing at Dover, was received with extraordinary marks of welcome. From this time lit- tle that is remarkable occurred in his life, except a dispute with Thomas, elected archbishop of York in 1108, who, wishing to disengage himself from depend- ency upon the see of Canterbury, refused to make the customary profession of canonical obedience. Before the termination of this dispute Anselm died at Canter- bury, April 21, 1109, in the seventy-sixth year of his age (Penny C'jch predict, s. v.). The intellect of Anselm was of the highest order ; Neander calls him the Augustine of the twelfth cen- tury. His speculations impressed their character not only upon the theology and philosophy of his own age, but also upon all subsequent ages to the present time. He is generally named as the "father of scholasticism." Though his faith was always sincere and undoubting, his profoundly inquisitive intellect made it necessary for him to philosophize upon the grounds of that faith. Opposing himself to Roscelin, his philosophy was a thorough-going Realism; and in applying his philoso- phy to theology, he sought to demonstrate the being and attributes of God In' the ontolorjical method, of which, in fact, he was substantial!}' the inventor (Pros- loghim, de Dei existentia ; Monologium, de Divinitatis essentia). Remusat (Vie (V Anselm, p. 473) ascribes a Pantheistic tendency to Anselm's uncompromising Realism. Does not the following passage in the Proslogium appear to involve the Pantheistic theory ? Speaking of the divine nature, " It is," he saj's, "the essence of the being, the principle of the existence of all things. . . . Without parts, without differences, without accidents, without changes, it might be said, in a certain sense, to alone exist, for in respect to it the other things which appear to be have no existence. The unchangeable Spirit is all that is, and it is this without limit, simpliciter, inter minahiliter. It is the perfect and absolute existence. The rest is come from nonentity, and thither returns, if not supported by God : it does not exist by itself. In this sense the Creator alone exists; the things created do not" (p. 473, 474). It is plain that these dependent and mere- ly relative existences must be conceived as an emana- tion from the supreme and substantial essence — must, like the qualities of bodies, be in fact identical with the supposed substrata. In bis treatises on free-will and predestination he followed the Augustinian doctrine, and sought acutely, but vainly, to reconcile it with hu- man freedom. He was the first also to treat the doc- trine of redemption [see Satisfaction] in a scientific way. and to seek a rational demonstration of it (in his treatise, Cur Dens Homo). He propounds the question, Why is it necessary that God should have humbled himself so far as to become man and suffer death ? His process of reasoning, in reply to this question, is as follows. Man has by sin deprived God of the glory which properly belongs to him, and must therefore give satisfaction for it, i. e. he must restore to God the glory which is his ; for the divine justice would not al- low of forgiveness out of pure compassion, apart from such reparation. This reparation must be commen- surate with the enormity of the sin ; yet it is not in the power of man to give such, because, apart from this, he is God's debtor. Such a satisfaction cannot be given unless some one is aide to offer to God some- thing of his own of more value than all which is not God, for the whole world should not have tempted man to sin (Matt, xvi, 26, " For what is a man profited, if he shall cjuin the whole world, and lose his own soul ?)'' Since, however, he has sinned, he must offer to God more than the whole world, i. e. more than all outside of God. Consequently none can have this to give but God himself. But since it is man who owes it, it must also be given by a God-man, i. e. by a person possessing the two natures, divine and human. This could be no other than the second person of the Trini- ty, the Son ; for otherwise there would be two Sons in the Trinitj' ; and, had the Father become man, two grandsons (namely, the Father, grandson of himself by human descent, and the Son, grandson of the Virgin, as son of the Virgin's son). It was fitting that the man with whom God united himself should be born of a woman without the co-operation of man, and even from a virgin ; for as sin and the ground of condemna- tion were brought about by that sex, it is just that the remedy should also have come from it alone. Thus Christ was then born without original sin; he could sin if he willed it, but he could not will it ; consequent- ly he died without owing death and of his own free will. His death, therefore, outweighed the number and magnitude of all sins. He gave unto God, for the sins of mankind, his own life unsullied by any sin of his own, thus giving what he did not owe, when con- sidered as both God and man. But in consequence of his offering voluntarily so great a sacrifice, and inas- much as to him no equivalent for it could be given, it was necessary, in order that the sacrifice should not be vain, that others at least should be benefited there- by in some way, namely, humanity in the forgiveness of sin. Anselm affirms the doctrine of a satisfactio vicaria activa (an active vicarious satisfaction), but not of a satis/ actio passim (passive satisfaction) ; for he nowhere says that Christ endured the actual pun- ishment of men's sins (Neander, Dogmengeschichte, ii, 516). Dr. Shedd (Hist, of Doctrines, ii. 282) questions this statement of Neander's, but on what appear to be insufficient grounds. The fundamental principles of Anselm's doctrine of satisfaction are found in the writings of many fathers before Anselm, e. g. Athanasius, Gregorius of Nazian- zen, Chrysostom, and Cyril of Alexandria ; but An- selm is the first who collected and arranged them into a systematic whole. Dr. Shedd has treated the rela- tion of Anselm to theology ( Hist, of Doctrines, bks. iv and v) more skillfully than any other modern writer in short compass. In concluding his analysis of the Cur Deus Homo, he remarks that it " exhibits a depth, breadth, and vigor of thinking not surpassed by any production of the same extent in theological liter- ature. Such a view of the atonement as is here ex- hibited is thoroughly' Biblical, and thoroughly Prot- estant. There may be incidental views and positions in this tract with which the modern theologian would not wholly agree ; but certainly, so far as the general theory of vicarious satisfaction is concerned, this little treatise contains the substance of the reformed doc- trine; while, at the same time, it enunciates those philosophical principles which must enter into the scientific construction of this cardinal truth of Chris- tianity. On both the theoretic and the practical side, it is one of the Christian classics" (vol. ii, p. 283). As to the claim of absolute originality for Anselm's system, "it may be admitted that Anselm first used ANSELM 244 ANSWER the term satisfaction to express the method in which a his family (Badagio), was horn at Milan, 1036. He solutio could be effected of a debitum which had been succeeded, in 1061, his uncle, Pope Alexander II, as incurred by sin; but the same fundamental idea is : bishop of Lucca, which see he resigned in order to be- found in the sacrificial theory, to which so frequent ■ come a monk at Clugny. He returned to his see at reference is made by many earlier writers. Sacrifices ; the express order of Pope Gregory VI, who employed were appointed in the mosaic economy by which vio- { him for important embassies, and made him a cardinal. lated laws might be appeased, and the offerer preservi his forfeited life by something other than obedience. 8 disfaction expresses a wider group of considerations, of which sacrifice is a particular illustration. We may grant to Anselm the dignity of having set forth, He tried to prevail on the canons of his cathedral church to submit to the common life, but met with so decided a resistance that he had to leave again his see. Leo IX sent him as his legate to Lombardy, where he died at Mantua, March 18, 1086. He wrote an apolo- more forcible light than earlier writers, the nature gy of Gregory VII, a refutation of the claims of the and responsibilities of sin, and the need of reconeilia- , anti-pope Guibert, and a treatise against the right of tion with God. We may allow that his sense of the , the secular princes to dispose of the property of the justice of God appears to have been more profound j church. The two former may be found in Canisius, and comprehensive than those of earlier fathers; and Antiques Lectiones, and in the Blbl. Patrum. The life the basis was doubtless laid for the quantitative and \ of Anselm was written by the Jesuit Rota (Notiz di mercantile aspects of the subject which characterized the speculations of later divines" (Brit. Quarterly, April, 1865, p. 355). As to Anselm's deficiencies, Dr. Thomson (Bishop of Gloucester) remarks that "the San Anselnio, Verona, 1773, 8vo). — Landon, s. v. Anselm, son of the Margrave Otto the Rich, of Ascania, became bishop of Havelberg in 1126, and arch- bishop of Ravenna in 1154 ; was Apocrisiarius of Em- passages of Scripture that speak of the wrath of God i peror Lothaire II, and was sent as an ambassador to against man are not explicable by Anselm's system, the emperor of Constantinople for the purpose of ef- The explanation of the Baptist, that Jesus is the Lamb i fecting a union between the Roman and Greek Church- of God, that taketh away the sin of the world; the | es. He died in 1158. He wrote Three Books of Dia- propheey of His sufferings by Isaiah (ch. liii) ; the | hgues with Nicetas, archbishop of Nicomedia, about words of Peter, that He " his own self bare our sins \ tlie points in dispute between the Greek and Roman in his own body on the tree;" and passages of like ; Churches, given by D'Achery in the Spieilegium, i, import in St. Paul's writings, can only find place with 1G1 (new ed.). — Dupin, Hist. Eccl. Writers, ii, 365; Anselm by a very forced interpretation. His scheme | Cave, Hist. Lit. anno 1149 ; Landon, Eccl. Diet. s. v. i~ mainly this, that the merit of the perfect obedience | Anselm, dean of the cathedral church of Laon, of Jesus was so great as to deserve a great reward, flourished at the end of the 11th century. He died and that, in answer to the prayer of the Lord, this re- | jujv 15 1117- ue illustrated the entire Old and New ward riven in the form of the salvation of His Testaments with an Interlineary Glossary, compiled brethren. But Christ does not appear in this system ; from the fathcrs, which has been several times printed, groaning and suffering under the curse of the world as He does in Holy Scripture. Until the time of An- selm the doctrine of the Atonement had, within cer- tain limits, fluctuated with the change of teachers; the doctrine itself was one and the same, but this or that aspect of it had been made prominent. Anselm aimed at fixing in one system the scattered truths ; and the result has been that he, like his predecessors, made some parts of the truth conspicuous to the preju- dice of the rest" (Aids to Faith, Essay viii). Anselm is commemorated as a saint in the Church of Rome on the 21st of April. His life, by Eadmer, his friend and companion, is given in the edition of his works named below. The best edition of his works with the additions of Lyra and others, especially at Ant- werp, in 1634; also, the Commentary on St. Matthew, and Explanations of various Passages in the Gospels, Epistles of St. Paul, Apocalypse, etc., which are printed under the name of Anselm of Canterbury, are attrib- uted by many writers to this author. But Dupin as- serts that they are from the pen of Herveus, a monk of Bourg, near Dol. — Cave, Hist. Lit. anno 1103 ; Du- pin, Hist. Eccl. Writers, ii, 364; Landon, s. v. Ansgar. See Anschar. Answer (usually \TllV, anah', airoKplvopai) has other significations in Scripture besides the common one in the sense of reply. 1. Moses having composed is that entitled Opera omnia necnon Eadmeri monachi ' a thanksgiving after the passage of the Red Sea, Miri- Cantuariensis Historia (V'enet. 1744, 2 vols. fol.). A ( am, it is said, "answered;" meaning that Moses with .selection of the most important theological and philo- the men on one side, and Miriam with the women on sophical works of Anselm has been published by C. the other side, sung the same song, as it were, in two Haas (8. Anselmi opuscida pkilosophico-theoloyica selecta, choruses or divisions, of which one " answered" the vol. i, containing the Monologium and Prosloffium, Tu- other (Exod. xv, 21). So also 1 Sam. xxix, 5, where bingen, 1862). Special editions of the book Cur Deus they sung in distinct choruses ; comp. Num. xxi, 17. Homo were published at Berlin, 1857, and at London, 2. This word is likewise taken for to accuse, or to de- 1863. Anselm has been much studied of late years: a fend judicially (Gen. xxx, 33; Deut. xxxi, 21; Hos. beautiful monograph by C. Remusat (Saint Ansel me de j v, 5). 3. To "answer" is likewise taken in a bad Canterbury, 8vo, Paris, 1852) ; a study by Bohringerl sense, as when it is said that a son answers his father ( Die Kirch0. Chrisli und ihre Zevgen, ii, 224); and a co- insolently, or a servant his master (John xviii, 22; pious treatise by Hasse (1. Das Leben Anselm's ; 2. Die] Rom. ix, 20; 2 Cor. i,9). 4. To uanswer'' is also used Lehn A nselm's, 2 vols. Leipzig,1843-1852 ; an abridged i in Scripture for the commencement of a discourse, when translation by Turner, Loud. 1860, 12mo) give ample ! no reply to any question or objection is intended. facilities for the study of his history and writings. This mode of speaking is often used by the Evangel Translations of the Prosloffium and of the Cur Deus Homo arc given in the Bibliotheca Sacra, vols, viii, xi, and xii. !Scc also Gieseler, Ch. Hist, ill, 175; Dog- mengeschichte, p. 510; Neander, Ch. Hist, iv, 237, and Hist, of Dogmas, ii, 516, et al ; Hagenbach, Hist, of Doctrines (Smith's ed.), § 180; Bushnell, Vicarious Sacrifice (N. Y. 1866); Meth. Quar. Review. Oct. 1853, ists: "And Jesus answered &nd said." It is a Hebrew idiom (Job iii, 2 ; Cant, ii, 10 ; Zech. iii, 4 ; iv, 11, 12 ; Matt, xi, 25; xii, 38; xvii, 4; Mark ix, 5; Luke vii, 40). Soe Affirmative. Answer of a good conscience (avvaSriffEiae aya- JHjC iirepdtrnua), a phrase occurring 1 Pet. iii, 21, very variously interpreted, but apparently signifying sim- art. vi ; Haureau, Philos. Scholast. i, ch. viii; Mohler, ply the ability to address God in prayer (as if a re- . 1 // ji Im's Leb< n u. Schriften (Tub. Quartalschrift, 1827, sponse to His searching of the heart) with a conscience 1828); Franck, Anselm von Canterbury (Tubing. 1842, free from a sense of guilt, or the seeking after Him 8vo) ; Shedd, Hist. ofDoctrim s, 1. c. See Atonement, with a pure conscience (see Alford, in loc). See Con- Anselm, St., called Baduarius after the name of i science. ANT 245 ANT Ant (n?^?, nemahk', either from an Arab, root, signifying creeping, or rather from ?E3, to cut off [cir- cumcise], from its destructive habits, or, still better, from its insect form ; Sept. nup/iitf, Vulg. formica) oc- curs Prow vi, 6 ; xxx, 25. In both passages its prov- ident habits are referred to, especially its providing its food in the summer. This has generally been sup- posed to imply that these insects hoard up grains of corn, chiefly wheat, for their supply during winter, having first bitten out the germ to prevent it from j growing in their nests. Boehart has collected an im- mense array of the most eminent authors and natural- ists of antiquity (Jewish, Greek, Roman, and Arabian), who all gravely propound this assertion (Hieroz. iii, 478 sq. ; comp. Aristot. Anim. ix, 26 ; Pliny, Hist, Nut. xi, 36 ; Horace, Sat. i, 1, 38). But it is now ascertained beyond a doubt that no European ants, hitherto prop- ' erly examined, feed on corn or any other kind of grain. (See Kirby and Spence's Entomology, p. 313, 7th ed. ! London, 1856, where the question is fully discussed.) Bonnet found that, however long they had been kept without food, they would not touch corn. Nor do they attack the roots or stems of corn, nor any other vegetable matter. Nor has any species of ant been yet found with food of any kind laid up in its nest. The truth is, that ants are chiefly carnivorous, preying indiscriminately on all the soft parts of other insects, and especially the viscera ; also upon worms, whether dead or alive, and small birds or animals. If unable to drag their booty to the nest, they make an abun- dant meal upon it, and, like the bee, disgorge it, upon their return home, for the use of their companions ; and they appear able to retain at pleasure the nutri- tious juices unchanged for a considerable time. Ants are also extremely fond of saccharine matter, which thej' obtain from the exudation of trees, or from ripe fruits, etc. ; but their favorite food is the saccharine exudation from the body of the aphides, or plant-lice. Every one must have observed these insects on the rose-tree, etc. Each different species of vegetable has its peculiar species of aphis (Reaumur, vi, 566). The aphides insert their tube or sucker between the fibres of vegetables, where they find a most substan- tial nutriment. This nutriment they retain a consid- erable time, if no ant approaches them. The ant has the talent of procuring it from the aphides at pleasure. It approaches the aphis, strikes it gently and repeat- edly with its antenna;, when it instantly discharges the juice by two tubes easily discerned to be st aiding out from its body. These creatures are the milch kine of the ants. By a remarkable coincidence, which M. Huber justly considers too much to be ascribed to chance, the aphides and the ants become torpid at the same degree of cold (27 deg. Fahr.), and revive to- gether at the same degree of warmth (Huber, Natural History of Ants, p. 210, etc.). In the Introduction to Entomology, by Kirby and Spence, some diffidence is expressed (ii, 46) respecting the inference that no exotic ants have magazines of provisions, till their habits shall have been "more ac- curately explored." Still, are we not in possession of sufficient data to form a strong presumption in regard to the ants of Palestine, to which Solomon of course alludes in his writings ? The ants of the Holy Laud certainly have to encounter a degree of cold quite as severe as ever occurs in England (Kitto, Physical Hist, of Palestine, p. 210, 216). Is it not highly probable that the ants at such times become torpid, and need no magazine of provisions? And since we learn from the same authority (p. 31) that there are intervals, even in the depth of winter, when the sun shines, and there is no wind, when it is perfectly warm, sometimes almost hot, in the open air, may not the ants of Pales- tine and their food revive together at such times, as is the case in other countries, where ants may often be seen pursuing their avocations over the snow ? With regard to Solomon's words respecting the ant, Kirby and Spence are of opinion ' ' that, if they are properly considered, it will be found that the interpretation which seems to favor the ancient error respecting ants has been fathered upon them rather than fairly de- duced from them. He does not affirm that the ant, which he proposes to the sluggard as an example, laid up in her magazines stores of grain against winter, but that, with considerable prudence and foresight, she makes use of proper seasons to collect a supply of pro- visions sufficient for her purposes. There is not a word in them implying that she stores up grain or other provisions. She prepares her bread and gathers her food (namely, such food as is suited to her) in sum- mer and harvest (that is, when it is most plentiful), and thus shows her wisdom and prudence by using the advantages offered to her." It is true that Col. Sykes speaks (Transactions of Entomol. Soc. ii, 103) of a species of Indian ant which he calls Atta providens, so called from the fact ve* of his having found a large store of grass-seeds in its nest ; but the ' amount of that gentleman's obser- vations merely go to show that ! this ant carries seeds underground, and brings them again to the sur- face after they have got wet dur- ing the monsoons, apparently to dry. "There is not," writes Mr. F. Smith (Catalogue \ of the Formicidw in the British Museum, 1858, p. 180), I "any evidence of the seeds having been stored for I food ;" he observes that the processionary ant of Bra- zil ((Ecodoma cephalotes) carries immense quantities of portions of leaves into its underground nests, and that it was supposed that these leaves were for food; but that Mr. Bates satisfied himself that the leaves were for the purpose of lining the channels of the nest, and not for food. There is no evidence that any portion ; of plants ever forms an article of their diet. The fact is, that ants seem to delight in running away ! with almost any thing they find — small portions of ! sticks, leaves, little stones — as any one can testify who j has cared to watch the habits of this insect. This will explain the erroneous opinion which the ancients held with respect to that part of the economy of the ant j now under consideration ; nor is it, perhaps, necessary j to conclude that the error originated in observers mis- I taking the cocoons for grains of corn, to which they ■ bear much resemblance. It is scarcely credible that | Aristotle, Virgil, Horace, etc., who all speak of this insect storing up grains of corn, should have been so far misled, or have been such bad observers, as to have taken the cocoons for grains. Ants do carry off ' grains of corn, just as they cam' off other things, not, however, as was stated, for food, but for their nests. ! "They are great robbers," says Dr. Thomson (The Land and the Book, p. 337), "and plunder by night as | well as by day ; and the farmer must keep a sharp eye to his floor, or they will abstract a large quantity of ' grain in a single night." See Cistern. It is right to state that a well-known entomologist, ! the Rev. F. W. Hope, in a paper " On some Doubts re- specting the (Economy of Ants" (Trans. Entom. Soc. j ii, 211), is of opinion that Col. Sykes's observations do tend to show that there are species of exotic ants which store up food for winter consumption ; but it must be remembered that Mr. Bates's investigations ' are subsequent to the publication of that paper. (See Encycl. Brit. 8th ed. s.v.) The particular species of ant referred to by Solo- mon has not been identified ; and, in fact, ants have only latterly become the subjects of accurate observa- tion. The investigations of Latreille (Histoire Na- turelle des Fourmis, Par. 1802), Gould, Geer, Huber, and Kirby and Spence, have dissipated many errone- ous notions respecting them, and revealed much in- ANT 246 ANTEDILUVIANS teresting information concerning their domestic poli- ty, language, migrations, affections, passions, virtues, wars, diversions, etc. (see Penny Cyclopcedia, s. v.). The following facts are selected as relevant to scrip- tural illustration. Ants dwell together in societies ; and although they have " no guide, overseer, or ruler," yet they have all one soul, and are animated bv one object — their own welfare, and the welfare of each other. Each individual strenuously pursues his own peculiar duties, and regards (except in the case of females), and is regarded by, every other member of the republic with equal respect and affection. They devote the utmost attention to thsir young. The egg is cleaned and licked, and gradually expands under this treatment till the worm is hatched, which is then tended and fed with the most affectionate care. They continue their assiduity to the pupa, or chrysalis, which is the third transformation. They heap up the pupae, which greatly resemble so many grains of wheat, or rather rice, by hundreds in their spacious lodges, watch them in an attitude of defence, carry them out to enjoy the radiance of the sun, and remove them to different situations in the nest, according to the re- quired degree of temperature ; open the pupa, and, at the precise moment of the transformation, disinthrall the new-born insect of its habiliments. — Kitto, s. v. To some readers it may seem strange that ants should be considered four- winged insects, whereas they may have never seen a winged individual among the thousands of ants they may have looked upon. The fact is, this tribe presents the curious anomaly (paralleled also in the Termites, or white ants, of an- other order) of three forms of individuals — we might almost saj-, three sexes. The males and females are furnished with four win^s on their leaving the chrys- alis state, but soon drop them spontaneously. These Brown Ant (.Formica Erunnea). 1, Worker or neuter; 2, its natural size; 3, Cocoon ; 4, Male ; 6, Female ; 5, 7, Natural sizes of 4 and 6. are comparatively few in number ; but there is an- other race, which are the workers, and which consti- tute the main body of the teeming population, which never have any wings at all. These are sexless, but are considered as imperfectly developed females. The Arabians held the wisdom of the ant in such estimation, that they used to place one of these insects in the hands of a newly-born infant, repeating these words: 'May the boy "turn out clever and skilful." Hence, in Arabic, with the noun nemlek, "an ant," is connected the adjective nemV, "quick." "clever" (Bochart, Hieroz. Ill, -191). The Talmudists, too, at- tributed great wisdom to this insect. It was, say they, from beholding the wonderful ways of the ant that the following expression originated: "Thy jus- tice, 0 God, reaches to the heavens" (Chulin, 63). It may not be out of place to adduce the parallel economy of a tribe of insects, which, though they be- long to another zoological order, so greatly resemble ants in their most remarkable peculiarities as to be popularly associated with them. "We refer to the white ants (Termites), so abundant in all tropical countries. These, too, form populous societies, living in common- wealth, in elaborate structures, which are constructed by the united labors of the whole. "We have not any detailed accounts of the Oriental species ; but in the minute and careful description, by Snieathman, of the African kinds, he speaks of their magazines of stored A .'■••'X Hills of Termites, or White Ants of Africa. food. These are " chambers of clay, always well filled with provisions, which, to the naked eye, seem to con- sist of the raspings of wood, and plants which the ter- mites destroy, but are found b}- the microscope to be principally the gums and inspissated juices of plants. These are thrown together in little masses, some of which are finer than others, and resemble the sugar about preserved fruits ; others are like tears of gum, one quite transparent, another like amber, a third brown, and a fourth quite opaque, as Ave see often in parcels of ordinary gums." — Fairbairn, s. v. It may be observed that the word chanamaV (b~3n), translated "frost" in our version of Psa. lxxviii, 47, is thought by many to refer to some spe- cies of ant or kindred insect destructive of trees. Antaradus (Arranacoc, Ptol. v, 15, § 16; Hiero- cles, p. 716), a city of Phoenicia, situated on the main- land opposite the island of Aradus (whence its name), which latter is alone referred to in Scripture (Gen. x, 18 ; 1 Chron. i, 16). See Arvad. According to the A ntonine Itinerary and the Peutinger Tables, it was 24 Roman miles from Balanea and 50 from Tripolis (Re- land, Palcest. p. 216, 318). It was rebuilt, A.D. 346, by the Emperor Constantius, who named it Cunsfantia after himself (Cedren. Hist. p. 246), but it appears under its old name likewise in the subsequent Church councils. During the Crusades it was a populous and well fortified town (William of Tyre, vii, 15), and was known as Tortosa (Tasso, Genual, lib. i, 6 ; Wilken, Kreuzz. i, 253; ii, 200; vii, 340, 713). It is now a mean village of 241 taxable Moslems and 44 Greeks ( Bibliotk. Sacra, 1848, p. 247). The walls, of heavy bevelled stones, are still remaining (Mignot, Mem, sitr les Phen. in the A cad. des Belles Lettres, xxxiv, 239; Edrisi, p. 129, 130, ed. Jaubert). Antediluvians, people who lived before the Del- uge (q. v.), which occurred A.M. 1657. See Age. All our authentic information respecting this long and in- teresting period is contained in forty-nine verses of Genesis (iv, 16-vi, 8), more than half of which are oc- cupied with a list of names and ages, invaluable for chronology, but conveying no particulars regarding the primeval state of man. The information thus af- forded, although so limited in extent, is, however, em- inently suggestive (see Clarkson, Antediluvian Re- searches, Lond. 1836; Boucher d. Perthes, Li Homme Antidiluvien, Par. 1860; Stein, De moribus ante dilu- vium, Wittenb. 1783; Purton, World before the flood, Lond. 1844 ; Redslob, De Antediluvianis, Hamb. 1*47 ; Willesch, Dephi/osophia antedilurianorum, Leipz. 1717 ; Jour, Sac. Lit. July, 1862, p. 376 sq.). Some addi- tional information, though less direct, may be safely deduced from the history of Noah and the first men after the Delude; for it is very evident that society did not begin afresh after that event, but that, through ANTEDILUVIANS 247 ANTEDILUVIANS Noah and his sons, the new families of men were in a condition to inherit, and did inherit, such sciences and arts as existed before the Flood. This enables us to understand how settled and civilized communities were established, and large and magnificent works un- dertaken within a few centuries after the Deluge. The scriptural notices show [see Adam] that the fa- ther of men was something more than " the noble sav- age," or rather the grown-up infant, which some have represented him. He was an instructed man ; and the immediate descendants' of a man so instructed could not be an ignorant or uncultivated people. It is not necessary, indeed, to suppose that they possessed at first more cultivation than they required ; and for a good while they did not stand in need of that which results from or is connected with the settlement of men in organized communities. They probably had this before the Deluge, and at first were possessed of whatever knowledge or civilization their agricultural and pastoral pursuits required. Such were their pur- suits from the first ; for it is remarkable that of the strictly savage or hunting condition of life there is not the slightest trace before the Deluge. After that event, Nimrod, although a hunter (Gen. x, 9), was not a savage, and did not belong to hunting tribes of men. In fact, barbarism is not discoverable before the confusion of tongues, and was, in all likelihood, a degeneracy from a state of cultivation, eventually pro- duced in particular communities by that great social convulsion. At least, that a degree of cultivation was the primitive condition of man, from which sav- age life in particular quarters was a degeneracy, and that he has not, as too generall}* has been supposed, worked himself up from an original savage state to his present position, has been powerfully argued by Dr. Philip Lindsley (Am. Bib. liepos. iv, 277-298; vi, 1- 27), and is strongly corroborated by the conclusions of modern ethnographical research ; from which we learn that, while it is easy for men to degenerate into savages, no example has been found of savages rising into civilization but by an impulse from without ad- ministered by a more civilized people ; and that, even with such impulse, the vis inertice of established habits is with difficulty overcome. The aboriginal traditions of all civilized nations describe them as receiving their civilization from without — generally through the in- strumentality of foreign colonists : and history affords no example of a case parallel to that which must have occurred if the primitive races of men, being original- ly savage, had civilized themselves. All that was peculiar in the circumstances of the antediluvian period was eminently favorable to civ- ilization. The longevity of the earlier seventeen or twenty centuries of human existence is a theme con- taining many problems. It may be here referred to for the purpose of indicating the advantages which must necessarily have therefrom accrued to the me- chanical arts. In pottery, mining, metallurgy, cloth- making, the applications of heat and mixtures, etc., it is universally known that there is a tact of manipu- lation which no instruction can teach, which the pos- sessor cannot even describe, yet which renders him powerful and unfailing, within his narrow range, to a degree almost incredible; and when he has reached his limit of life he is confident that, had he another sixty or seventy years to draw upon, he could carry his art to a perfection hitherto unknown. Something like this must have been acquired by the antedilu- vians ; and the paucity of objects within their grasp would increase the precision and success within the range. See Longevity. By reason of their length of life the antediluvians had also more encouragement in protracted undertak- ings, and stronger inducements to the erection of su- perior, more costly, more durable, and more capacious edifices and monuments, public and private, than exist at present. They might reasonably calculate on reap- ing the benefit of their labor and expenditure. The earth itself was probably more equally fertile, and its climate more uniformly healthful and more auspicious to longevity, and consequently to every kind of men- tal and corporeal exertion and enterprise, than has been the case since the great convulsion which took place at the Deluge. But probably the greatest advantage enjoyed by the antediluvians, and which must have been in the high- est degree favorable to their advancement in the arts of life, was the uniformity of language. Nothing could have tended more powerful!}' to maintain, equal- ize, and promote whatever advantages were enjoyed, and to prevent any portion of the human race from degenerating into savage life. See Confusion of Tongues. The opinion that the old world was acquainted with astronomy (q. v.) is chiefly founded on the ages of Seth and his descendants being particularly set down (Gen. v, G sq), and the precise year, month, and day being stated in which Noah and his family, etc., entered the ark, and made their egress from it (Gen. vii, 11; viii, 13). The distinctions of day and night, and the lunar month, were of course observed; and the thirteenth rotation of the moon, compared with the sun's return to his primary position in the heavens, and the effects produced on the earth by his return, would point out the year. See Month. The variation between the rotations of the moon and sun easily became discover- able from the difference which in a very few years would be exhibited in. the seasons; and hence it may be supposed that, although the calculations of time might be by lunar months or revolutions, yet the re- turn of vegetation would dictate the solar year. See Year. The longevity of the antediluvian patriarchs, and the simplicity of their employments, favor this conjecture, which receives additional strength from the fact that the Hebrew for year, itilfcj, implies an itera- tion, a return to the same point, a repetition (Gesenius, Thes. Heb. p. 1448) ; and it is also remarkable that the Indians, Chinese, Babylonians, Egyptians, Greeks, and other nations, all deduce their origin from person- ages said to be versed in astronomy. See Time. — The knowledge of zoology (q. v.) which Adam possessed was doubtless imparted to his children ; and we find that Noah was so minutely informed on the subject as to distinguish between clean and unclean beasts, and that his instructions extended to birds of every kind (Gen. vii, 2^1). — A knowledge of some essential principles in botany (q. v.) is shown by the fact that Adam knew how to distinguish " seed-bearing herb" and " tree in which is a seed-bearing fruit," with "every green herb" (Gen. i, 29, 30). The trees of life and of knowledge are the only ones mentioned before the Fall; but in the history of Noah the vine, the olive, and the wood of which the ark was made (Gen. vi, 14 ; viii, 11 ; ix, 20) are spo- ken of in such a manner as clearly to intimate a knowledge of their qualities. — With mineralogy (q. v.) the antediluvians were at least so far acquainted as to distinguish metals ; and in the description of the gar- den of Eden gold and precious stones are noticed (Gen. ii, 12). That the antediluvians were acquainted with music (q. v.) is certain ; for it is expressly said that Jubal (while Adam was still alive) became "the father of those who handle the TiS3, kinnor, and the 331", ugab" (Gen. iv, 21). The former [see Harp] -was evidently a stringed instrument resembling a lyre ; and the lat- ter [see Lyre] was without doubt the Pandaean pipe, composed of reeds of different lengths joined together. This clearly intimates considerable progress in the sci- ence ; for it is not probable that the art of playing on wind and on stringed instruments was discovered at the same time. We may rather suppose that the prin- ciples of harmony, having been discovered in the one, were by analogy transferred to the other; and that ANTEDILUVIANS 248 ANTELOPE Jubal, by repeated efforts, became the first performer on the harp and the pipe. See Art. Our materials are too scanty to allow us to affirm that the antediluvians possessed the means of commu- nicating their ideas by writing (q. v.) or by hiero- glyphics, although tradition, and a hint or two in the Scriptures, might support the assertion. With re- spect to poetry (q. v.), the story of Lamech and his wives (Gen. iv, 19-24) is evidently in verse, and is most probably the oldest specimen of Hebrew poetry extant ; but whether it was written before or after the Flood is uncertain, although the probability is that it is one of those previously-existing documents which Moses transcribed into his writing. With regard to architecture (q. v.), it is a singular and important fact that Cain, when he was driven from his first abode, built a city in the land to which he went, and called it Enoch, after his son. This shows that the descendants of Adam lived in houses and towns from the first, and consequently affords another confirmation of the argument for the original cultivation of the human family. What this " city" was is not mentioned, except in the term itself; and as that term is in the early Scriptures applied to al- most every collection of human habitations, we need not attach any very exalted ideas to it in this in- stance. But if we take into view the requisites nec- essary to enable Noah to erect so stupendous a fabric as the ark (q. v.) must have been, it will not be diffi- cult to conceive that the art of building had reached considerable advancement before the Deluge ; nor can one reflect on the building of Babel without a convic- tion that it must have been through the great patri- archs who lived in the old world that so much knowl- edge was obtained as to lead to the attempt of erect- ing a fabric whose summit was intended to reach the clouds. It is not likely that the builders would, by their own intuitive genius, be equal to a task which they certainly were not inspired by Heaven to exe- cute. The metallurgy (q. v.) of the antediluvians appears to have originated with the line of Cain (Gen. iv, 22), being carried to a high degree of perfection, so far as forging and tempering are concerned, by Tubal-Cain (q. v.). — Respecting agriculture (q. v.), which was ev- idently the first employment of Adam (Gen. ii, 15; iii, 17, 18), and, afterward, at first of Cain (Gen. iv, 2), we shall only add a reference to the case of Noah, who, immediately after the Flood, became a husband- man, and planted a vineyard. He also knew the method of fermenting the juice of the grape ; for it is said he drank of the wine, which produced inebriation (Gen. ix, 20, 21). This knowledge he doubtless ob- tained from his progenitors anterior to the destruction of the old world. Pasturage (q. v.) appears to have been coeval with husbandry. Abel was a keeper of sheep, while his brother was a tiller of the ground (Gen. iv, 2) ; but there is no necessity for supposing that Cain's hus- bandry excluded the care of cattle. The class of tent- dwelling pastors — that is, of those who live in tents that t!iTi\t-ytiv means to speak against. The word doubtless includes both meanings — "pseudo-Christ" as well as "opposed to Christ," much as "anti-pope" implies both rivalry and antagonism. According to Bishop Ilurd, it signifies "a person of power actu- ated with a spirit opposite to that of Christ." For, to adopt the illustration of the same writer, "as the word Christ is frequently used in the apostolic writ- ings for the doctrine of Christ, in which sense we are to understand to 'put on Christ,' to 'grow in Christ,' or to 'learn Christ,' so Ant'uhrist, in the abstract, may be taken for a doctrine subversive of the Chris- tian; and when applied to a particular man, or body of men, it denotes one who sets himself against the spirit of that doctrine." It seems, however, that the Scriptures employ the term both with a general and limited signification. In the general sense, with which Bishop Hind's idea mainly agrees, every person who is hostile to the authority of Christ, as Lord or head of the Church, and to the spirit of his religion, is call- ed Antichrist; as when the Apostle John, referring to certain false teachers who corrupted the truth from its simplicity, says, " Even now are there many Anti- christs" (1 John ii, 18 ; iv, 3), many who corrupt the doctrine and blaspheme the name of Christ, i. e. Jew- ish sectaries (Liicke, Comment, in loc). II. Types and Predictions of Antichrist in 0. T. — 1. Balaam. As Moses was the type of Christ, so Ba- laam, the opponent of Moses, is to be taken as an 0. T. type of Antichrist (Num. xxxi, 1G ; comp. Jude 9-11 ; 2 Pet. ii, 14-16 ; Rev. ii, 14). See Balaam. 2. Antiochus Epiphanes, the "King of Fierce Coun- tenance^ (Dan. viii, 23-2o) : " And in the latter time of their kingdom, when the transgressors are come to the full, a king of fierce countenance, and understand- ing dark sentences, shall stand up. And his power shall be mighty, but not by his own power; and he shall destroy wonderfully, and shall prosper, and prac- tise, and shall destroy the mighty and the holy people. And through his policy also he shall cause craft to prosper in his hand ; and he shall magnify himself in his heart, and by peace shall destroy many : he shall also stand up against the Prince of princes ; but he shall be broken without hand." (Comp. also ch. xi, xii.) Most interpreters concur in applying this pas- sage to Antiochus Epiphanes as a type of Antichrist. Antiochus is here set forth (ch. viii) as a theocratic anti-Messiah, opposed to the true Messiah, who, it will be remembered, is generally described in 0. T. as a king. Jerome (quoted in Smith, Dictionary, s. v.) argues as follows: "All that follows (from ch. xi, 21) to the end of the book applies personally to An- tiochus Epiphanes, brother of Seleucus, and son of An- tiochus the Great ; for, after Seleucus, he reigned eleven years in Syria, and possessed Judrea ; and in his reign there occurred the persecution about the Law of God, and the wars of the Maccabees. But our people consider all these things to be spoken of Antichrist, who is to come in the last time. ... It is the custom of Holy Scripture to anticipate in types the reality of things to come. For in the same way our Lord and Saviour is spoken of in the 72d Psalm, which is entitled a Psalm of Solomon, and yet all that is there said cannot be applied to Solomon. But in part, and as in a shadow and image of the truth, these things are foretold of Solomon, to be more perfectly fulfilled in our Lord and Saviour. As, then, in Solo- mon and other saints the Saviour has types of His coming, so Antichrist is rightly believed to have for his type that wicked king Antiochus, who persecuted the saints and defiled the Temple" (Hieron. Op. iii, 1127, Par. 1704). See Antiochus Epiphanes. 3. The Little Horn (Dan. vii). Here the four beasts indicate four kings ; their kingdoms are supposed to be the Assyrian, Persian, Grecian, and Syrian (some say Roman) empires. The last empire breaks up into ten, after which the king rises up and masters three (ver. 24) of them. It is declared (ver. 25) that "he shall speak great words against the Most High, and shall wear out the saints of the Most High, and think to change times and laws ; and they shall be given into his hand until a time and times and the di- viding of time" — indicating a person, as well as a power or polity. It is likely that this prediction re- fers also to Antiochus as the type of Antichrist, at least primarily. See Horn, Little. III. Passages in A'. T. — 1. In Matt, xxiv, Christ himself foretells the appearance of false Messiahs ; thus, ver. 5 : "For many shall come in my name, say- ing I am Christ, and shall deceive many;" also ver. 23, 24: "Then if any man shall say unto j-ou, Lo, hero is Christ or there, believe it not; for there shall arise false Christs, and false prophets, and shall show great signs and wonders ; insomuch that, if it were possible, they shall deceive the very elect." (Comp. Mark xiii, 21, 22.) In these passages anti- ANTICHRIST 255 ANTICHRIST Christian teachers and their works are predicted. Christ teaches "that (1) in the latter days of Jerusa- lem there should be sore distress, and that in the midst of it there should arise impostors who would claim to be the promised Messiah, and would lead away many of their countrymen after them ; and that (2) in the last days of the world there should be a great tribulation and persecution of the saints, and that there should arise at the same time false Christs and false prophets, with an unparalleled power of lead- ing astray. In tj'pe, therefore, our Lord predicted the rise of the several impostors who excited the fanati- cism of the Jews before their fall. In antitype He predicted the future rise of impostors in the last days, who should beguile all but the elect into the belief of their being God's prophets, or even his Christs. Our Lord is not speaking of any one individual (or polity), but rather of those forerunners of the Antichrist who are his servants and actuated by his spirit. They are rpivSoxpiaroi (false Christs), and can deceive almost the elect, but they are not specifically o civtixpittoq (the Antichrist); they are %piv? 1682) ; of Victorinus, A.D. 270 (MM. Pair. Magna, iii, 136, Col. Agrip. 1618); of Lactantius, A.D. 300 (Div. Inst, vii, 17) ; of Cyril of Jerusalem, A.D. 315 (Catech. xv, 4) ; of Jerome, A.D. 330 (Op. iv, pars i, 209, Pari- siis, 1G93); of Chrysostom, A.D. 347 (Comm. in 11 Thess.) ; of Hilary of Poitiers, A.D. 350 (Comm. in Matt.); of Augustine, A.D. 354 (De Civil. Dei, xx, 19) ; of Ambrose, A. D. 380 (Comm. in Luc). The authors of the Sibylline Oracles, A.D. 150, and of the Apostol- ical Constitutions, Celsus (see Orig. c. Cels. lib. vi), Ephraem Syrus, A.D. 370, Theodoret, A.D. 430, and a few other writers, seem to have regarded the Antichrist as the devil himself, rather than as his minister or an emanation from him. But they may, perhaps, have meant no more than to express the identity of his character and his power with that of Satan. Each of the writers to whom we have referred gives his own judgment with respect to some particulars which may lie expected in the Antichrist, while they all agree in representing him as a person about to come shortly be- fore the glorious and final appearance of Christ, and to be destroyed by His presence. Justin Martyr speaks of him as the man of the apostasy, and dwells chiefly on the persecutions which he would cause. Irenanis describes him as summing up the apostasy in himself; as having his seat at Jerusalem ; as identi- cal with the Apocalyptic Beast (c. 28); as foreshad- owed by the unjust judge; as being the man who 'should come in his own name,' and as belonging to the tribe of Dan (c. 30). Tertullian identifies him with the Beast, and supposes him to be about to arise on the fall of the Roman Empire (De Ees. Cam. e. 25). Origen describes him in Eastern phrase as the child of the devil and the counterpart of Christ. Hippoly- tus understands the Koman Empire to be represented by the Apocalyptic Beast, and the Antichrist by the False Prophet, who would restore the wounded Beast by his craft and by the wisdom of his laws. Cyprian sees him typified in Antiochus Epiphanes (Exhort, ad Mart. c. 11). Victorinus, with several others, misun- standing Paul's expression that the mystery of iniqui- ty was in his day working, supposes that the Anti- christ will be a revivified hero; Lactantius, that lie will be a king of Syria, born of an evil spirit ; Cyril, that he will be a magician, who by his arts will get the mastery of the Boman Empire. Jerome describes him as the son of the devil, sitting in the Church as though he were the Son of God ; Chrysostom as avr'i- Qibc, tiq, sitting in the Temple of God, that is, in all the churches, not merely in the Temple at Jerusalem ; Augustine as the adversary holding power for three and a half years — the Beast, perhaps, representing Sa- tan's empire. The primitive belief may be summed up in the words of Jerome (Comm. on Daniel'): 'Let us say that which all ecclesiastical writers have hand- ed down, viz., that at the end of the world, when the Boman Empire is to be destroyed, there will be ten kings, who will divide the Boman world among them ; and there will arise an eleventh little king, who will subdue three of the ten kings, that is, the king of Egypt, of Africa, and of Ethiopia, as we shall here- after show ; and on these having been slain, the seven other kings will also submit. "And behold," he says, "in the ram were the eyes of a man" — this is that we may not suppose him to be a devil or a da?mon, as some have thought, but a man in whom Satan will dwell utterly and bodily — "and a month speaking great things;" for he is "the man of sin, the son of perdition, who sitteth in the temple of God, making himself as God" ' (Op. iv, 511, Col. Agrip. 1616). In his Comment, on Dan. xi, and in his reply to Algasia's eleventh question, he works out the same view in greater detail, the same line of interpretation contin- ued. Andreas of Cassarea, A.D. 550, explains him to he a king actuated by Satan, who will reunite the old Boman Empire and reign at Jerusalem (//;, Apoc. c. xiii); Aretas, A.D. 650, as a king of the Romans, who E ANTICHRIST will reign over the Saracens in Bagdad (In Apoc. c. xiii)." (Smith, s. v.) 3. Middle- Age Views. — In the Middle Age it was the prevailing opinion that Antichrist would either be brought forth by a virgin, or be the offspring of a bishop and a nun. About the year 950, Adso, a monk in a monastery of Western Franconia, wrote a treatise on Antichrist, in which he assigned a later time to his coming, and also to the end of the world (see Schrcickh, Kirchengesch. xxi, p. 243). He did not distinctly state whom he meant to be understood by Antichrist (Ha- genbach, Hist, of Doctrines, § 203). "A Frank king," he says, "will reunite the Boman Empire, and abdi- cate on Mount Olivet, and, on the dissolution of his kingdom, the Antichrist will be revealed." The same writer supposes that he will be born in Babylon, that he will be educated at Bethsaida and Chorazin, and that he will proclaim himself the Son of God at Jeru- salem (Tract, in Antichr. apud August. Opera, ix, 454, Paris, 1637). In the singular predictions of Ililde- garde (f 1197), Antichrist is foretold as the spirit of doubt. She states that the exact season of Antichrist is not revealed, but describes his manifestation as an impious imitation or "parody of the incarnation of the Divine Word" (Christian Remembrancer, xliv, 50). See Hildegarde. But "the received opinion of the twelfth century is brought before us in a striking man- ner in the interview between Richard I and the abbot Joachim of Flcris (f 1202) at Messina, as the king was on his way to the Holy Land. ' I thought,' said the king, ' that Antichrist would be born in Antioch or in Babylon, and of the tribe of Dan, and would reign in the temple of the Lord in Jerusalem, and would walk in that land in which Christ walked, and would reign in it for three years and a half, and would dispute against Elijah and Enoch, and would kill them, and would af- terward die; and that after his death God would give sixty days of repentance, in which those might repent which should have erred from the way of truth, and have been seduced by the preaching of Antichrist and his false prophets.' This seems to have been the view defended by the archbishops of Rouen and Auxtrre, and by the bishop of Bayonne, who were present at the interview, but it was not Joachim's opinion. He maintained the seven heads of the Beast to be Herod, Nero, Constantius, Mohammed, Melsemut, who were past; Saladin, who was then living; and Antichrist, who was shortly to come, being already born in the city of Rcme, and about to be elevated to the apostolic see (Roger de Hoveden, in Richard I, anno 1190). In his own work on the Apocalypse, Joachim speaks of the second Apocalyptic Beast as being governed by 'some great prelate who will be like Simon Magus, and, as it were, universal pontiff throughout the world, and be that very Antichrist of whom St. Paul speaks.' These are very noticeable words. Gregory I had long since (A.D. 590) declared that any man who held even the shadow of the power which the popes of Rome soon after his time arrogated to themselves would be the precursor of Antichrist. Arnulphus, bishop of Orleans (or perhaps Gcrbert), in an invective against John XV at the Council of Rheims, A.D. 991, had de- clared, that if the Roman pontiff was destitute of char- ity and puffed up with knowledge, he was Antichrist; if destitute both of charity and of knowledge, that he was a lifeless stone (Mansi, ix, 132, Ven. 1774) ; but Joachim is the first to suggest, not that such and such a pontiff was Antichrist, but that the Antichrist would be a Universalis Pontifex, and that he would occupy the apostolic see. Still, however, we have no hint of an order of men being the Antichrist; it is a living individual man that Joachim contemplates." Amal- rich of Bona (f 12th century) seems to have been the first to teach explicitly that the pope (i. e. the papal system) is Antichrist: Quia Papa esset Antichristus et Roma Babylon et ipse sedet in monte Oliveti, i. e. in pinguedine potestatis (according to Crcsarius of ANTICHRIST 258 ANTICHRIST Heisterbach ; comp. Engelhardt, Kirchenkistorische Ab- h mdlungen, p. 250, quoted by Hagenbach). The Ger- man emperors, in their contests with the popes, often applied the title Antichrist to the latter ; we find in- stances of this as early as the times of the Hohenstau- fen. Emperor Louis, surnamed the Bavarian, also call- ed Pope John XXII the mystical Antichrist (Schrockh, xxxi, p. 108). John Aventinus, in his Annalium Boi- orum, libri viii, p. 651, Lips. 1710), himself the Romish writer, speaks of it as a received opinion of the Middle Age that the reign of Antichrist was that of Hilde- brand (f 1085), and cites Eberhard, archbishop of Salz- burg (12th century), as asserting that Hildebrand had, "in the name of religion, laid the foundation of the kingdom of Antichrist 170 years before his time." He can even name the ten horns. They are the "Turks, Greeks, Egyptians, Africans, Spaniards, Eng- lish, French, Germans, Sicilians, and Italians, who now occupy the provinces of Rome ; and a little horn has grown up with eyes and mouth, speaking great things, which is reducing three of these kingdoms — i. e. Sicily, Italy, and Germany — to subserviency ; is persecuting the people of Christ and the saints of God with intolerable opposition ; is confounding things hu- man and divine, and attempting things unutterable, execrable" (Smith, s. v.). Pope Innocent III (A.D. 1213) designated Mohammed as Antichrist; and as the number of the beast, 666, was held to indicate the period of his dominion, it was supposed that the Mo- hammedan power was soon to fall. The Waldenses have a treatise (given in Leger, Hist, chs Eglises Vaudoises) concerning Antichrist of the 12th century (Gieseler, Maitland, and others, dis- pute the date, but the best authorities now agree to it). It treats of Antichrist as the whole anti-Chris- tian principle concealing itself under the guise of Christianity, and calls it a " system of falsehood adorn- ing itself with a show of beauty and piety, yet (as by the names and offices of the Scriptures, and the sacra- ments, and various other things may appear) very un- suitable to the Church of Christ. The system of ini- quity thus completed, with its ministers, great and small, supported by those who are induced to follow it with an evil heart, and blindfold — this is the congre- gation which, taken together, comprises what is called Antichrist or Babylon, the fourth beast, the whore, the man of sin, the son of perdition." It originated, indeed, "in the times of the apostles, but, by gaining power and worldly influence, it had reached its climax in the corruption of the Papal Church. "Christ never had an enemy like this; so able to pervert the way of truth into falsehood, insomuch that the true church, with her children, is trodden under foot. The worship that belongs alone to God he trans- fers to Antichrist himself— to the creature, male and female, deceased — to images, carcasses, and relics. The sacrament of the Eucharist is converted into an object of adoration, and the worshipping of God alone is prohibited. lie robs the Saviour of his merits, and the sufficiency of his grace in justification, regenera- tion, remission of sins, sanctification, establishment in the faith, and spiritual nourishment; ascribing all these things to his own authority, to a form of words, to his own works, to the intercession of saints, and to the lire of purgatory. He seduces fhe people from Christ, drawing off their minds from seeking those blessings in him, by a lively faith in God, in Jesus Christ, and in the I Icily Spirit, and teaching his fol- lowers to expect them by the will, and pleasure, and works of Antichrist. "He teaches to baptize children into the faith, and attributes to this the work of regeneration; thus con- founding the work of the Holy Spirit in regeneration with the external rite of baptism, and (in this founda- tion bestows orders, and, indeed, grounds all his Chris- tianity. He places all religion and holiness in going to mass, and has mingled together all descriptions of ceremonies, Jewish, heathen, and Christian — and by means thereof, the people are deprived of spiritual food, seduced from the true religion and the com- mandments of God, and established in vain and pre- sumptuous hopes. All his works are done to be seen of men, that he may glut himself with insatiable av- arice, and hence every thing is set to sale. He allows of open sins without ecclesiastical censure, and even the impenitent are not excommunicated" (Neander, Church History, iv, 605 sq.). The Hussites followed the Waldenses in this theory of Antichrist, applying it to the papal system. So did Wicklift'e and his followers : Wickliffe, Trialogus (cited by Schrockh, xxxiv, 509); Janow, Liber de An- tichristo (Hist, at Monum. J. Huss, vol. i). Lord Cob- ham (Sir John Oldcastle), executed as a Wickliffite, 1417, dechu-ed to King Henry V that, "as sure as God's word is true, the pope is the great Antichrist foretold in Holy Writ" (Neio Gen. Diet. s. v. Oldcastle). 4. From the Reformation downward. — One of the oldest German works in print, the first mentioned by Panzer in the Annalen der alteren deutschen Literatur, is Das Bitch vom Entkrist (The Book of Antichrist), or, also, " Bilchlin von des Endte Christs Leben und Regie- rung (lurch verhengniss Gottes, vie er die Welt tilth ver- keren mit seiner falschen Lere und Rat des Teufls," etc. — " Little Book concerning Antichrist's Life and Rule through God's Providence, how he doth pervert the World with his false Doctrine and Counsel of the Dev- il," etc. (reprinted at Erfurdt, 1516). As early as 1520 Luther began to doubt whether the pope were not Anti- christ. In a letter to Spalatin, Feb. 23, 1520, he says, " Ego sic angor ut prope non dubitem papam- esse pro? prie Antichristum." In the same year, when he heard of Eck's success in obtaining the bull against him from the pope, Luther exclaimed, "At length the mystery of Antichrist must be unveiled" (Ranke, Hist, of Ref- ormation, bk. ii, eh. iii). In the Reformation era the opinion that the papal system is Antichrist was gen- erally adopted ; and it is the prevalent opinion among Protestants to this day, although, as will appear be- low, some writers make Rome only one form of Anti- christ. The various classes of opinion, and the writers who maintain them, are given by Smith, s. v., as fol- lows: Bullinger (1504), Chytrseus (1571), Aretins (1573), Foxe (1586), Napier (1593), Mede (1632), Ju- rieu (1685), Bp. Newton (1750), Cunninghaine (1813s), Faber (1814), Woodhouse (1828), Habershon (1843), identify the False Prophet, or Second Apocalyptic Beast, with Antichrist and with the papacy ; Marlorat (1574), King James I (1603), Daubuz (1720), Galloway (1802), the First Apocalyptic Beast ; Brightman (1600), Pareus (1615), Vitringa (1705), Gill (1776), Bachmair (1778), Fraser (1795), Croly (1828), Fysh (1837), El- liott (1844), both the Beasts. That the pope and his system are Antichrist was taught by Luther, Calvin, Zwingli, Melancthon, Bucer, Beza, Calixtus, Bengel, Michaelis, and by almost all Protestant writers on the Continent. Nor was there any hesitation on the part of English theologians to seize the same weapon of offence. Bishop Bale (1491), like Luther, Bucer, and Melancthon, pronounces the pope in Europe and Mo- hammed in Africa to be Antichrist. The pope is An- tichrist, say Cranmer (Works, ii, 46, Camb. 1844), Latimer (Works, i, 149, Camb. 1814), Ridley (Works, p. 53. Camb. 1841), Hooper (Works, ii, 44, Camb. 1852), Hutchinson (Works, p. 301, Camb., 1842), Tyn- dale (Works, i, 147, Camb. 1818), Sandvs (Works, p. 11, Camb. 1841), Philpot (Works, p. 152, Camb. 1842), Jewell (Works, i, 109, Camb. 1845), Rogers (Works, p. 182, Camb. 1851), Fulke (Works, ii, 269, Camb. 1848), Bradford ( Works, p. 435, Camb. 1848). Nor is the opinion confined to these 16th century divines, who may be supposed to have been specially incensed against popery. King James held it (Apol. pro Juram. Fidel. Lond. 1609) as strongly as Queen Elizabeth (see Jewell, Letter to Bulling. May 22, 1559, Zurich Letters, ANTICHRIST 259 ANTICHRIST First Scries, p. 33, Camb. 1842) ; and the theologians of the 17th century did not repudiate it, though they less and less dwelt upon it as their struggle came to he with Puritanism in place of popery. Bishop An- drewes maintains it as a probable conclusion from the Epistle to the Thessalonians (Resp. ad Bellarm. p. 304, Oxon. 1851); but he carefully explains that King James, whom he was defending, had expressed his pri- vate opinion, not the belief of the church, on the sub- ject (ibid. p. 23). Bramhall introduces limitations and distinctions ( Works, iii, 520, Oxf. 1845) ; significantly suggests that there are marks of Antichrist which ap- ply to the General Assembly of the Kirk of Scotland as much as to the pope or to the Turk (ibid, iii, 287), and declines to make the Church of England respon- sible for what individual preachers or writers had said on the subject in moments of exasperation (ib. ii, 582). From this time onward, in the Church of England, the less evangelical divines are inclined to abandon the theory of the Reformers, while, of course, the Roman- izers oppose it. Yet it appears, from the list above, that some of the best interpreters in that church, as well as in other branches of Protestantism, maintain the old interpretation of the prophecies of Daniel, Paul, and John. Some writers have gone back to the old idea of an individual Antichrist yet to come, e. g. "Lacunza or Benezra (1810), Burgh, Samuel Maitland, Newman (Tracts for the Times, No. 83), Charles Maitland (Pro- phetic Interpretation). Others prefer looking upon him as long past, and fix upon one or another perse- cutor or heresiarch as the man in whom the predic- tions as to Antichrist found their fulfilment. There seems to be no trace of this idea for more than 1G00 years in the church. But it has been taken up by two opposite classes of expounders — by Romanists who were anxious to avert the application of the Apoca- lyptic prophecies from the papacy, and by others, who were disposed, not indeed to deny the prophetic import of the Apocalypse, but to confine the seer's ken within the closest and narrowest limits that were possible. Alcasar, a Spanish Jesuit, taking a hint from Victori- nus, seems to have been the first (A.D. 1604) to have suggested that the Apocalyptic prophecies did not ex- tend further than to the overthrow of paganism by Constantine. This view, with variations by Grotius, is taken up and expounded by Bossuet, Calmet, De Saey, Eichhorn, Hug, Herder, EwaW, Moses Stuart, Davidson. The general view of the school is that the Apocalypse describes the triumph of Christianity over Judaism in the first, and over heathenism in the third century. . Mariana sees Antichrist in Nero; Bossuet in Diocletian and in Julian ; Grotius in Caligula ; Wet- stein in Titus; Hammond in Simon Magus (Works, iii, 620, Lond. 1631) ; Whitby in the Jews (Comm. ii, 431, Lond. 1760); Le Clerc in Simon, son of Giora, a leader of the rebel Jews ; Schottiien in the Pharisees ; Nossett and Krause in the Jewish zealots ; Harduin in the High-priest Ananias; F. D.Maurice in Vitellius (On the Apocalypse, Camb. I860)." (Smith, s. v.) 5. The same spirit that refuses to regard Satan as an individual, naturally looks upon the Antichrist as an evil principle not embodied either in a person or in a polity. Thus Koppe, Storr, Nitzsch, Pelt. (See Al- ford, Gh. Test, iii, 69.) Some of the Romish theologi- ans find Antichrist in rationalism and radicalism, oth- ers in Protestantism as a whole. Some Protestants fix it in Romanism as a whole, others in Jesuitism ; others, again, in the latest forms of infidelity, while some of the ultra Lutherans find it in modern radical- ism, political and religious. Any view of this kind, when carried so far as to exclude all personal identifi- cation, is certainly too vague to be satisfactory. But, at the same time, the just conclusion seems to be that Antichrist is not to be confined to an}' single person or power, but is essentially a great principle or system of falsehood, having various manifestations, forms of working, and degrees, as especially exemplified in An- tiochus Epiphanes, Jewish bigotry, and pagan intoler- ance ; while it is undeniable that later Romanism ex- hibits some of the most prominent characteristics of Antichrist in a manner so striking and peculiar as to assure us that the sj'stem is not only one among the many species of Antichrist, but that it stands in the fore-front, and is pointed at by the finger of prophecy as no other form of Antichrist is (Eden, s. v.). V. Time of Antichrist. — A vast deal of labor has been spent upon computations based upon the "time, times, and dividing of time" in Daniel (vii, 25), and upon the " number of the Beast" (666) given in Rev. xiii, 18. We can only refer to the commentators and writers on prophecy for these, as it would take too much space to enumerate them. As to Daniel's "time, times, and dividing of time," it is commonly interpret- ed to mean 1260 years. " The papal power was com- pletely established in the year 755, when it obtained the exarchate of Ravenna. Some, however, date the rise of Antichrist in the year of Christ 606, and Mede places it in 450. If the rise of Antichrist be not reck- oned till he was possessed of secular authority, his fall will happen when this power shall be taken away. If his rise began, according to Mede, in 456, he must have fallen in 1716; if in 606, it must be in 1866; if in 755, in 2015. If, however, we use prophetical years, consisting of three hundred and sixty days, and date the rise of Antichrist in the year 755, his fall will hap- pen in the year of Christ 2000" (Watson, s. v.). As to the "number of the beast," the interpretation sug- gested by Irenauis is one of the most plausible. The number is "the number of a man" (Rev. xiii, 18); and Irenaeus names Aartivoc as fulfilling. the condi- tions (see Alford, Comm., who considers this the near- est approach to a complete solution). But human in- genuity has found the conditions fulfilled also in the name of Mohammed, Luther, Napoleon, and many oth- ers. After all the learning and labor spent upon the question, we must confess that it is yet left unsolved. YI. Jeuifh and Mohammedan Traditions of Anti- christ.— Of these we take the following account from Smith, s. v.: 1. "The name given by the Jews to Antichrist is (^b^'IN) Armillus. There are sev- eral rabbinical books in which a circumstantial ac- count is given of him, such as the ' Book of Zerubba- bel,' and others printed at Constantinople. Buxtorf gives an abridgment of their contents in his Lexicon, under the head 'Armillus,' and in the fiftieth chapter of his Synagoga Judaica (p. 717). The name is de- rived from Isa. xi, 4, where the Targum gives 'By the word of his mouth the wicked Armillus shall die,' for ' with the breath of his lips shall he slay the wick- ed.' There will, say the Jews, be twelve signs of the coming of the Messiah : (1.) The appearance of three apostate kings who have fallen away from the faith, but in the sight of men appear to be worshippers of the true God. (2.) A terrible heat of the sun. (3.) A dew of blood (Joel ii, i"0). (4.) A healing dew for the pious. (5.) A darkness will be cast upon the sun (Joel ii, 31) for thirty days (Isa. xxiv, 22). (6.) God will give universal power to the Romans for nine months, during which time the Roman chieftain will afflict the Israelites ; at the end of the nine months God will raise up the Messiah Ben-Joseph — that is, the Messiah of the tribe of Joseph, named Nehemiah — who will de- feat the Roman chieftain, and slay him. (7.) Then there will arise Armillus, whom the Gentiles or Chris- tians call Antichrist. He will be born of a marble statue in one of the churches in Rome. He will go to the Romans and will profess himself to be their Messiah and their God. At once the Romans will believe in him and accept him for their king. Having made the whole world subject to him, he will say to the Idu- ma?ans (i.e. Christians), 'Bring me the law which I have given you.' They will bring it with their book of prayers; and he will accept it as his own, and will ANTICHRIST 260 ANTICHRIST exhort them to persevere in their belief of him. Then he will send to Nehemiah, and command the Jewish Law to be brought him, and proof to be given from it that he is God. Nehemiah will go before him, guard- ed by 30,000 warriors of the tribe of Ephraim, and will read, ' I am the Lord thy God: thou shalt have none other gods but me.' Armillus will say that there are no such words in the Law, and will command the Jews to confess him to be God as the other nations had confessed him. But Nehemiah will give orders to his followers to seize and bind him. Then Armillus, in rage and fury, will gather all his people in a deep val- ley to fight with Israel, and in that battle the Messiah Ben-Joseph will fall, and the angels will bear away his body and carry him to the resting-place of the Pa- triarchs. Then the Jews will be cast out by all na- tions, and suffer afflictions such as have not been from the beginning of the world, and the residue of them will fly into the desert, and will remain there forty and five days, during which time all the Israelites who are not worthy to see the redemption shall die. (8.) Then the great angel Michael will rise and blow three mighty blasts of a trumpet. At the first blast there shall ap- pear the true Messiah Ben-David and the prophet Eli- jah, and they will manifest themselves to the Jews in the desert, and all the Jews throughout the world shall hear the sound of the trump, and those that have been carried captive into Assj'ria shall be gathered together ; and with great gladness they shall come to Jerusalem. Then Armillus will raise a great army of Christians, and lead them to Jerusalem to conquer the new king. But God shall say to Messiah, ' Sit thou on my right hand,' and to the Israelites, ' Stand still and see what God will work for you to-day.' Then God will pour down sulphur and fire from heaven (Ezek. xxxviii, 2'-'), and the impious Armillus shall die, and the im- pious Idumseans (i.e. Christians), who have destroyed the house of our God and have led us away into captiv- ity, shall perish in misery, and the Jews shall avenge themselves upon them, as it is written : ' The house of Jacob shall be a fire, and the house of Joseph a flame, and the house of Esau (i. e. the Christians) for stubble, and they shall kindle in them and devour them : there shall not be any remaining of the house of Esau, for the Lord hath spoken it' (Obad. 18). (9.) On the second blast of the trumpet the tombs shall be opened, and Messiah Ben-David shall raise Messiah Ben-Joseph from the dead. (10.) The ten tribes shall be led to Paradise, and shall celebrate the wedding- feast of the Messiah. And the Messiah shall choose a bride among the fairest of the daughters of Israel, and children and children's children shall be born to him, and then he shall die like other men, and his sons shall reign over Israel after him, as it is written : 'He shall prolong his days' (Isa. liii, 10), which Rambam explains to mean, ' He shall live long, but he too shall die in great glory, and his son shall reign in his stead, and his sons' sons in succession' (Buxtorrii Synagoga Judaica, p. 717, Basil, 1661). 2. Mussulmans, as well as Jews and Christians, ex- \< set an Antichrist. They call him Al Dajjal, from a name which signifies an impostor, or a liar; and they hold that their prophet Mohammed taught one of his disciples, whose name was Tamini Al-Dari, every thing relating to Antichrist. On his authority, they tell us that Antichrist must come at the end of the world; that he will make his entry into Jerusalem, like Jesus Christ, riding on an ass; but thai Christ, who is not dead, will conic at his second advent to encounter him ;, and that, after having conquered him, he will then • ]]•■ indeed. That the beast described by John in the Revelation will appear with Antichrist, and make war against the saints; that Imam Mahadi, who remains concealed among the Mussulmans, will then show him- self, join Jesus Christ, and with him engage Dajjal; after which they will unite the Christians ami the Mussulmans, and of the two religions will make but one (D'Herbelot, Bill. Orient, s. v. Daggial, etc.). — Calmet. "These Mohammedan traditions are an adapta- tion of Christian prophecy and Jewish legend, with- out any originality or any beauty of their own. They too have their signs which are to precede the final consummation. The}' are divided into the greater and lesser signs. Of the greater signs the first is the rising of the sun from the west (comp. Matt, xxiv, 29). The next is the appearance of a beast from the earth, sixty cubits high, bearing the staff of Moses and the seal of Solomon, with which he will inscribe the word ' Be- liever' on the face of the faithful, and ' Unbeliever' on all who have not accepted Islamism (comp. Rev. xiii). The third sign is the capture of Constantino- ple; while the spoil of which is being divided, news will come of the appearance of Antichrist, and every man will return to his own home. Antichrist will be blind of one eye and deaf of one ear, and will have the name of Unbeliever written on his forehead (Rev. xiii). It is he that the Jews call Messiah Ben-David, and say that he will come in the last times and reign over sea and land, and restore to them the kingdom. He will continue forty days, one of these days being equal to a year, another to a month, another to a week, the rest being days of ordinary length. He will devastate all other places, but will not be allowed to enter Mecca and Medina, which will be guarded by angels. Lastly, he will be killed bj' Jesus at the gate of Lud. For when news is received of the appearance of Antichrist, Jesus will come down to earth, alight- ing on the white tower at the east of Damascus, and will slay him ; Jesus will then embrace the Moham- medan religion, marry a wife, and leave children after him, having reigned in perfect peace and security, after the death of Antichrist, for forty years. (See ', Pococke, Porta Mosis, p. 258, Oxon. 1655 ; and Sale, Koran, Preliminary Biscourse.y, (Smith, s. v.) VII. Literature. — Besides the writers mentioned in the course of this article, consult the commentators on Daniel, and on the Thessalonians and Apocalypse. Compare the references under Revelation. Special i dissertations on the text in 2 Thess. ii, 3-13, by Koppe (Gotting. 177G); Beyer (Lips. 1824); Schott (Jen. 1832). For a copious list of works during the contro- versj' on this subject between the Reformers and the Roman Catholics, see Walch, BiUiothvca Theologica, ii, 217 sq. There are works more or less copious on the general subject, among others, by Raban Maurus, Be ortu, vita et moribus Antichrist! ''(1505, 4to) ; Dananis, | Be Antichristo (Genev. 1577, 175G, 8vo. transl. A Trea- tise touching Antichrist, fol., Lond. 1589); Abbott, Be- fence of the Reformed Catholicke (Lond. 1007); Mal- venda, De Antichristo, fol. (Rom. 1604, Val. 1621); Downame,CoMcerm'n^7 Antichrist (Lond.1603) ; Lessius, De Antichristo (Antw. 1611); Grotius, In locis X T. de Antichristo (Amst. 1640) ; Ness, Person and Period of A ntichrist (Lond. 1679) ; Nisbet, Mysterious Language of Paid, etc. (Canterb. 1808; which makes the "man of sin" refer not to the Church of Rome, but to the times in which Paul wrote); Maitland, The Prophecies concerning Antichrist (Lond. 1830); M'Kenzie, Anti- christ and the Church of Rome identified (Edinburgh, 1835); Cameron, The A ntickrist (Lond. 1844) ; Bonar, Development of Antichrist (Lond. 1853); Harrison, Pro- \ phetic Outlines (London, 1849); Knight, Lectures on the Prophecies <->>nv< rning Antichrist (London, 1855). Compare also Warburtonian Lecture (1848); Bellar- | mine, Be Antichristo, quod nihil commune habeat cum Romano pontifice; Opp. i, 709; Mede, Works, ii; Ham- mond, Works, iv, 733; Cocceius, De Antichristo ; Opp. ix; More, Theol. Works, p. 385; Barlow, Remains, p. 190, 224; Calmet, Dissert! . viii, 351; Turretin, Opp. iv ; Priestly, Evidences, ii ; "Williams, Characters of (>. T. p. 349; Cassells, Christ and Antichrist (Phila. Presb. Board, 12mo); Keith, History and Besting of the World and the Church (Lond. 1861, 8vo). See also ANTICHRISTIANISM 261 ANTILEGOMENA Eden, Theol. Dirt. ; Watson, Then!. Diet. s. v. ; Todd, Discourses on Antichrist (Dull. 1840, 8vo) ; Benson, On the Man of Sin; Newton, On the Prophecies. See An- TICHRISTIANISM. Antichristianism, a term that conveniently des- ignates, in a collective manner, the various forms of hostility which Christianity has met with at differ- ent times. It is equivalent to " the spirit of Anti- christ" (to tov ' AvTixpiaroii) in the apostolic age (1 John iv, 3). See Antichrist. Indeed it exhibit- ed itself against the true religion in the persecutions which the Jews underwent from Antiochus Epiphanes (q. v.), and may be traced in the history of the proto- saint Abel (q. v.). It was this that Enoch (q. v.) and Noah denounced in their preaching (Jude 14; 2 Pet. ii, 5-7) ; that "vexed the righteous soul" of Lot; and that, in fine, has broken forth in all ages as the expres- sion of the world's malignity against the good (comp. John xv, 18-21 ; 2 Tim. iii, 12). Since the days of persecution it has been confined chiefly to intellectual modes of opposition, and has received the names of In- fidelity, Deism, Rationalism, etc. See Apologetics. The Scriptures, however, appear to point to a time when the Antichristian elements shall again array themselves in forms of palpable violence. See Gog. For "the carnal mind" (to fporijiui rrje aapKoc, na- tive will) is no less than ever opposed (i'x^na) to the divine economy and purposes (Rom. viii, 7). It is the same " mystery of iniquity" alreadj' foreseen by Paul as then "working" to successive developments (2 Thess. ii, 7) ; " that cwopia in the hearts and lives, in the speeches and writings of men, which only awaits the removal of the hindering power to issue in that concentrated manifestation of b avofxoe., which shall usher in the times of the end" (Alford, Gr. Test. prol. to vol. iii, p. 68). A stream of Antichristian senti- ment and conduct pervades the whole history of the world. The power of evil which we sec at work calls forth Antichristian formations, now in one shape, now in another ; and so, according to the prophets, it will be until the final triumph of the kingdom of Christ (Olshauscn, Commentary, v, 321 sq., Am. ed.). See Mystery of Iniquity ; Infidelity. Antidicomarianites or Antimarians, a sect of Christian disciples who appeared in Arabia at the end of the fourth century, and taught that Man- had children by Joseph after the Lord's birth. They were not heretics, but doubtless honest opponents of the growing Mariolafcry of the time. — Gieseler, Ch. Jhst. div. i, § 97 ; AValch, Hist, der Ketzereien, iii, 578 ; Epi- phanius, Hares. 78, § 19. Antidoron (dvriSiopov, a gift in return or ex- change), the title given to the bread which, in the Greek Church, is distributed to the people after the mass. It receives its name from its being received instea:d of the iiytov StUpov, or holy communion, by those who were not prepared to receive the latter, though also by those who were. It was also called eulogia, or the " blessed" bread, and was sometimes sent by the bishop of one church to him of another in token of intercommunion. — Goar, Hit. Grcec. p. 154. Antigonus (ArTiyovoc, a frequent Greek name, Signifying apparently against his parent), the name of two members of the Asmoniean family. 1. A son of John Hyrcanus, and grandson of Simon Maecabaeus. His brother, Aristobulus, made him his associate in the kingdom, but was at length prevailed upon by their common enemies to put him to death, B.C. 105 (Josephus, Ant. xiii, 18 and 19). 2. A son of Aristobulus (brother to Hyrcanus and Alexandra), sent as a prisoner to Rome, with his fa- ther and brother, by Pompey, who had taken Jerusa- lem. After remaining in Italy for some time, he re- turned to Judaea, and, after a variety of fortunes, was established king and high-priest, Herod being com- pelled to fly to Rome, B.C. 40- Having obtained as- sistance from Antony and Ciesar, Herod returned, and, after a firm and protracted resistance on the part of Antigonus, retook Jerusalem and repossessed himself of the throne. Antigonus surrendered to Sosius, the Roman general, but he was carried to Antioch, and, at the solicitation of Herod, was there ignominiously put to death by Antony, B.C. 37. He was the last of the Maccabajan princes that sat on the throne of Judaea (Josephus, Ant. xiv, 13-16; Wars, i, 18, 3; Dio Cass. xlix, 22 ; respecting the date, see Wernsdorf, D< ji It Mace. p. 24 ; Ideler, Chronol. i, 399).— Calmet, s. v. Antigua, a British West India island, of the Lee- ward group, which in 1848 had a population of 36,190 souls. It is the see of a bishop of the Church of Eng- land, whose diocese comprises, beyond Antigua, the British islands of St. Christopher's (population in 1848 23,127), Nevis (population in 1851 10,200), Barbuda (population 1600), Montserrat (population in 1850 7800), Dominica (population in 1842 18,291), Tortola (popu- lation in 1844 6689), Anguilla (population in 1844 2934), and the Danish islands St. Croix (population in 1850 23,720) and St. Thomas (population 13,666). The diocese had, in 1859, twenty-seven clergymen in the British islands (including two archdeacons) and three in the Danish islands. See Clergy List for 1860 (Lond. 1860, 8vo). See America. Antileb'anon. See Antilibanus. Antilegomena (dvTiXeyopiva, contradicted or disputed), an epithet applied by the early Christian writers to denote those books of the New Testament which, although known to all the ecclesiastical writ- ers, and sometimes publicly read in the churches, were not for a considerable time admitted to be gen- uine, or received into the canon of Scripture. These books are so denominated in contradistinction to the homologoumena (upoXoyooptva'), or universally ac- knowledged writings. The following is a catalogue j of the Antilegomena : The Second Epistle of Peter ; the. ! Epistle of James; the. Epistle of Jude; the Second and j Third Epistles of John ; the Apocalypse, or Revelation j of John; the Epistle to the Hebrews. The earliest notice which we have of this distinc- j tion is that contained in the Ecclesiasticcd History of Eusebius, who flourished A.D. 270-340. He seems to have formed a triple, or, as it appears to some, a quad- ruple division of the books of the New Testament, terming them — 1, the homologoumena (received) ; 2, the antilegomena (controverted) ; 3, the nothi (spuri- ous) ; and 4, those which he calls the utterly spurious, as being not only spurious in the same sense as the former, but also absurd or impious. Among the spuria ous he reckons the Acts of Paul, the Shejyhei-d of Her- nias, the Revelation of Peter, the Epistle of Barnabas, and the Instructions of the Apostles. He speaks doubt- fully as to the class to which the Apocalypse belongs, for he himself includes it among the spurious : he then observes that some reject it, while others reckon it among the acknowledged writings (homologoumena'). Among the spurious writings he also enumerates the Gospel according to the Hebrews. He adds, at the same time, that all these may be classed among the antilegomena. His account is consequentlj' confused, not to say contradictory. Among the utterly spurious he reckons such books as the heretics brought forward under pretence of their being genuine productions of the apostles, such as the so-called Gospels of Peter, Thomas, and Matthias, and the Acts of Andrew, John, and the other apostles. These he distinguishes from the antilegomena, as being works which not one of the ancient ecclesiastical writers thought worthy of being cited. Their style he considers so remote from that of the apostles, and their contents so much at variance with the genuine doctrines of Scripture, as to show them to have been the inventions of heretics, and not worthy of a place even among the spurious writings, These latter he has consequently been supposed to have ANTILEGOMENA 262 ANTILEGOMENA considered as the compositions of orthodox men, writ- ten with good intentions, but calculated by their titles to mislead the ignorant, who might be disposed to ac- count them as apostolical productions, to which honor they had not even a dubious claim. (See Eusebius, Hist. Eccles. iii, 5, 25.) The same historian has also preserved the testimony of Origen, who, in his Com- mentary on John (cited by Eusebius), observes : " Pe- ter, upon whom the Church of Christ is built, against which the gates of hell shall not prevail, has left one epistle undisputed ; it majr be, also, a second, but of this there is some doubt. What shall we say of him who reclined on the breast of Jesus, John, who has left one Gospel, in which he confesses that he could write so many that the whole world could not contain them ? He also wrote the Apocalypse, being commanded to conceal, and not to write, the voices of the seven thunders. He has also left us an epistle consisting of very few lines (gtixoi) ; it may be also a second and third are from him, but all do not concur in their genuineness; both together do not contain a hundred stichi" (for the signification of this word, see Chris- tian Remembrancer, iii, 4G5 sq.). And again, in his Homilies, " The epistle with the title ' To the Hebrews'' has not that peculiar style which belongs to an apostle who confesses that he is but rude in speech, that is, in Lis phraseology. But that this epistle is more pure Greek in the composition of its phrases, every one will confess who is able to discern the difference of style. Again, it will be obvious that the ideas of the apostle are admirable, and not inferior to any of the books ac- knowledged to be apostolic. Every one will confess the truth of this who attentively reads the apostle's writings I would say, that the thoughts are the apostle's, but that the diction and phraseology belong to some one who has recorded what the apostle has said, and as one who has noted down at his leisure what his master dictated. If, then, any Church con- siders this epistle as coming from Paul, let him be commended for this, for neither did these eminent men deliver it for this without cause : but who it was that really wrote the epistle God only knows. The ac- count, however, that has been current before our time is, according to some, that Clement, who was bishop of Rome, wrote the epistle ; according to others, that it was written by Luke, who wrote the Gospel and the Acts" (Euseb. Hist. Eccles. vi, 25). Upon other occasions Origen expresses his doubts in regard to the antilegomena, as, where, in his com- mentary on John's Gospel, he speaks of the reputed (^ipofiivn) Epistle of James, and in his commentary on Matthew, where he uses the phrase, " If we ac- knowledge the Epistle of Jude ;" and of the Second and Third Epistles of John he observes, that '"all do not acknowledge them as genuine ;" by which epi- thet, we presume, he means written by the person to whom they are ascribed. It is remarkable that Eu- sebius (ii, 23; iii, 25) classes the Epistle of James, the Acts of Paul, the Shepherd of Hermas, and the Epistle of Barnabas, at one time with the spurious, and at an- other witli the antilegomena. By the word spurious, in this instance at least, he can mean no more than that the genuineness of such books was disputed ; as, for instance, the (ii>s/,< I of ike Hebrews, which was re- ceived by the Ebionites as a genuine production of the Evangelist .Matthew. This is the work of which Je- rome made a transcript, as he himself informs us, from the copy preserved by the zeal of Paniphilns in the ( Isesarean Library. He also informs us that he trans- lated it into Greek, and that it was considered by most persons as the original Gospel of Matthew (Dialog, contra Pelag. iii. 2. and Comment, in Matt. xii ). Whether the Shepherd of Hermas was ever in- cluded among the antilegomena seems doubtful. Eu- sebius informs us that " it was disputed, and conse- quently not placed among the homologoumena. By others, however, it is judged most necessary, espe- cially to those who need an elementary introduction ; hence we know that it has been already in public use in our churches, and I have also understood, by tra- dition, that some of the most ancient writers have made use of it" (iii, 3). Origen speaks of The Shep- herd as " commonly used by the Church, but not re- ceived as divine by the unanimous consent of all." He therefore cites it, not as authority, but simply by way of illustration (lib. x, in Epist. ad Roman.). Eu- sebius further informs us that in his own time there were some in the Church of Rome who did not regard the Epistle to the Hebrews as the production of the Apostle Paul (vi, 25 ; iii, 3). Indeed, it was through the influence of Jerome that the Church of Rome, at a much later period, was with much difficulty brought to acknowledge it as canonical. "The most ancient Latin or Western Church did not rank it among the canonical writings, though the epistle was well known to them, for Clement of Rome has quoted from it manj- passages. It is true that some Latin writers in the fourth century received it, among whom was Jerome himself; yet even in the time of Jerome the Latin Church had not placed it among the canonical writings" (Marsh's Michaelis, iv, 2GC). "The re- puted Epistle to the Hebrews," says Jerome, " is sup- posed not to be Paul's on account of the difference of style, but it is believed to have been written by Bar- nabas, according to Tertullian, or by Luke the Evan- gelist; according to others, bj' Clement, afterward bishop of the Roman Church, who is said to have re- duced to order and embellished Paul's sentiments in his own language ; or at least that Paul, in writing to the Hebrews, had purposely omitted all mention of ! his name, in consequeuce of the odium attached to it, ' and wrote to them eloquently in Hebrew, as a Hebrew of the Hebrews, arid that what he thus eloquently wrote in Hebrew was still more eloquently written in j Greek, and that this was the cause of the difference I in style" (Ex Catalog.). And again, in his epistle to Dardanus, " I must acquaint our people that the epistle which is inscribed ' To the Hebrews' is ac- knowledged as the Apostle Paul's, not only by the Churches of the East, but by all the Greek ecclesiastical writers, although most [of the Latins ?] conceive it to be either written by Barnabas or Clement, and that it matters nothing by whom it was written, as it proceeds from a churchman (ecclesiastici viri), and is celebrated by being daily read in the churches. But if the custom of the Latins does not receive it among canonical Scrip- tures, nor the Greek Churches the Apocalypse of St. John, /, notwithstanding, receive them both, not fol- lowing the custom of the present age, but the author- ity of ancient writers ; not referring to them as they are in the habit of doing with respect to apocryphal writings, and citations from classical and profane au- thors, but as canonical ::nd ecclesiastical." " Peter also," says Jerome, "wrote two epistles called Cath- olic ; the second of which is denied by most on ac- count of the difference of style (Ex Catalog.). Jude is rejected by most in consequence of the citation from the apocryphal book of Enoch. Notwithstand- ing, it has authoritjr by use and antiquity, and is ac- counted among the Holy Scriptures" (Ibid.) ; and in his Letter to Paulinvs : " Paul wrote to seven churches, but the Epistle to the Hebrews is by most excluded from the number ;" and in his commentary on Isaiah, he observes that "the Latin usage does not receive the Epistle to the Hebrews among the canonical books." Contemporary with Jerome was his antag- onist Ruffinus, who reckons fourteen epistles of Paul, two of Peter, one of James, three of John, and the Apocalypse. It seems doubtful whether, antecedent to the times of Jerome and Ruffinus, any councils, even of single churches, had settled upon the canon of Scripture, and decided the. question respecting the antilegomena, for the removal of doubts among their respective commu- ANTILEGOMENA 263 ANTILEGOMENA nities ; for it seems evident that the general or oecu- menical council of Nice, which met in the year 3:25, formed no catalogue. The first catalogue, indeed, which has come down to us is that of an anonymous writer of the third century. He reckons thirteen epistles of Paul, accounts the Epistle to the Hebrews the work of an Alexandrian Marcionite, mentions the Epistle of Jude, two of John, and the revelations of John and Peter, saying, with respect to them, that "some among us are opposed to their being read in the church" (see Hug's Introduction, § xiv). But soon after the council of Nice public opinion turned gradually in favor of the antilegomena, or controvert- ed books ; for we then find them for the first time cited without any marks of doubt as to their canonici- ty. Thus, in the year 348, Cyril of Jerusalem enu- merates fourteen epistles of Paul and seven Catholic epistles. Gregory of Nazianzus, who, according to Cave (Ilistoria Literaria), was bom about the time of the Nicene Council, and died in 389, enumerates all the books now received except the Apocalypse. Epi- phanius, who was chosen bishop of Constantia in A.D. 307 or 3G8, and composed his catalogue of ecclesias- tical writers in 392, cites, in his Panarium, the differ- ent books of the New Testament in a manner which shows that he received all that are in the present can- on. Of the Apocalypse he says that it was " general- ly or by most received;" and, speaking of the Alo- gians, who rejected all John's writings, he observes, " If they had rejected the Apocalypse only, it might have been supposed that they had acted from a nice critical judgment, as being circumspect in regard to an apocryphal or mysterious book ; but to reject all John's writings was a sign of an anti-Christian spirit." Am- philochius also, bishop of Iconium, in Lycaonia, who was contemporary with Epiphanius, and is supposed to have died soon after the year 394, after citing the fourteen epistles of Paul, in his Iambics, adds, "But some say the Epistle to the Hebrews is spurious, not speaking correctly, for it is a genuine gift. Then the Catholic epistles, of which some receive seven, others only three, one of James, one of Peter, one of John ; while others receive three of John, two of Peter, and Jude's. The Revelation of John is approved by some, while many say it is spurious." The eighty-fifth of the Apostolical Canons, a work falsely ascribed to Clement of Rome, but written at latest in the fourth century, enumerates fourteen epistles of Paul, one. of Peter, three of John, one of James, one of Jude, two of Clement, and the (so-called) Apostolical Constitutions, among the canonical books of Scripture. This latter book, adds the pseudo-Clement, it is not fit to publish before all, "because of the mysteries contained in it." The first council that is supposed to have given a list of the canonical books is the much agitated council of Laodicea, supposed to have been held about the year 360 or 364 by thirty or forty bishops of Lydia and the neighboring parts ; but the fifty-ninth article, which gives a catalogue of the canonical books, is not gener- ally held to be genuine. Its genuineness, indeed, has been questioned by both Roman Catholic and Prot- estant historians. In his Introduction to the Old Testament Jahn refers to this canon as the work of " an anonymous framer." Among the canonical books included in the pretended fifty-ninth canon of this council are the seven Catholic epistles, viz., one of James, two of Peter, three of John, one of Jude ; four- teen of Paul, in the following order, viz., Romans, 1 and 2 Corinthians, Galatians, Ephesians, Philippians, Colossians, 1 and 2 Thessalonians, Hebrews, 1 and 2 Timothy, Titus, and Philemon. The Apocalypse ia not named. Jerome and Augustine, whose opinions had great influence in settling the canon of Scripture, essentially agreed in regard to the books of the New Testament. St. Augustine was present in the year 393 at the council of Hippo, which drew up a catalogue of all the books of Scripture, agreeing in all points, so far as the New Testament was concerned, with the canon universally received, with the exception, per- haps, of the Hebrews, for the ancient doubt still ap- pears through the wording of the acts of this council. They commence with enumerating only thirteen epis- tles of Paul, and then add " one, by the same author, to the Hebrews." They then mention two of Peter, three of John, one of James, and the Apocalypse, with a proviso that the churches beyond the sea be consult- ed with respect to this canon. And to the same effect the council of Carthage, held in the year 397, having adopted the same catalogue, the bishops assembled in council add, " But let this be known to our brother and fellow-priest (consacerdoti) Boniface [bishop of Rome], or to the other bishops of those parts, that we have received those [books] from the fathers to be read in the church." The same catalogue is repeated in the epistle of Innocent I, bishop of Rome, to St. Exupere, bishop of Toulouse, in the year 404, which, by those who acknowledge its genuineness, is looked upon as a confirmation of the decrees of Hippo and Carthage. It was still more formally confirmed in the Roman synod presided over by Pope Gelasius in 494, "if, indeed," to use the words of the learned Ro- man Catholic Jahn, "the acts of this synod are genuine" (see his Introduction). But, however this may be, the controversy had now nearly subsided, and the antile- gomena w^ere henceforward put on a par with the ac- knowledged books, and took their place beside them in all copies of the Scriptures. Indeed, subsequently to the eras of the councils of Hippo and Carthage, we hear but a solitary voice raised here and there against the genuineness of the antilegomena. Theodore, bish- op of Mopsuestia, for instance, the celebrated Syrian commentator and preacher, who died about A.D. 428, is accused by Leo of Byzantium of having " abrogated and antiquated the Epistle of James, and afterward other Catholic epistles" (see Canisii Thesaurus, i, 577). And Cosmas Indicoplcustes, so called from the voyage which he made to India about the year 535 to 547, in his Christian Topography, has the following observa- tions in reference to the authority of these books: " I fori >ear to allege arguments from the Catholic epistles, because from ancient times the Church has looked upon them as of doubtful authority Euse- bius Pamphilus, in his Ecclesiastical History, says that at Ephesus there are two monuments, one of John the Evangelist, and another of John, an elder, who wrote two of the Catholic epistles, the second and third inscribed after this manner, ' The elder to the elect lady,' and ' The elder to the beloved Gaius,' and both he and Irenoeus say that but two are written by the apostles, the first of Peter, and the first of John. Among the Syrians are found only the three before mentioned, viz., the Epistle of James, the Epis- tle of Peter, and the Epistle of John ; they have not the rest. It does not become a perfect Christian to confirm any thing by doubtful books, when the books in the Testament acknowledged by all (homologoumena) have sufficiently declared all things to be known about the heavens, and the: earth, and the elements, and all Christian doctrine." The most ancient Greek manuscripts which have come down to our times contain the Antilegomena. From this circumstance it is extremely probable that the copies from which they were transcribed were written after the controversies respecting their canon- icity had subsided. The Alexandrian manuscript in the British Museum (now generally admitted to have been written in the fourth or early in the fifth cen- tury) contains all the books now commonly received, together with some others, with a table of contents, in which they are cited in the following order : " Sev- en Catholic "epistles, fourteen of Paul, the Revelation of John, the First Epistle of Clement, the Second Epis- tle of Clement, and the Psalms of Solomon (which lat- ter have, however, been lost from the MS.)." (It ia ANTILIBANUS 264 ANTINOMIANS observable that Eusebius classes the First Epistle of Clement among the Homologoumena, or universally- received books; but by this he probably meant no more than that it was acknowledged by all to be the genuine work of Clement.) The order of all the epis- tles is the same as in our modern Bibles, except that the Epistle to the Hebrews is placed after the Second Epistle to the Thessalonians. In the Vatican manuscript 13, which, in respect of antiquity, disputes the precedence with the Alexandrian, the Apocalypse is wanting, but it contains the remaining antilegomena. (The omis- sion of this last book ma}' be owing simply to the loss of the last part of the codex, in consequence of which the concluding chapters of the Hebrews, and the whole of 1 and 2 Timothy, Titus, and Philemon are likewise missing.) The Syrian canon of the New Testament did not include all the antilegomena. All the manuscripts of the Syrian version (the Peshito, a work of the second century) which have come down to us omit the Second Epistle of Peter, the Second and Third of John, that of Jade, and the Apocalypse. Nor are these books received to this day either bj- the Jacobite or Nesto- rian Christians. These are all wanting in the Vati- can and Medicean copies, written in the years 548 and 586, and in the beautiful manuscript of the Peshito, preserved in the British Museum, and the writing of which was concluded at the monastery of Bethkoki, A.D. 768, on 197 leaves of vellum, in the Estrangelo character. In the inquiring age immediately preceding the Reformation the controversy respecting the antilego- mena was revived, especially by Erasmus and Cardi- nal Cajetan ; by the latter, however, upon principles so questionable as to expose him to the charge of as- sailing the authority of the Epistle to the Hebrews with the same weapons which the Emperor Julian had employed to impugn the authority of Matthew's Gos- pel. . The doubts thus raised were in a great measure silenced by the decree of the council of Trent, al- though there have not been wanting learned Roman Catholic divines since this period who have ventured to question at least the Pauline authorship of the Epis- tle to the Hebrews. It is well known that Luther, influenced in this instance not so much by historieo- critical as by dogmatical views, called the Epistle of James " an epistle of straw" (epistola straminea). He also wished the antilegomena to be distinguished from the other books in his translation of the Bible. In consequence of this, the Epistle to the Hebrews, the Epistles of James and Jude, and the Apocalypse have no numbers attached to them in the German copies of the Bible up to the middle of the seventeenth century ; and it is observed by Tholuck {Commentary on He- brews, in Biblical Cabinet') that " the same plan should have been adopted with respect to second Peter and second and third John, but it did not seem proper to detach them from the Homologonmena which belonged to them. Thus he wished at the same time to point out what were the "right noble chief books of Scrip- ture." We are informed by Father Paul Sarpi {Hist, of the Council of Trent, bk. ii, ch. xliii, t. i, p. 235; and ch. xlvii, p. 240) that one of the charges collected from the writings of Luther in this council was "that no books should be admitted into the canon of the Old Testament which were not in the canon of the Jews, and that from the New should be excluded the Epis- tle to the Hebrews, the Epistle of James, the Second Epistle of Peter, the Second and Third of John, and the Apocalypse." Tholuck states that the " Evan- gelical Churches, both Lutheran and Reformed, adopt- ed the same canon with respect to the New Testament as that of the council of Trent" {Comment, on Jleb. vol. i, Introd., ch. i, § 3, note b). Some, or all, of the antilegomena have been again impugned in recent times, especially in Germany. See each in its place. — Kitto, s. v. Compare Can-on (of Scripture). Antilib'anus (AvTtXiijavor, opposite Libanus, Judith i, 7), the eastern of the two great parallel ridges of mountains that enclose the valley of Cade- Syria proper (Strabo, xvi, 754 ; Ptol. v, 15, §8; Pliny, v, 20). It is now called Jebel esh-Shurki. The He- brew name of Lebanon (Sept. Aijiavog, Vulg. Libanus), which signitics "whitish," from the gray color of the limestone, comprehends the two ranges of Libanus and Antilibanus, as they are distinguished in classical usage. The general direction of the Antilebanon range is from north-east to south-west. Nearly oppo- site Damascus it bifurcates into diverging ridges ; the easternmost of these, the Hekmon of the O. T. {Jebel esh-Sheilh), continues its south-west course, and at- tains, in its greatest elevation, a point about 10,000 feet above the sea. The other ridge takes a more westerlj' course, is long and low, and at length unites with the other bluffs and spurs of Libanus. The former of these branches was called by the Sidonians Siric.n, and by the Amorites Shenir (Deut. iii, 9), both names signi- fying "a coat of mail" (Roscnmuller, Alterth. ii, 235). In Deuteronomy (iv, 9) it is called Mount Sion, "an elevation." In the later books (Cant, iv, 8 ; 1 Chron. v, 23) Shenir is distinguished from Hermon properly so called ; and in its Arabic form, Sunir, this was ap- plied, in the Middle Ages, to Antilibanus, north of Hermon (Abulfeda, Tab. Syr. p. 1G4). The geologi- cal formations seem to belong to the Upper Jura classi- fication of rocks, oolite and Jura dolomite prevailing. The poplar is characteristic of its vegetation. The outlying promontories, in common with those of Lib- anus, supplied the Phoenicians with abundance of tim- ber for ship-building. — Grote, Hist. n the English Antinomianism, sec further, Gataker, God's Eye on Israel (Lond. 1645, 4to); Antidote against Error (London, 1670, 4to) ; Williams (Daniel), Works, vol. iii (1738-50); Witsius, Animadversitnti Irenicce (Miscell. ed. 1736, ii, 591 sq.) ; Wesley, Works, i, 225 ; v, 196 ; vi, 68 et al. ; Neal, History of the Pu- ritans, iv ; Fletcher, Works (4 vols. N. Y.) ; Andrew Fuller, Gospel worthy of all Acceptation; Antinomian- ism contrasted with Scripture (Works, edition of 1853); Watson, Thiol. Institutes, ii, 140. On Agricola and the German Antinomianism, consult Nitzsch, De Aniino- mismo Agricola (Wurtemb. 1804); Elwert, De Antino- mia Agricolas (Tur. 1836) ; Nitzsch, in Studien u. Krit. 1846, pt. i and ii ; also Schulze, Hist. Antinomorum str- culo Lutheri (Vitemb. 1708) ; Wewetzer, De Antinomis- mo Agricolee (Strals. 1829) ; Murdoch's Mosheim, Ch. Hist. c. xvi, pt. ii, ch. i, § 25 ; Herzog, Eeal-Encyklopd. die, i, 375, sq. See Antonians. An'tioch ('Ai>noYfi«, from Antiochus), the name of two places mentioned in the New Testament. 1. Antioch in Syria. — A city on the banks of the Orontes, 300 miles north of Jerusalem, and about 30 from the Mediterranean. This metropolis was situ- ated where the chain of Lebanon, running northward, and the chain of Taurus, running eastward, are brought to an abrupt meeting. Here the Orontes breaks through the mountains ; and Antioch was placed at a bend of the river, partly on an island, partly on the level which forms the left bank, and partly on the steep and craggy ascent of Mount Silpius, which rose abruptly on the south. It was in the province of Se- leucis, called Tetrapolis, from containing the four cities Antioch, Selcucia, Apamea, and Laodicea; of which the first was named after Antiochus, the father of the founder ; the second after himself ; the third after his wife Apama ; and the fourth in honor of his mother. The same appellation (Tetrapolis, Terpa7roXic) was given also to Antioch, because it consisted of four townships or quarters, each surrounded by a separate wall, and all four by a common wall. The first was built by Seleucus Nicator, who peopled it with inhab- itants from Antigonia ; the second by the settlers be- longing to the first quarter; the third by Seleucus Callinicus; and the fourth by Antiochus Epiphanes (Strabo, xvi, 2; iii, 354). 'It was the metropolis of Syria (Tac. Hist, ii, 79), the residence of the Syrian kings, the Seleucidse (1 Mace, iii, 37 ; vii, 2), and aft- erward became the capital of the Roman provinces in Asia. It ranked third, after Rome and Alexandria, among the cities of the empire Josephus, War, iii, 2, 4), and was little inferior in size and splendor to the latter or to Seleucia (Strabo, xvi, 2 ; iii, 355, ed. Tauch.). Its suburb Daphne was celebrated for its grove and fountains (Strabo, xvi, 2; iii, 356, ed. Tauch.), its asylum (2 Mace, iv, 33), and temple dedicated to Apollo and Diana. The temple and the village were deeply bosomed in a thick grove of lau- rels and cypresses which reached as far as a circum- ference of ten miles, and formed in the most sultry summers a cool and impenetrable shade. A thousand streams of the purest water, issuing from every hill, preserved the verdure of the earth and the tempera- ture of the air (Gibbon, ch. xxiii). Hence Antioch was called Epidap/ines (Avnovaa V *""* Aaiprg, Jo- sephus, Ant. xvii, 2, 1 ; Epidaphnes cognominata, I'lin. Hist. Nat. v, 18). It was very populous; within 150 years after its erection the Jews slew 100,000 persons in it in one day (1 Mace, xi, 47). In the time of Chrysostom the population was computed at 200,000, of whom one half, or even a greater proportion, were professors of Christianity (Chrysos. Adv. Jud. i, 588; Horn, in Ignat. ii, 597; "in Matt. Horn. 85, vii, 810). Chrysostom also states that the Church at Antioch maintained 3000 poor, besides occasionally relieving many more (In Matt. Hon. vii, 658). Cicero speaks of the city as distinguished by men of learning and the cultivation of the arts ( Pro Arc/iia, 3). A multi- tude of Jews resided in it. Seleucus Nicator granted them the rights of citizenship, and placed them on a ANTIOCH 267 ANTIOCH ^4 ■JHflBP&* the Diocletian perse- cution, A.D. 312 (Ne- ander, Allgemeine Ge- schichte, i, 3, p. 1237 ; Gieseler, Lehrbuch, i, 272; Lardner, Credi- bility, pt. ii, ch.55, 58). Libaniua (born A.D. 314), the rhetorician, the friend and pane- gyrist of the Emperor Julian, was a native of Antioch (Lardner, Testimonies of Ancient Heathens, ch. 49 ; Gib- bon, Decline and Fall, etc. ch. 24). It had likewise the less equiv- ocal honor of being the birthplace of his il- lustrious pupil, John Chrysostom, born A. D. 347, died A.D. 407 perfect equality with the other inhabitants (Josephus, | (Lardner, Credibility, pt. ii, ch. 118 ; Neander, Allge- Plan of ancient Antioch in Syria Ant. xii, 3, 1). These privileges were continued to them by Vespasian and Titus — an instance (Josephus remarks) of the equity and generosity- of the Romans, who, in opposition to the wishes of the Alexandrians and Antiocheans, protected the Jews, notwithstanding the provocations they had received from them in their wars (Apion, ii, 4). They were also allowed to have an archon or ethnarch of their own (Josephus, War, vii, 3, 3). Antioch is called libera bj' Pliny (Hist. Nat. v, 18), having obtained from Pompey the privilege of being governed by its own laws (see Smith, Diet, of Class. Geogr. s. v.). The Christian faith was introduced at an early pe- riod into Antioch, and with great success (Acts xi, 19, 21, 24). The name uCkristi.ans'', was here first applied to its professors (Acts xi, 26). No city, after Jerusa- lem, is so intimatety connected with the history of the apostolic Church. One of the seven deacons or almoners appointed at Jerusalem was Nicolas, a pros- elyte of Antioch (Acts vi, 5). The Christians who were dispersed from Jerusalem at the death of Ste- phen preached the Gospel at Antioch (xi, 19). It was from Jerusalem that Agabus and the other proph- ets who foretold the famine came to Antioch (xi, 27, 28); and Barnabas and Saul were consequently sent on a mission of charity from the latter city to the for- mer (xi, 30; xii, 25). It was from Jerusalem, again, that the Judaizers came who disturbed the Church at Antioch (xv, 1) ; and it was at Antioch that Paul re- buked Peter for conduct into which he had been be- trayed through the influence of emissaries from Je- rusalem (Gal. ii, 11, 12). Antioch soon became a cen- tral point for the diffusion of Christianity among the Gentiles, and maintained for several centuries a high rank in the Christian world (see Semler, Initia societa- tis I 'Arist. Antiochice, Hal. 1767). A controversy which arose between certain Jewish believers from Jerusa- lem and the Gentile converts at Antioch respecting the permanent obligation of the rite of circumcision was the occasion of the first apostolic council or con- vention (Acts xv). Antioch was the scene of the early labors of the Apostle Paul, and the place whence he set forth on his first missionary labors (Acts xi, 26 ; xiii, 2). Ignatius was the second bishop or overseer of the Church, for about forty years, till his martyr- dom in A.D. 107. In the third and following centu- ries a number of councils were held at Antioch [see Antioch, Councils of], and in the course of the fourth century a new theological school was formed there, which thence derived the name School of An- tioch. See Antioch, School of. Two of its most distinguished teachers were the presbyters Dorotheus and Lucian, the latter of whom suffered martyrdom in meine Geschichte, ii, 3, p. 1440-1456; Hug, Aniiockia, Berl. 1863). On the further history of the Church of Antioch, see Antioch, Patriarchate of. Antioch was founded, B.C. 300, by Seleucus Nica- tor, with circumstances of considerable displaj', which were afterward embellished by fable. The situation was well chosen, both for military and commercial purposes. Antioch grew under the successive Seleu- cid kings till it became a city of great extent and of remarkable beauty. Some of the most magnificent buildings were on the island. One feature, which seems to have been characteristic of the great Syrian cities — a vast street with colonnades, intersecting the whole from end to end — was added by Antiochus Epi- phanes. Some lively notices of the Antioch of this pe- riod, and of its relation to Jewish history, are supplied by the books of Maccabees (see especially 1 Mace, iii, 37 ; xi, 13 ; 2 Mace, iv, 7-9 ; v, 21 ; xi, 36). The earlj- emperors raised there some large and important structures, such as aqueducts, amphitheatres, and baths. Herod the Great contributed a road and a col- onnade (Josephus, Ant. xvi, 5, 3; War, i, 21, 11). In A.D. 260 Sapor, the Persian king, surprised and pillaged it, and multitudes of the inhabitants were slain or sold as slaves. It has been frequently brought to the verge of utter ruin by earthquakes (A.D. 340, 394, 396, 458, 526, 528) ; by that of A.D. 526 no less than 250,000 persons were destroyed, the population being swelled by an influx of strangers to the festival of the Ascension. The Emperor Justinian gave forty- five centenaries of gold ($900,000) to restore the city. Scarcely had it resumed its ancient splendor (A.D. 540) when it was again taken and delivered to the flames by Chosroes. In A.D. 658 it was captured by the Saracens. Its " safety was ransomed with 300,000 pieces of gold, but the throne of the successors of Al- exander, the seat of the Roman government in the East, which had been decorated hj Cresar with the ti- tles of free, and holy, and inviolate, was degraded un- der the yoke of the caliphs to the secondary rank of a provincial town" (Gibbon, li). In A.D. 975 it was retaken by Nicephoras Phocas. In A.D. 1080 the son of the governor Philaretus betrayed it into the hands of Soliman. Seventeen years after the Duke of Nor- mandy entered it at the head of 300,000 crusaders ; but, as the citadel still held out, the victors were in their turn besieged by a fresh host under Kerboga and twenty-eight emirs, which at last gave way to their desperate valor (Gibbon, lviii). In A.D. 1268 Anti- och was occupied and ruined by Boadocbar or Bibars, sultan of Egypt and Syria ; this first seat of the Chris- tian name being depopulated by the slaughter of 17,f St. I'aul, Aiitiiicli. authority for all that is known of ancient Antioch is Midler's Antiquitates Antwchence (Gott. 1839). Mod- ern A ntakia is a shrunken and miserable place. Some of the walls, shattered by earthquakes, are described in Chesney's account of the Euphrates Expedition (i, 310 sq. ; comp. the history, ib. ii, 423 sq.), where also is given a view of the gateway which still bears the name of St. Paul. — Kitto, s. v. ; Smith, s. v. ANTIOCH, COUNCILS OF. Among the more important of the councils held at Antioch are the fol- lowing : In 252, by the patriarch Fabius, or Fabianus, or his successor, Demetrius, concerning the Novatian heresy (Labbe, i, 719). In 264, against Paul of Sa- mosata {ibid. p. 843). In 269, when Paul was deposed and anathematized (ibid. p. 893). In 330, against the patriarch Eustathius, who was falsely accused of Sa- bellianism and adultery, and deposed. In 341 (Cone, in Encceniis), on occasion of the dedication of the great church of Antioch ; ninety-seven bishops were pres- ent, of whom forty at least were Arians. This synod was probably orthodox in its commencement, but de- generated into a pseudo-synod, in which, after the de- parture of the orthodox majority, the remaining Arians condemned Athanasius; and, in all probability, the "Three Chapters" [see Chapters] were then com- posed. In 344, by the Arian bishops, in which the ftaKpoarixoc, or long confession of faith, was drawn up. In 354, by thirty Arian bishops, who again con- demned Athanasius, because he had returned to his see without being first synodically declared innocent (Soz. lib. iv, cap. 8). In 358, at which Homousianism and Homoiousianism were both condemned/ In 3G3, in which Acacius of C'ssarea and other Arians admit- ted the Nicene faith (ibid, ii, 825). In 367, in which the word " consubstantial" was rejected (ibid). In 380, in which Meletius, at the head of one hundred and forty-five bishops, confirmed the faith of the coun- cil of Rome in 378 (Vales, ad Theod. lib. v, cap. 3). In 433, in which John of Antioch and Cyril were rec- onciled (Labbe, iii, 1265). In 435, in which the mem- ory of Theodorus of Mopsuestia was defended and Proclus's work on him approved. In 440, against Theodorus of Mopsuestia. In 451, on the conversion of the Eutychians (Labbe, iv). In 560, in defence of the council of Chalcedon. In 781, for the worship of images, under Theodorus. In 1806 the bishops of the united Greek Church held, under the presidency of the papal patriarch, a synod, known under the name synod of Antioch, in the convent of Carrapha, in the diocese of Beyrut, and endorsed the Gallican and anti-papal resolutions of the synod of Pistoja (q. v.). Nevertheless their proceedings received the approba- tion of the papal delegate, and were published, with his approbation, in 1810, in the Arabic language. But in 1834 Pope Gregorj' XVI ordered the Melchite patri- arch to furnish an Italian translation of the proceed- ings, and then condemned them by a brief of Sept. 16, 1835. — Landon, Manual of Councils; Smith, Tables of Church Hist. ANTIOCH, PATRIARCHATE OF. Tradition reports that St. Peter was the first bishop of Antioch, but there is no historical proof of it. It is certain, however, that the Church of Antioch stood prominent in the early ages of the Church, and its see was held by Ignatius and other eminent men. Its bishops ranked in the early Church only after those of Rome and Alexandria. When the bishop of Constantinople received his rank next to that of Rome, Antioch oc- cupied the fourth rank among the episcopal sees. In the fifth century the bishop of Antioch received, to- gether with the bishops of the other prominent sees, the title patriarch (q. v.). In the fourth century this powerful Church included not less than a hundred thousand persons, three thousand of whom were sup- ported out of the public donations. It is painful to trace the progress of declension in such a church as ANTIOCH 209 ANTIOCH this. But the period now referred to, namely, the age of Chr}'sostom, toward the close of the fourth cen- tury, may be considered as the brightest of its history subsequent to the apostolic age, and that from which the Church at Antioch may date its fall. It contin- ued, indeed, outwardly prosperous ; but superstition, secular ambition, the pride of life ; pomp and formal- ity in the service of God in place of humility and sin- cere devotion ; the growth of faction and the decay of charity, showed that real religion was fast disap- pearing, and that the foundations were laid of that great apostasy which, in two centuries from this time, overspread the whole Christian world, led to the en- tire extinction of the Church in the East, and still holds dominion over the fairest portions of the West. For many years, up to the accession of Theodosius, the Arians filled the see ; and after the council of Chalce- don Peter Fullo and others who refused to acknowl- edge that synod occupied the patriarchal throne ; but of them all the worst was Severus, the abettor of the Monophysite heresy (A.D. 512-518). His fol- lowers were so many and powerful, that they were able to appoint a successor of the same opinions ; and from that time to the present there has been a Mono- physitic or Jacobite patriarch of Antioch, who, however, iixed his see, not at Antioch itself, like all the former, but at Tacrita, in Mesopotamia, and at the present daj- in Diarbekir. The rest of the patriarchate of Antioch, after the separation between the Eastern and Western Churches, constituted a part of the Greek Church. In it there is still a patriarch of Antioch, yet with only a small district, and subordinate to the patriarch of Constantinople. For those Greeks and Jacobites who were prevailed upon to enter into a union with the Roman Church, two patriarchs, bear- ing the title patriarch of Antioch, are appointed, one for the united Greeks, and one for the united Syrians. The provinces of the ancient patriarchate were as follows : 1. Syria Prima. 7. Syria Secunda. 2. Phoenicia Prima. 8. The Enphratean province. 3. Phoenicia Secunda. 9. Province of Osrhoene. 4. Arabia'. 10. Mesopotamia. 5. Cilicia Prima. 11. Isauria. C. Cilicia Secunda. The province of Theodorias, composed of a few cities in the two Syrias, was afterward formed by the Em- peror Justinian. It is a question whether the region of Persia, which in the time of Constantine the Great was filled with Christians, was included in the patri- archate of Antioch. Peter, patriarch of Antioch in the eleventh century, William of Tyre, and the Arabic canons, assert that such was the case. The Chris- tians now in Persia are Nestorians, and disclaim any subjection to the see of Antioch. It was the ancient custom of tliis patriarchate for the patriarch to conse- crate the metropolitans of his diocese, who in their turn consecrated and overlooked the bishops of their respective provinces ; in which it differed from the Church of Alexandria, where each individual diocese depended immediately upon the patriarch, who ap- pointed every bishop. The patriarch of the Sj'fian Jacobites styles himself " Patriarch of Antioch, the city of God, and of the whole East." — Lardner, Works, iv, 558 sq. ; Historic/, Patriarrharum A ntioch. in Le Quicn, Oriens Christian, torn, ii ; Boschii Tract, hist. chronol. de Patriarchis Antioch. (Tenet. 1748). See Jacobites and Greek Church. ANTIOCH, SCHOOL OF, a theological seminary which arose at the end of the fourth century, but which had been prepared for a century before by the learned presbyters of the Church of Antioch. It dis- tinguished itself by diffusing a taste for scriptural knowledge, and aimed at a middle course in Biblical Hernieneutics, between a rigorously literal and an al- legorical method of interpretation (see Munter, Ueb. d. Antiochien. Schulen, in Staudlin, Arch'.v. i, 1, 1). Sev- eral other seminaries sprung up from it in the Syrian Church. As distinguished from the school of Alexan- dria, its tendency was logical rather than intuitional or mystical. The term school of Antioch is used also to denote the theological tendencies of the Syrian Church clergy. Nestorianism arose out of the bosom of this school. Gieseler gives the following names as belong- ing to it: Julius Africanus of Nicopolis (A.D. 232); Dorotheus (A.D. 290); Lucian (A.D. 311).— Neander, Ch. Hist, ii, 150, 352, etc. ; Gieseler, Ch. Hist. per. i, div. iii, § 03 ; Neander, Hist, of Dogmas, i, 265 ; ii, 328. 2. Antioch in Pisidia, being a border city, was considered at different times as belonging to different provinces (see Cellar. Notit. ii, 187 sq.). Ptolemy (v, 5) places it in Pamphylia, and Strabo (xii, 577) in Phrygia (see Smith's Diet, of Class. Geog. s. v.). It was founded by Scleucus Nicator, and its first inhab- itants were from Magnesia on the Majander. After the defeat of Antiochus (III) the Great by the Ro- mans, it came into the possession of Eumenes. king of Pergamos, and was afterward transferred to Amyn- tas. On his death the Romans made it the seat of a proconsular government, and invested it with the privileges of a Colonia Juris Italici, which included a freedom from taxes and a municipal constitution sim- ilar to that of the Italian towns (Ulpianus, lib. 50). Antioch was noted in earl}- times for the wor- ship of Men Arcams, or Lunus. Numerous slaves and extensive es- tates were annexed to the service of the tem- ple; but it was abol- ished after the death of Amyntas (Strabo, xii, 8 ; iii, 72). When Paul and Barnabas vis- ited this citj' (Acts xiii, 14), they found a Jew- ish s}rnagogue and a considerable number of proselytes, and met with great success among the Gentiles (ver. 48) ; but, through the violent opposition of the Jews, were obliged to leave the place, which they did in strict accordance with their Lord's injunction (ver. 51, compared with Matt. x, 14 ; Luke ix, 5). On Paul's return from Lystra, he revisited Antioch for the purpose of strengthening the minds of the disciples (Acts xiv, 21). He probably vis- ited Antioch again at the beginning of his second jour- ney, when Silas was his associate, and Timothy, who was a native of this neighborhood, had just been add- ed to the party (2 Tim. iii, 11). See Paul. Till within a very recent period Antioch was sup- posed to have been situated where the town of Ak- Sheker now stands (Olivier, vi, 390) ; but the research- es of the Rev. F. Arundell, British chaplain at Smyr- na in 1833 {Discoveries, i, 281), confirmed by the still later investigations of Mr. Hamilton, secretary of the Geographical Society {Researches, i, 472), have de- termined its site to be adjoining the town of Yalo- batch: and consequently that Ak-Sheker is the an- cient Philonielion described by Strabo (xii, 8 ; iii, 72, ed. Tauch.): "In Phrygia Paroreia is a moun- tainous ridge stretching from cast to west ; and under this on either side lies a great plain, and cities near it ; to the north Philonielion, and on the other side An- tioch, called Antioch near Pisidia ; the one is situated altogether on the plain ; the other on an eminence, and has a colony of Romans." According to Pliny, Antioch was also called Csesarea (v, 24). Mr. Arun- dell observed the remains of several temples and churches, besides a theatre and a magnificent aque- duct ; of the latter twenty-one arches still remained in a perfect state. Mr. Hamilton copied several inscrip- tions, all, with one exception, in Latin. Of one the only words not entirely effaced were " Antiocheae Coin of Antioch in Pisidia. ANTIOCHIA Coin of Antioch in Pisidia, with the Head of Gordian. Caesari." (See Arundell's Discoveries in Asia Minor, Lond. 1834, i, 268-312 ; Hamilton's Researches in Asia Minor, Lond. 1842, i, 472-474 ; ii, 413-439 ; Laborde's Asia Minor; Calmet, Plates, vii; Conybeare and Howson, Life and Epistles of St. Paul, ii," 170.)— Kit- to, s. v. See Pisidia. Antiochi'a, a more exact method of Anglicizing (1 Mace, iv, 35; vi, G3; 2 Mace, iv, 33; v, 21) the name Antioch [»» Syria"] (q. v.). Antio'chian (^Avtio\i vc), an inhabitant (2 Mace. iv, 9-19) of the city Antioch [in Syria] (q. v.). Anti'ochis CAvrio\is, fem- of Antiochus), the concubine of Antiochus Epiphanes, who gave her the cities of Tarsus and Mallo, that she might receive their revenues for her own benefit, like the modern "pin- money" (comp. Cicero, Ad Verrem, 5). This was re- garded by the inhabitants as an insupportable mark of contempt, and they took up arms against the king, who was obliged to march in person to reduce them (2 Mace, iv, 30). B.C. 168. Anti'ochus {'Avrioxog, opponent), the name espe- cially of several of the Syrian kings, whose history, so far as relates to Jewish affairs, is contained particu- larly in the Books of the Maccabees, and is predicted with remarkable minuteness in the 11th chapter of Daniel. The name was first borne bjr one of the gen- erals of Philip, whose son Seleucus', by the help of the first Ptolemy, established himself (B.C. 312) as ruler of Babylon. The year 312 is, in consequence, the era from which, under that monarchy, time was com- puted, as, for instance, in the Books of Maccabees. For eleven years more the contest in Asia continued, while Antigonus (the "one-eyed") was grasping at universal supremacy. At length, in 301, he was de- feated and slain in the decisive battle of Ipsus, in Phrygia. Ptolemy, son of Lagus, had meanwhile be- come master of Southern Syria, and Seleucus was too much indebted to him to be disposed to eject him by force from this possession. In fact, the first three Ptolemies (B.C. 323-222) looked on their extra-Egyp- tian possessions as their sole guarantee for the safety of Egypt itself against their formidable neighbor, and succeeded in keeping the mastery, not only of Pales- tine and Coele-Syria, and of many towns on that coast, but of Gyrene and other parts of Libya, of Cyprus, and other islands, with numerous maritime posts all round Asia Minor. A permanent fleet was probably kept up at Samos (Polyb. v, 35, 11), so that their arms reached to the Hellespont (v, 34, 7) ; and for some time they ruled over Thrace (xviii, 34, 5). Thus Syria was divided between two great powers, the northern half falling to Seleucus and his successors, the southern to the Ptolemies; and this explains the titles "king of the north" and "king of the south," in the lltli chapter of Daniel. The line dividing them was drawn somewhat to the north of Damascus, the capital of Coele-Syria. — Kitto, s. v. The most compact and unbroken account of the kings of this, the Seleueid or Syrian, dynasty is to be found in Appian's book \l><- Rebus Syriacis"), at the end. A sufficiently detailed statement of the reign of each may be found in Smith's Diet, of Class. Bioij. 270 ANTIOCHUS s. v. On the dates, see Clinton's Fasti Hellenici, vol. iii, Appendix, ch. iii. The reigns are as follows : 1. Seleucus I, Nicator, B.C. 312-280. 2. Antiochus I, Soter, his son, 280-261. ;:. Antiochus II, Theos, his son, 201-240. 4. Seleucus II, Callinicus, his son, 240-220. 5. (Alexander, or) Seleucus III, Ceraunus, his son, 226-223. 0. Antiochus III, the Great, his brother, 223-187. 7. Seleucus IV, Philopator, his son, 187-176. 8. Antiochus IV, Epiphanes, his brother, 170-104. 9. Antiochus V, Eupator, his son (a minor), 104-102. 10. Demetrius I, Soter, son of Seleucus Philopatar, 102-150. 11. Alexander Balas, a nmrper, who pretended to bo son of Antiochus Epiphanes, and was acknowledged by the Ro- mans, 152-140. 12. Antiochus VI, Dionysus (a minor), son of the preceding. He was murdered by the usurper Trypho, who contested the kingdom till 137. 13. Demetrius II, Nicator, son of Demetrius Soter, reigned 140- 141, when he was captured bv the Parthians. 14. Antiochus VII, Sidctes, his brother, 141-128. 15. Demetrius II, Nicator, a second time, after his release from Parthia, 128-125. 10. Seleucus V, his son, assassinated immediately by his moth- er, 125. 17. Antiochus YHI, Grypus, his brother, shared his kingdom with the following, 125-90. IS. Antiochus IX, Cyzicenus, his half-brother, 111-f 5. 19. Seleucus VI, Epiphanes, eldest son of Antiochus Grypus, kills Antiochus Cyzicenus, 90-!5. 20. Antiochus X, Eusebes, son of Antiochus Cyzicenus, asserts his claims to bis father's .-hare of the dominions, kills Seleucus Epiphanes, and prevails over the successors of the latter, but gives way to Tigranes, 95-83. 21. Philip, second son of Antiochus ( irypus, succeeds to the claims of his brother Seleucus against Antiochus Eusebes, until the accession of Tigranes, cir. 94-83. 22. Antiochus XI, Epiphanes II, his brother, associated with him in the contest in which he lost his life, cir. 94. 23. Demetrius III, Euca>rus, his brother, likewise associated with Philip till their- rupture, when he was taken prison- er by the Parthians, 94-SS. 24. Antiochus XII, Dionysius II, his brother, whose cause he took up against 1 hilip, till slain by the Arabians, cir. 88-86. 25. Tigranes, king of A menia, invited to the throne by the Syrians over all the rival claimants, and held it till his overthrow by the Eoman general Eucullus, 83-09. 26. Antiochus XIII, Asiaticus, son of Antiochus Eusebes, allow- ed by Lucullus to hold the throne of the Seleucida? till its entire abolition by Pompey, 09-05. The following (Nos. 3, 6, 8, 9, 12, 14, 17, 18, 20, 22, 24, of the above) are the only ones of the name of Antiochus that are important in sacred literature. (See Erohlieh, Annates Syria; ; Vaillant, Sekucidar. Imp.) 1. Antiochus (II) Theos (Gtug, god, so surnamed "in the first instance by the Milesians, because he overthrew their tyrant Timarchus," Appian, Syr. C5), the son r.nd successor of Antiochus (I) Soter as king of Syria, B.C. 261. He carried on for several years the war inherited from his father with the Egyptian king, Ptolemy (II) Philadelphus, who subdued most of the districts of Asia Minor, but at length (B.C. 250), in order to secure peace, he married Ptolemy's daugh- ter (Berenice) in place of his wife Laodice, and ap- pointed the succession in the line of his issue by her (Polyb. ap. Athen. ii, 45) ; yet, on the death of Ptolemy two years afterward, Antiochus recalled his former wife Laodice, and Berenice and her son were soon af- ter put to death at Daphne. Antiochus himself died, B.C. 246, in the 40th year of his age (Porphyry, in Euseb. Chron. Ann. i, 345),' of poison administered by his wife, who could not forget her former divorce (Justin, xxvii, 1 ; Appian, Syr. 65 ; Val. Max. ix, 14, 1). Coin of Antiochus Theos, with the Figure of Hercules. The above alliance of Antiochus with Ptolemy, by the marriage of Berenice to the former, is prophetical- ANTIOCIIUS 271 ANTIOCIIUS ly referred to in Dan. xi, G, as " the joining of them- selves together" by "the king of the south and the king of the north," through '"the king's daughter;" and its failure is there distinctly characterized, through the triumph of Laodice over "him that strengthened her," i. e. her husband Antiochus (see Jerome, Com- ment, in loc). After the death of Antiochus, Ptolemy Evergetes, the brother of Berenice ("out of a branch of her root"), who succeeded his father Ptol. Phila- delphia, exacted vengeance for his sister's death by an invasion of Syria, in which Laodice was killed, her son Seleucus Callinicus driven for a time from the throne, and the whole country plundered (Dan. xi, 7-9; hence his surname " the benefactor''}. The hos- tilities thus renewed continued for many years ; and on the death of Seleucus, B.C. 226, after his "return into his own land" (Dan. xi, 9), his sons Alexander (Seleucus) Ceraunos and Antiochus "assembled a great multitude of forces" against Ptol. Philopator, the son of Evergetes, and " one of them" (Antiochus) threatened to overthrow the power of Egypt (Dan. xi, 10).— Smith, s. v. 2. Antiochus (III) the Great. Seleucid king of Syria, son of Seleucus Callinicus, brother and succes- sor of Seleucus (II) Ceraunus, B.C. 223 (Polyb. iv, 40 ; comp. Euseb. Chron. A rm. i, 347 ; ii, 235 ; see Giischen, in the Theol. Stud. u. Krit. 1831, iv, 713). In a war with the weak king of Egypt, Ptolemy Philo- pator, in order to regain Coele-Syria and Phoenicia, he twice (comp. Polyb. v, 49) penetrated as far as Dura (two miles north of Cassarea), but on the second occa- sion he concluded a four-months' truce with his adver- sary, and led his army back to the Orontes (Polyb. v, GO ; Justin, xxx, 1, 2 ; Athen. xiii. 577 ; comp. Dan. si, 10). On the breaking out of hostilities again, he drove the Egyptian land-force as far as Zidon, deso- lated Gilead and Samaria, and took up his winter- quarters at Ptolemais (Polyb. v, 63-71). In the be- ginning of the following year (B.C. 217). however, he was defeated by the Egyptians (Polyb. v, 79, 80. 82- 86 ; Strabo, xvi, 759 ; comp. Dan. xi, 11) at Raphia (near Gaza), with an immense loss, and compelled to retreat to Antioch, leaving Ccele-Syria, Phoenicia, and Palestine to the Egyptians. Thirteen [14} years af- pedition against Asia Minor, in which he subdued the greater part of it, and even crossed the Hellespont into Europe. By this means he became (B.C. 192) involved in a war With the Romans (Liv. xxxv, 13 ; Justin, xxxi, 1), in which, after many reverses, he was finally compelled, by an unfortunate battle at Magnesia, in Lycia (B.C. 190), to conclude a disgrace- furtreaty, B.C. 189 (Appian, Syr. 33-39; Polyb. xxi, 14 ; Liv. xxxvii, 40, 43, 45, 55 ; Justin, xxi, 8 ; comp. Dan. xi, 18 ; 1 Mace, viii, 6 sq.). See Eumenes. He lost his life soon afterward (B.C. 187, in the 36th year of his reign, according to Euseb. Chron. ii, 35, 235, hut after 34 full years, according to Porphyr. Excerpt, i, 347) in a popular insurrection excited by his attempt to plunder the temple at Elymais, in order to obtain means for paying the tribute imposed upon him by the Romans (Strabo, xvi, 744 ; Justin, xxxii, 2; Diod. Sic. Exc. ii, 573; Porphyr. in Euseb. Chron. Arm. i, 348 ; comp. Dan. xi, 19). Daring the war of Antiochus with Egypt, the Jews and inhabitants of Coole-Syria suffered severely, and the suspense in which they were for a long time kept as to their ulti- mate civil relations operated injuriously for their in- terests (Joseph. Ant. xii, 3, 3); but, as the Jews quick- ly adopted' the Syrian party after the battle at Paneas, he granted them not only full liberty and important concessions for their worship and religious institutions (Josephus, Ant. xii, 3, 3, 4), but he also planted Jew- ish colonies in Lydia and Phrygia, in order to secure the doubtful fidelity of his subjects there. Two sons of Antiochus occupied the throne after him, Seleucus Philopator, his immediate successor, and Antiochus IV, who gained the kingdom upon the assassination of his brother. (See, generally, Fluthe, Gesch. Mace- don, ii, 226 sq.) — Winer, s. v. 3. Antiochus (IV) Epiphanes CE?rt(pav>)e, illus- trious; comp. Michaelis on 1 Mace, i, 10, and Eckhel, Boctr. num. I, iii, 223; nicknamed l-'.pimanes. 'V.-t/.ia- r//r, madman, Athen. x, 438 sq. ; on coins Theos, Oeoc., god, see Frohlieh, Annul, tab. 6, 7), a Seleucid king of Syria, second son of Antiochus the Great (Appian, Syr. 45; 1 Mace, i, 11), ascended the throne on the death of his brother, Seleucus Philopator (on his enu- meration, the 11th of the Seleucid*, Dan. vii, 8, 24; see Lengerke, Daniel, p. 318 sq.), B.C. 175 (see Werns- dorf, De fide libr. Mace. p. 28 sq.), and attained an evil notoriety for his tyrannical treatment of the Jews (comp. Dan. vii, 8 sq.), who have described him (in the second Book of the Maccabees) as barbarous in the extreme (see Eichhorn, Apokr. p. 265). He had been Tetradrachm (Attic Talent) of Antiochus the Great, the reverse bearing a figure of Apollo, with the inscription (in Greek) " Of King Antiochus." terward, Antiochus (in connection with Philip III of Macedon, Liv. xxxi, 34) opened another campaign against Egypt, then ruled over by a child, Ptolemy (V) Epiphanes. He had already conquered the three above-named countries, when a war between him and Attains, king of Pergamus, diverted him to Asia Minor, and in his absence Ptolemy, aided by Scopas, obtain- ed possession of Jerusalem : but, as soon as he had se- cured peace there, he returned through Cade-Syria, defeated the Egyptian army at Paneas, and obtained the mastery of all Palestine, B.C. 198 (Polyb. xv, 20; Appian, Syr. 1 ; Liv. xxx, 19 ; Joseph. Ant. xii, 3, 3; comp. Dan. xi, 13-16). Ptolemy now formed an alli- ance with Antiochus, and married his daughter Cleo- patra (Polyb. xxviii, 17, 11), who received as a dowry (comp. Dan. xi, 13-16) Ccele-Syria, Phoenicia, and Palestine (Joseph. Ant. xii, 4, 1). Antiochus under- took in the following vear a naval as well as land ex- us Epiphanes, with the Figure of Jupiter. given as a hostage to the Romans (B.C. 188) after his father's defeat at Magnesia. In B.C. 175 he was re- leased by the intervention of his brother Seleucus, who substituted his own son Demetrius in his place. An- tiochus was at Athens when Seleucus was assassinated by Ileliodorus. He took advantage of his position, and, by the assistance of Eumenes and Attains, easily expelled Ileliodorus, who had usurped the crown, and himself "obtained the kingdom by flatteries" (Dan. xi, 21; comp. Liv. xii, 20), to the exclusion of his nephew Demetrius (Dan. vii, 8). The accession of Antiochus was immediately followed by desperate ef- forts of the Hellenizing party at Jerusalem to assert their supremacy. Jason (Jesus; Joseph. Ant. xii, 5. 1 ; see Jason)", the brother of Onias III, the high- ANTIOCHUS 272 ANTIOCHUS priest, persuaded the king to transfer the high-priest- hood to him, and at the same time bought permission (2 Mace, iv, 9) to carry out his design of habituating the Jews to Greek customs (2 Mace, iv, 7, 20). Three years afterward, Menelaus, of the tribe of Benjamin [see Simon], who was commissioned by Jason to car- ry to Antiochus the price of his office, supplanted Ja- son by offering the king a larger bribe, and was him- self appointed high-priest, while Jason was obliged to take refuge among the Ammonites (2 Mace, iv, 23-2G). From these circumstances, and from the marked honor with which Antiochus was received at Jerusalem very early in his reign (B.C. cir. 173; 2 Mace, iv, 22), it appears that he found no difficulty in regaining the border provinces which had been j^iven as the dower of his sister Cleopatra to Ptol. Epiphanes. He under- took four campaigns against Egypt, in order to pos- sess himself of Ceele-Syria and Phoenicia, which he had claimed since Cleopatra's death (see the Anti- ochus preceding) ; the first B.C. 171, the second B.C. 170 (2 Mace, v, 1 ; 1 Mace, i, 17 sq.), the third B.C. 169, the fourth B.C. 168. On his return from the sec- ond of these campaigns, in the prosecution of which he had overrun the greater part of Egypt, and taken pris- oner the Egyptian king, Ptolemy Philometor (comp. Dan. xi, 26), he indulged in the harshest manner of proceedings in Jerusalem, on occasion of the above shameful quarrel among the priests [see Menelaus], which had been carried on by open force of arms (comp. Joseph. Ant. xii, 5, 1), and vented his rage es- peciallj- on the temple, which he plundered and dese- crated with great bloodshed (1 Mace, i, 20-42 ; 2 Mace, v, 1-23). Being checked by the Romans in his fourth campaign against Egypt, and compelled in a very peremptory manner to retire (Liv. xlv, 12 ; Polyb. xxix, 11; Appian, Syr. GG ; Diod. Sic. Exc. Vatic. xxxi, 2; comp. Dan. xi, 29 sq.), ha detached (B.C. 167) a body of troops to Jerusalem, who took the city by assault, slaughtered a large part of the inhabitants, and gave up the city to a general sack (1 Mace, i, 30 sq. ; 2 Mace, v, 24 sq. ; comp. Dan. xi, 31 sq.). The Jewish worship in the Temple was utterly broken up and abolished (1 Mace, i, 43 sq.). At this time he availed himself of the assistance of the ancestral ene- mies of the Jews (1 Mace, iv, 61 ; v, 3 sq. ; Dan. xi, 41). The decrees then followed which have rendered his name infamous. The Greek religion was forcibly imposed upon the Jews, and there was set up, for the purpose of desecrating (Diod. Sic. Eclog. xxxiv, 1) and defiling the Temple, on the 15th oif Kisleu, the '• abomination of desolation" [q. v.] (Dan. xi, 31; xii, 11 ; 1 Maec. i, 57), i. e. probably a little idolatrous shrine (Joseph. Ant. xii, 5, 4) on the altar of burnt- offerings; the first victim was sacrificed to Jupiter Olympius, on the 25th of the same month. Many timidly submitted to the royal mandate (1 Mace, i, 43), being already inclined to Gentilism (1 Mace, i, 12), and sacrificed to the pagan gods (1 Mace, i, 45); but a band of bold patriots united (comp. Dan. xi, 34) under the Asmonaean Mattathias (q. v.), and, after liis death, which occurred shortly afterward, under his heroic son, Judas MaccabsBUS (q. v.), and, after acting fur a Ions time on the defensive, at length took the open field il Mace, iv), and gained their freedom (comp. Han. i\, 25 sip). Meanwhile Antiochus turn- ed his anus to the East, toward Parthia (Tae. Eist. v, 8) ami Armenia (Appian, Syr. 45; Diod. ap. Miiller, Fragm. ii. 10; comp. Dan. xi,40). Hearing not long afterward of the riches of a temple of Nan«a("the desire of women," Dan. \i, 37) in Klymais (1 Mace, vi, 1 sq. ; see Wernsdorf, Dejide Maccab. p. 58 sq.), bung with the gifts of Alexander, lie resolved to plun- der it. The attempt was defeated ; and, though he did not fall like his father in the art of sacrilege, the event hastened his death. He retired to Babylon, and thence to Tabse in Persia (not in the vicinity of Ecbatana, as in 2 Mace, ix, 3, the traditionary burial* ' place of this king, see Wernsdorf, ut sup. p. 104 sq.}, where he died in the year B.C. 164 (see Hofmann, Weissag. i, 310), in the twelfth year of his reign (Ap- pian, Syr. 66; Polyb. xxi, 11; see Wernsdorf, p. 26 sq., 61 sq. ; comp. Dan. xi, 8 ; viii, 25), the victim of superstition, terror, and remorse (Polyb. xxxi, 2 ; Jo- | sephus, Ant. xii, 8, 1 sq.), having first heard of the successes of the Maccabees in restoring the temple- worship at Jerusalem (1 Mace, vi, 1-16; comp. 2 j Mace, i, 7-17 ?). " He came to his end, and there was none to help him" (Dan. xi, 45). Comp. Liv. xii, 24-25; xlii, 6; xliv, 19; xlv, 11-13; Josephus, Ant. xii, 5, 8. See Jacob ben-Naphtali, bO'PB&i* Vb^ (Mantua, 1557). Compare Maccabee. The prominence given to the reign of Antiochus Epiphanes in the Book of Daniel accords with its rep- resentative character (Dan. vii, 8, 25 ; viii, 11 sq.). The conquest of Alexander had introduced the forces of Greek thought and life into the Jewish nation, which was already prepared for their operation. See Alexander the Great. For more than a century and a half these forces had acted powerfully both upon the faith and upon the habits of the people ; and the ; time was come when an outward struggle alone could decide whether Judaism was to be merged into a ra- tionalized paganism, or to rise not only victorious from the conflict, but more vigorous and more pure. There were many symptoms which betokened the approach- ing struggle. The position which Juda?a occupied on the borders of the conflicting empires of Syria and Eg}'pt, exposed equally to the open miseries of war and the treacherous favors of rival sovereigns, ren- dered its national condition precarious from the first, though these very circumstances were favorable to the i growth of freedom. The terrible crimes by which the I wars of "the North and South" were stained, must j have alienated the mind of every faithful Jew from his Grecian lords, even if persecution had not been super- added from Egypt first and then from Syria. Polit- ically nothing was left for the people in the reign of ! Antiochus but independence or the abandonment of every prophetic hope. Nor was their social position less perilous. The influence of Greek literature, of I foreign travel, of extended commerce, had made itself felt in daily life. At Jerusalem the mass of the in- habitants seem to have desired to imitate the exercises of the Greeks, and a Jewish embassy attended the games of Hercules at Tyre (2 Mace, iv, 9-20). Even their religious feelings were yielding ; and before the rising of the Maccabees no opposition was offered to the execution of the king's decrees. Upon the first attempt of Jason the " priests had no courage to serve at the altar" (2 Mace, iv, 14 ; comp. 1 Mace, i, 43) ; and this not so much from wilful apostasy as from a disregard to the vital principles involved in the con- flict. Thus it was necessary that the final issues of a false Hellenism should be openly seen that it might be discarded forever by those who cherished the ancient faith of Israel. The conduct of Antiochus was in ev- ery way suited to accomplish this end; and yet it seems to have been the result of passionate impulse rather than of any deep-laid scheme to extirpate a Tetradrachm (Attic Talent) of Antiochus Epiphanes, the Reverse lienrinjr a ritrnre of Jupiter, seated and holding nn Image of Victory, with the Inscription (in Greek), " Of King Antiochus, Thi. os, Kpiphuncs, Niciphoro.-." ANTIOCHUS 273 ANTIOCHUS strange creed. At first he imitated the liberal policy of his predecessors, and the occasion for his attacks was furnished by the Jews themselves. Even the motives by which ha was finally actuated were per- sonal, or, at most, only political. Able, energetic (Po- lvk xxvii, 17), and liberal to profusion, Antiochus was reckless and unscrupulous in the execution of his plans. He had learned at Kome to court power and to dread it. He gained an empire, and he remembered that he had been a hostage. Regardless himself of the gods of his fathers (Dan. xi, 37), he was incapable of appreciating the power of religion in others ; and, like Nero in later times, he became a type of the en- emy of God, not as the Roman emperor, by the per- petration of unnatural crimes, but In- the disregard of every higher feeling. "He magnified himself above all." The real deity whom he recognised was the Ro- man war-god, and fortresses were his most sacred temples (Dan. xi, 38 sq. ; Ewald, Gesch. des Volkes Isr. iv, 340). Confronted with such a persecutor, the Jew realized the spiritual power of his faith. The evils of heathendom were seen concentrated in a per- sonal shape. The outward forms of worship became invested with something of a sacramental dignity. Common life was purified and ennobled by heroic de- votion. An independent n ition asserted the integrity of its hopes in the face of Egypt, Syria, and Rome. Antiochus himself left behind him among the Jews the memory of a detestable tyrant (!"IT23, contemptible, Dan. xi, 21 ; pi'^a w^rtprwXoc, 1 Mace, i, 10), although Diodorus Siculus (Eclog. 34) gives him the character of a magnanimous prince QiaatXtvc [ityaXoipi'xoQ Kcii to fftog ypepoc). It cannot, indeed, be denied that the portraitures of the Jewish writers are likely to have been exaggerated, but they could not well have fabricated the facts in the case, while the nature of the reaction (in the times of the Maccabees) shows an in- tolerable civil pressure preceding ; accordingly Antio- chus is depicted even in Diodorus (ii, 582 sq.) and other historians as a violently eccentric (almost atro- cious) monarch, wliose character is composed of con- tradictor}' elements (comp. Athen. x, 433). His at- tempt to extirpate the Jewish religion could certainly hardly have arisen from despotic bigotry, but he prob- ably sought by this means to render the Jews some- what more tractable, and to conform them to other na- tions— a purpose to which the predilection for foreign customs, already predominant among the prominent Jews (1 Mace, i, 12 ; 2 Mace, iv, 10 sq.), doubtless con- tributed. The Jews, no doubt, by reason of their po- sition between Syria and Egypt, were subject to many hardships unintentional on the part of Antiochus, and his generals may often have increased the severity of the measures enjoined upon them by him, on account of the usual rigid policy of his government toward for- eigners ; yet in the whole conduct of Antiochus to- ward the Jews an utter contempt for the people them- selves, as well as a relentless hastiness of disposition, is quite evident. — Smith, s. v. See Horn (Little). 4. Antiochus (V) Eup.vtor (Einrarwp, having a noble father) succeeded, in B.C. 104, while yet a child (of nine years, Appian, Syr. 00; or twelve years, ac- cording to Porphyr. in Euseb. Chron. Arm. i, 348), his father Antiochus Epiphanes, under the guardianship of Lysias (Appian, Syr. 40; 1 Mace, iii, 32 sq.), al- though Antiochus Epiph. on his deathbed had desig- nated Philip as regent and guardian (1 Mace, vi, 14 sq., 55 ; 2 Mace, ix, 29). Soon after his accession (B.C. 101) he set out with a large army for Judaja (1 Mace, vi, 20), where Lysias already was, but hard pressed by the Jews (1 Mace, iii, 30 sq. ; vi, 21 sq.). Respecting the route that he took and the issue of the engagement which he fought with Judas Maccabams, the accounts do not agree (1 Mace, vi, and 2 Mace, xiii ; comp. AVernsdorf, De fide Maccab. p. 117 ; Eichhorn, Apokr. p. 2G5 sq.) ; that victory, however, was not on the side of Judas, as one of these states (2 Mace, xiii, 29, 30), Coin of Antiochus Eupator, with the Figure of Apollo, appears evident from all the circumstances. The statement (1 Mace, vi, 47) that the Jews were com- pelled to retreat on account of the superiority of their enemies, is very probable, and corroborated by Jo- sephus ( War, i, 1, 5; comp. Ant. xii, 9, 5). Antio- chus repulsed Judas at Bethzacharia, and took Beth- sura (Bethzur) after a vigorous resistance (1 Mace, vi, 31-50). But when the Jewish force in the temple was on the point of yielding, Lysias persuaded the king to conclude a hasty peace that he might advance to meet Philip, who had returned from Persia and made him- self master of Antioch (1 Mace, vi, 51 sq. ; Joseph. Ant. xii, 9, 5 sq.). Philip was speedify overpowered (Joseph. 1, c.) ; but in the next year (B.C. 102) Anti- ochus and Lysias fell into the hands of Demetrius Soter, the son of Seleucus Philopator, who now appear- ed in Syria and laid claim to the throne. Antiochus was immediately put to death by him (together with Lysias) in revenge for the wrongs which he had him- self suffered from Antiochus Epiphanes (1 Mace, vii, 1 sq. ; 2 Mace, xiv, 1 sq. ; Appian, Syr. 46 ; Justin, xxxiv, 3), after a reign (according to Eusebius) of two (full) years (Polyb. xxxi, 19; Joseph. Ant. xii, 10, 1). "5. Antiochus (VI), surnamed Epiphanes Diony- sus ('E7T(9!>«j'>/c Awvvaoc, illustrious Bacchus, on coins, see Eckhel, I, iii, 231 sq. ; but Tiieos, Qtoc, god, by Josephus, Ant. xiii, 7, 1), son of Alexander (Balas) king of Syria ('AXtZcivc'poc 'AXi^avepov rov vut'ov, App. Syr. 68). After his father's death (B.C. 140) he remained in Arabia ; but, though still a child (iratSiov, App. 1. c. ; Traicapiov vitonpov, 1 Mace, xi, 54), he was soon afterward brought forward by Diodotus or Trypho (Strabo, xvi, 752), who had been one of his father's chief ministers at Antioch, as a claimant of the throne against Demetrius Nicator, and (through his generals) quickly obtained the succession by force of arms (1 Mace, xi, 39, 54), B.C. 145-144 (comp. Eckhel, Doctr. Num. I, iii, 231 ; Justin, xxxvi, 1 ; Appian, Syr. 08). Jonathan Maccabasus, who joined his cause, was laden with rich presents and instated in the high-priesthood, and his brother Simon was appointed commander of the royal troops in Palestine (1 Mace, xi, 57 sq.). Jonathan now reduced the whole land to subjection from Damascus to Antioch (1 Mace, xi, 02), defeated the troops of Demetrius (1 Mace, xi, 03 sq.), and even successfully repelled a fresh incursion of Demetrius into Palestine (1 Mace, xii, 24 sq.) ; but hardly was Antiochus established on the throne when Trypho be- gan to put into execution his long-cherished plan of seizing the royal power for himself (1 Mace, xii, 39). Tetradrachm (Attic Talent) nf Antiochus Dionysus the Reverse bearing the Figure of the Dioscuri on horseback, with the le- gends (in Ureek), "Of King Antiochus Epiphanes Dionysus" and "Trvpho," and the date OHP (1<»9 Mr. Seleucid.). ANTIOCIIUS 274 AXTIOCHUS In order to this, Trypho first of all advised the young prince to get the powerful Jonathan out of the way, and having succeeded by stratagem in confining lain in prison, he soon after (B.C. 143) put him to death (1 Mace, xii, 40 sq.). He then returned to Syria, caused Antiochus to be murdered, and seized upon the crown (1 Mace, xiii, 31 sq. ; Joseph. Ant. xiii, 5, G; App. Syr. G8 ; Livy, Epit. 55 [where the decern annos admodum habeas is incorrect] ; Diod. ap. Miiller, Fragm. ii, 19 ; Just, xxxvi, 1). — Smith, s. v. 6. Antiochus (VII) Sidetes (2i^;)r;;c, from Sida in Pamphylia, where be was born, Euseb. Chron. Arm. i, 349, and not from his great love of hunting, Plutarch, Apojtitk. p. 34, ed. Lips., comp. T'X), called also Eu- sebes (Ei)<7£/3i'/c, pious, Josephus, Ant. xiii, 8, 2); on coins Evergetes (EvepyirrjQ, benefactor, see Eckhel, Doctr. Num. iii, 235), second son of Demetrius I. Af- ter his brother Demetrius (II) Nicator had been taken prisoner (B.C. cir. 141) by Mithridates I (Arsaces VI, 1 Mace, xiv, 1), king of Parthia, he married Deme- trius's sister (wife) Cleopatra, B.C. 140 (Justin, xxxvi, 1), recovered the dominion of Syria (B.C. 137, comp. Niebuhr, Kl. Schr. i, 251) from the atrocious Trypho (Strabo, xiv, 668), and ruled over it for nine years (1 Mace, xv, 1 sq.). At first he made a very advan- tageous treaty with Simon, who was now " high-priest and prince of the Jews," but when he grew independ- ent of his help, he withdrew the concessions which he had made, and demanded the surrender of the for- tresses which the Jews held, or an equivalent in money (1 Mace, xv, 26 sq. ; Josephus, Ant. xiii, 7, 3). As Simon was unwilling to yield to his demands, he sent a force under Cendebrcus against him, who occupied a fortified position at Cedron (? 1 Mace, xv, 41), near Azotus, and harassed the surrounding country. Af- ter the defeat of Cendebauis by the sons of Simon and the destruction of his works (1 Mace, xvi, 1-10), An- tiochus, who had returned from the pursuit of Trypho, undertook an expedition against Judaea in person. In the fourth year of his reium he besieged Jerusalem, and came near taking it by storm, but at length, probably through fear of the Romans, made peace on tolerable terms with John Hyrcanus (Josephus, Ant. xiii, 8, 3, 4 ; comp. Euseb. Chron. Arm. i, 349). Antiochus next turned his arms against the Parthians, and Hyrcanus accompanied him in the campaign ; but, after some successes, he was entirely defeated by Phraortes II (Arsaces VII), and fell in the battle (Josephus, Ant. xiii, 8, 4; Justin, xxxviii, 10; Diod. Sic. Exc. Vat. p. 117 sq.), B.C. cir. 127-12G (App. Syr. G8 ; comp. Niebuhr, A7. Schrift. i, 251 sq. ; Clinton, F. II. ii, 332 sq.). According to Athenasus (v, 210 ; x, 439 ; xii, 540), this king, like most of his predecessors, was in- ordinately given to the pleasures of the table (comp. Justin, xxxviii, 10). — Smith. See Cleopatra 3. Coin of Antiochus SUletes, with the Figure of Minerva. 7. Antiochus (VIII) Grtpus (TpvrroQ, from his aquiline nose), and <>n coins E/n'jdiaurs, was the second son of Demetrius Nicator and Cleopatra. After the murder of his brother Seleucus by his mother, she placed him on the throne, as being likely to submit to her dictation, B.C. 125 ; but with the assistance of Ptolemy I'hyscon, his father-in-law, he not only suc- ceeded in ejecting the usurper Alexander Zebina from Syria (Josephus, Ant. xiii, 9, "), but eventually com- pelled his mother to drink the poison that in her jeal- ousy she prepared for him, B.C. 120. Eight years afterward a quarrel arose between him and his half- brother Antiochus Cyzicenus about the succession (Josephus, Ant. xiii, 10, 1), causing a protracted civil war that resulted in the partition of the kingdom of Syria between them and their descendants till the Koman conquest. He was assassinated, B.C. 9G, in Heracleon, after a reign of 29 years (Josephus, Ant. xiii, 13, 4), leaving four sons. (See Justin, xxxix, 1-3; Livy, Epit. GO; Appian,£yr.p.G9; Athen.xii,540.) Most of his coins have his mother's bust together with his own (Eckhel, Doctr. Num. iii, 238). He appears to be the Antiochus Philometor (<&i\opi)Tu>p, lover of his mother') referred to by Josephus (Ant. xiii, 12, 2). Coin of Antiochua Grypus. 8. Antiochus (IX) Cyzicenus (Kv^ac7]v6c, from Cyzicus, where he was brought up), and on coins (Eckhel, iii, 241) Philopator (iXo7r«rwp, lover of his father), acquired possession of Ccele-Syria and Phoe- nicia (B.C. 111-96) from his half-brother Antiochus Grypus (q. v.), on Avhose death he attempted to seize the whole of Syria, but was resisted by Seleucus, eld- est son of the latter, by whom he was killed in battle, B.C. 95 (Josephus, Ant. xiii, 13, 4). He made an un- successful campaign at Samaria, as related by Jo- sephus (ib. 10, 2; War, i, 2, 7), under the follow- ing circumstances : John Hyrcanus, prince and high- priest of the Jews, having besieged the city, the Sa- maritans invited Antiochus to their assistance. He advanced speedily to help them, but was overcome by Antigonus and Aristobulus, sons of Hyrcanus, who commanded the siege, and who pursued him to Scy- thopolis ; after which they resumed the siege of Sa- Coin of Antiochus Cyzicenus. maria, and blocked up the city so closely that the in- habitants again solicited Antiochus. Having received 6000 men from Ptolemy Lathyrus, son of Cleopatra, queen of Egypt, he wasted the lands belonging to the Jews, designing thereby to oblige Hyrcanus to raise the siege of Samaria, but his troops were at last dis- persed, and Samaria was taken by storm, and razed by Hyrcanus. 9. Antiochus (X) Eusebes (Evaiftijc, pious), and on coins Philopator, the son of the preceding, whom Coin of Antiochus Eusebes. ANTIOCHUS 275 ANTIPAS he succeeded, B.C. 95, and defeated Seleucus of the rival portion of Syria, as well as the two brothers of the latter; but the Syrians, worn out with the con- tinuation of the civil broil, at length offered the crown of all Syria to Tigranes, before whose full accession Antiochus perished in battle with the Parthians (Jo- sephus, Ant. xiii, 13, 4). 10. Antiochus (XI), who also assumed the title of Epiphanes (II), was one of the above-named sons of Antiochus Grypus and brothers of Seleucus, who con- tended with Antiochus Cj'zicenus ; he was defeated and lost his life, B.C. cir. 94 (Josephus, Ant. xiii, 13, 4), leaving the contest to his surviving brother Philip, assisted by another brother, Demetrius, till the dispute was finally terminated by Tigranes (q. v.) assuming supreme power of all Syria, thus putting an end to the Seleucid dynasty. Coin of Antiochus F.piphane- the Second. 11. Antiochus (XII), the youngest son of Antio- chus Grypus, surnamed likewise Dionysus (II), and on coins (Eckhel, iii, 24G) Philopator Callinicus (KaWlvucoe, finely victorious), assumed the title of king after his brother Demetrius (see above) had been taken prisoner by the Parthians. He fell in battle against Aretas, king of the Arabians, after a brief exercise of power at Damascus, in opposition to his surviving brother Philip, B.C. cir. 90 (Josephus, Ant. xiii, 15, 1). Coin of Antiochus Callinicus Antiochus was likewise the title of several kings of the petty province of Commagene, between the Eu- phrates and Mount Taurus, having the city of Samo- sata for its capital, and originally forming part of the. Seleucid kingdom of Syria, from which it appears to have been independent during the contests between the later kings of that dynasty — a circumstance that prob- ably explains the recurrence of the name Antiochus in this fresh dynasty. The only one of these mentioned even by Josephus is the fourth of the name, sur- named Epiphanes, apparently a son of Antiochus II of the same line. He was on intimate terms with Calig- ula, who gave him his paternal kingdom, A.D. 38, but afterward withheld it, so that he did not succeed to it till the accession of Claudius, A.D. 41. Nero added part of Armenia to his dominions in A.D. 61. He was one of the richest of the kings tributary to the Romans (see Smith's Diet, of Class. Bioy. s. v.). His Coin of Antiochus TV, of Commagene, with the Inscription (in Greek), "Great King Antiochus;" the Reverse bearing the Figure of a Scorpion, with the legend (in Greek), "Of (the) Commagenians." son, also called Antiochus Epiphanes, was betrothed. A.D. 43, to Drusilla, the daughter of Agrippa (Jo- sephus, Ant. xix, 9, 1). He assisted Titus in the final siege of Jerusalem (Josephus, War, v, 11, 3; Tacitus, Hist, v, 1). But in A.D. 72 lie was accused by Psetus, governor of Syria, of conspiring with the Parthians against the Komans, and, being deposed from his kingdom, retired first to Laceda^mon and then to Rome, where he spent the remainder of his life in great re- spect (Josephus, War, vii, 7). Antiochus, bishop of Ptolemais in Palestine, a Syrian by birth. At the beginning of the fifth cen- tury he went to Constantinople, where his eloquent preaching gained him the reputation of another Chrys- ostom. He died not later than 408. Besides many sermons, he left a large work "against Avarice,'' which is lost.— Theodoret, Dial, ii ; Phot. Cod. 288 ; Act. Concil. Ephes. iii, 118; Labbe, Catal. Codd, Vin- dobon. pt. i, p. 116, No. 58. Antiochus, monk of St. Saba, near Jerusalem, at the time of the capture of Jerusalem by the Persians (A.D. 614), and author of an "Epitome of Christian Eaith" (YlaveiKTtjc rjjc 'Ayiag rpadiijg), first publish- ed in Latin by Tilman (Paris, 1543, 8vo) ; reprinted in the Bibliotheca Patntm (Paris, 1579; Colon. 1618; Lugd. 1677) ; in the original Greek, first by Ducanis, in the Auctarii Bill. I'utr. (Par. 1624), reprinted in Morell's Bibl. Patr. (Par. 1644), and a considerable fragment in Eabricius's Bibl. Grccc. x, 501. Antipaedobaptists (from avri, against, Tca'ic, child, and jiaTrrtZoJ, to baptize), persons who object to the baptism of infants, on the assumption that Christ's commission to baptize appears to them to restrict this ordinance to such only as are taught, or made disci- ples ; and that consequently infants, who cannot be thus taught, ought to be excluded. The Baptists, Campbellites, and Mennonites are Antipaedobaptists. See those titles. An'tipas Ckvr'nrac, for 'Avr'nrarpoQ, Antipater; comp. Josephus, Ant. xiv, 1, 3), ihe name of three men. 1. A son of Herod the Great by Malthace, a Sa- maritan (Joseph. Ant. xvii, 1, 3; War, i, 28, 4). He inherited of his father's dominions only Galilee and Perasa (B.C. 5), as tetrarch (q. v.), with a yearly in- come of 200 talents (Joseph. Ant. xvii, 8, 1 ; 11, 4); Jesus was thus within his territorial jurisdiction (Luke xxiii, 7). He first married the daughter of the Ara- bian king Aretas, but afterward became enamored with Herodias, his half-brother Philip's wife, and con- tracted a clandestine marriage with her, on which ac- count the Arabian princess indignantly returned to her father (Joseph. Ant. xviii, 5. 1). Herodias in- veigled her new husband into the execution of John the Baptist (Matt, xiv, 4). His former father-in-law, Aretas, not long afterward (according to Josephus about one year before the death of Tiberius, i. e. A.D. 36) declared war against him, on pretence of a dispute about boundaries, but probably in reality to avenge the insult to his daughter, and entirely routed his army (Joseph. Ant. xviii, 5, 1), but was obliged to de- sist from farther steps by the intervention of the Ro- mans. Antipas visited Rome on the accession of Ca- ligula, although fond of ease, at the instance of his vain and ambitious wife, in order to secure the same royal title (which is derisively ascribed to him in Mark vi, 14) that his nephew Herod Agrippa had just acquired (Joseph. Ant. xviii, 7, 1) ; but upon the ac- cusation of the latter he was dethroned by the empe- ror (A.D. 39; see Ideler, Chronol. ii, 309 sq. ; comp. Joseph. Ant. xviii, 6, 11; 7, 2), and, together with Herodias, who would not desert him in his misfor- tune, banished to Lyons in Gaul (Joseph. Ant. xviii, 2), not to Vienna (Euseb. Hist. Eccles. i, 11), but died in Spain (Joseph. War, ii, 9, 6), whither he eventu- allj- removed. (See Koch, De anno natal i J. < '. per n >i- mum etfata Antipce demonstrate, Helmst. 1721 ; comp. ANTIPATER ANTIPATRIS Coin of Herod Antipas, with the Title " Tetrarch ;" the Reverse bearing the Name of " Tiberias," one of the Cities improved by him. Zorn, Biblioth. Antiq. i, 1021.) Although Josephus relates no great series of infamous acts on the part of Antipas, it is yet very evident that he was a frivolous prince (comp. Mark viii, 15 ; Luke xiii, 32), abandon- ed to the pleasures of life (comp. Joseph. Ant. xviii, 4, 5), destitute of firmness of character (comp. Luke xxiii, 11), aware of his faults (Luke ix, 7 sq.), yet not disinclined to arbitrary acts (Luke xiii, 38), whom Luke (iii, 19) charges with many crimes {irovnpa), as like- wise Jewish tradition paints in the most disadvanta- geous light (Noble, Hist. Idum. p. '251 sq.). — Winer, i, 484. See Herod. 2. A person " of royal lineage" in Jerusalem, and city treasurer, the first man seized by the assassins during the last war with the Romans, and soon after butchered in prison (Josephus, War, iv, 3, 4 and 5). 3. A "faithful martyr," mentioned in Rev. ii, 13. A.D. ante 100. He is said to have been one of our Saviour's first disciples, and a bishop of Pergamus, and to have been put to death in a tumult there by the priests of iEsculapius, who had a celebrated temple in that city (Eusebius, Hist. Eccl. iv, 5). Tradition re- lates that he was burned in a brazen bull under Domi- tian {Acta Sanctt rum, ii, 3, 4). His day in the Greek calendar is April 11 {Menol. Gr. iii, 51). Antip'ater (Avrhrarpoe, instead of his father), the name of several men in the Apocrypha and Jose- phus. 1. The son of Jason, and one of the two ambassa- dors sent by the Jews in the time of the Maccabees to renew the league with the Romans and Lacedaemoni- ans (1 Mace, xii, 16 ; xiv, 22). 2. The father of Herod the Great (q. v.) was, ac- cording to Josephus {Ant. xiv, 1, 3 ; for other accounts of his parentage, see Nicolas of Damascus, ap. Joseph. in loc. ; Africanus, ap. Eusebius, Hist. Eccles. i, 6, 7 ; Photius, B'xbl. 76 and 238), the son of a noble Idumse- an, to whom the government of that district had been given by Alexander Jannaeus (q. v.) and his queen Alexandra, and at their court the young Antipater was brought up. In B.C. 65 he persuaded Hyrcanus to take refuge from his brother Aristobulus II with Are- tes, king of Arabia Petraja, by whom, accordingly, an unsuccessful attempt was made' to replace Hyrcanus on the throne (Joseph. Ant. xiv, 2 ; War, i, 6, 2). In B.C. 61 Antipater again supported the cause of Hyr- canus before Pompey in (.'ale-Syria {Ant. xiv, 3, 2). In the ensuing year Jerusalem was taken by Pompey and Aristobulus deposed ; and henceforth we find Antipater both zealously adhering to Hyrcanus and laboring to ingratiate himself with the Romans. His services to the latter, especially against Alexander, the son of Aristobulus, and in Egypt against Archelaus (B.C. 57 and 56), were favorably regarded by Scaurus and Gabinius, the lieutenants of Pompey; his active zeal against Mithridates of Pergamus in the Alexan- drian war (B.C. 48) was rewarded by Julius Caesar with the gift of Unman citizenship; and, on Caesar's coming into Syria (B.C. 47), Hyrcanus was confirmed by him i:i the high-priesthood through Antipater's in- fluence, notv ithstanding the complaints of Antigonns, BOD Of Aristobulus, while Antipater himself was ap- pointed proenrator of Judaea (Josephus, Ant. xiv, 5, 1 and 2 • 6, 2 I and 8 ; War, i, 8, 1 and 7 ; 9, 3-5). Af- ter i '.'• arhad left Syria to go against Pharnaces, Anti- pater set about arranging the country under the exist- ing government, and appointed his sons Phaeaelus and Herod governors respectively of Jerusalem and Gali- lee (Joseph. Ant. xiv, 9, 1 and 2 ; War, i, 10, 4). In B.C. 46 he dissuaded Herod from attacking Hyrcanus, and in B.C. 43 (after Caesar's death) he regulated the tax imposed by Cassius upon Judasa for the support of the Roman troops {Ant. xiv, 9, 5 ; 11, 2 ; War, i, 10, 9 ; 11, 2). During the last-mentioned year he was carried off by poison which Malichus, whose life he had twice saved, bribed the cup-bearer of Hyrcanus to ad- minister to him {Ant. xiv, 11, 2-4; War, i, 11, 2-4). 3. The eldest son of Herod the Great (q. v.) by his first wife, Doris (Josephus, Ant. xiv, 12, 1). Jose- phus describes him as a monster of crafty wickedness {icaiciac. fivdTt)oiov, War, i, 24, 1). Herod, having divorced Doris and married Mariamne, B.C. 38, ban- ished Antipater from court {War, i, 22, 1), but re- called him afterward, in the hope of checking the sup- posed resentment of Alexander and Aristobulus for their mother Mariamne' s death. Antipater now in- trigued to bring these his half-brothers under the sus- picion of their father, and with such success that Herod altered his intentions in their behalf, recalled Doris to court, and sent Antipater to Rome, recom- mended to Augustus {Ant. xvi, 3 ; War, i, 23, 2). He still continued his machinations against his broth- ers, in concert with Salome and Pheroras, and aided by a certain Spartan Eurycles (comp. Plut. Ant. p. 9476), till he succeeded in accomplishing their death, B.C. 6 (Josephus, Ant. xvi, 4, 11; War, i, 23-27). See Alexander. Having thus removed his rivals, and been declared successor to the throne, he entered into a plot with his uncle Pheroras against the life of his father; but this being discovered during his ab- sence to Rome, whither he had gone to carry out a part of the scheme, he was remanded to Judaea by his father, and then tried before Varus, the Roman gov- ernor of Syria. The sentence against him being con- firmed by Augustus, although with a recommendation of mere}-, he was executed in prison by the order of his father, now himself in his last illness (Josephus, Ant. xvii, 1-7 ; War, i, 28-33 ; Eusebius, Hist. Eccl. i, 8, 12). 4. The oldest of the three sons of Phasaelus by Salampsio, the daughter of Herod the Great (Jose- phus, Ant. xviii, 5, 4). See Herod. 5. The son of Salome, Herod's sister; he married his cousin Cypros, by whom he had a daughter Cy- pres (Joseph. Ant. xviii, 5, 4). He was an able orator, and in an extended speech opposed the confirmation of Archelaus (q. v.) in his royal legacy before the Emperor Augustus {Ant. xvii, 9, 5). See Herod. 6. A Samaritan, steward of Antipater the son of Herod the Great, who tortured him in order to pro- cure evidence against his master (Josephus, War, i, 30, 5). See No. 3. Antip'atris {'Avriirarpis, from Antipater; in the Talmud DlBS'iaSX, see Lightfoot, Hor. Heb. p. 109 sq.), a city built by Herod the Great, in honor of his father (Josephus, Ant. xvi, 5, 2; War, i, 21, 9), on the site of a former place called Capharsaba (XajSap- %a(3a <>r Kcityapvafia, Josephus, Ant. xiii, 15, 1; xvi, 5, 2). The spot (according to Ptolemy, lat. 32°, long. 66° 20') was Avell watered and fertile ; a stream Sowed round the city, and in its neighborhood were groves of large trees (Josephus, Ant. xvi, 5, 2; War, i, 21, 9). Caphar-saba was 120 stadia from Joppa; and between the two places Alexander Balas drew a trench, with a wall and wooden towers, as a defence against the approach of Antiochus (Josephus, Ant. xiii, 15, 1; War, i, 4, 7). Antipatris also lay between Caesarea and Lydda (Itin. Hieros. p. 600). It was not exactly on the sea (Schleusner, Lex. s. v.), but full two miles inland (Josephus, War, iv, 8, 1) on the road leading to Galilee (Mishna, Gattin, vii, 7; comp. Eeland, Palcest. p. 409, 117, 111). These cir- cumstances indicate that Antipatris was in the midst ANTIPHILUS 277 ANTIPOPE of a plain, and not at Arsiif where the Crusaders sup- posed they had found it (Will. Tyr. ix, 19 ; xiv, 16 ; Vitracus, c. 23 ; Brocard, c. 10 ; comp. Reland, Palcest. p. 569, 570). On the road from Ramlah to Nazareth, north of Ras el-Ain, Prokesch (Reise ins Heilige Land, Wicn, 1831) came to a place called Kaffir Saba; and the position which Berghaus assigns to this town in his map is almost in exact agreement with the posi- tion assigned to Antipatris in the Itin. Ilieros. Per- ceiving this, Kaumer (Paldstina, p. 144, 462) happily conjectured that this Kefr Saba was no other than the reproduced name of Caphar-saba, which, as in many other instances, has again supplanted the for- eign, arbitrary, and later name of Antipatris (comp. the Hall. Lit.-Zdt. 1845, No. 230). This conjecture has been confirmed by Dr. Robinson, who gives Kefr Saba as the name of the village in question {Researches, iii, 46-48 ; see also later ed. of Researches, iii, 138, 139 ; and Biblioth. Sac. 1853, p. 528 sq.). Paul was brought from Jerusalem to Antipatris by night, on his route to Csesarea (Acts xxiii, 31 ; comp. Thomson's Land and Book, i, 258). Dr. Robinson was of opinion, when he published his first edition, that the road which the soldiers took on this occasion led from Jerusalem to Cresarea by the pass of Beth-Horon, and by Lydda or Diospolis. This is the route which was followed by Cestius Gallus, as mentioned by Josephus {War, ii, 19, 1), and it appears to be identical with that given in the Jerusalem Itinerary, according to which Antip- atris is 42 miles from Jerusalem, and 26 from Caesarea. Even on this supposition it wrould have been quite possible for troops leaving Jerusalem on the evening of one day to reach Ccesarea on the next, and to start thence, after a rest, to return to (it is not said that they arrived at) their quarters at Jerusalem before nightfall. But the difficulty is entirely removed by Dr. Smith's discovery of a much shorter road, leading by Gophna direct to Antipatris. On this route he met the Roman pavement again and again, and indeed says " he does not remember observing anywhere be- fore so extensive remains of a Roman road" {Biblioth. Sac. 1843, p. 478-498). Van de Yelde, however {Me- moir, p. 285 sq.), contends that the position of Mejdel Yaba corresponds better to that of Antipatris. In the time of Jerome (Epitaph. Paula1, 108) it was a half- ruined town. Antipatris, during the Roman era, ap- pears to have been a place of considerable military importance (Josephus, War, iv, 8, 1). Vespasian, while engaged in prosecuting the Jewish war, halted at Antipatris two days before he resumed his career of desolation by burning, destroying, and laying waste the cities and villages in his way (see Conybeare and Howson, Life and Epistles of St. Paul, ii, 269). This city is supposed (by Calmet, s. v.) to have been the same with Capharsaloma (or Capharsaroma, per- haps also Caparsemelia ; see Reland, Palcest. p. 690, 691), where a battle was fought in the reign of Deme- trius between Nicanor, a man who was an implacable enemy of the Jews, and Judas Maecabauis, when five thousand of Nicanor's army were slain, and the rest saved themselves by flight (1 Mace, vii, 26-32). Antiphilus (Av-('<£iXoe, instead of a friend'), a friend of Antipater, charged by the part}- of Pheroras with bringing from Egypt a poisonous draught for Herod (Josephus, Ant. xvii, 4, 2; War, i, 30, 5); a suspicion confirmed by a letter intercepted between Antiphilus and Antipater {Ant. xvii, 5, 7). See An- TIPATEK. Antiphon (from cirri, in turn, and epiovr), a sound), the singing or chanting of one portion of a choir in re- ply to another when the psalms are sung or chanted. In the " responsorium" the verse is spoken only by one person on either side, or by one person on one side, though Ii}' many on the other ; whereas, in antiphony, the verses are sung by the two parts of the choir al- ternately. Antiphonal singing is supposed to have been brought into use in the Western Church by Am- brose, who, about the year 374, is said to have intro- duced it into the Church of Milan, in imitation of the Eastern Church, where it appears to have been of great- er antiquity, though as to the time of its institution au- thors are not agreed. The chanting of the psalms in this antiphonal manner was practiced by the Hebrews ; and some of these were actually composed in alternate verses, with a view to their being used in a responsive manner. In the English Church, where there is no choir, the reading of the Psalter is divided between the minister and the people ; and in the cathedral ser- vice the psalms are chanted throughout, two full choirs being provided, stationed one on each side of the church. One of these, having chanted one of the verses, remains silent while the opposite choir replies in the verse succeeding ; and at the end of the psalm the Gloria Patri is sung by the united choirs, accom- panied by the organ. — Bingham, Orig. Eccles. bk. xiv, ch. i, § 11 ; Farrar, Eccl. Diet. s. v. See Anthem. Antiphonarium or Antiphonary, a Roman service-book containing all the anthems, responsaries, collects, and whatever else was said or sung in the choir, except the lessons. It is sometimes called the responsorium, from the responses contained in it. The author of the Roman antiphonary was Gregory the Great. We read of nocturnal and diurnal antiphona- ries, for the use of daily and nightly offices ; of sum- mer and winter antiphonaries ; also antiphonaries for country churches. These and many other popish books were forbidden to be used by the 3 and 4 Ed- ward VI. — Farrar, Eccl. Diet. s. v. See Antiphon. Antipope (from cirri, against, i. e. a rival pope), a pontiff elected by the will of a sovereign, or the in- trigues of a faction, in opposition to one canonical!}- chosen. The emperors of Germany were the first to set up popes of their own nomination against those whom the Romans had elected without consulting them. Otho the Great displaced successively two bishops of Rome; and when Sylvester III had expelled from the capital of Christendom Benedict IX, whose profligacy had compromised in the eyes of all men the honor of the sovereign pontificate, Conrad II, king of Germany, brought back this worthless pastor, who hastened to sell his dignity to Gregory VI. As Bene- dict, however, soon repented of this transaction, there were now three popes at a time, and their number was increased to four by the election of Clement II in 1046. Shortly after, Alexander II found a rival in Honorius II ; and in 1080 the same unseemly spectacle was witnessed, when Henry IV, emperor of Germany, elevated to the papal chair Guibert of Ravenna, under the title of Clement III, in opposi- tion to his implacable adversary, Gregory VII. But after the death of Gregory Clement was himself op- posed successively by Victor III and Urban II, and at last died at a distance from Rome, having just beheld the exaltation of Pascal II as the successor of Urban. During the twelfth century several antipopes flour- ished, such as Gregory VIII and Honorius III. On the death of the latter, France began to intermeddle in these disgraceful strifes, and upheld the cause of Innocent II against Anaclet; while the kings of Sici- ly, on the other hand, frequently set up a pontiff of their own against the choice of the emperors. The thirteenth and fourteenth centuries swarm with anti- popes ; but what specially deserves notice is "the great schism of the West," produced by these shame- less rivalries in 1378 — a schism which divided the Church for fifty years. It broke out after the death of Gregory XI, at the election of Urban VI, whom the voice of the Roman people, demanding an Italian pope, and not one who should fix his pontificate, like several of his predecessors, at a distance from Rome, had elevated to the papal throne. The French car. dinals objected, withdrew to Provence, and elected a ANTIQUITIES 278 ANTIQUITIES new pope, under the name of Clement VII, who was recognised by France, Spain, Savoy, and Scotland; while Italy, Germany, England, and the whole north of Europe, supported Urban VI. These two popes ex- communicated each other ; nor did they even fear to compromise their sacred character by the most cruel outrages and the most odious insults. The schism continued after their death, when three popes made their appearance " in the field, " all of whom were de- posed by the Council of Constance in 1415, and Cardi- nal Colonna elected in their room, under the title of Martin V. The last antipope was Clement VIII. "With him the schism ceased ; but the evil was done, and nothing could remedy it. The dogma of papal infallibility had received a mortal wound "in the house of its friends," and the scepticism induced on this point rapidly extended to others. — Chambers, En- cyclopmdia, s. v. See Pope ; Papacy. Antiquities, Sacred, a term that may be con- sidered as embracing whatever relates to the religious, political, social, domestic, and individual life, not only of the Hebrew race, but also of those kingdoms, tribes, and persons that were connected with, or more or less influenced by the chosen people (with the exception of history and biography) in the several stages of its development prior to the capture of Jerusalem by the Romans, and to the usages of the Christian Church during the earlier ages. I. Biblical. — The Scriptures themselves are the great source whence a knowledge of Hebrew and Christian antiquities may be drawn ; and whoever wishes to have an accurate and thorough acquaint- ance with the subject must, with this express pur- pose in view, make the holy record the object of a careful, sustained, and systematic study. Much of the Old Testament is, in the best sense of the term, picture writing ; and the history of the Saviour car- ries us into the very bosom of domestic life. The knowledge which is acquired from these sources is pe- culiarly valuable, from the stamp of truth which every part of it bears. Few, however, have the disposition, the leisure, or the ability for the requisite study; and therefore the aid of the scholar and divine is desirable, if not indispensable. But besides what may be learn- ed from the Scriptures themselves, much remains to be known which they do not and cannot teach; for, like all other books relating to ages long by-gone, they contain allusions, phraseology, modes of thought and speech, which can be understood either not at all, or but imperfectly, without light derived from extrane- ous sources ; and that the rather because the Hebrews were not a literary people, and the aim of the sacred penmen was far higher than to achieve intellectual reputation. The heathen writers afford very scanty materials for illustrating biblical antiquities, so igno- rant or prejudiced were the)' on topics of that kind. Indirect information and undesigned testimonies ma}' be here and there extracted from their writings, but in general they communicate no useful information except on geographical and kindred subjects. The least barren of them is the earliest prose writer ex- j tant, Herodotus, who, in his second book and part of | the third, furnishes snatches of information which may be of service, especially in conjunction with the light which recent discoveries in Egyptian antiquities '' have so happily thrown on the biblical records (The < Effypt of Herodotus, by John Kenrick, M.A. 1841 ; j Manners and Customs of ike Ancient Egyptians, by Sir J. G. Wilkinson, 1837, 1841). The study of biblical antiquities, viewed as an aid! in the interpretation of the books of the Old Testa- ment, began probably on the return from the Baby- lonish exile, when a lengthened past already stretch- ed out to the Israelitish nation as they looked back toward their origin ■ and. from the new circumstances in which they were placed, and the new modes of thought and actiun to which they had become habitu- ated, they must have found many things in their sa- cred books which were as difficult to be understood as they were interesting to their feelings. The ideas, views, and observations which thence resulted were held, taught, transmitted, and from age to age aug- mented by Jewish doctors, whose professed duty was the expounding of the law of the fathers ; and after having passed through many generations by oral com- munication, were at length, in the second and some subsequent centuries of the Christian era, committed to writing. See Talmud. This source of informa- tion, as being traditionary in its origin, and disfigured by ignorance, prejudice, and superstition, must, to be of any service, be used with the greatest care and dis- crimination. It seems, however, to have fallen into somewhat undue depreciation, but has been success- fully employed by recent writers in delineating a pic- ture of the age in which our Lord appeared (Das Jahr- hundert des Heils, by Gfrorer, Stuttgart, 1838). In the first century Josephus wrote two works of une- qual merit, on The Jewish War and The A ntiquities of the Jews, which, notwithstanding some credulit)- and bad faith on the part of the author, aiford valuable in- formation, particularly in relation to the manners, customs, and opinions of his own times. Had anoth- er work of which the writer speaks (preface to the An- tiquities) come down to these days, which appears to have been a sort of philosophical treatise on the Mo- saic laws and institutions, giving probably, after the manner of Michaelis in his Mosaisches Recht, the ra- tionale of the several observances enjoined, some con- siderable light might have been thrown on the an- tiquities of the nation, though the known propensity of Josephus to the allegorical method of interpreta- tion diminishes the regret experienced at its loss. The works of Philo, the celebrated Alexandrian teach- er, which were also produced in the first century, have their value too much abated by his love of the same allegorical method ; which he was led to pursue main- ly by his desire to bring the mind of the Hebrew na- tion into harmony with Oriental, and especially Gre- cian systems of philosophy, of which Philo was a dili- gent student and a great admirer. Little advantage is to be gained by the stud)' of writers among the modern Jews ; for, till a very recent period, no sound intellectual activitj' was found among this singular and most interesting race. Inspired, however, by the spirit of the eighteenth century, Mendelssohn opened to his fellow-believers a new era, and introduced a manner of thinking and writing which prepared the way for many valuable Jewish productions, and gave an impulse to the mind of "the nation," the best outward results of which are only beginning to be seen. The study of classical antiquity, which commenced at the revival of letters, was not without an influence on biblical archreology ; but this branch of knowledge is chiefly indebted for its most valuable results to the systematic stud)- of the Bible, and the cultivation of the long-neglected Hebrew language, which the in- terests of the Reformation both needed and called forth. It was not. however, till within the last cen- tury that the intelligent spirit which had been applied to the examination of classical antiquit}* in Germany so directed the attention of Oriental scholars to the true way of prosecuting and developing a knowledge of Hebrew and Christian antiquities as to bring forth treatises on the subject which can be regarded as sat- isfactory in the present advanced state of general scholarship. In no one thing has the mental activity of recent times contributed more to the science of bib- lical antiquities than by leading well-informed trav- ellers to penetrate into eastern countries, especially Syria, since, by communicating to the world the fruits of their enterprise,' they have been enabled to present to no small extent a picture of what these lands and their inhabitants must have been of old, permanence ANTIQUITIES 279 ANTI-SABBATARIAN S being one of the chief characteristics of the Oriental mind. From Shaw (Travels in Barbary and the Le- vant) and Harmer (Observations on various Passages of Scripture) down to the valuable work by Prof. Robin- son (Biblical Researches in Palestine, 1841, 1856), a nu- merous series of publications have been put forth, which have contributed to throw very great light on Jewish and Christian antiquity. The earliest treatise in the English language ex- pressly on the subject of Jewish antiquities was writ- ten by Th. Godwyn, B.D. (Moses and Aaron, Civil and Ecclesiastical Rites used by the Ancient Hebrews ob- served, etc. 4to, 1614). This work passed through many editions in England ; was translated into Latin by J. II. Reiz (1679) ; furnished with a preface and two dissertations by Witsius (1690); was illustrated, amended, and enlarged by Hottinger (1710) ; and further annotated on by Carpzovius (1748). In 1724 -5, Thomas Lewis gave to the public his Origines He- brmce, or Antiquities of the Hebrew Republic, 4 vols. 8vo, which is a very elaborate and carefully compiled treat- ise, composed of materials drawn from the best author- ities, both Jewish and Christian. A work of much value, as affording fuller views on some topics, and written in an easy style, is a posthumous publication by Dr. Jennings, entitled Jewish Antiquities, or a Course of Lectures on the three Fi?-st Books of Godwyn' $ Moses and Aaron, London, 1766 ; edited, with a preface of some value, by Philip Furneaux. Fleury's work (Dr. Adam Clarke's edition) on The Manners of the Ancient Israelites, containing an Account of the peculiar Customs, Laws, Policy, and Religion of the Israelites, offers a pleasing and useful introduction to the study of the Old Testament Scriptures. A valuable and (for ordinary purposes) complete treatise may be found by the English student in Biblical Antiquities, by John Jahn, D.D., translated by T. C. Upham (Andover, 1827, etc. ; N. Y. 1858). Those who wish to enter more fully into the subject may consult the original, of which the foregoing is an abridgment (Biblische Ar- chdologie). A carefully compiled and well -written work may be found in The Antiquities of the Jews from authentic Sources, and their Customs illustrated by Mod- ern Travels, by W. Brown, D.D. (2 vols. 8vo, Lond. 1820). Much important matter is presented in Aca- demical Lectures on the Jewish Scriptures and Antiqui- ties, by J. G. Palfrey, D.D., LL.D. (2 vols. 8vo, Boston, 1840). German scholars have produced numerous works on the subject, of which we may mention as worthy of special attention, G. L. Bauer's Kurzgefasstcs Lehrbuch der Hebr. Alterthi'imer des A. u. N. T. (second edition, by E. F. K. Rosenmiiller, Leipsic, 1835) ; J. Mt. A. Scholz's Handbuch der Bibl. Archdologie (Bonn u. Wien, 1834) ; De Wette (Lehrbuch der Ilebr.-Judisch. Archdologie, Leips. 1830), translated by Rev. Theodore Parker, Bost. Heloris Pilgrimage to Jerusalem may serve as a connecting link between Jewish and Chris- tian antiquities, being almost equally useful for both, as it presents* a picture of Judaism in the century which preceded the advent of our Saviour. The Eng- lish translation (by the Rev. John Kenrick, M. A.) from the German original is accompanied by valuable notes and a preface, in which may be found a brief outline of the sources of biblical archaeology. The work is conceived and executed in the form of a story or novel, and possesses no ordinary interest, independently of its high theological value, as affording a living picture of the customs, opinions, and laws of the Jewish people. In French there is a somewhat similar work by M. de Montbron, under the unsuitable title of Essais sur la Litterature des Hebreu.r (4 tomes, 12mo, Paris, 1819), in which a number of short tales illustrative of ancient Hebrew usages and opinions are prefaced by a large and elaborate Introduction, and followed by a great number of learned and curious notes. II. Ecclesiastical Antiquities. — Among the fathers of the Christian Church, Jerome, who was long resident in Palestine, has left in various works very important information respecting the geography, natural his- tory, and customs of the country. Most of the fa- thers, indeed, furnish, directly or indirectly, valuable notices respecting Christian antiquity, and in a body constitute the source whence for the most part writ- ers and scholars of later ages have drawn their ma- terials. The reader may with advantage consult Some Account of the Writings and Opinions of Clement of Alexandria, by John, bishop of Lincoln (1835) ; also, Some A ccount of the Writings and Opinions of Justin Martyr, by the same (Cambridge, 1829). A useful compendium, as giving specimens of the writings, and therein views of the opinions, manners, rites, and ob- servances of the early Christian Church, may be found in Bibliotheque Choisie des Peres de I'Eglise Grecque ct Latine, by M. N. S. Guillon (Paris, 1828). For a long period after the revival of learning the subject of Christian antiquities received no specilic at- tention, but was treated more or less summarily in general histories of the Church of Christ; as, for in- stance, in the great Protestant work, Ecclesiast. His- toria per aliquot viros in urbe Magdeburg (1559-74); and on the part of the Catholics, by Baronius, Annates Ecclesiast. a Christo nato ad annum 1198 (Rom. 1558). If any exception is to be made to this general state- ment, it is on behalf of Roman Catholic writers, whose works, however, are too inaccurate and prejudiced to be of any great value in these times. The first gen- eral treatise on Christian antiquity proceeded from the pen of an English divine, Jos. Bingham, Origines Ec- clesiastical, or ike A ntiquities of the Christian Church (London, 1708-22. 10 vols. 8vo); which was translated I into Latin by Grischow (1738), and into German (1778). The work corresponds in no slight degree to the learn- ing, care, and time bestowed upon it; but, besides being somewhat in the rear of the learning of the day, it has its value diminished by the High-Church no- : tions of the writer, as well as by the strength of his | prejudices against the Roman Catholics. A useful compendium, written in a liberal spirit, and compiled chiefly from German sources, has lately been publish- ed in English (A Manual of Christian Antiquities, by Rev. J. E. Riddle, M.A. London, 1839), in which (Preface, § 2, and Appendix H) may be found a con- cise but detailed account of the literature of Christian antiquities. A more complete catalogue of works, em- bracing each particular branch, is given in Winer's Handbuih der Theologischen Literatur. Among the best Continental treatises on the general subject of Christian antiquities may be mentioned those of Au- gusti, Handbuch d. Christl. Archdol. (Leipzig, 1836-7, 3 vols. 8vo); Bohmer, Die christl.-hirchl. Alterihums- Wissenschaft (Brcsl. 1836, 8vo) ; Siegel, Handbuch der christl. -Hi chl. AlUrthumer (Leipzig, 1836-7, 3 vols. 8vo). — Kitto, s. v. See Archaeology. III. Other treatises on Biblical archaeology in gen- eral: Muller (Giess. 1830); Ugolini (Venet. 1744-69) ; Bellermann (Frf. 1787 and 1812); Ackermann (Wien, 1826); Schmidt (Neust. 1834). On Hebrew antiqui- ties: Iken (Brem. 1732, etc.); Wanner (Gott. 1743); Warnekros (Weim. 1782, etc.); Faber (Halle, 1773); Babor (Weim. 1794, Lpz. 1805); Pareau (Ultraj. 1823); Wait (Cambr. 1825); Hiillmann (Lpz. 1834); Kalthoff (Munst. 1840). On Christian antiquities : Fabricius (I lamb. 1760); Palseotinus (Ven. 1766); Blackmore (Lond. 1760) ; Baumgarten (Hal. 1768) ; Simonis (Hal. 1769); Chrysander (Lpz. 1775); Sel- vaggi (Neap. 1772); Pellica (Neap. 1777-81); Haag (Tub. 1785) ; Volborth (Gott. 1789) ; Binterim (Mainz, 1825-32); Rheinwald (Berl. 1830); Locherer (Frkf. 1832) ; Milnter (Kopenh. 1828) ; Borsius (Lugd. B. 1 1825). For the sources of biblical antiquities, see j Archaeology, where also will be given a more de- | tailed view of the Christian department of the subject. Anti-Sabbatarians, those who reject the Sab- bath, both Jewish and Christian. See Sabbath, ANTITACT^E 280 ANTITRINITARI AN S Antitactae (q. d. c'tVTiraiCTai, from avriTCKKno, to resist), the Antinomian branch of the Gnostics. Gnos- ticism regarded matter as absolutely evil, and the body as the seat and source of evil. Gnostic morality, therefore, consisted in the mortification of the body. One class of Gnostic sects tried to attain this end by means of rigorous asceticism [see Encratitks], the other by wilfully abusing it for debauchery. The lat- ter class bore the collective name Antitaetas, as they considered the law as not obligatory for them, and in- tended to show their contempt of the law, and of the Demiurgos, the author of matter, and, consequently, of evil, by purposely transgressing the commandments of the law. To this class belong the Carpocratians, Basilidians, and others. Whether any particular sect ever bore the name Antitactae is still controverted. — Neander, Ch. Hist, i, 451. See Gnosticism. Antitrinitarians, a general name either applied to all who oppose the doctrine of the Trinity (q. v.), or, in a more restricted sense, to the opponents of the Trinity in the first three centuries of the Christian Church and to those of the 16th century. I. The Antitrinitarians of the ancient church, before the Council of Nice, were generally called Monarchi- ans (q. v.). They may be divided into two classes : the rationalistic or dynamic, who denied the divinity of Christ, regarding him merely as a man filled with divine power, and the Patripassians (q. v.), who iden- tified the Son with the Father, or admitted at most only a modal Trinity. The first class had its repre- sentatives even in the Apostolical Church, for Cerin- thus (q. v.) taught that the origin of Jesus was merely human ; and the Ebionites, though differing on some doctrinal points, agreed in denying the divinity of Christ, one class regarding him as the son of Mary and Joseph, while the others, although looking upon him as born of the Virgin through the Holy Ghost, and acknowledging him to be a superhuman being, yet denied his divinity. The Magi (about 170) reject- ed the doctrine of the Logos and the Gospel of John. Theodotus the Elder, or the Tanner, was excommuni- cated about 200 by Bishop Victor, of Rome, for teach- ing that Christ was begotten in a miraculous way, but otherwise a man, without any superiority to others except that of righteousness. From the sect founded by him proceeded Theodotus the Younger, or the Money-broker, who advocated, but at the same time modified the views of the elder Theodotus. He main- tained that the "Logos" dwelt in Melchizedek to a higher degree than in Christ, and thus became the founder of the Melchizedecians. Of greater influence than the heretics thus far named was Artemon (q. v.), who was also excluded from the Church of Rome for maintaining that the established doctrine of the church had always been that Christ was only a man, until Bishop Zephyrinus, of Rome, had introduced the newer doctrine of his divinity. Artemon also admitted the superhuman origin of Christ, but denied that he was superior to the prophets except by virtue. The most important of the representatives of this class of early Antitrinitarians is Paul of Samosata, bishop of Anti- och, who was deposed for heresy in 269. He main- tained that Christ, as a man, was begotten by the Holy Ghost; that the "Logos" which then began personal- ly to exist dwelt in Christ as a divine power, by the use of which he rose above all other men, and became participant of divinity, which, therefore, was for him a moral, not a natural dignity. The first representatives of the second class of the early Antitrinitarians was Praxeas (q. v.), a confessor in the time of Marcus Aurelius, and a prominent op- ponent of the Montanists. He taught that the Father himself descended into the Virgin, that he was horn from her, and suffered, and that he (the Father) him- self was ( 'hrist ; that only in so far as he assumed flesh in Jesus he was called Sou ; that he was not, personally or otherwise, different from the Son, " but made hini- self the Son" (ipse se sibi filium fecit), and that he suf- fered in the Son (pate?- compassus estjiiio). His adhe- rents, therefore, were called " Fati-ipassians." Noetus (q. v.) of Smyrna, and probably a presbyter of Ephe- sus, was excluded about 230 from his church as a Pa- tripassian. He denied this charge, and we are not fully informed about the peculiar kind of Monarchianism to which he was attached. Callistus, bishop of Rome, is also said to have belonged to this class. Beryllus of Bostra (q. v.) denied that Christ had any personal existence before his incarnation, or that there was in Christ a divine nature distinct from that of his Father, but he conceded that the Godhead of the Father dwelt in the person of Jesus. Under the instruction of Ori- gen, he repudiated his views at.thc Synod of Bostra in 244. The views of Beryllus were further developed by Sabellius (q. v.), a presbyter of Ptolemais (250-260). According to him, God is an absolute, undivided unity (/xovag), and the " Logos" is the self-revelation of God in the world. The Father reveals himself as God when he gives the law, as Son when he becomes man in Christ, and as Holy Spirit when he inspires the hearts of the believers. II. The Middle Ages. — There arc few traces of Anti- trinitarian doctrines in the church history of the Mid- dle Ages. Amalric of Bena, and his disciple, David of Dinanto, regarded the names of Father, Son, and Holy Ghost as expressions for three different ages of the world. The Paulicians, the Catharists, and soma other sects, revived, with other Gnostic and Manichse- an heresies, also those concerning the Trinity. III. The Time of the Reformation. — The rationalistic element, concealed and suppressed by the Church of Rome, came to the surface naturally at the period of the Reformation. The Anabaptist attack on practical points coincided in time, and partly in the men them- selves, with the theoretical attack on the orthodox doctrine of the Trinity. To the first Antitrinitarians of this period belongs Johannes Denk (died 1528), who regarded the "Logos" as the totality of all human souls, which received its highest development in Je- sus. He denied consistently the pre-existence of the Logos, the divinity of Christ, and the Trinity. Hetzer, who was executed at Basel in 1529, seems to have been a disciple of Denk. Campanus, who died in prison at Cleves, was more attached to Arian views. He re- garded the relation of the Father to the " Logos" as a kind of marital relation, and the Holy Ghost as an impersonal emanation from both. The views of Da- vid Georsjs or Joris, of Delft, in Holland, were inter- mediate between Sabellianism and the Pantheism of Amalric of Bena. He regarded God as an undivided unity and as impersonal, but as having become man in three persons, Moses, Elias, Christ or Moses, Christ, David (himself), corresponding to three ages of the world. Servetus, who was burned in 1529, sought to unite Sabellianism with the teachings of Paul of Sa- mosata. God, as undivided unity, is the Father ; as descending upon the man Jesus, he is* the "Logos;" Jesus, pervaded by the " Logos," is the Son ; God, as the power which penetrates all creatures, and espe- cially the human soul, is called the Holy Ghost. Later he modified his views, and represented God as the es- sence of all things ; the Logos as the self-revelation of God, and including within himself the ideas of all other things; and the Holy Ghost as the self-commu- nication of God to the creatures, and as identical with the world-soul. All the Antitrinitarians of this period thus far mentioned were more or less addicted to a pantheistic mysticism, and in their views concerning the Trinity agreed more with Sabellius than with Arius. One of the first prominent representatives of a rationalistic Antitrinitarianism was Gribaldo, a learned Italian jurist, who maintained that the Son was an- other God of the same nature, but derived from the Father. This doctrine of three gods of unequal rank was completod by Gentilis, a Calabriaa. The adhe- ANTITYPE 281 ANTONIANS rents of Antitrinitarian views in the Reformed Church of Poland were expelled in 15G5, and have since been known as Unitarians (q. v.). They honored Jesus simply as a man, but one who was richly endowed by God, "and exalted for dominion over the whole world. Most of them paid adoration to him. The Unitarians were organized as a community, and received a com- plete system of doctrine from Faustus Socinus (q. v.), who carried out the views first set forth by his uncle, La?lius Socinus, an Italian nobleman. The principal article of his system was an attempt at an accommoda- tion between different parties by the doctrine that, al- though Jesus was born a mere man, he was neverthe- less without any earthly father, and was wonderfully endowed by God ; was taken up into heaven, and the reward of his life was deified, that he might be a me- diator to bring man, alienated from God by sin, to the knowledge and grace of God, and that he might reign as the king of his people in all periods of time. The Freethinkers, Deists, and Rationalists were, of course, all Antitrinitarians. In Germany, Seebach and Dip- pel were prominent by their opposition to the doctrine of the Trinity ; in England, Winston, Clarke, Lindsey, and Priestly. Owing especially to this influence, Uni- tarian congregations were organized in England at the close of the 18th century. In the United States the spreading of Rationalism, especially among the Con- gregationalists, led, in 1815, to a formal separation, and the organization of a Unitarian denomination. With them another religious denomination, who simply call themselves Christians, as well as the Universalists, and a seceding portion of the Society of Friends (the " Hicksites"), agree in the distinctive article of their faith. Swedenborg substituted for the doctrine of the Trinity a threefold revelation of the one God, who was obliged to become man that he might give a human character to the doctrines of faith, and drive back the powers of hell. Several denominations, as the Disci- ples, Mennonites, Quakers, and others, without reject- ing the divinity of Christ, or explaining his relation to the Father, are opposed to the expression Trinity, as not being used by the Bible. In Germnii}r, Sabellianism has found man}' admirers in the school of speculative theology. Schleiermacher, in particular, was of opinion that Sabellianism both avoided the difficulties of the church doctrine, which he regarded as insoluble, and yet satisfied the nat- ural desire of the Christian to attribute to Christ the highest predicate without endangering Monotheism (Christliche Ghmbemlthre, 2d ed. ii, 532). Many new attempts were made to advocate a Trinitarian idea of God in a sense entirely different from that of the church doctrine. We refer to them more fully in the article Trinity. See Lange, Gesck'chte der Unitarier vor der nic. Synode (Leips. 1831, 8vo) ; Bock, Historia Antitrinitariorum (Kcenigsberg, 1774-84, 2 vols. 8vo) ; Trechsel, Die Protestant. Antitrin. vor F. Socin (Heidelb. 1839, 1844, 2 vols. 8vo) ; Hagenbach, Hist, of Doctrines, i, 131 ; ii, 210, 328, 478 ; Wallace, Antitrin. Biog. (Lond. 1850, 3 vols. 8vo) ; Shedd, Hist, of Doctrines, i, 254 sq. ; Schaff, Ch. Hist, i, 287 sq. See Christology. Antitype, that which answers to a type or figure. The corresponding Greek word, (ivt'itv-koc, occurs twice in the New Testament (Heb. ix, 24 ; 1 Peter iii, 21), where it is rendered "figure" (q. v.). A type, in its primary and literal meaning, simply denotes a rough draught, or less accurate model, from which a more perfect image is made ; but in the sacred and theological sense of the term, a type may be defined to be a symbol of something future and distant, or an ex- ample prepared and evidently designed by God to pre- figure that future thing. What is thus prefigured is called the antitype. See Type. Antoine, Nicole, an apostate from Christianity to Judaism, was born at St. Brieu in 1600, and joined early the Reformed Church. A few years later he ap- plied for admission among the Jews, but in vain. Hav- ing returned to Geneva, he became a teacher, and af- terward Reformed pastor, at Divonne, where he preach- ed only on texts from the Old Testament, rarely men- tioning the name of Jesus, and professing strange opin- ions about him. He fell for some time into insanity, and, having recovered, acknowledged again his faith in Judaism. He was accused at Geneva of blasphe- my, and burned in 1G32. — Pierer, Univ. -Lex! Icon, s. v. Alltonia (a frequent Roman name, fern, of Anto- nius), the name of two females mentioned by Josephus. 1. The mother of Germanicus and Claudius (after- ward emperor) ; she loaned Herod Agrippa money to retrieve his credit with Tiberius (Josephus, Ant. xviii, G, 4). She was a woman of eminent virtue (ib. 6). She was born about B.C. S6, and lived to see the ac- cession of her grandson Caligula (see Smith's Diet, of Class. A nt. s. v.). (Join with the Bust of Antonia. 2. A daughter of the Emperor Claudius by Petina (Josephus, War, ii, 12, 7). Nero had her put to death on a charge of treason, after her refusal to marry him (Suet. Claud. 27 ; Ner. 35 ; Tacit. Ann. xii, 2 ; xiii, 23 ; xv, 53 ; Dio Cass, ix, 5). Antonia CAvrutvia, from Antony), a fortress in Jerusalem, on the north side of the area of the Tem- ple, often mentioned by Josephus in his account of the later wars of the Jews. It was originally built by the Maccabees, under the name of Boris, and was after- ward rebuilt with great strength and splendor by the first Herod (Josephus, A nt. xv, 11). In a more par- ticular description Josephus states (War, v, 5, 8) that the fortress stood upon a rock or hill fifty cubits high, at the north-west corner of the temple area, above which its wall rose to the height of forty cubits. With- in it had the extent and appearance of a palace, be- ing divided into apartments of every kind, with gal- leries and baths, and broad halls or barracks for sol- diers ; so that, as having every thing necessary with- in itself, it seemed a city, while in magnificence it re- sembled a palace. At each of the four corners was a tower. Three of these were fifty cubits high ; but the fourth, at the south-east corner, was seventy cubits high, and overlooked the whole temple, with its courts. The fortress communicated with the northern and west- ern porticoes of the temple area, and had flights of stairs descending into both, by which the garrison could at any time enter the courts of the Temple and prevent tumults. On the north it was separated from the hill Bezetha by a deep trench, lest it should be ap- proachable from that quarter, and the depth of the trench added much to the apparent elevation of the towers (JPar,v, 4, 2). This fortress is called // 7rnpf/ Detractione, etc. (Alcala, 1553) ; Qucestionarium Theologicum lib. v (Venice, 1604, fol.); Commentaria in 4 libros Magistri Sent.; De In- du'gentiis (Alcala, 1554) ; De C'onceptione B. Virginis. — Landon, Eccl. Diet. s. v. Antonio of Santa Maria, a Franciscan monk and missionary, born at Placentia, Spain, about 1610. He went as missionary to the Philippine Islands, where he taught theology in the monastery of the Dis- calceats. In 1633 he went to China, and was made superior of the missionaries of his order in that coun- try. For thirty-seven years he labored with great zeal, suffering chains and imprisonment. He preach- ed first in the province of Fokien, then at Nankin, and lastly in Xantung, where he founded a church. He died in 1670. Among the works which he has left may be mentioned Relatio Sinensium Sectarum ; Da Controversia Primogenitonun Defunctorum ; Confucii Cultus; An Apology for Christianity, in Chinese ; A work in. Spanish on the. Chinese rites (translated into French by the Board of Foreign Missions, and printed at Par- is, 1701); A Catechism, in Chinese (Canton, 1660) ; An Apology for the Dominican and Franciscan Missionaries in China ; History of the Venerable Brother Gabriel, of Madelaina, and the Seven Discalceat Franciscans, mar- tyred in Japan ; De modo Evan gelt sandi regnum Dei in Sinico imperio ; Tractatus de Sinarum Conversione ; Re- lationes 5 de Conversatione, Progressibus, ac Fructibus Mksionariorum discalceatorum in Sinensium imperio ; and many other works, chiefly relating to the Chinese missions. — Landon, Eccl. Diet. s. v. Antonio of the Holy Spirit, a Portuguese monk, of the order of Barefooted Carmelites, and a famous theologian and preacher, who died bi:»hop of Angola, in Upper Ethiopia, in 1667. He left many treatises, printed at Lyons, in five vols. fol. — Richard and Giraud, Biblioth. Sacree, cited by Landon, s. v. Antonius (a frequent Roman name), the name of several men in Josephus. See also Antony. 1. Lucius, third son of Marcus Antonius Creticus, and younger brother of Marc Antony, became tribune in B.C. 44, and consul in B.C. 41. Upon the death of Julius Cajsar, he actively supported his brother's cause as triumvir (Dion Cass, xlviii, 5) ; but in the issue he was besieged in Perusia, and forced to surrender, B.C. 40. He was shortly afterward appointed to the com- mand of Iberia, after which we hear no more of him (Smith, Diet, of Class. Biog. s. v. Antonius, 14). Cice- ro describes him as infamous (Phil, iii, 12; v, 7, 11; xii, 8, etc.), but with exaggeration (Drumann, Gesch. Roms, p. 527). His decree as "Roman vice-quaastor and vice-praetor" to the Sardians in favor of the Jews is recited by Josephus (Ant. xiv, 10, 17). Coin with the heads of Lucius and Marc Antony. 2. Marcus (surnamed Primus), a native of Tolosa, in Gaul, received in his boyhood the epithet of BeJco, i. e. in Gallic a cock's beak (Suetonius, Vitell. 18 ; Mar- tial, ix, 10). He afterward went to Rome, and rose to the dignity of senator ; but, having been degraded for forgery, he was banished (Tacit. Ann. xiv, 40). After the death of Nero (A.D 68), he was restored to his for- mer rank by Galba, and appointed to the command of the seventh legion in Pannonia. AVhen the for- tunes of Vitellius began to fail (A.D. 68), Antonius was one of the first generals of Europe to declare in favor of Vespasian, to whom he subsequently rendered the most important military services (Smith's Did. of Class. Biog. s. v. Primus). His dispossession of the forces of Vitellius from Rome is related by Josephus (War, iv, 11, 2 and 3). His haughty behavior in con- sequence, however, appears thenceforth to have left him in comparative obscurity (Tacit. Hist, ii, 86 ; Dio Cass, lxv, 9-18). 3. A captain of the Roman garrison at Ascalon, at- tacked by the Jews in the beginning of the final strug- gle (Joseph. War, iii, 2, 1). It is uncertain whether he was the same with the centurion who lost his life during the siege of Jotapata by the treachery of one of the Jews who had fled into the neighboring caves (ib. iii, 7, 35). Antonius, St. See Anthony. Antonius De Dominis. See Dominis. Antonius De Rosellis. See Anthony. Antonius of Padua. See Anthony. ANTONIUS 284 ANUBIS Antonius, Orders of. See Anthony, St., Or- ders of. Antonius, a martyr of the 14th century, who, with his brother, abandoned Paganism for Christianity in Lithuania. The grand-duke Olgar made vain efforts to induce the brothers to abjure Christianity, and final- ly ordered them to be tortured and hung. They are celebrated as martyrs in the Roman Church April 14. — Acta Sanctorum, April 14; Hocfer, Big. Gene- rale, ii, 823. Antonius Margarita. See Margarita. Antonius Melissa, a Greek monk toward the end of the eighth century (?). He made a collection (something after the manner of Stobaeus) of passages from the classics and from the church fathers, ranging the materials under seventy-six titles. It was first printed by Gesner (Zurich, 154G, fid.), and is given also at the end of Stobaeus (Francf. 1581), and also in the Bibliotheca Patrum, t. v. — Hoefer, Nouv. Biog. Ge- nerate, i, 823. Antonius Nebrissensis. See Anthony of Lebrija. Antonius or Anton, Paul, a German theologi- an, born at Hirschfeldt in 1GG1. He became professor at Halle, and was for many years the friend and co- laborer of Francke (q. v.) in the revival of religion known as Pietism. He died at Halle in 1730. Among his writings are Be sicris processiimibus genti'iam (Leip- zig, 1684, 4to) : — Concil'd Tridentini doctrina pi/Mica, (Halle, 1697, 8vo, and often) : — Elementa Homiletica (Halle, 1700, 8vo):— other writings of his are named in Walch, Bibliotheca, ii. — Hoefer, Noui: Biog. Gene- rate, ii, 834. Antony, Marc (properly Marcus Antonius), the triumvir, son of M. Antonius Creticus and Julia, the sister of Julius Cresar, was born apparently B.C. 83, for he was chosen consul as early as B.C. 64. His father dying while he was yet young, and his mother marrying again, he was left in his youth to all sorts of dissipation, and early became distinguished for profligacy, which continually afterward involved him of Antony, struck at Antioch. in want and danger. To escape from his creditors, he served in the army in Syria under Gabinius, where he acquired a reputation for intrepidity (Josephus, Ant. xiv, 5, 3; War, i, 8, 5). He took part in the campaigns against Aristobulus in Palestine (B.C. 57, 56 ), and also in the restoration of Ptolemy Auletes to Egypt (in B.C. 55). In the following year he fol- lowed J. Caesar into Gaul, through whose influence he was elected quaestor in B.C. 52, and whose legate he became during the contest with the party of Pom- pey (B.C. 49-47). On the murder of Ctesar, Antony was left in supreme power, but a rival soon appeared in the young Octavianus, with whom, after a defeat in battle, he at length formed the first triumvirate, in connection with Lepidus, the chief in command of the consular troops, B.C. 43, the death of Cicero being one of the terms of the compact. Antony now vigor- ously prosecuted the war against the opponents of the late dictator Caesar, and defeated Brutus and Cassius in a pitched battle at 1'harsalia, B.C. 42. Then, after an interval spent in Koine, he passed over to Asia, in order to procure funds for paying his troops, and in Egypt he became enamored of the famous Cleopatra (q. v.), and, neglecting his affairs in dalliance with her, at last became involved in inextricable reverses, which terminated in the disastrous battle of Actium. B.C. 31, by which Octavianus became master of Egypt. Antony fled to Alexandria, and when Oc- tavianus appeared before the place, he committed suicide, B.C. 30 (Smith's Diet, of Class. Ant. s. v.). Several of the events in the later part of his career are referred to by Josephus {Ant. xiv, 13, 1 ; War, i, 16, 4), who speaks in detail of his connection with Herod (Ant. xiv, 13-xv, 4), and recites his decrees to various countries in favor of the Jews (Ant. xiv, 10, 9 and 10). See Herod the Great. Plutarch wrote a Life of Antony. See Liddell's Hist, of Rome, p. 674- 729. Coin of Antony, with Symbols of the worship of Bacchus and Venus. Antothi'jah (Heb. Anthothiyah' ', T^TTti'Z v. r. n*rnD", answers from Jehovah; Sept. 'AvaSwSia v. r. 'AvaSioS), a descendant of Shashak, a chief Ben- jaminite of Jerusalem (1 Chron. viii, 24). B.C. appar- ently ante 536. An'tothite, the rendering in the Auth. Vers, in two passages (1 Chron. xi, 28 ; xiii, 3) of the name more property, or at least more analogically, Angli- cized Anathothite, i. e. an inhabitant of Anathoth (q. v.). It is observable that while the city is inva- riably written Anathoth' (SliMS, Josh, xxi, 18; 1 Chron. vi, 60 [45] ; vii, 8 ; Ezra ii, 23 ; Neh. vii, 27 ; x, 19 [20] ; xi, 32 ; Isa. x, 30 ; Jer. i, 1 ; xi, 21, 23 ; xxii, 8 ; with the art., nirOl'il, as a var. read, in Jer. xxii, 7; "defectively," tiriSSj? in 1 Kings ii, 26, as a var. read, in Jer. xxii, 9 ; Sept. 'A wr3-w3 [v. r. Na^wS in 1 Chron. vii, 8]; Vulg. Anathoth, but Anathot in Neh. vii, 27), the derivative is written very various- ly as follows: 2 Sam. xxiii, 27, Heb. Annethothi', ^T\ryj, Sept. 'AvioS'iTriQ, Vulg. de Anathoth, Auth. Vers. " Anethothite ;" 1 Chron. xi, 28, Anthothi' ', TiiriV/AvaSwSi^tiatJiotites, "Antothite;" 1 Chron. xii, 3, Anthothi', ^rrDi", 'Ava&wSi, Anatoth'tes, "An- tothite;" 1 Chron. xxvii, 12, An: 'hothi' ', Vfi'MS [v. r. AntothV, IMFI??], i'i 'AvaSrwB, Anathothites, " Ane- tothite;" Jer. xxix, 27, Annethothi' ', ipriS", t'£ 'Ava- BwB, Anathothites, "of Anathoth." A'nub (Heb. Anub', tVliS, bound together ; Sept. 'Ewiu/3 v. r. 'Evw/3), the first named of the two or three sons of Coz of the tribe of Judah (1 Chron. iv, 8). B.C. post 1618. Anubis ("Avoufiig, derivation unknown), the name of an Egyptian deity, who had a temple in Home, where Mundus, Im- personating the god, through the con- trivance of a freed-woman and the col- lusion of the priests, secured the grati- fication of his passion for Paulina, a chaste matron (Josephus, Ant. xviii, 3, 3). His worship in Egypt is referred to By Herodotus (ii, 66), and was widely disseminated during the Roman Em- pire (Appian, Bell. Civ. iv, 47 ; Apul. Met. xi, 262 ; Lamprid. Commod. 9 ; Spartian, Pescenn. Nig. 6 ; Anion. Ca- rac. 9). He appears to have been adored under the figure of a dog-head- ed man, a myth of which the ancients give various interpretations (see Smith's Image of Anu- Dict. of Class. Antiq. s. v.). In the bis- ANUS 285 APATHY temples of Egypt he is represented as the guard of other gods, particularly the attendant of Osiris and Isis, occupying, in accordance with the form under which he is symbolized, the space in front of the tem- ple (Strabo, xvii, p. 805 ; Stat. Sylv. iii, 2, 12). For his rites, see Jablonsky, Panth. sEg. v, 1, § 12 etc. ; Champollion (Le Jeune), Pantheon Egypt. (Par. 1823) ; Pritchard, Egyptian Mythology. See Nibhaz. A'nus CAvviovS v. r. 'Avvovc), one of the Levites who expounded the law read by Ezra (1 Esdr. ix, 48) ; evidently the Bani of the genuine text (Neh. viii, 7). Anvil (E??! Pa'- am, so called from be- ing beaten, Isa. xli, 7 ; elsewhere a "step," "corner," "time," etc. ; dic/uov, Ecclus. xxxviii, 28), the uten- sil employed apparent- ly among the Hebrews, as with other na- tions, by blacksmiths for hammering upon. See Metal; Smith; Iron. Apa'rae (Aira/.tr], appar. from ct—apdw, to cut off), the name Vulcan forging a Thunder- bolt, given in the Apocry- From an antique Roman Gem. ua , -^ Esdr. iv 29) and by Josephus (Ant. xi, 0, 5) as that of a con- cubine of Darius (Hystaspis), of whom he was very fond, being the daughter of one of his nobles (Babsa- ses [? Eab-saris] Themasius, or "the admirable Bar- tacus"). Apama was the name of the wives of sev- eral of the Seleucid kings (see Smith's Diet, of Class. Biog. s. v.), but none of this name are assigned in his- tory to Darius. Apamea ( ''Att apsia, so called from Apame, q. v.), the name of several cities of antiquity (see Smith's Diet, of Class. Geog. s. v.), none of which are men- tioned in Scripture, though two of them are of inter- est in sacred literature. 1. Apamea of Syria, a large city in the valley of the Orontes, and capital of the province of Apa- mene (Steph. Byz. s. v. ; Ptol. v, 15, § 19 ; Festus Avienus, v, 1083; Anton. Itin.). It was fortified and enlarged by Seleucus Nicator, who named it after his wife Apama (not his mother, see Strabo, xvi, p. 752), although it also bore the Greek name Pella. The fortress was placed on a hill, the windings of the Orontes giving it a peninsular form ; hence its other name, the Chersonese (Xepponiaoc). Seleucus had a large commissariat there for his cavalry, and the pre- tender Trypho made it the basis of his operations. Josephus relates (Ant. xiv, 3, 2) that Pompey, in marching south from his winter quarters, probably at or near Antioch, razed Apamea. In the revolt of Syr- ia under Bassus it held out for three years, until the arrival of Cassius, B.C. 4G (Dio Cass", xlvii, 2(5-28 ; Joseph. War, i, 10, 10). During the Crusades it was a flourishing and important place under the Ara- bic name of Famieh, and was occupied by Tancred (Wilken, Gesch. d. Krevzz. ii, 474 ; Abulfeda^ Tab. Syr. p. 114, 157). Niebuhr heard that the site was now called Kula/ ed-Mudik (I'eise, iii, 97), and Burckhardt found a castle of this name not far from the lake El- Takah, which he fixes as the location of Apamea (Trar. p. 138). The enormous and highly ornament- al ruins still standing are probably remains of the temples of which Sozomen speaks (vii, 15) ; besides the castle on the hill, a part of the town is found in the plain. The adjacent lake is full of the celebrated black fish. 2. Apamea Cip.otus(//Ki/3(->7oc), a town of Phryg- fii, built near Cela3iia3 by Antiochus Soter, and named after his mother Apama. Strabo says it lay at the head of the Marsyas, which ran through the town to join the Majander (Groskurd, Strabo, ii, 531), form- ing the Catarrhactes described by Herodotus (vii, 26). The site has been fixed at the modern Denair (Arun- dell, Discoveries, i, 201), corresponding to the ancient descriptions (Hamilton, Researches, ii, 499), which have been collected by Leake (Asia Minor, p. 156 sq.). Notwithstanding its frequent earthquakes, Apamea continued to flourish during the Roman Empire, and its bishops are recorded in the early Christian coun- cils, the Gospel having probably been introduced there by Paul during his visits through Phrygia (q. v.). The epithet Cibotus has been conjectured to have been derived from the fact that the city was the empo- rium of the region (see Pliny, v, 29), for KtfiuiToc signifies a chest or coffer; but, according to others, it is connected with the position of Noah's ark after the Flood, a hypothesis which, however untenable on gen- eral grounds, is supported by some singular coinci- dences. The Sibylline verses place the mountains of Ararat, where the ark rested, on the confines of Phryg- ia, at the sources of the Marsyas. On a medal struck in honor of Hadrian is the figure of a man, represent- ing the river Marsyas, with this inscription, AnA- MEQN KIB12TOS MAP22IA— a medal of the Apa- means — the ark and the river Marsyas. That this was one of the commemorative notices of the ark and of the Deluge there is little doubt ; but only in the sense that traditionary memorials of the ark were here very ancient. There are several other medals of Apamea extant, on which are represented an ark, with a man in it receiving the dove, which is flying to him ; and part of their inscription is the word noe ; but either this should be read neo, an abridgment of "Neoko- ron," or it is the end of a word, AnAM EQN, or (some of) the medals are spurious, which has been suspect- Medal of Apamea Cibotus. ed. Still, as they are from different dies, yet all re- ferring to Apamea, it seems that their authors had a knowledge of the tradition of commemoration respect- ing the ark preserved in this city. See Ark. Many more such commemorations of an event so greatly affecting mankind were no doubt maintained for man}' ages, though we are now under great difficulties in tracing them. In fact, many cities boasted of these memorials, and referred to them as proofs of their an- tiquity. See Ararat. Apathy (c'nrdSua, want of feeling) or affeciuum vacuitas, a term formerly used to denote the entire ex- tinction of the vicious passions, so that not the small- est movement of them is felt. It implies the utter rooting out of concupiscence, and the annihilation of all sin within. This was a favorite doctrine with the Stoics ; and some of the fathers, as St. Clement of Al- exandria, St. Macarius, and others, have used expres- sions which, at first sight, seem to imply that fluy had themselves attained to this state ; but, in fact, they mean only that a perfect Christian keeps all his pas- sions and desires in perfect subjection, so that the}' have not in any degree the mastery over him. The APE 286 APELLES doctrine of apathy, in its strictest sense, is at variance with Holy Scripture and experience. The term apa- thy is also used in a limited sense, to signify a con- tempt for worldly things.— Landon, Eccl. Diet. s. v. Ape C;"ip, kopK), an animal of the monkey tribe mentioned in 1 Kings x, 22, and in the parallel pas- sage in 2 Chron. ix, 21, among the merchandise brought by the Meets of Solomon and Hiram once in every three years. The Sept. renders the word by 7rii)i]Kor, which is equivalent to the Latin simia. The Greeks have the word Ktjfioe,, or kijitoc, for a long- tailed species of monkey (Aristot. Hist. Anim. ii, 8, 9), and Pliny (viii, 19, 28) uses cephus. Both Greeks and Hebrews received the word, with the animal, from India, for the ape, both in Sansc. and Malabar, is called kapi—svift, active. Hence also the Ger- man aff'e, the Anglo-Saxon apa, and the English ape. The name, under these modifications, designates the Simiadse, including, no doubt, species of Cercopithecus, Macacus, and Cynocephalus, or Guenons, apes and baboons ; that is, all the animals of the quadrumanous order known to the Hebrews, Arabs, Egyptians, and the classical writers. Accordingly, we find Pliny and Solinus speaking of Ethiopian Cephi exhibited at Rome ; and in the upper part of the celebrated Prse- nestine mosaic representing the inundation of the Nile (see Shaw's Travels, p. 42:5, 2d ed. 4to) figures of Simia- das occur in the region which indicates Nubia ; among others, one in a tree, with the name KHinEN beside KHinEH Monkey. From the Pramestine Mosaic. it, which may be taken for a Cercopithecus of the Guenon group. But in the triumphal procession of Thothmcs III at Thebes nations from the interior of Africa, probably from Nubia, bear curiosities and trib- utes, among which the camelopardalis or giraffe and six quadrumana may be observed. The Cephs of Baboons. From I he I'.iryptian Monuments. Ethiopia are described and figured in Ludolfi Historic JEthiopica, i, 10, § 52 64. They are represented as tailless animals, climbing rocks, eating worms and ants, and protecting themselves from the attack of lions by casting sand into their eyes. Apes also occur in the lately discovered Assyrian sculptures, both in bass-reliefs on slabs (Layard. Ninevth, i, 118), and of various species on an obelisk at Nimroud (ib. ii, 330). The Koph of Scripture, named only twice (1 Kings x, 22; 2 Chron. ix, 21), is in both cases associated with D^sin, toldyim, rendered "peacocks." The fleet of Solomon is said to have brought these two kinds of ani- mals from Ophir. Now nei- ther peacocks nor pheasants are indigenous in Africa ; thejr belong to India and the mountains of high Asia, and therefore the version "pea- cocks," if correct, would de- cide, without doubt, not only that koph denotes none of the Simiadie above noticed, but also that the fleet of Tarshish visited India or the Austral- asian islands. For these rea- sons we conclude that the Hebrew koph, and names of same root, were, by the na- tions in question, used ge- nerically in some instances and specifically in others, though the species were not thereby defined, nor on that Monkeys as Tribute. From account identical. For the the Assyrian Monuments. natural history of the ape family, see the Penny Cyclopaedia, s. v. For some at- tempts to identify the various kinds of quadrumana which were known to the ancients, see Lichtenstein's Commentath philologica cle Simiarum quotquot veteribus innotuerunt Jbrmis (Hamb. 1791), and Tyson's Homo sylvestiis, or the Anatomy of a Pigmie (Lond. 1G99), to which he has added a philosophical essay concerning the Cynocephali, the. Satyrs, and Sphinges of the an- cients. Aristotle (De Anim. Hist, ii, 5, ed. Schneider) appears to divide the quadrumana order of mammalia into three tribes, v hich he characterizes by the names tt'iQi)koi, K'i)f3ot, and KvvoK(fa\ot. The ancients were acquainted with several kinds of tailed and tailless apes (Plin. Hist. Nat. viii, 80; xi, 100; ^Elian, A.nirn. xvii, 25), and obtained them from Ethiopia (Plin. ut sup.) and India (Ctes. in Phot. Cod. lxxii, p. 66 ; Ar- rian, Ind. 15; /Elian, Anim. xvii, 25, 39; Philostr. ApoU. iii, 4), but in Mauritania they were domesti- cated (Strabo, xvii, 827), as now in Arabia Felix ^Nie- buhr, Bed. p. 167). Some species of baboon may be denoted by the term Q^I'rN shedim', or daemons ("devils") in Deut. xxxii, 17 ; Psa. cvi, 37 ; and perhaps by the CH"1"'^, sc:irim' ', or hairy ones (goats, "satyrs") of the desert (Isa. xiii, 21; xxxiv, 14), since these animals (see Rich's Bab- ylon, p. 30) are still found in the ruins of the Meso- potamian plains, under the name i-'eir Assad (see gen- erally Bochart, Hieroz. ii, £98 sq.). It is some con- firmation of this last interpretation that the Egyptians are said to have worshipped apes, and they are still adored in many places in India. See Satyr. Apel, John, a German theologian of the ICth cen- tury, was born at Nuremberg in 1486. After having studied theology at the university of Wittenberg, he became canon at Wurzburg, where he married a nun, in consequence of which he was expelled. He was one of the most zealous adherents of Luther, and ea- gerly labored for the spreading of the Reformation. He died in 1540 at Nuremberg, where he had been, during the last years of his life, jurist of the republic and councillor of the elector of Brandenburg. He wrote, among other works, DefaKa, according to the ancients, from the Heb. pEN, aphak' , to embrace, with refer- ence to the loves of Venus and Adonis, Etymol. Mag. s. v. ; see Movers, Phon. i, 102), a town of Ccele-Syria, midway between Heliopolis and Byblus (Zosim. Hist. i, 58), a position, as Reland thinks (Palest, p. 315), not inconsistent with the other notices of the place as being situated on Lebanon. It was notorious for its temple of Venus, where all the abominations of an impure idolatry were practised to such a degree that Constantine destroyed it (Euseb. Vit. Const, iii, 55 ; Sozomen, Hist. Eccl. i, 5). Near it was a lake cele- brated for certain marvellous properties (Seneca, Quest. Nat. iii, 25). It has been regarded as identi- cal with the Apheic (q. v.) of Josh, xix, 30, and the Aphik of Judg. i, 31. Seetzen first observed the prob- able coincidence of Aphaca with the present Afka, a village of the region indicated, and containing ruins (Reisen, i, 245\ which have since been described by Thomson (in the Bibliotheea Sacra, 1838, p. 5). The lake has been identified with that now called Lhnun, three hours distant (Burckhardt, Travels, p. 25), but Robinson thinks it is rather the neighboring spring (new ed. of Researches, iii, 007). Aphaer'enia CA(paipif.ia in the Apocrypha) or Apherima ('Afeptipa in Josephusl, one of the three " governments" (I'o/ioi'o) added to Judaea from Sama- ria (and Galilee, 1 Mace, x, 30) by Demetrius Soter, and confirmed by Nicanor (1 Mace, xi, 34 ; comp. Jo- seph. Ant. xiii, 4, 0; and see Reland, Palest, p. 178). It is probably the same as the Ephkaim of the New Test. (John xi, 54) and the Ophraii (q. v.) of the Old. Aphar 'sacliites (Chald. Apharsekaye' , X"< = &n E N ; Sept. ' \(par>Ta\cuoi, Ezra v, G ; vi, 0) or Aphar'sath- chites (Chald. Apharsathknye ', X'crO-EN; Sept. 'A(pap(7a9a\a~ioi, Ezra iv, 9), the name of the nation (or one of the nations) to which belonged one portion of the colonists whom the Assyrian king planted in Samaria, in place of the expatriated northern tribes, and who violently opposed the Jews in rebuilding Jerusalem. Schulthess (Parad. p. 3G2) identifies the " Apharsachites" with the Persian, or rather Median Parataceni of Greek geography (Strabo xi, 522; xv. 732 ; Herod, i, 101 ; Plin. xvi, 29), the A being pros- thetic (as in Strabo, xv, 7G4, Mardi and Amardi are interchanged). They, together with the Aphar sites (q. v.), for whose name this would seem only another form, appear to have been some foreign tribe of East- ern Asia, conquered by the Assyrians, and removed (according to well-known usage, see 2 Kings xviii, 32 sq.) to another region for security and political exten- sion. Ewald (Isr. Gesch. iii, 375), following Gesenius, regards the name as only another for the Persians themselves, adopted out of hostility to the Jews (ib. p. 120), and in a three-fold form to enhance their own importance. Aphar'sites (Chald. Apharsaye' ', i05'*EX ; Sept. 'AQapoaloi), the name of a tribe removed along with the Apharsachites (q. v.) to Samaria by the king of Assyria, and forming one of the opponents of the Jews after the captivity (Ezra iv, 9). Hiller (Onumast.) re- gards them as the Parrhasii, a tribe of Eastern Media, and Gesenius (Thes. Heb. p. 143) thinks they are the Persians, to whose name theirs certainly bears a much greater affinity, especially in the prolonged form of the latter found in Dan. vi, 29 (Chald. Pavsaya' , NnD"i5). The presence of the proper name of the Persians in Ezra i, 1 ; iv, 3, must throw some doubt upon Gesenius' conjecture ; but it is ver}- possible that the local name of the tribe may have undergone altera- tion, while the official and general name was correctly given. A'phek (Heb. ApheV, p£N>, prob. strength; with rt directive, Josh, xiii, 4 ; 1 Kings xx, 2G ; 1 Sam. xxix, 1 ; hence not to be confounded with Apiiekah), the name of at least three cities (Schwarz, Palest. p. 90). 1. (Sept. 'Ahekah', i"!£EX, fern, of Aphek; Sept. 'Abated v. r. <£>aKovK~), a city in the mountain tract of Judah, mentioned between Beth- tappuah and Humtah (Josh, xv, 53). Raumer (Pa- last, p. 170) and others confound this with the Aphek of Josh, xii, 18; but the Heb. accentuation of the names is different. Schwarz (Palest, p. 106) finds it in the village Abik, 4 miles east of Jannuth ; but this position is entirely out of region of the associated names, which require a locality near Hebron, perhaps between that place and Tappuah ( Keil, Comment, in loc), possibly at the ruined site Slbta (Van de Velde, Map i. Apher'ema, Apherima. See Apii.erema. Apher'ra ('A^tppa), one of "the servants of Sol- omon" whose sons are said to have returned from Babylon (1 Esdr. v, 34); but the genuine text (Ezra ii, 51) has no such name. Aphi'ah (Heb. Aphi'ach, ffSX, blown upon; Sept. '\oi\ v. r. \-,\), the father of Bechorath, a Benjamite, ancestor of King Saul (1 Sam. ix, 1). B.C. considerably ante 1093. A'phik (Heb. Aphik', pEX, strong; Sept. 'A0£Kd), one of the cities from which the Asherites were unable to expel the Canaanites (Judg. i, 31); doubtless the same as the Aphek (q. v.) of Josh, xiii, 4 ; xix. 30. Aph'rah (Heb. Aphrah', ir^SS), another form of the name Ophrah (Mic. i, 10). See Beth-le- Aphrah. Aph'ses, or, rather, PIZ'ZEZ (Heb. Pitstsets' ', j'SQ, dispersion, with the art., VXEri, hap-Pitsets ; Sept. 'Aoc, "hidden, secret" (in which sense it is used in Hellenistic as well as classical Greek, see Ecclus. xxiii, 19; Luke viii, 17; Col. ii, IS), seems, toward the close of the 2d century, to have been associated with the signification "spurious," and ultimate!}- to have settled down into the latter. Ter- tullian (de Anim. c. 2) and Clement of Alexandria (Strom, i, 19, G9 ; iii, 4, 29) apply it to the forged or spurious books which the heretics of their time circu- lated as authoritative. The first passage referred to from the Stromata, however, may be taken as an in- stance of the transition stage of the words. The fol- lowers of Prodicus, a Gnostic teacher, are said there to boast that they have /3/j8Xoi/£ airoKpvfovQ cf Zoroas- ter. In Athanasius (Ep. Eest. ii, S8 ; Synopsis Sac. Scrip, ii, 154, ed. Colon. 1G8G), Augustine (Eaust. xi, 2 ; Civ. Dei, xv, 23), Jerome (Ep. ad Lat can, and Prol. Gal.) the word is used uniformly with the bad mean- ing which had become attached to it. The writers of that period, however, do not seem to have seen clearly how the word had acquired this secondary sense ; and hence we find conjectural explanations of its etymolo- gy. The remark of Athanasius (Synops. S. Scr. 1. c.) that such books are ciTroKpvfijg paWov r\ dvayrwaiwe ii£ia is probably meant rather as a play upon the word than as giving its derivation. Later conjectures are (1), that given by the translators of the English Bible (ed. 15E9, Pref. to Apocr.), " because they were wont to be read not openly and in common, but as it were in secret and apart ;" (2), one, resting on a misappre- hension of the meaning of a passage in Epiphanes (de 3Iens. ac rond. c. 4) that the bocks in question were so called because, net being in the Jewish canon, they were excluded d-i) -I'll: upvirTiic. from the ark in which the true Scriptures were preserved ; (3), that the word cnr6icpv(pa answers to the Heb. fi^PJS, libri absconditi, by which the later Jews designated those books which, as of doubtful authority or not tending to edification, were not read publicly in the synagogues ; (4), that it originates in the Kpvirra or secret books of the Greek mysteries. Of these it may be enough to say, that (1) is, as regards some of the books now bearing the name at variance with fact ; that (2), as has been said, rests on a mistake; that (3) wants the support of direct evidence of the use of cnroKpvfpa as the translation for the Hebrew word; and that (4), though it approxi- mates to what is probably the true history of the word, is so far only a conjecture. — Smith, s. v. In the early ages of the Christian Church this term was frequently used to denote books of an uncertain or anonymous author, or of one who had written under an assumed name. Its application, however, in this sense is far from being distinct, as, strictly speaking, it APOCRYPHA 290 APOCRYPHA would include canonical books whose authors were un- J Christian Church for edification, although not consid- known or uncertain, or even pseudepigrapkal. Origen, ered of authority in controversies of faith. These on Matt, xxii, had applied the term apocryphal in a sim- j were also termed ecclesiastical books, and have been ilar way: "This passage is to be found in no canonical denominated, for distinction's sake, the deutero-canon- book" (j-egulari, for we have Origen's work only in the ical books, inasmuch as they were not in/the original Latin translation by Rufinus), " but in the apocryphal j or Hebrew canon. In this sense they are called by book of Elias" (secretis Ella). And, "This is plain, , some the Antilegomena of the Old Testament. "The that many examples have been adduced by the apostles \ uncanonical books," says Athanasius, or the author and evangelists, and inserted in the New Testament, which we do not read in the canonical Scriptures which we possess, but which are found in the Apocry- pha" (Origen, Pra>f. in Cantic). So also Jerome, re- ferring to the words (Eph. v, 14) "Awake, thou that sleepest, and arise from the dead," observes that "the of the Synopsis, "are divided into antilegomena ana apocrypha.'1'' — Kitto, s. v. See Antilegomena. Eventually, in the history of the early Church, the great number of pseudonymous productions palmed off upon the unwary as at once sacred and secret, un- der the great names in Jewish or Christian history, e cited this from hidden (reconditis) prophets, brought this entire class of works into disrepute. and such as seem to be apocryphal, as he has done in several other instances." Epiphanius thought that this term was applied to such books as were not placed in the Ark of the Covenant, but put away in some other place (see Suicer's Thesaurus for the true reading of the passage in this father). Under the term apocry- phal have been included books of a religious character, which were in circulation among private Christians, Those whose faith rested on the teaching of the Chris- tian Church, and who looked to the O. T. Scriptures either in the Hebrew or the Sept. collection, were not slow to perceive that these productions were destitute of all authority. They applied in scorn what had been used as a title of honor. The secret books (libri se- cretiores, Orig. Comm. in Matt.eA. Lomm. iv, 237) were rejected as spurious. The word apocryphal was soon but were not allowed to be read in the public assem- j degraded to the position from which it has blies ; such as 3 and 4 Esdras. and 3 and 4 Maccabees. (See Stare, Be apocryphor. appellation?, Greifsw. 17C6.) In regard to the New Testament, the term has been usually applied to books invented by heretics to favor their views, or by Catholics under fictitious signa- tures. Of this description were man)' spurious or apocryphal gospels (see below). It is probably in reference to such that Basil, Cyril of Jerusalem, and Jerome gave cautions against the reading of apocry- phal books ; although it is possible, from the context, that the last named father alludes to the books which were also called ecclesiastical, and afterward deutero- canonical. The following passage from his epistle to Losta, on the education of her daughter, will serve to never since risen. So far as books like the Testament of the Twelve Patriarchs and the Assumption of Moses were concerned, the task of discrimination was compara- tively easy, but it became more difficult when the question affected the books which were found in the Sept. translation of the Old Testament, and recognised by the Hellenistic Jews ; but were not in the Hebrew text or in the canon acknowledged by the Jews of Palestine. The history of this difficulty, and of the manner in which it affected the reception of particular 1 looks, belong rather to the subject of Canon than to that of the present article, but the following facts may be stated as bearing on the application of the word: (1.) The teachers of the Greek and Latin Churches, illustrate this part of our subject: "All ajjocryphal\ accustomed to the use of the Septuagint, or v( books should be avoided ; but if she ever wishes to read them, not to establish the truth of doctrines, but with a reverential feeling for the truths they signify, she should be told that they are not the works of the authors by whose names the}- are distinguished, that the)' contain much that is fault)', and that it is a task requiring great prudence to find gold in the midst of clay." And to the same effect Philastrius : "Among whom are the Manichees, Gnostics [etc.], who, having some apoc- ryphal books under the apostles' names (i. e. some separate Acts), are accustomed to despise the canon- ical Scriptures ; but these secret Scriptures — that is, hal — though they ought to be read by the per- resting on the same basis, were naturally led to quote freely and reverently from all the books which were incorporated into it. In Clement of Alexandria, Ori- gen, Athanasius, we find citations from the books of the present Apocrypha, as "Scripture," "divine Scrip- ture," "prophecy." They are very far from apply- ing the term cnruKpvtyoc, to these writings. If they are conscious of the difference between them and the other books of the O. T., it is only so far as to lead them (comp. Athan. Synops. S. Scr. 1. c.) to place the former in the list of ov KavoviZuftipa, dvTikeyofuva, 1 looks which were of more use for the ethical instruc- .- I tion of catechumens than for the edification of mature feet for their morals, ought not to be read by all, as Christians. Augustine, in like manner, applies the ignorant heretics have added and taken away what word "Apocrypha" only to the spurious books with they wished." He then proceeds to say that the i false titles which were in circulation among heretics, books to which he refers are the Acts of Andrevf, admitting the others, though with some qualifications, written by "the disciples who were his followers," j under the title of canonical (de doctr. Chr. ii, 8). (2.) etc. Wherever, on the other hand, any teacher came into In the Bibliotheque Sacree, by the Dominicans j contact with the feelings that prevailed among the Richard and Giraud (Paris, 1822), the term is defined j Christians of Palestine, there the influence of the rig- to signify (1,) anonymous or pseudepigraphal books; orous limitation of the old Hebrew canon is at once (2,) those which are not publicly read, although they j conspicuous. This is seen in its bearing on the his- may be read with edification in private; (3,) those I tory of the canon in the list given by Melito, bishop which do not pass fur authentic and of divine author- I of Sardis (Euseb. 77. E. iv, 2C), and obtained by him ity, although they pass for being composed by a sacred from Palestine. Of its effects on the application of author or an apostle, as the Epistle of Barnabas; and (4,) dangerous books composed by ancient heretics to favor their opinions. They also apply the name "to books which, after having been contested, are put into the canon by consent of the churches, as Tobit, etc." John applies it, in its most strict sense, and that which it lias borne since the fourth century, to books which, from their inscription, or the author's name, or the the word, the writings of Cyril of Jerusalem and Je- rome give abundant instances. The former (Cafech. iv, 33) gives the canonical list of the 22 books of the O. T. Scriptures, and rejects the introduction of all "apocryphal" writings. The latter in his Epistle to Lata warns the Christian mother in educating her daughter against " omnia apocrypha." The Prologus Galeatus shows that he did not shrink from including subject, might easily lie taken for inspired hooks, but under that title the books which formed part of the are not so in reality. It has also been applied by Je- \ Septuagint, and were held in honor in the Alexandrian rome to certain hooks not found in the Hebrew canon, j and Latin Churches. In dealing with the several but yet publicly read from time immemorial in the ! books he discusses each on its own merits, admiring APOCRYPHA 291 APOCRYPHA some, speaking unhesitatingly of the "dreams," "fa- bles" of others. (3.) The teaching of Jerome influ- enced, though not decidedly, the language of the Western Church. The old spurious heretical writ- ings, the "Apocrypha" of Tertullian and Clement, fell more and more into the background, and were almost utterly forgotten. The doubtful books of the Old Testament were used publicly in the service of the Church, quoted frequently with reverence as Scrip- ture, sometimes, however, with doubts or limitations as to the authority of individual books according to the knowledge or critical discernment of this or that writer (comp. Bp. Cosins's Scholastic History of the Canmi). During this period the term by which they were com- monly described was not apocryphal but "ecclesiasti- cal." So they had been described by Rufinus {Ex- pos, in Symb. Apost. p. 26), who practically recognised the distinction drawn by Jerome, though he would not apply the more opprobrious epithet to books which were held in honor. (4.) It was reserved for the age of the Reformation to stamp the word Apocrypha with its present signification. The two views which had hitherto existed together, side by side, concerning which the Church had pronounced no authoritative decision, stood out in sharper contrast. The Council of Trent closed the question which had been left open, and deprived its theologians of the liberty they had hitherto enjoyed, by extending the Canon of Scripture so as to include all the hitherto doubtful or deutero- canonical books, with the exception of the two hooks of Esdras and the Prayer of Manasseh, the evidence against which seemed too strong to be resisted (Sess. IV de Can. Script.). In accordance with this decree, the editions of the Vulgate published by authority con- tained the books which the Council had pronounced canonical, as standing on the same footing as those which had never been questioned, while the three which had been rejected were printed commonly in smaller type and stood after the New Testament. The Reformers of Germany and England, on the other hand, influenced in part by the revival of the study of Hebrew and the consequent recognition of the au- thority of the Hebrew Canon, and subsequently by the reaction against this stretch of authority, main- tained the opinion of Jerome and pushed it to its le- gitimate results. The principle which had been as- serted by Carlstadt dogmatically in his " de Canonicis Scripturis libellus" (1520) was acted on by Luther. He spoke of individual books among those in ques- tion with a freedom as great as that of Jerome, judg- ing each on its own merits, praising Tobit as a "pleas- ant comedy." and the Prayer of Manasseh as a " good model for penitents," and rejecting the two books of Esdras as containing worthless fables. The example of collecting the doubtful books into a separate group had been set in the Strasburg edition of the Scptua- gint, 1526. In Luther's complete edition of the Ger- man Bible, accordingly (1534), the books (Judith, Wis- dom, Tobias, Sirach, 1 and 2 Maccabees, Additions to Esther and Daniel, and the Prayer of Manasseh) were grouped together under the general title of "Apocry- pha, i. e. Books which are not of like worth with Holy Scripture, yet are good and useful to be read." In the history of the English Church, Wiclift" showed himself in this as in other points the forerunner of the Reformation, and applied the term Apocrypha to all but the "twenty-Jive" Canonical Books of the Old Testament. The judgment of Jerome was formally asserted in the sixth Article. The disputed books were collected and described in the same way in the printed English Bible of 1539 (Cranmer's), and since then there has been no fluctuation as to the applica- tion of the word (Smith). See Deutero-canonicat,. II. Biblical Apocrypha. — The collection of books to which this term is popularly applied includes the fol- lowing. The order given is that in which they stand in the English version. I. 1 Esdras. II. '2 Esdras. HI. Tobit. IV. Judith. V. The rest of the chapters of the Book of Esther, which aro found neither in the Hebrew nor in the Ohaldee. VI. The Wisdom of Solomon. VII. The Wisdom of Jesus the Son of Sirach, or Ecclesiasticus. VIII. Baruch. IX. The Song of the Three Holy Children. X. The History of Susanna. XI. The History of the Destruction of Bel and the Dragon. XII. The Prayer of Manasseh, Kiug of Judah. XIII. 1 Maccabees. XIV. 2 Maccabees. The separate books of this collection are treated of in distinct articles. Their relation to the canonical books of the Old Testament is discussed under Canon. We propose here to consider only the history and charac- ter of the collection as a whole in its relation to Jew- ish literature. Whatever questions may be at issue as to the au- thority of these books, they have in any case an inter- est, of which no controversy can deprive them, as con- nected with the literature, and therefore with the his- tory, of the Jews. They represent the period of transi- tion and decay which followed on the return from Babylon, when the prophets, who were then the teach- ers of the people, had passed away, and the age of scribes succeeded. Uncertain as may be the dates of individual books, few, if any. can be thrown farther back than the beginning of the third centurj' B.C. The latest, the 2d Book of Esdras, is probably not later than 30 B.C., 2 Esdr. vii, 28 being a subsequent in- terpolation. The alterations of the Jewish character, the different phases which Judaism presented in Pal- estine and Alexandria, the good and the evil which were called forth by contact with idolatry in Egypt, and by the struggle against it in Syria, all these pre- sent themselves to the reader of the Apocrypha with greater or less distinctness. In the midst of the di- versities which we might naturally expect to find in books written by different authors, in different coun- tries, and at considerable intervals of time, it is possi- ble to discern some characteristics which belong to the entire collection. (We quote from Smith, s. v.) 1. The absence of the prophetic element. From first to last the books bear testimony to the assertion of Josephus (Ap. i, 8), that the cucpifSijg cmcoy/j of prophets had been broken after the close of the O. T. canon. No one speaks because the word of the Lord had come to him. Sometimes there is a direct confes- sion that the gift of prophecy had departed (1 Mace. ix, 27), or the utterance of a hope that it might one day return (ibid, iv, 46 ; xiv, 41). Sometimes a teach- er asserts in words the perpetuity of the gift (Wisd. vii, 27), and shows in the act of asserting it how dif- ferent the illumination which he had received was from that bestowed on the prophets of the canonical books. When a writer simulates the prophetic char- acter, he repeats with slight modifications the lan- guage of the older prophets, as in Baruch, or makes a mere prediction the text of a dissertation, as in the Epistle of Jeremy, or plays arbitrarily with combina- tions of dreams and symbols, as in 2 Esdras. Strange and perplexing as the last-named book is, whatever there is in it of genuine feeling indicates a mind not at ease with itself, distracted with its own sufferings and with the problems of the universe, and it is according- ly very f.ir removed from the utterance of a man who speaks as a messenger from God. 2. Connected with this is the almost total disappear- ance of the power which had shown itself in the poet- ry of the Old Testament. The Song of the Three Children lays claim to the character of a psalm, and is probably a translation from some liturgical hymn ; but, with this exception, the form of poetry is alto- gether absent. So far as the writers have come un- der the influence of Greek cultivation, they catch the taste for rhetorical ornament which characterized the APOCRYPHA 292 APOCRYPHA literature of Alexandria. Fictitious speeches become almost indispensable additions to the narrative of a historian, and the story of a martyr is not complete unless (as in the later Acta Martyrum of Christian traditions) the sufferer declaims in set terms against the persecutors (Song of the Three Child., 3-22 ; 2 Mace, vi, vii). 3. The appearance, as part of the current literature of the time, of works of fiction, resting or purporting to rest on a historical foundation. It is possible that this development of the national genius may have been, in part, the result of the Captivity. The Jew- ish exiles brought with them the reputation of excel- ling in minstrelsy, and were called on to sing the " songs of Zion" (Psa. exxxvii). The trial of skill between the three young men in 1 Esdr. iii, iv, im- plies a traditional belief that those who were promoted to places of honor under the Persian kings were con- spicuous for gifts of a somewhat similar character. The transition from this to the practice of story-telling was, with the Jews, as afterward with the Arabs, easy and natural enough. The period of the Captivity, with its strange adventures, and the remoteness of the scenes connected with it, offered a wide and at- tractive field to the imagination of such narrators. Sometimes, as in Bel and the Dragon, the motive of such stories would be the love of the marvellous min- gling itself with the feeling of scorn with which the Jew looked on the idolater. In other cases, as in To- bit and Susanna, the story would gain popularity from its ethical tendencies. The singular variations in the text of the former book indicate at once the extent of its circ dation and the liberties taken by successive editors. In the narrative of Judith, again, there is probably something more than the interest attaching to the history of the past. There is indeed too little evidence of the truth of the narrative for us to look on it as history at all, and it takes its place in the region of historical romance, written with a political motive Under the guise of the old Assyrian enemies of Israel the writer is covertly attacking the Syrian invaders, against whom his countrymen were contending, stir- ring them up, by a story of imagined or traditional heroism, to follow the example of Judith, as she had followed that of Jael (Ewald, Gesch. Israels, iv, 541). The development of this form of literature is, of course, compatible with a high degree of excellence, but it is true of it at all times, and was especially true of the literature of the ancient world, that it belongs rather to its later and feebler period. It is a special sign of decay in honesty and discernment when such writings are passed off and accepted as belonging to actual his- tory. 4. The free exercise of the imagination within the domain of history led to the growth of a purely le- gendary literature. The full development of this was indeed reserved for a yet later period. The books of tin- Apocrypha occupy a middle place between those of tin- Old Testament in their simplicity and truthful- ness ami the wild extravagances of the Talmud. As it is, however, we find in them the germs of some of the fabulous traditions which were influencing the minds of the Jews at the time of our Lord's ministry, and have since in some instances incorporated them- selves more or less with the popular belief of Christen- dom, So in 2 Mace, i, ii, we meet with the state- ments that at the time of the captivity the priests had concealed the sacred tire, and that it was miraculously ! renewed — that Jeremiah had gone, accompanied by the tabernacle and the ark, "to the mountain where Moses climbed up to see the heritage of God," and j had there concealed them in a cave together with the altar of incense. The apparition of the prophet at the close of the same book (xv, 15), as giving to Judas j Maccabseus the sword with which, as a "gift from! God," he was to " wound the adversaries," shows how prominent a place was occupied by Jeremiah in the traditions and hopes of the people, and prepares us to understand the rumors which followed on our Lord's teaching and working that " Jeremias or one of the prophets" had appeared again (Matt, xvi, 14). So again in 2 Esdr. xiii, 40-47, we find the legend of the entire disappearance of the Ten Tribes, which, in spite of direct and indirect testimony on the other side, has given occasion even in our own time to so many wild conjectures. In chap, xiv of the same book we rec- ognise (as has been pointed out already) the tendency to set a higher value on books of an esoteric knowl- edge than on those in the Hebrew canon ; but it de- serves notice that this is also another form of the tra- dition that Ezra dictated from a supernaturally-in- spired memory the sacred books which, according to that tradition, had been lost, and that both fables are exaggerations of the part actually taken by him and by " the men of the Great Synagogue" in the work of collecting and arranging them. So also the rhetorical narrative of the Exodus in Wisd. xvi-xix indicates the existence of a traditional, half-legendary history side by side with the canonical. It would seem, in- deed, as if the life of Moses had appeared with many different embellishments. The form in which that life appears in Josephus, the facts mentioned in St. Stephen's speech and not found in the Pentateuch, the allusions to Jannes and Jambres (2 Tim. iii, 8), to the disputes between Michael and the devil (Jude 9), to the " rock that followed" the Israelites (1 Cor. x, 4), all bear testimony to the wide-spread popularity of this semi-apocryphal history. See Enoch (Book of). 5. As the most marked characteristic of the collec- tion as a whole and of the period to which it belongs, there is the tendency to pass off supposititious books under the cover of illustrious names. The books of Esdras, the additions to Daniel, the letters of Baruch and Jeremiah, and the. Wisdom of Solomon, are ob- viously of this character. It. is difficult, perhaps, for us to measure in each instance the degree in which the writers of such books were guilty of actual frauds. In a book like the Wisdom of Solomon, for example, the form may have been adopted as a means of gain- ing attention by which no one was likely to be de- ceived, and, as such, it does not go beyond the limits of legitimate personation. The fiction in this case need not diminish our admiration and reverence for the book any more than it would destroy the authori- ty of Ecclesiastes were wc to come to the conclusion, from internal or other evidence, that it belonged to a later age than that of Solomon. The habit, however, of writing books under fictitious names is, as the later Jewish history shows, a very dangerous one. The practice becomes almost a trade. Each such work creates a new demand, to be met in its turn by a fresh supply, and thus the prevalence of an apocryphal lit- erature becomes a sure sign of want of truthfulness on one side, and want of discernment on the other. 6. The absence of honesty, and of the power to dis- tinguish truth from falsehood, shows itself in a yet more serious form in the insertion of formal documents purporting to be authentic, but in reality failing alto- gether to establish an}- claim to that title. This is obviously the case with the decree of Artaxerxes in Esth. xvi. The letters with which 2 Mace, opens from the Jews at Jerusalein betray their true charac- ter by their historical inaccuracy. AVe can hardly ac- cept as genuine the letter in which the king of the Lacedemonians (1 Mace, xii, 20, 21) writes to Onias that "the Laceda>monians and Jews are brethren, and that the}' are of the stock of Abraham." The letters in 2 Mace, ix and xi, on the other hand, might be au- thentic so far as their contents go, but the reckless- ness with which such documents are inserted as em- bellishments and make -weights throws doubt in a greater or less degree on all of them. 7. The loss of the simplicity and accuracy which APOCRYPHA 293 APOCRYPHA characterize the history of the. Old Testament is shown also in the errors and anachronisms in which these hooks abound. Thus, to take a few of the most strik- ing instances, Hainan is made a Macedonian, and the purpose of his plot is to transfer the kingdom from the Persians to the Macedonians (Esth. xvi, 10); two con- tradictory statements are given in the same book of the death of Antiochus Epiphanes (2 Mace, i, 15-17 ; ix, 5-29) ; Nabuchodonosor is made to dwell at Nineve as the king of the Assyrians (Judith i, 1). 8. In their relation to the religious and ethical de- velopment of Judaism during the period which these books embrace, we find (1.) the influences of the struggle against idolatry under Antiochus, as shown partly in the revival of the old heroic spirit, and in the record of the deeds which it called forth, as in Maccabees, partly again in the tendency of a narra- tive like Judith, and the protests against idol-worship in Baruch and Wisdom. (2.) The growing hostility of the Jews toward the Samaritans is shown by the confession of the Son of Sirach (Ecclus. 1, 25, 26). (3.) The teaching of Tobit illustrates the prominence then and afterward assigned to alms-giving among the duties of a holy life (Tob. iv, 7-11 ; xii, 9). The clas- sification of the three elements of such a life, prayer, fasting, alms, in xii, 8, illustrates the traditional eth- ical teaching of the Scribes, which was at once recog- nised and purified from the errors that had been con- nected with it in the Sermon on the Mount (Matt, vi, 1-18). (4.) The same book indicates also the growing belief in the individual guardianship of angels and the germs of a grotesque damionology. resting in part on the more mysterious phenomena of man's spiritual na- ture, like the cases of dremoniac possession in the Gos- pels, but associating itself only too easily with all the frauds and superstitions of vagabond exorcists. (5.) The great Alexandrian book of the collection, the Wisdom of Solomon, breathes, as we might expect, a strain of higher mood ; and though there is absolutely no ground for the patristic tradition that it was writ- ten bjr Philo, the conjecture that it might have been was not without a plausibility which might well com- mend itself to men like Basil and Jerome. The per- sonification of Wisdom as "the unspotted mirror of the power of God and the image of his goodness" (vii, 26), as the universal teacher of all "holy souls" in "all ages" (vii, 27), as guiding and ruling God's people, ap- proaches the teaching of Philo, and foreshadows that of the Apostle. John as to the manifestation of the unseen God through the medium of the Logos and the office of that divine Word as the light that lighteth every man. In relation again to the symbolic character of the Temple as " a resemblance of the holy tabernacle" which God "has prepared from the be^innin^" (ix, &), the language of this book connects itself at once with that of Philo and with the teaching of the au- thor of the Epistle to the Hebrews. But that which is the great characteristic of the book, as of the school from which it emanated, is the writer's apprehen- sion of God's kingdom and the blessings connect- ed with it as eternal, and so as independent of men's conceptions of time. Thus chapters i, ii, contain the strong protest of a righteous man against the mate- rialism which then, in the form of a sensual selfish- ness, as afterward in the developed system cf the Saddueees, was corrupting the old faith of Israel. Against this he asserts that the "souls of the right- eous are in the hands of God" (iii, 1) ; that the bless- ings which the popular belief connected with length cf days were not to be measured by the duration of years, seeing that " wisdom is the gray hair unto men, and an unspotted life is old age." (6.) In re- gard to another truth also this book was in advance of the popular belief of the Jews of Palestine. In the midst of its strong protests against idolatry, there is the fullest recognition of God's universal love (xi, 23-26), of the truth that His power is but the instru- ment of His righteousness (xii, 16), of the difference between those who are the " less to be blamed" as " seeking God and desirous to find Him" (xiii, 6), and the victims of a darker and more debasing idolatry. Here also the unknown writer of the Wisdom of Sol- omon seems to prepare the way for the higher and wider teaching of the New Testament. See Logos. III. Spurious and Pseudepigraphal Books, as distinct from Antilegomena or Ecclesiastical. — Among this class are doubtless to be considered the 3d and 4th books of Esdras ; and it is no doubt in reference to these that, in his letter to Viyilantius, Athanasius speaks of a work of Esdras which he says that he had never even read. Of the same character are also the book of Enoch, the Testament of the Twelve Patri- archs, the Assumption of Moses, etc. ; which, as well as 3 and 4 Esdras, being by many considered as the fictions of Christians of the second and third centuries, it is doubtful whether they ought to be classed in the Apocrypha of thcOld orof theNewTestament. Origen, however, believed the New Testament to have contain- ed citations from books of this kind written before the times of the apostles, as is evident from his reference to such in his preface to the Canticles. Then, in his Letter to Apianus, he observes that there were many things kept from the knowledge of the public, but which were preserved in the hidden or apocryphal books, to which he refers the passage (Heb. xi, 37), " They were sawn asunder." Origen probabl}- alludes here to that description of books which the Jews called ginuzim, CT^il, a word of the same signification with apocry- pha, and applied to books laid aside, or not permitted to be publicly read or considered, even when divinely inspired, not fit for indiscriminate circulation : among the latter were the first chapter of Genesis, the Song of Solomon, and our last eight chapters of the prophet Ezekiel. The books which we have here enumerated, such as the book of Enoch, etc., which were all known to the ancient fathers, have descended to our times ; and, although incontestably spurious, are of consider- able value from their antiquity, as throwing light upon the religious and theological opinions of the first cen- turies. The most curious are the 3d and 4th books of Esdras, and the book of Enoch, which has been but recently discovered, and has acquired peculiar interest from its containing the passage cited by the apostle Jude. See Enoch. Nor are the apocryphal books of the New Testament destitute of interest. Although the spurious Acts extant have no longer any defend- ers of their genuineness, they are not without their value to the Biblical student, and have been applied with success to illustrate the stj-le and language of the genuine books, to which they bear a close analogy. The American translator of Mosheim's Ecclesiastical History terms them " harmless and ingenious fictions, intended either to gratify the fancy or to silence the enemies of Christianity." Some of the apocryphal books have not been with- out their defenders in modern times. The Ajwstolical Canons and Constitutions, and the various Liturgies as- cribed to St. Peter, St. Mark, etc., and published by Fabricius in his Codex Apocryphus Novi Testamenti, were considered by the learned and eccentric William Winston, and the no less learned Grabe, to be of equal authority with any of the confessedly genuine apos- tolic compositions (see Whiston's Primitive Christian- ity and Grabe's Sjncilegium). They are, however, re- garded by most as originally not of an earlier date than the second century, and as containing interpola- tions which betray the fourth or fifth ; they can, there- fore, only be considered as evidence of the practice of the Church at the period when they were written. They have generally been appealed to by the learned as having preserved the traditions of the age imme- diately succeeding the apostolic ; and, from the re- markable coincidence which is observable in the most essential parts of the so-called Apostolic Liturgies, it APOCRYPHA 294 APOCRYPHA is by no means improbable that, notwithstanding their interpolations, they contain the leading portions of the most ancient Christian forms of worship. Most of the apocryphal Gospels and Acts noticed by the fathers, and condemned in the catalogue of Gelasius, which are generally thought to have been the fictions of heretics in the second century, have long since fallen into ob- livion. Of those which remain, although some have been considered by learned men as genuine works of the apostolic age, yet the greater part are universally rejected as spurious, and as written in the second and third centuries. A few are, with great appearance of probability, assigned to Leucius Clarinus, supposed to be the same with Leontius and Seleucus, who was no- torious for similar forgeries at the end of the third cen- tury. The authorship of the Epistle of Barnabas (q. v.) is still a matter of dispute ; and there appears but too much reason to believe that there existed grounds for the charge made by Celsus against the early Chris- tians, that they had interpolated or forged the ancient Sibylline Oracles. In the letter of Pope Innocent I to St. Exupere, bishop of Toulouse, written about the year 405, after giving a catalogue of the books form- ing the canon of Scripture (which includes five books of Solomon, Tobit, and two books of Maccabees), he observes: "But the others, which are written under the name of Matthias, or of James the Less, or those which were written by one Leucius under the name of Peter and John, or those under the name of Andrew by Xenocheris and Leonidas the philosopher, or under the name of Thomas ; or if there be any others, you must know that they are not only to be rejected, but condemned." These sentiments were afterward con- firmed by the Roman Council of seventy bishops, held under Pope Gelasius in 494, in the acts of which there • is a long list of apocryphal Gospels and Acts, the greater part of which are supposed to have perished. The acts of this council, however, are not generally considered to be g3nuine. But, whatever authority is to be ascribed to these documents, it cannot be de- nied that the early Church evinced a high degree of discrimination in the difficult task of distinguishing the genuine from the spurious books, as has been well observed by Jones (New and Full Method, i, 15) and Baxter (Saint's Best, p. 2). — Kitto. See Canon. The following is a list of the genuine writings men- tioned in the Old Test., but now lost, or generally thought so to be : The " Prophecy of Enoch" (Jude 14). But see Enoch. The "Book of the Wars of the Lord" (Num. xxi, 14). The "Book of the Just" (Josh, x, 13; 2 Sam. i, IS). See Jasheb. The '-Book of the Order of the Kingdom," or of the Royal Administration, written by Samuel (1 Sam. x, 25). See Kin*;. The "Books of Nathan and Gad" concerning King David (1 Chron. xxix, '29). The " Books of Nathan, AlIIJAH, and Iddo" concerning King Solomon (2 Chron. ix, 29). ■•Soi.omiin's l'arabli's, Songs, and Treatises on Natural His- tory" il Kings iv, 32 sq ). But see Proverbs; Canti- ills; I.CCI.ESIASTF8. The " Rook of the Acts of Solomon" (1 Kings xi, 41). The " I'.. ".I; of Sebaiah" concerning King Rehoboam (2 Chron. xii, 15). Tlic " Book of Jeiiu" concerning Jehosh.-iphat (2 Chron. XX, 34). The "Book of Isaiah" concerning King Uzziah (2 Chron. xxvi, 22). But sec Ismail The " Words of the Seers" to King Manasseh (2 Chron. xxvi, ■ ■> The "Book of Lamentations" over King Josiah (2 Chron, xxxv, 2.V. Bui see Lamentations. The" Vol f Jeremiah" burned by Jehudi (ler. xxxvi, 2, 0, 23). But Bee Jeremiah. The "Chronicle of the Kings of Judah" (1 Kings xiv, 29; xv, T). But see Chronicles. The "Chronicle of the Kings of Israel" (1 Kings xiv, 29). Bui ee < Ihronioles. The following is a list of pseudepigraphal books re- lating; to the Old Test., Still extant (exclusive of those contained in the definitively so called "Apocrypha"), with the language in which ancient copies have been discovered. See each title, or professed author here cited, under its proper bead in the body of this Cyclo- paedia. The "History of Antiociius" Epiphanes (Heb.). This ap- pears to be a garbled Hebraic version of the accounts of that tyrant in the books of the Maccabees (see Fabrieius, Codex Pseudepigr. V. T. i, 1105 sq., where a Latin trans- lation is given of it). The "History of Asenath," Joseph's Wife (Lat. Given by Fabrieius, ib. i, p. 774 sq.). The "Epistle of Baruch" (Lat. In Fabrieius, ib. ii, 147 si].). The " Book of Elias" the Prophet (see ib. i, 1070). The "Book of Enoch" (Ethiopic). The "Third [Engl. First] Book of Esdras" (Gr. and Lat.). The " Fourth [.sVcojw] Book of Esdras" (Lat., Arab., and Eth.). The "Ascension of IsaiahV (Ethiopic). The " Book of Jashkr" (Heb.). The " Book of Jeziraii" or Creation (Heb.). The "Third Book of Maccabees" (Gr.). The "Fourth Book of Maccabees" (Gr.). The "Fifth Book of Maccabees" (Ar. and Syr.) The "Assumption of Moses" (see Fabrieius, i, S25). The "Preaching of Noah" to the Antediluvians, according to the Sibylline Oracles (Fabrieius, i, 230). The "Testament of the Twelve Patriarchs" (Gr. Given by Fabrieius, with a Latin translation, Codex Pscudejii^r. V. T. i, 519 sq.). The "Psalter of Solomon" (Gr. Given in like manner, ib. i, 917 sq.). The " Book of Zoiiar" or Light (Heb.). The following is a list of all the apocryphal pieces relating to the New Test., not now extant, mentioned by writers in the first four centuries after Christ, with the several writings in which they are (last) cited or noticed. See each name in its alphabetical place. (1.) The "Acts of Andrew" (Euseb. Hist Eecl. iii, 25; Phi- lastr. Heeres. S7; Epiphan. Hones, xlvii, 1; lxi, 1 ; lxiii, 2; Gelasius, in Decret. ap. Concil. Sanct. iv, 1200). But see Andrew. (2.) "Books" under the name of Andrew (Augustine, enntr. Adversar. Ley. el Prophet, i, 20; Innocent I, E2>ist. 3, ad Fxuper. Tholos. Episc 7). (3.) The "Gospel of Andrew" (Gelaa. in Decret.). A " Gospel" under the name of Ai-elles (Jerome, Praef. in Comment, in Matt.). The " Gospel according to the Twelve Apostles" (Origen, Homl. in Luc. i, 1; Ambrose, Comment, in Luc. i, 1; Jerome, Prarf. in Comment, in Ma't.). The "Gospel of Barnabas" (Gelas. in Decret.). (1.) The "Gospel of Bartholomew" (Jerome, Catal. Script. Eccles. in Pantsen. ; Prarf. in Comment, in Matt. ; Gelas. in Decret.). (2.) The "Writings of Bartholomew the Apostle" (Dionys. the Arep-pagite, l!e Then!. Mi/st. i, 1). The "Gospel of Basiltdes" (Origen, in Luc. i, 1 ; Ambrose, in Luc. i, 1; Jerome, Prref. in Comm. in Matt.). (1.) The "Gospel of Cerintiius" (Epiphan. Heeres. Ii, 7). (2.) The "Revelation of Cerintiius" (Coins, Presb. Rom., lib. Disput. np. Euseb. His*. Ere.!, iv, 28). (1.) Some ■' Books" under the name of Christ (Augustine, De Cmisens. Erang. i. S) (2.) An "Epistle of Christ" produced by the Manichseans (Augustine, contr. Faust, xxviii, 4). (3.) An "Epistle of Christ to Peter and Paul" (Augustine, de Consent. Erana. i, 9, 10). (4.) A "Hymn of Christ's" taught to his disciples (Episcop. ad Caret Episc.). (1.) The "Acts of the Apostles" made use of by the Ebion- ites (Epiphan. Hcerex. xxx, 16). (2.) The "Gospel of the Ebio.nites" (ib. 13\ The "Gospel according to the Egyptians" (Clem. Alex. Strom, iii, 452, 405 ; Origen, in Luc. ii ; Jerome, Pisef. ia Cmim. in Matt. ; Epiphan. Heeres. lxii, 2). The "Gospel of the Encratites" (Epiphan. Heeres. xlvi, 1). The "Gospel of Evr." (ib. xxvi, 2). The "Gospel according to the Hebrews" (Heges'p. lib. Com- ment, ap. Euseb. Hist. Keel, iv, 22; Clem. Alex. Strom. ii, p. 3S0 : Origen, Tract S in Matt, xix, 19 ; and in Joan. p. 68 : Euseb. Hist. Eccl. iii. 25, 27, 39 : Jerome, often). The "Book of the Helkasaites" (Euseb. His'. Eccl. vi, 3S). The false " Gospels of Hesyohics" (Jerome, Pra?f. in Evang. ad Dam as. ; Gelasius. in Decret.). (1.) The "Book of Jamfs" (Origen, Comm. in Matt, xiii, 55, 50 1. (2.) "Books" forged nnd published under the name of James (Epiphan. Heeres. xxx, 23; Innocent I, Epist. 3 ad Ex- nper. Tholos Episr. 71. (1.) The "Acts of John" (Euseb. Hist. Feci, iii, T5; Atbanas. in Siniops. 76 ; Philastr. Heeres. S7 ; Epiphan. Ha>res. xlvii, 1 ; Augustine, contr. Adoera. Leg. i, 20). (2.) "Books" under the name of John (Epiphan. Ila-res. xxxviii, 1 ; Innocent I, I. e.). A "Gospel" under the name of Jtdas Iscariot (Iren. adv. Heeres. i, 25). A "Gospel" under the name of Jude (Epiphan. Heeres, xxxviii, 1). APOCRYPHA 295 APOCRYPHA The "Acta of the Apostles" by Leucius (Augustine, de Fide contr. Manicli. 38). (1.) The "Acta of the Apostles" by Lentitius (Augustine, dc Act. cum. Fcelie. Munich, ii, 0). (■2.) The L- Books of Lentitius" (Gelas. in Decret). The "Acts" under the Apostles' mime, by Leonitus (Augus- tine, de Fide contr. Munich. 5). The "Acts of the Apostles" by Leuthon (Jerome, E2'ist. ad Chromat. et Heliodor.). The false " Gospels" published by Lucianus (Jerome, Prsef. in Evang. et Daman.). The "Acts of the Apostles" used by the Manicileans (Au- gustine, contr. Adiviant. Munich. IT). "Books" under the name of Matthew (Epiphan. Hceres. xxx, 23). (1.) A "Book" under the name of Matthias (Innocent I, ut xup.). (2.) The " Gospel of Matthias" Origen, Comm. in Luc. i, 1 ; Euseb. Hist. Eccl. iii, '-'5; Ambrose, in Luc. i, 1; Jerome, Pi»f. in Comm. in Matt.). (3.) The "Traditions of Matthias" (Clem. AI x. Strom, ii, p. 3S ; iii, 430 ; vii, 74S). The " Gospel of Merinthus" (Epiphan. Hceres. Ii, 7). The "Gospel according to the Na/.arenes." (See above, "Gospel according to the Hebrews.") (I.) The "Acts of Paul" (Origen, de Princip. i, 2; in Joan. ii, p. 298; Euseb. Hist. Feci, iii, 3 and 25; Philastr. Hceres. ST. (2.) A " Book" under the name of Paul (Cyprian, EpisL 2"). (3.) The "Preaching of Paul and Peter" (Lactantius, De Ver. Sap. iv, 21 ; Script, anonym, ad calcem Opp. Cypf. ; and [according to some] Clem. Alex. Strom, vi, 030). (4.) The "Revelation of Paul" (Epiphan. Uteres, xxxviii, 2; Augustine, Tract 98 in Juan. s. f. ; Gelas. in Decret.). The "Gospel of Perfection" (Epiphan. IJceres. xxvi, 2). (1.) The " Acts of Peter" iKiiseb. Hist. Fed. iii, 3; Athanas. in Synops. S. S. 70; Philastr. Uteres. 87; Jerome, Capit. Script. Eccl. in Petr. ; Epiphan. Hceres. xxx, 15). (2.) "Books" under the name of Petek (Innocent I, Ep>ist. 3 ad F.rup. Tholos Epise. 1). (3 ) The "Doctrine of Peter" (Origen, Procem. in lib. de Prin- cip.). (4.) The "Gospel of Petri:" (Serapion, De Evang. Petri, ap. Euseb. Hist. Eccl. vi, 10; Tertull. adr. Marc, iv, 5; Ori- gen, Comm. in Matt, xiii, 55, 50; vol. i, p. 223; Euseb. Ilis\ Eccl. iii, 3 and 25; Jerome, Catal. Script. Eccl. in Petr.). (5.) The "Judgment of Peter" (Puifin. Expos, in Symbol. A post. 30; Jerome, Catal . Script. Fccles. in Petr.). (0.) The " Preaching of Peter" (Herael. ap. Origen, lib. 14 in Joan.: Clem. Alex. Strom, i, 357; ii, 300; vi, CC5, 030, 07S ; Theoflot. Byzant. in Excerpt, p. 800, ad ealc. Opp. Clem. Alex. : Lactant. De Ver. Sup. iv. 21 ; Euseb. His'. Fed. iii, 3; Jerome, Cutal. Script. Eccles. in Petr.). (7.) The "Revelation of Peter" (Clem. Alex. lib. Hypntopos. ap. Euseb. Hist. Eccl. vi, 14; Theodot. Bvz. va Excerpt. p. S0G, 807, ad calc. Opp. Clem. Alex. ; Euseb. Hist. Eccl. iii, 3 and 25; Jerome, Cutal. Script. Feci, in Petr.). (1.) The "Acts of Philip" (Gelas. in Decret.). (2 ) The "Gospel of Philip" (Epiphan. Hceres. xxvi, 1"). The " Gospel of Scytihanus" (Cyrill. Cutech. vi, 22 ; Epiphan. Hceres. lxvi, 2). The "Acts of the .Apostles" by Seleucus (Jerome, Epist. ad Chromat. et Heliodnr.). The "Revelation of Stephen" (Gelas. in Decret.). The "Gospel of TiiadD/EUS" Ob.). The Catholic "Epistle of Tiiemison" the Montanist (Apollon. lib. contr. C itaphyq. ap. Euseb. Hist. Feci, v, IS). (1.) The " Acts of Thomas" (Epiphan. Hceres. xlvii,l; lxi,l; Athanas. in Synops. S. S. 70 ; Gelas. in Decret.). (2.) " Books" under the name of Thomas (Innocent I, ut sup.). (3 ) The "Revelation of Thomas" (Gelas. in Decret.). The "Gospel of Titian" (Euseb. His'. Keel, iv, 29). The "Gospel of Truth" made use of by the Valentinians (Iren. adv. Hceres. iii, 11). The "Gospel of Valentines" (Tertull. de Prcvseript. adv. Hceres. 49). The following list comprises those pseudepigraphal ■works relating to the New Test, which still exist, with the language in which ancient copies have been pre- served. See each title and professed author in its place. A "History of the Contest between the Apostles" by Aispias d.at.). The " Letter of Augaeus to-Christ," and the " Reply of Christ to Abgarus" (Gr.). The "General Epistle of Barnabas" (Gr). The "First Epistle of Clement to the Corinthians" (Gr.). The "Second Epistle of Clement to the Corinthians" (Gr.). The " Descent of Christ into Hell" (Gr. and Lat.). The "Apostolical Constitutions" (Gr., Eth., and Copt). The " First Book of Hermas," called bis Visions (Gr. and Lat.). The " Second Book of Heumas," called his Commands (Gr. and Lat.). The "Third Book of Hermas," called his Similitudes (Gr. and Lat.). The "Epistle of Ignatius to the Ephcsians" (Gr. and Lat.). The "Epistle of Ignatius to the Magnesians" (Gr. and Lat.) The "Epistle of Ignatius to the Philadclphiaus" (Gr. and Lat,). The " Epistle of Ignatius to Polycarp" (Gr. and Lat.). The " Epistle of Ignatius to the Romans" (Gr. and Ijit.). The "Epistle of Ignatius to the Smyrnajans" (Gr. and Lat,). The " Epistle of Ignatius to the Trail ians" (Gr. and Lat.). The "Gospel of the Infancy" of the Saviour (Arab, and Lat.). The "Protevangelium of James" (Gr. and Lat.). The (mutilated and altered) "Gospel of St, John" (Gr.). The (apocryphal) "Book of the Apostle John" (Lat,). The " Narrative of Joseph of Arimathsea" (Gr.). The "Sacred Memorial Book of Joseph," a Christian. (The Greek text, entitled 'IwrriiTrnov P.i/3Kiov 'Yiropvnwcov, is given in full by Fabricins, Cod. Psntdepigr. V. T. ii, ad fin., with a Latin translation). The " Epistle of Paul to the Laodiceans" (Gr.). The (fragmentary) "Gospel of Marcion" (Gr.). J The "Gospel of [Rseudo-] .Matthias" (Lat.). The "Gospel of the Nativity of St, Mary" (Lat.). The "Gospel of the Nativity of Mary, and of the Infancy of the Saviour" (Lat,). The "Gospel of Nicodemus" (Gr. and Lat.). The " Epistles of the Corinthians to Paul, and of Paul to the Corinthians" (Armen ). The "Acts of Pilate" (Gr. and Lat ). The " Apprehension of Pilate" ((Jr.). The " Loath of Pilate" (Gr. and Lat ). The " First Epistle of Pilate" (Gr. and Lat ). The "Second Epistle of Pilate" (Gr. and Lat.). The " Epistle of Polycarp to the Philippians" (Gr.). The "Vindication of the Saviour" (Lat,). The " Epistles of Paul to Seneca," and " of Seneca to Paul" (Gr.). The "Sibylline Oracles" (Gr.). The "Acts of Paul and Tiiecla" (Gr). The "Gospel of Thomas" the Israelite (Gr. and Lat.j. IV. Literature. — The best accounts of these and other apocryphal documents will be found in Fabricii Codex Pseudipigraphus Y. T. (Hamb. and Lpz. 1713 and 1741), and Codex Apocryphus N. T. (Hamb. 1713-1722) ; Auctarium Cadicis Apocryphi N. T. Fabriciani, edidit And. Birch (Copenh. 1804) ; A new and full Method of settling the Canon of the N. T., by the Rev. Jeremiah Jones (Oxf. 1720— last edition, Oxf. 1827); Du Pin, Prolegomena (Amst. 1701); and Canon of the Old and New Testaments (London, 17( f Apollinaris the elder, who taught first at Berytus, in Phoenicia, and afterward at Laodicea, where he became a presbyter and married. Both fa- ttier and son were on terms of intimacy with Epipha- nius and Libanius, lh<> Sophists. The bishop of La- odicea, Theodotus, having warned them to renounce this friendship, they were excommunicated, but after- ward, upon expressing penitence, they were restored. Julian the Apostate forbade the Christians to read the works of any heathen author, upon which the two Apollinarii (father and son) composed many works in imitation of the style of Homer and other ancient Greek works. Among others, they turned the books of Moses into heroic verse ; indeed, Sozomen (Hist. Ec- cles. v, 18) says, the whole of the Old Testament as far as the account of Saul ; they also composed dramatic pieces on scriptural subjects, after the style of Menan- der (Socrat. Hist. Eccles. iii, 16). The younger Apol- linaris is mentioned (in Athanas. Ep. ad Antiochenos, torn, i ; Opp. ed. Montfaucon, ii, 776) as orthodox bish- op of Laodicea A. D. 362, while Pelagius was bishop of the Arians in that city. He was esteemed by Athana- sius, Basil, and other great men of that age, who con- tinued to speak respectfully of his merits even after he was suspected of heresj'. Apollinaris distinguished himself especially by polemical and exeg tical writ- ings ; for instance, by his work on Truth, against the Emperor Julian. He also wrote thirty books against Porphyry, against the Manichaeans, Arians, Marcellus, and others. Jerome himself, during his residence at Antioch, A.D. 373 and 374, enjoyed the instructions of Apollinaris, then bishop of Laodicea. The interpre- tations of Apollinaris, quoted in the commentaries of Jerome, were peculiarly valuable in those days on ac- count of his knowledge of the Hebrew tongue. Basil mentions a work of Apollinaris on the Holy Ghost. In the year 1552 was published at Paris a Metaphrasis Psalmorum of Apollinaris, and re-edited by Sylburg at Heidelberg in 1596; this, and a tragedy on "Christ suffering," in the works of Gregory of Nazianzus, were ascribed to Apollinaris ; but it is difficult to say what share in these works belongs to the father, and what to the son. Late in life, Apollinaris, who had strenuously de- fended the Athanasian doctrine of the Trinity in his youth, himself incurred the reproach of heresy be- cause he taught that the divine Logos occupied in the person of Christ the place of the human rational soul. " The greatest difficulty in the doctrine of the Trinit}' appeared to him to consist in the union of the divine person of the Logos with a perfect human person. Two perfect wholes could not be united in one whole (Gregory, Antirrh. cap. xxxix, p. 323: ei &v9pj(Tvi'i](p0i] Stog reXtiog ciio av ijaaii). Setting out from Anthropology, he asserted that the essence of the rational soul consists in its self-determination. If this characteristic were retained in connection with the divine nature, there could be no true personal union, but only such a divine influence on Jesus as might be experienced by any other man. On the ' other hand, if the soul forfeited this characteristic, it would renounce its essential peculiarity (Ibid. p. 245: <>i9opd roil airtt,ovaiov £ioov to /<>} tlvai avTtZovmov ' oli (pBtiptrcu Si ?'/ fvaig vtto roii Trou]aavTog aiiri]v). On the first point he objected to the school of Origen, that it admitted no true union of the divine and the human, but made instead two Sons of God, the Logos and the man Jesus (L. c. xlii : ilg fiiv i>ati vlog Siov, tig di St roY). Hence he thought the rational human soul must be excluded from the God-man, and, in this, the old undefined doctrine was on his side. For the human soul he substituted the Logos himself as the vovg Btlog. He developed this doctrine with origi- nality and acuteness. The scheme of human nature which he made use of was the common trichotomical one, of the lpv^i} Xoynci) (voepa), dXoyoc, and the awpa. That an animal principle of life, a \pvx>) dXoyog, must be admitted to exist in human nature, he thought might be proved from Paul's Epistles, in the passages where he speaks of the flesh lusting against the Spirit; for the body in itself has no power of lusting, but on'.y the soul that is connected with it. It is not self-de- termining, but must be determined by the ipi>X>) Xoyi- ki'i, which with it ought to govern the body. But this result is frustrated by sin, and, conquered by it, the reason succumbs to the power of the irrational desires. In order to free man from sin, the unchangeable Di- vine Spirit must be united witli a human nature, con- trol the anima, and present a holy human life (contra APOLLINARIS 297 APOLLO Apollinarist. t. i, cap. xiii, p. 73G). Thus we have in Christ, as man, the three component parts, and can call him the avOpioTrog irrovpdi'tog, only with this dif- ference, the Divine occupies the place of the human voug" (Neander, Hist, of Docti-incs, i, 320). Athana- sius wrote against Apollinarism, though not against Apollinaris personally (Epist.ad Epict.; contra Apol- Unaristas); Gregory of Nazianzus wrote against him also (Ep. I, ii, ad Cledonium; ad Xectarhnn); and Greg- ory of Nyssa his 'AvrtppnTiKuc (in Galland. Bill. Pair. vi, 517). His heresy became generally known A.D. 371. The accusations of Socrates, Sozomen, and The- odoret against the character of Apollinaris are not plausible. "Of the writings in which he explained his views, only fragments are extant in the works of Gregory of Nyssa, Theodoret, and Leontius Byzanti- nus (who lived about the year 590) ; they were the fol- lowing: irtpi aaoKiueuuQ Xoyictov (cnroSei^ig TTtpi rijg Stlag tvcrapiaiiOEWg) — rb Kara Ki$tpt»Troc, iKii Kai dpapria, apud. Athan. i, 2, p. 923 ; compare c. xxi, p. 9)!9 : apapria ivvTr'xrraTOc). But this could not take place in the case of Christ: ovStpia adenine: iv Xpia- Tifi " ouk dpa vovg turiv ai'Srp(i)Tni'og (comp. Grego- ry of Nyssa, Antirrhct. adv. Apollin. iv, c. 221). At the same time, Apollinaris supposed the body and soul of Christ to be so completely filled with the higher and divine principle of spiritual life, that he did not hesi- tate to use expressions such as 'God died, God is born,' etc. He even maintained that, on account of this intimate union, Divine homage is also due to the human nature of Christ (1. c. p. 241, 264). His oppo- nents, therefore, charged him with Patripassianism. But we do not think that Apollinaris ever asserted, as Gregory of Nazianzus would have us believe, that Christ must have possessed an irrational, animal soul, e. g. that of a horse or an ox, because he had not a ra- tional human soul: Gregory himself seems to have drawn such inferences from the premises of Apollina- ris. On the other hand, he accused his opponents in a similar manner of believing in two Christs, two Sons of God, etc. (comp. Dorner, 1. c, and his Notts G3, 64; Ullmann, Gregory ofNaz. p. 401 sq. ; Baur, Chr. Lehre v. d. Dreidnigkeit, i, 585 sq.). Athanasius maintained, in opposition to Apollinaris (contra Apollinurist. libri ii, but without mentioning him by name : the book was written after the death of Apollinaris), that it behooved Christ to be our example in every respect, and that his nature, therefore, must resemble ours. Sinfulness, which is empirically connected with the development of man, is not a necessary attribute of human nature, as the Manichaean notions would lead us to suppose. Man, on the contrary, was originally free from shi; and Christ appeared on that very account, viz., in or- der to show that God is not the author of sin, and to prove that it is possible to live a sinless life (the con- troversy thus touched upon questions of an anthropo- logical nature). Athanasius distinctly separated the Divine from the human (comp. especially lib. ii), but he did not admit that he taught the existence of two Christs. Comp. Neander, Ch. Hist, ii, 433; Miilder, Athan ;s'us, ii, 262 sq., compares the doctrine of Apol- linaris with that of Luther. Gregory of Nazianzus (Ep. ad Cledon. et orat. 51) equally asserted the neces- sity of a true and perfect human nature. It was not only necessary, as the medium by which God mani- fested himself, but Jesus could redeem and sanctify man only by assuming his whole nature, consisting of bod}' and soul. (Similar views had been formerly held by Irenaeus, and were afterward more fully de- veloped by Anselm.) Gregory thus strongly main- tained the doctrine of the two natures of the Saviour. We must distinguish in Christ «X\o Kai «XXo,but not aXAoc Kai dXXoc. Compare the Epist. ad Nectar, sive orat. 46, with his 10 anathemas against Apollinaris, and Ullmann, p. 396-413. The work of Gregory 6f Nyssa, entitled Aoyoc; dvTtppijriKbc irpbc rd 'AttoXXi- vapiov (which was probably composed between the years 374 and 380), may be found in Zaccagni, Collect, monum. vett., and Gallandi, Bibl. Pair, vi, 517; comp. Gieseler, Ch. History, i, § 83, note 30. He opposed the followers of Apollinaris (Svvovmaorai, Atpoiptrai~) in his Ep. hair. 77. On the question whether Apollina- ris or his disciples ever adopted the Docetic errors re- specting the body of Christ, see Mohler, 1. c. p. 264 sq." (Hagenbach, Hist, of Doct. § 99). Apollinarism was first condemned at the synod held at Rome A.D. 375, in which the Roman bishop Damasus presided; all mention of the name of Apollinaris was carefully avoided on this occasion. Nevertheless, this condem- nation induced Apollinaris to form a separate congre- gation, over which he ordained the presbyter Yitalis as bishop. Hence the Apollinarists are also called Vitalians. The}- are also called Dimoerites, because they were accused of dividing the nature of Christ into two parts. Before the death of Apollinaris, which happened between A.D. 382 and 392, the Apollinarists formed in Syria and the adjacent countries several separate congregations, having their own bishops. Af- ter his death the Apollinarists were divided into two parties, one of which, under Polemo, or Polemius, and Timotheus, pretended that the divinity and the body of Christ were transformed into one substance, and, consequently, that the flesh was to be worshipped as well as the Logos; these were called Polemians and Synousiasts, and also 'sarcolatrae (aapKo\arpai, flesh- worshippers) ; in retaliation, they called the orthodox anthropolatrai, or men-worshippers. The other party, which adhered to the original doctrine of Apollinaris, were called Valentinians. By imperial command, the public worship of the Apollinarists was impeded A.D. 388 and 397, and A.D. 428 in all towns entirely pro- hibited. The sects of the Apollinarists assimilated, in the fifth century, partly to the orthodox, and partly to the Monophysites. See Monophysites. For a full view of Apollinarism in its origin and history, see Wernsdorf, Diss, de Apollinare (Vitemb. 1694 and 1719) ; Dorner, Lehre v. d. Person Christi, i, 926-1070 (Eng. transl., Div. i, vol. ii, p. 352 sq.) ; Herzog, i, 419. See also Penny Cyclopaidia, s. v. ; Neander, Ch. Hist, ii, 428; Lardner, Works, iv, 257-274 ; Cave, Hist. Lit. anno 362 ; Shedd, Hist, of Doctrines, i, 344 ; Pearson, On the Creed. Apollinarists. See Apollinarians. Apollo (' AttoXXcov, the destroyer, so called because his shafts, the rays of Phrrbns or the sun. inflict dis- ease or "the sun-stroke" in Oriental climates), one of the great divinities of the Greeks, according to Homer APOLLODOTTS 298 APOLLONIUS (JUad, i, 21, 316) the son of Jupiter (Zeus) and Leto (Latona), and the brother of Artemis or Diana (Hesiod, Theogn. 918). He was fabled to be the god who pun- ishes the wicked and insolent, who affords help and wards off evil, particularly from cattle, who presided over the foundation of cities, and especially as the god of music and prophecy (Smith, Diet, of Class. Mythol. s. v.)- See Oracle. In this last office he is indirect- ly alluded to in the account of the demoniac damsel cured by Paul (Acts xvi, 16). See Pythoness. Jo- sephus mentions an audience of Archelaus held by Ti- berius in a splendid temple of Apollo built by him in Rome (Aid. xvii, 11, 1); and he also speaks of a tem- ple of his at Gaza, into which the nobles of the city took refuse from the massacre by Alexander Jannoeus (Ant. xiii, 13, 3). Apollodotus ('AttoWoCotoq, Apollo-given), a general of the inhabitants of Gaza, who made an ef- fectual sally against the Jews besieging the city under Alexander Jannauis, but was at length slain through the treachery of his brother Lysimachus (Josephus, Ant. xiii, 13, 3). Apollo'nia ('A7ro\\«j)'(tt, from Apollo), a city of Macedonia, in the province of Mygdonia (Plin. iv, 17), situated between Amphipolis and Thessalonica, thirty Roman miles from the former, and thirty-six from the latter (It bier. Anton, p. 320, 330; It'm. Ilieros. p. 605; Tab. renting.). It was south of the lake Bolbe and north of the Chaleidian mountains (A then, viii, 334). According to Stephen of Byzantium, it was founded by a colony of Corinthians and Corcyrians. The Apostle Paul passed through Amphipolis and Apollo- nia on his way to Thessalonica (Acts xvii, 1 ; see Conybeare and Howson's Life and Epistles of St. Paul, i, 320, 321). It must not be confounded with a noted Apollonia in Illyria (see Kype, Obs. Sacr. ii, 81 sq.). The city here spoken of was situated on the "Egna- tian Way" in the interior of the district of Chalcidice (Scylax, p. 27; Xon. Hist. Gr. v, 2). The ruins are called Pollina (Cramer's Anc. Gr. i, 264). Apollonia (AiroWtoviu, a frequent Greek name of cities, probably given in this case b}r one of the Seleucidae), a town of Palestine, between Cresarea and Joppa (Stephen of Byz. ; Ptol. v, 16; Pliny, v, 14 ; Pint. Tab.), one of those on the sea-shore taken by the .Tews under Alexander Jannseus (Joseph. Ant. xiii, 15, 4), and afterward repaired by Gabinius (Jo- seph. War, \, 8, 4). It is now Arsuf a deserted vil- lage at the mouth of the Nahr Arsuf (Irby and Man- gles, Trav. p. 189 ; Robinson, Research, iii, 46 ; Ches- ney. Expedition, i, 490), a place famous under the Crusaders (Wilken, Kreuzz. ii, 17, 39, 102; iv, 416; vii, 325, 400, 425), by whom it was confounded with Antipatris (Bitter, Erdk. xvi, 590). Apollonia, a martyr of Alexandria, suffered with Metra, Quinta, and Serapion, in the year 249, when she was seized, and some one by a violent blow on the face knocked out many of her teeth ; whence, in the Middle Ages, she was held to be the patroness against the toothache. Soon she was brought before the burning pile, and, on being asked to recant, re- flected a moment, and then leaped into the fire. She is commemorated in the Roman Church on Feb. 9.— Eusebius, Ch. Hist, vi, 41 ; Landon, Eccl. Diet, i, 450. Apollo'nins ('AjroXXwviof, from Apollo), the name of several men in the history of the Maccabees and Josephus. 1. The son of a certain Thrasa?us, and vicerov of the Syrian kin- Seleucus (IV) Philopator (B.C. 187) over southern Syria and Phoenicia (2 Maec. iii, 5, 7). At the suggestion of Simon, the temple governor, lie instigated the king to plunder the Temple at Jerusa- lem, and generally took the severest measures against the Jews (2 Mace iv, 1). The writer of the Decla- mation on the Maccabees, printed among the works of Josephus (De Mace. 4) relates of Apollonius the circumstances which are commonly referred to his emissary Heliodorus (2 Mace, iii, 7 sq.). 2. A son of Menestheus, and ambassador of King Antiochus Epiphanes to the Egyptian king Ptolemy Philometor, B.C. 173 (2 Mace, iv, 21). Perhaps he was the same as the "chief commissioner of tribute" (dpxojv QopoXoyiac) for Judcea, who, at the command of Antiochus Epiphanes on his return from Egypt (B.C. 168), committed such bloodshed in Jerusalem (2 Mace, v, 24 ; comp. 1 Mace, i, 29 sq.) ; next was governor in Samaria (Joseph. Ant. xii, 7, 1, which Michaelis, on 1 Mace, iii, 10, regards as a misinter- pretation), and finally lost his life in an encounter with Judas Maccabrcus, B.C. 166 (1 Mace, iii, 10 sq.). An ambassador of the same name was at the head of the embassy which Antiochus sent to Rome (Liv. xiii, 6). 3. A son of one Apollonius Gennajus, and a Syrian governor under Antiochus (V) Eupator (2 Mace, xii, 2). B.C. 163. If, however, we understand the sur- name as an ironical epithet (ytvi'aloc, noble), this Apollonius (but whether the father or the son would still be doubtful) may be identical with No 2. 4. Surnamed by Josephus (Ant. xiii, 4, 3) Daiis (A«oc, from a people called Dahas or Dai in Sogdi- ana), a Syrian viceroy in Coele-Syria, who, taking sides with the usurper Demetrius (B.C. 147), attacked Jonathan, the ally of Alexander (Balas), but was ut- terly defeated by him (1 Mace, x, 69 sq.). Accord- ing to the Greek text in 1 Mace, xvi, 69, he was orig- inally governor of Coele-Syria under Alexander, from whom he revolted to the party of Demetrius. Jose- phus only speaks of him as an officer of Alexander, without alluding to his connection with Demetrius (comp. Wernsdorf, De fide Maccab. p. 135). There may have been an early error crept into the text of 1 Mace, or the expression in the Heb. original may have been ambiguous (see Grimm, Handb. in loc). If this Apollonius be the same mentioned by Polybius (xxxi, 21, § 2), as foster-brother and confidant of De- metrius I, his interest in the affairs of Demetrius would scarcely admit a doubt. — "Winer, s. v. 5. The son of one Alexander, and one of the em- bassadors sent by the Jews to procure an alliance with the Romans in the time of Hyrcanus (Josephus, Ant. xiii, 9, 2). Apollonius, a Roman senator, against whom one of his slaves, called Severus, preferred an accusation of holding the Christian faith, in the time of Corn- modus, about the year 183 or 186. "When cited be- fore the senate to defend himself, he delivered an ad- mirable discourse on the faith, and was condemned to be beheaded. He is commemorated in the Roman Church on the 18th of April. His acts are in Ruinart, p. 83, 84.— Eusebius, Ch. Hist, v, 21 ; Landon, Eccl. Diet, i, 452. Apollonius of Tyana, an impostor and processed magician, born three or four years before the vulgar era, at Tyana, a town in Cappadocia. His life by Phi- lostratus ('ATroWioviov tuv Tvavtwe, ftioQ, best ed. by Olearius, Lips. 1709, fol.) abounds with fabulous sto- ries, apparently in imitation of the account of Christ's life in the Gospels. [Dupin wrote "The History of Apollonius of Tyana convicted of falsehood and im- posture" (Paris, 1705\ The life by Philostratus was translated into English by Charles Blount, who added some impious notes (16*0). A French translation has recently been published by A. Chassang (Apollonius de Tyana, so vie, ses voyages, ses prodiges, par Philo- strate, Paris, 1864).] It is from this source that our chief knowledge of Apollonius is derived. The follow- ing sketch is taken from Farrar (Critical. Hist, of Free Thought, lecture ii) : Apollonius was a Pythagorean philosopher, born in Cappadocia about four years lie- fore the Christian era. After being early educated APOLLONIUS 299 APOLLOS In the circle of philosophy, and in the practice of the ascetic discipline of his predecessor Pythagoras, he imitated that philosopher in spending the next portion of his life in travel. Attracted by his mysticism to the farthest East as the source of knowledge, he set out for Persia and India, and in Nineveh, on his route, met Damis, the future chronicler of his actions. Re- j turning from the East instructed in Brahminic lore, he travelled over the Roman world. The remainder of his days was spent in Asia Minor. Statues and temples were erected to his honor. He obtained vast influence, and died with the reputation of sanctity late in the century. Such is the outline of his life, if we omit the numerous legends and prodigies which attach themselves to his name. He was partly a philoso- pher, partly a magician — half mystic, half impostor. At the distance of a century and a quarter from his death, in the reign of Septimius Severus, at the re- quest of the wife of that emperor, Julia Domna (AID. 210), the second of the three Philostrati dressed up Damis's narrative of his life in the work named above, and paved the way for the general reception of the story among the cultivated classes of Rome and Greece. It has been thought that Phiiostratus had a polemical aim against the Christian faith, as the memoir of Apol- lonius is in so many points a parody on the life of Christ. The annunciation of his birth to his mother, the chorus of swans which sang for joy on occasion of it, the casting out devils, the raising the dead, the healing the sick, the sudden disappearance and reap- pearance of Apollonius, the sacred voice which called him at his death, and his claim to be a teacher with authority to reform the world, form some of the points of similarity. If such was the intention of Phiiostratus, he was really a controversialist under the form of a writer of romance, employed by those who at that time were laboring to introduce an eclecti- cism largely borrowed from the East into the region both of philosophy and religion. "Without settling this question, it is at least certain that about the begin- ning of the next century the he .then writers adopted this line of argument, and sought to exhibit a rival ideal. One instance is the life of Pythagoras by Iam- blichus ; another, the attack on Christianity by Hiero- cles (Kuyoi (t>i\a\>i0tic. 7rpoe tovq Xpiartavovg), in part of which he used Philostratus's untrustworthy memoir for the purpose of instituting a comparison between Apollonius and Christ. The sceptic who referred re- ligious phenomena to fanaticism would hence avail himself of the comparison as a satisfactory account of the origin of Christianity ; while others would adopt the same view as Hierocles, and deprive the Christian miracles of the force of evidence — a line of argument which was reproduced by the English Deist Blount (see above). The work of Hierocles is lost, but an outline of its argument, with extracts, remains in a reply which Eusebius wrote to a portion of it (cont. Hieroclem, ed. Olearius, Lips. 1709). Eusebius states (bk. i) that he refutes only that portion of the work which related to Apollonius of Tyana, referring to Or- igen's answer to Celsus for a reply to the remainder of it, and discusses only the parallel of Apollonius and Jesus Christ. In bk. i he gives an outline of the ar- gument of his opponent with quotations, and states his own opinion about Apollonius, throwing discredit on the veracity of the sources of the memoirs, and pro- ceeds to criticise the prodigies attributed to him, argu- ing that the statements are incredible, or borrowed, or materially contradictory. Discussing each book in succession, he replies in bk. i to the statements respect- ing the early part of Apollonius's life ; in bk. ii, to that which concerned the journey into India; in bk. iii, to that which related to his intercourse with the Brah- mins ; in bk. iv, to his journey in Greece ; in bk. v, to his introduction to Vespasian in Egypt ; in bks. vi and vii, to his miracles ; and in bk. viii to his pretence to foreknowledge. He adds remarks on his death, and on the necessity of faith, and repeats his opinion re- specting the character of Apollonius. Lardner and Ritter think that Phiiostratus did not write with a po- lemical reference to Christianity. Dean Trench has made a few remarks in reference to this question (Notes to Miracles, p. 62). Baur maintains that Apollonius, as represented in the work of Phiiostratus, is meant to be the pagan counterpart of Christ. Baur finds in this parallel an opposition to Christianity which sought to claim for paganism what was offered by Christian- ity. Dr. Rieckher, on the other hand (in Stvdien der Wilrtemb. Geistlichheit, 1847), tries to prove that the picture drawn by Phiiostratus is not a guileless in- vention of a pagan personality to match the historical character of the founders of Christianity, but that it was the product of a well-meditated plan, concocted by a circle of educated men, whom the Empress Julia Domna had assembled around herself, and that it was intended not for the usual class of readers of a sophist, but for the mass of the people. A good biography of Apollonius, with a pretty full literature of the subject, by J. H. Newman, is given at the end of Hind's History of the Early Church, in the Encyclop. Metrop. (and separately, London, 1850, 12mo). See also Mosheim, De e.ristimatione Apol'oidi Tyan.; Schroder, De A poll. Tyan. (Wittenb. 1723); Zimmermann, De miraculis Apall. Tynn. (Edinb. 1755); Herzog, Philos. pract. Apoll. Tyan. (Lipz. 1719) ; Baur, Apollonlusund Christus (Tub. 1832); Mosheim, Church Hist, i, 81; Neander, Church Hist, i, 26, 30; Lardner, Works, vii, 486 sq. ; Smith, Diet, of Biog. s. v. (by Jowett) ; Ritter, Gesch. der J'hi/oscphie, t. iv ; A. Re ville, Le Christ Pa'ien et la Cour des Severes (Revue des deux Mondes, Oct. 1, 1865) ; Bayle, Diet. s. v. ; Herzog, Iteal- Encyklopadie, i, 424 ; Journal of Sacred Literature, Oct. 1862, ii. ; Lond. Quar. Rev. Jan. 1867. Apolloph'anes ('A7ro\Ao0«w/c, Apollo -appear- ing), a Syrian slain by Judas Maccabeus in a pit near the stronghold Gazara (2 Mace, x, 37). Apol'los QXttoWmq, comp. Sozom. Hist. Ecc. ir, 29, either for Apollonius, as in Codex D, or Apollodo- rus, see Heumann on Acts xviii, 24), a Jew of Alex- andria, described as a learned, or, as some (see Bleek, Br. a. d. Heb. i, 424) understand it, an eloquent man (avi)p Xt'rytoc), well versed in the Scriptures and the Jewish religion (Acts xviii, 24). About A.D. 49 he came to Ephesus, where, in the synagogues, " he spake boldly the things of the Lord, knowing onlj' the bap- tism of John" (ver. 25) ; by which we are probably to understand that he knew and taught the doctrine of a Messiah, whose coming John had announced, but knew not that Jesus was the Christ. His fervor, how- ever, attracted the notice of Aquila and Priscilla, whom Paul had left at Ephesus; and they instructed him in this higher doctrine, which he thenceforth taught openly, with great zeal and power (ver. 26). Having heard from his new friends, who were much attached to Paul, of that apostle's proceedings in Achain, and especially at Corinth, he resolved to go thither, and was encouraged in this design by the brethren at Eph- esus, who furnished him with letters of introduction (Acts xviii, 27 ; xix, 1). On his arrival there he was very useful in watering the seed which Paul had sown, and was instrumental in gaining many new converts from Judaism (1 Cor. ii. 9). (See Sommcl, Dt Apol- lone, London, 1797; Miiller, De eloquentia Apolloms, Schleusing. 1717.) There was perhaps no apostle or apostolical man who so much resembled Paul in at- tainments and character as Apollos. His immediate disciples became so much attached to him as well-nigh to have produced a schism in the church, some saying "I am of Paul;" others, "I am of Apollos;" others, "I am of Cephas" (1 Cor. iii, 4-7, 22). There must indeed have been some difference in their mode of teaching to occasion this ; and from the First Epistle to the Corinthians it would appear that Apollos was APOLLYON 300 APOLOGETICS not prepared to go so far as Paul in abandoning the figments of Judaism, and insisted less on the (to the Jews) obnoxious position that the Gospel was open to the Gentiles. (See Diihne, Die Christusjmrtei in Ko- rinth, Hal. 1841, p. 32; Goldhorn, in Ugen's Zeitschr. 1840, ii, 152 sq. ; Neander, Planting and Training, i, 268-271, 302; Pfizer, De Apollone doctore, Altdorf, 1718; Hopf, De A pollone pseudo-doctor e, Hag. 1782; lleymann, in the Sticks, exeg. Stud, ii, 213.) There was nothing, however, to prevent these two eminent men from being perfectly united in the bonds of Chris- tian affection and brotherhood. When Apollos heard that Paul was again at Ephesus, he went thither to see him ; and as he was there when the First Epistle to the Corinthians was written (A.D. 52), there can be no doubt that the apostle received from him his information concerning the divisions in that church, which he so forcibly reproves (see Conybeare and Howson, St. Paul, ii, 13 sq.). It strongly illustrates the character of Apollos and Paul, that the former, doubtless in disgust at those divisions with which his name had been associated, declined to return to Cor- inth, while the latter, with generous confidence, urged him to do so (1 Cor. xvi, 12). Paul again mentions Apollos kindly in Tit. iii, 13, and recommends him and Zenas the lawyer to the attention of Titus, knowing that they designed to visit Crete, where Titus then was. Jerome is of opinion (Comment, in loc.) that he remained at Crete until he heard that the divisions at Corinth had been healed by means of Paul's letter, and that he then returned to that city, of which he af- terward became bishop. This has an air of probabili- ty ; and the authority on which it rests is better than any we have for the different statements which make him bishop of Duras, of Colophon, of Iconium (in Phrygia), or of Csesarea (Meno/og. Grcec. ii, 17). He has been thought by many to have been the author of the Effistle to the Hebrews (Alford, Comment, iv, Pro- leg, p. 58 sq.). — Kitto, s. v. Apol'lyon ('AttoWviov'), the Greek equivalent (Rev. ix, 11) of the Ileb. title Abaddon (q. v.). Apologetics, a branch of theology which has for its object the science of defending Christianity agains t the assaults of its enemies. A system of Christian doc- trines (dogmatics), as such, presupposes the truth of Christianity ; the proof of the truth of this presupposi- tion is not a part of the system, and a separate science is needed to establish this proof. Apologetics, as a science, is not identical with apology (q. v.), which is an actual defence of Christianity ; but it seeks and teaches the right method of apology ; nevertheless, the term is often used in practice to denote the apology itself, as well as the method. The name was first used in German theology (probably by Planck). The scope of apologetics in German theology is nearly the same as that of the evidences (q. v.) of Christianity in Eng- lish theology, with this difference, that the definition of apologetics lays a greater stress on its position as a separate branch of scientific theology. I. Relation to Theology. — The true place of apolo- getics in the circle of theological sciences is not yet definitively settled. Schleiermacher makes it a branch of philosophical theology (Theol. Stud. § 32-42). Tho- luck, also, holds that apologetics should be incorpo- rated with systematic theology (Vermischte Schriften, i, 376). There is some reason for the view of other writers, who place it under the head of biblical criti- cism, as apologetics must show the genuineness and credibility of the Scriptures ; but yet this is only part of its function. Pelt gives it the leading place in systematic theology, as the science of first principles (EncyMopddie, § 62, where also a valuable history of apologetics may be found). Kienlen puts it under the head of practical theology (Encyklop. der Theolog. Wis- senschtften. § 84). Hagenbach contends that the study of apologetics cannot lie pursued before the student has acquired the elements of exegetical and historical the- ology. He therefore places it in the third branch of theological science, viz., systematic theology (Ency- klapiidie, § 81). "Apologetics is treated by Prof. Dor- ner as an integral part of the system of Christian doc- trine, as the first part of dogmatic theology. Its ground lies in the claim of Christianity to be eternal truth — lies in Christianity itself. It is the justifica- tion of Christianity in its claim to be the final, abso- lute religion. It is the justification of Christianity to thought ; it shows, or tries to show, that there cannot be conceived a more perfect religion. Christian doc- trines, it attempts to prove, are to be received not merely as given, but as truth. The energy and con- vincing power of truth is an axiom of apologetics. It seeks to reconcile the Logos of the first creation with the historical work of the Logos in his absolute Reve- lation. Apologetics thus conceived differs from Chris- tian apologies. It started, indeed, with repelling at- tacks. But these attacks were merely the historical occasion of its existence. It exhibits the Christian religion as self-grounded — self-dependent. It has an offensive as well as defensive work. It seeks to show the inner lack of truth in all thinking which is not Christian. It differs also from a mere philosophy of religion, inasmuch as it draws from historical monu- ments" (Am. Presb. Rev. Oct. 18C2, p. 680). Sack, whose Apologeiik (1819) was one of the first to distin- guish between apologetics and apology, considers the science properly to be an apologetical handling of systematic theolog}'. "Dogmatics," he says, "is Christian doctrine set forth for Christian thinkers, who look at it as friends ; Apologetics (or more prop- erly Apology) is Christian doctrine set forth for non- Christian thinkers, who look at it as enemies." The English Avriters, who have not generally been careful of scientific form, but look more directly to practical ends, have generally made apologetics a separate branch of study, under the name of Evidences of Christianity. Thus, Watson (Institutes') divides the whole circle of theological sciences into— 1. The Ev- idences ; 2. The Doctrines ; 3. The Morals ; 4. The Institutions of Christianity; and thus makes apolo- getics the portal to the whole temple. So also does Hill, Lectures on Divinity (N. Y. 1847, 8vo). II. Method of Apologetics. — There are two principal methods, the historical and the philosophical. The first method seeks to vindicate Christianity on the grounds («) of criticism, by showing the genuineness and authenticity of its sacred books ; (b) of history, by showing that the great facts of Christianity are part of human history ; and (c), having established these points, by arguing the credibility of the sacred looks and (d) their divine authority, and hence (e) the bind- ing power on the human intellect of their statements of fact and doctrine. Most English writers en evi- dence follow the historical method, and divide their material into (1) external evidence (miracles and prophecy); (2) internal evidence (philosophical). A line of evidence called presumptive is formed in this way: admitting the existence and attributes of God, it is unlikely that He would leave His creatures in ig- norance and wretchedness ; and it is likely, also, that, if He should communicate with them, His revelation would present analogies to His works in nature. This is the line of Butler's Analogy, of Ellis, and of Wat- son, in the first part of his Evidences. A convenient and scientific method is proposed by Warren (SysU- matische Theologie, Einleitung, § S), viz., that the task of the science is to show (1) that Christianity is a fact of history ; (2) that Christianity is a divine rev- elation ; (3) that Christianity is the power of God unto salvation. " Instead of attempting to deduce the truth of every part of Christianity from the exter- nal evidences alone, we have at last learned to begin with Christianity as an undeniable complex of phe- nomena, needing for its explanation nothing less than APOLOGETICS 301 APOLOGY the divine agencies it claims. Thus we reason from the character of Christ, from the superhuman excel- lence of Christian doctrine, from the supernatural ef- fects of this religion in the individual and in the world ; giving the external evidences their due subordinate position as mere proofs that what are claimed to be and to have been phenomena of Christianity are le- gitimately claimed to be such. Discriminating re- marks on the two methods, and the advantages of the new one, may be found in Dr. Bushnell's Nature and the Supernatural, p. 33-35; also Meth. Quar. Rev. July 1862, p. 373-376. The true name for our new treatises on 'The Evidences' is Philosophy of Christianity" (Warren, in Meth. Quar. Rev. Oct. 1863, p. 589). The German writers have followed generally the philo- sophical method, and of late years the English have also entered more into this field. But there are An- glo-Saxon apologists who do not commence with the historical evidences, and German ones who do not lay the whole stress upon the internal evidences. Indeed, the latest writers in both languages seem to have mu- tually exchanged the traditional methods of their fa- thers. Auberlen's Gottliche Offenbarung (1864) would have delighted the heart of even so thoroughly Eng- lish an apologist as Paley [see Apology]. On the other hand, Coleridge, who disparaged the compara- tive value of the evidence from miracles and prophe- cy, dictated to a friend a scheme of evidences of which the outline is as follows: I. Miracles, as precluding the contrary evidence of no miracles; II. the Mate- rial of Christianity, its existence and history ; III. the Doctrines of Christianity, and the correspondence of human nature with those doctrines ; illustrated, first, historically, with reference to the progress of the race; second, individually, with reference to the wants of each human soul, and the capacity of the Christian doctrines to satisfy those wants (Coleridge, Works, N. Y. ed. v, 555). A complete scientific method must unite the two methods (the historical and the philo- sophical), in order to show that Christianity is not only a religion (among others), but also the religion of hu- manitv. (See Coleridge, Biographia Literaria, 8vo ed. p. 348 ; and Aids to Reflection, p. 207 sq. ; Turretini, Opera, i, 225 sq. ; Chalmers, Lectures on Paly, Works, vol. ix ; North Brit. Rev, Aug. 1851, art. ii.) The Eng- lish writers, doubtless, formerly laid too little stress upon the internal and spiritual evidence of Christianity (see Wesley, Works, v, 758, for a passage of remarkable sagacity on this point) ; while, on the other hand, the Germans have undervalued the external evidence, and thus opened the way for rationalism and infidelity. Farrar states the historical uses of the two methods as follows: "In all ages the purpose of evidences has been conviction ; to offer the means of proof either by philosophy or by fact. In arguing with the heathen in the first age, the former plan was adopted — the school of Alexandria trying to lead men to Christian- ity as the highest philosophy ; in the Middle Ages the same method was adopted under the garb of philoso- phy, but with the alteration that the philosophy was one of form, not matter. In the later Middle Ages the appeal was to the Church : in the early contests with the Deists, to the authority of reason, and to the Bible reached by means of this process ; in the later, to the Bible reached through history and fact : in op- posing the French infidelity the appeal was chiefly to authority ; in the early German the appeal was the same as in England ; in the later German it has been a return in spirit to that of the early fathers, or of the English apologists of the eighteenth century, but based on a deeper philosophy; an appeal to feeling or in- tuition, and not to reflective reason ; and through these ultimately to the Bible" (Free Thought, p. 473). Cole- ridge remarks as follows upon the state of the Evi- dences for Christianity in the present age: "The re- sult of my own meditations is, that the evidence of the Gospel, taken as a total, is as great for the Christians of the nineteenth century as for those of the apostolic age. I should not be startled if I were told it was greater. But it does not follow that this equally holds good of each component part. An evidence of the most cogent clearness, unknown to the primitive Christians, may compensate for the evanescence of some evidence which they enjoyed. Evidences com- paratively dim have waxed into noonday splendor; and the comparative wane of others, once effulgent, is more than indemnified by the synopsis tov ttclvtoc, which we enjoy, and by the standing miracle of a Christendom commensurate and almost synonymous with the civilized world. I make this remark for the purpose of warning the divinity student against the disposition to overstrain particular proofs, or rest the credibility of the Gospel too exclusively on some one favorite point" (Works, N. Y. ed. v, 428). Fisher, in his Supernatural Orig'n of Christianity (N. Y. 1866), has some excellent remarks on the method of Apolo- getics (Essays I and XI). See Bishop Butler's ad- mirable discussion of the "particular" evidence for Christianity in his Analogy of Religion, pt. ii, ch. vii; and compare New York Review, ii, 141 sq. ; Mansell, in Aids to Faith (Lond. 1861, 8vo), Essay I ; Fitzger- ald, On the Study of the Evidences (Aids to Faith, Essay II) ; Princeton Review, xviii, 359 ; and the whole sub- ject further treated, with special reference to English methods, in this Cyclopaedia under Evidences. III. Of books properly to be called Apologetics, as defined above, there are none in English, though Far- rar, Critical History of Free Thought (1863), covers the ground generally. Many manuals of apologetics have been issued in Germany, of which the following are the most important: Stein, Die A pologetik des Christen- thums, als Wissenschaft dargestellt (Leipsic, 1824, 8vo) ; Sack, Christliche Apologetik (Hamburg, 1829, 8vo); Steudel, Grtmdz&ge einer Apologetik fur das Chnstenthum (Tubingen, 1830, 8vo); Drey (Rom. Cath.), Apologetik als wissenschaftliche Nachweisung des Christenthums in seiner Erschei'nung (Mainz, 3 vols. 1838-47, 8vo). On the relation of apologetics to other branches of the- ology, see Lechler, Ueber den Bcgriff der Apologetik (Studien und Kritiken, 1839, part iii) ; Kienlen, Die Stellung der Apologetik (Studien und Kritiken, 1846). On the history of apologetics, and on the nature of the Christian evidences, see Tzschirner, Geschichte del Apologetik (Leipsic, 1805) ; Farrar (as cited above) ; Hagenbach, Encyklopddied. theol. Wissmschaften, § 81 ; Heubner, art. Apologetik, in Ersch undGruber's Ency- klop.; Herzog, Real-Encykhpadie, i, 430; Lechler, Ge- schichte d. Deismus (1841, 8vo) ; Pelt, Theol. Encyklo- pddie; McCosh, The Supernatural in relation to the Natural, ch. iii (Cambridge, 1862, 12mo) ; Hampden, Introduction to the Philosophical Evidences of Christian- ity; Conybeare, Lectures on Theology, ch. i; Hill's Di- vinity, ch* i ; Steele, Philosophy ,fth>- Evidences (Edinb. 1834, 8vo); Shedd, Hist, of Doctrines, bk. ii; Van Sen- den, Geschichte der Apologetik (transl. from the Dutch, Stuttgart, 2 vols. 1846, 8vo) ; Hagenbach, Hist, of Doc- trines, §§ 28, 29, 117, 157, 238 ; Beck. Dogmengeschichte, § 32 sq. ; Barnes, Readjustment of Christianity (Presb. Quar. Rev. July, 1862). See also Apology ; Deism ; Evidences; Rationalism. Apologists. See Apology. Apology (a-oXoyia, a defence), a discourse, or ar- gument, in defence n/some person or doctrine that has been attacked or misrepresented, The use of this term, as applied to religious truth, is to be carefully distinguished from its application in ordinary conver- sation, in which it generally means an excuse made for some person or thing which deserves censure. Hence, those who are unacquainted with the derivation of the word have ignorantly argued that the existence of apologies for Christianity implies the weakness of the claims of Christianity itself. In the early church, the defences of Christianity presented to heathen emperors by the Christian writers were called Apologies, and APOLOGY 302 APOLOGY the writers themselves are styled Apologists. The same name was afterward given to defences of Chris- tianity against pagan writers and other opponents, and the science of defending Christianity is called Apolo- getics (q. v.). In this article we propose to give a brief history of the apologies or defences of Christian- ity from the beginning until the present time. Chris- tianity has had to contend against four classes of op- ponents— Jews, Pagans, Mohammedans, and Ration- alists. These four heads would form a convenient division of the history, if treated according to the parties opposing Christianity ; but it will be more convenient here to follow the chronological order, ma- king three periods — the Early Age, the Middle Age, the Modern Age. I. The Early Age (down to the sixth century). — The Jews, from their affinity to the new religion, seem to have opposed it most bitterly in the beginning. The grounds of their unbelief are stated in the N. T. itself, and are the same now, in substance, as then. The apostles argue apologetically with the Jews when they undertake to show by the prophecies and types of the O. T. that Jesus was Messiah. Later writers in this age are, Justin Martyr (dialogue with Trypho, the Jew) and Origen (against Celsus, who personates a Jew- ish opponent). The Judaizing teachers in the church had also to be met and answered. See Ebionites. Rationalism also soon appeared in the spiritualistic theories of the Gnostics. See Gnosticism. The pa- gan attacks, though often borrowing Jewish objections, were founded on the pagan view of God and the world, both as religion and philosophy. They anticipate many of the modern forms of infidelity. "Substan- tially the same objections are urged by the sceptical mind from age to age, and substantially the same re- plies are made. Infidelity is the same over and over again — reappearing in new forms, it is true, so that it seems to the time and the church like a new thing under the sun, yet ever remaining identical with it- self, it makes very much the same statements, and elicits very much the same replies" (Shedd, History of Doctrines, i, 104). When Christianity first ap- peared, it was thoroughly antagonistic to the pagan public opinion of the times. The first formal attack in the shape of books appeared in the second century, beginning with Celsus (q. v.), who attacked the whole idea of the supernatural, whether in Judaism or in Christianity. Lucian of Samosata (f about 200) at- tacked Christianity with the shafts of wit and ridi- cule. He was followed by the Neo-platonists (q. v.), Porphyry (q. v.), and Hierocles (q. v.). The lead- ing arguments against Christianity in the first three centuries, witli the replies to them by the Christian apologists, are thus summed up by Dr. Schaff: "1. Against Christ : his illegitimate birth ; his associ- ation with poor, unlettered fishermen, and rude pub- licans ; his form of a servant, and his ignominious death. But the opposition to him gradually ceased ; while Celsus called him a downright impostor, the Syncretists and Neo-platonists were disposed to regard him as at least a distinguished sage. 2. Against Christianity : its novelty ; its barbarian origin ; its want of a national basis ; the alleged absurdity of some of its facts and doctrines, particularly of regeneration and the resurrection ; contradictions between the Old and New Testaments, among the Gospels, and between Paul and Peter; the demand for a blind, irrational faith. 3. Against the Christians: atheism, or hatred of the gods; th<> worship of a crucified malefactor; poverty, and want of culture and standing; desire of innovation; division and sectarianism ; want of patri- otism ; gloomy seriousness ; superstition and fanati- cism ; and sometimes even unnatural crimes, like those related in the pagan mythology of (Edipus and his mother Jocaste (concubitus GEdipodet), and of Thyestes and Atreus (fpidce Thyesteee). Perhaps some Gnostic sects ran into scandalous excesses ; but as against the Christians in general, this last charge was so clearly unfounded that it is not noticed even by Celsus and Lucian. The senseless accusation that they worship- ped an ass's head may have arisen, as Tertullian al- ready intimates, from a story of Tacitus respecting some Jews who were once directed by a wild ass to fresh water, and thus relieved from the torture of thirst ; and it is worth mentioning only to show how pas- sionate and blind was the opposition with which Chris- tianity in this period of persecution had to contend. " The apologetic literature began to appear under the reign of Hadrian, and continued to grow until the end of the fourth century. Most of the church teachers took part in this labor of their day. The first apolo- gies, by Quadratus, Aristides, and Aristo, addressed to the Emperor Hadrian (about A.D. 130), and the sim- ilar works of Melito of Sardis, Claudius Apollinaris of Hierapolis, and Miltiades, who lived under Marcus Aurelius, are either entirely lost, or preserved only in fragments. But the valuable apologetical works of the Greek philosopher and martyr, Justin (166), we possess. After him come, in the Greek Church, Tatian, Athenagoras, Theophilus of Antioch, and Her- mias, in the last half of the second century, and Ori- gen, the ablest of all, in the first half of the third. The most important Latin apologists are Tertullian (about 220), Minucius Felix (between 220 and 230 ; ac- cording to some, between 161 and 180), and the elder Ar- nobius (q. v.) (about 300), all of North Africa. Here at once appears a characteristic difference between the Greek and the Latin minds. The Greek apologies are more learned and philosophical ; the Latin more practi- cal and juridical in their matter and style. The former labor to prove the truth of Christianity, and its adapt- edness to the intellectual wants of man ; the latter plead for its legal right to exist, and exhibit mainly its moral excellency and salutary effect upon society. The Latin also are, in general, more rigidly opposed to heathenism, while the Greek recognise in the Gre- cian philosophy a certain affinity to the Christian re- ligion. The apologies are addressed in some cases to the emperors (Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, Marcus Au- relius) and the provincial governors, in others to the intelligent public. Their first object was to soften the temper of the authorities and people toward Chris- tianity and its professors by refuting the false charges against them. It may be doubted whether they ever reached the hands of the emperors ; at all events the persecution continued. Conversion commonly pro- ceeds from the heart and will, and not from the under- standing and from knowledge. No doubt, however, these writings contributed to dissipate prejudice among honest and susceptible heathens, and to induce more favorable views of the new religion. Yet the chief service of this literature was to strengthen believers and advance theological knowledge. It brought the church to a deeper and clearer sense of the peculiar nature of the Christian religion, and prepared her thenceforth to vindicate it before the tribunal of reason and philosophy, The apologists did not confine them- selves to the defensive, but carried the war aggres- sively into the territory of Judaism and heathen- ism" (Method st Quarterly Review, Oct. 1868, art. viii). Clemens Alexandrinus (f 220) is also classed among the apologists (Stromata; Cohortntio). He admits the value of heathen philosophy as a preparation for Chris- tianity, and asserts that Christianity fully satisfies the legitimate demands of the human intellect. Here belong also, in part, at least, Eusebius (f 370) of Ca?- sarea's irpoTrapaaxtvii and ct—6Sti^ig tv«yyt\iKr), Ath- anasius's Aoyoc Kara 'EXXtjj/wv and jrepi rijg amv- £()(U7r//cr{iuc row \6yov ; and Cyril (f 444) of Alex- andria's ten books against Julian, in which he gives, as a reason for the late appearance of Christianity, that the progress of revelation had to be parallel with the cultivation of mankind. Augustine's (f 430) De civitate Dei is a great attempt to consider Christian- APOLOGY 303 APOLOGY Ity as realizing the idea of ■?■ divine plan and order for I the world, as containing the immanent idea of the world and its history (Smith's Hagenhach, § 117). Augustine showed the relations of reason and faith, philosophy and religion, with a skill that has never been surpassed (Shedd, Hist, of Doctrines, i, 1G2 sq.). The Commonitorium of Vincentius Lirinensis (f 450) is also, in part, apologetic. On this period, besides the works already cited, see Reeves, The Apologies of Justin. Tertullian, Minucius Felix, and Vincentius, with Preliminary Discourses (London, 1709, 2 vols. Svo) ; Semisch, Life of Justin Martyr, transl. by Ry- land (Edinb. 1843, 18mo) ; Woodham, Tertulliani Liber Apologeticus, with Essay on the early Apologists (Camb. 1843, 8vo); Freppel, Les Apo'ogistes Chretiens du line Siecle (Paris, 18GI, 2 vols. 8vo) ; Houtteville, La Re- I'ginn prouvee par des Faits (Paris, 1722) ; one part of which, translated, is, A Critical and Historical Discourse on the Method of the Authors for awl against Christian- ity (Lond. 1739, 8vo) ; Bolton, The Evidences of Chris- tianity in the Writings of the Apologists down to Augus- tine (New York, 1854, Svo) ; Kaye, Ecclesiastical His- tory illustrated from Tertullian (Camb. 3d edit. 1845, Svo) ; Kaye, Justin Martyr (Lond. 1836, 8vo) ; Kaye, Clement of A lexandria (1835, Svo) ; Lardner, Works (vol. ii); Farrar, Grit. Hist, of Free Thought (note 49) ; Prcssense, Histoire des Trois Premiers Si'ecles de V Eglise (vols, i and ii); Otto, Corpus Apolog'fanim christiano- rum smculi secundi, vol. i-viii, containing the works of Justin, Tatian, Athenagoras, Theophilus (Jena, 1847- '61); and other works named under Apologetics. II. The Middle Age (seventh century to the Refor- mation).— In this period we find little to note for the first four centuries. In the Dark Ages, the public mind and thought were nominally Christian, or, at least, were not sufficiently educated to admit of doubts that might create a demand for apoloj;etic;il works. The external conflict now was only with Judaism and Mohammedanism. Against the Jews, Agobard (f 840) wrote his treatise De Insolentia Juekeorum ; at a later period Gislebert, or Gilbert, of Westminster (f 1117), wrote Disp. Judei cum Christiano de fide Christiana, in Anselmi Opera; Abelard (f 1142), Dialogus inter Philos. Jndieum et Christ ianum (Rheinwald, Anecdota, Berlin, 1835, t. i). Against the Mohammedans, Eu- thymius Zigabenus (t 1118). Panoplia (in Sylburgii Saracenicis, Heidelli. 1595); Richardi Covfitatio (1210, edited by Bibliander) ; Raimund Martini (f 1286), Pugio Fidei; Peter of Clugny, Ade. Nefand. Sectam Sarazenorum (Martene, Monumenta, ix). See Ilagen- bach, Hist, of Doctrines, § 144 ; Farrar, Critical History of Free Thought, p. 387 sq. In the ninth century, Sco- tus Eri^cna (f 875) treated of the relations of revela- tion and philosophy in his De Divisume Xaturas (ed. by Gale, 1681, Oxford, and again in 1838, Munster) ; but the seeds of Pantheism lay in his teaching. The strife between Nominalism and Realism in the 11th century led to a more thorough discussion of fundamental prin- ciples as to the relations between faith and reason, and between God and nature; and the orthodox theo- logians, especially Anselm of Canterbury (f 1109), as- serted as a fundamental axiom the precept of St. Au- gustine, non epurro inteiligere, ut credam, sed credo, ut intelligam. Aquinas's De veritate fidei contra Gentiles was directed against the Jews and Mohammedans. Abelard, having given to reason a greater share in his arguments, and gone so far as to point out the contra- dictions contained in the fathers, was persecuted by the church, although he did not, in principle, differ from the scholastics. As to the grounds of Christian- ity, he distinguished between credere, inteiligere, and cognoscere ; "through doubt we come to inquiry, by inquiry to truth ;" in this anticipating Descartes. Ber- nard of Clairvaux held that Abelard's rationalism was in contradiction not only with faith, but also with rea- son. The newly- learned system of Aristotle began, in the Middle Age, to be applied to the sciences, and among them to theology. Alexander de Hales (f 1245) was the first to give regular theological prolegome- na, in which he considered the question whether the- ology can properly be called a science, and how it is contained in the Bible ; he ascribed to it experi- mental, not speculative certainty. The same line was followed by Albertus Magnus, Thomas Aqui- nas, and Duns Scotus. The latter recognises eh:ht grounds of certainty : pronunciatio prophetica, scrip- turarum Concordia, auctoritas scribentium, diligentia reci- pientium, rationabilitas contentorum, irrationabilitas sin- gulorum errorum, ecclesice stabilitas, and miraculorum claritas. Among the. later scholastics we find Durand de St. Pourcain (f 1336) ; Gerson, who wrote against the Hussites his ProposiHones de sensu literati S. Scr. et de causis errantium ; Raymond de Sabunde (f 1434), who, in his Liber creaturarum sen theolcgia naturalis, and Viola animal (often reprinted, as, for instance, at Lyons, 1648, Svo), asserted that the love of God is the highest knowledge. The controversy with the Moslems produced in the 14th century John Cantacu- zenus (f 1375), Orationes et assertiones pro fide Christi- ana contra Saracenos et Alcoranum (ed. Rob. Gualter, Basil, 1543, fol.). In the Western Church more im- portant works appeared, such as Nicholas de Cusa's Cribratio Alcorani, in which he sought to prove the divinity of Christ by the Koran itself, and Zelus Christi contra Judceos, Saraeenos, et Infideles, written about 1450 by the Spaniard Petrus de Cavalleria. About the same time appeared a system of Christian philos- ophy due to the thought of the Middle Age, and which we find already foreshadowed in Anselm and Hugo de St. Victor. Its principal object was to establish the relation and differences between faith and reason, as well as to reconcile them. In the first rank of these, so to say, philosophical apologies, we find the De Chris- tiana religione et fidei pietate (Paris, 1641) of Marsilius Ficinus (f 1499), in which the same views originally advanced by Thomas Aquinas in De veritate Catholicce fidei contra Gentiles are easily recognised. To the same class belong the Triumjhus cruets seu de veritate religionis Christiana; of Savonarola (f 1498), and the Solatium itineris inei of the same author. A sentence we find in his works may be considered as the distin- guishing principle of that whole school of philosoph- ical apologists: gratia prwsupponit naturam (Pelt, The- ologische Eneyklopddie, § 65). III. From the Reformation to the Present Time. — The era of modern speculation followed the discovery of printing, the revival of letters, and the Reforma- tion. Europe was filled with a spirit of restless inqui- ry. The Romish corruptions of Christianity led many to doubt Christianity itself. Leo X, himself a sceptic, fortified the pride of letters and of freethinkinir. Cul- tivated men seemed likely, on the one hand, to go back to classical paganism, or, on the other, to fall into philosophical pantheism. In the early times of the Reformation the difficulties in the church itself en- grossed the attention of the Christian writers. But soon after apologetics received a new impulse from the spirit of free inquiry which became so general. The fundamental questions of Christianity were again ex- amined. This is the time when appeared the clear and comprehensive De veritate Religionis Christiana (1543) of the Spaniard Ludovicus Vives (f 1540). Among the Protestants, the evidence derived from the Testimonium Sp. Sancti internum led to a new class of arguments, which we find in Philippe de Mornay du Plessis's Traite de la verite de la Religion ChrMienme (1567, 1651 ; and a Latin trans, by Breithaupt, Jena, 1698, 4to), and Hugo Grotius's De veritate Religionis Christianm (1627, etc. ; last edit. Amsterdam, 1831). Among Roman Catholic apologists wc notice Mclchior Canus (f 1560), whose Loci Tkeologici is more a work on theological logic th*an dogmatics ; it enumerates the different grounds of evidence recognised by his church. The differences between the Lutheran and APOLOGY 304 APOLOGY Reformed Churches led also to apologetic as well as controversial works. Among these, one of the earliest and most important is the AidoKeipig tie fundamentals dissensu Doctrine? Lutherans et Caloinianee (Viteb. 162G, etc. ; best edit. 1663). In the Romish Church the dif- ferences between the Jansenists and the Molinists, and afterward the Jesuits, led Blaise Pascal to -write his Penset s, which, although unfinished, is one of the ablest and most complete apologetic works of any time. In the 17th century arose the so-called deism of England, under the leadership of Herbert of Cher- bury (f 1618) and Hobbes (j 1619), contemporaneous- ly with Descartes on the Continent. Spinoza follow- ed with his destructive criticism and with his panthe- istic philosophy. These were followed by crowds of less important deists, freethinkers, etc. The grounds, both of attack and defence, were now very different from those of the early ages. Then the advocates of Christianity had to defend it against pagan attacks, and, in turn, to show the absurdity and wickedness of poh-theism ; now, on the other hand, the deistic unbelievers not only professed to believe in one God, but also sought to show that no special revelation is necessary to man, but that he can learn both God and duty from the light of nature. The English deism passed over into France and Germany, and, coming in aid of the movement in philosophy and criticism led by Descartes and Spinoza, gave origin there to the movement which finally culminated in the so-called Rationalism, Naturalism, and Positivism (see these three heads ; see also Deism). We shall briefly sketch the history of apologies in this period, first, on the Con- tinent of Europe, leaving the English and American apologists to the close of this article. 1. German. — In Germany the Wolfian philosophy prepared the way for the English deism, which soon took root. The first open infidelity of the period we find in such writers as J. C. Dippcl (f 1734), author of Democritus Christianus, and J. C. Edelmann ( j 1767), who rejected all revealed religion to attach himself ex- clusively to conscience. Between these two extremes appeared Leibnitz, whose attempt at a reconciliation between philosophy and Christianity, by making rea- son the judge between them, had prepared the way for the Wolfian school. Among the German apolo- gists of that period we find Lilienthal (Die gute Sache d. gbttl. Offenbarung, 1772-'82), Koppen (Die Bibel ah ein Werk d. gottl. Weisheit, 1787, 1837), A. F. W. Sack ( 1'. rtfa idifftt r Glauhe d. Christen, 1773, 2 vols.), Nosselt ( Vertheidigung d. ckristl. Religion, 4th edit. 1774), Je- rusalem, of Wolfenbi'ittel (Betracht. it. d. Wahrheiien d. chr. Relig. 1776), G. Less (d. Religion, etc., 2d ed. 1786, 2 vols.), and J. G. Tollner (f 1774). But the most important of all the German apologists of that time was Friederich Kleukcr, who defended Christian- ity as the scheme of man's salvation, while the con- temporary theologians chiefly defended the doctrines and morals of the Gospel. His principal works are, Wdhrhdi it. gottl. Ursprung d. Christenthums (Riga, 1787-94) ; Untt rsuch. d. Griindef d. jEchtheit it. Glaub- wurd. d. 8chrifil. Urkunden d. Christenthums (Hamb. K'.'7 1800), 'and Yersuch v. d. Sohn <;,<1tes miter d. Menschen (2d ed. 17'.»5). In the German Roman Cath- olic Church we find the Wolfian P. Stattler (1771), P. Opfermann (1779). Beda Mayr (1781), and S. von Storchenau, author of the Philosopkie tier Religion (1772 89). The German theologians, however, allow- ed themselves to be led into a sort of Biblical deism, which was op] osed by Storr. and especially by J. C. Lavater ( + 180] I, who considered faith as the result of the inward feeling of the power of the Gospel, not to be attained by learned demonstrations. The fur- ther development of theology in Germany led to the strife between Rationalism and Supranaturalism, and thus apologetics were merged into polemics, in which the fundamental questions of the Christian faith were freely discussed. This is the time of Reinhard's Ge- stdndnisse, and Rohr's anonymous Briefe ii. d. Ration- alismus (Aix la Chapelle, 1813, 1818); on the other side we find Steudel's IJaltbarkeit d. Glaulens (Stuttg. 1814), Zollich's Briefe ii. d. Supranaturalismus (1821), Sartorius's Religion ansserhalb d. Grenzen d. Vernvnft (Marb. 1822), and similar works by Tittmann (1816). The attempts at conciliation of Kiihler, of Konigsberg (1818), Klein (1819), Schott (1826), etc., proved un- availing. The number of works published on both sides increased daily. Most of them are, however, for- gotten now, and the only ones which have retained any importance are C. L. Nitzsch's De Rtvelatkne re- ligionis externa eademque jntblica (1808), and De dis- crimine revel, lmperatoiiaz el Didacticce. (1830), in which he separates religion and revelation, and attempts to give a complete theory of the latter, blending, to use C. J. Nitzsch's expression, " formal supranaturalism with material rationalism." In the school of Tubin- gen a new apologetic method, which we may call sci- entific, arose under the influence of Storr and of his followers. Its great defect, perhaps, is that it makes a science of faitb. Among the principal works in that line we find Peter Erasmus Muller's Kiistelig Apo'ogetik (Kopenh. 1810), G. S. Francke's Entwnrf einer Apo'og. der christlich. Religion (Altona, 1817). Next to these must be placed the articles of Heubner, of Wittenberg, in Ersch und Gruber's Allg. Encyhlo- padie (iv, 451-461), K. W. Stein's Apologetik d. Chris- tenthums ah Wissenschnft dargestellt (Ppz. 1824); and, in the Roman Catholic Church, the apologetic works of Stephen Wiest, of Ingolstadt, Patricius Zimmer, F. Brenner's Fundamcntirung d. katholischen specula- liven Theolcgie (Regens. 1837), and, more recently, the works of Klee (q. v.). Conceived in a different spirit, but fully as ingenious and methodical, are K. F. Bres- cius's, of Berlin, Apologien (1804), G. J. Planck's Ueber d. Behandlung, etc.,d. historischen Beweisesf. d. Gottlich- keit d. Christenthums (Gott. 1821), and especially K. H. Stirm's Apohgie d. Christenthums (1836). In most of the writers named, dogmatic teaching is combined with apologetical. This is still more true of the apol- ogetical works of Sehleiermacher and his school (see Schleiermacher, Darstellung d. Theol. Stud. § 40-44), and of the works of Staudenmaier and Sebastian von Drey, Apologetik als icissensclwftl. Xachceimng d. Gbtt- lichkeit d. Christenthums, etc. *(3 vols., Mainz, 1838- '47). Other German theologians considered apologet- ics as a scientific exposition of the fundamental prin- ciples of Christianity. Among them we find Steu- del, in his Grundzvge einer Apologetik (Tubing. 1830) ; Heinrich Schmid, of Heidelberg, in the Oppositionsschr. f. Theol. u. Philos. ii, 2 (Jena, 1829, p. 55 sq.); Tho- luck, Palmer, etc. Most of the introductory works to the studjr of dogmatics may be considered as apolo- getic. Such are Daub's Vorlesungen it. d. Prolegom- ena, z. Dogmatik (1829), Baumgarten-Crusius's ii. Re- Vgion, Offenbarung u. Christenihum (1820), F. Fischer, of Basle's, Religion, Offenbarung, etc. (Tubing. 1828), Twesten, Tor/, it. d. Dogm. (182(1, 18S8), Staudenmaier's Kittholicismus u. d. Neuschellingsche Schule (Freiburg, Z itsch.f. Theol. 1842, v). Klee also commences his Kaiholische Dogmatik with a Generaldogmatik, which is a regular demonstrate Christiana. Strauss himself prefaces his Dogmatik by the "formate Grm\dbegriffe d. ckristl. Gla/ubenslehre." The life of Jesus by Dr. F. Strauss (1885), who de- clared the Biblical account of the life of Jesus a myth, and, in his "Christian Doctrine in its Historic Devel- opment," attacked even the belief in the personality of God and the immortality of the human soul, called forth a large number of apologetic works, which, more than had been done before, urged the absolute purity and sinlessness of the character of Jesus, and the fact that his personality is unique and without parallel in his- tory, as the strongest argument to be used by the Christian apologist. The celebrated work of Ullmann (Sundlositjkeit Jesu, Hamburg, 183S) t< ok this ground, APOLOGY 305 APOLOGY and stands at the head of a large class of apologetic literature. In 1863 Kenan's Vie de Jesus appeared in France, followed, in Germany, by a new work from Strauss on the same subject, by Sehenkel's Charac- terbild Jem, and by Sehleiermachcr's posthumous "Leben Jem" (Berlin, 1864). A vast apologetic liter- ature on this subject sprang up in France, Germany, and England, for the literature of which, see Jesus. L. Feucrbach, in his work on the " Essence of Chris- tianity" (Wesen des Christenthums, 1841), went even beyond Strauss, to the extreme limit of nihilism. He rejected religion itself as a dream and an illusion, from which, when man awakes, he finds only himself. He became the founder of a new school of materialism, which showed an extraordinary literary productivity, and gained considerable influence. See Material- ism. Among the most important apologies of Chris- tianity against this school belong the Letters on Ma- terialism from Fabri (Briefe fiber den Materlalismus), and the works of Bohner. An "Apology of Christi- anity from the stand-point of national psychology" was written by R. T. Grau (Semiten und Indogerma- ni?i In Hirer Befiihigung zur Religion und Wissenschnft. Eine Apologia des Christcnthums vom Standpunkie der Vblkerpsychologie (Stuttgart, 18G4, 8vo) for the pur- pose of refuting the objections made by Kenan, Strauss, and others, to the universal character of the Christian religion on account of its Semitic origin. As Strauss, Kenan, Feuerbach, and many other modern opponents denied the possibility of miracles, and made this their chief argument against the truth of supranatural Chris- tianity, a considerable number of works was called forth in defence of miracles, all of which are intended to be more or less apologies of Christianity. See the most important works of this class under Miracles. One of the ablest German apologetic works of mod- ern times is Auberlen's Gottllche Offenburung (Basil. vol. i, 1861; vol. ii, 1864), which, unfortunately, was left incomplete by the death of the author in 1864. See Auberlen. Among the recent works which are more popular than scientific, none has produced a more profound sensation tban Guizot's Meditations sur V Es- sence d>, la Religion Chretienne (Paris, 1864; translated into English, German, and most of the European lan- guages). Guizot undertakes an apology of those fun- damental doctrines of Christianity which are common to both evangelical Protestants and Roman Catholics, and he treats, in succession, of creation, revelation, inspiration, the essence of God, the person and the work of Christ, and he particularly dwells on the be- lief in inspiration. Luthardt's Apologetlsche Vortrilge (Lips. 1864) are ten lectures, held at Leipsic, to show the fundamental difference between the two views of the world (Weltanschauung') which now dispute with each other the control of modern society, and the abil- ity of Christianity alone to furnish a satisfactory so- lution of the problem of human life with all its mys- teries. Similar is a posthumous work by Thorn Wizenmann (died 1787, q. v.). Zur Philosophic vnd Geschichte dr Offenbarung (Basil. 1864). The author was a contemporary of Kant, Jacoby, Hermann, II a- mann, and Lavater, by all of whom he was highly es- teemed. Auberlen, who published the above edition, called attention to his importance as an apologist in the Jahrbucher fur deutsche Theolhgie for 1864. Other apologetic works recently published in Germany are Gess and Kiggenbach's Apologetische fieitnige (Basil. 1863); a collection often lectures by Auberlen, (less, Preiswerk, Riggenbach, Stahelin, Stockmcyer, under the title Zur I \ rantwortung dt s christlichen Glaubens (Ba- sil. 1861, 8vo); Vosen (Rom. Cath.), Das Christenthum und die Einspruche seiner (,'ei/ni r (Freiburg. 1864, 8vo) ; Hettinger (Rom. Cathol.), Apologie des Christenthums (vol. i, Freiburg, 1863, 8vo) ; Hillen (Rom. Cathol.), Apologie des Christenthum.-: (Warendorf, 1863) ; Zezsch- witz, Zur Apologie des Christenthums nach Geschichte und Lehre (Leips. 1866, 8vo). A new monthly, entitled U Beweis des Glaubens, devoted entirely to apologetics, was commenced in I860 at Giitersloh. It has the ser- vices of Andrew, Zockler, and Grau, the two latter of whom are authors of apologetical works mentioned above. 2. French. — At the head of modern French apolo- gists, of course, stands Pascal (q. v.); Huet's Demon,, stra'.io Evaiigelica ("2d ed. 1680) followed; also Houtte- ville, mentioned above (172i'). Among the Roman Catholics, Fcnclon, Letlres sur la Religion (1718); Le Vassor (1718) ; Lamy(1715); D'Aguesseau (f 1751) ; among Protestants, Abbadie (q. v. f 1727); Jacquelot (f 1708) ; in answer to the French encyclopaedists especially, Abbe Guene, the author of Molse venge (1769) ; Bergier, in bis Traite hlstorique et Doffma- tlque de la vraie Religion (Paris, 2d ed. 1780, 12 vols. ; Bamberg, 1813, 12 vols.). F. A. Chateaubriand also sought to prove the heavenly origin of Christianity in his Genie du Christianisme (Paris, 1802; often re- printed and translated), and in his Les Martyrs. The deficiencies of French apologetics are sharply noted by Chassay, Introduction aux Demonstrations Evan- geliques (Migne, Paris, 1858, 8vo). The Romanist reactionary school, headed by de Maistre (1753-1821), mingles apologetics with defence of Romanism, and of the absolute authority of the church (see Morell, History of Modern Philosophy, chap, vi, § 2). A school of ultra Rationalists has lately sprung up in France, of which Colani and Reville are types. Sec Rationalism. The Evangelical school, on the other hand, has produced able advocates of Christianity in Yinet (q. v.) ; Pressense (see the Revue Chretienne, passim), and Astie, Les Deux Theologies (Geneva, 1863). Among modern French apologists we notice the Ro- man Catholics R. de la Mennais (f 1854) and Frays- sinous (f 1841). They, however, like de Maistre, so identify Christianity with Roman Catholicism tln.t their works are available only for those of their own church. In the Reformed Church, E. Diodati, of Ge- neva, addresses his Essai sur le Christianisme especially to the will. For the numerous writers in answer to Renan, see the bibliography under Jesus. The Abbe Migne has published a vast collection of the Christian apologists in 18 vols., with an introduc- tory volume, and a concluding volume on the present state of apologetic science and of scepticism, making 20 vols, in all. We deem it worth while to give the whole title of this great work, which is a repository of apologies: Demonstrations Evangeliques de Ter- tullien, Origene, Eusebe, S.Augustin, Montaigne, Ba- con, Grotius, Descartes, Richelieu, Arnauld, de Choi- seul du Plessis-Praslin, Pascal, Pelisson, Nicole, Boyle, Bossuet, Bourdaloue, Locke, Lami, Burnet, Male- branche, Lesley, Leibnitz, la Bruycre, Fcnclon, Huet, Clarke, Duguet, Stanhope, Bayle, Leclerc, du Pin, Jacquelot, Tillotson, de Haller, Sherlock, le Moine, Pope, Leland, Racine, Massillon, Ditton, Derham, d'A^uesseau, de Polignac, Saurin, Burlier. Warburton, Tournemine, Bentley, Littleton, Seed, Fabricius, Ad- dison, de Bernis, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Para du Phanjas, Stanislas I, Turgot, Startler, West, Beauzee, Bergier, Gerdil, Thomas, Bonnet, de Crillon, Euler, Delamarre, Caraccioli, Jennings, Duhamel, S. Liguori, Butler, Bullet, Vauvenargues, Gucnard, Blair, de Pom- pignan, de Luc, Porteus, Gerard, Diessbach, Jacques, Lamourctte, Laharpe, le Coz, Duvoisin, de la Luzerne, Schmitt, Povnter, Moore, Silvio Pellico, Lingard, Bru- nati, Manzoni, Paley, Perrone, Lanibruschini, Dor- ians, Catnpien, i'r. Perennes, Wiseman, Bucklar.d, Marcel de Scrres, Keith, Chalmers, Dupin aine, Gre- goire XVI, Cattet, Jlilner, Sabatier, Bolgeni, Morris, Chassay, Lombroso et Consoni ; contenant les apolo- gies de 117 auteurs, rcpandus dans 180 vol. ; traduites pour la plupart des diverses Ungues dans lasquelles avaient etc ocrircs ; reproduces Int^trralement, non par extraits. Ouvrage dgalement neeessaire a ceux qui ne croient pas, a ceux qui doutcnt ct a ceux qui APOLOGY 306 APOLOGY croient ; avec Introduction aux Demonstrations evan- geHques, et Conclusion du meme ouvrage (20 vols. imp. 8vo, Paris). It is proper to say that the word inte- gralement in this title is not correct, as passages in the Protestant writers which impugn Romanism are often omitted. :".. English mid American. — The English Deists of the 17th century, Herbert, Hobbes, and Blount, were an- swered by numerous writers ; the literature is given in Leland, Deistical Writers (1754, 8vo), and in Lech- ler, Geschichie des englischen Deismns. See Deism. Richard Baxter was probably the earliest original writer on Evidences in the English language. His first publication on the subject was The Unreasonable- ness of Infidelity (1655, 8vo ; Works, vol. xx) ; followed by The Reasons of the Christian Religion (1667, 4to ; Works, xx and xxi); More Reasons (1667, in answer to Herbert; Works, xxi). In these books Baxter shows his usual acuteness, and anticipates many of the argu- ments of later writers. Farrar (Critical Hist, of Free Thought), strangely enough, omits Baxter from his list of writers given in note 49, from which the following statement is chiefly taken. I.ocke (f 1704) wrote The Reasonableness of Christianity (Works, vol. i) ; Water- land, Reply to Tindal; Boyle (1626-1601) not only wrote himself on the evidences, but founded the Boyle Lectures [see Boyle], a series which was mainly com- posed of works written by men of real ability, and contains several treatises of value. Among the series may be named those of Bentley (1692) ; Kidder (1694) ; Bishop Williams {1695) ; Gastrell (1697); Dean Stan- hope (1701); Dr. Clarke (1704-'o) ; Derham (1711); Ibbot (171?-) ; Gurdon (1721) ; Berriman (17S0) ; Wor- thington (1766); Owen (1769). Other series of lec- tures in defence of Christianity followed, bcth in Eng- land and on the Continent, viz., the Mover Lecture (1719); the Ley den (1753); the Warburton (1772); the Basle (1775) ; the Bampton (1780) ; the Hague (1785) ; the Haarlem (1786) ; the Hulsean (1820) ; the Congre- gational (1833). See each of these heads. The Lowell Lecture (Boston) has similar objects. Among separate treatises of this period, Leslie (f 1722), Short Method with the Deists; Jenkins, Reasonableness of Christian- ity (1721) ; Foster, Usefulness and Truth of Christian- ity, against Tindal; Sherlock, Trial of the Witnesses, against Woolston ; Lyttelton, on St. Raid's Conversion ; Conybe are, Defence of Revelation (1732); Warburton, Divine Legation of Moses; Addison, Evidences (1730); Skelton, Deism Revealed (Works, vol. iv), may he mentioned. The great work of Bishop Butler, The Analogy of Religion, etc., was the recapitulation and condensation of all the arguments that hail been pre- viously used, but possessed the largeness of treatment and originality of combination of a mind which had not so much borrowed the thoughts of others as been educated by them. Balguy's Discourses (3d ed., 1790, 2 vols.), and his Tracts, Moral and Theological (1734, 8vo), are very valuable. In the latter half of the century, the historical rather than the moral evi- dences were developed. First, the religion of nature was proved : at this point the Deist halted, the Chris- tian advanced further. The chasm between it and revealed religion was bridged at first by probabili- ty ; next by Butler's argument from analogy, put as a dilemma to silence those who objected to reve- lation, but capable of being used as a direct argu- ment to lead the mind to revelation; thirdly, by the historic method, which asserted that miracles attest- ed a revelation, even without other evidence. The argument in all cases, however, whether philosoph- ical or historical, was an appeal to reason — either ev- idence of probability or of fact — and was in no case an appeal to the authority of the church. According- ly, the probability of revelation having been shown, and the attacks on its moral character parried, the question became, in a great degree, historical, and re- solved itself into an examination either of the external evidence arising from early testimonies, which could be gathered to corroborate the facts and to vindicate the honesty of the writers, or of the internal critical evidence of undesigned coincidences in their writings. The first of these occupied the attention of Lardner (1684-1768). His Credibility was published 1727-57 ; the Collection of Ancient Jewish and Heathen Testimo- nies, 1764-'7. The second and third branches occu- pied the attention of Paley, the one in the Evidences, the other in the Harce Pauliiue. Paley's argument has been extended to the Gospels and other parts e f Scrip- ture by Blunt, Undesigned Coincidences, etc. (3d edit. 1850 ; compare also his Essay on Paley, reprinted from the Quarterly Rev. Oct. 1828). Before the clrse of the century the real danger from Deism had passed, and the natural demand for evidences had theiefcre, in a areat degree, ceased. Consequently, the works which appeared were generally a recapitulation or summary of the whole arguments, often neat and judicious (as is seen at a later time in Van Mildcrt, Boyle Lectures, vol. ii, 1605; and in Chalmers, Works, vol. i-iv), or in developments of particular subjects, as in Watson's Apology, in replj' to Gibbon and Paine, or in Graves on the Pentateuch (1807). It is only in recent years that a species of eclecti- cism, rather than positive unbelief, has arisen in Eng- land, which is not the legitimate successor of the old deism, but of the speculative thought of the Continent; and only within recent years that writers on evidences have directed their attention to it. In the Bampton Lectures (q. v.), which, as one of the classes ( f annu- ally recurring volumes of evidences, is suppesed to keep pace with contemporary forms of doubt,- and may therefore be taken as one means of measuring dates in the corresponding history of unbelief, it is r.ot until about 1852 that the writers showed an acquaintance with these forms of doubt. The first course which touched upon them was that of Mr. Riddle (1'52), on the Natural History of In fidelity ; and the first c spe- cialty directed to them was that of Dr. Thomson, Cn the Atoning Work of Christ (1853, 8vo); which was fol- lowed by Mansel, On the Limits of Religious Thought (1858), and by Rawlinson, Hist. Evidences of the Truth of the Scripture Records stateel anew (1859). It is im- possible to cite all the 1 ooks of Evidences, popular and scientific, published in England and America. But among the most important, besides those already men- tioned, are Erskine On Internal Evidence (1821); Bu- chanan, Modem Atheism (Boston, 1859, 12mo) ; Shep- pard, Divine Origin of Christianity (Lond. 1829) ; Young, The Christ of History (N. Y. 1856) ; Rogers, Reason and Faith; Eclipse of Faith ; G'reyson Letters; Defnce of Eclipse of Faith; Taylor, Restorat'on of Belief (Camb. 1855); Aids to Faith (in reply to Essays and Reviews, London, 1861, 8vo) ; Replies to Essays and Reviews (N. Y. 1862, 8vo) ; Wharton, Theism and the Mod. Scept. Theories (Philad. 1859, 12mo) ; Dove, Logic of the Chris- tian Faith (Ed'nib. 1&5G) ; Morgan, Christianity and Mod- em Infidelity (Lond. 1854, 12mo); Pearson, On Infidelity (Prize Essay, Relig. Tract Soc.) ; Wardlaw, On Mira- cles (N. Y. 1853, 12mo); Wilson, Evidences (I'oston, 1833, 2 vols. 12mo) ; Dewar, Evidences of Revelation (Lond. 1854, 12m o) ; Shuttleworth, Consistency ofRtv- elation with itself and with Reason (N. Y. 1832, 18mo) ; Reinhard, Plan of the Fovmlir of Christianity (transl., Bost. 1831); Led. on Evidences at the Univ. of Virginia (N. Y.8vo, 1852); Alexander, Evidences (Presb. Board, 12mo) ; Hopkins, T.eC. before the Lowell Inst it. (Boston, 1846, 8vo, an admirable book); Alexander, Christ and Christianity (X. Y. 1854, 12mo) ; Peabody, Christianity the ReUg. of Nature (Lowell Lect., Boston, 1863, 8vo); Faber, 'Difficulties of Infidelity (X. Y. 8vo) ; Schaff, The Persmef Christ the Miracle of History (N.Y '. 1865, 12mo); Sumner, Evidences (1824, 8vo) ; Norton, Genuineness of the Gospels (Boston, 1855, 8vo); Garbett, The Divine Plan of Rt relation (Boyle Lecture, Lond. 1864, 8vo). Of writings against the Jews sinco the Reformation. APOSTASY 30: APOSTASY we note, Hoornbeck, Pro convincend. Judo-is (1055, 4to); Limborch, Arnica Collatio cum erudto Judceo ( 1687, 4to) ; Leslie, Short Method with the Jews; Kidder, Dem- onstrations of the Messiah (1726, fol.) ; McCaul, The Old Paths (1837); ibid., Warburton Lectures (1846). Against tha Mohammedans, besides Grotius, Be Veri- tate, see Prideaux, Nature of Imposture in the Life of Muh immed (8vo) ; Lee, Tracts on Christianity and Mo- hammedanism, by Martyn (1824, 8 vo) ; White, Hamp- ton Led. (1784, 8vo) ; Muir, Life of Mohammed (1858). For the literature of the Strauss and Kenan controver- sy, see Jesus. For the Colenso controversy in Eng- land, and that caused by the "Essays and Reviews," see Rationalism (English). See also Apologetics; Atheism; Evidences; Deism; Infidelity; Pan- theism.— Christ. Remembrancer, xl, 327, and xli, 149; London Quar. Rev. (Oct. 1854); American Theol. Rev. (1861, p. 438) ; North British Rev. xv, 331 ; Hagenbach (Smith), History of Doctrines, § 28, 116, 157, 238, 294, 276 ; Shedd, History of Doctrines, bk. ii ; Pelt, Theolog. Encyklopvdie, p. 378 sq. ; Fabricius, Syllabus Scriptt. qui pro veritate Relig. Christ, scripserunt (1725, 4to) ; Ritter, Geschichle d. christl. Philosophic, vol. ii; Tho- luck, Vermischte Schriften, i, 143-376; Bickersteth, Christ i in Stude?it, p. 469 sq. (where a pretty full list of books is given) ; Walch, Bibliotheca Theologica, ch. v (a copious list up to time of publication, 1757) ; Kah- nis, History of German Protestantism (transl., Edinb. 1856); Bartholmess, Scepdcisme Theolg'que (1852); Morell, Hist, of Philosophy, ch. v ; Hurst, Hist, of Ra- tionalism (N. Y. 1865, 8voj ; Fisher, The Supernat. Ori- gin of Christianity (N. Y. 1865, 8vo) ; Meth. Quar. Rev. (April, 1853, p. 70, 312 ; July, 1862, p. 357, 446) ; Bibli- otheca Sacra (July, 1865, p. 394) ; Gass, Protest. Dog- matik, vol. iii ; Warren, Sy.if, mutkche Theologie, Ein- leitung, p. 17-22 ; Hagenbach, Encyklopddie und Me- thodologie, § 81 ; Nast, Introduc. to Coram, on N. T. ch. iv; Walker, Philosophy of the Plan of Salvation (N. Y. often reprinted) ; Bushnell, Nature and the Supernat- ural. A complete history of apologetica] and polem- ical theology is preparing by Werner (Rom. Catholic ; vols, i-iv, Schaffhausen, 1861-1866). Apostasy (airoaraaia, revolt), a forsaking or re- nouncing religion, either by an open declaration in words, or a virtual declaration by actions. The Greek term is employed by Paul to designate the "falling away" (// cnrooTarriu), which in his time was held in check by some obstacle (ro KaTt%ov, o Karsx<»v), 2 Thess. ii, 3. It means one of two things : (1) Political defection (Gen. xiv, 4, Sept. ; 2 Chron. xiii, 6, Sept. ; Acts v, 37) ; (2) Religious defection (Acts xxi, 21 ; 1 Tim. iv, 1; Heb. iii, 12). The first is the common classical use of the word. The second is more usual in the N. T. ; so St. Ambrose understands it (Comm. in Luc. xx, 2')). This airooTaoia (apostasy) implies cnroffTarai (apostates). An organized religious body being supposed, some of whose members should fail away from the true faith, the persons so falling away would lie d—oorarai, though still formally unsevered from the religious body; and the body itself, while, in respect to its faithful members, it would retain its character and name, might yet, in respect to its other members, be designated an a7rorrra; Luke ix, 20) as the Messiah (6 XpiVToe tov B£of»), endowed with miraculous powers (Luke ix, 54), yet they were slow in apprehending the spiritual doctrii.e and aim of their Master, being impeded by their weak perception and their national prepossessions (Matt, xv, 16; xvi, 22; xvii, 20 sq. ; Luke ix, 54 ; John xvi, 12), insomuch that they had to ask him concerning the obvious im- port of the plainest parables (Luke xii, 41 sq.), and, indeed, they themselves at times confessed their want of faith (Luke xvii, 5) ; nor even at the departure of Jesus from the earth, when for two or three years they had been his constant and intimate companions (Matt, xvi, 21), were they at all mature (Luke xxiv, 21 ; comp. John xvi, 12) in the knowledge appropriate to their mission (see Vollborth, De discip. Christi per fjradus ad dignitatem et potent. Apostolor. erect is, Gott. 1790 ; Bagge, De sapientia Christi in electione, institu- tione et missione Apostolor. Jen. 1754; Ziez, Quomodo notio de Messia in animis Apost. sensim sensimque clari~ orem acceperit lucem, Lubec. 1793; Liebe, in Augusti, N. theol. Blatt. II, i, 42 sq. ; Ernesti, De prceclara Chr. in Apost. instituendis sapientia, Gott. 1834 ; Ne- ander, Leb. Jes. p. 229 sq. ; comp. also Mafan, De via qua Apost. Jesu doctrinam divin. melius perspexerint, Gott. 1809). Even the inauguration with which they were privileged at the last supper with Jesus under so solemn circumstances (Matt, xxvi, 26 sq. ; Mark xiv, 22 sq. ; Luke xxii, 17 sq.) neither served to awaken their enthusiasm, nor indeed to preserve them from outright faithlessness at the death of their Mas- ter (Matt, xvi, 14 sq. ; Luke xxiv, 13 sq., 36 sq. ; John xx, 9, 25 sq.). One who was but a distant follower of Jesus and a number of females charged themselves with the interment of his body, and it was only his incontestable resurrection that gathered together again his scattered disciples. Yet the most of them return- ed even after this to their previous occupation (John xxi, 3 sq.), as if in abandonment of him, and it re- quired a fresh command of the Master (Matt, xxviii, 28 sq.) to direct them to their mission, and colle< t them at Jerusalem (Acts i, 4). Here they awaited in APOSTLE 310 APOSTLE a pious association the advent of the Holy Spirit (John xx, 22), which Jesus had promised them (Acts i, 8) as the Paraclete (John xiv, 26 ; xvi, 13) ; and soon after the ascension of their teacher, on the Pentecost established at the founding of the old dispensation, they felt themselves surprised by an extraordinary phenomenon (see Schulthess, De Charismat.ib. Spir. Sancti, Leipz. 1818; Schulz, Geistesgaben der ersten Christen, Bresl. 183(J ; Neander, Planting, i, 11 sq.), resulting in an internal influx of the power of that Spirit (Acts ii) ; and thereupon they immediately be- gan, as soon as the vacancy occasioned by the defec- tion of Judas Iscariot had been filled by the election of Matthias (Acts i, 15 sq.), to publish, as witnesses of the life and resurrection of their Lord, the Gospel in the Holy City with ardor and success (Acts ii, 41). Their course was henceforth decided, and over much that had hitherto been dark to them now beamed a clear light (John ii, 22 ; xii, 16 ; see Henke, in Pott's Sylloge, i, 19 sq.). — "Winer, s. v. S. Under the eyes of the apostles, and not without personal sacrifice on their part, the original Christian membership at Jerusalem erected themselves into a community within the pale of Judaism, although irre- spective of its sacred rites, with which, however, they maintained a connection (Acts iii-vii), and the apos- tolical activity soon disseminated the divine word among the Samaritans likewise (Acts viii, 5 sq., 15), where already Jesus had gained some followers (John iv). In the mother Church at Jerusalem their supe- rior dignity and power were universally acknowl- edged by the rulers and the people (Acts v, 12 sq.). Even the persecution which arose about Stephen, and put the first check on the spread of the Gospel in Ju- daea, does not seem to have brought peril to the apos- tles (Acts viii, 1). Here ends, properly speaking (or rather, perhaps, with the general visitation hinted at in Acts ix, 32), the first period of the apostles' agen- cy, during which its centre is Jerusalem, and the prominent figure is that of Peter. Agreeably to the promise of our Lord to him (Matt, xvi, 18), which we conceive it impossible to understand otherwise than in a personal sense, he among the twelve foundations (Rev. xxi, 14) was the stone on whom the Church was first built ; and it was his privilege first to open the doors of the kingdom of heaven to Jews (Acts ii, 11, 42) and to Gentiles (Acts x, 11). The next deci- sive step was taken by Peter, who, not without mis- givings and even disapproval on the part of the prim- itive body of Christians, had published the Gospel on the sea-coast (Acts x, xi) ; and this led to the estab- lishment of a second community in the Syrian me- tropolis Antioch (Acts xi, 21), which kept up a friend- ly connection with the Church at Jerusalem (Acts xi, 22 sq.), and constitutes the centre of this second pe- riod of the apostolical history. But all that had hitherto taken place was destined to be cast into the shade by the powerful influence of one individual, a Pharisee, who received the apostolate in a most remarkable manner, namely, Paul. Treat- ed at first with suspicion, he soon acquired influence and consideration in the circle of the apostles by his enthusiasm (Acts xiii), but, betaking himself to Anti- och, he carried forth thence in every direction the Gospel into distant heathen lands, calling out and employing active associates, and resigning to others ( Peter; comp. Gal. ii, 7) the conversion of the Jews. His labors form the third apostolical period. From this time Paul is the central character of the apostol- ical historj : even Peter gradually disappears, and it 18 only after Paul had retired from Asia Minor that John appears there, but even then laboring in a quiet manner. Thus a man who had probably not person- ally known < Ihrist, who, at least, was not (originally) designated and consecrated by him to the apostleship, yel accomplished more for Christianity than all the directly-appointed apostles, not only in extent, meas- uring his activity by the geographical region trav- ersed, but also in intensity, since he especially grasp- ed the comprehensive scope of the Christian remedial system, and sought to harmonize the heavenly doc- trine with sound learning. It is not a little remark- able that a Pharisee should thus most successfully comprehend the world-wide spirit of Christianity. 4. Authentic historj- records nothing concerning the apostles beyond what Luke has afforded respecting Peter, John (Acts viii, 14), and the two James's (Acts xii, 2, 17 ; xv, 13 ; xxi, 18). Traditions, derived in part from early times (Euseb. Hist. Eccl. iii, 1), have come down to us concerning nearly all of them (see the Acta Apostolorum Apocrypha, which have been usually ascribed to one Abdias, in Fabricii Cod. Apoc- ryph. i, 402 sq. ; and Cave's Antiquitates Apostol. ut sup. ; also Perionii Vita; Apostolorum, Par. 1551, Frcf. 1774; comp. Ludewig, Die Apost. Jes. Quedlinb. 1841 ; Heringa, De vitis apostolorum, Tielffi, 1844), but they must be cautiously resorted to, as they some- times conflict with one another, and their gradual growth can often be traced. All that can be gather- ed with certainty respecting the subsequent historj' of the apostles is that James (q. v.), after the mar- tyrdom of James the greater (Acts xii, 2), usuallj- re- mained at Jerusalem as the acknowledged head of the fraternity (comp. Acts xii, 17) and president of the college of the apostles (Acts xv, 13 ; xxi, 18 ; Gal. ii, 9) ; while Peter travelled mostly as missionary among the Jews ("apostle of the Circumcision," Gal. ii, 8), and John (all three arc named "pillars" of the Chris- tian community, Gal. ii, 9) eventually strove at Eph- csus to extend the kindly practical character of Chris- tianity, which had been endangered by Gnostical ten- dencies, and to win disciples in this temper. From this period it certainly becomes impossible to determ- ine the sphere of these or the other apostles' activity ; but it must ever remain remarkable that precisely touching the evangelical mission of the immediate apostles no more information is extant, and that the memory of the services of most of them survived the very first century onlj- in extremely unreliable sto- ries. We might be even tempted to consider the choice of Jesus as in a great measure a failure, espe- cially since a Judas was among the select ; but we must not forget, in the first place, that it was of great importance for Jesus to form as early as possible a narrow circle of disciples, i. e. at a time when there was small opportunity for selection (Matt, ix, 37 sq.) ; in the second place, that, in making the choice, he could only have regard to moral and intellectual con- stitution, in which respect the apostles chosen proba- bly compared favorably with his other followers ; and finally that, even if (as some infer from John ii, 25) the ultimate results had been clearly foreseen bj' him, they did not (especially after the new turn given to the Christian enterprise by Paul) strictly depend upon this act of his, since, in fact, the successful issue of the scheme justified his sagacity as to the instru- mentalities by which it was on the whole carried for- ward. Some writers (Neander, Leb. Jes. p. 223 sq.) have made out quite an argument for the selection of the apostles from their various idiosyncracies and marked traits of character (Gregorii Diss, de temper- amentis scriptorum N. T. Lips. 1710 ; comp. Hase, Leb. Jes. p. 112 sq.), and Jesus himself clearly never intended that they should all have an equal career or mission ; the founding of the Church in Palestine and its vicinity was their first and chief work, and their services in other countries, however important in themselves, were of secondary interest to this. See generally, respecting single apostles and their activi- ty (especiallv in the N. T.), Neander's Planting and Training "{'the Prim. Ch. (Hamb. 3d ed. 1841, Edinb. 1843) ; D. F. P.acon, Lives of the Apost. (N. Y. 1846). 5. The characteristic features of this highest office in the Christian Church have been very accurately APOSTLE 311 APOSTLE delineated by M'Lean, in his Apostolic Commission. " It was essential to their office — (1.) That they should have seen the Lord, and been eye and ear witnesses of what they testified to the world (John xv, 27). This is laid down as an essential requisite in the choice of one to succeed Judas (Acts i, 21, 22), that he should have been personally acquainted with the whole min- isterial course of our Lord, from the baptism of John till the day when He was taken up into heaven. He himself describes them as ' those that had continued with Him in his temptations' (Luke xxii, 28). By this close personal intercourse with Him, they were peculiarly fitted to give testimony to the facts of re- demption ; and we gather, from his own words in John xiv, 28 ; xv, 26, 27 ; xvi, 13, that an especial bestowal of the Spirit's influence was granted them, by which their memories were quickened, and their power of re- producing that which they had heard from him in- creased above the ordinary measure of man. Paul is no exception here ; for, speaking of those who saw Christ after his resurrection, he adds, ' and last of all he was seen of me' (1 Cor. xv, 8). And this he else- where mentions as one of his apostolic qualifications : 'Am I not an apostle? have I not seen the Lord?' (1 Cor. ix, 1). So that his ' seeing that Just One and hearing the word of his mouth' was necessary to his being 'a witness of what he thus saw and heard' (Acts xxii, 14, 15). (2.) They must have been im- mediately called and chosen to that office by Christ himself. This was the case with every one of them (Luke vi, 13 ; Gal. i, 1), Matthias not excepted ; for, as he had been a chosen disciple of Christ before, so the Lord, by determining the lot, declared his choice, and immediately called him to the office of an apostle (Acts i, 24-26). (3.) Infallible inspiration was also essentially necessary to that office (John xvi, 13; 1 Cor. ii, 10 ; Gal. i, 11, 12). They had not only to ex- plain the true sense and spirit of the Old Testament (Luke xxiv, 27 ; Acts xxvi, 22, 23 ; xxviii, 23), which were hid from the Jewish doctors, but also to give forth the New Testament revelation to the world, which was to be the unalterable standard of faith and practice in all succeeding generations (1 Pet. i, 25; 1 John iv, C). It was therefore absolutely necessary that the}' should be secured against all error and mis- take by unerring inspiration. Accordingly, Christ be- stowed on them the Spirit to 'teach them all things,' to ' bring all things to their remembrance whatsoever he had said to them' (John xiv, 26), to ' guide them into all truth,' and to ' show them things to come' (John xvi, 13). Their word, therefore, must be re- ceived, ' not as the word of men, but, as it is in truth, the word of God' (1 Thess. ii, 13), and as that where- by we are to distinguish 'the spirit of truth from the spirit of error" (1 John iv, 6b (4.) Another qualifica- tion was the power of working miracles (Mark xvi, 20 ; Acts ii, 43), such as speaking with divers tongues, curing the lame, etc. (1 Cor. xii, 8-11). These were the credentials of their divine mission. ' Truly,' sa3S Paul, 'the signs of an apostle were wrought among you in all patience, in signs, and wonders, and mighty deeds' (2 Cor. xii, 12). Miracles were neces- sary to confirm their doctrine at its first publication, and to gain credit to it in the world as a revelation from God, and by these 'God bare them witness' (II eb. ii, 4). (5.) To these characteristics may be added the universality of their mission. Their charge was not confined to any particular visible church, like that of ordinary pastors, but, being the oracles of God to men, they had ' the care of all the churches' (2 Cor. xi, 28). They had power to settle their faith and order as a model to future ages, to determine all controversies (Acts xvi, 4), and to exercise the rod of discipline upon all offenders, whether pastors or flock (1 Cor. v, 3-6; 2 Cor. x, 8; xiii, 10)." 6. It must be obvious, from this scriptural account of the apostolical office, that the apostles had, in the strict sense of the term, no successors. Their qualifi- cations were supernatural, and their work, once per- formed, remains in the infallible record of the New Testament, for the advantage of the Church and the world in all future ages. They are the only authori- tative teachers of Christian doctrine and law. All of- ficial men in Christian churches can legitimately claim no higher place than expounders of the doctrines and administrators of the laws found in their writings. Few things have been more injurious to the cause of Christianity than the assumption on the part of ordi- nary office-bearers in the Church of the peculiar pre- rogatives of "the holy apostles of our Lord Jesus." Much that is said of the latter is not at all applicable to the former; and much that admits of being applied can be so, in truth, only in a very secondary ami ex- tenuated sense. See Succession. The apostolical office seems to have been pre-emi- nently that of founding the churches, and upholding them by supernatural power specially bestowed for that purpose. It ceased, as a matter of course, with its first holders ; all continuation of it, from the very conditions of its existence (comp. 1 Cor. ix, 1), being impossible. The 'nrioKoiroi\ or "bishop" of the an- cient churches coexisted with, and did not in any sense succeed, the apostles ; and when it is claimed for bishops or any church officers that they are theii successors, it can be understood only chronologically, and not officially. See Succession. 7. In the early ecclesiastical writers we find the term 6 cnroaroXoc, "the apostle," used as the desig- nation of a portion of the canonical books, consisting chiefly of the Pauline Epistles. " The Psalter" and "the Apostle" are often mentioned together. It is also not uncommon with these writers to call Paul " The Apostle," by waj' of eminence. The several apostles are usually represented in mediaeval pictures with special badges or attributes: St. Peter, with the keys ; St. Paul, with a sword ; St. Andrew, with a cross ; St. James the Less, with a fuller's pole ; St. John, with a cup and a winged ser- pent flying out of it ; St. Bartholomew, with a knife ; St. Philip, with a long staff, whose upper end is form- ed into a cross ; St. Thomas, with a lance ; St. Mat- thew, with a hatchet ; St. Matthias, with a battle-axe ; St. James the Greater, with a pilgrim's staff and a gourd-bottle; St. Simon, with a saw; and St. Jucle, with a club. (See Lardner, Works, v, 255-vi, 361.) For the history of the individual apostles, see each name (Mant, Bioy. of the Apostles, Lond. 1840). 8.- Further works on the history of the apostles, be- sides the patristic ones by Dorotheus of Tyre (tr. in Hanmer's Eiisebius, Lond. 1663), Jerome (in append, of his Opera, ii, 945), Hippolytus (of doubtful genuine- ness, given with others in Fabricii Cod. Apocr. N. T. ii, 388, 744, 757 ; iii, 599), Nicetas (Lat. in Bill. Max. Pair, xxvii, 384; Gr. and Lat. by Combefis, Auct. Noviss. p. 327), and others (see J. A. Fabricius, Bibli- otheca Eccles. append.), are the following: G. Fabri- cius, Hist. J. C. itemque apostol. etc. (Lips. 1566, 1581, 8vo) ; Cave, Lives of lh°. Apistles (Lond. 1677, 1678, 1684, 1686, fob, and often since; new ed. by Cary, Oxf. 1840, 8vo; a standard work on the subject, above referred to) ; Hoffmann, Geschichtskalender d. Apostel (Prem. 1699, 8vo) ; Grunenberg, De Apostolis (Rost. 1704, 1705) ; Reading, Hist, of our Lord, with Lives of th" Apostles (Lond. 171(5, 8vo) ; Anonymous, Hist, of th< Apostles in Scripture (Lond. 1725, 8vo) ; Sandin, Hist. Apostolica (Petav. 1731, 8vo ; an attempt to for- tify the Acts by external accounts) ; G. Erasmus, I'rreyrivitiiwes apostolor. (Regiom. 1702); Tillemont, L'Histoire Ecclesiastique, i and ii ; Fleetwood, Life of Christ, s. f. ; Lardner, Works, vi ; Jacobi, Gcsch. d. Apostet (Gotha, 1818, 8vo) ; Rosenmiiller, Die Apostel, nach ihrem Leben u. Wirken (Lpz. 1821, 8vo) ; Wilhelmi, Christi Apostel n. erste Bekenner (Heidelb. 1825, 8vo) ; Kitto. Daily Bible Illustrations, eve. ser. iv ; Green- APOSTLES' CREED 312 APOSTOLIC AGE wood, Lives of the Apostles (3d ed. Bost. 184G, 12mo) ; also the works enumerated under Acts (of the Apos- tles). Of a more special character are the following among others : Kibov, De apostolatuJudaico, spec. Paidi (Gott. 1745) ; Heineccius, De habitu et insignib. aposto- lor. sacerdotalibus (Lips. 1702) ; Pfliicke, De apostolor. et prophetar. in N. T. eminentia et discrimine (Lips. 1785) ; Rhodomann, De sapientia Chr. in electione apos- tolor. (Jen. 1752) ; C. W. F. Walch, De illuminatione apostolor. successiva (Gott. 1758) ; Michaelis, De apti- tud'tne et sinceritate apostolor. (Hal. 1760) ; Jesse, Learn- ing and Inspiration of the Apostles (Lond. 1798) ; Gold- horn, De institutione apostolor. prcecepta rede agendi a Jesu scepenumero repetenda (Lips. 1817); Tittmann, De discrimine disciplines Christi et apostolorum (Lips. 1805) ; Hergang, De apostolor. sensu psychologico (Budissie, 1841); Milman, Character and Conduct of the Apostles (Bampton Lect. Oxf. 1827) ; Whately, Lect. on the character of the Apostles (2d ed. Lond. 1853) ; Messner, Lehre der Apostel (Lpz. 1856). Monographs on various points relating to the apostolata have also been writ- ten in Latin by Moebius (Lips. 1660), Dannhauer (Ar- gent. 1664), Kahler (Mint. 1700), Cyprian (Lips. 1717), Fischer (ib. 1720), Fromm (Ged. 1720), Neubauer (Hal. 1729), Beck (Viteb. 1735), Roser (Argent. 1743), Michaelis (Hal. 1749), Kocher (Jen. 1751), Stosch (Guelf. 1751), Rathlef (Harmon. 1752), C. W. F. Walch (Jen. 1754), J. E. J. Walch (ib. 1753, 1755), J. G. Walch (ib. 1774), Pries (Rost. 1757), Schulze (Frcft. 1758), Taddel (Rost, 1760), Stemler (Lips. 1707), Crusius (ib. 1769), Widmann (Jen. 1775), Wilcke (ib. 1676), Wich- mann (ib. 1779), Schlegel (Lips. 1782), Rau (Erlang. 1788), Miller (Gott. 1789), Pisanski (Regiom. 1790), Heumann (Dissert, i, 120-155), Glide (Xov. misc. Lips. iii, 563 sq.), Christiansen (Traj. 1803), Bohme (Hal. 1826), etc. ; in German by Gabler (Theol. Journ. xiii, 94 sq.). Grulich (Ann. d. Theol.), Ruhmer (in Schu- deroff's Jahrb. Ill, iii, 2i7 2<(3),Vogel (Avfsdtze, ii, 4), and many others, especially in contributions to theo- logical journals. See Apostolic Age. Apostles' Creed. See Creed. Apostolic, Apostolical, belonging or relating to the apostles, or traceable to the apostles. Thus we say, the apostolical age, apostolical character, apostol- ical doctrine, constitutions, traditions, etc. The title, as one of honor, and likely also to imply authority, has been falsely assumed in various ways. Thus the pretended succession of bishops in the prelatical church- es has been called Apostolical Succession. See Suc- cession. The Roman Church calls itself the Apos- tolical Church (q. v.), and the see of Rome the Apos- tolic See (srdi's ojiiisti)Iic(i). The pope calls himself the Apostolical Bishop. At an early period of the church every bishop's see was called by courtesy an apostolic Bee, and the term implied, therefore, no pre-eminence. The first time the term apostolical is attributed to bishops is in a letter of Clovis to the council of Or- leans, held in 511, though that king does not in it expressly denominate them apostolical, but apostolicd sede dignissimi, highly worthy of the apostolical see. In 581 Guntram calls the bishops assembled at the council of Macon apostolical pontiffs. In progress of time, the bishop of Rome increasing in power above the rost, and the three patriarchates of Alexandria, Antioch, ami Jerusalem having fallen into the hands of the Sar; n<, the title apostolical was restrained to the pope and his church alone. At length, some of the popes, and St. Gregory the Great, not content to hold the title by this tenure, began to insist that it be- longed to them by another and peculiar right as the successors of St. Peter. In 1049 the council of Rheims declared that the pope was the sole apostolic- al primate of the universal church. Hence a great number of apostolicals : apostolical see, apostolical nuncio, apostolical notary, apostolical chamber, apos- tolical brief, apostolical vicar, apostolical blessing, I etc., in all of which phrases the name apostolical is identical with papal. — See Elliott, Delineation of Ro- manism, bk. iii, ch. v ; Bingham, Orig. Eccles. bk. ii, ch. j ii and xvii ; Hook, Ch. Dictionary, s. v. Apostolic Age, that period of church history i which extends from the day of Pentecost to the death of the last surviving apostle (John). With the rise of Rationalism in Germany the au- thenticity of several books of the New Testament, and consequently the history of the apostolical age, became a matter of doubt, and the subject of critical investigation. The first who undertook to reconstruct the history of the apostolical age was Semler, who, in a number of treatises, insisted on a distinction being made between that which is of permanent value in the primitive history of Christianity and that which is temporary and transitory, and pointed to the great I influence which the opposition between Jewish Chris- tianity and the Pauline school had upon the for- [ mation of the church. Under the treatment of Sem- | ler the early Christian Church was eviscerated of all | life, and nothing left but a dry abstraction. The j same may be said of the works of Professor Planck, of ! Gottingen (especially his Geschichte der christlichen Gesellschaftsverfassung), though they are in some re- spects valuable. From the degradation of the apos- tolic age by these and many other writers of similar views, it was rescued by the theologians of the new evangelical school, especially Neander (Geschichte der Pflanzung tmd Leitung der christlichen Kirche durch die Apostel, Hamburg, 1832, 4th edition, which reviews all the works that had been published since the appear- ance of the first edition), who shows throughout as deep piety as critical acumen. In the mean time, however, an entirely new view of the apostolic age was devel- j oped by Professor F. C. Baur and his disciples, the so- called Tubingen School (q. v.), the first and most im- portant manifesto of which was the Life of Jesus by Strauss, while the entire theory was most completely I exhibited in Baur's Paulus (ler Apostel Jesu Christi (1845, Svo), and in Schwegler, Nachnpostolisches Zeital- | ter (Tubingen, 1846, 2 vols.). This school rejected ' the authenticity of most of the books of the New Tes- ; tament, and regarded them only as sources of infor- mation for the "Post-apostolic Age." The essential points of this new theory are : (1) that, in the minds J of Christ and the first apostles, the new religion was j only a development or perfection of Judaism, and the same with what was later called Ebionism ; (2), that j Paul, in opposition to the other apostles, founded Gen- tile Christianity, quite a distinct system ; (3), that Ebionism and Paulinism were reconciled in the 2d cen- tury by a number of men of both parties who then wrote Luke's Acts of the Apostles and several of the apostolical epistles; and on the basis of this reconcili- ation the Christian Church was built. (For an ac- count of it, see Schaff, Apostolic AgQ., § 36; London Eclectic Review, June, 1853.) Sec Tubingen School. The subject called forth a very animated discussion and a numerous literature, and the theologians of Tu- bingen gradually became more moderate in their de- structive criticism. The work of Ritschl on the Or- igin of the Old Catholic Church (Entstehung der alt hatholischen Kirche, Bonn, 1850) deserves especial credit j in this respect. Among the works on the orthodox ; side which were called forth by this discussion were 1 those of Baumgarten (Die Apostel geschichte, Brunswick, j 1852, 2 vols.), Trautman (Die apostolische Kirche, 1848), j and G. V. Lechler, D is apost lische und nachapostolische i Zeitalter (Stuttgardt, 1857, 2d ed.). ! As the critics of the Tubingen school greatly dif- fered in their views respecting the authenticity of the \ several books of the New Testament, the question arose what parts of the history of the apostolic age can be established with certainty by the books of the New Testament considered separately ? The Tubin- gen school did not reject the authenticity of the Epis- APOSTOLIC AGE 313 APOSTOLIC AGE ties to the Romans, Corinthians, and Galatians. Its opponents therefore showed that we find in these epis- tles the basis (1) of the historical appearance and the divine-human nature of Christ, which is more full}' de- veloped in the Gospels ; (2) of a congregation which the Lord himself collected from Judaism, and the guidance of which was afterward transferred to the apostles, who were fitted out for their office through the Holy Spirit and the appearances of the risen Lord ; (3) of the additional vocation of Paul to the apostolic office, and, more specially, to the office of apostle of the Gen- tiles ; (4) of the equal rights of the Gentiles in the Christian Church. The Acts of the Apostles were re- garded by the Tubingen school as an untrustworthy novel, invented for the purpose of reconciling the schools of Peter and Paul, and irreconcilable in many of its statements with the epistles of Paul. Those who combated this view showed that the essential points of the book are in the best harmony with the epistles. An important work proving the authenticity of the Acts is Wieseler's Chronologie des apostolischen Zeital- tera (Goettingen, 1848). The Johannean (and, in gen- eral, apostolic) origin of the Revelation was even de- nied by men like Liicke and Neander, on the ground that the Revelation and the fourth Gospel could not have proceeded from the same author. Professor Baur and the Tubingen school rejected, on the same ground, the authenticity of the fourth Gospel, while they de- fended the Johannean origin of the Revelation. The Book of Revelation agrees with John's Gospel in rec- ognising the higher, divine nature of Christ. The first three Gospels shed but little light on the different tendencies of the apostolical age, though it is generally agreed that the first is of a decidedly Jew- ish-Christian character, while the third clearly shows the Paulinism of its author. The other books of the New Testament are partly looked upon as leaning on the Pauline tendency (the Epistle to the Hebrews), partly on the Jewish Christians (Epistle of James), and partly on both (Epistles of Peter and Judas). From them, as well as from the earliest apostolical fa- thers (Barnabas, Clement of Rome, etc.), additional details on the difference of views in the apostolic age were derived. The apostolic age begins with the time when the apostles themselves began to take an active part in the building of the Christian church ; that is, in the out- pouring of the Holy Spirit on Pentecost. It coincides, therefore, with the beginning of the Acts. It closes with the cessation of the authority and the immediate influence of the apostles. For the churches in differ- ent countries, the apostolic age therefore lasts as long as their immediate guidance through one of the apos- tles was possible. The name of apostles is given, 1, to the original twelve, to whom, after the fall of Judas, another was added, to keep up the correspondence with the number of the tribes of Israel ; 2, to Paul, and some of his companions. All these had a divine authorization to found congregations and to establish doctrine and in- stitutions. They possessed this authority because they were sent by the Lord himself, not because they were exclusively filled \iy the Lord with the Spirit, which, on the contrary, was to remain with the church forever. Gentile and Jewish Christianity must be regarded as two forms of one spirit, which are in inner harmony with each other, and supply each other, and together represent a unity which was consummated in the minds of at least the chief apostles. The union was fully cemented at the apostolical council at Jerusalem, at which the apostles for the Jewish Christians and those for the Gentiles mutually recognised each other. The accounts of this council do not conflict, but supply each other. The question has been frequently discussed to what extent the arrangements made by the apostles can be ascribed to the Saviour himself. With regard to this point, it is safe to ascribe to him the principle, but not the details of execution. The Spirit whom the Sav- iour left with his disciples organized the church in the name and the power of Jesus. The primitive church offices and the development of the churcli constitution are pre-eminently a product of the apostolic age. This subject is ably treated by Ritschl in his work on the Origin of the Old Catholic Church (Entstehmg der alt hatholischen Kirche"), with particular reference to the works of Rothe (.Anfange der christlichen Kirch), Bai.r (Ueberden Ursprung des Episc.opats), Bun-en {Ignatius von Antiochien), and Schwegler (Nacliaposiolisches Zeit- alter). The form of worship was undoubtedly very plain, leaving much to the free choice of individual persons and churches ; yet its principal features, with regard to the celebration of the Sabbath, the church festivals, and the sacraments, were fixed, and the entire life of the Christian was surrounded with pious customs, part- ly of new origin and partly derived from Judaism. In the doctrine of the apostolic age we alreadj- find several tendencies, which, however, do not appear as so many different systems, but as different evolutions of one system. Modern criticism distinguishes three phases of doctrine in this period, viz., the Jewish Christian, springing directly from the teaching of Christ and from the circleof hisdisciples; secondly, the Pauline, as given in his own Epistles, and, in a de- veloped form, in the Epistle to the Hebrews ; and thirdly, that of the Johannean Gospel and Epistles. This subject is thoroughly discussed by Matthsei (fie- Ugionsglaube der Apostel Jesu), Usteri (Paulinischer Tjehrbegriff), Hilgenfeld (Jvhunneischer Lihrbegiijf), and others. The chief opposing systems, in conflict with which the apostolic age developed both its doctrine and its life, were Ebionitism and Gnosticism, the one teaching a Pharisaic confidence in man's own works, and the other a spiritualistic contempt of all works. The apostolical age is commonl}' divided into three periods, one extending from the outpouring of the Holy Spirit until the beginning of the public appear- ance of Paul (about the year A.D. 41), the second un- til the death of Paul (about 67), and the third, the Jo- hannean age (until the end of the first century). It must, however, be understood that a tendency begun in a former period continued and was further devel- oped in the subsequent one (Herzog, Ileal- Ene Mop. i, 444). This very important period has received special at- tention in the more recent church history. The best books are : Neander, Planting and Training of the Christian Church by the Apostles (trans, by Ryland, Lond. 1851, 2 vols. 12mo) ; Schaff, History of the Ajws- tolic Church (New York, 1853, 8vo) ; Stanley, Sermons on the Apostolic Age (Oxford, 1847, 8vo) ; Davidson, The Ecclesiastical PoVty of the New Testament unfolded (2d edit. Lond. 1854); Stoughton, Ages of Christendom (Lond. 1857); Conybeare and Howson, Lift and Epis- tles of St. Paid (2 vols. 2d edit. Lond. 1858) ; Baum- garten, Acts of the Ajwstles (trans! . by Meyer, Edinb. 1854, 3 vols. 8vo) ; Ilagenbaeh, Die Kirche der dreierst. Jidirhunderte (Leipz. 1853, 8vo); Killen, Th, Ancient Church (New York, 1859, 8vo) ; Thiersch, Die Kirche des apostolischen Zeitalters (Frankfurt, 1852, 8vo; an English translation by Th. Carlyle, Lond. 1852, 8vo); Lange, Das Apostolische Zeitalter (Braunschweig, 1854, 2 vols.) ; Lechler, Das Apostolische und nachapostolische Zeitalter (Stuttgardt, 2d edit, 1857, 8vo) ; Dollinger (Rom. Cath.), Chri.stenthum und Kirche in der Zeit der Grundlegung (Ratisbon, 1860). See Acts (of the Apostles) ; Apostolical Church. On the consti- tution of the Apostolical Church, treatises [besides the accounts contained in systematic ecclesiastical histo- ries] have been written by Boehrner (in his Dissertt. Hal. 1729), Buddams (Jen. 1722), Greiling (Halberst. APOSTOLICAL BRETHREN 314 APOSTOLICAL COUNCIL 1813), Knapp (Hal. 1762), Lucke (Gott. 1813), Papst (Erlang. 1786) ; on the life and morals of the early Christians, by Borsing (L. 13. 1825), Diirr (Gottin. 1781), Frorefsen (Argent. 1741), Fronto (in his Bis- tertt. Hamb. 1720), Papst (Erlang. 1790), Seelen (in his MisceU. p. 155 sq.), Stickel (Neap. 1826), Zorn (Kil. 1711); on the early church officers, by Bres- tovin | Lips. 1741), Danov (Jen. 1774), Forbiger (Lips. 1776), Gabler (Jen. 1805), Lechla (Lips. 1759), Loehn (in his Bib/. S/ud.), Middelboe (Hafn. 1779), Mosheim (Helmst. 1732), Persigk (Lips. 1738), Stoer (Norimb. 1749), Thomasius (Alt. 1712), J. G. Walch (Jen. 1752), Wegner (Regiom. 1698) ; on the concord of the primitive Christians, by Carstens (in his Bib. Lab.), Koeppe (Hal. 182s), Lorenz (Argent. 1751), Mosheim (in his Bissertt.), Schreiber (Regiom. 1710) ; on their dissensions, by Goldhorn (in Ilgen's Zeitschr. 1840), Gruner (Cob. 1749), Ittig (Lips. 1690, 1703), Kniewel (Gld. 1842), Rheinwald (Bon. 1834), Schenkel (Basil. 1838) ; on their doctrinal and literary views, by Harenberg (Brunser. 1746), Lobstein (Giess. 1775) ; on their connection with Judaism, by C. A. Crusius (Lips. 1770), Van Heyst (L. B. 1828), Kraft (Erl. 1772), J. C. Schmid (Erl. 1782); on their Scriptures, by Ess (Leipz. 1816), Hamerich (Hafn. 1702), Mosheim (Helmst. 1725), Surer (Salzb. 1784), C. W. F. Walch (Lpz. 1779), Woken (Lpz. 1732) ; on their charity, by Gude (Zittan. 1727), Kotz (Regensb. 1839) ; on their persecutions, by M. Crusius (Hamb. 1721), Kortholt (Rost. 1689), Lazari (Rom. 1749), Schmidt (Frcft. 1797) ; on their meetings, bj- Hansen (Hafn. 1794), Leuthier (Neap. 1746); on their civil relations, b}' Gothofredus (in Zornii Bib I. Ant.), Holste (Helmst. 1676); on ancient representations concerning them, by Buchner (Viteb. 1687), Francke (Viteb. 1791), Hall- bauer (Jen. 1738), Kartholt (Kil. 1674), Seidenstiicker (Helmst. 1790) ; on their hymns, by J. G. Walch (Jen. 1737) ; on the apostles' administration, bv Hartmann (Berol. 1699), Semler (Hal. 1767), Zola (Ticin. 1780), Weller (Zwick. 1758). Organization and Government of the Apostolical Church (Presbyterian Board, Phil.); Bibliotheca Sacra, viii, 378. See Church, Constitu- tion OF. Apostolical Brethren. See Apostolici. Apostolical Canons. See Canon. Apostolical Catholic Church. See Catho- lic Apostolic Church. Apostolical Church, properly, a church framed upon the principles of the apostles. Of these princi- ples the essential one is the doctrine taught by the apostles; and the principle next in importance the or- der established by them, so far as it can be gathered from their writings. " The apostolicity of the church is an attribute which belongs to it as a Christian society ; for no community can establish its claim to the title of church unless there be a substantial agreement be- tween its doctrines and institutions and those of the in- spired men whom Christ, commissioned to establish his church upon earth" (Litton, On the Church, bk. iii, ch. i). As to the necessary elements of this agreement with the apostles, the Christian churches differ with each other. In the primitive Church, the term apostolical was naturally and properly used to designate those particu- lar churches which bad been founded by the personal ministry of any one of the apostles, viz", the churches of Jerusalem, Antioch, Alexandria, and Rome. Not unnaturally, too, it was supposed that these churches had superior culture and Christian knowledge, and it therefore became customary fur churches in their neigh- borhood to refer disputed questions of discipline; etc., to them for advice. From these simple beginnings p;rew up claims to authority, for which the apostles them- selves had laid no foundation, either in their writings or in their personal administration (.Mosheim, Commen- tarks, § 21). The Church of Rome claims to be exclusively the apostolical church. The Church of England and the | Protestant Episcopal Church of the United States claim to be apostolical churches, but not exclusively such, as they admit the "apostolicity" of the Greek and Roman churches, while the)' deny the title to all non-prelatieal churches. The ground of this arrogant assumption is the ecclesiastical theory known as the Apostolical Succession (q. v.). See Dens, Th'ologia, t. ii, § 78 ; Palmer, On the Church, pt. i, ch. viii ; and, for the refutation, Elliott, Delineation of Romanism, bk. iii, ch. ii, § 8 ; Litton, On the Church, pt. iii. See Apos- tolic ; Apostolic Age; (Church) Apostolic; Archeology. On the constitution of the primitive Church, see Church, Constitution of. Apostolical Church Directory (al FiaTayai al Cut K\))pei>rog Kal KavovtQ kKK\i]GiaoTiKo\ Twvayiuiv ' AttogtoXidv), a work which originated at the begin- ning of the 3d century, and is extant in several Ethi- opic and Arabic manuscripts, and in one Greek. Al- though it agrees in many points with the seventh and eighth books of the Apostolical Constitutions, as well as with the Epistle of Barnabas, it is yet independent of both. It seems to have originated in a work con- nected with the Epistle of Barnabas, and which, at the same time, was probably made use of by the author of the seventh book of the Constitutions. The Church Directory is divided into 35 articles, and contains pre- scriptions of John, and ecclesiastical rescripts of the other apostles on bishops, elders, readers, deacons, and widows, the duties of laymen, and on the question whether women are to take part in conducting relig- ious services. It concludes with an exhortation of Peter to observe these prescriptions. Bickell (Ge- schichte des Kirchenrechts, Giessen, 1843, p. 87"sq.) has been the first to call again attention to this collection, which had almost wholly fallen into oblivion. He has also given (p. 107-132), from a Vienna manuscript, the Greek text with German translation, and added the various readings of the Latin translation of the Ethi- opic text (from Hiob Ludolf's Commentarius in histo- rittm ^lithiopicam,, p. 314 sq.), the only one which had heretofore been printed. There are important, al- though not decisive, reasons for the assumption that the " Atdayoi of the Apostles," mentioned by Euse- bius (Hist. Eccl. 1. iii. ch. xxv), are identical with the Apostolical Church Directory (Bickell, p. Q8). — Her- zog, Eeal-EncyMopdd'e, i, 452. Apostolical Clerks, the name of two monastic orders, most commonly called Jesuates and Theatines. See these articles. Apostolical Congregation. See Congrega- tion. Apostolical Constitutions. See Constitu- tions. Apostolical Council is a title properly applied to the first convention or synod of the Christian Church authorities, an account of which is given in Acts xv, A.D. 47. The conversion of Cornelius having thrown open the church to Gentiles, many uncircumcised per- sons were soon gathered into the communion formed at Antioch under the labors of Paul and Barnabas ; but, on the visit of certain Jewish Christians from Je- rusalem, a dispute arose as to the admission of such Gentiles as had not even been proselytes to Judaism, but were brought in directly from paganism. To set- tle this question, the brotherhood at Antioch deputed Paul and Barnabas, with several others, to lay the matter before a general meeting of the apostles and elders at the mother church at Jerusalem, and obtain their formal ami final decision on a point of so vital importance to the progress of the Gospel in all heathen lands. On their arrival and presentation of the sub- ject, a similar opposition (and of a warm character, as we find from the notices in Gal. ii) was made by Christians formerly of the Pharisaic party at the me- tropolis; so that it was only when, after considerable dispute, Peter had rehearsed his experience with ref- erence to Cornelius, and the signal results of the la- APOSTOLICAL DECREE 315 APOSTOLICAL FATHERS bors of Paul and Barnabas among the Gentiles had been recounted, that James, as president of the coun- cil, pronounced in favor of releasing those received into the church from Gentilism without requiring cir- cumcision or the observance of the Mosaic ceremonial law. This conclusion was generally assented to, and promulgated in a regular ecclesiastical form, which was sent as an encyclical letter by Paul and Barnabas back to Antioch, to be thence circulated in all the churches in pagan countries. For an elucidation of the heathen practices forbidden in the same document, see Decree. For a discussion of the chronological difficulties connected with the subject, see Pail. — Neander, Planting and Training, i, 133 sq.; Conybeare and Howson, St. Paul, i, 212 sq. ; Kitto, Daily Bible Illust. viii, 283 sq. See Council. Apostolical Decree. See Decree. Apostolical Fathers, a name used to designate those Christian writers (of whom an}' remains are now extant) who were contemporaiy with any of the apos- tles; that is to say, who lived and wrote before A.D. 120. Historically, these Avriters form a link of con- nection between the apostles and the Apologists (q. v.) of the second century. There are five names usually given as those of the Apostolical Fathers, i. e. there are five men who lived during the age of the apostles, and who did converse, or might have conversed with them, to whom writings still extant have been as- cribed, viz. Barnabas, Clement of Borne, Ignatius, Polycarp, Hennas. The following works are general- ly counted to these writers: 1. The epistle of Barna- bas [see Barnabas] ; 2. Two epistles of Clement, bishop of Borne, to the Corinthians [see Clement of Borne] ; 3. Several epistles of Ignatius, hishop of An- tioch [see Ignatius]; 4. An epistle of Polycarp, bish- op of Smyrna, to the Philippians [see Polycarp] ; 5. The epistle (of an unknown author) to Diognetus [see Diognetus] ; 6. The book entitled Pastor Hennas [see Heemas]. Certain fragments of Papias are also com- monly included among the Apostolical Fathers. Of the writings attributed to these fathers, some at least are of doubtful genuineness (on this point, see the individual titles referred to). There can be no question of the value of these writ- ings to church history, and even to our knowledge of Scripture, not so much for the facts they contain, for these are of slight importance, or for their critical or doctrinal contents, but on account of the illustrations they afford of the practical religious life of the period, and also on account of the quotations they contain from the N. T. Scriptures. "It has often been re- marked that there is no period of the Christian church in regard to which we have so little information as that of above thirty years, reaching from the death of Peter and Paul to that of John. There is no good reason to believe that any of the writings of the apostolical fa- thers now extant were published during that interval. Those of them that are genuine do not convey to us much information concerning the condition of the church, and add but little to our knowledge upon any subject : and what ma}' be gleaned from later writers concerning this period is very defective, and not much to be depended upon. It is enough that God has given us in His Word ever}' thing necessary to the forma- tion of our opinions and the regulation of our conduct ; and we cannot doubt that He has in mercy and wis- dom withheld from us what there is too much reason to think would have been greatly abused. As mat- ters stand, we have these two important points estab- lished: first, that we have no certain information — nothing on which, as a mere question of evidence, we can place any firm reliance — as to what the inspired apostles taught and ordained but what is contained in or deduced from the canonical Scriptures; and, sec- ondly, that there are no men, except the authors of the books of Scripture, to whom there is any thing like a plausible pretence for calling upon us to look j up to as guides or oracles" (Cunningham, Historical Theology, vol. i, ch. iv). j It is obvious that the writings of men so near to the j time of the writers of the N. T. must be of great im- portance for the criticism of the N. T., and for the set- \ tlement of the canon. Lardner, after giving lists of i the citations and allusions to be found in the Apostol- ical Fathers severally, sums up as follows : " In these writings there is all the notice taken of the books of the New Testament that could be expected. Barna- bas, though so early a writer, appears to have been acquainted with the Gospel of St. Matthew. Clem- ent, writing in the name of the Church of Rome to the Church of Corinth on occasion of some discussion there, desires them to ' take into their hands the epis- tle of the blessed apostle Paul,' written to them, and refers them particularly to a part of that epistle in which he admonished them against strife and conten- j tion. He has likewise, in his epistle, divers clear and undeniable allusions to St. Paul's epistle written to the church over which he presided, and in whose name ; he wrote, not to mention at present other things. 5. t Quotations there could not lie, as we have often ob- served, in the book of Hernias ; but allusions there are to the bocks of the New Testament such as were suit- I able to his design. G. Ignatius, writing to the Church of Ephesus, takes notice of the epistle of Paul written to them, in which he ' makes mention of them in Christ Jesus.' 7. Lastly, Polycarp, writing to the Philippi- ans, refers them to the epistle of the ' blessed and re- nowned Paul,' written to them, if not also, as I im- agine, to the epistles sent to the Thessalonians, Chris- tians of the same province, not to mention now his t express quotations of other books of the New Testa- j ment, or his numerous and manifest allusions to them. 8. From these particulars here mentioned, it is appar- ent that they have not omitted to take notice of an\ j book of the New Testament which, as far as we are ; able to judge, their design led them to mention. Their silence, therefore, about a^iy other books can be no prejudice to their genuineness, if we shall hereafter meet with credible testimonies to them. And we may have good reason to believe that these apostolical fa- i thers were seme of those persons from whom succeed- ing writers received that full and satisfactory evidence which they appear to have had concerning the several books of the New Testament'' (Lardner, Works, ii, ; 113 sq.). The importance of the subject justifies the insertion : here of the following elaborate examination of all the ! citations from the N. T. made by the apostolic fathers, prepared for this work by the Bev. Wolcott Calkins, of Philadelphia. The second epistle of Clement and the larger recension of Ignatius, being regarded as spuri- ous, are not cited. The text used is Hefele's. The abridgments used are Clem., for First Epistle of Clem- ent to the Corinthians; Bar., Cath. Epistle of Barna- '. has; Ign. Eph., for Epistle of Ignatius to the Ephe- sians ; Ign. Magn., Ignatius to the Magnesians ; Ign. ' Tral., Ignatius to the Trallians ; Ign. Pom., Ignatius to the Romans; Ign. Phil., Ignatius to the Philadel- phians ; Ign. Smyrn., Ignatius to the Smyrnseans ; Ign. Pol., Ignatius to Polycarp; Pol., for Epistle of Poly- carp to the Philippians ; Iter. Vis., the Visions of Her- nias ; Her. Man., the Commands of Hennas ; Her. Sim., the Similitudes of Hernias. I. These fathers bear direct testimony to time of St. Paul's Epistles. — (1.) Clem. 47: "Take in your hands the epistle of Saint Paul the apostle. What did he write to you when the Gospel first began to be preach- ed? (ii> apyy rot> Ei/ayyekiov. Comp. Hefele's Latin version). Truly be was moved of the Spirit to write you concerning himself and Cephas and Apollos, be- cause even then you had begun to form factions. But this faction did not lead you into the worst sins, be- cause you yielded to apostles so illustrious, and to a man approved by them." Here the reference to 1 APOSTOLICAL FATHERS -Til APOSTOLICAL FATHERS Cor. i, 12, is unmistakable. Paul's inspiration is also claimed. — (2.) Ign. Eph.11: "Ye are partakers of the sacred mysteries with Paul, .... who also, throughout his whole epistle (tv Traay iTriaroXy, not 'every ep.' Credner, Einleit. i, 395, has no ground to claim that this passage has been interpolated from the larger [spurious] recension), makes mention of you in Christ Jesus." Here the reference to Eph. i, 9 ; iii, 3, is very striking. — (3.) Pol. 3: "Neither I, nor any other like m;, can attain unto the wisdom of the sainted and il- lustrious Paul, who, when he was with you in the pres- ence of men then living, taught most fully and forci- bly the word of truth ; and, when absent from you, wrote a letter (tmaroXAe, plur. for sing. ; compare De Wette, EM. i. d. X. T. p. 7, 3d ed. § 150), by which you may be built up in the faith, if you study it atten- tively." Compare Phil, i, 27. — Pol. 11 : " But I have neither perceived nor heard any thing of the kind among you, with whom St. Paul labored, who are [praised] in the beginning of his epistle." (Hefele endorses the conjecture that "lauduti" has been lost from the text, with the loss of the Greek in ch. x, xi, and xii.) Comp. Phil, i, 5. II. A few passages of the X. T. are distinctly quoted, either as the language of the Lord, the apostles, or of "Scripture." — Bar. 4: "Let us beware, therefore, lest we be found, as it is written, Many are called, few are chosen" (Matt, xx, 16 ; xxii, 14. The signs of quota- tion in this and the next instance, scriptum est, inquit, are constantly employed by Barnabas in citing from O. T.). — Bar. 7 : "So they, inquit, who desire to see me and be received into my kingdom, must reach me through afflictions and sufferings" (Matt, xvi, 24. Compare Hefele, Sendschreiben des Ap. Barn. p. G6+). — Clem. 34 : " For, he says, eye hath not seen, nor ear heard, nor have entered into the heart of man, what things he hath prepared for them that wait for him" (1 Cor. ii, 9, almost exactly ; while both Paul and Clem- ent differ in synonymes, arrangement, and everj- thing but sentiment, from the Sept. of Isa. lxiv, 3, 4, whence Paul quotes). — Clem. 4G : "Remember the words of the Lord Jesus ; for he said, Woe to that man ; it had been good for that man if he had not been born (Matt, xxvi, 24) ; rather than offend one of my elect (Matt, xviii, 6), it were better for him that a millstone were hanged about him, and that he were drowned in the sea, than that he should offend one of these little ones" (Mark ix, 42 ; Luke xvii, 2). Similar examples of citing from various gospels under the general designation of \6yoi tou Kvplov may be found in Clem. Alex. Str.m. iii, 18 ; also frequently in Irenreus and Justin Martyr. — Pol. 2: "Mindful of what our Lord said when he taught, 'Judge not, that ye be not judged (Matt, vii, 1, lit.) ; forgive, and ye shall be forgiven (Luke vi, 37) ; be merciful, that ye may obtain mere}- (Luke vi, 3G) ; in what measure ye mete, it shall be measured to you again (Matt, vii, 2) ; and blessed are the poor, and those who suffer persecution, for theirs is the kingdom of God'" (Matt, v, 3; Luke vi, 20). — Pol. 7: "The Lord said, 'The spirit truly is ready, but the flesh is weak'" (Mark xiv, 38, lit.). — Pol. xi: "Do we not know that the saints shall judge the world, as St. Paul teaches?" (J Cor. \i, 2, apparently literal, but the Greek is lost. Credner's ground for suspecting the last clause is singular enough— because Polycarp never gives the name of an author cited! Einl. i. d. X. T. p. 445). — Pol. 12: "As is said in these Scriptures, Be ye angry, and sin not (Psa. iv, 5, quoted by Paul without acknowledgment) ; and, let not the sun go down upon your wrath" (Eph. iv, 26; O. and N. T. blended as " scriptures"). These are believed to be the only examples of explicit citations with marks of quotation, except such as may have been taken from the Sept. or the N. T. Alleged misquotations will lie discussed in the sequel. III. Many passages are died with substantial accura- cy, but without indications of quotation. — Bar. 19: "Give to every one that asketh thee" (Luke vi, 30, lit., if, with MSS. B K L, 131-57, £k be omitted, and Tip with B ; Matt, v, 42, nearly). — Ign. Rom. 3 : " For the things which are seen are temporal, but the things which are not seen are eternal" (2 Cor. iv, 18, lit. But the pas- sage is doubtful; not found in anc. Lat. vers., Syrian fragm., nor Syrus). — Clem. 2 : " Read}' for every good work" (Titus iii, 1, tig for 7rpdg). — Clem. 36 : " Who being the brightness of his majesty (/jfyaXwowf/c for £o£r/g), is so much better than the angels, as he has obtained a more excellent name" (Heb. i, 3, 4). — Ign. Rom. 6 : " For what is a man profited if he shall gain the whole world and lose his own soul?" (Matt, xvi, 26, slight change in arrangement). — Pol. 1: "In whom, not having seen, ye believe ; and believing, ye rejoice with joy unspeakable" (1 Pet. i, 8, with slight omission). — Pol. 2 : " Believing on him that raised our Lord Jesus Christ from the dead, and gave him glory" (1 Pet. i, 21, slight change in arrangement). — Her. Sim. 8: "They denied the name by which they were called" (Jas. ii, 7, far more exact than appears in Eng. versions ; quod super eos erat invocatum = -o iinK\i)0ev t

. 6 = Matt, xix, 12. (Acts ii, 24. Pol 1= - ' Eph. ii, S, 9. 1 1 Pet. i, S. (Matt, x, 26. (2 Cor. iv, 24. Her. Man. 3 " " 4, 1 " " 12, 5 12: jl Pet. i, 13. (1 Pet. iii, 9. i Gal. iv, 26. - 1 Thess. v, 17. ( 1 Tim. vi, 7, 10. rl Cor. viii, 9, 10. ) Gal. vi, 7. \ Eph. v, 25. ( 1 Pet. ii, 11. \ Horn, xiv, 10, 12. 12 Cor. viii, 21. ( 1 Pet. iv, 7. '(1 Johniv, 3. 1 Pet. ii, 22, 24. 1 Pet. ii, 12, 17. 2 Thess. iii, 15. Gal. i, 7. Eph. iv, 30. (Luke xvi, 18. '(Mutt, v, 32. Jas. iv, 7. li Sim. 9,12= John xiv, 6. IV. Many extended passages in the Ap. Fathers are close imitations of similar passages in X. T. — Clem. 9 12 : The examples of the ancient worthies is adduced on the model of Heb. xi. The list not only corresponds — Enoch, Noah, Abraham, Lot, Rahab — but many ex- pressions agree. And the magnificent close of the chapter in Hebrews is reproduced with little change in Clem. 45. He then begins ch. 46, like Heb. xii, with a reference to these examples for our encourage- ment. Heb. xii, 1, is, however, reproduced still more accurately in ch. 19. — Clem. 36 is a close imitation of the beginning of Heb. i.— Her, Sim. ix, 21: A para- phrase of the parable of the sower, Matt. xiii. 5 23. (Comp. Ilerm. Vis. iii, G. Also, Sim. ix, 20, and Matt. xiii, 7 ; xix, 23, Also, Vis. iv, 3, and 1 Pet. i, 6, 7.)— Pol. 5 : The advice to deacons is a remarkable imita- APOSTOLICAL FATHERS 317 APOSTOLICAL FATHERS tion of Paul's charge to Timothy (ch. Hi.).— Clem. 49 : The praise of charity, closely imitating 1 Cor. xiii ; following also Col. i'ii, 14; l'Pet. iv, 8; Jas. y, 20; Gal. i, 4 ; John iii, 16 ; 1 John iv, 9, 10. There is not a thought in the whole chapter which is not to be found in N. T. V. Besides the above, there are many exjiressions ap- parently taken from the N. T. ; also allusions and ref- erences too inexact to be called quotations, which sin- gly might appear insignificant, but occurring on eveiy page are weigthy arguments. Westcott {Canon N. T. p. 30, 40, 47) gives many examples of coincidence in language of the PP. App. with the N. T. (1) Peculiar to Clement and St. Peter : dya9oiroiia, cth\(puTi]c, Troipviov. (2) Peculiar to Clement, St. Peter, and St. Paul : ayatii) nvi'itcijaic, dyioa/.i6g, ti- XiKpivrjQ, EV(Tij3eia, linrpoactKTog, Tairuvotypoainn], inraKoi), i'Trotyipciv, iXavt\ia, ia, (piXo^ivoc;. (3) Peculiar to Clement and St. Paul : d/xiTa/.it\>iTor, tyicpaTtviaOai, Xtirovpyoc, XeiTOvpyia. XtiTovpytlv, fiaKapiap-OQ, oiK-ip/.ioi, TroXtnia, iroKiTtviiv (Polyc), df/ii'of, c- trine of the Person of Christ, period i, ch. i; on their value for the history of the church, sec Schaff, History of the Christian Church, § 117; Presscns6, Hist. d. trois Prem. Siecles, vol. i ; Mosheim, Commentaries, i, 200 sq. ; Elliott, Delineation of Romanism, bk. i, ch. iii ; Hase, Church History, 7th ed. § 39. See also Hagen- bach, History of Doctrines, § 20 ; Reuss, Histoire du Canon, ch. ii ; Conybeare, Hampton Lecture, 1839 ; Hil- genfeld, Die app. VV., Untersuchungen, etc. (Halle, 1853); Clarke, Succession of Sacred Literature, vol. i; Lechler, Apostol. und nachapostol. Zdtalter, Stuttgardt, 1857; Bunsen, ChristianUy and Mankind, vols, v and vi ; Freppel, Les Peres A post-cliques (Paris, 1859) ; Don- aldson. Crit. Hist, of Christ. Life and Doctiine from the Death of the Apostles to the Xicene Council (vol. i. I,ond. 1865); Illgen, Zeits.ftr die hist. Theol. (18GG, Heft, i); and the prolegomena to the editions named below. The best editions are : 1. By Cotelerius, SS. Patrum, qui tem- poralis apostolicis floruerunt, Opera (Paris, 1G72, 2 vols. fol. ; a new edition by Clericus, Amsterdam, 1721, 2 vols. fol.). Cotelerius added to his edition the Pseudo- Clementines and the Yindicice Jonatiana by Pearson. 2. By the Oratorian Gallandius, in his Bibliotheca Vete- rum Patrum ; 3. By Russell (Lond. 1746). 4. By Jacob- son (2 vols. Oxf. 1838, 2d ed. 1840, 8vo). This edition does not contain the epistle of Barnabas, the epistle to Diognetus, and the Pastor Hernias. 5. Reithmayr (R. C.) Patrum Apostol. Epistolce (Monach. 1814, 8vo). 6. ilefele (R. C), Patrum Apostol. Opera (Tubing. 1839, 4th ed. 1855, 8vo). 7. Dressel, Patrum Apostol. Opera (Leipz. 1863, 2d ed. 8vo) ; it includes the Greek Pastor Hernias, and the Epistle of Barnabas from Tischen- dorf 's Sinaitic Codex. There is also an English version of the Ap. Fathers (not according to the latest texts) by Wake (latest ed. Oxf. 1841, 12mo). See Fathers. Apostolical King or Apostolical Majesty, a title of the kings of Hungary conferred by Pope Syl- vester II in 1000 upon Duke Stephen I on account of his zeal for the propagation of the Christian faith. It was renewed in 1756 by Clement XIII for Maria The- resa and her successors on the throne of Austria ; abol- ished in 1848, but reassumed (in the form of " Apos- tolical Majesty") in 1852. Apostolical Men, a name often given to the as- sistants and disciples of the apostles. Those among them who left writings received the name Apostolical Fathers (q. v.). Apostolical Succession. See Successiox. Apostolici, or Apostolic Brothers, (1.) a sect of heretics mentioned by St. Augustine (l)e Hceres. xl), who says that they arrogated to themselves the title of apostolici, because they refused to admit to their communion all persons using marriage, or having property of their own; not that they were heretical, he says, for abstaining from these things, but because they held that those persons had no hope of salvation who did not do so. They were similar to the En- cratites, and were also called ApotcicHt e. (2.) A sect with this name arose in the twelfth century, who con- demned marriage and infant baptism, also purgatory, prayer for the dead, the invocation of saints, the pow- er of the pope, etc. Many of them were put to death at Cologne (Mosheim, Ch. Hist. cent, xii, pt. ii, ch. v, § 15). (3.) Another apostolic brotherhood was found- ed by Gerhard Segarelli, of Parma, about A.I). 1260. This brotherhood Pope Nicolas IV endeavored to sup- press by various decrees of 1286 and 1290. No here- sy of doctrine was proved against the founder; and his only profession was a desire to restore apostolic simplicity in religion. He was imprisoned and ban- ished, but nevertheless his adherents spread through Italy, Germany, France, and Spain. They went about APOSTOLIUS accompanied by women singing, and preaching es- pecially against the corruptions of the clergy. In 1294 two brothers and two sisters were burnt alive at Parma. Segarelli abjured his heresy, but was burnt in 1300 for having relapsed. From this time Dolci- no of Milan became the head of this party, who pre- dicted the sudden downfall of the Romish Church. Dolcino, in 1304, fortified, with 1400 followers, a moun- tain in the diocese of Novara, and plundered, for his support, the adjacent country. In 1306 he fortified the mountain Zebello, in the diocese of Yercelli, and fought against the troops of the bishop until he was compelled by famine to surrender in 1307. Dolcino and his companion, Margaretha of Trent, were burnt, with many of their followers. See Dulcixists. These Apostolici rejected the authority of the pope, oaths, capital punishments, etc. Some Apostolic Brothers are mentioned, A.D. 1311, near Spolcto, and A.I >. 1320, in the south of France. The Synod of Lavaur, 1368, mentions them for the last time. The sect continued in Germany down to the time of Boniface IX. Mo- sheim published an account of them in three books (Helmstadt, 1746, 4to).— Murd. Mosheim, Church Hist. cent, xiii, ch. v; Landon. Eccl. Diet, i, 455; Hase, Ch. Hist. § 294. Apostolidis, Michael, a theologian and prelate of the Greek church, born toward the close of the loth century on the island of Crete, died at Athens on Aug. 2, 1862. He studied theology, philosophy, and lan- guages at the German Universities, and became soon after professor at a Greek school at Trieste. When Prince Otho of Bavaria was designated as king of Greece, Apostolidis was called to Munich to -instruct him in Greek. Having arrived with King Otho in Greece, he became lecturer on church history and eth- ics at an ecclesiastical school at Athens, and, in 1837, professor of theology at the University of Athens. When the independence of the Church of Greece had been declared, Apostolidis was sent to Petersburg to establish a closer connection between the Church of Russia and that of Greece. On his return he was ap- pointed archbishop of Patras. Subsequently he be- came archbishop of Athens and president of the Syn- od, which position he retained until his death. Apos- tolidis wrote, besides several contributions to the Greek periodical Aoyioc 'Epfirjg, of Vienna, a manual of Chris- tian ethics, entitled Tijc, Kara Xpiuroi' i)St>ciic. irpay- uartia (Athens, 1847), first in the ancient Greek, but subsequently also in modern Greek. — Unsere Zeit, vii, 398, 399. Apostolicity, a so-called "note of the church." See Apostolical Church ; Church. Apostolini, or Apostles, an order of monks, who most probably took their origin in the 15th century at Genoa, where the convent of St. Roche belonged to them. It seems that there were many hermits who congregated at Genoa about that time, who, on ac- count of the apostolical life which they professed to lead, and their having assumed St. Barnabas, the apos- tle, as their patron, took the designation of Apostolini, or " Fathers of St. Barnabas." At first the members of the order were laymen, and bound by no vow; but Pope Alexander VI obliged them to the vow, and to live under the rule of St. Augustine, in 1496. Their dress consisted of a gown and scapulary, over which they wore a cloak of gray cloth, with a little hood. They afterward united with the monks of St. Ambrose ail Xi inns, then dissolved the connection, then were reunited by Sixtus V, and finally both were sup- pressed by Innocent X in 1650. — Helyot, Ord. Monast. t. iv ; Landon, Eccles. Dictionary, i, 455. Apostolius, Michael, a learned Greek of the 15th century. He delivered the funeral oration over the body of the Emperor Constantine Pahrologus, who was killed in the storming of the city of Constantino- ple by the Turks. When the city was taken by the APOSTOOL 319 APPAREL Turks in 1-153 he escaped to Italy, where, to please Cardinal Bessarion, he wrote against Theodore of Gaza. But his abuse of Aristotle displeased the car- dinal, and Apostolius retired into Crete, where he gained a hard livelihood by copying MSS. and teach- ing children. He died about 1480 at Venice, leaving many manuscripts, which are still extant in European collections. — Fabricius, Bibl'tothca (iraci, t. xi ; Hoe- fer, Nouv. Biog. Generate, ii, 1)14. / Apostool, Samuel, a Mennonite, was born in 1G38, and was minister of a church of the Waterland- ers (a branch of the Dutch Baptists) at Amsterdam. In 1662 he distinguished himself by his opposition to Galenus Hans, who taught that Christianity is not so much a body of opinions as a practical life. Apostool, on the contrary, insisted on the necessity of doctrine, and also of the especial views of the Mennonites. Ga- lenus was charged with Socinianism and acquitted, and Apostool and his friends had to form a separate church. His followers were called Apostoolians. He lived up to nearly the end of the century. — Schyn, Hist. Merman, p. 327 ; Hoefer, Biog. Geiurale, ii, 914 ; Mosheim, Ch. Hist. cent, xvii, ch. v, § 7. See Ga- LENITES ; MeNNONITES. Apotactici or Apotactltae (from c'nrorarmonai, to renounce), an ancient sect, who, affecting to follow the evangelical counsels of poverty and the example of the primitive Christians, renounced all their pos- sessions. The}r seem to have been the same as the Apostolici or the Tatianites. During the persecution of Diocletian they had many martyrs ; and subse- quently adopted the errors of the Encratites, who deemed marriage and unchastity to be the same thing. The sixth law in the Theodosian Code joins the Apo- tactitae with the Eunomians and Arians. — Mosheim, Comm. i, 482 ; Bingham, Orig. Eccl. bk. xxii, ch. i, § G. Apothecary (njDI, roke'iicli, seasoning, i. c. with aromatics ; Sept. pvpexpoc, Exod. xxx, 25 ; xxxvii, 29; Eccl. x, 1), correctly rendered in the margin "perfumer;" so also in Eccles. xxxviii, 8; xlix, 1: the word means also any thing spiced (1 Chron. ix, 30) ; hence, ointment, confection (Exod. xxx, 35). The hol}r oils and ointments were probably prepared by one of the priests who had properly qualified himself in Egypt, where unguents were in great use. See Anointing. Roberts (Oriental Illustrations, p. 80) states that in Hindoo temples there is a man call- ed Thile-Kdran, whose chief business it is to distil sweet waters from flowers, and to extract oils from wood, flowers, and other substances. From our ver- sion having rendered the word " apothecary," it would seem to indicate that the business of a perfumer was not distinguished from that of an apothecary in the time of the translators. Thus Shakspeare, a contem- porary writer, says, "An ounce of civet, pood apothecary, To sweeten mine imagination." Indeed perfumery is almost inseparable from a drug- gist's stock in trade. Sacred oil appears to have been as copiously used by the heathen nations as it was in the Jewish tabernacle and temple, and during the patriarchal economy ; the Sanscrit writers prove its retention in the present religious services of India, and that it was adopted in the more ancient we have the authority of Strabo (lib. xv), where he refers to a ceremony which calls to mind the words of the psal- mist, that it ran down upon Aaron's beard, that went down to the skirts of his garments (Psa. exxxiii, 2). Sir William Ouseley, also (Trav.in Persia,!, 3'Jl), men- tions the statue of a man at Shapur, which, according to the Nozhat al-Colub, princes went on pilgrimages to visit and anoint with oil. See Perfume. Ap'pa'im (Ileb. Appa'yim, E?ES, the nostrils; Sept. 'AcpQaip v. r. 'AirQaiv), the second named of the two sons of Nadab, and the father of Ishi, of the tribe of Judah (1 Chron. ii, 30, 31). B.C. ante 1658. Apparel (usually designated in Ileb. by 132, be'- ged, "dress," or some form of C5! "2?, lebush', "cloth- ing," taSiie, i^taTi(Tfi6c, etc.), Oriental, especially Hebrew. Sec Garment; Clothing; Raiment, etc. This was usually, as the eastern climate necessitated, wide and flowing (comp. Olear, Reisen. p. 307), but concerning its precise cut we find nothing indicated in the O. T. books, except with regard to that of the priesthood. See Priest. But as customs change bi t little among Orientals, we may probably get a pretty exact idea of the ancient Hebrew fashion from a comparison with modern Eastern, especially Arabic costume (see especially Ar- vicux, Trav. iii, 241 sq. ; Niebuhr, Beschr. p. 02 sq.). See Dress. The delinea- tions of dress upon the Oriental monuments (such as the ruins of Babylon, Persepolis, Nineveh, and, to some extent, Egypt) are useful for this purpose, es- pecially for the later period (namely, during the exile, when the Jews wore Chaldean garments, Dan, ii, 21). For the earlier period see the Gemara (Shabbath. xvi, 4). Male and female apparel then, as now, did not essentially differ; but a lady was easily recognised Modern Oriental Apothecary Sh<:>p. Inhabitants of Nablotis (Shechem). APPAREL 320 APPAREL for the most part by single pieces of female attire, and especially by ornaments, and moreover the costliness of material in the head-dresses made a distinction be- tween the sexes sufficient to meet the demands of the law (Deut. xxii, 5) forbidding men to wear women's garments and the reverse. (See, however, Josephus, War, iv, 9, 10. The reason usually assigned for this statute is the prevention of confusion, and espe- cially licentiousness, sec Mitt, Dissert, p. 203 sq. ; Mi- chaelis, Mos. Recht. iv, 349 sq. Others, as Le Clerc after Maimonides, regard the prohibition as a pre- ventive of certain forms of idolatry which required men to sacrifice in female apparel, and the reverse, ace Macrob. Saturn, ii, 8, p. 22, ed. Bip. ; Philochori Fragm. ed. Siebelis, p. 10 sq. ; comp. Jul. Finnic. Be errore pro/an. rel. c. 4 ; also Creuzer, Symbol, ii, 34 sq. ; and generally Pezold, De promiscua vestium utriusque se.rus usurpdtione, Lips. 1702, and in Ugolini Thesaur. xxix. This interpretation is sustained by a statement of Maimonides, More Kevochim, iii, 27 ; comp. Movers, Phonic, i, 445 sq. Many Jews, how- ever, understand the textual expression "OS""1?;;), lit- erally " utensils of a man," to signify male weapons, so Onkelos in loc. ; a view which is adopted by Jo- sephus, Ant. iv, 8, 43.) The subject of female ap- parel has been especially treated by Schroder (Z)e vestiiu mulier. Ileb. Lugd. B. 1745) and Hartmann (Hebriierin am Putztische, Amst. 1849). The manu- facture of garments was in all ages the business of the women, especially the females of the family, and even distinguished ladies did not excuse themselves from the employment (1 Sam. ii, 19; Prov. xxxi, 22 sq.). Sec Wife. The only legal enactment on the subject was that wool and linen should not be used in the same article of apparel (Lev. xix, 19; Deut. xxii, 11), a prescription probably not designed (as thought by Josephus, Ant. iv, 8, 11) to forbid the priests any in- termixture of materials, but to be explained after the analog)' of the foregoing prohibition of heterogeneous- ness (see Michaelis, Mos. R. iv, 319 sq.). See Diverse. The articles of clothing common to men and women, then, were: (1.) The under garment, "2713, letho'- neth, x'rwi', or tunic [see Coat], which was held to- gether b)r the girdle (q. v.), and besides which a linen .Mountain Levantine Costumes shirt, 'p'lb, sadin', is sometimes mentioned (Isa. iii, 23; Judg. xiv, 12; Prov. xxxi, 24). In common language of the ancients, a person who had only this under garment on was called "naked" (1 Sam. xix, 24 ; Job xxiv, 10 ; Isa. xx, 2 ; comp. Virg. Geo. i, 229), a term that is sometimes applied also to one poorly clad (Job xxii, G; Isa. lviii, 7 ; 2 Sam. vi, 20; see Gesenius, Thesaur. p. 1071). Those in high sta- tion or travellers (comp. Joseph. Ant. xxii, 5, 7) some- times wore two under garments, like a double shirt, the outer (which was always longer than the inner) one being then called P^SlC, me'il' , arobe or "upper garment" (1 Sam. xv, 27 ; xviii, 4; xxiv, 5; Job. i, 20). The Greeks and Romans likewise, as perhaps also the Per- sians, were acquaint- ed with this habit (comp. Herod, i, 195; Ovid, Fasti, ii, 319; Salmas. ad Teriidl. pall. p. 71); but the custom appears to have been always re- garded by the Jews as luxurious (Matt. x, 10; Luke iii, 11; ix, 3; comp. Light- foot, p. 330 ; and Groebel, in the Miscell. Lips, xii, 137 sq.). A Chaldee costume was the "J"1 3 3, pattish' , or mantle (Dan. ii, 3, 21), probably a flowing under-dress (see Gesenius, Thesaur. p. 1101). (2.) An over garment [see Robe], which was thrown around the person, called itSQttJ, simlah' ', and i"D73iU, sawZaA', or mantle, also 153, be'ged, a piece of cloth ng generally, ipAnov, especially with females the PnZ'J-Q, mitpach'ath, or cloak, palla, oth- erwise rtE-""2, maataphah' ', or mantilla (Ruth iii, 15 ; Isa. iii, 22); also !"T"N, adde'reth, or wide mantle, pallium (Josh, vii, 21 ; 1 Kings xix, 13 ; 2 Kings ii, 13), the last designating a par- ticular kind of very loose and flowing robe, sometimes (Gen. xxv, 26 ; Zech. xiii, 4) lined with fur, such as the Orientals (Turks) even wear in summer (see Thevenot, Voyages, i, 234 ; Russel, Aleppo, i, 127 ; Harmer, Observ. iii, 4 sq.). Poor people and travellers also used the out- er garment as night clothes. See Couch. Both sexes made, out of the superabundant folds in front, a pocket or lap, p^H, cheyh, or "bosom," sinus (Ruth iii, 15; Psa. lxxix, 12; Prov. xvii, 23 ; 2 Kings iv, 39 ; Hag. ii, 12; Luke vi, 38 ; comp. Liv. xxi, 18; Horace, Serm. ii, 3, 171 sq. ; Senec. Ep. 19 ; Joseph. War, v, 7, 4; vi, 3, 3; see Wetstein, i, 09G; Kype, Observ. i. 238), into which the hand was thrust by the indolent (Psa. lxxiv, 11). Variegated (on the )ia\(iK('i or tine purple and lyssus garments of Matt. xi. 8, see Biel, in the Symbol. Duisb. i, 79 sq.) and embroidered raiments were reserved for occasions of ceremony (Josh, vii, 21 ; Judg. v, 30 ; 2 Sam. i, 24; xiii, 18; Prov. xxxi, 22; Esth. viii, 15; Ezek. xvi, 10 ; see Harmer, iii, 182 sq. ; Eosemnuller, of Lebanon. APPAREL 321 APPARITOR Morgenl. iii,140), although even children (Gen. xxxvii, 3 ; comp. Rauwolf, lieisen, p. 89) were habited in them (for so the Q^SS T.HS, ketho'neth passim', Gen. xxxvii, 23, 32; 2 Sam. xiii, 18, 19, is probably to be understood, with the Sept., Onkelos, Saadias, and oth- ers, rather than a dress with a train or reaching to the ankles, as Josephus explains, Ant. vii, 8, 1; but see Gesenius,, Thes. Ileb.p. 1117; on the VfPPQ, pethigil' , or broidered festive garment of Isa. iii, 24, see Gesenius, This, p. 1137), and were sometimes part of the prey taken from enemies (Zeph. i, 8). Sec Merchant; Weaving. White (byssus and linen), however [see Priest], wras naturally in most esteem for garments (comp. Eccl. ix, 8 ; 3 Esdras i, 2 ; vii, 9 ; 2 Mace, xi, 8 ; Luke xxiii, 11 ; Josephus, War, ii, 1, 1 ; Doug- tan Analect. ii, 57 ; Schmid, De usu vestium albar. in Ugolini Thcsaur. xxix). See Linen ; Fuller. Gen- erals especially wore red (scarlet) robes (Judg. viii, 26 ; Nah. ii, 4 ; Isa. lxiii, 1 ; see below). Luxurious apparel was no doubt increasing in fashion under the later kings (Jer. iv, 30 ; Ezek. xvi, 10 sq. ; Zeph. i, 8 ; Lam. iv, 5), and prevailed among the Jews down to the apostles' times (1 Tim. ii, 9 ; 1 Pet. iii, 3 ; see Dougtasi Analect. ii, 23 sq.). A form of delicate raiment in use by pious (sanctimonious) persons is mentioned (Luke xx, 46 ; comp. Matt, xxiii, 5). See Seam. On rend- ing the garments, see Grief ; on spreading them along the way, see Courtesy. Shaking the garments in the presence of any one (Acts xviii, G) was a symbolical declaration that the party would have nothing more to do with him (see Heumann, Parerga, p. 213 sq.). ('•.) Priests alone wore drawers [see Breeches], but they are now in almost universal use in the East by men and women (Niebuhr, Beschr. p. G2, 65; Reisen, i, 158 ; so also among the ancient Medes and Persians long trowsers were worn, Herod, v, 49 ; Xen. Cyrop. viii, 3, 13 ; Strabo, ii, 52 ; and so many understand the "pPSl^b, sarbalii/, "coats," of Dan. iii, 21, 27, see Lengerke in loc, while others understand mantles, as being altogether more agreeable to Babylonian usage, see Gesenius, Thesaur. p. 969 sq.). (4.) Both sexes covered the head with a turban. See Head-dress. Women likewise wore net-caps (reticulated hoods), frontlets (forehead bands), and probably veils. Sec Caul ; Bonnet ; Frontlet ; Veil. (5.) On the cov- ering of the feet, see Sandal ; Shoe. Gloves (Fl^pp or w]3) were not unknown, yet the}' appear not to have been used as a part of the attire, but 1 y work- men as a protection of the hands from injury and soil- ing (comp. Mishna, Chelim, xvi, 6 ; xxiv, 15 ; xxvi, 3 ; see an essay on the gloves of the Hebrews, in Wie- ner's Zeitschr.f. Kunst u. Literat. 1827, No. 71 sq. ; a man's glove, pP"1^ nartek', is mentioned in the Tar- gum on Ruth iv, 7). The Orientals are still very fond of changes (q. v.) of raiment, especially of robes of state on holidays or festive occasions (Niebuhr, Reisen, i, 182 ; Burckhardt, Arabf p. 272; Harmer, ii, 112; iii, 447), hence rich Hebrews had their change-suits of apparel (nispbri, chnliphoth' , like the Greek ilpaTa t£?//, sc. oi diicaarcti) that this was not a proper court of appeal, the local judges and not the litigants being, according to the above language, the appellants; but these words, taken in connection with a former passage in the same chapter (si' tiq . . . rivu alriav Trpoi/jt'poi), may be regarded simply in the light of a general direction. According to the above regulation, the appeal lay in the time of the Judges to the judge (1 Jud^. iv, 5), and under the monarch}' to the king, who appears to have deputed certain persons to inquire into the facts of the case, and record his decision thereon (2 Sam. xv, 3). Jehoshaphat delegated his judicial authority to a court permanently established for the purpose (2 ( Ihron, six, 8). These courts were re-established by Ezra (Ezr. vii, 25). That there was a concurrent right of appeal appears from the use Ab- salom made of the delay of justice, which arose from the great number of cases that came before the king his father (2 Sam. xv, 2-4). These were doubtless appeal cases, according to the above direction; and M. Salvador (Institutions de Moise, ii, 53) is scarcely warranted in deducing from this instance that the cli ents had the power of bringing their cases directly to the supreme tribunal. Of the later practice, before and after the time of Christ, we have some clearer knowledge from Jose- phus and the Talmudists. After the institution of the Sanhedrim the final appeal lay to them, and the va- rious stages through which a case might pass are thus described by the Talmudists— from the local consistory before which the cause was first tried to the consistory that sat in the neighboring town ; thence to the courts at Jerusalem, commencing in the court of the 23 that sat in the gate of Shushan, proceeding to the court that sat in the gate of Nicanor, and concluding with the great council of the Sanhedrim that sat in the room Gazith (Carpzov, Appar. p. 571). The Jews themselves trace the origin of these later usages up to the time of Moses : they were, at all events, based on early principles, and therefore reflect back some light upon the intimations respecting the right of appeal which we find in the sacred books (Mishna, De Synedr. x ; Talm. Ilieros. xviii ; Tahn. Bab. iii, x ; Maimon. Be Synedr. x ; Sclden, Be Synedr. iii, 10 ; Lewis, Ori- gines Ilebnecc, i, 6 ; Pastoret, Legislation des Hebreux, x). Sec Trial. . II. Roman.— The most remarkable case of appeal in the New Testament is that of the Apostle Paul from the tribunal of the Roman procurator Festus to that of the emperor, in consequence of which he was sent as a prisoner to Rome (Acts xxv, 10, 11). Such an appeal having been once lodged, the governor had nothing more to do with the case : he could not even dismiss it, although he might be satisfied that the matter was frivolous, and not worth forwarding to Rome. Accordingly, when Paul was again heard by Festus and King Agrippa (merely to obtain materials for a report to the emperor), it was admitted that the apostle might have been liberated if he had not appeal- ed to Caesar (Acts xxyi, 32). Paul might therefore seem to have taken a false step in the matter, did we not consider the important consequences which result- ed from his visit to Rome (see Conybeare and Howson, ii, 162). But, as no decision had been given, there could be no appeal, properly speaking, in his case : the language used (Acts xxv, 9) implies the right on the part of the accused of electing either to be tried by the provincial magistrate or by the emperor. Since the procedure in the Jewish courts at that period was of a mixed and undefined character, the Roman and the Jewish authorities coexisting and carrying on the course of justice between them, Paul availed himself of his undoubted privilege to be tried by the pure Ro- man law. It may easily be seen that a right of ap- peal which, like this, involved a long and expensive journey, was by no means frequently resorted to. In lodging his appeal Paul exercised one of the high privileges of Roman citizenship which belonged to him by birth (Acts xxii, 28). See Citizenship. The right of appeal connected with that privilege originated in the Valerian, Porcian, and Sempronian laws, by which it was enacted that if any magistrate should order flagellation or death to be inflicted upon a Roman citizen, the accused person might appeal to the. judgment of the people, and that meanwhile he should suffer nothing at the hands of the magistrate until the people had judged his cause. But what was originally the prerogative of the people had in Paul's time become that of the emperor, and appeal therefore was made to him (see Smith's Diet, of Class. Antiq. s. v. Apellatio, Roman). Hence Pliny (Ep. x, !I7) mentions that he had sent to Rome some Christians, , who were Roman citizens, and had appealed unto C»« sar. This privilege could not be disallowed by any magistrate to any person whom the law entitled to it. Indeed very heavy penalties were attached to any re- fusal to grant it, or to furnish the party with facilities for going to Rome. See, generally, Krebs, Be provo- catione Pauli ad Cwsarem (Lips. 1783) ; Santoroccii Diss, de Paidiad Ccesarem appellatione (Marburg, 1721). III. Ecclesiastical.' — In the early Church all eccle- siastical matters were originally determined by the APPEARANCE .323 APPEARANCE bishop with his court, from whose decision an appeal lay to the provincial synod (see council of Africa, 418). The case of Apiarius, priest of Sicca, in Mau- ritania, is supposed to have been about the first in- stance of an appeal to Koine, on which occasion the African Church resolutely resisted this papal encroach- ment on her independence. In the Middle Ages it often occurred that those whose doctrines had been censured by the pope appealed from his decision to an oecumenical council. Such, e. g., was the case with Wycliffe. Pius II forbade such appeals, under the penalty of excommunication, in 1459 ; but a numerous school of Roman Catholic theologians and canonists, who maintain the superiority of an oecumenical coun- cil over the pope, have never ceased to advocate them. In England there were no appeals to Rome before the time of King Stephen, when the practice was for the first time introduced by Henry de Blois, bishop of Winches- ter and papal legate (see Johnson, Eccl. Canons, subann. 1143). But by art. 8 of the Constitutions of Clarendon it was declared that, " If appeals arise, they ought to proceed from the archdeacon to the bishop, from the bishop to the archbishop, and, lastly, to the king (if the archbishop fail in doing justice), so that the controver- sy be ended in the archbishop's court by a precept from the king, and so that it go no further without the king's consent." These appeals were from time to time further prohibited, but they continued to be prac- ticed until the time of the final rupture with Rome in the reign of Henrv VIII, when they were entirely abolished (24 Hen." VIII, cap. 12, and 28 Hen. VIII, cap. 19). The Council of Antioch, A.D. 341, can. 12, and that of Chalcedon, declare that no royal or impe- rial decree can have any force in ecclesiastical mat- ters against the canons. Such indeed has ever been the discipline of the whole Church. During the appeal the sentence of the inferior court is suspended ; and it is usual for the superior court, at the instance of the appellant, to grant an inhibition to stay the execution of the sentence of the inferior court until the appeal shall be determined (Bingham, Orig. Eccl. bk. ii, ch. xvi, § 1(3). In the Methodist Episcopal Church, the right of ap- peal from lower to higher courts, both for ministers and laymen, is carefully guarded by a constitutional provision {Discipline, pt. i. § 4). In Presbyterian churches there are formal modes of appeal from a lower to a higher court, or from a ses- sion to a presbytery, from it to a synod, and from the synod to the general assembly. Appearance (tfavt], Mark xvi, 9; eipavepwSr), Mark xvi, 12, 14 ; toffy, Luke xxiv, 34 : 1 Cor. xv, 5 ; tia, prob. for 'Att-Ici. the Greek form of the Lat. name Appia), the name of a female affectionately saluted by Paul (A.D. 57) as a Christian at Colossse i Philemon 2); supposed byChry- KDStom and Tbeodoret t<> have been the wife of Phile- mon, witli whom, according to tradition, she suffered martyrdom. See Philemon. Apphus (pron. Affus, 'Airfyovc, [and so Josephus, Ant. xii. '',.1 | v. r. Sa00oCc or EairQovc), the surname O Mare. ii. 5) of Jonathan Maccabseus (see Ewald, Gesch. Tsr. Ill, ii, 353), apparently (Frankel, Vorstud. BUT /.AY, p. Of.; from the Syro-Chald. 'i'-Etl, chappus', crafty (Grimm, Tlandb. in loc). Ap'pii-fo'rum (Amriou ipopov, for the Lat. Ap- pii Forum, "market-place of Appius"), a market-town (with a so-called mansio) in Italy, 43 Roman miles from Rome (Jtiner. Anton, p. 107, ed. Wessel ; Ttin. Hieros. p. Oil), on the great road (via Appia) from Rome to Brundusium, constructed by Appius LLudius (Suet. Tib. 2), and leading from Rome (by the Porta Capena) through the Pontine marshes (Hor. Sat. i, 5, (3; Cic. Att. ii. 10; Plin. iii.9; xiv. B). The remains of an ancient town, supposed to be Appii-Forum, are still preserved at a place called Casarillo di Santa Ma- ria, on the border of the Pontine marshes (comp. Strabo, v, 233), and the 43d milestone is still extant i (Chaupy, Maison d1 Horace, iii, 387-452; Pratilli, Via ' Appia, p. 99, 100). Its vicinity to the marshes ac- counts for the badness of the water, as mentioned by Horace (Sat. i, 5, 7), who describes it as full of taverns and boatmen. This arose from the circumstance that it was at the northern end of a canal which ran par- allel with the road through a considerable part of the Pontine marshes. When Paul was taken to Italy, some of the Christians of Rome, being apprised of his approach, journeyod to meet him as far as "Appii- Forum and the Three Taverns" (Acts xxviii, 15). The i "Three Taverns" were eight or ten miles nearer to Rome than Appii-Forum (Antonin. Itin.). The prob- ability is that some of the Christians remained at the "Three Taverns," where it was known the advancing j part}' would rest, while some others went on as far as Appii-Forum to meet Paul on the road (Conybcare and Howson, ii, 359). The journey was undoubtedly along the Appian Way, remains of which are still ex- tant. The "Three Taverns" (q. v.) was certainly a j place for rest and refreshment (Cic. Attic, ii. 11, 13>, [ perhaps on account of the bad water at Appii-Forum. i It must be understood that Tres Tabernae was, in fact, 1 the name of a town (comp. Tkeol. Annal. 1818, p. 88G sq.); for in the time of Constantine, Felix, bishop of Tres Taberna;, was one of the nineteen bishops wdio were appointed to decide the controversy between Do- natus and Crecilianus (Optat. de Schism. Donat. i, 2G). I As to the taberna? themselves, from which the place took its name, it is probable that they were shrps (" tabernae deversoria," Plaut. Trucul. iii, 2, 29) for the sale of all kinds of refreshments, rather than inns or places of entertainment for travellers. See generally Schwarz, Deforo Appii et trib. tabernis (Altdorf, 1746). — Kitto, s. v. See Paul. Apple is the translation in the Auth. Vers, of the Heb. TOSH (tappu'ach, so called from its fragrance), 1 which is mentioned chiefly in the Canticles, ii, 3, " as I the apple-tree among the trees of the wood;" ver. 5, "Comfort me with apples, for I am sick of love ;" ver. ! 8, "The smell of thy nose like apples;" so in viii, 5. 1 Again, in Prov. xxv, 11, " A word fitly spoken is like I apples of gold in baskets of silver." In Joel i, 12, it is enumerated with the vine, the fig-tree, the palm, and pomegranate, as among the most valuable trees of Palestine. Tappuah ( q. v.) also occurs as the name of two places (Josh, xii, 13 ; xv, 34 ; xvi, 8), probably I from the abundance of the fruit in the vicinity. It is a difficult matter to say with any degree of cer- tainty what is the specific tree denoted by the Hebrew word tappuach. The Sept. and Vulg. afford no clew, as the terms uijXov, malum, have a wide signification, being used by the Creeks and b'omans to represent al- most any kind of tree-fruit; at any rate, the use of the word is certainly generic. Many interpreters (after Celsus, Hierobot. i, 255) have supposed the citron (citrus medico), some the ordinary orange-tree ( < Jredner, .foe/, p. 136), to be meant, as each of these were cele- brated favorites among the ancients, and have many qualities agreeing with the Scriptural notices. The citron was the " Median apple" of the ancients, the citromela of the Romans (Theophr. Hist. 4), and was cultivated even in Europe (Bauhin, Pinax ». That it was well known to the Hebrews appears from the fact mentioned by Josephus, that at the Festival of Taher- APPLE 325 APPLE nacles Alexander Jannteus was pelted with citrons, which the Jews had in their hands ; for, as he says, " the law required that at that feast every one should have branches of the palm-tree and citron-tree" (Ant. xiii, 13, 5). It is still found in Palestine (Kitto, Phys. Hist. p. ccxiii). As, however, the Sept. and Vulg. both seem to understand the apple (jui/Xoi', malum), and the Arabs still call this fruit by the same name (teffachi), which, according to the Talmud (Mishna, Kel. i, 4; Maaser. i, 4) and Josephus (Ant. xvii, 7), was anciently cultivated in Palestine, as it still is to some extent (Robinson, i, 355 ; ii, 356, 71G ; iii, 295), and was celebrated in antiquity for its agreeable smell (Ovid, Met. viii, 075), it seems more likely to be the tree designated rather than the citron, which is a small, comparatively rare tree, with a hard, inedible fruit (Thomson, Land and Book, ii, 328, 329). See Citron. On the other hand, Celsius (Hierob. i, 255) asserts that the quince-tree (Pyrus cydonia) was very often called by the Greek and Roman writers mains, as be- ing, from the esteem in which it was held (" primaria malorum species"), ike malus, or /iijXoi' sar it,o\i)v. Some, therefore (Rosenmuller, Alterth. IV, i, 308 ; Ray, Hist, of Plants, II, iii, 1453), have endeavored to show that the tappuach denotes the quince ; and certainly this opinion has some plausible arguments in its fa- vor. The fragrance of the quince was held in high esteem by the ancients ; and the fruit " was placed on the heads of those images in the sleeping apart- ments which were reckoned among the household gods" (Rosenmuller, Botany of Bible, in the Bib. Cab. p. 314; Voss, On ( 'irgil, Eclog. ii, 51). The Arabians make especial allusion to the restorative properties of this fruit; and Celsius (p. 261) quotes Abu'l Fadli in illustration of Cant, ii, 5. "Its scent," says the Arabic author, "cheers my soul, renews my strength, and restores my breath." Phylarchus (Histor. lib. vi), Rabbi Salomon (in Cant. ii. 3), Pliny (//. X. xv, 11), who uses the words odorisp?yiPstaii/i.-r. Hicholfl, of Portland. In 1*22 his lectures and occasional sermons were published, with a memoir, by Rev, B. Tappan. These and other writings are collected in "The Works of Jesse Appleton, D.D.," with memoir (Andover, 1836, 2 vols. 8vo).— Bibl. Reposi- tory, Jan. 1830, p. 19 ; Sprague, Annals, ii. 382. Appleton, Nathaniel, D.D., an eminent Con= gregational minister, was born at Ipswich, Mass., Dec. 9, 1693, graduated at Harvard in 1712, ordained at Cambridge in 1717, in which year he was also elected a fellow of Harvard, which 54 years afterward confer- red upon him the second degree it had ever granted of Doctor of Divinity, Increase Mather, 80 years be- fore, being the first admitted to that honor. He took a colleague in 1783, and died in 1784. He published a number of occasional sermons. — Sprague, Annuls, i, 301. Approbation of books, the act by which books were recommended or declared harmless by persons authorized to judge of them. The Council of Trent (sess. 4) forbids, on penalty of excommunication, the publication of books without the approbation of the bishop of the diocese. In England the right of appro- bation formerly belonged to those who were appointed to grant licenses and imprimaturs. By an act of Charles II, long since expired, books were subjected to a licenser in England, and the practice itself ceased with the introduction of the principles of the Revolu- tion of 1688. See Index. Appropriation, in the canon law, is the setting apart of an ecclesiastical benefice to the peculiar and permanent use of some religious body. Appropria- tions sprung originally from the monastic orders, who purchased all the advowsons within their reach, and then appropriated the larger proportion of the pro- ceeds of such benefices to the use of their own cor- porations, which they contended were not only insti- tutions for pious purposes, but religious bodies ; leav- ing the small remainder for the support of the incum- bent. The appropriations now annexed to bishoprics, prebends, etc., in England, had all of them the above origin, if traced to their source ; and at one period similar appropriations were made to religious houses, nunneries, and certain military orders, which were re- garded as spiritual corporations. — Blackstone, vol. i. Apries. See Hophka. Apron stands in one passage of the Auth. Vers, for the Heb. mi 3 P. (chagorah' ' , a girdle, as usually), the fig-leaf bands which our first parents made to hide their shame (Gen. iii, 7) ; also for the Greek ffifiuciv- Sriov (Acts xix, 12), a term borrowed from the Lat. semicinctium, i. e. half-girdle or belt covering half the person, an article of apparel worn by artisans and servants. See Attire ; Napkin. Apse or Apsis (aipig, Lat. absis, prob. for ilipic, a juncture or vaulted arch), is a term used by ecclesi- astical writers to designate (1.) that part of the in- terior of ancient churches where the bishop and cleivy had their seats. The form of the apsis was hemi- spherical, and it consisted of two parts : one, the choir or presbytery; the other, the sanctuary. The choir always terminated toward the cast in a semicircle, round which were the seats of the clergy, having in the middle the throne of the bishop or superior, which was raised above the others. The term came into Church with Apse at Dalmery. APTHORP 327 AQUILA use in the 8th century to denote the deepest recess behind the altar in the Eastern Churches. ('2.) It was also commonly used for the bishop's throne, call- ed apsis gradata, being raised by means of steps. (3.) The word at other times denotes the case in which the relics of saints were kept, which was round or arched at the top, and commonly placed on the altar : it was usually of wood, sometimes also of gold and sil- ver, and occasionally beautifully sculptured. (4.) In later church architecture, it is used to denote any semicircular or polygonal termination of the choir, or other portion of a church. — Bingham, Orig. Eccl. bk. viii, ch. iii; Lenoir, Architect. Monast. (Paris, 1852). Aptliorp, East, D.D., a minister of the Church of England, was born at Boston in 1733, died in Eng- land in 1816. Having been educated at Cambridge, he was settled as missionary at Cambridge, Mass. in 17G1. Four years after he returned to England, and was appointed to the vicarage of Croydon, afterward receiving high dignities in the Church, and even an offer of the bishopric of Kildare. About 1793 he re- tired to Cambridge, where he spent the remaining years of his life. Dr. Apthorp published a Letter on the Prevalence of Christianity before its civil Establish- ment, with Observations on a late History of the Decline of the Roman Empire (Lond. 1778) ; Discourses on Prophecy (2 vols. 1786); and several other writings, chiefly sermons, which show him to have been a man of vigorous intellect and sound scholarship. — Sprague, Annals, v, 174 ; Gentleman's Magazine, 1816. Aquarii, a sect of the third century, so called because they refused to offer any thing but water at the Eucharist, and pretended to consecrate with water only. Also in Africa the name was given to some who, during times of persecution, forbore to use wine at the Eucharist in the morning, lest the smell should discover them. Epiphanius calls them Encratites, and Theodoret (De fab. hver. i, 20) Tatian- ites. — Epiphanius, Jlcereses, xlvi ; Bingham, Orig. Eccl. bk. xv, ch. ii, § 7. Aquaviva, Claudio, the fourth general of the Jesuits, was born Sept. 14, 1543, joined the Jesuits in 1568, and was elected, in 1581, their general. The order considerably gained, under his administration, in influence and extension. He wrote Epistoliv A' 1 7, and Industrial ad curandos animal morbos (Ven. 1606). He also ordered and superintended the compilation of the " ratio studiorum,, and the " directorium exercitorum St. Ignatii," which have ever since been regarded as standard works of the order. See Jesuits. Aq'uila ('.W'Xnc, for Lat. aquila, an eagle, see Simon. Onomasf. 0. T. p. 588 sq.), a Jew with whom Paul met on his first visit to Corinth ; a native, of Pontus, and by occupation a tent-maker (Acts xviii). Wolf, Cura>, on Acts xviii, 2, shows the name not to have any Hebrew origin, and to have been adopted as a Latin name, like Paulus by Saul. He is there described as a Pontian by birth (llovTucbe toi yivii), from the connection of which description with the fact that we find more than one Pontius Aquila in the Pontian gens at Rome in the days of the Republic (see Cic. ad Earn. x, 33; Suet. Cces. 78), it has been imagined that he may have been a freedman of a Pontius Aquila, and that his being a Pontian by birth may have been merely an inference from his name. But besides that this is a point on which Luke could hardly be ig- norant, Aquila, the translator of the 0. T. into Greek, ■was also a native of Pontus. At the time when Paul found Aquila at Corinth, he had fled, with his wife Priscilla, from Rome, in consequence of an order of Claudius commanding all Jews to leave Rome (Suet. Claud. 25 — "Juda3os impulsore Chresto assidue tu- multuantes Roma expulit :" see Claudius). He be- came acquainted with Paul, and the}- abode together, and wrought at their common trade of making the Cilician tent or hair-cloth. See Paul. This decree was made, not by the senate, but the emperor (A.D. 50 or 51), and lasted only during his life, if even so long. Com p. Neander, Planting and Training, i, 231 ; Lardner, Testimonies of Heathen Authors, ch. viii. Whether Aquila and Priscilla were at that time con- verts to the Christian faitli cannot be positively de- termined ; Luke's expression, " came unto them" (7rpo favor the doctrines of the Scotists, but the pres!ig> of Aquinas was so great that the Thomists, to a great extent, ruled the theology of the church up to the tinu of the controversy between the Molinists (q. v.) and the Jansenists, when the views of the Scotists substantially prevailed. The collected writings of St. Thomas fill twenty- three folio volumes. The following is the list of them, as given by Cave : 1. Exp-isitio in Ar/stofelis libros, etc. (Venice, 1496) :— '2. Comment, in 4 lib. Sent. P. Lombardi (Basle, 1492; and often): — 3. Qnrestioms disputtit r, 111, de Potentiu Dei; 1G, Di Malo, etc. ; 29, De Veritate: — 4. Qucesliones Quodlibeticce 12 (Cologne, 1471, 1491, etc.) : — 5. Summa Catholicm fi I ii contr.i Gentiles (Rome, 1476; Venice, 1480, fob, with notes by Fran, de Syl- vestris; Lyons, 1566, fob, with coram, by Franciscus Ferrariensis, Paris, 1642, 2 vols, fob) :— 6. Expositio in lib. B. Dlonysii de divinis Nominibus: — 7. Summa Theo- logies (Cologne, 1604 ; Douai, 1614 ; Antwerp, 1624 ; Paris, 1633 ; Bologna, with comm. of Cajetan, 1514 ; with that of Caponus, Cajetan, and Javellus, Venice, 1596, 5 vols, fob):— S. Expjsitio in Lib. B. Jobi:—0. Erposit'o in blmam Psalmorum Davidis (Lyons, 1520, 8vo) : — 10. Expositio in Canticum Can'icorum (1545, 8vo ; Paris, 1634, 4to) : — 11. Erpositio in Esainm Proph. : — 12. Expositio in Jeremiam Proph. (Lyons, 1531, 8vo) : — 13. Erpositio in Threnos Jeremice (attributed by some to Thomas, an Englishman). The last three publish- ed together in fob at Venice in 1527 : — 14. Expositio in Eoang. S. Johannis : — 15. Catena Aurea in 4 Evang. (Lyons, 1530, 8vo; Antwerp, 1578): — 16. Expositio in Pau'i Epistolas (Basle, 1475; with comm. of Cajetan, Bologna, 1481, fob) :— 17. Ssrmones (Rome, 1571, 8vo) : — 18. Opuscula 73. Of these, many are doubtful. All the above were collected and published at Rome, 1568 and 1570, in 17 vols; ; Venice, 1587 and 1594; Douai, 160?; Antwerp, 1612; Paris, 1634, 1655, 1660, in 23 vols. In some of the latjr of these editions another vol. was added, containing, 19. Comment, in Genesim : — 20. Comment, in Lib. Maccab. : — 21. Comment, in omnes Episto'as Canonicas: — 22. Comment, in Apocalyp- sen: — 23. C>:nm-n>. in D inielem Proph. : — 24. Comment. in Bxthii libros de Cmsolathne Philosophic The chief part of the six works last mentioned are, according to Cave, to be attributed to Thomas Anglus (Cave, Hist. Lit. ii, 308, cited by Landon, ii, 477). The best edition of the works of Aquinas is the edi'io Veneti altera, con- taining his life by Echard, and commentaries by Ru- beis (28 vols. 4to, Venet. 1775). Of his most important work, the S'im'nc Th",ologh>, many editions have been printed. His Catena Aurea, translated into English, was published at Oxford, 1845 (7 parts 8vo). "" The best recent books on Aquinas are Werner, Th mas von Aquino (Ratisbon, 1858-6 I, 3 vols.) ; Kling, Dsscrip'io Summce T. Aqvinaiis (Bonn, 1846); Rietter, Mural d. hsiligen Thoma s (.Munich, 1858, 2 vols.) ; Goudin, Philos. juxta Thorn e dogmata (Par. 1861); Jourdain, LaPhilos. de St. Thorn is d'Aquiri (Par. 1858, 2 vols.) ; Hampden, Life of Thomas Aquinas (Lond. 1848). See also Ilau- reau, Ph'l is. Scolast. vol. ii, cap. xx ; Xeander,C/?. Hist. iv, 421 ; Mozley, On Predestiwi/i m, p. 260 sq. ; Tenne- mann, M.mualHist. Phi'. § 266 ; Cave, Hist. Lit. anno 1255 ; Xemder, Hist, of D >gmas, ii, 542 et al. ; Hagen- bach, Hist, of Doctr. ; Shedd, Hist. qfDoctr. ; Herzog, Real-Encykl. xvi, 60 ; Dupin, Eccl. Writers, cent. xiii. Aquino, Philip of, a learned rabbin, whose real name was Mardochai. He was born at Carpentras ; but, on liis expressing a desire to embrace Christianity, he found it necessary to leave France, and went to Naples, and was baptized at Aquino, whence his name. He died at Paris in 1650, where he had been made roy- 1 al professor of Hebrew at the College de France. He assisted Le Jay in his Polyglot, and published Dictio- narium Heb. Chald. Talm. Rabbinicum (Paris, 1629, fol.) ; liodicOX, perhaps lion; Sept. 'Apa), the last named of the three sons of Jether of the tribe of Asher (1 Chron. viii, 38) ; apparently the same with the Ulla whose three sons are named in the ensuing verse. B.C. ante 1017. A'rab (Heb. Arab', a^N, ambush; Sept. 'Epj/3 v. r. Alpep), a city in the mountains of Judah, men- tioned in connection with Golon and Dumah (Josh. xv, 52), whence probablv the Gentile Arbite (2 Sam. xxiii, 35). According to Jerome (Onomast. s. v. Ereb) it lay south of Daroma, and was then called En mitty- thi i Euseb. 'Epspiv&a). Schwarz (Palest, p. 105) says it is the village al-Arab, situated on a mountain four English miles south-east of Hebron ; but other author- ities make no mention of such a place, and the asso- ciated names require a locality rather to the west of Hebron (Keil, Comment, on Josh, in loc), possibly the ruined site el-IIadb at the foot of a hill south-west of Dura (Robinson, Researches, iii, 5). See Judah Arab. See Raven. ARABA 332 ARABAH Araba (Apavd, prob. for Ar abaft), a city mention- ed by Eusebius and Jerome (Onomast. s. v.) as ly- ing near DiocEesarea (now Sefurieh), apparently the same mentioned by Josephus (Life, 51, where the text now has Vdjiapa instead of "Apafia, by a conjecture of Reland, Pattest, p. 1021 ; see Robinson, new ed. of Researches, iii, 83) as lying 20 stadia from Sogane ; now the village Arrabeh, about four hours north of Nazareth (Schultz, in Ritter, Erdk. xvi, 7G8), contain- ing Jewish graves, with other remains of antiquity (Van de Velde, Memoir, p. 287). Ar'abah (Heb. Arabah', Sli*!?, desert; Sept. tptuoc;, also afiaToc, airttpog, and y/J ci^wva, but in Josh, xviii, 18, Bat^dpa/Sa; Auth. Vers, elsewhere "plain"), the name of a region or tract and of a town. 1. This word, with the article (!l2"i"rt, (he Arabah), is applied directly (Deut. i, 1 ; ii, 8 ; iii, 17 ; iv, 49 ; Josh, iii, lb*; xii, 1, 3; 2 Kings xiv, 25; Am. vi, 14) as the proper name of the great valley in its whole extent lying between the Dead Sea and the gulf of Akabah. Indeed it may be said to reach, with a par- tial interruption, or rather contraction, from Banias, at the foot of Mount Hermon, to the Red Sea. It thus includes toward the north the lake of Tiberias; and the Arboth (plains) of Jericho and Moab form parts of it. The surface of the Arabah proper is said to be al- most uninterruptedly a frightful desert. The north- ern continuation is watered by the Jordan, which, during its course, expands into the lakes el-Huleh and Tiberias, and is at length lost in the bitter waters of the Dead Sea ; this latter occupying the middle point of the great valley nearly equidistant from its two ex- tremities. The Scriptures distinctly connect the Ara- bah with the Red Sea and Elath ; the Dead Sea itself is called the sea of the Arabah. In the Auth. Vers, it is rendered " plain." The Greek name of this tract was AvXiiiv, Aulon, described by Eusebius (Onomast. s. v.) as extending from Lebanon to the desert of Par an. Abulfeda speaks of it under the name el- Ohm; and says correctly that it stretches between the lake of Tiberias and Ailah or Akabah (Tab. Syr. p. 8, 9). At the present day the name el-Ghor is ap- plied to the northern part, "from the lake of Tiberias to an offset or line of cliffs just south of the Dead Sea ; while the southern part, quite to the Red Sea, is call- ed Wady el- Arabah, the ancient Heine w name. The extension of this valley to the Dead Sea appears to have been unknown to ancient geographers, and in modern times was first discovered by Rurckhardt (Travels in .Syria, p. 441 ; Robinson's Palest, ii, 594-600). The importance of this great medial valley to the topog- raphy and natural features of Palestine (q. v.), as well as in the history of the Exode (q. v.), requires a full discussion of its peculiar designation and charac- teristics. Sec Topographical Terms. 1. Name. — 1. If the derivation of Gesenius (Thes. p. 1066) is to be accepted, the fundamental meaning of tin- term is "arid" or "waste," and thence "sterile," and in accordance with this idea it is employed in va- rion • poetical parts of Scripture to designate generally a barren, uninhabitable district, "a desolation, a dry land, and a desert, a land wherein no man dwelleth, neither doth any son of man pass thereby" (Jer. Ii, !::; Bee a Btriking remark iii Martineau, p.* 395; and, anion,' other passages, Job xxiv, 5; xxxix, 6- Isa. xxxiii, 9; xxxv, 1 I. See DESERT. 2. Rut within this general signification it is plain, from even a casual examination of the topographical records in the earlier 1 ks of the Bible, that the word lias also a more special and local force. In these cases it is found with the definite article (na^yi"!, ha- Arahah), "the Arabah." ami is also so mentioned as clearly to refer to some spot or district familiar to the then inhabitants of Palestine. This district, although nowhere expressly so defined in the Bible, and al- though the peculiar force of the word "Arabah" ap- pears to have been disregarded by even the earliest commentators and interpreters of the Sacred Books, has within our own times been identified with the deep-sunken valley or trench which forms the most striking among the many striking natural features of Palestine, and which extends with great uniformity of formation from the slopes of Hermon to the Elani- tic Gulf of the Red Sea; the most remarkable depres- sion known to exist on the surface of the globe (Hum- boldt, Cosmos, i, 150, ed. Bohn ; also p. 30l). Through the northern portion of this extraordinary fissure the Jordan rushes through the lakes of Huleh and Gen- nesareth down its tortuous course to the deep chasm of the Dead Sea. This portion, about 150 miles in length, is known among the Arabs by the name of el- Ghor (the depression), an appellation which it has borne certainty since the days of Abulfeda. The southern boundary of the Ghor has been fixed by Rob- inson to be the wall of cliffs which crosses the valley about 10 miles south of the Dead Sea. Down to the foot of these cliffs the Ghor extends ; from their sum- mits, southward to the gulf of Akabah, the valley changes its name, or, it would be more accurate to say, retains its old name of Wady el- Arabah. Looking to the indications of the Sacred Text, there can be no doubt that in the times of the conquest and the monarchy the name "Arabah" was applied to the valley in the entire length of both its southern and northern portions. Thus in Deut. i, 1, probably, and in Deut. ii, 8, certainly (Auth. Vers, "plain" in both cases), the allusion is to the southern portion, while the other passages in which the name occurs point with certainty — now that the identification has "been suggested — to the northern portion. In Deut. iii, 17 ; iv, 49 ; Josh, iii, 10 ; xi, 2 ; xii, 3 ; and 2 Kings xiv, 25, both the Dead So:1, and the sea of Cinneroth (Gen- nesareth) are named in close connection with the Ara- bah. The allusions in Deut. xi, 30 ; Josh, viii, 14 ; xii, 1 ; xviii, 18 ; 2 Sam. ii, 29 ; iv, 7 ; 2 Kings xxv, 4; Jer. xxxix, 4; Iii, 7, become at once intelligible when the meaning of the Arabah is known, however puzzling they may have been to former commenta- tors. In Josh, xi, 16, and xii, 8, the Arabah takes its place with "the mountain," "the lowland" plains of Philistia and Esdraelon, "the south" and "the valle}'" of Ccele-Syria, as one of the great natural di- visions of the conquered country. See Plain. 3. But farther, the word is found in the plural and without the article (n2*l", Arboth), always in con- nection with either Jericho or Moab, and therefore doubtless denoting the portion of the Arabah near Jericho ; in the former case on the west, and in the latter on the east side of the Jordan ; the Arboth- Moab being always distinguished from the Sedeh-Moab — the bare and burnt-up soil of the sunken valley from the cultivated pasture or corn-fields of the downs on the upper level — with all the precision which would naturally follow from the essential difference of the two spots. (See Num. xxii, 1; xxvi, 3, 63; xxxi, 12; xxxiii, 48-50; xxxv, 1 ; xxxvi, 13; Deut. xxxiv, 1, 8; Josh, iv, 13; v, 10; xiii, 32 ; 2 Sam. xv, 28 ; xvii, 16 ; 2 Kings xxv, 5 ; Jer. xxxix, 5 ; Iii, 8.) See Jericho. 4. The word Arabah does not appear in the Rible until the book of Numbers. In the allusions to the valley of the Jordan in Gen. xiii, 10, etc., the curious term Cicctir is employed. This word and the other words used in reference to the Jordan valley, as well as the peculiarities and topograph}' of that region — in fact, of the whole of the Ghor — will be more appro- priately considered under the word Jordan. At present our attention may be confined to the southern division, to that portion of this singular valley which lias from the most remote date borne, as it still con- tinues to bear, the name of "Arabah." See CHAM- PAIGN. For a ma]i of the region, see Exode. II. Description. — The direction of the Ghor is nearly ARABAH 333 ARABAH due north and south. The Arabah, however, slightly changes its direction to about N.N.E. and S.S.W. (Robinson, i, 240). But it preserves the straightness of its course, and the general character of the region is not dissimilar to that of the Ghor (Irby, p. 134) except that the soil is more sandy, and that, from the absence of the central river and the absolutely desert character of the highland on its western side (owing to which the wadys bring down no fertilizing streams in summer, and nothing but raging torrents in winter), there are very few of those lines and "cir- cles'' of verdure which form so great a relief to the torrid climate of the Ghor. The whole length of the Arabah proper, from the cliffs south of the Dead Sea to the head of the gulf of Akabah, appears to be rath- er more than 100 miles (Kiepert's Map). In breadth it varies. North of Petra — that is, about GO miles from the gulf of Akabah — it is at its widest, being per- haps from 10 to 12 miles across ; but it contracts grad- ually to the south till at the gulf the opening to the sea is but 4, or, according to some travellers, 2 miles wide (Robinson, i, 240 ; Martineau, p. 392). The mountains which form the walls of this vast valley or trench are the legitimate successors of those which shut in the Ghor, only in every way grander and more desert-like. On the west are the long hor- izontal lines of the limestone ranges of the Tih, " al- ways faithful to their tabular outline and blanched desolation" (Stanley, p. 7 ; and see Laborde, p. 262), mounting up from the valley by huge steps with level barren tracts on the top of each (Robinson, ii, 508), and crowned by the vast plateau of the "Wilderness of the Wanderings." This western wall ranges in height from 1500 to 1800 feet above the floor of the Arabah (Robinson, i, 240), and through it break in the wadys and passes from the desert above — unimpor- tant toward the south, but farther north larger and of a more permanent character. The chief of these wadys is the W. el-Jerafeh, which emerges about sixt_y miles from Akabah, and leads its waters, when any are flowing, into the W. el-Jeib (Robinson, ii, 500, 508), and through it to the marshy ground under the cliffs south of the Dead Sea. Two principal passes occur in this range. First, the very steep and difficult ascent close to the Akabah, by which the road of the Mecca pilgrims between the Akabah and Suez mounts from the valley to the level of the plateau of the Tih. It bears apparently no other name than en-Nukb, " the Pass" (Robinson, i, 257). The second — es-Sufah — has a more direct connection with the Bible history, being probably that at which the Israelites were re- pulsed by the Canaanites (Deut. i, 44 ; Num. xiv, 43- 45). It is on the road from Petra to Hebron, above Ain cl-Weibeh, and is not, like the former, from the Arabah to the plateau, but from the plateau itself to a higher level 1000 feet above it. See the descriptions of Robinson (ii, 587), Lindsay (ii, 40), Stanley (p. 113). The eastern wall is formed by the granite and basaltic (Schubert, in Ritter, Erdk. xiv, 1013) mountains of Edom, which are in every respect a contrast to the range opposite to them. At the base are low hills of limestone and argillaceous rock like promontories jutting into the sea, in some places thickly strewed with blocks of porphyry ; then the lofty masses of dark porphyry constituting the body of the mountain ; above these sandstone broken into irregular ridges and grotescme groups or cliff's, and farther back and high- er than all long elevated ridges of limestone without precipices (Robinson, ii, 505, 551; Laborde, p. 209, 210, 262; Lindsay, ii, 13), rising to a height of 2000 to 2300 feet, and in Mount Hor reaching an elevation of not less than 5000 feet (R\tter,Erd/c. xiv, 1139, 1140). Unlike the sterile and desolate ranges of the Til), these mountains are covered with vegetation, in many parts extensively cultivated and yielding good crops ; abounding in "the fatness of the earth" and the " plen- ty of corn and wine" which were promised to the fore- father of the Edomites as a compensation for the loss of his birthright (Robinson, ii, 552; Laborde, p. 203, 263). In these mountains there is a plateau of great eleva- tion, from which again rise the mountains — or rather the clowns (Stanley, p. 87) — of es-Sherah. Though this district is now deserted, yet the ruins of towns and villages with which it abounds show that at one time it must have been densely inhabited (Burckhardt, p. 435, 436). The numerous wadys which at once drain and give access to the interior of these mountains are in strong contrast with those on the west, partaking of the fertile character of the mountains from which they descend. In almost all cases they contain streams which, although in the heat of summer small, and los- ing themselves in their own beds or in the sand of the Arabah " in a few paces" after they forsake the shad- ow of their native ravines (Laborde, p. 141), are yet sufficient to keep alive a certain amount of vegetation, rushes, tamarisks, palms, and even oleanders, lilies, and anemones, while they form the resort of the nu- merous tribes of the children of Esau, who still "dwell (Stanley, p. 87 ; Laborde, p. 141 ; Martineau, p. 396) in Mount Seir, which is Edom" (Gen. xxxvi, 8). The most important of these wadys are the W. Ithm and the W. Abu Kusheibeh. The former enters the moun- tains close above Akabah, and leads by the back of the range to Petra, and thence by Shobek and Tu- fileh to the country east of the Dead Sea. Traces of a Roman road exist along this route (Laborde, p. 203 ; Robinson, ii, 161) ; by it Laborde returned from Petra, and there can be little doubt that it was the route by which the Israelites took their leave of the Arabah when they went to "compass the land of Edom" (Num. xxi, 4). The second, the W. Abu Kusheibeh, is the most direct access from the Arabah to Petra, and is that up which Laborde and Stanley appear to have gone to the city. Besides these are Wady Tu- bal, in which the traveller from the south gains his first glimpse of the red srndstone of Edom, and AY. Ghurundel, not to be confounded with those of the same name north of Petra and west of Sinai. To Dr. Robinson is due the credit of having first ascertained the spot which forms at once the southern limit of the Ghor and the northern limit of the Ara- bah. This boundary is the line of chalk cliff's which sweep across the vallej- at about six miles below the south-west corner of the Dead Sea. They are from 50 to 150 feet in height ; the Ghor ends with the marshy ground at their feet, and level with their tops the Ara- bah begins (Robinson, ii, 494, 498, 501). Thus the cliff's act as a retaining wall or buttress supporting the higher level of the Arabah, and the whole forms what in geological language might be called a " fault" in the floor of the great valley. Through this wall breaks in the embouchure of the great main drain of the Arabah — the Wady el-Jeib — in itself a very large and deep water-course, which collects and transmits to their outlet at this point the torrents which the nu- merous wadys from both sides of the Arabah pour along it in the winter season (Robinson, ii, 497, 500, 507). The farthest point south to which this drainage is known to reach is the southern Wady Ghurundel (Robinson, ii, 508), which debouches from the eastern mountains about 40 miles from Akabah and 60 from the cliff's just spoken of. The Wady el-Jeib also forms the most direct road for penetrating into the valley from the north. On its west bank, and crossed by the road from Wady Musa (Petra) to Hebron, are the springs of Ain el-Weibeh, maintained by Robinson to be Kadesh (lies. ii. 582 ; but see Stanley, p. 94). Of the substructure of the floor of the Arabah very little is known. In his progress southward along the Wady el-Jeib, which is, during part of its course, over 100 feet in depth, Dr. Robinson (ii, 498) notes that the sides are "of chalky earth or marl," but beyond this there is no information. The surface is drearj- and desolate in the extreme. According to Dr. Robinscn ARABATTENE 334 ARABIA (ii, 502), " A lone shrub of the ghudah is almost the only trace of vegetation." This was at the ascent from the Wady el-Jeib to the floor of the great valley itself. Farther south, near Ain el- Weibeh, it is a rolling grav- elly desert, with round naked hills of considerable ele- vation (ii,580). At Wady Ghurundel it is "an expanse of shifting sands, broken by innumerable undulations and low hills" (Burckhardt, p. 442), and " counterseeted by a hundred water-courses" (Stanley, p. 87). The southern portion has a considerable general slope from east to west quite apart from the undulations of the surface (Stanley, p. 85), a slope which extends as far north as Petra (Hitter, xiv, 1097). Nor is the heat less terrible than the desolation, and travellers, almost without exception, bear testimony to the difficulties of journeying in a region where the sirocco appears to Mow almost without intermission (Ritter, xiv, 101G ; Burckh. p. 444; Martineau, p. 394 ; Robinson, ii, 505). However, in spite of this heat and desolation, there is a certain amount of vegetation, even in the open Ara- bah, in the dryest parts of the year. Schubert in March found the Artu (Calligonum com.), the Anthia variegata, and the Coloquinta (Ritter, xiv, 1014), also tamarisk-bushes (tarfa) lying thick in a torrent bed (p. 1016); and on Stanley's road " the shrubs at times had almost the appearance of a jungle," though it is true that they were so thin as to disappear when the " waste of sand" was overlooked from an elevation (p. 85 ; and see Robinson, i, 240, 258). See Arabia. It is not surprising that after the discover}' by Burekhardt in 1812 of the prolongation of the Jordan valley in the Arabah, it should have been assumed that this had in former times formed the outlet for the Jordan to the Red Sea. Lately, however, the levels of the Jordan and the Dead Sea have been taken, im- perfectly, but still with sufficient accuracy to disprove the possibility of such a theory ; and in addition there is the universal testimony of the Arabs that at least half of the district drains northward to the Dead Sea — a testimony fulh' confirmed by all the recorded ob- servations of the conformation of the ground. A se- ries of accurate levels from the Akabah to the Dead Sea, up the Arabah, are necessary before the question can be set at rest, but in the mean time the following may be taken as an approximation to the real state of the case. (See the profiles on Petermann's Map.) (1.) The waters of the Red Sea and of the Mediter- ranean are very nearly at one leveL See Dead Sea. (2.) The depression of the surface of the Sea of Galilee is G52 feet, and of the Dead Sea 1316 feet, be- low the level of the Mediterranean, and therefore of the Red Sea. Therefore the waters of the Jordan can never in historical times have flowed into the gulf of Akabah, even if the formation of the ground between the Dead Sea and the gulf would admit of it. But, (3.) All testimony goes to show that the drainage of the northern portion of the Arabah is toward the Dead Sea, and therefore that the land rises southward from the 1 ttter. Also that the south portion drains to the gulf, and therefore that the land rises northward from the gulf to some point between it and the Dead Sea. The water-shed is said by the Arabs to be a long ridge of hills running across the vallev at two and a half days, or say forty miles, from Akabah (Stanley, p. 85), and it is probable that this is not far wrong. By M. de Bertou it is fixed as opposite the entrance to the Wady Talh, apparently flic sum- spot. — Smith, s. v. 2. A city of Benjamin (Josh, xviii, 18), elsewhere (Josh, xv, CI ; xviii, 22) called more fully Betii-Ara- haii (q. v.). Arabatti'nS (1 Mace, v, 3). See Acrabattixe. Ara'bia (Ileb. Arab', -■?".. 2 Chron. ix, 14; Isa. xxi, 13 ; Jer. xxv. •_' I ; Kzek.'xxvii, 21 ; 'Apa/3i'o, Gal. i, 17; iv, 23; also 2 K-dr. xv. 29; 1 Mace, xi, 16; 2 Mace, xii, 11), the name of an extensive region occu- pying the south-westem extremity of Asia, having on the west the Isthmus of Suez and the Red Sea (called from it the Arabian Guff), which separate it from Africa; on the south the Indian Ocean; and on the east the Persian Gulf and the Euphrates. The boun- dary to the north has never been well denned, for in that direction it spreads out into interminable deserts, which meet those of Palestine and Syria on the west, ! and those of Irdk-Arabi (i. c. Babylonia) and Meso- potamia on the east; and hence some geographers in- clude that entire wilderness in Arabia. The form of the peninsula is that of a trapezoid, whose superficial area is estimated at four times the extent of France. It is one of the few countries of the south where the descendants of the aboriginal inhabitants have neither been extirpated nor expelled by northern invaders. They have not only retained possession of their an- cestral homes, but have sent forth colonies to all the adjacent regions, and even to more distant lands, both in Africa and Asia (Ritter, Erdkunde, ii, 172). With the history of no country save that of Pales- tine are there connected so many hallowed and im- pressive associations as with that of Arabia. Hero lived and suffered the holy patriarch Job ; here Moses, " when a stranger and a shepherd," saw the burning, unconsuming bush; here Elijah found shelter from the rage of persecution ; here was the scene of all the marvellous displays of Divine power and mercy that followed the deliverance of Israel from the Egyptian yoke, and accompanied their journeyings to the prom- ised land ; and here Jehovah manifested himself in visible glory to his people. From the influence of these associations, combined with its proximity to Palestine, and the close affinity in blood, manners, and customs between the northern portion of its in- habitants and the Jews, Arabia is a region of peculiar interest to the student of the Bible ; and it is chiefly in its relation to subjects of Bible study that we are now to consider it. See Asia. I. Names. — 1. In early times the Hebrews included a part of what we call Arabia among the countries they vaguely designated as DTJT1, Ke'dem, " the East," the inhabitants being numbered among the Beney'- Ke'dem, " Sons of the East," i. e. Orientals. But there is no evidence to show (as is asserted by Rosenmiil- ler and some other Bible geographers) that these phrases are ever applied to the whole of the country known to us as Arabia. They appear to have been commonly used in speaking of those parts which lay due east of Palestine, or on the north-east and south- east ; though occasionally they do seem to point to tracts which lay indeed to the south and south-west of that country, but to the east and south-east of Egypt. Accordingly we find that whenever the ex- pression kedem has obviously a reference to Arabia, it invariably points to its northern division only. Thus in Gen. xxv. 6, Abraham is said to have sent away the sons of Hagar and Keturah to the E'rets-Ke'dem — Kedmah, i.e. the "East country, eastward;" and none of them, so far as we know, were located in pen- insular Arabia ; for the story which represents Ish- mael as settling at Mecca is an unsupported native tradition. The patriarch Job is described (Job i, 3) as "the greatest of all the men of the east," and though opinions differ as to the precise locality of the land of Uz, all are agreed that it was in some part of Arabia, but certainly not in Arabia Felix. In the Book of Judges (vi, 3; vii, 12; viii, 10) among the allies, of the Midianites and Amalekites (tribes of the north) are mentioned the " Bene-Kedem" which Jo- sephus translates by "Apa/3ac, the Arabs. In Isa. xi, 14, the parallelism requires that by " sons of the east" we understand the nomades of Desert Arabia, as cor- responding to the Philistines "on the west ;" and with these are conjoined the Edomites, Moabites, and Am- monites, who were all northern Arabians. The com- mand was triven (Jer. xlix, 28) to the Babylonians " to smite the Bene-Kedem," who are there classed ARABIA 335 ARABIA with the Kedarenes, descendants of Ishmael (eomp. 1 Kings iv, 30). In more modern times a name of similar import was applied to the Arabs generally; they were called Saracens (Sharakiyun, i. e. Orient- als), from the word shaj'k, "the east," whence also is derived the term sirocco, the east wind. The name of Saracens came into use in the West in a vague and undefined sense after the Roman conquest of Pales- tine, but does not seem to have been adopted as a general designation till about the eighth century. It is to be remarked here that though in Scripture Kedem most commonly denotes Northern Arabia, it is also used of countries farther east, e. g. of the native coun- try of Abraham (Isa. xli, 2 ; comp. Gen. xxix, 1), of Balaam (Num. xxiii, 7), and even of Cyrus (Isa. xlvi, 11); and, therefore, though the Magi who came to Jerusalem (Matt, ii, 1) were c'nro avarokwv, " from the cast," it docs not thence follow that they were natives of Arabia. See Bexe-Kedem. 2. We find the name S*I3>, Arab', first beginning to occur about the time of Solomon. It designated a portion of the country, an inhabitant being called Arahi, an Arabian (Isa. xiii, 20), or, in later Hebrew, i3"i", Arbi' (Neh. ii, 19), the plural of which was Ar- bim'~(2 Chron. xxi, 1G), d^l?, or Arbiim' (fciSOS"??, Arabians) (2 Chron. xvii, 11). In some places these names seem to be given to the nomadic tribes gener- ally (Isa. xiii, 20 ; Jer. iii, 2) and their country (Isa. xxi, 13). The kings of Arabia from whom Solomon (2 Chron. ix, 14) and Jehoshaphat (2 Chron. xvii, 11) received gifts were probably Bedouin chiefs; though in the place parallel to the former text (1 Kings x, 15), instead of Arab we find 3"1^ or 3"12, E'reb, ren- dered invJer. xxv, 20, 24, "mingled people," but which Gesenius, following the Chaldee, understands to mean " foreign allies." It is to be remarked, how- ever, that in all the passages where the word Arab occurs it designates only a small portion of the terri- tory known to us as Arabia. Thus, in the account given by Ezekiel (xxvii, 21) of the Arabian tribes that traded with Tyre, mention is specially made of Arab (comp. Jer. xxv, 24). In 2 Chron. xxi, 16; xxii, 1 ; xxvi, 7 ; Neh. iv, 7, we find the Arabians classed with the Philistines, the Ethiopians (i. e. the Asiatic Cushites, of whom they are said to have been neighbors), the Mehunim, the Ammonites, and Ash- dodites. At what period this name Arab was extend- ed to the whole region it is impossible to ascertain. From it the Greeks formed the word 'Apafiia, which occurs twice in the New Testament ; in Gal. i, 17, in reference probably to the tract adjacent to Damascene Syria, and in Gal. iv, 25, in reference to the peninsula of Mount Sinai. Among the strangers assembled at Jerusalem at the Pentecost there were "Apa/Stc, Arabs (Acts ii, 11), the singular being "Apaip. 3. The modern name, Jezirat el-Arab, i. e. "the peninsula of the Arabs," applies to the southern part of the region only. Another native appellation is Belad el-Arab, i. e. " the land of the Arabs ;" the Per- sians and Turks call it Arabistdn. Mr. Lane informs us that in Egypt the term Arab is now generally lim- ited to the Bedouins, or people of the desert ; but for- merly it was used to designate the towns-people and villagers of Arabian origin, while those of the desert were called A arab ; the former now call themselves Oullul el- Arab, or sons of the Arabs. II. Geography. — 1. The early Greek geographers, such as Eratosthenes and Strabo, mention only two divisions of this vast region, Happy and Desert Arabia. But after the city of Petra, in Idumsea, had become celebrated as the metropolis of a commercial people, the Nabatha?ans, it gave name to a third division, viz. Arabia Petroea (improperly translated Stony Arabia); and this threefold division, which first occurs in the geographer Ptolemy, who flourished in the second century, has obtained throughout Europe ever since. It is unknown, however, to native or other Eastern geographers, who reckon Arabia Deserta as chiefly be- longing to Syria and to Irak-Arabi, or Babylonia, while the}- include a great part of what we call Arabia Pe- trrea in Egypt. a. Arabia Felix (in Gr. 'Apajiia ») Evdaifiwv, the Arabia Eudtemon of Pliny), i. e. Happy Arabia. The name has commonly been supposed to owe its origin to the variety and richness of the natural productions of this portion of the country, compared with thos-e of the other two divisions. Some, however, regard the epithet " happy" as a translation of its Arabic name Yemen, which, though primarily denoting the land of the right hand, or south, also bears the second- ary sense of " happy, prosperous." This part of Arabia lies between the Ped Sea on the west and the Persian Gulf on the cast, the boundary to the north be- ing an imaginary line drawn between their respective northern extremities, Akabah and Basra or Bussora. It thus embraces by far the greater portion of the country known to us as Arabia, which, however, is verj' much a terra incognita ; for the accessible dis- tricts have been but imperfectly explored, and but little of the interior has been as yet visited by any European traveller. b. Arabia Deserta, called by the Greeks Swjvtrtc 'Apaftia, or y "Ep/uoc. 'Apajiia, and by the Arabs El- Badieh, i. c. the Desert. This takes in that portion of the country which lies north of Arabia Felix, and is bounded on the north-east by the Euphrates, on the north-west by Syria, and on the west by Palestine and Arabia Petraea. The Arabs divide this "great wil- derness" into three parts, so called from their prox- imity to the respective countries, viz. Badieh esh-Shem (Syria), Badieh el-Jesh'rah (the peninsula, i. e. Ara- bia), and Badieh el -Irak (Babylonia). From this word Badieh comes the name of the nomadic tribes by whom it is traversed, viz. Eedawees (better known to us by the French corruption of Bedouins), who are not, however, confined to this portion of Arabia, but range throughout the entire region. So far as it has yet been explored, Desert Arabia appears to be one continuous, elevated, interminable steppe, occasionally intersected by ranges of hills. Sand and salt are the chief elements of the soil, which in many places is entirely bare, but elsewhere yields stinted and thorny shrubs or thinly- scattered saline plants. That part of the wilderness called El-Hammad lies on the Syrian frontier, ex- tending from the Hauran to the Euphrates, and is one immense dead and drearj' level, very scantily supplied with water, except near the banks of the river, where the fields are irrigated by wheels and other artificial contrivances. The sky in these deserts is generally cloudless, but the burning heat of the sun is moder- ated by cooling winds, which, however, raise fearful tempests of sand and dust. Here, too, as in other re- gions of the East, occasionally prevails the burning, suffocating south-east wind, called by the Arabs El- Harur (the Hot), but more commonly Samum, and by the Turks Samyeli (both words meaning "the Poisonous"), the effects of which, however, have by some travellers been greatly exaggerated. This is probably "the east wind" and the "wind from the desert" spoken of in Scripture. Another phenomenon, which is not peculiar, indeed, to Desert Arabia, but is seen there in greatest frequency and perfection, is what the French call the mirage, the delusive appear- ance of an expanse of water, created by the tremulous, undulatory movement of the vapors raised by the ex- cessive heat of a meridian sun. It is called in Arabic sei-ab, and is no doubt the Hebrew sharab of Isa. xxxv, 7, which our translators have rendered " the parched ground." See Mirage. I c. Arabia Petr.ea (Gr. Uirpaia) appears to have derived its name from its chief town Petra (i. e. a rock), in Heb. Sela ; although (as is remarked by Burckhardt) the epithet is also appropriate on account ARABIA 336 ARABIA ' mjje^- ^t? '-£-% L AIU S T A"N m~irie rfti-i •' , r-i , — ,»t,jt t'ai , v'lviued;,]-, Jilm-uualiT?. 1 Vidian r, °'.. /. ^ -Ll Xj ■CTediah 'lleiiukyplic El Pass I Hon i- a n a^^u%4i^ii,Mei J^o v<-> ^o I rAfai ou.ahosfli !p %^v^^- ^- ^LWaradnj ... ^ .- £ Naolulmi .,-' v> ^ Vv MasiraljFJ^ ^P rrH^/ R&^^ii -i A ite. ;SalKh;,ii ' ^\V V_^JP ft i- is o >ioJ;h0\vn ••' 3) a. - ■••; r ___-— vv-! .-jb>: p£ • Dc^a . T' I 1 / i ■• o ^ 1 -*??P''' > %^.4?^ . ^ <,-„—■: oSalcbiyeh *lSJiai-a -. -,;%, V -■& ' 7f £<^: •V^fe%'V4WOO ^IMIoJja. Kaiyatoin?i' !? fn-fwu/w \< J?^ ilauta ^L . Saltuni i' ^ /'^.> Masirag ™7rtr^u . _r.ni ) -^ Eiyai er • A> ^P >^ ELAIlKAi ..... . \^ _^ ^ffi-m Mima Bay #=^Mfs ___,'_. - fe a"'"™ sl^s bonaii IS Seilan ,0fv^ 0Ti7. Map of Modem Arabia. of the rocky mountains and stony plains whicb enm- poBe its surface, h embraces all the north-western portion of the country; being bounded on the east by Desert and Happy Arabia, <>n the north by Palestine and the Mediterranean, on the west by Egypt, and on the south by the Red Sea. This division of Arabia has been of late years visited by a great many travel- lers from Europe, and is consequently much better known than the other portions of the country. Con- fining ourselves at present to a general outline, we re- fer for details to the articles Sinai, Edom, Moab, etc. Beginning at the northern frontier, there meets the elevated plain of Belka, to the east of the Dead Sea, the district of Kerak ( Kir), the ancient territory of the Moabites, their kinsmen of Ammon having settled to the north of this, in Arabia Deserta. The north bor- der of Moab was the brook Anion, now the Wady-el- Mojeb ; to the south of Moab, separated from it by the Wady-el-Ashy, lay Mount Seir, the dominion of the Edomites, ot'ldumaa, reaching as far as to Elath on the Red Sea. The great valley which runs from the Dead Sea to that point consists, first, of El-Ghor, which is comparatively low, but gradually rises by J succession of limestone cliffs into the more elevated plain of ELArabah above mentioned. "We were now," says Dr. l.'obinson (Biblical Researches, ii, 502), "upon the plain, or rather the rolling desert, of the Avab, Isa. xiii, 20; Jer. iii, 2; or ArW, "<2yj, 2 Chron.'xvii, 11; xxi, 16; xxii, 1; xxvi, 7; Neh. ii, 19; iv, 7 [1]; vi, 1; Gr. "Apajj, 1 Mace, v, 39 ; xi, 17, 39 ; xii, 31 ; 2 Mace, v, 8; xii, 10), the national designation of an inhabitant of that general district denominated Arabia, i. e. the nomadic tribes inhabiting the country to the east and south of Palestine, who in the early times of Hebrew history wore known as Ishmaelites and descendants of Keturah. Their roving pastoral life in the desert is alluded to in Is. xiii, 20 ; Jcr. iii, 2 ; 2 Mace, xii, 11 ; their country is associated with the country of the Dedauim, the travelling merchants (Is. xxi, 13), with Dedan, Tema, and Buz (Jer. xxv. 24), and with De- dan and Kedar (Ez. xxvii, 21), all of which are sup- posed to have occupied the northern part of the penin- sula later known as Arabia. During the prosperous reign of Jchoshaphat, the Arabians, in conjunction ARABIANS 346 ARABIC LANGUAGE ■with the Philistines, were tributary to Judah (2 Chr. xvii, 11), but in the reign of his successor they revolt- ed, ravaged the country, plundered the royal palace, slew all the king's sons with the exception of the youngest, and carried off the royal harem (2 Chr. xxi, 16; xxii, 1). The Arabians of Gur-baal were again subdued by Uzziah (2 Chr. xxvi, 7). During the Captivity they appear to have spread over the country of Palestine, for on the return from Babylon they were among the foremost in hindering Nehemiah in his work of restoration, and plotted with the Ammonites and others for that end (Neh. iv, 7). Geshem, or Gashmu, one of the leaders of the opposition, was of this race (Neh. ii, 19 : vii, 1). In later times the Arabians served under Timotheus in his straggle with Judas Maccabseus, hut were defeated (1 Mace, v, 39 ; 2 Marc, xii, 10). The Zabadseans, an Arab tribe, were routed by Jonathan, the brother and successor of Ju- das (1 Mace, xii, 31). The chieftain or king of the Arabians bore the name of Aretas as far hack as the time of Antiochus Epiphanes and Jason the high- priest (2 Mace, v, 8 ; comp. 2 Cor. xi, 32). Zabdiel, the assassin of Alexander Balas (1 Mace. xi,17), and Simalcue, who brought up Antiochus, the young son of Alexander (1 Mace, xi, 39), afterward Antiochus VI, were both Arabians. In the time of the N. T. the term appears to have been used in the same manner (Acts ii, 11). — Smith, Append, s. v. See Arabia. Bedouin Arabs. 1, 2, Of the Jordan ; 3, Of the Hauran ; 4, 5, Of the Desert— Arabia Tetrfea, Arabians or Arabici, a sect of heretics who sprung up in the third century in Arabia during the reign of the Emperor Severus. They held that the soul of man dies with the body, and "will be resusci- tated with it in the day of resurrection. Origen con- futed this opinion in a council held in the year 217, called "the council of Arabia."— Euseb. Hist.Eccl.vi :;7 ; Mosheim, Comm. ii, 242. Arabic Language, the most perfectly formed, most copious in vocabulary, most extensively spoken, and most perfectly preserved of all the Shemitic fam- ily of languages. It therefore presents peculiar points <>f interest to Biblical scholars. See Shemitic Lan- i.i IGl 3. I. Distribution n,„l Diakets.— Originating in Arabia, the Arabic language spread itself, by th,- conquests of the Arabs [sec Mohammed], in the sixth and seventh centuries, so extensively as to become not only prev- alent in the countries adjoining Arabia, but even the religious anil learned language of Irak, Cyprus, Pales- tine, Egypt, and Northern Africa, where, by the influ- ence of Islamism and the supreme authority of the Koran, it has finally supplanted the original languages of those countries, and become the mother tongue of the inhabitants. It has even penetrated to the inte- rior of Africa, as well as insinuated itself, in part at least, throughout Turkey and Central Asia. In Mal- ta, Spain, and Sicily, dialects of it were for a time spoken, and have not yet become entirely extinct. Through the intercourse of Europeans during the Cru- sades, and especially during the temporary residence of the Saracens in Spain, man}' Arabic words have crept into Occidental languages, not excepting the English ; while the scientific researches of the medi- aeval Arabs caused many technical terms to be intro- duced into general literature. The ciphers in use among all Christian nations are but modified forms of those used in Arabic notation. Long before the Mohammedan sera, two dialects were prevalent in Arabia: 1, the Flimyaritic, which was spoken in Yemen, or Arabia Felix, and had its closest affinities partly with the Hebrew or Aramsean languages (q. v.), and partly with the Amharic (q. v.); 2, the Koreishitic, or pure Arabic, as found in the Ko- ran, and through its influence preserved from all vul- garism and provincialisms, as the language of state and literature; in other words, the spoken differed somewhat from the written language. The Arabic had attained its flourishing period after the composi- tion of the Koran. With the restoration of Arabic literature under the Abbasid caliphs, sci- entific prose took the place of the earlier poetry, and the lan- guage was philologically illus- trated and protected from ob- livion ; but at the same time it gradually became deteriorated in respect to flexibility and va- riety, and circumlocutions were employed instead of idiomatic formations. Since the four- teenth or fifteenth century the Arabic language has undergone no change. There still prevail, however, certain dialects with considerable variations ; e. g. the Moorish, or that of Morocco (see Bombay, Grammat. lingua Jlfauro-A rabicce, Vienna, 1800), the altogether peculiar Maltese (Gesenius, Versuch ijber d. mal- thch. Sprach. Lpz. 1810), the Melindan, Mapulian, and oth- ers. In Aleppo, Arabic is spoken in the softest and purest form. II. Elements and Structure.— The letters of the al- phabet arc twenty-eight, and, as in Hebrew, they are all consonants, and read from right to left. They differ, however, entirely in form from the Heb., more closely resembling the Syriac, and their order is al- most wholly different from either of those languages. The form, too, of most of them undergoes a considera- ble change when connected with a preceding or fol- lowing letter, or when final. Several of them differ from each other only by the addition of a diacritical point (as b from "d). Their peculiar power is such that many of them can hardly be accurately repre- sented either by the Heb. or by English characters; the sound of some of them, indeed, is described as al- together foreign to European tongues. The letters are also often compounded in writing into ligatures. The "weak letters" (corresponding to X, 1, and *) are also used to prolong a vowel sound, or (as in Syriac) to form a diphthong. The vowel points are far more simple than in Heb., but this is fully made up, in point ARABIC LANGUAGE 347 ARABIC LANGUAGE NAME. SIMPLE FORM. CONNECTED WITH THE LETTER POWER IN ENGLISH. HF.BHEW REPRESENTATIVE. Preceding. Following. With Both. 'Alif t L > X Ba o V* J A b a CTa Id) c^. 3 A t n ( Tha CJ 6. j' A th n Jim CHha | ( Kha (Dal c c 4> e e e j hh kh d n n 1 (Dhal 0 (X dh i ; 7 y r -i JLVUI Zay ; > r z T (Sin LT u** AW ^ q TD ( Shin LT u^ JW AM sh ti ( Ssad LT° U^ .O /a ss 2 ( Ddad U* L>d .O *a dd 2 j Tta h Ja h k tt •J ( Ttha h Ji lb k tth •J TAin e £ £. A c 2 1 Gcain Fa £■ i A A g f 9 IS Qaf O (j- 9 A q P Kaf J JL r ^ £i=. k D Lam J J^ j JL l b Mim r r XI A m tt Nun u j* j a n 5 Ha 8 & S5 4 li n Waw Ya ^5 w y J A ARABIC LANGUAGE 348 ARABIC LANGUAGE LIGATURES. Si = b-hh ; ^ - thh ; 3t = j-hh ; g! = s-hh ; ^> - dd-hh ; si = y-hh ; % = ft-' ; ^ or *$ = V ; J = l-,j ; j? = h-m ;■ jJL = Uh-j r; £ = f-y ; g = hh-j-j; s£ - V; s? = /-»* -L = y,« ^>J = l-m-M ; etc. ARITHMETICAL FIGURES. ♦ 1 0 9 d r* l" 5 4 3 TOWELS. Fat-hhah -j=- a, as in fat, fate, woman. Kasrah — — i, as in pin, machine, bird. Dammah -2— it, as in full, rule, awful. OTHER ORTHOGRAPHICAL SIGNS. Jazmah — = silent Sheva of the Heb. Tashdid -^-- = Dayesh forte, of the Heb. Hamzah ~^- or c Shows a vocal 'Alif. Waslah -=5- Shows a silent 'Alif and also = Hebrew Mahheph. Shows a long 'Alif syl- lable. 1 The vowels respective- \ ly, with a final n or I nasal sound added. Jladdah . . . Tan win, or " Nunnation." [ of difficulty to the learner, by the peculiar marks or signs frequently employed in connection with certain letters, or in certain positions, to indicate an implied, developed, prolonged, or connected sound. In ordi- nary writing (and printing) this whole system of vo- calization is omitted. Several of the letters (called "solar") are doubled in pronouncing when initial after the article, the final letter of which is then silent (like the dayesh forte of the Heb. after H). A similar sys- tem of prefixes and suffixes (for prepositions, pronouns, particles, etc.) exists to that in Hob., but with some- what more variety in. application. Vav " conversive," however, disappears in the Arabic, as in the Chaldee. Numbers are expressed by peculiar characters for the digits, or the ordinary letters, as in Gr. and Heb., may be used with a numerical value. The accent is never written, but stands, in dissyllables, upon the penult, in polysyllables upon the antepenult, unless the penult lias a long vowel, which then takes the tone. An ex- tended system of prosody and versification belongs to the language, and forms a marked contrast with the simple poetry of the Hebrew. The Arabic is rich in grammatical forms. In nouns, as well as pronouns and verbs, the dual is cus- tomary; and for the plural t ho noun has a larpe store of collective forms. The singular has three (so-called) cases, distinguished chiefly by the pointing, and cor- responding to the nominative, genitive, and dative (besides forms for the accusative, and the intcrjective mark of the vocative), together with the "nunna- tion ;" the dual and plural only two (the nominative and objective). To t lie verbs (which, as in Heb., af- ford triliteral roots of all the words) belong thirteen forms or conjugations, somewhat answering to those of the Heb. ; which either have a factive, reciprocal, passive, and desiderative force, or else modify the ground-meaning of the root. Each of these, except the ninth and eleventh, has a passive as well as an ac- tive voice. The tenses, properly so called, are the same in number, use, and method of formation, as in Heb. Other relations of time are expressed by em- ploying the substantive verb as an auxiliary. A near- ly like series of weak or defective verbs is found as in the Heb. Apocopated, paragogic, and intensified forms of the tenses exist, almost having the force of moods. Verbal nouns are used as infinitives, and verbal adjec- tives as participles ; or these forms may be regarded as the regular infinitives and participles of the several conjugations and voices. There are various inflections to express gender, place, instrumentality, authorship, diminutiveness, etc. The comparative and superlative have appropriate forms. The formation of sentences is simple, but syntactic- al. A terse vigor is characteristic of the language ; yet the style of Arabic writers is various : in some, for example the more ancient, extremely natural and plain ; in those of later date, more artificial and or- nate. The language of the common people (vulgar Arabic) differs from the written in the omission of the final vowels of words, in certain ungrammatical flex- ions and constructions, and in the use of some conven- tional terms. (On the pronunciation of the Palestin- ian Arabs, see Dr. E. Smith's appendix to the first ed. of Robinson's Bib. Researches, vol. iii.) III. Relations to Hebrew. — " The close affinity, and consequently the incalculable philological use of the Ar- abic with regard to the Hebrew language and its other sisters, ma}' be considered partly as a question of the- ory, and partly as one of fact. 1. The following are the theoretical grounds : First, the Arabs of Yemen are derived from Kahtan, the Joktan of Gen. x, 25, whom the Arabs make the son of Eber (Pococke's Specimen Hist. Arab. p. £9 sq.). These form the pure Arabs. Then Ishmael intermarried with a descendant of the line of Kahtan, and became the progenitor of the tribes of Hejsiz. These are the insititiovs Arabs. These two roots of the nation correspond with the two great dia- lects into which the language was once divided : that of Yemen, under the name of the Himyaritic, of which all that has come down to us (except what may have been preserved in the Ethiopic) is a few inscriptions; and that of Hejaz, under that of the dialect of Mu- dhar, or, descending a few generations in the same line, of Khoreish — the dialect of the Koran and of all their literature. Next, Abraham sent away his sons by Keturah, and they also became the founders of Arabic tribes. Also, the circumstance of Esau's settling in Mount Seir, where the Idumaeans descended from his loins, may be considered as a still later medium by which the idioms of Palestine and Arabia preserved their harmony. See Arabia. Secondly, Olaus Cel- sius (in his Hist. Liny, et Ervd'tt. Arab.) cites the fact of the sons of Jacob conversing with the Ishmaelite caravan (Gen. xxxvii, 28), and that of Moses with his father-in-law the Midianite (Exod. iv, 18). To these, however, Scheiling (in his Abhandl. v. d. Gebrauch. dfr Arab. Sprache, p. 1-1) objects that they are not conclu- sive, as the Ishmaelites, being merchants, might have acquired the idiom of the nations they traded with, and as Moses might owe an acquaintance with Arabic to his residence in Egypt. Nevertheless, one of Cel- sius's inferences derives considerable probability from the only instance of mutual intelligibility which Mi- chaelis has adduced {Hi urthe'duvy der Mittel die ausye- gtortene Hebr. Sprache zu versteken, p. 150), namely, that Gideon and his servant, went down by night to the camp of "Midian, Amalefc, and all the Bene Ke- dem," to overhear their conversation with each other, and understood what they heard (Judg. viii, 9-14). Lastly. Schultens (('Initio de Rey. Sabceor. in his Opp. Minora) labors to show that the visit of the queen of ARABIC LANGUAGE 349 ARABIC LANGUAGE Sheba to Solomon is a strong proof of the degree of \ form so broad a basis of community and harmony be- proximity in which the two dialects then stood to tween the two dialects as could hardly be anticipated, each other. These late traces of resemblance, more- i when we consider the many centuries which separate over, are rendered more striking by the notice of the the earliest written extant documents of each. The early 'diversity between Hebrew and Aramaic (Gen. diversities between them, which consist almost en- xxxi, 47). The instance of the Ethiopian chamber- | tirely of fuller developments on the side of the Ara- lain in Acts viii, 28, may not be considered an evi- ' bic, may be summed up under the following heads : dence, if Heinrichs, in his note ad loc. in Nov. Test. A much more extensive system of conjugations in the edit. Kopp, is right in asserting that lie was reading j verb, the dual in both tenses, and four forms of the the' Septu'agint version, and that Philip the deacon : future (three of which, however, exist potentially in a Hellenist. Thus springing from the same root the ordinary future, the jussive, and the 'cohortative was the Hebrew, and possessing such traces of affinity j of the Hebrew ; see Ewald's Hebr. Gram. § 290, 293) ; to so late a period as the time'of Solomon, this dialect j the full series of infinitives ; the use of auxiliary verbs; was farther enabled, by several circumstances in the j in the noun, the formations of the plural called broken social state of the nation, to retain its native resem- j or internal plurals, and the flexion by means of ter- blance of tvpe until the date of the earliest extant ' minations analogous to three of our cases ; and a per- written documents. These circumstances were the fectly defined system of metre. The most important almost insular position of the country, which prevent- of these differences consists in that final vowel after ed conquest or commerce from debasing the language of its inhabitants ; the fact that so large a portion of the nation adhered to a mode of life in which ev the last radical, by which some of the forms of the future and the several cases in the noun are indicated, Inch has been too hastily ascribed to an attempt of impression was, as it were, stereotyped, and knew no the grammarians to introduce Greek inflexions into variation for ages (a cause to which we may also in ! Arabic (Hassc, Magazinfur Biblisch-Orientalisehe Lit- part ascribe the comparatively unimportant changes teratur, i, 230 ; Gesenius, Geschich. d. Hebr. Spr. p. 95). which the language has undergone during the 1400 The Arabic alphabet also presents some remarkable years in which we can follow its history); and the ! differences. As a representation of sounds, it contains great and just pride which they felt in the purity of ; all the Hebrew letters ; but, in consequence of the their language, which, according to Burckhardt, is , greater extent of the nation as a source of dialectual still a characteristic of the Bedouins (Notes on the Bed- , varieties of pronunciation, and also in consequence of ouins, p. 211). These causes preserved the language , the more developed and refined state of the language, from foreign influences at a time when, as the Koran ! the value of some of them is not exactly the same, and and a national literature had not yet given it its full \ the characters tlTat correspond to 9 » 2 1 Pi PI are used stature, such influences would have been most able to I in a double capacity, and represent both halves of destroy its integrity. During this interval, neverthe- those sounds which exist unseparated in the Hebrew, less, the language received a peculiarly ample devel- opment in a certain direction. The limited incidents of a desert life still allowed valor, love, generosity, and satire to occupy the keen sensibilities of the chiv- alrous Bedouin. These feelings found their vent in ready verse and eloquent prose ; and thus, when Islam first called the Arabs into the more varied activity and more perilous collision with foreign nations, which re- sulted from the union of their tribes under a common interest to hold the same faith and to propagate it by the sword, the language had already received all the devel- opment which it could derive from the pre-eminently creative and refining impulses of poetry and eloquence. 2. "But great as may be the amount of resemblance between Arabic and Hebrew which a due estimate of all the theoretical grounds for the affinity and for the diversity between them would entitle us to assume, it is certain that a comparison of the actual state of both in their purest form evinces a degree of proxim- The present order of the letters also is different, al- though there are evidences in their numerical value when so used, and in the memorial words (given in Ewald's Grammatical Cmtica Ling. Arab. § 67), that the arrangement was once the same in both. In a paloe- ographical point of view, the characters have under- gone many changes. The earliest form was that in the Himyarite alphabet. The first specimens of this character (which Arabic writers call al-Mnmad, i. e. stilted, columnar) were given by Seetzen in the Fund. gruben des Orients. Since then Professor Rodiger has produced others, and illustrated them in a valuable paper in the Zeitschrift fur die Kvm.de des Morgenlandes, i, 332. The letters of this alphabet have a striking resemblance to those of the Ethiopic, which were de- rived from them. In Northern Arabia, on the other hand, and not very long before the time of Moham- med, the Syrian character called Estrangelo became the model on which the Arabic alphabet called the ity which exceeds expectation. Not only may two j Kvfic was formed. This heavy, angular Kufie char thirds of the Hebrew roots (to take the assertion of acter was the one in which the early copies of the Ko- Aurivillius, in his Dissertations, p. 11, ed. Michaelis) ran were written; and it is also found in the ancient be found in Arabic under the corresponding letters, j Mohammedan coinage as late as the seventh century and either in the same or a very kindred sense; but, of the Hegira. From this, at length, was derived the if we allow for the changes of the weak and cognate '. light, neat character called Nishi, the one in which letters, we shall be able to discover a still greater pro- the Arabs continue to write at the present day, and portion. To this great fundamental agreement in the ! which is represented in our printed books. The intro- vocabulary (the wonder of which is somewhat dimin- j duction of this character is ascribed to Urn Mukla, who ished by a* right estimate of the immense disproportion died in the year 327 of the Hegira. See Alphabet. between the two languages as to the number of roots) Lastly, it is worthy of notice that all the letters of the are to be added those resemblances which relate to l Arabic alphabet are only consonants; that, in an nn- the mode of inflexion and construction. Thus, in the j pointed text, the long vowels are denoted by the use verb, its two wide tenses, the mode by which the per- of Alif, Waw, and Ya, as matres lectionis; and that the sons are denoted at the end in the past, and at the be- short vowels are not denoted at all, but are left, to be ginning (with the accessory distinctions at the end) in ' supplied according to the sense in which the reader the future tense, its capability of expressing the gen- j takes the words; whereas, in a pointed text, three der in the second and third persons, and the system on points only suffice to represent the whole vocalization, which the conjugations are formed; and in the noun, the equivalents to which, according to the way in the correspondence in formations, in the use of the j which they are. usually expressed, are a, i, u, pro- two genders, and in all the essential characteristics nounced as in Italian. of construction ; the possession of the definite article; | "The many uses of the Arabic language in Bib- the independent and affixed pronouns ; and the same lical philology (exclusive of the advantages it affords system of separable and attached particles— all these | for comparing the Arabic versions) may hi part be ARABIC LANGUAGE 350 ARABIC VERSIONS gathered from the degree of its affinity to the Hebrew ; and, indeed, chief]}' to the Hebrew before the exile, after which period the Aramaic is the most fruitful means of illustration (Malm, Durstellvng der Leaico- graphie, p. S91). But there are some peculiarities in the relative position of the two dialects which con- siderably enhance the value of the aid to be derived from the Arabic. The Hebrew language of the Old Testament has preserved to us but a small fragment of literature. In the limited number of its roots (some of which even do not occur in the primary sense), in the rarity of some formations, and in the an- tique rudimentary mode in which some of its construc- tions are denoted, are contained those difficulties which cannot receive any other illustration than that which the sister dialects, and most especially the Ara- bic, afford. For this purpose, the resemblances be- tween them are as useful as the diversities. The for- mer enable us to feel certain on points which were li- able to doubt; they confirm and establish an intelli- gent conviction that the larger portion of our knowl- edge of the meaning of words, and of the force of con- structions in Hebrew, is on a sure foundation, because we recognise the same in a kindred form, and in a lit- erature so voluminous as to afford us frequent oppor- tunities of testing our notions by every variety of ex- perience. The diversities, on the other hand (accord- ing to a mode of observation very frequent in com- parative anatomy), show us what exists potentially in the rudimentary state by enabling us to see how a language of the same genius has, in the farther prog- ress of its development, felt the necessity of denoting externally those relations of formation and construc- tion which were only dimly perceived in its antique and uncultivated form. Thus, to adduce a single il- lustration from the Arabic cases in the noun : The pre- cise relation of the words mouth and life, in the com- mon Hebrew phrases, "I call my mouth," and "he smote him his life" (Ewald's Hebr. Gram. § 482), is easily intelligible to one whom Arabic has familiarized with the perpetual use of the so-called accusative to denote the accessor}' descriptions of state. Another important advantage to be derived from the study of Arabic is the opportunity of seeing the grammar of a Syro-Arabian language explained by native scholars. Hebrew grammar has suffered much injury from the mistaken notions of men who, understanding the sense of the written documents by the aid of the versions, have been exempted from obtaining any independent and inward feeling of the genius of the language, and have therefore not hesitated to accommodate it to the grammar of our Indo-Germanic idioms. In Arabic, however, we have a language, every branch of the philosophical study of which has been successfully cultivated by the Arabs themselves. Their own lexi- cographers, grammarians, and scholiasts (to whom the Jews also are indebted for teaching them the grammatical treatment of Hebrew) have placed the language before us with such elaborate explanation of its entire character, that Arabic is not only by far the best understood of the Syro-Arabian dialects, but may even challenge comparison, as to the possession of these advantages, with the Greek itself" (Kitto). IV. Literature. — The native works in Arabic are . exceedingly numerous and varied, embracing philolo- gy, philosophy, natural science, poetiy, history, etc. Many are still unpublished. A compendious view of the literary productions of Arabic authors ma}' be found in Pierer's Universal Lexikon (Altenb. 1857 sq.), s. v. " Arabische Literatur;" also in Appleton's New American Encyclopaedia, s. v. "Arabic Language and Literature." Oomp.alsoan articleon the "Arab. Lang, and Lit." by Prof. Packard, in the Am. Bib. Repos. Oct. 1836, p. 429-448. Zenker's Bibliotheca Orientatis ( Lpz. 1846-62, 2 vols. 8vo) gives a full list of Arabic books hitherto issued. European works expressly on the history and usage of the Arabic language are by the following authors: Pococke (Oxf. 1661), Celsius (in Barkey's Bibl. Brem. iv, 1, 2, 3), Hyde (in his Syntug. Diss, ii, 450), Schul- tens (in his Orig. Jleb. Lugd. B. 1761, p. 615), De Jenisch (Vien. 1780), Eichhorn (introd. to Richardson's Abh. iib. morgenland. Vulktn, Lpz. 177'J), Hottinger (in his Anakcta hist, theol. Tigur. 1652), Schelling (Stuttg. 1771), Schnurrer (in Eichhorn's Biblioth. iii, 951 sq.), Tingstad (Upsal. 1794), Humbert (Geneve, 1824). Ar- j abic grammars are by the following : Erpenius (Leyd. 1613, and often since, abridged, etc., by Schultens, j Michaelis, and others), Lakemacher (Helmst. 1718), ' Hirt (Jen. 1770), Yriemoet (Franeq. 1783), Hezel (Jen. 1 1776, etc.), id. (Lpz. 1784), Wahl (Halle, 1789), Paulus (Jen. 1790), Hasse (Jen. 1793), Tyschen (Rost. 1792), Jahn (Wien. 1796), Sylvestre'de Sacy (Par. 1810 and since), Von Lumsden (Calc. 1813), Roorda (2d ed. Leyd. 1858-9, 8vo), Yon Oberleitner (Vien. 1822), Iiosenmuller (Lips. 1818), Tychsen (Gott. 1823), Ewald (Lips. 1831, etc.), Vullers (Bonne, 1832), Petermann (Berol. 1840), Caspari (Leipz. 1848, 1859, an excellent manual), Glaire (Paris, 1861), Beaumont (Lond. 1861), Winckler (Lpz. 1862), Forbes (Lond. 1863), Gtischel (Vien. 1864), Wright (Grammar of the Arabian Lan- guage, from Caspari, with additions, 2 vols. 8vo, Lond. ! 1859-62, the best for English readers); on the new or ! vulgar Arabic, by Herberi (Par. 1803), Caussin de Per- j ceval (2d ed. Paris, 1833), Savary (Paris, 1813), Bella- mare (1850), Florian-Pharaon and E. L. Bertherand i (Par. 1859), Wahrmund (Lpz. 1860 sq.). Native lex- icons are those of the historian Fakr ed-Daulah (947- 993) ; Elias bar-Sina el-Jaubari (d. post 1200), El-Si- hah, in Turkish, by Van Kuli (Const. 1728), and Per- sic (Calc. 1812); Firuzabadi's Kamiis (Scutari, 1815 sq.) : by Europeans, those of Giggejus (Mediol. 1632), Golius (Lugd. Bat. :653), Mesquien Mcninski (Vien. 1780-1801), Schied (Lugd. B. 1769, etc.), Willmet (Kot- erd. 1784), Freytag (Hal. 1830-1836, abridged, ib. 1838), Kazimiroti (1848), Catafago (Arabic and English Diet. Lond. 1858, 8vo, a convenient manual), Lane (Arabic Lexicon, Lond. 1863, sq. 4to, the best in English); for the vulgar Arabic, the lexicons of Canes (1781), De Perceval (Paris, 1828, 2 vols.), De la Grange (Paris, 1828), De Passo (Alg. 1846). Chrestcmathies are by Jahn (1802), De Sacy (Par. 1806, 1826, 3 vols.), Kose- garten (Lpz. 1824, 1828), Rosenmuller (Lpz. 1814), Von Humbert (Par. 1834), Freytag (Bonn, 1834), Ar- nold (Lond. 1856, the most convenient for English) ; but Tauchnitz's splendid ed. of the Koran (Lips. 1841, 2d ster. ed., small 4to) furnishes a sufficient reading- book : for the modern dialect is the work of Bres nier (Alg. 1845). Beginners in English may make use of Arabic Beading-Lessons by Davis and Davidson (pub- lished by Bagster, Lond. 12mo). Arabic Versions. The following is a conspectus of those hitherto published (also the treatise, De rer- sionibas Arabicis, in Walton's Poli/glott, i, 93 sq. ; Po- cocke, Var. Led. Arab. V. T., ib. vi): BiUia Arabica V. d K T., in Walton's roh/ghtt ,• Bib. Ar., ed. Risius (3 vols, fol., Rom. 1671, said by Michaelis to be alter- ed from the Latin); Arabic Bible, ed. Carl vie (New- castle, 1811 and 1816, 4to); Bible (Lond. 1831, 8vo) ; Bible, a new version for the "Society for promoting Chr. Knowledge" (Lond. 1857 sq., 8vo) ; Bible, a new version for the "Am. Bible Soc," ed. Dr. Vandyke (now [1865] stereotyping at N. Y. in various forms); V. T. Arab. interpr.*Tuki (unfinished, Rom. 1752 sq.); Pentateuch by Saadias Gaon (in Walton's Polyglot?) ; N. T. Arabice, ed. Erpenius (Leyd. 1616, 4to; altered to suit the Greek, Lond. 1727, 4to) ; New Test, by Sa- bat (Calcutta, 1816, 8vo; London, 1825, 8vo; revised, Calcutta, 1826, 8vo; Lond. 1850, 8vo; in Syriac char- acters, Paris, 1822, 8vo); Quatuor Evangelia, ed. Ray- mund (Rom. 1590, fol.). Early I '< rsions. — Inasmuch as Christianity never attained any extensive or permanent influence among the Arabs as a nation, no entire nor publicly sane- ARABIC VERSIONS 351 ARABIC VERSIONS tioned Arabic version of the Bible has been discovered. But, as political events at length made the Arabic lan- guage the common vehicle of instruction in the East, and that to Jews, Samaritans, and Christians, inde- pendent versions of single books were often under- taken, according to the zeal of private persons, or the interests of small communities. The following is a classified list of only the most important among them. (See the Einleitungen of Eichhorn, Bertholdt, and De AVette.) I. Arabic versions formed immediately on the orig- inal texts. a. Rabbi Saadyah Haggaon (usually called Saa- dias), a native of Fayum, and rector of the academy at Sora, who died A.D. 942, is the author of a version of some portions of the Old Testament. Erpenius and Pococke, indeed, affirm that he translated the whole (Walton's Prolegomena, ed. Wrangham, ii, 546) ; but subsequent inquirers have not hitherto been able, with any certainty, to assign to him more than a version of the Pentateuch, of Isaiah, of Job, and of a portion of Hosea. (1) That of the Pentateuch first appeared, in Hebrew characters, in the folio Tetraglot Pentateuch of Con- stantinople, in the year 1546. The exact title of this exceedingly rare book is not given by Wolf, by Masch, nor by De Rossi (it is said to be found in Adler's Biblisch-kritische Reise, p. 221) ; but, according to the title of it which Tychsen cites from Rabbi Shabtai (in Eichhorn's Repertorium, x, 90), Saadj-ah's name is ex- pressly mentioned there as the author of that Arabic version. Nearly a century later an Arabic version of the Pentateuch was printed in the Polyglot of Paris, from a MS. belonging to F. Savary de Breves ; and the text thus obtained was then reprinted in the London Polyglot, with a collection of the various readings of the Constantinopolitan text, and of another MS. in the appendix. For it was admitted that Saad- yah was the author of the Constantinopolitan version ; and the identity of that text with that of the Paris Polyglot was maintained by Pococke (who neverthe- less acknowledged frequent interpolations in the lat- ter), and had been confirmed even by the collation which Ilottinger had instituted to establish their di- versity. The identity of all these texts was thus con sidered a settled point, and long remained so, until Michaelis published (in his Orient. Bibl. ix, 155 sq.) a copy of a Latin note which Jos. Ascari had prefixed to the very MS. of De Breves, from which the Paris Polyglot had derived its Arabic version. That note ascribed the version to " Saidus Fajumensis, Monachus Coptites;" and thus Saadyah's claim to be considered the author of the version in the Polyglots was again liable to question. At length, however, Schnurrer (in his Dissertut. de Pentat. Arab. Pohjgl. in his Dissert. Philologico-criticai) printed the Arabic preface of that MS., proved that there was no foundation for the "Monachus Coptites," and endeavored to show that Sa'id was the Arabic equivalent to the Hebrew Saad- yah, and to re-establish the ancient opinion of the identity of the two texts. The results which he ob- tained appear (with the exception of a feeble attempt of Tychsen to ascribe the version to Abu Said in the Repertorium) to have convinced most modern critics ; and, indeed, they have received much confirmation by the appearance of the version of Isaiah. This version of the Pentateuch, which is an honorable monument of the rabbinical Biblical philology of the tenth cen- tury, possesses, in the independence of its tone and in some peculiarities of interpretation, the marks of hav- ing been formed on the original text. It leans, of course, to Jewish exegetical authorities generally, but often follows the Sept., and as often appears to ex- press views peculiar to its author. Carpzov has given numerous examples of its mode of interpretation in his Crit. Sacr. p. 646 sq. It is also marked by a cer- tain loose and paraphrastic style of rendering, which makes it more useful in an exegetical than in a crit- ical point of view. It is difficult, however, to deter- mine how much of this diffuseness is due to Saadyah himself. For, not only is the printed text of his ver- sion more fault)' in this respect than a Florentine MS., some of the readings of which Adler has given in Eichhorn's Einleit. ins A. T. ii, 245, but it has suffered a systematic interpolation. A comparison of the Con- stantinopolitan text with that of the Polyglots shows that where the former retains those terms of the He- brew in which action or passion is ascribed to God — the so-called dvOpioTTOTrciOeiai — the latter has the "Angel of God," or some other mode of evading di- rect expressions. These interpolations are ascribed by Eichhorn to a Samaritan source ; for Morinus and Hottinger assert that the custom of omitting or evading the anthropomorphisms of the Hebrew text is a char- acteristic of the Samaritan versions. (2) A version of Isaiah, which in the original MS. is ascribed to Saad- yah, with several extrinsic evidences of truth, and without the opposition of a single critic, appeared un- der the title, R. Saadice Ph'jumensis Versio Jesaice Arabica e MS. Bodley. edidit at que Glossar. instrurit, H. E. G. Paulus (fasc. ii, Jena, 1791, 8vo). The text was copied from a MS. written in Hebrew characters, and the difficulty of always discovering the equivalent Arabic letters into which it was to be transposed has been one source of the inaccuracies observable in the work. Gesenius (in his Jesaias, i, 88 sq.) has given a summary view of the characteristics of this version, and has shown the great general agreement between them and those of the version of the Pentateuch in a manner altogetherconfirmatory of thebelief in the iden- tity of the authors of both. (3) Saadyah's version of Job exists in MS. at Oxford, where Gesenius took a copy of it (Jesaias, p. x). (4) That of Hosea is only known from the citation of ch. vi, 9, by Kimchi (Po- cocke's Theolog. Works, ii, 280). b. The version of Joshua which is printed in the Paris and London Polyglots, the author and date of which are unknown. c. The version of the whole passage from 1 Kings xii to 2 Kings xii, 10, inclusive, which is also found in the same Polyglots. Professor Rodiger has col- lected the critical evidences which prove that this whole interval is translated from the Hebrew ; and ascribes the version to an unknown Damascene Jew of the eleventh century. Likewise, the passage in Nehemiah, from i to ix, 27, inclusive, as it exists in both Polyglots, which he asserts to be the translation of a Jew (resembling that of Joshua in style), but with subsequent, interpolations by a Syrian Christian. (See his work De Origine Arabicm Libror. V. T. His- toric. Interpretations, Halle, 1829, 4to.) d. The very close and almost slavish version of the Pentateuch, by some Mauritanian Jew of the thir- teenth century, which Erpenius published at Leyden in 1622 — the so-called A rabs Erpenii. e. The Samaritan Arabic version of Abu Sa'id. According to the author's preface affixed to the Paris MS. of this version (No. 4), the original of which is given in Eichhorn's Bibl. Biblioth. iii, 6, Abu Sa'id was induced to undertake it, parti}- by seeing the cor- rupt state to which ignorant copyists had reduced the version then used by the Samaritans, and partly by discovering that the version which the}- used, under the belief that it was that of Abu'l Hasan of Tyre, was in reality none other than that of Saadyah Hag- gaon. His national prejudice being thus excited against an accursed Jew, and the "manifest impiety" of some of his interpretations, he applied himself to this translation, and accompanied it with notes, in or- der to justify his renderings, to explain difficulties, and to dispute with the Jews. His version is charac- terized by extreme fidelity to the Samaritan text (i. c. in other words, to the Hebrew text with the differ- ences which distinguish the Samaritan recension of it), ARABIC VERSIONS 352 ARAH retaining even the order of the words, and often sac- rificing the proprieties of the Arabic idiom to the pres- ervation of the very terms of the original. It is cer- tainly not formed on the Samaritan version, although it sometimes agrees with it ; and it has such a resem- blance to the version of Saadyah as implies familiarity ■with it, or a designed use of its assistance ; and it ex- ceeds both these in the constant avoidance of all an- thropomorphic expressions. Its date is unknown, but it must have been executed between the tenth and thirteenth centuries, because it was necessarily pos- terior to Saadyah's version, and because the Barberini copy of it was written A.D. 1227. It is to be regret- ted that this version, although it would be chiefly available in determining the readings of the Samari- tan Pentateuch, is still unpublished. It exists in MS. at Oxford (one of the copies there being the one cited by Castell in the Appendix to the London Poly- glot), at Paris, Leyden, and at Rome, in the cele- brated Barberini Triglot (the best description of which is in De Rossi"s Specimen Var. Led. ct Chald. Estheris Additamenta, Tubingen, 1783). Portions only have been printed : the earliest by Hottinger, in his Promtuarium, p. 98 ; and the longest two by De Sacy, with an interesting dissertation, in Eichhorn's Bib!. Biblioth. x, and by Van Vloten, in his Specim. Philol *g. continens descrip. cod. MS. Biblioth. Lugd.- Bat. Partemque Vers. Sam. Arab.Pentat. (Leidse, 1S03). f. A version of the Gospels, which was first print- ed at Rome in 1590, then in the Arabic New Testa- ment of Erpenius in 1G16, and afterward in the Paris Polyglot (the text of which last is the one copied in that of London). The first two of these editions are derived from MSS., and the variations which distin- guish the text of Paris from that of Rome are also sup- posed to have been obtained from a MS. The agree- ment and the diversity of all these texts are equally remarkable. The agreement is so great as to prove that they all represent only one and the same version, and thai one based immediately on the Greek. The diversities (exclusive of errors of copyists) consist in the irregular changes which have been made in every one of these MSS., separately, to adapt it indiscrimi- nately to the Peshito or Coptic versions. This sur- prising amalgamation is thus accounted for hy Hug : When the prevalence of the Arabic language had ren- dered the Syriac and Coptic obsolete, the Syrians and Copts were obliged to use an Arabic version. They therefore took some translation in that language, but first adapted it to the Peshito and Memphitic versions respectively. As the Peshito and Coptic versions still continued to be read first in their churches, and the Arabic translation immediately afterward, as a kind of Targum, it became usual to write their nation- al versions and this amended Arabic version in paral- lel columns. This mere juxtaposition led to a further adulteration in each case. Afterward, two of these MSS., which had thus suffered different adaptations, were brought together by some means, and mutually corrupted each other— by which a third text, the hy- brid one of our Arabic version, was produced. The age of the original Arabic text is uncertain ; but the circumstance of its adoption by the Syrians and Copts places it near the seventh century (Bertholdt's Einleit. i. 692 sq.). g. The version of the Acts, of the Epistles of Paul, of the Catholic Epistles, and of the Apocalypse, which is found in both the Polyglots. The author is un- known, but he is supposed to have been a native of Cyrene, and the date to be the eighth or ninth century (Bertholdt, ibid.). II. Arabic versions founded on the Sept. a. The Polyglot version of the Prophets, which is expressly said in the inscription in the Paris MS. to have been made from the Greek by an Alexandrian priest. Its date is probably later than the tenth cen- tury. b. That of the Psalms (according to the Sj-rian re- cension) which is printed in Justiniani's Psalt. Octa- plum. (Genoa, 1516"), and in Liber. Psalmor. a Gabr. Sionita et Vict. Scialac. (Rome, 1G14). c. That version of the Psalms which is in use by the Malkites, or Orthodox Oriental Christians, made by 'Abdallah ben al-Fadhl, before the twelfth century. It has been printed at Aleppo in 1706, in London in 1725, and elsewhere. d. The version of the Psalms (according to the Egyptian recension) found in both the Polyglots. III. Arabic versions formed on the Peshito. a. The Polyglot version of Job, of Chronicles, and (according to ROdiger, who ascribes them to Christian translators in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries) that of Judges, Ruth, Samuel, 1 Kings i to xi, and 2 Kings xii, 17, to xxv. b. The version of the Psalms printed at Kashaya, near Mount Lebanon, in 1610. — Kitto, s. v. For further information and criticism respecting the character and value of these and other Arabic ver- sions, see Rosenmuller's Handb. f. a. Liter atur. iii, 38 sq., 132 sq. ; Dr. Davidson, in the new ed. of Home's Introd. ii, 68 sq. ; Davidson's Treatise on Biblical Criticism (Lond. 1843), i, 255-260; ii, 222-229. See Versions ; Criticism. Arabici. See Arabians. Arabim. See Willow. A'rad (Hcb. Arad', 1*13, perh. flight), the name of a city and of a man. 1. (Sept. 'Apc'iv, but in Josh. "Acep.) An ancient city (so called perhaps from wild asses in the vicinity, comp. Tl*1?, onager) on the southernmost borders of Palestine, whose inhabitants drove back the Israelites as they attempted to penetrate from Kadesh into Ca- naan (Num. xxi, 1 ; xxxiii, 40, where the Auth. Vers, has "King Arad," instead of "King of Arad"), but were eventually subdued by Joshua, along with the other southern Canaanites (Josh, xii, 14 ; also Judg. i, 16). It lay within the original limits of the tribe of Judah (Josh, xii, 14) north (north-west) of the desert of Judah (Judg. i, 16). Eusebius (Apapa) and Jerome place Arad twenty Roman miles from Hebron, and four from Malatha, in the neighborhood cf the desert of Kadesh (see Reland, Palasst. p. 481, 501, 573). This accords well with the situation of a hill called Tell Arad, which Dr. Robinson observed on the road from Petra to Hebron. He describes it as " a barren- looking eminence rising above the country around." He did not examine the spot, but the Arabs said there were no ruins upon or near it, but only a cavern (Re- searches, ii, 472, 622). The same identification is proposed bjr Schwarz (Palest, p. 86). See HoRMAH. According to Van de Velde (Narrat. ii, 83-85) there arc fragments of pottery on the top of the Tell, and a ruined reservoir on its south side. It was an episco- pal city in Jerome's time (Ritter, Erdk. xiv, 121). 2. (Sept. 'AputS v. r. 'Qpjj5.) One of the "sons" of Beriah of the tribe of Benjamin (1 Chron. viii, 15), B.C. apparently 536. Arad. See Wild Ass. Ar'adus ("Apacoc), a city included in the list of places to which the decree of Lucius the consul, pro- tecting the Jews under Simon the high-priest, was addressed 1 1 Mace, xv, 23). It is no doubt the Arvad (q. v.) of Scripture (Gen. x, 17). A 'rah (Ileb. Arach' , rPX, prob. for H'lN, way- faring'), the name of two men. 1. (Sept. 'OotxO The first named of the three sons of Ulla of the tribe of Asher (1 Chron. vii, 39). B.C. apparently 1017. 2. (Sep"t. 'Apt c, 'Hp«.) An Israelite whose posterity (variously stated as 775 and 652 in number) returned from Babylon with Zerubbabel (Ezra ii, 5; Neh. vii, 10). B.C. ante 536. He is probably the same with ARAM 353 ARAM the Arah (Sept. 'Ho«e) whose son Shechaniah was fa- ther-in-law of Tobiah (Neh. vi, 18). A'ram (Heb. Aram', b'lK, prob. from D'l, high, q. d. highlands ; Sept. and N. T. 'Apd/i : see Gesenius, Thes. Heb. p. 151 ; Forbiger, Alte Geogr. ii, 041, Aura.), the name of a nation or country, with that of its founder and two or three other men. See also Beth- Aram. Comp. Cuneiform Inscriptions. 1. Aram^a (Sept. and later versions Syria) was the name given by the Hebrews to the tract of coun- try lying between Phoenicia on the west, Palestine on the south, Arabia Deserta and the Kiver Tigris on the east, and the mountain range of Taurus on the north. Many parts of this extensive territory have a much lower level than Palestine ; but it might receive the designation of " highlands," because it does rise to a greater elevation than that country at most points of immediate contact, and especiall)- on the side of Leb- anon. Aram, or Aramsea, seems to have corresponded generally to the Syria (q. v.) and Mesopotamia (q. v.) of the Greeks anil Romans. We hnd the following divisions expressly noticed in Scripture. SeeCANAAN. 1. Aram'-Damme'sek, pb53^ W? X, the " Syria of Damascus" conquered by David, 2 Sam. viii, 5, 6, where it denotes only the territory around Damascus ; but elsewhere " Aram," in connection with its capital " Damascus," appears to be used in a wider sense for Syria Proper (Isa. vii, 1, 8 ; xvii, 3 ; Amos i, 5). At a later period Damascus gave name to a district, the Syria Damascena of Pliny (v, 13). To this part of Aram the "land of Hadrach" seems to have belonged (Zech. ix, 1). See Damascus. 2. Aram'-Maakah', hSSB tnx (l Chron. xix, 6), or simply Maakah (2 Sam. x, G, 8), which, if formed from ?IS73, to "press together," would describe a country enclosed and hemmed in by mountains, in contradistinction to the next division, Aram-beth- Rehob, i. e. Syria the wide or broad, fT^a being used in Syria for a " district of country." Aram-Maachah was not far from the northern border of the Israelites on the east of the Jordan (comp. Deut. iii, 14, with Josh, xiii, 11, 13). In 2 Sam. x, G, the text has " King Maachah," but it is to be corrected from the parallel passage in 1 Chron. xix, 7, " king of Maachah." See Maachah. 3. Aram'-beyth-Reciiob', S"in"l n^a C1X, the meaning of which may be that given above, but the precise locality cannot with certainty be determined (2 Sam. x, G). Some connect it with the Beth-rehob of Judg. xviii, 28, which Rosenmuller identities with the Rehob of Num. xiii, 21, situated " as men come to Hamath," and supposes the district to be that now known as the Ardh el-IIhule at the foot of Anti-Liba- nus, near the sources of the Jordan. A place called Rehob is also mentioned in Judg. i, 31 ; Josh, xix, 28, 30; xxi, 31; but it is doubtful if it be the same. Michaelis thinks of the Rechoboth-han-Nahar (lit. streets, i. e. the village or town on the River Euphrates) of Gen. xxxvi, 37; but still more improbable is the idea of Bellermann and Jahn that Aram-beth-Rehob was beyond the Tigris in Assyria. See Rehob. 4. Aram'-Tsobah', i"D"iX fi^K, or, in the Syriac form, X3i^, Tsoba (2 Sam. x, G). Jewish tradition has placed Zobah at Aleppo (see the Itinerary of Ben- jamin of Tudela), whereas Syrian tradition identifies it with Nisibis, a city in the north-east of Mesopo- tamia. Though the latter opinion long obtained cur- rency under the authority of Michaelis (in his Dissert, cle Syria Sobwa, to be found in the Comment. Soe. Gut- ting. 1769), yet the former seems a much nearer ap- proximation to the truth. We may gather from 2 Sam. viii, 3; x, 1G, that the eastern boundary of Aram-Zobah was the Euphrates, but Nisibis was far beyond that river; besides that in the title of the six- Z tieth Psalm (supposing it genuine) Aram-Zobah is clearly distinguished from Aram-Naharaim, or Meso- potamia. It is true, indeed, that in 2 Sam. x, 16, it is said that Hadarezer, king of Zobah, brought against David "Aramites from be^yond the river," but these were auxiliaries, and not his own subjects. The peo- ple of Zobah are uniformly spoken of as near neigh- bors of the Israelites, the Damascenes, and other Syr- ians ; and in one place (2 Chron. viii, 3) Hamath is called Hamath-Zobah, as pertaining to that district. We therefore conclude that Aram-Zobah extended from the Euphrates westward, perhaps as far north as to Aleppo. It was long the most powerful of the petty kingdoms of Aranuca, its princes commonly bear- ing the name of Hadadezer or Hadarezer. See Zobah. 5. Aram'-Nahara'yim, D^rtJ E^X, i. e. Aram of the Two Rivers, called in Syriac "Beth-Nahrin,"i. e. " the land of the rivers," following the analogy by which the Greeks formed the name MtaoTrorafjiia, "the country between the rivers." For that Meso- potamia is here designated is admitted universally. The rivers which enclose Mesopotamia are the Eu- phrates on the west and the Tigris on the east ; but it is doubtful whether the Aram-Naharaim of Scrip- ture embraces the whole of that tract or only the northern portion of it (Gen. xxiv, 10 ; Deut. xxiii, 4 ; Judg. iii, 8; 1 Chron. xix, G; Psa. Ix, title). Apart of this region of Aram is also called Paddari -Aram' ', □ IX "j'lQ, the plain of Aram (Gen. xxv, 20; xxviii, 2, 6, 7 ; xxxi, 18 ; xxxiii, 18), and once simply Paddan (Gen. xlviii, 7), also Sedeh' -Aram , Q^X "T?E?i the field of Aram (Hos. xii, 13), whence the " Campi Mesopotamia;" of Quintus Curtius (iii, 2, 3; iii, 8, 1 ; iv, 9, 6). See Padan ; Sadeh. But that the whole of Aram-Naharaim did not belong to the flat country of Mesopotamia appears from the circumstance that Balaam, who (Deut. xxiii, 4) is called a native of Aram-Naharaim, saj-s (Num. xxiii, 7) that he was brought "from Aram, out of the mountains of the east." The Septuagint, in some of these places, has MtTOTrora/d'rt SiyxW, and in others Hvpta norauwr, which the Latins rendered by Syria Interamna. See Mesopotamia. 6. But though the districts now enumerated be the only ones expressly named in the Bible as belonging to Aram, there is no doubt that many more territories were included in that extensive region, e. g. Geshur, Hul, Arpad, Riblah, Hamath, Helbon, Betheden, Ber- othai, Tadmor, Hauran, Abilene, etc., though some of them may have formed part of the divisions already specified. See Ish-tob. A native of Aram was called ^E^X, Arammi' ' , an Aramrean, used of a Syrian (2 Kings v, 20), and of a Mesopotamian (Gen. xxv, 20). The feminine was iT^H^X, Arammi 'yah' ', an Aramitess (1 Chron. vii, 14), and the plural CPHnx, Arammim' (2 Kings viii. 29), once (2 Chron. xxii, 5) in a shortened form CX?, Rammim '. See Aram.ean Language. Traces of the name of the Aramaeans are to be found in the "Apifioi and 'Apa^icuoi of the Greeks (Strabo, xiii, 4, 6; xvi, 4, 27; comp. Homer's Iliad, ii, 783; Hesiod, Theoqn. 304). See Assyria. The religion of the Syrians was a worship of the powers of nature (Judg. x, G ; 2 Chron. xxviii, 23 ; see Creuzer, Symbol, ii, 55 sq.). They were so noted for idolatry, that in the lan- guage of the later Jews X71T SIX was used as synony- mous with heathenism (see the Misehna of Surenhusius, ii, 401 ; Onkelos on Levit. xxv, 47). Castell, in bis /.. xic. HeptagloU. col. 229, says the same form of speech prevails in Syriac and Ethiopic. The Hebrew letters -I, resh, and -j, dolt th, are so alike, that they were often mistaken by transcribers ; and hence, in the Old Test- ament, C^iX, Aram, is sometimes found instead of D1X, Edom, and vice versa. Thus in 2 Kings xvi, G, ARAMAEAN LANGUAGE 354 ARAMAEAN LANGUAGE according to the text, the Aramaeans are spoken of as possessing Elath on the Red Sea ; but the Masoretic marginal reading has "the Edomites," which is also found in many manuscripts, in the Septuagint and Vulgate, and it is obviously the correct reading (Ge- senius, Thes. ffeb. s. vv.). It appears from the ethnographic table in the tenth chapter of Genesis ( ver. 22, 23) that Aram was a son of Shem, and that his own sons were Uz, Hul, Gether, and Mash. If these gave names to districts, Uz was in the north of Arabia Deserta, unless its name was derived rather from Huz, son of Nahor, Abraham's brother (Gen. xxii, 21). Hul was probably Ccele- Syria ; Mash, the Mons Masius north of Nisibis in Mesopotamia; Gether is unknown. Another Aram is mentioned (Gen. xxii, 21) as the grandson of Nahor and son of Kemuel, but he is not to be thought of here. The descent of the Aramxans from a son of Shem is con- firmed by their language, which was one of the branches of the Semitic family, and nearly allied to the Hebrew. Many writers, who have copied without acknowledg- ment the words of Calmet, maintain that the Ara- maeans came from Kir, appealing to Amos ix, 7 ; but while that passage is not free from obscurity, it seems evidently to point, not to the aboriginal abode of the people, but to the country whence God would recover them when banished. The prophet had said (Amos i. 5) that the people of Aram should go into captivity to Kir (probably the country on the River Kur or Cyrus), a prediction of which we read the accomplish- ment in 2 Kings xvi, 9 ; and the allusion here is to their subsequent restoration. Hartmann thinks Ar- menia obtained its name from Aram. (See generally Michaelis, Spicileg. ii, 121 sq. ; Wahl, Alt. v. X. Asien, i. 299 sq. ; Gatterer, Handb. i, 248; Rosenmiiller, Altherth. I, i, 232 sq. ; Ritter, Erdkunde, x, 16; Len- gerke, Kaiaan, i, 218 sq.). — Kitto. See Syria. 2. The first named son of Kemuel and grandson of Nahor (Gen. xxii, 21), B.C. cir. 2000. He is incor- rectly thought by many to have given name to Syria, hence the Sept. translates Stmoi. By some he is re- garded as same with Ram of Job xxxii, 2. 3. The last named of the four sons of Simmer or Shomer of the tribe of Asher (1 Chron. vii, 34), B.C. cir. 1618. 4. The Greek form among the ancestors of Christ (Matt, i, 3, 4 ; Luke iii, 33) of the Heb. Ram (q. v.), the son of Hezron and father of Amminadab (1 Chron. ii, 9, 10). Aramaean Language (Ileb. Aramith', In>1"2^X) 2 Kin^s xviii, 26; Ezra iv, 7; Isa. xxxvi, 11; Dan. ii, 4; Sept. Supiori, Vulg. Syriace) is the northern and least developed branch of the Syro-Arabian family of tongues, being a general term for the whole, of which the Chaldce and Syriac dialects form the parts, these list differing very slightly, except in the forms of the in which they are now written (see the Introd. to Winer's Chaldee Gramm. r. ed. tr. by Prof. Hackett, X. Y. 1851). See Chaldee Language. > probably on the banks of the Cyrus, ac- cording t the best interpretation of Amos ix, 7; but Mesopotamia, Babylonia, and Syria form what may ii home and proper domain. Political events, b iwever, subsequently caused it to supplant i Palestine, and then it becamethe prevailing form of S] Ii from the Tigris to the shore oftheMed- Iterram n, and, in a transverse direction, from Armenia down to the confines of Arabia. After obtaining such a wide dominion, it was forced, from the ninth century onward, I • give way before the encroaching ascend- ency of Lrabic; and it now only survives as a living tongue ai 14 the Syrian Christians in the neighbor- hood of Mosul. According to historical records which trace the migrations of the Syro-Arabians from the east to the south-west, and also according to the com- paratively ruder form of the Aramaic language itself, we might suppose that it represents, even in the state in which we have it, some image of that aboriginal type which the Hebrews and Arabians, under more favorable social and climatical influences, subsequent- ly developed into fulness of sound and structure. But it is difficult for us now to discern the particular ves- tiges of this archaic form ; for, not only did the Ara- maic not work out its own development of the original elements common to the wdiole Syro-Arabian sister- hood of languages, but it was pre-eminently exposed, both by neighborhood and by conquest, to harsh col- lision with languages of an utterly different family. Moreover, it is the only one of the three great Syro- Arabian branches which has no fruits of a purely national literature to boast of. We possess no monu- ment whatever of its own genius ; not any work which may be considered the product of the political and re- ligious culture of the nation, and characteristic of it — as is so emphatically the case both with the He- brews and the Arabs. The first time wc see the lan- guage it is used \>y Jews as the vehicle of Jewish thought; and although, when we next meet it, it is employed by native authors, j'et the}- write under the literary impulses of Christianity, and under the Greek influence on thought and language which necessarily accompanied that religion. These two modifications, which constitute and define the so-called Chaldee and Syriac dialects, are the only forms in which the nor- mal and standard Aramaic has been preserved to us. It is evident, from these circumstances, that up to a certain period the Aramaic language has no other history than that of its relations to Hebrew. Tho earliest notice we have of its separate existence is in Gen. xxxi, 47, where Laban, in giving his own name to the memorial heap, employs words which are gen- uine Aramaic both in form and use. The next in- stance is in 2 Kings xviii, 26, where it appears that the educated Jews understood Aramaic, but that the common people did not. A striking illustration of its prevalence is found in the circumstance that it is em- ployed as the language of official communication in the edict addressed by the Persian court to its subjects in Palestine (Ezra iv, 17). The later relations of Aramaic to Hebrew consist entirely of gradual en- croachments on the part of the former. The Hebrew language was indeed always exposed, particularly in the north of Palestine, to Aramaic influences ; whence ] the Aramaisms of the book of Judges and of some J others are derived. It also had always a closer con- junction, both by origin and by intercourse, with 1 Aramaic than with Arabic. But in liter times great political events secured to Aramaic the complete as- cendency; for, on the one hand, after the deportation of the ten tribes, the repeopling their country with i colonists chiefly of Syrian origin generated a mixed Aramaic and Hebrew dialect (the Samaritan) in cen- tral Palestine ; and on the other the exile of the re- maining two tribes exposed them to a considerable, although generally overrated, Aramaic influence in Babylon, and their restoration, by placing them in contact with the Samaritans, tended still further to dispossess them of their vernacular Hebrew. The subsequent dominion of the Seleucida\ under which the Jews formed a portion of a Syrian kingdom, ap- pears to have completed the series of events by which the Aramaic supplanted the IIebrewr language entirely. The chief characteristics in form and flexion which distinguish the Aramaic from the Hebrew language are the following : As to the consonants, the great di- versity between the forms of the same root as it exists in both languages arises principally from the Aramaic having a tendency to avoid the sibilants. Thus, where T, BJ, anil U are found in Hebrew, Aramaic often uses 1, n, and a ; and even S for '2. Letters of the same J organ are also frequently interchanged, and generally so that the Aramaic, consistently with its character- ARAMAEAN LANGUAGE 355 AIIAaLEAN LANGUAGE istic roughness, prefers the harder sounds. The num- ber of vowel-sounds generally is much smaller ; the verb is reduced to a monosyllable, as are also the seg- olatc forms of nouns. This deprives the language of some distinct forms which are marked in Hebrew, but the number and variety of nominal formations is also in other respects much more limited. The verb pos- sesses no vestige of the conjugation Niphal, but forms all its passives bjr the prefix PX. The third person plural of the perfect has two forms to mark the differ- ence of gender. The use of Vav as " conversive" is unknown. There is an imperative mood in all the passives. All the active conjugations (like Kal in Heb.) possess two participles, one of which has a passive signification. The participle is used with the personal pronoun to form a kind of present tense. The classes of verbs fib and &. The Aramaean introduced and spoken in Palestine has also been, and is still, often called the Syro-Chal- daic, because it was probably in some degree a mix- ture of both the eastern and western dialects ; or per- haps the distinction between the two had not yet arisen in the age of our Lord and his apostles. So long as the Jewish nation maintained its political indepen- dence in Palestine, Hebrew continued to be the com- mon language of the country, and, so far as we can judge from the remains of it which are still extant, although not entirely pure, it was yet free from any important changes in those elements and forms bj- which it was distinguished from other languages. But at the period when the Assyrian and Chaldsean rulers of Babylon subdued Palestine, every thing assumed another shape. The Jews of Palestine lost with their political independence the independence of their lan- guage also, which the3' had till then asserted. The Babylonish Aramaean dialect supplanted the Hebrew, and became by degrees the prevailing language of the people, until this in its turn was in some measure, though not entirely, supplanted by the Greek. See Hellenist. Josephus (De Mace. 16) and the New Testament (Acts xxvi, 14) call it the Hebrew (>) 'Efipa'ii; SiaXtKrog). Old as this appellation is, however, it has one important defect, namely, that it is too indefinite, and may mislead those who are unacquainted with the subject to confound the ancient Hebrew and the Ara- maean, which took the place of the Hebrew after the Babylonish captivity, and was the current language of Palestine in the time of Christ and the apostles, as is evinced by the occurrence of proper names of places (e. g. Bethesda, Aceldama) and persons (e. g. Boa- nerges, Bar-jona), and even common terms (e. g. Tali- tha cumi, Ephphatha, Sabachthani) in this mixed dia- lect. (See generally the copious treatise of Pfankuche on the history and elements of the Aramaean language, translated, with introductory remarks by the editor, in the Am. Bib. Rejws. April, 1831, p. 317-3G3; comp. Nagel, De lingua Aramaa, Altdorf, 1739; Etheridge, Aramcean Dialects, Lond. 1843). The following are philological treatises on both branches of the Aramaean language : Grammars Sennert, Harm, lingg. Orient. (Viteb. 1553, 4to) ; Amira, Gramm. Syriaca give Chaldaica (Rom. 159G); Buxtorf, Gramm. Chald. Syr. (8vo, Basil. 1015. 1050) ; De Dieu, Gramm. Una. Orient. (4 to, Lugd. B. 1628; Francof. 1683); Alting, Institut. Child, et Syr. (Frkf. 1676, 1701) ; Erpenius, Gramm. Chald. et Syr. (Amst. 1628) ; Hottinger, Gramm. Chald. Syr. et Rabb. (Turic. 1652); Gramm. Heb. Chald. Syr. et Arab. (Heidelb. 1658, 4to) ; Walton, Tntrod. ad Lingg ^ Orient. (Lond. 1655) ; Schaaf, Opus Aramamm (Lugd. Bat. 1686, 8vo) ; Opitz, Syriasmus Hebraismo et Chaldaismo harmonicus (Lips. 1678) ; Fessler, Instil, lingg. Orient. (2 vols. 8vo, Vra- tisl. 1787, 1789); Hasse, llandb. d. Aram. (Jen. 1791, 8vo); Jahn, Aramaische Sprachlehre (Wien, 1793; tr. by Oberleitner, Elementa Aramaica, ib. 1820, 8vo) ; Vater, llandb. d. Hebr. Syr. Chald. u. Arab. Gramm. (8vo, Lpz. 1802, 1817) ; Fiirst, Lehrgebdude d. arama- ischen Idiome (Lpz. 1835) ; Bliicher, Grammatica Ara- maica (Vien. 1838). The only complete Lexicons are Castell's Lex. Heptaglottum (2 vols. fol. Lond. 1669), and Buxtorf's Lex. Chald. -Ta'nuidicum (fol. Basil. 1639) ; also Schonhak, Aramaisch-Rabbinischis Worter- buch (Warsaw, 1859 sq., 4to) ; Rabinei, Rabbinisch- Aramaisches Worterb. (new ed. Lemb. 1857 sq., 8vo) : of these, the first alone covers both the Chald. and Syr., and includes likewise the sister languages. See Shemitic Languages. The following may be specified as the different Ar- amaean dialects in detail : 1. The Eastern Aramaic or Chaldee. — This is not to be confounded with '-the language of the Chal- dees" (Dan. i, 4), which was probably a Medo-Pcrsic dialect ; but is what is denominated Aramaic (FHEHSt) in Dan. ii, 4. This was properly the language of Babylonia, and was acquired by the Jews during the exile, and carried back with them on their return to their own land. See Chald.ean. The existence of this language, as distinct from the Western Aramaic or Syriac, has been denied by many scholars of eminence (Michaelis, Abhandl. von der Syr. Spr. § 2; Jahn, Aramaische Sprachlehre, § 1; Hup- feld, Tkeol. Stud, vnd Krit. 1830, p. 290 sq. ; De Wette, Einl. § 32; Fiirst, Lehrgeb. der Aram. Idiome, p. 5), who think that in what is called the Chaldee we hava only the Syriac with an infusion of Hebraisms. The answer to this, however, is that some of the peculiari- ties of the Chaldee are such as are not Hebraistic, so that it cannot have derived them from this source. Thus the preformative in the future of the third per- son masc. sing, and of the third pers. masc. and fern, plur. in Chaldee is "\ while in Syriac it is 2 ; and in Heb. the last is Fi ; the pron. this in Chaldee is Ty] and ■•n, while the Syr. has UOP and the Heb. H 7 ; the Chaldee has the status emphatievs plur. in x*— , while the Syr. has a simple X— ; and to these may be added the use of peculiar words, such as Xpbp^ "Wr) (Dan. v. 7, 16), WQ33 (Ezra iv, 8; v, 9, 11; vi, 13), MM (Ezra iv, 1(£ 11, etc.), P3nb (Dan. v, 2, 23) ; the use of 1 for ? in such words as ItX, etc. There are other differences between the Chaldee and Syriac, such as the absence from the former of otiant consonants and diphthongs, the use of dagesh-forte in the former and not in the latter, the formation of the infin. without the prefixing of "2 except in Peal ; but as these are common to the Chaldee with the Hebrew, they cannot be used as proofs that the Chaldee was a dialect inde- pendent of the Hebrew, and not the Syriac modified by the Hebrew; and the same may be said of the dif- ference of pronunciation between the Syriac and Chal- dee, such as the prevalence of an a sound in the latter where the former lias the o sound, etc. It may be added, however, to the evidence above adduced, as a general remark, that when we consider the wide range of the Aramaic language from east to west, it is in the highest degree probable that the dialect of the people using it at the one extremity should differ considera- bly from that of those using it at the other. It may be further added that not only are the alphabetical characters of the Chaldee different from those of the Syriac, but there is a much greater prevalence of the scriptio plena in the former than in the latter. As, ahaMjEan language 35( however, the Chaldee has come down to us only through the medium of Jewish channels, it is not probable that we have it in the pure form in which it was spoken by the Shemitic Babylonians. The rule of the Persians, and subsequently of the Greeks in Babylonia, could not fail also to infuse into the lan- guage a foreign clement borrowed from both these sources. (See Aurivillius, Dissertt. ad Sac. Litems et Philol. Orient, pertinentes, p. 107 sq. ; Hoffmann, Gram- ., Proleg., p. 11; Dietrich, De Serm. Chald. proprietate, Lips. 1839; Hiivernick, General Introduc- tion, p. 91 sq. ; Bleek, Einl. in das A. T., p. 53 ; Winer, Ckaldaische Grammatik, p. 5.) The Chaldee, as we have it preserved in the Bible (Ezra iv, 8, 18 ; vii, 12-20 ; Dan. ii, 4-vii, 28 ; Jer. x, 11) and in the Targums, has been, as respects linguist- ic character, divided into three grades : 1. As it ap- pears in the Targum of Onkelos, where it possesses most of a peculiar and independent character ; 2. As it appears in the biblical sections, where it is less free from Hebraisms ; and, 3. As it appears in the other Targums, in which, with the exception to some extent of that of Jonathan ben-Uzziel on the Prophets, the language is greatly corrupted by foreign infusions (Winer, De Onheloso ejusque Paraphr. Child., Lips. 1819; Luzzato, De Onkelosi Chald. Pent. versione,Yien. 1830 ; Hirt, De Chaldaismo Biblico, Jen. 1751). See Targum. The language which is denominated in the N. T. //. 6r< w, and of which a few specimens are there given, seems, so far as can be judged from the scanty mate- rials preserved, to have been substantially the same as the Chaldee of the Targums (Pfannkuche, On the Language of Palestine in the Age of Christ and his Apos- tles, translated in the Bib. Repository, Apr. 1831, and reprinted in the Bib. Cabinet, vol. ii). In this lan- guage some of the apocryphal books were written (Jerome, Prmf. in Tob't Judith, 1 Mace.'), the work of Josephus on the Jewish war (Z>e Bella Jud., prref. § 1), and, as some suppose, the original Gospel by' Matthew. It is designated by Jerome the Syro-Chal- daic (contr. Pelag. iii, 1), and by this name it is now commonly known. The Talmudists intend this when they speak of the Syriac or Aramaic (Lightfoot, /lor. Heb. on Matt, v, 18). See Hebrew Language. The Chaldee is written in the square character in which the Hebrew now appears. This seems to have been the proper Chaldee character, and to have super- seded the old Hebrew or Samaritan character after the exile. The Palmyrean and the Egypto-Aramaic let- ters [see Alphabet] much more closely resemble the square character than the ancient Hebrew of the coins (Kopp, BUder und Schriften, ii, 164 sq.). See Chal- dee Language. 2. The Western Aramaic or Syriac— Of this in its ancient form no specimens remain. As it is known to us, it is the dialect of a Christianized peo- ple, and its oldest document is the translation of the N. T., which was probably made in the second cen- tury. Sec Syriac Versions. As compared with the Arabic, and even with the Hebrew, the Syriac is a poor language; it is also harsher and Hatter than the Hebrew. As it is now extant, it abounds in foreien adulterations, having re- ceived words successively from the Persian, the Greek, the Latin, the Arabic, and even, in its more recent state, from the Crusader?. The Syriac of the early times is said to have had dialects. This is confirmed by what has come down to us. The Syriac of the sacred books differs from that preserved in the Palmyrene inscriptions, so far as those can be said to convey to US any information on this point, and the later Syriac of the Maronites and of the Neatorians differs considerably from that of an older date. "What Adler has called the Hiero- Bolymitan dialect is a rude and harsh dialect, full of foreign words, and more akin to the Chaldee than to ARAMAEAN LANGUAGE the Syriac. The Syriac is written in two different characters, the Estrangelo and the Peshito. Of these the Estrangelo is the more ancient ; indeed, it is more ancient apparently than the characters of the Palmy- rene and the Egypto-Aramaic inscriptions. Asseman- ni derives the word from the Greek orfwyyvXoc, round (Bibl. Orient, iii, pt. ii, p. 378) ; but this does not cor- respond with the character itself, which is angular rather than round. The most probable derivation is from the Arabic esti, writing, and anjil, gospel. The Peshito is that commonly in use, and is simply the Estrangelo reduced to a more readable form. See Syriac Language. 3. The Samaritan. — This is a mixture of Aramaic and Hebrew. It is marked by frequent permutations of the gutturals. The character used is the most an- cient of the Shemitic characters, which the Samaritans retained when the Hebrews adopted the square char- acter. Few remains of this dialect are extant. Be- sides the translation of the Pentateuch [see Samari- tan Versions], only some liturgical hymns used Ly Castell, and cited by him as Liturgia Damaseenorum, and the poems collected and edited by Gesenius (Cnr- mina Samaritana) in the first fasciculus of his Anecdo- ta Orientalia, remain. (Morinus, Opuscula Ilebrceo- Samaritana, 1C57; Cellarius, Horm Samaritance, Jena?, 1703*; Uhlemann, Institutt. Ling. Samaritance, Lips. 1837.) See Samaritan Language. 4. The Sabian or Nazorean. — This is the lan- guage of a sect on the banks of the Euphrates and Ti- gris who took to themselves (at least in part) the name of Mendeites (Gnostics) or Nazoreans, but were-ealled Sabians by the Arabians. Some of their religious writings are. extant in the libraries at Paris and Ox- ford. Their great book (X^n &VT3&), the Liber A da- mi, has been edited with a Latin translation by Mat- thias Norberg, Prof, at Lund, who died in 1826, under the title Codex Nasarwvs, Liber Adami Appettatus (3 parts 4to, Lund, 1815-16) ; this was followed by a Lex- icon (1810) and an Onomasticon (1817) on the book by the same. The language is a jargon between Syriac and Chaldee; it uses great freedom with the guttu- rals, and indulges in frequent commutations of other letters; and in general is harsh and irregular, with many grammatical improprieties, and a large infusion of Persic words. The MSS. are written in a peculiar character; the letters are formed like those of the Nestorian Syriac, and the vowels are inserted as let- ters in the text. 5. The Palmyrene. — On the ruins of the ancient city of Palmyra or Tadmor have been found many in- scriptions, of which a great part are bilingual, Greek, and Aramaic. A collection of these was made by Pohert Wood, and published by him in a work enti- tled The Ruins of Palmyra (bond. 1753); they were soon afterward made the object of learned examina- tion by Barthelemy at Paris and Swinton at Oxford, especially the latter (Explication ofth Inscriptions in the Palmyrene Language, in the 48th vol. of the Philo- sophical Transactions, p. 090-750). These inscriptions are of the first, second, and third centuries; they arc of little intrinsic importance. The language closely resembles the Syriac, and is written in a character akin to the square character, but a little inclining to a cursive mode of writing. 6. The Egypto-Aramaic. — This is found on some ancient Egyptian monuments, proceeding probably* from .lews who had come from Palestine to Babylonia. Among these is the famous Carpentras inscription, so called from its present location in the south of France : this, Gesenius thinks, is the production of a Syrian from the Seleucidinian empire residing in Egypt; but this is less probable than that it is the production of a Jew inclining to the Egyptian worship. Some MSS. on papyrus also belong to this head (see Gesenius, Monumenta Phan. i, £20-245). The language is Ara- ARAMAIC VERSIONS 357 ARARAT maic, chiefly resembling the Chaldee, but with a He- brew infusion Kitto, s. v. Aramaic Versions. See Syriac Versions; Targum. A'ramitess (Heb. Arammiyah' ', ilJEHSt, Sept. ?/ 2up«, 1 Chron. vii, 14), a female Syrian, as the word is elsewhere rendered. See Aram. A'ram-nahara'im (Heb. Aram' Nahara'yim, t"1"!!"^ -^X, Sept. M£mar (the ancient Bezabde) on the Tigris. At the foot of the mountain there was a vil- lage called Karya Thaminin, i. e. the Village of the Eighty — that being the number (and not eight) saved from the flood according to the Mohammedan belief (Abulfeda, Anteislam. p. 17). The historian Elmacin mentions that the Emperor Heraclius went up, and visited this as " the place of the ark." Here, or in the neighborhood, was once a famous Nestorian mon- astery— "the Monastery of the Ark," destroyed by lightning in A.D. 776 (see Asseman, Bibl. Or. ii, 113). The credulous Jew, Benjamin of Tudela, says that a mosque was built at Mount Judi, "of the remains of the ark," by the Caliph Omar. Kinneir, in describing his journey from Jezirah along the left bank of the Ti- gris to Nahr Van, says (Trav. p. 453), " We had a chain of mountains running parallel with the road on the left hand. This range is called the Juda Dag (i. c. mountain) by the Turks, and one of the inhabitants of Nahr Van assured me that he had frequently seen the remains of Noah's ark on a lofty peak behind that village." (Comp. Rich's Kurdistan, ii, 124.) A French savant, Eugene Bore, who visited those parts, sa)-s the Mohammedan dervishes still maintain here a perpetual!}- burning lamp in an oratory (Revue Fran- raise, vol. xii ; or the Semeur of October 2, 1839). The selection of this range w^as natural to an inhab- itant of tHe Mesopotamian plain ; for it presents an apparently insurmountable barrier on that side, hem- ming in the valley of the Tigris with abrupt declivi- ties so closely that only during the summer months is any passage afforded between the mountain and river (Ainsworth's Travels in track of the Ten Thousand, p. 154). Josephus also quotes Nicolaus Damascenus to the effect that a mountain named Baris, beyond Min- yas, was the spot. This has been identified with Yaraz, a mountain mentioned by St. Martin (Man. sur V Ar- menia, i, 265) as rising to the north of Lake Van ; but the only important mountain in the position indicated is described by recent travellers under the name Seiban Tagh; and we are therefore inclined to accept the emendation of Schroeder, who proposes to read Mc'tatg, the indigenous name of Mount Ararat, for Bdpic. After the disappearance of the Nestorian monastery, the tradition which fixed the site of the ark on Mount Judi appears to have declined in credit, or been chief- ly confined to Mohammedans, and gave place (at least among the Christians of the West) to that which now obtains, and according to which the ark rested on a great mountain in the north of Armenia — to which (so strongly did the idea take hold of the popular belief) was, in course of time, given the very name of Ararat, as if no doubt could lie entertained that it was the Ararat of Scripture. We have seen, however, that in the Bible Ararat is nowhere the name, of a mountain, and by the native Armenians the mountain in ques- tion was never so designated ; it is by them called Mdcis, and by the Turks Aghur-dagh, i. e. "The Heavy or Great Mountain" (see Kampfer, Aman. ii, 428 sq.). The Vulgate and Jerome, indeed, render Ararat by "Armenia," but they do not particularize any one mountain. Still there is no doubt of the antiquity of the tradition of this being (as it is some- times termed) the " Mother of the World." The Per- sians call it Kuh-i-Nuch, " Noah's Mountain." The Armenian et3'mology of the name of the city of Nakhchevan (which lies east of it) is said to be "first place of descent or lodging," being regarded as the place where Noah resided after descending from the mount. It is mentioned by Josephus (Ant. i, 3, 5) under a Greek name of similar import, viz. 'Airo/San?- piov ("landing-place"), and by Ptolemy (v, 13, § 12) as Naxuana ("XaZoudva, see Chesney, Exped. to the Euphrat. i, 145). 1. The mountain thus known to Europeans as Ara- rat consists of two immense conical elevations (one peak considerably lower than the other), towering in massive and majestic grandeur from the valley of the Aras, the ancient Araxes. Smith and Dwight give its position north 57° west of Nakhchevan, and south ARARAT 359 ARARAT 25° -west of Erivan (Researches in Armenia, p. 2G7) ; and remark, in describing it before the recent earth- quake, that in no part of the world had they seen any mountain whose imposing appearance could plead half so powerfully as this a claim to the honor of having once been the stepping-stone between the old world and the new. '• It appeared," says Ker Porter, "as if the hugest mountains of the world had been piled upon each other to form this one sublime immensity of earth, and rocks, and snow. The icy peaks of its double heads rose majestically into the clear and cloudless heavens; the sun blazed bright upon them, and the reflection sent forth a dazzling radiance equal to other suns. My eye, not able to rest for any length of time upon the blinding glory of its summits, wan- dered down the apparently interminable sides, till I could no longer trace their vast lines in the mists of the horizon ; when an irrepressible impulse immedi- ately carrying my eye upward again refixed my gaze upon the awful glare of Ararat" (Trav. i, 182 sq. ; ii, G3G sq.). To the same effect Morier writes : "Noth- ing can be more beautiful than its shape, more awful than its height. All the surrounding mountains sink into insignilicance when compared to it. It is perfect in all its parts; no hard rugged feature, no unnatural prominences; every thing is in harmony, and all com- bines to render it one of the sublimest objects in na- ture" (Journey, c. xvi; Second Journey, p. 312). Sev- eral attempts had been made to reach the top of Ara- rat, but few persons had got beyond the limit of per- petual snow. The French traveller Tournefort, in the year 1700, long persevered in the face of many diffi- culties, but was foiled in the end. About a century later the Pacha of Bayazid undertook the ascent with no better success. The honor was reserved to a Ger- man, Dr. Parrot, in the employment of Russia, who (in his Reise zum Ararat, Berl. 1834 ; translated by W. T. Cooley, Lond. and N. Y.) gives the following par- ticulars : " The summit of the Great Ararat is in 39° 42' north lat., and 61° 55' east long, from Ferro. Its perpendicular height is 1G,254 Paris feet above the level of the sea, and 13,350 above the plain of the Araxes. The Little Ararat is 12,284 Paris feet above the sea, and 9561 above the plain of the Araxes." After he and his party had failed in two attempts to ascend, the third was successful, and on the 27th of September (0. S.), 1829, they stood on the summit of Mount Ararat. It was a slightly convex, almost cir- cular platform, about 200 Paris feet in diameter, com- posed of eternal ice, unbroken by a rock or stone ; on account of the great distances, nothing could be seen distinctly. The observations effected by Parrot have been fully confirmed by another Russian traveller, H. Abich, who, with six companions, reached the top of the Great Ararat without difficulty, July 29, 1845. He reports that, from the valley between the two peaks, nearly 8000 feet above the level of the sea, the ascent can with facility be accomplished. It would appear even that the ascent is easier than that of Mont Blanc ; and the best period for the enterprise is the end of July or beginning of August, when there is annually a period of atmospheric quiet, and a clear unclouded sky. Another Russian, M. Antonomoff, has also as- cended to the top; and an Englishman, named Sey- mour, accompanied by a guide to tourists named Or- vione, and escorted by four Cossacks and three Arme- nians, claims likewise to have ascended the mountain, and to have reached the level summit of the highest peak on the 17th September, 184G. (See extract from a letter in the Caucase, a St. Petersburg Journal, Ath- enwum, No. 1035, p. 914.) That the mountain is of volcanic origin is evidenced by the immense masses of lava, cinders, and porphyry with which the middle region is covered ; a deep cleft on its northern side has been regarded as the site of its crater, and this cleft has been the scene of a terrible catastrophe. An earthquake, which in a few moments changed the entire aspect of the country, commenced on July 2, 1840, and continued, at intervals, until the 1st of Sep- tember. Traces of fissures and land-slips have been left on the surface of the earth, which the eye of the scientific observer will recognise after many ages. Clouds of reddish smoke and a strong smell of sul- phur, which pervaded the neighborhood after the earthquake, seem to indicate that the volcanic powers of the mountain are not altogether dormant. The de- struction of houses and other property in a wide tract of country around was very great; fortunately, the earthquake having happened during the day, the loss of lives did not exceed fifty. The scene of greatest devastation was in the narrow valley of Akorhi, where the masses of rock, ice, and snow, detached from the summit of Ararat and its lateral points, were thrown at one single bound from a height of G000 feet to the bottom of the vallej-, where they lay scattered over an extent of several miles. (See Major Voskoboini- kof 's Report, in the A thenmim for 1841, p. 157.) Par- rot describes the secondary summit about 400 j-ards distant from the highest point, and on the gentle de- pression which connects the two eminences he sur- mises that the ark rested (Journey to Ararat, p. 179). The region immediately below the limits of perpetual snow is barren, and unvisited by beast or bird. Wag- ner (Reise. p. 185) describes the silence and solitude that reign there as quite overpowering. A rejuri, the only village known to have been built on its slopes, was the spot where, according to tradition, Noah planted his vineyard. Lower down, in the plain of Araxes, is Nakhchevan, where the patriarch is reputed to have been buried (see Am. Bib. Repos. April, 1836, p. 390-416).— Kitto, s. v. See Noah. 2. Returning to the broader signification we have assigned to the term "the mountains of Ararat," as co-extensive with the Armenian plateau from the base of Ararat in the north to the range of Kurdistan in the south, we notice the following characteristics of that region as illustrating the Bible narrative: (1.) Its elevation. It rises as a rocky island out of a sea of plain to a height of from 6000 to 7000 feet above the level of the sea, presenting a surface of extensive plains, whence, as from a fresh base, spring important and lofty mountain-ranges, having a generally paral- lel direction from east to west, and connected with each other by transverse ridges of moderate height. (2.) Its geographical position. The Armenian plateau stands equidistant from the Euxine and the Caspian seas on the north, and between the Persian Gulf and the Mediterranean on the south. "With the first it is connected by the Acampsis, with the second by the Araxes, with the third by the Tigris and Euphrates, the latter of which also serves as an outlet toward the countries on the Mediterranean coast. These seas were the high roads of primitive colonization, and the plains watered by these livers were the seats of the most powerful nations of antiquity, the Assyrians, the Babylonians, the Medes, and the Colchians. Viewed with reference to the dispersion of the nations, Ar- menia is the true centre (cp^aXuc) of the world; and it is a significant fact that at the present day Ararat is the great boundary-stone between the empires of Russia, Turkey, and Persia. (3.) Its physical forma- tion. The Armenian plateau is the result of volcanic agencies: the plains as well as the mountains supply evidence of this. Armenia, however, differs material- ly from other regions of similar geological formation, as, for instance, the neighboring range of Caucasus, inasmuch as it does not rise to a sharp, well-defined central crest, but expands into plains or steppes, sepa- rated by a graduated series of subordinate ranges. Wagner (Reise, p. 263) attributes this peculiarity to the longer period during which the volcanic powers were at work, and the room afforded for the expansion of the molten masses into the surrounding districts. The result of this expansion is that Armenia is far ARARATH 360 ARBELA more accessible, both from -without and within its own limits, than other districts of similar elevation : the passes, though high, are comparatively easy, and there is no district which is shut out from communication with its neighbors. The fall of the ground in the centre of the plateau is not decided in any direction, as is demonstrated by the early courses of the rivers — the Araxes, which flows into the Caspian, rising west- ward of either branch of the Euphrates, and taking at first a northerly direction — the Euphrates, which flows to the south, rising northward of the Araxes, and tak- ing a westerly direction. (4.) The climate is severe. Winter lasts from October to May, and is succeeded by a brief spring and a summer of intense heat. The contrast between the plateau and the adjacent coun- tries is striking : in April, when the Mesopotamian plains are scorched with heat, and on the Euxine shore the azalea and rhododendron are in bloom, the Armenian plains are still covered with snow ; and in the early part of September it freezes keenly at night. (5.) The vegetation is more varied and productive than the climate would lead us to expect. Trees are not found on the plateau itself, but grass grows luxuriant- ly, and furnishes abundant pasture during the sum- mer months to the flocks of the nomad Kurds. Wheat and barley ripen at far higher altitudes than on the Alps and the Pyrenees : the volcanic nature of the soil, the abundance of water, and the extreme heat of the short summer bring the harvest to maturity with won- derful speed. At Erzrum, more than G000 feet above the level of the sea, the crops appear above ground in the middle of Juno, and are ready for the sickle before the end of August (Wagner, p. 255). The vine ripens at about 5000 feet, while in Europe its limit, even south of the Alps, is about 2G50 feet. See Arme- nia. The general result of these observations as bearing upon the Biblical narrative would be to show that, while the elevation of the Armenian plateau consti- tuted it the natural resting-place of the ark after the Deluge, its geographical position and its physical character secured an impartial distribution of the fam- ilies of mankind to the various quarters of the world. The climate furnished a powerful inducement to seek the more tempting regions on all sides of it. At the same time, the character of the vegetation was remark- ably adapted to the nomad state in which we may conceive the early generations of Noah's descendants to have lived. — Smith, s. v. See Ethnology. Ar'arath (ApapciS v. r. 'Apapar), another form (Tobit i, 21) of the name Ararat (q. v.). Aratus ("Aparoc), the author of two astronomical poems in Greek, about B.C. 270, fragments and Latin translations of which are alone extant (Fabric. Bill. (,'rmc. iv, 87; Schaubach, Gesch. d.ffriech. Astronomic, p. 215; Delambre, Hist, de I'Astron. Ancienne). (For an account of his works and their editions, see Smith's Diet, of < 'fuss. Bioff. s. v. ) From the opening of one of these poems, entitled Pkeenomena (cui'6i.uva), the Apostle Paul is thought to have made the quotation indicated in his speech at Athens (Acts xvii. 28), "As certain also of your own poets have said, 'For we are also his offspring ;' " since the words precisely agree (Tor yap Kai yevog lopkv). Others, however (see Kuindl, Comment, in loc), adduce similar senti- ments from Cleanthes Qk aov yap yivoq ia/iev, Hymn. in Jov< m. :< | and Pindar («, :-u7>v ykvoc, M in. 6). A few brief and casual quotations of this kind have been made the foundation of the hasty conclusion that Paul was well read in . 'lassie poetry; but. this, from his Jew- ish education, is extremely improbable. See Paul. In this, the most direct instance, lie appears rather to refer to the general sentiment of the Creek mytholo- gy, of which tin- passages adduced (alluded to in a ^en- oral way by Paul, as if taken second-hand and by recollection merely) are the frequent expression (note the plur. "poets"). See Schmid, De Arato (Jen. 1G91). Arau'nah (Heb. Aravnah', ilSI^H, 2 Sam. xxiv, 16-24 [ver. 1G flS'lfX, ver. 18 rrrnN], perhaps anoth- er form of Oman ; Sept. 'Opvd) or Or'nan (Heb. Or- nau ', "3"1X, nimble; 1 Chron. xxi ; 2 Chron. iii, 1; Sept. 'Opvd), a man of the Jebusite nation, which pos- sessed Jerusalem before it was taken by the Israel- ites. The angel of pestilence, sent to punish King David for his presumptuous vanity in taking a cen- sus of the people, was stayed in the work of death near a plot of ground belonging to this person, used as a threshing-floor, and situated on Mount Moriah ; and when he understood it was required for the site of the Temple, he liberally offered the ground to Da- vid as a free gift ; but the king insisted on paying the full value for it (50 shekels of silver according to 2 Sam. xxiv, 18, but GOO shekels of gold according to 1 Chron. xxi, 18). B.C. cir. 1017. See David. Jo- sephus, who calls him Oronna QOpovva, Ant. vii, 13, 4), adds that he was a wealth}' man among the Jebu- sites, whom David spared in the capture of the city on account of his good-will toward the Hebrews {Ant. vii, 3, 3). Sec Moriah. Ar'ba (Heb. Arba ', V^#, four, but see Simonis Onom. V. T. p. 312 sq. ; Sept. 'Ap/3oic v. r. Apyo/3), a giant, father of Anak (q. v.), from whom Hebron (q. v.) derived its early name of Kirjath-Arba, i. e. city of Arba (Josh. xiv. 15; xv. 13; xxi, 11). B.C. ante 1G18. See Giant. Ar'bathite (Heb. Arbathi' ', ^yj, Sept. 'Apa- /3w3i'r?/c, but in Chron. 2ap«/3f3-.2r« v. r. TapafiaiSri), an epithet of Abiel, one of David's warriors (2 Sam. xxiii, 31 ; 1 Chron. xi, 32), probably as being an in- habitant of Araraii (Josh, xv, Gl ; xxiii, 22). Arfoat'tis (only in the dat. plur. 'Apiic'irroie, with many var. readings, see Grimm, Handb. in loc), a city or region named in connection with Galilee as being despoiled by Simon Maccabams (1 Mac. v, 23). Ewald (Isr. Gesch. iv, 359 note) thinks (from the Syriac read- ing Ard Dot) that the district now called Ard el-Bat l- bah, north of the sea of Galilee, is intended, and oth- ers have conjectured the Arabah, Arabia, etc.; but the most probable supposition is that of Reland (Palwst. p. 192), that the name is a corruption (comp. 2 Mace, v, 3) of that of the toparchy called by Josephus (IFar, iii, 3, 4 and 5) Acrabattine (q. v.). Arbeh. See Locust. Ar'bel. See Beth-arbel. Arbe'la (- , xl_ , / . ' c cities on its banks which were destroyed bv Holofernes j ver7 ha^. to lts cl^e' ****** base storf. of ex: (Judith ii, 24). Some regard it as being the same with terior and interior alike, and the upper portions of the Habor (q. v.) or Chaboras of Scripture (2 Kings ^'^ and hl«h walls, being often quite covered with x£ . f. . ... . . ' . \ . tlmm ' Iipt TA-pve cit k r ii smmle or ot liiterseetmir xvii, 1G). But it is probably a false rendering of a bungling translator for the original Heb. liHSil "C1'2, beyond the river, i. e. Euphrates (see Movers, in the Banner Ztitschr. xiii, 38). Arbrissel or Arbrisselles, Robert D', the founder of the order of Fontevrault, was born in 1047 at Arbrissel or Arbreses, a village in the diocese of Eennes, and died Feb. 25, 1117. In 1085 he was ap- pointed vicar-general of the bishop of Eennes, in which diocese he labored successfully for the restoration of church discipline. In 1089 he became professor of theology at Angers ; but after two years he retired to the forest of Craon, on the frontier of Anjou and Bre- tagne. There soon a number of hermits gathered around him, and Robert founded the first establish- ment of the order of Fontevrault, the celebrated abbey De Rota. Robert himself was appointed its first pri- or at the Council of Tours in 1096, where he preached the same year. The number of the followers of Rob- ert rapidly increased, and he established several mon- asteries ; the most important was the celebrated ab- bey of Fontevrault, near Poitiers, after which the en- tire order was named. The abbey consisted of two different monasteries, one for men and one for wom- en, which together counted soon more than 2000 in- mates. According to the letters of Marbod, bishop of Eennes (cited by P. de la Mainferme, Clipeus, t. i, p. 69), and Geoffrey, abbot of Vendome (L'r cttei I des Let- ires de I' Abbe Geoffroy, publiees par /<■ J'. Sirmond in 1610), Robert, to crucify his flesh, had recourse to the most immoral kind of mortification ; he used, for in- stance, to sleep in the cells of the nuns. These facts, denied or excused by some, and affirmed or censured by others, were the subject of the most lively contro them. They were either of simple or of intersecting arches ; it is needless to say that the latter are the Arch from Canterbury. most elaborate in work, and the most ornamental ; they are accordingly reserved in general for the richer por- tions of the fabric. There is, moreover, another, and perhaps more effective way of complicating the arcade, by placing an arcade within and behind another, so that the wall is doubly recessed, and the play of light and shadow greatly increased. The decorations of the transitional, until very late in the style, are so nearly those of the Norman, that we need not partic- ularize the semi-Norman arcade. In the next style the simple arcade is, of course, most frequent. This, like the Norman, often covers very large surfaces, versy among the Roman Catholic theologians of France \ Foil arches are often introduced at this period, and in the 17th and 18th centuries. A monk of Fonte- greatly vary the effect. The reduplication of arcades vrault, P. de la Mainferme, wrote a lar^e work, en- j is now managed differently from the former style, titled Clipeus nascentis ordinis FoiitiLrahbvzis, in de- Two arcades, perfect, in all their parts, are set the one fence of the founder of the order. Robert, in 1104, j behind the other, but the shaft of the outer is opposite was present at the Councils of Beaugency and Paris, I to the arsh of the inner series, the outer series is also at the latter of which he prevailed upon Bertrade to j more lofty in its proportions, and the two are often of separate from King Philip. He died in the monaste- I differently constructed arches, as at Lincoln, where ry of Orsan. His remains were, in 1G33, placed in a | the outer series is of trefoil, the inner of simple arches, magnificent marble tomb, made by order of Louise I or vice versa, the two always being different. The of- ARC.E CUSTODES 362 ARCAXI DISCIPLINA feet of this is extremely beautiful. But the most ex- quisite arches are those of the Geometrical period, where each arch is often surmounted by a crocketed pediment, and the higher efforts of sculpture arc tasked for their enrichment, as in the glorious chapter-houses of Salisbury, Southwell, and York : these are, how- ever, usually confined to the interior. In the Deco- rated period partially, and in the Perpendicular entire- ly, the arcade gave place to panelling, greatly to the loss of effect, for no delicacy or intricacy of pattern can compensate for the bright light and deep shadows of the Xorman and early English arcades (Hook, Church Dictionary, s. v.). Arcee Custodes, beepers of the chest, a name oc- casionally given in the early church to the archdea- cons (q. v.). The bishop was not required to care personally for the widows, orphans, and strangers, but to commit them to his archdeacon, who had the keys of the church's treasures, and the care of dispensing the oblations of the people. The ordinary deacons were the actual dispensers of the money ; but from the archdeacon, who was the chief manager, they received their instructions and orders.— Bingham, Ori.g. Eccks. bk. ii, ch. xxi, § o ; Farrar, Eccles. Diet. s. v. Arcani Disciplina (discipline of the mysteries, or system of secret instruction"), a term first introduced by Meier in his Be Pecondita ret. Eccles. Theologia (1677), to denote the practice of the early church of concealing from unbelievers, and even from catechumens, certain parts of divine worship, especially of the sacraments. The subject is curious in itself, and receives additional importance from the use made of it by the Romanists (see below). The disciplina arcani is not to be con- founded with the system of reserve, or concealment in theology (scientia arcani, jiv(TT)]oiouo(J>ia), which sprang up in Egypt in the second century, viz. the system adopted by certain teachers of not communicating cer- tain parts of Christian knowledge (yvwaic) to Chris- ti .in people generally, but only secretly to such as they deemed capable and worthy. Clement of Alex* andria is the first to mention this system, and he pre- tends that it was instituted by Christ himself (Stromal'. lib. i, e. 1 ; see Mosheim, Historical Commentaries, cent, ii, § 34). But the arcani disciplina. proper referred to worship rather than to doctrine. It is fully treated by Bingham, from whom the following statement, is condensed. 1. Tertullian (f 220) is the first writer who men- tions the practice of this mystery, and blames the her- etics for not observing it (be Prescript, adv. Hier. cap. 41). From him, and from later writers, it appears that the secret system at first covered only Baptism and the Lord's Supper (i. e. the forms and ritual of the sacraments, not the doctrine concerning them). At a later period, confirmation, ordination, and unction were also made matters of concealment ; and parts of the prayers of the church were enjoyed only by the "faithful," while unbelievers and catechumensVere excluded from them. The system seems to have reached its height during the fourth century. At that time catechumens were taught the Ten Command- ments, a creed, or summary confession of faith, and the Lord's Prayer, with suitable expositions; but, prior to baptism, the nature of the sacraments was carefully concealed. Even the time and place were not On any ace, not. to be divulged. To relate the manner in which the sacrament was administered, to mention the words used in the administration, to de- scribe the simple elements in which it consisted, were (hemes on which the initiated were as strictly forbid- den to touch as if they had been laid under aii oath of secrecy. Even the ministers, when they were led in their public discourses to speak of the sacraments or the higher doctrines of faith, contented themselves with remote allusions", and dismissed the sulijeet by Saying "\aaaiv o\ fitfiVTjfiivoi, T/u initiaU «/ hnow what is meant. So also of confirmation. Basil (De Spiritu Sancto, c. 27) says that the " holy oil used in this ceremony is not to be looked upon by the uninitiated." As to the public prayers of the church, all those which had reference to the communion service were confined to the f deles. The highest class of penitents, called con- sistentes, or co-standers, were allowed to be present at the communion prayers, and see the oblation offered and received by the faithful, though they might not partake with them. But catechumens of all ranks were wholly excluded from all this. They were al- ways dismissed before these prayers began, and the doors of the church were locked and guarded by prop- er officers, to the intent that no uninitiated person should indiscreetly rush in upon them. We shut the doors, says Chrysostom (Horn, xxiii, in Matt?), when we celebrate the holy mysteries, and drive away all uninitiated persons. This was one of the secrets of the church, as we heard St. Austin before (in Psalm. ciii) speak of it ; one of the things which a catechu- men might not look upon, according to St. Basil (De Spirit. Sanct. c. 27). Therefore the author of the Apos- tolical Constitution (lib. ii, c. 57 ; viii, c. 11) mi.kcs it a part of the deacon's office not only to command their absence, but also to keep the doors, that none might, come in during the time of the oblation. Epi- phanius (Hceres. 42, n. 3) and St. Jerome (Comm. in Galat. c. vi) bring it as a charge against the Mareion- ites that they despised this discipline, and admitted catechumens indiscriminately with the faithful to all their mysteries. And Palladius (Vita Chrysost. c. 9) forms a like charge against the enemies of Chrysos- tom, that in the tumult they raised against him, they gave occasion to the uninitiated to break into the church, and see those things which it was not lawful for them to set their eyes upon. Nay, so strict was the church then in the observation of this discipline, that Athanasius convicted the Meletians of false wit- ness against him when thej' pretended to prove by the testimony of some catechumens that Macarius, one of his presbyters, had overturned the communion table in the time of the oblation ; he argued that this could not be so, because (Athanasius, Apol. 2), if the catechu- mens were present, there could then be no oblation. — (Bingham, Or iff. Eccles. bk. x, ch. v.) 2. The disciplina arcani gradually fell into disuse; no precise date of its end can be given. Rothe (Her- zog, Real-Encnldopiidie, i, 471) remarks that so long, on the one hand, as the church stood in the midst of a heathen world, and as long, on the other hand, as, within the church, delay of baptism (the procrasi natio baptismi) to an advanced age, or even to the dying hour, was practised, the arcani disciplina might have been a useful sj'stem ; but just in proportion as infant baptism became more general, and the pagan world was christianized, the secret discipline lost its significance; for, in consequence of these changes, the class of per- sons for whom it had been instituted no longer exist- ed. In a general way, we may name the end of the sixth century as the period when it passed away. The Western Church gradually stripped its liturgy of all secret usages ; and Bona (Per. Lituryicar. 1. 1,16, 6) asserts that about 700 the catechu menal system was entirely gone. The Eastern Church, however, holds on to her antiquated formulas, by which the catechu- mens are dismissed from divine worship, notwithstand- ing that church has no catechumens, and practises infant communion. 3. The original grounds for the adoption of the ar- cani disciplina cannot lie known ; but conjectures, and even plausible sources, are not wanting. The reasons for it were, according to Bingham, first, that the plain- ness and simplicity of the Christian rites might not be contemned by the catechumens, or give scandal or of- fence to them, before they were thoroughly instructed aliout the nature of the mysteries; secondly, to con- ciliate a reverence in the minds of men for the mj'ste- ARC AN I DISCIPLINA 363 ARCH ries so concealed; and, thirdly, to make the catechu- mens more desirous to know them, or to excite their curiosity. Augustine says, "Though the sacraments are not disclosed to the catechumens, it is not because they cannot bear them, but that they may so much the more ardently desire them, by how much they are more honorably hidden from them" {Horn, in Joh. 90). Kothe goes into an elaborate inquiry on the subject in the article above cited (and also in his treatise De Dis- cipline A rcani Origine (Heidel. 1841 , 4 to), of which the following is the substance. Casaubon {De reb. sacris Em re. xvi, Genev. 1G54, 4to) traces the origin of it to a desire, on the part of Christians, to have mysteries of their own, and so not to be outdone by heathenism, which set great store by them. Kothe disputes this, on the ground of the bitter opposition of the Anti-Ni- cene Christians to all heathen ideas and usages. But he forgets that mysteries are congenial to human na- ture in all ages; a spirit akin to that which preserves Free-masonry could very well have existed in the early church. With less probability, certain writers, e. g. Frommann {De Disciplina Arcani, Jena, 1833), find the origin of the secret system in Judaism, which did not admit proselytes at once to all sacred services. Had this been so, we should find traces of it in the N. T. and in the apostolic age; but the whole S3'stem is quite foreign to apostolic usage, which practised the utmost openness. Moreover, during that early period of Christianity when the church borrowed from Ju- daism, the disciplina arcani did not yet exist ; and besides, the Jewish custom appears to be of so late an origin that it may itself be an imitation of a Chris- tian institution. August! (Hcndb. d. christl. Archcc- olcgie, i, 93 sq. ; Denkici'tri'igbitm, iv, 897) thinks that the early Christians adopted the secret discipline be- cause their public worship was forbidden by law, and that this compulsory secrecy grew into a usage. But if this were true, all parts of worship would have shared in the secrecy, whereas only certain portions were made mysteries of. Credner (Jen. Lilerar. Zei- tung, 1846, Nos. 164 and 165) traces the origin of the secret discipline back to the apostolic age, and finds the ground of it in the natural unwillingness of Jew- ish Christians to admit heathen converts at once to baptism. He finds confirmation of his theory in the fact that Clement of Alexandria {Quis Dives, c. 42), Irenseus {adv. fleer, iv, 23, 24), and Tertullian {De Bap- tismo, c. 18) trace the origin of the catechumenate back to the apostles. But even this would not prove his point ; there might be, and for some time were, cate- chumens, without a disciplina arcani; and, moreover, there is ample proof of openness in ritual usages up to the second century. But yet the true origin of the secret discipline is doubtless to be found in the cate- chumenate (see Bothe, 1. c). The catechumens were probationers in the church, not full members; and this novitiate was designed, first, to keep unworthy persons out of the church, and, secondly, to train new- converts in Christian doctrine and morals. At this day the Methodist Episcopal Church has such a cate- chumenate {Discipline, ch. ii, § 1), but without any se- cret discipline. But in the early church, during the persecutions, it Avas dangerous at once to admit pro- fessed converts, who might be spies, into the assem- blies of the faithful. They were accordingly taught apart. But the tendency of this state of things would naturally be to make two kinds of Christianity, tire esoteric, or that of the baptized believers (jideles), and the exoteric, or that of the unbaptized catechumens. The former shared in the Lord's Supper, but not the latter. Here is a plain starting-point for making mys- teries of the two sacraments in liturgical practice as well as in theory. What was at first accidental final- ly grew into a rule. 4. The Bomanists, as remarked above, have at- tempted to press the disciplina arcani into their ser- vice to account for the silence of the early church •writers as to penance, image-worship, and other of their corruptions. The Jesuit Schelstrate first at- tempted this in his Antiquitas illustrata (Ant. 1G78), but was fully refuted by Tenzel in Exercitationes Se- lectee (Francof. 1G92, 4to). Other Roman Catholic works on the subject are, Schollner, De Disciplina A r- cani (Venet. 1756); Lienhardt, De. Antiq. Liturg. >' Romans in all their European and Asiatic posses- sions ; but in the 3d century it fell into a, state of tawdry splendor (as in the temples of Palmyra and Baalltek), losing its characteristic features, as well as its original beauty and elegance. See Baalbek ; Tadmor. 5. Jewish. — (1.) Sources of Imitation. — "It was once common to claim for the Hebrews the invention of scientific architecture, and to allege that classical antiquity was indebted to the Temple of Solomon for the principles and many of the details of the art. It may here suffice to remark that temples previously existed in Egypt, Babylon, Syria, and Phoenicia, from which the- classical ancients were far more likely to borrow the ideas which they embodied in new and beautiful combinations of their own. There has never, in fact, been any people for whom a peculiar style of architecture could with less probability be claimed than for the Israelites. On leaving Egypt, they could only be acquainted with Egyptian art. On entering Ca- naan, the)' necessarily occupied the buildings of which they had dispossessed the previous inhabitants ; and the succeeding generations would naturally erect such buildings as the country previously contained. The architecture of Palestine, and, as such, eventually that of the Jews, had doubtless its own characteristics, by which it was suited to the climate and condition of the country, and in the course of time many improve- ments would no doubt arise from the causes which usually operate in producing change in any practical art. From the want of historical data and from the total absence of architectural remains, the degree in which these causes operated in imparting a peculiar character to the Jewish architecture cannot now be determined, for the oldest ruins in the country do not ascend beyond the period of the Roman domination. It does, however, seem probable that among the He- brews architecture was always kept within the limits of a mechanical craft, and never rose to the rank of a fine art. Their usual dwelling-houses differed little from those of other Eastern nations, and we nowhere find any thing indicative of exterior embellishment. See House. Splendid edifices, such as the palace of David and the Temple of Solomon, were completed by the assistance of Phoeni- cian artists (2 Sam. v, 11; 1 Kings v, 6, 18; 1 Chron. xiv, 1). See Palace. After the Babylonish exile the assist- ance of such foreigners was likewise resorted to for the restoration of the Temple (Ezra iii, 7). See Temple. From the time of the Ma'c- cabsean dynasty the Greek taste began to gain ground, especially under the Herodi- an princes (who seem to have been possessed with a sort of mania for building), and was shown in the Structure and embellishment of many towns, baths, colonnades, the- atres, and castles (Josephus, Ant. xv, 8, 1; xv, 19,4; xv, 10, 3 1 War, i, 4, 1). The Phoenician style, which seems to have had some affinity with the Egyptian, was not, however, superseded by the Grecian ; and even as late as the Mishna {Balm Bathra, iii, G), we read of Tyrian win- dows, porches, etc. ( Kitto). See Hirt's Gesch. der Bnu- hmst h. der A/ten, i, 113, 120; Schnaase, Gesch. b. bild. Kiinste, i, 241 sq. ; Ewald, Jsr. Gesch. Ill, i, 27; Per- gusson, Illustrated Handbook of Architecture (London, 1856); Michaelis, DeJudmis architectures parum periti* (Gutt. 1771). See Akcu. ARCHITECTURE 377 ARCHITECTURE (2.) History of Biblical Architecture. — The hook of Genesis (iv, 17, 20, 22) appears to divide mankind into great characteristic sections, viz., the "dwellers in tents" and the "dwellers in cities," when it tells us that Cain was the founder of a city ; and that among his descendants, one, Jabal, was "the father of them that dwell in tents," while Tubal-cain was "the in- structor of every artificer in brass and iron." It is probable that the workers in metal were for the most part dwellers in towns ; and thus the arts of architec- ture and metallurgy became from the earliest times leading characteristics of the civilized as distinguished from the nomadic tendencies of the human race. To the race of Shem is attributed (Gen. x, 11, 12, 22 ; xi, 2-9) the foundation of cities in the plain of Shinar, Babylon, Nineveh, and elsewhere ; of one of which, Resen, the epithet "great" sufficiently marks its im- portance in the time of the writer, a period at least as earhy as the 17th century, B.C., if not very much earli- er (Rawlinson, Outline of Ass. Hist. p. 10; Layard, Nin- eveh, ii, 221, 235, 238). From the same book we learn the account of the earliest recorded building, and of the materials employed in its construction (Gen. xi, 3, 9) ; and though a doubt rests on the precise site of the tower of Belus, so long identified with the Birs Nim- roud (Benjamin of Tudela, p. 100, Bohn; Newton, On Prop//, x, 155, 156 ; Vaux, Xin. and Pcrsep. p. 173, ITS : Keith, On Proph. p. 289), yet the nature of the soil, and the bricks found there in such abundance, though bearing mostly the name of Nebuchadnezzar, agree perfectly with the supposition of a city previous- ly existing on the same or a closclv neighboring site (Layard, ii, 249, 278, and Mb. and Bab. p. 531 ; Plin. vii, 56 : Ezra iv, 1). In the book of Esther (i, 2) men- tion is made of the palace at Susa, for three months in the spring the residence of the kings of Persia (Esth. iii, 13 ; Xen. Cyrop. viii, 6, § 22) ; and, in the books of Tobit and Judith, of Ecbatana, to which they retired for two months during the heat of summer (Tob. iii, 7 ; xiv, 14 ; Jud. i, 12 ; Herod, i, 98). A branch of the same Syro-Arabian race as the Assyrians, but the chil- dren of Ham, was the nation, or at least the dominant caste, of the Egyptians, the style of whose architecture agrees so remarkably with the Assyrian (Layard, ii, 206 sq.). It is in connection witli Eirypt that the Is- raelites appear first as builders of cities, compelled, in common with other Egyptian captives, to labor at the buildings of the Egyptian monarchs. Pithom and Eaamses are said to have been built by them (Exod. i, 11 ; Wilkinson, ii, 195). The Israelites were by occu- pation shepherds, and by habit dwellers in tents (Gen. xlvii, 3). The "house" built by Jacob at Succoth is probably no exception to this statement (Gen. xxxiii, 17). They had therefore originally, speaking proper- ly, no architecture. Even Hebron, a city of higher antiquity than the Egyptian Zoan (Tanis), was called originally from its founder, perhaps a Canaanite of the race of Anak, Kirjath-Arba, the house of Arba (Num. xiii, 22; Josh, xiv, 15). From the time of the occu- pation of Canaan they became dwellers in towns and in houses of stone, for which the native limestone of Palestine supplied a ready material (Lev. xiv, 34, 45; 1 Kings vii, 10; Stanley, Palest, p. 116 sq.) ; but the towns which they occupied were not all, nor, indeed, in most cases, built from the first by themselves (Deut. vi, 10 ; Num. xiii, 19). The peaceful reign and vast wealth of Solomon gaA'e great impulse to architecture; for besides the Temple and his other great works at and near Jerusalem, he built fortresses and cities in various places, among which the names and sites of Baalath and Tadmor are usually thought to be represented by the more modern superstructures of Baalbec and Palmyra (1 Kings ix, 15, 24). Among the succeeding kings of Israel and of Judah more than one is recorded as a builder: Asa (1 Kings xv, 23), Baasha (xvi, 17), Omri (xvi, 24), Ahab (xvi, 34 ; xxii, 39) ; Hezekiah (2 Kings xx, 20 ; 2 Chron. xxxii, 27, 30), Jehoash, and Josiah (2 Kings xii, 11, 12; xxii, 6); and, lastly, Jehoiakim, whose winter palace is mentioned (Jer. xxii, 14; xxxvi, 22; see also Amos iii, 15). On the return from captivity, the chief care of the rulers was to rebuild the Temple and the walls of Jerusalem in a substantial manner, with stone, and with timber from Lebanon (Ezra iii, 8; v, 8; Neh. ii, 8; iii, 1, 32). During the govern- ment of Simon Maccabseus, the fortress called Baris, and afterward Antonia, was erected for the defence of the Temple and the city. But the reigns of Herod and of his sons and successors were especially remark- able for the great architectural works in which they delighted. Not only was the Temple restored to a large portion, if not to the full degree, of its former magnificence, but the fortifications and other public buildings of Jerusalem were enlarged and embellished to an extent previously unknown (Luke xxi, 5 ; Benj. of Tudela, p. 83, Bohn). See Jerusalem. Besides these great works, the town of Caesarea was built on the site of an insignificant building called Strato's Tower; Samaria was enlarged, and received the name of Sebaste; the town of Agrippium was built; and ' Herod carried his love for architecture so far as to adorn with buildings cities even not within his own do- | minions, Berytus, Damascus, Tripolis, and many other places (Josephus, War, i, 21, 1, 11). His son, Philip I the tetrarch, enlarged the old Greek colony of Paneas, | giving it the name of Cseearea in honor of Tiberias ; while his brother Antipas founded the city of Tiberius, and adorned the towns of Sepphoris and Betharamph- ta, giving to the latter the name Livias, in honor of the mother of Tiberius (Reland, p. 497). Of the orig- inal splendor of these great works no doubt can be entertained ; hut of their style and appearance we can only conjecture, though with nearlj'- absolute certain- ty, that they were formed on Greek and Eoman mod- els. Of the style of the earlier buildings of Palestine ■we can only form an idea from the analogy of the Egyptian, Assyrian, and Persian monuments now ex- isting, and from the modes of building still adopted in Eastern countries. The connection of Solomon with Egypt and with Tyre, and the influence of the captiv- ity, maj' have in some measure successively affected the style both of the two temples and of the palatial edifices of Solomon. The enormous stones employed in the Assyrian, Persepolitan, and Egyptian buildings find a parallel in the substructions of Baalbek, more ancient than the superstructure (Layard, ii, 317, £18), and in the stones of so vast a size which still remain at Jerusalem, relics of the building either of Soli mon or of Herod (Williams, pt. ii, 1). But, as it has been observed again and again, scarcely any connected monuments are known to survive in Palestine by which we can form an accurate idea of its buildings, beautiful and renowned as they wire throughout the East (Plin. v, 14; Stanley, p. 183), and even of those which do remain no trustworthy examination has yet been made. It is probable, however, that the reser- voirs known under the names of the Pools of Solomon and Hezekiah contain some portions, at least, of the original fabrics (Stanley, p. 103, 165). — Smith, s. v. The domestic architecture of the Jews, so far as it can lie understood, is treated under House. Tools and instruments of building are mentioned by the sa- cred writers: the plumb-line, Amos vii, 7; the meas- uring-reed, Ezck. xl, 3; the saw, 1 Kings vii, 9. (See De Vogue, Varchitectun duns la yyrii , Par. 1865.) II. Mediaval Architecture. — 1. With the victory of Christianity over Paganism, as the religion of state, commences a new era in the history of architecture. Still the Greek, or, rather, Eoman art exercised a pow- erful influence, especially in the details of the new style. When Christianity became the religion of the state, the ancient basilicas (q. v.), or halls of justice, were turned into churches. The lower floor was used by the men, and the galleries devoted to the women. ARCHITECTURE 378 ARCHITECTURE Section of the Basilica of St. Peter at Rome, erected in the Time of Constantino, In later edifices the galleries were dispensed with. The church then consisted of ;i single oblong hall, with one, three, or five aisles, a round apsis at the rear end, an altar, etc. The basilican style prevailed throughout the entire Christian Church throughout the fourth century. It prevailed much later in Syria and Southern France, and remained in Central Italy till the Renaissance period. 2. The Byzantine was the earliest branching off from the basilican style. It had its rise in Constantinople, and was the fruitful parent of nearly all the later styles of Christian and Mohammedan architecture. Its finest example was the Church of St. Sophia, re- built by Justinian (A.D. 538), which has the most perfect interior of any church ever built. See St. So- phia. The other best examples of this style are the Church of St.Vitale, in Ravenna, and of St. Mark's, in Venice. The style prevailed in Asia when it gave birth to the Saracenic and the Armenian (and hence to the Russian), and in Western and North-western Italy, as well as in parts of France and Spain. '•Its chief characteristics are a central flat dome, illumina- ted by a row of small windows at its base ; semicircu- lar "apsides" at the ends of the cross, covered with half domes ; a profuse use of the round arch in colon- nades and galleries within and without, of such varied sizes as to give great apparent size to the edifice ; slen- der windows; a rather low entrance; the walls, and even pillars, covered with mosaic paintings, ornament- al and scenic, thus giving the interior the greatest possible brilliancy and dignity; and capitals orna- mented by a most remarkably rich interweaving of conventional elements borrowed from the antique or from life, and interspersed with animals fantastically disposed. :s. The different elements of the basilican and By- zantine stj les were united first in Lombardy, then on the Rhine, and produced the Romanesque, or round- \ arch Gothic, which, rising from the 7th to the lOtli centuries, and extending to the L2th, spread over most of Europe. Ai g the finest examples of this style arc the Cathedrals of Pisa, Vercelli, Parma, Modena, ami Lucca (in ftaly), of Worms, Bonn, Mayence, Speyer, and the churches of St. Gereon and Sti. Apos- toli in Cologne (on the Rhine), To this style belong the peculiar churches and round towers of North Ire- land, Scotland, Scandinavia, and the low round tower of Newport, R. I. In the round-arch style the aisles were covered with long arches instead of open wooden roofs. Bell-towers — round (as in Italy, the north of Europe, and elsewhere), or square, or octagonal, built separate from the church edifice (as in Italy) or joined to the edifice (as north of the Alps) — were added. The pillars broke from the antique rules of proportion, and were moulded into clustered columns. Small arched galleries ran around parts or the whole of the church, within and without. The exterior especially was covered with numerous well-disposed arches, pi- lasters, and other ornaments ; richly-decorated door- ways and windows drew the eye to the central part of the facade, and the whole external had a dignity not to be found in any other style of church architec- ture. The style prevailed throughout all Europe (ex- cepting part of Italy) till the gradual introduction of the pointed arch gave rise to what is usually called the Gothic style. 4. Meanwhile the Saracenic style — another out- growth of the Byzantine — had spread, with its numer- ous modifications, over all Mohammedan countries. It was modified largely by the Sassanian style (an outgrowth of the late Roman, as developed by the fire- worshippers of Persia) in the East, by the Spanish Ro- manesque in Spain and Morocco, and by the basilican style in Sicily. It arose in the seventh century, and spread with truly tropical luxuriance and quickness of growth from Persia to the Atlantic. Deprived by the Mohammedan faith of the use of painting or sculp- ture, it developed an architectonic ornamentation un- surpassed in the history of architecture by its richness and purely conventional character. Poetry took the place of the formative arts of sculpture and painting in the inscriptions from the Koran that were interwo- ven with the luxuriant ornament of the walls and columns. The Byzantine dome remained the princi- pal feature of the roof, but this was hung with myriads of little semi-domes, producing a most fairy-like effect. Under the rich fancy of the Orient, color was used as freely as in the Egyptian style. The minaret was added, and gave a marvellous grace and lightness by its slender form. The pointed arch (adopted perhaps first from the court of a Christian monastery in Sicily erected in the sixth century) was soon adopted, and spread into the horse-shoo arch, finally developing it- self into the complicated interwoven arches of the ARCHITECTURE 379 ARCHITECTURE Moorish style. The style arose in the seventh centu- ry, and extended to the fifteenth, its culminating pe- riod being from the ninth to the eleventh centuries. The Turkish style is more Byzantine than Saracenic. Entrance to the Court of the Lions in the Alhainbra,. more slender, filled with elaborate open-work orna- ments, and made, like a flower on its stalk, the richest part of the edifice. Sculpture was used profusely v. ith- in and without, and the windows were filled with paint- ings, in colored trlass, from Biblical scenes, making thus (as in the Egyptian arch) the other arts subordinate to the architecture; or, more strictly speaking, mere architectonic adjuncts. The principal characteristics of this style are as follows : The ground-plan is an ob- long rectangle, and for churches, the cross ; the crypt disappears ; the choir becomes smaller in proportion to the building, and ends in a polygon ; the walls of the nave are higher, so that the arches spring immediate- ly from the pillars ; the walls themselves are divided by arches, and the windows enlarged; the arches are all pointed, and connected by chamfers and astragals, as well as also the pillars. Outside are buttresses and piers to strengthen the building, connected with small turrets and ornamented foliage tracery ; the cornices are deeply excavated and much inclined (to facilitate the running off of water) ; the greatest number of or- naments are displayed on the facade, which is adorned with one or two towers, built on a square basis, but transformed afterward into an octagon, rising with a series of pillars, turrets, and high windows, and end- ing in an open-work octagonal pyramid ; the entrance of the churches consists of either one or three richly decorated portals; the ornaments consist principally of straight lines and segments of circles meeting in Among its most important monuments are the mosques ' acute angles, and of tracery representing natural ob- and tombs of the sultans at Cairo, and Bejapoor and i jects, such as vine or oak leaves, etc. The principal Delhi (India), the palaces and mosques of the Alham- j specimens of German Gothic style are to lie found in 'bra and of the Cuba (Palermo), and the Castle of Al- | the cathedrals of Cologne, Freiburg, Eegensburg, Vi- cazar at Segovia (Spain). In the twelfth century, I enna, Strasburg, etc. The French Gothic presents Central and Western Europe came into much more | some peculiarities ; thus, the foundation is generally intimate contact than former- ly with the Orient, especially through the Crusades, and the pointed arch and the spirit of ornamentation of the Saracenic art. were borrowed, and added largety to the development of the Gothic from the Roman- esque style. 5. The Gothic. — The round- arch or Romanesque style has given the Christian temple its almost complete plan, as far as concerns the disposition of the aisles, altar, choir, etc. The pointed arch began first in France and Normandy to sup- plant the round arch. The prog- ress of this new feature was then gradual and fluctuating for over a century. The two arches are found used almost promiscuous- ly till 1280, when the pointe arch, and all the constructive changes it induced, were used, purely and solely, for a centu- ry. This is hence called the golden period of the Gothic ar- chitecture. The use of this arch required, for harmony, a corre- sponding additional upward ten- dency in all the parts of the structure. To this was added a richness of conventionalized, foliated ornamentation, not sur- passing, perhaps, that of the windows and doorways of some works of the round-arch style, but far more generally diffused and more harmoniously incorpo- rated with the feeling of the en- tire edifice. The spire was made Apse of the Apostles' Church at Cologne, ARCHITECTURE 380 ARCHITRICLINUS fan-shaped, the choir being encircled bya row of chap- els; its principal ornament consists in the three large portals in front ; columns replace the pillars ; the circles and arches are not connected by chamfers or astragals; the arches and buttresses are plain; the towers mostly square, and without the pyramidal apex; the perpendicular ascending tendency is bal- anced by a horizontal gallery in the facade. Its best specimens are Notre-Dame of Paris, and the cathe- drals of Rouen, Dijon, Chartres, Rheims, Amiens, St. Ouen near Rouen, etc. The Spanish Gothic inclines rv) closed the second great division or history, and was followed by the modern in the 19th century. III. The Modern. — The chief characteristic differ- ence between the modern, and the ancient, and me- diaeval architecture, is that it is marked by no style such as is followed by all builders of the period in all lands where a certain civilization prevails. The in- consistencies and absurdities of the Rococo style of the latter part of the 18th century were felt under the purer taste awakened by the study of the history of ancient and mediaeval art that has prevailed during to the horizontal, looks heavy, and the inside is gen- • the last fifty years. Attempts are making to revive erally overloaded with ornaments, as, for instance, j the spirit of the pure ages — of the Gothic (mostly in the cathedrals of Toledo, Barcelona, Xeres, etc. The England), of the Renaissance (mostly in France), and convent of Batalha is a line specimen of the Portu- of the Ancient Classical (mostly in Germany). A few guese Gothic, which is of purer style than the Span- j architects and critics feel the necessity of having a ish. The Gothic of Holland and Belgium partakes of ntw style of architecture, adapted to the wants of mod- the French and the German ; the former preponder- ern society, and to the use of the new materials (es- ates in the inside, and the latter in the outside, where ' pecially iron and glass) that science has brought with- we tind large pointed windows, no rosettes, smaller in the reach of the builder. portals, and high towers, as in the cathedrals of Am- sterdam, Brussels, Utrecht, the Oude Kerk of Am- sterdam, St. Laurentius of Rotterdam, etc. The Eng- lish Gothic has many peculiarities. The richest spec- imens belong to the so-called Tudor style ; for in- stance, the Chapel of Henry VII. The Italian Goth- ic is distinguished from the same style as found in more northern countries by inclining more to the an- tique, and presenting the perpendicular features only in false facades, while in the actual buildings the hor- izontal predominates ; it also preserves the walls in In America the early church edifices had usually no architectural merits or pretensions. This arose from the poverty of the people, the lack of artistic ed- ucation in the builders and, of a cultivated taste in the community, or from an honest desire to shun any thing that might savor of pompous display in the house of God. "Within the last twenty years a different spir- it has animated all denominations of Christians, and a most healthy feeling prevails, manifesting itself iu honest attempts to make the house cf God a building worthy of its high and holy uses. The most impor- their original massiveness, instead of dividing them tant requisite for this is the development of a body of by means of pillars and windows; the foundations are broad, the choir ends in a quadrangle ; they are sur- mounted by a cupola, but have no towers, as the cathe- drals of Florence, Sienna, Orvieto, Assisi, St. Antonio of Padua, St. Petronia of Bologna, St. Maria Novello of Florence, etc., etc. In the 15th and 16th centuries the spirit of the style had died out, though it still gave a tending to the character of the edifices erected in Ger- many and elsewhere, even as late as the 18th century. 6. The Renaissance. — In Italy the Gothic style had never taken such deep root as in the other countries of Europe. The revival of classical studies, and the tendency of the age to exalt ancient philosophy over Christianity, led to an extensive study of the antique. This spirit, carried into architecture, produced the Renaissance style, which is marked by an adaptation of classical (especially of Roman) architectural princi- Christian architects from the church itself. These, permeated with the true Christian feeling, knowing the wants of the church, and cultivated in all the re- quired departments of science and art, will be able to give an architecture suited to the wants of the present age. To accomplish this is needed the establishment of academies or departments of architecture in our uni- versities and chairs of the fine arts in the colleges and theological seminaries. For the histoiy of architecture, see Sehnaase's Ge- schichte der Kunst (Dusseldorf, 1843-66, 8 vols.) ; Kug- ler, Gesehichte der BavHamst (Stuttgardt, 1859, 3 vols.) ; Lubke, Gesehichte der Baukunst (Stuttgardt, 1865); Gailhaband, Denkmdler der Bauhmsi alter Zeiten (Ham- burg, 1849, 4 vols.); Fergusson, Handbook of Archi- tecture (Lond. 1855, 2 vols.), and Modern Styles (Lend. 1862, 1 vol.); Voillet le Due, Eistoire d' Architecture pies and details to the Christian temple. The round j (Paris, 4 vols). On the history of church architecture arch was again resorted to. A massive dome was (from the ceclesiolorjical stand-point), see Christian Iie- built over the centre of the cross. The columns re- I membrancer, July, 1849, p. 1*4. There are also papers sumed the classical proportions, or were made into on church architecture in the Quarterly Review, vi, 62; massive pilasters. In the 17th century, and more es- lxxv, 179; Church Review, iii, 372; Monthly Christian pecially in the 18th, architecture seemed to have bro- ! Spectator, Nov. 1852, p. 654. Valuable practical hints ken away from all laws of proportion and harmony, ' may be found in Trhnen, Chapel Architecture (London, and to have lost its predominance in church edifices. I 1849, 8vo) ; and in Jobson, Chapel and School Architec- The churches seemed more galleries of painting or tare (Lond. 1850, 8vo). See also Rickman, Attempt to sculpture than architectural structures. The oma- distiiii/ii/sh the Styles if Architecture in England (Lond. ment became first, massive, then overpowering, and 8vo); Sh&Tj&, SevenPeriodsof English Architect. (Lond. was broken from its structural lines. It finally be- ', 8vo) ; Brit. Quart. Rev. Aug. 1849, art. ii; Mercersburg came trivial and inexpressive. Expensive stones and i Rev. 1851, p. 358; Bunsen, Basiliken lies ckristl. Rom's large gilded surfaces were more prized than aesthetic (Munch. 1842) ; Lenoir, Architect. Monatt. (Far. 1*5"-'); propriety or architectural effect. And, finally, the j Brown, Sacred Architect. (Lond. 1845); Dollman, A n- extravagant, insincere, almost infidel life of the 17th \ dent Architecture (Lond. 1858) ; Hubsch, Altchristlicha and 18th centuries manifested themselves in the Baroco Kirchen (Karlsr. 1860). See Church Edifices. (or Jesuitical) style of Italy, or the Rococo (or French) j Architricllrms (' ApxirpiicKivog, master of the tri- Btyle of France and German}'. clinium or dinner-bed [see Accubation]), rendered in Tims the greatest genuine architectural life of me- John ii, 8, 9, "governor of the feast" (q. v.), equivalent diaeval times manifested itself in the threat epochs of to the Roman Magister Convivu. The Greeks also de- the Basilican (4th to 6th centuries), Byzantine (7th to noted the same social office by the title of Symposiarch 14th centuries), Saracenic (7th to 1 1th centuries), Ro- (avuiroaiapxoc.'). He was not the giver of the feast, manesque (9th to 12th centuries), Gothic (12th to 15th | but one of the guests specially chosen to direct the centuries), and Renaissance (14th to 17th centuries"), entertainment, and promote harmony and good fellow- Perhaps its highest culmination was in the Middle ship among the company. (See Potter's Gr. Ant. ii, Gothic (1300). After the 16th century all true arehi- 386.) In the apocryphal Ecclcsiasticus (xxxv, 1, 2) tccture died out, and the Rococo period (18th centu- | the duties of this officer among the Jews are indicated. ARCHON 381 ARCTURUS He is there, however, called riyovfttvoQ : "If thou be ' made the master [of a feast], lift not thyself up, but be among them as one of the rest; take diligent care for them, and so sit down ; and when thou hast done all thy office, take thy place, that thou mayest be merry | with them, and receive a crown for thy well ordering of the feast." (See Walch, Be, ArchitricUnio,Jen. 1753; Brendel, De loco Joh. Eisenb. 1785.) See Banquet. Archon (apxwv, a ruler), the title properly of the chief magistrates or rather executive officers of the Athenians during their democracy (see Smith's Diet. of Class. Ant. s. v.), and applied to various function- aries, (1.) specially to the recognised head of the Syr- ian Jews during the Roman empire [see Aeabarch], and (2.) technically a title in the Greek Church of several officers, e. g. the church-keeper, keeper of the book of Gospels, etc. A rchontici, a sect of the second century who re- jected baptism, and held that the world was not cre- ated by the Almighty God, but by certain powers, seven or eight in number, whom they called Archontes (dpxovng, rulers), to the chief of whom they gave the name of Sabaoth, the god of the Jews and the giver of the law, whom they blasphemousfy distinguished from the true God. Now, as they pretended that baptism was administered in the name of Sabaoth, and not in that of the supreme God, they rejected it, and the holy Eucharist. They held that woman was a creation of the devil. They were a branch of the Valentiniahs. — Bingham, Orig. Eccles. bk. xi, ch. x, cap. 2 ; Tille- mont, ii, 295 ; Landon, Eccl. Diet, i, 493. Archpresbyter or Archpriest, the head of the priests, as the archdeacon was originally head of the deacons. Anciently, the minister next in order to the bishop. Generally the senior priest of the diocese bore this title, but Thomassin shows that the bishops fre- quently chose the ablest and not the senior priest as archpresbyter. This was more frequently the case in the Greek than in the Latin Church, and some popes were altogether opposed to appointing any but the senior priest. The archpresbyter acted as the repre- sentative of the bishop at public worship, while the archdeacon represented him in the government of the diocese. At first there was only one archpresbyter in a diocese ; but since the 5th and 6th centuries we find, besides one in the diocesan town, several in the coun- try. In the time of the Carolingians, every diocese was divided into a number of archpresbyteral dis- tricts, called archpresbyterates, deaneries, Christi- anities (Christinnitates), rural chapters. The powers of the archpresbyter were : He had, in the name of his bishop, to superintend the clergymen of his dis- trict, to execute the episcopal and synodal decrees, to present the candidates for the priesthood from his dis- trict to the bishop, and to settle difficulties between the clergy. On the first day of every month he held conferences with the clergy. He also reported to the archdeacon, and through him to the bishop, the graver offences of the laymen. The archpriest's church was the only one in the district in which baptism was dis- pensed {eevh sin, baptismedis). The whole of the dis- tricts was sometimes called plebs, and the archpresby- ter Plebanus, a title which in several countries is still in use. There are still archpriests in the Greek Church, vested with most of the privileges of chorejyis- copi, or rural bishops. The name is also still in use in some dioceses of the Roman Church, corresponding to the more common dean (q. v.). — Bingham. Orig. Ec- cles. bk. ii, cap. 19; Coleman, Christian Antiquities, p. 161 ; Thomassin, De nova et veteri ecclesim disciplina, pt. ii, 1. ii, c. 3; Neller, De Archipresbyteris (Trevir. 1771). See Presbyter ; Priest. Arcimboldi, Johannes Angeltts, born at Milan toward the close of the fifteenth century, sent by Leo X as papal nuncio to Scandinavia in order to sell pa- pal indulgences. The permission to do so he bought at a high price of King Christian II of Denmark. In the controversies springing up between the Danes and the Swedes, he was first bribed by the Danes and later by the Swedes. On his return to Italy, Leo X ordered a suit to be instituted against him, but in 1525 he was made bishop of Novara, and in 1550 archbishop of Mi- lan. He died in 1555. Arctn'rus (the Latin form of the Gr. apKrovpoc, bear-keeper, designating among the ancients the bright- est star in the constellation Bootes, Cic. Aral. 99 ; also the whole constellation Bootes, Hes. Op. 564, 608 : Virg. Georg. i, 204 ; and hence the time of its rising in September, Soph. CEd. Tyr. 1137; Thuc. ii, 78; Virg. Georg. i, 68), put in the Auth. Vers, for the Heb. "£'J (Ash, for d;'«, neiish', Arabic the same, Job ix, 9, " [God], which maketh Arcturus, Orion, and Pleiades, and the chambers of the south," Sept. flAf- tdg, Vulg. Arcturus), or d^? (A'yish, a fuller form of the same, prob. signifying supporter, barrow, Job xxxviii, 32, " canst thou guide Arcturus with his sons," Sept. '"Emrepog, Vulg. vespe?-), is thought by most recent interpreters to denote the constellation of the Great Bear, Ursa Major, but on grounds not alto- gether satisfactory nor with unanimity (see Hyde, ad Ulugh-Beii, Tab. Stell. p. 22, 23 ; Michaelis, Suppl. p. 1907 \ Schultens on Job, p. 239). The older interpret- ers understand: (1.) the Great Bear, or the seven stars of the Wain (Sepfentriones), so Saadias and Aben Ezra; (2.) the Pleiades, so the Sept. (in one passage only, and there perhaps the terms have become trans- posed, as "Eo-TTtpog and 'ApKrovpog both occur in the same verse) and the Targum (NP-Vf in the other pas- sage, according to the Venice and Lond. editions, meaning, however, hen, according to Bochart); (3.) the evening star, Hesperus, Venus, so the Sept. (in the latter passage, and perhaps also in the first) ami Vulg.; (4.) the tail of Aries (fiba ^21) or the head of Taurus (H.byj~l 'CH~t), so the Talmudists (Bera- choth, p. 586), apparently referring to the bright star in the eye of Taurus (Aldebaraii), near the tail of Aries; (5.) Arcturus, so the Vulg. (in chap, ix, and perhaps the Sept.); (6.) the rendering Iyutha of the Syriac (in both passages, as likewise in Job xv, 27, for PGS, and Amos v, 8, for b^OS ; comp. Ephraemi Opera, ii, 449 a), as this word is itself of doubtful origin and signifi- cation, if really genuine (see Anecdot. Orient, ii, :!7 : Lach, in Eichhom's Bibl. vii, 341), but appears from the lexicographers to bear the general import of she- goat, referring to a star in the constellation Auriga. Laying aside those of these interpretations that are evidently mere conjecture (such as Arcturus, Venus), and others that are here out of the question (such as the Pleiades, which in Heb. arc called iTC"<3), there remain but two interpretations : First, that which identifies the Heb. Ash with the Great Bear, or Ursa Major, the Wain. The superior probability of this is sustained by the following considerations : (1.) This is so conspicuous a constellation, and so famous in all ancient as well as modern astronomy, that the total silence in these astrological enumerations, otherwise, respecting it is unaccountable, especially as inferior constellations are not omitted; (2.) The mention of the attendant stars ("sons," b^jlSl) in the second passage of Job agrees with the ascription among the Arabs of daughters to X> esh, the corresponding Arabic constellation (Niebuhr, Beschreib. v. Arabien, p. 114), these being the three stars in the tail of the Bear. The other interpretation, namely, the goat, can only lie sustained by a forced etymology from "t", a goat, and a lesser constellation is then referred to, namely, Auriga ; and the reference to the attendant stars, to those in the right hand of this figure, is not only un- natural, but at variance with its late origin. Schul- ARCUDIUS 382 AREOPAGUS tens {Comment, in loc.) derives the Heb. -word from an Aral iic term signifying the night-watcher, because Ursa Major never sets ; while Kimchi refers it to the Heb. i"', in the sense of a collection of stars; and Lnd. de Dieu compares the Ethiopic name of the con- stellation Pisces; but the etymology first proposed above is preferable (see Bochart, Ukroz. ii, G80; Al- ferg. p. 8, 03 ; Ideler, Unters. ub. d. Stern-Namem, p. 3, 19 ; comp. Abulfeda, p. 375 ; Eutych. p. 277 ; Schul- tens, Imp. Joctan, p. 10, 32). — Gesenius, Thes. Heb. p. 895. See Astronomy ; Constellation. Arcudius, Peter, a native of Corfu. The Popes Gregory XIV and Clement VIII tried, but unsuccess- fully, to bring about, through him, a union of the Greek Church in Russia with that of Rome. He died in Rome in 1635. He wrote Concord, eccles. Orient, et Occident, in sepiem sacramentis, etc. (Paris, 1619, fob). — Niceron, Memoires, xi, 5G ; Hoefer, Biog. Gen. iii, 74. Ard (Heb. id. *njt, prob. for Tntf, i. q. Tl^ de- scent; Sept. 'Apc'td v. r. 'ASap), a grandson of Benjamin through Bela (Num. xxvi, 40). B.C. 1856. In Gen. xlvi, 21, he appears as a son of Benjamin, where, how- ever, the Sept. makes him a great-grandson through Gera as a son of Bela. In 1 Chron. viii, 3, he is called Addar. His descendants were called Ardites, Heb. Ard*'. "H">X, Sept. 'Apadi (Num. xxvi, 40). See Benjamin. He is possibly the same with Ezbox (1 Chron. vii, 7). Ar'dath (Lat. Ardath, the Gr. text being no longer extant), the name of a "field" mentioned only in the Apocrypha (2 [Vulg. 4] Esdr. ix, 26) as the scene of the vision of the bereaved woman ; no doubt a fanci- ful appellation. Ard'ite (Num. xxvi, 40). See Ard. Ar'don (Heb. Ardon', "I'^IX, descend mt, others fugitive ; Sept. 'Apdiav v. r. 'Opva), the last-named of the three sons of Caleb by his first wife Azubah (1 Chron. ii, 18). B.C. ante 1658. Are'li (Heb. AreW, "^fiOK, heroic, fr. Ariel; Sept. 'Anti]\iic, 'Aon'/X), the last-named of the seven sons of Gad (Gen. xlvi, 16). B.C. 1873. His descendants were called Arelites (Heb. id., Sept. 'ApigXi, Num. xxvi, 17). Are'lite (Num. xxvi, 17). See Arei.i. Areop'agite ('AptoTrayi-qc), a member (Acts xvii, 34) of the court of AREOPAGUS (q. v.). This, as constituted by Solon, consisted of the nine archons (chief magistrates) for the year, and the ex-archons. The latter became members for life ; but before their ad- mission, they were submit- ted, at the close of their an- nual magistracy, to a rigid scrutiny into their conduct in office and their private mor- als. Proof of criminal or un- becoming conduct was suffi- cient also afterward to expel them. Various accounts are given of the number to which the Areopagites were limited. If there was any fixed num- ber, admission to the council could not have been a neces- sary consequence of honora- ble discharge from the ar- chonship. But it is more probable that the accounts which limit the number are applicable only to the earlier period of its existence (see the anonymous argument to Demosthenes' Oration against Androtion). Lysias express!}' states that the acting archons had a seat in it (Areop. p. 110, § 16-20). Areop'agus, the Latin form of the Greek words (o "Apaoc irdyoc), signifying, in reference to place, Mars' Hill, but, in reference to persons, the council which was held on the hill. The council was also termed // iv 'Apiioj iray7rcu6pioi IRueaZovTO, Pollux, viii, 118). On the eastern and western side is a raised block. These blocks are probably the two rude stones which Pausanias saw there, and w-hich are described by Euripides as assigned, the one to the accuser, the other to the criminal, in the causes which were tried in the court (Iph. T. 961). — Smith. See Areopagite. The Areopagus possesses peculiar interest to the Christian as the spot from which Paul delivered his memorable address to the men of Athens (Acts xvii, 22-31). It has been supposed by some commentators that he was brought before the Council of Areopa- gus, but there is no trace in the narrative of any ju- dicial proceedings. Paul " disputed daily" in the "market" or Agora (xvii, 17), which was situated .-'"5 ATHENS \ -" Trispyrgi Seal! ofJ!:le^ AREOPAGUS 383 AREOPAGUS south of the Areopagus, in the valley tying between this hill and those of the Acropolis, the Pnyx, and the Museum. Attracting more and more attention, " cer- tain philosophers of the Epicureans and Stoics" brought him up from the valley, probably by the stone steps already mentioned, to the Areopagus aliove, that they might listen to him more conveniently. Here the philosophers probably took their seats on the stone benches usually occupied by the members of the council, while the multitude stood upon the steps and in the valley below. The dignilied bearing of the apostle is worthy of high admiration, the more so from the associations of the spot (see Conybeare and Howson, L'fe and Epistles of St. Paul, i, 346-379). Nor does his eloquent discourse appear to have" been without good effect; for, though some mocked, and some procrastinated, yet others believed, among whom was a member of the council, " Dionysius, the Areop- agite," who has been represented as the first bishop of Athens, and is said to have written books on the " Celestial Hierarchy ;" but their authenticity is ques- tioned. The history in the Acts (xvii, 22) states that the speaker "stood in the midst of Mars' Hill" (see Robinson's Researches, i, 10-12). Having come up from the level parts of the city, where the markets (there were two, the old and the new) were, he would probably stand with his face toward the north, and would then have immediately behind him the long walls which ran down to the sea, affording protection against a foreign enemy. Near the sea, on one side, was the harbor of Pirants, on the other that designa- ted Phalerum, with their crowded arsenals, their busy workmen, and their gallant ships. Not far off in the ocean lay the island of Salamis, ennobled forever in history as the spot near which Athenian valor chas- tised Asiatic pride, and achieved the liberty of Greece. The apostle had only to turn toward his right hand to catch a view of a small but celebrated hill rising with- in the city near that on which he stood, called the Pnyx, where, standing on a block of bare stone, De- mosthenes and other distinguished orators had ad- dressed the assembled people of Athens, swaying that arrogant and fickle democracy, and thereby making Map (if the ancient Vicinity of the Areopagus. A, The Acropolis; I!, Areopagus ; ('. Museum; D, Hndrianopolis ; E Temple of Jupiter Olvnipius; F, Theatre of Bacchus; G, Odeum or Re(nlln; H, Pnyx ; I,' Temple of Theseus ; J, Gymnasium of Ptolemy. K, Stoa of Hadrian ; L, Gate of New Acorn ; M, Tower of Andronicus N, Arch of Hadrian; O, Street of Tripods; P, Monument of Philopap pus; Q, Temple of Fortune ; II, P.-Minthciiaie stadium ; S, Tomb of Her- odes; T, Gate of Dioehares; V. Gate of Achamie; V, Dipvlum ; W, Gate called Hippades; X, Lycahettus ; Y, Piraic Gate: Z, Prytaneum j a, Tombs, b, To the Academia; c, Cerainieus Exterior; v vofMov). (3.) Its police function also made it a protector and upholder of the institutions and laws. In this charac- ter the Areopagus had jurisdiction over novelties in religion, in worship, in customs, in every thing that departed from the traditionary and established usages and modes of thought (irarpioic vo/ufiow) which a re- gard to their ancestors endeared to the nation. This was an ancient and well-supported sphere of activity. The members of the court had a right to take oversight of festive meetings in private houses. In ancient times they fixed the number of the guests, and deter- mined the style of the entertainment. If a person had no obvious means of subsisting, or was known to live in idleness, he Mas liable to an action before the Areopagus ; if condemned three times, he w as punish- ed with driut'a, the loss of his civil rights. In later times the court possessed the right of giving permis- sion to teachers (philosophers and rhetoricians) to es- tablish themselves and pursue their profession in the city. (4.) Its strictly religious jurisdiction extended itself over the public creed, worship, and sacrifices, embra- cing generally every thing which could come under the denomination of ra itpa — sacred things. It was its special duty to see that the religion of the state was kept pure from all foreign elements. The accusation of impiety (ypapr) aaefittde) — the vagueness of which AREOPOLIS 385 ARETAS admitted almost any charge connected with religious innovations — belonged in a special manner to this tri- bunal, though the charge was in some cases heard be- fore the court of the Heliastaj. The freethinking poet Euripides stood in fear of, and was restrained by, the Areopagus (Euseb. Prep. Evang. vi, 14 ; Bayle, s. v. Eurip.~). Its proceeding in such cases was sometimes rather of an admonitory than punitive character. (5.) Not less influential was its moral and educa- tional power. Isocrates speaks of the care which it took of good manners and good order (t)]q tvKoaplae, evraZiao). Quintilian relates that the Areopagus condemned a boy for plucking out the eyes of a quail ■ — a sentence which has been both misunderstood and misrepresented {Penny Cyclop, s. v.), but which its original narrator approved, assigning no insufficient reason, namely, that the act was the sign of a cruel disposition, likely in advanced life to lead to baneful actions (Quint, v, 9). The court exercised a salutary influence in general over the Athenian youth, their educators and their education. (G.) Its financial position is not well understood; most probably it varied more than any other part of its administration with the changes which the consti- tution of the city underwent. It may suffice to men- tion, on the authority of Plutarch (Themis, c, 10), that in the Persian war the Areopagus had the merit of completing the number of men required for the fleet by paying eight drachma; to each. — Kitto, s. v. In the following works corroboration of the facts stated in this article, and further details, with discus- sions on doubtful points, may be found : Sigonius, Be Rep. Ath. iii, 2, p. 1568; De Canaye, Pecherches sur VAreopage, p. 273-316; Mem. de PA cad. des Inscr. x; Schwab, Num quod Areop. inplebiscita aut confirmanda aut rejicienda jus exercuerit legitimum (Stutt. 1818) ; the treatises, De Areopago, of Hauer (Ilafn. 1708), Meursius (Lugd. B. 1624, and in Gronov. Thes. v, 207), Schedius (Viteb. 1677, and in Iken. Thes. ii, 674 sq.), and Bockh (Barl. 1826); Forbiser, Handb. d. alt. Geogr. iii ; Meier, Von der Blutgeriehtsbarkeit des A reo- pag.; Matthia, De Jud. Ath. in Misc. Philol. ; Krebs, De Ephetis ; Potter, Gr. Antiq. bk. i, ch. xix ; Smith's Diet, of Class. Ant. s. v. Areiopagus ; Grote's Hist, of Greece (Am. ed.), iii, 73, 79, 122 ; iv, 141 ; v., 352-366. See Mars' Hill. Areopolis. See Ar ; Aroer. A'res ('Apfc), one of those whose " sons" (to the number of 656) are said (1 Esdr. v, 10) to have returned from Babylon ; evidently the Arah (q. v.) of the genuine texts (Ezra ii, 5 ; Neh. vii, 10). Ar'etas ('Aperac; Arab, charresh, Pococke, Spec. Hist. Arab. p. 58, or, in another form, chaurish = D"|Hn, graver, Pococke, i, 70, 76, 77, 89), the common name of several Arabian kings (see Diod. Sic. xiv, 70; comp. Wesseling ; Michaelis, in Pctt's Syllog. iii, 62 sq.). 1. The first of whom we have any notice was a contemporary of the. Jewish high-priest Jason and of Antiochus Epiphanes, about B.C. 170 (2 Maec. v, 8): " In the end, therefore, he (Jason) had an unhappy re- turn, being accused before Aretas, the king of the Ara- bians." 2. Josephus (Ant. xiii, 13, 3) mentions an Aretas, king of the Arabians (surnamed Obedas, 'Gfiic'ac., Ant. xiii, 13, 5), contemporary with Alexander Jannams (died B.C. 79) and his sons. After defeating Antio- chus Dionysus, he reigned over Coele-Syria, " being called to the government by those that held Damas- cus (icXiiOeic. elg rijv apxfjv i'ltb rw rt)i' Aapamcbv iX<>vrwv) by reason of the hatred they bore to Ptole- my Mennams" (Ant. xiii, 15, 2). He took part with Hyrcanus, who had taken refuge with him (War, i, 6, 2), in his contest (Ant. xiv, 1, 4) for the sovereign- ty with his brother Aristobulus (q. v.), and laid siege to Jerusalem (B.C. 65), but, on the approach of the Eo- Bn man general Scaurus, he retreated to Philadelphia (War, i, 6, 3). Hyrcanus and Aretas were pursued and defeated by Aristobulus at a place called Papyron, and lost above 6000 men (Ant. xiv, 2, 3). After Pom- pey had reduced Syria to a Roman province, Aretas submitted to him again, B.C. 64 (see Dion Cass. xxxvii, 15 ; Appian, Mithr. 166 ; Plut. Pomp. 39, 41). Three or four years after, Scaurus, to whom Pompey had committed the government of Ccele-Syria, invaded Petraja, but, finding it difficult to obtain provisions for his army, he consented to withdraw on the offer of 300 talents from Aretas (Josephus, Ant. xiv, 5, 1; War, i, 8, 1). This expedition is commemorated on a coin. See Scaurus. The successors of Scaurus in Syria also prosecuted the war with the Arabs (Appian, Syr. 50) — Kitto, s. v. Probable Coin of Aretas II, with the (Greek) Inscription, "Of King Aretas Philellenos" [Lover of the Greeks] — an epithet perhaps, assumed by him on acquiring his dominion. 3. Aretas, whose name was originally ./Eneas (Ai- vilac), succeeded Obodas (Josephus, Ant. xvi. 9, 4). He was the father-in-law of Herod Antipas. The lat- ter made proposals of marriage to the wife of his half- brother Herod-Philip, Herodias, the daughter of Aris- tobulus, their brother, and the sister of Agrippa the Great. (On the apparent discrepancy between the Evangelists and Josephus, in reference to the name of the husband of Herodias, see Lardner's Credibility, etc., ii, 5 ; Works, 1835, i, 408-416.) In consequence of this the daughter of Aretas returned to her father, and a war (which had been fomented by previous dis- putes about the limits of their respective countries, see Joseph. Ant. xvii, 10, 9) ensued between Aretas and Herod. The army of the latter was totally de- stroyed ; and on his sending an account of his disaster to Rome the emperor immediately ordered Vitellius to bring Aretas prisoner alive, or, if dead, to send his head (Joseph. Ant. xviii, 5, 1). But while Yitellius was on his march to Petra, news arrived of the death of Tiberius (A.D. 37), upon which, after administer- ing the oath of allegiance to his troops, he dismissed them to winter-quarters and returned to Rome (Jo- seph. Ant. xviii, 5, 3). The Aretas into whose do- minions /Elius Gellius came in the time of Augustus (Strabo, xvi, 781) is probably the same. There is Supposed Coin of Aretas III, with a similar Legend to the foregoing. another coin extant inscribed ^iKiWrjvoc, i. e. lover of the Greeks (Eckhel, Doctr. Num. iii, 330), that may have belonged to this Aretas. — Kitto, s. v. It has been supposed by man}' that it was at the above juncture that Aretas took possession of Damas- cus, and placed a governor in it (i9i>ap\t]ij) with a garrison, as stated by the Apostle Paul : " In Damas- cus the governor under Aretas, the king, kept the city of the Damascenes with a garrison, desirous to apprehend me; and through a window in a basket was I let down by the wall, and escaped his hands" (2 Cor. xi, 32, compared with Acts ix, 24). In that case we are furnished with a chronological mark in ARETAS 386 ARGENTEITS CODEX the apostle's history. From Gal. i, 18, it appears that Paul went up to Jerusalem from Damascus three years after bis conversion. See Paul. The Empe- ror Tiberius died March 16, A.D. 37 ; and, as the af- fairs of Arabia were settled in the second year of Ca- ligula, Damascus was then most probably reoccupied by the Romans. The city under Augustus and Tibe- rius was attached to the province of Syria ; and we have Damascene coins of both these emperors, and again of Nero and his successors. But we have none of Caligula and Claudius, and the following circum- stances make it probable that the rulership of Damas- cus was changed after the death of Tiberius. By this occurrence at Rome a complete reversal took place in the situation of Antipas and his enemy. The former was ere long (A.D. 39) banished to Lyons, and his kingdom given to Agrippa, his foe (Ant. xviii, 7), who had been living in habits of intimacy with the new emperor (Ant. xviii, 6, 5). It would be natural that Aretas, who had been grossly injured by Antipas, should, by this change of affairs, be received into fa- vor ; and the more so as Vitellius had an old grudge against Antipas (Ant. xviii, 4, 5). Now in the year 38 Caligula made several changes in the East, granting Ituraaa to Soaemus, Lesser Armenia and parts of Ara- bia to Cotys, the territory of Cotys to Rhasmetalces, and giving to Polemon, son of Polemon, his father's gov- ernment. These facts, coupled with that of no Dam- ascene coins of Caligula or Claudius existing, make it probable that about this time Damascus, which be- longed to the predecessor of Aretas (Ant. xiii, 5, 2), was granted to him by Caligula. The other hypoth- eses, that the ethnarch was onty visiting the city (as if he could then have guarded the walls to prevent es- cape), that Aretas had seized Damascus on Vitellius giving up the expedition against him (as if a Roman governor of a province would allow one of its chief cities to be taken from him merely because he was in uncertainty' about the pulley of a new emperor), are very improbable (Wieseler, Chron. cles apostoliscken Zeitalters, p. 174). If, then, Paul's flight took place in A.D. 39, his conversion must have occurred in A.D. 36 (Neander's History of the Planting of the Christian Church, i, 107; Lardner's Credibility, etc., Supplement, ch. xi ; Works, v, 497, ed. 1835 ; Schmidt in Keil's Analekt, iii, 135 sq. ; Bertholdt, Einl. v, 2702 sq.). But it is still more likely that the possession of Damascus by Aretas to which Paul alludes occur- red earlier, on the affront of his daughter by the es- pousal of Herodias (Luke iii, 19, 20; Mark vi, 16; Matt, xiv, 3), which stands in connection with the death of John the Baptist (q. v.) ; and in that case it affords neither date nor difficulty in the apostle's his- tory (see Browne's Ordo Sceclorum, p. 113 n. ; Cony- beare and Ilowson, i, 82 ; Smith's Diet, of Class. Biog. s. v.). — Smith, s. v. See Chronology. 4. One or more other kings of Arabia by the same name are mentioned in history (Strabo, xvi, 781 ; Dio Cass, xxxvii, 15; comp. Assemann, Bill. Or. i, 367; ii, 331 ; III, i, 139), and a coin of one of them is ex- tant (Minuet, Disc, des medailles antiques, p. 284, 285; comp. Conybeare and Howson, St. Paul, i. 107) ; but it is not clear that the Aretas whom Josephus names as having a contest with Syllaeus (Ant. xvii, 3, 2; War, i, 29, 3) was different 'from the preceding, and the succeeding kings of that name are unimportant in any Scriptural relation (see Anger, De tempor. ratione, p. 173; llcyne, De Areta Arubum rege, Viteb. 1775; Third Coin of Areta-' ill, I IT, or Inter, perhaps earlier), with the same Inscription. Hcinold, De ethnarcha Judaorum Paulo obsidiante, Jen. 1757). Aretas, or Arethas, a bishop of Caesarea, in Cappadocia, is supposed to have lived in the second half of the sixth century. He wrote a Commentary on the Revelation (SuXAoy?) t&iyijcUuv'), giving a collec- tion of the opinions of different authors. See Andkew (Bisho]) of Ccesared). Aretius, Benedict, a celebrated theologian and botanist ; professor of logic at Marburg, 1548 ; ap- pointed professor of languages at Berne, in Switzer- land, 1563, and professor of theology the same year ; in which office he remained until his death in 1754, leaving many works, among them — 1. Examtn Theo- loyicum, or Loci Communes (Geneva, 1759 and 1617), a voluminous work, much sought after at the time : — 2. Commentarii Breves in Pentaleuehum (Berne, 1602): — 3. Lectiones vii de Ceena Domini (Geneva, 1589): — 4. Also Commentaries on the Four Gospels, on the Acts, on all the Epistles of St. Paul, on the Apocalypse. In 1580 appeared a Commentary on the whole New Tes- tament, in 11 vols. 8vo. — Adam, Vita Thcol. Germ.; Landon, Ecd. Diet, i, 512. Are'us, a king of the Lacedaemonians, whose let- ter to the high-priest Onias is given in 1 Mace, xii, 20 sq. He is so called in the A. V. in ver. 20 and in the margin of ver. 7 ; but Oniares in ver. 19, and so in the Greek text 'Oriapijg (v. r. 'OviapiQ, 'Ore iapt]c) in ver. 20, and Darius (Aapt Tor) in ver. 7 : there can be little doubt, however, that these are corruptions of 'Aptvg. In Josephus (Ant. xii, 4, 10) the name is written (Aptloc) as in the Vulgate Arms. There were two Spartan kings of the name of Areus, of whom the first reigned B.C. 309-265, and the second, the grandson of the former, died when a child of eight years old in B.C. 257. There were three high-priests of the name of Onias, of whom the first held the office B.C. 323- 800. This is the one who must have written the let- ter to Areus I, probably in some interval between 309 and 300 (Grimm, zu Mace. p. 185). See Onias. This Areus was foremost in the league of the Greek states against Anti.aonus Gonatus (B.C. 280), and when Pyr- rhus attacked Sparta (B.C. 272) he repelled him by an alliance with the Arrives. He fell in battle against the Macedonians at Corinth (Smith's Diet, of Class. Biog. s. v.). — Smith, s. v. Argentetis, Codex (silver manuscript}, a MS. of part of the N. T , so called from the silver letters in which it is written. This codex is preserved in the University of Upsal, and is a copy from the Gothic version of Ulphilas, which was made in the fourth century. It is of a quarto size, is written on vellum, the leaves of which are stained with a violet color ; and on this ground the letters, which are all uncial, or capitals, are painted in silver, except the initial let- ters, which are in gold, of course now much faded. It contains fragments of the four gospels (in the Latin order, Matth., John, Luke, Mark) on 188 (out of about 320) leaves, so regularly written that some have imag- ined they were impressed with a stamp. This 51 S. was first discovered by Ant. Morillon in 1597, in the library of the Benedictine abbey of Werdcn, in "West- phalia, but by some means it was deposited in Prague, and was taken to Stockholm by the Swedes on the capture of the former place in 1648. Queen Christina appears to have given it to her librarian Vossius prior to 1655, and while in his hands a transcript of it was made by one Derrer. Through the agency of Puffen- dorf, it was purchased by Count de la Gardie for the Swedish library, where it still remains. Vossius had previously placed the MS. in his uncle Junius's hands for publication ; and in 1665 the text of the Gothic gospels, so far as contained in this codex, was edited at Dort under his care, accompanied by the Anglo- Saxon version, edited by Thos. Marshall. This edi- tion was in Gothic characters cut for the purpose, and ARGENTINE CONFEDERATION 387 ARGOB for it Junius employed the transcript made by Derrer. — Tregelles, in Home's Introd. iv, 301. See Gothic Versions. Argentine Confederation, a confederation of states in South America, consisting in 18(15, when Buenos Ayres, which had seceded in 1854, had been reunited with it, of 14 provinces, with a population of about 1,171,800. It constituted itself an independent state in 1810. The population, partly Europeans, part- ly Africans, partly Indians, partly of mixed descent, belong mostly to the Roman Catholic Church. The inhabitants of the country district (Pamperos) surpass in rudeness all other tribes of South America, and show very little interest in religion. The Roman Catholic Church has five bishoprics, Buenos Ayres, Cordova, Salta, Sarana, and Cuyo, all of which are suffragans of the archbishop of Charcas, in Bolivia. In 1825 religious toleration was granted to all denom- inations, and in 1834 mixed marriages were allowed, provided that the parents agreed to bring up all the children in the Roman Catholic Church. The tithes were placed under the administration of the govern- ment, which uses one part of them for school and other objects of common interest. The convents were sup- pressed, except one convent of Franciscans and two convents of nuns, and their property confiscated. Later, the Dominicans were again allowed to settle, and the Franciscans to receive new members from Spain. The Jesuits established themselves at Buenos Ayres in 1841. In 1858 there were disturbances at Buenos Ayres in consequence of the bishop prohibit- ing ecclesiastical rites at the burial of free-masons. Protestant missionaries came to the Argentine Con- federation from the United States in 1835, and many copies of the Scriptures were disseminated. A treaty with the United States in 1852 guaranteed freedom of Protestant worship and burial. The Methodist mis- sion in Buenos Ayres, commenced in 1830, is in a flourishing condition. The church and congregation support the pastor and pay the current expenses of the church and parsonage. According to the report of the Rev. William Goodfellow, superintendent of the Methodist missions in South America, there were, in 1864, appointments at Tatay, Lobos, Guardia del Mon- te, Canuelas, and Tuyu, all in the province of Buenos Ayres. At Azul, in the same province, about seventy leagues from the city of Buenos Ayres, where there is a fine region, rapidly filling up with good Protestant settlers, a separate charge has been arranged, holding a quarterly conference. In the province of Santa Fe, Rosario, the second city of the confederation, with an aggregate population of 12,000 or more, has a rapidly increasing Protestant population, and already possesses a Protestant cemetery, which was consecrated in 18G4. At Esperanza, also in the province of Santa Fe, there were at that date about 600 Protestants, who were so located as to constitute an important point in reference to further extensions. San Carlos, in the same prov- ince, had a Protestant population of 300 Germans and French, whose number bade fair to increase rapidly by immigration. Another settlement of European Prot- estants was at San Jose, near Parana, in the province of Entre Rios. It was expected that the bulk of these Protestant colonists would unite with the Meth- odist Episcopal Church. In 1864 the church counted 88 members and 35 probationers, and a flourishing Sunday-school, with 155 scholars and 20 officers. See Wiggers, Kirchliche Statistic ; 46/7t Annual Report of the Miss. Soc. of the M. E. Chunk (N. Y. 18G5). See America. Argentre, Charles du Plessis r>', bishop of Tulle, was born in the Castle du Plessis, near Vitre, May 10, 1673, and died Oct. 27, 1740. In 1699 he was appointed by Louis XIV to the abbey of St. Cr.iix de Guingamp, and in 1700 he became a doctor of the Sor- bonne. In 1705 he attended the General Assembly of the clergy of France as a deputy of the second or- der from the province of Tours. In 1707 he was ap- pointed by the bishop of Treguier vicar general ; in 1709, almoner of the king ; and in 1723, bishop of Tulle. In 1723 he also attended the General Assem- bly of the clergy of France as a deputy of the first or- I der from the province of Bourges. He wrote numer- ous theological and philosophical works, among which are V Analyse de Foi (against Jurieu, Lyons, 1698, 2 vols. 12mo) • Lexicon Philosophictim (Hague, 1706, 4to). — Hoefer, Biographie Generate, iii, 130. Ar'gob (Heb. Argob', nia"iX, for Sin, with X prosthetic, stone-heap), the name of a place and also of a man. 1. (Sept. Apyw/3, but in Kinp:s 'Epyo/3). A district in Bashan beyond the lake Gennesareth, containing 60 cities (Havoth-Jair), originally ruled over by Og (Deut. iv, 4, 13), and eventually formed into a pur- veyorship by Solomon (1 Kings iv, 13). The name may probably be traced in the Ragab (2S"i) of the Mishna {Menachoth, viii, 3), the Rigobah (ilSWU"1") of the Samaritan version (see Winer's Diss, de vers. Samar. indole, p. 55), the Ragaba (Payafiu) of Jose- phus {Ant. xiii, 15, 5), and the Arg'i or Ergaba {'Eo- yaftci) placed by Jerome and Eusebius {Onomast. s. v. Argob) 15 Roman miles west of Gerasa (see Reland, Pahest. p. 959). Josephus elsewhere {Ant. viii, 2, 3) seems to locate it in Trachonitis (q. v.), i. e. Gaulon- itis, where Burckhardt is disposed to find it in El- Husn, a remarkable ruined site {Syria, p. 279), but Mr. Banks {Quar. Rev. xxvi, 389) has assigned this to Gamala (comp. Jour. Sac. Lit. Jan. 1852, p. 364). Dr. Robinson identifies it with the modern village with ruins called Rajib, a few miles north-east of the junc- tion of the Jabbok with the Jordan {Researches, iii, Append, p. 166); and Dr. Thomson very properly re- marks that it probably denotes rather the whole adja- cent region, for the hill on which l'\.\ Keis (somewhat to the north) stands is called Arkiib by the Bedouins {Land and Booh, ii, 54). — Kitto, s. v. From this special or original locality, however, the term Argob seems to have been extended in its appli- cation to designate a large tract to the north-east ; for we find it identified (as by Josephus above) with Tra- chonitis (i. e. the rough country) in the Targums (Onkelos and Jonathan Wnla, Jerusalem WlSHX). Later we trace it in the Arabic version of Saadiah as Mujeb (with the same meaning); and it is now appar- ently identified with the Lr-jah, a very remarkable dis- trict south of Damascus, and east of the Sea of Gali- lee, which has been visited and described by Burck- hardt (p. 111-119), Seetzen, and Porter (specially ii, 240-245). This extraordinary region — about 22 miles from north to south, by 14 from west to east, and of a regular, almost oval shape — has been described as an ocean of basaltic rocks and boulders, tossed about in the wildest confusion, and intermingled with fissures and crevices in ever}' direction. " It is," says Mr. Porter, "wholly composed of black basalt, which ap- pears to have issued from innumerable pores in the earth in a liquid state, and to have flowed out on ev- ery side. Before cooling, its surface was violently agi- tated, and it was afterward shattered and rent by in- ternal convulsions. The cup-like cavities from which the liquid mass was extruded are still seen, and like- wise the wavy surface a thick liquid assumes which cools while flowing. The rock is filled with little pits and air-bubbles; it is as hard as flint, and emits a sharp metallic sound when struck" (p. 241). " Strange as it may seem, this ungainly and forbidding region is thickly studded with deserted cities and villages, in all of which the dwellings are solidly built, and of re- mote antiquity" (p. 238). The number of these towns visited by one traveller lately returned is 50, and there were many others to which he did not go. A Roman road runs through the district from south to north, ARGYLE 388 ARIANISM probably between Bosra and Damascus. On the edge of the Lejah are situated, among others, the towns known in Biblical history as Kenath and Edrei. In the a I 'since of more conclusive evidence on the point, a strong presumption in favor of the identification of the Lejah with Argob arises from the peculiar Hebrew word constantly attached to Argob, and in this defi- nite sense apparently to Argob only. This word is bzn (Che'bel), literally "a rope" {n\oiviaiia,Tiipifii- rpov, funiculus), and it designates with striking accu- raej' the remarkably denned boundary-line of the dis- trict of the Lejah, which is spoken of repeatedly by its latest explorer as " a rocky shore ;" "sweeping round in a circle clearly defined as a rocky shore-line ;" "re- sembling a Cyclopean wall in ruins" (Porter, ii, 19, 219, 239, etc.). The extraordinary features of this re- gion are rendered still more remarkable by the con- trast which it presents with the surrounding plain of the Hauran, a high plateau of waving downs of the richest agricultural soil stretching from the Sea of Gal- ilee to the Lejah, and beyond that to the desert, almost literally " without a stone ;" and it is not to be won- dered at — if the identification proposed above be cor- rect— that this contrast should have struck the Israel- ites, and that their language, so scrupulous of minute topographical distinctions, should have perpetuated in the words Mishor and Chebel (which see severally) at once the level downs of Bashan (q. v.), the stony lab- yrinth which so suddenly intrudes itself on the soil (Argob), and the definite fence or boundary which in- closes it. — Smith, s. v. See Hauran. 2. (Sept. 'Aoyo/3.) A subaltern or ally of Pekahiah (B.C. 757), as appears from 2 Kings xv, 25, where we read that Pekah conspired against Pekahiah, king of Israel, " and smote him in Samaria, in the palace of the king's house, with Argob and Arieh." In giving this version, some think our translators have mistaken the sense of the original, which they therefore render "smote him in the harem of the palace of the king of Argob and Arieh," as if these were the names of two cities in Samaria. Others, however, maintain, with good reason, that the particle TX is properly trans- lated with, i. e. these two officers were assassinated at the same time ; so the Sept. (fUTa). It will hardly bear the other construction : the word strictly denotes near (Vvlg.juxta), but that would yield no tolerable sense to the whole passage (see Kiel, Comment, inloc). According to some, Argob was an accomplice of Pekah in the murder of Pekahiah. But Sebastian Schmid explained that both Argob and Arieh were two princes of Pekahiah whose influence Pekah feared, and whom he therefore slew with the king. Rashi understands by Argob the royal palace, near which was the castle in which the murder took place. In like manner, Arieh, named in the same connection ("the lion," so called probably from his daring as a warrior), was ei- ther one of the accomplices of Pekali in his conspira- cy against Pekahiah, or, as Schmid understands, one of the princes of Pekahiah, who was put to death with him. Kaslii explains the latter name literally of a golden lion which stood in the castle. See Pekah. Argyle {Ergadid), an episcopal see in Scotland; the diocese contains the counties or districts of Argyle, Lorn, Kintire, and Lochaber, with some of the West- ern Isles, as Lismore, where the sec is. The present title of the sec is "Argyle and the Western Isles," and the incumbent in 1865 was Alexander Ewing, D.D., consecrated in 1847. Ari. See Lion. Arialdus, deacon and martyr of the church of Mi- lan in the llth century. The Roman Church in the north of Italy was then very corrupt; a wide-spread licentiousness, originating from the unnatural institu- tion of priestly celibacy, prevailed. Great numbers of the clergy kept concubines openly. Some ear- nest men, shocked by this flagrant evil, vainly im. agined the strict enforcement of celibacy the only ef- fectual cure. Chief among these reformers stood Ari- aldus, whose life was one continued scene of violent controversy. Although successively sanctioned by Popes Stephen X, Nicholas II, and Alexander II, he found little sympathy among his brethren, and used to complain that he could only get laymen to assist him in his agitation. Having at length succeeded in obtaining a papal bull of excommunication against the archbishop of Milan, a fierce tumult ensued in the cit)-, whose inhabitants declared against Arialdus and his coadjutors. Arialdus now fled to the country ; but his hiding-place being betrayed, he was conveyed cap- tive to a desert isle in Lake Maggiore, where he was murdered by the emissaries of the archbishop, and his remains thrown into the lake, June 28, 10C6. He was afterward canonized by Pope Alexander II. — Acta Sanctorum, June 28 ; Chambers, Encyclopedia, s. v. Arianism, a heresy with regard to the person of Christ which spread widely in the church from the fourth to the seventh centuries. It took its name from Arius, a presbyter of Alexandria, said to have been a Libyan, and a man of subtle, but not profound mind. The most probable account is that he Mas educated in the school of Lucian the martyr at Antioch ; and the doctrinal position of Lucian (scientifically nearer to the subsequent doctrine of Arius than of Athanasius) helps to explain not only how Arius's view arose, but also how it happened to be so widely received (comp. Dorner, Person of Christ, div. i, vol. ii, p. 490; Socrates, Hist. Eccl. ii, 10 ; Sozomen, Hist. Eccl. iii, 5). He is said to have favored Meletius (q. v.), who was deposed A.U. 30G; but it appears that Peter, bishop of Alexandria, the great enemy of Meletius, ordained Arius deacon (Sozom. Hist. Eccl. i, 15) about A.D. 311, but soon, on account of his turbulentdisposition, ejected him. When Peter was dead, Arius feigned penitence ; and being pardoned by Achillas, who succeeded Peter, he was by him raised to the priesthood, and intrusted with the church of Baucalis, in Alexandria (Epiphan. Hares. 08, 4). It is said that on the death of Achillas, A.D. 313, Arius was greatly mortified because Alexander Avas preferred before him, and made bishop, and that he consequently sought every occasion of exciting tu- mults against Alexander; but this storj' rests simply on a remark of Theodoret {Hist. Eccles. i, 2) that Arius was envious of Alexander. I. Ancient Ar-ianism. — 1. First Period: to the Council of AVec.— The eloquence of Arius gained him popu- larity ; and he soon began to teach a doctrine con- cerning the person of Christ inconsistent with His di- vinity. When Alexander had one day been address- ing his clergy, and insisting that the Son is co-eternal, co-essential, and co-equal with the Father (oytion/ioj/ rov narpop, Kat rt)v airn)v ovoiav i\m', Theod. i, 11), Arius opposed him, accused him of Sabellianism, and asserted that there was a time when the Son was not (Jiv ore ovk <;)' o rnir), since the Father who begot must be before the Son who was begotten, and the lat- ter, therefore, could not be eternal (Socrat. Hist. Eccl. i, 5). Such is the account, by the early writers, of the origin of the controversy. But if it had not begun in this way, it must soon have began in some other. The points in question had not arrived at scientific pre- cision in the mind of the church ; and it was only dur- ing the Arian controversy, and by means of the ear- nest struggles invoked by it, carried on through mam' years, causing the convocation of many synods, and employing some of the most acute and profound intel- lects the church has ever seen, that a definite and per- manent form of truth was arrived at (Dorner, Person of Christ, div. i, vol. ii, p. 227). See Athanasius. At length, Alexander called a council of his clergy, which was attended by nearly one hundred Egyptian and Libyan bishops, by whom Arius was deposed and ex- communicated (Sozom. Hist. Eccl. i, 15). This deci- ARIANISM 3S9 ARIANISM sion was conveyed to all the foreign bishops by cir- 1 sebius of Nicomedia*, and other favorers of Arius, by culars sent by Alexander himself (A.D. 321). Arius which an epistle was written to "all bishops," ex- retired to Palestine, where by his eloquence and tal- I horting them to hold fellowship with Arius (Sozomen, ents he soon gained a number of converts. Eusebius, j i, 15). Another council was now held at Alexandria bishop of Nicomedia, who had also studied under Lu- (323 ?), from which Alexander sent forth an encyclical cian, and doubtless held his opinions, naturally in- clined to favor Arius, who addressed to Eusebius a letter, still extant (Epiphanius, Hares. GO. G, and in Theodoret, Hist. Eccl. i, 5), from which we derive our knowledge of the first stage of Arian opinion. It runs thus : "We cannot assent to these expressions, ' always Father, always Son;' 'at the same time Father and Son ;' that ' the Son always co-exists with the Father ;' that ' the Father has no pre-existence before the Son, no, not so much as in thought or a moment.' But this we think and teach, that the Son is not unbegotten, nor a part of the unbegotten by any means. Nor is he made out of any pre-existent thing ; but, by the will and pleasure of the Father, he existed before time and ages, the only begotten God, unchangeable ; and that before He was begotten, or made, or designed, or found- ed, he was not. But we are persecuted because we say that the Son has a beginning, and that God has no beginning. For this we are persecuted ; and because we say the Son is out of nothing. 'Which we there- fore say, because he is not a part of God, or made out of any pre-existent thing" {cicdaKopiev, on b u'lbc, ouk Iotiv aykvvr]TOQ, obct fifpog dytvvijTov kcit oho'tva TpUTTOV, OllU t£ VTTOKH/XIVOV TIVOQ ' ttXX' DTI ^E\t)fia- ti icai fiov\>j vitinri] irpb \pbvwv tcai irpb aiwviov Tr\t)ptiQ dtoc,, povoyeia)g, dvaXXoifarog, icai irpiv yev- v)]9ij, i'/Toi KTicQy, i) bpioOij, »; Srept\iw9>j, ovk yv • ayivvijTog yap ovk ijv * diUKojisBa on tnrapitv, ap\i)v t\n b vibg, b ci Sebe. avapxbc, tan .... Kai on tiira- ptv, on t% oiiic ovrwv iar'tv ' ovrto St inraptv k'iQoti ol>?t pkpoQ Stov ovSe t£ irKOKiipivov rivoe). Voigt (in his Lehre des Athanasius von Alexandrien) gives this letter, with critical emendations, which elucidate the development of the opinions of Arius (see transl. from Voigt, by Dr. Schaefter, in B'Miotheca Sacra, xxi, 1- 38). The second direct source of our knowledge of the opinions of Arius is a letter addressed by him to Alex- ander (preserved in Epiphanius Uteres. 69, 7, and in Athanasius, De Synod. 1G), in which he states his po- sitions plausibly and cautiously, and claims that they are the traditional opinions of the church. "We be- lieve that there are three Persons, the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost. God, the cause of all things, is alone without beginning. The Son, begotten of the Father before time, made before the ages were founded, was not before he was begotten. Nor is he eternal, or co-eternal, or begotten at the same time with the Fa- ther." In these two letters Arius teaches that the Father alone is God, and that the Son is his creature. He still regards the Son, however, "as occupying a unique position among creatures; as unalterable and unchangeable; and as bearing a distinctive and pe- culiar likeness to the Father" (Dorner, 1. c. p. 236). He terms the Son "a perfect creature of God, but not as one of the creatures ; an offspring, but not as one of those who are generated" (Ep. ad Alex.~). Alexan- der now wrote a letter to Alexander of Constantinople (Theod. i, 4), in which he charges Arius with teach- ing not only that the Son is less than the Father, but also that he is "liable to change," notwithstanding that Arius, in the epistles cited above, speaks of the l Son as " unalterable and unchangeable" (ftvaXXoiWoc, UTptTTTOc). But Arius abandoned these terms, and set forth the changeableness of the Son without reserva- tion in his Thalia (Qakeia), the latest of his writings known to us (written during his stay at Nicomedia). It is partly in prose and partly in verse, and obviously addressed to the popular ear. What we have extant of it is preserved in Athanasius {cont. Arianos, i, 5-9 ; De Synod. 15 ; see citations from all the remains of Arius in Gieseler, Ch. History, i, § 79). A council was called in Bithynia (A.D, 323) by Eu- letter against Arius, and also sharply censured Eusebi- us of Nicomedia, and other Eastern bishops, as support- ers of grave heresy (preserved in Socrates, Hist. Eccl. i, 6). We now hear, for the first time, the name of Eu- sebius of Caesarea in connection with the controversy. He did not accept the Arian formula (jjv iron ore oinc yv) ; but, as he had been educated in Origen's denial of the eternal Sonship of Christ, he was just in the position to suggest a compromise between the opposing parties. He wrote letters in this spirit (excusing Arius) to Alexander; but the question at issue was a funda- mental one, ready for its final decision, and the day of compromise was past and gone (Sozomen, Hist. Eccl. i, 15 ; Epiphanius, Hares. 69, 4 ; see Eusebius of Gjet- sarea). The controversy had now spread like a flame throughout the Eastern empire, and at last Con- stantine found it absolutely necessary to bring it to a point. At first he sought to reconcile Alexander and Arius by a letter in which he urged them to drop dis- cussion on unessential points, and to agree together for the harmony of the church. This letter was con- veyed by his court bishop, Hosius ; but he met with no success, and an uproar arose in Alexandria, in which the effigy of the emperor himself was insulted. As all the provincial synods had only helped to fan the flame of strife, Constantine determined to call a general council of bishops, and accordingly the first (ecumenical council was held at Nice, A.D. 325, con- sisting of 318 bishops, most of whom were from the East. (See Nice, Council of.) The gist of the question to be settled by the Coun- cil of Nice lay in the summary argument of Arius : "The Father is a Father; the Son is a Son; there- fore the Father must have existed before the Son ; therefore once the Son was not; therefore he was made, like all creatures, of a substance that had not previously existed." This was the substance of the doctrine of Arius. His intellect, logical, but not pro- found or intuitive, could not embrace the lofty doc- trine of an eternal, unbeginning generation of the Son. In a truly rationalistic way, he thought that he could argue from the nature of human generation to divine ; not seeing that his argument, while insisting on the truth of the Sonship of Christ, ended by alienating Him wholly from the essence of the Father. "The Arian Christ was confessedly lacking in a divine na- ture, in every sense of the term. Though the Son of God was united with human nature in the birth of Jesus, yet that Son of God has a Kriapa. He indeed existed long before that birth, but not from eternity. The only element, consequently, in the Arian con- struction of Christ's person that was preserved intact and pure was the humanity" (Shedd, History of Doc- trines, i, 393). Of the debates upon these great ques- tions in the Council of Nice no full account is extant. Athanasius, who was then a deacon under Alexander, bore a prominent part in the council, and contributed largely to its decisions, in defence of which the re- mainder of his life was chiefly occupied. See Atha- nasius. For an account of the proceedings, as far as known, see Kaye, Council of Nicwa (Lond. 1853). Eusebius of Cassarea was also a chief actor in the council, and sought, in harmony with his character and habits, to act as mediator. He proposed, finally, a creed which he declared he had "received from the bishops who had preceded him and from the Scriptures" (Socrates, Eccl. Hist, i, 8), which received the imme- diate approbation of Constantine. It did not, how- ever, contain the word bpoovaaoc, which was insisted upon by the orthodox. (It is given in parallel col- umns with the Nicene Creed in Christian lu-mem- brancer, January, 1854, p. 133.) The Creed, as finally ARIANISM 300 ARIANISM adopted, condemned the heresy of Arias, and fixed the doctrine of the person of Christ as it has been held in the church to this day, declaring the Son to be "be- gotten of the Father before all worlds, God of God, Light of Light, very God of very God, begotten, not made, of one substance with the Father, by whom all things were made" (see Socrates, Eccl. Hist, i, 8 ; and article Creed, Nicene). According to Sozomen (i, 20), all the bishops but fifteen, according to Socrates (i, 8), all but five, signed the Creed. These five were Eusebius of Nicomedia, Theognis of Nice, Maris of Chalcedon, Thomas of Marmarica, and Secundus of Ptolemais; and of these only the two last held out against the threat of banishment made by the emperor. Arius was excommunicated and banished, and his books ordered by the emperor to be burnt. 2. From the Council of Nice to the Council of Milan. — Soon after the close of the Council of Nice, Eusebius of Nicomedia and Theognis of Nice, being found to continue their countenance of the Arian cause by re- fusing to carry out its anathemas, were deposed, were both subjected to the same penalty of exile by the em- peror, and had successors appointed to their sees. By imposing upon the credulity of Constantino, they were in three years restored, and gained considerable in- fluence at court (Sozom. ii, 16, 27). The indulgent emperor, on the statement being made to him (by a presbyter of the household of his sister Constantia, who herself favored Arianism, and on her death-bed recommended this presbyter to Constantine) that Ari- us had been misrepresented, and differed in nothing that was important from the Nicene fathers, had him recalled from banishment, and required him to present in writing a confession of his faith (Socrates, Hist. Ec- cles. i, 25). He did this in such terms as, though they admitted a latent reservation, yet appeared entirely orthodox, and therefore not only satisfied the emperor, but offended some of his own friends, who from that time separated from him (see the Creed in Socrates, i, 26). Athanasius, now bishop of Alexandria, was not so easily imposed upon, but was resolute in refusing Arius admission to the communion, since the Nicene Council had openly condemned him, until a similar synod should receive his submission and restore him. The Synod of Tyre, convened A.D. 335 by the em- peror, tried Athanasius on trumped-up charges of im- morality, and he was banished. The emperor then sent for Arius to Constantinople, and, after receiving his signature to the Nicene Creed, insisted on his be- ing received to communion by Alexander, the bishop of that city. On the day before this reception was to have taken place Arius died suddenly (A.D. 336) (Soc- rates, i, 26-38). Constantine died A.D. 337, and the empire fell to his three sons, Constantine II in Gaul; Constantius in the East ; Constans in Italy and Gaul. The latter was a friend and protector of Athanasius. The relig- ious question was now greatly mixed up with politics. On the death of the younger Constantine, the emperor of the East, Constantius (340), took the Arians formal- ly under his protection (Sozom. iii, 18). Eusebius ob- tained great influence with Constantius, and became bishop of Constantinople A.D. 339, and secured per- mission for the Arians to celebrate public worship at Alexandria and other places of the Eastern empire. Nevertheless, a council was held at Antioch, A.D. 341, in which the Eastern bishops declared that they could not be followers of Arius, because "how coidd we, being bishops, be followers of a presbyter?" In this synod four creeds were approved, in which an endeavor was made to steer a middle course between the Nicaean Eomoousm and the definitions of Arius, which two points were considered to be the two ex- tremes of divergence from the standard of ecclesiasti- cal orthodoxy in the Fast. These four Antiochene creeds are extant in Athanasius, //, Synodis, § 22-25 (sec Gieseler, Ch. History, i, § 80). As this middle course originated with Eusebius of Nicomedia, its ad- herents were called Fusebians. The Council of Anti- och deposed Athanasius, who went to Rome, and was fully recognized as orthodox by the Synod of Fome, A.D. 342. Another Arian council met at Antioch, A.D. 345, and drew up what was called the long Creed {j.iaKp6arL\0Q, to be found in Socrates, Hist. Eccl. ii, 18), leaving out the homoousion, which the}' sent to the council of Western bishops summoned by Constans at Milan (A.D. 346). The Milan council not only rejected this creed, but required the deputies who brought it to sign a condemnation of Arianism. Of course they left the council in wrath. The emperors Constantius and Constans endeavored to reconcile the combatants for Oriental and Occidental orthodoxy by calling a general council of both East and West at Sardica, in Illyricum, A.D. 347 (according to Mansi A.D. 344, putting back also the preceding dates) ; but the Eusebians refused to remain in the council unless Athanasius and other heterodox bishops were excluded. Failing in this, the}' retired to the neighboring city of Philippopolis, leaving their opponents alone at Sardica. Eusebian- ism was, under Constantius, as victorious in the East as the Nicene Creed was, under Constans, in the West. The Eusebians procured the deposition of Marcellus, bishop of Ancyra, on a charge of Sabellianism. After the death of Constans, A.D. 350, and the victory ove» Matrnentius, A.D. 353, Constantius endeavored to es- tablish Arianism by force in the West. In the synods of Aries, A.D. 354, and of Milan, A.D. 355, he com- pelled the assembled bishops to sign the condemnation of Athanasius, though most of them were, it is thought, orthodox. Hosius of Cordova and Liberius of Rome, refusing to sign, were deprived of their sees. Atha- nasius was expelled from Alexandria (A.D. 356), and George of Cappadocia put in his place, not without force of arms. Constantius persecuted the orthodox relentlessly, and it seemed for a time as if their cause were irretrievably ruined. Even Hosius (now a cen- tury old) and Liberius were brought to sign a con- fession which excluded the homoousion. 3. Divisions among the Arians: History to the Council of Constantinople. — A new era now began with this ap- parent triumph of Arianism. Heretofore the various classes of opponents of the orthodox doctrine had been kept together by the common bond of opposition. Now that the state and church were both in their power, their differences of doctrine soon became ap- parent. The reins of government were really in the hands of the Eusebians (q. v.), whose opinions were a compromise between strict Arianism and orthodoxy. The strict Arians were probably in a minority during the whole period of the strife. Their leaders at this period were Aetius of Antioch, Eunomius of Cappado- cia,* and Acacius of Cajsarea ; and from them the parties were called Aetians, Eunomians, Acacians. They were also called avopoun (Anomoeans), because they denied the sameness of the essence of the Son with the Fa- ther ; and also Heterousians, as they held the Son to be tnnoovaioc (of different essence), inasmuch as the un- begotten, according to their materialistic way of judg- ing, could not be similar in essence to the begotten. Actins and Eunomius sought, at the first Council of Sirmium (A.D. 351), to put an end to all communion between Arians and orthodox; but they were vigor- ously met by the Semi-Arians, led by "Basilius, bish- op of Ancyra, and Georgius, bishop of Laodicea, who held fast by the position of the Eusebians, viz. that the Son is of similar essence with the Father (i^toiov- (tioc), and were hence called Homoiousiaus and Snni- Arians. Constantius was attached to the Semi-Arians, but a powerful part}' about his court exerted them- selves with no less cunning than perseverance in favor of the Anomoeans. And because they could not pub- licly vindicate their formula, they persuaded the em- peror that, in order to restore peace, the formulas of the two other parties also must be prohibited, which ARIANISM 391 ARIANISM measure they brought about at the second synod of Sirmium (A.D. 357. The formula is given in Waleh, Bibl. iSymb. p. 133). On the other hand, Ba- sil, bishop of Aneyra, called together a synod at An- cyra (35*), which established the Semi-Arian creed, and rejected the Arian (see the decrees in Epiphan. Hcer. 73 ; the confession of faith adopted by the syn- od, in Athanas. de Syn. § 41). Constantius allowed himself to be easily convinced that the Sirmium for- mula favored the Anomceans, and the confession of faith adopted at the second was now rejected at a third synod of Sirmium (358), and the anathemas of the Synod of Aneyra were confirmed. The Ano- moeans, for the purpose of uniting in appearance with the Semi-Arians, and yet establishing their own doctrine, now adopted the formula tov v'ibv ufioiov rqi -trarpi Kara Trdvra wc. at liyica ypa3'ter, Paulinus, refused to acknowledge Meletius as bishop on the charge that he was not entirely orthodox (Soc- rates, Hist. Eccl. ii, 44). The Council of Alexandria, assembled by Athanasius (362), sought, indeed, not only to smooth the way generally for the Arians to join their party by mild measures, but endeavored par- ticularly to settle this Antiochian dispute; but Luci- fer, bishop of Calaris, gave firm footing to the Meletian schism about the same time by consecrating, as bishop, Paulinus the Eustathian. The Westerns and Egyp- tians acknowledged Paulinus, the Oriental Nicenes, Meletius, as the orthodox bishop of Antioch. If the em- peror Valens (364-378) had now favored the Semi-Ari- ans instead of the Arians, he might, perhaps, have con- siderably checked the further spread of the Nicene party ; but, since he wished to make Arianism alone pre- dominant by horribly persecuting all who thought dif- ferently, he drove by this means the Semi-Arians, who did not sink under the persecution, to unrte still more closely with the Nicenes. Thus a great part of the Semi-Arians (or, as they were now also called, Mace- donians, from Macedonius, bishop of Constantinople, who had been deposed in 360, at the instigation of the Arians) declared themselves, at several councils of Asia Minor, in favor of the Nicene confession, and sent an embassy to Rome to announce their assent to it (366). The Arians, supported by the emperor Valens, en- deavored to counteract this new turn of affairs ; yet the Macedonians were always passing over more and more to the Nicene Creed, and for this the three great teachers of the Church, Basil the Great, Gregory of Nazianzus, and Gregory of Nyssa, began now to work. These new Oriental Nicenians did not believe their faith changed by their assent to the Nicene for- mula, but thought they had merely assumed a more definite expression for it in the rightly -understood ofioovaioc. Since they supposed that they had un- changeably remained steadfast to their faith, they also continued to consider their Eusebian and Semi-Arian fathers as orthodox, although condemned by the old Nicenes. Thus the canons of the Oriental councils held during the schism constantly remained in force, particularly those of the Council of Antioch, A.D. 341, and of Laodicea (perhaps A.D. 363), which canons af- terward passed over from the Eastern to the Western Church. During this time new schisms arose from new disputes on other points of doctrine. The doc- trine of the Holy Spirit, and the controversies respect- ing the Logos, had for a long time remained untouched. But when, in the East, not only the Semi-Arians, but also many of the new Nicenians, could not get rid of the Arian idea that the Holy Spirit is a creature and servant of God, the other Nicenes took great offence at this, and opposed these errorists as Trvtvj.utTopaxovQ (afterward Macedonians). Finally Apollinarism arose (see Apollinaris). "Thus Theodosius, who, as a Spaniard, was a zeal- ous adherent of the Nicene Creed, found at his accession to the throne of the West (379) universal toleration ; in the East, Arianism prevalent, the Homoousians persecuted, and, besides them, the parties of the Photin- ians, Macedonians, and Apollinarists, with innumera- ble other sects, existing. After conquering the Goths, he determined to put an end to these prolonged and destructive strifes. Accordingly, he summoned a general council at Constantinople (381), by which the schism among the Nicenes was peaceably removed, and the Nicene Creed enlarged, with additions direct- ed against heretics who had risen up since its origin (see Creed, Nicene). Valentinian II allowed the Arians in the West to enjoy freedom of religion some years longer; but the case was quite altered by Theo- dosius, and a universal suppression of the sect ensued. The last traces of its existence in the Byzantine em- pire appear under the Emperor Anastasius at Con- stantinople, 491-518" (Gieseler, Church History, § 81). 4. Closing Period of Ancient A rianism. — In the West, Arianism maintained itself for a long time among the German tribes, which had received Christianity in the Arian form under the emperor Valens. Arianism was carried by the Ostrogoths into Italy, by the Visi- goths into Spain, and by the Vandals into Africa. The Ostrogoths, though strong Arians, did not perse- cute the orthodox. Arianism remained among them till the destruction of the Ostrogoth kingdom by Jus- tinian (A.D. 553). More intolerant against the Cath- olics were the Visigoths; but Arianism gradually lost hold upon them, and finally, under the guidance of their king, Reccaredus, they adopted the Nicene Creed, and were received into the Catholic Church by the Council of Toledo (A.D. 589). The Arian Vandals, af- ter conquering Africa in 429, under the leadership of Genseric, instituted a furious persecution against the Catholics, which did not cease until the destruction of ARIANISM 392 ART AN ISM the Vandal empire through Belisarius in 534. The Suevi of Spain became Arians about the middle of the fifth century, probably in consequence of their con- nection with the Visigoths ; they went over to the Catholic Church in 558, under Theodemir. The Bur- gundians, who came to Gaul as pagans in 417, appear as Arians in 440. The progress of the Catholic Church among this tribe is especially due to Aristus of Vien- na, who gained oyer the son of king Gundobad, Sigis- mund, who, after his accession to the throne in 517, secured to the Catholic Church the ascendency. No- where did the Arian doctrine maintain itself so long as among the Lombards. They invaded Italy (A.D. 568), and founded a new kingdom at Pavia, and their king, Antharis, embraced Arian Christianity in 587 ; but when his successor Agilulph married Theudelin- da, the Catholic daughter of the duke of Bavaria, the orthodox faith soon found adherents among them, and the son of Theudelinda, Adclward, gave all the churches to the Catholics. But this called forth a re- action. An Arian ascended the throne, who, howev- er, was unable to suppress Catholicism ; and we now find in every important city in Lombardy both a Cath- olic and an Arian bishop. Under Luitprand, who died in 744, the Catholic Church was entirely predominant. But, although Arianism was externally suppressed, its long prevalence in Spain, Gaul, and Northern Italy left behind it a spirit of opposition to the ecclesias- tical supremacy of Borne, and made these countries a fertile soil for the spreading of dissenting doctrines. See Revillont, de I'Arianisme des Ptvjyks Germaniques (Paris, 1850, 8vo). II. Modern Arianism. — After the Reformation, the Antitrinitarians, who soon appeared, were chiefly Socinians. In Italy they especially developed them- selves, and Alciati (1555) commenced his heretical course with teaching that Christ was divine, but infe- rior to the Father. Kis views were adopted by Job. Val. Gentilis (q. v.), an acute Calabrian, who was be- headed at Berne (1566), after goin<_r far beyond Arian- ism in heresy. The earlier English writers on the Church history of the period tell of Arians put to death in England for heresy under Elizabeth. Plowright (t 1579), Lewis (f 1583), Cole and Ket (f 1588), are named by Fuller, who, as well as Burnet, speak of Arian sentiments as held and propagated by various individuals in England after the Reformation. There is so much vagueness and inaccuracy in the way in which they speak about them that little dependence can be placed on most of the allegations. Arian views were probably held by individuals from time to time ; but no important manifestation took" place till the be- ginning of the 18th century, when Arianism made its appearance in the Church of England, and also among Dissenters. Thomas Emlyn (q. v.), an English Pres- byterian (but pastor in Dublin), was deposed for Ari- anism by the Presbytery of Dublin in 1698 (see Eeid, Hist. ofPresbyt. Ch. in Ireland, iii, 14), and afterward wrote largely on the controversy (Emlyn, Works, uitk Life, Lond. 1746, 3 vols. 8vo). In the Church of Eng- land Arian views were set forth by Whisfon, professor of mathematics at Cambridge, in his Primitive Chris- tianity /,'. vived (Lond. 1711, 4 vols. 8vo), the last volume of which contains an account of what he considered the primitive faith in the person of Christ, and the doctrine of the Trinity, and the first volume a historical account of the proceedings of the University and Convocation against him. His sentiments were declared heretical, and he was ejected from his chair at Cambridge, lie still, however, went on to write, and produced a fifth volume of his Primitivi Christianity Revived, in 1712 ; his Council of Nice Vindicated from the Athanasian Beresy, in 1713; bis Letter to ///< Earl of Nottingham, on the Eternity of the Son of God and the Holy Ghost, 1719; to which Lord Nottingham replied in 1720. Whiston went on to the end of his life occa- sionally publishing on the subject. Seo Whiston. A far more learned and logical champion of error ap- peared in Dr. Samuel Clarke, who published in 1712 Scripture Doctrine of the Trinity, in which he endeav- ors to show, in a commentary on forty texts of Scrip- ture, the subordination of the Son to the Father. " Reason had so strongly the ascendant in Clarke's composition that every thing must be subjected to its rule and measure ; that only must stand, in matters of religious belief, which reason could distinctly grasp and make good by a formal demonstration. His book on The Trinity is pervaded by this spirit, and is very artfully planned. It is divided into three parts ; in the first of which are set forth all the passages in the New Testament bearing on the Father, then on the Son, and, lastly, on the Spirit; certain of the passages, and particularly those relating to the Son, being ac- companied with brief comments, partly furnished by the author, and partly taken from the fathers and from later theologians. In the second part, the im- port of all these passages so explained is presented in a series of propositions' concerning Father, Son, and Spirit respective]}-, each proposition accompanied with quotations from the Liturgy of the Church of England, to show the conformity of the propositions with the devotional utterances of the church" (Fairbairn, Ap- pendix to Dorner, Person of Christ, v, 373). Clarke was replied to by Dr. Knight in The Scripture Doc- trine of the Trinity Vindicated against Dr. Clarke (ed. by Nelson, London, 1713 and 1715, 8vo); by Bishop Gastrell, in Some Considerations of Dr. Clarke's Doctrine of the Trinity (republished in Randolph's Enchiridion Theolofficum, vol. iii); and by various others. Clarke wrote voluminously in reply to these and other attacks (Clarke, Collected Works, London, 1738, 4 vols. fol.). His works were translated into German by Semler, and found favor there, at a period in which the ten- dency of the age was toward " the creaturely aspect of Christ." See Clarke. But his superior in learn- ing and controversy appeared in Waterland, who pub- lished, at different times. A Vindication of Christ's Divinity; — A Further Vindication : — A Defence of the Divinity of Christ, in eight sermons : — The Case of Ari- an Subscription Considered: — A Critical History of the Athanasian Creed, and the Importance of the Doctrine of the Trinity asserted; making six vols. 8vo, besides smaller pieces. Waterland brought to his task a log- j ical intellect, cool, wary, and disciplined, a thorough knowledge of the fathers, and a profound though un- impassioned love of truth. He demonstrated the in- accuracy, to say the least, of Clarke's patristic learn- ing, and proved that the very fathers whom Clarke had cited maintained the strictly divine, uncreated, eternal being of the Son, while, at the same time, he pointed out their defective apprehension of the eter- nal filiation. See Waterland. On the other side, and in answer to Waterland, Whitby wrote Disqiti- sitiones Modestre, and Reply to Dr. Waterland's Objec- tions against them, in two parts, with an Appendix, 1720-21. An anonymous country clergyman (after- ward known to be Sir. Jackson) produced .1 Reply to Dr. Waterland's Defence of his Queries, 1722, en- tering very largely into the controversy. It was this book which gave rise to Dr. Waterland's Second Vin- dication (1723), above mentioned. Dr. Sj'kes wrote several pamphlets on the subject {Letter to tin Pari of Nottingham (1721); Answer to Remarks (Xo7rd- Loin (probably) of Ariarathes V. two, lover of his father), who reigned B.C. 163-130, called Mithridatcs before his accession (Diod. xxxi, or vol. x, p. 25, ed. Bip.), who was supported by Attalus II in his contest with the pretendent to the throne, Holofernes or Orophernes (Polyb. iii, 5; xxxii, 20; Appian, Syr. 47 ; Justin, xxxv, 1), but was hard press- ed by the Syrian King Demetrius. Having been re- instated on his throne by the Romans, among whom he had been brought up (Liv. xlii, 19), he sent his son Demetrius, in connection with Attalus of Pergamos, to assist Ptolemy Philometor against the usurper Alex- ander Balas, B.C. 152 (Justin, xxxv, 1). See Alex- ander. After a reign of thirty-three years he fell in battle, B.C. 130, while aiding the Romans against Aris- tonicus, prince of Pergamos, who had inherited the throne of his father Attalus III (Justin, xxxvi, 4; xxxvii, 1 ; Liv. Epit. 59). Letters were addressed to him from Rome in favor of the Jews (1 Mace, xv, 22), who in after times seem to have been numerous in his kingdom (Acts ii, 9 ; comp. 1 Pet. i, 1). Arias Montanus (Benedict), a Spanish priest and Orientalist, born in Estremadura (in a mountain- ous district, whence the name Montanus) in 1527, of noble but poor parents. He distinguished himself early by his acquaintance with the Oriental languages, and was ordained priest in the order of St. James, of which he had become a clerk. The bishop of Segovia took him with him to the Council of Trent, after which Arias retired to the monastery of Our Lady " de los Angelos," in the mountains of Andalusia, whence, however, he was recalled by King Philip II, to labor at the new Polyglot Bible, which he was causing to be made after that of Alcala, at the suggestion of the celebrated printer Plantin. This Bible was printed at Antwerp, in 1571, under the title Biblia Sacra, He- braice, Chaldaice, Greece, et Latine, Philippi II, Regis Catholici Dictate et Studio ad Sacrosanctm Ecclesia JJsum Chph. Plantinvs excudebat (8 vols. fob). The " Polyglot" in every respect justified the high ex- pectation which had been formed of it ; but in a voy- age from the Netherlands to Spain nearly all the copies were lost. The king remunerated Arias's la- bors by giving him a yearly pension of 2000 ducats, besides other honorary rewards and lucrative offices. Arias was an upright, sincerely orthodox Romanist, but he was a declared enemy of the Jesuits, and that ARIATH 394 ARIMATELEA ambitious order omitted no opportunity to take revenge on so dangerous a foe — the more powerful because his orthodoxy had never been questioned, and was sup- ported by uncommon erudition. He was accused of Judaism because he had inserted in the Polyglot cer- tain Chaldee paraphrases, which tended to confirm the Jews in their errors. He made many voyages to Rome to justify himself, and in 1580 was honorably dismiss- ed, and died at Seville in 1598, prior of the convent of St. Jago. Arias's numerous and extensive literary works chiefly belong to theological, but partly also to classical literature, but his Polyglot certainly holds the principal place; it is generally called the "Ant- werp Polyglot," or, from the patronage bestowed on it by Philip II, " Biblia Regia," and sometimes also, after the printer, " Biblia Plantiniana." Ariath, a city mentioned in the Notitia Ecclesiastica, and thought by Porter (Damascus, ii, 1SG) to be the present large city Art/, near]}- three hours north of Busrah, at the west base of the Hauran mountains (Van de Yelde, Memoir, p. 288). Arid'ai (Heb. Aridity', h5"1'?'Si 0I" Persian origin, perhaps meaning strong ; Sept. 'Apaaioc), the ninth of the ten sons of Hainan, slain by the Jews of Baby- lonia (Esth. ix, 9). B.C. cir. 473. Arid'atha (Heb. Aridatha ', Xn'l'niSt, same ety- mol. as Aridai ; Sept. Zap/Sav/i v. r. SapfiaKa), the sixth of the ten sons of Human, slain by the Jews in Babylonia (Esth. ix, 8). B.C. cir. 473." Ari'eh. (Heb. Aryeh', only with the art., rP'nXSl, the lion ; Sept. 'Apia), the name apparently of one of the body-guard slain with King Pekahiah at Samaria (2 Kings xv, 25). B.C. 757. See Argob. A'riel (Heb. Ariel', iap'lN, Sept. 'Apn)\), a word meaning "Hon of God," and correctly enough render- ed by "lion-like" in 2 Sam. xxiii, 20; 1 Chron. xi, 22. It was applied as an epithet of distinction to bold and warlike persons, as among the Arabians, who sur- named Ali "The Lion of God" (Abulf. Ann. i, 96; Bochart, Hieroz. i, 71G). Others, as Thenius, "Winer, Fiirst, look upon it in these passages as a proper name, and translate "two [sons] of Ariel," supplying the word "^S, which might easily have fallen out. See Areli. . 1. One of the chief men sent for by Ezra to procure Levites for the services of the sanctuary (Ezra viii, 1G). B.C. 459. 2. The same word is used as a local proper name in Isa. x.xix, 1, 2, 7, applied to Jerusalem, " as victorious under God," says Dr. Lee; and in Ezek. xliii, 15, 16, to the altar of burnt-offerings. See Harel. In this latter passage Gesenius (Thes. Heb. p. 147) and oth- ers, unsatisfied with the Hebrew, resort to the Arabic, and find the first part of the name in Ari, fire-hearth (cognate with Heb. "'X, light, i. e. fire), which, with the Heb. El, God, supplies what they consider a more satisfactory signification (but see llavernick, Comment. in loc). It is thus applied, in the first place, to the altar, and then to Jerusalem as containing the altar. Henderson gives the word this etymology also in the passage in Isa. (see Comment, in loc). A'rim. Sec Kirjath-arim. Arimathee'a (' IpifiaSaia, from the Heb. Rama- thaim, with the art, prefixed), the birth-place of the wealthy Joseph, in whose sepulchre our Lord was laid (Matt, xxvii, 67; John xix, 38). Luke (xxiii, 51) calls it " a city of the Jews ;" which may be explain- ed by 1 Mace, xi, 34, where King Demetrius thus writes: " We have ratified unto them (the Jews) the borders of Judaea, with the three governments of Apherema, Lydda, and Ramathem ('Pa/iSi/*), that are added unto Judffla from the country of Samaria." Ensebius (Onomatt. b. v.) and Jerome (Epit. Paula;) regard the Ariinatha-a of Joseph as the same place as I the Ramathaim of Samuel, and place it near Lydda or Diospolis (see Reland, Palaist. p. 579 sq.), Samuel's birth-place, the RAMAH of 1 Sam. i, 1, 19, which is named in the Septuagint A rmathaim ('ApfiaOai/.i), and by Josephus Armatka (Ap/taOd, Ant. v, 10, 2). Hence Arimathaia has by most been identified with the ex- isting Ramleh, because of the similarity of the name to that of Ramah (of which Ramathaim is the dual), and because it is near Lydda or Diospolis. Dr. Robin- son (Researches, iii, 40, 44 ; new ed. iii, 141), however, disputes this conclusion on the following grounds : (1.) That Abulfeda alleges Ramleh to have been built after the time of Mohammed, or about A.D. 716, by Suleiman Abd- al- Malik ; (2.) that "Ramah" and " Ramleh" have not the same signification ; (3.) that Ramleh is in a plain, while Ramah implies a town on a hill (El, high). To these objections it may be an- swered, (1.) That Abulfeda's statement may mean no more than that Suleiman rebuilt the town, which had previously been in ruins, just as Rehoboam and oth- ers are said to have " built" many towns that had ex- isted long before their time ; for the Moslems" seldom built towns except on old sites or out of old materials ; so that there is not a town in all Palestine that is with certainty known to have been founded by them. (2.) In such cases they retain the old names, or others re- sembling them in sound, if not in signification, which may account for the difference between "Ramah" and " Ramleh." (3.) Neither can we assume that the place called Ramah could not be in a plain, unless we are ready to prove that Hebrew names were always significant and appropriate. This they probably were not. They were so in early times, but not eventual- ly, when towns were numerous, and took their names arbitrarily from one another without regard to local circumstances. Farther, if Arimathsea, by being iden- tified with Ramah, was necessarily in the mountains, it could not have been " near Lydda," from which the hills are seven miles distant (see Thomson, Land and Book, ii, 300 ; comp. "Wilson, Lands of Bible, ii, 263). See Ramatiiaim-zophim. Ramleh is in north lat. 31° 59', and east long. 35° 28', 8 miles south-east from Joppa, and 24 miles north- west by west from Jerusalem. It lies in the fine un- dulating plain of Sharon, upon the eastern side of a broad, low swell rising from a fertile though sand}' plain. Like Gaza and Jaffa, this town is surrounded by olive-groves and gardens of vegetables and deli- cious fruits. Occasional palm-trees are also seen, as well as the kharob and the sycamore. The streets are few ; the houses are of stone, and many of them large and well built. There are five mosques, two or more of which are said to have once been Christian church- es ; and there is here one of the largest Latin convents in Palestine. The place is supposed to contain about 3000 inhabitants, of whom two thirds are Moslems, and the rest Christians, chiefly of the Greek Church, with a few Armenians. The inhabitants carry on some trade in cotton and soap. The great caravan- road between Egypt and Damascus, Smyrna, and Constantinople, passes through Ramleh, as well as the most frequented road for European pilgrims and trav- ellers between Joppa and Jerusalem (Robinson, iii, 27 ; Raumer, p. 215). The tower is the most conspic- uous object in or about the city. It stands a little to the west of the town, on the highest part of the swell of land, and is in the midst of a large quadrangular enclosure, which has much the appearance of having once been a splendid khan. The tower is wholly iso- lated, whatever may have been its original destina- tion. The town is first mentioned under its present name by the monk Bernard, about A.D. 870. About A.D. 115(1 the Arabian geographer Edrisi (ed. Jaubert, p. 339) mentions Ramleh and Jerusalem as the two principal cities of Palestine. The first Crusaders, on their approach, found Ramleh deserted by its inhab- itants ; and with it and Lydda they endowed the first ARINDELA 395 ARISTOBULUS Latin bishopric in Palestine, which took its denomi- nation from the latter city. From the situation of Kamleh between that city and the coast, it was a post of much importance to the Crusaders, and they held possession of it generally while Jerusalem was in their hands, and long afterward. In A.D. 12G6 it was final- ly taken from the Christians by the Sultan Bibars. Subsequently it is often mentioned in the accounts of travellers and pilgrims, most of whom rested there on their way to Jerusalem. It seems to have declined very fast from the time that it came into the posses- sion of the Crusaders. Benjamin of Tudela (jtin. p. 79, ed. Asher), who was there in A.D. 1173, speaks of it as having been formerly a considerable city. Belon (Observat. p. 311), in 1547, mentions it as almost de- serted, scarcely twelve houses being inhabited, and the fields mostly unfilled. This desertion must have occurred after 1487 ; for Le Grant Voyage de Hierusa- lem, fol. xiv, speaks of it as a peopled town (though partly ruined), and of the " seigneur de Rama" as an important personage. By 1674 it had somewhat re- vived, but it was still rather a large un walled village than a city, without any good houses, the governor himself being miserably lodged (Nau, Voyage Nou- reau, i, G). A century later it remained much in the same state, the governor being still ill lodged, and the population scarceh- exceeding 200 families (Vol- ney, ii, 220). Its recent state must, therefore, indicate a degree of comparative prosperity, the growth of the present century (see Robinson's Researches, iii, 33 sq.). — Kitto, s. v. See Ramah. Arindela (ru 'Apivfa\\a), an episcopal city of the Third Palestine of considerable importance, noticed in the early ecclesiastical lists (Reland, Pattest, p. 533, 581); identified by Dr. Robinson {Researches, ii, 406) with the site Ghurundel, near the south-east corner of the Dead Sea,"consisting of considerable ruins on the slop.:- of a hill, near a spring. A'rioch (Heb. Aryoh' ' , 7ph"iX, from the Sanscrit Arjalca, venerable, or perhaps from the Heb. ^X, a lion; Sept. 'Apitl>x [v- r- i" Dun. 'Apiiox>lc, in Tob. Ei'ptojy], Josephus Api'oiivoc, Ant. i, 0, 1 ; 'Apioxoe,, Ant. x, 10, 2), the name of two men and one place. 1. A king of Ellasar, confederate with Chedorlao- mer against Sodom and Gomorrah (Gen. xiv, 1, 9), B.C. cir. 2080 (Jour. Sac. Lit. Jan. 1862). See Lot. 2. The captain of the royal guard at the court of Babylon, into whose charge Daniel and his fellow youths were committed (Dan. ii, 14). B.C. 604. 3. A "plain" of the Elymaians (? Persians), men- tioned in the apocryphal book of Judith (i, 6) as fur- nishing aid to Arphaxad in his contest with Nebuchad- nezzar; supposed by Grotius to mean the Oracana ('Ort«Koi'tt) of Ptolemy (vi, 2, 11), but more probably borrowed from the first of the above names (see Fritzschc, Handb. in loc). Aris'ai (Heb. Arisay' , "^IX, from Sanscrit Ar- jasay, arrow of Aria; Sept.'Pov0rri>oc v.v.'Vov^cnoc), the eighth of the ten sons of Hainan slain by the Jews Of Babylonia (Esth. ix, 9). B.C. cir. 473. Aristar'chus (Apiarapxoc, best ruler, a frequent Greek name), a faithful adherent of the Apostle Paul in his labors. A.D. 51-57. He was a native of Thessa- lonica, and became the companion of Paul in his third missionary tour, accompanjing him to Ephesus, where he was seized and nearly killed in the tumult raised by the silversmiths (Acts xix, 29). He left that city with the apostle, and accompanied him in his subse- quent journeys (Acts xx. 4), even when taken as a prisoner to Rome (Acts xxvii, 2); indeed, Aristarchus was himself sent thither as a prisoner, or became such while there (Philem. 24), for Paul calls him his "fel- low-prisoner" (Col. iv, 10). The traditions of the Greek Church represent Aristarchus as bishop of Apamea in Phrygia, and allege that he continued to accompany Paul after their liberation, and was at length beheaded along with him at Rome in the tkne of Nero. The Roman martyrologies make him bishop of Thessalonica. — Kitto, s. v. Aristeas (Apio-tac) or Aristaeus ('ApioTcuoc), a Cyprian by. nation, was a high officer at the court of Ptolemy Philadelphus, and was distinguished for his military talents. Ptolemy, being anxious to add to his newly-founded library at Alexandria (B.C. 273) a copy of the Jewish law, sent Aristeas and Andreas, the commander of his body-guard, to Jerusalem. They carried presents to the Temple, and obtained from the high-priest, Eleazar, a genuine copy 'of the Pentateuch, and a body of seventy elders, six from each tribe, who could translate it into Greek. On their arrival, they are said to have completed the Alexandrian version of the Old Testament, usually termed the " Septua- gint" from the number of translators. The story about the translation rests chiefly on the reputed letter of Aristeas himself, but it is told, with a few differences, by Aristobulus, the Jewish philosopher (Euseb. Prop. Ev. xiii, 12), by Philo Judreus (Vit. Mas. 2), and Jo- sephus (Ant. xii, 2) ; also by Justin Martyr (Cohort, ad Grcec. p. 13 ; Apol. p. 72 ; Dial, cum Tryph. p. 297), Irenaeus (Adv. Haer. iii, 25), Clemens Alexandrinus (Strom, i, 250), Tertullian (Apolog. 18), Euseb. (Preep. Ev. viii, 1), Athanasius (Synop. S. Scrip, ii, 156), Cyril of Jerusalem (Catech. p. 36, 37), Epiphanius (De Mens, et Pond. 3), Jerome (Prcef. in Pentateuch; Qucest. in Gen. Procem.'), Augustine (De civ. Dei, xviii, 42, 43), Chrysostom (Adv. Jud. i, 443), Hilary of Poictiers (In Psalm. 2), and Theodoret (Prcef. in Psalm.). The let- ter was printed, in Greek and Latin, by Schard (Basil. 1561, 8vo) ; reprinted at Oxford (1692, 8vo) ; best ed. in Gallandii Biblioth Patr. ii, 771 (Fabricii Bill. Gruc. iii, 669; in Engl, by Lewis (Lond. 1715, 12mo). See Fiirst, Bib. Jud. i, 51 sq. Comp. Septuagixt. Aristides, an Athenian philosopher, who became a Christian, without, however, forsaking his original profession. He presented to the Emperor Adrian, at the same time witli Quadr^tus, an Apology for the Christian Faith, which existed in the time of Eusebius and Jerome, and even as late as that of Usuardus, and Addo of Vienne, if the account given of the passion of St. Dionysius the Areopagite majr be relied on. Aris- tides flourished about A.D. 123. Jerome says that his Apolog}' was filled with passages from the writings of the philosophers, and that Justin afterward made much use of it. He is commemorated August 31st. — Cave, Hist. Lit. anno 123 ; Euseb. Hist. Eccl. lib. iv, cap. iii ; Lardner, Works, ii, 308 ; Fabricius, Bib. Grcec. vi, 39. Aristobu'lus (Apicrro/^otAoe, best counsellor, a frequent Grecian name), the name of several men in sacred history. 1. A Jewish priest (2 Mace, i, 10), who resided in Egypt in the reign of Ptolemy (VI) Philometor (eomp. Grimm, 2 Mace, i, 9). In a letter of Judas Macca- boeus he is addressed (B.C. 165) as the representative of the Egyptian Jews ('ApujToiSovXqj . . . Kai rote tv Aly. 'lovo. 2 Mace. 1. c), and is further styled " the teacher" (ci?daKa\og, i. e. counsellor?) of the king. Josephus makes no mention of him ; and the genuine- ness of the letter itself is doubtful (De Wette, Einh it. i,413); yet there may have lived at this time an emi- nent Jew of this name at the Egyptian court. Some have thought him identical with the peripatetic phi- losopher of the name (Clem. Alex. Str. v, 98 ; Euseb. Prap. Ev. viii, 9), who dedicated to Ptol. lhilomctor his allegorical exposition of the Pentateuch (UifiXovc, ibrpjTtKac. too Movviwc vopov, Euseb. Hist. Eccl. vii, 32). Considerable fragments of this work have been preserved by Clement and Eusebius (Euseb. Prap. Evang. vii, 13, 14; viii (8), 9, 10; xiii, 12; in which the Clementine fragments recur) ; but the au- thenticity of the quotations has been vigorously con- tested. It was denied by E. Simon and especially by Hody (De bill. text. on'g. p. 50 sq. Oxon. 1705), who was answered by Valckcnaer (Diatribe de Aristo~ ARISTOBULUS 396 ARISTOBULUS lulo Judceo, Lugd. Bat. 180G) ; and Valckenaer's ar- guments are now generally considered conclusive (Gfrorer, Philo, ii, 71 sq. ; Diihne, Jud. Alex. Relig.- Philos. ii, 73 sq. ; Ewald, Gesch. des Volkes Jsr. iv, 294 n.) The object of Aristobulus was to prove that the peripatetic doctrines were based (i}pTiji\i\\i]v from the favor which he showed the Greeks (Joseph. Ant. xiii, 1; War, i, 3). — Smith, Diet, of Class. Biog. s. v. 3. The younger son of Alexander Jannaeus by Alexandra (Josephus, Ant. xiii, 16, 1 ; War, i, 5, 1). During the nine years of his mother's reign he set himself against the party of the Pharisees, whose in- fluence she had sought ; and after her death, B.C. 70, he made war against his eldest brother Hyrcanus, and obtained from him the resignation of the crown and the high-priesthood, chiefly through the aid of his fa- ther's friends whom Alexandra had placed in the sev- eral fortresses of the country to save them from the vengeance of the Pharisees (Joseph. Ant. xiii, 16; xiv, 1, 2; War, i, 5; 6, 1). In B.C. 65 Judsea was invaded by Aretas, king of Arabia Petraea, with whom, at the instigation of Antipaterthe Iduuu-ean, Hyrcanus had taken refuge. By him Aristobulus was defeated in a battle and besieged in Jerusalem ; but Aretas was obliged to raise the siege by Scaurus and Gabinius, Pompey's lieutenants, whose intervention Aristobulus had purchased (Joseph. Ant. xii, 2; 3, 2; War, i, 6, 2 and 3). In B.C. 63 he pleaded his cause before Pompey at Damascus, but finding him disposed to favor Hyrcanus, he returned to Judaea and prepared for war. On Pompey's approach, Aristobulus, who had Bed to the fortress of Alexandrium, was persuaded to obey his summons and appear before him; and, being compelled to sign an order for the surrender of the garrison, he withdrew in impotent discontent to Jerusalem. Pompey still advanced, and Aristobulus again met him and made submission; but, his friends in the city rcfus-iug to perform the terms, Pompev be- sieged and took Jerusalem, and carried away Aristo- bulus and his children as prisoners (Joseph. Ant. xiv, 3, 4 ; War, i, 6, 7 ; Plut. Pomp. 39, 45 ; Strabo, xvi' 762 ; Dion Cass, xxxvii, 15, 16). Appian (Bell. Mith. 1117) erroneously represents him as having been put to death immediately after Pompey's triumph. In B.C. 57 he escaped from confinement at Rome with his son Antigonus, and, returning to Judaaa, was join- ed by large numbers of his countrymen, and renewed the war; but he was besieged and taken at Machairus. the fortifications of which he was attempting to re- store, and was sent back to Rome by Gabinius (Jo- seph. Ant. xiv, 6, 1 ; War, i, 8, 6 ; Plut. Ant. 3 ; Dion Cass, xxxix, 56). In B.C. 49 he was again released by Julius Cffisar, who sent him into Judasa to forward his interests there, but he was poisoned on the way by some of Pompey's party (Joseph. Ant. xiv, 7, 4 ; War, i, 9, 1 ; Dion Cass, xli, 18).— lb. 4. The grandson of No. 3, and the son of Alexan- der, and brother of Herod's wife Mariamne. His mother Alexandra, indignant at Herod's having be- stowed the high-priesthood on the obscure Ananelus, endeavored to obtain that office for her son from An- tony through the influence of Cleopatra. Herod, fearing the consequences of this application, and urged by Mariamne's entreaties, deposed Ananelus, and made Aristobulus high-priest, the latter being only 17 years old at the time. The king, however, still suspecting Alexandra, and keeping a strict and annoj'ing watch upon her movements, she renewed her complaints and designs against him with Cleopatra, and at length made an attempt to escape into Egypt with her son. Herod discovered this, and affected to pardon it; but soon after he caused Aristobulus to be treacherously drowned at Jericho, B.C. 35 (Joseph. Ant. xv, 2, 3; liar, i, 22, 2).— lb. 5. One of the sons of Herod the Great by Mariamne, and sent with his brother Alexander to Rome, where they were educated in the house of Pollio (Josephus, Ant. xv, 10, 1). On their return to Judaaa, the sus- picions of Herod were excited against them by their brother Antipatcr (q. v.), aided by Pheroras and their aunt Salome, though Berenice, the daughter of the latter, was married to Aristobulus ; the young men themselves supplying their enemies with a handle against them by the indiscreet expression of their indignation at their mother's death. In B.C. 11 they were accused by Herod at Aquilea before Augustus, through whose mediation, however, he was reconciled to them. Three years after Aristobulus was again involved with his brother in a charge of plotting against their father, but a second reconciliation was effected by Archelaus, king of Cappadocia, the father- in-law of Alexander. A third accusation, through the arts of Euryales, a Lacedaemonian adventurer, proved fatal. By permission of Augustus, the two young men were arraigned by Herod before a council convened at Berjtus (at which they were not even allowed to be present to defend themselves), and, being condemn- ed, were soon after strangled at Sebaste, B.C. 6 (Jo- seph. Ant. xvi, 1-4 ; 8 ; 10 ; 11 ; War, i, 23-27 ; comp. Strabo, xvi, 765).— lb. See Alexandkk. 6. Surnamed " the younger" (o iniortpoc, Josephus, Ant. xxi, 2), was the son of the preceding Aristobulus and Berenice, and the grandson of Herod the Great. Himself and his two brothers (Agrippa I and Herod, the future king of Chalcis) were educated at Rome, together with Claudius, who was afterward emperor, and who appears to have regarded Aristobulus with great favor (Josephus, Ant. xviii, 5, 4 ; 6, 1 ; xx, 1, 2). He lived at enmity with his brother Agrippa, and drove him from the protection of Flaccus, proconsul of Syria, on the charge of having been bribed by the Damas- cenes to support their cause with the proconsul against the Sidonians (Josephus, Ant. xviii, 6, 3). When Caligula sent Petronius to Jerusalem to set up the statues in the Temple, Aristobulus joined in the re- monstrance against the procedure (Josephus, Ant. xviii, 8; War, ii, 10; Tacit. Hist, v, 9). He died as he had lived, in a private station (Josephus, War, ii, 11, 6), having, as appears from the letter of Claudius to the Jews in Josephus (Ant. xx, 1, 2), survived his brother Agrippa, who died in A.D. 44. He was mar- ried to Jotapa, a princess of Emessa, by whom lie left a daughter of the same name (Josephus, Ant. xviii, 5, 4; War, ii, 11, 6).— lb. ARISTOTLE 397 ARISTOTLE 7. Son of Herod, king of Chalcis, grandson of the Aristobulus who was strangled at Sebaste, and great- grandson of Herod the Great. In A.D. 55 Nero made him king of Armenia Minor, in order to secure that province from the Parthians ; and in A.D. 61, the emperor added to his dominions some portion of the Greater Armenia, which had been given to Tigranes (Josephus, Ant. xx, 8, 4 ; Tacit. Ann. xiii, 7 ; xiv, 2G). Aristobulus appears (from Josephus, War, vii, 7, 11) to have also obtained from the Romans his father's kingdom of Chalcis, which had been taken from his cousin, Agrippa II, in A.D. 52; and he is mentioned as joining Casennius Psetus, proconsul of Syria, in the ■war against Antiochus, king of Commagene, in the fourth year of Vespasian, or A.D. 73 (Joseph, ib.). He was married to Salome, daughter of the infamous He- rodias, by whom he had three sons, Herod, Agrippa, and Aristobulus ; of these, nothing further is recorded (Josephus, Ant. xviii, 5, 4). — lb. 8. A person, perhaps a Roman, named by Paul in Rom. xvi, 10, where he sends salutations to his house- hold. A.D. 55. He is not himself saluted ; hence he may not have been a believer, or he may have been absent or dead. Tradition represents him as brother of Barnabas, and one of the seventy disciples, and al- leges that he was ordained a bishop by Barnabas, or by Paul, whom he followed in his travels, and that he was eventual^ sent into Britain, where he labored with much success, and where he at length died (Men- olotj. Gra>c. iii, 17 sq.). — Kitto, s. v. Aristotle (ApifT-ortXjjc\ one of the greatest phi- losophers of ancient times, whose philosophical system has exercised for a long time a controlling influence on the development of Christian philosophy and on Christian literature in general. Aristotle was born in B.C. 384, at Stagira, in Macedonia, whence he re- ceived his surname, The Stagirite. He was first in- structed by his father, Nicomachos, the private phy- sician of King Augustus III of Macedonia; afterward by Proxenos in Atameus. At the age of 17 years he went to Athens, where he enjoyed for 20 years the instruction of, and intercourse with, Plato. In B.C. S43 he was appointed by Philip of Macedonia teacher of his son Alexander. About 335 he returned to Ath- ens, where he established a new school of philosophy in the " Lyceum" (AvKtiov, so called from an epithet of Apollo), a gymnasium near the city. There he in- structed in the mornings a select circle of disciples (Acroatce, Esoterics), while in the afternoons he gave popular lectures to all kinds of readers (E.roierics). After having taught for 13 years he was accused of impiety, and compelled to leave Athens. He went to Chalcis, and died soon after (B.C. 322). At Stagira an annual festival, called the " Aristotelea," was cele- brated in his honor. According to a Jewish legend, he is said to have turned Jew in consequence of a con- versation held with a Jew at Athens. He is said to have composed about 800 works, lists of which are given by Diogenes Laertius and others. Many of his works are lost; while, on the other hand, several that bear his name are undoubtedly spurious. The oldest complete edition of his works was published by Aid Manutius (Venice, 1495-98, 5 vols, fob); the latest and best by Imman. Bekker (Berlin, 1831 sq. 4 vols.). —Smith's Diet, of Class. Biog. s. v. The influence of the philosophic system of Aristotle on the intellectual development of the human race has been more extensive and more lasting than that of any other philosopher except Plato. This supremacy is to be ascribed (1) to his method, which not only re stricted the range of human observation and thought, but also fixed the laws of their operation, so far as the field of the outer, world is concerned, (in principles fundamental to the human mind; (2) t<> his logic which grew out of his method and also complemented it; (3) to the practical character of his intellect, and the practical tendency of his speculations, even the most subtle ; and (4) to the comparative clearness and simplicity of his system, which arises partly from the really luminous clearness of his own intellect, and partly from the fact that the most profound problems of philosophy do not come within the range of his method when confined to its legitimate application. His meth- od is the so-called empirical one, viz., to begin with the observation of phenomena, and to reason upon them. " ' Art commences when, from a great number of expe- riences, one general conception is formed, which will embrace all similar cases ; experience is the knowledge of individual things ; art is that of universals' (Meta- pkys. i, 1). What Aristotle here calls ' art' is plain- ly what we now call ' induction ;' and had he ad- hered throughout to the method here indicated, he would have been, in reality, what Bacon is called, the father of the inductive philosophy. The distinction between Aristotle and Plato is, that while both held that science could only be formed from universals, ra KcidoKov, Aristotle contended that such universals had purely a subjective existence, i. e. that they were nothing more than the inductions derived from par- ticular facts. He therefore made experience the ba- sis of all science, and reason the architect. Plato made reason the basis. The tendency of the one was to direct man to the observation and interrogation of nature, that of the other was to direct man to the con- templation of ideas" (Lewes, Hist, of Philosophy, ii, 114). In passing from Plato to Aristotle, the thoughtful student observes that he comes into a different if not a lower atmosphere. The end of all Plato's teaching is to show, in opposition to the Sophists, that the mind of man is not its own standard ; the tendency of Aris- totle's teaching is to show that it is. It has been the fashion, since Hegel's exposition of Aristotle, to deny that his doctrine is substantially realism, in the em- pirical sense, as opposed to Plato's idealism. To illus- trate : Both Plato and Aristotle could say that "dia- lectics is that science which discovers the difference between the false and the true. But the false in Plato is the semblance which any object presents to the sen- sualized mind ; the true the very substance and mean- ing of that object. The false in Aristotle is a wrong affirmation concerning any matter whereof the mind takes cognizance ; the true a right affirmation con- cerning the same matter. Hence the dialectic of the one treats of the way whereby we obtain to a clear and vital perception of things ; the dialectic of the other treats of the way in which we discourse of things. Words to the one are the means whereby we descend to an apprehension of realities of which there are no sensible exponents. Words to the other are the formulas wherein we set forth our notions and judgments. The one desires to ascertain of what hid- den meaning the word is an index ; the other desires to prevent the word from transgressing certain bound- aries which he has fixed for it. Hence it happened "that the sense and leading maxim of Plato's philoso- phy became not only more distasteful, but positively more unintelligible to his wisest disciple than to many who had not studied in the Academy, or who had set themselves in direct opposition to it. When Aristotle had matured his system of dialectics, there was some- thing in it so perfect and satisfactory that he could not even dream of any thing lying outside of its circle, and incapable of being brought under its rules. He felt that he had discovered all the forms under which it is possible to set down any proposition in words ; and what there could be besides this, what opening there could be for another region entirely out of the government of these forms, he had no conception. At any rate, if there were such a one, it must be a vague, uninhabited world. To suppose it peopled with other, and those more real and di-tinct forms, was the ex- travagance of philosophical delirium. Accordingly, when he speaks of the doctrine of substantial ideas — of ideas, that is to say, which are the grounds of all ARISTOTLE 393 ARISTOTLE our forms of thought, and consequently cannot be sub- ject to them, be is reduced to the strange, and, for so consummate a logician, most disagreeable necessity of begging the whole question ; of arguing that, since these ideas ought to he included under some of the as- certained conditions of logic, and by the hypothesis are not included under any, they must be fictitious" (Mau- rice, Moral and Metaph. Philosophy, ch. vi, div. iii, § 2). In order to classify facts, and to arrive at the uni- versal from the particular, we must reason ; and the theory of reasoning is logic, which, according to Aris- totle, is the organon or instrument of all science, quoad formam. In this field the pre-eminence of Aristotle is indisputable ; he may, indeed, be said to have in- vented logic as the formal part of reasoning, and it remains to this day substantially what he made it. Grote observes that "what was begun by Socrates, and improved by Plato, was embodied as a part of a comprehensive system of formal logic by the genius of Aristotle ; a system wdiich was not only of extraor- dinary value in reference to the processes and contro- versies of its time, but which also, having become in- sensibly worked into the minds of instructed men, has contributed much to form what is correct in the hab- its of modern thinking. Though it has now been en- larged and recast by some modern authors (especially ly Mr. John Stuart Mill in his admirable System of Logic) into a structure commensurate with the vast increase of knowledge and extension of positive meth- od belonging to the present day, we must recollect that the distance, between the best modern logic and that of Aristotle is hardly so great as that between Aristotle and those who preceded him by a century — Empedocles, Anaxagoras, and the Pythagoreans ; and that the movement in advance of these latter com- mences with Socrates" {History of Greece, pt. ii, ch. lxviii). In Psychology Aristotle anticipated a great deal of what is called "mental philosophy" at present. The soul, he says, is an entitj7 ; not the product of matter or of organization, but distinct from the body, though not separable from it as to its form (De Anima, ii, 1). In this principle he agrees with Plato, and it saves his doctrine from becoming wholly materialistic, a tendency natural to the empirical method. "The faculties (SvvafiUQ) of the soul are production and nu- trition (De Anim. ii, 2, 4; De Gencr. Anitn. ii, 8), sensation (Ibid, ii, 5, G, 12 ; iii, 12), thought (to dia- vo7]tik6i'), and will or impulse. His remarks are par- ticularly interesting on the manifestations of the cog- nitive powers (DeAnim. ii, 6; iii, 12 sq. ; De Sensu et Sensibili), i. e. on the senses ; on common sense (icoivi) a'iaOrjffuS) ; the first attempt toward a clearer indica- tion of consciousness (Ibid, iii, 1 sq.), on imagination, reminiscence, and memory (Ibid, iii, 3, et De Memo- rial. The act of intuition and perception is a recep- tion of the forms of objects ; and thought is a recep- tion of the forms presupposed by feeling and imagina- tion (Ibid, iii, 4). Hence a passive (ttoOijtikuc, intel- lectus patiens) and an active, understanding (ttoitjtikoc vovg, intellectus agens). The first implies receptivity for those forms, therefore it has the closest relation with the faculty of feeling, and hence with the body; to the latter, which elaborates those forms into judg- ing (virdkafifidvuv) and inferring (\oyi'^«T0ai), and which moreover itself thinks, appertains indestructi- bility (immortality without consciousness or memory) (De Anim. ii, 1-G; iii, 2 sq. 5). Thought itself is* a power separate from the body, coming from without into man (De Gencr. Anim. ii, 3), similar to the ele- ment of the stars (Cie. Acad. Quajst. i, 7). Further, the understanding is theoretical or practical ; it is the latter, inasmuch as it proposes ends and aims. The will (ufJt'Ctc) is an impulse directed toward matters of practice— that is to say, toward t:ood ; which is real or apparent, according as it procures a durable or a tran- sient enjoyment (fie A n. iii, 9-11 ; Eth. iii, vi) : opt$ic is I subdivided into povXiimg and iiriBvfiia — thcuill, prop- erly so called, and desire. Pleasure is the result of the perfect exertion of a power — an exertion by which the power again is perfected. The noblest pleasures spring from reason (Ethic, x, 4, 5, 8)." — Tennemann, §145. From Psychology we proceed to Metaphysics, or " the first philosophy," as Aristotle called it, i. e. the attempt to solve the problem of being. Had Aristotle adhered strictly to his own empirical method, he would have confined himself to the relative, and not sought the absolute at all. His prima philosophia deals with the unchangeable, while physical science deals with change or movement. " Matter," he said, " exists in a threefold form. It is, I. Substance, perceptible by the senses, which is finite and perishable. This sub- stance is either the abstract substance, or the substance connected with form (t'idoc). II. The higher sub- stance, which, though perceived by the senses, is im- perishable, such as are the heavenly bodies. Here the active principle (tvipyeta) steps in, which, in so far as it contains that which is to be produced, is un- derstanding (vovcf). That which it contains is the purpose (to ov evtica), which purpose is realized in the act. Here we have the two extremes of potentiality and agency, matter and thought. The often-men- tioned entelechic is the relation between these two extremes. It is the point of transition between diva- pig and ivtpyua, and is accordingly the cause of mo- tion, or efficient cause, and represents the soul. III. The third form of substance is that in which the three forms of power, efficient cause and effect, are united — the absolute substance, eternal unmoved, God him- self" (Lewes, Hist, of Philosophy, ii, 126). As to the relative place of the idea of God in the systems of Plato and of Aristotle, Maurice well remarks that "it cannot be denied that the recognition of an absolute being, of an absolute good, was that which gave life to the whole doctrine of Plato, and without which it is unmeaning ; that, on the contrary, it is merely the crowning result, or, at least, the necessary postulate of Aristotle*s philosophy. In strict consistency with this difference, it was a. being to satisfy the wants of man which Plato sighed for ; it was a first cause of things to which Aristotle did homage. The first would part with no indication or symbol of the truth that God has held intercourse with men, has made himself known to them ; the second was content with seeking in nature and logic for demonstrations of his attributes and his unity. When we use personal lan- guage to describe the God of whom Plato speaks, we feel that we are using that which suits best with his feelings and his principles even when, through rever- ence or ignorance, he forbears to use it himself. When we use personal language to describe the deity of Aristotle, we feel that it is improper and unsuitable, even if, through deference to ordinary notions, or the difficulty of inventing any other, he resorts to it him- self" (Maurice, Moral and Metaph. Philosophy, ch. vi, div. iii, § 5). Practical philosophy, according to Aristotle, includes ethics, the laws of the individual moral life ; ceconom- ics, those of the family ; and politics, those of man in the state. His "inquiry starts from the conception of a sovereign good and final end. The final end (rs- Xor) is happiness (evScu/iovia, iinrpaZia), which is the result of the energies of the soul (Iv fiiy Ti\tii[j) in a perfect life (Eth. Nic. i, 1-7 ; x, 5, 6); to it appertains true dignity, as being the highest thing. This perfect exercise of reason is virtue, and virtue is the perfec- tion of speculative and practical reason ; hence the subdivision of intellectual virtue (oiavorjriK)) aptTif) and moral (>)6ik)), Eth. Nic. i, 13; ii, 1). The first be- longs, in its entire plenitude, to God alone, and confers the highest felicity, or absolute beatitude ; the second, which he also styles the human, is the constant per- fecting of the reasonable will (f £. Notione Servitu- tis apud Aristotelem (Jen. 1821, 4to) ; Wallon, Hist, de VEsclavage dans Antiquite (Paris, 1847, 3 vols. 8vo) ; Tennemann, Manual Hist. Phil. § 147, 148.) Professor Shedd (History of Doctrines, bk. i, ch. i) adopts, per- haps too closely, Eitter's reconciliation of Plato and Aristotle, going so far as to say that "Platonism and Aristotelianism differ only in form, not in substance." While we cannot agree to this broad statement, there is yet, as to the points named, reason for what he says, viz. that, in reference to the principal questions of phi- losophy, " both are found upon the same side of the line that divides all philosophies into the material, the spiritual, the pantheistic, and the theistic. There is a substantial agreement between Plato and his pupil Aristotle respecting the rationality and immortality of the mind as mind in distinction from matter, re- specting the nature and origin of ideas, respecting the relative position and importance of the senses, and of knowledge by the senses. But these are subjects whicli immediately reveal the general spirit of a phil- osophic system. Let any one read the ethical trea- tises of Plato and Aristotle, and he will see that both held the same general idea of the Deity as a moral governor, of moral law, and of the immutable reality of right and wrong." But the fundamental difference of the two systems still remains, viz. that Plato re- gards the "ideas" or eternal archetypes of things as forming the true substance of the latter, and as having their existence in themselves, independent of the ma- terial things, their soulless shadows ; while Aristotle was of opinion that the individual thing contained the true substance, which forms whatever is permanent in the flux of outward appearances. For a long time the Aristotelian philosophy re- mained in Greece a rival of the Platonic, but at last the latter gained the ascendency. In Pome Aristotle found but few adherents. The fathers of the ancient Church were, on the whole, not favorable to Aristote- lianism, but it was cultivated with great zeal by sever- al sects, especially those which were inclined toward a kind of rationalism. (Comp. Lecky, History of Ration- alism, i, 417.) Thus the Artemonites were reproached with occupying themselves more with the study of Aristotle than with that of the Scriptures. The Ano- mceans of the school of Eunomius were called by the fathers "young Aristotelians" (see, on the opinions of the Greek fathers respecting this point, Launoy, De varia Aristotelis in Acad. Par.fortuna, in his Opera omnia, iv, 175 sq. Col. 1732; Kuhn, Katholische Dog- matic, i, 2, 369). Nevertheless, the influence of Aristo- tle commenced to spread in Christian philosophy dur- ing the 4th and 5th centuries, especially in the West. Previously the Neo-Platonic philosophy, which tried to reconcile Aristotle with Plato, had given a new im- pulse to the study of Aristotle, and called forth a num- ber of commentaries, of which that of Porphyry is the most celebrated. Among the Christian Aristotelians of those times was Nemesius, bishop of Emesa, A.D. 400, whose work on " the Nature of the Soul" is based on the Aristotelian anthropology, and remained long in use and influence in Christian philosophy. JEneus of Gaza, toward the end of the 5th century, and Zacharius Scholasticus (first half of 6th century), op- posed Aristotle, especially with regard to the world, and approached nearer the doctrine of Plato. Of greater significance was Johannes Philoponus, who called himself " Grammaticus," and is supposed by modern writers to have lived in the first half of the 6th century. He combated the Platonic philosophy, and followed Aristotle so closely as even to deviate from the commonly received doctrines of Christianity. Thus, applying the Aristotelian doctrine that individ- ual things are substances, he changed the doctrine of the Trinity into a kind of Tritlieism. John Damasce- nus, the chief theologian of the Greek Church, knew and used the dialectics of Aristotle, but made no at- tempt to thoroughly blend it with the doctrines of Christianity. A new era in the history of the Aristo- telian philosophy within the Christian Church begins after the Christianization of the Germanic tribes, for the treatment of which see Scholasticism. A very full account of Aristotle's writings and of his system (from the Hegelian point of view), by Prof. Stahr, is given in Smith, Diet, of Gr. and Roman Biog. etc., vol. i. For an excellent sketch of the Lift of Aristotle, by Prof. Park, see Bibliothcca Sacra, vol. i. The literature of the subject is copiously given in Stahr's article above referred to. See also Maurice, Moral and Metapli. Philosophy, ch. vi, div. iii ; Hau- reau, Philosophic Scliolastiqtie, vol. i; Gioberti, Tntrod. a l' etude de la Pkilnso/Jtie, i, 08 ; Litter, History ofPhi- losophy, vol. iii; North British Rev. Nov. 1858; Am. Bib. Repos. July, 1842; Meth. Quart. Rev. July, 1853, 342 sq. ; Biese, Plains. d.Arisfofe (Berlin, 1835, 2 vols. 8vo) ; St. Ililaire, Logique d'Aristote (Par. 1838, 2 vols. 8vo); Ravaisson, La Mitaphjshpie d'Aristote (Paris, 1840, 2 vols. 8vo) ; Vacherot, Theorie des prem.principes scion Aristote (Par. 1836, 8vo) ; Simon, du Dieu d'Aris- tote (Par. 1840, 8vo). ; Wetzor u. Welte, Kircken-Lexi- J;on, i, 412. For references as to the influence of Aris- totle on Christian theology, see Scholasticism. Arithmetic, or the science of numbers, was un- questionably practised as an art in the dawn of civil- ization ; since to put things or their symbols together (addition), and to take one thing from another (sub- traction), must have been coeval with the earliest ef- ARIUS 400 ARK forts of the human mind ; and what are termed multi- plication and division are only abbreviated forms of ad- dition and subtraction. The origin, however, of the earliest and most necessar)- of the arts and sciences is lost in the shades of antiquity, since it arose long be- fore the period when men began to take special notice and make some kind of record of their discoveries and pursuits. In the absence of positive information, we seem authorized in referring the lirst knowledge of arithmetic to the East (see Edinburgh Review, xviii, 185). From India, Chaldaja, Phoenicia, and Egypt the science passed to the Greeks, who extended its laws, improved its processes, and widened its sphere. To what extent the Orientals carried their acquaintance with arithmetic cannot be determined. The greatest discovery in this department of the mathematics, namely, the establishment of our system of ciphers, or of figures considered as distinct from the letters of the alphabet, belongs undoubtedly, not to Arabia, as is generally supposed, but to the remote East, probably India. It is to be regretted that the name of the dis- coverer is unknown, for the invention must be reckon- ed among the greatest of human achievements. Our numerals were made known to these AVestern parts by the Arabians, who, though they were nothing more than the mediums of transmission, have enjoyed the honor of giving them their name. These numerals were unknown to the Greeks, who made use of the let- ters of the alphabet for arithmetical purposes (see En- cyclopedia Metropolitana, s. v.). The Hebrews were not a scientific, but a religious and practical nation. What they borrowed from others of the arts of life they used without surrounding it with theory, or ex- panding and framing it into a system. So with arith- metic, designated by them by some form of the verb il3"0, manati , signifying to determine, limit, and thence to number. Of their knowledge of this science little is known more than may be fairly inferred from the pur- suits and trades which they carried on, for the suc- cessful prosecution of which some skill at least in its simpler processes must have been absolutely necessary; and the large amounts which appear here and there in the sacred books serve to show that their acquaintance with the art of reckoning was considerable. See Number. Even in fractions they were not inexperi- enced (Gesenius, Lehrgeb. p. 704). For figures, the Jews, after the Babylonish exile, made use of the let- ters of the alphabet, as appears from the inscriptions on the so-called Samaritan coins (Eckhel, Doctr. Num. i, iii, 468) ; and it is not unlikely that the ancient He- brews did the same, as well as the Greeks, who bor- rowed their alphabet from the Phoenicians, neighbors of the Israelites, and employed it instead of numerals (Schmidt, Biblischer Mathematicus, Tub. 1735, 1749). — Kitto, s. v. See Abbreviation. Arius.born toward the close of the third century, in Libya, according to others, in Alexandria. He wrote a theological work, Timlin, extracts from which are given in the writings of Athanasius. He died in 336. For his doctrines and their history, see Arianism. Ark is used in the Bible to designate three vessels of special importance. 1. Noah's Ark (fiat), tebah'; Sept. «/3wr<5c, a rh st : Josephus \dpvaZ, a coffer; Vulg. area, Gen. vi, 11), different from the term "pIX, arm', applied to the " ark'' of the covenant, and other receptacles which we know to have been chests or coffers, but the same that is applied to the " ark" in which Moses was hid (Exod. ii, 3), the only other part of Scripture in which it oc- curs. In the latter passage the Septuagint renders it Otjli], a ship; but the truth seems to be that aron de- notes any kind <>t' chest or coffer, while the exclusive application of tebah to the vessels of Noah and of Mo- ses would suggest the probability that it was restricted to such chests or arks as were intended to float upon the water, of whatever description. The identity of the name with that of the wicker basket in which Mo- ses was exposed on the Nile has led some to suppose that the ark of Noah was also of wicker-work, cr rather was wattled and smeared over with bitumen (Auth. Vers, "pitch," Gen. vi, 14). This is not impossible, seeing that vessels of considerable burden are thus con- structed at the present day ; but there is no sufficient authority for carrying the analogy to this extent. The boat-like form of the ark, which repeated pic- torial representations have rendered familiar, is fitted for progression and for cutting the waves ; whereas the ark of Noah was really destined to float idly upon ■ the waters, without any other motion than that which it received from them. If we examine the passage in Gen. vi, 14-16, we can only draw from it the conclu- sion that the ark was not a boat or ship ; but, as Dr. Robinson (in Calmet's Diet. s. v.) describes it, "a building in the form of a parallelogram, 300 cubits long, 50 cubits broad, and 30 cubits high. The length of the cubit, in the great variety of measures that bore this name, it is impossible to ascertain and useless to conjecture. So far as the name affords any evidence, it also goes to show that the ark of Noah was not a regularly-built vessel, but merely intended to float at large upon the waters. We may, therefore, probably with justice, regard it as a large oblong, floating house, with a roof either flat or only slightly inclined. It was constructed with three stories, and had a door in the side. There is no mention of windows in the side, but above, i. e. probably in the flat roof, where Noah was commanded to make them of a cubit in size (Gen. vi, 16). That this is the meaning of the passage seems apparent from Gen. viii, 13, where Noah removes the covering of the ark in order to ascertain whether the ground was dry — a Tabor unnecessary, surely, had there been windows in the sides of the ark." The purpose of this ark was to preserve certain per- sons and animals from the deluge with which God in- tended to overwhelm the land, in punishment for man's iniquities. The persons were eight — Noah and his wife, with his three sons and their wives (Gen. vii, 7 ; 2 Pet. ii, 5). The animals were, one pair of every " unclean" animal, and seven pairs of all that were " clean." P/y "clean" we understand fit, and by " un- clean" unfit, for food or sacrifice. Of birds there were seven pairs (Gen. vii, 2, 3). Those who have written professedly and largely on the subject have been at great pains to provide for all the existing species of animals in the ark of Noah, showing how they might be distributed, fed, and otherwise provided for. But they are very far from having cleared the matter of all its difficulties, which are much greater than they, in their general ignorance of natural history, were aware of. These difficulties, however, chiefly arise from the assumption that the species of all the earth were collected in the ark. The number of such spe- cies has been vastly underrated by these writers, partly from ignorance, and partly from the desire to limit the number for which they imagined they were required to provide. They have usually satisfied themselves with a provision for three or four hundred species at most. " But of the existing mammalia considerably more than one thousand species are known ; of birds, fully five thousand ; of reptiles, very few kinds of which can live in water, two thousand ; and the researches of travellers and naturalists are making frequent and most interesting additions to the number of these and all other classes. Of insects (using the word in the popular sense) the number of species is immense; to say one hundred thousand would be moderate : each has its appropriate habitation and food, and these are necessary to its life ; and the larger number could not live, in water. Also the innumerable millions upon millions of animalcules must be provided for, for they have all their appropriate and diversified places and circumstances of existence" (Dr. J. Pye Smith, On ARK 401 ARK the Relation between the Hob/ Scriptures and some Parts of Geological Science, p. 135). Nor do these numbers form the only difficulty ; for, as the same writer ob- serves : "All land animals have their geographical regions, to which their constitutional natures are con- genial, and many could not live in any other situation. We cannot represent to ourselves the idea of their be- ing brought into one small spot, from the polar re- gions, the torrid zone, and all the other climates of Asia, Africa, Europe, America, Australia, and the thou- sands of islands, their preservation and provision, and the final disposal of them, without bringing up the idea of miracles more stupendous than an}' which are recorded in Scripture." These are some of the diffi- culties which arise on the supposition that all the spe- cies of animals existing in the world were assembled together and contained in the ark. And if the object, as usually assumed, was to preserve the species of creatures which the Deluge would otherwise have de- stroyed, the provision for beasts and birds only must have been altogether inadequate. What, then, would have become of the countless reptiles, insects, and an- imalcules to which we have already referred ? and it is not clear that some provision must not also have been necessaiy for fishes and shell-animals, many of which cannot live in fresh water, while others cannot live in salt. The difficulty of assembling in one spot, and of providing for in the ark, the various mammalia and birds alone, even without including the otherwise essential provision for reptiles, insects, and fishes, is quite sufficient to suggest some error in the current be- lief. We are to consider the different kinds of accom- modation and food which would be required for ani- mals of such different habits and climates, and the necessary provision for cleansing the stables or dens. And if so much ingenuity has been required in devis- ing arrangements for the comparatively small number of species which the writers on the ark have been will- ing to admit into it, what provision can be made for the immensely larger number which, under the sup- posed conditions, would really have required its shel- ter ? There seems to be no way of meeting these dif- ficulties but by adopting the suggestion of Bishop Stil- lingfleet, approved by Matthew Poole, Dr. J. Pye Smith, Le Clerc, Eosenmuller, and others, namely, that, as the object of the Deluge was to sweep man from the earth, it did not extend beyond that region of the earth which man then inhabited, and that only the animals of that region were preserved in the ark. See Deluge. Bishop Stillingfleet, who wrote in plain soberness lung before geology was known as a science, and when, therefore, those discoveries were altogether unthought of, by which, in our day, such warm con- troversies have been excited, expresses his belief that the Flood was universal as to mankind, and that all men, except those preserved in the ark, were destroy- ed ; but he sees no evidence from Scripture that the whole earth was then inhabited ; he does not think that it can ever be proved to have been so ; and he asks what reason there can be to extend the Flood be- yond the occasion of it. He grants that, as far as the Flood extended, all the animals were destroyed ; " but," he adds, " I see no reason to extend the destruction of these beyond the compass of the earth which men then inhabited ; the punishment of the beasts was oc- casioned by, and could not but lie concomitant with, the destruction of mankind. But (the occasion of the Deluge being the sin of man, who was punished in the beasts that were destroyed for his sake, as well as in himself) where the occasion was not, as where there were animals and no men, there seems no necessity for extending the Flood thither" (Orir/ines Sacrw, bk. iii, ch. iv). The bishop farther argues that the rea- son for preserving living creatures in the ark was that there might be a stock of the tame and domesti- cated animals that should be immediately "service- able for man after the Flood ; which was certainly the Cc main thing looked at in the preservation of them in the ark, that men might have all of them ready for use after the Flood; which could not have been had not the several kinds been preserved in the ark, although we suppose them not destroyed in all parts of the world." As Noah was the progenitor of all the nations of the earth, and as the ark was the second cradle of the hu- man race, we might expect to find in all nations tra- ditions and reports more or less distinct respecting him, the ark in which he was saved, and the Deluge in general. Accordingly, no nation is known in which such traditions have not been found. They have been very industriously brought together by Banier, Bryant, Faber, and other mythologists. See Ara- rat; Noah. And as it appears that an ark— that is, a boat or chest — was carried about with great cer- emony in most of the ancient mysteries, and occupied an eminent station in the holy places, it has with much reason been concluded that this was originally intended to represent the ark of Noah, which eventu- ally came to be regarded with superstitious reverence. On this point the historical and mythological testimo- nies are very clear and conclusive. The tradition of a deluge', by which the race of man was swept from the face of the earth, has been traced among the Chal- daeans, Egyptians, Phoenicians, Assyrians, Persians, Greeks, Romans, Goths, Druids, Chinese, Hindoos, Burmese, Mexicans, Peruvians, Brazilians, Nicara- guans, the inhabitants of Western Caledonia, and the islanders of the Pacific ; and among most of them also the belief has prevailed that certain individuals were preserved in an ark, ship, boat, or raft, to replenish the desolated earth with inhabitants. Nor are these traditions uncorroborated by coins and monuments of stone. Of the latter there are the sculptures of Egypt and of India ; and it is fancied that those of the mon- uments called Druidical which bear the name of kist- vaens, and in which the stones arc disposed in the Druidical Altar?. form of a chest or house, were intended as memorials of the ark. The curious subject of Arkite worship is especially illustrated by the two famous medals of Apamea. There were six cities of this name, of which the most celebrated was that of Syria ; next to it in importance was the one in Phr}'gia, called also Ki/ioj- -6c, Kibotos, which, as we have seen, means an ark or hollow vessel. The medals in question belong, the one to the elder Philip, and the other to Pertinax. In the former it is extremely interesting to observe that on the front of the ark is the name of Noah, NQE, in Greek characters. In both we perceive the ark floating on the water, containing the patriarch and his wife, the dove on wing, the olive-branch, and the raven perched on the ark. These medals also repre- sent Noah and his wife on terra, firm a, in the attitude of rendering thanks for their safety. The genuine- ness of these medals has been established beyond all question by the researches of Bryant and the critical inspection of Abbe Barthelemy. There is another medal, struck in honor of the Emperor Hadrian, which bears the inscription AHAMEUN KIBQTOS MAP2- 2IA, "the ark and the Marsj-as of the Apameans." See ArAMEA. The coincidences which these medals offer are at least exceedingly curious; and they are scarcely less illustrative of the prevailing belief to which we are referring, if, as some suppose, the figures represented are those of Deucalion and Pyrrha (Meis- ner, De area Xoachi, Witt. 1622) — Kitto. See Flood. ARK 402 ARK Coins of Apamea Ciloiv.% with supposed Representations of the Ark. 2. The Ark of Bulrushes (SlSSl, tebah' ; Sept. S'i'/3(f). In Exod. ii, 3, we read that Moses was ex- posed among the flags of the Nile in an ark (or boat of bulrushes) daubed with slime and with pitch. The bulrushes of which the ark was made were the papy- rus reed (Cyperus papyrus), which grows in Egypt in marshy places. It was used for a variety of purposes, even for food. Pliny says, from the plant itself they veuve boats, and other ancient writers inform us that the Nile wherries were made of papyrus. Boats made of this material were noted for their swiftness, and are alluded to in Isa. xviii, 2. See Reed. 3. The Sacred Ark of the Jews (l'"l1N or pX aron; Sept. and New Test. k-(/3w-oc), different from the term applied to the ark of Noah. It is the com- mon name for a chest or coffer, whether applied to the ark in the tabernacle, to a coffin, to a mummy-chest (Gen. 1, 20), or to a chest for money (2 Kings xii, 9, 10). Our word ark has the same meaning; being de- rived from the Latin area, a chest. The sacred chest is distinguished from others as the "ark of God" (1 Sam. iii, 3), " ark of the covenant" (Josh, iii, G; Heb. ix, 4), and " ark of the law" (Exod. xxv, 22). This ark was a kind of box, of an oblong shape, made of shittim (acacia) wood, a cubit and a half broad and high, two culiits long, and covered on all sides with the purest gold. It was ornamented on its upper sur- face with a border or rim of gold ; and on each of the two sides, at equal distances from the top, were two gold rings, in which were placed (to remain there per- petually) the gold-covered poles by which the ark was carried, and which continued with it after it was de- posited in the tabernacle. The Levites of the house of Kohath, to whose office this especially appertained, bore il in its progress. Probably, however, when re- moved from within the vail in the most holy place, which was its proper position, or when taken out * thence, priests were its bearers (Num. vii, 9 ; x, 21 ; iv, 5, 19, 20; 1 Kings viii, 3, 6). The ends of the St iv. is were visible without the vail in the holy place of the temple of Solomon, the staves being drawn to the ends, apparently, but not out of the rings. The ark, when transported, was enveloped in the " vail" of the dismantled tabernacle, in the curtain of badgers' skins, and in a blue cloth over all. and was therefore not seen. The lid or cover of the ark was of the same length and breadth as the ark itself, and made of the purest gold. Over it, at the two extremities, were two cherubim, with their faces turned toward each other, and inclined a little toward the lid (otherwise called the mercy-seaC). See Cherub. Their wings, which were spread out over the top of the ark, formed the throne of God, the King of Israel, while the ark itself was his footstool (Exod. xxv, 10-22 ; xxxvii, 1-9). (Comp. Josephus, Ant. iii, G, 5; Philo, Opera, ii, 150; Koran, ii, 249, ed. Marrac. ; for heathen parallels, see Apulej. Asm. xi, 262, Bip. ; Pausan. vii, 19, 3; Ovid, Ars Am. ii, 609 sq. ; Catull. lxiv, 260 sq. See gen- erally Behind, Antiq. Sacr. i, 5, 19 sq., 43 sq. ; Carp- zov, Appar. p. 260 sq. ; Schaacht, Animadvers. p. 334 sq. ; Buxtorf, Hist, areas fad. in Ugolini Thesaur. viii ; Hoffmann, in the Hall. Encycl. xiv, 27 sq. ; Otho, Lex. Rabb. p. GO sq. ; Rau, Nubes super area fad. Herbon. 1757, Utrecht, 1760 ; Thalemann, Nubes super area fad. Lips. 1752, Vindic. 1771; Lamy, Be tabernac. fad. p. 412 sq. ; Van Til, He tabernac. Mas. p. 117 sq.) This ark was the most sacred object among the Is- raelites ; it was deposited in the innermost and holiest part of the tabernacle, called "the holy of holies" (and afterward in the corresponding apartment of the Temple), where it stood so that one end of each of the poles by which it was carried (which were drawn out so far as to allow the ark to be placed against the back wall) touched the vail which separated the two apart- ments of the tabernacle (1 Kings viii, 8). It was also probably a reliquary for the pot of manna and the rod of Aaron. We read in 1 Kings viii, 9, that "there was nothing in the ark save the two tables of stone which Moses put there at Horeb." Yet Paul, or the author of Heb. ix, 4, asserts that, besides the two ta- bles of stone, the "pot of manna" and "Aaron's rod that budded" were inside the ark, which were direct- ed to be " laid up" and " kept before the testimony,'" i. e. before the tables of the law (Exod. xl, 20) ; and probabl}-, since there is no mention of any other re- ceptacle for them, and some would have been neces- sary, the statement of 1 Kings viii, 9, implies that by Solomon's time these relics had disappeared. The expression ",TnX ^£33, Dent, xxxi, 26, obscurely ren- dered "in the side of the ark" (Auth. Vers.), merely means "beside" it. During the marches of the Israelites it was covered with a purple pall, and borne bj' the priests, with great reverence and care, in advance of the host (Num. iv, 5, 6 ; x, 33). It was before the ark, thus in ad- vance, that the waters of the Jordan separated ; and it remained in the bed of the river, with the attendant ARK 408 ARK priests, until the whole host had passed over ; and no sooner was it also brought up than the waters resumed their course (Josh, iii ; iv, 7, 10, 11, 17, 18). We may notice a fiction of the Rabbis that there were two arks, one which remained in the shrine, and another which preceded the camp on its march, and that this latter j contained the broken tables of the law, as the former the whole ones. The ark was similarly conspicuous in the grand procession round Jericho (Josh, vi, 4, G, 8, 11, 12). It is not wonderful, therefore, that the neighboring nations, who had no notion of spiritual worship, looked upon it as the God of the Israelites (1 Sam. iv, 6, 7), a delusion which may have been strengthened by the figures of the cherubim on it. After the conquest, the ark generally (see Judg. xx, 27) remained in the tabernacle at Shiloh, until, in the time of Eli, it was carried along with the army in the war [ against the Philistines, under the superstitious notion I that it would secure the victory to the Hebrews. They were, nevertheless, not only beaten, but the ark itself was taken by the Philistines (1 Sam. iv, 3-11), whose triumph was, however, very short lived, as thej- were so oppressed by the hand of God that, after seven months, they were glad to send it back again (1 Sam. v, 7). After that it remained apart from the taber- nacle, at Kirjath-jearim (vii, 1, 2), where it continued until the time of David, who purposed to remove it to Jerusalem ; but the old prescribed mode of removing it from place to place was so much neglected as to cause the death of Uzzah, in consequence of which it was left in the house of Obededom (2 Sam. vi, 1-11) ; hut after three months David took courage, and suc- ceeded in effecting its safe removal, in grand proces- sion, to Mount Zion (ver. 12-19). When the Temple of Solomon was completed, the ark was deposited in the sanctuary (1 Kings viii, G-9). Several of the Psalms contain allusions to these events (e. g. xxiv, xlvii, exxxii), and Psa. cv appears to have been com- posed on the occasion of the first of them. See Psalms. The passage in 2 Chron. xxxv, 3, in which Josiah directs the Levites to restore the ark to the holy place, is understood by some to imply that it had either been removed by Anion, who put an idol in its place, which is assumed to have been the "trespass" of which he is said to have been gurlty (2 Chron. xxxiii, 23), or that the priests themselves had with- drawn it during idolatrous times, and preserved it in some secret place, or had removed it from one place to another. But it seems more likely that it had been taken from the hoi}- of holies during the purification and repairs of the Temple by this same Josiah, and that he, in this passage, merely directs it to be again set in its place. Or it may have been removed by Manasseh, to make room for the " carved image" that he placed "in the house of God" (2 Chron. xxxiii, 7). What became of the ark when the Temple was plun- dered and destroyed by the Babylonians is not known, and all conjecture is useless. It was probably taken away or destroyed by Nebuchadnezzar (2 Esdr. x, 22). The Jews believe that it was concealed from the spoilers, and account it among the hidden things which the Messiah is to reveal (see Ambros. Off. iii, 17, 18 ; Joseph. Gorionid. i, 21 ; Wernsdorf, Be Ji.de Maccab. p. 183 sq. ; Mishna, Shekal. vi, 1). It is certain, how- ever, from the consent of all the Jewish writers, that the old ark was not contained in the second temple, and there is no evidence that any new one was made. Indeed, the absence of the ark is one of the important particulars in which this temple was held to be inferior .to that of Solomon. The most holy place is therefore generally considered to have been empty in the second temple (as Josephus states, liar, v, 14) ; or at most (as the rabbins allege, Mishna, Yoma, v, 2) to have contained only a stone to mark the place which the ark should have occupied (comp. Tacit, Hist, v, 9). The silence of Ezra, Nehemiah, the Maccabees, and Josephus, who repeatedly mention all the other sacred utensils, but never name the ark, seems conclusive on the subject. But, notwithstanding this weight of* testi- mony, there are writers, such as Prideaux (Connection, i, 207), who contend that the Jews could not properly carry on their worship without an ark, and that if the original ark was not recovered after the Captivity, a new one must have been made (Calmet's Dissertation surVArehe d1 Alliance; Hase, De lapide cui area impo- sitafuit, Erb. and Lpz. n. d. 4to). See Temple. Concerning the design and form of the ark, it ap- pears that clear and unexpected light has been thrown by the discoveries which have of late years been made in Egypt, and which have unfold- ed to us the rites and myste- ries of the old Egyptians. (See Descr. de VEgypte, Att. i, pi. 11, fig. 4 ; pi. 12, fig. 3 ; iii, pi. 32, 34, 3G ; comp. Rosenmul- ler, Morgenl. ii, 9G sq. ; Heeren, Ideen, II, ii, 831 ; Spencer, Leg. ril. iii, 5, p. 1084 sq. ; Bahr, Symbol, i, 381, 402 sq.) "One of the most important cere- _ monies was the ' procession of u Vy shrines,' which is mentioned Egyptian Ark. From the in the Rosetta stone, and fre- Monuments, quently occurs on the walls of the temples. The shrines were of two kinds : the one a sort of canopy ; the other an ark or sacred boat, which may be termed the great shrine. This was carried with grand pomp by the priests, a certain number being selected for that duty, who supported it on their shoulders by means of long staves, passing through metal rings at the side of the sledge on which it stood, and brought it into the temple, where it was deposited upon a stand or table, in order that the prescribed ceremonies might be discharged before it. The stand was also carried in procession b}- another set of priests, following the shrine, by means of similar staves ; a method usually adopted for carrying large statues and sacred em- blems, too heavy or too important to be borne by one person. The same is stated to have been the custom of the Jews in some of their religious processions (comp. 1 Chron. xv, 2, 15; 2 Sam. xv, 24; and Josh, iii, 12), as in carrying the ark to its place, into the oracle of the house, to the most holy place, when the Temple was built by Solomon (1 Kings viii, G)." . . . . " Some of the arks or boats contained the emblems of Life and Stability, which, when the veil was drawn aside, were partially seen ; and others presented the beetle to the sun, overshadowed by the wings of two figures of the goddess Thenei, or Truth, which call to mind the cherubim of the Jews" (Wilkinson's Anc. Egyptians, v, 271, 275). The ritual of the Etruscans, Greeks, Romans, and other ancient nations, included the use of what Clemens Alexandrinus calls Kiarai /.wffTticai {Protrrpt. p. 12). The same Clemens (Strom. v, 578) also contains an allusion of a proverbial char- acter to the ark and its rites, which seems to show- that they were popularly known, where he says that "only the master (ciedaKaXoc) may uncover the ark" (/c(/3wro£-). In Latin, also, the word arcanum, con- Ark borne in Procession by Egyptian Priests. From the Monuments. ARK 404 ARKITE necteil with area, and arceo, is the recognised term for a sacred mystery. (Illustrations of the same subject occur also in Pint. De Is. et Osi. c. 39 ; Euseb. Prcep. Evan;/, ii, 3.) These resemblances and differences appear to us to cast a strong light, not only on the form, but on the purpose of the Jewish ark. The discoveries of this sort which have lately been made in Egypt have add- ed an overwhelming weight of proof to the evidence which previously existed, that the "tabernacle made with hands," with its utensils and ministers, bore a designed external resemblance to the Egyptian models, but purged of the details and peculiarities which were the most open to abuse and misconstruction. That the Israelites, during the latter part of their sojourn in Egypt, followed the rites and religion of the country, and were (at least many of them) gross idolaters, is distinctly affirmed in Scripture (Josh, xxiv, 14 ; Ezek. xxiii, 3, 8, 19), and is shown by their ready lapse into the worship of the "golden calf," and by the striking fact that they actually carried about with them one of these Egyptian shrines or tabernacles in the wilderness (Amos v, 2G). From their conduct, and the whole tone of their sentiments and character, it appears that this stiff-necked and rebellious people were incapable (as a nation) of adhering to that simple form of worship and service which is most pleasing to God. (See an article on this subject in the Am. Bib. Repos. Oct. 1843, p. 290-312.)— Kitto, s. v. mmmmm Ancient Egyptian Shrine. The purpose or object of the ark was to contain in- violate the Divine autograph of the two tables, that "covenant" from which it derived its title, the idea of which was inseparable from it, and which may be regarded as the depositum of the Jewish dispensation. The perpetual .safe custody of the material tables no doubt suggested the moral observance of the precepts inscribed. The words ofthe Audi. Vers, in 1 Chr. xiii, 3, seem to imply a use ofthe ark for the purpose of an oracle; but this is probably erroneous, and "we Bought it not" the meaning; so the Sept. renders it (see Gesenius, Lex.&. v. -:~~>. Occupying the inost holy spot ofthe whole saint nary, it tended to exclude any idol from the centre Of worship. And Jeremiah (iii, 16) look, forward to the time when even the ark should be "no more remembered" as the climax of spiritualized religion apparently in Messianic times. It was also the support ofthe mercy-seat, materially symbolizing, perhaps, the "covenant" as that on which "mercj-" rested. It also furnished a legitimate vent to that longing after a material object for reverential feeling which is common to all religions. It was, however, never seen, save by the high-priest, and re- sembled in this respect the Deity whom it symbolized, whose face none might look upon and live. That this reverential feeling may have been impaired dur- ing its absence among the Philistines seems probable from the case of Uzzah. — Smith. See Mercy-seat. Ar'kite (Heb. Arid', "1p'n? ; Sept. and Joseph. ApovKaioQ, like the Samar. Aruki', "^"i"), a desig- nation ofthe inhabitants of Aria (Plin. v, 16; "Apica, Ptol. v, 15), who are mentioned in Gen. x, 17 ; 1 Chron. i, 15, as descended from the Phoenician or Si- donian branch of the great family of Canaan. This, in fact, as well as the other small northern states of Phoenicia, was a colony from the great parent state of Sidon. Arka, or Arce ("Ante?/), their chief town, lay between Tripolis and Antaradus, at the western base of Lebanon (Joseph. Ant. i, 6, 2 ; Jerome, Qwest, in Gen. x, 15). Josephus {Ant. viii, 2, 3) makes Baa- nah, who in 1 Kings iv, 16, is said to have been su- perintendent of the tribe of Asher, governor of Arka ('Apic/j) by the sea ; and if, as commonly supposed, the capital of the Arkites is intended, their small state must, in the time of Solomon, have been under the Hebrew yoke. In the time of Alexander a splendid temple was erected here in honor of Astarte, the Venus of the Phoenicians (Macrob. Sat. i, 21). Subsequent- ly Arka shared the lot of the other small Phoenician states in that quarter; but in later times it formed part of Herod Agrippa's kingdom. Titus passed through it on his return from the destruction of Jeru- salem (ApKctia, Joseph. War, vii, 5, 1). In the Mid- rash (Midr. Iiabb. 37) it is called "Arlam of Leba- non" Cji33^-I Dp"C)- The name and site seem never to have been unknown (Mannert, p. 391), although for a time it bore the name of Ccesarea Libani (Aufel. Vict. De Cces. xxiv, 1), from having been the birthplace of Alexander Severus (Lamprid. Alex. Sev.). Coins are extant of it (Eckhel, Doctr. Num. iii, 360), but not of its Phoenician period (Gesenius, Mvnam. Phanic. ii, 285 sq.). It was eventually the seat of a Christian bishopric (Le Quien, Oriens Christ, ii, 815, 823). It is repeatedly noticed by the Arabian writers (Mi- chaelis, Spicil. ii, 23 ; also Orient. Bibl. vi, 99 sq. ; Schultens, Vita Saladini ; Edrisi, p. 13; Eosenmuller, Barhebr. Chron. p. 282). It is mentioned in all the itineraries of this region, and is conspicuous in early ecclesiastical records. It also figures largely in the exploits ofthe Crusaders, by whom it was unsuccess- fully besieged in 1099, but at last taken in 1109 by Bertrand (see Eobinson's Researches, new ed. iii, 578 sq.). In 1202 it was totally destroyed by an earth- quake. It lay 32 Roman miles from Antaradus, 18 miles from Tripoli, and, according to Abulfeda, a par- asang from the sea (Tab. Syrid, p. 11). In a position corresponding to these intimations, Shaw (Obsi rvat. p. 270) noticed the site and ruins. Burckhardt (Syria, p. 162), in travelling from the north-east of Lebanon to Tripoli, at the distance of about four miles south of the Nahr-el-kebir (Eleutherus), came to a hill called Te\-Arka, which, from its regularly flattened conical form and smooth sides, appeared to be artificial. He was told that on its top were some ruins of habitations and walls. Upon an elevation on its east and south sides, which commands a beautiful view over the plain, the sea, and the Anzeiry mountains, are large and extensive heaps of rubbish, traces of ancient dwellings, blocks of hewn stone, remains of walls, and fragments of granite columns. These are no doubt the remains of Arka; and the hill was probably the acropolis or citadel, or the site of a temple (Hames- veld, iii, 39 sq.). The present village has 21 Greek and 7 Moslem families — a wretched hamlet amid the ARLES 405 ARMENIA columns of this once splendid city (Bibliotheca Sacra, 1848, p. 16). Arlss (Arelate), an ancient archiepiscopal see in Lower Provence, on the left of the Rhone, seven leagues from its mouth, about one hundred and eighty- six leagues from Paris. It is said to derive its name from Ara elata, a high altar raised here in pagan times. A number of councils and synods were held at Aries, of which the following are the chief: (1.) In 314, a general synod for the West, at which Constan- tine and GOO or G33 bishops were present ; 22 canons were framed on the Donatists, etc. ; (2.) in 428 or 429, at which Germanus and Lupus were deputed to En- gland ; (3.) in 455, under Ravennius, to settle the dis- pute between Faustus, abbot of Lerins, and the bishop of Frejus ; (4.) in 475, against Lucidus, accused of Predestinationism ; (5.) in 524, under Csesarius, four canons on ordination were published ; (6.) in 1234, under John Baussan, twenty-four canons were pub- lished against heretics, chief!)* against the Waldenses ; (7.) in 1275, by Bsrtrand de S. Martin, twenty-two canons were published, and the clergy fordidden mak- ing wills. — Landon, Manual of Councils; Smith, Ta- bles of Church Hist. Arm (usually Silt, zero' a, /?p«x? Map uf micieut Armenia, with the adjoining Regions. ARMENIA 407 ARMENIA The 'Apptvia of the Greeks (sometimes aspirated, 'Apptvia, comp. Xen. Anab. iv, 6, 34) is the Arminiya or Jrminiya of the Arabs, the Ermenistan of the Per- sians. Moses of Chorene (Hist. Arm. p. 35) derives the name from Aram (q. v.), a son of Shem, who also gave name to Aramaja or Syria; Hartmann (Aufklar. i, 34) draws it from Armenagh, the second of the na- tive princes ; but the most probable etymology is that of Bochart (Phaleg, i, 3), viz., that it was originally "li"2"""ri, Har-Minni or Mount Minni, i. e. the High- land of Minyas, or, according to Wahl (Asien, i, 807), the Heavenly Mountain (i. e. Ararat), for mino in Zend, and myno, myny, in Parsee, signify " heaven, heavenly." In the country itself the name Armenia is unknown ; the people are called Haik (Rosenmiil- ler, Alterth. I, i, 2G7 sq.), and the country Hayotz-zor, the Valley of the Haiks— from Haik, the "fifth de- scendant of Noah by Japhet, in the traditionary gene- alogy of the country (comp. Ritter's Erdkunde, ii, 714). The boundaries of Armenia (lat. 37—12°) may be described (Strabo, xi, 526) generally as the southern range of the Caucasus on the north, and the Moschian branch of the Taurus on the south ; but in all direc- tions, and especially to the east and west, the limits have been very fluctuating (Kennell, Geogr. Herod, i, 369). It forms an elevated table-land, whence the rivers Euphrates, Tigris, Araxes, and Acampsis pour down their waters in different directions, the first two to the Persian Gulf, the last two respectively to the Caspian and Euxine seas. It may be termed the nucleus of the mountain system of Western Asia : from the centre of the plateau rise two lofty chains of mountains, which run from east to west, converging toward the Caspian Sea, but parallel to each other to- ward the west, the most northerly named by ancient geographers the Abus Mountains, and culminating in Mount Ararat ; the other named the Niphates Moun- tains. Westward these ranges may be traced in Anti- Taurus and Taurus, while in the opposite direction they are continued in the Caspius Mountains. These ranges (with the exception of the gigantic Ararat) are of mod- erate height, the plateau gradually sinking toward the plains of Iran on the east, and those of Asia Minor on the west. The climate is generally cold (Xen. Anab. iv, 4, 8), but salubrious, the degree of severitj"- vary- ing with the altitude of different localities, the valleys being sufficiently warm to ripen the grape. The country abounds in romantic forest and mountain scenery, and rich pasture-land, especialfy in the dis- tricts which border upon Persia (Herod, i, 194 ; vii, 40; Xen. Anab. iv, 5, 24; Strabo, x, 528, 558, 587; Ezek. xxvii, 14 ; Chardin, Voyages, ii, 158 ; Tourne- fort, Reisen, iii, 179 sq.). The latter supported vast numbers of mules and horses, on which the wealth of the country chiefly depended ; and hence Strabo (xi, 529) tells us that the horses were held in as high esti- mation as the celebrated Nisaean breed. The inhab- itants were keen traders in ancient as in modern times. Ancient writers notice, also, the wealth of Armenia in metals and precious stones (Herod, i, 194 ; Pliny, xxxvii, 23). The great rivers Euphrates and Tigris both take their rise in this region, as also the Araxes, and the Kur or Cyrus. Armenia is commonly divided into Greater and Lesser (Lucan. ii, 038), the line of separation being the Euphrates (comp. Ptolem. v, 7 and 13) ; but the former constitutes by far the larger portion (Strabo, xi, 532), and, indeed, the other is often regarded as pertaining rather to Asia Minor. (See, generally, Strabo, xi, 526 sq. ; Pliny, vi, 9 ; Mannert, V, ii, 181 sq. ; Ritter, Erdkunde, x, 285 sq.) There was anciently a kingdom of Armenia, with its metropolis Artaxata : it was sometimes an independ- ent state, but most commonly tributary to some more powerful neighbor. Indeed, at no period was the whole of this region ever comprised under one govern- ment, but Assyria, Media, Syria, and Cappadocia shared the dominion or allegiance of some portion of it, just as it is now divided among the Persians, Rus- sians, Turks, and Kurds ; for there is no doubt that that part of Kurdistan which includes the elevated basins of the lakes of Van and Oormiah anciently be- longed to Armenia. The unfortunate German travel- ler Schulz (who was murdered by a Kurdish chief) discovered in 1827, near the former lake, the ruins of a very ancient town, which he supposed to be that which is called by Armenian historians Shamiramaheri (i. e. the town of Semiramis), because believed to have been built by the famous Assyrian queen. The ruins are covered with inscriptions in the arrow-headed character ; in one of them Saint-Martin thought he deciphered the words Khshearsha, son of Dareioush (Xerxes, son of Darius). In later times Armenia was the border-country where the Romans and Parthians fruitlessly strove for the mastery ; and since then it has been the frequent battle-field of the neighboring states. During the recent wars between Russia and Turkey, large bodies of native Armenians have emi- grated into the Russian dominions, so that their num- ber in what is termed Turkish Armenia is now con- siderably reduced. By the treaty of Turkomanshi (21st Feb. 1828), Persia ceded to Russia the Khanats of Erivan and Nakhchevan. The boundary-line (drawn from the Turkish dominions) passes over the Little Ararat ; the line of separation between Persian and Turkish Armenia also begins at Ararat ; so that this famous mountain is now the central boundary-stone of these three empires. (See, generally, Smith's Diet. of Class. Geogr. s. v.; Penny Cyclopaedia, s. v.; M'Cul- loch's Geogr. Diet. s. v.) — Kitto, s. v. The slight acquaintance which the Hebrew writers had of this country was probably derived from the Phoenicians. There are signs of their knowledge hav- ing been progressive. Isaiah, in his prophecies re- garding Babylon, speaks of the hosts as coming from the " mountains" (xiii, 4), while Jeremiah, in connec- tion with the same subject, uses the specific names Ararat and Minni (li. 27). Ezekiel. who was appar- ently better acquainted with the country, uses a name which was familiar to its own inhabitants, Togarmah. Whether the use of the term Ararat in Isa. xxxvii, 38, belongs to the period in which the prophet himself lived, is a question which cannot be here discussed. In the prophetical passages to which we have referred, it will be noticed that Armenia is spoken of rather in reference to its geographical position as one of the ex- treme northern nations with which the Jews were ac- quainted than for any more definite purpose. — Smith. Christianity was first established in Armenia in the fourth century ; the Armenian Church (q. v.) has a close affinity to the Greek Church in its forms and polity ; it is described by the American missionaries who are settled in the country as in a state of great corruption and debasement. The total number of the Armenian nation throughout the world is supposed not to exceed 2,000,000. Their favorite pursuit is commerce, and their merchants are found in all parts of the East. — Kitto. A list of early works on Armenia may be found in Walch, Bibl. Theol. iii, 353 sq. For a further account of the History of Armenia (New Englander, Oct. 1863), see Moses Chorensis, Historia Armen. lib. iii (Armen. edid. Lat. vert, notisque illustr. W. et G. Whistonii, Lond. 1736); Chamich, History of Armenia (translated from the Armenian original by M. J. Ar- dall, Calcutta, 1827); History ofVartan, translated by Neumann ; see also Langlois, Kumismatique de /.'Ann- nie (Par. 1858) ; Andrisdogues de Lasdivera, Histoire d'Armenie (Par. 1*04). On its Topography, see St.-Martin, Memoire sur V Armenia; Colonel Chesney, Euphrates Expedition, i; Kinneir, Memoirs of the Per- sian Empire, also Travels in Armenia; Moriev, Travels in Persia, i; Ker Porter, Travels; Smith and Dwigbt's Researches in Armenia (Bost. 1833) ; Southgate, Tour through Armenia (N. Y. 1840); Curzon, Residence at ARMENIAN CHURCH 40S ARMENIAN CHURCH Era roum (Lond. 1854) ; and vols, iii, vi, x of the Jour. I of the hand. Geoff. Soc. containing the explorations of Monteith, Ainsworth, and others. On the Religion of the nation, sec Giov. dc Serpos, Compendia storial 'one Arm na (Ven. 1786) ; Kurze histor. Dar- steUvtng d. geg mo. Zustandes d.armen. FbZAes (Petersb. j and Berl. 1831). See EDEN. Armenian Chui ch. The designation of a branch of Christians, which, although originating in Armenia, is now disseminated over all the adjacent portions of tin- East. I. History. — Armenia, it is said, first received Chris- ! tianity from Bartholomew and Thaddseus, the latter i not the apostle, but one of the seventy, who instruct- ed Abgarus of Edessa (q. v.) in the faith, although the Armenians themselves maintain that he teas the apos- tle. The light was very speedily quenched, and was not rekindled until the beginning of the fourth cen- tury. About that time Gregory (q. v.) Illuminator (or Lusarovich, in their tongue) preached the Gospel : throughout Armenia, and soon converted the king, j Tyridates. Gregory was consecrated first bishop of the Armenians by Leontius of Csesarea, whence the Armenian Church became thenceforward dependent on the see of Csesarea, and for a long period the success- j ors of Gregory were consecrated bjr that primate. It was to this subjection to the see of Caesarea that the | primates of Armenia owed the title of Catholicos (or proctor-general), which was assigned them as vicars of the primate of Csesarea in that country. In the fourth century the}- received many literary institu- tions through the Catholicos Sahag (after 406), and a translation of the Bible through Mesrob (q. v.). The Armenian Church preserved the faith until the end of the reign of Theodosius the younger; and in 437 a synod was held at Ispahan, composed of many Arme- nian bishops, who addressed a synodieal letter to Pro- clus, of Constantinople, condemning the impieties of Xestorius and Theodore of Mopsuestia. In the follow- ing century the Church of Armenia, from an excess of hatred toward Nestorianism, embraced the Eutyeh- ian (q. v.) heresy, and condemned the Council of Chalcedon. The name commonly given to the Church was Gregorian Church (after Gregory Illuminator), i When, in the fifth century, several kings of Persia i made an attempt to force the doctrines of Zoroaster upon the Armenians, many emigrated to various coun- j tries of Asia and Europe. About 554 a synod of Ar- menian bishops was convened at the city of Thevin, or Tiben, by the patriarch Isierses II, at the command of the King of Persia, who desired to separate the Ar- menians from the Greeks. In this synod they re- ! nounced the communion of the orthodox churches, anathematized that of Jerusalem, allowed only one nature in Jesus Christ, and added to the Tersanctus ( the words Qui crucifixvs es. See Monophysites. An attempt to abolish the schism was made by a synod at Garin in 629, which adopted the resolutions of Chalcedon; but soon the connection between the Armenian and the Greek Church was again dissolved. The metropolis of the Armenian Church was called Vaffarsciahat in their tongue, but was known to the Latin- as Artaxala, the capital of the country. In this city was built, A.D. G50, the monastery of Esch- v Etchmiaz), which contains the sepulchre Of St. Gregory, and is now the see of the patriarch, or catholicos, as he is called, of Armenia Major. Va- garociabat no longer exists; but the monastery of Eschmiazin is the scat of the catholicos, and contain- ed three churches built in a triangle. At first the catholicos of Eschmiazin was the sole patriarch of Armenia ; but befort the year 1341 there were three, vi/. a second at Achtamar, and a third at Sis. R> caut, who wrote an account of " the Greek and Arme- nian Churches" (I I. 1679, 8vo), mentions, besides these Hire-, a fourth one at < .in-hahar. All four had under them 87 archbishops and 1U0 bishops. By the treaty of Unkiar Skelessi (1828) a large portion of Upper Armenia was ceded to the Czar, and thus also the head of the Church, the catholicos of Eschmiazin, became a subject of Russia. The attempts of the Russian government to induce the Armenians to en- ter into a union with the Russian Church have failed. In Turkey the Armenians shared in general the fata of the other Christian denominations. See Turkey. In ls48 they elected a council of 12 lay primates, who rule the Church in all its temporal affairs. The pa- triarch has only the right of presidency. At an early period efforts were made to establish a closer connection of the Armenians with the Roman Catholic Church. In consequence of the Crusades, several kings, in the twelfth and following centuries, interested themselves in behalf of a corporate union of the churches with Rome, and the synods of Kromglai (1179), Sis (1307), and Atan (1316) declared themselves in the same way. At the Council of Florence (1439), the Armenian deputies, together with the Greeks, ac- cepted the union, but neither people ratified it. Some churches, however, remained, ever since the fourteenth century, when Pope John XXIII sent a Roman arch- bishop to Armenia, in connection with Rome, and formed the "Armenian Catholic, or United Armenian Church," which in doctrinal points conforms with Rome, but in all other respects agrees with the Gre- gorian Armenian Church. Through the influence of Mechitar (q. v.) and the Mechitarists, this branch obtained a literary superiority over the main (non- united) body, which, especially in modern times, has worked not a little in favor of Rome. Of late, not only a number of Armenian villages have accepted the union, but in Turkey, among some of the leading men of the national (Gregorian) Armenian Church, a disposition has been created to try anew the accom- plishment of a corporate union. See United Arme- nian Church. The efforts made by the High-Church Episcopalians for establishing a closer intercommunion between the Church of England and the Eastern churches was favor- ably received by many Armenians of Turkey. A pam- phlet was published in 1860, in Constantinople, with the imprimatur of the Armenian patriarch, to show how nearly the Armenian Church is like that of England. The pamphlet, to this end, quotes from the prayer-book the whole of the twenty-fifth Article of Religion, but so shapes the translation as to make it appear that the Church of England, as well as the Armenian, believe in seven sacraments, though five of them, the pamphlet says, are received only, as they are by the Armenian Church, as secondary sacraments. Several Armenian theologians are quoted in support of this theory. In the same year (1860), Rev. G. Williams, of Cambridge (Eng- land ). had an interview with the Armenian archbishop of Tiflis, in Georgia, relative to the scheme of a union between the English and Armenian churches. Mr. Williams was the bearer of letters from the bishops of Oxford and Lincoln, who, it appears, assumed to speak in the name of the Church of England to the "cathol- icos, patriarch, bishops, etc., of the orthodox Eastern Church." He was to see '"the holy catholicos," the head of the entire Armenian Church, at Eschmiazin ; but, being somewhat unwell, and his time of absence having almost expired, he abandoned his journey to Eschmiazin, and spent ten days in Tiflis to confer with the archbishop of that city. He expressed, in the name of the Church of England, his acknowledgment of the Armenian Church as a true, orthodox, and ap- ostolic church, and kissed "the sacred hand of his holiness." The archbishop, in return, granted to him his episcopal blessing, and expressed a thousand good wishes for himself and his people. To the proposition of Mr. Williams to send a few young Armenians to Cambridge for an education, no definite answer was given. The Armenian Church has produced a numerous ARMENIAN CHURCH 409 ARMENIAN CHURCH theological literature, the chief works of which have been published at Venice by the Mechitarists, and at Constantinople. The translation of the Bible byMes- rob is still regarded as a model of classic language. The most celebrated Armenian writers were Gregory Illuminator and David the philosopher. A martvro- logium was compiled in the ninth century by Kakik and Gregory, an enlarged edition of which (Haisma- vark, Constantinople, 1847) is still read in the Armeni- an churches. See Neumann, Versuch einer Geschichte tier ArmeniscJien Litteratur (Leipz. 18SC). See Mekhitab. II. Doctrines, Usages, and Polity. — The Armenians are said to be Monophysites, but modern " missiona- ries are generally disposed to regard them as differing more in terminology than in idea from the orthodox faith on that point. They agree with the Greeks and other Oriental churches in rejecting the ' iilio-que' from the Nieene Creed, and maintaining the procession ! of the Holy Spirit from the Father only. With some j difference in forms and modes of worship, the religious opinions of the Armenians are mostly like those of the Greeks. The sign of the cross is used on all occa- j sions; but made by the Greeks with three fingers, by j the Armenians with two, by the Jacobites with one — the Greek usage pointing to the Trinity, the Armenian to the two natures made one in the person of Christ, I and the Jacobite to the Divine unity. They profess to hold to the seven sacraments of the Latin Church ; but, in fact, extreme unction exists among them only in name, the prayers so designated being intermingled with those of confirmation, which latter rite is per- formed with the 'holy chrism' by the priest at the time of baptism. Infants are baptized, as commonly in the Greek and other Oriental churches, by a partial immersion in the font and three times pouring water on the head. Converted Jews, etc., though adults, are baptized in the same manner. They readily ad- mit to their communion Romanists and Protestants baptized by sprinkling, differing in this from the Greeks, who receive none, however previously bap- tized, without rebaptizing them. They believe firm- ly in the 'real presence' in the Eucharist, and adore the host in the mass. The people partake, however, in both kinds, the wafer or broken bread (unleavened) being dipped in undiluted wine (the Greeks use leav- ened bread and wine mixed with water), and laid carefully on the tongue. It must be received fasting. They reject the Latin purgatory, but, believing that the souls of the departed may be benefited by the aid of the church (which, of course, must be paid for), the}' pray for the dead. Saint-worship is carried to an extraordinary length, the addresses to saints being often grossly idolatrous, and the mediation of Christ lost sight of in the liturgical services of the church, as it is in the minds of the people. The cross, and pictures of the saints, are also objects of worship, as possessing inherent efficacy. The Supreme Being is likewise represented under the form of an aged, ven- erable man, with whom, and the Son, under the form of a young man, and the Holy Spirit, symbolized as a dove, the Virgin Mary is associated in the same pic- ture. The perpetual virginity of the latter is held as a point of pre-eminent importance. Confession to the priesthood, in order to absolution, is deemed essential to salvation. Penances are imposed; but absolution is without money, and indulgences are never given. Baptism confers regeneration and cleansing from sin, original and actual ; spiritual life is maintained by penances and sacraments ; and the priest holds in his hand the passport to heaven. The merit of good works is acknowledged, particularly of asceticism. Monachism, celibacy, fasting, etc., arc viewed as in other Eastern churches, but fasts are more lengthened and severe : the number of fast-days, when no animal food of any kind can be eaten, is 165 in the year. On the fourteen great feast-days the observance of the day is more strict than that of the Sabbath, which last is as in Roman Catholic countries. Minor feasts are even more numerous than the days in the year. The Church services are performed in the ancient tongue, not now understood by the common people, and in a manner altogether perfunctory and painful to an en- lightened mind. " There are nine different grades of clergy, each re- ceiving a distinct ordination by the laying on of hands. Four of these are below the order of deacon, and are called porters, readers, exorcists, and candle-lighters. After these come the sub-deacons, the deacons, the priests, then the bishops, and, last of all, the catholi- cos. The catholicos is ordained by a council of bish- ops. He is the spiritual head of the church, who alone ordains bishops, and can furnish the meiron, or sacred oil used by bishops in ordaining the inferior clergy, and in the various ceremonies of the church. The priests are obliged to be married men, and can never rise higher than the priesthood, except in case of the death of a wife, when, not being allowed to marry a second time, they may enter among the Var- | tabids — an order of celibate priests, who are attached | to the churches as preachers (the married priests do ■ not usually preach), cr live together in monasteries, and from among whom the bishops, etc., on whom the ; law of celibacy is imposed, are taken" (Newcomb, Cy- clopad'a of Missions). — Bekcnnin. tl. Christ!. Glaubens d. armen. Kirch. (Petersb. 1799); Armenionorum Confcs- sio (Witeb. 1570) ; Liturgia Armena (cura G. Andichi- an (Ven. 1826); Tavf. -Ritual d. arm. K. in Russ. (Pe- tersb. 1799). There are among the Gregorian (Non- united) I Armenians a great number of monks. They follow either the rule of St. Anthony or that of St. Basil. The monks of St. Anthony live in solitude and in the | desert, and surpass in austerity almost all the orders . of the Roman Church. There are sometimes as many I as a hundred monks in one monastery. The order j of St. Basil (introduced into the Armenian Church in 1173) is less strict ; their convents are in the towns, and from them the bishops and vartabeds are taken. Their principal convent, called "Three Churches," is at Eschmiazin. Most of their convents are poor, but i they have three verjr rich ones in Jerusalem. The ', United Armenians have the following orders: (1.) A congregation of monks of St. Anthony, still existing, ' under a general abbot, who resides on Mount Leba- non, while a procurator general represents the order at Rome. (2.) A congregation of Basilians, also called | Bartholomites, founded in 1307 at Genoa by a fugitive monk, Peter Martin. They obtained many convents ', in Italy, assumed in 1356 the rule of Augustine and ', the garb of the Dominican lay brothers, and were sup- I pressed in 1650. (3.) In 1330 a number of Armenian : monks and priests were induced by some Dominican ' friars to join the Church of Rome, and formed a mo- , nastic congregation, called the United Brethren of St. j Gregory Illuminator. They likewise adopted the rule of St. Augustine, and the constitutions and habit of the Dominicans. In 1S56 they fused entirely with the Dominican order, and were formed into the province of Nakhchevan. (4.) The most celebrated of the Ar- menian monks are the Mechitarists (q. v.). III. Present Condition and Statistics. — The estimates of the present number of Armenians greatly vary. In Turkey they are believed to amount to about 2,000,000 souls." Russia had, in 1851, 372,535 Grego- rian (Non-united) and 22,253 Catholic (United) Ar- menians. Persia has, according to the "Missionary Herald" of 1859, about 30,000; according to Uhicini (Letters on Turkey), 600,000 Armenians. Ubicini gives 40,000 for India, and 60,000 for Western Europe ; but other statements give lower figures. The Armenians of Western Europe are mostly United ; of those in India, Persia, and Turkey, only a minority (in Asiatic Turkey 75,000 in 1844, which number has since in- creased). The number of Armenians in Turkey who ARMENIAN CHURCH 410 ARMENIAN CHURCH had declared themselves Protestants amounted in 1858 to nearly G000. The catholicos of Eschmiazin (now in Russia) is still regarded as the chief bishop of the church. He is appointed by the Czar, and has under him a synod, an imperial procurator, and 67 bishop- rics. Also the bishops of Constantinople and Jerusa- lem assume the title Patriarch, though they are said not to be strictly such, but rather superior bishops, possessing certain privileges conferred by the patri- arch. The United Armenians have in European Tor- key 1 archbishop at Constantinople; in Asiatic Tur- key, 1 patriarch in Cilicia, 1 archbishop at Seleucia, and 9 bishops ; in Persia, 1 bishop at Ispahan ; in Aus- tria, 1 archbishop at Lemberg, besides whom also the Mechitarist abbots of Venice and Vienna are archbish- ops in prirtibus. IV. Armenian Protestant Missions. — The history of Protestantism among the Armenians forms one of the most interesting chapters in the history of modern Protestant missions. As a forerunner in the reforma- tion of the Armenian Church Ave may regard a priest by the name of Debajy Oghlu, about 17C0. He lived in Constantinople, and wrote a book in which he praised Luther, and castigated both clergy and people with an unsparing hand. His book, though never published, circulated from hand to hand, and was later used by the Protestant missionaries with some effect. The efforts of the Protestant Church in behalf of the Armenian Church began with the circulation of the Bible. In 1813 the British Bible Society began the publication of the Armenian Bible (the translation made by Mesrob in the fifth century), and in 1815 an edition of 5000 copies was issued at Calcutta. The same society published in 1823 at Constantinople an edition of 5000 copies of the New Testament, and of 3000 copies of the four Gospels alone. Simultaneous- ly with the British society, the Russian Bible Soci- ety undertook the publication of the Armenian Bible, and issued at St. Petersburg, in 1817, an edition of 2000 copies, and soon after an edition of the ancient Armenian New Testament. A great enthusiasm man- ifested itself in Russia for this work, the Emperor Al- exander, the archbishops and bishops of the Greek and the Armenian churches, and nearly all the Rus- sian nobility being among its patrons. The Armenian Bibles and New Testaments thus printed were widely circulated through various agencies. But it was soon discovered that the mass of the people did not under- stand the old Armenian language, and that one por- tion (perhaps one third, chiefly in the more southern portions of Asia Minor) had even lost the use of the modern Armenian, speaking only Turkish. This led to the translation of the Bible into modern Armenian and into Armeno-Turkish (Turkish written with Ar- menian characters). The former translation was is- sued by the Russian society in 1822, the latter by the British society in 1823. These translations, however, called forth the opposition of the Armenian patriarch of Constantinople and the Armenian clergy in gen- eral. A Protestant mission was established among the Armenians by the American Board in 1830, after the way had been previously prepared by the conversion of three Armenian priests (two of whom were bishops) by tlf American missionaries of Syria, and by the fa- mous school of Pestitimalyan, a man conversant not only wiili Armenian, but also with Western literature and theology. The tirst missionaries were E. Smith and II. . Dwight, who were joined in the follow- in- years l,y \V. Goodell, J. B. Adger, I!. Schneider, <'. Hamlin, and others. 'II ie missionaries soon organ- ized several schools at Constantinople, IVra, Brousa. Eass-Keuy, Bebek, and through them worked success- fully for spreading evangelical views iii the Armenian Church. In 1834 the mis-i.ni press was transferred from Malta to Smyrna, and there soon began a most successful operation, printing, up to the 1st of Januarv, 1838, two and a half million pages in the Armenian languages. In the following }'ears Mr. Goodell com- pleted the translation of the whole Old Testament into the Armeno-Turkish language, and W. Adger issued an improved translation of the New Testament into modern Armenian. The missionaries early found devoted co-laborers among the Armenians ; among whom Sahakyan, who was converted when a student, in 1833, and a pious priest, Der Kevork, were promi- nent. Though not interrupted, they encountered a strong opposition, which was generally headed by the patriarchs and the chief Armenian bankers in Con- stantinople, and sometimes manifested itself as open and cruel persecution. That was especially the case when, in 1844, Matteos, formerly bishop of Brousa, was made patriarch of Constantinople. For two years he used all means within his reach against the favorers of the Protestant missions, and it required the inter- ference of the Christian ambassadors to obtain an or- der from the sultan, which put an end to further per- secutions (March, 184G). Up to that time the con- verts had not formally separated from the church; but when they were now formally excommunicated by the patriarch Matteos, and thus also cut off from the civil rights of the Armenian community [see Tur- key], they organized independent evangelical Arme- nian churches. The first churches thus organized were those of Constantinople, Nicomedia, Adabazan, and Trebizond. Their number has since steadily increased. In 1850 the Protestants were placed on an equality with the other Christian denominations, and, in 1853, even on an equality with the Mussulmans before the law. The report made by the American Board on the Armenian missions in 1859 shows them to be in a verjr prosperous condition. They are now divided into two separate missions, the Northern Armenian and the Southern Armenian. The Northern Arme- nian contained, in 1858, 13 stations, occupied by mis- sionaries ; 31 out-stations, occupied by native teachers or helpers ; 33 missionaries, of whom one is a physi- cian; 1 mission treasurer; 34 female assistant mis- sionaries ; 4 native pastors ; 21 native preachers ; 48 other native helpers (not including 38 teachers). The number of churches was 28, with G02 members ; the number of free-schools 44, with 928 pupils. There were also three male high-schools (Bebek, Erzrum, and Tocat), with 52 pupils, and one female boarding- school at Hass-Keuy, with 22 pupils. Nearly nine- teen millions of pages were issued during the year 1858. The Southern Armenian Mission presented the following statistics : 5 stations ; 14 out-stations ; 9 missionaries — one a physician ; 9 female assistant missionaries ; 1 native pastor ; 2 other ordained native preachers ; 1 licentiate ; 37 other helpers ; churches, 10; communicants, 489 ; average congregations on the Sabbath, 1851 ; theological students (at Aintab, Ma- rash, and Antioch), 2G ; common schools, 18, with 746 scholars. In 1859 the Turkish government appointed an Armenian Protestant censer, in order to relieve the Protestants from the annoyances which they had suffered from the (Gregorian) Armenian censor. The civil community of the Protestant Armenians is at present (1S60) greatly suffering from pecuniar}' em- barrassment, as the Protestants, on account of their poverty, find it difficult to pay the tax levied on them for supporting their civil organization. Until 1859 the American missionaries had mostly confined them- selves to the Armenians of Turkej', but in that year one of the missionaries visited several Armenian vil- lages of Persia for the purpose of establishing a Prot- estant mission. V. Literature. — For the Armenian Church, see Ne- ander, Ch. Hist, ii, 113, 553; Ricaut, Greek and Arme- nian Churches (London, 1G79) ; St.-Martin, Mum ins historiques et geoffraphiquea sur VArmenie (Paris, 1819, vol. ii); Histoire, Dogmes, Tradition?, etc., de VEglise A rmemenne (Paris, 1855, 8vo) ; Ubicini, Letters on Tur- ARMENIAN LANGUAGE 411 ARMENIAN VERSION key, translated by Lady Easthope (Lond. 185G) ; Nealc, History of the Eastern Church, vol. i (Lond. 1850, 2 vols. 8vo); and especially the History of Armenia by the Mechitarist Tehamtchenanz (3 vols. 4to, Venice, 1784- 1786). On the introduction of Christianity, see F. Bodenstcdt, Ueber die Einfuhrung des Christenthums in Armenien (Berlin, 1850). On the statistics, Marsden, Churches and Heels, vol. i ; Newcomb, Cyclopozdia of Missions; Smith and Dwight, Missionary Researches in Armenia; Coleman, Ancient Christianity, ch. xxvii; Christian Remembrancer, xxiii, 349 ; Church of England Quarterly, July, 1854 ; Dwight, Christianity Revived in the East; Reports ofA.B. C. F. M. ; Schem, Am. Ec- clesiasi. Year-Book for 1859, p. 18, 33. See Asia. Armenian Language. The ancient Armenian or Haikan language (now dead), notwithstanding the great antiquity of the nation to which it belongs, pos- sesses no literary documents prior to the fifth century of the Christian sera. The translation of the Bible, begun by Mesrob (q. v.) in the year 410, is the earliest monument of the language that has come down to us. The dialect in which this version is written, and in which it is still publicly read in their churches, is called the old Armenian. The dialect now in use — the mod- ern Armenian — in which they preach and carry on the intercourse of daily life, not onty departs from the elder form b}' dialectual changes in the native elements of the language itself, but also by the great intermixture of Persian and Turkish words which has resulted from the conquest and subjection of the country. It is, perhaps, this diversity of the ancient and modern idioms which has given rise to the many conflicting opinions that exist as to the relation in which the Ar- menian stands to other languages. Thus Cirbied and Vater both assert that it is an original language ; that is, one so distinct from all others in its fundamental character as not to be classed with any of the great families of languages. Eichhorn, on the other hand (Sprachcnkunde, p. 349), affirms that the learned idiom of the Armenian undoubtedly belongs to the Medo- Persian family; whereas Pott {Untersuchungen, p. 32) says that, notwithstanding its many points of rela- tion to that family, it cannot strictly be considered to belong to it ; and Gatterer actually classed it as a living sister of the Basque, Finnish, and Welsh lan- As to form, it is said to be rough and full of conso- nants; to possess ten cases in the noun — a number which is only exceeded by the Finnish ; to have no dual ; to have no mode of denoting gender in the noun by change of form, but to be obliged to append the words man and woman as the marks of sex — thus, to say prophet-woman for prop)hetess (nevertheless, modern writers use the syllable ouhi to distinguish the femi- nine ; Wahl, Geschichte d. Morgenl. Sprachen, p. 100) ; to bear a remarkable resemblance to Greek in the use of the participle, and in the whole syntactical struc- ture ; and to have adopted the Arabian system of metre.— Kitto, s. v. The history of its alphabetical character is briefly this : until the third century of our a>ra, the Armeni- ans used either the Persian or Greek alphabet (the letter in Syrian characters, mentioned by Diodor. xix, 23, is not considered an evidence that they wrote Ar- menian in Syrian characters, as that letter was prob- ably Persian). In the fifth century, however, the translation of the Bible created the necessity for char- acters which would more adequately represent the pe- culiar sounds of the language. Aecordingty, after a fruitless attempt of a certain Daniel, and after several efforts on his own part, Mesrob saw a hand in a dream write the very characters which now constitute the Armenian alphabet. The 38 letters thus obtained are chiefly founded on the Greek, but have partly made out their number by deriving some forms from the Zend alphabet. The order of writing is from left to right. Mesrob employed these letters in his transla- a NAME. s < p. PHONETIC EQUIVALENTS. Aip n » CC Pyen 1* r P Kim '\% t To Ta 'b t t Yetsh \f !■- y, e Za •<\ 7_ z E 1? * 6 Yeth l\ e. e Tho f«), p th She > * ds Gyen H V 9 ULo -i. < hli Tsa Q * ts Ghacl *1, 7_ gh Dshe A' *" g soft My en IP -r m Hi (J ./ li No *i, i> n Sha C. i sh Wo II » 6 Tsha 'J i. tsh Be "1 "/ h Dshe .<\ £_ dz Era (b - rr Sa II » s Wyev H, -L w Diun 8 » d Re P p r Tzo V* a tz Hinn h <■ 11, V Phiur «I> -p PP1 ph Khe ^ * 111 Aipun O o 6 Fe q, .f f tion of the Bible, and thus insured their universal and permanent adoption by the nation (Gesenius, article Palcvographie, in Ersch und Gruber). See Tromler, Bibliothecm Armenian spec. (Plan. 1758) ; Schroder, Thesaurus ling. A rmen. antiqucv et novte (Amsterd. 1711) ; Cirbied, Gram. Armenienne (Par. 1822); Petermann, Grammatica A rmen. (Berol. 1 N37) ; also, Breris Ungues Armenicai grammatica, literatura, chrestomathia, c. glos- sario (ib. 1841); Calfa, Dictimnaire Armenienne (Par. 1861). See Shemitic Languages. Armenian Version. This translation of the Bible was undertaken in the year 410 by Mesrob, with the aid of his pupils Joannes Eccelensis and Jo- sephus Palnensie. It appears that the Patriarch Isaac first attempted, in consequence of the Persians having destroyed all the copies of the Greek version, to make ARMENIAN VERSION 412 ARMINIANISM a translation from the Peshito ; that Mesrob became his coadjutor in this work; and that they actually completed their translation from the Syriac. But when the above-named pupils, who had been sent to the ecclesiastical council at Ephesus, returned, they brought with them an accurate copy of the Greek Bible. Upon this, Mesrob laid aside his translation from the Peshito, and prepared to commence anew from a more authentic text. Imperfect knowledge of the Greek language, however, induced him to send his pupils to Alexandria, to acquire accurate Greek scholarship; and, on their return, the translation was accomplished. Moses of Chorene, the historian of Armenia, who was also employed, as a disciple of Mesrob, on this version, fixes its completion in the year 410 ; but he is contradicted by the date of the Council of Ephesus, which necessarily makes it subse- quent to the year 431. In the Old Testament this version adheres exceed- ingly closely to the Septuagint (but in the book of Daniel has followed the version of Theodotion). Its most striking characteristic is, that it does not follow any known recension of the Sept. Although it more often agrees with the Alexandrine text, in readings which are peculiar to the latter, than it does with the Aldine or Complutensian text, yet, on the other hand, it also has followed readings which are only found in the last two. Bertholdt accounts for this mixed text by assuming that the copy of the Greek Bible sent from Ephesus contained the Lucian recension, and that the pupils brought back copies according to the Hesychian recension from Alexandria, and that the translators made the latter their standard, but correct- ed their version b}r aid of the former (Einleit. ii, 560). The version of the New Testament is equally close to the Greek original, and also represents a text made up of Alexandrine and Occidental readings. — Kitto. This version was afterward revised and adapted to the Peshito in the sixth century, on the occasion of an ecclesiastical union between the Syrians and Ar- menians. Again, in the thirteenth century, an Ar- menian king, Hethom or Haitho, who was so zealous a Catholic that he turned Franciscan monk, adapted the Armenian version to the Vulgate, by way of smoothing the wray for a union of the Roman and Ar- menian churches. Lastly, the Bishop Uscan, who printed the first edition of this version at Amsterdam, in the year 1666, is also accused of having interpolated the text as it came down to his time by adding all that he found the Vulgate contained more than the Armenian version. The existence of the verse 1 John v, 7, in this version, is ascribed to this supplementary labor of Uscan. It is clear, from what has been said, that the critical uses of this version are limited to de- termining the readings of the Sept. and of the Greek text of the New Testament which it represents, and that it has Buffered many alterations, which diminish its usefulness in that respect. See generallv Walch, Bill. Theol. xv, 50, 247 ; Rosenmiiller, Handb. d. Lit- eratur, iii, 78-84, 153 sq. The following are the forms of this version hitherto published: 1. Biblia, jussu Jacobi protopatriarchaa (Amst. 1666, Ito) ; Biblia, jussu patriarchs Nahabiei (Constpl. 1705, 4to) ; Biblia, jnssu Umihai patriarchs (Ven. 17:53, fob); Biblia (ed. Dr. Zohrab, Ven. 1805, 4 vols. 8vo and 1 vol. •Itoi: ;■/. (Petropol. 1817, Ito; also Serampore, 1817, 4to); Bible, i„ mod. Armen. (Smyrna, 1853, -ito). 2. Vov. Test. (ed. [Jscan, Amst. 1668,*8vo); id. (Amst. 1698, l2nio; Ven. 1720 and 1789, 8vo; Lond. 1818); Voe /'■ it., in ancand mod. Armen. (ed. Dr. Zohrab, Par. 1825, 8vo). Special parts and treatises are: O&adku Armenus, cur. A. Acoluthio (Lips. 1680); Quatuor prima cap. Evang. Malthzi (ed. ('. A. Bode, Jlal. 1756) ; Bredenkamp, Genau, ,-, \; rfriehuug British Museum; the others are from delinea- tions of the .Monuments by Botta. ARMLET 419 ARMOR armlet. These ornaments are frequent on the sculp- tures of Persepolis and Nineveh, and were set in rich and fantastic shapes resembling the heads of animals (Layard, Nineveh, ii, 250). The kings of Persia wore them, and Astyages presented a pair, among other ornaments, to Cyrus (Xen. Cyr. i, 3). The ^Ethiopians, to whom some were sent by Cambyses, scornfully char- acterized them as weak fetters (Herod, ii, 23). Nor were they confined to the kings, since Herodotus (viii, 113) calls the Persians generally "wearers of brace- lets" (ipt\io head and length of the shaft differed at different times both in Egypt and Syria, and were influenced by the fashions set by various conquering nations. See Spear. The javelin, named FPSH, chanith' (usually render- ARMOR 421 ARMOR f^TiSSK 7^^% /aa*~ SH!x/- *9H| in Ancient Assyrian ed "spear"), and "jiT1?, hldon (variously rendered "spear," "shield," etc.), maj>- have had distinct forms : from the context, where the former first occurs, it ap- pears to have been a species of dart carried by light troops (1 Sam. xiii, 22; Psa. iv); while the latter, which was heavier, was most likely a kind of pilum. In most nations of antiquity, the infantry, not bearing a spear, carried two darts, those lightly armed using both for long casts, and the heavy-armed only one for that purpose ; the second, more ponderous than the other, being reserved for throwing when close to the enemy, or for handling in the manner of a spear. This explanation may throw light on the fact of the chanith being named in connection with the ftSS, tsimiah', or larger buckler (1 Chron. xii, 34), and may reconcile what is said of the chidon (Job xxxix, 23 ; xli, 29, and Josh, viii, 10). While on the subject of the javelin, it may be remarked that, by the act of casting one at David (1 Sam. xix, 9, 10), Saul virtually absolved him from his allegiance ; for by the customs of ancient Asia, preserved in the usages of the Teutonic and other na- tions, the Saehsen recht, the custom of the East Franks, etc., to throw a dart at a freedman, who escaped from it by flight, was the demonstrative token of manumis- sion given by his lord or master ; he was thereby sent out of hand, manumissus, well expressed in the old English phrase "scot-free." But for this act of Saul, David might have been viewed as a rebel. See Dart ; Javelin: Lance. ed with horn, or of horn entirely, and even of ivory •, some being shaped like the common English bow, and others, particularly those used by riding nations, like the buffalo horn. There were various modes of bend- ing this instrument, by pressure of the knee, or by the fco1, treading the bow, or by setting one end against the foot, drawing the middle with the hand of the same tide toward the hip, and pushing the upper point for- ward with the same hand, till the thumb passed the H f dart, distinguished from those of other nations chiefly by its weight, and the great proportion- al length of the metal or iron part, which constituted one half of the whole, or from two and a half to three feet. Much of this length was hollow, and received nearly twenty Inches of the shaft within it; the point was never hooked like that of common darts, because, the weapon being nearly indestructible, the soldiers al- Oriental protective Armor. 1, The Great Shield; 2, Common Egyptian Shield; 3, Target; 4, 5, Ancient Shields of unknown Tribes ; 6, Roundel. rations bearing a variety of names. The Hebrews used the word Itj^, tsinnah' (rendered "shield," "tar- get," or "buckler"), for a great shisld — defence, pro- tection (Gen. xv, 1; Psa. xlvii, 9; Prov. xxx, 5) — which is commonly found in connection with spear, and was the shelter of heavily-armed infantry ; 'jSB magtn (rendered "shield" or "buckler"), a buckler or smaller shield, which, from a similar juxtaposition with sword, bow and arrows, appears to have been the defence of the other armed infantry and of chiefs ; and fHHQ, socherah' (only once, Psa. xci, 4, "buckler"), parma, a roundel, which may have been appropriated to archers and slingers ; and there was the B?tij, she'- let ("shield"), synonymous with the magen, only different in ornament. In the more advanced eras of civilization shields were made of light wood not liable to split, cover- ed with bull-hide of two or more thicknesses, and bordered with metal ; the lighter kinds were made of wicker-work or osier, similarly, but less solidly covered; or of double ox- hide cut into a round form. There were oth- ers of a single hide, extremely thick from having been boiled ; their surface present- ed an appearance of many folds, like round waves up and down, which might yield, but could rarely be penetrated. We may infer that at first the Hebrews borrowed the forms in use in Egypt, and that their common shields were a kind of parallel- ogram, broadest and arched at the top, and cut square beneath, bordered with metal, the surface being covered with raw hide with the hair on. The lighter shields may have been soaked in oil and dried in the shade to make them hard; no doubt hippopotamus, rhinoceros, and elephant skin shields were brought from Ethiopia and purchased in the Phoenician markets; but small round hand-bucklers of whale-skin, still used by Arabian swordsmen, came from the Erythraean Sea. During the Assyrian and Persian supremacy the Hebrews may have used the square, oblong, and round shields of these nations, and may have subsequently copied those of Greece and Pome. The princes of Israel had shields of precious metals ; all were managed by a wooden or ARMOR 423 ARMOR leathern handle, and often slung by a thong over the neck. "With the larger kinds a testudo could be form- ed by pressing the ranks close together ; and, while the outside men kept their shields before and on the flanks, those within raised theirs above the head, and thus produced a kind of surface, sometimes as close and fit- ted together as a pantile roof, and capable of resisting the pressure even of a body of men marching upon it. The tsinnuh was most likely what in the feudal ages would have been called a pavise, for such occurs on the Egyptian monuments. This weapon was about five feet high, with a pointed arch above and square below, resembling the feudal knight's shield, only that the point was reversed. This kind of large-sized shield, however, was best fitted for men without any other ar- mor, when combating in open countries, or carrying on sieges ; for it may be remarked in general that the mil- itary buckler of antiquity was large in proportion as other defensive armor was wanting. Shields were hung upon the battlements of walls, and, as still oc- curs, chief!}'- above gates of cities by the watch and ward. In time of peace they were covered to preserve them from the sun, and in war uncovered; this sign was poetically used to denote coming hostilities, as in Isa. xxii, 6, etc. In Europe, where the Crusaders could imitate the Saracens, but not introduce their climate, shields were carved in stone upon towers and gates, as at York, etc. The Eastern origin of this practice seems to lie attested by the word Zinne, which, in German, still denotes a battlement, something point- ed, a summit, and conveys the idea of a pavise with the point uppermost, a shape such as Arabian battle- ments often assume. See Shield; Buckler. Ancient Assyrian Shields. 2. The Helmet was next in consideration, and in the earliest ages was made of osier or rushes, in the form of a bee-hive or of a skull-cap. The skins of the heads of animals — of lions, bears, wild boars, bulls, and horses — were likewise adopted, and were adorned with rows of teeth, manes, and bristles. Wood, linen cloth in many folds, and a kind of felt, were also in earl)' use, and helmets of these materials may be observed worn by the nations of Asia at war with the conquer- or kings of Egypt, even before the departure of Israel. At that time also these kings had helmets of metal, of rounded or pointed forms, adorned with a figure of the serpent Kneph ; and an allied nation, perhaps the Ca- rian, reported to have first worn a military crest, bears on the skull-cap of their brazen helmets a pair of horns with a globe in the middle — the solar arkite symbol. The nations of farther Asia, however, used the woolen or braided caps still retained, and now called kaouk and fez, around which the turban is usually wound. These were almost invariably supplied with long lap- pets to cover the ears and the back of the head, and princes usually wore a radiated crown on the summit. This was the form of the Syrian, and probably of the Oriental Armor for the Head. 1, Of Rushes; 2, Egyptian; 3, 4, Western Asia; 5, Carian? 0, T, Egyptian; S.Assyrian; 9, Greek; 10, Ionian; 11, Par- thian ; 12, 13, Other Asiatic Tribes. Assyrian helmets, excepting that the last mentioned were of brass, though the)' still retained the low cylin- drical shape. The "313, ko'ba ("helmet"), some helmet of this kind, was worn by the trained infantry, who were spearmen among the Hebrews ; but archers and slingers had round skull-caps of skins, felts, or quilted stuffs, such as are still in use among the Arabs. The form of Greek and Roman helmets, both of leath- er and of brass, is well known ; they were most likely adopted also by the Hebrews and Egyptians during their subjection to those nations, but require no farther notice here. See Helmet. Ancient Armor and Standards, ments. 1, '2, Cs im the Egyptian Monu- > , -4, Egypt. 3. Body Armor. — The most ancient Persian idols are clad in shagged skins, such as the ^Egis of Jupiter and Minerva may have been, the type being taken from a Cyrenaean or African legend, and the pretended red goat-skin may be supposed to have been that of a species of gnu (Catohhpas Gorgon, Ham. Smith), an animal fabled to have killed men by its sight, and therefore answering to the condition both of a kind of goat and of producing death by the Fight alone. In Egypt cuirasses were manufactured of leather, of brass, and of a succession of iron hoops, chiefly covering the abdomen and the shoulders ; but a more ancient na- tional form was a kind of thorax, tippet, T^*"-- shir- yon' (" coat of mail," " habergeon"), or }^'~, shiryan ARMOR 424 ARMOR ("harness," " breastplata"), or square, with an open- ing in it for the head, the four points covering the breast, back, and both upper arms. This kind in par- ticular was affected by the royal band of relatives who surrounded the Pharaoh, were his subordinate com- manders, messengers, and body-guards, bearing his standards, ensign-fans, and sun-screens, his portable throne, his bow and arrows. Beneath this square was another piece, protecting the trunk of the body, and both were in general covered with red-colored cloth or start'. ( >n the oldest fictile vases a shoulder-piece like- wise occurs, worn by Greek and Etruscan warriors. It Ancient Coats of Mail.— 1. Egyptian tcgulateJ. 2. Sleeve of ring-mail, Ionian. covers the upper edge of the body armor, is perforated in the middle to allow the head to pass, but hangs equal on the breast and back, square on the shoulders, and is evidently of leather. (See the figure of Mene- laua discovering Helen in the sack of Troy, Millin, Man. inedits.) This piece of armor occurs also on the shoulders of Varangi (northmen, who were the body- guards of the Greek emperors) ; but they are studded with roundels or bosses, as they appear figured in mo- saic or fresco on the walls of the cathedral of Ravenna, dating from the time of Justinian. The late Roman legionaries, as published by Du Choul, again wear the tippet armor, like that of the Egyptians, and one or other of the above forms may be found on figures of Danes in illuminated manuscripts of the eleventh cen- tury. By their use of metal for defensive armor the Carians appear to have created astonishment among the Egyptians, and therefore may be presumed to have been the first nation so protected in western Asia; ii vcrtli (less, in the tombs of the kings near Thebes, a t^gulated hauberk is represented, composed of small three-colored pieces of metal— one golden, the other reddish and green. It is this suit which Denon repre- sents as composed of rings set on edge ; but they are all parallelograms, with the lower edge forming the seg- ment of a circle, and each piece, beside the fastening, has a button and a vertical slit above it, giving flexi- bility by means of the button of each square working in the ap srture of the piece beneath it. This kind of armor may be meant by the word X^Jin, tachra' ("habergeon," only Exod. xxviii. 82 : xxxix, 23), the closest interpretation of which appears to be decussatio, tegukctio, a tiling. The expression in 2 Chron. xviii. 33, may \«< that A.hab was struck in one of the grooves or slits iii the squares of 8Uch a s/tir//nit, or betwe 'ii two of them wher,. they do aot overlap; or perhaps, with more probability, between the metal hoops of t lie trunk of the thiryon before mentioned, where the thorax overlap, the abdomen. The tern b^Bgtop, Jfeo«jfea*- sim' (elsewhere "scales"), in the case of Goliath's ar- mor, denotes the squamous kind, most likely that in which the pieces uere sewed upon a cloth, and not hinged to each other, us iu the tachra. It was the Ancient Parthian lloiveman. defensive armor of Northern and Eastern nations, tho Persian Cataphracti, Parthians, and Sarmatians. But of true annular or ringed mail, Denon's figure being incorrect, we doubt if there is any positive evidence, excepting where rings were sewn separateby upon cloth, anterior to the sculpture at Takt-i-Bustan, or the close of the Parthian era. The existence of mail is often incorrectly inferred from our translators using the word wherever flexible armor is to be mentioned. The tachra could not well be worn without an un- der garment of some density to resist the friction of metal ; and this may have been a kind of sagum, the shir yon of the Hebrews, under another form — the dress Saul put upon David before he assumed the breastplate and girdle. The Roman sagum offers a parallel instance. Under that name it was worn at first a lor led, then beneath it, and at last again with- out, but the stuff itself made into a kind of felt. The Cuirass and Corslet, strictly speaking, were of prepared leather (corium), but often also composed of quilted cloths : the former in ancient times generally denoted a suit with leathern appendages at the bottom and at the shoulder, as used by the Romans ; the lat- ter, one in which the barrel did not come down below the hips, and usually destitute of leathern vittm, which was nationally Greek. In later ages it always desig- nates a breast and back piece of steel. It is, however, requisite to observe that, in estimating the meaning of Hebrew names for armor of all kinds, they are liable to the same laxity of use which all other languages have manifested; for in military matters, more per- Ancient Cuirassc? and Helmet?. 1, 2, Early Greek; 3, Greek; 4, 5, Roman ; G, Barbarian. ARMOR 425 ARMSTRONG haps than in any other, a name once adopted remains ' the same, though the object may be changed by suc- cessive modifications till there remains but little re- semblance to that to which the designation was origin- ally applied. The objects above denominated append- ages and vitta (in the feudal ages, lambrequins), were straps of leather secured to the lower rim of the barrel of a suit of armor, and to the openings for arm-holes : the first were about three and a half inches in width ; the second, two and a half. They were ornamented with embroidery, covered with rich stuffs and gold- smiths' work, and made heavy at the lower extremity, to cause them always to hang down in proper order ; but those on the arm-holes had a slight connection, so as to keep them equal when the arm was lifted. These vittoe were rarely in a single row, but in general form- ed two or three rows, alternately covering the opening between those underneath, and then protecting the thighs nearly to the knee, and half the upper arm. In the Roman service, under the suit of armor, was the sagum, made of red serge or baize, coming down to the cap of the knee and folding of the arm, so that the vit- tae hung entirely upon it. Other nations had always an equivalent to this, but not equally long; and, in the opinion of some, the Hebrew shiryon served the same purpose. The Roman and Greek suits were, with slight difference, similarly laced together on the left, or shield side ; and on the shoulders were bands and clasps, comparatively narrow in those of the Ro- mans, which covered the joinings of the breast and back pieces on the shoulders, came from behind, and were fastened to a button on each breast. At the throat the suit of armor had always a double edging, often a band of brass or silver ; in the Roman, and often in the Greek, adorned with a lion's or a Gorgon's head. It was here that, in the time of Augustus, and probably much earlier, the warriors distinguished for particular acts of valor wore insignia ; a practice only revived by the moderns under the names of crosses and decora- tions. The Romans, it appears, had phiake and phalerce of honor, terms which have been supposed to signify bracelets and medals ; but all opinion on the subject was only conjectural previously to the discovery, on the bor- ders of the Rhine, of a monumental bass-relief, raised by the freedman of Marcus Caslius Lembo, tribune of the (xiix) 18th legion, who fell in the disastrous over- Armor of a Human Soldier. throw of Varus. The effigy is of three-quarter length, in a full suit of armor, with a laurel crown on the head, a Gallic twisted torque round the neck ; and from the lion-head shoulder-clasps of the cuirass hang two em- bossed bracelets, having beneath them a label with three points, from which are suspended five medals of honor; one large, on the pit of the stomach, represent- ing a face of Medusa ; and two on each side, one be- neath the other ; and all, as far as can be seen, charged with lions' faces and lions' heads in profile. The monu- ment is now in the museum of the university at Bonn. See Coat of Mail. The girdle, or, more properly, the baldric or belt (cin- gula or balteus), was used by the Hebrews under the name of "HTX, ezor' ("girdle"); it was of leather, studded with metal plates or bullae; when the armor was slight, broad, and capable of being girt upon the hips ; otherwise it supported the sword scarf-wise from the shoulder. See Girdle. 4. Gi eaves were likewise known, even so early as the time of David, for Goliath wore them. They con- sisted of a pair of shin-covers of brass or strong leather, bound by thongs round the calves and above the ankles. They reached only to the knees, excepting among the Greeks, whose greaves, elastic behind, caught nearly the whole leg, and were raised in front above the knees. The Hebrew word "J'XD, seon ("battle"), in Isaiah ix, 5, is supposed to mean a half- greave, though the passage is altogether obscure. Perhaps the war-boot may be explained by the war- shoe of Egypt with a metal point; and then the words might be rendered, "For every greave of the armed foot is with confused noise and garments rolled in blood," etc., instead of "every battle of the warrior," etc. But, after all, this is not quite satisfactory. — Kit- to, s. v. See Bkeastplate; Gheaves. Armor-bearer (n^bs N^i, nose kelim'), an of- ficer selected by kings and generals from the bravest of their favorites, whose service it was not only to bear their armor, but to stand by them in danger and carry their orders, somewhat after the manner of adjutants in modern service. (Jud. ix, 54 ; 1 Sam. xiv, 6 ; xvi, 21 ; xxxiii, 4.) Armory (ItT'Qbn, talpiyoth', destructives, i. e. •weapons, Cant, iv, 4), the place in which armor was deposited in times of peace. Solomon had a naval ar- senal at Ezion-geber (Jer. i, 25; 1 Kings ix, 26). There is mention made in Neh. iii, 19, of an armory (pU3, ne'shek, elsewhere armor) in Jerusalem, "at the turning of the wall," meaning probably the bend in the browofZion opposite the south-western corner of the Temple, near where the bridge connected them, although Josephus {Ant. ix, 7, 2) speaks of the armory as being in the temple itself. This was probably the arsenal ("house of armor") which Hezekiah took so much pride in showing to the Babylonian ambassadors (Isa. xxxix, 2). Dr. Barclay (City of the Great King, p. 155) thinks it was the same as "the house of the forest of Lebanon" (2 Kings x, 17; Isa. xxii, 8), and locates it at the north-eastern corner of Zion, adjoining the north-western angle of the Xystus. See Arsenal. Armstrong, James, a Methodist Episcopal minis- ter, was born in Ireland in 1787 or '8, emigrated in childhood, was converted in Philadelphia at seventeen, licensed as local preacher in Baltimore at twenty-four, emigrated to Indiana in 1821 and entered the itiner- ant ministry, in which he labored with ability and great success until his death, which occurred in Laporte county in Sept. 1834. — Minutes of Conferences, ii, 344. Armstrong, John, a Baptist minister, was born Nov. 27, 1798, at Philadelphia, graduated at Columbian College, Washington, D. C, in 1825, and became pas- tor of the Baptist Church in Newbern, N. C, where he remained several j'ears. In 1835 Mr. Armstrong was appointed professor in Wake Forest Institute ; and, being desirous of increasing his usefulness, travelled for some time in 1837-39 in Europe. In 1840 he be- came pastor of the church in Columbus, Miss., whence he removed in 1843 to his plantation in Noxubee coun- ty, Miss., where he died Sept. 15, 1844. — Sprague, An- nals, vi, 753. Armstrong, William Jessup, D.D., an emi- nent Presbyterian minister, born at Mendham, N. J., in 1796, and graduated at Princeton in 1816, was li- censed to preach in 1818. He labored in Trenton and Richmond till 1834, when he became secretary to the Am. Bd. Comm. for Foreign Missions. By the wreck of the steamer Atlantic in Long Island Sound, Nov. ARMY 426 ARMY 27, 1846, he was drowned. A Memoir, by Eev. H. Read, with A Selection of Armstrong's Sermons, was published in 1853. — Sprague, Annals, iv, 612. Army, represented by several Heb. and Gr. words. See War. I. Jewish. — The military organization of the Jews commenced with their departure from the land of Egypt, and was adapted to the nature of the expedi- tion on which they then entered. Every man above 20 years of age was a soldier (Num. i, 3); each tribe formed a regiment, with its own banner and its own lead r | Num. ii, 2 ; x, 14) ; their positions in the camp or on the march were accurately rixed (Num. ii) ; the whole army started and stopped at a given signal (Num. x, 5, 6) ; thus they came up out of Egypt ready for the fight (Exod. xiii, 18). That the Israelites pre- served the same exact order throughout their march may be inferred from Balaam's language (Num. xxiv, 6). On the approach of an enemy, a conscription was made from the general body under the direction of a muster-master (originally named "IBia, Dent, xx, 5, "officer," afterward IBID, 2 Kings xxv, 19, "scribe of the host," both terms occurring, however, together in 2 Chron. xxvi, 11, the meaning of each being pri- marily a writer), by whom also the officers were ap- pointed (Deut. xx, 9). From the number so selected some might be excused serving on certain specified grounds (Deut. xx, 5-8 ; 1 Mace, hi, 56). The army was then divided into thousands and hundreds under their respective captains (a^sbxn "VJ and TINE!! "lb, Num. xxxi, 14), and still farther into families (Num. ii, 34 ; 2 Chron. xxv, 5 ; xxvi, 12), the family being regarded as the unit in the Jewish polity. From the time the Israelites entered the land of Canaan un- til the establishment of the kingdom, little progress was made in military affairs: their wars resembled border forays, and the tactics turned upon stratagem rather than upon the discipline and disposition of the forces. Skilfully availing themselves of the opportu- nities which the country offered, they gained the vic- tory sometimes by an ambush (Josh, viii, 4), some- times by surprising the enemy (Josh, x, 9; xi, 7; Judg. vii, 21 ), and sometimes by a judicious attack at the time of fording a river (Judg. til, 28 ; iv, 7 ; vii, 24; xii, 5). No general muster was made at this pe- riod ; but the combatants were summoned on the spur of the moment either by trumpet-call (Judg. iii, 27), by messengers (Judg. vi, 35), by some significant to- ken (1 Sam. xi, 7), or, as in later times, by the erec- tion of a standard (63, Isa. xviii, 3 ; Jer. iv, 21 ; li, 27), or a beacon-fire on an eminence (Jer. vi, 1). See Battle. With the kings arose the custom of maintaining a body-guard, which formed the nucleus of a standing army. Thus Saul had a band of 3000 select warriors (1 Sam. xiii, 2; xiv, 52; xxiv, 2), and David, before his accession to the throne, 600 (1 Sam. xxiii, 13; xxv, 13). This band he retained after he became kin- and added the Chebethites and Pelethites C-' Sam. xv, 18; xx, 7), together with another class, whose name, Shalishim' (C^bd, Sept. rpiardrai, Autli. Vers, "a third part"), has^een variously in- t srpreted to mean (1.) a corps of veteran guards = R0- 1,1:1,1 '''"""; (Winer, Lex. Heb. p. 991); (2.) chariot- warrior, as being //(,-.,. in ea.h chariot (Gesen. Thes. p. ll.".i.: (3.) officers of the guard, thirty in number (Ewald, Gesch. ii, 601). The fad that the Egyptian war-chariot, with which the Jews were first acquaint- ed, contained but two warriors, forms an objection to i Qd of these opinions (Wilkinson, Anc. /%/»/. i. B85), and the frequent use of the term in the singu- lar number (2 Kinga vii, 2; i\, 25; xv, 25) to the third. Whatever be tin- meaning of the name, it is evident that it indicated officers of high rank, the chief of whom (--r':;n, "lord," 2 Kings vii, 2 or Q^w^Vrri ttJSh, "chief of the captains," 1 Chron. xii, 18) was immediately about the king's person, as adjutant or secretary-at-war. David farther organized a national militia, divided into twelve regiments, each of which was called out for one month in the year un- der their respective officers (1 Chron. xxvii, 1) ; at the head of the army when in active service he appointed a commander-in-chief (JOS~*lb, "captain of the host," 1 Sam. .xiv, 50). Hitherto the arm)' had consisted entirely of infan- cy C^H^i 1 Sam. iv, 10 ; xv, 4), the use of horses having been restrained by divine command (Deut. xvii, 16). The Jews had, however, experienced the great advantage to be obtained by chariots, both in their encounters with the Canaanites (Josh, xvii, 16 ; Judg. i, 19), and at a later period with the Syrians (2 Sam. viii, 4 ; x, 18). The interior of Palestine was indeed general])' unsuited to the use of chariots ; the Canaanites had employed them only in the plains and valleys, such as Jezreel (Josh, xvii, 16), the plain of Philistia (Judg. i, 19 ; 1 Sam. xiii, 5), and the upper valley of the Jordan (Josh, xi, 9 ; Judg. iv, 2). But the border, both on the side of Egypt and Syria, was admirably adapted to their use ; and accordingly we find that as the foreign relations of the kingdoms ex- tended, much importance was attached to them. Da- vid had reserved a hundred chariots from the spoil of the Syrians (2 Sam. viii, 4) : these probably served as the foundation of the force which Solomon afterward enlarged through his alliance with Egypt (2 Kings x, 28, 29), and applied to the protection of his border, stations or barracks being erected for them in different localities (1 Kings ix, 19). The force amounted to 1400 chariots, 4000 horses, at the rate (in round num- bers) of three horses for each chariot, the third being kept as a reserve, and 12,000 horsemen (2 Kings x, 26; 2 Chron. i, 14). At this period the organization of tho army was complete ; and we have, in 1 Kings ix, 22, apparently a list of tho various gradations of rank in the service, as follow: (1.) ilEfTbsain ^b^N, "men of war" —privates; (2.) D"1"!-?) "servants," the low- est rank of officers = lieutenants; (3.) 6"H'C3, "princes" = captains; (4.) d^ttJiptU, "captains," already no- ticed, perhaps = staff- officers; (5.) ~=~il "^b and D'vJ^Qfl itj, "rulers of his chariots and his horse- men" = cavalry officers. See Captain. It does not appear that the system established by David was maintained by the kings of Judah ; but in Israel the proximity of the hostile kingdom of Syria necessitated the maintenance of a standing army. The militia was occasionally called out in time of peace, as by Asa (2 Chron. xiv, 8), by Jehoshaphat (2 Chron. xvii, 14), by Amaziah (2 Chron. xxv, 5), and lastly by Uzziah (2 Chron. xxvi, 11) ; but these notices prove that such cases were exceptional. On the other hand, the incidental notices of the body-guard lead to the conclusion that it was regularly kept up (1 Kings xiv, 28; 2 Kings xi, 4, 11). Occasional reference is made to war-chariots (2 Kings viii, 21), and it would appear that this branch of the service was maintained until the wars with the Syrians weakened the resources of the kingdom (2 Kings xiii, 7); it was restored by Jotham (Isa. ii, 7), but in Hezekiah's reign no force of the kind could be maintained, and the Jews were obliged to seek the aid of Egypt for horses and char- iots (2 Kings xviii, 23, 24)7 This was an evident breach of the injunction in Deut. xvii, 16, and met with strong reprobation on the part of the prophet Isaiah (xxxi, 1). See Chariot. With regard to the arrangement and manoeuvring of the army in the field, we know but little. A divi- sion into three bodies is frequently mentioned (Judg. vii, 16; ix, 43; 1 Sam. xi, 11; 2 Sam. xviii, 2); such a division served various purposes: in action there would be a centre and two wings ; in camp, relays for ARMY 427 ARNAUD the night-watches (Judg. vii, 19); and by the com- bination of two of the divisions, there would be a main body and a reserve, or a strong advanced guard (1 Sam . xiii, 2 ; xxv, 13). Jehoshaphat divided his army into five bodies, corresponding, according to Ewald (Ge- schich/e, iii, 192), to the geographical divisions of the kingdom at that time : may not, however, the three- fold principle of division be noticed here also, the heavy-armed troops of Judah being considered as the proper army, and the two divisions of light-armed of the tribe of Benjamin as an appendage (2 Chron. xvii, 14-18) ? See Fight. The maintenance and equipment of the soldiers at the public expense dates from the establishment of a standing army ; before which, each soldier armed him- self, and obtained his food either by voluntary offer- ings (2 Sam. xvii, 28, 29), by forced exactions (1 Sam. xxv, 13), or by the natural resources of the country (1 Sam. xiv, 27) ; on one occasion only do we hear of any systematic arrangement for provisioning the host (Judg. xx, 10). It is doubtful whether the soldier ever received pay even under the kings (the only in- stance of pay being mentioned applies to mercenaries, 2 Chron. xxv, 6) ; but that he was maintained, while on active service, and provided with arms, appears from 1 Kings iv, 27; x, 1G, 17; 2 Chron. xxvi, 14: notices occur of an arsenal or armory, in which the weapons were stored (1 Kings xiv, 28; Neh. iii, 19; Cant, iv, 4). See Armor. The numerical strength of the Jewish army can- not be ascertained with any degree of accuracy ; the numbers, as given in the text, are manifestly cor- rupt, and the various statements therefore irreconcila- ble. At the Exodus the number of the warriors was 600,000 (Exod. xii, 37), or 603,350 (Exod. xxxviii, 26; Num. i, 46); at the entrance into Canaan, 601,730 (Num. xxvi, 51). In David's time the army amount- ed, according to one statement (2 Sam. xxiv, 9), to 1,300,000, viz. 800,000 for Israel and 500,000 for Judah ; but according to another statement (1 Chron. xxi, 5, 6) to 1,470,000, viz. 1,000,000 for Israel and 470,000 for Judah. The militia at the same period amounted to 24,000X12 = 288,000 (1 Chron. xxvii, 1 sq.). At a later period the army of Judah under Abijah is stated at 400, 000, and that of Israel under Jeroboam at 300,000 (2 Chron. xiii, 3). Still later, Asa's army, derived from the tribes of Judah and Benjamin alone, is put at 530,000 (2 Chron. xiv, 8), and Jehoshaphat's at 1,160,000 (2 Chron. xvii, 14 sq.). See Number. Little need be said on this subject with regard to the period that succeeded the return from the Babylonish captivity until the organization of military affairs in Judaea under the Romans. The system adopted by Judas Maccabaeus was in strict conformity with the Mosaic law (1 Mac. iii, 55) ; and though he maintained a standing army, varying from 3000 to 6000 men (1 Mac. iv, 6 ; 2 Mac. viii, 16), yet the custom of pay- ing the soldiers appears to have been still unknown, and to have originated with Simon (1 Mac. xiv, 32). The introduction of mercenaries commenced with John Hyrcanus, who, according to Josephus (Ant. xiii, 8, 4), rifled the tombs of the kings in order to pa}' them ; the intestine commotions that prevailed in the reign of Alexander Jannaeus obliged him to increase the number to 6200 men (Josephus, Ant. xiii, 13, 5 ; 14, 1) ; and the same policy was followed by Alexandra {Ant. xiii, 16, 2), and by Herod the Great, who had in his pay Thracian, German, and Gallic troops (Ant. xvii, 8, 3). The discipline and arrangement of the army was gradually assimilated to that of the Romans, and the titles of the officers borrowed from it (Josephus, War, ii, 20, 7). See Soldier. II. Roman Army. — This was divided into legions, the number of which varied considerably, each under six tribunes (\i\iapxoc, " chief captain," Acts xxi, 31), who commanded by turns. The legion (q. v.) was subdivided into ten cohorts (airtipa, "band," Acts x, 1), the cohort into three maniples, and the maniple into two centuries, containing originally 100 men, as the name implies, but subsequently from 50 to 100 men, according to the strength of the legion. (See Smith, Diet, of Gr. and Rom. Ant. s. v.) There were thus 60 centuries in a legion, each under the command of a centurion (tKaTOVTap\tic, Acts x, 1, 22 ; tKar6vTap\oc, Matt, viii, 5 ; xxvii, 54). In addition to the legionary cohorts, independent cohorts of volunteers served un- der the Roman standards ; and Biscoe (History of A <-tsl p. 220) supposes that all the Roman forces stationed in Judsea were of this class. Josephus speaks of five co- horts as stationed at Caesarea at the time of Herod Agrippa's death (Ant. xix, 9, 2), and frequently men- tions that the inhabitants of Caesarea and Sebaste served in the ranks (Ant. xx, 8, 7). One of these cohorts was named the " Italian" (Acts x, 1), not as being a portion of the Jtalica legio (for this was not embodied until Nero's reign), but as consisting of volunteers from Italy (Gruter, Inscr. i, 434). This cohort proba- bly acted as the body-guard of the procurator. The cohort named "Augustus" (mzupa St/jotr-/;, Acts xxvii, 1) may have consisted of the volunteers from Sebaste (Josephus, War, ii, 12, 5; Biscoe, p. 223). Others; however, think that it was a cohors Augusta, similar to the legio Augusta. The head-quarters of the Roman forces in Judsea were at Caesarea. A sin- gle cohort was probably stationed at Jerusalem as the ordinary guard ; at the time of the great feasts, how- ever, and on other public occasions, a larger force was sent up, for the sake of preserving order (Josephus, War, ii, 12, 1; 15, 3). Frequent disturbances arose in reference to the images and other emblems carried by the Roman troops among their military ensigns, which the Jews regarded as idolatrous ; deference was paid to their prejudices by a removal of the objects from Jerusalem (Ant. xviii, 3, 1 ; 5, 3). For the sentry (Acts xii, 4) and their " captain" (Acts xxviii, 10), see Guard. The SfZioXafim (Vulg. lancearii; A. V. "sper.rmen,"), noticed in Acts xxiii, 23, appear to have been light-armed, irregular troops ; the origin of the name is, however, quite uncertain (Alford, Comm. in loc). — Smith, s. v. See Host. Ar'na (Lat. Arna, for the Greek text is not ex- tant), a name given as the father of Marinoth and son of Ozias, in the genealogy of Ezra (2 [Vulg. 4] Esdr. i, 2) ; evidently meaning the Zerahiah (q. v.) of the genuine list (Ezra vii, 3). Arnald, Richard, M.A., a divine of the Church of England, born in London about 1G96(?); entered Benedict College, Cambridge, 1714 ; became fellow of Emanuel College, Cambridge, 1720; afterward rector of Marcaston, Leicestershire, where he died in 1756. He is known chiefly by his Critical Commentary on the Apocrypha (new ed. Lond. 1822, 4to), which is printed together with Patrick's, Louth's, and Whitby's Com- mentaries (best ed. Tegg, Lond. 4 vols. 8vo). — Darling, Cyclop. Bibliog. i, 99; Allibone, Diet, of Authors, i, 69. Arnaldo. See Arnold of Brescia. Ar'nan (Heb. Arnan' , "3"1X, nimble ; Sept. 'Oqvo), the great-grandson of Zerubbabel (1 Chron. iii, 21). He is probably the same with Christ's maternal ances- tor Joanna, in Luke iii, 27 (see Strong's Harmony and Exposition, p. 17). B.C. considerably post 536. Arnaud, Henri, pastor and military leader of the Vaudois, was born at La Tour, in Piedmont, 1611. His early history is obscure, but he is said to have been a soldier before entering the ministry among the per- secuted Vaudois. In 1G89 he led his people in their efforts to recover their native land and their right to worship God in peace. William III of England gave him a colonel's commission, and he served with great distinction, at the head of 1200 Vaudois, under Marl- borough. When his people were exiled in 1698, he became their pastor at Schonberg, and died there in 1721. In this retirement he wrote the history of his ARNAUD 428 ARNAULD enterprise, under the title Jfistoire (h la glorieuse Ren- tree des Vaudois duns lews Vallees, printed in 1710, and dedicated to Anne, Queen of Great Britain. The French edition of this work is very rare ; it has been translated into English, under the title The glorious Recovery by the Vaudois of their Valleys, trans, by H. D. Ackland (Lond. 1827, 8vo). See Vaudois. Arnaud or Arnauld de Villeneuve. See Ar- nold. Arnaud of Bkesse. See Arnold op Brescia. Amauld, Angelique, abbess of Port-Royal, a daughter of Robert Arnauld d'Andilly, was born 28th Novembr, 1621. From her earliest years she exhib- ited an extraordinary force and resoluteness of char- acter, and excited much anxious speculation concern- ing her future career among her relatives. When not quite twenty years of age she became a nun at Port- Royal des Champs, where she had been educated by her aunt, Marie Jaqueline Angelique Arnauld, sister of the great Arnauld. Nine years after she was made sub-prioress ; and on removing some j'ears later to Port-Royal de Paris, she held the same office. During the persecution of the Port-Royalists, Angelique, by her piety and courage, sustained the spirit of the sister- hood. The whole family, male and female, were de- termined Jansenists, and none more so than Mere An- gelique de St. Jean (her conventual name). She had much to endure, but she met misfortune with earnest intrepidity. A royal order was issued to break up the nunnery. Ths police arrested the inmates, who were dispersed in various convents throughout France, and constant efforts were made by the Jesuits to induce them to sign the "Formulary of Alexander VII." Angelique was alone exempted from listening to their arguments and solicitations, her "obstinacy" being supposed invincible. At length, by command of the Archbishop of Paris, the nuns were restored to Port- Royal des Champs ; but for some years they were sub- jected to a strict surveillance by soldiers, who watch- ed all their movements, and allowed them no inter- course with persons out of the convent. In 1669, how- ever, was issued the edict of Clement IX for the peace of the church, which was a kind of compromise on this vexed question of Jansenism and Jesuitism. The nuns received back the privileges of which they had baen stripped, and constituted their society anew. An- gelique was again elected prioress. In 1G78 she was made abbess. The next year her protectress, the Duchcsse de Longueville, died, and the persecution re- commenced by the prohibition to receive any more novices. Still Angelique did not despair. She con- soled the nuns, and exerted all her influence with per- sons in power, but with little effect. At last she sank under a complication of griefs, and expired on the 29th of January, 1684, leaving behind her as bright and beautiful a memory as any of her countrywomen. She was learned without being pedantic, pious without bigotry, and gentle to others in proportion as she was severe to herself. Angelique wrote several works. Of these, one, perhaps the most valuable work relative to Port-Royal, is entitled Memoires pour servir a VHis- toire de Port-Royal, it a la Vie de la Reverende Mere Mark Angelique de Sainte Magdelevne Arnauld, Re- • de ce Monastere (Utrecht, 1712, 12mo, 3 vols.). While the Memoires of Da Foss6, Fontaine, and Lancelot detail the external history of Port-Royal, these Memoires represent its internal history, with the mind and habits of its members, particularly of the elder Angelique. The Memoires were edited" by Bar- beau de la Bruyere in 1712. The originals, from which Barbeau de la Bruyere printed the Memoires, were preserved in the library of Saint Germain des Pres at Paris. Angelique also took a great part in the com- position of the Necrohge de Port-Royal des Champs (Amst. 172:'., 4 to), and wrote other works in defence of the monastery. — Memoires pour servir a V Histoire de Port-Royal, iii, 498, etc. ; Querard, La France Litte- raire ; Reuchlin, Geschichte v. Port-Royal (Lips. 1839) ; Edlnb. Review, No. cxlviii; Methodist Quarterly, April, 1853 ; Princeton Review, xxi, 467 ; English Cyclupcedia. Arnauld, Antoine, one of a family distinguished for piety, talent, and suffering, and which greatly in- fluenced both religion and literature in France, was born at Paris Feb. 6, 1612. His father, named also Antoine Arnauld (died 29th Dec. 1619), was a distin- guished advocate, and a great antagonist of the Jesu- its. The Jesuits met with an opponent in the younger Arnauld as determined as his father had been. Ar- nauld the younger was educated at Calvi. lie origin- ally studied for the law, but was induced by the Abbot de St. Cyran to turn bis attention to theology. In 1641 he was made priest and doctor of the Sorbonne, where he had been pupil of Lescot (afterward Bishop of Chartres), who taught him the scholastic theology. In this period of study he imbibed a love for Augustine and his writings, which he ever after preserved. In 1643 he was made an honorary member of the Society of Sorbonne for his extraordinary merit. In this year, 1643, he published his famous work, De la frequente Communion (7th ed. 1783), which excited great atten- tion, and was vigorously attacked by the Jesuits. Ar- nauld now put forth, in reply, his Theoloffie Morale des Jesuites — the beginning of a fierce and protracted con- troversy. The Jesuits endeavored to have Arnauld sent to Rome; to escape this peril, he retired from public life for many years, but kept his pen ever busy, at the convent of Port-Royal des Champs, near Paris. Sec Port-Royal. Soon after, he became involved in the disputes about Jansenius (q. v.), bishop of Ypres, and his book Augustinus, several propositions of which concerning the intricate questions of grace and free- will had been condemned by Pope Urban VII (Aug. 1, 1641). Arnauld boldly ventured to defend it against the censures of the papal bull. He published several pamphlets, closing with a first and second Apolooie de Jansenius. In these years of strife, whenever a mo- ment of armistice permitted, he occupied it in writing such works as Maeurs de I'Eg'ise Catholique, La Correc- tion, L,a Grace, La Verite de la Religion, De la Foi, de VEsperance, et de la Charite, and the Manuel de Saint A ugustine. He also varied these occupations by trans- lating into Latin his Frequent Communion, and by the composition of his Xovce objectiones contra Renat. Des- cartis Meditationes, and several smaller tractates. In addition to his literary labors, he undertook the direc- tion of the nuns at Port-Royal, of which his sister, Marie Jaqueline Angelique Arnauld, was abbess. In his retreat he had the society of such men as Pascal, Nicole, etc. Here they wrote in common numerous excellent works, e. i*. Grammaire Generate Raisonnee, Elements de Geometrie, and V Art de Denser. In 16-19 the Jansenist controversy broke out more fiercely than ever. The Augustinus of the Bishop of Ypres was again attacked and condemned by the Sorbonne and the pope. Arnauld replied in his Considerations. Iii 1650 appeared what he conceived to be his best work, VApologie pour les Saints Peres. For the next half dozen years he was engaged in constant and painful disputes; }'et, in spite of the polemical character of his life, the impression of his piety and earnestness was deepened in the mind of the nation ; and, on read- ing some of his compositions, even Alexander VII is reported to have praised the author, and to have ex- horted him for the future to despise the libels of his adversaries. During the strife he published La Con- corde des Evangiles and V Office du Saint-Sacrement. In 1655-56, for prudential reasons, he left his retreat at Port-Royal, and sought a secret place of security. About the same time he was expelled from the Sor- bonne and the faculty of theology. Seventy-two doc- tors and many licentiates and bachelors went with him. In 1656, the war with the Jesuits was renewed — not, however, by Arnold in person. Under the nom ARNAULD 429 ARND deplume of Louis de Montalto, the great Pascal (q. v.) discharged his scorpion wit against the Jesuits for about a year and a half in the Provincial Letters. Ar- nauld furnished him with materials. In 1G58 he took the field in propria persona, by publishing his Cinq Ecrits enfaveur des Cures de Paris contre les Casuistes reldehis. In 1662 appeared La Nouvelle Heresie (of the Jesuits) ; in 1669 the first volume of his Morale Pratique (of the Jesuits), the last of which was not published until the year of his death. After the peace of Clement IX, which tor a time allayed the Jansenist controversy, and to which Arnauld contributed by an eloquent me- morial to the pontiff, he was presented to the pope's nuncio, and also to Louis XIV, who received him gra- ciously, and invited him "to employ his golden pen in defence of religion." His next work, in which he was associated with his friend Nicole, De la Perpituite de la Foi de VEglise Catholique touckant V Eucharistie, was dedicated to the pope. This occasioned a warm con- troversy between Arnauld and the reformed minister Claude, in the course of which Arnauld wrote Du Ren- versement de la Morale de J. C. par la Doctrine des Calvinistes touckant la Justification (Paris, 1672). Ar- nauld at the same time continued his war against the Jesuits, and wrote the greater part of the work styled Morale Pratique des Jesirites (8 vols. 12mo), in which many authentic facts and documents are mixed up with party bitterness and exaggeration. The Jesuits, of course, an ambitious society, did not bear this pa- tiently. Harlay, the archbishop of Paris, assisted in prejudicing the king against Arnauld, and Louis XIV issued an order for his arrest. Arnauld concealed himself for some time at the house of the Duchess of Longueville; but in 1679 he repaired to Brussels, where the Marquis of Grana, the Spanish governor of the Low Countries, assured him of his protection. There he published in 1681 his Apologie pour les Catho- liques, a defence of the English Bomanists against the charges of Titus Oates's conspiracy. In this work he undertook the defence of his old antagonists the Jesu- its, whom he considered as having been calumniated in those transactions. Another work, not so credita- ble to Arnauld's judgment, is one against the Prince of Orange, William III of England, whom he styled a new Absalom, a new Herod, and a new Cromwell (Svo, 16S9). It was published anonymously, but it after- ward appeared that he was the author. In refuta- tion of his old friend Malebranche's opinions, Arnauld wrote his Trail 'e des Vraies et des Fausses Idees (Cologne, 1683) ; and afterward, Reflexions Phi/osopkiques et The- ologiques sur le Nouveau Sysfime de la Nature et de la Grace du Pere Malebranche (1685). He continued to the last, although past 80 years of age, to carry on his various controversies with the Jesuits, with Male- branche, with the Calvinists, and with the sceptic phi- losophers, among whom was Bayle. His last work was Reflexions sur V Eloquence ds Predicateurs, 1694. He died in his exile at Brussels, on the 8th of August of that year, after receiving the sacrament from the curate of his parish. His works, which filled more than 100 volumes of various sizes, were collected and published at Lausanne and at Paris, in -18 volumes, 4to, 1775-83. The last volume contains the author's biography. Moreri gives a catalogue of his writings, 320 in number. — Penny Cyclopaedia ; Ranke, History of Papacy, ii, 259 sq. ; Edinburgh Review, July, 1841; Princeton Review, xxi, 407; Biog. Univ< rselle, ii, 501; St. Beuve, Port-Royal, vol. ii ; Hoefer, Nouv. Biog. Generate, ii, 286. Arnauld, Henri, brother of Antoine, was born in Paris in 1597. He was originally designed for the bar, but, on receiving from the court the abbey of St. Nich- olas, he entered the church. He was elected bishop of Toul by the diocesan chapter; but, as the election gave rise to disputes, he would not accept it. In 16f 5 he went to Borne to appease the quarrel between the Barbcrini family and Pope Innocent X ; and such was his success that the family had a medal struck and a statue erected in his honor. On his return to France, he was made bishop of Angers in 1649, devoted him- self to his sacred calling, and became, like the rest of his family, a zealous Jansenist. He was one of the four bishops who refused to sign the acceptance of the pope's bull condemning the "Augustinus" of Jansc- nius. He was accustomed to take only five hours' sleep, that he might have time for prayer and the reading of the Scriptures without encroaching on the duties of his episcopal office. He was regular in visit- ing the sick. When there was a scarcity of provisions at Angers, on one occasion, he sent ten thousand livres so secretly that the donation was attributed to another, and the real donor was only discovered by accident some time afterward. His diocese he never left but once, and that was to reconcile the Prince of Tarento to his father, the Duke de la Tremouille. When An- gers revolted in 1652, the queen-mother was about to take heavy vengeance upon it, but was prevented by this bishop, who, as he administered the sacrament to her, said: "Take the body of Him who forgave His ! enemies when on the cross." Some one advising him i to take one day in the week for recreation, he replied, ' " Yes,'I will, Avhen j'ou find me a day in which I am not bishop." His Negotiations a la Cour de Rome (1748, 5 vols.) contain many curious facts and anec- dotes. He died at Angers, June 8, 1694. — Memoires de Port-Royal (Utrecht, 1742), vol. i ; Besoigne, Vie de Henri Arnaidd (Cologne, 1756, 2 vols. 12mo); Hoefer, Nouv. Biog. Generate, ii, 290. Arnauld (of Andili.y), Robert, eldest brother of Antoine Arnauld, was horn at Paris in 1588, and en- tered early into public life, and filled several offices at | the French court. At fifty-two he retired into the ! convent of Port -Royal, where he wrote numerous I translations, and other works, printed in 8 vols. fol. I 1675. He died Sept. 27, 1674. His Vies des Salutes j Peres du desert were translated into English : Lives of i the Fathers of the Desert (London, 1757, 2 vols. Svo). | — Collier, Hist. Diet. s. v. ; Hoefer, Biog. Gcnerale, ii, | 282. | Arnd or Arndt, John, the first of the Pietists (q. I v.), was born December 2, 1555, at Ballenstadt, at the foot of the Harz Mountains. He studied at the Uni- versity of Helmstadt, and devoted himself at first to medicine, but afterward applied himself to theology at Strasburg under Pappus, a theologian of the rigid Lutheran school. In 1583 he became pastor of the Lutheran church at Badeborn, in Anhalt ; in 1590, at Quedlinburg; in 1599, at St. Martin's, Brunswick. His theological learning was varied and accurate ; but his chief peculiarity was his heart religion, in which respect he was the Spencr or the Wesley of his time. While at Brunswick he published (1605) the first vol- ume of his "True Christianity" (\~ier Biichervomwali- ren Ckristenthum), designed to awaken students, min- isters, and others to practical and experimental relig- ion, and to mend, if possible, the loose morals of the age. The book created a great sensation, and was at once translated into several languages. Its revivalism also brought out the enmity of the scholastic theologi- ans and of the "dry" religionists; a controversy of many years' duration was the result. See Scharff, Sup- plem. Hist. Litisque Arndtiana; (1727). In 1608 Arndt was called to Eisleben, and in 1609 the three other books of his True Christianity were given to the press. No book of practical religion has been more widely cir- culated, not even Bunyan's Pilgrim or Baxter's Saints' Rest. The substance of the book is as follows : Book I is called the Book of Scripture : it seeks to show the way of the inward and spiritual life, and that Adam ought to die every day more and more in the heart of a Christian, and Christ to gain the ascendant there. The second is called the Book of Life : he proposes in it to direct the Christian to a greater degree of perfec- ARNDT 430 ARNOLD tion, to give him a relish for sufferings, to encourage him to resist his enemies after the example of his Sav- iour. The third is entitled the Book of Conscience : in this he recalls the Christian within himself, and discovers to him the kingdom of God seated in the midst of his own heart, the last hook is entitled the Book of Nature : the author proves here that all the creatures lead men to the knowledge of their Creator. New editions of the work are very numerous; those by J. F. von Meyer (4th ed. Francf. 1857) and Krum- macher (4th ed. Leipz. 1859) contain biographies of the author. For a complete list of the new German editions of Arndt's work, see Zuchold, Bibl. Theol., s. v. Arnd. The work was translated into main- differ- ent languages : Latin, Luneburg, in 1625 ; Frankfort, in 1628 ; and Leipsic, in 1704. It was printed in Low Dutch in 1642 and 1647, and translated into Danish and Bohemian. It was translated into French by Samuel Basnage de Beauval. The first hook was printed in English in 1646; in 1708 the Latin translation was reprinted at London ; an English translation was pub- lished in 1712, 8vo, dedicated to Queen Anne, by M. Boehm. A new English translation was published in 1815 by William Jaques — True Christianity, or the whole Economy of God toward Man, and the whole Duty of Man toward God (2 vols. 8vo, Lond.), and an American edi- tion (Philad. 1842, 8vo). In 1611 Arndt was trans- ferred to Celle, when the duke of Luneburg made him court chaplain and superintendent, and his last years were spent in promoting the religious interests of the duchy. He died in 1621. Among the charges brought against Arndt, one was that he was a mem- her of the Rosicrueian fraternity ; but that has been disproved (Henke, Deutsche Zeitschrift, 1852, No. 35) ; yet his medical studies had undoubtedly led him to dabble in alchemy. Besides the True Christianity, he published a number of minor writings, which may be found in the edition of his works by Rambach (Leipzig, 1734, 3 vols. 8vo). See Arnold, Kirchen and Ketzerhis- torie, II, xvii, § 6; F. Arndt, Joh. Arndt, tin biog. Versuch (Berlin, 1838); Pertz, De Joanne A rndtio, etc. (Hanover, 1852) ; Herzog, Real-EncyMopiidie, i, 540 ; Hurst, History of Rationalism, ch. i; Morris, Life of John Arndt (Baltimore, 1853, 12mo). Arndt, Joshua, a Lutheran clergyman, born in 1626, was a professor at Rostock, and published several works on philosophy, divinity, and history ; among oth- er.-, lexicon Auliqiiitatum L'rrlesiaslicarum (4to, Greifs- wald, 1669). He died in 1685. Arnebeth. See Hare. Arno, archbishop of Salzburg, frequently called, with a Latin name, Aquila, was probably a native of Germany, and not, as has been erroneously inferred from some figurative expressions of Alcuin, a brother of the latter. Arno (or, as he calls himself, Arn) was educated at Freisin^; (Bavaria), and was consecrated in the same city deacon in 765, and priest in 776. He was ;i frequent attendant of Duke Thassilo, of Bavaria, and no less than 25 documents of the church of Frei- Bin» have hi- name as a witness. He became, in 782, abbot at Elmon, in the Netherlands, and in the same ui his intimate relations with Alcuin, who at that time was residing near Elmon. In 785 he return- ed to Bavaria, having been appointed by Duke Thassilo bishop of Salzburg. While sojourning at Rome in 798, he was, in accordance with the wish of King Karl and the Bavarian bishops, raised to the dignity of arch- bishop. Arno presided at several sj nods, and was, in 813, one ofthe presidents of the Council of Mentz. Ho also converted many Huns and Wends, and died in 820. He wrote, together with Deacon Benedict, the Conges- tion (Indiculus) Arnonis, a list of all the churches, vil- lages, etc., ofthe archbishopric of Salzburg, which is a very valuable contribution to the early Church his- tory of southwestern Germany.— Herzog, Red-Ency- klqjpddii , i, 542. Arnobius, the Elder, also called "Afer," lived about 297, and taught rhetoric at Sicca, in Africa. He was originally a pagan, and the master of Lactantius, but about the time of Diocletian he embraced the Christian faith, and, according to Jerome (De Yiris II- lust. c. 79), in order the more readily to induce the bishops to receive him among the number ofthe faith- ful, he composed, before his baptism, about the year 303, seven books against the Gentiles (adversus Gen- tes, libri vii). This account of Jerome's is followed by many writers (e. g. Tillemont, Cave ; Smith, Diction- ary, s. v.); but Lardner's argument against it (iii, 458) seems to be conclusive. Arnobius writes in the tone, not of a catechumen, but of a Christian ; and he no- where hints at any necessity or compulsion for his task, but, on the contrary, in the beginning of his book, he speaks of it as a task voluntarily undertaken j in view of the injurious reproaches cast upon the Christians. The book begins with a vindication of ', Christianity from the charges brought against it by the pagans. In a few points Arnobius makes state- I ments savoring of Gnosticism, and he does not mani- I fest a complete acquaintance with the Christian sys- tem or with the Scriptures. He shows, however, an extensive knowledge of pagan worship and literature, I and the book is a valuable source of information on these topics. The marked peculiarity of his Apology, j as distinguished from those of his predecessors, con- I sists in the fact that he not. only repels the charges i made against Christianity, but also undertakes to show that Christianity itself is demonstrable by evi- dence. In his argument for the divinity of Christ and of his religion, he anticipates many ofthe leading ar- guments of modern apologists, especially of Paley. For a very clear summary of it, see Woodham, Intro- duction to Tertidliani Liber Apologeticus, ch. iii. Villc- main gives Arnobius a very high place among the . early writers, in Hoefer, Now. Biog. Generate, iii, 311. See also Dorner, Person of Christ, div. i, vol. ii, p. 190. The works of Arnobius were published, for the first time, by Faustus Sabeus, at Rome, in 1542, but with many faults. Many editions have since been issued, but the best are those of Orel/i (Leips. 1810, 3 vols. 8vo), of Ilildebrandt (Halle, 1844, 8vo). See Geret, De Arnobio indicia (Viteb. 1752); Meyer, De ratione Amobiana (Hafn. 1815) ; Cave, Hist. Lit. i, 112. Arnobius, the Younger, lived about 460, and is said to have been a priest of Gaul, brought up in the monastery of Lerins. He wrote a Commcntaiius in Psalmos Davidis (Basle, 1522 ; Paris, 1639), which shows him to have been a semi-Pelagian. His extant remains may be found in Bib. 3fax. Patr. vol. viii. — Cave, Hist. Lit. cent, v ; Bayle, Dictionary, s. v. ; Du- pin, Eccl. Writers, cent. v. Arnold (Arnaldo, Arnaud) of Brescia was born in the town of Brescia about the beginning of the twelfth century. Our information as to his history is scanty, and depends chiefly upon the accounts of his enemies. The chief sources are Otto of Freisingen, de Gestis Frider. I, and Gunther, Ligurmus (12th cent., both printed together, Basle, 1569, fol.). He studied under Abclard at the desert of Nogent. Having re- turned to Italy he became a monk. The corruption ofthe clergy was very great at that time, and Arnold, endowed with an impassioned oratory, began to preach I against the ambition and luxury of abbots, prelates, and cardinals, not sparing the pope himself. He main- ! tained that ecclesiastics as well as laymen ought to be subordinate to the civil power; that the disposal of kingdoms and principalities did not belong to the ( hurch of Christ ; that the clergy should not accumu- late wealth, but should depend upon the offerings of the faithful, or, at most, upon tithes, for their support. His vehement eloquence inflamed the minds of the people, who had been alienated from the clergy before j by the excessive corruption of the times. Brescia re- i volted against its bishop, the fermentation spread to ARNOLD 431 ARNOLD other towns, and complaints against the author of all this poured in at Rome. Innocent II had Arnold con- demned, together with other heretics, in the council of Lateran, in 1139. Such, at least, is the positive state- ment of Otto of Freisingen and other historians of those times, but Arnold's name is not mentioned in the canons of the council ; and it is only clear that, bjr Innocent's order, he was prohibited from preaching, ■was banished from Italy, and forbidden to return with- out the pope's permission. He then proceeded to France, where he fell in with an old fellow-student, the papal legate Guido, afterward Pope Celestinus II ; but he met with an unrelenting adversary in Bernard of Clairvaux, who forced him to seek refuge at Zurich, and afterward at Constance (about 1140). He there resumed his preaching against the abuses of the clergy, and found many favorable listeners. But Bernard traced him there also, and caused the Bishop of Con- stance to banish him. After the death of Innocent II (1143), Arnold returned to Italy, and, hearing that the people of Rome had revolted against the pope, he put himself at the head of the insurrection. Lucius II had died of the wounds received in a popular affray, and Eugenius III, a disciple of Bernard, succeeded him in the papal chair, but was driven away from the city by the people and the senate. -The multitude hurried on to excesses which Arnold probably had never contemplated. They attacked the houses of the cardinals and nobles, and shared the plunder. Ar- nold, however, still remained poor ; he really despised wealth, and his morals were irreproachable. Borne continued for ten years in a state of agitation little differing from anarchy, at war with the pope and the people of Tibur, and at variance within itself. Ber- nard, in his epistles, draws a fearful picture of the state of the city at that time. Eugenius III died in 1153, and his successor, Anastasius IV, having fol- lowed him to the grave shortly after, Adrian IV was elected pope in 1154. He was a man of a more de- termined spirit than his predecessors. A cardinal having been attacked and seriously wounded in the streets of Rome, Adrian resorted to the bold measure of excommunicating the first city in Christendom, a thing without a precedent. The Romans, who had set at naught the temporal power of the pope, quailed be- fore his spiritual authority. In order to be reconciled to the pontiff they exiled Arnold, who took refuge among some friendly nobles in Campania. "When the Emperor Frederick I came to Rome to be crowned, the pope applied to him to have Arnold arrested. Freder- ick accordingly gave his orders, and Arnold was stran- gled, his body burnt, and the ashes thrown into the Til>er in the year 1155 {Penny Cyclopaedia). See Adrian IV. The Roman Catholic writers naturally give Arnold a bad character. In truth, he was a great reforming spirit — the Savonarola or Luther of his time — but driven by the evil circumstances of his age into errors and excesses. Neander is doubtless only just in saying that the inspiring idea of his movements was that of a holy and pure church, a renovation of the spiritual order after the pattern of the apostolic church. Baptist writers class him among the forerunners of their church, as one of the charges brought against him in 1139 was the denial of infant baptism. Ba- ronius calls him "the patriarch of political heretics" (.1 ////-// g, anno 1155). See Koler, De A rnolio Brixiensi (Gott. 1742, 4to); Francke, Arnold v. Brescia u. seine Zed (Zurich, 1825, 8\o).—Biog. Diet. Soc. Useful Know}. ; Neander, Ch. Hist, iv, 149 sq. ; Mosheim, Ch. Hist. cent, xii, pt. ii, ch. v, § 10; N. Brit. Rev. i, 458; Bohringer, Dk Kirch, Christi. mid Hire Zeugen, ii, 719; Hoefer, Xouv. Biog. Generate, iii, 276. Compare Ar- noldists. Arnold of Ussixgen. See Arnoldi, Barthol- omew. Arnold of Villexeuve, a celebrated physician of the thirteenth century, was born about 1240. He was eminently skilled in natural science and general literature. In 1285 he was made physician to Pedro III of Aragon ; but his heterodox opinions brought on his excommunication by the bishop of Tarragona, and he wandered from place to place for years, until final- ly he found refuge with Frederick II at Palermo. The monks stigmatized him as a magician, not so much for his science as for his attacks upon their bad lives and principles. He taught that the monks had cor- rupted the doctrine of Christ, and that the founding of masses and benefits was useless. In 1311, Pope Clem- ent V, being ill of gravel, sought the medical skill of Arnold, who was shipwrecked, and perished on the voyage to Rome. Ilis remains were buried at Genoa in 1313, and his writings were afterward burnt by the Inquisition. Among the propositions in them which were condemned are the following : 1. that the human nature of Christ is equal to the divinity ; 2. that the soul of Christ, immediately after the union, knew as much as the divinity ; 3. that the devil has perverted the whole human race, and destroyed faith ; 4. that the monks corrupted the doctrine of Jesus Christ ; 5. that the study of philosophy ought to be banished from the schools ; 6. that the revelation made to Cyril is more valuable than Holy Scripture; 7. that works of mercy are more pleasing to God than the sacrifice of the altar ; 8. that founding benefices and masses is useless; 9. that he who gathers a great number of beggars, and founds chapels and perpetual masses, incurs everlasting damnation ; 10. that the sacrificing priest and the offerer offer nothing of their own to God; 11. that the passion of Jesus Christ is better represented by the giving of alms than bj' the sacrifice of the altar; 12. that God is not honored in deed in the mass, but in word only; 13. that the papal constitutions are simply the works of men ; 14. that God threatens with damnation, not all those who sin, but all those Mho afford a bad exnrple; 15. that the end of the world would happen in 1335, 1345, or 1376. His works were printed at Lyons in 1520, in one vol. fol. ; and 1585; also at Basle. — Nieeron. Mem. torn. xxxiv, p. 82 ; Landon, Eccl. Diet, i, 541; Hoefer, Kouv. Biog. Generate, iii, 281. Arnold, Godfrey, an eminent German Pietist and Mystic, born at Annaberg, Saxony, 16G6. Educated at Wittenberg, he became a tutor, 1G89, at Dresden, where he imbibed an ardent Pietistic tendency from Spener, who obtained him a situation as private tutor at Quedlinburg, where he devoted himself to the study of the mystic writers and of Church history. After condemning marriage, he married in 1700, and lost some of his fanatical views. In 1707 he obtained a pastorate in Perleberg, where he remained until his death in 1714. In spite of all his errors, Arnold was eminently pious, and was a faithful preacher. He wrote largely, but his most important work is his Un- partemche Kirchen-und-Ketzergcschichfe (Frankf. 1698- 1700; repub. at Schaffhausen, witli additions, 1740— 1743, 3 vols.). This " Impartial Church History' ' was the first written in German instead of Latin. It makes personal piety the central idea of Christianity. But, while bent on showing fair play, as no historian before had done, to all sorts of heretics and schismatics, par- ticularly to the Mystics, for whom he had a special predilection, Arnold fell into the most gross wrong to- ward the representatives of orthodoxy, ascribing to them the basest motives, and aspersing their character in every possible way. See Schaff, History of the Apos- tolic Church, § 30 ; Herzog, Real-Encykhpiidie, i, 548. The number of works which were published against Arnold is very large. A list of them is given in the preface to the third volume of his works in the Schaff- hausen edition. The most important among these is by Groschius, Nothwendige Yerthridiguug der evange- lischcn Kirche wider die Arnoldische Ketzerhistorie (Francf. 1745). Among the other works of Arnold are, Historia et descriptio theosophias, 1702 (German, ARNOLD 432 ARNOLDI 1703); Das Geheimtdss der gdtlKchen Sophia (Leipz. 1700). Some of the works of Arnold continue to be in common use among the German Pietists, and are still being published in new editions; as, Die Erste Lithe (an essay on the life of the first Christians ; new edit. by Lammert, Stuttgardt, 1844; and with an appendix containing all the religious poems of Arnold, by Knapp, Stuttgardt, 1814); Paradlesischer Lustgarten(& Prayer- book; with biography of Arnold, and selection of his religious poems by Ehmann, Reutlingen, 1852) ; Geist- liche Erfahrungs-Lekre (an essay on experimental Christianity, from the beginning of the conversion to its completion (Milford Square, Pennsylvania, 1855). Complete collections of the religious poems of Arnold Q'Sammtlicke Geistliche Lieder") have been published bv Knapp (Stuttgardt, 1845") and Ehmann (Stuttgardt, 1856); a selection ("Geistliche Minneliede)■,,) by Eh- mann (Stuttgardt, 1850). . See G. Arnold's G(dippelter Lebenslauf (partly autobiography, 171G) ; Coler, Sum- mariseke Xachrichf, von G. A molds Leben und Schriften (Wittenberg, 1718); Knapp, Biographic G. Arnolds (Stuttgardt. 1845); Gobel, Gesch. des christlichen Le- bens in der rheinisch-westphalischen evangelischen Kirche (vol. ii, p. G98-735). Arnold, Nicholas, a Protestant theologian, was born at Lesna, in Poland, December, 1618 ; died Oct. 13, 1680. He became, in 1639, rector of the school in Jablonow, and in 1654 succeeded Cocceius as pro- fessor of theology at Franeker, where he became espe- cially noted as a pulpit orator. His writings were chief- ly polemical, e. g. Religio Sociniana refutata (Franeker, 1654, 4to): — Atkeismus Socinianus (1659, 4to): — Dis- cing, thiol, cont. Comenium (1660, 4to): — a refutation of the Catechism of the Socinians (Atheismus Socinia- nus F. Bidal'i refutahts, Amst. 1659) : — a work entitled Lux in Tenebris {Light in Darkness), in which he ex- plains those passages of Scripture which the Socinians use as arguments for their doctrines (Franeker, 1662, 2 vols.) : — and a Commentary on the Epistle to the He- brews.— Hoefer, Biog. Generate, iii, 326. Arnold, Smith, a highly esteemed Methodist preacher, was horn in Middlebury, Conn., in 1766, and removed in 1791 to Herkimer Co., N. Y. In the year 1800 he connected himself with the itinerant ministry, and continued in the field of active labor until 1821, when he assumed a supernumerary relation. He died at Rochester, March 16, 1839.— Wakely, Heroes of Meth- odism .- Min. ofConf r. ii, 670; Sprague, Anna!.'!, vii, 337. Arnold, Thomas, D.D., was born at Cowes, Eng- land, .June 13tb, 1795. In 1803 he was sent to Win- chester school, where he remained until 1811. In 1811 he obtained a scholarship at Corpus Christi College, Oxford, and in 1815 a fellowship in Oriel, where he was associated with Coplestone, Whately, and Hamp- den, a noble band. In 1818 he was ordained deacon, in 1819 settled at Laleham, where he opened a school to lit a few young men for the university. In 1820 he married. In 1828 lie was made head master of Rugby school, and ordained priest. It soon began to be noised abroad that a reform was in progress in Rugby; and the effects of Dr. Arnold's administration of the school are visible to-day, not only in Rugby, but in most schools in En-land. In this occupation he spent the last fourteen years of Ids life, and during that period took the deepesi interest in all the political questions Of the time. lb> was one of the most decided opponents of the ( (xford new school of theology. Ilis idea of a Christian Church was first given in' his pamphlet on "Church Reform," whir], i„. was induced to publish in 1833, in consequence of the apprehensions he enter- tained of the danger which then threatened the Estab- lishment. His theory is much the same as Hooker's —that the Church and state are identical; that a church is a Christian state. 1 1 i - views on this subject are again stated in his Fragment on the church, sub- sequently published, in which he hits the kev-stone of the Tractarian heresy in attacking what he consid- ers to be their false notions of the Christian priest- hood. Dr. Arnold's mind was early directed to the social condition of the working classes ; and many ef- forts were made, and a variety of plans devised by him, not only for improving it, but for directing the atten- tion of the public to a subject of so much importance. In 1841 he was appointed by Lord Melbourne to the Eegius-Professorship of Modern History at Oxford — an appointment wdiich gave him the most lively satis- faction. But he lived to deliver only his introducto- ry course of lectures. When at the very summit of his reputation as a teacher, and at the time when the odium in which, for the liberality of his religious and political opinions, his name had been held by men of his own profession was fast disappearing, and the gran- deur of his character was every day becoming more manifest and more distinctly understood, he was seized with a fatal disease, which carried him off in a few hours. He died on the 12th of June, 1842, of spasm at the heart. His great work, and the one by which he will be remembered, is his History of Rome (Loud. 1840- 1843, 3 vols. 8vo), comprehending the period between the origin of the state and the end of the Second Punic War; with his History of the later Reman Common- wealth (Lond. 1849, 2d ed. 2 vols. 8vo), reprinted from the Eneyclopadia Metropolitana, carrying on the his- tory to the time of Trajan. In the Notes and Dis- sertations to his edition of Thucydides he has given a social and political, as well as a critical interest to his author. History and divinity — man and man's rela- tion to God — were his favorite studies. In both he preferred the practical to the theoretical. His Sermons (5 vols. 8vo) demonstrate with what earnestness and devotion he labored to bring religion into the daily concerns of men, and to invest ever}- act of life with a Christian character. His remaining productions are, a volume of Lectures on Modern History, delivered at Oxford (London, 1843, 8vo), and Miscellaneous Worls (Lond. 1845, 8vo), which include many articles written for reviews, etc., and essays. Most of Dr. Arnold's writings have been reprinted in New York. They are not important to scientific theology, a branch to which Arnold seems to have given no serious or pro- longed study. In some points he approximated to rationalistic views of inspiration and interpretation, but his hold of Christ and of the atonement saved him from going to extremes. Still he is, perhaps justly, styled the founder of the "Broad School" of the Church of England. — Stanlej', Life and Correspond! nee of Dr. Arnold; Eng. Encyclop. ; Methodist Quart. Rev. April, 1846, p. 266 ; North Brit. Rev. ii, 403 ; Quartt fly Rev. (Lond.)lxxiv, 252; Edinb. Rev. lxxxi, 99; Prince- ton Rev. xvii, 283. Arnoldi, August Wilhelm, a Roman Catholic bishop of Germany, born at Baden, near Treves, in Prussia, died in 1861. He was ordained priest in 1825, became professor of Oriental languages and elo- quence at the seminary of Treves, and subsequently canon at the Cathedral. He was elected bishop of Treves in 18r9, but the Prussian government refused to ratify the election. He was again elected in 1842, when he was recognised by the government, but was at once involved in new difficulties by his refusal to take the constitutional oath. He became widely known, and produced a great commotion in 1845 hy or- dering the public exhibition of a relic of the Church of Treves, claimed to be " the holy coat" of Christ. He is the author of a German translation of the Tlomilki of Chrysostom and his book on the priesthood; — Pie- rcr, i, 753; Vapcreau, 66. Arnoldi (Arnold), Bartholomew, a German Augustine monk. He was a professor of theology at Erfurt. He was Luther's teacher, and at first agreed with his views ; but when he broke with the papacy, Arnoldi became his warm antagonist. lie wrote many ARNOLDISTS 433 AROER works, ehiefly against the Lutherans. He died at Er- j yards in -width, with a few oleanders and willows on furt in 1532. ' i the margin. Lieut. Lynch describes it at its mouth in Arnoldists, followers of Arnold of Brescia (a. v.). \ AP'-il as "■ considerable stream of water, clear, fresh, Many seem to have adhered to the doctrines of Arnold and moderately cool, and having some small fish in it" even' after his death, and to have propagated them in (Expedition, p. 299). Where it bursts into the Dead Upper Italy. The Arnoldists were condemned by i Sea tllis stream is 82 feet wide and 4 feet deep, flow- Pope Lucius III atthe council of Verona in 1184. The | ing through a chasm with perpendicular sides of red, name occurs also later, as in a law of Frederick II | brown, and yellow sandstone, 97 feet wide. It then against the heretics (1224); but it is doubtful whether i runs through the delta in a S.W. course, narrowing as the name was merely copied from the condemnatory decree, or whether they continued to exist as a sect, Ar'non (Ileb. Arnon, *13"iX, a murmur; Sept. it goes, and is 10 feet where its waters meet those of the Dead Sea (Lynch, Report, May 3, 1847, p. 20). According to the information given to Burekhardt, ' „ r. its principal source is near Katrane, on the Haj route. Apvmu, sometimes Apvwv\ a river (*Q, torrent, Deut. i ^^ under ^ name of ^ cs_Sa;deh; it flowJ8 N w ii, 24, forming the southern boundary of trans- Jot- to its junction with the W. Lejum, onehourE.of Arair, danic Palestine (originally of the Amoritish territory, and then ag w Mojeb, more directlv W. to the Dead Num. xxi, 13, 2G), and separating it from the land of | Sea. The W- Moj-eb receives on the "north the streams Moab (Deut. ill, 8, 16 ; Josh, xii, 1 ; Judg. xi, 22 ; Isa. I 0f the W< Waleh, and on the south those of W. She- xvi, 2; Jer. xlviii, 20). Josephus speaks of it as is- j kik and W. Saliheh. At its junction with the Is- suing from the mountains of Arabia (Ant. iv, 5, 1). ! jUm (W. Enkeileh) is a piece of pasture-ground, ia the Among these hills are probably to be sought the midst of which stands a- hill with ruins on it (Burck. " heights of Arnon" (Num. xxi, 28). See Bamoth. p. 374)_ May not these ruins ,,e the s5te of the mvg_ It is also named in Deut. ii, 30; m, 12; iv, 48; Josh. ] terious "city that is in the midst of the river" (Josh, xii, 2 ; xiii, 9, 16; Judg. xi, 13, 26. From Judg. xi, : xiii) 9j 16. Deut> ^ SG) so often COupled with Aroer? 18, it (i. e. one of its branches N.E. of Arnon) would j Fr(nr the above description of the ravine, it is plain seem to have been also the east border of Moab (sec ■ that that city cannot have been situated immediately also 2 Kings x, 33). In many of the above passages , bclow Aroer) as has been conjectured. it occurs in the formula for the site of Aroer, "which i , , . , „ T . . , .... is by the brink of the river Arnon." In Numbers it Arnoul, bishop of Lisieux, born at the beginning is simply "Arnon," but in Dent, and Joshua general- ! of ^e twelfth centnry, died August 0d i 1183. He ly "the river Arnon" (A. V. sometimes "river of Ar- j mad? fr.ult!e?s em?rt? ,to reconcile King Henry II of non"). Isaiah (xvi, 2) mentions its fords; and in Judg. xi, 26, a word of rare occurrence (~P, hand, comp. Num. xiii, 29) is used for the sides of the stream. In the time of Jerome it was still known as Arnon ; but in the Samarito-Arabic version of the Pentateuch by Abu-Said (10th to 12th century) it is given as el- Mojeb. There can be no doubt that the Wady t l-Mojeb of the present day is the Arnon (Seetzen, Heine, 1854, ii, 347; and in Bitter, Erdk. xv, 1195). The ravine throu.h which it flows is still the "locum vallis in proc- rupta demersse satis horribilem et periculosum" which it was in the days of Jerome (Onom.). The Roman road from Rabba to Dhi! an crosses it at about two England with Archbishop Thomas of Canterbury. In his old age he resigned his bishopric, and retired to the abbey of St. Victor of Paris, where he died. We have from him a volume of epistles, of discourses, and epigrams (Epistoke, Condones, et Epigrammata, pub- lished by Turnebe, Pari?, 1585, 8vo), which contains interesting details on the history of ecclesiastical dis- cipline during his time. He is also the author of some poems, and of an essay on the schism which followed the death of Honorius II (published in the Biblu theca Potium, and the Spiciligivm d'Atkery). — Hoofer, B'o- graphie Generate, iii, 3E3. Arnulphus, St., bishop of Metz. In 609, at the entreaty of his parents, he married, but in 612 his wife hours' distance from the former. On the south edge of the ravine are some ruins called Mehatet el-IIai, and i t0(lk thc vei1 m the monastery of Treves ; and in 014, on the north edge, directlv opposite, those still 1 earing j the ' lshoPnc of Metz becoming vacant, the people m- thfi name of Arair. SeeAROER. Burekhardt was the B1?ted on having Arnulphus for their bishop. As bish- first to give a satisfactory account of this river under j °P hc managed his diocese with rare excellence, and thc name which it now bears. It rises in the moun- ! was made bJ' King Clotaire prime minister of his son tains of Gilead, near Katrane, whence it pursues a cir- | Dagobert, whom he had associated with him in the cuitous course of abou't eighty miles to the Dead Sea. I eniPire- L P01) the death of Clotaire Arnulphus rc- It flows in a rockv bed, and, at the part visited by tircd into a solitude, where he passed the rest of his Burekhardt, in a channel so deep and precipitous as to life in l,ra.VPr and mortification and in every work of appear inaccessible (comp. Seetzen, Monad. Corresp. fll:irity- He dicd m 629 and his relics are preserved xviii, 432) ; vet along this, winding among huge frag- ; in the **>*>*? fli St Arnoul de Metz He is commem- ments of rock, lies the most frequented road, and, be- i orated on the 1Gtb of August.-Baillet t us de Scants, ing not far from Dibon, probably that taken by the ! AuS- 16 ; Landon, Eccl. Duttoi Israelites. The descent into the valley from the south took Ir'oy and Mangles (Letters, p. 461) one hour and Arob. See Fly. A'rod (Ileb. Arod', Ti*i*, perhaps affliction, othcr- a half; the descent from the north took Burekhardt wige a 7r;j,, a^ Sept. Aooom), the sixth son (or branch (Syria, p. 372) thirty-live minutes. The last-named of tJ]e fami]y) of Gad (Num. xxvi) 17). B.C. 1856. traveller declares that he had never felt such suffoca- TT ... , . , . . . ... „ r ,, His descendants (Ileli. Arodi , 1. N) are called .1 ting heat as he experienced in this valley from the ■ concentrated rays of the sun and their reflection from the rocks. The stream is almost dried up in summer; but huge masses of rock, torn from the banks, and de- posited high above the channel, evince its fulness and impetuosity in the rain}' season. Irby and Mangles suppose that it is this which renders the valley of the Arnon less shrubby than that of most other streams in the countn\ "There are, however, a few tama- risks, and here and there are oleanders growing about di (Gen. xlvi, 16, Sept. 'Apor^tig) or Aroditcs (Num. xxvi, 17 ; Sept. 'Apoaci). Arod. See Ass. Ar'odi, A'rodite. See Arod. Ar'oer (Ileb. Aroer', ISilS [once "H"";", Judg. xi, 26], ruins, as in Jer. xlviii, G^'/ieath;" Sept. 'Apuf/p and 'Ap(n)p'), the name of three places 2, "cities of Aroer" are mentioned; In Isa. xvn, hut it should it." On each face of the ravine traces of the paved j rather be translated " ruined cities," as Aroer was not Eoman road are still found, with milestones, and one 1 a metropolis, and the name does not suit the connec- arch of a bridge, 31 feet 6 inches in span, is standing. ' tion (see Gesenius, Comment, in loc). 1 he stream runs through a level strip of grass some 40 i 1. A town " by the brink," or "on thc bank of" Ee AROKR 434 AROMATICS (both the same expression — Heb. "on the lip"), or '.'by," i. e. on the north side of the torrent Arnon (Deut. iv, 48; Judg. xi, 26; 2 Kings x, 33; 1 Chron. v, 8), anil therefore on the southern border of the ter- ritory conquered from Sihon, which was assigned to the tribes of Reuben and Gad (Deut. ii, 36; iii, 12; Josh, xii, 2; xiii, '.•)• The Amorites had previously dispos- sessed the Ammonites of this territorj' ; and although the town seems to be given to Reuben (Josh, xiii, 16), it is mentioned as a Moabitish city by Jeremiah (xlviii, 19). According to Eusebius (Onomast. s. v. 'Apo'qp) it stood "on the brow of the hill." Burckhardt (comp. Macmichael, Journey, p. 212) found the ruins of this town, under the name of Araayr, on the edge of a precipice overlooking Wady Mojeb (Travels in Syria, p. 372). Thej- are also mentioned under the nam 3 Arair in Robinson's Researches (App. to vol. iii, p. 170, and Map). Schwarz places it 15 miles from the Dead Sea (Palest, p. 226). Aroer is always named in conjunc- tion with "the city that is in the midst of the river;" whence Dr. Mansford (Script. Gaz.) conjectures that, like Rabbath Ammon (q. v.), it consisted of two parts, or distinct cities ; the one on the bank of the river, and the other in the valley beneath, surrounded, either naturally or artificially, by the waters of the river. For another explanation, see Arxon. 2. One of the towns "built," or probably rebuilt, by the tribe of Gad (Num. xxxii, 34). It is said in Josh, xiii, 25, to be "before ("'33-'br) Kabbah" [of Ammon] ; but, as Raumer well remarks (Pali stint, p. 249), tliis could not possibly have been in the topo- graphical sense of the words (in which before means east of), seeing that Aroer, as a town on the eastern border of Gad, must have been west of Rabbah ; while to a person in Palestine proper, or coming from the Jordan, Aroer would be before Rabbah in the ordi- dary sense. It is (see Ritter, Erdk. xv, 1130) appar- ently the place discovered by Burckhardt (Syria, p. 335), who, in journeying toward Rabbath Ammon, notices a ruined site, called Ayra, about seven miles south-west from es-Salt ; probably the same with the Array el-Emir visited by Legh (p. 246) on his way from Heshbon to es-Salt (comp. Schwarz, Palest, p. 231). It is also called Air eh in Robinson's Researches (iii, App. p. 169). Aroer of Gad is also mentioned in Judg. xi, 33, and 2 Sam. xxiv, 5, in which latter pas- sage it is stated to have been situated on the "river" (brook) of Gad, i. e. apparently on the Wady Nimrin (and not the Arnon, see Reland, Pahest. p. 583). Keil (Comment, on Josh. p. 339), approved by Van de Velde {Memoir, p. 288), fixes upon Kulat Zeska Gadda, as lying in ,i wady and eist of Rabbah; but the passage in 2 Sam. ("and they passed over Jordan, and pitched in Aroer, on the right side of the city, that lieth in the midst of the river of Gad, and toward Jazer") can only signify [if, indeed, the word nCN, which) do not signify here merely "to wit," or rather be not alto- gether spurious] that the party of Joab encamped just across the Jordan, in the bed of one of the brooks of Gad (the Wady Nimrin), south of Aroer and not far from Jaazer. Jerome speaks of it as Aruir (Euseb. 'Apovii), a village still found on a hill 20 Roman miles south of Jerusalem (Onomast. s. v.); but this, if cor- rect, can only mean south-east. 3. A city in the south of Judah (i. e. in Simeon), to which David sent presents after recovering the spoil of Ziklag (1 Sain, xxx, 26, 28). It appears to have been the native city of two of David's warriors (1 Chron. xi, 4 ! ). At the distance of twenty geograph- ical miles south by west from Hebron, Dr. Robinson (Research, s, ii, (lis) came to a broad wady where there are many pita for water, which are called Ararah, and which gave name to the valley. In the valley and on the western hill are evident traces of an ancient vil- lage or town, consisting only of foundations of unhewn S, now much scattered, but yet sufficiently dis- tinct to mark them as foundations. Small fragments of pottery are also everywhere visible. The same iden' tification is proposed by Schwarz, who calls the place "the modern village Arar, two and a half English miles south of Moladah" (Palest, p. 113). Aroer. See Heath. Ar'oerite (Heb. Aroeri', ^SpS, Sept. 'Apapt), an inhabitant of one of the cities of Aroer, probably that in the tribe of Judah (1 Chron. xi, 44). A'rom ( Ap6/t, prob. interpolated), the name of a man whose descendants (or of a place whose inhabi- tants), to the number of thirty-two, are said to have returned from the Babylonian captivity (1 Esdr. v, 16) ; but the genuine text (Ezra ii, 17, 18) has no cor- responding name, unless it lie a mistake for Asom, and represents the Hashum of Ezra xi, 19. Aromatics (from the Gr. dpojpa, a pleasant smell) is a general term including all those odoriferous sub- stances denoted by several Hebrew words, frequently designated as " spices" in the Auth. Vers., e. g. ahalim ("aloes"), "al/iivy" or "a/gum,'" bedolach ("bdel- lium"), chelbenah (" galbanum"), basam, or balsam, kaneh ("calamus"), ketsioth and Hddah ("cassia"), "cinnamon," lebonah ("frankincense"), lot and mor ("myrrh"), nerd(" spikenard"), natof(u stacte"), tseri ("balm"), shecheleth ("onycha"), also rehach, bosen or besen, sammim, and nelcoth ("spice"), all which see in their alphabetical place, and compare "mint," "rue," "anise," " thyine wood," etc., mentioned in the N. T. It is difficult to determine the exact prod- ucts which the most of the words refer to, but when they are separately noticed, especially when several are enumerated, their names may lead us to their iden- tification. Dr. Vincent has observed that "in Exod. xxx we find an enumeration of cinnamon, cassia, myrrh, frankincense, stacte, onycha, and galbanum, all of which are the produce either of India or Arabia." More correctly, cinnamon, cassia, frankincense, and onycha were probably obtained from India ; myrrh, stacte, and some frankincense, from the east coast of Africa, and galbanum from Persia. More than 1000 years later, or about B.C. 588, in Ezek. xxvii, the chief spices are referred to, with the addition, however, of calamus. They are probably the same as those just enumerated. Dr. Vincent refers chiefly to the Perip'us, ascribed to Arrian, written in the second century, as furnishing a proof that many Indian substances were at that time well known to commerce, as aloe or agila wood, gum bdellium, the googal of India, cassia and cinnamon, nard, costus, incense — that is, olibanum — ginger, pepper, and spices. If we examine the work of Dioscorides, we shall find all these, and several oth- er Indian products, not only mentioned, but described, as schoznanthus, calamus aromaticus cyperns, malaba- thrum, turmeric. Among others, Lycium indicum. is mentioned. This is the extract of barberry root, and is prepared in the Himalayan Mountains (Royle, on the Lycium of Dioscorides, Lineman Trans.). It is not unworthy of notice that we find no mention of several very remarkable products of the East, such as cam- phor, cloves, nutmeg, betel-leaf, cubebs, gamboge, all of which are so peculiar in their nature that we could not have failed to recognise them if they had been de- scribed at all, like those we have enumerated as the produce of India. These omissions are significant of the countries to which commerce and navigation had not extended at the time when the other articles were well known ( Hindoo Medicine, p. 93). If we trace these up to still earlier authors, we shall find many of them mentioned by Theophrastus, and even by Hip- pocrates; and if we trace them downward to the time of the Arabs, and from that to modern times, we find many of them described under their present names in works current throughout the East, and in which their ancient names are given as synonyms. We have, therefore, as much assurance as is possible in such AROPILEUS 435 ARROW cases, that the majority of the substances mentioned by the ancients have been identified ; and that among the spices of early times were included many of those which now form articles of commerce from India to Europe. — Kitto, ii, 787. See Spicery ; Perfume. Arophaeus. See Amariah. Ar'pad (Isa. xxxvi, 19 ; xxxvii, 13) or Ar'phad (Heb. Arpad', IS^X, perhaps a support; but see be- low ; Sept. in 2 Kings 'Apfdc, elsewhere 'AptyaS, in Isa. x, 9 undistinguishable), a Syrian city, having its own king (2 Kings xix, 13; Isa. xxxvii, 13), in the neighborhood of Hamath (2 Kings xviii, 34 ; Isa. x, 9 ; xxxvi, 19) and Damascus (Jer. xlix, 23), with both of which it appears to have been conquered by the As- syrians under Sennacherib. Michaelis and others seek Arphad in Raphanee or Raphaneie of the Greek geog- raphers (Ptol. v, 15; Steph. Byzant. in 'EirKpdvtia ; Joseph. War, vii, 1, 3; vii, 5, 1), which was a day's journey west of Hamath (Mannert, VI, i, 431). Pau- lus {Comment, in Isa. x, 9) thinks it was a city in the neighborhood of the Tigris and Euphrates. Some, however, are content to find this Arphad in the Arpha ('Apfci) which Josephus (War, iii, 3, 5) mentions as situated on the north-eastern frontier of the northern- most province of Herod Agrippa's tetrarehy ; also call- ed A rtha (Ap$a) or A rfa by other ancient writers (Re- land, Palccst. p. 584). But it seems best (with Doder- lein and others) to refer it to the Phoenician island city Arvad or Aradus (q. v.), which was opposite Ha- math (the interchange of £ and 1 being very natural). Arpha. See Arpad. Arphax'ad (Heb. Arpakshad', 'TODB'IX [on the signif. see below] ; Sept. and N. T. 'Apfa^dc, Josephus 'AnSH (chetsi', 1 Sam. xx, 36, 37, 38 ; 2 Kings ix, 24) and "j'^H (chatsats', Psa. lxxvii, 17; elsewhere "gravel"); poetically 7(C^\ (re'sheph, Psa. lxxvi, 31, lightning, as it is elsewhere rendered), and i"HEj3"jSl (ben-ke' sheth, i. e. son of a bow, Job xli, 28). Among the Hebrews arrows were probably at first made of reed, as common among the Egyptians ; subsequently they were made from some light sort of wood, and tip- ped with an iron point. Whether they were ever dip- ped in poison is not clear from Job vi, 4 ; Deut. xxxii, 24. They were often composed, in part at least, of the shrub CPi, ro'them, "juniper," which, being discharged from the bow while on fire, kindled upon the baggage or armament of the enemy (Psa. exx, 4 ; Job xxx, 4). Hence arrows are sometimes put tropically for light- nings (Deut. xxxii, 23, 42; Psa. vii, 13; Zech. ix, 14). Arrows were used in war as well as in hunting (Gen. xxvii, 3; xlvii, 22). See Archer. They were kept in a case called a quiver (q. v.), which was slung over the shoulder in such a position that the soldier could draw them out when needed (Psa. xci, 5 ; exx, 4). See Bow. They were also used in divination (Ezek. xxi, 21). See Divixatiox. The arrows of the ancient Egyptians varied from 22 to 34 inches in length ; some ARROW 436 ARSEXAL Ancient Egyptian reed- i'oiv.-. 1, Hard-wood point; 2, Stone head. were of wood, others of reed ; frequently tipped with a metal head, and winged with three feathers, glued longitudinally, and at equal distances, upon the other Ancient r.j_'vptian Sportsman, with spare Arrows, end of the shaft, as on modern arrows. Sometimes, instead of the metal head, a piece of hard wood was inserted into the reed, which terminated in a long ta- pering point ; but these were of too light and powerless a nature to he employed in war, and could only have been intended for the chase : in others, the place of the metal was supplied by a small piece of flint or oth- er sharp stone, secured by a firm black paste ; and, al- though used occasionally in bat- tle, they appear from the sculp- tures to have belonged more particularly to the huntsman ; while the arrows of archers are generally represented with bronze heads, some barbed, oth- ers triangular, and many with three or four projecting blades, placed at right angles and meet- ing in a common point (Wilkin- son, A nc. Egypt, i, 356). The an- cient Assyrians appear also to have used arrows made of reeds, which were kept in a quiver slung over the back. The barbs Of winch have been discovered among the ruins (Layard, Nineveh, ii, 263). See AR- MOR. The word "arrow" is frequently used as the sym- bol of calamity or disease inflicted by God (Job vi, 4; xxxiv, (i: Psa. xxxviii, 2; Deut. xxxii, 23; comp. Ezek. v, 16; /ech. ix, 11). The metaphor thus ap- plied was also in use among the heathen (Ovid,£p. xvi, 275). It derived its propriety and force from the popular belief that all diseases were immediate and Bpecial inflictions from heaven. Lightnings are. by a very fine figure, described as the arrows of God (Psa xviii. II; cxliv. 6; Habak. iii. 11 . compare Wisd. v, 21 : i' .sam. xxii, 15). "Arrow" is occasionally used to denote some sudden or inevitable danger as in Psa. Xd, 5: "The arrow that llieth by day." ' It is also figurative of any thins; injurious, as a deceitful tongue (Psa. exxix, 4; Jer. ix, 7), a bitter word (Psa. lxiv, 3), a false testimony (Prov. xxv, 18). As symbolical of oral wrong the figure may perhaps have been de- rived from the darting " arrowy tongue" of serpents. The arrow, however, is not always symbolical of evil. In Psa. exxvii, 4, 5, well-conditicned children are com- pared to "arrows in the hands of a mighty man." i. e. instruments of power and action. The arrow is also used in a good sense to denote the efficient and ir- resistible energy of the word of God in the hands of the Messiah (Psa. xlv, 6 ; Isa. xliv, 2 ; comp. Lowth's note thereon). (See AVemyss, Clavis Symbolica, s. v.) Arrow-headed Writing. See Cuneiform In- scriptions. Arrowsmith, John, D.D., a Puritan divine, was born at Newcastle, 1602, and died in 1659. He was educated at Cambridge, became minister at Lynn, and afterward in London. He was a member of the West- minster Assembly, and afterward master of St. John's College and of Trinity College, Cambridge. Of his numerous writings, the most important arc Armilla Catechetica, a chain of theological aphorisms (Cambr. 1659, 4to: — Tactica Sacra, de mil it e spirit uali pugnante, vincente et triumpkanti, dissertatio (Cantab. 1657, 4to). See Brook, Lives of the Puritans, iii, 315 ; Neal, Histo- ry of the Puritans, iii, 115 ; Allibone, Dictionary of Au- thors, i, 71. Ar'saces ( Apovkj/c, prob. of Persian or Armenian origin, Pott, Etymol. Forschungen, ii, 172), the name of the founder of the Parthian empire (Justin, xli, ft, 5), and hence borne by his successors, the Arsacidae (see Smith's Did. of Class. Biog. s. v.). The nama occurs in the Apocrypha (1 Mace, xiv, 2, 3; xv, 22) as that of the king of Parthia and Media (Diod. Sic. Excerpt, p. 597. ed. Wessel), B.C. 138. The Syrian king Demetrius (II) Nicator, having invaded his coun- try, at first obtained several advantages. Media de- clared for him, and the Elymseans, Persians, and Bae- trians joined him : but Arsaccs having sent one of his officers to him, under pretence of treating for peace, he. fell into an ambuscade, his army was cut off by the Persians, and he himself fell into the hands of Arsaces (Josephus, Ant. xiii, 5, 11). As Arsaces is the com- mon name of all the Parthian kings (Strabo, xv, 702), and of many Armenian (see Kosegarten in the Hall. Encyclop. v, 408 sq.), the one here intended is probably Arsaces VI, properly named Mithridates (or Phraates) I, a prince of distinguished bravery, who conquered Bactria, penetrated India, reduced the Medes and Per- sians, and greatly improved the condition of the Par- thian empire (Justin, xxxvi, 1 ; xxxviii, 9; xli, 6, Oros. v, 4 ; Strabo, xi, 516, 517, 524 sq.). Mithridates VI of Parthia. treated his prisoner Demetrius with respect, and gave him his daughter in marriage (App. Syr. 67), but kept him in confinement till his own death, cir. B.C. 130 (App. Syr. 68; Diod. ap. Miiller, Fragm. Hist, ii, ID). The reference to him in the Maccabees is, however, somewhat confused (see Wernsdorf, De fide Maccab. p. 175). Ar'sareth (Lat. Arsareth, for the Greek text is not extant), a region beyond the Euphrates, apparent- ly of great extent if the fanciful passage (2 [Vulg. 4] Esdr. xiii, 15) where alone it occurs can be relied upon as historical. Arsenal. The ancient Hebrews had each man his own arms, because all went to the wars ; the3* had ARSENIUS 437 ART no arsenals or magazines of arms, because they had no regular troops or soldiers in constant pay. See Army. There were no arsenals in Israel till the reigns of Da- vid and Solomon. See Armor. David made a large collection of arms and consecrated them to the Lord in his tabernacle (1 Sam. xxi, 9 ; 2 Sam. viii, 7-12; 1 Chron. xxvi, 26, 27). The high-priest Jehoiada took them out of the treasury of the temple to arm the peo- ple and Levites on the day of the young king Joash's elevation to the throne (2 Chron. xxiii, 9). Solomon collected a great quantity of arms in his palace of the forest of Lebanon, and established well-provided arse- nals in all the cities of Judah, which he fortified (2 Chron. xi, 12). He sometimes compelled the con- quered and tributary people to forge arms for him (1 Kings x, 25). Uzziah not only furnished his arsenals with spears, helmets, shields, cuirasses, swords, bows, and slinks, but also with such machines as were proper for sieges (2 Chron. xxvi, 14, 15). Hezekiah had the same precaution ; he also made stores of arms of all sorts (see 2 Chron. xxxii, 5 ; comp. 2 Kings xx, 13). Jonathan and Simon Maccabseus had arsenals stored with good arms; not only such as had been taken from their enemies, but others which they had pur- chased or commissioned to be forged for them (1 Mace. x, 21 ; xiv, 23, 42 ; 2 Mace, viii, 27 ; xv, 21). See Armory. Arsenius, an anchoret, born at Rome in 350 ; died in 445. While a deacon of the Church of Rome, he was chosen, in 38:>, by Pope Damasus as tutor of Ar- cadius, the elder son of Theodosius. As Arsenius did not succeed in the education of this prince, he quitted the court, and penetrated into the desert of Said (The- bais), where he remained until his death. Arsenius is commemorated in the Roman martyrology on July 19 (Hoefer, Biograph'e Generate, ii, 3G9). Arsenius, Antorianus, head of a monastery in Nicea, afterward a hermit on Mt. Athos. He was ap- pointed Greek patriarch about 1255, and ordained dea- con, priest, and patriarch in the same week. On the death of Th. Lascaris II he was charged with the tu- telage of his son John. Michael Palaioiogus, aiming at the sole authority, put out the ej-es of the young prince, and Arsenius excommunicated him, and re- fused to remit the sentence unless he would abdicate in favor of the legitimate heir. Palseologus refused. Arsenius remaining firm, a synod held in Constanti- nople, 12(34, deposed him. He died on an island in the Propontis in 1207. Here he wrote his Eccleshe dnecv Monumenta (Paris, 1081, 4 to) ; and aim Synopsis Dlcl- norum Cctnonum, published in Justellus's Bibliotheca Jur. Canon, vol*, ii (Paris, 1601). — Cave, Hist. Lit. anno 1255. Arsenius of Elasso, a dignitary of the Greek Church, lived toward the close of the 17th century. He is the author of a "History of the Variations of the Greek Church." From the introduction of Chris- tianity into Russia (992) until 1587, this church was governed by metropolitans dependent upon foreign patriarchs. In 1587, Job, the first Russian patriarch, was consecrated by Jeremiah II, patriarch of Constan- tinople ; and this form of ecclesiastical government continued until 1700, when the Czar put himself at the head of the Russian Church. The details which Arse- nius gives us on these "variations in the Greek Church" have been printed in 1749, in the first part of the Catalogue of Manuscripts of Turin. A Latin translation was given in 1820 I y Wiehmann, in his Sammlung hleiner Schrifien. — Hoefer, Biographic Uni- verselle, iii, 370. Arsuf. See Apoli.onia. Art, Sacred. — Art is the embodiment of aesthetic feeling in human productions. The Fine Arts — or the different methods of this embodiment — are classified into two grand divisions : (1) those that reach the soul through the channel of the eye, termed the formative arts (in German, the bildende Kilnsle) ; and (2) those that reach the soul through the channel of the ear (termed in German the redende Kiinste, but for which we have no appropriate word in English). To the for- mer belong architecture, sculpture, painting, engraving, etc. ; to the latter, music, poetry, and oratory. The applied arts are those in which the ornamentation is I applied to productions that are not, in their primary purpose, works of art. In all nations, and in all ages of the world, the emotions of the human soul have sought expression in aesthetic or artistic forms. Espe- cially has this been the case with the highest emotions of the heart — the religious. In return, the propaga- tors of all religions have availed themselves of aesthet- ic forms and modes of presenting their doctrines and creeds to the consciences and hearts of men ; some em- ploying all the fine arts, others only a part of them. Thus has been developed religious art, both pagan and sacred. Sacred art, or that of revealed religion, divides itself into (1) Jewish and (2) Christian. I. Jewish. — Under the Old-Testament covenant, the arts of architecture, music, poetry, dancing (and, to a limited degree, sculpture and the applied arts), were used in the worship of God. For Architecture, Mu- sic, and Poetry, see the separate articles, as in this article we treat of art mostly in its restricted, popular signification, embracing only the formative arts of painting and sculpture. That the second command- ment was not intended to prohibit the making of all artistic representations, as is often supposed, but that it referred to the mak'ng and worshipping of idols, is shown by the fact that Moses himself had images of cherubim made for the service of the tabernacle, and that in the Temple of Solomon the cherubim retained their place over the mercy-seat, and the molten sea rested upon twelve oxen, and the base of the sea was adorned with figures of cherubim, oxen, and lions, while carvings of cherubim, palms, and tiowers cov- ered many of the doors, pillars, and walls of the inte- rior of the temple. The golden candlestick was also adorned with knops of flowers, and the garments of the priests were richly embroidered. In short, no pains were spared to make the temple glorious, not only by its rich and gorgeous construction, but also by its truly aesthetic character. See Arts, Jewish (below). II. Christian. — 1. First Period (1st to 4th centuries). — The earliest Christians made use, in their service, : of only the arts of music, poetry, and oratory. In the second and third centuries they availed themselves of painting and sculpture in their retired places of wor- ship and burial in the catacombs. As the societies increased in numbers and wealth, and, by the cessa- tion of persecution, were permitted to build churches above-ground, and more especially on Christianity be- ing declared the religion of the state, architecture was used, and soon, in its most impressive forms, gave dig- nity and attractiveness to the house of God. The first period of Christian, as of all other arts, was one of symbolism. The letters X p and A 10 were placed en the tombs and the vessels of the sanctuary. Then appeared the mystical word i'x^i'C. afterward repre- sented by a fish carved and painted. See Ichthus. Christ was introduced as the Good Shepherd, etc. See Christ, Images of. The parables of the New Testa- ment were introduced with parallel scenes or subjects from the Old Testament, evincing a deep feeling for scriptural typos and allegory. Plants and animals were used symbolically, and symbols of Christian doc- trine and life were drawn from the pagan mythology of the Greeks and Romans. A study of the doctrine, customs, and spirit of the early church, as shown in its monuments of art, is a most useful complement to the stud}' of the writings of its great minds. See Archae- ology. The composition and execution of the paint- ings and sculptures in the catacombs are far superior to those of the immediately succeeding ages; but the ART 438 ART artists lived among the finest works of Greek and Bo- 1 man art, and drew from them their technical knowl- edge. At the same time, they, were inspired by the deep emotions of the new Christian faith. 2. Second Period (4th to 12th centuries).— As church edifices were erected, the arts that had sprung up in the catacombs were transplanted to the stately house of God, and, though subordinate to the architecture, were developed into styles consistent with their mon- umental character and use, but not without remon- strance from some of the synods. See Iconoclast. Mosaic painting gradually supplanted the fresco style, and in the Byzantine churches was applied with all the splendor of the Oriental fancy. The Greek Church permitted no sculpture in its edifices of worship, but it developed a style of painting marked, in its best peri- ods, by the dignity of its composition, the grandeur of the outlines, and the expressiveness of its figures and the brilliancy of its colors. Later, the composi- tion of the mystic cycluses of painting that adorned the walls of the churches, and even of the altar-pieces, was prescribed by the theologians; the colors to be used had their symbolical doctrinal significance, and were also prescribed. This led to the stiffness of drawing, and the deadness of all art-feeling, that marks the Byzantine school after the eighth century. In the Western Church painting and sculpture rap- idly sank to a most degraded technical condition. Among the most important works of the period are the mosaic paintings of Ravenna and Borne, and the bronze doors of Amain and Verona. Both in its tech- nical knowledge, and in the rules of its composition, the Byzantine school influenced the arts, not only of Italy, but of all Europe, especially that of South France. 3. Third Period (12th to lGth centuries).— The ex- traordinary activity of the twelfth century in Europe extended to every department of life, and gave a great impulse to the fine arts, as a means in the hands of the church to teach its doctrines. The purest religious feeling still animated the artists, who, for piety of life, were often reckoned superior to many of the priests or other persons in holy orders. Indeed the artists often were themselves of the holy orders. Gradually (first in Tuscany) the sombre color, the formal composition and stiffness of figure of the decadent Byzantine style, gave way to better drawing, freer treatment, and bril- liant coloring. In short, Christian art, for religious character and technical merits, reached its highest cli- max under such artists as Cimabue, Giotto, Orcagna, and Fra Angelico. In Italy fresco painting kept its predominance in the church edifice, and largely modi- lied the architecture. In other parts of Europe, espe- cially during the Gothic period, sculpture gained a large predominance over painting, and was confined mostly to adorning the windows with biblical scenes and subjects. The progress in sculpture was perhaps more tardy than that of painting. Its first works of excellence were carvings in ivory on vessels of the. sanctuary (often of complicate composition). The doors, doorways, columns, pulpits, altars, and baptis- mal fonts were covered with bronze or marble works, often of great merit. Giotto and the Bisanos (13th century) marked the first great epoch of progress in sculpture, and introduced a perfection of composition and execution hardly excelled in later times, and nev- er Burpassed for religious spirit. During the Gothic period of architecture schools of sculpture grew up in most countries of Europe, and sculpture was profusely distributed in every part of the church edifice, especially in the exterior. •1. Fourth Period (16th to 19th centuries).— The in- troduction of the use of oil in painting, the invention of chiaroscuro, the growing devotion of the age to classicism, the decadence of Christian life in the church, all contributed to change the character of Christian art. What was gained in technical knowledge was lost in inspiration. After the sublime compositions of the massive genius of Michael Angelo in the Sistine Chapel and the Transfiguration by Raphael, religious art fell from its pure character of the preceding cen- tury into a depth of sensuousness and extravagance. For the next century, what then existed that was no- ble in art was to be sought mostty north of the Alps. During the eighteenth century an almost entire blank marks the history of religious art. 5. Fifth Ptriod (19th century). — At the beginning of this century art had sunk (like the society of the age) to the lowest sensuousness, and was separated almost entirely from its divine mission. Overbeck, Cornelius, and Schnorr, in Germany, tried to stem the tide, and return art to the mission it filled from the second to the fifteenth centuries. Their labors were seconded later by such artists as Ary Schcffer and Flandrin in France, and Hohnan Hunt, and Millais in England. The Cyclus of Revelation, now being pre- pared by Cornelius at Berlin, is perhaps the most com- plete work of Christian art ever undertaken. Sculp- ture has not been imbued as much as painting with the religious feeling of its earlier histoiy. 6. Protestant A rt. — The Roman Church has always availed itself of all the fine arts in its worship. Ihe Frotestant Church in Germany, while cutting away every work of Roman tendency, has always retained a free use of the arts of painting and sculpture, which were rejected by the Reformers in England and Hol- land as inherently Popish in nature and tendency, and as opposed to the second commandment. Ameri- ca has inherited this feeling from the two countries (Holland and England) from which she was colonized. The art of engraving, however, is freely used in loth countries to illustrate religious books and periodicals, and even the Bible itself, though the same work would give offence if painted upon the walls of a church. In the Church of England there is a strong tendency to return to the use of sculpture and painting in fill- ing up the walls of the cathedral and other churches. 7. The history of religious art has recently been studied with great zeal. In the Roman Church gen- erally the opinion prevails that a return to the art of the Middle Ages, and that alone, can bring back the golden ape of art. Art associations are especially nu- merous in France and Germany, the literature on re- ligious art is becoming veiy extensive, and periodi- cals exclusively devoted to it have been established in both countries. The Protestant churches of Germain' are generally in favor of making a more extended use of art for religious purposes than has been the case heretofore. The church diet of Elberfeld, in 1851, discussed the question of Protestant Art Unions, and in 1853 several evangelical societies were established, In 1858, a paper (Christliches Kunstblatf) devoted to the ; cultivation of religious art from a Protestant point of view was established by Schnaase, the author of the best "History of Plastic Art," in connection with Schnorr von Karolsfeld, the director of the art-gallery i in Dresden, ar.d Gruneisen, court preacher at Stutt- gardt. 8. Literature. — The best work on the history of Christian art, though not extending over the entire field, is Schnaase, Geschichte der bildenden Kimstc (Dusseldorf, 1844-G6). Other works: Kiipler, Hand- l)in h der Ktmsfgeschichie (Stuttgardt, 3d ed. 1855; Eng- lish translation [partial] in Bohn's librarj*, Historical Manual if Sculpt., Paint., Arind Symbolik der t'hristlii hi v Kvnxt (Weimar, 1851 66); Mrs. Jameson; Lit/end* ,f Chris- tian Art. i le. (Host. 1866); Wornum, Epochs of Paint- fag (London, 1865); Jarves, Art Studies (N. Y. 18G1). ART 439 ARTAXERXES ARTS, Jewish (nb"*2, maiiseh', work, as elsewhere rendered), Exod. xxx, 25 ; 2 Chron. xvi, 14 (t:-xi'>1, elsewhere "craft," "occupation"), Acts xvil, 29; Wisd. xiv, 4; xvii, 7 (ipyov, "work"), Eeclus. xlix, 1 (TToaomo, to do, "practise"), Acts xix, 19. (See Cleghorn, Hist, of Anc. and Mod. Art, Edinb. 1848; Rochette, Lectures on Anc. Art, Lond. 1854; Gugler. Kunst der Hebraer, Landshut, 1G14; De Saulcy, Hist, de VArt Judaique, Par. 1858.) See Artificer. The rudiments of the arts, which are now among civilized nations brought to such an admirable state of perfection, exist also among the rudest nations, whence we infer that they must have originated part- ly in necessity and parti}' in accident. At first their processes were doubtless very imperfect and very lim- ited; but the inquisitive and active mind of man, im- pelled by his wants, soon enlarged and improved them. Accordingly, in the fourth generation from Adam, we find mention made of " Tubal-Cain, an instructor of every artificer in brass and iron ;" and also of Jubal, as " the father of all such as handle the harp and or- gan;" but in the fragments of antediluvian history preserved by Moses, there is nothing more explicit on this subject, as the book of Genesis appears to be de- signed chiefly as an introduction to the history of the Mosaic legislation. See Antediluvians. The first man undoubtedly kept his children and other descend- ants about him as long as possible, and exercised pa- ternal authority over them. Cain was the first who separated from his father's society, and he was im- pelled to this step through fear of punishment for the murder of his brother. In the course of time various motives, such as a desire to obtain land for cultivation or pasturage for cattle, might induce others to follow his example. Thus there arose separate families, which wrere governed by their own patriarchs. When families had increased to tribes and nations, we find that men were engaged in agriculture and in the im- provement of the arts. (See Kitto's Daily Bible Illus- trations, 1st series, 4th week, Sat.) The family of Noah preserved the knowledge of the first principles of civil society and of the infant arts which had exist- ed before the Deluge, and as early as the time of Jacob it appears that the laboring class comprehended hus- bandmen, mechanics, artists, and merchants. E-iypt, in the early ages of the world, excelled all other na- tions in a knowledge of the arts, as may be sufficient- ly proved by the extraordinary magnitude and per- manency of the Egyptian monuments, the magnificent temples dedicated to their gods, and the splendid obe- lisks erected in honor of their kings. The learning of the Egyptians has been made known to us by the sa- cred historian. By this record we have been taught to believe in the wisdom of this ancient people, and to feel astonishment at the nature of their institutions, the extent of their learning, and the perfection they had attained in the arts at so early a period. Moses, it is true, did not enact any special laws in favor of the arts among the Hebrews, nor did he interdict or endeavor to lessen them in the estimation of the peo- ple, but, on the contrary, speaks in praise of artificers (Exod. xxxv, 30, 35). The descendants of Jacob hav- ing lived on terms of amity with their neighbors of Mizraim, "until another king arose who knew not Joseph," they undoubtedly borrowed from them many of their instruments of agriculture, of commerce, and of luxury, and as the artists of Esrypt descended to depict the minutest particulars of their household ar- rangements, and every circumstance connected with their national habits and observances was faithfully represented, we have the means of forming a judgment respecting the aits and usages which prevailed among the Hebrews. See Egypt. No one can pretend to doubt that the scriptural narrative is singularly illus- trated and confirmed by the monuments. A rich vein of illustration is thus opened by comparing the various processes depicted oil those monuments with the state- ments scattered throughout the inspired records, more especially the numerous metaphors employed by the prophets in relation to many of these arts and manu- factures ; and we shall, therefore, in the order of the alphabetical series, give descriptive particulars of the various arts as practised among the Egyptians, presum- ing that those subsequently practised by the Hebrews differed but little from them. See Carpenter. Soon after the death of Joshua a place was expressly allotted by Joab to artificers ; it was called the valley of craftsmen, C^'jiri 5t",5> (1 Chron. iv, 14; comp.Neh. xi, 35). See Craftsman. About this time mention is also made of artificers in gold and silver (Judg. xvii, 3, 5). See Metal. Some of the less complicated in- struments used in agriculture ever}' one made for him- self. The women spun, wove, and embroidered ; they made clothing, not only for their families, but for sale (Exod. xxxv, 25). See Woman. Artificers among the Hebrews wrere not, as among the Greeks and Ro- mans, servants and slaves, but men of some rank, and as luxury increased, they became very numerous (Jer. xxiv, 1 ; xxix, 2). See Handicraft. In the time of David and Solomon there were Israelites who un- derstood the construction of temples and palaces, but they were still inferior to the Tynans, from whom they were willing to receive instruction (1 Chron. xiv, 1 ; xxii, 15). See Architecture. During the cap- tivity many of the Hebrews applied themselves to the arts and merchandise ; and subsequently, when they were scattered abroad among different nations, a knowl- edge of the arts became so popular that the Talmud- ists taught that all parents should have their children instructed in some art or handicraft. They mention many learned men of their nation who practised some kind of manual labor, or, as we should term it, fol- lowed some trade ; and we find the cb-cumstance fre- quently alluded to in the New Testament (Matt, xiii, 55 ; Acts ix, 43 ; 2 Tim. iv, 14, etc.). The Jews, like other nations of their time, reckoned certain trades in- famous ; among these, the Rabbins classed the drivers of asses and camels, barbers, sailors, shepherds, and inn-keepers, placing them on a level with robbers. See Publican. The more eminent Greek tradesmen in the apostolic age were united, it appears, in a sort of corporation or society (Acts xix, 25), and such was probably the case with the Jews also. See Mechanic. Artaba (Anrafttj), a dry measure used by the Babylonians (Herod, i, 192), containing seventy-two sextarii according to Epiphanius (de Pondcrib. et Mens.) and Isidore of Seville (lib. xvi, Origen) ; or, according to Dr. Arbuthnot's tables, one bushel, one gallon, and one pint, allowing, with him, four pecks I and six pints to the medimnus, and one pint to the choenix (for it was equal to 1 medininus + 2 choe- nices). It is found only in the apocryphal Daniel, or Dan. xiv, 3,Vulg. (Au'tb. Vers, "measure," Bel, ver. 3). See Measure. Artaxer'xes, the Greek form (Apratfr,£j;c) of the name, or rather title, of several Persian kings (on each of which see fully in Smith's Diet, of Class. Biop. s. v.), and applied in the Auth. Vers, to several of them occurring in the 0. T. The Hebrew form (Ar- tachshast', XPprnn-iX, Ezra vii, 1, 7; or Artach- shasht', Xrir'w'nniX, Ezra iv, 8, 11, 2G; vi, 14; once Artachshash'tu', XtT^'rHP-lX, Ezraiv, 7 ; Sept. 'AnSa- oarjSa) is a slight corruption of irrnr-X, which letters De Sacy has deciphered in the inscriptions of Nakshi Rustam, and which he vocalizes Artahshetr (An'io. d. I. Perse, p. 100). C.esenius pronounces them Artackshdtr; and, by assuming the easy change of r into ,t, and the transposition of the s, makes Artach- sbast very closely represent its prototype (Tkes. Heb. p. 155). The word is a compound, the tir?t element of which, urta— found in several Persian names— is gen- erallv admitted to mean great; the latter part being ARTAXERXES 440 ARTAXERXES the Zend Ihshethro, Jang (Lassen, in the Zeitseh. zur\A); but Bertholdt (Einhit. iii, 1014) shows that ttie age Kvnde d. Morgenl. vi, 161 sqA Thus the sense of I of Eliashib (q. v.) will not allow this (eomp. Neh. iii, (jruil warrior (juyag apr)iov), which Herodotus (vi, 98) , 1, with xii, 1, 10); for Eliashib, Avho was high-priest assigned to the Greek form Artaxerxes, accords with j when Nehemiah reached Jerusalem (Neh. iii, ]), i. c. that which etymology (see Lassen, Keilschrift, p. 30) j on this last supposition, B.C. 365, was grandson of discovers in the original Persian title (particularly Jeshua (Neh. xii, 10), high-priest in the time of Zerub- whcn we consider that as the king could only be ! babel (Ezra iii, 2), B.C. 535. We cannot think that the chosen from the soldier-caste — from the Kshatriyas — ' grandfather and grandson were separated by an inter- warrior and king are so far cognate terms) ; although j val of 150 years. Besides, as Ezra and Nehemiah Pott, according to his etymology of Xirxes, takes Ar- were contemporaries (Neh. viii, 9), this theory trans- taxerxes to be more than equivalent to Artachshatr — fers the whole history contained in Ezra vii, ad fin., to be "magnus regum rex" (Etym. Forsik. i, p. lxvii). j and Nehemiah to this date, and it is hard to believe See Cuneiform Inscriptions; Hieroglyphics. \ that in this critical period of Jewish annals there are no events recorded between the reigns of Darius Hys- Cuneiform. Hieroglyphic. ^^^Kdir^Tn^ Ancient Assyrian and Egyptian furn 1. The Persian king who, at the instigation of the taspis (Ezra vi) and Artaxerxes Mnemon. As already observed, there are again some who maintain that as Darius Hystaspis is the king in the sixth chapter of Ezra, the king mentioned next after him, at the be- ginning of the seventh, must be Xerxes, and thus they distinguish three Persian kings called Artaxerxes in d sh sh s , the old Testament, (1) Smerdis in Ezra iv, (2) Xerxes ! of the name Artaxerxes. ;„ Ezra v;i) an(j ($) Artaxerxes Longimanus in Nehe- miah. But (in addition to the arguments above) it is adversaries of the Jews,'obstr"ucted the"rebunding"of almost demonstrable that Xerxes is the Ahasuerus of the Temple, from his time to that of Darius, king of the ' ook of Estllcr [>ee Ahasuerus], and it is hard Persia (Ezra iv, 7-24). The monarch here referred to i to SUPP0SC that l,esldes .his ordl»ary name he would is probablv (see Ahasuerus) not Cambyses (as Jose- , h:,ve been called Loth Ahasuerus and Artaxerxes in phus says, Ant. xi, 2, 1), but the immediate predecessor i the °- T; Jt seems» ^ ^ probable that the policy of Darius Hvstaspis, and can be no other than the Ma- °f ^eh-.» was a continuation and renewal ot that of dan impostor Smerdis (Voftc), who ssized on the F*? "$ . * "T^ king was the author of throne B.C. 522, and was murdered after a usurpation ! ,!0tn- ^ow jtT ls n0* Possible for Xerxes to be the Ar- of less than eight months (Herod, iii, 61-78). Profane | taxerxes of Nehemiah, as Josephus asserts (Ant xi, historians, indeed, have not mentioned him under the 5- fl), for Xerxes only reigned 21 years whereas Ne- title of Artaxerxes; but neither do Herodotus and hemiah (xni, 6) speaks of the 32d year of Artaxerxes. Justin (the latter of whom calls him Oropastes, i, 9) N<,r ? * necessary to believe that the book of Ezra is agree in his name (see Bertheau, Gesch, d. Jsr. p. 397). a stnctly continuous history. It is evident from the first words of eh. vn that there is a pause at the end of ch. vi. Indeed, as ch. vi concludes in the Gth year See Smerdis. 2. As to the second Artaxerxes, in the seventh year of whose reign Ezra led a second colon}- of the Jewish exiles back to Jerusalem (Ezra vii, 1 ?q. ), the opinions are divided 1 etween Xerxes (with Michaelis in loc. ; Jahn, Einl. II, i, 270; Arckuol. II, i, 259; De Wette, Einl. § 195, and others) and his son Artaxerxes Lnnrji- mcmw (so II. Michaelis; Offerhaus; Eichhorn, Einl. iii, 697; Bertholdt, Einl. iii, 989; Gesenius, Thesanr. p. 150: Kleinert, in the Dorpat. Beitr. i, 1; Keil, Chron. p. 103; Archinard, Chronology, p. 128, and many others). Josephus (Ant. xi, 5, 6) calls him Xerxes; but, from various considerations (chiefly that because the first portion of the book of Ezra relates to Darius Hystaspis, it does not follow that the next king spoken of must be his successor Xerxes; that Nehemiah's a! - sence of twelve years is ample to allow the confusion in the infant colony under the merely moral sway of Ezra ; and that Josephus likewise confounds the Ar- taxerxes of Nehemiah with Xerxes, while the author of the apocryphal version of Esdras [1 Esdr. ii, 17; vii, 4 ; viii, 8] correctly calls both these kings Arta name, moreov of Darius, and ch. vii begins with the 7th year of Ar- taxerxes, we cannot even believe the latter king to be Xerxes without assuming an interval of 36 years (B.C. 516-479) between the chapters, and it is not more dif- ficult to imagine one of 50, which will cany us to B.C. 459, the 7th year of Artaxerxes Longimanus. We conclude, therefore, that this is the king of Persia un- der whom both Ezra and Nehemiah carried on their work ; that in B.C. 457 he sent Ezra to Jerusalem ; that after 13 years it became evident that a civil as well as an ecclesiastical head was required for the new settlement, and therefore that in 446 he allowed Nehe- miah to go up in the latter capacity. From the testi- mony of profane historians, this king appears remark- able among Persian monarchs for wisdom and right feeling, and with this character his conduct to the Jews coincides (Diod. xi, 71). Artaxerxes I, surnamed Longimanus (Gr. Mo- ki>i\hi), long-handed), from the circumstance that his right hand was longer than his left (Plutarch, Artax. Xerxes, a name, moreover, more like the Heb. form, 1), was king of Persia for forty years, B.C. 465-425 and in that case not conflicting with the distinctive [strictly 406-425] (Diod. xi, 09 ; xii, 04; Time, iv, 50). title <>f Xerxes in Esther), it is nearly certain that (as He ascended the throne after his father, Xerxes I. had in Syncell. Chron. p. 251) lie is the same with the third been murdered by Artabanus, and after he bad him- Artaxerxes, the Persian king who, in the twentieth self put to death his own brother Darius, at the insti- ycar of his reign, considerately allowed Nehemiah to gation of Artabanus (Justin, iii, 1 ; Ctesias ap. Phot. go to Jerusalem for the furtherance of purely national Eibl. p. 40, o, ed. Bekk.). His reign is characterized objects, invested him with the government of his own (I'lut. nt sup.) as wise and temperate, but it was dis- people, and allowed biin to remain there for twelve turhed by several dangerous insurrections of the sa- yeare I Sok of Kings, The Second Book of Kings, The First Book of Chronicles, The Second Book of Chronicles, The Book of Kzra, The Book of Nehemiah, The Book of Ksther, The Book of Job, The Psalms, The Proverbs, l'.c.clesiastes, or the Preacher, Cantica, or Songs of Solomon, Four prophets the greater, Twelve Prophets the less; all the books of the New Testa- ment, as they are commonly received, we do receive and ac- count canonical. VI. Of the Old Testament The Old Testament is not con- trary to the New; for both in the Old and New Testament everlasting life is offered to mankind by Christ, who is the only Mediator between God and man, b ing both God and man. Wherefore they are not to be heard who feign that the old fathers did look only for transitory promises. Although the law given from God by Moses, as touching ceremonies and rites, doth not bind Christians, nor ought the civil precepts thereof of necessity be received in any commonwealth ; yet, notwithstanding, no Christian whatsoever is fn e from the obedience of the commandments which are called moral. VII. Of Original or Birth Sin — Original sin standeth not in the following of Adam (as the Pelagians do vainly talk), but it is the corruption of the nature of every man, that nat- urally is engendered of the offspring of Adam, whereby man is very far gone from original righteousness, and of his own nature inclined to evil, and that continually. VIII. Of Free Will.— The condition of man after the fall of Adam is such, that he cannot turn and prepare himself, by his own natural strength and works, to faith, and calling upon God; wherefore we have no power to do good works pleasant and acceptable to God, without the grace of God by ( 'hrist preventing us, that we may have a good will, and working with us when we have that good will. IX. Of the Justification of Man — We are accounted right- eous before God only for the merit of our Ford and Saviour Jesus Christ by faith, and not for our own works or desei v- ings. Wherefore, that we are justified by faith only, is a most wholesome doctrine, and very full of comfort. X. Of Good Works — Although good works, which are the fruits of faith, and follow after justification, cannot put away our Bins and endure the severity of God's judgments, yet are they pleasing and acceptable to Cod in Christ, and spring out of a true and lively faith, insomuch that by them a lively faith may be as evidently known as a tree is discerned by its" fruit XI. Of Wmks of Supererogation.— Xoluntarv works, be- sides over and above (rod's commandments, which are called works of supererogation, cannot be taught without arrogancy and impiety. For by them men do declare that they do not only render unto God as much as they are bound to do, but that they do more for his sake than of bounden duty is re- quir.'d; whereas Christ saitli plainly, When ye have done all that is commanded you, say, We are unprofitable servants. XII. Of Sin after Justification.— Not every sin willingly committed after justification is the sin against the Holy Ghost, and unpardonable. Wherefore, the -rant of rep ntanee is not to be denied to such as fall into sin after justification ; utter we have received the Holy Ghost, we may depart from grace given and fall into sin, and, by the grace of Cod, rise again and amend our lives. And therefore they are to be con- demned who say they can no more sin as long as thev live here, or deny the place of forgiveness to such as truly repent. XIII. Of the Church — The visible Church of Christ is a congregation of faithful men, in which the pure Word of Gol is preached, and the sacraments duly administered, according to Christ's ordinance, in all those things that of necessity are requisite to the same. XIV. Of Purgatory. — The Romish doctrine concerning pur- gatory, pardon, worshipping, and adoration, as well of images as of relics, and also invocation of saints, is a fond thing, vainly invented, and grounded upon no warrant of Scripture, but repugnant to the Word of God. XV. Of speaking in the Congregation in swh a Tongue as the People understand — It is' a thing plainly repugnant to the Word of God, and the custom of the primitive church, to have public prayer in the church, or to minister the sacra- ments in a tongue not understood by the people. XVI. Of the Sacraments.— Sacraments ordained of Christ ! are not only badges or tokens of Christian men's profession, but, rather, they are certain signs of grace, and God's good will toward us, by the which he doth work invisibly in us, and doth not only quicken, but also strengthen and confirm our faith in him. There are two sacraments ordained of Christ our Lord in the Gospel ; that is to say, Baptism and the Supper of the Lord. Those five commonly called sacraments, that is to say, con- firmation, penance, orders, matrimony, and extreme unction, j are i.otto be counted for sacraments of the Go-pel, being such as have partly grown out of the corrupt following of the apos- tles, and partly are states of life allowed in the Scriptures, but | yet have not the like nature of Baptism and the Lord's Sup- per, because they have not any visible sign or ceremony or- dained of God. I The sacraments were not ordained of Christ to be gazed [ upon or to be carried about, but that we should duly use them. And in such only as worthily receive the same, they have a whop, some effect or operation; but they that receive them un- worthily purchase to themselves condemnation, as St. Paul saith, 1 Cor. xi, 29. XVII. Of llajitism. — Baptism is not only a sign of profes- sion and mark of difference whereby Christians are distin- guished from others that are not baptized, but it is also a sign of regeneration, or the new birth. The baptism of young chil- dren is to be retained in the church. XVIII. Of the Lord's Supper.— The Supper of the Lord is not only a sign of the love that Christians ought to have among themselves one to another, but rather is a sacrament of our redemption by Christ's death ; insomuch that, to such as rightly, worthily, and with faith receive the same, the bread which we break is a partaking of the body of Christ, and likewise the cup of blessing is a partaking of the blood of Christ. Transubstantiation, or the change of the substance of bread and wine in the Supper of our Lord, cannot be proved by Holy Writ, but is repugnant to the plain words of Scripture, over- throweth the nature of a sacrament, and hath given occasion to many superstitions. The body of Christ i-< given, taken, and eaten in the Sup- per only after a heavenly and spiritual manner; and the means whereby the body of Christ is received and eaten in the Supper is faith. The sacrament of the Lord's Supper was not by Christ's or- dinance reserved, carried about, lifted up, or worshipped. XIX. Of both Kind*.— The cup of the Lord is not to be de- nied to the lay people; for both the parts of the Lord's Supper, by Christ's ordinance and commandment, ought to be admin- istered to all Christians alike. NX. Of lite one Oblation of Christ, finished uj.on the Cross. — The offering of Christ, once made, is that perfect redemp- tion, propitiation, and satisfaction for .all the sins of the whole world, both original and actual; ami there is none other sat- isfaction for sin but that alone. Wherefore the sacrifice of masses, in the which it is commonly said that the prie t doth offer Christ for the quick ami the dead, to have remission of pain or guilt, is a blasphemous fable and dangerous dectit. ARTICLES 444 ARTICLES XXI. Of the Marriage of Ministers. —The ministers of Christ are not commanded by (rod's law either to vow the state of single Hie, or to ah-tain from marriage ; therefore it is lawful for them, as for all other Christians, to marry at their own discretion, as they shall judge the same to serve best to godliness. XXII. Of the Rites and Ceremonies of Churches.— It is not D cs-arv that rites and ceremonies should in all places be or exactly alike; for they have been always differ- ent, and may be changed according to the diversity of coun- tries times, and men's manners, so that nothing be ordained against God's Word. Whosoever, through his private judg- ment, willinglyand purposely doth openly break the rites and ceremonies of 'the church to which he belongs, which are not repugnant to the Word of God, and are ordained and approved by common authority, ought to be rebuked openly, that others may fear to do the like, as one that offendcth against the com- mon order of the church, and wouudeth the consciences of weak brethren. Kvery particular church may ordain, change, or abolish rites and ceremonies, so that all things may be done to edification. XXIII. Of the Rulers of the United State* of America — The President, the Congress, the General Assemblies, the gov- ernors, and the Councils of State, as the del; ates of the peo- ple, are the rulers of the United States of America, according to the division of power made to them by the Constitution of the L'nited States, and by the Constitutions of their respect- ive states. And the said states are a sovereign and indepen- dent nation, and ought not to be subject to any foreign juris- diction. As far as it respects civil affairs, we believe it the duty of Christians, and especially all Christian ministers, to be subject to the supreme authority of the country where they may reside, and to use all lawful means to enjoin obedience to the powers that be; and therefore, it is expedient that all our preachers and people, who may be under the British or any other government, will behave themselves as peaceable and orderly subjects. XXIV. Of Christian Men's Goods. — The riches and goods of Christians are not common, as touching the right, title, and possession of the same, as some do falsely boast. Notwith- standing, every man ought, of such things as he possesseth, liberally to give alms to the poor, according to his ability. XXV. Of a Christian Man's Oath As we confess that vain and rash swearing is forbidden Christian men by our Lord Jesus Christ and James his apostle, so we judge that the Christian religion doth not prohibit, but that a man may swear when the magistrate reiuireth, in a cause of faith and charity, so it be done according to the prophet's teaching, in justice, judgment, and truth. These are, in substance, the Articles of the Church of England, omitting the 3d, 8th, 13th, loth, 17th, 18th, 20th, 21st, 23d, 26th, 29th, 33d, 31th, 36th, and 37th. On comparison, it will be found that these omissions are nearly all made in order to greater com- prehension and liberality in the Creed. The 23d arti- cle (adopted in 1804) is especially to be noted, as giv- ing the adhesion of the church at that early period to the doctrine that the "United States" constitute "a sovereign nation." The articles, in their present form, are a modification of those originally framed for the church by Wesley, and printed in the Sunday Service of the Mrtkotlisfs. They were adopted, with the Litur- gy, at the Christian Conference of 1781. The changes made in them since that period (except the political one above referred to, made necessary by the adoption of the national Constitution) arc chiefly verbal; and some of them appear to be due to typographical errors in successive reprints of the Book of Discipline. For a list of the changes, see Emory, History of the Disci- pline, oh. i, | 2. See also Jimeson, Notes on the 25 Articles (Cincinnati, 1853, 12mo); Comfort, Exposition of the Articles I X. Y. 1847, 12mo); Stevens. History of the M< thodist Episcopal < %urch (N. Y. 1865, 3 vols. 8vo). See Methodist Episcopal Church. ARTICLES (Tin: Thirty-nine) of the Church of England contain what may be called the "symbol," "creed," or "confession of faith" of the Church of England, especially as to the points on which, at the time of the adoption of the articles, disputes existed. They constitute also, substantially, the Creed of the Protestant Episcopal Church in the United States (see below). The history of their origin, as nearly as can be as- certained, is about as follows. As early as 1519 Cran- mer drew up and circulated a series of articles designed "to test tiie orthodoxy of preachers and lecturers in divinity." Hooper objected to them because of the expression that "the sacraments confer grace," and for other reasons (Hooper, Original fetters, p. 71). About this time three eminent Continental reformers were domiciled in England, viz. John a Lasco or Laski (q. v.), as preacher in London, Bucer (q. v.), as theo- logical lecturer at Cambridge, and Peter Martyr (q. v.), as professor at Oxford. The influence of these great men went all in the current of thoroughly Prot- estant reformation, and was especially felt in the revi- sion of the Prayer-book and of the Articles, in which they were consulted to a greater tr less extent. Cal- vin, Melancthon, Bullingcr, and other eminent Conti- nental Protestants were in correspondence with Cran- mer on the settlement of doctrinal points. In 1519, an act of Parliament was passed empowering the king to appoint a commission of 32 persons to make eccle- siastical laws. Under this act a commission of 8 bish- ops, 8 divines, 8 civilians, and 8 lawyers (among whom were Cranmer, Ridley, Hooper, Coverdale, Scory, Pe- ter Martyr, Justice Hales, etc.), was appointed in 1551. Cranmer seems to have laid before this body, as a ba- sis, a series of 13 articles, chiefly from the Augsburg Confession (reported in Hard wick, History of the Ar- ticles, App. iii). Finally, "Forty-two articles" were laid before the royal council, Nov. 24, 1552 (text given in Burnet, iv, 311). In March, 1553, they were laid before Convocation, but whether adopted by that body or not is undecided. Strype and others assert that they were ; Burnet, that they were not {Hist, Bef iii, 316). Fuller, speaking in his quaint way of this con vocation, declares that it had "no commission from the king to meddle with church business, and," lie adds, "every convocation in itself is born deaf and dumb, so that it can neither hear nor speak concerning complaints in religion till first Ephphatht, ' Be thou opened,' be pronounced unto it by royal authority. However," he continues, "this barren convocation is entitled the parent of those forty-two articles which are printed with this title, Articuli de quibus in Synodo Londinensi 1552 A.I), inter Episcopos et alios c.onvene- rat." To these articles was prefixed the Catechism, and the preparation of them was chiefly the work of Cranmer and Ridley, on the basis of the Augsburg Confession (Laurence, Hampton Lecture, p. 230). Im- mediately' after their publication Edward died (July 6, 1553). Under Queen Mary, Cranmer and Ridley went to the stake, and Gardner and the Papists took their places as authorities in religion. In 1558 Mary died. Soon after the accession of Elizabeth, Matthew Parker (q. v.) was made archbishop of Canterbury (1559). One of Ins first tasks was to restore and re- cast the XLII articles. He expunged some parts and added others, making special use of both the Augsburg and Wurtemberg Confessions (Laurence, Bampt. Lect. 233; Browne, XXXIX Articles, 15). The revised draught was laid before Convocation, which body made some minor alterations, and finally adopted the Thirty-eight Articles (January, 1562-3). The}' are given in Hardwick, History of the Articles, p. 124. In 1566 a bill was brought into Parliament to con- firm them. The bill passed the Commons, but by the queen's command was dropped in the Lords. In 1571 the Convocation revised the articles of 1562, and made some alterations in them. In the same }-ear an act was passed "to provide that the ministers of the church should be of sound religion." It enacted that all ecclesiastical persons should subscribe to "all the articles of religion which onlj' contained the confession of the true faith and of the sacraments, comprised in a book imprinted, entitled 'Articles,' whereupon it was agreed by the archbishops and bishops, and the whole clergy in convocation holden in London, in the year of our Lord God 1562, according to the computation of the Church of England, for the avoiding of diversities of opinions, and for the establishing of consent touching true religion, put forth by the queen's authority." In 1628 an English edition was published by royal authori- ty, to which is prefixed the declaration of Charles I. ARTICLES 445 ARTICLES The following are the Articles in full, as found in the Prayer-book of the Church of England : I. Of Faith in the Holy Trinity.— There is but one living and true God, everlasting, without body, parts, or passions; of infinite power, wisdom, and goodness; the maker and pre- server of all things, both visible and invisible. And in unity of this Godhead there be three Persons, of one substance, power, and eternity, the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost. II. Of the Word or Son nf God, which was wade very Man. —The Son, which is the Word of the Father, begotten from ev- erlasting of the Father, the very and eternal God, and of one substance with the Father, took man's nature in the womb of the blessed Virgin, of her substance; so that two whole and perfect natures, that is to say, the Godhead and Man- hood, were joined together in one person, never to be divided, whereof is one Christ, very God and very .Man; who truly suffered, was crucified, dead and buried, to reconcile his Fa- ther to us, and to be a sacrifice, not only for original guilt, but also for actual sins of men. III. Of the going down of Christ into Hell.— As Christ died for us, and was buried, so also is it to be believed that he went down into hell. IV. Of the Resurrection of Christ — Christ did truly rise again from death, and took again his body, with flesh, bones, and all things appertaining to the perfection of man's nature, wherewith he ascended into heaven, and there sitteth, until lie return to judge all men at the last day. V. Of the Holy Ghost.— The Holy Ghost, proceeding from the Father and the Son, is of one substance, majesty, and glo- ry with the Father and the Son, very and eternal Cod. VI. Of the Siilliciencii of the Holy Scripture* for salvation. —Holy Scripture containeth all thing' necessary to salvation; so that whatsoever is not read therein, nor may be proved thereby, is not to be required of any man that it should be believed as an article of the faith, or be thought requisite or necessary to salvation. In the name of the Holy Scripture we do understand those canonical books of the Old and New Testament, of whose authority was never any doubt in the church. Of the names and numb: r of the Canonical Books: Gen- esis, Fxodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy, Joshua, Judge-', Ruth, The First Book of Samuel, The Second Book of Samuel, The First Book of Kings, The Second Book of Kings, The First Book of Chronicles, The Second Book of Chronicles, The First Book of Esdras, The Second Book of Ksdnu, The Book of Esther, The Book of Job, The Psalms, The Proverbs. Fcclesiastes, or Preacher, Cantica, or Songs of Solomon, Four Prophets the greater, Twelve Prophets the less. And the other Hooks (as Hierouie saith) the church doth read for example of life and instruction of manners; but yet doth it not apply them to establish any doctrine; such are these following : The Third Book of Isdras, The Fourth Book of Esdras, The Book of Tobias, The Book of Judith, The rest of the Book of Esther, The Book i.f Wisdom, Jesus the Son of Sirach, Baruch the Prophet, The Fong of the Three Chil- dren, The Story of Susanna, Of liel and the Dragon, The Prayer of Manasses,The First Book of Maccabees, The Second Book of Maccabees. All the Books of the New Testament, as they are commonly received, we do receive, and account them canonical. VII. Of the Old Testament.— The Old Testament is not contrary to the. New; for both in the Old and New Testament everlasting life is offered to mankind by Christ, who is the only mediator between God and man, being both God and man. Wherefore they are not to be heard which feign that the old fathers did look only for transitory promises. Al- though the law given from God by Moses, as touching cere- monies and rites, do not bind Christian men, nor the civil precepts thereof ought of necessity to be received in any com- monwealth, yet, notwithstanding, no Christian man whatso- ever is free from the obedience of the commandments which are called moral. VIII. Of the Three. Creeds.— The Three Creeds, Kicene Creed, Athanasius's Creed, and that which is commonly call- ed the A]>ostles' Creed, ought thoroughly to he received and believed, for they may be proved by most certain warrants of Holy Scripture. IX. Of Original or Lirth Sin. — Original sin standeth not in the following of A daw (as the Pelagians do vainly talk), but it is the fault and corruption of the nature of every man, that naturally is engendered of the offspring of , I dam ; where- by man is very far gone from original righteousness, and is of his own nature inclined to evil, so that the flesh lusteth al- ways contrary to the Spirit; and therefore, in every person born into this world, it deserveth Cod's wrath and damnation. And this infection of nature doth remain, yea, in them that are regenerated ; whereby the lust of the flesh, called in the Greek phronnna saiknr, which some do expound the wisdom, some sensuality, some the affection, some the desire of the flesh, is not subject to the law of God. And although there is no condemnation for them that believe and arc baptized, yet the apostle doth confess that concupiscence and lust hath of itself the nature of sin. X. Of Free Will.— The condition of man after the fall of Adam is such that he cannot turn and prepare himself, by his own natural strength and good works, to faith and calling upon God : wherefore we have no power to do good works pleasant and acceptable to God, without the grace of God by Christ preventing us, that we may have a good will, and working with us when we have that good will. XI. Vf the Justification if Man. — We are accounted right- eous before God only for the merit of our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ by faith, and not for our own works or deserv- ing.-*; wherefore that we are justified by faith only is a most wholesome doctrine, and very full of comfort, as more largely is expressed in the Homily of Justification. XII. Of Good Works. — Albeit that good works, which are the fruits of faith, and follow after justification, cannot put away our sins, and endure the severity of God's judgment, yet are they pleasing and acceptable to God in Christ, and do spring out necessarily of a true and lively faith ; insomuch that by them a lively faith may be as evidently known as a tree discerned by the fruit. XIII. Of Works before Justification. — Works done before the grace of Christ, and the inspiration of his Spirit, are not pleasant to God, forasmuch as they spring not of faith in Je- sus Christ, neither do they make men meet to receive grace, or (as the school-authors say) deserve grace of congruity ; yea, rather, for that they are not done as God hath willed and commanded them to be done, we doubt not but they have the nature of sin. XIV. Of Works of Supererogation.— Voluntary works be- sides, over and above God's commandments, which they call works of supererogation, cannot be taught without arrogancy and impiety; for by them men do declare that they do not only render unto God as much as they are bound to do, but that they do more for his sake than of bounden duty is re- quired ; whereas Christ saith plainly, When ye have done all that are commanded to you, say, We are unprofitable servants. XV. Of Christ alone icitlmut Sin. — Christ, in the truth of cur nature, was made like unto us in all things, sin only ex- cept, from which he was clearly void, both in his flesh and in his spirit, lie came to be the Lamb without spot, who, by sacrifice of himself once made, should take away the sins of the world, and sin, as Saint John saith, was not in him. But all we the /est, although baptized and born again in Christ, yet offend in many things; and if we say we have no sin, we deceive ourselves, and the truth is not in us. XVI. Of Sin after Baptism. — Not every deadly sin willing- ly committed after baptism is sin against the Holy Ghost, and unpardonable. Wherefore the grant of repentance is not to be denied to such as fall into sin after baptism. After wo have received the Holy Ghost, we may depart from grace given and fall into sin, and by the grace of God we may arise again and amend our lives. And therefore they are to be con- demned which say they can no more sin as long as they live here, or deny the place of forgiveness to such as truly repent. XVII. Of Predestination and Flection — Predestination to life is the everlasting purpose of God, whereby (before the foundations of the world were laid) he hath constantly decreed by his counsel, secret to us, to deliver from curse and damna- tion those whom he hath chosen in Christ out of mankind, and to bring them by Christ to everlasting salvation, as ves- sels made to honor. Wherefore they which be endued with so excellent a benefit of God be called according to God's pur- pose by his Spirit working in due season: they through grac3 obey the calling ; they be justified freely ; they be made sons of God bv adoption ; they be made like the image of his only- begotten' Son Jesus Christ; they walk religiously in good works, and at length, by God's mercy, they attain to ever- lasting felicity. As the godly consideration of predestination and our elec- tion in Christ is full of sweet, pleasant, and unspeakable com- fort to godly persons, and such as feel in themselves the work- ing of the Spirit of Christ, mortifying the works of the flesh and their earthlv members, and drawing up their mind to high and heavenly things, as well because it doth greatly es- tablish and confirm their faith of eternal salvation to be en- joyed through Christ, as because it doth fervently kindle their love toward God, so, for curious and carnal persons, lacking the Spirit of Christ, to have continually before their eyes the sentence of God's predestination, is a most dangerous downfall, whereby the devil doth thrust them either into des- peration, or into wretchedness of mo-t unclean living no less perilous than desperation. Furthermore, we must receive God's promises in such wise as they be generally set forth to us in Holy Scripture, and, in our doings, that will of God is to be followed which we have exp-essly declared unto us in the Word of God. XVIII. Of obtaining eternal Salvation only by the Name of Christ.— They also are to be had accursed that presume to say, That every man shall be saved by the law or sect which he professeth, so that be be diligent to frame his life accord- ing to that law and the light of nature; for Holy Scripture doth set out unto us only the name of Jesus Christ whereby men must be saved. XIX. Of the Ch arch. —The visible Church of Christ is a congregation of faithful men, in the which the pure Word oi God is preached, and the sacraments be duly administered according to Christ's ordinance in all those things that of ne- cessity- aie requisite to the same. . As the Church of Jerusalem, Alexandria, and Antiach have erred, so also the Church of Home hath erred, not only in their living and manner of ceremonies, but also in matters of faith. , . , 1 XX. Of the Authority of the Church.— The church hath I power to decree rites or ceremonies, and authority in contro- [ versies of faith ; and yet it is not lawful for the church to or- ARTICLES 446 ARTICLES (lain anv tiling that is contrary to God's Word written, nei- ther may it so expound one place of Scripture that it be re- pugnant to another. Wherefore, although the church tie a wit- in-- and a keeper of Holy Writ, yet, as it ought not to decree any thing against the same, so, besides the same, ought it not to enforce anv thing to be believed for necessity of salvation. XXI. or the Authority <>/ General Councils. —General councils may not he gathered together without the command- ment and will of princes. And when they be gathered to- gether (forasmuch as thev be an assembly of men, whereof all be no! govc rued with the Spirit and Word of God) they may err. and sometimes have erred, even in things pertaining unto God. Wherefore things ordained by them as necessary to salvation have neither strength nor authority, unless it mav be declared that they be taken out of Holy scripture. XXII. 0/ Purgatory. — The Romish doctrine concerning purgatory .'pardons, worshipping and adoration, as well of of rel'iipics, and also invocation of saints, is a fond thing vainly invented, and grounded upon no warranty of Scripture, but rather repugnant to the Word of God. XXIII. Of Ministerial) til the Conyreaalion.— It is not law- ful for anv person to take upon him the office of public preach- ing, or ministering the sacraments in the congregation, before lie be lawfnlly called, and sent to execute the same. And those we ought to judge lawfully called and sent which be chosen and called to this work by men who have public au- thority given unto them in the congregation to call and send ministers into the Lord's vineyard. XXIV. Of speaking in the Cnnnreaation in such a tongue. as the people anderstandeth — It is a thing plainly repugnant to the Word of God and the custom of the primitive church to have public prayer in the church, or to minister the sacra- ments, in a tongue' not understanded of the people. XXV. Of the Sacraments. — Sacraments ordained of Christ be not only badges or tokens of Christian men's profession, but rather they be certain sure witnesses, and effectual signs of grace and God's good will toward us, by the which he doth work invisibly in ns, and doth not only quicken, but also strengthen and confirm our faith in him. There are two sacraments ordained of Christ our Lord in the Gospel, that is to say, Baptism and the Supper of the Lord. Those five commonly called sacraments, that is to say, Con- firmation, reliance, < 'rders, Matrimony, and Extreme Unction, are not to be counted for sacraments of the Gospel, being such as have grown partly of the corrupt following of the apos'les, partly are states of life allowed in the Scriptures, but yet have not like nature of sacraments with Baptism and the I ord's Supper, for that they have not any visible sign or ceremony ordained of God. The sacraments were not o darned of Christ to be gazed upon, or to be carried about, but that we should duly use them. Aud in such only as worthily receive the same they have a wholesome effect or operation; but they that receive tin in unworthily purchase to themselves damnation, as St. Paul saith. XXVI. Of the Vnvortldness of the Ministers, which hin- ders not the effect of the Sacrament.— Although in the visible church the evil be cv, r mingled with the good, and sometimes the evil have chief authority in the ministration of the word and sacraments, yet fora-mueh as they do not the same in their own name, but in Christ's, and do minister by his com- mission aud authority, we may use their ministry, both in hearing the Word of God and in receiving the sacraments. Neither is the effect of Christ's ordinance taken away by their wickedness, nor the grace of God's gifts diminished from such as by faith and rightly do receive the sacraments ministered onto them ; which be effectual, because of ( 'host's institution and promi.-e, although they he ministered by evil men. Ne\ ortholoss, it appertaincth to the discipline of the church that inquiry be made of evil ministers, and that they be ac- cuse 1 by those that have knowledge of their offenses; and iieing found guilty, by just judgment be deposed. X.W'II. Of Baptism. — Baptism is not only a sign of profes- sion, and mark of difference, whereby Christian men are dis- cerned from others that be not christened, but it is also a sign of regeneration or new birth, whereby, as by an instrument, tin % thai receive baptism rightly are grafted into the church ; the pnuiii-eJ ..f forgiveness of sin, aud of our adoption to be t t.od by the Holy Ghost, are visibly signed and scaled; faith is continued, and grace increased by virtue of prayer unto God. The baptism of young children is in any wi-o to I, ■ retained iii the church, as most agreeable with the institution of Christ. X.Will. Oftlie Lorffa Supper.— The Supper of the Lord i- nol onlj a Bign of the love that Christians ought to have among them- Ives one to another, but rather is a sacrament of our redemption by Christ's death; insomuch that to such at rightly, worthily, and with faith receive the same, the bread which we break i- a partaking oftlie body of Christ, and likewise the cup of ble.-sing i- a partaking of the blood of Christ. Transubstantiation (or the change of the substance of bread and wine) In the Supper of the lord cannot be proved by Holy Writ, but is repugnant to the plain words of Scripture, overthroweth the nature of a sacrament, And hath given oc- casion to many superstitious. The body of Christ is given, taken, and eaten in the Supper only after an heavenly and spiritual manner. And the mean whereby the body of Christ is received and eaten in the Sup- per is faith. The sacrament of the Lord's Supper was not by Christ's or- dinance reserved, carried about, lilted up, or worshipped. XXIX. Of the Wicked which eat not the Lody oi Christ in the use of the Lord's Siqiper The wicked, and such as be void of a lively faith, although they do carnally and visibly press with their teeth (as St. Augustine saith) the sacrament of the body and blood of Christ, yet in no wise are they par- takers of Christ, but rather, to their condemnation, do eat and drink the sign and sacrament of so great a thing. XXX. Of both kinds. — The cup of the Lord is not to be de- nied to the lay people, for both the parts of the Lord's sacra- ment, by Christ's ordinance aud commandment, ought to be ministered to all Christian men alike. XXXI. Of the one Oblation of Christ finished upon the Cross. — The offering of Christ once made is that perfect re- demption, propitiation, and satisfaction for all the sins of the whole world, both original and actual ; and there is none other satisfaction for sin but that alone. Wherefore the sacrifices of masses, in the which it was commonly said that the priest did offer Christ for the quick and the dead, to have remission of pain or guilt, were blasphemous fables and dangerous de- ceits. XXXII. Of the Marriage of Priests— Bishops, priests, and deacons are not commanded by God's law either to avow the estate of single life or to abstain from marriage; therefore it is lawful for them, as for all other Christian men, to many at their own discretion, as they shall judge the same to serve bitter to godliness. XXXIII. Of excommunicate Person,?, how they are to be avoided. — That person which by open denunciation of the church is rightly cut off from the unity of the church and ex. communicated, ought to be taken of the whole multitude of the faithful as an heathen and publican until ha be openly reconciled by penance, and received into the church by a judge that hath authority thereunto. XXXIV. Of the Traditions of the Church. — It is not neces- sary that traditions and ceremonies be in all places one and utterly like, for at all times they have been divers, and may be changed according to the diversities of countries, times, and men's manners, so that nothing be ordained against God's Word. Whosoever through his private judgment, willingly and purposely, doth openly break the traditions and ceremo. nies of the church, which be not repugnant to the Word of God, and he ordained and approved by common authority, ought to be rebuked openly (that others may fear to do the like), as he that offendc th aga nst the common order of the church, and lmrteth the autlurity of the magistrate, aud woundeth the consciences cf the weak brethren. Every particular or national church hath authority to or- dain, change, and abolish ceremonies or rites of the church ordained only by man's authority, so that all things be done to edifying. XXXV. Of the Homilies.— The second Book of Homilies, the several titles whereof we have joined under this article, doth contain a godly and wholesome doctrine, and necessary for these times, as doth the former Book of Homilies, which were set forth in the time of Edward the Sixth ; and therefore we judge them to be read in churches by the ministers, dili- gently and distinctly, that they may be understanded of the people. Of the names of the Homilies— 1. Of the right Use of the Church; 2. Against peril of Idolatry; 3. Of repairing and keeping clean of Churches ; 4. Of good Works : first, of Fast- ing; 5. Against Gluttony and Drunkenness; G. Against Ex, cess of Apparel; 1. Of Prayer; S. Of the Place and Time of Prayer; 9. That Common Prayers and Sacraments ought to he ministered in a known tongue; 10. Of the reverend estima- tion of God's Word; 11. Of Alms-doing ; 12. Oftlie Nativity of Christ; 13. Of the Passion of Christ ; 14. Of the Resurn c- tion of Christ ; 15. Of the worthy receiving of the Sacrament of the Body and Blood of Christ; 16. Of the Gifts of the Holy Ghost; IT. For the Rogation days; is. of the state of Matri- mony ; I'd. Of Repentance; £0. Against Idleness; 21. Against Rebellion. XXXVI. Of Consecration of nixhojis and Ministers. — The Book of Consecration of Archbishops and Bishops, and Order- ing of Priests and Deacons, lately set forth in the time of Ed- ward the Sixth, and confirmed at the same time by authority of Parliament, doth contain all things necessary to such con- secration and ordering; neither hath it anything" that of it- self is superstitious and ungodly. And therefore whosoever are consecrated or ordered according to the rites of that look, since the second year of the forenanied King Edward unto this time, or hereafter shall be consecrated or ordered accord- ing to the same rites, we decree all such to be rightly, orderly, and lawfully consecrated and ordered. XXXVII.' (if the Civil Mm tint rotes.— The queen's majesty hath the chief power in this realm of England, and other her dominions, unto whom the chief government of all estates of this realm, whether they he ecclesiastical or civil, in all cases doth appertain, and is not, nor ought to be, subject to any for- Where we attribute to the queen's maje-ty the chief govern- ment, by which titles we understand the minds of some slan- derous folk- to he offended, we give not to our princes the ministering either of Cod's Word or of the sacraments, the which thing the injunctions also lately set forth by Elizabeth our queen do most plainly testify, but that only prerogative Which we Pee to have been given always to all godly princes in Holy Scriptures by God himself; that is, that they should ARTICLES 447 ARTIFICER rule all states and degree.? committed to their charge by God, whether they be ecclesiastical or temporal, and restrain with j the civil sword the stubborn and evil-doers. The Bishop of Rome hath no jurisdiction in this realm of England. The laws of the realm may punish Christian men with death for heinous and grievous offences. It is lawful for Christian men, at the commandment of the magistrate, to wear weapons and serve in the wars. XXXVIII. Of Christian men's Goods, which are not com- mon. The riches and goods of Christians are not common, as touching the right, title, and possession of the same, as certain Anabaptists do falsely boast. Notwithstanding, every man ought, of such things as he possesseth, liberally to give alms to the poor, according to his ability. XXXIX. Of a Christian man's Oath.— As we confess that vain and rash swearing i< forbidden Christian men by our Lord Jesus Christ and dames the apostle, so we judge that Christian religion doth not prohibit, but that a man may swear when the magistrate requireth, in a cause of faith and chari- ty, so it be done according to the prophet's teaching, in jus- tice, judgment, and truth. The Protestant Episcopal Church in the United States adopted in convention, September 12, 1801, the Thirty-nine Articles, except the 21st, with certain mod- ifications, which are stated as follows by the American editor of Hook's Church Dictionary: " In the eighth article we have left out the words 'three creeds' and 'Athanasius creed,' having reject- ed that creed as an exponent of our faith. The 21st article, 'Of the authority of general councils,' i; left out altogether ; and, though the No. xxi and title is retained, an asterisk refers us to a foot-note which says, 'the 21st of the former articles is omitted lie- cause it is partly of a local and civil nature, and is provided for as to the remaining p irt of it in other ar- ticles.' After the 35th article, 'Of homilies,' our re- viewers have inserted the following explanation in bracket. 'This article is received in this church so far as it declares the books of homilies to be an expli- cation of Christian doctrine, and instructive on piety and morals. But all references to the constitution and laws of England are considered as inapplicable to the circumstances of this church, which also suspend the order for the reading of said homilies in churches, un- til a revision of them may be conveniently made, for the clearing of them, as well from obsolete words and phrases as from the local references.' The 36th arti- cle, 'Of the consecration of bishops and ministers,' is altered to suit the peculiarities of the American Church. The 37th article ' Of the power of the civil magis- trates,' is a new one entirely superseding that of the Church of England, which sets forth the queen's su- premacy in church and state, the annulling of papal jurisdiction in England, the power of the laws of the realm to punish with death, and the lawfulness of wearing weapons and serving in wars at the com- mandment of the magistrates. The Am?riean article is a biblical statement of a great and fundamental j principle, applicable to all men, and under all circum- stances. The American articles were ordered to be set | forth by the General Convention assembled in Tren- j ton, New Jersey, in September, 1801." As to the sources of the English articles, besides what has been said above, it may not be amiss to add that the 1st, 2d, 25th, and 31st agree not only in their doc- trine, but in most of their wording, with the Confes- sion of Augsburg. The 9th and 16th are clearly due to the same source. Some of them, as the 19th, 20th, 25th, and 34th, resemble, both in doctrine and language, certain articles drawn up by a commission appoint- ed by Henry VIII, and annotated by the king's own hand. The 11th article, on justification, is ascribed to Cranmer, but the latter part of it only existed in the articles of 1552. The 17th, on predestination, has afforded matter of great dispute as to the question whether it is meant to affirm the Calvinistic doctrine or no. On this point, see Laurence, Hampton Lectures ; Browne On 39 Articles, p. 120 sq., and our articles Arminianism, Calvinism, with further references there. The Thirty-nine Articles have been described as "containing a whole body of divinity." This can hardly be maintained. They contain, however, what the Church of England holds to be a fair scriptural ac- count of the leading doctrines of Christianity, together with a condemnation of what she considers to be the principal errors of the Church of Rome and of certain Protestant sects. As far as they go (and there are many things unnoticed by them), they are a legal def- inition of the doctrines of the Church of England and Ireland, though the members of that communion look to the Prayer-book as well as to the articles for the genuine expression of her faith. The articles are far more thoroughly Protestant than the Prayer-book, ta- ken as a whole. Although the articles expressly as- sert that the Church of Koine lias erred, attempts have repeatedly been made by the High-Church party of the Church of England to show that there is no irreconcil- able difference between the Thirty-nine Articles and the decrees of the Council of Trent, and that a construc- tion can lie put upon them fully harmonizing them. To show this was, in particular, the object of Dr. New- man's celebrated tract (Tracts for the Times, No. 90, Oxf. 1839), and more recently of Ur. Pusey's Eirenicon (Lond. 1805; N. Y. 1800). See also Christ. Remembr. Jan. 1866, art. vi. The articles were adopted by the Convocation of the Irish Church in 1035, and by the Scotch Episcopal Church at the close of the 18th centu- ry. Corpus Christi College, Cambridge, contains the only copies of the articles in manuscript or print that arc of any authority. Among them are the Latin manu- script of the articles of 1502 and the English manuscript of the articles of 1571, each with the signatures of the archbishops and bishops who subscribed them. See Lamb, Account of the Thirty-nine Articles (Camb. 2d ed. 1835). One of the best accounts of the origin of the Thirty-nine Articles is given by Hardwick, History of the Articles of Religion (Lond. 1855, 8vo). For exposi- tions of them, see Burnet On the Thirty-nine Articles (N. Y. 1815, 8vo) ; Welchman, XXXTX Articles (Lond. 1834, 8vo, 13th ed.) ; Sworde, The first Seventeen A, 'i- cles (Lond. 1847, 8vo) ; Wilson, XXXIX Articles Il'-us* trated (Oxf. 1840, 8vo) ; Dimock, XXXIX Articles Ex- plained (Lond. 1845, 2 vols. 8vo) ; Browne. Erpositim of Thirty-nine Articles (Lond. 1851, 8vo; N. Y. ed. by Williams, 1805, 8vo) ; Cardwcll, Synodalia ; Palmer On the Church, ii, 242 sq. ; Lee, The Articles paraphrase tically explained by Sancta Clara (Dr. Davenport) (from the edition of 1040 ; London, 1865, post 8vo). Artificer (some form of the verb d^n, chtrash', to engrave, as elsewhere), a person engaged in any kind of trade or manual occupation [see Carpenter, Mason, etc.], Gen. iv, 22; Isa. iii, 3. See Handi- craft. In the early periods to which the scriptural history refers, we do not meet with those artificial feel- ings and unreasonable prejudices against hand-labor which prevail and arc so banefully influential in mod- ern society. See Labor. Accordingly, even the cre- ation of the world is spoken of as the work of God's hands, and the firmament is said to show his handi- work (Psa. viii, 3 ; xix, 1 ; Gen. ii, 2 ; Job xxxiv, 19). The primitive history, too, which the Bible presents is the history of hand-laborers. Adam dressed the gar- den in which God bad placed him (Gen. ii, 15), Abel was a keeper of sheep, Cain a tiller of the ground (Gen. iv, 3), Tubal-Cain a smith (Gen. iv, 22). See Art. The shepherd-life which the patriarchs previ- ously led in their own pasture-grounds was not favora- ble to the cultivation of the practical arts of life, much less of those arts by which it is embellished. Egypt, in consequence, must have presented to Joseph and his father not only a land of wonders, but a source of rich and attractive knowledge. Another source of knowledge to the Hebrews of handicrafts were the maritime and commercial Phoenicians. Commerce and navigation imply great skill in art and science; and the pursuits to which they lead largely increase the skill whence they emanate." See Commerce. It ARTIFICER 441 is not, therefore, surprising that the origin of so many j arts has been referred to the north-eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea ; nor is there any difficulty in un- derstanding how arts and letters should be propagated from the coast to the interior, conferring high advan- tages on the inhabitants of Syria in general, as well hefore as after the settlement of the Hebrew tribes in the land of promise. At first the division of labor was only very partial. The master of the family himself exercised such arts as were found of absolute necessi- ty. Among these may be reckoned not only those which pasturage and tillage required, but most of those which were of that rough and severe nature which de- mand strength as well as skill ; such, for instance, as the preparation of wood-work for the dwelling, the slaving of animals for food, which every householder understood, together with the art of extracting the blood from the entire carcass. The lighter labors of the hand fell to the share of the housewife ; such as baking bread — for it was only in large towns that baking was carried on as a trade (2 Sam. xiii, 8) — such also as cooking in general, supplying the house with water — no very easy office, as the fountains often lay at a considerable distance from the dwelling; more- over, weaving, making of clothes for males as well as females, working in wool, flax, hemp, cotton, tapes- try, richly-colored hangings, and that not only for do- mestic use, but for "merchandise," were carried on within the precincts of the house by the mistress and her maidens (Exod. xxxv, 25 ; 1 Sam. ii, 19 ; 2 Kings xxiii, 7 ; Prov. xxxi). See Weaving. The skill of the Hebrews during their wanderings in the desert does not appear to have been inconsider- able ; but the pursuits of war and the entire absorp- tion of the energies of the nation in the one great work ; of gaining the land which had been given to them, may have led to their falling off in the arts of peace ; ! and from a passage in 1 Sam. (xiii, 20) it would appear I that not long after the}' had taken possession of the j country they were in a low condition as to the instru- j ments of handicraft. A comparatively settled state of society, however, soon led to the revival of skill by j the encouragement of industry. A more minute di- ! vision of labor ensued. Trades, strictly so called, j arose, carried on by persons exclusively devoted to one pursuit. Thus, in Judg. xvii, 4, and Jer. x, 14, '• the founder"' is mentioned — a trade which implies a practical knowledge of metallurgy; the smelting and working of metals were well known to the Hebrews (Job xxxvii, 18); brass was in use before iron; arms I and instruments of husbandry were made of iron. In Exodus (xxxv, 30-35) a passage occurs which may j serve to specify many arts that were practised among the Israelites, though it seems also to intimate that at the time to which it refers artificers of the description referred to were not numerous : " See, the Lord hath called by name Bezaleel, and hath filled him with the spirit of God, in knowledge and all manner of work- manship, and to devise curious works, to work in gold, and in silver, and in brass, and in the cutting of stones, to Bet them, and in carving of wood, to make any man- ner of cunning work ; and he hath put in his heart that he may teach ; both he and Aholiab: them hath he filled with wisdom of heart to work all manner of j work of///' i ngravi r, and of the cunning workman, and ot the embroiderer in blue and in purple, in scarlet and in line linen, .(nil of the wearer." From the ensuing chapter (ver. 34) it appears that gilding was known before the settlement in Canaan/ The. ark (Exod. xxxvii, 2) was overlaid with pure gold within and without. The cherubim were wrought ("beaten," Exod. xxxvii, 7i in gold. The candlestick was of beaten gold I verses 17, 22). Wire-drawing was prob- ably understood « Exod. xxxviii. 1 ; xxxix, 3). Cov- ering witli bra-s (Exod. xxxviii, •_> > and with silver (Prov. xxvi. 23) was practised. Architecture and the kindred arts do not appear to have made much progress 1 ARTOTYRITJ3 till the days of Solomon, who employed an incredible number of persons to procure timber (1 Kings v, 13 sq.) ; but the men of skill for building his temple he obtain- ed from Hiram, King of Tyre (1 Kings v sq. ; 1 Chron. xiv, 1 ; 2 Chron. ii, 7). Without pursuing the sub- ject into all its details (see Scholz, Handb. der Bib. Archdol. p. 390 sq. ; De Wette, Lthrb. der Arch&ol. p. 115 sq.), we remark that the intercourse which the Babylonish captivity gave the Jews seems to have greatly improved their knowledge and skill in both the practical and the fine arts, and to have led them to hold them in very high estimation. The arts were even carried on by persons of learning, who took a title of honor from their trade (Rosenmiiller, Morgtnl. vi, J2). It was held a sign of a bad education if a father did not teach his son some handicraft : " Whoever does not teach his son a trade, teaches him robbing" (Light- foot, p. G16; Mishna, Pirlce Aboth, ii, 2; Wa^enseil's Sota, p. 597 ; Otho, Lex. JRabb. p. 491). In the Apocrypha and New Testament there are mentioned tanners (Acts ix, 43), tent-makers (Acts xviii, 3); in Josephus (II"«r, v, 4, 1), cheese-makers; domestics (Kovptlr, Ant. xvi, 11, 5); in the Talmud, with others, we find tailors, shoe-makers, blood-letters, glaziers, goldsmiths, plasterers. Certain handicrafts- men could never rise to the rank of high-priest (Mishna, Kiddmh, lxxxii, 1), such as weavers, barbers, fullers, perfumers, cuppers, tanners ; which pursuits, especial- ly the last, were held in disestccm (Mishna, Megillah, iii, 2; Otho, Lex. Rabb. p. 155; Wetstein, N. T. ii, 516). In large cities particular localities were set apart for particular trades, as is the case in the East to the present da}'. Thus in Jeremiah (xxxvii, 21) we read of "the bakers' street." So in the Talmud (Mishna, v, 1G9, 225). mention is made of a flesh-mar- ket; in Josephus ( War, v, 4, 1), of a cheese-market; and in the New Testament (John v, 2) we read of a sheep-market, or at least a sheep-gate, which, like sev- eral other gates [see Jerusalem], appears to have been named from some special bazaar (q. v.) adjoining. (See Iken, Antiq. Ilcbr. iii-ix, p. 578 sq. ; Bellermann, Handb. i, 22 sq.)— Kitto, ii, 808. See Mechanic. Artillery ("?2, Iceli' , apparatus, elsewhere ren- dered "vessel,-' "instrument," etc.) occurs in 1 Sam. xx, 40, where it signifies collectively any missile weapons, as arrows and lances. See Armor. In 1 Mace, vi, 51, the term so rendered is /3iXtijTaaic, i. e. balista, or "catapult," a machine for hurling darts or stones. See Engine. Artomacliy (q. d. aprofiaxta, dispute reepect'ng bread, from dprog and /<«\n), a c< ntroversy respecting the bread of the Eucharist, criginated in 1053 by Mi- chael Cerularius. This dispute existed between the Greek and Latin churches ; the former contending that the bread used should be leavened, the latter urging the necessity of being unleavened bread. Protestant writers have taken part with the Greek Church in this controversy. Early Christian writers make no men- tion of the use of unleavened bread; the fame kind of bread was eaten in the agapa? that was consecrated for the Eucharist, viz., common I read. Leavened bread appears to have been in use when Epiphanius and Am- 1 irose wrote. Unleavened bread was generally discon- tinued at the Reformation ; but the Lutherans retain it; Farrar, Eccl. Diet. s. v. See Azymites. Artotyrltae (q. d. ('tprori'pirai, from apTOQ, bread, and Tv{>i'e, (//r< si), a branch of the Montanists, who tirst appeared in the second century. They used bread ami cheese in the Eucharist; or, perhaps, bread baked with cheese. The reason assigned was, according to Augustine (liar. cap. xxviii), that the first men offered to God not only the fruits of the earth, but of their flocks also. The Artotyritae admitted women to the priesthood, and even consecrated them bishops. — Bing- ham, Orig. Keel, xv, 2, S ; Epiphanius, Heir, xlix ; Farrar, Led. Diet. s. v. ARTS 449 ARVAD Arts, one of the faculties in which decrees are con- ferred in the universities. The circle of the arts was formerly divided into the Tritium, viz. grammar', rhet- oric, and logic ; and the Quadriv'um, viz. arithmetic, g3ometry, music, and astronomy. It now includes all branches not technical or professional. — Hook, Chunk Diet. s. v. See Degrees ; Universities. Ar'uboth (Heb. Arubboth', ?Vi3,lSj:, a lattice ; Sept. 'Apa(3o>Si), a city or district, probably in the tribe of Judah (or Simeon), being the third of Solomon's pur- veyorships, under the charge of Hesed or Ben-Hesed, and including Socoh and Hepher within its limits (1 Kings iv, 10). Schwarz (Palest, p. 237) fancies it is represented by the modern village and wady Rdbith in the limits of Zebulon ; but the associated names in- dicate the region Jebel Khali/, S.W. of Hebron. Aruch (JB.eb.Aruh', Tp"1^, arranged, sc. in alpha- betical order), the title of a Talmudical lexicon, com- piled by R. Nathan ben-Jechiel, who was rector of the synagogue at Rome A.D. 1106, according to the Chron- icon " Zemach David," and who is usually styled by the Jewish writers Trl"1^ ^32, Auctor AruJi (Buxtorf, Lex Talm. col. 1GG5). It was first published by Sou- cini (Pesaro, 1517, iol.), and edited bv Archinotti (Ven- ice, 1531, 1533, fbl.), Eekendorf (Basle, 1599, fol.), Mu- safia (Amst. 1655, i'ol.), and with Germ, notes by Lan- dau (Prague, 1819-24, 5 vols. 8vo). See Furst, Bib. Jud. iii, 20 sq. ; Berlin, Additamenta zum Aruch (Vien. 1830-59, 2 vols. 8vo). Aru'mah (Heb. Arumah' , fTC^nx, prob. for Ru- mah, with X prosthetic ; Sept. 'Apr/fia), a city appar- ently near Shechem, in which Abimelech the son of Gideon resided (Judg. ix, 41). It has been conjectured that the word in ver. 31, lT;"ir2, rendered "privily," and in the margin " at Tormah," may signify " at Aru- mah" by changing the M to an X. It seems to be con- founded with Rumah (2 Kings xxiii, 36) by Euseb. and Jerome, who state (Onomast. s. v. Rama) that it ('Api'/i, Arima) was then called Remphis or Arimathaea ! The suggestion of Van de Veldo (Memoir, p. 288) appears to be correct that it is represented by the modern ruin El- Ormah, on the brow of a mountain S.E. of Shechem. Arundel, Thomas, archbishop of Canterbury, was second son of Robert Fitz-Alan, earl of Arundel and Warren, and was born at Arundel Castle in 1353. His powerful family connections gave him early promotion : at 20 he was archdeacon of Taunton, and in 1374 the pope nominated him to the vacant see of Ely, the king and the monks of Ely having, at the same time, re- spectively nominated two others; but Arundel was consecrated without dispute. In 1388 he was removed to the see of York, and was the first archbishop of that see who was translated to Canterbury, which was the case in 1398. Very shortly after Arundel was forced into banishment by Richard II, as an accomplice of his brother, the earl of Arundel (executed as a parti- san of the duke of Gloucester), and Roger Walden was put into the chair of Canterbury, and acted as arch- bishop for about two years. (Johnson, Ercl. Canons, ii, A.D. 1398.) The archbishop, in the mean time, went to Rome, and afterward to Cologne. He figured largely in the political intrigues by which Richard was deposed, and on the accession of Henry IV, 1399, he was restored to his see. He was a great persecutor of the WIckliffites, and in 1408 he published, in convo- cation at Oxford, "Ten Constitutions against the Lol- lards." He established in that year an inquisition for heresy at Oxford, and put in force the statute de heere- tico comburend > ( 2 Hen. IV, ch. xv), and prohibited the circulation of the English Scriptures. He built the tower called the "Arundel Tower," and gave to the cathedral of Canterbury a chime of bells, known as "Arundel's ring," and was a great benefactor in many ways to the cathedral establishments. He died Feb- Ff ruary 20.th, 1413.— Collier, Eccl. Hist, of England, iii, 213-301. Ar'vad (Heb. Arvad', THX, tcandering ; Sept. 'ApaSiot, but properly "Apadotj, 1 Mace, xv, 23, or, as it might be spelt, Arud, 'M'HK, whence the present name Ruad), a small island and city on the coast of Syria, called by the Greeks Aradus (q. v.), by which name it is mentioned in the above passage of the Apoc- rypha. It is a rocky islet, opposite the mouth of the river Eleutherus (Mel. ii, 7), 50 miles to the north of Tripoli (Itin. Anton.), about one mile in circumfer- ence (Curt, iv, 1, 6), and two miles (Pliny, v, 17) from the shore (Rosenmiiller, Handb. Bibl. Alt. II, i, 7; Mannert, VI, i, 398 ; Pococke, East, ii, 292 sq. ; Ilames- veld, iii, 44 sq.). Strabo (xvi, p. 753) describes it as a rock rising in the midst of the waves; and modern travellers state that it is steep on every side. (See Volney, ii, 131 ; Niebuhr, Reisen, iii, 92 ; Buckingham, ii, 435; Chesnej', Euphrat. Exped. i, 451; Shaw, p. 232.) Strabo also describes the houses as exceedingly lofty, and they were doubtless so built on account of the scantiness of the site ; hence, for its size, it was ex- ceedingly populous (Pomp. Mela, ii, 7, 6). Those of the Arvadites whom the island could not accommodate found room in the town and district of Antaradus (q. v.), on the opposite coast, which also belonged to them ( Targ. Hieros. in Gen . x, 18). Arvad is usually regard- ed as the same with A rpad (q. v.) or Arphad (but see Miehaelis, Oriental. Bibl. viii, 45). It is mentioned in Ezek. xxvii, 8, 11, as furnishing mariners and soldiers for Tyre, which was situated on the shore opposite. In agreement with this is the mention of "the Arvad- ite" (q. v.) in Gen. x, 18, and 1 Chron. i, 16, as a son of Canaan, with Zidon, Hamath, and other northern localities. It was founded, according to Strabo (xvi, 2, § 13), by fugitives from Sidon (comp. Josephus, A nt. i, 6, 2); hence probabty the etymology of the name as above. Tarsus was settled by a colony from it (Dion Chrys. Oral. Tarsen. ii, 20, ed. Reiske). Although originally independent (Arrian, Alex, ii, 90\ and, in- deed, the metropolis of the strip of land adjoining it, it eventually fell under the power of Persia, but assisted the Macedonians in the siege of Tyre (Arrian, Anab. i, 13, 20). It thence passed into the hands of the Ptole- mies (B.C. 320); but, regaining its liberty under Se- leucus Callinicus (B.C. 242), it attained such impor- tance as to form an alliance with Antiochus the Great (Eckhel, Doctr. num. i, 393). Antiochus Epiphanes, of Aradus. however, took forcible mastery over it (Jerome in Dan. xi), and after becoming involved in the broils of his successors, it finally came under the power of Tigrancs, and with his fall became subject to Rome, into whose triumviral wars its history enters (Appian, Bell. Civ. iv, 69; v, 1). Under the Emperor Constans, Muawi- yeh, the lieutenant of the Caliph Omar, destroyed the city and expelled its inhabitants (Cedren. Hist. p. 355; Theophan. p. 227). It was not rebuilt in mediaeval times (Mignot, Mem. de V Acad, des Inscript. xxxiv, 229). The curious submarine springs from which th" ancient city was supplied with water (Strabo, ed. Gros- kund, p. 754 n.) have been partially discovered (AVal- pole, Ansayrii, iii, 391). The site is now covered, ex- cept a small space on the east side, with heavy castles, within which resides a maritime population of aboirt 2000 souls. ' On the very margin of the sea there are the ARYADITE 450 ASA remains of double Phoenician walls, of huge bevelled Stoni s. which mark it as being anciently a very strong place i Bibliotheca Sacra, 1848, p. 251). The nautical pursuits of the inhabitants, attested also by Strabo (ut sup.), remain in full force (see Allen's Bead Sea, ii, 183, at the end of which vol. may be found a plan of the island, from the Admiralty Charts, 2050, "Island of Ruad"). See Cuneiform Inscriptions. Ar'vadite (Heb. Arvadi', ^"HIX, Sept. 'Apddioe, Gen. x, 18; 1 Chron. i, 16), an inhabitant of the isl- and Aradus or Arvad (q. v.) (so Josephus explains 'ApovSdioi, Ant. i, 6, 2), and doubtless also of the neigh- boring coast. The Arvadites were descended from one of the sons of Canaan (Gen. x, 18). Strabo (xvi, 731) describes the Arvadites as a colony from Sidon. They were noted mariners (Ezek. xxvii, 8, 11 ; Strabo, xvi, 754), and formed a distinct state, with a king of their own (Arrian, Exped. A lex. ii, 90) ; yet they appear to have been in some dependence upon Tyre, for the prophet represents them as furnishing their contingent of mariners to that city (Ezek. xxvii, 8, 11). The Ar- vadites took their full share in Phoenician maritime traf- fic, particularly after Tyre and Sidon had fallen under the dominion of the Graeco-Syrian kings. They early entered into alliance with the Romans, and Aradus is mentioned among the states to which the consul Lucius formally made known the league which had been con- tracted with Simon Maccabaeus (1 Mace, xv, 23). Aryeh. See Lion. Ar'za (Heb. Artsa' ', N^"iX, an Aramaean form, the earth; Sept. 'Qpaci v. r. 'Apaa), a steward over the house of Elah, king of Israel, in whose house at Tir- zah, Zimri, the captain of the half of the chariots, con- spired against Elah, and killed him during a drinking debauch (1 Kings xvi, 9), B.C. 926". Arzan, an Armenian writer (died A.D. 459), who translated into the lan3uag3 of his country the works of Athanasius.— Hoefer, Biog. Gen. iii, 409. A'sa (Heb. Asa' ', NOX, healing, or physician), the name of two men. 1. (Sept. Ao-o, Josephus, "Aaavog.) The son of Abi- jah, grandson of Rehoboam, and third king of the sep- arate kingdom of Judah (1 Kings xv ; 2 Chron. xiv- xvi ; Matt, i, 7, 8). He began to reign two years be- fore the death of Jeroboam, in Israel, and he reigned forty-one years (B.C. 953-912). As Asa was very young at his accession, the affairs of the government were administered by his mother, or, according to some (comp. 1 Kings xv, 1, 10), his grandmother Maachah, who is understood to have been a granddaughter of Absalom. See Maachah. But the young king, on assuming the reins of government, was conspicuous for his earnestness in supporting the worship of God, and rooting out idolatry with its attendant immorali- ties, and for the vigor and wisdom with which he pro- vided for the prosperity of his kingdom. In his zeal against heathenism he did not spare his grandmother Maachah, who occupied the special dignity of " King's Mother," to which great importance was attached in the Jewish court, as afterward in Persia, and to which parallels have been found in modern Eastern countries, as in the position of the Sultana Valide inTurkev (see 1 KingaHi, 19; 2 Kings xxiv, 12; Jer. xxix, 2~; also Calmet, Fragm. xvi; and Bruce' s Travels, ii, 537, and iv, 244). Site had Bet up some impure worship in a grove (the word translated "idol," 1 Kings xv, 13, is "tV??"2* a, fright or horrible image, while in the Vulg. we read ne e$iet [Jlfaacha] princeps in sun-is Priap'i); but Asa burnt the symbol of her religion, and threw fa :i-li.< into the brook Kidron, as Moses had done to the golden calf (Exod. xxxii, 20), and then deposed Maachah from her dignity, lie also placed in the Temple certain Lifts which his father had dedicated, probably in the earlier and better period of his reign [see AnuAii], and which the heathen priests must have used for their own worship, and renewed the preat altar which they apparently had desecrated (2 Chron. xv, 8) during his minority and under the preceding reigns, and only the altars in the "high-places" were suffered to remain (1 Kings xv, 11-13; 2 Chron. xiv, 2-5). He neglected no human means of putting his kingdom in the best possible military condition, for which ample opportunity was afforded by the peace which he enjoyed for ten years (B.C. 938-928) in the middle of his reign. His resources were so well or- ganized, and the population had so increased, that he fortified cities on his frontiers, and raised an army amounting, according to 2 Chron. xiv, 8, to 580,000 j men ; but the uncertainty attaching to the numbers in our present text of Chronicles has been pointed out by Kennicott and by Davidson {Introduction to the 0. T. p. G86), who consider that the copyists were led into error by the different modes of marking them, and by confounding the different letters which denoted them, bearing as they do a great resemblance to each other. See Number. Thus Asa's reign marks the return of Judah to a consciousness of the high destiny to which God had called her, and to the belief that the Divine power was truly at work within her. The pood effects of this were visible in the 13th year of his reign, when, relying upon the Divine aid, Asa attacked and defeat- ed the numerous host of the Cushite king Zerah (q. v.), who had penetrated through Arabia Petrjea into the vale of Zephathah with an immense host, reckoned at a million of men (which Josephus reduces, however, to 90,000 infantry and 100,000 cavalry, Ant. viii, 12, 1) and 300 chariots (2 Chron. xiv, 9-15). As the tri- umphant Judahites were returning, laden with spoil, to Jerusalem, they were met by the prophet Azariah, who declared this splendid victory to be a consequence of Asa's confidence in Jehovah, and exhorted him to perseverance. Thus encouraged, the king exerted i himself during the ten ensuing years of tranquillity to extirpate the remains of idolatry, and caused the peo- ple to renew their covenant with Jehovah (2 Chron. xv, 1-15). It was this clear knowledge of his depend- ent political position, as the vicegerent of Jehovah, which won for Asa the highest praise that could be given to a Jewish king — that he walked in the steps of his ancestor David (1 Kings xv, 11). Nevertheless, toward the latter end of his reian (the numbers in 2 Chron. xv, 19, and xvi, 1, should be 25th and 26th) the king failed to maintain the character he had thus acquired. When Baasha, king of Israel, had renew- ed the war between the two kingdoms, and had taken Ramah, which he was proceeding to" fortify as a fron- tier barrier, Asa, the conqueror of Zerah, was so far wanting to his kingdom and his God as to emploj^ the wealth of the Ter.ple and of the royal treasury to in- duce the King of Syria (Damascus) to make a diversion in his favor by invading the dominions of Paasha (see Kitto's Daily Bible Must, in loc). By this means he recovered Ramah, indeed ; but his treasures were squandered, and he incurred the rebuke of the prophet Hanani, whom he cast into prison, being, as it seems, both alarmed and enraged at the effect his address was calculated to produce upon the people. Other persons (who had probably manifested their disapprobation) also suffered from his anger (1 Kings xv, 16 22; 2 Chron. xvi, 1-10). The prophet threatened Asa with war, which appears to have been fulfilled hy the con- tinuance for some time of that with Baasha, as we in- fer from an allusion, in 2 Chron. xvii, 2, to the cities of Ephraim which he took, and which can hardly re- fer to any events prior to the destruction of Ramah. In the last three years of his life Asa was afflicted with a grievous "disease in his feet," probably the gout [see Disease] ; and it is mentioned to his reproach that he placed too much confidence in his physicians (q. v.), i. e. he acted in an arrogant and independent spirit, and without seeking God's blessing on their remedies. At his death, however, it appeared that ASADIAS 451 ASARELAII his popularity had not been substantially impaired, for he was honored with a funeral of unusual cost and magnificence (2 Chron. xvi, 11-14; with which 1 Kings xv, 24, does not conflict). He was succeeded by his son Jehoshaphat. See Judah, Kingdom of. 2. (Sept. 'Orrna.) A Levite, son of Elkanah and fa- ther of Berechiah, which last was one of those who re- sided in the villages of the Netophathites on the return from Babylon (1 Chron. ix, 16). B.C. ante 53G. Asadi'as (Atratiiac., i. e. Hasadiah), the son of Chelcias and father of Sedecias, in the ancestry of Ba- ruch (q. v.), according to the apocryphal book that bears his name (Bar. i, 1). Comp. 1 Chr. iii, 21. Asae'as (or rather Asai'as, 'Aaaiac), one of the "sons" of Annas that divorced his Gentile wife after the exile (1 Esdr. ix, 32) ; evidently the Ishijaii (q. v.) of the genuine text (Ezra x, 31). As'ael (or rather A' ml, 'AmijX, prob. for Jahziel), the father of Gabael, of the tribe of Naphtali, among the ancestors of Tobit (Tob. i, 1). As'ahel (Heb. Asah-el', bxilbs?, creature of God"), the name of four men. 1. (Sept. 'AaafjX, Josephus, 'AadtjXog, Ant. vii, 3, 1.) The youngest son of David's sister Zeruiah (2 Sam. ii, 18), and brother of Joab and Abishai (1 Chron. ii, 16). He was one of David's early adherents (2 Sam. xxiii, 24), and with his son Zebadiah was commander of the fourth division of the royal army (1 Chron. xxvii, 7). He was noted for his swiftness of foot, a gift much valued in ancient times (comp. Iliad, xv, 570; Plutarch, Vit. Romuli, 25 ; Liv. ix, 16; Curt, vii, 7, 32 ; Veget. Mil. i, 9) ; and after the battle at Gibeon he pursued and overtook Abner (q. v.), who, with great reluctance, in order to preserve his own life, slew him by a back-thrust with the sharp iron heel of his spear, *B.C. cir. 1051 (2 Sam. ii, 18-23). To revenge his death, his brother Joab some years after treacher- ously killed Abner, who had come to wait on David at Hebron (2 Sam. iii, 26, 27). See Joab. 2. (Sept. 'AuarjX v. r. 'lamrjX.) One of the Levites sent by Jehoshaphat to teach the people of Judah the law of the Lord (2 Chron. xvii, 8), B.C. 909. 3. (Sept. 'AaarjX.) One of the Levites appointed by Hezekiah as overseer of the contributions to the house of the Lord (2 Chron. xxxi, 13), B.C. 726. 4. (Sept. Aow/X.) The father of Jonathan, which latter was one of the elders who assisted Ezra in put- ting away the foreign wives of the Jews on the return from Babylon (Ezra x, 15). B.C. ante 459. Asahi'ah. See Asaiah, 3. Asai'ah. (Heb. Asayah', rni.'", constituted by Je- hwih; Sept. 'Aaa'ia or 'Arraiac, v. r. 'Aad in 1 Chron. ix, 5), the name of four men. 1. The son of Hag^iah (1 Chron. vi, 30) and chief of the 220 Levites of the family of Merari, appointed by David to remove the ark of the covenant from the house of Obed-edom, and afterward to take charge of the singing exercises (1 Chron. xv, 6, 11). B.C. cir. 1043. 2. The head of one of the families of the tribe of Simeon, mentioned in 1 Chron. iv, 36, as dispossessing the descendants of Ham from the rich pastures near Gedor in the time of Hezekiah, B.C. cir. 712. 3. A servant of Josiah, sent with others to consult the prophetess Huldah concerning the book of the law found in the Temple (2 Kings xxii, 12, 14 [where the name is less correctlv Anglicized "Asahiah"]; 2 Chron. xxxiv, 20). B.C. 623. 4. The "first-born" of the Shilonites (q. v.) who returned to Jerusalem after the captivity (1 Chron. ix, 5). B.C. 536. See Maaseiah 9. Asamon (Affa/nov), a mountain in the central part of Galilee, opposite Sepphoris, where the rebels from this city having taken refuge, were destroyed by tiie Roman general Gallus (Josephus, War, ii, 18, II). It is thought by Robinson (Later Bib. Res. p. 77) to be the broken ridge which commences with the high sum- mit of Jebel Kaukab on the XV. and runs eastward along the N. side of the plain El-Buttauf (Van de Velde, Memoir, p. 288). AsamoiiEean, Asamousus. See Asmo.vi:- ax. As'ana QAooava), a man (or place) whose "sons" (servants of the Temple) returned from the captivity (1 Esdr. v, 31) ; evidently the Asnah (q. v.) of Ezra ii, 50, rather than the Ashnah (q. v.) of Josh, xv, 33 or 43. A'saph (Heb. Asaph', fDX, assembler; Sept. 'Aaa(f), the names of three persons. See Ebiasaph. 1. A Levite of the family of Gershom (see below), son of Barachiah (1 Chron. vi, 39; xv, 17), eminent as a musician, and appointed by David to preside over the sacred choral services which he organized (1 Chron. xvi, 5), B.C. 1014. The "sons of Asaph" are after- ward mentioned as choristers of the Temple (1 Chron. xxv, 1, 2; 2 Chron. xx, 14; xxix, 13; Ezra ii, 41; iii, 10; Neh. vii, 44; xi, 22); and this office appears to have been made hereditary in his family (1 Chron. xxv, 1, 2). Asaph was celebrated in after times as a prophet (!~t? H, seer) and poet (2 Chron. xxix, 30 ; Neh. xii, 46), and the titles of twelve of the Psalms (1, lxxiii, to lxxxiii) bear his name, in some of which he evident- ly stands (as a patronymic, Neh. xi, 17) for the Levites generally (see Huetii Demonstr. ev. p. 332 ; Bertholdt, v, 1956 ; Herder, Ebr. Poesie, ii, 331 ; comp. Niemeyer, Charakterist. iv, 356 sq. ; Carpzov, Jntrod. 103 sq. ; Eichhorn, Einl. v, 17 sq.) ; or he may have been the founder of a school of poets and musical composers, who were called after him "the sons of Asaph" (comp. the Homeridoe). See Psalms. The following is his ancestry (see Reinhard, De Asapho, Vien. 1742). Names. 1 Chron. vi. 1 Chrou. vi. Bom, cir. B.C. Levi 1 20 20 10 20 21 21 21 10 43 IT 43 42 42 42 41 41 41 40 40 4) 33 39 33 11117 Gershom 18G0? 1750? 10P5? 164'J? Joali or Ethan 15S5? or Iddo 1530? 1475? or Jeaterai . . Malchiah Baa^eiah 1420? 1365? 1310? 1255? 1200? Berachiah Aaaph 1146? 1090? 2. The "father" of Joah, which latter was "record- er" in the time of Hezekiah (2 Kings xviii, 18, 37 ; Isa. xxxvi, 3, 22). B.C. ante 726. Perhaps i. q. No. 1. 3. A "keeper of the king's forests" (prob. in Leba- non), to whom Nehemiah requested of Artaxerxes Longimanus an order for timber to rebuild the Temple at Jerusalem (Neh. ii, 8). B.C. 446. Asapll's, St., a bishop's see in Flintshire, Wales, founded in the 6th century. The chapter consists of a dean, precentor, chancellor, treasurer, three canons, two archdeacons, seven cursal canons, and two minor canons. The present incumbent is Thomas Vowler Short, D.D., transferred from Sodor and Man in 1846. Asar'eel (Heb. AsareV, b>0;rx, bound by God, sc. under a vow; Sept. 'EaepaijX v. r. 'Ecrepi)X), the last named of the four sons of Jehaleleel, of the tribe of Judah (1 Chron. iv, 16). B.C. prob. post 1618. Asare'lah (Heb. Asharelah' ', nbx-OX, upright before God; Sept. TrW/\ v. r. 'Eoa»';X, 'AairfKa, 'Aati- pjjXo), the last named of the four sons of the Levite Asaph, who were appointed by David in charge of the ASBURY 452 ASBURY Temple music in connection with ethers (1 Chron. xxv, I mained comparatively secluded for ten months. Al- 2): elsewhere (ver. 14) called by the equivalent name , though his movements were now circumscribed, yet JESHARELAH (q. v.). he was bj' no means idle, and remarks that it was "a -, .„ . , ... e ., ,r ,. rJ season of the most active, the most useful, and the Asburv. Daniel, a minister of the Methodist . «. . . , . . ' ... ,, , . . ' Asuiuy i/cii^ci, „„„„«.„ vn ' most suffering part of his life." indeed, two vears Fn -emu < huivh, was born in iairfax countv, \ a., . i ■ ,• , , . , , . " ' Revolu claPsed 'jeiora he presumed to leave his retreat, and to travel extensively in the performance of his du- Feb. 18, 1762. He served in the war of the lion and soon after its close was converted. In 1786 .. ' , ... . .. . „„ , ,„„f-„^ • ;f ties as superintendent; when, the authorities becom- lie entered the itinerant . mmistrv, and continued in it, . . r , ,, . ., ' ' . ^y" wltn an interval of nine years, up to 1824, and during ^ZT!^^^ 12 "1 lo!" *» *fr this long service his fidelity and diligence were signal odist preachers, but that their scruples were of a relk ,.,7 _ ymutes 0f 10USi not of a political nature, and that they we „::"l97 ' merely intent upon preaching the gospel of peace >!', 1_(. 1 1.1. l!_i_ .1 ... i , ly manifest. He died suddenly in 185 i 'mfi r, nces, i, 506 ; Sprague, Armals humble evangelists, they were permitted to exercise Asbury, Francis, the first bishop of the Method- their functions unmolested. At the close of the war ist Episcopal Church ordained in America, was born in 1783 there were 83 Methodist ministers in the work, at Handsworth, Staffordshire, England, Aug. 20, 1745. ; with nearly 14,000 members. 1784 the Methodist His parents were pious Methodists, and trained him1 societies were organized into an Episcopal Church, with religious care, so that it is no wonder that he was converted at thirteen. In his youth he sat under the mini-try of Ryland, Hawes, and Venn, as well as of the Methodist preachers. He obtained the rudiments of education at the village school of Barrc, and in his fourteenth year was apprenticed to a maker of '' buckle- chapes." At sixteen he became a local preacher; at twenty-two he was received into the itinerant ministry by Mr. Wesley. In 1771 he was appointed missionary to America, and landed at Philadelphia, with the Rev four years before the organization of the Protestant Episcopal Church, and Mr. Asbury was elected bish- op, and consecrated by Dr. Coke, who had been or- dained in England by Wesley. From this time to the day of his death his whole life was devoted to the preaching of the Gospel and to the superintendence of the churches. His personal history is almost the his- tory of the growth of Methodism in his time. His Journals (3 vols. 8vo) contain a wonderful record of postolic zeal and fidelity, of a spirit of self-sacrifice Richard Wright as his companion, on the 27th October rivalling that of the saints and martyrs of the early in that year. The first Methodist church in America church, of an industry which no toils could weary, of had been built three years before; and in 1771 the a patience which no privations could exhaust. He whole number of communicants was about GOO, chiefly remained unmarried through life, that he might not in Philadelphia and New York. The country was be hindered in his work. His salary was sixty-four disturbed by political agitation, soon to develop into dollars a year. His horses and carriages were given revolution. In 1772 Asbury Mas appointed Mr. Wes- by his friends, all donations of money from whom he ley's '-general assistant in America," with power of j assigned to his fellow-sufferers and fellow-laborers. supervision over all the preachers and societies, but At one of the early Western Conferences, where the was superseded in the year following by an older ; assembled itinerants presented painful evidences of preacher from England, Mr. Rankin. When the war j want, he parted with his watch, his coat, and his shirts broke out Rankin returned to England; but Asbury, j for them. He was asked by a friend to lend him fifty foreseeing the great work of the church in America, i pounds. "He might as well have asked me for Peru,'' remained. He thought it would be an eternal (lis- j wrote the bishop. " I showed him all the money I grace to forsake in this time of trial the thousands of [ had in the world, about twelve dollars, and gave him poor sheep in the wilderness who had placed them- I five." In spite of his defective education, he acquired selves under the c ire of the Methodists, and, fully | a tolerable knowledge of Greek and Hebrew; but his sympathizing with the cause of the struggling colo- j wisdom was far greater than his learning. As early nies, he resolved to remain and share the sufferings | as 1785 he laid the foundation of the first Methodist and the fate of the infant connection and of the coun- college; and some time after he formed a plan for di- try. Like many religious people of those times, ho j viding the whole country into districts, with a classical was, from conscientious scruples, a non-juror, as were I academy in each. As a preacher, he was clear, ear- all the other Methodist preachers, and also many of | nest, pungent, and often powerfully eloquent. The the clergy of the Episcopal Church, who yet chose to j monument of his organizing and administrative talent remain in the country. As their character and mo- \ may be seen in the discipline and organization of the tivea were not understood, they were exposed to much Methodist Church, which grew under bis hands, during suffering and persecution. The Rev. F. Garrettson his lifetime, from a feeble band of 4 preachers and 310 and Joseph Hartley were imprisoned on the Eastern members to nearly 700 itinerants, 2000 local preachers, Shor,- of .Maryland; Mr. Chew, also one of the preach- and over 214,000 members. Within the compass of ers, being brought before the sheriff of one of the : every year, the borderers of Canada and the planters counties of the same state, and required to take the ! of Mississippi looked for the coming of this primitive oath of allegiance, replied that scruples of conscience bishop, and were not disappointed. His travels aver- would not permit him to do so. The sheriff then in- J aged 6000 miles a year : and this not in a splendid car- form id him that he was bound by oath to execute the I riage, over smooth roads ; not with the ease and -peed laws, and if" be persisted in his refusal, no alternative of the railway, but often through pathless forests and was left but to commit him to prison. To this the untravelled wildernesses; among the swamps of the prisoner answered very mildly that he by no means South and the prairies of the West; amid the heats Wished to be the cause of perjury, and was therefore j of the Carolinas and the snows of New England, perfectly resigned to bear the penally. "You are a There grew up under his hands an entire church, with strange man," said the sheriff; "I cannot bear to pun- fearless preachers and untrained members; but he l.-h you, and therefore my own house shall be your governed the multitude as he had done the handful, I'"""1- "'' accordingly formally committed him to with a gentle charilv and an unflinching firmness. In bis own house, and kept him there three months. In diligent activity, no apostle, no missionary, no warrior the course of this time this gentleman and his wife ever surpassed him. He rivalled Melancthon and were both converted to God, and joined the Methodist Luther in boldness. He combined the enthusiasm of Church. On the 20th of June,1776, Mr. Asburv. not- , Xavier with the far-reaching foresight and keen dis- Wrthstanding his extreme prudence, was arrested near crimination of Wesley. With a mind untrained in Baltimore, and fined five pounds; and in March. 1778, the schools, he yet seemed to seize upon truth by intu- he retired to the house of his friend, Thomas White, a Ltion j and though men might vanquish him in logic, iudgc of one of the court- of Delaware, where he re- uilil not denv his conclusions Hi • ASCALON 453 ASCENSION ting labors exhausted a constitution originally frail ; yet, with the old martyr spirit, ho continued to travel and to preach, even when he was so weak that he had to be carried from the couch to the pulpit. He died in Spottsylvania, Ya., March 31, 1816. In Church History Francis Asbury deserves to be classed with the greatest propagators of Christianity in ancient or in modern times ; and when the secular history of America comes to be faithfully written, his name will be handed down to posterity as having con- tributed, in no small degree, to the progress of civil- ization in the United States. In the language of Dr. Stevens, in the Knickerbocker Magazine (January, 1859), "He sent his preachers across the Alleghanies, and kept them in the very van of the westward march of emigration. The first 'ordination' in the valley of the Mississippi was performed by his hands ; and it is a grave question what Mould have been the moral de- velopment of the mighty states throughout that impe- rial domain, had it not been for the brave 'itinerant' corps of Asbury, which carried and expounded the Bible among its log cabins at a time in our national history when it was absolutely impossible for the American churches to send thither regular or educated clergymen in any proportion to the growth of its pop- ulation. If what is called the 'Methodist itinerancy' has done an}' important service for the moral salva- tion of that vast region, now the theatre of our noblest state?, the credit is due, in a great measure, to the un- paralleled energy of Francis Asbury. He not only pointed Ins preachers thither, but led the way. No records of American frontier adventure show greater endurance or courage than Asbury's travels beyond the mountains'. Armed hunters, twenty-five or fifty in number, used to escort him from point to point to protect him from the Indians, and great were the gath- erings and grand the jubilees wherever ho appeared." —Asbury, Journals (N.York, 1S52, 3 vols. 8vo); Bangs, History cf the M. E. Church (N. York, 18C9, 4 vols. 12mo) ; Meth. Qu. lievieu; April, 1852, and July, 1854 ; Strickland, Life of Asbury (X.York, 1858,' 12mo); Wakely, Heroes of Methodism (N.York, 1859, 12mo) ; Stevens, Memorials of Methodism (2 vols. 12) ; Stevens, Hist, of the M. E. Church ( X. York, 186-1) ; Centenary of Methodism (N. York, 1866, 12mo); Sprague, Annals, vii, 13 ; Boehm, Reminiscences Historical, and Bioffraj h- ical, edited by \Vakeley(N. Y. 1865, 12mo) ; Larrabee, Asbury and his Coadjutors (N. Y. 2 vols. 12mo). See Methodist Episcopal Church. As'calon (Judith ii, 28; 1 Mace, x, 86; xi, 60; xii, 33). See Ashkelon. Ascension of Christ, his visible passing from earth to heaven in the presence of his disciples, on the Mount of Olives, fortv days after the resurrection (Mark xvi, 19 ; Luke xxiv, 50, 51 ; Acts i, 1-11). (1) The ascension was a necessary consequence of the res- urrection. Had Christ died a natural death, or simply disappeared from view in obscurity, the resurrection, as a proof of Divine power, would have gone for noth- ing. It was essential that He should " die no more," so as to demonstrate forever his victory over death. (2) It was predicted in the O. T. in several striking passages (c. g. Psa. xxiv, lxviii, ciii, ex) ; and also by Christ himself (John vi. 62; xx, 17). (3) It was pre- figured in the patriarchal dispensation by the transla- tion of Enoch (Gen. v, 24 ; Heb. xi, 5) ; and in the Jewish, by the translation of Elijah (2 Kings ii, 11); so that each of the three dispensations have had a vis- ible proof of the immortal destiny of human nature. (4) The fact of the ascension is given by tvvo evange- lists only ; but John presupposes it in the passages above cited. It is referred to, and doctrines built upon it, by the apostles (2 Cor. xiii, 4; Eph. ii, 6; iv, 10; 1 Pet. iii, 22 ; 1 Tim. iii, 16 ; Heb. vi, 20). " The evi- dences of this occurrence were numerous : the disci- ples saw him ascend (Acts i, 9) ; two angels testified that he did ascend (Acts i, 10, 11) ; Stephen, Paul, and John saw him in his ascended state (Acts vii, 55, 56; ; ix, 3-5; Rev. i, 9-18); the ascension was demonstrated | by the descent of the Holy Ghost (John xvi, 7-14 ; Acts ii, 33) ; and had been prophesied by our Lord him- self (Matt, xxvi, 64; John viii, 21). (5) The time of Christ's ascension was forty days after his resurrec- tion. He continued that number of days upon earth in order that he might give repeated proofs of the fact of his resurrection (Acts i, 3), and instruct his apostles in everything of importance respecting their office and ministry, opening to them the Scriptures concerning himself (Mark xvi, 15; Acts i, 5-8). (6) As to the manner of his ascension, it was from Mt. Olivet, not in appearance only, but in reality, and that visibly and ; locally. It was sudden, swift, glorious, and in a tri- umphant manner. See Glorification. Hewaspart- l ed from his disciples while he was solemnly blessing them, and multitudes of angels attended him with j shouts of praise (Psa. xxiv, 7-10; xlvii, 5, 6; lxviii, ] 18)" (Watson, Theol. Dictionary, s. v.). (7) Its residts to the church are : (a) the assumption of regal domin- ! ion by Christ, the head of the church (Heb. x, 12, 13 ; Eph.'iv, 8,10; Psa. lxviii) ; (6) the gift of the Holy Spirit (John xvi, 7, 14; Acts ii, 33; John xiv, 16-19); (c) the intercession of Christ, as mediator, at the right hand of God (Rom. viii, 34 ; Heb. vi, 20). The 3d Article of the Church of England and of the 1 Protestant Episcopal Church runs thus : "Christ did ! truly rise again from death, and took again his body, with flesh, bones, and all things appertaining to the perfection of man's nature, wherewith he ascended into heaven, and there sittcth, until he return to judge all men at the last day." Ihe corresponding article of the Methodist Episcopal Church is the same, omit- ting the words "with flesh, bones, and;" an omission which does net affect the substance of the article. Browne's note on this article is as follows: "It is clear" (from the account in the Goepel) that "our Lord's body, after he rose from the grave, was that bod}' in which ho was buried, having hands and feet, and flesh and bones, capable of being handled, and in which he spoke, and ate, and drank (Luke xxiv, 42, 43). Moreover, it appears that our Lord thus showed his hands and feet to his disciples at that very inter- view with them in which he was parted from them and received up into heaven. This will be ?een by i reading the last chapter of St. Luke from verse 36 to the end, and comparing it with the first chapter of the Acts, verse 4-9; especially comparing Luke xxiv, 49, 50, with Acts i, 4, 8, 9. In that body, then, which the disciples felt and handled, and which was proved to I them to have flesh and bones, these disciples saw our Lord ascend into heaven ; and, immediately after his ascent, angels came and declared to them that that ' same Jesus whom they had seen taken up into heaven ; should so come in like manner as the}* had seen him go into heaven' (Acts i, 11). All this, connected to- i gether, seems to prove the identity of our Lord's body after bis resurrection, at his ascension, and so on, even till his coming to judgment, with the body in which he suffered, and in which he was buried, and so fully justifies the language used in the article of our church. But because we maintain that the body of Christ, even after his resurrection and ascension, is a true human body, with all things pertaining to the perfection of man's nature (to deny which would be to deny the important truth that Christie still perfect man as well ' as perfect God), it by no means, therefore, follows that we should deny that his risen body is now a glorified, and, as St. Paul calls it, a spiritual body. "But, after his ascension, we have St. Paul's dis- tinct assurance that the body of Christ is a clorious, is a spiritual body. In 1 Cor. xv, we have St. Paul's assertion that, in the resurrection of all men, the body shall rise again, but that it shall no longer be a nat- ural body, but a spiritual body ; no longer a corrupt!- ASCENSION DAY 4^4 ASCETICISM hie and vile, but an incorruptible and glorious body (1 Cor. xv. 42-53); and this change of our bodies from natural to spiritual is expressly stated to be bearing the image of our glorified Lord— the image of that heavenly man the Lord from heaven (ver. 47-49). So, again, the glorified state of the saint's bodies after the resurrection, which in 1 Cor. xv had been called the receiving a spiritual body, is in Phil, iii, 21 said to I.,, a fashioning of their bodies to the likeness of Christ's glorious body: 'who shall change our vile body, that i! may be fashioned like unto his glorious body.' AVe must therefore conclude that, though Christ rose with the -inn' body in which he died, and that body neither did nor shall cease to be a human body, still it ac- quired, either at his resurrection or at his ascension, the qualities and attributes of a spiritual as distin- guished by the apostle from a natural body, of an in- corruptible as distinguished from a corruptible body" ( i hi Thirty-nine Articles, p. 115). On the fact and doctrine of the ascension, see Nean- der, Life of Christ, p. 437 sq. ; Olshausen, Comm. on Acts, i, 1-11 ; Baumgarten, Apostolic History, i, 24- 28; Bossuet, Sermons, iv, 88; Watson, Sermons, ii, 21i); Farindon, Sermons, ii, 477-495; South, Sermons, iii, 1(1.) ; Bibliotkeca Sacra, i, 152 ; ii, 162 ; Knapp, The- ology, § 97 ; Dorner, Doct. of Person of Christ, vol. ii ; Barrow, Sermons, ii, 501, (i08 ; Herzog, Real-Encyklo- pi'ulie, vi, 106 ; Maurice, Theol. Essays, p. 251. Mon- ographs connected with the subject have been written, among others, by Amnion (Gott. 1800), Anger (Lips. 1830), Bose (Lips. 1741), Crusius (Lips. 1757), Deyling (05*. iii. 198), Doederlein (Opp. p. 59), Eichler (Lips. 1737), Flugge (Han. 1808), Fogtmaim (Hafn. 1826), Georgius (Viteb. 1748), Griesbach (Jen. 1793), Himly (Argent. 1811), Hasse (Regiom. 1805), Loescher (Vi- teb. 1698), Mayer (Gryph. 1704), C. B. Michaelis (Hal. 1749), Otterbein (Duisb. 1802), Schlegel (Henke's Mag. iv, 277), Setter (Erlang. 1798), id. (ib. 1803), Steen- bach (Hafn. 171 ), Weichert (Viteb. 1811), Zickier (Jen. 175s), Brennecke (Lnxemb. 1819 [replies by Hau- mann, Iken, Soltmann, Starum, Tinius, Webor, Wit- ting] i, Kikebusch (Schneeb. 1751), Korner (Sachs. Geistl. Stud, i, 10), Liebknecht (Giess. 1737), Mosheim (Helmst. 1729), Schmid (Lips. 1712), Andrea (Marb. 1676), Mahn (Lips. 1700), Remling (Viteb. 1685). See Jesus. Ascension Day, or Holy Thursday, a festival of the church held in commemoration of the ascension of our Lord, forty days after Easter, and ten before Whitsuntide. Augustine (Ep. 54,) supposed it to be among the festivals instituted by the apostles them- selves, but it was not observed in the church until the third century. It is also noticed in the Apostolical Constitutions, It is especially observed in the Roman < hurch, and also, though with less form, in tl>e Church of England. It is one of the six days in the year for \\ hich the < 'hurch of England appoints special psalms. — Bingham, Orig. Eccl. bk. xx. cap. (I, § 5; Procter, On th Common Prayer-book, ip. 288. Ascension ok Isaiah. See Isaiah. Ascent (some form of tlhv, alah' , to go up, as elsewhere often rendered), 2 Sain, xv, 30; 1 Kings, x, 5 ; 2 ( hron. ix, 4. See Akrabbim ; Causeway.' Asceterinm (aoKnrhpiov), the place of retreat of in later times, often applied to monasteries. — Suicer, Thesaurus, s. v. Asceticism, Ascetics. The name cmk>)->)c (from aoKiw, to exercise') is borrowed from profane writer-, by whom it is generally employed to describe the athletes, or Hi' 11 trained to the profession of gladi- ators or prize-fighters. In the early Christian church the name ua> given to sueli as inured themselves to greater degrees of fasting ami abstinence than other men, in order to subdue or mortify their passions. See Exercise. The Christian ascetics were divided into ubstinetUts, or those who abstained from wine, meat, and agreeable food, and cont'nentes, or those who, ab- staining from matrimony also, were considered to at- tain to a higher degree of sanctity. Many laymen as well as ecclesiastics were ascetics in the first cvnturies of our era, without retiring on that account from the business and bustle of life. Some of them wore the pill 'rum philosophicum, or the philosophic mantle, and were therefore called Christian philosophers, and form- ed thus the transition link to the life of hermits and monks. Romanist writers pretend that the ascetics were originally the same with monks : the monastic life, however, was not known till the fourth centurv (Pagi, Crit. in Bar. A.D. 62, N. 4). The difference between ascetics and monks may be thus stated : 1. The monks were such as retired from the business and conversation of the world to some desert or mountain ; but the ascetics were of an active life, living in cities as other men, and only differing from them in the ar- dor of their devotional acts and habits. 2. The monks were only laymen ; the ascetics were of any order. 3. The monks were bound by certain laws and disci- plinary regulations ; but the ancient ascetics had no such laws. The habits and exercises of the ascetics may nevertheless be regarded as the introduction of monasticism. The root of asceticism in the early Christian ehurch is to be found in a Gnostic leaven, remaining from the early struggle of the church with Gnosticism (q. v.). The open Gnosticism was crush- ed ; but its more seductive principle was imbibed, to a large extent, even by the best of the church fathers, and remained to plague Christianity for hundreds of years in the forms of asceticism, celibacy, monasti- cism, and the various superstitions of the same class in the Pomish Church. That principle makes the "con- ditions of animal life, and the common alliances of men in the social system, the antithesis of the Divine perfections, and so to be escaped from, and decried by all who pant after the highest excellence." See Taylor, Ancient Christianity, vol. i, where this subject is treated at length and with great mastery of both history and philosophy. See Abstinence; Fast- ing; Monks. As soon as the inward and spiritual life of the Chris- tians declined, the tendency to rely on external acts and forms increased ; and if the previous bloody per- secutions had driven individuals from human society into the deserts, the growing secularization of the church, after Christianity became the state religion, had the same effect to a still greater degree. All this paved the way for monasticism (q. v.) ; and the church thought herself compelled by the overwhelming tide of opinion within and without to recognise this form of asceticism, and to take it under her protection and care. From the African Church a gloomy and super- stitious spirit spread over the Western Church, intensi- fying the ascetic tendencies. ' There were not wanting healthier minds — as Vigilantius (q. v.) and others — to raise their voices against fasting, monkery, and the outward works of asceticism generally ; but such pro- tests were vain, and became ever rarer. From the 11th century, the Cathari, Waldenses, and other sects assailed the external asceticism of the church ; the classic Petrarch fought on the same side ; and so did Wickliffe, Hubs, and Jerome of Prague, in their strug- gles at reformation. After a preliminary skirmish by Erasmus, the struggle was decided in the Reformation of the 10th centurv. The fundamental principle of that movement, that salvation is secured by justifica- tion through faith, and not through dead works, struck at the root of monkery and mortification in general. But the victory has not been so complete as is often assumed. The ascetic spirit often shows itself still alive under various disguises even in Protestantism. See Shakers. The great error of asceticism is to hold self-denial and suffering to be meritorious in the sight of (bid, in and for itself. Its germinant princi- ple, in all ages of the church, has been, as stated ASCHE 455 ASH above, a Gnostic way of viewing the relations between God, man, and nature, tending to dualism and to the confounding of sin with the very nature of matter. See Zockler, Kiitische Gesckickte der Askete (Frankf. 1863, 8vo); Schafij Church History, § 94; Mercersburg Review, 1858, p. 600; Coleman, Ancient Christianity, ch. vii, § 5 ; Bibliotheca Sacra, Oct. 1858, p. 600 ; Bing- ham, Oriff. Eccl. bk. vii, ch. i ; Mosheim, Coram, i, 381. See Hermit. Asche. See Asser. Ascitae (q. d. aoKirai, replete) or Ascodrogit.e, heretics who appeared in Galatia about 173. They pretended to be tilled with the "paraclete" of Monta- nus, and introduced bacchanalian indecencies into the churches, where they brought a skin of wine, and, marching round it, declared that they were the vessels filled with new wine of which the Lord speaks in the Gospels. Hence their name from the Greek ckjkoc., which means "a skin."— Augustine, liar, 62; Landon, Eccl. Diet, i, 506. See Montanists. Ascough, or, according to Godwin, " William Ayscoth, doctor of laws and clerk of the counsel, was consecrated in the chapel of Windsor, July 20, 1438. The year 1450 it happened the commons to arise in sundry parts of the realm, by the stirring of Jack Cade, naming himself John Mortimer. A certain number of lewd persons (tenants for the most part to this bishop), intending to join themselves to the rest of that crew, came to Evendon, where he was then saying of mass. What was their quarrel to him I find not. But certain it is, they drew him from the altar in his alb, with his stole about his neck, to the top of a hill not far off, and there, as he kneeled on his knees praying, they cleft his head, spoiled him to the skin, and, rending his bloody shirt into a number of pieces, took every man a rag to keep for a monument of their worthy exploit. The day before they had robbed his carriages of 10,000 marks in ready money. This barbarous murder was committed June 29th, the year aforesaid." Dr. Fuller supposes that the bishop was attacked because he was "learned, pious, and rich, three capital crimes in a clergyman." He also gives ns the following distich, which may be applicable in other times : " Sic concusso cadit popular! mitra tumultu, Protegat optamus nunc diadema Deus. " By people's fury mitres thus cast down We pray henceforward God preserve the crown." —Bioff. Britannica ,• Hook, Eccl. Biog. i, 323. See As- kew. Ase'as. See Asjzas. Asebebi'a ('AertjSjjjSia), one of the Levites who, with his sons, joined the caravan under Ezra (1 Esdr. viii, 47) ; evidently the Sherebiah (q. v.) of the gen- uine text (Ezra viii, 18). Asebi'a CAaifiia), another of the Levites who re- turned in Ezra's party to Palestine (1 Esdr. viii, 48) ; evidently the Hashabiah (q. v.) of the true text (Ezra ' :ii, 19). As'enath (Heb. Asenath' , MDS, on the signif. see below; Sept. 'AmviQ v. r. ' Ami'viS), the daughter of Potipherah, priest of On, whom the king of Egypt bestowed in marriage upon Joseph (Gen. xli, 45; xlvi, 20), with the view probably of strengthening his posi- tion in Egypt by this high connection, B.C. 1883. See Josei'H. Siie became the mother of Ephraim and Manasseh (Gen. xli, 50). No better etymology of As- enath has been proposed than that by Jablonski, who (Panth. Egypt, i, 50 ; Opuscul. ii, 208) regards it as representative of a Coptic compound, Assheneit. The latter part of this word he takes to be the name of Neith, the titular goddess of Sais, the Athene of the Greeks, and considers the whole to mean worshipper of Neith. Gesenius, in his Thesaurus, suggests that the original Coptic form was A smith, which means who belongs to Keith. That the name refers to this goddess is the generally received opinion (in modern times Von Bohlen alone has, in his Genesis, proposed an unsatisfactory Shemitic etymology [see Lepsius, Chron d. yEgypter, i, 382]) : it is favored by the fact that the Egyptians, as Jablonski has shown, were ac- customed to choose names expressive of some relation to their gods ; and it appears liable to no stronger ob- jection than the doubt whether the worship of Neith existed at so early a period as that of the composition of the book of Genesis (see Champollion, Pantheon Egyptienne, No. 6). Even this doubt is now removed, as it appears that she was realty one of the primitive deities of Lower Egypt (Bunsen, Egypt's Place, i, 389), for her name occurs as an element in that of Nitocris (Neith-akri), a queen of the sixth dynasty (Wilkinson, in Rawlinson's Herodotus, ii, 142, note 2). A'ser ('Affi/n), the Grseeized form of Asher (q. v.), both the tribe (Luke ii, 36 ; Rev. vii, 0) and the city (Tobit i, 2). Ase'rer (Sifjap), one of the heads of the temple- servants that returned from the captivity (1 Esdr. v, 32) ; evidently the Sisera (q. v.) of the true text (Ezra ii, 53). Asgill, John, member of the Irish Parliament, and author of an eccentric book entitled An Argument proving that, according to the Covenant of eternal Life revealed in the Scriptures, Man may be translated hence into that eterned Life without passing through Death, al- though the humane. Nature of Christ himself coidd not thus be translated till he had passed through Death (Dub- lin, 1698, 8vo). The Irish Parliament voted it a blas- phemous libel, and expelled Asgill from the House after four days. In 1705 he entered the English Par- liament as member for Bramber, in Sussex. But the English House, resolving to be not less virtuous than the Irish, condemned his bock to be burnt by the com- mon hangman as profane and blasphemous, and ex- pelled Asgill on the 18th December, 1707. After this his circumstances rapidly grew worse, until at last he found something like peace in the King's Bench and the Fleet, between which two places his excursions were confined for the term of his natural life. He died in November, 1738. See Southey, The Doctor, pt. ii ; Coleridge, Works (Harpers' ed.), vol. v ; Allibone, i, 73. Ash Ci*^, o'ren, probably tremulous, from the mo- tion of the leaves) occurs only once in Scripture as the name of a tree, in connection with other trees, of whose timber idols were made, Isa. xliv, 14: "He heweth him down cedars, and taketh the cypress and the oak, which he strengtheneth for himself among the trees of the forest; he planteth an ash (oren), and the rain doth nourish it." Others consider pine-tree, to be the correct translation ; but for neither docs there ap- pear to be an)' decisive proof, nor for the ruhus or bramble adopted for oren in the fable of the Cedar and Rubus, translated from the Hebrew of R. Bcrechia Hannakdan by Celsius (Hierobot. i, 180). Oren is translated pine-tree both in the Sept. ([ttitvc) and the Vulg., and this has been acquiesced in by several of the most learned critics, and among them by Calvin and Bochart. Celsius (ut sup. p. 191) states, more- over, that some of the rabbins also consider oren to be the same as the Arabic sunober (which is no doubt a pine), and that they often join together arzim, or- nim, and beroshim, as trees of the same nature ("^XS D^iyi""!^ C"?7X C"T"X, "cedars" and "ash- trees" and "cypresses," Talmud Babyl. Para, fol. xevi, 1). Luther and the Portuguese version read cedar. Ro« senmuller (Altherth. IV, i, 243 sq. ; comp. Gesenius, Thes. Heb. p. 152) contends that it is not the common wild pine (Pinus sy/rcs/ris) which is intended, but what the ancients called the domestic pine, which was raised in gardens en account of its elegant shape and the ash 456 ASHDOD pleasant fruit it yields, the Pignole nuts of the Ital- ians (Pimapinea of Linnaeus), and quotes Virgil {Eel. Eusebius and Jerome (Onomast. s. v.) mention a vil- {Pinus pinen of Linnaeus), and quotes Virgil (Let. lage named Bethasan as 15 or 1G miles west of Jerusa- vii, 65; Georg. iv, 112). The English version, in the lem ; but this, though agreeing sufficiently with the translation of oren, follows those interpreters who have position of the place in John xv, 42, is not far enough adopted ornus, apparently only because the clementa- south for the indications of the other passages; and rv letters of the Hebrew are found also in the Latin indeed this is a doubtful intimation (Cellar. Notit. ii, word. See Pine. Celsius objects to this as an in- 496). See Ashnaii. It appears to have been situa- Bufficient reason for supposing that the ash was in- '. ted in the southern part of the hilly region adjoining tended ; and there does not appear to be any other the plain (Keil, Comment, on Josh, xv, 42) ; perhaps proof. Ornus Europcea, or manna ash (Fraxinus ornus, j not far from the present Deir Samil. See Ain. The LinnsBUS, Pftjnzemyst. ii, 516 ), does, however, grow in I above conflicting notices of its position would almost Syria, but, being a cultivated plant, it may have been I seem to require two cities of the name of Ashan, one introduced. See Manna. The common ash was an- j in Judah (?=Eshean), and the other in Simeon (dis- ciently associated with the oak (Stat. Theb. vi, 102) as ! tinctively Chor-ashan); but, on the whole, they may a hard (Ovid, Met. xii, 337; Lucan. vi, 390; Colum. ■ best be reconciled by supposing one locality, properly xi, 2) and durable (Horace, Od. i, 9, 2) tree (Pliny, in the plain of Judah, but assigned (with Ether, q. v.) >; Virg. Geo. ii, 65 sq.), of hardy growth (Virj Geo. ii, 111 ; jEn. ii, 626). Celsius (ut sup. p. 192) quotes from the Arab author 'Abu-1-Fadli the descrip- tion of a tree called aran, which appears well suited to the passage, though it has not yet been ascertained what tree is intended. The aran is said to be a tree to Simeon. See Tribe. Ash'bea (Heb. As'bea, "31TX, adjuration, other- wise swelling ; Sept. 'Eero/3a), the head of a family men- tioned as working in fine linen, a branch of the descend- | ants of Shokh, the son of Judah (1 Chron. iv, 21). B.C. ".*"T" VT~ n 1 V iC "•\T\-1" " "2-v." ' prob. cir. 1017. The clause in which the word occurs of Arabia Petrrea, of a thorny nature, inhabiting the ! , , „ iL „ ' . . . TT : ■ ,, , . r \ , . ., . . , ... . is obscure (see hertheau, t omrm nf. in loc. . Iloubigant valleys, but found also m the mountains, where it is, . „ A v , , ', , x , J t , , , i ... rn i • -a it i. u and Bootruyd understand a place to be meant by the however, less thorny. I he wood is said to be much . •' j7 ,, oV ™ e n T- valued for cleaning the teeth. The fruit is in bunch- i **f™*1™ B'th-ash^ea- ™« Jargon, °U\ u™?1* es like small grapes. The berry is noxious while j . „ , „ , 1 isaiBStfl ; Sept. o Acov^Xi v. r. Aavftijc.i, Vulg. f. Batan. iv, 252) identifies it with Flacourtia sepiaria of Roxburgh, a tree, however, which has not been found in Syria. It appears to agree in some respects with the Salcadora Persica, but not in all points, and therefore it requires further investigation by some Asbelitce, A. V. "the Ashbelites"), the descendants of Ashbel (q. v.), son of Benjamin (Num. xxvi, 38). Ash-cake (ilW, ugah', or it?;', uggah', "cake," cake baked on the hearth," Gen. xviii, 6; xix, 3; 1 traveller in Syria conversant both with plants and Kings xvii, 13 ; Ezek. iv, 12, etc. ; Sept. tyicpvfia), their Oriental names and uses— Kitto. See Botany. a thin round pancake baked over hot sand or a slab of Ash. See Arcturus ; Moth. stone by means of ashes or coals put over them, or bc- Ash, St. George, bishop of Derry, was born in tween two layers of hot embers of the dung of cows or 1658, became fellow of Trinity College', Dublin, 1679, j camels (see Schubert, iii, 28; Arvieux, iii, 227). Such and provost of Trinity, 1692. He was appointed bishop j are still relished in the East (by the Arabs of the des- of Cloyne in 1695, was translated to Clogher, 1697, and I ert) as a tolerably delicious dish (see Thevenot, ii, 32, thence to Derry in 1716. He died in Dublin in 1717. I P- '-35; Schweigger, p. 283; Niehuhr, Beschr. p. 52). He published a number of separate sermons, and con- ! See Cake. Such cake is made especially when there tributed to the papers of the Royal Society, of which j is not much time for linking. It must be turned in he was a member. j order to be baked through and not to burn on one side Ash, John, LL.D.. an Independent minister, was ! (Hos- vii> 8)- Xt was made commonly of wheat flour born in Dorsetshire, 1724. He devoted himself at first I (Gen- xvni> G)- Barley-cakes are mentioned (for the to mathematics, but afterward studied theology, and time of scarcity) in Ezek. iv, 12.— Winer. See Bread. entered the ministry. He was associated with Dr. Ash'chenaz (Heb. Ashkenaz', M313K ; Vulg. Caleb Evans in founding the " Bristol Education So- Ascenez), a less correct form (1 Chron. i, 6 ;= Sept. 'Aa- ciety." He settled as pastor at Tershore, Worcester- j Xlva$ v. r. 'AoXavdZ ; Jer. Ii, 27, Sept. ot 'Aa\aZa,oi shire, and devoted a large part of his time to the prep- j v. r. ' AoXavdt,iOi, 'AXavdZioL, ' AoKavaZ,aloi) of Angli- aration of A New and Complete Dictionary of the Eng- \ cizing the name Ashkenaz (q. v.). ItshLangmge (2 vols, large 8vo, 1775), on an extended i Aaii,AnA m . ..,,, „„■--*« „ „,,.., plan, and the best work of its class at the time. He also published Sentiments on Education (1777, 2 vols. 12mo i : - -The Dialogues of Eumenes.— Gentleman's Mag- azine, xlix, 215; Darling, Cyclop. Bibliograph. i, 113." A'shan (Heb. Ashan', "rr, smoke; Sept. 'Avav ; in 1 Chron. iv, 32, 'Aioav v. r. 'Aarap ; in Josh, xv, 4.', omits i, a Levitical city in the low country of Ju- dah named in Josh, xv, 42 with Libnah and Ether. In Josh, xix, 7, and 1 Chron. iv, 32, it is mentioned again as belonging to Simeon, but iii company with Ain and Bimmon, which (see Josh, xv, 31) appear to have been much more to the south. In 1 Chron. vi, 59, it is given as a priests' city, occupying (perhaps by error of transcription) the Bame place as the somewhat similar word Ain ("PS) doeg iii the list of Josh, xxi, 16. In 1 Sam. xxx, 30, the fuller form Ch r-ashan is named with Honnah and other cities of " the South." Asll'dod (Heb. Ashdod', ^IVX, a stronghold; Sept. and N. T. "A'^iotoo), the Azotus of the Greeks and Romans, and so called in 1 Mace, iv, 15 ; Acts viii, 40 (see also Plin. Hist. Nat. v, 14 ; Ptolem. v, 16) ; a city of the Philistine Pentapolis, on the summit of a grassy hill (Richardson, Travels, ii, 206), near the Mediterra- nean coast (com p. Joseph. Ant. xiv, 4, 4), nearly mid- way between Gaza and Joppa, being 18 geographical miles north by east from the former (270 stadia north, according to Diod. Sic. xix, 85), and 21 south from the latter; and, more exactly, midway between Aske- lon and Ekron, being 10 geographical miles north by east from the former, and south by west from the lat- ter (see Cellar. Notit. ii, 599 ; Mannert, VI, i, 261 sq.). Ashdod was a city of the Philistines, and the chief town of one of their five confederate states (Josh, xiii, 8; 1 Sam. vi, 17). It was the seat of the worship of i Dagon (1 Sam. v, 5 ; 1 Mace, xi, 4), before whose ASHDODITE 457 ASHER shrine in this city it was that the captured ark was de- posited and triumphed over the idol (1 Sam. v, 1-9). Ashdod was assigned to Judah (Josh, xv, 47); but many centuries passed before it and the other Philis- tine towns were subdued (1 Kings iv, 2-1) [see Philis- tines] ; and it appears never to have been permanent- ly in possession of the Judahites, although it was dis- mantled by Uzziah, who built towns in the territory of Ashdod (2 Chron. xxvi, G). It is mentioned to the reproach of the Jews after their return from captivity that they married wives of Ashdod ; the result of which was that the children of these marriages spoke a mon- grel dialect, compounded of Hebrew and the speech of Ashdod (Neh. xiii, 23, 24). It was a place of great strength ; and being on the usual military route be- tween Syria and Egypt, the possession of it became an object of importance in the wars between Egypt and the great northern powers. Hence it was secured by the Assyrians under Tartan (B.C. 715) before inva- ding Egypt (Isa. xx, 1 sq.) ; and about B.C. 630 it was taken by Psammetichus, after a siege of twenty-nine years, the longest on record (Herodot. ii, 157). That it recovered from this blow appears from its being mentioned as an independent power in alliance, after the exile, with the Arabians and others against Jeru- salem (Neh. iv, 7). The destruction of Ashdod was foretold by the prophets (Jer. xxv, 20; Amos i, 8; iii, 9 ; Zeph. ii, 4 ; Zach. ix, 6), and was accomplished by the Maccabees (1 Mace, v, 68 ; x, 77-84 ; xi, 4). It is enumerated among the towns which Pompey joined to the province of Syria (Joseph. Ant. xiv, 4, 4; War, i, 7, 7), and among the cities ruined in the wars, which Gabinius ordered to be rebuilt (Ant. xiv, 5, 3). It was included in Herod's dominion, and was one of the three towns bequeathed by him to his sister Salome {War, xvii, 8, 1; xi, 5). The evangelist Philip was found at Ashdod after he had baptized the Ethiopian eunuch .(Acts viii, 40). Azotus early became the seat of a bishopric ; and we find a bishop of this city pres- ent at the councils of Nice, Chalcedon, A.D. 359, Se- leucia, and Jerusalem, A.D. 536 (Poland, Palastina, p. 609). Ashdod subsisted as a small unwalled town in the time of Jerome. It was in ruins when Benja- min of Tudela visited Palestine. (/tin. ed. Asher, i, 79) ; but we learn from William of Tyre and Vitriacus that the bishopric was revived by the Latin Christians, at least titularly, and made suffragan of Treves. San- dys (Travailes, p. 151) describes it "as a place of no reckoning;" and Zuallart {Voyage, iv, 132) speaks of it as an Arab village (comp. Van Troilo, 1666, p. 349). Irby and Mangles (p. 180) describe it as an inhabited site marked by ancient ruins, such as broken arches and partly-buried fragments of marble columns ; there is also what appeared to these travellers to be a very ancient khan, the principal chamber of which had ob- viously, at some former period, been used as a Chris- tian chapel. The place is still called Esdud (Volney, Trav. ii, 251 ; Schwarz, Palest, p. 120). The name oc- curs in the cuneiform inscriptions (q. v.). The ancient remains are few and indistinct (Haekett, Jllustra. of Script, p. 135). The ruined khan to the west of the village marks the Acropolis of the ancient town, and the grove near it alone protects the site from the shift- ing sand of the adjoining plain, which threatens, at no distant day, entirely to overwhelm the spot (Thomson, Land and Boh/l, ii, 319). — Kitto, s. v. The inhabitants are styled Askdodiieg^^^, Neh. iv, 7; " Ashdotkites,,, Josh, xiii, 3; the dialect is the fem. rpnilCN, Ashdodith', Sept. 'A^.j-otW, Vulg. Azotice, A. V. "in the speech of Ashdod," Neh. xiii, 24). Ash'dcdite (Heb. in the plur. with the art. ha- Ashdodim', CTiT^Xln; Sept. omits, but some copies have oi'AZtoTioi, Vulg. Azotii, A.V. " the Ashdodites"), the inhabitants (Neh. iv. 7 [Heb. 1]) of Ashdod (q. v.). Ash'dothite (Heb. with the art. ha-Ashdodi', "tiTdxn ; Sept. 6 'Mwnor, Vulg. Azotii, A. V. " the Ashdothite"), a less correct mode (Josh, xiii, 3) of An- glicizing the name Ashdodite (Neh. iv, 7), or inhabi- tant of Ashdod (q. v.). Ash'doth-Pis'gah (Heb. Askdoth' haji-Pisgah' ', njpEn m'TOX, ravines of Pisgah ; Sept. 'AarjCiiS [r/)i'] acrya, and 'Ac. t))v Xa^ivrijv), apparently the water-courses running from the base of Mount Pisgah, which formed the southern boundary of the territory of Sihon, king of the Amorites (" Springs of Pisgah," Deut. iv. 49); transferred as a proper name in Josh. xii, 3; xiii, 20; Deut. iii, 17). See Pisgah. This curious and (since it occurs in none of the later books) probably very ancient term in the two passages from Deut. forms part of a formula by which, apparently, the mountains that enclose the Dead Sea on the east side are defined. Thus in iii, 17, we read, "the ' Ara- bah' also (i. e. the Jordan valley) and the 'border,' from Cinnereth (Sea of Galilee) unto the sea of the 'Arabah,' the Salt Sea, under Ashdoth hap-Pisgah eastward;" and so also in iv, 49, though here our translators have chosen to vary the formula for Eng- lish readers. The same intention is evident in the passages cited from Joshua ; and in x, 40, and xii, 8, of the same book, Ashdoth is used alone — " the springs," to denote one of the main natural divisions of the country. The only other instance of the use of the word is in the highly poetical passage, Num. xxi, 15, "the ^ pouring fortK of the 'torrents,' which ex- tendeth to Shcbeth-Ar." This undoubtedly refers also to the east of the Dead Sea. Doubtless, like the other topographical words of the Bible, it has a precise meaning; but whether it be the streams poured forth at the foot of the mountains of Moab, or the roots or spurs of those mountains, or the mountains themselves, it is impossible, in our present ignorance of the coun- try east of the Dead Sea, to determine with certainty. Ashdowne, William, an English Unitarian, who wrote a number of controversial pieces toward the close of the 18th century, viz. An Essay Concerning the true Meaning of Jesus in his Parables (Canterbury, 1780, 8vo): — The, Unitarian, Arian,and Trinitarian Opinions respecting Christ tried by Scripture (Canterbury, 1789, 8vo) : — The Doctrine of Satan, as Tempter, etc. not founded in Scripture (1791, 8vo) : — Proofs that Adults only are included in the New Covenant (1792, 8vo). — Gentleman's Magazine, 1790, 1800, 1805 ; Hoefer, Nouv. Biog. Generate, iii, 435. Ashe. See Asser. Ashe, Simeon, a Nonconformist and Presbj'teri- an, was educated at Emanuel College, Cambridge, and afterward settled in Staffordshire, from whence he removed to London, where he exercised his ministry twenty-three years. He was one of the deputies who went to congratulate Charles II on his restoration at Breda. He died in 1662 ; "a man of holy life, cheer- ful mind, and fluent elegancy" (Baxter). He pub- lished a treatise on the Power of Godliness, and sever- al single sermons. — Hook, Eccl. Biog. s. v. ; Orme, Life of Baiter, i, 217. Ashe. See Asser. Asher Ben-Jechiel, called Magister Asher, a Jewish writer, was born at Rothenburg toward the end of the 13th century, and died in 1327. He was con- sidered one of the most learned of the Spanish Jews, and taught with high repute at Toledo ; but he did not escape the persecuting spirit of the time, and was driven from Toledo. He published chiefly (1.) vari- ous commentaries or special tracts of the Talmud (print- ed at different times and places, especially Prague, 1725, and Leghorn, Berlin, Amst. etc. later); (2.) a general collection of decisions relating to the entire Talmud, entitled Pl'SSil "^pE (usually contained in extended editions of the Talmud), more commonly de- nominated, from him, "H'^Xri, the Asheri, abstracts ASHEK 458 ASHER of which, under the title of tB&htt 1J205^2|3 (Con- stantinople, 1520, fol. ond later), r.iEpin i^CE, etc. have been made; (3.) m'^XttJ, etc. questions and an- swers on Jewish ceremonies (Venice, 1552, fol. and Since) ; (4.) i~!.".n:n, moral precepts or institutes (Ven. 1579, Ito, and often since). — Bartolocci, Bibl. Magn. Rabbin, i. 493; Hoefer, Xouv. Biog. Generate, iii, 437; Fiirst, Bib. Jxtd. i, 57 sq. Ash'er (Heb. Asher', "'1'X, happiness; Sept. and New Test. 'Ai\ miles from the shore. The bound trj then ran northward from the valley of Jiph- thah-el (Jefat) to thai of the Leontes, and reaching Zidi.u.it turned and came down by Tyre to Achzih (Ecdippa, now es-ZiV). See Tribe. It is usually stated that tie- whole of the Phoenician territories, in- cluding Sidon, were assigned to this tribe (comp. Jo- Bephus, An/, v. 1. 22; see Reland, Palaxt. p. ."» 7 r> sq.). But there are various considerations which militate against this conclusion (see the Pictorial Bible, Num. xxvi, 24 ; Josh, xix, 24 ; Judg. i, 31), and tend to show that the assigned frontier-line was drawn out to the sea south of Sidon. The strongest text for the inclu- sion of Sidon (Tyre was not then founded) is that in which it is mentioned to the reproach of the Asherites, that they did not drive out the Sidonians (Judg. i, 31). This Michaelis is disposed to reject as an interpolation ; but Kitto (Pict. Bib. in loc.) conceives it to denote that the Asherites were unable to expel the Sidonians, who by that time had encroached southward into parts of the coast actually assigned to the Asherites; and he strengthens this by referring to the subsequent founda- tion of Tyre, as evincing the disposition of the Sido- nians to colonize the coast south of their own proper territories. The Asherites were for a long time unable to gain possession of the territories actually assigned them, and "dwelt among the Canaanites, the inhab- itants of the land" (Judg. i, 32); and, "as it is not usual to say of a larger number that it dwells among the smaller, the inference is that they expelled but comparatively few of the Canaanites, leaving them, in fact, a majority of the population" (Bush, note on Judg. i, 32). See Sidon. The following is a list of the places within this tribe that are mentioned in the Bible, with the modern lo- calities to which they appear to correspond. Such of the latter as have not been identified by any traveller are enclosed in brackets : Abdon. Town. Abdeh. Aceho. do. A /. ka. Achshaph. do. Kesaf. Achzih. do. Es-Zib. Ahlab. do. [Athlit]?' Alnmmelech. do. [El-Habaji]1 Aloth. District, See Bealoth. Amad. Town. [.!?»«/]? Aphek or Aphik. do. [Tell Kismql Bealoth. District. [PI. of Akka] ? Beten. Town. El-Baneh. Beth-dagon. do. [Hajeljl Beth-enuk. do. A mka. CabuL do. Kabul. Carmel. Mountain. Jebel Mar-Elias. llali. Town. A Ha. Ilnnimon. do. Hawaii Hebron. do. See AnnoN. Ilelbah. do. [Ilaifi,] f llelkath. do. Ukritli t Hosah. do. [El-Ghaziyeh]1 Jiphthah-cL Valley. Wady AbilinT Kan all. Town. Kama. Eishon. Brook. A'alir Mukatta. Mashal or Mishal. Town. Misalli. MeieL do. [Eistav]t l'ti.l. nir.i-'. do. See Aocno. Ramah. do. Rarru It. Rehob (Josh, xix, 30). do. [Tell Kurtiani ] ? Ii. hob (Josh, xix, '2S). do. [/iezieA] ? Sbibor-libnath. River. [ Wady Milheh] ? Ummah. Town. Alum'? Zebulon. do. A Win ? This territory contained some of the richest soil in all Palestine (Stanley, p. 265 ; Kenrick, Phan. p. 35), and in its productiveness it well fulfilled the promise involved in the name "Asher," and in the blessings which had been pronounced on him by Jacob and ly Moses. Here was the oil in which he was to " dip his foot," the "bread" which was to be "fat," and the " royal dainties" in which he was to indulge (for the crops, see Robinson, new ed. of Researches, iii, 102; for the oil, Kenrick, p. 31 ; Belaud, p. 817) ; and here in the metallic manufactures of the Phoenicians (Ken- rick, p. 38) were the " iron and brass" for his "shoes." The Phoenician settlements were even at that early period in full vigor (Zidon was then distinguished by the name. Kabbah = "the Strong," Josh, xix, 28); and it is not surprising that Asher was soon contented to partake their luxuries, and to "dwell among them" without attempting the conquest and extermination enjoined in regard to all the Canaanites (Judg. i, 31, 32). Accordingly he did not drive out the inhabitants of Aceho, nor Dor (Sept. adds this name), nor Zidon, nor Ahlab, nor Aehzib, nor Helbah, nor Aphik, nor ASHER /SBeST-D-a'apn ? \\ MANAS S EH » "^ Scale of Miles 60 to aDiyrec Map of the Tribe of Asher. Rehob (Judg. i, 31), all which seem to have been in the shore-strip preoccupied by the Phoenicians, and the natural consequence of this inert acquiescence is immediately visible. While Zebulun and Naphtali "jeoparded their lives unto the death" in the struggle against Sisera, Asher was content to forget the peril of his fellows in the creeks and harbors of his new ASHERAH allies (Judg. v, 17, 18). At the numbering of Israel at Sinai, Asher was more numerous than either Ephra- im, Manasseh, or Benjamin (Num. i, 32-41), but in the reign of David, so insignificant had the tribe be- come, that its name is altogether omitted from the list of the chief rulers (1 Chron. xxvii, 16-22) ; and it is with a kind of astonishment that it is related that I "divers of Asher and Manasseh and Zebulun" came I to Jerusalem to the Passover of Hezekiah (2 Chron. xxx, 11). With the exception of Simeon, Asher is j the only tribe west of the Jordan which furnished no hero or judge to the nation. " One name alone shines out of the general obscurity — the aged widow, ' Anna, the daughter of Phanuel oi the tribe of Aser,' who, in j the very close of the history, departed not from the Temple, but 'served God with fastings and prayers ■ night and day' " (Stanley, Palest, p. 261). { The inhabitants of the tribe were also called Asher- ites (lieb. Asheri' , ^rx, Sept. iv 'Aai/p, Judg. i, 32). 2. A city on the boundary of the tribe of Manasseh, near Michmethah and east of Shechem (Josh, xvii, 7) ; according to Eusebius (Onomast. s. v. A. 207; comp. Augustine, De civ. Dei, iv, 10; ii, 3.) — Winer, s. y. See Ashtoketh. Ash'erite (Judg. i, 32). See Asher. Ashes (properly 1SX, e'pher, from its whiteness, (TirodoQ; twice "1SS, aphar', Num. xix, 17; 2 Kings xxiii, 1, elsewhere "dust;" also yiH, de'shen, \\t. fat- ness, i. c. the fat ashes from the victims of the altar, Lev. i, 16; iv, 12; vi, 10, 11; 1 Kings xiii, 3, 5; or of corpses burnt, Jer. xxxi, 40, ashes being used as a manure for land, Plin. xvii, 9. In 1 Kings xx, 38, 41, "X apher, incorrectly rendered "ashes," signifies a covering for the head or turban, Sept. rtXa/itov, and 80 ''"• ( h 'Wee ami Ahulwalid represent it by this lat- ter word, which in Syriac means a priestly tiara ; New Tost. airoSoi ). See Ash-cake. In general, respecting the Biblical mention of ashes CjSn, •/ 'sh n; ~z\. e'pher), the following things de- B*ve QOtice: (1.) As the ashes of the sacrifices con- Mimed upon the altar of burnt-offerings accumulated continually (Lev. vi, :; Bq.), they were from time to time removed go as to cleanse (V»B-J) the altar. For this purpose there were in the sanctuary -hovels (D"iS •) and ash-pots (ri^-p) of hra-s, Kxod. xxvii, 3; xxxviii, 3). The performance of this ofiice (by the priests) is not prescribed in the law; but, according to the Mish- na {Tamil, i and ii), tho scouring of the altar was as- signed by lot to a priest, who, after the top of the altar had been cleared of coals, etc., swept the ashes togeth- er into a heap (TOBt-l, apple, from its shape), and (ac- cording to the rabbins) took the greatest part of it away (for some of the ashes must always be allowed to remain), in order that they might be carried out of the city to a spot undisturbed by the wind. Only on high festivals the ashes were suffered to lie upon the altar as an ornament (Mishna, Tamid, ii, 2). Also upon the altar of incense ashes gradually accumulated ; and the removal of these was likewise apportioned among the priests by lot. The priest to whom this function fell gathered them in a basket, and then, after another priest had used a part in cleansing the candlestick, carried out and poured the contents on the floor of the porch (Mishna, Tamid, iii, 9; vi, 1; i, 4). See Al- tar. (2.) On the expiatory ashes of the red heifer (1£X, Num. xix), see Purification. (3.) In deep affliction persons were accustomed, as an act suitable to the violence of internal emotions, to scatter dust or ashes ("EX) on their heads or in their hair, and to sit, or lie, or even roll in ashes, whence ashes became the symbol of penitential mourning (Job xlii, 0 ; Matt. xi, 21). See Grief. The Mishna (Taamith, ii, 1) mentions a custom of covering the ark that contained the law with ashes on fast-days, and the rabbins even allude to a ceremonial sprinkling of persons with ashes on the same occasions (see Bartenora, on Taamith ii). (See generally Reinhard, De sacco et cmere, Vitemb. 1698; Plade, De c'.neris usu lugentibus, Hafn. 1713; Schmid, De cinerum, in sacris usu, Lips. 1722 ; Carpzov, Cinerum up. Heb. usus, Post. 1739 ; Quanat, Be cinere in sacris Ilebr. Regiom. 1713; Goetze, De cinerum in sacris usu, Lips. 1722.) (4.) The ancient Persians had a punishment which consisted in executing certain criminals by stifling them in ashes (Valerius Maximus, ix, 2). Thus the wicked Menelaus was despatched, who caused the troubles which had disquieted Judaja (2 Mace, xiii, 5, 6), being thrown headlong into a tower lift)' cubits deep, which was filled with ashes to a cer- tain height. The action of the criminal to disengage himself plunged him still deeper in the whirling ashes ; and this agitation was increased by a wheel, which kept them in continual movement till he was entirely choked. — Winer. Soe Execution. Ashes were a symbol of human frailty (Gen. xviii, 27); of deep humiliation (Esth. iv, 1; Jon. iii, G; Matt, xi, 21; Luke x, 13; Job xlii, G; Jer. vi, 2G; Dan. ix, 3) ; a ceremonial mode of purification (Ileb. ix, 13; Num. xix, 17); they are likened to hoar-frost (Psa. cxlvii, 16). In Ezek. xxvii, 30, we find the mourning Tyrians described as wallowing in ashes; and we may remark that the Greeks had the like cus- tom of strewing themselves with ashes in mourning (Homer, Iliad, xviii, 22; Odyss. xxiv, 315; comp. Vir- gil, Jin. x, 844, and Ovid"s Mctam. viii, 528): Job ii, 8, "And he sat down among the ashes." So Ulysses in Odyssey, vii, 153 (see also Iliad, xviii, 26). Psa. cii, 9, " I have eaten ashes like bread, and mingled my drink with weeping," i. e. I have eaten the bread of humiliation, and drunk the water of affliction ; ashes being the emblem of the one, and tears the conse- quence of the other (see Home, w loc). So Isa. lxi, 3, "A beautiful crown instead of ashes" (sec Lowth's note). See 2 Sam. xiv, 2 ; Judith x, 3. Isa. xliv, 20, " lie feedeth on ashes." i. e. on that which affords no nourishment; a proverbial expression for using in- effectual means, and bestowing labor to no purpose. In the same sense Hosea says (xii, 1), " Ephraim feed- eth on wind" (see Lowth, in loc). See Mourning. Ash'ima (Heb. Ashima, X^dX, etymology un- known ; Sept. 'Aaipah), is only once mentioned in the Old Testament as the god of the people of Hamath, whose worship the colonists settled by Shalmanezer introduced into Samaria (2 Kings xvii, 30). Tho ASHKELOX 461 ASHKELOX Babylonian Talmud, in the treatise Sanhedrin (cited in Carpzov's Apparatus, p. 51G), and the majority of Jewish writers (see Buxtorf, Lex. Talm. col. 236), as- sert that Ashima was worshipped under the form of a goat without wool; the Talmud of Jerusalem (Carpzov, ib.) says under that of a lamb. Elias Levita, a learn- ed rabbi of the sixteenth century, assigns the word the sense of ape ; in which he was, in all probability, de- ceived by the resemblance in sound to the Latin simia. Jurieu and Calmet have proposed other fanciful con- jectures. Aben Ezra's ascription {Prof, ad Esth.) of the name to the Samaritan Pentateuch at Gen. i,l, may be seen in Hottinger's Exercit. Antimorin. p. 40. The opinion, however, that this idol had the form of a goat appears to be the one best supported by arguments as well as by authorities (see Sevrl'.rih, Systema astron. p. 154 sq.). This agrees with the Egyptian worship of Pan (see Selden, De diis Syr. p. 327, 305 sq.), as well as the appearance of the goat among the sacred animals delineated on the Babylonian relics (Millin, Monumens inedits, i, tab. 8, 9). Some have compared the Samaritan Ashmath (r-'I.:X) of Deut. xiv, 5 (see Castell, Annot. se < Entdeck. i, 19) regards the word as a corruption for " Pont us Axenus," so as to designate the inhabitants of the province of Pontus ; Josephus (Ant. i. 6, 1 i merely says "Aschenaz ( A.(j\ava'£oiS) founded the Aschanazians CAaxava^ovg), whom the Greeks now call Rhegians ('Pjjyu/Ec) ;" but this latter name does let occur in classical geography (Joseph Mede conjectures the Rhatians, 'Pjjnwc, but these arc as far from probability as tlie supposition of the modern Jews that the Germans are meant, see Vater, Com. i, inn,. TheTargum of Jonathan understands Adiabene f""1"1-'1 province of Assyria; and the Arabic in Gen. tie- Sclavi, in Jr. the inhabitants near the Caspian Sea. Assuming thai tic Japhetic tribes migrated from their original seats westward and northward [see Japhet], thus peopling Asia Minor and Europe, we may perhaps recognise the tribe of Ashkenaz (as hav- ing migrated along the northern shore of Asia Minor) in Europe in the name Scand-ia, Scand-inaxia. Knobel (Yijlkertafd, p. 35) regards the word as a compound (t:"U."N), the latter element being equivalent to the Gr. y'ivoc, Lat. gens, genus, Eng. kind, kin; the mean- ing, therefore, being the ^4s-raee. If this were so, it might seem that we here find the origin of the name Asia, which has subsequently been extended to the whole eastern part of the world. The slightness of the foundation, however, of all these identifications is evident. The opinion of Gcirres (Volkertofel, p. 92) that Ashkenaz is to be identified with the Cymry or Gaelic race seems even less probable than that of Knobel. See Ethnology. Ashmead, William, a Presbyterian minister, born at Philadelphia in 1798, and graduated at the University of Pennsylvania in 1818. After studying under Dr. J. P. Wilson, he was licensed to preach in 1820. He labored in Lancaster till 1828, when he accepted a call to Charleston, S.C., and entered on his duties there in May, 1829. Returning to the north for his family, he was taken ill, and, after one or two relapses, died at Philadelphia, Dec. 2, 1829. He was an accomplished scholar and a devoted minister. Af- ter his death appeared Sermons, with Sketch of Life (Philad. 1830, 8vo).— Sprague, Annals, iv, 643. Ashmun, Jehudi, agent of the American Coloni- zation Society, was born at Champlain, N. Y., in April, 1794. He was educated at Burlington, where he grad- uated in 1816. Some time after he was made a pro- fessor in the " Maine Charity School," where his stay was brief. He afterward removed to the District of Columbia, where he joined the Protestant Episcopal Church, and edited the "Theological Repertory." Be- ing appointed to take charge of a re-enforcement to the colony at Liberia, he embarked for Africa June 19, 1822, and arrived at Cape Vonser..do August 8. About three months after his arrival, while his whole force was 35 men and boys, he was attacked by 800 armed sav- ages, but by his energy and desperate valor the assail- ants were repulsed, and again, in a few days, when they returned with redoubled numbers, were utterly defeated. When ill-health compelled him in 1828 to take a voyage to America, he left behind him in Afri- ca a community of 1200 freemen. He died at New Haven August 25, 1828. He was a person of great enemy of character,and most devoted piety, and his services to the infant colony were invaluable. — Gurley, Life of Ash mini (Washington, 1835); Quarterly Chris- tian Spectator, vii, 330; North Amer. Rcvieio, xli, 565. Ash'nah (Heb. Ashnah', FtrrX, fortified, other- wise bright; Sept. 'Aava), the name of two cities, both in the "plain" of the tribe of Judah. 1. One mentioned between Zornh and Zanoah (Josh, xv, 33), apparently in the region north of Eleu- theropolis and west of Jerusalem (see Keil, Comment. in loc), and near the boundary-line, almost within the territory afterward assigned to Dan (see Josh, xix, 41), and probably near Beth-Shemesh, possibly afr the site of the modern "large village Dew Alma" (Robinson, Researches, new ed. iii, 154). It is pi-oba- bly the Asan (^Aaav) or Bethasan (Qnfiaaa) placed by Eusebius and Jerome (Onomast. s. v.) at 15 or 16 Ro- man miles west of Jerusalem. 2. Another town, certainly in Judah, mentioned between Jiphtah and Nezib (Josh, xv, 43); apparent- ly in the region immediately south and east of Eleu- theropolis (comp. Keil, Comment, in loc), probably not very far from this last; possibly the present licit A lam, a ruined village on a low mound (Robinson. /,'< st arch* s, ii, 403). Eusebius and Jerome also speak of an A ma (Aava, Onomast. s. v.), but without any particulars. Ash'penaz (Heb. Ashpenaz', T_33rN, perh. from Persic and Sanscrit arnas, horse, and nasa, nose, i. q. "horse-nose;" Sept. 'Aatpavic), the master of the eu- nuchs, or, rather, one of the principal chamberlains of Nebuchadnezzar (B.C. 604), who was commanded to ASHRIEL 463 ASHTORETII select certain Jewish captives to be instructed in the literature and science of the Chaldeans (Dan. i, 3). In this number he included Daniel and his three com- panions, whose Hebrew names he changed to Chaldee (Dan. i, 7). Their refusal to partake of the provisions sjnt from the monarch's table filled Ashpenaz with apprehension, for at that time, as in our days, the Asi- atic despots frequently punished with death the least infraction of their will. He had, however, the gene- rosity not to use constraint toward them. In acceding to the request of Daniel, Ashpenaz had every thing to apprehend ; and the grateful prophet specially records that God had disposed Ashpenaz to treat him with kindness (ver. 8-16). See Daniel. Ash'riel (1 Chron. vii, 14). See Asriel. Ash'taroth (Heb. Ashtaroth', Pli"lPiUJ?, plur. of Ashtoreth, Josh, ix, 10; xii, 4; xiii, 12, 31; Sept. 'Aa- rapioS; but Auth. Vers. "Astaroth," in Deut. i, 4; Sept. in 1 Chron. vi, 71, v. r. 'Am/puSr and 'PafiwB), a city on the east of Jordan, in Bashan, in the king- dom of Og, doubtless so called from being a seat of the worship of the goddess of the same name. See Ash- toreth. It is generally mentioned as a description or definition of Og, who "dwelt in Astaroth in Edrei" (Deut. i, 4), "at Ashtaroth and at Edrei" (Josh, xii, 4; xiii, 12), or "who was at Ashtaroth" (ix, 10). It fell into possession of the half tribe of Manasseh (Josh, xiii, 31), and was given with its suburbs or surround- ing pasture-lands (IS^El) to the Gershonites (1 Chron. vi, 71 [56]), the other Levitical city in this tribe being Golan. In the list in Josh, xxi, 27, the name is given as Beeshterah ("house of Ashtoreth;" Belaud, p. 621). Nothing more is heard of Ashtaroth, except that Uzziah, an Ashterathite, is named in 1 Chron. xi, 44. It is not named in any of the lists, such as those in Chronicles, or of Jeremiah, in which so many of the trans-Jordanic places are enumerated ; and hence it has usually been considered the same with the place else- where called Ashteroth-Karnaim (q. v.). Eusebius and Jerome, however (Onomast. s. v. Astaroth, 'Aara- pu>S), mention it as situated 6 Boman miles from Adraa or Adar (Edrei), which again was 25 from Bostra ; and the former adds that it lay on higher ground (aviDTtpw) than Ashteroth-karnaim, which they farther distin- guish by stating (in the next art.) that there were two villages (iciufiai, castelki) lying 9 miles apart, between Adara and Abila. One of these was probably that called Ashtaroth simply, and the other may have been Ashteroth-karnaim. The only trace of the name j'et recovered in the region indicated is TeU-Ashterdh or Asherah (Bitter, Erdk. xv, 819; Porter, ii, 212); and as this is situated on a hill, it would seem to correspond to the Ashtaroth in question. — ^mith, s. v. Ash'terathite (Heb. AshteratW, irnpidS1 ; Sept. 'AartpwSi), an epithet of Uzziah, one of David's braves (1 Chron. xi, 44), prob. as being an Ashtarothite, or citizen of Ashtaroth (q. v.) in Bashan. Ash'teroth-Kar'naim (Heb. Ashteroth' Kama- yim, 0^"lj5 r.nffr", Ashtaroth of the two horns, from the horned image of Ashtoreth, Gen. xiv, 5; Sept. 'AarapioS [wii] Kapvaiv), a place of very great antiquity, the abode of the Bephaim at the time of the incursion of Chedorlaomer (Gen. xiv, 5), while the cities of the plain were still standing in their oasis. Its name of Ashtaroth appears to be derived from the worship of the moon under that name [see Astarte] ; there is little need to look further than the crescent of that luminary and its symbolical image for an ex- planation of the addition Karnaim, "horned" (San- choniathon, in Euseb. Prop. Ev. i, 10; ed. Orelli, p. 35). In 2 Mace, xii, 21, 26, mention is made of the temple of Atergatis (Ashtoreth) in Camion (Kapviov), which is described as a strongly fortified town of dif- ficult access, but which was taken by Judas Macca- bseus, who slew 25,000 of the people therein. The I same place is doubtless that called C amain (Kapv air") in 1 Mace, v, 43 (comp. Kapva'tv, Josephus, Ant. xii, 8, 4). These notices, however, give us no indication of its locality beyond its being in "the land of Galaad ;" the inference of Bitter {Erdk. xv, 822) that the Car- nion of the Apocrypha was in a narrow valley, is not sustained by the passages themselves. It is usually assumed to be the same place as the preceding Ash- taroth, but the few facts that can be ascertained are all against such an identification. (1.) The affix " Karnaim," which certainly indicates some distinc- tion, and which in the time of the Maccabees, as quoted above, appears to have superseded the other name. (2.) The fact that Eusebius and Jerome in the Ono- masticon, though not very clear on the point, j-et cer- tainly make a distinction between Ashtaroth and A.-Carnaim, describing the latter (s. v. Kapvaii/t, Carnaim) as a "large village" (icai/i?) /.uytart) ri)Q 'Apa/ji'oc, vicus grandis in angulo Batana;®). (3.) Some weight is due to the rendering of the Samaritan version, and of the Arabic version of Saadiah, which give Ashtaroth as in the text, but A. -Karnaim by en- tirely different names ; the former rendering it Aphinith, which does not appear to have been yet recognised ; but the latter, es-Sanamein, apparently meaning the still important place which continues to bear precisely the same name, on the Haj route, about c.'.b miles south of Damascus, and to the N.W. of the Lejah (Burckh. p. 55 ; Bitter, Erdk. xv, 812), but which seems to be identical with another place [see Aere], and is too far from Edrei. See Ashtaroth. Astaroth-Karnaim is now usually identified with Mezareib, the situation of which corresponds accurately enough with the dis- tances given by Eusebius (Leake, Preface to Burck- hardt's Travels, p. xii). Here is the first castle on the great pilgrim road from Damascus to Mecca. It was built about 340 years ago by the Sultan Selim, and is a square structure, about 100 feet on each side, with square towers at the angles and iu the centre of each face, the walls being 40 feet high. The interior is an open yard, with ranges of warehouses against the cas- tle wall to contain stores of provisions for the pilgrims. There are no dwellings beyond the castle, and within it only a few mud huts upon the flat roofs of the ware- houses, occupied by the peasants who cultivate the neighboring grounds. Close to this building on the north and east side are a great number of springs, whose waters at a short distance collect into a lake or pond about a mile and a half in circumference. In the midst of this lake is an island, and at an elevated spot at the extremity of a promontory advancing into the lake stands a sort of chapel, around which are many remains of ancient buildings. There are no oth- er ruins. (Burckhardt, Travels, p. 241 sq. ; Bucking- ham's Arab Tribes, p. 162 ; Chesney, Euphrat. Exped. i, 511 ; Capt. Newbold, in the Lond. Geog. Jour, xvi, 333; comp. Schwarz, Palest, p. 223, 236.) See also Ashtoreth; Chalamish. Ashton, Wm. Easterly, a Baptist minister, was born May 18, 1793, in Philadelphia, licensed as a preacher in 1814, and was ordained pastor of the Bap- tist Church at Hopewell, N. J., the following year. In 1816 he removed to Blockley, Philadelphia count}', Pa., where he labored successfully for seven years. Mr. Ashton devoted part of his time to teaching, estab- lishing a female school in Philadelphia, which soon became very popular. In 1823 he accepted a call from the third Baptist Church in Philadelphia, which charge he held till the year before his death, when disease compelled him to relinquish it. He died July 26, 1836.— Sprague, Annals, vi, 631. Ash'toreth (Heb. Ashto'reth, t-HvmS, 1 Kings xi, 5, 33; 2Kingsxxiii,13; Sept. 'AaTc'tpri)'), also in the plur. ASH'TAKOTH (Heb. Ashtaroth', m'lfil??, Sept. in Judg. x, 6 ; 1 Sam. vii, 4, 'AarapoiS ; in Jndg. ii, 13, at 'Aaraprcn ; in 1 Sam. vii, 3 ; xii, 10, to. uXcrij ; ASHTOKETH 464 ASHTORETH in 1 Sam. xxxi, 10, to 'AoTapriiov), the name of a goddess of the Sidonians (1 Kings xi, 5, 33), and also of the Philistines < 1 Sam. xxxi, 10), whose worship was introduced among the Israelites during the period of the judges (Judg. ii, 13; 1 Sam. vii, 4), was cele- lr.it. -d by Solomon himself (1 Kings xi, 5), and was finally put down by Josiah (2 Kings xxiii, 13). She is frequently mentioned in connection with Baal, as the corresponding fe- male Ah inity (Judg. ii, 13) ; and, from the ;. dition of the words "and all the host of hea en," in 2 Kings xxiii, 4 [see Asherah], it probable that she represented one of the celes- tial bodies. There is also reason to believe th;.t she is | meant by the "queen of heaven," in Jer. vii, 18; xliv, | 17; whose worship is there said to have been solemnized by burning incense, pouring libations, and offering cakes. Further, by comparing the two passages 2 Kings xxiii, 4, and Jer. viii, 2, which last speaks of the " sun and moon, and all the host of heaven, whom Un- served," we may conclude that the moojjwas worship- ped under the names of queen of heaven and of Ash- toreth, provided the connection between these titles is established. See Idolatry. The worship of Astarte was very ancient and very widely spread. AYe find the plural Ashtaroth united with the adjunct Karnaim, as the name of a city, so early as the time of Abraham (Gen. xiv, 5), and we read of a temple of this goddess, apparently as the goddess of war, among the Philistines in the time of Saul (1 Sam. xxxi, 10). From the connection of this goddess with Baal or Bf.l, we should, moreover, nat- urally conclude that she would be found in the Assyr- ian Pantheon, and, in fact, the name Ishtar appears to be clearly identified in the list of the great gods of Assvria (Layard, Nin. and Bab. p. 352, 629 ; Rawlin- son," Early History "/Babylon, Lond. 1854, p. 23 ; Raw- linson, Herodotus, i, 634). There is no reason to doubt that this Assyrian goddess is the Ashtoreth of the Old Testament and the Astarte of the Greeks and Romans. The worship of Astarte seems to have extended wherev- er Phoenician colonies were founded. Thus we find her name in inscriptions still existing in the island of Cyprus, on the site of the ancient Citium, and also at Carthage (Gesenius, Mon. I'han. p. 125, 449), and not unfrequently as an element in Phoenician proper names, as "Aaraproc, 'Aftcaare'iproc, AtXttaarapToc (Joseph. Ap. i, 18). The name occurs, moreover, written in Egyptian hieroglyphics, as Astart (Gesenius, T/ies. s. v. For evidence of her wide-spread worship, see also Eck- hel, Doct. Num. iii, 369 sq.). It is worthy of remark that Rodiger, in his recently published Addenda to Gesenius' Thesaurus (p. 106), notices that in the in- scription on the sarcophagus of a king named Esmuna- zar, discovered in January, 1855 (see Robinson, Re- search's, new ed. iii, 36 note), the founding, or at least restoration of the temple of this goddess, at Sidon, is attributed to him and to his mother, Amashtoreth, who is farther styled priestess of Ashtoreth. Accordingto tli^ testimonies of profane writers, the worship of this goddess, under different names, existed in all coun- tries and colonies of the Syro-Arabian nations. She was especially tin- chief female divinity of the Phceni cians and Syrians— the Hani lis or female Baal ; Astarte tin Great, as Sanchoniathon calls her (ed. Orelli, p. 34). She was known to the Babylonians as Mylitta (i. e. possibly Xr":-", the emphatic state of the fern. participle act. Aphd of -;;-, genetrix) (Herod, i, 31); to the Arabians as Alitta or Alilat fllerod. iii, 8) (i. e. according t<, Pococke's etymology [Specim. p. 110], al- flahat, the goddess [which may, however, also mean tin- crescent moon — ee Freytag's /.'.-•. .!>•.]; or al- Hit&l, ill' moon; or, according to Kleuker's suggestion, aUWalid, genetrix [see Bergmann, D< Relig. A rati. An- tcislamka, Argentor. lt>34, p. 7] ). The supposed Punic SiuouianMeihil of the Goddess Astaite. name Tholath, TPP, which Munter, Hamaker, and others considered to mean genetrix, and to belong to this goddess, cannot be adduced here, as Gesenius has recently shown that the name has arisen from a false reading of the inscriptions (see his Monum. Ling. Phcenic. p. 114). But it is not at all open to doubt that this goddess was worshipped at ancient Carthage, and probably under her Phoenician name. The classi- cal writers, who usually endeavored to identify the irods of other nations with their own, rather than to discriminate between them, have recognised several of their own divinities in Ashtoreth. Thus she was considered to be Juno (Augustin. Queest. in Jud. xvi); or Venus, especially Venus Urania (Cicer. Nat. Dear. iii, 23; Theodoret, In Libr. iii, Beg. Queest. l ; and the numerous inscriptions of Bona Dea Coelestis, Venus Ccelestis, etc., cited in Miinter's Religion der Karihager, p. 75); or Luna (Herodian, v, 13, where she is "named ' AX, "Esther," aorrip). Ashtoreth is feminine as to form ; its plural Ashtaroth also oc- curs (Judg. ii, 13 ; x, 16; 1 Sam. vii, 4 ; xii, 10 ; xxxi, 10), as is likewise the case with Baal, with which it is in this form often associated (Judg. x, C ; 1 Sam. vii, 4; xii, 10); and this peculiarity of both words is thought (by Gesenius, Thesaur. s. v.) to denote a plu- rality of images (like the Greek Hernia?), or to belong to that usage of the plural which is found in words denoting lord (Ewald, Ilebr. Gram. § 361). Movers, however, contends (Phon. i, 175, 602) that the plurals are used to indicate different modifications of the di- vinities themselves. In the earlier books of the O. T. only the plural, Ashtaroth, occurs, and it is not till the time of Solomon, who introduced the worship of the Sidonian Astarte, and only in reference to that par- ticular goddess, Ashtoreth of the Sidonians, that the singular is found in the O. T. (1 Kings xi, 5, 33 ; 2 Kings xxiii, 13). — Kitto; Smith. See Astarte. Ash-tree. See Ash. Ash'uath (Heb. Ashvath', VXJ'J, perh. for hilDS, bright; Sept. 'AaeiSr v. r. 'AaiS, Vulg. Asoth), the last named of the three sons of Japhlet, great-grandson of Asher (1 Chron. vii, 33). B.C. cir. 1612. Ash'ur (Heb. Ashchur', "iWdN, perh. black, oth- erwise man of nobility ; Sept. 'Aa\(.o v. r. 'Accojo, and 'Aaovp v. r. 'AvotV>)> a posthumous son of Hezron (grandson of Judah), by one of his wives (the daugh- ter of Machir), Abiah (1 Chron. ii, 24). He had sev- eral sons by each of his two wives (1 Chron. iv, 5), and through these he is called (in both passages) the "father" (founder) of Tekoa, which appears to have been the place of their eventual settlement. B.C. cir. 1658. Schwarz suggests (Palest, p. 119) that the name may be connected with the Both-Zachaj-ias (q. v.) of Josephus (War, i, 1, 5); but this lies at some distance from Tekoa. See also Asshur. Ash'urite (Heb. Ashuri' ', I'nittJSJ, prob. originally from llttJX, a step; Sept. 'Aaepi, Vulg. Gessuri ; Auth. Vers. " Ashurites"), apparently the designation of a tribe in the vicinity of Gilead, one of the trans-Jordanic districts over whom the revolting Abner made Ish- ASH-WEDXESDAY 466 ASIA boshcth king (2 Sam. ii, 9). The Chaldee paraphrast I (Targum of Jonathan) supposes the inhabitants of Asher ("IttJK "d?, "of the house of Asher"), which is supported by several MSS. that read "''■Sn (Da- | vidson, TIebr. Text, ad loc). " The Asherites" will then denote the whole of the country west of the Jor- I dun above Jezreel (the district of the plain of Esdrae- j Ion), and the enumeration will proceed regularly from i north to south, Asher to Benjamin. The form " Ash- erite" occurs in Judg. i, 32. See Asher. By some of the old interpreters— Arabic, Syriac, and Vulgate versions — and in modern times by Ewald (Gesck. Isr. Hi, 145), the name is taken as meaning the Geshurites, the members of a small kingdom to the S. or S.E. of Damascus, one of the petty states which were included under the general title of Aram (q. v.). The difficulty in accepting this substitution is that Geshur had a king of its own, Talmai, whose daughter, moreover, wras mar- ried to David somewhere about this very time (1 Chron. iii, 2, compared with 4), a circumstance not consistent with his being the ally of Ishbosheth, or with the latter being made king over the people of Geshur. Talmai ■ was still king many years after this occurrence (2 Sam. [ xiii, 37). In addition, Geshur was surely too remote j from Mahanaim and from the rest of Ishbosheth's ter- ritory to be intended here. See Geshur. Still oth- ers understand that the clan referred to are- the same j with the Asskurites (Heb. Asshurim', CHVi'X ; Sept. j 'Aatrovpit i'/i, Vulg. Assitrim ; Auth . Vers. ' ' Asshurim"), an Arab tribe said (with the Letushim and Leummim) to be descended from Dedan (Gen. xxv, 3), and who appear from these notices to have settled in the south-western part of the Hauran, where they became somewhat incorporated with the Israelites. See Ara- bia. In Ezek. xxvii, 6, Ashur ("1>1 .X, plur. Ashurim' , in the expression, D"nm~ra ^"IBJS tl^P, thy benches [or decks'] they hare made of ivory, the daugh- ter of the ashur-trees, i. e. inlaid or bordered with that wood; Sept. r« iepa gov tiroirjaav t£ iXiQavToc;, ohovg ct\ N^ ' *s^L&tfai — k 7*r 1™o— ; K ^ i^gfe^rril I) ", .hMftt/rnc ftyssa #0' % "^PerpaTnos"^ Wt Cs^~~°5 ' '#'..|,t. ■•»■„' -«? mT ' 'lliyltira ^ J* «*saL, l°\ . %': . °F-hiloi,fd.unpT1r„,ur- -''?' -.JF-cr^polJs AiiIkh]) u-l clinAf.rn""_ ^ •coiosl^ i sii) i a f rcoiuuu.^ Acj;y :y ~\ ;',;;*:,;.>- | ^-^pS-bej /-> PAM p ii J , lLwr,^m,ll?i^«lXlS c -afl Carnallnij)- " "' - 0,-L-r WARf'ATIIL LV_SKA , Lit. Map of Asia Minor. ASIA 470 ASIARCH xxiv, 18; xxvii, 2; but (2.), that only Asia Proper, the Unman or Proconsular Asia, is denoted in Acts ii, 9 ; vi. 9 ; xvi, 6 ; xix, 10, 22 ; xx, 4, 1G, 18 [Rom. xvi, 5] : 1 Cor. xvi, 19; 2 Cor. i, 8; 2 Tim. i, 15; 1 Pet. i, 1 ; Rev. i, 4, 11. Asia Minor comprehended Bithynia, Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Cilicia, Pamphylia, Pisid- i:i. Lycaonia, Phrygia, Mysia, Troas (all of which are mentioned in the New Testament), Lydia, Ionia, vEolis (which are sometimes included under Lydia), Caria, Doris, and Lvcia. Asia Proper, or Proconsular Asia, comprehended the provinces of Phrygia, Mysia, (aria, and Lydia (Cicero, Ep. Fain, ii, 15). But it is evident that Luke uses the term Asia in a sense still more restricted; for in one place he counts Phrygia (Acts ii, 9, 10), and in another Mysia (xvi, 6, 7), as provinces distinct from Asia. Hence it is probable that in many, if not all, of the second set of references above, the word Asia denotes only Ionia, or the entire western coast, of which Ephesus was the capital, and in which the seven churches were situated. See gen- erally, Usher, Be Asia procomulari (Lond. 1681) ; id. Be episcop. metropol. in Asia ]»vconsulari (Lond. 1G87) ; Carpzov, Be A sice ecclesiis (Lips. 1698); Cellarius, id. (Hal. 1701) ; Conybeare and Howson's St. Paul, i, 237 ; Penny Cyc. s. v. Anatolia; Smith's Did. of Class. Geogr. i. 232 sq., 238 sq. ; Texier, Asie Mineure (Paris, 1863); Le Bas and Cheron, Hist. Ancienne de VAs. Min. (Par. 1864); Perrot, Voyage en As. Min. (Paris, 1864). 3. Proconsular Asia, therefore, seems to te usu- ally that designated in the New Test., being a Roman province which embraced the western part of the pen- insula of Asia Minor, and of which Ephesus was the capital. This province originated in the bequest of Attains, king of Pergamus, or king of Asia, who left by will to the Roman Republic his hereditary domin- ions in the west of the peninsula (B.C. 133). Some rectifications of the frontier were made, and "Asia" was constituted a province. Under the early emper- ors it was rich an 1 flourishing, though it had been se- verely plundered under the republic. In the division made bj>- Augustus of senatorial and imperial prov- inces, it was placed in the former class, and was gov- erned by a proconsul. (Hence dvdvTraroi, Acts xix, 38, and on coins.) It contained many important cities, among which were the seven churches of the Apoca- lypse, and it was divided into assize districts for judi- cial business. (Hence ayopaioi, i. e. r)fikpai, Acts, ibid.) It is not possible absolutely to define the in- land boundary of this province during the life of the Apostle Paul ; indeed, the limits of the provinces were frequently undergoing change; but generally it may be said that it included the territory anciently subdi- vided into yEolis, Ionia, and Doris, and afterward into Mysia, Lydia, and Caria. See Mysia; Lycia; Bi- thynia; Phrygia; Galatia. These were orignal- I \ Gri iek colonies (see Smith's Smaller Hist, of Greece. p. 40 sq.). Meyer (in his Comment, on Acts xvi, 6) unnecessarily imagines that the divine intimation given to Paul had reference to the continent of Asia, as opposed to Europe, and that the apostle supposed it illicit have reference simply to "Asia cis Taurum," and therefore attempted to' penetrate into Bithynia. The sriew of Meyer and De Wette on Acts xxvii, 2 (and of the former on Acts xix, 10), viz. that the pen- insula of Asia Minor is intended, involves a bad geo- graphical mistake; for this term "Asia Minor" does not seem to have been so applied till some centuries after the Christian era. Neither is it strictly correct to speak of Asia in the N. T. as being at that time call- ed A. proconsulates; for this phrase also was of later date, and denoted one of < Sonstantine's subdivisions of the province of which we are speaking. (See Cony- beare and Bowson's Ufe and Epistles of St. Paul, eh. ariv; Marquardt's Rom. Alterthumor, iii, 130 146.) See AsiABi ii. 4. Seven Churches op Asia. —These, celebrated in the Apocalypse, in the apostolic times, and in ec- clesiastical history, were, as they are classified by the writer of the book of Revelation (ch. i— iii), Ephesus, Smyrna, Pergamos, Thyatira, Sardis, Philadelphia, and Laodicea, which see under the respective names. See Asia Minor (No. 2, above) ; Revelation. Asiarcll (^Aaidpxne, rider of Asia Minor, in the plur., Acts xix, 31; Vulg. Asia principes ; Auth. Vers, "the chief of Asia"), the title of the ten persons an- nually chosen in Proconsular Asia as chief presidents of the religious rites (prasides sacerdotales, Tertull. De Spect. 2), and whose office it was to exhibit solemn games in the theatre every year, in honor of the gods and of the Roman Emperor (Cod. Theodos. xv, 9, 2). This they did at their own expense (like the Roman aediles), whence none but the most opulent persons could bear the office, although only of one year's con- tinuance (see Conybeare and Howson, Life and Epis- tles of St. Paul, ii, 83). The appointment was much as follows : at the beginning of every year (i. e. about the autumnal equinox), each of the cities of Asia held a public assembly, in order to nominate one of their cit- izens as asiarch (Spanheim, Be usu cl prastant. num. p. 694). A person was then sent to the general coun- cil of the province, at some one of the principal cities, as Ephesus, Smyrna, Sardis, etc., to announce the name of the individual who had been selected (JEA. Arist. p. 344 sq., cd. Jebb ; p. 613 sq., ed. Cant). Of the persons thus nominated by the cities the council designated ten. As the asiarchs arc repeatedly mentioned in the plural, some suppose that the whole ten presided as a college over the sacred rites (comp. Strabo, xiv, 649). But in Eusebius (Hist. Eccles. iv, 15) Polycarp is said to have suffered martyrdom when "Philip was asiarch and Statius Quadratus proconsul of Asia ;" from which and other circumstances it is deemed more probable that, as in the case of the irenarch, the names of the ten nominated by the general council were submitted to the proconsul, who chose one of the number to be asiarch (see Vales, in loc. ; Deyling, Observ. iii, 379 sq.). Kuinoel (at Acts xix, 31) admits that one chos- en by the proconsul was pre-eminently the asiarch, but conceives that the other nine acted as his assessors, and also bore that title. Others, however, think the plurality of asiarchs sufficiently accounted for by sup- posing that those who had served the office continued to bear the title, as was the case with the Jewish high- priests ; but the other branch of the alternative is usu- ally preferred. It is probal de that in the course of time changes were made in the office, which our fragmentary information does not enable us to trace ; and that the solitary testimony of Eusebius amounts to no more than that one asiarch, Philip, then and there presided at the public games, but not that the arrangements of all the games were made and provided by that one asiarch. Even the college of these officers appear to have had jurisdiction in Proconsular Asia (q. v.) only, for we find mention of similar functionaries in the oth- er provinces of Asia Minor, e. g. Bithyniarch, Gala- tarch, Lyciarch, Cariarch, etc. (Strabo, xiv, 3; Mala- las, p. 285, 289, ed. Bonn), and likewise in other parts of the Roman empire, e. g. Syriarch (Liban. Ep. 1217), Phoeniciarch, Cypriarch (2 Mace, xii, 2), etc., each charged with similar duties in their respective districts (see the Hall. Encycl. iii, 284 sq.). There is no ground for the supposition of Schottgen (Miscel. Lips, v, 178 sq.), that the asiarchs wore city magistrates, having appellate or superior jurisdiction over the decisions of local courts : they should by no means be confounded with the archon, or chief magistrate of Ephesus ; for they were representatives, not of a single city, but of many cities united. This notion of the asiarchs is confirmed by a medal of Rhodes, struck under Ha- drian, on the reverse of which we read, "A coin struck in common by thirteen cities, in honor of the magistrate of Rhodes, ClaudioFronto, asiarch and high- priest of the thirteen cities." The office might be tilled by the same person several times (Ackennan, Num. III. ASIATIC BRETHREN 471 ASMOD^EUS p. 51). Their place of res- idence was at Ephesus, Smyrna, Sardis, Cyzicus, or at any other city where the council washeld. Their office was thus, in a great measure at least, religious, and they arc, in conse- quence, sometimes called "priests" (apxtEpuc), and their office a " priesthood" (iinwavi'ii) (Mart. S. Polii- Coin of llypa-pa m I.ydia : a . „v , 91\ military ii-ure pourin- tin ™'P- ln ratr- AP- c- -1> contents of a patera upon an Probably it represented the altar with the fire kindled, religious element of the an- while Victory places a gar- . t Panionian League, land on his head : legend (in . " ! Greek), "Of the Hypaepeni- to tne territorial limits ot ans under Menander, second which also the circle of the time Asiarch and Praetor." functions of the asiarchs nearly corresponded (see Herod, i, 142). Coins or in- scriptions hearing the names of persons who had served the office of asiarch one or more times, are known as belonging to the following cities : Aphrodisias, Cyzi- cus, Hypaepa, Laodicea, Pergamos, Philadelphia, Sar- dis, Smyrna, Thyatira. (Aristid. Or. xxvi, 518, ed. Dind. ; Eckhel, ii, 507 ; iv, 207 ; Bockb, Inscr. vol. ii ; Krause, Civitates Ncocor.ce, p. 71; Wetstein, On Acts XIX ; Herod, v, 38 ; Hammond, On X. T. in loc.) These chiefs, then holding such games at Ephesus, out of friendly consideration for Paul, restrained him from appearing, as he proposed, in the theatre, during the sedition raised by Demetrius, the goldsmith, respect- ing Diana of Ephesus (Acts xix, 31). The considera- tion of these asiarchs for the Apostle Paul, during the tumult, is not only extremely honorable to his charac- ter and to theirs, but is also a strong confirmation of the remark made by the evangelist (ver. 10), that "all they who dwelt in Asia heard the word of the Lord, both Jews and Greeks" (see Conybeare and Ilowson, ii, 86). It shows also in what light the tumult of De- metrius was beheld, since he took especial care to observe that "all Asia" worshipped their goddess. Yet were the very asiarchs, now engaged in this wor- ship, intent on saving the man whom Demetrius repre- sented as its most formidable enemy (Carstens, De Asiarchis Paulo quondam amicis, Lubee. 1744). See generally Salmas. ad SoL'n. 40, p. 566 ; Van Dale, Dis- sert, ad antiq. et marmor. p. 273 sq. ; Carstens, Meditat. gubseciv. spec, ii (Lubec. 1744); Ziebich, Observ. e nu- mis antiq. sacr. (Viteb. 1745), p. 36 sq. ; Smith's Diet. of ('hiss. Ant. s. v.; and the treatises De Asiarchis, of Boysen (Hal. 1716), Lintrup (Hafn. 1715), Siber (Viteb. 1683), Sontag (Altorf, 1712), and Wesseling (Utr. 1753). Asiatic Brethren, a secret society greatly re- sembling the Kosicrucians (q. v.). It arose in Austria in 1780, spread throughout German}', applied itself chief]}' to cabalistics and theosophy, and occasioned many frauds. Baron Ecker von Eckhofen and one Boheman at Stockholm were the principal defenders of this order. See Die Bruder St. Johannis des Evany, aus Asien (Berl. 1830). Asibi'as (Aatftiac, comp. Asebia, 1 Esdr. viii, 48), one of the Israelites who renounced his Gentile wife after the captivity (1 Esdr. ix, 26) ; doubtless a cor- ruption for the MalChijah (q. v.) of the genuine text (Ezra x, 25). A'siel, the name of two men. 1. (Heb. AsieT, iK^fe)?, created by God; Sept. Ao-u'/X.) The father of Seraiah, and progenitor of one of the Simeonite chiefs that expelled the Hamite abo- rigines from the fertile valleys near Gedor in the time of Hezekiah (1 Chron. iv, 35). B.C. ante 712. 2. (Vulg. Asiel, for the Greek text is not extant.) The last named of the five scribes whom the divine voice is represented, in the fanciful vision of 2 Esdr. xiv, 24, as directing Ezra to bring for the purpose of recording the revelation about to be communicated to him. Asinaeus (AcnvaToc), a Jew during the captivity at Babylon, of whose exploits, in connection with his brother Anilseus ('AwAaioc), in raising himself from obscurity to the chief power in the province of Meso- potamia, and of whose reverses afterward in conse- quence of an idolatrous marriage, Josephus gives a de- tailed but apparently apocryphal account (Ant. xviii, 9). As'ipha ('Ao-(0d), one of the family-heads of the "temple-servants" that returned from Babylon (1 Esdr. v, "29) ; evidently the Hasupha (q. v.) of the true text (Ezra ii, 43). As'kelon (Judg. i, 18). See Ashkelon. Askew, Anne (otherwise Ascough or Ascue), born in 1521, was second daughter of Sir Wm. Askew, of Lin- colnshire. By the study of the Scriptures she became a convert to the opinions of the Reformers, at which her husband, one Kyme, a papist, turned her out of doors. She came up to London to sue for a separation, and appears to have attracted the favorable notice of some ladies high at court. She was soon accused of heresy and committed to prison. Being examined before the Bishop of London and others, she is said to have re- plied boldly to the lord-mayor's question, "Whether the priests cannot make the body of Christ?" "I have read that God made man ; but that man can make God I never yet read" (Strype, Memorials, i, 387). Yet it is said by Burnet that "after much pains she set her hand to a recantation, by which she acknowl- edged that the natural body of Christ was present in the sacrament after the consecration, whether the priest were a good or an ill man ; and that, whether it was presently consumed or reserved in the pix, it was the true body of Christ" {Hist, of Reformation, bk. iii). Her recantation, however, was not effectual, for she was soon apprehended again ;.nd committed to New- gate, where she was again strictly questioned as to what ladies at court had shown her favor and encour- agement. She was placed on the rack and cruelly tortured in the sight, and, as Fox says, by the hand of the Lord Chancellor Wriothesly, whose eagerness in this matter is ascribed to his desire to gain some ground of offence against the Duchess of Suffolk, the ( lountess of Hertford, or some other ladies. But her patience and fortitude could not be shaken. She was burnt with four others at the stake in Smithfield, July 16, 1546. She wrote several works, one of which is en- titled Eraminationes piec. — Penny Cyclop, s. v. ; Fox, Book of Martyrs, p. 600-614 ; Burnet, Hist, of Reforma- tion, bk. i, p. 547. Aslac, Conrad, a learned Danish divine, born at Bergen, in Norway, in 1564, studied at Copenhagen, and in the years 1593-99 travelled through Germany, Switzerland, France, England, and Ireland. He re- turned to Copenhagen in 1600, and professed the He- brew, Greek, and Latin languages, and theology. He died in 1624, leaving among other works : 1. A Treat- ise on Election (Danish, Copenhagen, 1612, 8vo) : — 2. Physica et Ethica Mosaica (Hanau, 1613) :— 3. De Di- j cendi et. Dissercndi Ratione, lib. iii (Copenhagen, 1612, 4to. This book is placed on the Roman Index'): — 4. De Christo vero Deo et Homine in una Indivisa, Persona, etc. (Frankfort, 1620, 8vo) :— 5. De Statu Christ! ante Incarnationem et in Incarwtione (Copenhagen, 1022, 4to) :— 6. Oratio de Statu Religionis in Dania, ab 1517 ad 1628 (Copenhagen, 1631, 4to) :— 7. De Religionis per Lutherum Plantatione in Daniam et Norvegiam (Copenhagen, 1620, 4to) ; besides many disputations, etc., on Free Will, Original Sin, the Creation, etc. Asmodae'us (AofioSaToe'), a daemon or evil spirit mentioned in the apocryphal book of Tobit (iii, 8) as having become enamored of Sara, the daughter of Kagucl, and killed the seven husbands whom she had ASMONJEAN 4 married (Tob. vi, 14), but as being put to flight by the charm used by Tobias on his marriage with her (Tub. viii, 2, 3). The rabbins have a number of absurd traditions respecting Asmodaeus ("H-rrX or ^S^a^K, Talm. Getten, lxviii, 1) as a libidinous daemon (comp. Gen. vi, 1), and indeed the Talmudists represent him as the prince of devils, even Satan himself (see Eisen- menger, Enid. Jul nth. ii, 410; Lightfoot, Ilor. Ilebr. ad Luc. xi, 15). Hence Beelzebub has been supposed tn refer to the same daemon. But a similar title they also give to " the angel of death," as the destroyer of all mankind ; hence some derive the name Asmodaeus from the Hebrew Ted, shamad' ', to exterminate, which identifies it also with Abaddon (q. v.), the same as Apollyon (Rev. ix, 11, where he is called "a king, the angel of the bottomless pit"), and 6 '0\o9pevu)i>, Wisd. xviii, 25, where he is represented as the "evil angel" (Psa. lxxviii, 40) of the plague (Schleusner's Thesaur. s. v.), the angel of death (see Ilgen, zu Tob. p. 42). Thus the story in Tobit means no more than that the seven husbands died successively on their marriage with Sara. (For other interpretations, see Fritzsche, Comment, p. 38.) Others, however (Ge- senius, Alg. Lit. Zeit. 1815, No. 123 ; De Wette, Bibl. Theol. p. 146 ; Reland, Ant. Sacr. iv, 6), rather refer it to the Persic word azmadan, to tempt (Castelli Lex. Pers. col. 24 sq.). In the book of Tobit, this evil spirit is represented as causing, through jealousy, the death of Sara's seven husbands in succession on the bridal night ; gaining the power to do so (as is hinted) through their incontinence. Tobias, instructed by Raphael, burns on "the ashes of perfume" the heart and liver of the fish which he caught in the Tigris; "the which smell when the evil spirit had smelled, he fled into the utmost parts of E-jypt, and the angel bound him" (Tob. viii, 3). It is obviously a vain en- deavor to attempt to rationalize this story, since it is throughout founded on Jewish daemonology, and " the loves of the angels," a strange fancy derived from Gen. vi, 2. Those, however, who attempt this task make Asmodaeus the daemon of impurity, and suppose merely that the fumes deadened the passions of Tobias and bis wife. The rabbins (among other odd fables) make this daemon the offspring of the incest of Tubal- cain with his sister Noema, and say (in allusion to Solomon's many wives) that Asmodaeus once drove him from his kingdom, but, being dispossessed, was forced to serve in building the Temple, which he did noiselessly, by means of a mysterious stone Shamir (Calmet, s. v. and Fragments, p. 271, where there is a great deal of fanciful and groundless speculation). See generally Wichmann, De Asmodmo spiritu ma- ligno avSpuiiroKTOvtft (Lub. lOOli) ; Hosum, Di Aschmo- dcEo dcemonio maligna (Hafn. 1709); Neubauer, De an- gelo mortis cr mente Ebr. et Muhzmmedanorum (Hal. 17.12); Hezel, Schrijftforscher (Giess. 1792), ii, 1 sq. ; Calmet's Dissertation on the dcemon Asmodmis (trans- lated in Arnald's Commentary on the Apocrypha) ; Ode, De Angelis, p. Gil Bq. See Demon. Asmonaean (^AaafiuvaJoc, 'Avcrapiovaloc, Joseph. Ant. xii, G, 1 sq. ; in Joseph. Gorionid. plur. D^Waft Chashmonim' ; more fully "Wrrrn r^n, Jonathan's Targ. on 1 Sam. ii, 4; comp. Arab, chaskim, noble,- C^p'rn, Psa. lxviii, 82; fat ones, i. e. opulent), the proper designation of the family of the priest Mattathi- as, wlio-' Bona became better known by the surname of tli ■ Maccabees. (For the linear and history of the Asmonseans in full, see the Penny Cyclopaedia, s. v.") See Jdda8 Macoab*08. With Mattathias(B.C. 167) began tli • exploits of the Asroonseans in delivering the Jewish people from the oppressive yoke of the Syrian Seleucidae, which was accomplished by Jonathan, son of Matt.it bias already a high-priest in rank — a dignity that was now attached t<> thai of Syrian "meridareh." Simon, another sou of Mattathiua, became himself he- 2 ASOR reditary prince of the Jews. His grandson Aristobu- lus assumed the diadem, and the royal dynasty of the Asmonaeans continued on the Jewish throne till the in- terference of Pompey in Jewish affairs. Aristobulus II, the third king of the Asmonaean line, was dethroned by the Romans, and upon his sons devolved the peril- ous endeavor of regaining their ancestral crown, but without permanence. They both paid therefor the pen- alty of their lives, the last being Antigonus (whom An- tony caused to be beheaded at Antioch, Joseph. Ant. xv, 1, 2), with whom the Asmonaean dynasty expired, after a duration of 126 years, in the consulship of M. Vips. Agrippa and Canin. Gallus, i. e. B.C. 37 (see Joseph. Ant. xiv, 16, 4). The two surviving members of the family, Aristobulus and Mariamne, grandchil- dren of Aristobulus II, appear, it is true, at first to have striven to maintain a position in life under the Herodian sway suitable to their rank; but they soon fell under the suspicion of King Herod, and, with the assassination of Mariamne, the family of the Asmonae- ans likewise became extinct (apparently after Herod's return from Antioch, where he had met Octavianus on his return from Egypt, B.C. 29 ; Joseph. Ant. xv, 7, 4). The exploits of the Maccabees under Simon are related in the books of the Apocrypha that bear their name (1 and 2 Mace, among the Jews, n^XSTa'i'n "HB&, books of the Chashmonceans ; see Eichhorn, Einl. in die Apokr. Schr. A. T. p. 208 sq. ; Jahn, II, iv, 949 sq. ; Bertholdt, iii, 1036) ; but the complete history of the Asmonaeans is given by Josephus (Ant. xii, 6 to xiv, 16), who was himself a descendant of their lineage (Ant. xvi, 7, 1). See Maccabee. As'nah (Heb. Asnah', f!2DX, peril, hateful, or thor?i, otherwise store-house ; Sept. 'Aaevd), the head of one of the families of the Nethinim that returned from the Babylonian captivity with Zerubbabel (Ezra ii, 50). B.C. ante 536. Asnap'per (Chald. Osnappar', ~iB3C)X; some MSS. "I230X, Asenappar' ', whence Sept. 'Ajaivatyap v. r. N«0«p; Vulg. Asenaphar), the name of an As- syrian king or satrap who is said to have planted col- onies (probably from some distant conquered terri- tory) in Samaria, or perhaps other parts of Palestine and Syria (Ezra iv, 10). On the supposition that a king of Assyria is meant, and by comparison with 2 Kings xvii, 24, many (with Grotius) identify him with Shalmaneser; others (as Rosenmuller, Alterth. I, ii, 109; Hengstenberg, Authent. Dan. p. 178) understand Esarhaddon (comp. Ezra iv, 2 ; so Michaelis ; but see on the contrary Herzfeld, Gesch. d. Yolks Israel, i, 473) ; while most of the Jewish interpreters assume Sennacherib to be meant. He was probably, how- ever, only a satrap of some of the Assyrian provinces (B.C. cir. 712), and the epithet applied to him in the passage in Ezra (Xl"1^! KSl1!, the great and the ex- cellent, i. e. most eminent [comp. koc'itigtoc, Luke i, 3] ; Auth. Vers. " the great and noble") is apparently the usual title of persons in that capacity, heimj; indeed perhaps the translation of the official title Osnapper itself (OX = Sanscrit osna, great ; "iQ = Sanscrit para, noble; see Luzath, Le Sanscrit/sme de la langue Assy- rienne, p. 38-40). Bohlen, on the other hand, com- pares Sanscrit Senapa, leader of an army ; according to which the name would become merely a designa- tion of an Assyrian general. A'som (\m'i/i), one of the Israelites whose "sons" had taken foreign wives on the return from Babylon (1 Esdr. ix, 33) ; evidently the Hasiium (q. v.) of the true text (Ezra X, 33). A'sor (Aawp), a plain in Galilee near the Sea of Gennesaret (1 Mace, xi, 67, according to the Vulg. and Syr. ; the common Greek has Kamop, Auth. Vers. "Nasor;" but the initial v has apparently been bor- rowed from the preceding irtSiov), probably Razor ASP 473 ASPALATHUS (Tl5jn, which is thus Grascized in the Sept.), in the tribe of Naphtali (comp. Joseph. Ant. xiii, 5, 7). See Hazor. Asp CjflB, pe'tken, so called probably from extend- ing itself, Deut. xxxii, 33; Job xx, 14, 1G ; Isa. xi, 8; "adder," Psa. lviii, 4; xci, 13 ; obttiq, Rom. iii, 3), a venomous kind of serpent, perhaps correctly desig- nated by this rendering, since the Chald., Syr., and Arabic equivalents appear to denote some member of the Coluber family (see Gesenius, Thesaur. p. 1140). Bocbart (Ilieroz. iii, 156, ed. Lips.) incorrectlj- refers to the Syr. name for dragon (comp. his treatise De aspide surda ad Psa. lviii, 5, ibid. p. 161 sq:). Kitto (Pict. Bible, at Job xx, 14) compares the bceten of the Arabs, called by the Cyprians hifi (Kwfi), deaf, comp. Psa. lviii, 4). This reptile, which more exactly cor- responds in name to the Heb., is thus described by Forskal (Descr. Anim. p. 15) : " Spotted all over with black and white ; a foot long, and about twice as thick as one's thumb ; oviparous ; the bite instantly fatal, causing the body to swell." See Adder. The "asp" is often mentioned by ancient authors (see Smith's Asp as Aijatliinkcmon, or tu- telary Spirit, at the en- trance of an ancient Egyp- tian Store-house. The Asp (.Haje): 1, at rest; Diet, of Class. Antiq. s. v. Aspis), but in such vague terms (except that they agree in its extreme venom, whence it was selected by Cleopatra as the surest and speediest means of her suicide) that little can be posi- tively determined respecting it, if indeed several spe- cies of serpent are not thus designated. From the de- scription of Pliny, however (His/. Nat. viii, 35), nat- uralists have generally fixed upon the el-Eaje (<a\Tog, Auth. Vers. " slime," Gen. xi, 3 ; xiv, 10 ; Exod. ii, 3, where Luther, like the modern rabbins, translates by "clay"). The Hebrew and Arabic names probably refer to the reddish color of some of the specimens (Dioscorides, i, 99). (The Greek name, whence the Latin asphaltum, has doubtless given name to the Lake Asphaltites [Dead Sea], whence it was abundantly obtained.) Usually, however, asphal- tum, or compact bitumen, is of a shining black color; it is solid and brittle, with a conchoidal fracture, alto- gether not unlike common pitch. Its specific gravity is from 1 to 1.6, and it consists chiefly of bituminous oil, hydrogen gas, and charcoal. It is found partly as a solid dry fos.il, intermixed in layers of plaster, marl, or slate, and partly as liquid tar flowing from cavities in rocks or in the earth, or swimming upon the surface of lakes or natural wells (Burckhardt, ii, 77). To judge from Gen. xiv, 10, mines of asphaltum must have existed formerly on the spot where subse- quently the Dead Sea, or Lake Asphaltites, was form- ed, such as Mariti (Travels, iv, 27) discovered on the western shore of that sea. The Palestine earth-pitch, however, seems to have had the preference over all the other sorts (Plin. xxviii, 23 ; Discor. i, 100). It was used among the ancients partly for covering boats, paying the bottoms of vessels (comp. "Nicbuhr, ii, 336 ; Cen. vi, 14; Exod. ii, 3; Josephus, War, iv, 8, 4; Buckingham, Mesopot. p. 346), and partly as a substi- tute for mortar in buildings; and it is thought that tli.' bricks of which the walls of Babylon were built (Km. xi, 3; Strabo, xvi, 743; Herod, i, 179; Plin. xxxv, 51; Ammian. Marcell. xxiii, fi; Virtruv. viii, .".: comp. Josephus, Ant. i, 4, :;) had been cemented with hot bitumen, which imparted to them great solid- ity. In ancient Babylon asphaltum was made use of also lor fuel, as the environs (in the place called 7s or //ng the ancient Egyptians for em- balming the dead. Strabo (xvi) and many other an- cient and modern writers assert that only the asphalt of the Dead Sea was used for that purpose; but it has 1,1 """'■' recenl times been proved, from experiments mad.' on mummies, that tin' Egyptians employed slag- gy mineral pitch in embalming the dead. This opera- tion was performed in three different ways: first, with slangy mineral pitch alone; second, with a mixture of this bitumen and a liquor extracted from the cedar, called cedoria ; and third, with a similar mixture, to which resinous and aromatic substances were added (Hatty, Mineral, ii, 315). See Bitumen. Asphaltum is found in masses on the shore of the Dead Sea, or floating on the surface of its waters. Dr. Shaw (Travels in Barbai-y and the Levant) was told that this bitumen, for which the Dead Sea is so famous, rises at certain times from the bottom of the sea in large pieces of semi-globular form, which, as soon as the}' touch the surface and the external air operates upon them, burst asunder in a thousand pieces with a terrible crash, like the pulcis fulminans of the chemists. This, however, he continues, only occurs along the shore ; for in deep water it is supposed that these erup- tions show themselves in large columns of smoke, which are often seen to rise from the lake. The fact of the ascending smoke has been much questioned by natu- ralists ; and although apparently confirmed by the tes- timonies of various travellers, collected 1 y Bi'isching in his Erdbeschreibung, it is not established by the more observant travellers of recent years. Pococke (De- scription of the East, etc., ii, 46) presumes that the thick clumps of asphalt collected at the bottom of the lake have been brought up by subterranean fire, and afterward melted by the agitation of the waters. Also Strabo (xvi, 764) speaks of subterraneous fires in those parts (comp. Burckhardt, Syria, 394). Dr. Robinson, when in the neighborhood, heard from the natives the same story which had previously been told to Seetzen and Burckhardt, namely, that the asphaltum" flows down the face of a precipice on the eastern shore of the lake until a large mass is collected, when, from its weight or some shock, it breaks off and falls into tli3 sea (Seetzen, in Zaeh's Monatl. Correspond, xviii, 441 ; Burckhardt, p. 394; Robinson, ii, 229). This, how- ever, he strong!}' doubts for assigned reasons, and it is agreed that nothing of the kind occurs on the west- ern shore. He rather inclines to receive the testimony of the local Arabs, who affirm that the bitumen only appears after earthquakes. They allege that after the earthquake of 1834 huge quantities of it were cast upon the shore, of which the Jehalin Arabs alone took about 60 kuntars (each of 98 lbs.) to market; and it was cor- roboratiyely recollected by the Rev. Eli Smith that a large amount had that year been purchased at Beirut by the Frank merchants. There was another earth- quake on January 1, 1837, and soon after a large mass of asphaltum (compared by one person to an island, and by another to a house) was discovered floating on the sea, and was driven aground on the western side near Usduni. The neighboring Arabs assembled, cut it up with axes, removed it by camel loads, and sold it at the rate of four piastres the rutl, or pound ; the product is said to have been about $3000. Except dur- ing these two years, the sheik of the Jehalin, a man fifty years old, had never known bitumen appear in the sea, nor heard of it from his fathers (Robinson's Bib. Researches, ii, 230). This information may serve to illustrate the account of Josephus that "the sea in man}- places sends up black masses of asphaltum, which float on the surface, having the form and size of head- less oxen" (War, ix, 8, 4); and that of Diodorus (ii, 48), who states that the bitumen is thrown up in mass- es, covering sometimes two or three plethra, and hav- ing the appearance of islands. — Kitto, s. v. See Pitch. As'phar ('Acr^ap v. r. 'An, arad', Dan. v. 21 ; both rendered " wild ass"), a term most likely derived from the braying voice of the ani- mal. In its natural state it never seeks woody, but upland pasture, mountainous and rocky re- treats ; and it is habituated to stand on the brink of precipices (a practice not entirely obliterated in oar own domestic races), whence, with protruded The and asses thus painted occur frequently in Oriental illuminated MSS., and although the taste may be pue- rile, we conceive that it is the record of remote con- quest achieved by a nation of Central Asia, mounted on spotted or clouded horses, and revived by the Par- tisans, who were similarly equipped (see Introd. to the Hist, of the Horse, in the Naturalist's Library, vol. xii). No other primeval invasion from the East by horsemen on such animals than that of the so-called Centaurs is Domestic Ass of Western Asia. ears, it surveys the scene below, blowing and at length braying in extreme excitement. This habit is beau- tifully depicted by Jeremiah (xvii, 6; xlviii, G). Va- rieties of this species are designated by the following terms : "PS (a'yir~) is translated in the Auth. Vers. " young ass," " colt," "foal ;" but this rendering does not appear on all occasions to be correct, the word be- ing sometimes used for animals that carry loads and till the ground, which seems to afford evidence of at least full growth (Isa. xxx, C, 24). ]TX (athon', usually "ass" simply) is sometimes unsatisfactori- ly rendered "she-ass," unless we suppose it to re- fer to a breed of greater beauty and importance than the common, namely, the silver-gray of Africa, which, being lar^e and indocile, the females were anciently selected in preference for riding, and on that account formed a valuable kind of property. From early apes a white breed of this race was reared at Zobeir, the ancient Dassora and capital of the Orcheni, from which place i i\ il dignitaries still obtain their white asses and white mules. It is now tin- fashion, as it was during the Parthian empire, and probably in the time of the judges, to dapple this breed with spots of orange or crimson, or of both colors together; and this is prob- ably the meaning of the word ihs (checkered?), ren- dered "white" in Judg. v, 10 • an interpretation which is confirmed by the Babylonian Sanhedrim, who, in answer to King Sapor's offer of a horse to convey the Jewish Messiah, say. "Thou hast not a hundred-spot- ted horse, such as his (the Messiah's) ass." Horses She-ass used as a. Bsast of Burden by the ancient Egyptians. recorded ; their era coincides nearly with that of the judges (see Kitto, Plci. Bible, at Judg. v, 10). Asses have always been in extensive use in the East (Thomson, Land and Book, ii, 407) ; and they were em- ployed by Joseph's brethren to carry grain from Eg}-pt • — a journey to which they are competent, notwithstand- ing the intervening deserts (Hacketfs Illustra. of Script, p. 29). They were abundant in Ancient Egypt (as donkej-s still are, Lane's Mod. Eg. i, 209"), where they were employed in treading out grain, and for other purposes (Wilkinson's Anc. Eg. i, 231). They are not represented on the Assyrian monuments (Layard's Nineveh, ii, 328), although the onager or wild ass is still celebrated in that region for its swiftness (jb. i, 265). 2. SOS, pe're, rendered likewise "wild ass," is a de- rivative of the same root which in Hebrew has pro- duced paras, horse, and parasim, horsemen, Persians and Parthians. Though evidently a generical term, the Scripture uses it in a specific sense, and seems to intend by it the horse-ass or wild mule, which the Greeks denominated hemionos, and the moderns jig- getal ; though we think there still remains some com- mixture in the descriptions of the species and those of the koulan, or wild ass of Northern Asia. Both are Wild A nearly of the same stature, and not unlike in the gen- eral distribution of colors and markings, but the he- mionos is distinguished from the other by its neighing voice and the deficiency of two teeth in the jaws. The species is first noticed by Aristotle, who mentions nine of these animals as beinc: brought to Phryajia by Pharnaces the satrap, of which three were living in the time of his son Pharnabazus. This was while the onager still roamed wild in Cappadocia and Syria, ASS 477 ASS and proves that it had until then been considered the same species, or that from its rarity it had escaped discrimination; but no doubt remains that it was the gourkhur, or horse-ass, which is implied by the name hemionos. The allusion of Jeremiah, in speak- ing of the pere (xiv, G), most forcibly depicts the scarcity of food when this species, inured to the des- ert and to want of water, are made the prominent example of suffering. See Mule. They were most likely used in traces to draw chariots. The ani- mals so noticed in Isa. xxi, 7, and by Herodotus, are the same which Pliny, Strabo, and Arnobius make the Caramanians and Scythians employ in the same way. We claim the pere, and not the arod, to be this species, because the hemionos, or at least the gourk- hur, does not bray, as before noticed; and because, notwithstanding its fierceness and velocity, it is ac- tually used at present as a domestic animal at Luck- now, where it was observed by Duvaucel. The hemi- onos is little inferior to the wild horse ; in shape it re- sembles a mule, in gracefulness a horse, and in color it is silvery, with broad spaces of flaxen or bright bay on the thigh, flank, shoulder, neck, and head ; the ears are wide like the zebra's, and the neck is clothed with a vertical dark mane prolonged in a stripe to the tuft of the tail. The company of this animal is liked by horses, and, when domesticated, it is gentle. It is now found wild from the deserts of the Oxus and Jaxartes to China and Central India. In Cutch it is never known to drink, and in whole districts which it fre- quents water is not to be found; and though the na- tives talk of the fine flavor of the flesh, and the gour in Persia is the food of heroes, to a European its smell is abominable. — Kitto, s. v. See Wild Ass. Ass's Head. — 1. By the law of Moses the ass was declared unclean, and therefore was not used as food, excepting, as it would appear, in cases of extreme famine. This inference, however, is drawn from a case where the term "ass's head" may be explained to mean not literally the head of an ass, but a certain measure or weight so called, as in 1 Sam. xvi, 20, where it is said that Jesse sent to Saul "an ass of bread ;" for, in our version, "laden with" is an addition to the text. Although, therefore, the famine in Samaria may possi- bly have compelled the people to eat asses, and a head may have been very dear, still the expression may de- note the measure or weight which bore the same name. The prohibition, however, had more probably an eco- nomical than a religious purpose ; hunting was thus discouraged, and no horses being used, it was of im- portance to augment the number and improve the qualities of the ass. This example of the use of asses' flesh (an "ass's head") in extreme famine (sometimes the flesh was regarded as a delicacy, Apul. Metam. vii, p. 158, Bip. ed. ; comp. Galen, Facult. alim. i, 2, p. 486, ed. Kuhn ; Plin. viii, 68) occurs in 2 Kings vi, 25 (comp. Plutarch, Vit. Artax. 24; Barhebr. Chron. p. 149, 488), although it was unclean (Philo, Opp. ii, 400; comp. Exod. xiii, 13; xxxiv, 20), and the ass could not be offered in sacrifice (Porphyr. Austin, ii, 25 ; but it was otherwise among the Persians, Strabo, xv, 727 ; even in magic its flesh was used, Ammian. Marc, xxx, 5, p. 228, Pip. ed.). See Food. 2. As this animal was most serviceable to man, its name was held in respect rather than contempt. The slandpr, therefore, current among the Romans, and di- rected against the Jews, that they adored the head of an ass in secret, may not have originated in direct mal- ice or misinterpretation, but have arisen out of some Gnostic fancies, in which the Alexandrian Jews, who had nearly forsaken the Scriptures in search of the mag- ical delusions of the Cabala, and new semi-Christians in that city so deeply indulged during the first centu- ries of our era. Hence the Ophite sect figured in the circles of Behemoth, the last genius or iEon (?), under the name of Onoel, shaped like an ass ; and there ex- ists an engraved abraxas, or talisman, of Gentile or Gnostic origin, bearing the whole length form of a man in flowing robes with an ass's head, and holding an open book with the inscription " Deus Christiano- rum menenychites." It is not likely that mere malice would engrave its spite upon amulets, although, if Ja- blonski be correct, the ass was held in contempt in Egypt, and, therefore, in Alexandria ; but among the Arabs and Jews we have " the voice of one crying in the wilderness," a solemn allusion derived from the wild ass, almost the only voice in the desert; and in the distinguishing epithet of Mirvan II, last Ommiad caliph, who was called Hymar al-Gezerah, or wild ass of Mesopotamia— proofs that no idea of contempt was associated with the prophet's metaphor, and that, by such a designation, no insult was intended to the per- son or dignity of the prince. In more remote ages Tartak or Tarhak was an ass-god of the Avim, and Yauk was the Arabian name of another equine divin- ity, or a different name for the same Tartak, whose form may possibly be preserved to the present day in the image of the Borak, or mystical camel, which," ac- cording to the Koran, bore Mohammed, and is now carried in processions at the Nurus. It is shaped like a horse, having a white body with red legs, a pea- cock's- tail, and a woman's instead of an ass's head. Yet this attributing of the worship of the ass (ass's head) to the Jews (Plut. Si/mpos. iv, 5 ; Tacit. Hist. v, 4 ; Diod. Sic. Exc. ii, 225 ; comp. Josephus, Apion, ii, 7) was a highly odious misconstruction (see Bernhold, in the Erlang. Anzelg. 1744, No. 52). The historical foundation of this tradition cannot be traced to the well-known legend of a fountain of water discovered in the desert by an ass (Tacit, ut svpra), for the ar- guments adduced by Creuzer {Comment. Herod, i, 270 sq.) lead to no clear result (see Fuller, Miscell. hi, 8, p. 332 sq.), and the etymological reference by Hase (De lapide fundamenti, in Ugolini Thesaur. viii) to the idol Ashimam (q. v.) is as little satisfactory (see Mai- ler, in the Stud, u. Krit. 1843, iv, 909 sq. ; Bochart, Hieroz. i, 199 sq. ; comp. Minuc. Fel. ix, 4 ; and the Talmud, Shalb. v, 1). See generally, on this subject of onolatry, the treatises of Polemann (Brem. 1706); Morinus (in his Dissert, p. 285-336) ; Hasanis and Ot- tius (Erf. 1716) ; Del Monaco (Neap. 1715) ; Bernhard (in the Erl. Gel. Anzeig. 1744, No. 52); Linder (Exc. ad Minuc. Fel. ix, 4); Grape (Lips. 1696); Hasanis (in the Bill. Brem. iii, 1036 sq.) ; Heine (in his Dis- sert, ii, 1. c. 10); Schulze (in his Dissert, i); Schu- macher (De cultu animalium, p. G0-90); Miinter (D. Christen im heidn. Hause, p. 118 sq.). See Onolatry. Ass of Balaam. — Here we shall only inquire whether it were a reality or an allegory ; an imagina- tion, or a vision of Balaam. Augustine, with the great- er number of commentators, supposes it was a certain fact, and takes it literally (QucBst. in Gen. 48, 50). He discovers nothing in the whole relation more sur- prising than the stupidity of Balaam, who heard his ass speak to him, and who replied to it, as to a reason- able person ; and adds, as his opinion, that God did not give the ass a reasonable soul, but permitted it to pro- nounce certain words, to reprove the prophet's covct- ousness. Gregor}' of Nyssa (in Vita Jllosis) seems to think that the ass did not utter words ; but that, hav- ing brayed as usual, or a little more than usual, the diviner, practised in drawing presages from the voices of beasts and of birds, easily comprehended the mean- ing of the ass ; and that Moses, designing to ridicule this superstitious art of augury, relates the matter as if the ass really spoke articulately. (But see 2 Peter ii, 16.) Maimonides asserts the whole dialogue to be but a kind of fiction and allegory, whereby Moses re- lates what passed only in Balaam's imagination as real history. Philo, in his life of Moses, suppresses it entire- ly. So most Jewish authors (not Joseph. Ant. iv, 6, 3) consider it, not as a circumstance which actually took place, but as a vision, or some similar occurrence. Le Clerc solves the difficulty by saying Balaam believed ASSABIAS 478 ASSASSINS in the transmigration of souls, passing from one body into another, from a man into a beast, reciprocally ; and, therefore, he was not surprised at the ass's com- plaint, but conversed with it as if it were rational. Others have imagined different ways of solving the difficulties of this history. In considering this ques- tion, Mr. Taylor (in Calmet, Diet.) assumes as facts, (1.) That Balaam was accustomed to augury and pre- sages. (2.) That on this occasion he would notice every event capable of such interpretation, as presages were supposed to indicate. (3.) That he was deeply intent on the issue of his journey. (4.) That the whole of his conduct toward Balak was calculated to represent himself as an extraordinary personage. (5.) That the behavior of the ass did actually prefigure the conduct of Balaam in the three particulars of it which are re- corded. First, the ass turned aside, and went into the field, for which she was smitten, punished, reproved ; so Balaam, on the first of his perverse attempts to curse Israel, was, as it were, smitten, reproved, punished, [1.] by God, [2.] by Balak. The second time the ass was more harshly treated for hurting Balaam's foot against the wall ; so Balaam, for his second attempt, was, no doubt, still farther mortified. Thirdly, the ass, seeing inevitable danger, fell down and was smitten severely ; in like manner, Balaam, the third time, was overruled by God to speak truth, to his own disgrace, and escaped, not without hazard of his life, from the anger of Balak. Nevertheless, as Balaam had no sword in his hand, though he wished for one, with which to slay his ass, so Balak, notwithstanding his fury, and his seeming inclination, had no power to de- stroy Balaam. In short, as the ass was opposed by the angel, but was driven forward by Balaam, so Ba- laam was opposed by God, but was driven forward by Balak, against his better knowledge. Were we suvo that Balaam wrote this narrative, and that Moses cop- ied it, as the rabbins affirm, this view of the subject would remove the difficulties which have been raised against it. It might then be entitled "a specimen of Balaam's augury." See Balaam. Assabi'as ('A missionaries established an orphan institution at Nowgong, which numbered for several years from 50 1 ; "" smbers. In 1819 the translation of the New Testament in Assamese was completed, and printed at Sibsagar, in Assam, in is p.). There were in Assam, in 1859, 7 American and 3 native missionaries, 3 churches, 50 church-members, 1 boarding-school with 45 pupils.— Newcomb, Cyclopedia of Missions; (Bos- ton) Missionary Magazine, 1859, p. 27*6. See India. Assaui'as (Aooafiiac, v. r. Eapiac > Vulg. Assan- nas), one of the twelve priests selected by Ezra to transport the sacred vessels to Jerusalem (1 Esdr. viii, 54) ; a corruption for Hashabiah (q. v.) of the orig- inal text (Ezra, viii, 24). Assarius. See Farthing. Assassins, a secret military and religious order in Syria and Persia, a branch of the "Ismaelites" (q. v.) or " Shiites." They were suppressed in the 11th and 12th centuries, but their principles to some extent survive in the Ansarians (q. v.). The secret doctrines of the Ismaelites, who had their head-quar- ters in Cairo, declared the descendants of Ismael, the last of the seven so-called imaums, to be alone entitled to the caliphate ; and gave an allegorical interpretation to the precepts of Islam, which led, as their adversa- ries asserted, to considering all positive religions equal- ly right, and all actions morally indifferent. The atrocious career of the Assassins was but a natural se- quence of such teaching. The founder of these last, Hassan ben-Sabbah el-Homairi, of Persian descent, about the middle of the 11th century, studied at Nish- pur, under the celebrated Mowasek, and had subse- quently obtained from Ismaelite dais, or religious leaders, a partial insight into their secret doctrines, and a partial consecration to the rank of dai. But, on betaking himself to the central lodge at Cairo, he quarreled with the sect, and was doomed to banish- ment. He succeeded, however, in making his escape from the ship, and reaching the Syrian coast, after which he returned to Persia, everywhere collecting ad- herents, with the view of founding, upon the Ismael' ite model, a secret order of his own, a species o'f or- ganized society which should be a terror to his most powerful neighbors. The internal constitution of the order, which had some resemblance to the orders of Christian knighthood, was as follows : First, as su- preme and absolute ruler, came the Sheikh-al-jebal, the Prince or Old Man of the Mountain. His vice- gerents in Jebal, Kuhistan, and Syria were the three Dai-al-kebir, or grand priors of the order. Next came the dais and refiks, which last were not, however, initiated, like the former, into every stage of the se- cret doctrines, and had no authority as teachers. To the uninitiated belonged, first of all, the fedavis or fedais — i. e. the devoted ; a band of resolute youths, the ever ready and blindly obedient executioners of the Old Man of the Mountain. Before he assigned to them their bloody tasks, he used to have them thrown into a state of ecstasy by the intoxicating influence of the hashish (the hemp-plant), which circumstance led to the order being called Hashishim, or hemp-eat- ers. The word was changed by Europeans into As- sassins, and transplanted into the languages of the West with the signification of murderers. The Lasiks, or novices, formed the sixth division of the order, and the laborers and mechanics the seventh. Upon these the most rigid observance of the Koran was enjoined ; while the initiated, on the contrary, looked upon all positive religion as null. The catechism of the order, placed by Hassan in the hands of his dais, consisted of seven parts, of which the second treated, among other things, of the art of worming themselves into the confidence of men. It is easy to conceive the terror which so unscrupulous a sect must have inspired. Several princes secretly paid tribute to the Old Man of the Mountain. Hassan, who died at the age of 70 (1125 A. I).), appointed as his successor Kia-Busurg- Omid, one of his grand priors. Kia-Busurg-Omid was succeeded in 1138 by his son Mohammed, who knew how to maintain his power against Nureddin and Jus- Buf-Salaheddin. In 1163, Hassan II was rash enough to extend the secret privilege of the initiated — exemp- tion, namely, from the positive precepts of religion — to the people generally, and to abolish Islam in the Assassin state, which led to his falling a victim to his brother-in-law's dagger. Under the rule of his son, ASSEMANI 479 ASSEMBLY Mohammed II, who acted in his father's spirit, the Syrian Dai-al-kebir, Sinan, became independent, and entered into negotiations with the Christian king of Jerusalem for coming over, on certain conditions, to the Christian faith ; but the Templars killed his en- voys and rejected his overtures, that they might not lose the yearly tribute which the}' drew from him. Mohammed was poisoned by his son, Hassan III, who reinstated Islamism, and thence obtained the surname of the New Moslem. Hassan was succeeded by Mo- hammed III, a boy of nine years old, who, by his ef- feminate rule, led to the overthrow of the order, and was eventually murdered by command of his son, Rokn-eddin, the seventh and last Old Man of the Mountain. In 1256, the Mongolian prince, Hulagu, burst with his hordes upon the hill-forts of Persia held by the Assassins, which amounted to about a hundred, capturing and destroying them. The Syrian branch was also put down about the end of the 13th century, but remnants of the sect still lingered for some time longer in Kuhistan. In 1352 the Assassins reappear- ed in Syria, and, indeed, they are still reported to exist as a heretical sect both there and in Persia. The Per- sian Ismaelites have an imaum, or superintendent, in the district of Kum, and still inhabit the neighborhood of Alamut under the name of Hosseinis. The Syrian Ismaelites live in the district of Massiat or Massyad. Their castle was taken in 1809 by the Nossaries, but restored.— Chambers, Encyclopedia, s. v. ; Withof, das Reich der Assassinen (Cleve, 17G5); Hammer, Gcschichte der Assassinen (Stuttg. and Tub. 1818). Assemani, the family name of three of the most eminent Orientalists of the eighteenth century. They were Maronites (q. v.), born in Mt. Lebanon, Syria. 1. Joseph Simonius, came to Rome toward the be- ginning of the eighteenth century, was made arch- bishop injmrtibus of Tyre, and librarian of the Vatican, by Clement XI. He was sent by that pontiff on a lit- erary mission to Egypt and Syria in the years 1715- 1716, and he brought back to Rome 150 valuable MSS. On a second visit to the East (1735-1738) he obtained many more MSS., with 2000 ancient coins, medals, etc. Assemani was a man of immense erudition and industry. His most important publications were: 1. Bibliotheca Orientalis Clementina Vaticana(l\ome, 1719— 1728, 4 vols, fol.), a biographical account of the Syrian writers, divided into three classes, i. e. Orthodox, Jac- obites, and Nestorians, with copious extracts in the Syriac text, and a Latin version, lists of their works, and comments on the same. He intended to proceed with the Arabian, Copt, and other Eastern writers, but nothing appeared in print beyond the Syriac. The fourth volume of the Bibliotheca is engrossed by a learned dissertation on the Syrian Nestorians. 2. St. Ephraem Syri Opera omnia que extant (Kome, 1732- 1746, 6 vols. fol.). This edition of the works of St. Ephraim, one of the old Syrian fathers, containing the Syriac text and a Latin translation, was begun by Am- barach, another learned Maronite, living at Rome, and better known as Father Benedetti, being a member of the society of the Jesuits, and after his death was com- pleted by Assemani. This work is much esteemed, and the Latin is better than that of the other works of Assemani, who was more skilled in the Oriental than in the Latin language. 3. Kalendaria Ecchahv uni- verse, in quibus Sanctorum nomina, imagines, festi dies, Ecclesiarum Orientis ac Occidentis, prcem'ssis unins cu- jusque. Ecclesie originibus, recensentur, describuntur, et notis ilhtstrantiir (Rome, 1755-1757, 6 vols. 4to). 4. Bibliotheca Juris Orientalis Canonic') et Civilis (Rome, 1762-1764, 4 vols. 4to). Besides these, he published Rudimenta Linguae, Arabicce (Rome, 1732, 4to) and oth- er works. Many of his writings were burnt in a fire at the Vatican in 1768. He died at Rome in 1768, at the age of eighty. He left MSS., several historical dissertations, and other fragments, on the Christian population of the ancient patriarchate of Antioch, on the nation of the Copts, on the Nestorians, and other Eastern sects, etc., which have been published by Mai. It is said that there are still at Rome MSS. in his hand- writing enough to fill 100 volumes. 2. Joseph Aloysius, nephew of the preceding, pro- fessor of Oriental languages at Rome, where he died, Feb. 9, 1782. His most important work is the Codex Liturgicus Ecclesie Universce (Rome, 1749-1766, 13 vols. 4to). This vast work was intended to include all Ori- ental and Western liturgies, but was never completed. Still it is of great value. He also wrote a Commenta- rius hist.-theologicus de Catholicis sen. Patriarch's Chal- dceorum et Nestoriemorum (Romae, 1775, 4to) : — Disserta- tio de Sacris Ritibus (Rome, 1757, 4to): — Comment, dc ecclesiis, earum reveraitia et asylo (1766, fob). 3. Stephen Evodius, another nephew of Joseph Assemani, was born at Tripoli in Syria about 1707. He studied at Rome, and returned to Syria as a mis- sionary of the Propaganda. He was present at the Synod of Lebanon, 1736, at which his uncle acted as legate. Subsequently he spent some months in Eng- land, where he was elected a member of the Royal So- ciety. Having established himself at Rome, he was employed as assistant to his uncle at the Vatican, and on his uncle's death succeeded him as upper keeper of the library. He also became titular Bishop of Apamea. He died in 1784. His literary reputation is not very high. The only works of any consequence which he published are the following: Bibliotheca; Mediceo-Lau- rentiane et Palatine Codicnm MSS. Orient edium Catalo- gus (Flor. 1742, fob), with notes by Gori : — A eta Sancto- rum Martyrum Oricntalium et Occidentcdium (Rome, 1748, 2 vols. fob). To this work, which he compiles from manuscripts in the Vatican, he added the Acts of St. Simon, called " Stylite" in Chaldaic and Latin. He also began a general catalogue of the Vatican manu- scripts, divided into three classes, Oriental, Greek and Latin, Italian and other modern languages, of which, however, he published only the first volume, in 17; 6, the fire in the Vatican having destroyed his papers-. Mai has continued parts of this catalogue in his Scrip- torum Veterum nova colkctio. — Herzog, i, 560. Assembly (in Heb. IS'lB, moid', etc.; in Gr. EfocXi)1On, chasidim', saints) occurs only in the Apocrypha (1 Mace, ii, 42; vii. 13; 2 Mace. xiv, 18), where it is applied to the body of zealous and devoted men who rose at the signal for armed resistance given bj- Mattathias, the father of the Maccabees, and who, under him and his successors, upheld with the sword the great doctrine of the unity of God, and stemmed the advancing tide of Grecian manners and idolatries. The epithet evidently designates a section of the orthodox Jews (1 Mace, ii, 42, v. r. 'loveaiiov probably by correction), as distinguished from "the impious" (oi dtrtfiCic, 1 Mace, iii, 8; vi, 21; vii, 5, etc.), "the lawless" (ot uvopot, 1 Mace, iii, G; ix, 23, etc.), "the transgressors" (oi Trapdvo/^oi, 1 Mace, i, 11, etc.); that is, the Hellenizing faction. When Bacchides came against Jerusalem, they used their in- fluence (1 Mace, vii, 13, izpwroi oi 'Avid, t/aav tv vlolg 'lapaiiX) to conclude a peace, because "a priest of the seed of Aaron" (Alcimus) was with him, and sixty of them fell by his treachery. See Alctmi.t. The Jews at a later period gave the name of Chasid m to those pi- ous persons who devoted themselves to a life of austeri- ties and religious exercises in the hope of hastening the coming of the Messiah, and of making an atonement for their own sins and for the sins of others (see Solomon Maimon. Memoirs, Berlin, 1792). The name of Chasi- dim has also been assumed by a Jewish sect which orig- inated in Poland about a hundred years since, who took as the basis of their mystical system the doctrines of the cabalistic book Zohar (Beer, in Ersch und Gruber, s. v. Chassidaer), and which still subsists (see the Pen- ny Cydopcedia, s. v. Assidians). The ideas connected with this later appropriation of the term have, by an obvious association, been carried back to and connect- ed with the Chasidim or Assidteans who joined Matta- thias, and who have generally been regarded as a sect subsisting at that time. No such sect, however, is men- tioned by Josephus in treating of the affairs of that pe- riod; and the texts in the books of the Maccabees which refer to them afford no sufficient evidence that the Assidoeans formed a sect distinct from other pious and faithful Jews. Yet they may have existed as an undefined party before the Maccabaean rising, and were probably thereupon bound by some peculiar vow to the external observance of the Law (1 Mace, ii, 42, iKoiKSia'CtnOai toj vofitp). They seem afterward to have been merged in the general body of the faithful (2 Mace, xiv, G, oi XeySfitvoi twv 'lovdaiiov 'Aaicaloi, mv CKpiiyurcu 'loudag b MaKKaftcuoQ . . .). The anal- ogous Hebrew term Chasidim ( = oi ivctfitic, oi '(>otoi) occurs in various passages of Scripture appellatively for good and pious men (Psa. cxlv, 10 ; cxlix, 1 ; Isa. Ivii, 1 ; Mic. vii, 2), but is never applied to an)' sect or body of men. Upon the whole, in the entire ab- sence of collateral information, it seems the safest course to conclude that the Assidaians were a body of eminently zealous men, devoted to the Law, who join- ed Mattathias very early, and remained the constant adherents of him and his son Judas — not, like the mass of their supporters, rising occasionally and then re- lapsing into the ordinary pursuits of life. It. is possi- ble that, as Jennings conjectures (Antiq. p. 298), the name dciciuoi, or "saints," came to be applied to them by their enemies as a term of reproach, like " Puritans" formerly, and "saints" very often in the present day. — Kitto, s. v. See Saint; Chasidim. As'sir (Heb. Assir' , ""PSX, prisoner), the name of two or three men. 1. (Sept. 'AiTfi'o v. r. 'Affi)p.) A son of Korah (of the Kohathite Levites), father (brother) of Elkanah, and grandfather (brother) of Abiasaph (q. v.) or Ebia- saph (Exod. vi, 24; 1 Chron. vi, 22). B.C. cir. 1740. 2. (Sept. 'Aerdp v. r. '[vuadp or 'loaap and A1- Jezireh. This vast flat, which extends in length for 260 miles from the latitude of Mardin (37° 20') to that of Tekrit c. i ;;:,',. and which is in places of nearly equal width, is interrupted only by a single limestone range, a narrow- ridge rising abruptly out of the plain, which, splitting off' from Zagroa in lat. 33° 30', may be traced under the names of Sarazur, Hamrin, and Sinjar, from Iwan in Luristan nearly to Rakkah on the Euphrates. " Prom all parts of the plain the Sin- jar is a beautiful object. Its limestone rocks, wooded hero and there with dwarf oak, are of a rich golden color; anil the numberless ravines which furrow its sides form ribs of deep purple shadow'' (Layard, Nil* ereh and Babylon, p. 2G5). Above and below this bar- rier, stretching southward and westward farther than the eye can reach, and extending northward and east- ward 70 or 80 miles to the hill-country before men- tioned, is an immense level tract, now for the most part a wilderness, scantily watered on the right bank of the Tigris, but abundantly supplied on the left, which bears marks of having been in early times throughout well cultivated and thickly peopled. This plain is not alluvial, and most parts of it are even con- siderably raised above the level of the rivers. It is covered in spring time with the richest vegetation, presenting to the eye a carpet of flowers, varying in hue from day to day ; but as the summer advances it is parched up, and gradually changes to an arid and yellow waste, except along the courses of the rivers. All over this vast flat, on both sides of the Tigris, rise "grass-covered heaps, marking the site of ancient habitations" (Layard, p. 2-15). Mr. Layard counted from one spot nearly a hundred {Nineveh and its Re- mains, i, 315) ; from another above 200 of these lofty mounds (Am. and Bab. p. 245). Those which have been examined have been uniformly found to present appearances distinctly connecting them with the re- mains of Nineveh. See Nineveh. It may there- fore be regarded as certain that they belong to tho time of Assyrian greatness, and thus they will serve to mark the extent of the real Assyrian dominion. They are numerous on the left bank of the Tigris from Bavian to the Diyaleh, and on the right the}' thickly stud the entire country both north and south of the Sinjar range, extending eastward beyond the Khabouv (Layard, chs. xii-xiv), northward to Mardin", and southward to the vicinity of Bagdad. — Smith. 4. Natural Productions. — The most remarkable fea- ture, says Ainsworth, in the vegetation of Taurus, is the abundance of trees, shrubs, and plants in the north- ern, and their comparative absence in the southern dis- trict. Besides the productions above enumerated, Kurdistan yields gall-nuts, gum Arabic, niastich, man- < na (used as sugar), madder, castor-oil, and various kinds of grain, pulse, and fruit. An old traveller, I Rauwolf, who passed by Mosul in 1574, dwells with admiration on tho finely-cultivated fields on the Ti- gris, so fruitful in corn, wine, and honey as to remind him of the Assyrian Kabshakeh's description of his native countiy in 2 Kings xviii, 32. Eich informs us that a great quantity of honey, of the finest quality, is produced ; the bees (cemp. Isa. vii, 18, "the bee in the land of Assyria") are kept in hives of mud. The naphtha springs on the east of the Tigris are less productive than those in Mesopotamia, but thejr are j much more numerous. The zoology of the mountain I district includes bears (black and brown), panthers, i lynxes, wolves, foxes, marmots, dormice, fallow and red deer, roebucks, antelopes, etc., and likewise goats, ! but not (as was once supposed) of the Angora breed. In the plains are found lions, tigers, hyenas, beavers, jerboas, wild boars, camels, etc. — Kitto. 5. Subdivisions and Principal Towns. — Assyria in Scripture is commonly spoken of in its entirety, and unless the Huzzab (2Si"t) of Nahum (ii, 7) is an equiva- lent for the Adiabene of the geographers, no name of a district can be said to be mentioned. The classical geographers, on the contrary, divided Assyria into a number of regions — Strabo (xvi, 1 and 4) into Atvria, Arh, ■■litis, Artacrne, Apolloniatis, Chtt/onitis, Dolomene, Calachene, Adiabene, Mesopotamia, etc.; rtolemy (vi, 1) into Arrapachitis, Adiabene, the Garamaan coun- try, Apolloniatis, A rbelitis, the countrj- of the Sambatts, Calacine, and Sittacene. These provinces appear to be chiefly named from cities, as Arbelitis from Arbela; Calcine (or Calachene) from Calah or Halah (Gen. x, 11); Apolloniatis from Apollonia; Sittacene from Sit- tace, etc. Adiabene, however, the richest region of all, derived its appellation from the Zab (Diab) rivers on which it lav, as Anmiianus Marcellinus informs us ASSYRIA 489 ASSYRIA (xxiii, 20). Ptolemy (v, 18) made Mesopotamia (which he understood literally as the whole country between the Euphrates and the Tigris) distinct from Assyria, just as the sacred writers distinguish " Aram-Naha- rain" from " Asshur." Strabo (xvi, 1) extended As- syria to the Euphratss, and even across it into Arabia and Syria! Farthest north lay the province Arra- pachitis, so called, as Rosenmiiller conjectures, from Arphaxad, Asshur's brother (Gen. x. 22-24 ; but see Vater on Genesis, i, 151). South of it was Ccdacine, by Strabo written Calachene ; perhaps the Chalach of 2 Kings xvii, 6; xviii, 11. Next came Adiabene, so important a district of Assyria as sometimes to give name to the whole country. See Adiabene. In Aramaean it is called Chadyab or Hadyab. North-east of it lay Arbelitis, in which was Arbcla (now Arbil, of which see an account in Rich's Kurdistan, ii, 14 ; and Appendix, No. i and ii), famous for the battle in which Alexander triumphed over Darius. South of this lay the two provinces of Apolloniatis and Sittacene. The country of Kir, to which the Ass.yrians transported the Damascene Syrians (2 Kings xvi, 9 ; Amos i, 5), was probably the region about the river Kur (the Cyrus of the Greeks), i. e. Iberia and Georgia. The chief cities of Assyria in the time of its great- ness appear to be the following: Nineveh, which is marked by the mounds opposite Mosul (Nebbi-Yunus and Kouyunjik) ; Calah or Halah, now Nimrud ; As- shur, now Kaleh Sherghat ; Sargina, or Dur-Sargina, now Khorsabad; Arbela, still Arbil; Opis, at the junc- tion of the Diyaleh with the Tigris ; and Sittace, a little farther down the latter river, if this place should not rather be reckoned to Babylonia. (Sec the Journal of the Georjraph. Soc. vol, ix, part i, p. 35, Lond. 1830.) The capital of the whole country was Nineveh, the Ninos of the Greeks (Herodot. i, 102), the Hebrew name being supposed to denote "the abode of Ninus," the founder of the empire. Its site is believed to have been on the east bank of the Tigris, opposite the mod- ern town of Mosul, where there is now a small town called Nebbi Yunus (i. e. the prophet Jonah), the ruins around which were explored by Rich, and are described in his work on Kurdistan. See Nineveh. In Gen. x, 11, 12, three other cities are mentioned along with Nineveh, viz. Rechoboth Ir, i. e. the city of Rehoboth, the locality of which is unknown. Calack (in our ver- sion Calah), either a place in the province of Cala- chene above mentioned, or the modern Hulwan, called by the Syrians Chalach; and Resen, "a great city be- tween Nineveh and Calach," which Bochart identities with the Larissa of Xenophon (Anabasis, iii, 47), and Michaelis with a place called Ressin (Rish-Ain, caput fontis?), destroyed by the Arabs A.D. 772. Rich notices an old place and convent of that name near Mosul (ii, 81). At the town of Al-Kosh, north of Mosul, tradition places the birth and burial of the prophet Nahum, and the Jews resort thither in pil- grimage to his tomb. But, though he is styled an El- koshite (Nah. i, 1), his denunciation against Assyria and Nineveh were evidently uttered in Palestine ; and St. Jerome fixes his birthplace at Helkesei, a village in Galilee. — Kitto ; Smith. See Jonah. 6. Present Condition. — The greater part of the coun- try which formed Assyria Proper is under the nominal sway of the Turks, who compose a considerable pro- portion of the population of the towns and larger vil- lages, filling nearly all public offices, and differing in nothing from other Osmanlis. The Pasha of Mosul is nominated by the Porte, but is subject to the Pasha of Bagdad ; there is also a pasha at Solymaneah and Akra ; a bey at Arbil, a mussellim at Kirkuk, etc. But the aboriginal inhabitants of the country, and of the whole mountain tract that here divides Turkey from Persia, are the Kurds, the Carduchii of the (Jreeks; from them a chain of these mountains were anciently called the Carduchian or Gordyaean, and from them now the country is designated Kurdistan. Klaproth, in his Asia Polyglotta (Paris, 1823, 4to, p. 75), derives the name from the Persian root kurd, i. e. strong, brave. They are still, as of old, a barbarous and warlike race, occasionally yielding a formal allegiance, on the west, to the Turks, and on the east to the Persians, but nev- er wholly subdued ; indeed, some of the more powerful tribes, such as the Hakkary, have maintained an en- tire independence. Some of them are stationary in villages, while others roam far and wide, beyond the limits of their own country, as nomadic shepherds; but they are all more or less addicted to predatory habits, and are regarded with great dread by their more peace- ful neighbors. They profess the faith of Islam, and are of the Sunite sect. All travellers have remarked man j' points of resemblance between them and the an- cient Highlanders of Scotland. (See Mr. Ainsworth's second work, Travels and Researches in Asia Minor, Mesopotamia, etc., Lond. 1842, 2 vols.) The Christian population is scattered over the whole region, but is found chiefly in the north. It includes Chalda?ans, who form that branch of the Nestorians that adheres to the Church of Rome, a few Jacobites, or monophysite Syrians, Armenians, etc. But the most interesting portion is the ancient Church of the prim- itive Nestorians, a livelj' interest in which has lately been excited in the religious world by the publications of the American missionaries (see, especially, The Nes- torians, by Asahel Grant, M.D., Lond. 1841 ; and com- pare Dr. E. Robinson, in the Am. Bibl.Repos. Oct. 1841; Jan. 1842 ; Rev. J. Perkins, ib. Jan. 1843 ; and Resi- dence in Persia, N. Y. 1843). Sec Nestorians. An- other peculiar race that is met with in this and the neighboring countries is that of the Yezidees (q. v.), whom Grant and Ainsworth would likewise connect with the ten tribes ; but it seems much more probable that they are an offshoot from the ancient Manichees, their alleged worship of the Evil Principle amounting to no more than a reverence which keeps them from speaking of him with disrespect (see Homes., in the Am. Bibl. Rejws. for April, 1842). Besides the dwellers in | towns and the agricultural population, there are a vast : number of wandering tribes, not only of Kurds, but of | Arabs, Turkomans, and other classes of robbers, who, , by keeping the settled inhabitants in constant dread \ of property and life, check every effort at improve- ment; and, in consequence of this and the influence of bad government, many of the finest portions of the country are little better than unproductive wastes. A copy of a famous history of Kurdistan, entitled Tarikh al-Akrad (Akratf being the collective name of the peo- ple), was procured by Mr. Rich when in the country, and is now, along with the other valuable Oriental MSS. of that lamented traveller, preserved in the Brit- ish Museum. See Kurdistan. II. The Assyrian Empire.— No portion of ancient history is involved in greater obscurity than that of the empire of Assyria. Nor is this obscurity in any very great degree removed by the recent remarkable discoveries of the monumental records of the nation by Layard, Botta, and Loftus. 1. Scriptural Notices of Assyrian History. — In at- tempting to arrange even the facts deducible from Scripture, a difficulty presents itself at the outset, arising from the ambiguity of the account given of the ' origin of the earliest Assyrian state in Gen. x, 11. After describing Nimrod, son of Cush, " as a mighty j one in the earth," the historian adds (ver. 10), " And the beginning of his kingdom (or, rather, the first the- atre of his dominion) was Babel, and Erech, and Accad, and Calneh, in the land of Shinar," i. e. Babylonia. Then follow the words (as it is in the margin), " Out 1 of that land he (i. e. Nimrod) went out into Assyria and builded Nineveh," (comp. Noldius, Concord. Hebr, Particles, ed. Tymp., p. 223.) Moses is enumerating the descendants of Ham, and it is not likely that he : would interrupt the details to give an account of As- ; shur, a son of Shem, whose posterity are not introduced ASSYRIA 490 ASSYRIA till ver. 21. Besides, in the circumstance of Asshur Leaving one country to settle in another, there was nothing remarkable, for that was the case with almost all Noah's grandchildren. But if we understand it of Nimrod, both the connection and the sense will be manifest. The design obviously is to represent him as a potent monarch and ambitious conqueror. His brethren, the other sons of Cush, settled in the south, but he, advancing northward, lirst seized on Baby- lonia, and, proceeding thence into Assyria (already partially colonized by the Asshurites, from whom it took its name), he built Nineveh and the other strong- holds mentioned, in order to secure his conquests. This view is confirmed by a passage in Mic. v, G, where, predicting the overthrow of Assyria by the Medes and Babylonians, the prophet says, " They shall devour the land of Asshur with the sword : even the land of Nimrod in the entrances thereof" (comp. v. 5). It likewise agrees with the native tradition (if we can depend on the report of Ctesias), that the founder of the Assyrian monarchy and the builder of Nineveh was one and the same person, viz., Ninus, from whom it derived its name (q. d. Nin's Abode), and in that case the designation of Nimrod (the Rebel) was not his proper name, but an opprobrious appella- tion imposed on him by his enemies. Modern tradi- tion likewise connects Nimrod with Assyria ; for while, as we have seen, the memory of Asshur is preserved in the locality of A thur, that place is also termed the "city of Nimrud," and (as the above-mentioned dam on the Tigris is styled Nimrod's Castle) Rich informs us that "the inhabitants of the neighboring village of Deraweish consider him as their founder." He adds, that the village story-tellers have a book they call the Kissek-Nimrud, or "Tales of Nimrod." It is true that the Authorized Version of Gen. x, 11 is countenanced by most of the ancient translators and by Josephus ; but, on the other hand, the one we have preferred is that of the Targums of Onkelos and Jonathan, and of Jerome; and (among the moderns) of Bochart, Hyde, Marsham, Wells, Faber, Hales, and many others. Yet, though Nimrod's " kingdom" em- braced the lands both of Shinar and Asshur, we are left in the dark as to whether Babylon or Nineveh be- came the permanent seat of government, and conse- quently whether his empire should be designated that of Babylonia or that of Assyria. No certain traces of it, indeed, are to be found in Scripture for ages after its erection. In the days of Abraham, we hear of a king of Elam ( i. e. Elymais, in the south of Persia) named Chedorlaomer, who had held in subjection for twelve years five petty princes of Palestine (Gen. xiv, 4), and who, in consequence of their rebellion, invaded that country along with three other kings, one of whom was "Amraphel, king of Shinar.'" Josephus says " the Assyrians had then dominion over Asia ;" and he styles these four kings merely commanders in the Assyrian army. It is possible that Chedorlaomer was an As- syrian viceroy, and the others his deputies; for at a later period the Assyrian boasted, "Are not my princes altogether kings ?•" (ha. x. 8.) Yet some have rather concluded from the narrative that by this time the monarchy of Nimrod bad been broken up, or that at least tin- s>';;t. of government had been transferred to Elam. Be this as it may, the name of Assyria as an independent state does not again appear in Scripture till the closing period of the age of Moses. Balaam, a seer from the northern part of Mesopotamia, in the neighborhood of Assyria, addressing the Kenites, a mountain tribe on the east side of the Jordan, "took »ip his parable," i. e. raised his oracular, prophetic chant, and said, " Durable is thy dwelling-place! yea, in a rock puttest thou thy nest: nevertheless, wasted shall be the Kenite, until Asshur shall lead them cap- tive." In this verse, besides the play upon the word ken (the Hebrew for a nest), the reader may remark the striking contrast drawn between the permanent nature of the abode, and the transient possession of it by the occupants. The prediction found its fulfilment in the Kenites being gradually reduced in strength (comp. 1 Sam. xv, 6), till they finally shared the fate of the Transjordanite tribes, and were swept away into captivity by the Assyrians (1 Chr. v, 2G ; 2 Kings xvi, 9 ; xix, 12, 13 ; 1 Chr. ii, 55.) But, as a counter- part to this, Balaam next sees a vision of retaliatory vengeance on their oppressors, and the awful prospect of the threatened devastations, though beheld in far distant times, extorts from him the exclamation, "Ah! who shall live when God doeth this ? For ships shall come from the coast of Chittim, and shall afflict As- shur, and shall afflict Eber, but he also [the invader] shall perish forever." This is not without obscurity ; but it has commonly been supposed to point to the conquest of the regions that once formed the Assyrian empire, first by the Macedonians from Greece, and then by the Romans, both of whose empires were in their turn overthrown. In the time of the Judges, the people of Israel be- came subject to a king of Mesopotamia, Ckushan-risha- thaim (Judg. iii, 8), who is by Josephus styled King of the Assyrians ; but we are left in the same igno- rance as in the case of Chedorlaomer as to whether 1 e was an independent sovereign or only a vicegerent for another. The eighty-third Psalm (ver. 9) mentions Ashur as one of the nations leagued against Israel ; but as the date of that composition is unknown, noth- ing certain can be founded on it. The first king of Assyria alluded to in the Bible is he who reigned at Nineveh when the prophet Jonah was sent thither (Jon. iii. G). Hales supposes him to have been the fa- ther of Pul, the first Assyrian monarch named in Scrip- ture, and dates the commencement of his reign B.C. 821. By that time the metropolis of the empire had become "an exceeding great" and populous city, but one pre-eminent in wickedness (Jon. i, 2 ; iii, 3 ; iv, 11). See Jonah. The first expressly recorded appearance of the As- syrian power in the countries west of the Euphrates is in the reign of Menahem, king of Israel, against whom "the God of Israel stirred up the spirit of Pul or (Pktil), king of Assyria" (1 Chron. v., 20), who invaded the country, and exacted a tribute of a thousand talents of silver "that his hand," i. e. his favor, "might be with him to confirm the kingdom in'his hand" (2 Kings xv, 19, 20). Newton places this event in the year B.C. 770, in the twentieth year of I ul*s reign, the commencement of which he fixes in the year B.C. 790. As to his name, we find the syllable Pal, Pel, or Pul entering into the names of several Assyrian kings (e. (j. Piloses, Sardana/w/-us) ; and hence some connect it with the Persian "bales" i. e. high, exalted, and think it may have been part of the title which the Assyrian monarchs bore. Hales conjectures that Pul may have been the second Belus of the Greeks, his fame having reached them by his excursions into Western Asia. About this period we find the prophet Ilosea making frequent allusions to the practice both of Israel and Jud.ca, of throwing themselves for support on the kings of Assyria. In ch. v, 13; x, G, our version speaks of their specially seeking the protection of a "King Jareb," but the original there is very obscure; and the next Assyrian monarch mentioned by name is Tiglath-pileser. The supposition of Newton is adopted by Hales, that at Pul's death his dominions were di- vided between his two sons, Tiglath-pileser and Nab- onassar, the latter being made ruler at Babylon, from the date of whose government or reign the celebrated era of Nubonassar took its rise, corresponding to B.C. 747. The name of the other is variously written Tig- lath and Tilgath, Pileser and Pilreser : the etymology of the first is unknown (some think it has a reference to the river Dijlath, i. e. the Tigris). Pileser signifies in Persian "exalted prince." When Ahaz, king of Judah, was hard pressed bj- the combined forces of ASSYRIA 491 ASSYRIA 3 Nisjbis or' lAntio&irrlsy'i/dortica. V^ '''£,,; MS> 5 1 LJicb-racus « V v >Vj_i ilH\^ Ecbaraun ■ler. Veiling konkohor ' O- Map of the Assyrian Empire. Pekah, king of Israel, and Rezin, king of Damascene- Syria, he purchased Tiglath-pileser's assistance with a large sum, taken out of his own and the Temple treas- ury. The Assyrian king accordingly invaded territo- ries of hoth the confederate kings, and annexed a por- tion of them to his own dominions, carrying captive a number of their subjects (2 Kings xv, 29; xvi, 5-10; 1 Chr. v, 26 ; 2 Chr. xxviii, 16 ; Isa. vii, 1-11 ; comp. Amos i, 5; ix, 7). His successor was Shalman (Hos. x, 4), Shalmaneser or Salmanassar, the Enemessar of the apocryphal book of Tobit (ch. i, 2). He made Hoshea, king of Israel, his tributary vassal (2 Kings xvii, 3) ; but finding him secretly negotiating with So or Sabaco (the Sabakoph of the monuments), king of Egypt, he laid siege to the Israelitish capital, Samaria, took it after an investment of three years (B.C. 720), and then reduced the country of the ten tribes to a province of his empire, carrying into cap- tivity the king and his people, and settling Cuthaeans from Babylonia in their room (2 Kings xvii, 3-6; xviii, 0, 11). Hezekiah, king of Judah, seems to have been for some time his vassal (2 Kings xviii, 7); and we learn from the Tyrian annals, preserved by Me- nander of Ephesus (as citad by Josephus. Ant. x, 14, 2), that ha subdued the whole of Phoenicia, with the exception of insular Tyre, which successfully resisted a siege of five years. The empire of Assyria seems now to have reached its greatest extent, having had the Mediterranean for its boundary on the west, and including within its limits Media and Kir on the north, as well as Elam on the south (2 Kin^s xvi, 9 ; xvii, 6; Isa. xx, 6). In the twentieth chapter of Isaiah (ver. 1) there is mention of a king of Assyria, Sargon, in whose reign Tartan besieged and took Ashdod in Philistia (B.C. 715) [see Sargon] ; and as Tartan is elsewhere spoken of (2 Kings xviii, 17) as a general of Sennacherib, some have supposed that Sargon is but another name of that monarch, while others would identify him either with Shalmaneser, or with Esar- haddon, Sennacherib's successor. But the correctness of all these conjectures may fairly be questioned ; and we adhere to the opinion of Gesenius (Comment, zu Jesa. in loc), that Sargon was a king of Assyria, who succeeded Shalmaneser, and had a short reign of two or three years. He thinks the name may be equiva- lent to Ser-jmineh, "Prince of the Sun." Von Boh- len prefers the derivation of sergun, "gold-colored." His attack on Egypt may have arisen from the jealous}' which the Assyrians entertained of that nation's influ- ence over Palestine ever since the negotiation between its king So, and Hoshea, king of Israel. From many incidental expressions in the book of Isaiah we can infer that there was at this time a strong Egyptian party among the Jews, for that people are often warn- ed against relying for help on Egypt, instead of simply confiding in Jehovah (Isa. xxx, 2; xxxi, 1; comp. xx, 5, 6). The result of Tartan's expedition against Egypt and Ethiopia was predicted by Isaiah whila that genera? was yet on the Egyptian frontier at Ash- dod (Isa. xx, 1-4); and it is not improbable that it is to this Assyrian invasion that the prophet Xahum re- fers when he speaks (iii, 8-10) of the subjugation of No, i. e. No-Ammun, or Thebes, the capital of Upper Egypt, and the captivity of its inhabitants. The oc- cupation of the country by the Assyrians, however, must have been very transient, for in the reign of Sar< ASSYRIA 492 ASSYRIA gon's successor, Sennacherib, or Sancherib, we find Hezekiah, king of Judah, throwing off the Assyrian yoke, and allying himself with Egypt (2 Kings xviii, 7, 21). This brought against him .Sennacherib with a mighty host, which, without difficulty, subdued the fenced cities of Judah, and compelled him to purchase peace by the payment of a large tribute. But "the treacherous dealer dealt very treacherously" (Isa. xxxiii, 1), and, notwithstanding the agreement, pro- ceeded to invest Jerusalem. In answer, however, to the prayers of the " good king" of Judah, the Assyrian was diverted from his purpose, partly by the "rumor" (Isa. xxxvii, 6) of the approach of Tirhakah, king of Ethiopia, and partly by the sudden and miraculous destruction of a great put of his army (2 Kings xviii, 13-37; xix; Isa. xxxvi and xxxvii). He himself fled (B.C. 712) to Nineveh, where, in course of time, when worshipping in the temple of his god Nisroch, he was slain by his sons Adrammelech and Sharezer, the parricides escaping into the land of Armenia — a fact which is preserved in that country's traditionary history. See Ararat. Regarding the period of Sennacherib's death chronologists differ. Hales, fol- lowing the apocryphal book of Tobit (i, 21), places it fifty-five days after his return from his Jewish expedi- tion ; but Gesenius (Comment, zu Jesa. p. 999) has ren- dered it extremely probable that it did not take place till lung after. He founds this opinion chiefly on a curious fragment of Berosus, preserved in the Armeni- an translation of the Chronicle of Eusebius. It states that, after Sennacherib's brother had governed Baby- lon as the Assyrian viceroy, the sovereignty was suc- cessively usurped by Acises, Merodach, or Berodach- Baladan (Isa. xxxix, 1 ; 2 Kings xx, 12), and Elibus or Belibus. But, after three years, Sennacherib re- gained dominion in Babylonia, and appointed as vice- roy his own son Assordan, the Esarhaddon of Scrip- ture. This statement serves to explain how there was in Hezekiah's time a king at Babylon, though, both before and after, it was subject to Assyria. See Sex- naciiekib. Sennacherib was succeeded by his son Esarhaddon, or Assarhaddon, who had been his fa- ther's viceroy at Babylon (2 Kings xix, 37; Isa. xxxvii. 38). He is the Sacherdon or Sarchedon of Tobit (i, 21), and the Asaradinus of Ptolemy's Canon (B.C. 6-<0). Hales regards him as the first Sardanap- alus. The chief notice taken of him in Scripture is that he settled some colonists in Samaria (Ezra iv. 2), and as (at ver. 10) that colonization is ascribed to the "great and noble Asnapper," it is supposed that that was another name for Esarhaddon, but it may have been one of the great officers of his empire. It seems to have been in his reign that the captains of the As- syrian host invaded and ravaged Judah, carrying Ma- nasseh, the king, captive to Babylon. The subse- quent history of the empire is involved in almost as much obscurity as that of its origin and rise. The Modes had already shaken off the yoke, and the Chal- dxans soon appear on the scene as the dominant na- tion of Western Ash; yet Assyria, though much re- duced in extent, existed as an independent state for a consid srable period after Esarhaddon. Hales, follow- ing Syncellus, makes him succeeded by a prince call- ed Ninus (B.C. 667), who had for his successor Nebu- Chodon .-.r (B.C. 658), for the transactions of whose reign, including the expedition of his general Holo- fernes into Judaja, Hales relies on the apocrvphal book of Judith, the authority of which, however, is eery questionable. The last monarch was Sarac, or Sardanapalus II | B.C. 636), in whose reign Cyaxares, kin- , cylinders have been found bearing the Epoch at which the Chaldeans place the building of the Tower of Babel (42 amar, or 2940 [? 1900] years before h.c. Nebuchadnezzar 3540[?2500] I. DYNASTIES NON-SIIEMITIC, comprehended under the name of Scythic Supremacy during 1500 [?500] years. 1. Hamite Kingdom 3540-2441 2. Au, an Invasion 2449-2225 3. Turanian Domination (Scythic) 2225-201T II. SHEMITIC DOMINATION. 1. First Chald.ean Empire. Forty-nine [?] kings during 450 years 2017-1559 First king unknown [H'hedorlaomer, li.C. cir. 20S0]. Ismidngon, Lord of Assyria (about 1950). Samsi-hu, son of Ismidagon (044 years before Assurdayan). Naramsin, king of the four regions. (The names of the other kings are not yet deciphered.) 2. Aeah Invasion. Eight p] kings during 245 years 1559-1314 The Khet of the Egyptian hieroglyphics, according to M. de Kongo, probably the Dummukh of the Assyrians. 3. Great Assyrian Empire. Forty-five 1 ?] kings during 526 years 1314-7S8 [Bel -lush (cir. 1273?;. Fudil. Iva-lush. Shalma-bar, or Shamarish (? Shalmaneser)]. i. First Dynasty. Ninippallukin [Nin-pala-kina], first king 1314 Assurdayan [Asshur-dapal-ilJ, son of the preceding about 1300 Mutakkii-nabu, son of the preceding " 1270 Assur-ris-ili, son of the preceding. (Commencement of the Assyrian power, following the Egyptian preponderance, which had lasted 500 years) about 1250 *Tiglath-Pileser I, son of the preceding (historical cylinder of S00 lines) " 1220 Sardanapalus I. [Asshur-bani-pal], son of the preceding " 1-00 Tiglath-Bileser II " [? 1150] Sack of Nineveh by Chaldeans, 41S years before the first year of Sennacherib " 1122 [1132] Belochus I, son of the preceding " 1100 ii. Second Dynasty. Belitaras (Bel-kat-irassu), usurper " 1100 Shalmaneser I, founder of the palace of Calah (Nimrud) " 1050 Sardanapalus II (? Asshtir adan-akhi), great-grandson of Belitaras u 1020 Shalmaneser II, son of the preceding " 1000 Assttr-dan-il I [Asshur-danin-il], son of the preceding " 9S0 Belochus II [Iva-lush II], grandson of Assur-dan-il I " 970 Tiglath-I'ileser III [Tiglathi-nin], son of the preceding " 950 Sardanapalus III [Asshur-dani-pal], son of the preceding. Great conqueror " 930-900 Shalmaneser II 1 [shalmanu-bar], son of the preceding. Adversary of Jehu, king of Israel ( JWtn rud Obelisk) " POO-SCO Samsi-ou II [Shamas-iva], son of the preceding " S6U-S40 Belochus III [Iva-lush III], son of the preceding, husband of Semiramis " S40-S2O Semiramis (Sammuramit), 17 years alone '. u S20-S03 Sardanapalus IV, probably son of the preceding, last king of the great empire " S07-7SS III. DIVISION OF DOMINION BETWEEN S1IEMITES AND APJANS. Med. and Pf.rs. Avian republic. Baivyxon. Pnl Belesis founds the empire of Chal dsea. King of Babylon till Nabonassar 74' Nadius Chinzinus and Porus Nineveh. First king of Babylon subjugates As- Elulams 726-721 Merodach Baladan 721-709 SS-769Arbaces first Tiglath-Bileser IV re-eetablishes the j chief .7SS-710 Assyrian monarchy 769-725 ,^.-733 Commencement of captivity of Israel . 740] ...733 720 20 Shalmaneser IV takes Samaria (720), Aspabara, and is dethroned by Sargon 725-720J about 720 Last Ninevite Dynasty (Sargonides, Dynasty of the 720-025). | Deiocides. "Sargon, king of Babvlon [721-714]. Anarchy 704-702 Belibus 702-699 Assurinaddinson, son of Sennacherib. 699-693 Irigibel, or Regibelus 693-692 Meseaimordacus 092- Anarchy i Sargon (founded Khorsabad) [72 1-?714]7 . 709-704 Arceanus of Ptolemy [709 Sennacherib, son of Sargon [714-692] 704-076 (Cylinders, and seal of contemporary Egyptian king Sabaco, probably the So of 2 Kings xvii, 4, have been found at Nineveh.) Campaign against Egypt and Judrca [713] 702 Esarhaddon, son of Sennacherib . . . .0s0 06>, [Aparanadiua of Ptolemy] [699-693] king of Assyria, of Egypt, and of Meroe 676-66S Saosduchin CGS-647 Tiglath-Pileser V, son of Esarhaddon 66S-660 'Sardanapalus V | As.-hur-bani-pal II], | son of Esarhaddon 660-647 Assur-dan-il II [Aswir-emit-ili], son of Sardanapalus V (Cinneladan of the Greeks), last king of Assyria 647-625 Tc ital dt strnctii >n of Nineveh [? Saracus] C25 P. Ml (..MAN Dynasty 625-53S Nabopolassar (Nahn-pal-assur), and Nitocris the Egytian 625-604 •Nebuchadnezzar i Nahu-kudurr-usur) 604-561 Evil Merodach (Avil-marduk) 801-550 Wergalsliareser (Niigal-sarr-usur) 559-555 Labusardochus (liel-iikh-isruki, sou of the preceding, 9 months 555 •Nabonid (Nabu-nahid), boh of Nabu-balatirib 555-53S Cyrus the Persian takes Unl.vlon 53S [Cyaxares II. viceroy at Pabvloii, " Darius the Mede" .r,3S_T,36] Cyrus, king of Babylon and of nations [530-529] 538-529 Cainliysos the Persian 529-522 NIdintabel, pMndn-NYl.iichadnezzar. son of Nabonid 522-518 Darius, son of Ilystiispcs the Persian, takes Babylon the first time 513 Arakhu, pseiido-Nebuehadnez/.ar 517-516 Darius the Persian takes Babylon the second time 516 Nabiiimtuk renders himself independent, and reigns with his son Bclsarussur, about 50js_4SS Complete submission of the Chuldaans to the Persians 4SS 0-704 Deioces, kin 710-4557 704] Phraortes, 657-035 Acha?menes submits, 650 Cyaxares SUSIANA. Kingdom of Su- siana. [ta. Sntruk Nakhun- Kutir- Nakhun- ta, son of the preceding. Tarhak, brother of the preceding, llumbanigas vanquished by Tiumman con- quered by Sar- danapalus V. Astyagea 595-500 AcrtiEMENiAN Dynasty. Cyrus, king of Persia . . . 500-529 Cambyses 529-522 Gomates the Magian, pseudo-Smerdis 522 Darius, son of llystaspes 521-486 Xerxes I, Ahasuerus of the Jews (Esther, 473 [479]) 4S0-465 ASSYRIA 495 ASSYRIA (a.) Establishment of the Lower Dynasty.— It seems to be certain that at or near the accession of Pul a great change of some kind or other occurred in Assyria. Berosus is said to have brought his grand dynasty of forty-rive kings in 526 years to a close at the reign of Pul (Polyhist. ap. Euseb. 1. c), and to have made him the first king of a new series. By the synchronism of Menahem (2 Kings xv, 19), the date of Pul may be determined to about B.C. 770. It was only twenty- three years later, as we find by the Canon of Ptolemy, that the Babylonians considered their independence to have commenced (B.C. 747). Herodotus probably in- tended to assign nearly to this same era the great com- motion which (according to him) broke up the Assyri- an empire into a number of fragments, out of which were formed the Median and other kingdoms. These traditions may none of them be altogether trustwor- thy ; but their coincidence is at least remarkable, and seems to show that about the middle of the eighth cen- tury B.C. there must have been a break in the line of Assyrian kings — a revolution, foreign or domestic — and a consequent weakening or dissolution of the bonds which united the conquered nations with their conquerors. It was related by Bion and Polyhistor (Agathias, ii, 25), that the original dynasty of Assyrian kings ended with a certain Belochus or Beleus, who was succeeded by a usurper (called by them Beletaras or Balatorus), in whose family the crown continued until the destruc- tion of Nineveh. The general character of the cir- cumstances narrated, combined with a certain degree of resemblance in the names — for Belochus is close upon Phaloch, and Beletaras may represent the second element in Tiglath-P/few (who in the inscriptions is called uTiglath-.Patos/'ra") — induce a suspicion that probably the Pul or Phaloch of Scripture was really the last king of the old monarchy, and that Tiglath- Pileser II, his successor, was the founder of what has been called the "Lower Empire." It maybe suspect- ed that Derosus really gave this account, and that Poly- histor, who repeated it, has been misreported by Euse- bius. The synchronism between the revolution in As- syria and the era of Babylonian independence is thus brought almost to exactness, for Tiglath-Pileser is known to have been upon the throne about B.C. 740 (Clinton, Fast. Hell, i, 278), and may well have as- cended it in B.C. 747. (6.) Supposed Loss of the Empire at this Period. — Many writers of repute — among them Clinton and Nie- buhr — have been inclined to accept the statement of Herodotus with respect to the breaking up of the whole empire at this period. It is evident, however, both from Scripture and from the monuments, that the shock sustained through the domestic revolution has been greatly exaggerated. Niebuhr himself observes ( Vor- triirje iiber alte Geschichte, i, 38) that, after the revolu- tion, Assyria soon "recovered herself, and displayed the most extraordinary energy." It is plain, from Scripture, that in the reigns of Tiglath-Pileser, Shal- maneser, Sargon, Sennacherib, and Esarhaddon, As- syria was as great as at any former era. These kings all warred successfully in Palestine and its neighbor- hood ; some attacked Egypt (Isa. xx. 4) ; one appears as master of Media (:} Kings xvii, 6) ; while another has authority over Babylon, Susiana, and Elymais (2 Kings xvii, 24; Ezra iv, 0). So far from our observ- ing symptoms of weakness and curtailed dominion, it is clear that at no time were the Assyrian arms push- ed farther, or their efforts more sustained and vigorous. The Ass3"rian annals for the period are in the most complete accordance with these representations. The}' exhibit to us the above-mentioned monarchs as extend- ing their dominions farther than any of their predeces- sors. The empire is continually rising under them, and reaches its culminating point in the reign of Esar- haddon. The statements of the inscriptions on these subjects are fully borne out by the indications of great- ness to be traced in the architectural monuments. No palace of the old monarchy equalled, either in size or splendor, that of Sennacherib at Nineveh. No series of kings belonging to it left buildings at all to be com- pared with those which were erected by Sargon, his son, and his grandson. The magnificent remains at Kouyunjik and Khorsabad belong entirely to these later kings, while those at Nimrud are about equally divided between them and their predecessors. It is farther noticeable that the writers who may be presumed to have drawn from Berosus, as Polyhistor and Abyde- nus, particularly expatiated upon the glories of these later kings. Polyhistor said (ap. Euseb. i, 5) that Sen- nacherib conquered Babylon, defeated a Greek army in Cilicia, and built there Tarsus, the capital. Abyde- nus related the same facts, except that he substituted for the Greek army of Polyhistor a Greek fleet; and added that Esarhaddon (his Axerdis) conquered Lower Syria and Egypt (ibid, i, 9). Similarly Menander, the Tyrian historian, assigned to Shalmaneser an expedi- tion to Cyprus (ap. Joseph. Ant. ix, 14), and Herodotus himself admitted that Sennacherib invaded Egypt (ii, 141). On everj' ground it seems necessary to con- clude that the second Assyrian kingdom was really greater and more glorious than the first ; that under it the limits of the empire reached their fullest extent, and the internal prosperity was at the highest. The statement of Herodotus is not, however, with- out a basis of truth. It is certain that Babylon, about the time of Tiglath-Pileser's accession, ventured upon a revolt, which she seems afterward to have reckoned the commencement of her independence. See Baby- lon. The knowledge of this fact may have led He- rodotus into his error ; for he would naturally suppose that, when Babylon became free, there was a general dissolution of the empire. It has been shown that this is far from th3 truth ; and it may farther be observed that, even as regards Babylon, the Assyrian loss was not permanent. Sargon, Sennacherib, and Esarhad- don all exercised full authority over that country, which appears to have been still an Assyrian fiof at the close of the kingdom. (5.) Successors of Esarhaddon. — By the end of the reign of Esarhaddon the triumph of the Assyrian arms had been so complete that scarcely an enemy was left who could cause her serious anxiety. The kingdoms of Hamath, of Damascus, and of Samaria had been suc- cessively absorbed ; Phoenicia had been conquered ; Judaea had been made a feudatory ; Philistia and Idu- maea had been subjected, Egypt chastised, Babylon re- covered, cities planted in Media. Unless in Armenia and Susiana there was no foe left to reduce, and the consequence appears to have been that a time of pro- found peace succeeded to the long and bloody wars of Sargon and his immediate successors. In Scripture it is remarkable that we hear nothing of Assyria after the reign of Esarhaddon, and profane history is equal- ly silent until the attacks begin which brought about her downfall. The monuments show that the son of Esarhaddon, who was called Sardanapalus by Abyde- nus (ap. Euseb. i, 9), made scarcely any military ex- peditions, but occupied almost his whole time in the enjoyment of the pleasures of the chase. Instead of adorning his residence — as his predecessors had been accustomed to do — with a record and representation of his conquests, Sardanapalus II covered the walls of his palace at Nineveh with sculptures exhibiting his skill and prowess as a hunter. No doubt the military spirit rapidly decayed under such a ruler; and the ad- vent of fresh enemies, synchronizing with this decline, produced the ruin of a power which had for six cen- turies been dominant in Western Asia. (6.) Fall of Assyria.— -The fate of Assyria, long pre- viously prop'hesied by Isaiah (x, 5-19), was effected (humanly speaking) by the growing strength and boldness* of the Medes. If we may trust Herodotus, the first Median attack on Nineveh took place about the ASSYRIA 496 ASSYRIA year B.C. 633. By what circumstances this people, who had so long been engaged in contests with the Assyrians, and had hitherto shown themselves so ut- terly unable to resist them, became suddenly strong enough to assume an aggressive attitude, and to force the Ninevites to submit to a siege, can only be conjec- tured. Whether mere natural increase, or whether fresh immigrations from the east had raised the Medi- an nation at this time so far above its former condi- tion, it is impossible to determine. We can only say that soon after the middle of the seventh century they began to press upon the Assyrians, and that, gradually increasing in strength, they proceeded, about the year B.C. 633, to attempt the conquest of the country. For some time their efforts were unsuccessful ; but after a while, having won over the Babylonians to their side, they became superior to the Assyrians in the field, and about B.C. 625, or a little earlier, laid final siege to the capital. See Media. Saracus, the last king— prob- ably the grandson of Esarhaddon — made a stout and prolonged defence, but at length, finding resistance vaiir, he collected his wives and his treasures in his palace, and with his own hand setting fire to the build- ing, perished in the flames. This account is given in brief by Abydenus, who probably follows Berosus ; and its outline so far agrees with Ctesias (ap. Diod. ii, 27) as to give an important value to that writer's de- tails of the siege. See Nineveh. In the general fact that Assyria was overcome, and Nineveh captured and destroyed by a combined attack of Medes and Babylonians, Josephus (Ant. x, 5) and the book of Tobit (xiv, 15) are agreed. Polyhistor also implies it (ap. Euseb. i, 5) ; and these authorities must be re- garded as outweighing the silence of Herodotus, who mentions only the Medes in connection with the cap- ture (i, 106), and says nothing of the Babylonians. (7.) Fulfilment of Prophecy. — The prophecies of Na- hum and Zephaniah (ii, 13-5) against Assyria were probably delivered shortly before the catastrophe. The date of Nahum is very doubtful, but it is not un- likely that he wrote about B.C. 718, or at the close of the reign of Ilosea. Zephaniah is even later, since lie prophesied under Josiah, who reigned from B.C. 639 to 609. If B.C. 625 be the date of the destruction of Nineveh, we may place Zephaniah's prophecy about B.C. 635. Ezekiel, writing in B.C. 588, bears wit ness historically to the complete destruction which had come upon the Assyrians, using the example as a warning to Pkaraoh-Hophra and the Egyptians (ch. xxxi). It was declared by Nahum (q. v.) emphatically, at the close of his prophecy, that there should be "no heal- ing of Assyria's bruise" (iii, 19). In accordance with this announcement we find that Assyria never rose again to any importance, nor even succeeded in main- taining a distinct nationality. Once only was revolt attempted, and then in conjunction with Armenia and Media, the latter heading the rebellion. This attempt took place about a century after the Median conquest, during the troubles which followed upon the accession of Darius Hystaspis. It failed signally, and appears never to have been repeated, the Assyrians remaining thenceforth submissive subjects of the Persian empire. They were reckoned in the same satrapy with Baby- lon I Berod. iii. 92; comp. i, 192), and paid an annual tribute of a thousand talents of silver. In the Per- sian armies, which were drawn in great part from the Subject-nations, tiny appear never to have been held of much account, though they fought, in common with the other lcvi.-s, at Thermopylae, at Cunaxa, at Issus, anil at Arliela. (s.i General Character of the Empire. — In the first place, like all the early monarchies which attained to any great extent, the Assyrian empire was composed of a number of separate kingdoms. In the East, eon- quest has scarcely ever been followed by amalgama- tion, and in the primitive empires there was not even anj' attempt at that governmental centralization which we find at a later period in the satrapial system of Per- sia. As Solomon "reigned over all the kingdoms from the river (Euphrates) unto the land of the Philistines and the border of Egypt," so the Assyrian monarchs bore sway over a number of petty kings — the native rulers of the several countries — through the entire ex- tent of their dominions. These native princes — the sole governors of their own kingdoms — were feudato- ries of the Great Monarch, of whom they held their crown by the double tenure of homage and tribute. Menahem (2 Kings xv, 19), Hoshea (ibid, xvii, 4), Ahaz (ibid, xvi, 8), Hezekiah (ibid, xviii, 14), and Ma- nasseh (2 Chron. xxxiii, 11-13), were certainly in this position, as were many native kings of Babylon, both prior and subsequent to Nahonassar ; and this system (if we may trust the inscriptions) was universal throughout the empire. It naturally involved the frequent recurrence of troubles. Princes circum- stanced as were the Assyrian feudatories would always be looking for an occasion when they might revolt and re-establish their independence. The offer of a foreign alliance would be a bait which they could scarcely resist, and hence the continual warnings given to the Jews to beware of trusting in Egypt. Apart from this, on the occurrence of any imperial misfortune or difficulty, such, for instance, as a disas- trous expedition, a formidable attack, or a sudden death, natural or violent, of the reigning monarch, there would be a strong temptation to throw off the yoke, which would lead, almost of necessity, to a re- bellion. The history of the kings of Israel and Judah sufficiently illustrates the tendency in question', which required to be met by checks and remedies of the se- verest character. ,The deposition of the rebel prince, the Avasting of his country, the plunder of his capital, a considerable increase in the amount of the tribute thenceforth required, were the usual consequences of an unsuccessful revolt ; to which were added, upon oc- casion, still more stringent measures, as the wholesale execution of those chiefly concerned in the attempt, or the transplantation of the rebel nation to a distant locality. The captivity of Israel is only an instance of a practice long previously known to the Assj'rians, and by them handed on to the Babylonian and Persian governments. It is not quite certain how far Assyria required a religious conformity from the subject people. Her re- ligion wasrn gross and complex polytheism, comprising the worship of thirteen principal and numerous minor divinities, at the head of the whole of whom stood the chief god, Asshur, who seems to be the deified patri- arch of the nation (Gen. x, 22). The inscriptions ap- pear to state that in all countries over which the As- syrians established their supremacy, they set up "the laws of Asshur," and " altars to the Great Gods." It was probably in connection with this Assyrian re- quirement that Ahaz, on his return from Damascus, where he had made his submission to Tiglath-Pileser, incurred the guilt of idolatr}' (2 Kings xvi, 10-18). The history of Hezekiah would seem, however, to show that the rule, if resisted, was not rigidly enforced ; for it cannot be supposed that he would have consented to re-establish the idolatry which he had removed, yet he certainly came to terms with Sennacherib, and re- sumed his position of tributary (2 Kings xviii, 14). In any case it must be understood that the worship which the conquerors introduced was not intended to supersede the religion of the conquered race, but was only required to be superadded as a mark and badge of subjection. — Smith, s. v. The political constitution of the Assyrian empire was no doubt similar to that of other ancient states of the East, such as Chaldaea and Persia. The mon- arch, called " the great king" (2 Kings xviii, 19; Isa. xxxvi, 4), ruled as a despot, surrounded with his guards, and only accessible to those who were near ASSYRIA 497 ASSYRIA his person (Diod. Sicul. ii, 21, 23 ; comp. Cephalion, in Syncell. p. 167). Under him there were provisional satraps, called in Isa. x, 8, "princes," of the rank and power of ordinary kings (Diod. Sic. ii, 24). The great officers of the household were commonly eunuchs (comp. Gesenius on Isa. xxxvi, 2). The religion of the Assyrians was, in its leading features, the same as that of the Chaldaeans, viz. the symbolical worship of the heavenly bodies, especially the planets. In Scrip- ture there is mention of Nisroch (Isa. xxxvii, 38), Adrammelech, Anammelech, Nibhaz, Tartak (2 Kings xvii, 31), as the names of idols worshipped by the na- tives either of Assyria Proper or of the adjacent coun- tries which the}' had subdued, besides planets (see Gesenius, Zu Jesafas, not belong to the Se- mitic, but to the Medo- Persian family. As Ar- amaic, however, was spoken by a large part of the Western popu- lation, it was proba- bly understood by the great officers of state, which accounts for Rabshakeh address- ing Hezekiah's mes- sengers in Hebrew (2 Kings xviii, 26), al- though the rabbins ex- plain the circumstance bj' supposing that he was an apostate Jew (but see Strabo xvi, 745). — Kitto, s. v. (:>.) Its Extent.— With regard to the ex- tent of the Assyrian empire very exagger- ated views have been entertrined by many writers. Ctesias took Semiramis to India, and made the empire of Assyria at least co- extensive with that of Persia in his own day. This false notion has long been exploded, but even Niebuhr ap- pears to have believed in the extension of As- sj'rian influence over Asia Minor, in the ex- pedition of Memnon- — ■ whom he considered an Assyrian — to Troj', and in the derivation of the Lydian Hera- clids from the first dynasty of Ninevite mon.irehs (.1 It. Ge- schickt. i, 28-lJ). The information derived from the native mon- uments tends to con- tract the empire with- in more reasonable bounds, and to give it only the expansion which is indicated for it in Scripture. On the west, the Medi- terranean and the riv- er Halys appear to have been the extreme boundaries, but the do- ;uage did minion beyond the confines of S3'ria and Asia Minor was not of a strict character ; on the north, a fluctuating line, never reaching the Euxine, nor extending beyond the northern frontier of Armenia ; on the east, the Cas- pian Sea and the Great Salt Desert ; on the south, the Persian Gulf and the Desert of Arabia. The countries included within these utmost limits are the following : Susiana, Chaldaea, Babylonia, Media, Matiene, Arme- nia, Assyria Proper, Mesopotamia, parts of Cappadoeia and Cilicia, Syria, Phoenicia, Palestine, and Idumsea. Cyprus was also for a while a dependency of the Assyr- ian kings, and they may perhaps have held at one time certain portions of Lower Egypt. Lydia, however, Phrygia, Lycia, Pamphylia, Pontus, Iberia, on the west and north, Bactria, Sacia, Parthia, India — even Car- ASSYRIA 498 ASTARTE mania and Persia Proper — upon the cast, were alto- gether beyond the limit of the Assyrian sway, and appeal at "no time even to have been overrun by the Assyrian armies. (10.) Civilization of 'the Assyrians.— -This, as has been already observed, was derived originally from the Bab- ylonians. They were a Semitic race, originally res- ident in Babylonia (which at that time was Cushite), and thus acquainted with the Babylonian inventions and discoveries, who ascended the valley of the Tigris and established in the tract immediately below the Armenian mountains a separate and distinct national- ity. Their modes of writing and building, the form and size of their bricks, their architectural ornamenta- tion, their religion and worship, in a great measure, were drawn from Babylon, which they always regard- ed as a sacred land — the orignal seat of their nation, and the true home of all their gods, with the one ex- ception of Asshur. Still, as their civilization devel- oped, it became in many respects peculiar. Their art is of home growth. The alabaster quarries in their neighborhood supplied them with a material unknown to their southern neighbors, on which they could rep- resent, far better than upon enamelled bricks, the scenes which interested them. Their artists, faithful and la- borious, acquired a considerable power of rendering the human and animal forms, and made vivid and striking representations of the principal occupations of human life. If they do not greatly affect the ideal, and do not, in this branch, attain to any very exalted rank, yet even here their emblematic figures of the gods have a dignity and grandeur which is worthy of remark, and which implies the possession of some ele- vated feelings. But their chief glory is in the repre- sentation of the actual. Their pictures of war, and of the chase, and even sometimes of the more peaceful incidents of human life, have a fidelity, a spirit, a bold- ness, and an appearance of life, which place them high among realistic schools. Their art, it should lie also noted, is progressive. Unlike that of the Egyptians, which continues comparativel}' stationary from the earliest to the latest times, it plainly advances, becom- ing continually more natural and less uncouth, more life-like and less stiff, more varied and less conven- tional. The latest sculptures, which are those in the hunting-palace of the son of Esarhaddon, are decidedly the best. Here the animal forms approach perfection, and in the striking attitudes, the new groupings, and the more careful and exact drawing of the whole, we see the beginnings of a taste and a power which might have expanded under favorable circumstances into the finished excellence of the Greeks. The advanced con- dition of the Assj'rians in various other respects is abundantly evidenced alike by the representations on the sculptures and by the remains discovered among their buildings. They are found to have understood and applied the arch ; to have made tunnels, aqueducts, and drains; to have used the lever and the roller; to have engraved gems ; to have understood the arts of inlaying, enamelling, and overlaying with metals ; to have manufactured glass, and been acquainted with the lens; to have possessed vases, jars, bronze and ivory ornaments, dishes, bells, ear-rings, mostly of good workmanship and elegant forms — in a word, to have attained to a very high pitch of material comfort and prosperity. They were still, however, in the most im- portant points barbarians. Their government was rude and inartificial ; their religion coarse and sensu- al; their conduct of war cruel; even their art mate- rialistic and bo debasing; they had served their pur- pose when they bad prepared the East for centralized government, and been (iod's scourge to punish the peo- ple of Israel ( Is.-i. x, 5-6); they were, therefore, swept away to allow the rise of that Arian race which, with less appreciation of art, was to introduce into Western Asia a more spiritual form of religion, a better treatment of captives, and a superior government.— Smith, s. v. A fuller account of the customs and antiquities of Assyria than has heretofore been possible may be found in the recent works of Rich, Botta, and Layard ; see also Manners, Customs, Arts, and Arms of Assyria, restored from the Monuments, by P. H. Gosse (Lond. 1852) ; Fresnel, Thomas, and Oppert, Expedition en Mesopotamie (Par. 1858); Outline of the Hist, of As- syria, by Col. Rawlinson (Lond. 1852) ; Jour. Sac. Lit. 2d ser. iv, 373 sq. ; Critica Biblica, vol. i ; Fergusson, Palaces of Nineveh and Persejwlis (Lond. 1851). See Nineveh ; Babylon. On the recent efforts to de- cipher the cuneiform inscriptions on the Assyrian mon- uments, see Rawlinson, in the Jour. As. Soc. xii, No. 2; xiv, No. 1; Hincks, ib. xii, No. 1; Botta, Mem. sur VEcriture Ass. (Par. 1848); Lowenstein, Essai de dech'ffr. de VEcrit. Assyr. (Par. 1850). See Cunei- form Inscriptions. For the geography, see Captain Jones's paper, in vol. xiv of the Asiatic Society's Jour- nal (pt. 2) ; Col. Chesney 's Euphrates Expedition (Lond. 1850). See Eden. For the historical views, see Raw- linson's Herodotus, vol. i ; Brandis's Rerum Assyriarum Tempora Emcndata ; Sir H. Rawlinson's Contributions to the Asiat. Soc. Journ. and the Athcnmim; Bosan- quet's Sacred and prof ane Chronology ; Oppert's Pap- port a son Excellence M. le Ministre de V Instruction; Dr. Hincks's Contributions to the Lublin University Magazine ; Vance Smith's Exposition of the Prophecies relating to Nineveh and Assyria; and comp. Niebuhr's Vortrdge iiber alte Geschichte, vol. i ; Clinton's Fasti Hell. vol. i; Niebuhr's Geschichte Assw's unci Babel's ; Gumpach, Abriss der Babylonish-Assyrischtn Geschichte (Mannheim, 1854). Compare Asshur. Assyr'ian (Heb. same as Asshur ; Sept. and Apoc- rypha 'Ao-ffi'pioc). See Assyria. As'taroth (Deut. i, 14). See Ashtaroth. Astarte (AaTdprrj), the Greek form of the Heb. Ashtoreth or Asherah (q. v.), Grsecized also As- trodrch'e ('A)p 'E&iciou), a mistake (1 Esdr. v, 15) for the phrase "Ater (q. v.) of Hezekiah" (Ezra ii, 16 ; Xeh. vii, 21). See Hezekiah. A thach (Heb. Athak', ~^"., lodging; Sept. 'Axax v. r.'No/(/3f), one of the cities of Judah (i. e. Simeon) to which David sent a present of the spoils recovered from the Amalekites who had sacked Ziklag (1 Sam. xxx, 30). According to Schvvarz (Palest, p. 113), it is marked by the modern valley Athaca, north of Jebel Madurah, on the edge of the Idumsean deserts; given on Zimmermann's map as Wady Ateichs, S. of Hebron, opposite the extremity of the Dead Sea, perhaps at the ruins (with water) marked as Abu Teratfeh on Van de Velde's Map. Others regard the name as an error of transcription for Ether (Josh, xv, 42). Athai'ah (Heb. Athayah', iT^fiS, perhaps the same as Asaiah; Sept. 'A&aia), a son of Uzziah of the tribe of Judah, who returned to Jerusalem from Bab- ylon (Xeh. xi, 4). B.C. 536. See Utiiai. Athali'ah (Heb. Athalyali' , tl^brr, 2 Kings xi, 1, 3, 13, 14 ; 1 Chron. viii, 26 ; 2 Chron. xxii, 12 ; Ezra viii, 17; in the prolonged form Athalya'hu, '~"~~:', 2 Kings viii, 26 ; xi, 2, 20 ; 2 Chron. xxii. 2, 10" 11 ; xxiii, 12, 13, 21 ; xxiv, 7 ; afflicted by Jchovali), the name of two men and one woman. ,1. (Sept. VoSoXia, and so Josephus, Ant. ix, 7, 1.) The daughter of Ahab, king of Israel, doubtless by his idolatrous wife Jezebel. She is also called the daugh- ter of Omri (2 Chron. xxii, 2), who was the father of Ahab ; but by a comparison of texts it would appear that she is so called only as being his granddaughter. Athaliah became the wife of Jchoram, the son of Je- hoshaphat, king of Judah. This marriage may fairly be considered the act of the parents ; and it is one of the few stains upon the character of the good Jchosha- phat that he was so ready, if not anxious, to connect him- self with the idolatrous house of Ahab. Had he not married the heir of his crown to Athaliah, many evils and much bloodshed might have been spared to the roy- al family and to the kingdom. When Jehorain came to the throne, he, as might be expected, "walked in the ways of the house of Ahab," which the sacred writer obviously attributes to this marriage by adding, "for he bad the daughter of Ahab to wife" (2 Chron. xxi, G). Jchoram died (B.C. 884) of wounds received in a war with the Syrians into which his wife's counsel had led him. and was succeeded by his youngest son Aha- ziah, who reigned but one year, and whose death arose from his being, by blood and by circumstances, in- volved in the doom of Ahab's house. See Ahaziah. Before this Athaliah bad acquired much influence in public affairs (comp. 1 Kings x, 1 ; Prov. xxi, 1), and bad used that influence for evil ; and when the tidings of her son's untimely death reached Jerusalem, she resolve, l to seat herself upon the throne of David at whatever cost (B.C. 883), availing herself probably of her position as king's mother [see Asa] to carry out her design. Most likely she exercised the regal functions during Ahaziah's absence at Jezreel (2 Kings ix), and resolved to retain her power, especially after seeing the danger to which she was exposed I y the overthrow of the house of Omri, and of Baal-worship in Samaria. It was not unusual in those days for women in the East to attain a prominent position, their present deg- radation being the result of Mahommedanism. Mir- iam, Deborah, Abigail, are instances from the Bible, and Dido was not far removed from Athaliah, either in birthplace or date, if Carthage was founded B.C. £61 (Josephus, c. Apion. i, 18). In order to remove all rivals, Athaliah caused all the male branches of the royal family to be massacred (2 Kings xi, 1) ; and by thus shedding the blood of her own grandchildren, she undesignedly became the instrument of giving completion to the doom on her father's house, which Jehu had partially accomplished. From the slaughter of the royal house one infant named Joash, the young- est son of Ahaziah, was rescued by his aunt Jehosheba, daughter of Jehoram (probably by another wife than Athaliah), who had married Jehoiada (2 Chron. xxii, 11), the high-prbst (2 Chron. xxiv, 6). The child, under Jehoiada's care, was concealed within the walls of the Temple, and there brought up so secretly that his existence was unsuspected by Athaliah. But in the seventh year (B.C. 877) of her bloodstained and evil reign, Jehoiada thought it time to produce the lawful king to the people, trusting to their zeal for the wor- ship of God, and loyalty to the house of David, -which had been so strenuously called out by Asa and Jehosh- aphat. After communicating his design to five "cap- tains of hundreds," whose names are given in 2 Chron. xxiii, 1, and securing the co-operation of the Levites and chief men in the country-towns in case of necessi- ty, he brought the young Joash into the Temple to re- ceive the allegiance of the soldiers of the guard. It was customary on the Sabbath for a third part of them to do duty at the palace, while two thirds restrained the crowd of visitors and worshippers who thronged the Temple on that day, by occupying the gate of Sur (T'O, 1 Kings xi, 6, called cf the foundation, *PC?, 2 Chron. xxiii, 5, which Gsrlach, in loco, considers the right reading in Kings also), and the gate "behind the guard" (Vulg. porta gum est post habitaculum scuta- riorurn), which seem to have been the N. and S. en- trances into the Temple, according to Ewald's descrip- tion of it (Geschichte, iii, 306-7). On the day fixed for the outbreak there was to be no change in the ar- rangement at the palace, lest Athaliah, who did not worship in the Temple, should form any suspicions from missing her usual guard, but the latter two thirds were to protect the king's person by forming a long and closely-serried line across the Temple, and killing any one who should approach within certain limits. They were also furnished with David's spears and shields, that the work of restoring his descendant might be associated with his own sacred weapons. When the guard had taken up their position, the young prince was anointed, crowned, and presented with the Testi- mony or Law, and Athaliah was first roused to a sense of her danger by the shouts and music which accom- panied the inauguration of her grandson. She hurried into the Temple, but found Joash alreadj' standing " by a pillar," or more properly on it, i. e. on the tri- bunal or throne apparently raised on a massive column or cluster of columns, which the king occupied when he attended the service on solemn occasions. The phrase in the original is ^^'"b", rendered i—l rov (ttuXov by the Sept., and super tribunal in the Vulgate, while Gesenius gives for the substantive a stage or pulpit, (('omp. 2 Kings xxiii, 3, and Ezck. xlvi, 2.) She arrived, however, only to behold the young Joash standing as a crowned king by the pillar of inaugura- tion, and acknowledged as sovereign by the acclama- tions of the assembled multitude. Her cries of " Trea- son !" failed to excite any movement in her favor, and Jehoiada, the high-priest, who had enjamzed this bold and successful attempt, without allowing time for pause, ordered the Levitical guards to remove her from the sacred precincts to instant death (2 Kings xi ; 2 Chron. xxi, 6 ; xxii, 10-12 ; xxiii). The Tyr- ATHANASIAN CREED 505 ATHANASIUS ians afterward avenged her death (Joel ii). The only other recorded victim of this happy and almost blood- less revolution was Mattan, the priest of Baal. (On its plan, see De Wette, Beitrfige, p. 95 sq. ; Gramberg, Chron. p. 135 sq. ; Keil, Ckron. p. 361 sq. ; Ewald, Geschickte, iii, 574 sq. The latter words of 2 Kings xi, 6, in our version, "that it be not broken down" are probably wrong: Ewald translates "according to cus- tom;" Gesenius gives in his Lexicon "« keeping off.") In modern times the history of Athaliah has been il- lustrated by the music of Handel and of Mendelssohn, and the stately declamation of Racine. — Kitto ; Smith. 2. (Sept. ToSoXiac v. r. roSroXta.) One of the "so»s" of Jeroham and chieftains of the tribe of Ben- jamin, resident at Jerusalem (1 Chron. viii, 27). B.C. apparently 530. 3. (Sept. 'AStsXla v. r. 'ASMor.) The father of Jcshaiah, which latter was one of the "sons" of Elam that returned with seventy dependents from Babylon under Ezra (Ezra viii, 7). B.C. ante 459. Athanasian Creed. See Creed (Athanasian): Athanasius, Patriarch of Alexandria, was born in that city about A.D. 296. The precise date is not known, nor have we any accurate knowledge of his .family or of his earlier years. It is clear, however, that he was brought up and educated with a view to the Christian ministry by Alexander, bishop of Alex- andria, and gave promise of his future eminence in early youth. When a young man, he became very intimate with the hermit Anthony (q. v.), whose life he afterward wrote. His intellect matured so early that before he was twenty-four he wrote the treatises Against the Greeks, and Concerning the Incarnation of the Word (of which see an account below). While only a deacon he was sent to the Council of Nice (A.D. 325), where he contributed largely to the decision against the Arians, and to the -adoption of the Nicene Creed. See Nice, Council of. It was the great task of his whole after life to defend this creed against the Arians and other heretical sects. On the death of Al- exander (A.D. 326), he was made bishop of Alexan- dria by the voice of the people as well as of the eccle- siastics. He discharged his duties with exemplary fidelity ; but the Arians soon commenced a series of violent attacks upon him, which embittered all his re- maining life. About 331, Arius, who had been ban- ished after his condemnation by the Council of Nice, made a. plausible confession of faith, and Constantine recalled him, directing that he should lie received by the Alexandrian Church. But Athanasius firmly re- fused to admit him to communion, and exposed his pre- varication. The Arians, upon this, exerted themselves to raise tumults at Alexandria, and to injure the char- acter of Athanasius with the emperor. In 334 a synod of hostile bishops was called to meet at Cresarea. To this council Athanasius was summoned to defend him- self against the charge of having murdered a certain Meletian bishop called Arsenius; but, knowing the enmity entertained by all the members of the council against him, he refused to attend. In the following year a more important council was convoked at Tyre, at which sixty Arian bishops were present, and many of the orthodox faith. No accusation was brought against the faith of Athanasius, but the old charge of the murder of Arsenius was renewed, and he was also accused of having violated the person of a virgin. The first accusation was most clearly refuted by the appear- ance of Arsenius himself before the synod ; and the falsehood of the second as clearly proved by the wom- an (who was, in fact, a common prostitute, and who had never before seen the bishop) fixing, by mistake, upon another man, Timotheus, who stood near Athana- sius, and declaring that it was he who had committed the sin. But Athanasius, seeing that his condemna- tion was resolved on by the majority, left the council. Athanasius was deposed, fifty bishops, however, pro- testing against the judgment. Athanasius went at once to the emperor, and laid his complaint before him, upon which, in 336, Constantine called the leaders of the opposing party before him, who, seeing that some new charge must be trumped up to support their conduct, declared that Athanasius had threatened that he would prevent the yearly export of corn from Alexandria to Constantinople ; upon which the emperor exiled him to Treves. At the expiration of a year and six months, i. e. in June, 337, Constantine the Great being dead, Athanasius was restored to his see. In 340 Constan- tine the younger, who was the friend of Athanasius, was killed ; and in 341 Athanasius was again deposed in a synod held at Antioch, and Gregory of Cappado- cia was elected to succeed him. In the mean time Athanasius betook himself to Borne, where Pope Julius declared his innocence in a synod held in 3-12. At Rome or in the West he remained till the S3-nod of Sardica, in 347, had pronounced his acquittal of all tho charges brought against him ; after which the emper- or Constantius, at the entreat)' of his lu-other Constans, recalled him to his see (A.D. 349). In the verj' next year Constans was slain by Magnentius in Gaul, and I in him Athanasius lost his protector. Constantius, now sole emperor, soon gathered the Arians around him, and the court determined to ruin Athanasius. New accusations were trumped up, and he was con- demned by a council convened at Aries (353), and by j another at Milan (355), and was a third time obliged ! to flee into the deserts of Thebais. His enemies pur- sued him even here, and set a price upon his head. In ! this situation Athanasius composed his most important : writings to strengthen the faith of believers, and ex- I pose the falsehood of his enemies. He returned with the other bishops whom Julian the Apostate recalled j from banishment, and in A.D. 362 held a council at 1 Alexandria, where the belief of a (unsubstantial Trin- ity was openly professed. Julian so~n became alarmed | at the energy with which Athanasius opposed pagan- ism, and banished him, even (according to Theodoret) threatening him with death. He escaped to the des- 1 ert (A.D. 362). The accession of Jovian brought him 1 back in 363 ; but Jovian died in 364, and Valens, be- | ing an Arian, compelled him to retire from his see (A.D. 367). He hid himself in his father's tomb at the gates of Alexandria for four months. At last Va- lens (according to one account, for fear of the people of Alexandria, who took arms in favor of Athanasius) re- called the heroic bishop, and he was permitted to sit down in quiet and govern his affectionate Church of Alexandria until his death, May 2, 373 (according to Baronius, 372). Of the forty-six years of his official life he spent twenty in banishment. Athanasius was perhaps the greatest man in the early church. ' ' With the most daring courage and perseverance of purpose, i he combined a discreet flexibility, which allowed him after defeats to wait for new contingencies, and pre- pare himself for fresh exertions. He was no less calm ! and considerate than determined; and while he shun- : ned useless danger (see his 'Apology for his Flight'); he never admitted the slightest compromise of his doc- trine, nor attempted to conciliate by concession even his imperial adversaries. ' In his life and conduct,' says Gregory of Nazianzus, 'he exhibited the model of episcopal government — in his doctrine, the rule of orthodoxy.' Again, the independent courage with which he resisted the will of successive emperors for forty-six years of alternate dignity and misfortune in- troduced a new feature into the history of Rome. An obstacle was at once raised against imperial tyranny : a limit was discovered which it could not pass over. Here was a refractory subject who could not be de- nounced as a rebel, nor destroyed by the naked exer- cise of arbitrary power; the weight of spiritual influ- ence, in the skilful hand of Athanasius. was beginning to balance and mitigate the temporal despotism, and the artifices to which Constantius was compelled to ATIIANASIUS 506 ATHAXASIUS resort, in order to gain a verdict from the councils of I Aries and Milan, proved that his a! solute power had already ceased to exist. Athanasius did not, indeed, like the Gregories, establish a system of ecclesiastical policy and power— that belonged to later ages and to another climate— hut he exerted more extensive per- sonal influence over his own age, for the advancement of the church, than any individual in any age, except perhaps Bernard. ' In all his writings,' says Photius, ' he is clear in expression, concise, and simple ; acute, profound, and very vehement in his disputations, with wonderful fertility of invention ; and in his method of reasoning he treats no subject with baldness or puer- ilitv, but all philosophically and magnificently.'" Gregory of Nazianzus has an oration on Athana- sius, from which the following passage is given by Cave {lives of the Fathers, vol. ii) : " He was one that so governed himself that his life supplied the place of sermons, and his sermons prevented his corrections ; much less need had he to cut or lance where he did but once shake his rod. In him all ranks and orders might rind something to admire, something particular for their imitation : one might commend his unwearied constan- cy in fasting and prayer ; another, his vigorous and in- cessant persevering in watch ings and praise; a third, his admirable care and protection of the poor ; a fourth, his resolute opposition to the proud, or his condescen- sion to the humble. The virgins may celebrate him as their bridesman, the married as their governor, the hermits as their monitor, the cenobites as their law- giver, the simple as their guide, the contemplative as a divine, the merry as a bridle, the miserable as a com- forter, the aged as a staff, the youth as a tutor, the poor as a benefactor, and the rich as a steward. He was a patron to the widows, a father to orphans, a friend to the poor, a harbor to strangers, a brother to brethren, a physician to the sick, a keeper of the healthful, one who 'became all things to all men, that, if not all, he might at least gain the more.' .... With respect to his predecessors in that see, he equalled some, came near others, and exceeded others ; in some he imitated their discourses, in others their actions; the meekness of some, the zeal of others, the patience and constancy of the rest; borrowing many perfec- tions from some, and all from others ; and so making up a complete representation of virtue, like skilful lim- ners, who, to make the piece absolute, do first from several persons draw the several perfections of beauty within the idea of their own minds; so he, insomuch that in practice he outdid the eloquent, and in his dis- courses outwent those who were most versed in prac- tice; or, if you will, in his discourses he excelled the eloquent, and in his practice those who were most used to business; and for those that had made but an ordi- nary advance in either, he was far superior to them, as being eminent but in one kind; and for those who Mere masters in the other, he outdid them in that he excelled in both." The aptitude of his remarkable intellect for grap- pling with the deepest problems is shown in all his writings, even in the earliest (\oyo£ Kara rwv 'EX\/;- vaiv, Oralion against the Greeks'), an apologetic work to refute the Grecian attacks on Christianity, which evinces his culture in Greek learning, as well as rare metaphysical acuteness, written as it was before the author was twenty-live (A.D. 318 ?) '1 he treatise Be TncamalioTU verlA appeared about the same time, and, indeed, is cited by Jerome as the same work. It treats of the deepest themes, God, creation, anthropology, and Christology. His other most important writings are Epistola d* decretis Nicence Synodi contra Arianos; Epist. ili' sententia DiongsH; Orationes contra Arianos; Epistola nV (God). Thus the word uBtoc, atheist, in old Greek usage, meant one who denied "the gods," especially the gods recognised 1 y the law of the state. In this way ATHEISM 509 ATHEISM several of the Greek philosophers (even Socrates) were called atheists (Cicero, Nat. Deorum, i, 23). Cicero himself defines an atheist as one who in theory denies the existence of any God, or practically refuses to worship any {Athens, qui sine Beo est, impius, qui Deum esse non credit, (tut si credat, non colit, Deorum contemp- tor). This distinction of atheism into theoretical and practical has remained, in popular language, to this d.iy. At a later period the Pagans applied the term atheists to the Christians as a generic name of re- proach, because they denied the heathen gods and derided their worship (Eusebius, Ch. Hist, iv, 15 ; Bing- ham, Orig. Eccles. bk. i, ch. ii, § 1). In the theologi- cal strifes of the early church it was not uncommon for the contending parties to call each other atheists, and, later still, the burning of heretics was justified by calling them atheists. The term was applied, in sci- entific theology, to such forms of unbelief as that of Pomponatius (Pomponazzi, f 1524) and Vanini (f 1619). Bacon (Essay xvi) uses the term to designate infidelity in general, and the denial of God in particular (" I had rather believe," he says, "all the fabulous tales in the Talmud and the Alcoran, than that the univer- sal frame is without a mind''). So also in the Be A ug- mentis (i, 11) he speaks of "a little knowledge inclin- ing the mind of man to atheism." Toward the end of the 17th century the term is not unfrequently found, e. g. in Kortholt's Be Tribus Impostoribus, 1080, to in- clude Deism such as that of Hobbes, as well as blank Pantheism like Spinoza's, which more justly deserves the name. The same use is seen in Colerus's work against Spinoza, Arcana Atheismi Revelata. Tillotson (Serm. i on Atheism) and Bentley (Boyle Lectures) use the word more exactly, and the invention of the term deism induced in the writers of the 18th century a more limited and exact use of the word atheism. But in Germany, Keimannus (Historia Urdu. Atheismi, 1725, p. 437 sq.) and Buddaeus (De Athelsmo et Super- set ione, 1723, ch. iii, § 2) use it most widely, and es- pecially make it include disbelief of immortality (Far- rar, Critical History of Free Th right, 414). Waleh (lli'ili itheca Theol. Selecta, 1757, i, G7C, etc.) uses it to include Spinoza, Hobbes, and Collins as writers who, if not avowed atheists, are yet substantially such. It is a great mistake, in the interest of truth as well as in view of charity, to extend too far the application of the word atheist. Bayle does it (Bib. Crit.), also Brucker (Hist. Phil. t. i), both probably of design ; and Har- duin (Athei Betect. i. Amsterd. 17S3) puts Jansenius, Malebranche, Quesnel, and others in his black list. On the other hand, it is both unwise and uncritical to except the extreme Pantheists (e. g. Spinoza) and Ma- terialists from the number of Atheists. Lewes, in his Biographical History of Philosophy, and also in Fort- nightly Review, 18GG, p. 398, vindicates Spinoza from the charge of spiritual atheism, and states that Spino- za himself emphatically repudiated Atheism ; but yet Lewes admits that logically there is little difference between Spinoza's Acosmism, which makes God the one universal being, and Atheism, which makes the cosmos the one universal existence. This point is fully discussed in Brenna, Be gen. human, consensu in agnoscenda Bivinitate (Florence, 1773, 2 vols. 4to). See also Perrone, Prcelect. Theological (Paris, 1S5G, i, 238). 2. In scientific theology, atheism is opposed to the- ism. The doctrine of Christian theism is that God is absolute, self-conscious personal spirit, the beneficent creator and upholder of the universe. Every system of philosophy or religion must be built upon this prin- ciple or its opposite ; that is, must be either theistic or atheistic. Hence a great deal of what passes for De- ism and Pantheism is in fact Atheism. Christianity apprehends God not as entirely apart from the world and exerting no providence (Deism), nor as existing only in the world (Pantheism), but as existing apart from creation, but himself creator and controller (i. c. Providence). On this theory of a living and personal God Christianity undertakes to explain the phenome- na of the universe. Those who seek to explain these phenomena by substituting other ideas for this idea of God are, in the view of Christian theology, atheists. The term should be applied to none who profess to be- lieve in a personal, self-conscious, spiritual God. Athe- ism is divided into positive or dogmatic, which ab- solutely declares that there is no God, and negative or sceptical, which declares either (a) that, if there be a God, we cannot know either the fact or the nature of his existence, and therefore it is no concern of ours, or (b) that, if there be a God, we can only know of him by tradition or by faith, and can never have proof satisfactory to the intellect of his existence. Some Christian writers and philosophers have incautiously attempted to stand upon this latter ground. The.so- j called Positive Philosophy stands upon the first ground (a), but logically leads (in spite of Mr. J. S. Mill's de- j nial, in his Exposition of Comte) to dogmatical atheism. J To state that we only know, and only can know phe- ; nomena, is to exclude God ; for God is not only no ! phenomenon, but is, in the Christian sense, the abso- j lute ground of all phenomena. The theories which at- ; tempt to explain phenomena without the idea of God | may be classed as (1) the Idealistic, which substitutes for the absolute, self-conscious Spirit, a so-called ' world-spirit ; not a living, personal being, but an un- conscious and abstract one — in a word, a mere concep- tion of ideal being as the abstract totality of all indi- vidual conceptions ; (2) the Materialistic, which sub- stitutes for a personal God the forces inherent in mat- ! ter, and holds that these sufficiently explain all phe- nomena ; (3) the Subjective-idealistic, which asserts that phenomena are nothing but the creations or mod- ifications of the thinking mind or subject, and that thought creates not only matter, so called, but God. To the first and third of these classes belong Fichte, Hegel, and (during his early life) Schelling, among the Germans, and their followers in England and Ameri- ca. To the second class belong Comte, and the so- called Positive philosophers in general. It is true that Lewes (Philosophy of the Sciences, p. 24) denies that Comte was an atheist ; and Wallace (Art, Scenery, and Philosojihy in Europe), while admitting Comte's indi- vidual atheism, denies that atheism is a characteristic of Positivism. But these denials are vain, so long as the very aim of the Positive method is to eliminate mind and will from the universe. A science of pure phenomenalism can never coexist with Christian the- ism. Perhaps the most open declarations of atheism in modern times are to be found in D'Holbach's Sys- thne de la Nature (1770), the ultimate fruit, in athe- istic materialism, of the sensational philosophy. Even Voltaire pronounced it "abominable" (see note to Brougham, Biscourse on Natural Theology; Itenouvier, Philosophic Moderne, bk. v, § 2). The doctrine of the book is that nothing, in fact, exists but matter and motion, which are inseparable. "If matter is at rest, it is only because hindered in motion, for in its essence it is not a dead mass. Motion is twofold, attraction and repulsion, and the different motions we see are the products of these two; and through these arise the different connections and the whole manifoldness of things, under laws which arc eternal and unchangea- ble. It flows from these positions, first, that man is material, and, secondly, that the belief in Cod is a chimera. Another chimera, the belief in the being of a God, is the twofold division of man into body and soul. This belief arises like the hypothesis of a soul-substance, because mind is falsely divided from matter, and nature is thus made twofold. The evil which men experienced, and whose natural cause they could not discover, they assigned to a deity which they imagined for the purpose. The first notions of a God have their source, therefore, in sorrow, fear, and uncertainty. We tremble because our forefathers ATHEISM 510 ATHEISM for thousands of years have done the same. This cir- cumstance awakens no auspicious prepossession. But not only the rude, but also the theological idea of God is worthless, for it explains no phenomena of nature. It is, moreover, full of absurdities ; for since it as- cribes moral attributes to God, it renders him human ; while, on the other hand, by a mass of negative attri- butes, it seeks to distinguish him absolutely from ev- ery other human being. The true system, the system of nature, is hence atheistic. But such a doctrine requires a culture and a courage which neither all men nor most men possess. If we understand by the word atheist one. who considers only dead matter, or who designates the moving power in nature with the name God, then is there no atheist, or whoever would be one is a fool. But if the word means one who de- nies the existence of a spiritual being, a being whose attributes can only be a source of annoyance to men, then are there indeed atheists, and there would be more of them, if a correct knowledge of nature and a sound reason were more widely diffused. But if athe- ism is true, then should it be diffused. There are, in- deed, many who have cast off the yoke of religion, who nevertheless think it is necessary for the common people in order to keep them within proper limits. But this is just as if we should determine to give a man poison lest he should abuse his strength. Ever}' kind of Deism leads necessarily to superstition, since it is not possible to continue on the stand-point of pure Deism. "With such premises the freedom and immor- tality of the soul both disappear. Man, like every other substance in nature, is a link in the chain of necessary connection, a blind instrument in the hands of necessity. If an}' thing should be endowed with self-motion, that is, with a capacity to produce mo- tion without any other cause, then would it have the power to destroy motion in the universe ; but this is contrary to the conception of the universe, which is only an endless series of necessary motions spread- ing out into wider circles continually. The claim of an individual immortality is absurd. For to af- firm that the soul exists after the destruction of the body, is to affirm that a modification of a substance can exist after the substance itself has disappear- ed. There is no other immortality than the remem- brance of posterity" (Schwcgler, History of Philosophy, § 32). The Dict'ummtire des A tines of Sylvain Mare- chal, edited by Lalande (Paris, 1799), is a flagrant specimen of the same kind. The strongest German development is Strauss's identification of God with the universal being of man, in his Dogmatik; and Feuer- bach's bald atheism, in his Wesen des Christenthums (Smith's Hagenbach, History of Doctrines, § 293). The so-called English "secularism" is an atheistic doctrine resting on, or similar to that of the Positive Philoso- phy. It holds the eternity of matter; it knows of nothing greater than nature; its creed is a stern fa- talism ; its win-ship is labor; its religion is science; its future is a " black, impenetrable curtain." One of its advocates says, "A deep silence reigns behind the curtain ; no one within will answer those he has left without; all that you can hear is a hollow echo of your question, as if you shouted into a cavern" (Hol- yoake, Logic of />■ atK). Such is the wretched atheism which is expounded by itinerant lecturers, and dissem- inated by periodical pamphlets throughout the length and breadth of Great Britain, and which is perverting and contaminating the minds of the more thoughtful and inquisitive among the working classes of that country to an unprecedented and incredible extent {London Review, xi, 20. See also Christian Examiner, Boston, Nov. 1859; Vorth British Review, Nov. 18G0). We close this article with the following admirable passage from a modern writer: "The whole history of philosophy and theology shows that, when the ma- terial world is taken by itself, it is a contradiction of God. Atheism was not coeval with man. No atheist J pretends that it was. It was always a denial, and a denial presupposes an affirmation. The denial of a God presupposes the existence in man of some faculty anterior to reflection which may apprehend Infinite Being. It is a denial, also, which has always been preceded by misapprehension of God. Pseudo-theism precedes atheism. The first denial of God is made unintentionally. Men begin to worship remarkable peculiarities of the material universe. Thus worship fell from its primitive spirit and truth into deification of the heavens and earth, to which the overflowing soul of man lent some of its own unbounded life. The Book of Job, one of the oldest of human writings, re- ', fers to this primitive idolatry in the following words : , ' If I beheld the sun when it shined, or the moon walk- ! ing in brightness, and my heart hath been secretly enticed, or my mouth hath kissed my hand, this also were an iniquity to be punished by the judge ; for I should have denied the God that is above.' This dec- laration plainly shows that such things had begun to be in his day, but were not universal. It is a very simple expositien of the rise of idolatry everywhere. Pseudo-theism is incipient atheism ; but it testifies to a pure theism going before it. The mistake of this early false worship is, as every one sees, the radical mistake of materializing the conception of God. It is the result of idly resting in an impression made by material objects. This impression would never have been made unless those objects expressed a life corre- sponding to ours. It was an impression at first per- haps innocently cherished as a religious influence ; but it proved the means of shutting out God, the Being of love, wisdom, and power, as an object of true faith", and the source of a glowing worship. It ended in atheism. In modern times, the same result has followed from men's seizing on the external as their means of mak- ing clear the Divine Life. It would be quite possible to trace a parallel between the consequences of giving the great name of God to the sun, moon, and earth, and the consequences of giving the same august name to laws of nature which are simple categories of the human understanding; for the forms of the under- standing may stand between the soul and God, pre- venting his immanence in the consciousness, no less than the stars of heaven and the imposing forms of earth. The forms of the understanding, though im- palpable, are media, no less than visible and palpable matter; and it is important to observe that they are as much so. They have proved as fruitful sources of atheism when rested on as ultimate ; for if they have not corrupted man's sensual nature by making his rites of worship bodily vice, they have paralyzed his spirit by substituting intellectual speculation for the fervent spiritual exercise which involves his might and heart, no less than his mind, in a reasonable service. But to give a logical priority of matter to mind, in an argu- ment for the being of the spiritual God, is to beg the question at once. This Plato has observed. He says in his Lairs: 'Atheists make the assumption that fire and water, earth and air, stand first in the order of ex- istences, and calling them nature, they evolve soul out of them. In scrutinizing this position of the class of men who busy themselves with physical investiga- tions, it will perhaps appear that those who come to conclusions so different from ours, and irreverent of God, follow an erroneous method. The cause of pro- duction and dissolution, which is the mind, they make, not a primary, but a secondary existence" {Christian Examim r, Sept. 1858). See the articles Infidelity ; i Materialism ; Pantheism; Theism. See also , be- sides the authors cited in the course of this article, BuddsBUS, Theses de Atheismo (Jena, 1717; in German, 1723); Heidenreich, Briefs fib. d. Athe'ismus (Leipzig, 1796) ; Reimann, Historic atheismi (Hildesh. 1725); Stapfer, Tnstxt. Theol. Polem. vol. ii, ch. vi ; Doddridge, J.i cturt s "a I'm wmatdogy, etc., Lect. xxxiii ; Cudworth, Intellectual System, bk. i, ch. iii; Buchanan, Modern ATIIEXAGORAS 511 ATHENS Atheism, under its Farms of Pantheism, Secularism, De- velopment, and Natural Lairs (Boston, 1859, 12mo) ; Gioberti, V etude de la Philosophie, iii, 105 ; Thompson, Christian Theism (N. Y. 1855, 12mo) ; Tulloch, Theism (N. Y. 1855. 12mo) ; Morell, History of Modern Philos- ophy ; Constant, Be la Religion, iii, 20 ; New A merican Cyclopedia, s. v. ; Hcrzog, Real-Encyklopadk, i, 577 ; Bartholmess, Hist. Crit. des Doctrines de la Philoso- phie Moderne, bk. xiii; Farrar, Critical History of Free Thought, chap, vii ; Pearson, Modern Infidelity, chap, i, and Appendix ; Chalmers, Institutes of Theology, book i, chap, iii ; Riddle, Bampton Lecture, 18G2, Lec- ture iii; Van Mildert, Boyle Lectures (London, 1820, 2 vols. 8vo) ; Watson, Theological Institutes, part ii, chap. i. Athenagoras ^ASrrjvayopag, a frequent Greek name), a philosopher of Athens, celebrated for his knowledge of theology and science, both Christian and pagan. lie flourished about 177. (This has been shown by Mosheim in his essay De vera at ate Apologe- tici quern A then, scrips't, in his Dissert, ad Hist. Fccles. pertin. i, 272 sq.) Neithsr Eusebius nor Jerome men- tion Athenagoras, but he is cited by Methodius in a passage preserved by Epiphanius (Hcer. G5) and by Photius (Biblioth. Cod 234). Philip Sidetes (5th centu- ry) gives an account of him in a fragment first publish- ed by Dodwell (Append, ad Dissert, in Irena?uni) , but Basnagc and others have shown that this account is in- accurate, to say the least. It is said that when a Gentile, Athenagoras strove against the Christian faith ; but as he was engaged in searching the Holy Scriptures for weapons to turn against the faithful, it pleased God to convert him. After this he left Athens and went to Alexandria, where, according to the account of Side- tes, he became head of the catechetical school there ; but this account is not to be relied upon. He wrote a work called Upivfitia ttkh Xpianav&v, An Apology (or Embassy) in behalf of the Christians, and addressed it either to Marcus Antoninus and Lucius Verus (about A.D. 16(5), or to the emperors Marcus Aurelius and his son Commodus (about A.D. 177). In this apology he refutes the three chief calumnies urged against the Christians in that day, viz. (1) that they were athe- ists ; (2) that they ate human flesh; (3) that they committed the most horrible crimes in their assemblies. He also claimed for the Christians the benefit of the toleration which in the Roman Empire was granted to all religions. Athenagoras wrote another treatise on the doctrine of the Resurrection (— tpi (\va(jra22 and "i£3), i. e. price or covering. (f) The use oi' XxWpcv for T22 introduces another form of expression, "redemption." This word, as a noun, always repre- sents in the N. T. XvrpwaiQ or aTroXvrpwvtg. Both are descriptive of the act of procuring the liberation of an- other by paying some Ai'rpov or airoiva, i. e. "ran- som" or "forfeit," and hence always in the N. T. of the state of being ransomed in this way. These words mean (1) to buy back, by paying the price, what has been sold (Lev. xxv, 25), and (2) to redeem what has been devoted by substituting something else in its place (Lev. xxvii, 27; Exod. xiii, 13; Psa. lxxii, 11 ; Psa.exxx, 8; Isa. lxiii, 9). The price paid is called A i>- rpov (Matt, xx, 28 ; Mark x, 45), di'riXvrpov (1 Tim. ii, 0), the Hebrew terms being <"l!?X5 and ""'"IE', answering precisely to Xvrpor, and "122, which again answers to Wao-fiuc,. In 1 Tim. ii, 0, this ransom is said to be Christ himself. " Redemption," therefore, is general- ly a state of deliverance by means of ransom. Hence ; it is used to indicate deliverance from punishment or guilt (Eph. i, 7 ; Col. i, 14) ; sanctif cation, which is de- liverance from the dominion of sin (1 Pet. i, 18) ; the resurrection, which is the actual deliverance of the | bod}' from the grave, the consequence of sin (Rom. viii, 23) ; comjrteted salvation, which is actual deliver- ance from all evil (Eph. i, 14 ; iv, 30; 1 Cor. i, 30; Tit. ii, 14). Once it is used without reference to sin (Heb. xi, 35), and perhaps in Luke xxi, 28. (ff.~) Another word, translated "redemption" («yop«4'io,Gal. iii, L">; iv, 5; Rev. v, 9; xiv, 3, 4), means, as it is every- where else translated, to buy, referring to a purchase made in. the market. What is paid in this case is called Tififj (price), and this price is said to be Chrut (Gal. iii, 13), or his blood (Rom. v, 9). In Acts xx, 28, the word rendered "purchase" (7r5p(7roi£7ipla or gutijoiov ; aiorijpia is always translated " salvation" except in three passages (Acts vii. 25 ; xxvii, 34, and Heb. xi, 7, where it refers to temporal deliverance), and the idea included in the term is whatever blessings redemption includes, but without any reference to Xvrpov, or any- thing else as the ground of them. It includes present deliverance (Luke xix, 9) or future (Phil, i, 19 ; Rom. xiii, 11). "Salvation," therefore, is the state into which the Gospel introduces all who believe, and with- out reference to the means used. On turning to the Sept., however, we find that the idea of propitiation is involved even here ; fftmjpioj* is very frequently the translation of ub'O (l"Ct), ^jeace-offering, Srvola awri]- piov (Lev. iii, 1-3 ; iv, 10 ; vii, 20 ; xi, 4 ; Judg. xx, 26 ; xxi, 4). DP13 is the sacrifice or retribution restoring peace, and thus the meaning of oio-iipiov touches upon the meaning of propitiation. " From this comparison, therefore, of the X. T.. the Sept.. and the Hebrew, we gather the following con- clusions : Propitiation, giving prominence to the sec- ondary meaning of HS3, kaphar, and the primary meaning of tZiXaOKOfiai, is an act prompting to the exercise of mercy, and providing for its exercise in a way consistent with justice; Expiation, giving promi- nence to the primary meaning of 1£3 and the second- ary meaning of i'iiKaoKOfiai, is an act which provides for the removal of sin, and cancels the obligation to punishment; Atonement, giving prominence to both, and meaning expiation and propitiation combined. Chrisfs atonement is said to be by substitution, for he suffered in our stead, and he bears our sin ; and it is by satisfaction, for the broken law is vindicated, all the purposes of punishment are answered with honor to the Lawgiver, and eventual holiness to the Christian. Its result is reconciliation (tca-aWa-/))) ; the moral sen- timent of justice in God is reconciled to the sinner, and provision is made for the removal of our enmity; and it is redemption, or actual deliverance for a price from sin in its guilt and dominion, from all misery, and from death. Salvation is also actual deliverance, but without a distinct reference to a price paid. Atone- ment, therefore, is something offered to God; redemp- tion or salvation is something bestowed upon man; atonement is the ground of redemption, and redemption is the result of atonement (Isa. liii, 4-9, 10, 12). The design of the first is to satisfy God's justice, the design of tli- second to make man blessed; the first was fin- ished upon the cross, the second is in daily operation, and will not be completed in the ease of the whole church till the consummation of all things (Dan. ix, l1 : Eph. iv.SO)." ■J. The Scripiurt doctrim of the vicarious sacrifice of Chrisl is taughl in the passages above cited, and indeed seems t" underlie the whole " gospel" of salva- ntaincd in the teaching of Christ and his apos- tles. Ii may be Btated further (1) that the sacrifices of the < ». T. were (at hast many of them) expiatory [see this shown under Expiation], and the terms used by Christ and his apostles (ransom, sacrifice, of- fering, etc. i were necessarily understood by their hear- era in the sense which they had been accustomed for ages to attach to them. (2) If this be so. then noth- ing could " be more misleading, and even absurd, than to employ those terms which, both among Jews and Gentiles, were in use to express the various processes and means of atonement and piacular propitiation, if the apostles and Christ himself did not intend to rep- resent his death strictly as an expiation for sin ; mis- leading, because such would be the natural and neces- sary inference from the terms themselves, which had acquired this as their established meaning; and absurd, because if, as Socinians say, they used them metaphor- ically, there was not even an ideal resemblance be- tween the figures and that which it was intended to illustrate. So totally irrelevant, indeed, will those terms appear to any notion entertained of the death of Christ which excludes its expiatory character, that to assume that our Lord and his apostles used them as metaphors is profanety to assume them to be such writers as would not in any other case be tolerated ; writers wholly unacquainted with the commonest rules of language, and, therefore, wholly unfit to be teach- ers of others, and that not only in religion, but in things of inferior importance" (Watson, Diet. s. v. Expiation). Immediately upon the first public manifestation of Christ, John the Baptist declares, when he sees Jesus coming to him, " Behold the Lamb of God, which ta- keth away the sin of the world" (John i, 29) : where it is obvious that, when John called our Lord "the Lamb of God," he spoke of him under a sacrificial character, and of the effect of that sacrifice as an atone- ment for the sins of mankind. This was said of our Lord even before he entered on his public office ; but if any doubt should exist respecting the meaning of the Baptist's expression, it is removed by other pas- sages, in which a similar allusion is adopted, and in which it is specifically applied to the death of Christ as an atonement for sin. In the Acts (viii, 32) the following words of Isaiah (liii, 7) are by Philip the Evangelist distinctly applied to Christ and to his death : " He was led as a sheep to the slaughter ; and like a lamb dumb before his shearer, so opened he not his mouth: in his humiliation his judgment was taken away : and who shall declare his generation ? for his life is taken from the earth." This particular part of the prophecy being applied to our Lord's death, the whole must relate to the same subject, for it is un- doubtedly cne entire prophecy ; and the other expres- sions in it are still stronger: "He was wounded for our transgressions; he was bruised for our iniquities; the chastisement of our peace was upon him ; and with his stripes we are healed : the Lord hath laid on him the iniquity of us all." In the First Epistle of Peter is also a strong and very apposite text, in which the application of the term "lamb" to our Lord, and the sense in which it is applied, can admit of no doubt: " Forasmuch as ye know that ye were not redeemed with corruptible things, but with the precious blood of Christ, as of a lamb without blemish and without spot" (1 Pet. i, IS, 19). It is therefore evident that the prophet Isaiah, seven hundred years before the Lirth of Jesus; that John the Baptist, at the eon - mencement of Christ's ministry; and that Peter, his companion and apostle, subsequent to the transaction, speak of Christ's death as an atonement for sin under the figure of a lamb sacrificed. The passages that fol- low plainly and distinctly declare the atoning efficacy of Christ's death : " Now once in the end of the world hath he appeared to put away sin by the sacrifice of himself." "Christ was once offered to bear the sins of many ; and unto them that look for him shall he ap- pear the second time without sin unto salvation" (Heb. ix, 26, 28). "This man, after he had offered one sac- rifice for sin, forever sat down on the right hand of (hid; for by one offering he hath perfected forever them that are sanctified" (Ileb. x, 12). It is observa- ble that nothing similar is said of the death of any oth- er person, and that no such efficacy is imputed to any other martyrdom. " While we were yet sinners Christ died for us ; much more then, being now justified by | his llood, we shall be saved from wrath through him ; ATONEMENT 517 ATONEMENT for if, when we were enemies, we were reconciled to God by the death of his Son, much more, being rec- onciled, we shall be saved by his life" (Rom. v, 8-10). The words " reconciled to God by the death of his Son" show that his death had an efficacy in our reconcilia- tion ; but reconciliation is only preparatory to salva- tion. " lie has reconciled us to his Father in his cross, and in the body of his flesh through death'' (Col. i, 20, 22). "What is said of reconciliation in these texts is in some others spoken of sanctitication, which is also pre- paratory to salvation. "We are sanctified" — how? "by the offering of the body of Christ once for all" (Ileb. x, 10). In the same epistle (x, 20), the blood of Jesus is called "the blood of the covenant by which we are sanctified." In these and many other passages that occur in different parts of the New Testament, it is therefore asserted that the death of Christ was effica- cious in the procuring of human salvation. Such ex- pressions are used concerning no other person, and the death of no other person ; and it is therefore evident that Christ's death included something more than a confirmation of his preaching; something more than a pattern of a holy and patient martyrdom ; something more than a necessary antecedent to his resurrection, by which he gave a grand and clear proof of our resur- rection from the dead. Christ's death was all these, but it was much more. It was an atonement for the sins of mankind, and in this way only it became the ac- complishment of our eternal redemption. The teaching of the New Testament, and the agree- ment of the statements of Christ with those of his apostles on this subject, are thus set forth (without re- gard to theological distinctions) by Dr. Thomson, bish- op of Gloucester: "God sent his Son into the world to redeem lost and ruined man from sin and death, and the Son willingly took upon him the form of a ser- vant for this purpose ; and thus the Father and the Son manifested their love for us. God the Father laid upon his Son the weight of the sins of the whole world, so that he bare in his own body the wrath which men must else have borne, because there was no other way of escape for them ; and thus the atonement was a man- ifestation of divine justice. The effect of the atone- ment thus wrought is that man is placed in a new po- sition, freed from the dominion of sin, and able to fol- low holiness, and thus the doctrine of the atonement ought to work in all the hearers a sense of love, of obedience, and of self-sacrifice. In shorter words, the sacrifice of the death of Christ is a proof of divine love and of divine justice, and is for us a document of obe- dience. Of the four great writers of the New Testa- ment, Peter, Paul, and John set forth every one of these points. Peter, the ' witness of the sufferings of Christ,' tells us that we were 'redeemed with the blood of Jesus, as of a lamb without blemish and without spot;' says that "Christ bare our sins in his own body on the tree.' If we ' have tasted that the Lord is gra- cious,' we must not rest satisfied with a contemplation of oar redeemed state, but must live a life worthy of it. Xo one. can well doubt, who reads the two epis- tles, that the love of God and Christ, and the justice of Cod, and the duties thereby laid on us, all have their value in them; but the love is loss dwelt on than the justice, while the most prominent idea of all is the moral and practical working of the cross of Christ upon the lives of men. With St. John, again, all three points find place: that Jesus willingly laid down his life for us, and is an advocate with t lie Father; that He is also the propitiation, the suffering sacrifice for our sins; and that the blood of Jesus Christ cleanseth us from all sin, for that whoever is born of God doth not commit sin : all are put forward. The death of Christ is both justice and love — both a propitiation and an act of loving self-surrender; but the moral effect upon us is more prominent even than these. In the epistles of Paul the three elements are all present : in such expressions as a ransom, a propitiation who was ' made sin for us,' the wrath of God against sin, and the mode in which it was turned away, are pre- sented to us. Yet not wrath alone : ' The love of Christ constraineth us ; because we thus judge, that if one died for all, then were all dead ; and that he died for all, that they which live should not henceforth live unto themselves, but unto him which died for them and rose again.' Love in him begets love in us ; and, in our reconciled state, the holiness which we could not practice before becomes easy. Now in which of these points is there the semblance of contradiction between the apostles and their Master ? In none of them. In the gospels, as in the epistles, Jesus is held up as the sacrifice and victim, quaffing a cup from which his human nature shrank, feeling in him a sense of desolation such as we fail utterly to compre- hend on a theory of human motives. Yet no one takes from him his precious redeeming life ; he lays it down of himself out of his great love for men; but men are to deny themselves, and take up their cross, and tread in his steps. They are his friends only if they keep his commands and follow his footsteps" (Aids to Faith, p. 337. See also Storr and Flatt, Biblical Theology, § G5-70). II. History of the Doctrine.— (1.) The Fathers.— Tn the earl j' ages of the church the atoning work of Christ was spoken of generally in the words of Scripture. The value of the sufferings and death of Christ, in the work of redemption, was from the beginning both held in Christian faith, and also plainly set forth, but the doctrine was not scientifically developed by the primi- tive fathers. But it is one thing to admit that the atonement was not sti:ntifira.l!y apprehended, and quite another thing to assert that it was not realty held at all in the sense of vicarious sacrifice. The relation between the death of Christ and the remission of sins was not a matter of much dispute in that early period. The person of Christ was the, great topic ofmetaphys- ico-theological inquiry, and it was not until after this was settled by the general prevalence of the Nicene Creed that anthropological and soteriological ques- tions come up into decided prominence. Baur (in whose Yersbhnungslehre this subject is treated with am- ple learning, though often with dogmatic assertion of conclusions arrived at hastily and without just ground) admits that in the writings of the apostolical fathers there is abundant recognition of the sacrificial and re- demptive death of Christ. Thus Barnabas : " The Lord condescended to deliver his body to death, that, by remission of our sins, we might be sanctified, and this is effected by the shedding of his blood" (c. v). So also Clement quotes Isa. liii and I'sa. xxii, 7, 0, adding, "His blood was shed for our salvation; by the will of God he has given his body for our body, his soul for our soul." Similar passages exist in Ig- natius and Polycarp, and stronger still in the Epist. ad Diognet. ch. ix. (See citations in Shedd, History of Doctrines, bk. v, ch. i: Hagenbach, Hist, of Doctrines, §08; Thomson, Hampton Lectures, 1853, Lect. vi). In the second century Justin Martyr (A.I). 147) says that "the Father willed that bis Christ should take upon himself the curses of all for the whole race of man" (Dial. c. Tryjh. 95). " In Justin may be found the idea of satisfaction rendered by ( 'hrist through suffer- ing, at least lying at the bottom, if not clearly grasped in tin' form of conscious thought" (Dial. c. Tryph. c. 30; Neander, Ch. History, i, 642). The victory of the death of Christ over the power of the devil begins now to play a prominent part in the idea of the atonement. Baur maintains that this was really due to Gnostic ideas taken up into the line of Christian thought ; "that as the relation between the Demiurge and Re- deemer was, in the Marcionitc and Ophitic systems, essentially hostile, so the death of Jesus was a contri- vance of the Demiurge, -which failed of its purpose and disappointed him." Baur asserts that Irenseus (A.D. 180) borrowed this idea from Gnosticism, only ATONEMENT 51S ATONEMENT substituting Satan for the Demiurge. But Dorncr shows clearly that [rcnams, with entire knowledge of Gnosticism, repelled all its ideas, and that Baur's charge rests upon a misinterpretation of a passage (tidv.ffcer. v. 1, 1) in which, although the Satanic idea is prominent, it is far removed from Gnosticism (Dor- ner, Person of Christ, i, 463; see also Shedd^Hist. of Doctrines, ii, 213). Baur's theory that the founda- tions of the doctrine of vicarious satisfaction were laid in the notion that it was the claims of Satan, and not of God, that were satisfied, falls to the ground ; for '• if this theory can he found in any of the fathers, it is in Irenseus" (Shedd, 1. c). Nevertheless, it is true (though not in the Gnostic spirit) that Irenseus repre- sents the sufferings of Christ as made necessary by the hold of Satan on man, and ia order to a rightful de- liverance from that bondage. Tertullian (A.D. 200) uses the word satisfactio, but not with reference to the vicarious sufferings of Christ, yet in several of his writings he assumes the efficacious work of Christ's sufferings for salvation. In the Alexandrian fathers we find, as might be expected, the Gnostic influence more obvious, and the idea of ransom paid to the devil comes out full}' in Origen (A.D. 230). Yet it is going quite too far to say that Origen does not recognise the vicarious 'suffering of Christ; so (Horn. 24 en Num- bers) he saj's that " the entrance of sin into the world made a propitiation necessary, and there can be no propitiation without a sacrificial offering." Dr. Shedd finds the general doctrine of the Alexandrian school inconsistent with vicarious atonement, and interprets the special passages which imply it accordingly; but in this lie differs from Thomasius (Origenes, Niirnb. 1837) and Thomson (Bawpion Lectun s). Origen doubt- less held the vicarious atonement, though it was mixed up with speculations as to the value of the blood cf the martyrs, and debased by his fanciful views of the relation of Christ's work to the devil. This was carried to a greater extent by later fathers, e. g. Gregory of Nj'ssa (A.D. 370), who says in substance that the devil was cheated in the transaction by a just retaliation for his deception of men: "Men have come under the dominion of the devil by sin. Jesus offered himself to the devil as the ransom for which he should release all others. The crafty devil as- si nted, I ecaue ■ he cared mere for the one Jesus, who was so much superior to him, than for all the rest. But, notwithstanding his craft, he was deceived, since he could not retain Jesus in his power. It was, as it were, a deception on the part of God («— an] tic ten rpi'iTTvv riva), that Jesus veiled his divine nature, which the devil would have feared, by means of his humanity, and thus deceived the devil by the appear- ance of'flesh" (Graf. Catech. 22-2G). Athanasius (A.D. 370), on the other hand, not onfy maintained the expiation of Christ, but rejected the fanciful Satan theorj i //. fncarn. Virbi, vi, et al.). Cyril of Jerusa- lem (A.D. 350) (Catech. xii, § 83) enters more deeply into this doctrine, developing a theory to show why it sary that Jesus should die for man. Similar re expressed by Eusebius of Csesarea, Grego- ry of Nazianzen, Cyril of Alexandria, and Chrysostom ler, Dogmengeschickte, p. 383). Several of 'I; i fathers also maintain that Christ, by his death, did more than would have been necessary for the re- ■i of men. They undertook to show that Christ alone was able to achieve redemption, and discussed the qualities which were necessary for his redemptive character. The e di cus iont are especially met with in tli" writings against the Arians and the Ncstorians. Augustine ( \.l>. C98) was occupied more, in all Ids controversies, with anthropology than with poteriolo- gy, but the vici rioui al ment is clearly taught or implied in his D< /'•"•,/. Meritls, i. 56, and in other places; bul l> ■ called those good a- ii ought to i.e. or the highest law of right required it to be." lie holds that Christ did not sat- isfy, by his own Buffering, the violated justice of God. Christ did not. c, on' to the world to die, but died sim- ply because he was lore; there was nothing penal in the agony and tie- cross; the importance of the phys- i al Bufferings ofChrisI consists to us not in what they are. but in what they express or morally signify; ( lni-t is not a ground, but a power of justification. ; and th ■ lie' raw Sacrifices were not types of Christ to them who worshiped in them, but were only necessary as types of Christian language (see Method' st Quart, r- ly, Jan. 1851, p. 114; American Preshyt. Review, Jan. 1866, p. 162). A view somewhat similar to Bushnell' s is given by Schultz, Begriffd. stellvertretenden Leidens (Basel, 1864). See N. Brit. Rev. June, 1867, art. iii. III. Literature. — For the histonj of the doctrine of atonement, see Ziegler, Hist. doom, de Redemptione (Gutting. 1791) ; Baur, Lehre v. d. Versohnung ( 1 ubint;. 1838, 8vo); Thomasius, Hist. dogm. de Obed. C/iristi Ac- t'va (Erlan r. 1845) ; Cotta, De Hist. Doct. de R< 1 1 Testament to render it improbable that this was th ■ original practice. 2. The high-priest went into the Holy of Holies four times in the course of the day: first, with the censer and iiuense, while a priest continued to agitate the blood of the bullock lest it should coagulate; second- ly, with the blood of the bullock; thirdly, with the blood of the goat; fourthly, after havingoffered the evening sacrifice, to fetch out the censer and the plate which hid contained the incense. These four en- trances, forming, as they do, parts of the one great annual rite, are not opposed to a reasonable view of tie- 8f itement in Heb. ix, 7 (where the apostle tells us that the high-priest entered only once on that day, •in-., the expression, li.ira.% tov Ivtarou, may refer to the ,,„, day in the year when such a service alone took place), and that in Josephus {War, v, 5, 7). Three (,nl ntrances seem to be very distinctly implied in Lev. xvi. 12, II, and 15. 3. It is said thai the blood of the bullock and that of the goat were each sprinkled eight times— once to- ward the ceiling, and seven limes on the floor. This agree with the WOrds of Josephus (sec above, I. After he had gone into the most holy place the third tune, and had returned into the holy place, the high-priest sprinkled the blood of the bullock eight tines toward the vail, and did the same with the blood of the goat. Having then mine;],.,! the blood of the two victims together and sprinkled the altar of incense with the mixture, he came into the court and poured out what remained at the foot of the altar of burnt-of- fering. 5. Most careful directions are given for the prepa- ration of the high-priest for the services of the day. For seven days previously he kept away from his own house and dwelt in a chamber appointed for his use. This was to avoid the accidental causes of pollution which he might meet with in his domestic life. Hut, to provide for the possibility of his incurring some un- cleanness in spite of this precaution, a deputy was chos- en who might act for him when the day came. In the treatise of the Mishna entitled "Pirke Aboth," it is stated that no such mischance ever befell the high- priest. But Josephus (Ant. xvii, 6, 4) relates an in- stance of the high-priest Matthias, in the time of Her- od the Great, when his relation, Joseph, took his place in the sacred office. During the whole of the seven days the high-priest had to perform the ordinary sacer- dotal duties of the daily service himself, as well as on the Day of Atonement. On the third day and on the seventh he was sprinkled with the ashes of the red heifer, in order to cleanse him in the event of his hav- ing touched a dead body without knowing it. On the seventh day he was also required to take a solemn oath before the ciders that he would alter nothing whatev- er in the accustomed rites of the Day of Atonement. (This, according to the "Jerusalem Gemara" on Yoma [quoted by Lightfoot], was instituted in consequence of an innovation of the Sadducean party, who had di- rected the high-priest to throw the incense upon the censer outside the vail, and to carry it, smoking, into the Holy of Holies.) 6. Several curious particulars are stated regarding the seap^-goat. The two goats of the sin-offering were to be of similar appearance, size, and value. The lots were originally of boxwood, but in later times they were of gold. They were put into a little box or urn, into which the high-priest put both his hands and took out a lot in each, while the two goats stood before him, one at the right side and the other on the left. The lot in each hand belonged to the goat in the correspond- ing position; and when the lot "for AzazeV' happen- ed to be in the right hand, it was regarded as a good omen. The high-priest then tied a piece of scarlet cloth on the scape-goat's head, called "the scarlet tongue" from the shape in which it was cut. Mai- monides says that this was onby to distinguish him, in order that he might be known when the time came for him to be sent away. But in the Gemara it is as- serted that the red cloth ought to turn white, as a token of God's acceptance of the atonement of the day, re- ferring to Isa. i, 18. A particular instance of such a change, when also the lot ufor Azazel" was in the priest's right hand, is related as having occurred in the time of Simon the Just. It is farther stated that no such change took place for forty years before the de- struction of Jerusalem. The prayer which the high- priest uttered over the head of the goat was as follows : " O Lord,the house of Israel, thy people, have trespass- ed, rebelled, and sinned before thee. I beseech thee, 0 Lord, forgive now their trespasses, rebellions, and sins which thy people have committed, as it is written in the law of Moses, thy servant, saying that in that day there shall be 'an atonement for you to cleanse you, that ye may be clean from all your sins before the Lord' " (Gemara on Yoma, quoted by Frischmuth). The goat was then goaded and rudely treated by the people till it was led away by the man appointed. As soon as il reached a certain spot, which seems to have been regarded as the commencement of the wilderness, a signal was made by some sort of telegraphic contri- vance to the high-priest, who waited for it. The man who led the goat is said to have taken him to the top of a high precipice and thrown him down backward, so as to dash him to pieces. If this was not a mistake of the writer of Yoma, it must have been, as Spencer ar- gues, a modern innovation. It cannot be doubted that ATONEMENT 525 ATONEMENT the goat was originally set free. Even if there be any uncertainty in the words of the Hebrew, the explicit rendering of the Sept. must be better authority than the Talmud (/cai 6 k'iairooTtWiov tLv x<['«pov tov 81- KjTaXfdvou fif u k. t. X. Lev. xvi, 2G). 7. The high-priest, as soon as he had received the signal that the goat had reached the wilderness, read some lessons from the law, and offered up some pray- ers. He then bathed himself, resumed his colored garments, and offered either the whole or a yreat part of the necessary offering (mentioned Num. xxxix, 7- 11) with the regular evening sacrilice. After this he washed again, put on the white garments, and entered the most holy place for the fourth time, to fetch out the censer and the incense-plate. This terminated the special rites of the day. 8. The Mishna gives very strict rules for the fasting of the people. In the law itself no express mention is made of abstinence from food ; but it is most likely im- plied in the command that the people were "to afflict their souls." According to Yoma, every Jew (except invalids, and children under thirteen years of age) is forbidden to eat anything so large as a date, to drink, or to wash from sunset to sunset.— Smith, s. v. VI. On the Scape-goat, see Azazel. VII. Modern Observance of /he Day. — The day pre- vious to the day of expiation, the strict class of Jews provide a cock, which they send to an inferior rabbi to be slain ; the person whose property it is then takes the fowl by the legs, and with uplifted hands swings it nine times over the heads of himself and his com- pany, and at the same time prays to God that the sins they have been guilty of during the year may enter into the fowl. This cock, which they call (Tn&3 (pardon, atonement), seems to be substituted for the scape-goat of old. They then take the fowl and give it to the poor to eat, with a donation according to their means. On the same evening, one hour before syn- agogue service, the}- partake of a sumptuous feast, which they call taking their fast, after which the}- go to the synagogue. In the great synagogue in L< n- don, the clerk stands up in the midst, where a large stage is erected for the accommodation of the singers, who chant the customary prayers. The clerk offers up a blessing, and afterward the free-gift offering. Every man, according to his capacity (but it is not compulsory), gives a sum, which is offered up, and in- serted in a book kept for that purpose. Most of the Jews endeavor on this occasion to provide themselves with the best apparel, as they say they appear before the King of kings to have their final doom settled upon them. Then begins the evening prayer of the fast, when the reader and chief rabbi, and many of the congregation, are clad with the shroud in which they are to be buried, continuing in prayer and supplication for upward of three hours. There are many who will stand upon one spot from the ninth day (of Tisri) at even until the tenth day at even ; and when the ser- vice is ended on the ninth eve, those who return home ro their dwellings come again in the morning at five o'clock, and continue until dark, observing the follow- ing order: First are said the morning prayers, which commence as soon as they come to the synagogue. After saying the usual prayers and supplications pe- culiar to the day, they then take forth the Law, and read the portion Lev. xvi ; the mopkter (a certain por- tion of the Law so named by the Jews) is Num. xxix, 7-11 ; the portion from the prophets from Isa. lvii, 14, to the end of chap, lviii. They then say the prayer for the prosperity of the government under which they dwell, and then put the Law into the ark again, which ends the morning prayer, after having continued for six hours without intermission. They next say the prayer of the masoph (i. e. " addition"), which makes mention of the additional sacrilice of the day (Num. xxix, 7), and supplicates the Almighty to be propi- tious to them. They finally say the offering of the day from Num. xxix, 7-27. They abstain from food altogether during the day. For many more ceremo- nies observed among the present Jews on the Day of Atonement, see Picard, Ceremonies et Coutumes Jieii- (ji< uses, etc. t. i, c. 6, p. 18. VIII. Typical Import of the Entire Observance.— As it might be supposed, the Talmudists miserably de- graded the meaning of the Day of Atonement. They regarded it as an opportunity afforded them of wiping off the score of their more heavy offences. Thus Yoma (cap. viii) says, "The day of atonement and death make atonement through penitence. Penitence itself makes atonement for slight transgressions, and in the case of grosser sins it obtains a respite until the com- ing of the Day of Atonement, which completes the reconciliation." More authorities to the same general purpose are quoted by Frischmuth (p. 917), some of which seem also to indicate that the peculiar atoning virtue of the day was supposed to rest in the scape- goat. Philo (Lib. de Stptenario) regarded the day in a far nobler light. He speaks of it as an occasion for the discipline of self-restraint in regard to bodily indul- gence, and for bringing home to our minds the truth that man does not live by bread alone, but by what- ever God is pleased to appoint. The prayers proper for the day, he says, are those for forgiveness of sins past and for amendment of life in future, to be offered in dependence, not on our own merits, but on the good- ness of God. It cannot be doubted that what especial- ly distinguished the symbolical expiation of this day from that of the other services of the law was its broad and national character, with perhaps a deeper refer- ence to the sin which belongs to the nature of man. Ewald instructively remarks that, though the least un- cleanness of an individual might be atoned by the rites of the law which could be observed at other times, there was a consciousness of secret and indefinite sin pervading the congregation which was aptly met by this great annual fast. Hence, in its national char- acter, he sees an antithesis between it and the Pass- over, the great festival of social life ; and in its aton- ing significance, he regards it as a fit preparation for the rejoicing at the ingathering of the fruits of the earth in the Feast of Tabernacles. Philo looked upon its position in the Jewish calendar in the same light. In considering the meaning of the particular rites of the day, three points appear to be of a very distinc- tive character: 1. The white garments of the high- priest. 2. His entrance into the Holy of Holies. 3. The scape-goat. The writer of the Epistle to the He- brews (ix, 7-25) teaches us to apply the first two par- ticulars. The high-priest himself, with his person cleansed and dressed in white garments, was the best outward type which a living man could present in his own person of that pure and holy One who was to purify His people and to cleanse them from their sins. But respecting the meaning of the scape-goat we have no such light to guide us, and (as may be seen from the discussion under the word Azazel) the subject is one of great doubt and difficulty. Of those who take Azazel for the Evil Spirit, some have sup- posed that the goat was a sort of bribe or retaining fee for the accuser of men. Spencer, in supposing that it was given up with its load of sin to the ene- my to be tormented, made it a symbol of the punish- ment of the wicked ; while, according to the strange notion of Hengstenberg, that it was sent to mock the devil, it was significant of the freedom of those who had become reconciled to God. Some few of those who have held a different opinion on the word Azazel have supposed that the goat was taken into the wilder- ness to suffer there vicariously for the sins of the peo- ple. But it has been generally considered that it was dismissed to signify the carrying away of their sins, as it were, out of the sight of Jehovah. (In the similar ATRIUM 520 ATTALUS part of the rite for the purification of the leper [Lev. xiv, 6, 7], in which a live bird was set free, it must be evident that the bird signified the carrying away of the uncleanness of the sufferer in precisely the same manner.) If we keep in view that the two goats are spoken of as parts of one and the same sin-offering, and that every circumstance connected with them ap- pears to have been carefully arranged to bring them under the same conditions up to the time of the casting of tin' lots, we shall not have much difficulty in seeing that they form together but one symbolical expression. Why there were two individuals instead of one may be simply this— that a single material object could not, in its nature, symbolically embrace the whole of the truth which was to be expressed. This is implied in the reasoning of the author of the Epistle to the Hebrews on the office and sacrifice of Christ (Heb. ix). Hence some, regarding each goat as a type of Christ, sup- posed that the one which was slain represented his death, and that the goat set free signified his resurrec- tion (Cyril, Bochart, and others, quoted by Spencer). But we shall take a simpler, and perhaps a truer view, if we look upon the slain goat as setting forth the act of sacrifice, in giving up its own life for others " to Je- hovah," in accordance with the requirements of the divine law ; and the goat which carried off its load of sin "to an utter distance" as signifying the cleansing influence of faith in that sacrifice. Thus, in his degree, the devout Israelite might have felt the truth of the Psalmist's words, "As far as the east is from the west, so far hath he removed our transgressions from us." But for us the whole spiritual truth has been revealed in historical fact in the life, death, and resurrection of Him who was made sin for us, who died for us, and who rose again for our justification. This Mediator it was necessary should, " in some unspeakable manner, unite death and life" (Maurice, On Sacrifice, p. 85). Sec Journ. Sue. Lit. Jan. 1849, p. 74 sq. — Smith, s. v. IX. Literature. — Josephus, Ant. iii, 10, 3 ; the Talmud (Mishna, tract Yoma, ed. by Sheringham [Franeq. 1696, 17108], also with notes in Surenhusius, ii, 5), with the Jerus. Gemara thereupon ; Maimonides dl"1 WO" d — "Z-~ {Worship of the Day of Atonement) ; also in ( Irenii, Opusc. ad philol. sacr. spect. vii, G51 sq., 819 sq. ; ( rtbo, Lex, Rabb. p. 216 sq. ; Spencer, De li gibus Hebrcc- orum. Ritualibus, lib. iii, diss, viii; Lightfoot's Temple Service, c. xv; Buxtorf, Synagoga Judaica, cap. xs; Ugolini Thesaur. xviii ; see Eeland, Antiq. Sacr. iv, C; Carpzov, Appar. p. 433 sq. ; Moller, De ritlb.festi i vpiat. I Jen. 1689) ; Hochstetter, Defesto expiat, (Tub. 17o7 ) ; Hottinger, De ministerio did eorpiationis (Marb. 1708; Tur. 1754); Danz, in Menschen's Nov. Test. 'I'n1 in. y. 912; Balir, Symbol, ii, 664 sq. ; Langenberg, /v pontif. 'ni' expiationis die rieario (Griefsw. 1739); Michaelis, Num tip. dies sub templo secundo fuerit cele- bratus (Hal. 17.r>1); Danzere's two Dissert ationes de Functione Pontifieis Maximi in Adyto Anniversario ; Kraft, De mysterio !>'/! inaugurationum (Marb. 1749); Ci hn, Bedeutung mi'l Zwech des Versuhnungsfagrs (Lpz. 1862); Ewald, Die Alterthumer des Volhes Israel, p. 370 sq.; Hengstenberg, Egypt and the Books of Moses, on Lev. xvi (English translation); Thomson's Hampton /.■•fur,.-, let. iii, and notes. Sec Expiation. Atrium. In ancient churches, between the first porch, called the propylaum, or vestibulum magnum, and the church itself, was a lar^e area or square plot of ground, which the Latins called atrium or impluvi- H, : [sa. v. 27 ; and the phrase " to gird one's self" is tantamount to arming for battle, Isa. viii, 9 ; Psa. lxxvi, 11; 1 Mace, iii, 58; comp. Herod, viii, 120; Plutarch, Coriol. 9) and the inkstand (Ezek. ix, 2; comp. Shaw, p. 199; Schulz, Leit. v, 390); it also served as a purse (Matt, x, 9 ; Mark vi, 8 ; comp. 2 Sam. xviii, 11; Jamblich. Vit. Pythag. 27, p. 121; I.iv. xxxiii. 29; Suet. Vit. 16; Plaut. Pan. v, 2, 48 sq.; Juven. xiv, 297; Cell, xv, 12, 4; Niebuhr, Beschr. p. 64 ; Shaw, p. 199 ; see Rost, De vet. zona pecuniaria, Jen. 1681). The passing over one's gir- dle to another is among friends a mark of great confi- dence and intimate relation (1 Sam. xviii, 4 ; see Ro- senmiiller, Morgenl. iii, 103) ; when it occurs between (high) functionaries it is a symbol of installation into honor (Isa. xxii, 21 ; on Isa. iii, 24, see Gesenius, in loc. ; and in general see Credner, Joel, p. 142 sq.). — Winer, i, 448. See Girdle. 4. The turban, of which there were various kinds : Ancient Oriental Modes of Attire. 1. Egyptian — a. Royal. 6. Female, c. Sacerdotal. :'. Assyrian — a. King. e. l'riest. /. Sceptre-bearer (EunuchJ. ATTIRE 531 ATTIRE Modern < (riental Modes of Attire. Bedouin, b. Mamelook. c, Bethlehemite Women. (1.) Among the ancient Hebrews of either sex, coifs, formed of folds wound about (comp. "jSS 11530) the head, were in common use, but nothing distinct is given as to their shape. Their usual names are as follows: (a.) CpSX, tsaniph' ', which is applied to men (Job xxix, 14"), women (Tsa. iii, 23), and the high- priest (Zech. iii, 5); but which, according to all the passages, was a prominent distinctive costume. (6.) rKSJ1?, mitsne'pheth (Sept. Kidapig or pirpci), which occurs more frequently of the cap of the high-priest (Exod. xxviii, 4, 37, 39; xxix, 6; Lev. xvi, 4, etc.), and but once of the king (Ezek. xxi, 31). See High- priest, (c.) i"i;'35?3, migbaah', simply the bonnet of the ordinary priests (Exod. xxviii, 40; xxix, 9; Lev. viii, 13: see the description of Josephus, under the article Sacerdotal Order), (d.) ^X0, peer', which occurs of the head-dress of men (Isa. lxi, 3, 10; Ezek. xxiv, 17) and women (Isa. iii, 20), and some- times stands in connection with the foregoing term (1115355311 "nXD, Exod. xxxix, 28; comp. Ezek. xliv, 18). This was likewise a piece of special apparel. Schroeder (Vestit. Mill. p. 94 sq.) understands a high- towering turban. The iTI^SS, tsephirah' (Isa. xxviii, o), signifies a crown or diadem, and does not belong here (see Gesenius in loc.) ; on the other hand, Hart- maim (JHebraer. iii, 262) explains it of a chaplet of gorgeous flowers. See Crown. Among the modern Arabs and Persians there are very various kinds of turbans (some of them exceedingly costly), which are always wound out of a long piece of muslin (Arvieux, Voyage, iii, 243; Niebuhr, Reisen, i, 159, comp. pi. 14-23). Nevertheless, this species of head attire ap- pears not to have been customary in the ancient East. On the ruins of Persepolis are delineated sometimes caps ( flat and pointed), sometimes turbans, which were wholly wound out of strips of cloth, and ended in a point (Niebuhr, Reisen, ii, pi. 21, 22). The latter is the more probable form of the coiffure of the Hebrews. Ordinary Israelites, i. e. laborers, probably bound the hair about only with a cord or ribbon (Niebuhr, Besc.hr. p. 64; Reisen, i, 292; comp. the Persepolitan figures in vol. ii, pi. 22, fig. 9; pi. 23, fig. 5, G, 11), or wrapped a cloth around the head, as is yet customary in Arabia. The nets (r":;D) mentioned in the Tal- mud (Mishna, Chel. xxiv, 16) were not hoods (of women), but protectives for the eye-si^ht.. (2.) The tiaras of the Chaldaeans (Herod, i, 195) are called ETpSQU, tebulim' (Ezek. xxiii, 15), probably from their colored material ; they were, according to the monu- ments (Miinter, Rel, ATTIRE 532 ATTIRE pos. p. 213). Only at the paschal meal were the Is- raelites td keep their shoes on (Exod. xii, 11), in order to complete their equipment for travelling, since for a journey and on going out persons of course assumed their sandals (Acts xii, 8). It was customary in very early times, however, to walk barefoot (t]f£, I'm^H :":n, nudopedi ) in sacred spots, where the Deity was believed to have been disclosed (Exod. iii, 5; Acts vii, 33; Josh, v, 15); and, according to Jewish tradition (see Josephus, Ant. ii, 15, 1), which the O. T. by no means contradicts, the Jewish priests performed their sacred services unsandalled (comp. Ovid, Fast, vi, S:>7 : see Balduin, De calceo, p.'23 ; Dougtrci Analect. i, 57 sq. ; Spanheim ad Callim. Cerer. 325 ; Carpzov, De discalcatione in loco sacra, Lips. 1729 ; also in his Ap- parat. antiq. p. 769 sq. ; Walch, De religiosa veterum ari'-ocijrTia, Jen. 1756; also in his Dissert, ad Acta Ap. i; Wichtmannshausen, De c, but are easily induced to lay it aside, Niebuhr, Reisen, i, 184), and in general women of the lowest class constitute an exception to this uni- versal custom. These usages appear, on the whole, to have been prevalent among the Israelites (see Bucher, Antiquit. Hebr. et Grac. de rc/a/is f minis, Budiss. 1717 1, Bince we cannot suppose the privacy and re- straint of females to have been less than in modern Oriental Bociety [see Wife], although in patriarchal times a less strict etiquette would seem to have pre- vailed with regard to the use of the veil. Virgins (Gen. xxiv, 15 sq.) and even wives (Gen. xii, 11) of the old Hebrew nomads, especially in domestic em- ployments, appear to have gone unhesitatingly with- out a veil, as still in Arabia (Wellsted, i. 2 19) and Pal- estine! Russegger, iii, 109); but the betrothed covered herself in the presence of her bridegroom (Gen. xxiv. t;.", : comp. tin- phrase nvben viro), and to this ad of delicacy the apOStle appears to allude in ] (J0r. xi, 5 sq. Courtesans were known by their deep veiling (Gen. xxxviii, 15; comp. Petron. 16), and sought the more to decoy by this mark of modesty. That the veil was a principal article of female costume in the Israelitish republic appears from Isa. iii, 22; Cunt, v, 7; and ladies of rank may have worn several veils, one over the other, like the modern Oriental women (Buckingham, ii, 383). The various species of veils designated by the several Heb. terms having this gen- eral significance are but uncertainly indicated by the etymologies of the different words: (1.) b^'j, ra' ill (Isa. iii, 19), is thought (in accordance with its Arabic synonym ral) to be the large general covering thrown looseby around the head and temples, and hanging down in walking, yet so arranged about the eyes as to allow the female to see through the folds (see Jahn, pi. 9, fig. 10). In the Talmud (Mishna, Shabb. vi, 6) Arab women are designated (ri?h""') from this pecu- liarity of dress. (2.) T^, radio" (Isa. iii, 23 ; Cant, v, 7), may denote the thin covering that Oriental fe- males still wear over the entire clothing, and might have been earlier styled a mantle (see Jahn, pi. 8, fig. 12; comp. Schroder, Vestit. mulier. p. 368 sq.V (3.) A still different kind of veil, which is yet worn in Egypt (Niebuhr, Reisen, i, 166) and Syria (Arvieux, Voyage, iii, 247), covered the bosom, neck, and cheek as far as the nose, while the eyes were left free (see Jahn, pi. 10, fig. 1). This form is depicted on the Persepolitan ruins, and may also have been in com- mon use by the Hebrewesses. Yet this import cannot, on intrinsic grounds, be assigned to either of the words SpSX, tsa'iph' (Gen. xxiv, 65; xxxviii, 14, 19; Sept. S-fptarpo)'), or rt52^, tsammah' (Cant, iv, 1, 3 ; vi, 7 ; Isa. xlvii, 2) ; and whether this last means in general veil (Hartmann, Hebriierin. iii, 236 sq.) is doubtful (Ge- senius, Jesa. in loc. ; Rosenmiiller, Cant, in loc). — Wi- ner, ii, 416. See Veil. 7. The armlet, or band for the wrist (I^EX, tsamid', or n*!*1"^, tsamidah'}, was a very favorite ornament, not only of all ancient nations (Plin. xxxiii, 10, 12; xii, 42 ; vii, 29 ; Liv. x, 44 ; Suet. Ner. 30), but espe- cially of Orientals (so much so that gold and silver ones are forbidden in the Koran, xviii, 30; xxxv, 30; lxxvi, 21 ; on the forms of ancient Egyptian ones, see Wilkinson, iii, 374), being worn by men as well as women (Xenoph. Cyrop. i, 3, 2 ; Anab. i, 5, 8; Curt, viii, 9, 21; Petron. Sat. 32; comp. Bartholin, De ar- millis vet. Amst. 1676; Schroder, De Vestit. mul. p. 56 sq.). Among the Hebrew females it was general from the earliest times (Gen. xxiv, 22, 30, 47 ; comp. Isa. iii, 19; Ezek. xvi, 11 ; xxiii,42; Jud. x, 14), but among the men those of rank only appear to have worn it (2 Sam. i, 10; comp. Num. xxxi, 50; see Harmer, ii, 126 sq. ; Ker Porter, ii, pi. 60). They consisted either of rings (of ivory, precious metals, etc. ; among the poor probably likewise of horn, as in modern times, Harmer, iii, 3C8) or of cords and chains, T'~'£, she- roth' (Isa. iii, 19). They were worn on both arms or (more usually) on one arm (the right? Sirach, xxi, 23), and partly covered the wrist (Xenoph. Cyrop. vi, 4, 2); but (in Persia) they are often so broad as to reach to the elbows (com]). Niebuhr, Reisen, i, 164; Hartmann, IUbr. ii, 178 sq. ; Buckingham, Mesopot. p. 433). See Bracelet. Like the ear-rings, the arm- lets also generally served as amulets (Plin. xxviii, 47). —Winer, i, 88. See Talisman. 8. The anklet (&35, e'hes; comp. Tipiufvoiov. He- rod, iv, 1(1^, periscelis; also ir'iStj, Lucian, Lexiphan. 9), of metal, born, ivory, etc., was in ancient times, as still by Eastern ladies, extensively worn about the feet (Isa. iii, 18; see Michaelis, in Pott's Sylhge, ii, '.):); Niebuhr, Reisen, i, 161; Russell, Aleppo, ii, 130; Harmer, ii, 400 sq. ; Euppel, Abyss, i, 201; ii, 179; com].. Longi Pastor, i, 2; Aristamct. Kp. i, 19'. being indeed an Oriental fashion (Horace, Ep. i, 17, 56 ; Plin. ATTIRE 533 ATTIRE xxxiii, 54 ; comp. Jud. x, 4). They are generally so arranged that in walking a clapping or clinking is heard (Isa. iii, 16; comp. Koran, xxiv, 32; Tertull. Cult. fin. 7; Dougtaei Analect. i, 243; Arvieux, iii, 251; Shaw, p. 211), of which the wearer is greatly proud (comp. Eosenmuller, Morgenl. iv, 212), especial- ly among coquettish females (comp. Aristsenet. Ep. i, 4; Dougtsei Analect. i, 248). Sometimes small chains (m'nr^, tsearoth' ', Isa. iii, 20; Talm. D^SS, keba- Um") were fastened from one foot to the other, proba- bly in order to secure a short genteel step (Harmer, iii, 408 ; Itiippel, Abyss, ii, 53 ; comp. Clem. Alex. Pcedag. ii, 89; and the Gemara, in Shabb. vi, 4); ac- cording to the rabbins (see Surcnhusius's Mischna, ii, 25), perhaps to prove their maidenly innocence (Mi- chaelis, Mos. Recht. ii, 156 sq.). (See generally Schro- der, De Vestit. mul. c. i, § 3 ; Bynarns, De calceis Hebr. i, 8 ; Hartmann, Hebrderin. ii, 183 sq. ; iii, 217 sq. ; [P. Lyser] C. G. Blumberg, De d^03?, Lips. 1683 ; also in Hasan et Ikenii Nov. thes. i, 853 sq. ; also in Ugo- lini Thesaur. xxix). — Winer, i, 381. See Anklet. 9. The necklace, TW, rabid'', a still very favorite ornament in the East (Prov. i, 9; iii, 3; xxv, 12; Ezek. xvi, 11 ; Hos. ii, 13), which not only women (Cant, iv, 9 ; Xenoph. Cyrop. viii, 5, 18), but also (em- inent) men, even warriors, perhaps the last, however, among the Medes and Persians (Xenoph. Cyrop. i, 3, 2; ii, 4, 6; A nab. i, 5, 8; 8, 29; Curt, iii, 3, 13; Phi- Iostr. Apoll. ii, 1; Strabo, iv, 197; comp. Odyss. xv, 460 ; Adams, Rom. Antiq. ii, 198), as among the Belgic Gauls (Strabo, iv, 197), for we find no trace of this as an article of male attire among the Israelites (see SchefTer, De torquibus, Holm. 1658; c. notis a J. Nic- olai, Hamb. 1707). Necklaces were made sometimes of metal, at others of stones or pearls, which were strung upon a cord (D^Tlin, charuzim', Cant, i, 10; comp. Frahn, ad Ibn Foszlan. Petropol. 1823, p. 86 sq. ; the 0"1"nn, torim', Cant, i, 10, are probably not a neck- lace [Vulg. muranulce], but an ornament for the head, most likely strings of pearls entwisted in the hair or attached to the head-dress [q. v.] and flowing down, see Michaelis, in loc), and hung down to the breast, or even as far as the girdle (Jerome ad Ezech. xvii, 11 ; Arvieux, iii, 253). Persons of rank perhaps wore sev- eral such. Other articles of finery were also at times attached to them, such as (1.) d^3"lilJB, sahnronim' ', ha-'f-moons or crescents, Isa. iii, 18 (Sept. pipnoicoi ; comp. lunula, Plaut. lipid, v, i, 34 ; see Tertull. Cidt. fern, ii, 10; called in Arabic ahalat); comp. Judg. viii, 21 (where similar trinkets appear as ornaments for camels' necks); (2.) Smelling-bottles, "CJS.3 "'OS, bottey' ne'phesh (lit. houses of the soul), Isa. iii, 20 (comp. Le Bruyn, Voyage, i, 217 ; Chardin, iii, 72) ; (3.) perhaps little stellated studs, d^CTd-:;, shebisim/, Isa. iii. 18 ; and (4.) serpents, d^lUtT?, lechashim' ', Isa. iii, 20, probably as amulets (q. v.) ; but see Gesenius, Comm. ::. Jesa. i, 209, 211. Ladies may also have worn rings (collars) of metal around the neck (see Nie- buhr, Reisen, i, 164; comp. Virg. .En. v, 559). Among the Persians kings used to invest men with a neck- lace (7t",?'pn, hamnik' ', which, however, may mean armlet) as a mark of favor (Dan. v, 7 ; xvi, 29 ; comp. Xenoph. Anab. i, 2, 27; Cyrop. viii, 5, 18); and it ap- pears that a higher rank was associated with this dis- tinction (Dan. v, 7). In Egypt the prime minister of state was adorned with a (state) necklace (Gen. xli, 42) ; the chief-justice also wore a golden chain, with the symbol of truth attached (Diod. Sic. i, 48 ; comp. Hengstenberg, Moses, p. 29 sq.). (See generally Schroder, Vestit. mulier. p. 130 sq. ; Hartmann, Heb- raerin. ii, 172 sq., 259 sq. ; iii, 208, 267 sq.)— Winer, i, 450. See Necklace. 10. Ear-rings were universal in the East with wom- en (Exod. xxxii, 2; Ezek. xvi, 12; Jud. x, 4) and children of both sexes (Exod. xxxii, 2 ; comp. Buck- ingham, Trav. p. 241, 342). Travellers have found them sometimes small and closely fitting the ear, some- times very large and heavy (Mandelslo, Reisen, p. 21 ; in North Africa as thick as a good-sized pipe-stem, Host, Morocco, p. 119), four fingers' breadth in diam- eter ; they so enlarge the hole through the lobe of the ear that it is said one can pass two fingers through it (Harmer, Obs. iii, 314). Luxury has carried the fash- ion to such a pitch that women puncture as many ap- ertures in the ear-lobe as possible, and hang a ring through each (Arvieux, iii, 25) ; Wellsted {Travels, i, 224) counted sometimes fifteen in a single ear, and Eussegger (II, ii, 180) speaks of even twenty. The ancient Hebrews designated this ornament by the terms fit 3, ne'zem (e. g. Gen. xxxv, 4, "HOIK C"1*^"? ti"r.3TX2, the rings that were in their ears), and 5"1V, agil (Ezek. xvi, 2), which almost everywhere also signify ring or hoop. See Eing. Besides proper rings (of horn, bone, or metal), persons also wore oth- er trinkets in the ear, which were called, for exam- ple, (1.) mSvJ3, netiphoth' ', little drops (Judg. viii, 26 ; Isa. iii, 19), i. e. ear pendants with tiny bells, name- ly pearls (Gr. ordXaypa, Lat. stalagmium, Plaut. Mi n. iii, 18) ; (2.) tOlB, kumaz' , on the other hand, is prob- ably not an ear-ring, but necklace or amulet (see Ge- senius, Thes. Heb. p. 692) ; (3.) for a peculiar kind of Jewish ear-ring, see the Mishna (Chelim, xi, 9; ac- cording to the Mishna, Shabb. vi, 6, the girls first drew a cord through the ear after piercing, until it was heal- ed). Whether men among the Jews made use of ear ornaments is uncertain ; Pliny (xi, 50) asserts the cus- tom of Orientals without distinction, and other writers state the usage in the case of men with respect to sev- eral Eastern nations more or less positively and relia- bly: e. g. the inhabitants along the Euphrates (Juven. i, 104), the Lydians (Xenoph. Anab. iii, 1, 31), the Lib- yans (Macrob. Sat. vii, 3), the Arabians (Petron. Sat. 102), the Carthaginians (Plaut. Pan. v, 2, 21), the In- dians (Curt, ix, 1, 30), the Parthians (Tertull. Cult, fern, x), the Assyrians (Asiatic Journ. 1843, No. 8, pi. xvii), and probably others (see Bochart, Hieroz. i, 342). The modern Arabs likewise certainly wear ear-rings (Niebuhr, Beschr. p. 65; Reisen, p. 164 sq,), as an- ciently the Midianites (Judg. viii, 24). Among the Greeks onlv children wore rings, and that but in the right ear (Isid. Grig, xix, 31, 10; Appul. Habit, i, 160, ed. Bip. ; yet see Dio Chrys. xxxii, 361 [or 654 ed. Reiske]) ; among the Eomans the women had reached the highest pitch of luxury in ear-rings, wearing gold, jewels, and the most costly pearls in their ears, not singly, but in pairs and triple (Seneca, Benef. vii, 9 ; 17/. In-lit. 17; Pliny, ix, 56). Nevertheless, Exod. xxxii, 2, appears indirectly to forbid the supposition that they were at that time worn by male Israelites; and we may ass.ume from the Mishna (Shabb. vi, 6) that among the later Jews even children did not usual- ly have these ornaments. It remains to notice that in early times ear-rings were employed as charms ^Gen. xxxv, 4; comp. Jonathan's Targ. in loc; see Mai- monid. Tdolol. vii, 10; Augustine, Ep. 73); and Eich- horn (Einleit. ins X. T. i, 524) would introduce iheir mention into Matt, vii, 6, as the rendering (for "pearls") of the original Aramaean Gospel. See Am- ulet. On the boring the ear of a slave (Deut. xv, 17), see Servant. (See generally Schroder, Vestit. mul. p. 187 sq. ; Hartmann, Hebraerin. ii, 163 sq. ; Bartho- lin, De inaurib. vet. syntagma, Amstel. 1676; Rathge- ber, in the Hall. Encyclop. Ill, ii, 333 sq.) — Winer, ii. 173. See Ear-ring. 11. The nose-ring (in general faM, ne'zem,, comp. Prov. xi, 22 ; Ezek. xvi, 12 ; more definitely dXH DM, ne'zem ha-aph, jewel of the nose, Isa. iii, 21; probably also nr:, chach, Exod. xxxv, 22), a very favorite adornment among Oriental females from the earliest ATTITUDE 534 ATTITUDE times (Gem xxiv, 22, 47; comp. Mishna, Shalb. vi, 1, where it appears that the Jewesses wore no nose-rings on the Sabbath, but ear-rings only). Eastern women to this day wear in the perforated extremity of the car- tilage of the left (Chardin, in Harmer, iii, 310 sq.) or right nostril (see the fig. in Hartmann, Hebrderin. pi. 2), or even in the middle partition of the nose (Mariti, p. 216), a ring of ivory or metal (doubtless often deco- rated with jewels) of two or three inches diameter, which hangs down over the mouth, and through which the men are fond of applying their kiss (Arvieux, iii, 252; see Tavernier, i, 92; Shaw, p. 211; Niebuhr, Beschr. p. 65; Joliffe, p. 35; Eiippel, Arab. p. 203; comp. Hartmann, Hebrderin. ii, 1C6 sq., 292; Bartho- lin, J)ij annulis narium, in his treatise Be morbis Bibl. c. 19; also in his work De inauribus vet. Amstel. 1767). Even among the aborigines of America this ornament has been found. Occasionally men also in the East affect the use of the nose-ring (Russegger, II, ii, 180). But whether it was derived from the practice of treat- ing animals thus (as Hartmann thinks) is not clear; for the female love of decoration might naturally in- troduce nose-rings as well as ear-rings, since the nose and the ears are such conspicuous parts of the person as readily to lead to a desire to set them off by artifi- cial finery. — Wild beasts were led (as still bears and buffaloes are) by a ring through the nose, as the easi- est mode of subduing and holding them ; the same is sometimes done with large fishes that have been caught and again placed in the water (comp. Bruce, ii, 314). Such a ring is likewise called Pin, ckach, or Hit"!, cho'- ach (Job xl, 26 [21] ; comp. 2 Kings xix, 28 ; Isa. xxxvii, 29 ; Ezek. xix, 4 ; xxix, 4 ; xxxviii, 2), by the Arabs Chizdm. — Winer, ii, 137. See Nose-jeavel. Attitude. From the numerous allusions in Scrip- ture to postures expressive of adoration, supplication, and respect, we learn enough to perceive that the usages of the Hebrews in this respect were very near- ly, if not altogether, the same as those which are still practised in the East, and which the paintings and sculptures of Egypt show to have been of old em- ployed in that country. See Salutation. I. Adoration and Homage. — The Moslems in their prayers throw themselves successively, and ac- cording to an established routine, into the various pos- tures {nine in number) which they deem the most ap- propriate to the several parts of the service. For the sake of reference and comparison, we have introduced them all at the head of this article ; as we have no doubt that the Hebrews employed on one occasion or another nearly all the various postures which the Moslems exhibit on one occasion. This is the chief difference. (See Lane's Arabian Xights, passim ; Mod. Egyptians, i, 105 sq. ; Thomson's Land and Book, i, 26.) In public and common worship the Hebrews prayed standing (1 Kings viii, 54; Ezra ix, 5; Dan. vi, 10; 2 Chron. vi, 13); but in their separate and Mohammedan Postures of Worship. private acts of worship they assumed the position which, according to their modes of doing homage or showing respect, .seemed to them the most suitable to their present feelings or objects. It would appeal-, however, that some form of kneeling was most usual in private devotions. See Adoration. 1. Standing in public prayer is still the practice of the Jews. This posture was adopted from the syna- gogue by the primitive Christians, and is still main- tained by the Oriental Churches. This appears, from their monuments, to have been the custom also among the ancient Persians and Egyptians, although the lat- ter certainly sometimes knelt before their gods. In the Moslem worship, four of the nine positions (1, 2, 4, 8) are standing ones ; and that posture which is re- peated in three out of these four (2, 4, 8) maybe point- ed out as the proper Oriental posture of reverential standing, with folded bands. It is the posture in which people stand before kings and great men. While in this attitude of worship, the hands were sometimes stretched forth toward heaven in supplica- tion or invocation (1 Kings viii, 22 ; 2 Chron. vi, 12, 29; Isa. i, 15). This was perhaps not so much the conventional posture (1) in the Moslem series, as the itural posture of standing adoration with out- spread hands, which we observe on the Egyptian mon- Ancient I !gj ptiane Pray ight) only uments. The uplifting of one hand (the in taking an oath was so common, that to say " I have lifted up my hand" was equivalent to " I have sworn" (Gen. xiv, 22; comp. xli, 44 ; Deut. xxxii,40). This posture was also com- mon among other an- cient nations ; and we find examples of it in Ancient Persian and Roman Pray- the sculptures of Per- inS standing, sia (fig. 1) and Rome (fig. 2, above). 2. Kneeling is very often described as a posture of worship (1 Kings viii, 54 ; Ezra ix, 5 ; Dan. vi, 10 ; 2 Chron. vi, 13; comp. 1 Kings xix, 18; Luke xxii, 41 ; Acts vii, 60). This is still an Oriental custom, and three forms of it occur (54 6, 9) in the Moslem devo- tions. It was also in use, although not very frequent, among the ancient Egyptians ; who likewise, as well as the Hebrews (Exod. xxxiv, 18 ; 2 Chron. xxix, 29 ; Isa. i, 15), sometimes prostrated themselves upon the ground. The usual mode of prostration among the Ancient Egyptian kneeling in Prayer. ATTITUDE 535 ATTITUDE Mo.lern Oriental lYu.-trutiuii. Hebrews by which thej' expressed the most intense humiliation was by bringing not only the body, but the head to the ground. The ordinary mode of prostration at the pres- ent time, and proba- - E$35-e== bly anciently, is that shown in one of the postures of Moslem worship (5), in which the body is not thrown flat upon the ground, but rests upon the arms, knees, and head. In order to express devotion, sorrow, compunction, or humiliation, the Israelites threw dust upon their heads (Josh, vii, 0; Job ii, 12 ; Lam. ii, 10 ; Ezek. xxiv, 7 ; Rev. xviii, 10), as was done also by the ancient Egyptians, and is still done by the modern Orientals. Under similar circumstances it was usual to smite the breast (Luke xviii, 13). This was also a practice among the Egyp- tians (Herod, ii, 85), and the monuments at Thebes Ancient lVyptians Smiting the Breast. exhibit persons engaged in this act while they kneel upon one knee. 3. In 1 Chron. xvii, 16, we are told that "David the king came and sat before the Lord," and in that posture gave utterance to eloquent prayer, or rather thanksgiving, which the sequel of the chapter contains. Those unacquainted with Eastern manners are sur- prised at this. But there is a mode of sitting in the East which is highly respectful and even reverential. It is that which occurs in the Moslem forms of wor- ship (9). The person first kneels, and then sits back upon his heels. Attention is also paid to the position of the hands, which they cross, fold, or hide in the oppo- site sleeves. The variety of this for- mal sitting which the annexed figure represents is highly respectful. Th prophet Elijah must have been in this or some other similar posture when he inclined himself so much forward in prayer that his head almost touched his knees (1 Kings xviii, 42). See Site. II. Supplication, when addressed externally to man, cannot possibly be exhibited in any other forms than those which are used in supplication to God. Uplifted hands, kneeling, prostration, are common to both. On the Egyptian monuments suppliant cap- tives, of different nations, are represented as kneeling or standing with outspread hands. This also occurs iv, 37 ; Esth. viii, 3 ; Matt, xviii, 29 ; xxviii, 9 ; Marl- v, 22 ; Luke viii, 41 ; John xi, 32 ; Acts x, 25). In the instance last referred to, where Cornelius threw himself at the feet of Peter, it may be asked why the apostle forbade an act which was not unusual among his own people, alleging as the reason, " I myself also am a man." The answer is that, among the Romans, prostration was exclusively an act of adoration, render- ed only to the gods, and therefore it had in him a sig- nificance which it would not have had in an Oriental (Kuinoel, ad Act. x, 26). This custom is still very general among the Orientals ; but, as an act of rev- erence merely, it is seldom shown except to kings ; as expressive of alarm or supplication, it is more frequent (Hackett's I/lustra, of Script, p. 109). 2. Sometimes in this posture, or with the knees bent as before indicated, the Orientals bring their forehead to the ground, and before resuming an erect position either kiss the earth, or the feet, or border of the gar- ment of the king or prince before whom they are al- Ancient Egyptian Suppliants. in the sculptures of ancient Persia (Persepolis). The first of the accompanying figures is of peculiar interest, as representing an inhabitant of Lebanon. 1. Prostration, or falling at the feet of a person, is often mentioned in Scripture as an act of supplication or of reverence, or of both (1 Sam. xxv, 24 ; 2 Kings Oriental Kissing the Feet. lowed to appear. There is no doubt that a similar practice existed among the Jews, especially when we refer to the original words which describe the acts and attitudes of salutation, as HS'n&fl ^53, to bend doicn to the earth, HlpX iTIrTO'Ori, to fall prostrate on the earth, ns^N C^EN; 2^3, to fall with the face to the earth, and connect them with allusions to the act of kissing the feet or the hem of the garment (Matt, ix, 20 ; Luke vii, 38, 45). 3. Kissing the hand of another as a mark of affection- ate respect we do not remember as distinctly mention- ed in Scripture. But as the Jews had the other forms of Oriental salutation, we may conclude that they had this also, although it does not happen to have been specially noticed. It is observed by servants or pupils to masters, by the wife to her husband, and by chil- dren to their father, and sometimes their mother. It is also an act of homage paid to the aged bj the young, or to learned and religious men by the less instructed Oriental Kissing the II or less devout. Kissing one's own hand is mentioned as early as the time of Job (xxxi, 27), as an act of homage to the heavenly bodies. It was properly a salutation, and as such an act of adoration to them. The Romans in like manner kissed their hands as they passed the temples or statues of their gods. See A\u oration. It appears from 1 Sam. x, 1 ; 1 Kings xix, 18; Psa. ii, 12, that there was a peculiar kiss of horn* age, the character of which is not indicated. It was probably that kiss upon the forehead expressive of high respect which was formerly, if not now, in use among the Bedouins (Antar, ii, 119). See Kiss. III. Bowing. — In the Scriptures there are different ATTO 536 AUBERLEN words descriptive of various postures of respectful bowing: as Tip, to incline or bow down the head; 2H3, to bend down tin- bad// very low ; 7p2, to bend the knee, also to bless. These terms indicate a conformity with the existing usages of the East, in which the modes of bowing are equally diversified, and, in all likelihood, the same, 'these are, 1, touching the lips i 2 Modern Orientals IJowing. (is this the kissing of the hand noticed above ?) and the forehead with the right hand, with or without an inclination of the head or of the body, and with or without previously touching the ground ; 2, placing the right hand upon the breast, with or without an in- clination of the head or of the body; 3, bending the body very low, with folded arms ; 4, bending the body and resting the hands on the knees : this is one of the postures of prayer, and is indicative of the highest respect in the presence of kings and princes. In the Egyptian paintings we see persons drop their arms toward the ground while bowing to a superior, or standing respectfully with the right hand resting on the left shoulder. See Bowing. Ancient Egyptians Bowing. It is observable that, as before noticed, the word "p2, barak, means to bless and to bend the knee, which suggests the idea that it was usual for a person to re- ceive a blessing in a kneeling posture. We know also that the person who gave the blessing laid his hands upon the head of the person blessed (Gen. xlviii, ! 1). This is exactly the case at the present day in the East, and a picture of the existing custom would furnish a perfect illustration of the patriarchal form of blessing. — Kitto, s. v. < Mental Blessing of one knei ling. I V For the attitude at meals, see Accubation. Atto. See IIatto. Attributes of God. See God. Attrition, in the Romish theology, means imper- fect contrition. See Contrition. The term was in- troduced by the schoolmen in the twelfth century, to make a distinction between a perfect and an imperfect st they had brought penance into the number of the sacraments. By contrition they mean a thorough or complete repentance (contritio 'cordis), the spirit being crushed under a Bense of sin ; by attri- tion, they mean an inferior degree of sorrow, such as may arise from a consideration of the turpitude of sin or from the fear of hell (timor senilis). Alexander of Hales distinguishes as follows (p. 4, qu. 74, membr. 1) : Timor servilis principium est attritionis, timor ini- tialis (i. e. that with which the life of sanctification begins) principium est contritionis. . . . Item contritio est a gratia gratum faciente, attritio a gratia gratis data, fjomp. Thoni. Aquinas, qu. 1, art. 2 ; Bonaven- tura, in lib. iv, dist. 17, p. 1, art. 2, qu. 3 (Hagenbach, Hist, of Doctrines, § 198). This distinction is main- tained by the Council of Trent as follows : " Imperfect contrition, which is called attrition, commonly aris- ing from a consideration of the turpitude of sin and a fear of hell and punishment, the intention of contin- uing in sin with the hope of receiving pardon at last being disavowed, not only does not make a man a hyp- ocrite and a greater sinner, but is really a gift of God and an impulse of the Holy Spirit ; not that the Spirit does as yet dwell in the soul, but merely excites the penitent, who, thus aided, prepares his way to right- eousness. And although it cannot of itself conduct the sinner to justification without the sacrament of pen- ance, yet it disposes him to seek the grace of God in the sacrifice of penance" (Sess. xiv, c. iv). To Prot- estant eyes, attrition seems to have been devised to make a way of salvation easier than contrition. If attrition, with penance and priestly absolution, avail before God unto justification, then imperfect repent- ance, arising from fear, is all the repentance neces- sary in practice to a sinner, whatever the theory may be. So Dens : " Imperfect contrition is required, and it is sufficient ; perfect contrition, though best, is not absolutely required, because this last justifies without the sacrament" (Theologia, t. vi, no. 51). This is one of the worst features of the Romish theology. "A belief in sacerdotal power to procure acceptance for those who merely feel a servile fear of divine wrath is one of those things that require to be plucked up by the roots," if human society, in Roman Catholic coun- tries, is to be preserved pure. The better class of di- vines in that church seek to palliate this doctrine ; they would do better to conspire for its subversion. — Elliott, Delineation of Romanism, bk. ii, c. x ; Bergier, Diet, de Theologie, i, 210 ; Perrone, Predict. Theologicw, ii, 337 ; Gibson, Preservative against Popery, ii, 3G (fol. ed.) ; Soames, Latin Church, p. 98 ; Ferraris, Prorata Bibliotheca, s. v. Baptismus. Attud. See Goat. Atwater, Jeremiah, D.D., a Congregational min- ister, was born at New Haven in 1 774 ; graduated at Yale College in 1793 ; was tutor in that college from 1795 to 1799 ; president of Middlebury College from 1800 to 1809 ; and president, of Dickinson College, Car- lisle, from 1810 to 1818. From that period he lived in retirement until his death, July 29th, 1858. Dr. At- water was a man of great reading, and of a retentive memory, especially of historical events, and the lives and characters of men he had known, but he bad no fondness for writing, and has left, it is believed, but few literary remains. — Am. Cong. Year-book (vol. vi, 1859, p. 118). Auberlen, Karl August, an eminent German theologian, was born November 19, 1824, at Fellbach, near Stuttgardt. He studied four years, from 1837, at Blaubeuern, and in 1841 entered the University of Tu- bingen as theological student. F. C. Baur (q. v.) was then at the height of his glorj', and Auberlen for a time was carried away by this brilliant Rationalist; a discipline which probably helped to fit him for his later work in resisting the destructive school of theo- logians. The lectures of Schmid and Beck (wdio came to Tubingen in 1843) helped to save him from the abyss of Pantheism. He had hardly taken his doctor's degree when he published Die Theosophi Oetinger's, ein lii-itrag .:. Dogmingeschichte, etc. (Tubingen, 1847, 8vo), showing the higher sphere into which his studies AUBERTIN 537 AUDIN had ascended. See Oetixger. lie had previously (1845) become a pastor; and in 1848 he followed Hof- acker (q. v.) in that office. In 1849 he became rep- etent at Tubingen, and in 1851 professor extraordinaiy at Basel. In the same year he married the daughter of Wolfgang Menzel. From this time his labors as teacher, preacher, and author were most abundant and successful to the time of his death. He published in 1855 Zehn Predigten (Basel, 8vo) ; Der Prophet Daniel und die Offenbarung Jukannis (Basel, 185-4, 2d ed. 1857; translated into both French and English), a work which contributed greatly to the revival of sound Biblical theology in Germany ; Zehn Vortrage zur Veranttcortung des Christlichen Glaubens (Basel, 1861, 8vo); Die Gbtt- liehe Offenbarung, ein apologet. Versuch (vol. i, 1861; vol. ii, posthumous, 1864). In part one he undertakes to show "that, even if we accept only those New Tes- tament Scriptures which the most destructive of the Tubingen critics grant to be genuine, to wit, the Epis- tles to the Galatians, Corinthians, and Romans, a strictly scientific and logical method of interpretation forces us to the inevitable conclusion that the extra- ordinary gifts of the apostolic church, the miracles of the apostles, the resurrection of Christ, his manifesta- tion of himself to Saul on the way to Damascus, as also his continued intercourse with him, are facts. In the gospels he asks but one concession, to wit, the historical genuineness of Christ's testimony respecting himself when on trial (and this is granted by Baur, Strauss, etc.), in order to put all deniers of the divini- ty of Christ in a very disagreeable predicament. In the same regressive way he goes back to the Old Tes- tament, and by a sure induction mounts from the patent and undeniable fact-phenomena of the Old Dispensa- tion to a supernatural and divine factor in the whole history. The result of this part of the discussion is this: 'Were the revelations of God, the miracles, not facts, then has the inmost consciousness of all the holy men of old — that is to say, of the noblest and mightiest spirits, the real pillars of human history — reposed upon illusion and mental derangement. The world is either a Bedlam, an insane asylum, or it is a temple, a place of divine epiphanies.' The second, or historical part, is a succinct history of the long struggle in Germany between rationalism and supranaturalism." A trans- lation of part of vol. i, by Professor Flackett, is given in Bibliotheca Sacra, July, 1865. His career was prem- aturely cut short by consumption, May 2, 1864. In the last hour he said, in the fulness of Christian faith, ' ' God be thanked, of death I have no fear ; the Lord Jesus is my light and my song" (sketch of his life in preface to 2d vol. of Die Giitil. Offenbarung). — Herzog, Real-Encyldopiidie, Supplem. i, 793 ; Bibliotheca Scl- era, 1*G5J p. 395, 517. Aubertin, Edmund, one of the most learned di- vines of the French Protestant Church, was born at Chalons-sur-Marne in 1596, and became minister at Chartres in 1618. He was called to Paris in 1631. and died there April 5th, 1652. He wrote Conformite de la Creance de Veglise et de St. Augustine sur le Sacrement de VEucharistie (1626, 8vo), which attracted great atten- tion, and was afterward enlarged into U Eucharistie de Vancienne ('glise, etc. (1633, fol.). This work awakened great attention and controversy. Arnauld answered it, but ineffectively. It was translated into Latin by Blonde], De Eucharistia sire canm Domini li.bri tres (De- venter, 1654). — Haag, La France Protestante, i, 149. Aubigne, Theodore -Agrippa d' , a French writer and historian, born the 8th of February, 1550, at Saint-Maury en Saintonge. He showed at a very early age signs of what he was afterward to become. At six years of age he studied Latin, Greek, and He- brew ; at ten he translated the Crito of Plato, on his father's promise to print it with his portrait. A year after, his father, who was a zealous Protestant, made him swear (upon the scaffold on which some Protest- ants were executed) eternal hatred to Rome. lie kept the vow. At fifteen he was a student at Geneva un- der Beza, but soon quit his studies to serve in the army under the Prince de Condo and the King of Na- varre. He soon rose to the first rank of Protestant warriors, and did not lay down his sword till Henry IV was established on the throne. He served his king only too faithfully, and by his plain rebukes often brought down upon his head the wrath of the monarch. After the death of Henry he published I'Eistoire univer- selle de son temps de 1550 a 1601 (Paris and Amsterdam, 1616-26, 3 vols. fol.). The book was condemned to be burnt by the Parliament, and the author took refuge at Geneva, where he died the 29th of April, 1630. He was a species of Admirable Crichton, combining the statesman's skill, the warrior's intrepidity, the schol- ar's learning, and the poet's genius with all the ster- ling virtues of the Christian. His daughter became afterward the mother of Madame de Maintenon, who inherited many of the qualities of her ancestor, but not his religion. A new Life of D'Aubigne, from a MS. found in the library of the Louvre in 1851, was pub- lished in 1854 by M. Lalanne (Paris, 8vo), who also published reprints of the minor writings of D'Aubigne (Les Tragiques?18b7 ; Aventures da Fanesie, edited by Merimee, with a sketch of D'Aubigne, 1855). — Haag, La France Protestante, s. v. ; Herzog, Eecd-Encyhlopa- die, Suppl. p. 117 ; Hoefer, Nouv. Biog. Generale, iii, 576. Aucher, Pascal, an Armenian monk, born 1771 in Armenia, died 1854. He was, while yet very young, sent, together with his elder brother, J. B. Aucher (born 1760, died 1853), to the Armenian convent of San Lazaro at Venice, where they were educated, and subsequently joined the order of Mechitarists. Both deserved well of the theological literature of Armenia by publishing a number of important works of ancient Armenian literature (e. g. the Chrnncles of Eusebius, the Discourses of Philo, etc.). Paschal Aucher also published an Armenian-English Dictionary (2 vols. Venice, 1821). Audaeans, Audeans, or Audians, followers of Audasus or Audius (A.D. 340 or 350), a native of Syria, who boldly castigated the luxury and vice of the cler- gy, and who finally left the church. He and his fol- lowers afterward deviated from the usages of the church, especially on the date of Easter. He was charged with anthropomorphism. He had himself ir- regularly consecrated as bishop ; was banished to Scythia, and died before 372. His personal character was remarkably pure. The sect died out in the fifth century. See Schroder, De Audeo ,/ them to n.-me in.1 This interpretation by a church father s<> profoundly re- i, in all following centuries, the source of incalculable mischief. It is one of the principal with which ecclesiastical and royal despots iiy the murder of millions on tie- charge of heresy. Even men like Bossuet were induced, by the weight of Augustine's authority, to • compulsory measures against heretics" (Ne- ander. Church History, iii, 197 217; Flottes, Eludes sur Saint Augustin, Pari-, 1862). St. Augustine;, works have been printed in a col- lected form repeatedly : at Paris, in 10 vols, folio, 1532; by Erasmus, from Frobenius's press, 10 vols, folio, 1540-13; by the divines of Louvain, 10 vols, folio, Lugd. 158G ; and by the Benedictines of the con- gregation of St. Maur, 10 vols, folio, Paris, 1679-1700, 12 vols, folio, 1C88-1703, and 12 vols, folio, Antwerp, 1700-1703; reprinted, Paris, 183G-39, 11 vols. 4to. The latest edition (not the best) is that of the Bene- dictines, edited by Migne (Paris, 1842, 15 vols. imp. 8vo). A review of his literary activity is given by Busch, Librarian August ni recensus (Dorpat. 1826). Of his separate works many editions have been pub- lished. The Benedictine edition gives a copious Life of Augustine; and the 13th vol. of Tillemont's Mi- moires pour servlr it V Histoire EccUsiastique is a 4to of 1075 pages devoted entirely to his biography. Dupin (Eccles. Writers') gives a copious and minute analysis of all of Augustine's works. English versions of the Confessions, and of the Expositions of the Gospels and Psalms, may be found in the Library if the Fathers (Oxf. 1839-1855). A translation of the Confessions, with an introduction by Prof. Shedd, has also been published at Andover (18G0). M. Poujoulat, the au- ! thor of a Life of St. Augustine and numerous other ! works, has commenced (18G4), in connection with abbe Eaulx, a translation of the complete works of St. Au- gustine. The translators claim that this is the first complete French translation of the great church fa- ther. The work will be completed in twelve vol- umes (Saint Anr/iistiii; (Fuvres Completes). Recent editions of the De Cicitate Dei have been published by Bruder (Leipsic, 1838) and Strange (Cologne, 1850); of the Confessiones, by Bruder (Leipsic, 1837), Pusey (Oxford, 1838), Raumer (Stuttgardt, 1856); of the ; Meditaliones, by Sintzel (Sulzbach, 1844) and 'West- hoff(Miinster, 1854). German translations of the Con- I fessions have been published by Bapp (3d edit. Stutt- gardt, 1856), Groninger (4th edit. Minister, 1859), and i by several anonymous translators (Passau, 6th edit. 1856 ; Ratisbon, 1853 ; Reutlingen, 1858) ; and of the ! City of God, by Silbert (1825, 2 vols.)— Neandcr, Ch. Jlist. ii, 354, 5G4 ; Hist, of Dogmas, vol. i, passim ; Mozley, Augustinian Doctrine of Predestination (Lond. 1850);' Mosheim, Ch. Hist, i, 110, 156; Wiggers, His- tory of A ugustiniauism and Pidagianism (vol. i trans, by Emerson, And. 1840, 8vo); Schaff, Life and Labors of Augustine (X. Y. 1854, 12mo) ; Bohringer, Kircheng. in Biographien, I, pt. iii, 99 sq. ; Kloth, Dcr heil. Kir- \ chenlehrer Augustinus (Aachen, 1840) ; Bindemann, Der heil. Augustinus (Berlin, 1844); Poujoulat, Histoire de St.Augustin (Paris, 1844, 3 vols.); Shedd, History if Doctrines, bk. iv; Am. Bib. Repos. v, 195; Meth. (>u. Rev. 1857, 352 sq. ; Princeton Rev. July, 18G2, art. iii ; Watson, Dictionary, s. v. ; Hook, Eccles. Bioff. vol. i ; Taylor, Ancient Christianity, 5, 231; Jahrb.f dcutsche 1 Theolog'e, 1862; Church Review, July, 1863, 31G. Augustine (or Austin), first archbishop of Can- terbury, was a monk of the Benedictine monastery of St. Andrew, at Pome, and was sent by Pope Gregory, who had been prior of that convent, soon after his ac- cession to the papal throne, as a missionary into Eng- land, together with forty companions, also Benedic- tines, A.D. 596 (Bede, Hist. Eccl. i, 23)- Augustine and his company became discouraged, and Augus- tine was dispatched back to Borne to obtain the pope's leave for their return ; but Gregory disregarded his remonstrances, ami, providing him with new letters of protection, commanded him to proceed. Augus- tine and his companions landed late in 59(i in the isle of Thanet, whence they sent messengers to Eth- elbert, king of Kent, to inform him of the object of their mission. Ethelbert's queen, Bertha, daughter of Cherebert, king of the Parisii, was a Christian, and by the articles of her marriage (as early as 570) had the free exercise of her religion allowed her. Eth- elbert ordered the missionaries at first to continue in the isle of Thanet, but some time after came to them AUGUSTINIAN MONKS 545 AUGUSTINIAN MONKS and invited them to an audience in the open air. Al- though he refused at first to abandon the gods of his fathers, he allowed them to preach without molesta- tion, and assigned them a residence in Canterbury, then called Dorobernia, which they entered in proces- sion, singing hymns. After the conversion and bap- tism of the king himself, they received license to preach in any part of his dominions, which Bede as- sures us (c. 25) extended (probably over tributary kingdoms) as far as the river Ilumber, and proselytes were now made in remarkable numbers. In 597, Au- gustine, by direction of Pope Gregory, went over to Aries, in France, where he was consecrated archbish- op, and metropolitan of the English nation, by the archbishop of that place; after which, returning into Britain, he sent Lawrence, the presbyter, and Peter, the monk, to Rome, to acquaint the pope with the suc- cess of his mission, and to desire his solution of certain questions respecting church discipline, the mainte- nance of the clergy, etc. which Bede (1. i, c. 27) has reported at length in the form of interrogatories and answers. Gregory sent over more missionaries, and directed him to constitute a bishop at York, who might have other subordinate bishops, yet in such a manner that Augustine of Canterbury should be metropolitan of all England. Augustine now made an attempt to establish uniformity of discipline in the island, and, as a necessary step, to gain over the Welsh bishops to bis opinion. For this purpose a conference was held in Worcestershire, at a place since called Augustine's Oak, where the archbishop endeavored to persuade the prelates to make one communion, and assist in preaching to the unconverted Saxons ; but neither this, nor a second conference, in which he threatened divine vengeance in case of non-obedience, was suc- cessful. After Augustine's death, Ethelfrid, king of Northumberland, marched with an army to Caerleon, and near twelve hundred monks of Bangor were put to the sword. In the year G04 Augustine consecrated two of his companions, Mellitus and Justus, the for- mer to the see of London, the latter to that of Roches- ter. He died at Canterbury, probably in 607, but the date of his death is variously given from G04 to G1-! The observation of the festival of St. Augustine was first enjoined in a synod held under Cuthbert, arch- bishop of Canterbury (Gervase, Act. Pontif. Cantuar. Script, x, col. 1041), and afterward by the pope's bull in the reign of Edward III. See Bede, Hist. Eccl. lib. i and ii ; Gregorius, Epis/ohr', 1. vii, ep. 5, 30 ; 1. ix, ep. 56; Joan Diacon. Vita S. Greg.; Stanley, Memo- rials of Canterbury (London, 1855); Acta Sanctorum, Mensis Maii, vi, 378 ; English Cyclopaedia ,• Neander, Ck. Hist, iii, 11-18 ; Smith, Religion of . ! ncient Britain, ch. x. See England, Church of. Augustinian Monks are divided into two class- es: I. Canons Regular. — In the year 1038, four can- ons of the Church of Avignon, called Arnaldus, Odelo, Pontius, and Durandus, being desirous of hading a more strictly religious life, betook themselves, with the permission of the bishop Benedict, to a solitude, where they led an ascetic life; and having thus orig- inally been under the canonical institution before the monastic, they acquired the name of " regular canons." A large number of canons, both lay and clerical, in- duced by their example, set themselves to follow this new rule of life, and ere long monasteries wore built in various places, but chief!}' in solitudes, and filled with these new candidates for the regular life, who differed from the monks in name only. At first they appear to have had no rule peculiar to themselves, anil probably followed that of Aix-la-( hapelle (A.D. 81G) ; but subsequently they assumed for their rule that of Augustine (;. e. his letter ad Sanctimomales), adding to it various constitutions taken from the rule of Ben- edict and elsewhere. Stevens says that they did not take any vows until the twelfth centurv, nor do thev Mm appear to have assumed the name of "Regular Canons of St. Augustine" until Innocent II, at Lateran, in 1139, ordained that all regular canons should be under the rule of St. Augustine, contained in his 100th epis- tle. The dress of the regular canons was usually a long black cassock, and a white rochet over it, and over that a black cloak and hood ; they also wore beards and caps. They were a numerous body in England, where they were probably first settled at Colchester in 1105. They are said to have had 170 houses in England. They were established in Scot- land in 1114, at the desire of Alexander I, and had in that country 28 monasteries, of which the chief were Scone, Loch Tay, Inch Colme, St. Andrew's, Holy- rood, Cambuskcnneth, and Jedburgh. — Dugdale, Mo- nasticon, vi, 37. II. Hermits, one of the four great mendicant or- ders [see Mendicant Orders] of the Roman Catho- lic Church. The Augustir.ians endeavor to trace their origin back to the time when St. Augustine, after his conversion, lived fcr three years in a villa near Ta- gaste, w holly given up to ascetic exercises. But even the Kcmanist historians generally reject this claim as utterly without foundation. The order originated in 1256, when Pope Alexander IV, in pursuance of a de- cree, compelled eight minor monastic congregations, among which the John-Bonites (founded in 1168 bj' John Bon), the Brittinians, and the Tuscan hermits were the most important, to unite. The united order was called the Hermits of St. August line, because most of the congregations followed the Rule of Augustine, a compilation of precepts taken from two sermons of St. Augustine on the morals of priests and from his letter to the nuns of Hippo. Though now monks, they re- tained the name hermits, because all the congregations had been hermits. In 1257 they were exempted from the jurisdiction of the bishops, and divided into four provinces, Italy, Spain, France, and Germany. Un- like the other mendicant orders, they started with a lax rule, and gross disorders ;.nd immorality grew up among them sooner and mere generally than among the others. [Jflual Style of the Augustine Hermits. 1. In-doors; '2. Abroad. Since the fourteenth century many attempts at in- troducing a stricter discipline have been made by zeal- ous members, and have resulted in the formation of a large number of special congregations, of which the con- gregation of Lombardy, with 80 convents, became the most numerous. The congregation of Saxony, which was established in 1498, and with which the convents of Germany generally connected themselves, separa- ted itself entirely from the order, and its superior, John Staupitz, assumed the title of vicar -general. Among the friends of Staupitz was Martin Luther, the most celebrated of all who ever wore the habit of Augustine, and through wbo6e inlluence the majority AUGUSTINIAN NUNS 546 AUGUSTINISM of the convents of the Saxon congregation seceded from the Roman Catholic Church. The Discalceated or Barefooted Augustini- ans (Observants, Recollects) owe their origin to the! Portuguese monk Thomas a Jesu de Andrade (died in 1582), though their first convent was not organized ■ until after his death, in 1588, by order of the king of Spain. They adopted a rule which in strictness sur- passes the primitive one, and were afterward divided into three separate congregations, the Italian-German, until Hi,")!;, in four provinces, subsequently in seven j (2 of Naples, 2 of Sicily, 1 of Genoa, 1 of Germany, ' 1 of Piedmont), the French in three provinces, and [ the Spanish, the most rigorous of all, which extended I to the East and West Indies, to the Philippine Isl- j ands, to Japan and Rome. They have in every prov- , ince a retired convent, with a hermitage close by, in which monks desirous of a particular ascetic perfec- tion may live. In the sixteenth century, when Pius V conferred on them the privileges of the other mendicant orders, the Augustinians counted 2000 convents of men and 300 of females, together with 35,000 inmates. The order has fallen in the general suppression of convents in j Portugal, Spain, France, Northern and Western Ger- many, and quite recently in Italy. At the beginning of 18G0, the Augustinian Hermits had 131 convents in J Italy, 10 in Germany, G in Poland, 1 in France, 13 in Great Britain, 1 in Holland, 2 in Belgium, 22 in Mex- ico, 2 in the United States (in the dioceses of Phila- delphia and Albany), 13 in South America, and 1 in the Philippine Islands. The Barefooted Augustinians had 6 monasteries in Italy, 1 in Germany, 2 in South America, and 6 in the Philippine Islands. The Augustinians have never been able to gain the same importance as the other mendicant orders, and j at present they exert no great influence in the Church i of Roma. The most remarkable men, besides Luther, j which the order has produced, are Onuphrius Panvini (of the sixteenth century), Cardinal Korris, Abraham j a Santa Clara, and Ludovicus Leon. The constitu- tion, which was established at the general chapters of J 1287, 1290, 1575, and especially at that of 1580, is aris- tocratic. The general chapters, which assemble ev- erj' sixth year, elect a prior-general, and may depose him. His power is limited by the definitores, who, as his councillors, reside with him. Every province has a provincial, four definitores, and one or several visi- tatores. Every convent has a prior. The Discalcea- ted Augustinians have their vicar-generals, while the general of the order is taken from the calceated (con- ventual-). The sources of information are Bingham, Orig. Ec- <•'<;<. I Mink vii ; Dugdale, Monasticon Anglicanvm, vi; Fchr's Geschichte der Monchsorden ; Helyot, Ordres Re- Ugieux, i, 288 sq., with the authorities cited there, es- pecially N.Crusenii Monasticon Augustinianum(162S); St. Martin, Vie de St. Augustin, etc. (Toulouse, 1611); Osingeri Bibliothec i Augustina (Ingolstadt, 17GS, fol.); j Zunggo, Histories Can. Keg. August. Prodronm (Ratisb. 1 i 12, •-' vols, fol.) ; P. Karl vom heil. Aloys, JakrbucA j der Kirche (Regensb. 1860); Migne, Dictionntxire des Ordres Religieux, torn. Lv (Paris, 1859). Augustinian Nuns, a religious order of the Ro- man Catholic Church following the rule of Augustine. Like the Augustinian monks, they have claimed Au- gustine as founder, without, however, any historical proofs. They partly form congregations* under the guidance of the Augustinian monks, and partly are j placed under the jurisdiction of the diocesan bishops. Congregations of Disoalceated or Barefooted Augus- tinian nans were founded iii 1589, 1597, and 1604 in Spain, and one about the same time in Portugal by Queen Louisa, wife of John IV. The most recent congregation of Augustinian nuns is that called An- gustmes de VInterieur d< Marie, established on Oct. 14. lllJ. It had. in 1839, «-»nly one house, at Crand Mon- , trouge. In I860 the Augustinian nuns had, altogether, 42 establishments in France, and a few others in Italy, Switzerland, Prussia, Spain, Holland and Belgium, Poland, Canada (at Quebec), and South America. The sources of information are the same as those men- tioned at the close of the preceding article. See also Migne, Diet, des Ordres Religieux, torn, iv, p. 105-11G. Augustinism, the theological system of St. Au- gustine, as developed in opposition to Pelagianism and Semi- Pelagianism. "Augustine considered the human race as a compact mass, a collective body, re- sponsible in its unity and solidarity. Carrying out his system in all its logical consequences, he laid down the following rigid proposition as his doctrine: 'As all men have sinned in Adam, they are subject to the condemnation of God on account of this hereditary sin and the guilt thereof" (Smith's Hagenbach, His- tory of Doctrines, i, 299). Wiggers {Augustinism and Pelagianism, p. 2G8) gives the following summary view of the theological system of Augustine: I. In- fant Baptism. — The baptism of infants as well as adults is for the forgiveness of sin. Children have, indeed, committed no actual sins, yet by original sin they are under the power of the devil, from which they are freed by baptism. Hence Christian chil- dren who die before baptism no more escape positive punishment in the future life than do all who are not Christians. II. Original Sin. — By Adam's sin, in whom all men jointly sinned together, sin, and the oth- er positive punishments of Adam's sin, came into the world. B3' it human nature has been both physically and morally corrupted. Every man brings into the world with him a nature already so corrupt that he can do nothing but sin. The propagation of this qual- ity of his nature is by concupiscence. III. Free Will. —\iy Adam's transgression, the freedom of the human will has been entirely lost. In his present corrupt state, man can will and do only evil. IV. Grace. — If nevertheless man, in his present state, wills and does good, it is merely the work of grace. It is an inward, secret, and wonderful operation of God upon man. It is a preceding as well as an accompanying work. Bjr preceding grace, man attains faith, by which he comes into an insight of good, and by which power is given him to will the good. He needs co-operating grace for the performance of every individual good act. As man can do nothing without grace, so he can do noth- ing against it. It is irresistible. And as man by na- ture has no merit at all, no respect at all can be had to man's moral disposition in imparting grace, but God acts according to his own free will. V. Predestination and Redemption. — From eternity God made a free and unconditional decree to save a few from the mass that was corrupted and subjected to damnation. To those whom he predestinated to this salvation, he gives the requisite means for the purpose. But on the rest, who do not belong to this small number of the elect, the merited ruin falls. Christ came into the world and died for the elect only. These are the principles of Augustinism. Its an- thropological principle, of the native corruption of man, and of his utter incapacity to do good apart from divine grace, has remained fixed in the church to this day. Pelagius maintained, on the contrary, that "every man, in respect to his moral nature, is born in precisely the same condition in which Adam was ere .ted, and has the capacity of willing and do- ing good without Cod's special aid. It was Augus- tine's mission to enunciate clearly and to fix forever the Christian doctrine as to the condition of human na- ture in its fallen state. But the anxiety of Augustine to save the divine glory in the work of man's salva- tion led him to the doctrine of unconditional election and predestination — a doctrine to which the mind and heart of the church, as a whole, has never acceded. It has been a stumbling-block from Augustine's day until now. But Augustine, in his combat against Pelagius, AUGUSTINISM 547 AUGUSTINISM was entirety successful. The church of his times sided with him, and Pelagius and his adherents were con- demned by a numher of synods, and by Zosimus, the bishop of Rome. After the death of Augustine, the controversy about the chief points of his system con- tinued for a long time to agitate the entire church. The General Synod of Ephesus (431) condemned the Pelagians, together with the Nestorians ; yet, on the whole, the Greek Church did not take any real inter- est in the controversy, and never adopted the doc- trines of absolute predestination and irresistible grace. In Africa and Rome a tendency to Augustinism pre- vailed ; and at the synods of Arausio (Orange) and Valentia (529) a decision was obtained in favor of the exclusive operation of divine grace, although predesti- nation was evidently evaded. In Gaul Augustinism did not exercise the same influence ; and although the authority of Augustine was too great to permit an open opposition to his system, Semi -Pelagian tendencies seemed to be for a long time in the ascendency. The authority of Augustine's name remained unim- paired, although his peculiar doctrines were but little understood by the church of the Middle Ages. The first important controversy concerning Augustinism was that called forth by the monk Gottschalk (q. v.), who in the most decided forms of expression announced the doctrine of a double predestination, founded upon the absolute foreknowledge of God, according to which some were devoted to life, and others were consigned to destruction. Gottschalk, who pretended to be a strict follower of Augustine, was condemned by the Synod of Mayence (848), and died in prison (8G8). His doctrine was a development, not of the good side of Augustinism, viz. its anthropology, but of the false side, viz. its view of the relations between God and man in the work of salvation. Augustine maintained unconditional election, but not reprobation; he held that God chose from the massa i>erditionis such and such persons to be saved, because he pleased to choose them, and for no other reason whatever; while the rest were lost, not because God chose to damn them, but because they were sinners. Gottschalk was the first to announce in clear terms the doctrine of the di- vine reprobation of sinners, i. e. that they are damned, not simply because of their sins, but because of God's decree to damn them, for no other reason than because it pleased him so to do. In the subsequent centuries, the rise of scholasticism and mysticism, and the con- troversy between these two systems, diverted the at- tention of the church from Augustinism. Anselm, Peter Lombard, and Thomas Aquinas endeavored to retain Augustine's doctrine of an unconditional elec- tion, though with many limitations. The current of theological opinion in the church in general was in a direction toward Pelagianism, and the learned Thom- ist, Thomas de Bradwardina (q. v.), a professor at Oxford, and subsequently archbishop at Canterbury (d. 1349), charged the whole age with having adopted Pelagianism. On the whole, the Thomists claimed to stand on the same ground as Augustine ; yet, while they regarded original sin as a culpable of- fence, and divine grace as predestination, they never- theless believed that man has some remnants of power by which he may make himself worthy of divine fa- vor (meritum e congmo\ and regarded divine grace as dependent upon divine foreknowledge. The Scotists (adherents of Duns Scotus), on the other hand, de- scribed both original sin and grace as rather the inva- riable condition of all men, and as developments of the spiritual world in the course of Providence. As Thomas was a Dominican and Duns Scotus a Fran- ciscan, the controversy between Thomists and Sco- tists on the subject of original sin and divine grace gradually became a controversy between the two or- ders of mendicant friars. After the Reformation, the Jesuits, in accordance with the moral system of their school, adopted the views of the Scotists. Augustin- ism found very zealous champions in the professors of the University of Louvain. One of them, Bams (q. v.), was denounced by the Franciscans to Pope Pius V, who in 15G7 condemned 79 propositions extracted from the writings of Baius, a sentence which was confirmed j by Gregory XIII (1579). In return, the theological faculty of Louvain censured 34 propositions in the works of the Jesuits Less and Hamel, as opposed to the teachings of St. Augustine, and to the absolute authority of the Scriptures. As the controversy wax- 1 ed very warm, Sixtus V forbade its continuance; but when this proved fruitless, a committee (the celebrated congrrgatio de mtxilus) was appointed by Clement VIII for the full decision of the question, "In what way is the assistance of divine grace concerned in the con- version of the sinner?" The congregation was, how- : ever, dismissed in 1607, without having accomplished 1 its object, and the antagonism between the Augustin- \ ian school and its opponents continued as before. An ■ elaborate representation of the Augustinian and Pela- gian systems was given by Bishop Jansenius, of Ypres, in his work August inus s. "doctrina Augustini de humance i natural sanitate, osgritudine, et meditina adversus Pela- \ glum et Massilknses, which was published after the death of the author, and gave rise to the celebrated Jansenist controversy, and to the exclusion of the Jan- senists from the church. See Jansenius and Jan- senists. The condemnation of Jansenius and the Jansenists did, however, not terminate the controver- ; sy in the Roman Catholic Church concerning the Au- gustinian theology, though the subsequent history of the controversy is not marked by any prominent event. ! But the Roman Catholic Church, as a whole, rejects ! that part of Augustinism which teaches absolute pre- destination (see Mohler, Symbolism, ch. iii, § 10). I Some of the forerunners of the Reformation during the Middle Ages, as Wickliffe and Savonarola, were strict Augustinians ; but others, e. g. Wessel, urged the necessity of a free appropriation of divine grace on the part of man as a conditio sine qua non. Luther was an : Augustinian monk, and, as a reformer, he was at first ' confirmed in his Augustinian views by the contests which he had to maintain against the doctrine of the meritoriousness of works. But there is reason to be- lieve that, in common with Melancthon, he modified his views as to absolute predestination; and, under the guidance of Melancthon, the Lutheran Church has avoided the strict consequences of the Augustin- ian system by asserting that the decrees of God are conditional. Calvin was a strict Augustinian, and even went beyond Augustine, by maintaining repro- ; bation. He, and the early reformed theologians gen- ' erally, in their religious controversies, not only ad- mitted all the consequences of the Augustinian sys- tem, but, having once determined the idea of predes- tination, went beyond the premises so far as to main- tain that the fall of man was itself predestinated by God (supralapsarianism). This view, however, did I not meet with much approbation, and was at last al- most entirely abandoned. In opposition to the ultra Augustinian views, Arminius, admitting Augustine's anthropology, defined the true doctrine of the rela- tions between God and man in the work of salvation. In Germany, the Rationalists and the school of Spec- ulative Philosophy discarded Augustinism, while the Pietists, and other theologians who returned to the old | faith of the church, and (though with various modifi- l cations) the followers of Schleiermacher, revived it in | its essential points. At present, hardly one of the great theologians of Germany holds the extreme Au- gustinian doctrine of absolute predestination. The first good work on the Augustinian system was written by Wiggers, Versuch einer pragmatischen Dar- stellung di's August inismus nnd Pelagianismns (Berlin, I 1821 ; Hamburg, 1833, vol. i translated by Prof. Fmer- ; son, Andover, 1840, 8vo). See also Gangauf, Psycho* { logie des htil. August inus (Augsb. 1852). More philo- AUGUSTUS 548 AUGUSTUS Bophica] than theological, yet of great value forthe his- tory of the theological system of Augustine, is the work ofNourrisson on "The Philosophy of St. Augustine" ( La Philosophic d> Saint Avgustin," Par. 1865, 2 vols.). This work received a prize from the French Academie ,1 , Sa\ rues Moral s and Politique*. The first volume contains a memoir of the bishop, and a detailed expo- sition of his philosophical views; the second gives an account of the sources from which Augustine borrow- ed bis ideas, an estimate of the influence which the Augustinian theories exercised, especially during the seventh century, and a critical discussion of the Au- gustinian theories. See Armixiaxism ; Augustixe. Augustus (venerable, Graecized Avyovo-roc), the imperial title assumed by Octavius, or Octavianus, the successor of Julius Caesar, and the first peacefully ac- knowledged emperor of Rome. He was emperor at the birth and during half the lifetime of our Lord (B.C. 30 to A.D. 14), but his name occurs only once (Luke ii, 1) in the New Testament, as the emperor who appointed the enrolment in consequence of which Joseph and Mary went to Bethlehem, the place where the Messiah was to be born. See Jesos. The successors of the first Augustus took the same name or title, but it is seldom applied to them by the Latin writers. In the eastern part of the empire the Greek StjSaoroc (which is equiv- alent) seems to have been more common, and hence is used of Nero (Acts xxv, 21). In later times (after Diocletian) the title of "Augustus" was given to one of the two heirs-apparent of the empire, and "Caesar" to their younger colleagues and heirs-apparent. Toiii of Angti.-tus. Augustus was descended from the Octavian family (gens Octavia), being the son of a certain praetor, Caius Octavius, and born in the year of Rome G91, B.C. 62 ( Sueton. Octav. 5). His mother was Atia, daughter of Julia, the sister of C. Julius Csesar. He bore the same name as his father, Caius Octavius. Being adopted and educated by his great uncle Julius Csesar, he changed his name from Octavius to that of Caius Julius Caesar < Ictavianus (i. e. ex-Octavius), in accordance with Ro- man usage. After the assassination of Caesar, he went, although still a youth, into Italy, and soon acquired Buch political connections and importance (Suet. Cces. 83 sq. ; Octav. 8) that Antony and Lepidus took him into their triumvirate (Suet. Octav. 13). After the re- moval of the weak Lepidus, he shared with Antony the chief power over the entire Roman empire, having iharge of the western provinces, as Antony did over the eastern (Suet. Octav. 16, 54; Appian. Civ. v, 122 Bq.). But there was no cordial union between these two ambitious men; their opposition gradually developed itself, and soon reached its crisis in the de- cisive Qava] battle of Actium (B.C. 31), in which Oc- tavius was victor (Suet. Octar. 17; Dio Cass. 1. 15 sq. : Veil. Paterc. ii. 85). Two years afterward he was greeted as "emperor" (imperator) by the senate, and somewhat later | B.C. 27), when he desired voluntarily to receive the supreme power, as "Augustus" (Veil. Paterc. ii. '.'1 ; Dio Cass. liii. 16). Liberality toward the army, moderation toward the senate, which he al- lowed to retain the gemblam fits ancient authority, affability and clemency toward the populace, strength- ened the supremacy which Augustus, uniting in his own person the highest offices of the republic, main- tained with imperial power, but without a regal title. To Herod, who had attached himself to the party of Antony, he was unexpectedly gracious, instated him as king of Judaea (" rex Judaeorum," Joseph. Ant, xv, 7, 3), raising also somewhat later his brother Pheroras to the tetrarchate (Joseph. Ant. xv, 10, 3). In thank- fulness for these favors, Herod built him a marble tem- ple near the source of the Jordan (Joseph. Ant. xv, 10, 3), and remained during his whole life a firm adherent of the imperial family. After the death of Herod (A.D. 4) his dominions, almost in exact accordance with the will which he left, were divided among his sons (Joseph. Ant. xvii, 11, 4) by Augustus, who was soon compelled, however (A.D. 6), to exile one of them, Archelaus, and to join his territory of Judaea and Samaria to the province of Syria (Joseph. Ant. xxii, 13, '_')• Augustus died in the 7Cth year of his age at Nola in Campania, August 19, in the year of Rome 767 (see Wurm, in Bengel's Archiv. ii, 8 sq.), or A.D. 14 (Suet. Octav. 99 sq. ; Dio Cass, lvi, 29 sq. ; Joseph. Ant. xviii, 3, 2; War, ii, 9, 1), having some time previously nominated Tiberius as his associate (Suet. Tib. xxi; Tacit. Annal. i, 3). The kindness of Augustus toward the Herods, and the Jews through them (Philo, ii, 588, 591, 592), was founded, not upon any regard for the Jewish people themselves (as the contrary appears to have been the case with all the Roman emperors, Suet. Octav. 93), but upon political considerations, and, as it would seem, a personal esteem for Herod. Augustus not only procured the crown of Judaea for Herod, whom he loaded with honors and riches, but was pleased also to undertake the education of Alexander and Aristobulus, his sons, to whom he gave apartments in his palace. When he came into Syria, Zenodorus and the Gadarenes waited on him with complaints against Herod ; but he cleared him- self of the accusations, and Augustus added to his hon- ors and kingdom the tetrarchy of Zenodorus. He also examined into the quarrels between Herod and his sons, and reconciled them. See Herod. Syllaeus, minister to Obodas, king of the Nabathaeans, having accused Herod of invading Arabia, and destroying many people there, Augustus, in anger, wrote to Herod about it ; but he so well justified his conduct that the emperor restored him to favor, and continued it ever after. He disapproved, however, of the rigor exer- cised by Herod toward his sons, Alexander, Aristo- bulus, and Antipater : and when they were executed he is said to have observed "that it were better a great deal to be Herod's swine than his son" (Macrob. Saturn, ii. 4). It was through the warm attachment of Augustus for M. Vipsanius Agrippa that the latter Coin of Augustus with the Head of M. Vipsanius Agrippa. was enabled to exercise a strong influence in favor of the Jews. See Agrippa. After the death of Lepi- dus, Augustus assumed the office of high-priest, a dig- nity which gave him the inspection over ceremonies and religious concerns. ( hie of his first proceedings was an examination of the Sibyls' books, many of which he burnt, and placed the others in two gold boxes under the pedestal of Apollo's statue, whose temple was within the enclosure of the palace. This is worthy of note, if these prophecies had excited a general expectation of some great person about that time to be born, as there is reason to suppose was the fact. It should be remembered, also, that Augustus had the honor to shut the temple of Janus, in token of universal peace, at the time when the Prince of Peace was born. This is remarkable, .because that temple was shut but a very few times. For further details of the life of Augustus, see Smith's D'ct. of Biog. s. v. ( m the question whether this emperor had 1 any knowledge respecting Christ, there are treatises AUNT 549 AURICULAR CONFESSION by Hasse (Reborn. 1S05), Hering (Stettin, 1727), Kober (Gerl. 1669), Sperling (Viteb. 170:!), Ziebich (Gera, 1718, and in his Verm. Beitr. i, 3), Zorn (Opusc. ii, 481 sq.). AUGUSTUS' BAND (piretpr) 2f)8at'isdiemt middle Religion In d< n nsi relchlschen Staafen (Wien, 1783-1785, 6 vols.); Helfert, Die Rechte und Verf turning der Aca- tholiken in Oestreich (Wien, 2d ed. 1827); Wiggefs, Kirchl. Statistlk; Schem, Eccles. Year-book for 1859. Autas'as (AiJratVu), one of the Levites who ex- pounded the law as read by Ezra (1 Esdr. ix, 48) ; ev- idently a corruption for the Hodijah (q. v.) of the true text (Neh. viii, 7). Autenrieth, Ix Hen. Fred, vox, M.D., was born at Stuttgart, 20th October, 1772, and died 2d May, 1835, at Tubingen, where he was professor of medicine. He was the author of a treatise, Ueber das Buck Hiob (Tub. 1823), and of an essay, I'ihn- den Ursprung der Beschneldung bei wilden und haUnoilden Volkern mit Bezkhung an f die Besch. d. Israeliten (Tub. 1829) — Kitto. Cyelopmlia, s. v. Authenticity, a term frequently used in refer- ence to the literary history of the Holy Scriptures. (1 .) In a broad and loose sense, by the authenticity of j the canonical books is meant that they were really I written by the authors whose names they bear ; that those which are. anonymous were written at the time I in which they profess that they were written ; and ' that their contents are credible. (2.) In careful and scientific language, authenticity implies authority; an authentic account is truthful, and therefore credible. A genuine book, on the other hand, is one written by the person whose name it bears, whether it be truthful or not. Thus, for instance, Alison's History of Europe is genuine, because it was written by Alison ; but it is not authentic, because it looks at facts with partisan eyes. — Home, Introduction, ii, 1. Authority, (1.) in matters religious and ecclesias- tical, an assumed right of dictation, attributed to cer- tain fathers, councils, or church courts. On this sub- ject Bishop Hoadley writes: "Authority is the great- est and most irreconcilable enemy to truth and argu- ment that this world ever furnished. All the sophis- try—all the color of plausibility— all the artifice and cunning of the subtlest disputer in the world may be j laid open and turned to the advantage of that very : truth which they are designed to hide ; but against 1 authority there is no defence." He shows that it was authority which crushed the noble sentiments of Soc- rates and others , and that by authority the Jews and heathens combated the truth of the Gospel; and that, when Christians increased into a majority, and came to think the same method to be the only proper one for the advantage of their cause which had been the enemy and destroyer of it, then it was the authority of Christians, which, by degrees, not only laid waste the honor of Christianity, but well-nigh extinguished it among men. It was authority which would have pre- vented all reformation where it is, and which has put a barrier against it wherever it is not. The remark of Charles II. is worthy of notice — that those of the established faith make much of the authority of the church in their disputes with dissenters, but that they take it all away when they deal with papists.— Buck, Tluol. Dirt. s. v. (2.) In a proper sense, by the "authority of the church" is meant either the power residing generally in the whole body of the faithful to execute the trust committed by Christ to his church, or the particular AUTHORIZED VERSION 554 AUTHORIZED VERSION power residing in certain official members of that body. The first-named authority is vested in the clergy and laity jointly , the latter in the clergy alone. In the interpretation of Scripture for any particular church, that church's authority does not belong to all divines or " distinguished theologians" who may be members of the church, but only to the authorized formularies. Single writers of every age are to be taken as express- ing only their individual opinions. The agreement of these (.pinions at any one period, or for any lengthened space of time, may and must be used as proof to our- selves, privately, as to the predominant sentiments of the church at that time , but no opinions can be quoted as deciding authoritatively any disputed question. The universal church deserves deference in all contro- versies of faith ; and every particular church has a right to decree such rights and ceremonies as are not contrary to God's written word ; but no church has a right to enforce any thing as necessary for salvation, unless it can be shown so to be by the express declara- tion of Holy Scripture. See the XXth and XXXIVth Articles of the Church of England, and the Vth and XXIId of the Methodist Episcopal Church; Eden, Tkeol. Diet. s. v. See Rule of Eaith ; Tradition. Authorized (ENGLISH) Version of the Holy Scriptures. As this was not a strictly new or original translation, it will be necessary to consider briefly those earlier English versions upon which it was founded, and it will enable the reader better to appreciate its value and character if we prefix some account of the still earlier Anglo-Saxon versions which led the way to these. (See Mrs. Conant's Hist, of Engl. llibh' Translation, N. Y. 185G.) See Versions (of the Bible). I. Anglo-Saxon Translations. — Though our Anglo- Saxon ancestors earty possessed translations, chiefly from the Latin, of at least portions of _the Scriptures, the first attempt with which we are acquainted is the rude but interesting poem ascribed to C.edmon, a monk of Whitby, in the seventh century. It contains the leading events of Old-Testament history, and ren- ders several passages with tolerable fidelity; but the epic and legendary character of the composition pre- clude it from being ranked among the versions of Holy Writ. The first portion of it, entitled The Fall of Man, has been translated into verse by Bosanquct (Lond. I860, 8vo). This work was succeeded in the follow- ing century by the Anglo-Saxon Psalter, said to have been translated by Aldiieui, bishop of Sherborn, who died in 7n0; the first fifty Psalms are in prose, the Others in verse. About the same period, Guthlac, the first Saxon anchorite, is reported to have transla- ted the Psalms. The next laborer in the field was the Venerable Bede, who turned the Apostles' Creed and the Lord's Prayer into Anglo-Saxon. He also trans- lated the Gospel of John, and completed it just as death put an end to his learned labors, in the monas- tery of Jarrow, on the south bank of the Tyne, A.D. 73"). The dose of the next century probably produced the celebrated Durham Booh, containing the four Gos- pels in Anglo-Saxon, written between the lines of an earlier Latin copy, by Aldred, a priest. The follow- ing is the Lord's Prayer from this version— Matt, vi, 9-13: Fader uren thu artli in heofnum, sic gehalgud noma thin : to cymeth ric thin ; -it- will., thin siuels inlieofne & in eortlio; hlaf ne ol'i i Ai-tlir scl us toihog: louerd in faines. In go yhe ai in his siht, In gladness that is so hi-iht. Whites that louerd god is he thus, He us made and our self noht r.s, His folke and shep of his fode: In gos his yhates that are gode; In schrifl his worches belive, In ympnes to him yhe schrive. Heryhea his name for louerde is hem'e. In all his inerci do in strende and strende. The earliest version in English prose of any entire book of Scripture is the book of Psalms, translated by William db Schorham, vicar of Chart Sutton, in Kent. The translation is generally faithful and liter- al. The following is a specimen of this version — Ps. xxiii, 1-G : AUTHORIZED VERSION 555 AUTHORIZED VERSION Our Lord gouerneth me and nothyng shal defailen to me ; in the stede of pasture he sett me ther. lie norissed me vp water fyllvnge ; he turned my soule fram the fende. lie lad j me vp the" bristiyets of riytfulnes ; for his name. For yif that icli banc uon amiddes of the shadowe of deth. Y shal nouyt douten inels, for thou art wyth me. Thy disciplinn and tliyn amendyng; conforted me. Thou madeat radi grace in my sight; oyayns liem that trublen me. Thou makest fatt myn heued wyth mercy ; and my drynke makand drunken ys ful clere. And thy merci slial folwen me ; alle daies of mi lif. And that ich woonne iu the hous of our Lord ; in lengthe of daies. Scborham's version of the Psalms could scarcely have been completed, when another was undertaken by Richard Rolle, chantrv priest at Hampole, near j Doncaster, who died in 1349. Of this work of Rolle, to which he subjoined a commentary, there were copies which differed from each other, showing that the orig- inal must have been altered to some extent. The fol- j lowing is a specimen of this version — Ps. lxxix, 1-6 : j God, gens come in thin heritage; thei filed thi holy tem- pul, thei sette Jerusalem in kepyng of appuls. Thei sette the dyande bodyes of thi seruaunts mete to the fowles of the lyft; flesche of thi halowes to bestis of erthe. Thei spille hore Mode as watir in vmgong of Jerusalem ; and none was for to graue, : hade we are reprofe to oure neghbors ; skornynge and heth- ing to alle that in oure vmgong are. Howe lunge, Lord, shalt thou be wrothe in ende ; kyndelt shal be thi luf as fire. ! Helde, or het, thi wrathe in gens that thee not knew ; and in | kyngdoms that thi nome incalde not. All these versions were made from the Latin ; and some of the venerable relics still exist in manuscript in the public libraries in the kingdom. A few of them have been printed as objects of literary curiosity. It was not till about the year 1382 that our lan- guage was enriched with a complete copy of the Scriptures, by the hands of Wycliffe and his coad- ; jutors, not improbably with the aid of other fragment- ary portions then existing. This translation was made from the Latin Vulgate, collated with other old copies. For several centuries there had occasionally been found in England some scholars acquainted with the Hebrew and Greek languages ; and, though Wycliffe occasionally introduced Greek words in some of his writings, yet it seems scarcely probable that the knowl- edge of Greek possessed by him was at all sufficient to enable him to translate from that language. Hence, if the E-ible must be translated at all, it must be from the Latin. It belonged to a later and more critical ! age to use the originals in forming vernacular versions of the Scriptures. The translation of the New Testa- j nient was probably the work of Wycliffe himself. During its progress, the Old Testament was taken in j hand by one of Wycliffe's coadjutors; and from a note written in one manuscript, at the end of a portion of the Rook of Baruch, the translation is assigned to Nicholas de Hereford. Not unlikely the cause of this manuscript, and also of another which is prob- ably a copy, suddenly breaking off in the Book of Ba- ruch, was the summons which Hereford received to appear before the Synod in 1382. The translation was evidently completed by a different hand, not improba- bly by Wycliffe himself. However this may be, it was certainly through Wycliffe's energy that the earliest translation of the whole Bible in the English language was carried on and executed. Many of the peculiarities of this translation are to be attributed to the time in which Wycliffe lived ; and it is remark- aide that, in his version of the Scriptures, he writes far more intelligible English than is found in his orig- inal works; the dignity of the book which b.3 trans- lated seems to have imparted an excellence of ex- pression to the version itself. No part of the gen- uine version of Wycliffe was printed, excepting the Song of Solomon, by Dr. Adam Clarke, in his Com- mentary, until 1848, when Mr. L. Wilson published the New Testament in a beautiful Gothic- letter quarto volume. More recently, the entire Bible, accompanied with Purvey's revision, has been published. The fol- lowing are specimens of Wycliffe's translation — Gen. iii, 7,8; Luke viii, 31-33: And the eizen of both being openyd ; and whanne thei fenewen hem silf to be nakid, thei soweden to gidre leeues of a fige tree, and maden hem brechis. And whanne thei herden the voys of the Lord (rod goynge in paradis at the shynyng after myd dai, Adam hid hym and his wijf fro the face of the Lord t;od in the myddel of the tree of paradis. And thei preiden him, that he schulde not comaunde hem, that thei echulden go in to the depnesse. _ Forsothea flok of manye hoggis was there lesewynge in an hil, and thei preiedeu him, that he schulde suffre hem to entre in to hem. And he suflride hem. Therefore fendis wenten out fro the man, and entride iu to hoggis ; and with hire the Hoc wente hedlinge in to the lake of water, and was stranglid. As Wycliffe's translation was completed in a com- paratively short space of time, and necessarily pos- sessed blemishes incident to a first edition, it is not surprising that a revised version was contemplated even in the lifetime of Wycliffe himself. According- ly, about the year 1388, not more than four years after the death of Wycliffe, the revision was accomplished, but with few substantial differences of interpretation, by Purvey, who had been Wycliffe's curate, and, af- . ter his death, became the leader of the Lollard party. Purvey's revision rendered the version more correct, intelligible, and popular, and caused the earlier trans- lation to fall into disuse. Copies of this revision were rapidly multiplied ; even now, more than one hundred and fifty copies of the whole or part of Purvey's Bible are in existence. The following are specimens of Purvey's version — Gen. iii, 7, 8; Luke viii, 31-33 : And tiie izen of bothe weren opened; and whanne thei knewen that thei weren nakid, thei sewiden the leeues of a fige tre, and maden brechis to hem silf. And whanne thei herden the vois of the Lord God goynge in paradijs at the wynd after myd-dai, Adam and his wijf bidden them fro the face of the Lord God in the middia of the tre of pardijs. And thei preiden hym, that he schulde not comaunde hem, that thei schulden go in to belle. And there was a flok of many swyne lesewynge in an hil, and thei preiden hym, that he schulde suffre hem to entre into hem. And he suffride hem. And so the deuelis wenten out fro the man, and entriden in to the swyne ; and with a birre the flok went heedlyng in to the pool, and was drenchid. Notwithstanding the prohibitory constitutions of Archbishop Arundel in 1408, and the high price of manuscripts, both versions were extensively multi- plied; they contributed largely to the religious knowl- edge which prevailed at the commencement of the Reformation, and probably hastened that event. In the year 1420, the price of one of Wycliffe's Testa- ments was not less than four marks and forty pence, or £2 16s. Sd., equal to £42 Gs. go?, now, taking sixteen as the multiple for bringing down the money of that time to our standard. It is somewhat remarkable that the revised version by Purvey has been taken until re- cently for Wycliffe's own translation, and as such the New Testament portion was published by Lewis, 1731 ; by Baber, 1810 ; and again by Bagster, in his English Hexapla. It is, however, now known that the most ancient version is Wycliffe's, and the revised or more modern one is by Purvey. These two earliest English versions of the entire Bible by Wycliffe and Purvey were printed, column by column on the same page, with various readings from the several manuscripts, in four splendid quarto volumes, under the care of the Rev. -T. Forshall and Sir F. Madden, Oxford Univers- ity Press, 1850. The circulation of Wycliffe's version, and that of his reviser, Purvey, in manuscript, was the sowing of seed destined to yield a mighty harvest. The down- fall of the Eastern empire in 1453 contributed to the revival of learning by scattering learned Greeks, who carried with them manuscript treasures from Constan- tinople. The printing-press contributed immensely to revolutionize society throughout Europe. In sev- eral places on the Continent the Scriptures were print- ed not only in Latin, but in Hebrew and Greek, thus providentially preparing for setting forth the Inspired Oracles in the vernacular tongues. In England, how- ever, the operation of the press was slow. In vain do we look over the list of works by Caxton, the father of the press in England, for a copy of any portion of AITIIORIZED VERSION" 556 AUTHORIZED VERSION the Scriptures. The earliest attempt at giving forth any portion of the Scriptures in print in English was a translation and exposition of the seven penitential Psalms, in 1505, by Fysher, the Romish bishop of Rochester; and even this was printed on the Conti- nent, though published at London. The instrument in the haul of God for translating the New Testament, ami a great part of the Old, out of the original tongues into English, was William Tyndale. But in, Eng- land T\ ndale could find no place to print his transla- tion of the New Testament. In the year 1524 he passed over to Hamburg, where he is said to have pub- lished the same year the Gospels of Matthew and Mark. As, however, no fragment of this first fruit of Tyndale's labor is known to be remaining, we suspect that it is merely another reference to the following fragment, printed at Cologne. In September, 1525, Tyndale, with bis assistant Roye, was at Cologne, actually en- gaged in bringing the first edition of his New Testa- ment, in quarto, through the press. When the sheets of this edition were printed as far as the signature K, the printer, through the influence of Cochlseus, a Rom- ish deacon, was interdicted from proceeding further with the work. Tyndale and his assistant snatched away some of the printed sheets, and fled to Worms. In this city Tyndale immediately printed an octavo edition of his Testament ; then, it is said, he completed the quarto which had been interrupted, and published both editions at the close of 1525 or early in 1526. The only relic of the precious old quarto, which was the first partially printed edition, for we are inclined to think that it never was completed, was discovered in 1831 by the late Mr. Rodd, and is now in the British Museum. It only contains the prologue, a table of the books of the New Testament, and part of the Gospel of Matthew — chap, i-xxii. The following is a speci- men of this fragment, printed at Cologne by P. Quen- tell— Matt, ii, 1, 2 : When Jesus was borne in bethleliem a tonne of itiry, in the time kynge llerode, btholde, there came wyse me fro the este t" Jerusalem sayinge : where is he that is borne kinge of the iewes, we have sene his starre in the este, and are come to worshippe liym. The only known perfect copy of the octavo, which was the second printed, but the first published com- plete edition of Tyndale's New Testament, is preserved in the Baptist College Library, Bristol. The follow- ing is a specimen of this edition, printed at Worms at the close of 1525 or early in 1526 — Mark xiv, 3-5 : When he was in bethania in the housse off Simon the le- per, even ae lie sate att meate, there cam a woma with an ala- blaster boxe of oyntmeut, called narde, that was pure and costly, and she brake the boxe ad powred it on his heed. There were souk; that disdayned i themselves, and sayde : what neded this waste of oyntment? For it might have bene BOolde for more the two hnundred pens and bene geve unto the poure. And they grudged agaynste her. In November, 1534, Tyndale published at Antwerp a third edition, "dylygently corrected and compared with the Greke." The second or first complete edi- tion, though a most important advance, certainly bears marks of haste; but the edition of 1534, revised by himself, stands in the first place as exhibiting Tyndale •is a translator. The following is a specimen of this edition — Mark xiv, 3-5: When he was in Bethania, in the housse of Simon the le- per, even a he t at meate, ther came a woma hauynge an alabla i u ni called narde, that was pure and brake the boxe and powred it on is heed. And ther were some that were not content in themselves, & i d this waste of oyntment : For it might have ben< Ide for more than tine hundred pens, and been oto the poore. And they grudged agaynst hir. That Tyndale's New Testament was translated from the Greek, te can question who has examined it with care: it will be found continually to leave the readings of the Latin Vulgate, and adhere to the third edition of Erasmus's Greek Testament, printed in 1522. Sometimes, indeed, great deference is paid to the crit- ical observations of Erasmus ; but still the translation is made from the Greek, and not from his Latin ver- sion. When Erasmus departed from the Greek, as he does in several places, apparently through inadvert- ence, Tyndale does not follow him, but adheres closely to the original. As Tyndale's New Testaments were eagerly bought up, partly by earnest inquirers, and parti j' by others for destruction, numerous surrepti- tious copies rapidly issued from different presses, chief- ly by the Dutch printers; so that in the translator's time about fourteen editions were issued, and eight or nine in 1536, the year of his death. A very curious edition of Tyndale's Testament was printed, probably at Antwerp in 1535, during the translator's imprison- ment at Vilvorde The letter and the spelling prove that it was printed in the Low Countries. Some sup- pose that it is executed in a provincial orthography, probably that of Tyndale's native county, peculiarly adapted to agricultural laborers ; and that, by this edi- tion, he nobly redeemed his bold pledge given to the priest in Gloucestershire many years before, " If God spare me life, ere many years I will cause the boy that driveth the plow to know more of the Scriptures than you do." He also put headings for the first time to the chapters. The following is a specimen of this edi- tion— 1 Cor. xv, 41 : Thear is oone manner glory of the sunne, & a noether glory of the moane, & a noether glory ye starres. For oone stan-e differth fro a noether in glory. The edition of Tyndale's New Testament, printed in folio, at London, by Thomas Berthelet, in 1536, from the revised edition of 1534, was the first portion of the English Scriptures printed on English ground. The following is a specimen of this rare and interesting edition — 1 Cor. xv,- 45, 46 : The fyrst man Adam was made a lyvynge soule, and the last Adam was made a quyckenyng spiryte. Howe be it, that is nat fyrst which is spiritnall : but that which is naturall, & than that which is spiritnall. The martyr Tyndale was also the first to translate the five books of Moses into English from the Hebrew. As the books of Genesis and Numbers are in Gothic letter, while those of Exodus, Leviticus, and Deuter- onomy are in Roman type, it would appear that these books were printed at separate times and in different places. The following occurs at the end of Genesis : " Emprented at Malborow, in the lande of Hesse, by me, Hans Luft, the yere of oure Lorde 1530, the 17 dayes of Januarii." Tyndale also translated and pub- lished the Book of Jonah. In the succeeding years of his life he was engaged in translating, perhaps in conjunction with Rogers, the remaining books of the Bible. Tyndale's translation, as far as the end of Chronicles, and other manuscripts, appear, at the time of his martyrdom, to have been in the possession of Rogers. The following is a specimen of Tyndale's Pen- tateuch of 1530— Gen. xxiv, 18-20: And she hasted and late downe her pytcher apon hyr armo and gaue him drinke. And whe she had geuen hym drynke, she sayde : I will drawe water for thy camels also, vntili they hauo dronke ynough. And she poured out hyr pitcher in to the trough hastely and ranne agayne unto the well, to fett water: and drewe for all his camels. During the year 1530, the Argentine English Psalter was printed. The translator, who rendered from the Latin, calls himself Joiian Aleph. The date at the end of this Psalter is January 10, 1530; it thus seems to have been, perhaps by antedating, the first whole book of the Old Testament which was printed in Eng- lish, the completion of Tyndale's Genesis having been one day subsequent. In 1531 there was published a translation of Isaiah by George Joye ; in 1533, two leaves of Genesis; and in 1534 he published a transla- tion of Jeremiah and the Book of Psalms. These por- tions were also translated from the Latin Vulgate. Myi.i.s COVBRDALB was the first to publish, if not to translate, the. whole Bible into English. He com- menced this work in November, 1534, and it was print- ed, probably at Zurich, in October, 1535. Though AUTHORIZED VERSION" 557 AUTHORIZED VERSION Coverdale had evidently the Hebrew- and Greek be- fore him, he freely used the translations of Tyndale, both printed and perhaps manuscript. He speaks of his having been aided by live sundry interpreters in the Dutch, German, and Latin languages. In the Old Testament he may have had, 1st, the Latin Vul- gate; 2d, Pagninus's version; 3d, Luther's German translation ; 4th, Leo Juda's German-Swiss version ; 5th, the Latin version connected with Sebastian Mini- ster's Hebrew Bible, the first volume of which was printed in 1534. The New Testament appears to be in part a revision of Tyndale's, in which Coverdale took much care, and availed himself both of the edition of 1525 and the amended one of 1534. This Bible, which was dedicated to King Henry VIII, had the following as the title : "Bibi.ia. The Bible, that is, the holy Scripture of the Okie and New Testament, faithfully and truly translated out of Douche and Latyn in to Englishe. 1535." However, it must be observed, the use of the words "out of Douche, i. e. German, and Latyn," was merely a bookselling artifice by the print- ers, to make the work circulate better, as being inti- mately connected with the reformed doctrines, which ■were then equally well known by the name of German or Dutch doctrines. In the new title inserted the fol- lowing year, these terms were left out. Coverdale cer- tainly did not follow the Latin, nor even Luther's ver- sion, but he no doubt availed himself of all the differ- ent means of assistance within his power. This Bible ■was reprinted with some amendments at Zurich in 1537, with a London title-page, and was then allowed by the king to "go abroad among the people," but without any regal imprimatur or license. The follow- ing is a specimen of Coverdale's translation — Ps. xc (xci), 4, 5 : lie shal couer the vnder his wynges, that thou mayest be safe vnder hi-* fethers : his fnithfulnesso ami truetli shal be thy ehylde and buckler. So yt thou shalt not nede to lie afrayed for eny bugges by night, ner for arowe that flyeth by daye. In the year 1537, the translations of Tyndale were published in a collected form, under the name of " Thomas Matthew." The editing of this Bible was really the work of the martyr Rogers. To this edition was prefixed, An Exhortation to the Study of the Holy Scriptures, beneath which stand J. R., the initials of his name. In the execution of this work, Rogers had the whole of Tyndale's translations, ■whether imprint or manuscript, before him. The Old Testament is a reprint of Tyndale's Pentateuch ; the remainder, as far as the Second Book of Chronicles, was copied from Tyndale's manuscripts, which were undoubtedly in Rogers's safe keeping. The New Testament was Tyndale's of 1534 This Bible has the character of Tyndale's labors so stamped upon it as clearly to show that at least two thirds of the translation were his work ; the remainder is the work of Rogers, who was probably aided by Cov- erdale's sheets. At the end of the Old Testament, the letters YV. T. are printed in very large text capitals cu- riously flourished. This Bible was probably printed at Lubeck ; and it is not improbable that it was actual- ly in the press, under the joint labors of Tyndale and Rogers, at the time of Tyndale's arrest and martyr- dom. Much credit is clue to Rogers, who probably resided at the place of printing, as the careful editor of this Bible; he was evidently a line scholar, and he seems to have acted both as desiring to give his coun- trymen a Bible as correct as possible, and likewise to perpetuate the labors of Tyndale, his friend and in- structor in the truth of the Gospel. This Bible was translated by the first Hebrew, Greek, and English scholars, and is executed most in conformity witli the views of the latest and best Biblical critics. This revision, which is frequently but not inaptly called "Tyndale's Bible," appeared with the then much cov- eted words, " Set forth with the king's most gracious license;" hence it was the first properly authorized edition of the English Bible. This Bible— -at least part of it — appears to have been printed at the expense of Richard Grafton and his partner, Edward Whitchurch — who afterwards married the widow of Archbishop Cranmer. They, about the same period, became print- ers themselves, as their initials appear at the begin- ning of the Prophets, where, perhaps, the part of the expense which they defrayed commenced. "Thomas Matthew" may actually have been the person at whose cost the preceding portion was printed. This Bible was the popular translation, and from the various edi- tions it appears to have been much used for many years. The following is a fine specimen of Tyndale's rendering from the Hebrew — 2 Sam. i, 17, 18 : And Dauid sang thys songe of mournynge oner Saul and ouer Jonathas hys Sonne, & bad to teache the chyldren of Is- raeli the staues thereof. In 1538, several editions of Coverdale's new version of the New Testament were published. He also is- sued several editions of the English New Testament, together with the text of the Latin Vulgate. The printing of this Diglott Testament was executed witli ' great carelessness, so that Coverdale had it speed' ily reprinted in Paris. It is probable that Nicholson the printer, hearing that Coverdale's Latin and English Testament was about to be reprinted at Paris, with more attention to accuracy, printed the one bearing the name of " Johan Hollybushe'' without delay, in order to anticipate the Paris edition. The following is a specimen of Coverdale's Testament — Matt. v. 13 : Ye are the salt of the earth. Put yf ye salt vanishe away, wherin shal it be salted ? It is thece forth good vnto nothing, but yt it be cast out, & trode vndr of men. In the year 1539 was published the English transla- | tion known by the name of the "Great Bible." This edition was executed under the superintendence of Grafton, to whom Coverdale lent his aid as corrector. This Bible was printed at Paris by the permission of Francis I., obtained by Henry VIII. But, notwith- standing the royal license, just as the work was well ad- vanced, the Inquisition intei posed, and issued an order, dated December 17,1538, summoning the French print- ers, their English employers, and Coverdale, the correct- or of the work, and inhibited their farther proceeding, i The impression, consisting of 2500 copies, was seized, 1 confiscated, and condemned to the flames. Four great J dry-fats full, however, of these books escaped the fire by J the avarice of the person appointed to superintend the burning of them ; and the English proprietors, who had i fled on the first alarm, returned to Paris as soon as it subsided, and not only recovered some of these copies, but brought with them to London the presses, types, ! and even the workmen, and resuming the work, fin- i ished it in the following year. This Bible, which is a revision of Matthew's version, probably by the hand of Coverdale, has been unhappily confounded with "Cranmer's Bible," issued in 1540. The preface written by Cranmer for the edition of 1540 was in- serted in some copies of the Great Bible, but subse- quently to their completion. The statesman Crom- I well, not Cranmer, was the master-spirit, not only in getting up this edition, but in securing the royal in- junction that "the whole Bible, of the largest volume in English," should be set up in the churches. This continued, with slight alterations, to be the author- | ized English version of the Bible — except, of course, during the revival of popery in Mary's reign — until, in 1568, it was superseded by the Bishops' Bible. The Psalms in this Bible were the same as those found in the book of Common Prayer, having seventeen inter- polations from the Septuagint or Latin Vulgate, but printed in a smaller type, and between parentheses. These readings were marked in Coverdale's Bible as not being in the Hebrew text ; they are also continued in Cranmer's editions. The following is a specimen, with the interpolation in smaller type, which includes three verses — Psa. xiv, 3, 4 : But they are all gone out of the waye, they are altogether AUTHORIZED VERSION 558 AUTHORIZED VERSION become abbominable : there is none that doth good, no not one (tluvr thr.,te is »u open sep.il.-lire : wyth their tongee they haue .lys- eeuuV. I, tlu. i.« .if H<|i.-, is i.ml.r tlieyr Jyppes rheyr mouth is full :„i,l l.vtterness: tl.eyr fete lire swxtt to shede t.loude De- Btnicevoli illi.l uuhlippwios is Ml tiny r waves, liti.l tlie wave of peace haue they not knowen, there is no feare of God before theyr eyes). ]Iane they if knowledge that they are all such workers of mys- clie'lT. , oatyn-c up my people as it were breade. In the year 1539, another edition of the Bible ap- peared, dedicated to the king. It was a mere recen- sion of Matthew's Bible, executed by Richard Tav- ERNEB, under the patronage of Lord Cromwell. The three editions through which this Bible almost imme- diately went prove that its circulation was consider- able, though it is to be observed that they were pri- vate readers alone who used it, as it was never, even for a time, publicly made an authorized version. Tav- erner's New Testament, of which he published two editions, is a different recension from that which ac- companied his "Recognition of the Bible." In the year 1540 "Cranmer's Bible" was issued from Grafton and Whitchurch's press. This was probably the first complete Bible ever printed in Eng- land. This edition, of which only five hundred copies were printed, was a mere revision of the Great Bible of 1539, and had a preface by Cranmer. Another edi- tion, "overseen and perused," by the king's command, by Ccthbf.rt Tonstall, bishop of Durham, and Nicholas Heath, bishop of Rochester, who also made a few variations in the text, appeared in 1541. The following is a specimen from Cranmer's New Testa- ment— Matt, vi, 9-13: Cure father which art in heauen, halowed be thy name. Let thy kingdome come. Thy will be fulfilled, as well in ertli, as it is in hetien. Gene vs this daye oure dayly bred. And forgeue vs oure dettes, as we forgeue oure detters. And leade vs not into temptation : but delyuer vs from euyll. For tbyne is the kyngdom and the power, and the glorye for euer. Amen. The only impressions of anjr portions of the Scrip- tures which were printed during the remainder of the reign of Henry appear to have been the Epistles and Gospels for the Sundays, in 1542, probably an edition of tiie Pentateuch in 1544, Joye's book of Daniel and the books of Solomon in 1545, and the New Testament according to the text of the Great Bible in 1546. The number of copies of the Scriptures in circulation at this time must, however, have been very considerable. In 1543 the Parliament prohibited the use of Tyndale's version, and in 1546 Coverdale's translation, as well as Tyndale's, was prohibited by a stringent proclama- tion, and all such books were to be delivered up to persons appointed for the purpose, in order that they might be burned. The diligence with which Henry's proclamation was executed, in the destruction of the earlier editions, accounts for the very few copies which have come down to our time. The destruction ap- pears to have been almost as complete as that of the earlier editions of Tyndale's New Testament. Among the early acts of the reign of Edward VI waa the reversing of the restrictions which had been laid on the circulation and the reading of the Script- ures. Vet no new recension or translation was pub- lished, except a translation of the paraphrase of Eras- mus in 1549-50. Among those who took part in this work was Coverdale ; and the Princess Mary— the fu- ture persecuting queen — translated a portion of the Gospel of John. Cranmer contemplated a new trans- lation of the Bible; but Fagius and Bucer died, and the work was frustrated. An edition of Coverdale's Bible, said to have been printed at Zurich, was pub- Kshed in 1550. This edition was probably one of the two revisions which Coverdale mentioned in his ser- mon .it Paul's < !ross, in which he defended his version, and said " if he mi ht review the book once again, as be had twice before, he doubted not he should amend." During some part of this reign Sir John Cheke trans- lated the Gospel of Matthew, and perhaps part of Mark, bul the translation waa not then published. The fol- lowing is a specimen of Choke's version — Matt, ii, 1: When Jesus was boorn in Betblem a citi of Juri in king Herood's dais, lo then the YVisard's cam fro thest parties. However, many editions of the Bible were printed, some being reprints of Matthew's Bible, some of Cran- mer's, and some of Taverner's Recognition. The total number of impressions of the Bible in the reign of Ed- ward was at least thirteen. There were also several editions of the New Testament, some of Tyndale's translations, some of Coverdale's version, and some according to Cranmer's Bible. The number of these editions of the New Testament amounts to at least twenty-five, so that the whole number of Bibles and Testaments in circulation comprised man)- thousand copies. On the accession of Mary the printing and the cir- culation of the Scriptures in English was hindered, so that her reign onl)- witnessed the printing of one edition of the New Testament, printed at Geneva in 1557. The translator of the Genevan Testament was William Whittingham, a native of Holmset, six miles from Durham, who was one of the exiles from England. This was a small square volume, printed in Roman letters, with the supplementary words in italics. It was the first English New Testament di- vided into verses and broken into small sections or par- agraphs. The preface was written by John Calvin, whose sister Catharine was married to Whittingham. In the manner of rendering not a few passages the translator followed the judgment of Beza in his theo- logical views. The following is a specimen of this version — Matt, xiii, 19 : When soeur a man hearetb the worde of the kyngdome, and vnderstandeth it not, there commeth that euyl one, and catchetb away that which was sowen in his heart, and this is the corne which was sowen by the way syde. Whittingham and his companions in exile also ex- ecuted a translation of the whole Bible at Geneva, and it is not unlikely that Coverdale aided in the work. The translators probably had motives which sufficient- ly influenced them in executing a new version, instead of giving a mere reprint or revision of any which had preceded. The intention of such a work had been en- tertained in the reign of Edward VI, and it is proba-. ble that in this projected revision, from the manner in which the name of Bucer was connected with it, there would have been embodied whatever might be learned from the biblical knowledge possessed by the Reform- ers on the Continent. This translation differed from all that had preceded it not only in its plan, but also in its execution. The other versions had been gener- ally the work or the revision of an individual, or, at most, a revision in which certain individuals executed certain particular parts; in this translation we find, on the contrary, many acting unitedly in the forma- tion of a version, and thus, in the plan of operation, there was a principle of completeness which had not been acted on previously. The translators, by the use of supplementary words, often aided the sense with- out seeming to insert what was not found in the orig- inal. It was also stored with marginal notes. This version of the whole Bible was printed at Geneva by Rowland Hall in 1560, so that it was not published until after many of the exiles had returned home. In this translation, which was the first complete English Bible divided by verses, it is to be observed that the translation of the New Testament differs in several respects from that which had been separately printed in 1556. The expense of preparing the Genevan Rilile was chiefly borne by John Bodley, the father of Sir Thomas, the founder of the noble library at Oxford. On the return of the exiles, Queen Elizabeth granted a patent to Bodley solely, for the term of seven years, to print this edition ; yet, on account of the interfer- ence of Archbishop Parker, no edition of the Genevan Testament or Bible was published in England till the year 1576. Immediately after Parker's death this version was published ; it continued to be frequently AUTHORIZED VERSION 559 AUTHORIZED VERSION reprinted in this country, and was for many years the popular version in England, having been only gradu- ally displaced by King James's translation, which ap- peared fifty-one years afterward. From the peculiar reading in Gen. iii, 7, the editions of the Geneva ver- sion have been commonly known hy the name of "Breeches Bibles;" but this reading, as we have al- ready seen, is as old as Wycliffe's time, and occurs in his translation. To some editions of the Geneva Bible is subjoined Beza's translation of the New Testament, Englished by L. Thomson. The following are speci- mens of the Geneva Bible — Gen. xli, 42, 43, and Matt, xiii, 19-: And Pharaoh toke of his ring from his hand, and put vpon Ioseph's hand, and araied him in garments of fine linen and put a golden eheine about his necke. So he set him vpon the best charet that he had, sane one : & they cryed before hime Abrech, and placed him oner all the land of Egypt. Whensoeur a man heareth the worde of the kingdome, and vnderstandeth it not, the euil one cometh, and catcheth away that which was sowen in his heart: and this is he which hathe receiued the sede by the way side. The next version of the Bible was superintended by Archbishop Parker, hence sometimes called "Parker's Bible," and published in 15G8. This ver- sion was executed with great care by more than fif- teen learned men, the initials of whose names occur at the end of the portions executed by them. From the greater part of those who were engaged in its prepa- ration being bishops, this version is also called the "Bishops' Bible." This edition is adorned with one hundred and forty-three engravings, including por- traits and maps, which give it quite a pictorial appear- ance. The passages from the Vulgate, which had been introduced into Cranmer's Psalms, are omitted in this edition. This continued to be the version authorized to be read in the parish churches for forty-three years ; but in private use it never displaced the Geneva ver- sion. Though the Bishops' Bible was the avowed basis of our authorized version, this latter was ex- ecuted upon wholly different principles, and is very different in its general character. To this Bible was prefixed, among other things, the sum of Scrijrfwe, ta- bles of genealogy, and a preface written by Parker. In 1585, under Archbishop Whitgift, the seventeen readings from the Latin Vulgate were re-introduced, so as to harmonize with the Psalms in the Prayer- book. The edition of 1572 contains a double version of the Psalms, that of Cranmer's and that of the bish- ops'. The edition of 1595 has the Psalms according to Cranmer's Bible. The following is a specimen of this version— Mai. iii, 17 : And they shal be to me, saith the I.orde of honstes, in that day wherein I shall do [iudgment], a rlocke : and I wyl spare them as a man spareth his owne sonne which serueth him. In the year 1582 was published the Anglo-Rhemish version of the New Testament. The circumstances which led to the execution of this version are to be found in the history of the expulsion of Romanism from England in the reign of Elizabeth. The ver- sions of the New Testament previously executed, from that of Tyndale to the Bishops' Hible inclusively ■ — the English text of Coverdale's Diglott New Tes- tament excepted — had been made from the original Greek; but the Rhemish translators took for their basis the Latin Vulgate. One of the principal objects which the Rhemish translators had in view was evi- dently to circulate their doctrinal and controversial notes, together with the Scriptures translated by them. Though the translators desired anything rather than to give the rendering of the text simply and fairly, few passages show a really dishonest perversion ; yet very many passages exhibit a desire of expressing the sense obscurely, or at least in such a way that a com- mon reader may find not a little difficulty in gathering from the words a definite meaning. However, if we take the whole version, we shall find a very large por- tion well translated, and truly exhibiting the sense of the Latin Vulgate, such as they had it. Though the Council of Trent had defined the Latin Vulgate to be the "authentic" version, as yet, when the Rhemish version was printed, there had been no decision as to what copy was to be regarded as such. The Rhemish translators, as may be supposed, do not exactly agree with either the Sixtine published in 1590, or the Clem- entine edition published in 1592. Sometimes they have the reading adopted afterward by the one, some- times that which is found in the other. This may be said to be a matter of comparatively small importance, so long as they used the best readings which were within their reach, in the absence of an authentic edi- tion of the Latin Vulgate. The following is a speci- men of this version — Heb. xi, 4 : By faith Abel offered a greater hoste to God then Cain; by which he obtained testinionie that he was inst, God giving testimonie to his guifts, and by it, he being dead yet speak- eth. The Romish translation of the Old Testament was published at Douay, in two volumes, in the years 1009 and 1610. The editors of this part of the version speak of it as having been executed many years before, but that the poor estate of the English Romanists, in their banishment, hindered its publication. They say that they have revised the version according to the Clem- entine edition of the Vulgate, that thus it might be full}' in accordance with "the authenticated Latin." The following is a specimen of this version — Gen. xlix,10: The scepter shal not be taken away from, Ivdas. and a dvke ovt of his thigh, til he doe come that is to be sent, and the same shal be the expectation of the gentiles. In the modern editions of the Douay Bible and the Rhemish Testament, many changes have been intro- duced, some of which approximate to the authorized version, while others are not improvements. It is marvellous how editions of t he Scriptures were multiplied after the time of Tyndale, notwithstanding the severity of occasional persecutions. Besides about fourteen editions issued in Tyndale's life-time, eight or nine were issued in the year of his death. From the death of Tyndale to the close of Mary's reign, 1558, no fewer than fifty editions of the New Testa- ment and twenty-six of the entire Bible were printed, and from 1558 to 1611 there were issued more than fifty editions of the New Testament, and about one hundred and twenty of the Bible, besides separate books. Of this number, twenty-one editions of the New Testament and sixty-four of the Bible were of the Genevan translation. Still the work of Tyndale forms substantially the basis of every revision, not except- ing the translation now in common use. — Bastow\ III. History of the English Translation now in com- mon Use. — The authorised version was undertaken at the command of King James I, in consequence of sev- eral objections having been made by the Puritans to the bishops' translation at the second day's sitting of the conference held at the palace of Hampton Court, January 16th, 1603-4. The method proposed by the king for the accomplishment of the new translation was thus • That the version should be made by some of the most learned men in both the universities ; that it then should be reviewed by certain of the bish- ops ; that it should then be laid before the privy council ; and, last of ali, be ratified by royal authority. Accordingly, fifty-four men, pre-eminently distin- guished for piety and learning, were appointed to exe- cute this great work. However, the list of persons actually employed in the translation contains only forty-seven names. Though several of the persons thus appointed were made bishops before the work was completed, yet, as none of them were so at the time of the appointment, it would appear that the number needed to make up the deficiency is to be found in the fact of certain bishops having been espe- cially named as having the work in some manner un- der their control. This view is not improbable when AUTHORIZED VERSION 560 AUTHORIZED VERSION it is known that Bancroft, archbishop of Canterbury, Lb said to have made some alterations in the version; and Bilson, bishop of Winchester, was one of those who gave the work its final revision. The following is a list of the translators' names, with the parts as- signed to each company (see Clarke's Comment. Gen. l'ref. to 0. T. ; Macclure, Authors of Engl. Bible, N. Y. 1853) : l The Pentateuch ; the story from Joshua to the First Book of ilie Chnmiclcs exehtsirely ; these ten persons at Westmin- ster: Dr. Amif.i.u s, fellow and master of Pembroke Hall, in Cambridge; then dean of "Westminster; afterward bishop of Westminster. Dr. Overall, fellow of Trinity Coll. ; master of Katb. Hall, in Cambridge; then dean of St. Paul's; after- ward bishop of Norwich. Dr. Sabavia. Dr. Clarke, fellow of Christ. Coll., in Cambridge; preacher in Canterbury. Dr. L.\ii--ir.t.i>, fellow of Trin. Coll.. in Cambridge: parson of St. Clement Hams, living skilled in architecture, bis judgment was much relied on for the fabric of the Tabernacle and Tem- ple.) Dr. Leioii, archdeacon of Middlesex; parson of All- Hallows, linking. Master Bum; ley. Mr. King. Mr. THOMP- SON. Mr. Beuwell, of Cambridge ; vicar of Tottenham, near London. 2. From the First of the Chronicle*, with the Rest, of the S'nrn, ii, ill tli? 11 yir.,jrapha, r/-., Joh, Psalms, Proverbs, Canticles. Fcchsiastcs: the following eight persons at. Cam- bridge. ■ Master KinvAim Lively. Mr. Riciiaui>si>\, fellow of Emman. Coll., afterward D. D. ; master first of Peter-House Coll., then of Trin. Coll. Mr. Ciiaderton, afterward D.D. ; fellow first of Christ Coll., then master of Emman. Coll. Mr. Dii.i.iM.iiAM, fellow of Christ. Coll.; beneficed at , in Bedfordshire, where he died, a single and a wealthy man. Mr. Andrews, afterward D.D , brother to the Bishop of Win- chester, and master of Jesus Coll. Mr. Harrison, the rev. vice-master of Trinity Coll. Mr. Spalding, fellow of St. John's Coll., in Cambridge, and Hebrew professor there. Mr. Bing, fellow of Peter-House Coll., in Cambridge, and Hebrew professor there. :i. The Four Greater Prophets, with the Lamentations, and the Twelve Lesser Prophets ; these seven persons at Oxford : Dr. Harding, pros, of Magdalen Coll. I r Reynolds, pres. of i lorpus christi Coll. Dr. Holland, rector of Exeter Coll., and king's professor. Dr. Kilijy, rector of Lincoln Coll., and regius professor. Master Smith, afterward D.D., and bp. of Gloucester, (lie wrote the preface to the version.) Mr. Brett, of a good family, beneficed at Qaiuton, in Buckinghamshire. >Ir. Faieclowb. 4. The Prayer of Manasseh, and the Rest of the Apocrypha ; tlie following seven at Cambridge: Dr. Du port, prebend of Ely, and master of Jesus Coll. Dr. Braintiiwait, first mas- ter of Emmanuel Coll., then master of Gonvil and Cains Coll. Dr. Radclvfee, one of the senior fellows of Trinity Coll. Master Ward, of Emman. Coll., afterward D.D. ; master of Sidney Coll., and Margaret professor. Mr. Downs, fellow of St. John's Coll., and Creek professor. Mr. Boyce, (ellow of St. John's Coll., prebend of Ely, parson of Box worth, in Cam- bridgeshire. Mr. Ward, regal, afterward D.D., prebend of Chichester, rector of Bishop- Waltham, in Hampshire. 5. Th? Four (,'osp,ls, Acts if th? Apostles, Ajiocilyps? ; these eight at Oxford- Dr. Ravis, dean of Christ Church, af- terward bp. of London. Dr. Abbott, master of University Coll., afterward archbp. of Canterbury. Mr. Eedes. Mr. Thomson. Mr. Savill. Dr. Peryn. Dr. Ravens. Mr. Harmer. ii. Th? Fpisths if St. Paul, and the Canonical Epistles; these seven at Westminster: Dr. Barlowe, of Trinity Coll., ia Cambridge, dean of Chester, afti rwa.rd bishop of Lincoln. Dr. IUt, inv.ox. Dr. Spencer. Mr. Eenton. Mr. Rabbet. Mr. Sanderson. Mr. Dakinq. The following instructions were drawn up for their proceedings : 1. " The ordinary Bible read in the church, commonly called the Bishops' Bible, i" be followed, and as little altered as the •J. "The name- .if the prophets and the holy writers, with • lie othi r name- in the text, to be retained as near as may be, I ding a lhe\ ire \ ulgarly used." '■'•■ "The old ecclesiastical words to be kept, as the word rh'irch not to he translate 1 congregation." hen any word bath divers significations, that to be ' '< hath been most, commonly used by the mosl emi- nent fathers, h. inj agn cable to the propriety of the place and the anal.. ". ■ I faith." " ■ i in. .'le.pters to be altered either not at all, ore little a- ma\ be, if necessity so require." o. ■■ \ . i.eir ie >i „..t - at all to be affixed, but only for the explanation of the Hebrew or Creek words, which cannot, without "nmo circ locution, .. briefly and nil) be expressed in place to be marginally set down as for i in- tit ivt. rence of one Set ipture to another." 8. ■• Everj particular man .,i each eompanj to take the same chapter .,i- chapter : and haviie.' translated or amended them severally by hiin-elf, where he think good, all to meet together, to confer v. hat they have ,1. me, and agree for their part what shall stand." 9. " As any one company has despatched any one book in this manner, they shall send it to the rest, to be consideied of seriously and judiciously ; for his majesty is very careful in this point." 10. "If any company, upon the review of the book so sent, shall doubt or differ upon any places, to send them word thereof to note the places, and therewithal to send their rea- sons ; to which if they consent not, the difference to be com- pounded at the general meeting, which is to be of the chief persons of each company, at the end of the work." 11. " When any place of special obscurity is doubted of, let- ters to be directed by authority, to send to any learned in the land for bis judgment in such a place." 12. "Letters to be sent from every bishop to the rest of his clergy, admonishing them of this translation in hand, and to move and charge as many as, being skilful in the tongues, have taken pains in that kind, to send their particular ob- servations to the company, either at Westminster, Cambridge, or Oxford, according as it was directed before in the king's letter to the archbishop." 13. "The directors in each company to be the deans of Westminster and Chester for Westminster, and the king's professors in Hebrew and Greek in the two Universities." 14. "These translations to be used when they agree better with the text than the Bishops' Bible, viz., Tyndale's, Cover- dale's, Matthew's, Whitchurch's, Geneva." To these the following rule was added : 15. "Besides the said directors before mentioned, three or four of the most ancient and grave divines in either of the I'niversities, not employed in translating, to be assigned by the vice-chancellor, upon conference with the re>t of the hi ads, to be overseers of the translation, as well Hebrew as Greek, for the better-observation of the 4th rule above specified." According to these regulations, each book passed the scrutiny of all the translators successively. In the first instance, each individual translated every hook which was allotted to his division. Secondly, the readings to be adopted were agreed upon by the whole of that company assembled together, at which meeting each translator must have been solely occu- pied by his own version. The book thus finished was sent to each of the other companies to be again exam- ined ; and at these meetings it probably was, as Sel- den informs us, that "one read the translation, the rest holding in their hands some Bible, either of the learned tongues, or French, Spanish, Italian, etc. If they found any fault, they spoke ; if not, he read on." In this way every precaution was taken to secure a faithful translation, as the whole Bible underwent at least six different revisions by the most learned men in the kingdom. The translation was commenced in the spring; of 1607, and occupied about three years, and the revision of it occupied about three quarters of a year more. It was printed in Gothic letter, and first published in folio in Hill, with the title, "The Holy Bible Conteyning the Old Testament, and the New: Newly translated out of the originall Tongues : And with the former translations diligently compared and reuiscd by bis Maiestias speciall Comandcment. Ap- pointed to be read in Churches." The expense of this translation appears not to have been borne by the king, nor by any government commission, but chiefly, if not entirely, by Mr. Barker. IV. Critical Estimatt if the Authorized Version, — It has often been affirmed that "King James's Bible is in no part a new translation taken directly from the originals, but that it is merely a revision of the earlier English versions, and compared with various Conti- nental translations." These remarks are not strictly correct. The translators themselves give us a correct view of the nature of their work. In their dedication to King James, they observe, " Your highness, out of deep judgment, apprehended how convenient it. was that, out of tin original tongues, together with compar- ing of the labors, both in our own and other foreign languages, of many worthy men who went before us, there should be one more exact translation of the Holy Scriptures into the English tongue." It must be admitted, however, that they closely followed the Septuagint and Vulgate in their emendations of pre- vious English translations to suit the originals. As King; James's version has been as extravagantly eulo- i gized by some as it has been unduly decried by oth- AUTHORIZED VERSION 561 AUTHORIZED VERSION ers, it will be well calmly and briefly to consider its merits as well as its faults. The most prominent perhaps among its excellences is its simple, pure, and nervous style. Its words are usually chosen from the old and more expressive Saxon element. It is this feature, no doubt, that has so en- deared it to the popular heart, and which gives it a charm to the youngest reader. There are some no- ticeable exceptions to this remark, however, for it sometimes uses Latin terms when Saxon were at hand, e. g. "cogitation" for thought, "illuminate" for en- lightened; "matrix" for womb; " prognosticator" for foreteller; "terrestrial" for earthly; "vocation" for calling, etc. In the Lord's Prayer, at both passages (Matt, vi, 13; Luke xi, 4), our translators employ "temptation" instead of trial. Another marked ex- cellence that has usually been attributed to the Auth. Vers, is its general accuracy and fidelity to the orig- inal. In this respect it compares to great advantage with the Septuagint, which not only very often misses or misconstrues the entire drift of a clause, but some- times interpolates words and whole verses from apoc- ryphal sources ; and also with the Vulgate and other ancient versions, which, if they do not, like the Tar- gums, run into paraphrase, yet are very often misled into fanciful and erroneous interpretations. To this commendation, however, there must, in candor and truth, lie made very large drawbacks in many indi- vidual renderings of the A. V., and even in whole classes of renderings. Not only were the sciences of sacred philology, and especially of Biblical geography and antiquities, in too crude a state to enable the trans- lators to lix the exact meaning of obscure and doubt- ful terms with precision, but they have totally ignored the diction, style, and arrangement of the poetic por- tions, especially the laws of parallelism (q. v.), re- ducing poetry to prose, and transposing the words in the clauses arbitrarily and without reference to the original. They habitually neglect the import of moods and tenses, especially in the Hebrew (constantly ren- dering the pneter or future by the p)-esent or indefinite past, or the reverse), and they constantly lose the true force of particles and the nice shades of meaning in the prepositions, the article, and syntactical construction. Occasionally they are very happy in their renderings, but there is scarcely a verse, especially in the more highly-wrought and terse utterances of the 0. T., that is not marred or obscured by some loose or incorrect expression. It may safely be said that one half of modern popular commentaries is taken up with the correction of errors and the solution of difficulties, which a close, idiomatic, lucid, and judicious transla- tion would at once have dissipated. It is true, few if any who have tried their hand at improved versions have succeeded any better ; but this has usually been either because they were incompetent persons, or by reason of some dogmatic aim the}' had in view. Schol- ars who hive been otherwise qualified have not tliem- S3lves sufficiently appreciated the poetic element per- vading the Hebrew writings, or they have overdone the task by embellishing rather than following the text. Among the more obvious blemishes of the A. V. are its obsolete and indelicate phrases, its arbitrary and often absurd, always confusing, subdivision into chap- ters and verses, and its inexact and defective mode of punctuation. These are so objectionable, that, but for the attachment which long and early association pro- duces for the version, it would often be laid aside for anjr other which avoided these faults. From these causes alone the Song of Solomon has been practically discarded from both public and private reading, and many parts of the Bible cannot be safely ventured upon in a promiscuous company. The difficulty, it is true, sometimes lies in the passage itself, but there are very few instances where such phraseology might not properly be employed as would obviate all cmbarrass- Nx ' ment. If any other book were as badly edited as out | common Bibles, it would have provoked severe liter- i ary animadversion. But the inherent interest of the volume, the ineffaceable beauty of its sentiments, and ■ the irrepressible force of its teachings break through every disguise, and command the attention of all minds and hearts. I Among the lesser failings of the Auth. Version may be mentioned its frequent renderings of the same word or phrase in the original by various terms or expres- sions. This want of uniformity (which those who ure this Cyclopaedia will continually have occasion to ob- serve) was the result, probably, in part at least, of the execution of the translation by various parties. In proper names and technical terms, the identification not unfrequently becomes impossible to ordinary read- ers. Other infelicities seem to have been, in part at least, the result of king James's restrictive rules. We cannot conclude this criticism, which may ap- pear harsh to those who have not minutely investigated the matter, without expressing the hope that the day is not far distant when a thorough revision on liben.1 principles will be made of the common version by a committee of learned men chosen from all evangelical denominations; or, what would perhaps be still more satisfactory, a new translation be put forth under the auspices of such an authority, and then left to secure its acceptance for critical purposes by its intrinsic merits. However excellent, it could not be expected to supersede the extensively circulated and familiar version for general use. See Versions (of the Bible). V. Standard English Bibles. — 1. The Original Edi- tion.— This, as stated above, was published in the year 1611, the translation having been commenced in 1604. The probability is that the translation was finished in 1608, at the latest, leaving the unnecessarily long time of three years occupied in printing; but the ree- i sons for this delay are not now known. The volume is a stately folio, each page measuring ; 144; inches by 8|, exclusive of margin. Two columns of text are on each page, each having 59 lines when full, and two marginal columns. The text is printrd i from an uncommonly heavy and noble Old-English type— "great primer" in size, reduced by the shrink- I ing of the paper to nearly "two-line brevier." The ; head-lines of the pages are in a very large Roman let- ter, three quarters of an inch deep. Each chaptT commences with an engraved initial, about an inch square ; and each book with one yet larger, often 2i inches square. In addition, engraved ornaments are at the beginning of every book, and the title-page consists of a heavy engraved border, having a very little place for letter-press. The effect of this display, however, is somewhat reduced when we learn that none of these embellishments were provided expressly for this Bible, but that they had all appeared in pre- vious editions of other translations. One or two of the large initials, indeed, were engraved for an edition of Ovid. The parts usually printed in italic, as the headings and supplied words, are in Eoman. The volume contains, besides the text and Apocry- pha (this latter being printed from the same type as the rest of the book), the Address to the Reader, a very valuable document, which, most unfortunately, is now almost entirely lost sight of; the Dedication "to the most high and mighty Prince James," which is just as worthless as the other is valuable, and is neverthe- less printed in all English Bibles to this day; Speed's Genealogies, covering 34 pages, very intricate, pro- found, ingenious, and dry ; and, apparently, a Calen^ dar, though copies containing this last are very rare. The pages are not numbered, but the signatures, or printer's guide-letters, placed at the foot of certain pages, run up in the Apocrypha to Ccccc, which is equal, counting by sixes, to 1368 pages, and in the New Testament to Aa, which counts £00 more. This covers the text only. AUTHORIZED VERSION 562 AUTHORIZED VERSION The spelling and punctuation are very irregular, as in all books ofthe time. The following two verses, taken at random, will be a sufficient example— Matt, ix, 1, 2 : -A.Nd hee entred into a Chip, and patted ouer, and came into his owne citie. , 2 And behold , thev brought to him a man ficke ot the pal- lie, lying on a bed : and Ielus feeing their faith , faid vnto the ficke ofthe pallie, Sonne, be of good cheere, thy finnes be lor- giuen thee. There are also many typographical errors — more, in- deed, than would he borne with in any Bible printed now. The most striking is in Exodus xiv, 10, which reads thus, modernizing the spelling : 10 And when Pharaoh drew nigh, the children of Israel lift up their eves, and behold, the Egyptian- marched after them, and thev were sere afraid : and the children of Israel lift up their eyes, and behold, the Knvptinns marched after them, and thev were sore afiaid : and the children of Israel cried out unto the Lord. Other notable errors are in Lev. xiii, 56, "the plain be somewhat dark,'' where we must read, "the plague be somewhat dark;" Lev. xvii, 14, " Ye shall not eat the blood," for "Ye shall eat;" Jer. xxii, 3, "deliver the spoiler," instead of "deliver the spoiled;" Ezek. xxiv,7, "pouredit upon the ground," for "not upon;" Hosea vi, 5, " shewed them," for " hewed them ;" and many others. These, however, were soon corrected. Notwithstanding that by the king's command mar- ginal notes were not to be affixed, some were found indispensable. For instance, at Matt, xxii, 2, we have the note, " The Roman penny is the eighth part of an ounce, which, after five shillings the ounce, is seven- pence halfpenny." Others of this class are found. In other places, the translators did not even avoid critical r.otes. Baruch i, 10, at "prepare ye manna," has " Gr. corruptly for mincha, that is, a meat-offering." Others of these notes might be pointed. out; but, as a general thing, these would be quite as well omitted, as they now generally are. The number of marginal ref- erences is very small — only 8980, including the Apocry- pha. At present the best Bibles, without the Apocry- pha, have over seventy thousand. Bagster's Com- prehensive Bible claims to have "nearly half a mil- lion," which, we opine, is incorrect. The translators' manuscript has been lost. Accord- ing to a pamphlet published in 1660, it was, five years previously, in the possession of the king's printers. It has not since been heard of. The manuscript of the Translators' Address to the Reader is said to be preserved in the Bodleian Library, Oxford. Copies of this edition are now pretty scarce. The commonest loss, as with other books, is of title-pages. Much care is necessary to identify an imperfect copy of this edition, for a second was printed in 1611, and" others in 1613, 1617, 1631, and 1640, from the same type, and running page for page. Each edition pre- sents typographical errors peculiar to itself. The only clew we have here space to give is, that the two edi- tions of 161] are the only ones in which the signatures rcei mmence with the New .Testament, and the second of that year has the before-mentioned errors corrected. Many bad ones, however, are found in it, not the least of which is the enumeration of "1 Corinthians" and "2 Corinthians" in the list ofthe books ofthe Old Tes- tament instead of Chronicles. In 1833 a reprint of this first edition, page for page, but in Roman letter, wa made at Oxford, so exact as to follow even the most obvious typographical errors, and showing the ancient spelling throughout. Bag6ter's English Hexa- pla also contains the text of the New Testament print- ed verbatim from this edition; and where the bock itself is unattainable, these are perhaps the best sub- stitutes for those who, for anj reason, require to go behind the Bibles now in use A close scrutiny ofthe volume reveals indisputably the tacts that no member of the original companies of translators took cognizance ofthe volume as it passed through the press, but that the printer was depended on to secure accuracy ; and that, notwithstanding the lapse of three, perhaps four years between the comple- tion of the translation and its publication, it was run through the press with great haste. Add to this the fact that from 1600 to 1670 the British press was at its lowest point in improvement, and it will at once be seen that the chances of obtaining correct Bibles at first, or subsequently, were very small. Upon its pub- lication, editions were very rapidly multiplied. Each new one partly copied and partly corrected the errors of its exemplar; but each, to some extent, created new errors of its own, to be in like manner perpetua- ted. In 1638, for instance, a Cambridge Bible printed "ye" for "we" in Acts vi, 3, thus throwing the ap- pointment of deacons into the hands of the laity rather than the apostles; and this error continued down to 1691. It has been insinuated that the Independents made this change intentionally; DTsraeli, indeed, goes so far as to charge Field, the king's printer, with re- ceiving a present of £1500 to make it; and only the fact of its being first found in a Cambridge University edition disproves the statement. Many other errata, curious, whimsical, absurd, and shocking by turns, might be brought up from Bibles of the period, such as, for a few instances, "I pray God it may be laid to their charge," 2 Tim. iv, 16, in 1613; "Thou shalt commit adultery," in 1632; "the unrighteous shall inherit the kingdom of God," 1 Cor. vi, fj, in 1653. In each of these cases "not" is omitted ; but often words are transposed or changed, and the quarto of 1013 leaves two verses entirely out. The first attempt at correcting these errors seems to have been made by a Dr. Scattergood about 1680. From a collation of various old Bibles, we have ecme to the conclusion that he did but little. The next notable edition was that of Archbishop Tenison, 1701. This was intended for a standard, but unluckily was so full of typographical errors that a complaint was entered against the print- ers by Convocation. 2. Bkiyncy'.- Edition-— Sufficient care not being yet taken, King George I, in 1724, directed that the per- sons licensed to print the Bible — for in England, for the sake of insuring accuracy as far as possible, the book can only be printed by the universities, the king's printers, and persons by them licensed — should em- ploy such correctors of the press, and pay them such salaries as the Archbishop of Canterbury and Bishop of London should approve. Errors, however, most per- tinaciously crept in, and r.t length the University of Oxford employed Dr.Blayney to revise the English Bible and correct it throughout. His work was pub- lished in 1701*. It was issued in two forms, folio and quarto, the former being claimed to be the most cor- rect. His collation was made by comparing through- out the edition of 1611 (but which one cannot now be known, for it has only recently be< n settled that two editions were published in that year), that of 1701, which has already been mentioned for its incorrect- ness, and two recent Cambridge copies. Firm th»se somewhat unpromising materials he claims to have reformed the text "to such a standard of purity as, it is presumed, is not to be met with in any other edition hitherto extant." How far this is the case will be seen by-and-by. Besides this, the punctuation was revised throughout "with a view to preserve the true sense;" upon comparison with the Hebrew and Greek originals, many alterations were made in the words printed in italic; "considerable alterations" were made in the "heads or contents prefixed to the chap- ters;" many proper names were translated in the mar- gin, where the narrative contained an .illusion to their meaning ( this should have been done fully) ; the chro- nology, which was first added in 1680, was rectified ; and the marginal references were compared and cor- rected throughout, besides having 30,495 new ones added. Dr. Blayncy makes an accidental admission, tending AUTHORIZED VERSION 5 03 AUTHORIZED VERSION to lower confidence in the book, that two proofs were read, "and, generally speaking, the third likewise," whicli is quite insufficient for a standard edition of any work, or even an ordinary edition of the Bible. Four proofs are the least allowable on such a work. It is no wonder that afterward one hundred and six- teen typographical errors were discovered in it. The most important is in Rev. xviii, 22, which in the quar- to copy reads : 22 And tlie voice of harpers, and musicians, and of pipers, and trumpeters, shall be heard no mure in thee; and the sound of a milstone shall be heard no more at all in thee ; Reference to a correct Bible will show that the fol- lowing words are omitted: "at all in thee; and no craftsman, of whatsoever craft he be, shall be found any more." But, saying nothing of accidental errors like this, there is yet abundant ground for complaint against the text for incorrectness. In Joshua iii, 12. all previous editions had read "Take ye twelve men ;" it appears here, to the confusion of the grammar, "Take you twelve men." In Joshua xi, 19, "unto my place" is changed to "into my place ;" and, so far as there is a difference in the sense, the change is in- correct. But these errors, though utterly out of place in a standard Bible, are venial by the side of others. In Judges xi, 7, all editions before, and most after, read "the elders of Gilead ;" he has, "the children of Gilead." In Psalm xxiv, 3, instead of " and who shall stand in his holy place?" he introduced "or who shall stand." In Psalm cvii, 16, he, followed only by editions copied from him, reads "for he hath broken the gates of brass, and cut the gates of iron in sunder," the true reading being "bars of iron." In Psalm cxv, 3, he is the first to read " whatsoever he hath pleased," the inserted "hath" being quite super- fluous. His is the only edition we have met with •which reads, in Isaiah xlvii, 9, " But these two things ■which shall come in a moment." Most important is the change he introduced into Matt, xvi, 10, where he reads "Thou art the Christ" instead of "Thou art Christ." In this edition we find, for the first time, in 2 Cor. xii, 2, " I knew a man in Christ about fourteen years ago" instead of "above." In 1 John i, 4, the reading "our joy" for "your joy," though often met with now, is only an error first made in this edition. In punctuation, too, Blavney did but little better. There are few places where lie for the first time mis- pointed a verse, but he has perpetuated many errors. In Dent, ix, 3, the original, and all down to his time, are pointed substantially thus : " The Lord thy God is he which goeth over before thee as a consuming fire: he shall destroy them," etc. ; but the sense is entirely changed by putting the colon after "thee," and no point at "fire." In Acts xxvii, 18, the translators placed the comma after "day," but he perpetuated the mistake of placing it after "tempest," the effect of which is to make the mariners endure an exceeding storm for twenty-four hours before the}' lightened the ship. In Heb. x, 12, the sense is entirely lost by placing the comma after "sins" instead of at "for- ever," according to the translators. Other typograph- ical errors remained uncorrected. For instance, the marginal reading of Jonah iv, 6, is the meaningless " palmcrist." In 1 Tim. ii, 9, Blavney reads " shame- facedncss" instead of "shamefastncss," a word of an entirely different meaning ; and this error, unfortu- nately, has been continued to our day. In the same text he perpetuated the nonsensical corruption " broid- ered;" and in 1 Tim. iv, 1(5, he continues the error made a century before of " thy doctrine" for " the doc- trine." He is faulty in a critical point : the distinc- tion between " Lord" and " Lord." The word seems to be uniformly printed " Lortn" with him ; certainly in ever}' case we have noticed, including many where the Hebrew is Adonai. On the other hand, Blavney did some good things. He changed the obsolete unchanged in two others : Ezek. xxxv, 0, and the heading to Bom. v. In a few cases in which "mo" had remained unaltered to his time, he changed it to "more." lie changed "fet,". taken as a preterite, into "fetched ;" as a verb present it had been altered before. He attempted, too, to change "glister," but, as with "sith," only partially. Had he carried out his plan of translating significant proper names, he would have conferred a great benefit on his readers ; but here again he stopped halfway. The quarto edition, the one here referred to, is in three volumes, containing respectively the Old Testa- ment, the Apocrypha, and the New Testament. It contains no special preface, or mention of its peculiari- ties on the title-page or elsewhere, but is simply dated " Oxford : Printed by T. Wright and W. Gill, printers to the University." It was published at four guineas. The University of Oxford paid Dr. Blayney £5000 for his labor in revising the Bible. They thereupon concluded that they had an available standard, and in- continently adopted it. The other privileged presses followed. But very soon his errors, one by one, came to light; some were corrected at one press, some at another; just as had been the case before, passages really correct were changed in ignorance, and the up- shot "of it all was, that in a very few years there was no standard again. In 1804 the British and Foreign Bible Society was formed, and proceeded to work on the principle of buying the cheapest Bibles it could and trusting to the printers for accuracy. The American Revolution had erected a new Bible-reading nation; an effort made in its first Congress to restrict the printing of the book to licensed houses was cut short by the first amendment to the Constitution, and the book was thrown into the hands of the trade at large, witli any- thing but a beneficial effect on its general integrity. To crown all, the English printers became careless in supplying the foreign market. Charles Knight tells us of' a Bible so full of typographical errors that its printers dare not publish it in England, and he was assured " we had to send the whole edition to Amer- ica!" The editions of 1800 and 1813, though adopted as standards by the Protestant Episcopal Church, were but careful "reprints of Blayney without further edi- torial care. 3. The American Bible Society's Revision. — This so- ciety was formed in 1816, and proceeded to print its own Bibles, thus making itself responsible for their correctness. For the first thirty years it seems to have followed almost any respectable copy that came to hand, disregarding discrepancies. But in so many editions as were now produced in England and here, these differences were constantly increasing in num- ber. They were chiefly in punctuation, the use of capitals and italics, and such minor points. At length, in 1847. these had accumulated to such an extent that the proof-readers of the Society really did not know what to follow. The matter was now referred to the Board of Managers of the Society, and in February, 1848, they resolved to have a thorough collation of the English Bible made, and appointed Rev. J. W; McLane, D.D., of the (New-School) Presbyterian Church of Williamsburg, N. Y., to proceed with it. Accordingly, recent copies from the four "standard" British houses were obtained, an American Bible So- ciety's copy was the fifth, and the edition of 1011 the sixth. Blayney was ignored. These were carefully compared throughout ; every variation, no matter how minute, noted ; and this comparison furnished the data whence to prepare the text of a future edition. The number of variations found was about twenty-foul thousand. The Apocrypha formed no part of the work. The rules governing the formation of this standard text were simple. The reading of a majority of the 'sith" into "since" in two places, though he left it copies was to be followed; when the three English AUTHORIZED VERSION 564 AUTHORIZED VERSION copies agreed as to the use of the hyphen, their usage ■was to be accepted. In other matters, where each copy was inconsistent with itself, a system was agreed on. For instance, each copy had in one place " a high- way," in another "an highway." So, too, every copy had sometimes "a husband" and "an husband," "a hole" and "an hole," "a hill" and "an hill," "a hammer" and "an hammer," and so on. Here the strict grammatical rule was enforced. The distinction between "0" and "Oh," which had been lost sight of, was brought out, either form being used, as the sense of the passage required. In capital letters the words "Spirit" and "Scripture" were found very ir- regular ; the first was made to be capital when refer- ring to the Spirit of God, not elsewhere ; the second, when referring to the whole volume. Some spellings, now obsolete, were reformed, as "spunge," "sope," " cuckow," "plaister," "rasor," "morter," "as- swaged," and others; and, what was of more import- ance, some names of Old-Testament characters given in the New Testament, and there spelled according to the Greek, were changed to the ordinary Old-Testa- ment spelling. Thus "Juda" was changed to "Ju- dah," because it was already spelled so in the Old Testament; " Gedeon" to "Gideon," "Jephthae" to " Jephthah," " Sina," to " Sinai," "Chanaan" to "Ca- naan," "Core" to "Korah," and so with some — not all — others. In the words of the text the following changes from the modern copies were made. In Josh. xix, 2, " and Sheba" was made " or Sheba." In Ruth iii, 15, "she went" was changed to "he went." In Solomon's Song ii, 7, "he please" was made "she please." In Isa. i, 16, "wash you" was altered to " wash ye." But all of these corrections were accord- ing to the original edition, which had been departed from in each case wrongly. Farther, in Matt, xii, 41, " in judgment" was made " in the judgment," because the Greek required it, and very manj' early English copies had it, though not the first. Also in Solomon's Song iii, 5, and viii, 4, the same change was made as in ii,7 ; for, though the original edition here read " he,", the probability, all things considered, was that it was but a typographical error in each case. In prosecuting the collation, the. headings of the chapters came under notice. These often differed ; but, so far as they agreed with the edition of 1611, or that of Blayney, they were frequently faulty. Some were distinctly and positive- ly false, as those to Daniel viii, Isaiah xli, Zech. xii; others were comments on the text, as those to Psa. xlix, Dan. xi, and the whole of Solomon's Song; others were incomprehensibly clumsy, as the few first of Acts; some positively shocking, as "the Lord re- fuseth to go as he had promised with his people" (Exod. xxxiii) ; " Samuel sent by God under pretense of a sacrifice" (1 Sam. xvi). These headings had not been prepared by the body of the original forty-seven translators, but by one of their number and one other person; they never were considered as forming part of the version; they had been extensively altered be- fore, both by Blayney and by many anonymous par- ties, and therefore the committee under whose care the collation was going on resolved to remodel these where necessary . Wherever "Christ" or "the Church" was mentioned in any Old-Testament heading, "Mes- siah" and "Zion," the equivalent words used in the ( Mil-Testament text, were substituted, in order to avoid comment. The marginal references were again recti- fied, many errors corrected, and their number, upon the whole, diminished. A very few marginal read- ings were added, chiefly explanatory of proper names. To .Matt, xxiii, 24, where "at" is now generally con- sidered to be a misprint from the first for "out," a nole was put, "Or, strain out;" and to ".Tesus," in Acts vii, 46, the committee put the note, "That is, Joshua," as the translators themselves had done in Ileb. iv, 8. (See, on the whole subject, the Society's pamphlet entitled " Report on the History of the Be- ; cent Collation of the English Version of the Bible," N. Y. 1857.) The standard thus prepared was published in 1851. Though issued in a quiet way, it was received with general approval. For six years it remained the standard of the Society, and during that time not a whisper of disapprobation was heard. But in 1857 a Protestant Episcopal clergyman of Baltimore pub- lished a pamphlet aimed at this work, in which, while carefully avoiding specific charges, the most severe spirit was exhibited. The Society was accused of an attempt to "supersede the time-honored version in its integrity;" it was making a "half-way adventure" toward a new translation ; it was " debasing the stand- ard ;" its Bible was "a vulgarized work," and so on. The committee had found twenty-four thousand varia- tions in the Bibles in common use ; their language was converted into a statement that they had made twen- ty-four thousand changes. The New-York organ of the same church at once joined in the attack, but the amount of its charge was that the standard was differ- ent from every copy collated. In the General Assem- bly of the Old-School Presbyterian Church in the same year, the same subject was brought up by a speaker wdio stigmatized the standard as being "tinkered up" by "an anonymous printer and a New-School preach- er!" Asking, " Why discard these captions that have been acquiesced in two hundred years ?" he forgot that they had not been so acquiesced in, and that abundant reason had been shown for "discarding" them. In Jul}', 1857, the (Presbyterian) Princeton Review had a most bitter article on the same subject. The. only at- tempt to meet the difficulties of the case was the state- ment (page 510) that the Society should "give up en- tirely all idea of producing a standard text," or other- wise should " take the standard editions and collate them." But if this latter course wras followed, as it had been, "the Society would have no right to exer- cise its own discretion in selecting the readings or the punctuation it would adopt." In compliance with these and similar demands from auxiliary bodies, the Board of Managers, in Februaty, 1858, revoked this standard. Their present imperial quarto edition is now their printer's guide. With this action perished the hope of having for the present a generally-ac- cepted standard e>f King James's translation. One cannot now be got up in England by any one church, because dissent in many branches is so extensive; nor by co-operation, because they have no union ; nor by their Bible Society, because it does not print its own books. In this country the American Bible Society is the only body which has any general authority. It is to be regretted that this society has not felt itself au- thorized by its constitution to retain and prosecute the needed work. See Bible Societies, 3, xii. VI. Marginal Readings. — These are generally passed over by Bible readers, but a careful student will find them invaluable for ascertaining the precise meaning of any text. They are of two kinds: the first, com- monly marked by a dagger (f), giving the literal translation of a peculiar idiom in the originals where it could not. be rendered in good English, also the translation of significant proper names ; and the other, marked by a parallel (||), representing a possible dif- ferent rendering where the original is in doubt from any cause. They are further distinguished by being prefaced by "That is," in the translations of names, or "Ileb.," "Chald.," or "Gr.," according to the original language in the first class; and "Or," in the second class. In many modern Bibles they are re- ferred to by consecutive figures or Greek letters ; hut the system here described is that used by the original translators and by the American Bilde Society. The translators regarded these readings as a component part of their work ; and to the present day ministers of the Church of England read and use either the marginal rendering or that in the text at pleasure. They were AUTHORIZED VERSION 5( first used by the translators of the Geneva version of the Bible half a century before ours was made. Since the publication of our translation in the year 1611, the marginal readings have at various times been enlarged and improved. There are now about three hundred of these more than the original number, and a few have been omitted. Of the others, many have been extended by adding the necessary exple- tives. A few palpable errors have been corrected, as in the note to 1 Sam. v, 4, where the stump of the fish- idol Dagon was ludicrously described as "the filthy part," now correctly printed "the fishy part." In other cases one note has been divided into two, one of each class. In one instance an odd typographical error has been introduced into a note and perpetuated • Jo- nah's gourd (Jonah iv, 6) is in the first edition de- scribed as a " palme-crist," or palma chrlsti (the cas- tor-oil plant), in the margin; but the word has been corrupted into "palmerist," to which no meaning can be attached. There is no trace of any person or body authorized to make these changes, and except in the correction of palpable typographical errors, as above noticed, it would seem that they should no more be meddled with than should those other readings which form the body of the text. Both came originally from the same translators, and both were intended to be of equal au- thority. This fact at once places them above the rank of mere commentary, and renders their study most im- portant. Ruth i, 20, for example, is almost meaning- less as commonly printed; but when opposite "Nao- mi" we read "that is, Pleasant," and opposite "Ma- ra," " that is, Bitter," we see at once a beauty in the passage of which otherwise we could form no idea. So, also, with strength of expression. Verse 13 of the same chapter is made much stronger when, instead of "it grieveth me much for your sakes," we read, "I have much bitterness for your sakes." Job xvi, 3, is wonderfully strengthened if we adopt the Hebrew idiom — never mind if the English is not so good — and instead of "vain words," read "words of wind." So when, in Job v, 7, we read "sons of the burning coal" instead of " sparks," we at once see, better than by any commentary ever written, the metaphorical character of Old-Testament poetry, and thenceforth can read the poetical books with vastly-increased ap- preciation. VII. Chapter and Verse. — Among the Jews, witli whom the only divisions of the Scripture was into books, according to authorship, references were made by citing the subject treated of near where the passage quoted was to be found. In this way Jesus referred the Sadducees to what we call Exodus iii, 6, as we see by Mark xii, 26. The meaning here is not that God spoke to Moses in the bush, for the text says that he spoke to him out of it- but rather, " Have ye not read in the Book of Moses, in The Bush, how God spake unto him?" that is, "in that part of the Book of Moses called The Bush." " I may observe," says Arch- bishop Trench, "that Romans xi, 2, is a quotation of the same kind. It can never mean 'of Elias,' as in our version, but is rather 'in [the history of] Elias,' in that portion of Scripture which tells of him." The Koran is quoted by this means now. Its chapters are called from their subjects by such names as "The Cow," "Thunder," "Smoke," "The Moon," "Di- vorce," "The Spider," "The Resurrection," "The Slanderer," and so on. The division into chapters Avas made by a cardinal, Hugo de Sancto Caro, about the year 1250. He was employed in compiling a Latin Concordance, the first of which we have any account, and invented this divi- sion to facilitate his labor. The Boole of Psalms is naturally divided. Paul quotes " the second Psalm" and " another Psalm" in Acts xiii, 33, 35. The chap- ters having been marked, greater precision was ob- tained by putting capital A, B, C, and so on, at regu- 5 AUTHORIZED VERSION lar distances down in the margin, so that any passage near the beginning of a chapter would be quoted; u% for example, "John, 10, A;" further down, "Jeremi- ah, 14, D," and so on. The early English versions all showed this arrangement, and Marbeck's Concordance, the first one in English, makes its references in this manner. These smaller divisions by letters were in- convenient, because they were not made by any sys- tem, and in different translations were of different lengths. The}' generally embraced about six or seven verses under one letter. The divisions into chapters were not uniform ; at least they are not so in our early English translations. Wj'cliffe, for instance, divides Jude into two chapters; and Coverdale makes thirty chapters in 1 Chronicles by dividing the fourth chap- ter into two. Very frequently in the Pentateuch and Job, and occasionally elsewhere, there is a difference of one to four verses in the beginning of a chapter. Where this is the case, too, our version often makes the division in the worst place. The divisions into verses were made by several per- sons. About 1430 Rabbi Mordecai Nathan divided the Hebrew Bible thus, using Cardinal Hugo's chap- ters. In 1527 a Latin Bible was published at Lyons in which this division of the Old Testament Avas fol- lowed, and the New Testament also divided, but into verses averaging twice as long as ours. But our pres- ent arrangement in this part of the Scriptures was made about 1550, by Robert Stephens, a printer of Paris, who executed the work while making a horse- back journey from Lyons to Paris. This was done only as an advertisement for an edition of the Testa- ment he soon after published in Greek, with two Latin versions. The circumstances under which the work was done effectually prevented the exercise of any scholastic or critical care or ability. But, though the Old Testament was divided first, no edition of it in Hebrew was printed thus till 1661. The first English Scripture printed with verses was the Testament print- ed at Geneva, 1557, and in 1560 the whole Bible at the same place. The Bishops' Bible, next in order, pub- lished in 1568, had them, but also had the marginal guide letters, as in the earlier translations, and in its marginal references it uses the letters instead of the verses. In the next Protestant translation, King James's, or our present one, the letters are altogether omitted. It seems never to have been considered that the division into verses superseded chapters; but real- ly a reference to Luke 243 would be much shorter than to Luke xii, 13. The Psalms are, by their structure, naturally divided into verses. But yet our transla- tions are not uniform in this, even here. Psalm xlii, for instance, is in Coverdale's Bible made one para- graph; Matthew's, twelve verses ; Cranmer's, fifteen, Geneva and Bishops', eleven ; and the Douay, twelve. In Cranmer's Bible each of the alphabetical sections of Psalm cxix is numbered independently, 1 to 8. From all this it appears that these divisions have no divine warrant whatever, were carelessly made, and should be disregarded in seeking the sense of any part of Scripture. Hence it follows that the best Bibles for common use are those called Paragraph Bibles, in which the matter is reduced to ordinary prose form, except in the poetical books, which are printed in short lines, so as to show their poetic structure. Un- fortunately, but few editions are thus published. The Religious Tract Society of London issue a few; one in 12mo, some thirty years ago, was the best. One they have recently got out, in royal 8vo, with notes and maps, has all the parallel passages, and, though very useful, is so encumbered with reference marks in the text as to distract the reader's attention constantly. Rev. T. W. Coit published a very good one in Cam- bridge, Mass., 1834. Before that, others had been got out at Oxford, chiefly objectionable as not showing the poetic form of some parts. One of the most useful Paragraph Bibles to the English student is that of AUTHORIZED VERSION 566 AUTOCEPHALT Bishop Wilson, Bath, 1785, 3 vols. 4to ; but it labors under the disadvantage just spoken of. After all. the I .est way of making references would have been by a system like the "folios" of the law- yers. Put a special mark at every hundredth -word, and a corresponding number in the margin, and you ha\ >■ not only a ready means of reference but a guard against changes in the text, and are yet at full liberty to print the matter either as prose or poetry, without distracting the eye or breaking the sense in the slight- est degree. It is, however, too late to do this with our present version. As the next best thing, more Paragraph Bibles should be printed, in all respects like other books, except that the commencement of each verse may be shown by a very small mark in the body of the line, and its number in the margin oppo- site"— Christian Advocate (N. Y.). See Bible. VIII. Literature. — 1. On the history of the subject: Baber, Account of Saxon and English Versions (in his ed. of Wycliffe's N. T.) ; Newcome, English Biblical Translations, etc fDubl. 1792); Tomline, Engl. Trans- lation of the Bible (in his Christ. Theol. ii); Timperley, in his Encycl. of Typographical A necdote, passim ; Wil- son, Catalogue of Bibles, etc. (Lond. 18-15) ; Hewlet, in his Bible, p. 1; M'Clure, 77/c Translators Revieiced (N. Y. 1853). 2. On the criticism of the present and proposed versions : Macknis;ht On the Epistles, i ; Campbel On the Gospels, ii, 141, 241 ; Broughton, Works, p. 557, 575; Fulke, Defence, etc. (reprinted for the Parker Soc, Camhr. 1843); Kilburn, Dangerous Errors, etc. (Lond. 10'59) ; Lee, Memorial, etc. (Edinb. 1824); Curtis, The Monopoly, etc. (Lond. 1833; an- swered by Cardwell [Oxf. 1833], and Tutton [Cambr. 1833, again 1834]); Whetenhall, Scripture Authentic (Lond. 168G); Gell, Essay toward Amendments, etc. (Lond. 1659); Le Cene, Essay for a New Translation (Lond. 1727) ; Lookup, Erroneous Translations, etc. (Lond. 1739) ; Bret>, Letter, etc. (Lond. 1743 ; enlarged, 1760; also in Bp. Watson's Tracts); Penn, Mistrans- lations, etc. (in his Tracts [1757], p. 367); Garnham, Letter to Dp. of Norwich (Lond 17*9) ; Roberts, Cor- r> ctions, etc. (Lond. 1794) ; Ward, Errata, etc. (Lond. 1688 ; Dublin, 1807 ; replied to by Ryan [Dublin, 1808], and Grier [Lond. 1812]) ; White", Sermon, etc. (Oxf. 1779, p. 24) ; Symonds. Observations, etc. (Cambr. 1789-94); Burgess,v#e«soras, etc. (Durham, 1810); We- niyss, l;ibrc,il i,h anings (York, 1816); Fuller, Remarks, etc. {Works, p. 990); Burges, Reasons, etc. (Lond. 1819); Whittaker, Inquiry, etc. (Lond. 1819, 1820); Hurwitz, Defence, etc. (Lond. 1820); Laurence, Re- marks, etc. (Oxf. 1820) ; Harness, State of the Engl. Bible ( Lond. 1856) ; Malan, Vindication, etc. (Lond. 1856); Iliff, Plea, etc. (Lond. 1856); Cumming, Bible /,'. v 'sin,, i Lond. 1856) ; Baber, Plea, etc. (Lond. 1857 ) ; M'< !aul, Reasons, etc. (Lond. 1857) ; Burgess, Revision, etc. i Lond. 1857); Trench, Revision, etc. (new ed. Lond. 1859). I In' following are the principal editions referred to in tliis article (see also Bagster's " English Hexapla," containing the versions of Wyclifte, Tyndale, Cran- mer, < lenevan, Anglo-Khemish, Authorized, etc., Lond. 1841, Ito; also the exact reprint of the A. V. of 1611, issued from the Clarendon Press, 1833, 4to). I. Anglo-Saxon. ton, original,, with translation and note- bv Thorpe (Loll, I. 1 -:..'. Vbp. Parker (Lond. 1671, 4to> ; by Thorpe (Lond. 1342, 12mo). Latin-Saxon, ed. by Spehnan (Lond. 1640, 4to); bv 4. Job, etc., Anglo-Saxon, ed. bj Thwaites (Oxford, 1699, 8 vo). II. l'.Aia.v Bnoi.ii ii. 1. Wv.i.nri:: Bible (ed.by Forahall and Madden, Oxf. 1880, 4 vol,-. 11,,); .\'.i/' T'si. ,.- W,,nn„. 15_'.\ sv,, [oxactly re- printed at i.oti.1. KX}: c.,i,,hti(. .•■],,] Wciin , 15 :.. tto: nl-o III li'.'O, i:,.'7, l'.Js. I .VIM; ,.1. |,v l.rwi,, I.,,n(l W.'A, f,,l.: by Baber, Lond. 1810, Ito). 2. Tvmialk : Hew Teat. (Ante. 1534, 12mo ; altered by Joyce, Antw. 1534, 16mo) : Matth. and Mark (1534) ; the rest un- certain. 3. Coverpale: Bible (? Zurich, 1535, fol. [reprinted by Bol- ster, Lond. 4to, 1835, 1S47] ; fol. and 4to, 1537 ■ Zur and Lond. 4to, 1550 [and 1553] I. 4. Matthew (i. e. John Rogers) : Bible (fol. Lond. 1537, 1549 twice, 1551 twice). 5. Cbanmek's: Bible (fol. Lond. 1539, 1540, 1541, 1549 twice; 4to, 1550, 1552, 1553 ; fol. 155s ; 4to, 1501 ; iol. 15.0, 1500 ; 8vo,15G6; 4to, 15GS, " 150.0. 6. Taverner: Bible (fol. Lond. 1539; 5 vols. Svo, 1549). 7. Genevan: Bible (Geneva, 4 to, 1500, fol. 1501; 4to. 15(19, 1570, 1575, Lond. fol. 1570, 1577. 157s'. Edinb. 1579. fol ■ Lond. 4to. 1579, 15S0, 15S1 ; Svo, 15S1 ; fol. 15s-.'. ir,s:;; 4to, 15S5, 15S6, Svo, 15SG ; 4to. 1587, 15S^, 15s"'. l.v o, Svo, (Jamb. 1591 ; fol. Lond. 1512; Svo, 1593, 4to, 1594; fol. and 4to, 1595; 4to, 1590; fol. 15:i7. 4to, 1598, 1599, 1000, Dort, 1601, lOmo; Lond. fol. 1002; 4to and Svo, 1003, 1G0G; fol., 4to, and Svo, 1G07; 4to and 8vo, 1608; 4to, 1009; fol., 4to, and Svo, 1G10; fol. and 4to, 1611; Edinb. fol. 1610; Lond. 4to, 1013, 1014, 1615; fol. 1616; Amst. fol. 161T; 4to, 1633, etc.): Sciv Test. (Geneva, 155T, Svo). S. Bishops' (or Parker's) : Bible (Lond. 4to, 156S ; 4to, 1509; fol. 1572; 4to, 1573; fol. 1574, 1575, 4to, 1570, 1577; fol. 157 S, 15S4: 4to, 15S4; fol. 15S5, 15Ss, 1591, 15(5, 159s, 1602,1606). 9. Beza's Lat. tr. by Tomson : New Test. (Lond. 157C, Svo) ; afterward in many '•'•Genevan" Bibles. III. King James's. The editions of this have been innumerable (see the Appendix to Anderson's Annals of the Bible, Lond. ed.). The following are some of the attempts at an im- proved English version of the Scriptures (not includ- ing those for critical purposes contained in commen- taries, etc.) : Harwood, ATew Test. (Lond. 1768, 2 vols. 8vo) ; Purver, Old and New Test. (Lond. 1764, 2 vols, fol); Worsley, New Covenant (Lond. 1770, 8vo) ; Ged- ; des, Bible [Gen. to Ruth] (Lond. 1792-1800, 3 vols. 4to) ; Wakefield, New Test. (Lond. 1795, 2 vols.' 8vo); Newcome, New Covenant (Duhl. 1796, 2 vols. 8vo); McKae, Eastern Bible (Lond. 1799, 8vo; Glasg. 1815, 4to, and 3 vols. 8vo) ; Tomlinson, Attempt, etc. (Lond. 1803, 8vo) ; Bellamy, Bible (incomplete, Lond. 1818 sq., 4to; severely criticized); Webster, Bible (N. H. 1833, Svo) ; Penn, New Covenant (Lond. 1836, 8vo) ; Greaves, Gospel, etc. (Lond. 1828, 18mo); Hussey, Bi- ble (Lond. 1844, 3 vols. 8vo) ; Cambpell, New Test. (3d ed. Bethany, Va. 1833, 24mo) ; Sawyer, New Test. (Bost. 1858, 8vo) ; Boothroyd, Bible (Lond. 1853, royal 8vo) ; Norton, Gospels (Bost. 1855, Svo) ; and the pub- lications of the Am. [Bapt.] Bible Union (q. v.). See English Versions. Autocephali (avroiek^aXoi), a term applied, in | the Greek Church, to bishops not subject to patriarchal jurisdiction. Such were, in the Greek Church, the ; Archbishop of Bulgaria and some other metropolitans, who claimed to be independent of the see of Constanti- nople; in the Church of Antioch, the Archbishop of Salamis, in Cyprus ; and among the Latins, the Arch- bishop of Ravenna, who denied all dependence on the popes. Such also was the ancient liberty of the Brit- ish Church, of which the remaining seven bishops, in the time of St. Augustine, acknowledged no superior but the Archbishop of Caerleon (Spelman, Con. Brit. A.D. 601). Originally all metropolitans were inde- pendent of any patriarch or exarch, ordering the af- fairs of their own province with their provincial bish- I ops, and accountable to no superior but a synod ; but I in process of time the bishops of the great cities of the empire arrogated to themselves rights over the prov- inces of their dioceses, such as that of ordaining metro- politans, convoking the synod of the diocese, and of inspection over all the provinces in their obediences. Such were the rights of the Bishop of Rome over the diocese of the vicariate of Rome, or the suburbicarian churches (6th can. of Nicaja). and those of the see of Alexandria over Egypt, Libya, and the Thebaid. Be- sides these autocephali, those bishops who were subject to no metropolitan, but were immediately dependent on the patriarch, who was to them instead of a metrc- politan, were so styled. In the diocese of Constanti- nople there were thirty-nine, or, as some accounts have AUTO DA FE 567 AVARAN it, forty-two such bishops ; in that of Antioch, sixteen ; in that of Jerusalem, twenty-five. The earliest men- tion of such bishops is in the Notifiu of the Emperor Leo in the ninth century. — Bingham, Orig. Eccl. bk. ii, ch. xxix, § 1, 2, 3; Landon, Eccl. Diet. s. v. Auto da Fe (Spanish, from the Latin Actus Fi- dei, "act of faith"), a ceremony in the acts of the Spanish Inquisition in which condemned heretics were punished, and those acquitted of heresy were released. The auto da fo generally took place on a Sunday, be- tween Pentecost and Advent, and very often on All- saints'-day. The procession was headed by the Do- minican monks, carrying the banner of the Inquisition. Following these, and separated from them by a cruci- fix, were those whom the Inquisition had pardoned. Next marched those who were condemned to death, attired in a peculiar habit, barefooted, their head cov- ered with a high cap, on which were painted devils and flames. Finally came effigies of such as had avoid- ed condemnation by flight, and the coffins of the vic- tims, painted black, with images of devils and flames on them. The march was closed by priests, who ac- companied the procession through the principal streets of the city as far as the church, where a sermon on faith was delivered. The verdict of the Inquisition was then read to the accused, who were obliged to stand in front of a cross, with extinguished tapers in their hands. As soon as the sentence of death was read against anyone, an officer of the Inquisition gave the accused a slight tap on the chest to signify his sur- rendering the culprit to the secular authorities. The condemned wrere then loaded with chains, taken to prison, and two hours afterward cited before the high- er court, where they were asked in what religion they preferred to die. Such as declared their adherence to the Roman Church were strangled, the others burnt alive. A stake was prepared on the place of execution for each victim. Two priests invited each of them to make their peace with the church, and, when all their efforts failed, solemnly consigned them to the devil. The burning then commenced ; and the remains of such as were already dead, together with the effigies of such as had fled, were also thrown into the fire. The daj' after the auto da fe, those whom the Inquisition had pardoned were (after swearing never to reveal what had taken place during their trial) restored to the places from whence they had been taken when ar- rested. On the occasion of an auto da fe, the Inquis- itors wrcre accompanied by the civil and military au- thorities, the nobility, and even the king and princes, while people of all ranks crowded to see the exhibi- tion. No auto da fe has taken place since the middle of the 18th century ; and the sentences after that time, up to the abolition of the Inquisition in 1808 by Joseph Napoleon, were carried into execution privately, in the buildings of the Inquisition. See Inquisition. Auvergne, Guillaume d', bishop of Paris, born at Aurillac in the second half of the 12th century, died March 30, 1249. He was one of the most learned the- ologians and philosophers of his day, and undertook to refute Aristotle on metaphysical questions. He was doctor of the Sorbonne and professor of theology, and subsequently was called to the see of Paris. His sermons and essays on several points of ethics were published by Le Feron in 1G74 (2 vols. fob). — Iloefcr, Biographic Generate, iii, 795. Auvergne, Fierre d', or Petri's de Cros, a French theologian and philosopher, died Sept. 25, 1307 (according to others, 1301). He became, under the guidance of Thomas Aquinas, a distinguished theolo- gian and philosopher. He was doctor of the Sor- bonne and canon of the chapter of Paris. According to Samarthanus (in Gallia Christiana), he was subse- quently bishop of Clermont. He wrote a number of commentaries to Aristotle. — Hoefer, Biographie Gene- rale, iii, 795. Auxentius. 1. Arian bishop of Milan, A.D. 355-374 (Sozomen, Hist, Eccl. vi, 23). He was tha leader of the Arians in the Western churches. When the orthodox bishops, at a provincial synod held in 3(39, under the presidency of Bishop Damasus of Home, condemned Arianism, the}' did not dare to pronounce the anathema against Auxentius, becauso they knew him to be protected by the favor of the Emperor Val- entinian I. Although they were at last prevailed upon by Athanasius to mention in their synodal epistle to the Illyrians the condemnation of Auxentius, the lat- ter maintained himself in his see until his death. He was succeeded by Ambrose (q. v.). 2. Abbot, born in Syria, being the son of Abdus, who was compelled by the persecution under King Sapor to leave his country and settle in Syria. In 432 Auxen- tius came to Constantinople, where he received an ap- pointment in the royal guards, but afterward retired to a solitary mountain in Bithynia, named ( >xius, where, clothed only in the skins of animals, he led a life of the most complete austerity. When the Council of Chal- cedon was convoked, Auxentius was unwillingly com- pelled to attend, and subscribed the decrees. After this he retired to a more remote mountain, called Si- ope, where multitudes of persons flocked to hear him. Of these, many continued to abide near him in cells, and followed the example of his ascetic course of life He died in 470. His memory is celebrated on the 14th of February. — Sozomen, Hist. Eccl. vii, 21 ; Butler, Lives of Saints, Feb. 14 ; Landon, Eccl. Diet. s. v. A'va(Heb. Avra', Xl?, ruin; Sept. Aou«,2Kings xvii, 24), also Ivai-i (Heb. Ivvati ', itHS, same signif. ; Sept. 'Aova, 2 Kings xviii, 34 ; xix, 13 ; but in Isa. xxxvii, 13, unites with the preceding word, Avaey- yovyavc'i v. r. Avayovyc'wa), the capital of a small monarchical state conquered by the Assyrians, and from which King Shalmaneser sent colonies into Sa- maria. The early Jewish translators (Symmachus and the Targums) understand it as a mere appellative; but it is associated with other proper names as a city. Some take it for the river, or rather the town which gave name to the river Ahava of Ezra viii, 21 (Beller- mann, Handbuch, iii, 374) ; but this name is quite dif- ferent in the Ilcb. (XiriX). Iken (Dissent. Philol. Theolcg. p. 15i) would identify it with the Phoenician town Avatha, mentioned in the Notitia Vet. Dignitatum Imper. Rom. (but the reading here is rather doubtful, see Roland, Palest, p. 232 sq.) ; or with the town of Abeje, between Beirut and Sidon, which Paul Lucas mentions as the seat of a Druse prince. Michaelis supposes it to be the land of the Avites between Trip- oli and Beirut, because they are described as worship- pers of Nibhaz (2 Kings xvii, 31), an idol which ho compares with the great stone dog that formerly stood in that quarter, on which account the Lycus obtained its name of Nahr el-Kelb, Dog River (comp. Mannert, VI, i, 380). This, however, rests upon a confusion of the A vim of 2 Kings xvii, 31, with those of Deut. ii, 23; Josh, xiii, 3. See Avite. Avva or Ivvah was doubtless a city of Mesopotamia, in the region indi- cated by the associated names (Babylon, Cuth, Ha- math, Sepharvaim), perhaps somewhere farther east, in the direction of the classical Aria. Ayalonius, Elvax, an apostle of England, lived in the second century. He preached Christianity to the Britons, and converted king Lucius, with his en- tire court. This king sent him to bishop Eleutherus to Rome, who made him bishop of London about 181. An "Essay on the Origin of the Church of Great Brit- ain" is attributed to Avalonius. — Hoefer, Biographic Generate, iii, 804, Av'aran (Avapav, Josephus Aiipav, Ant. xii, 0, 1 ; Vulg. Auram and Aharon; prob. of Arabic derivation, see Grimm, in loc), an epithet of Eleazar, the brother of Judas Maccabajus (1 Mace, ii, 5). AVARICE 568 AVEN Avarice (from Lat. avarus, from aveo, crave, strive after), an undue love of money. Avarice consists not merely in seeking after worldly wealth too eagerly, or by unjust means, but in loving it excessively, even though it be our own. Avarice is in its nature sin, and, according to St. Taul, a kind of idolatry. Greg- ory the Great enumerates seven particular sins which spring from avarice, or, as lie calls them, " daughters of avarice,*' viz. treasons, frauds, lies, perjuries, rest- lessness, violences, hardness of hearts (.l/or. in Jobum, lili. xxxi, cap. 17). The cause of this, vice is really unbelief. It " is because men believe not Providence, therefore do they so greedily scrape and hoard" (Bar- row On the Creed, Sermon I). It grows by indulgence, and is strongest in the aged, as if, by a penal irony, they who can least enjoy riches should most desire them OVesley, Sei-mons, serm. exxx). Avaris (AiVjott), the name of a city on the borders of Egypt and Syria, which the shepherd-kings (Hyk- sos) again occupied after their expulsion from it, ac- cording to Manetho, as recited by Josephus (Apion, i, 26). Rawlinson {Historical Ev. p. 74) thinks it is a corruption of the name Hebrews, who are referred to as being settled in Goshen. See Abarim. Avatar or Avatara, a term in Hindoo mytholo- gy for the incarnation of the Deity. The number of the Avataras mentioned in the Puranas, or legendary poems of the Hindoos, is verj' great. Those of Vishnu alone, who is distinguished by the character of '•Pre- server" in the Trimurti, or triad of the principal Hin- doo deities, are stated to be endless. They are vari- ously enumerated ; but all accounts seem to agree in selecting the following ten as the most conspicuous: 1. Afatsya, the Fish, under whose form Vishnu pre- served Manu, the ancestor of the present human race, during a universal delude. 2. Kiirma, the Tortoise, which incarnation Vishnu underwent in order to support Mount Mairdara, or rather the entire earth, when the celestial gods and their opponents the Asuras, or Daityas, were churning the sea for the beverage of immortality (amrita). 3. Vardka, the Boar. Vishnu, with the head of a monstrous boar, is represented as slaying Hiranyaksha, the chief of the Asuras, who had taken possession of the celestial regions, and as uplifting the earth, which had been sunk to the bottom of the sea. 4. In his incarnation as Narasinha, a being half man and half lion, Vishnu killed Hiranyakasipu, the brother of Hiranyaksha. 5. The form of Vdmana, the Dwarf, was assumed by Vishnu to humble the pride of King Bali. He went to a sacrifice which the king was performing, and sup- plicated for as much ground as he could measure with three steps, which request being granted, the dwarf suddenly ^rcw to an immense size, and with his steps comprised earth, mid-air, and heaven. inner of Amos and of Hosea. The latter frequently applies the very same word to Bethel. See Bki'iiaven. 2. (Sept. 'HAioi'ttoXic, Eng. marg. "Heliopolis.") Another name for ( >x (q. v.) in Egypt (Ezek. xxx, 17). The intention of the prophet is doubtless to play upon AVEXARIUS 569 AVITE the name in the same manner as Amos and Hosea. See No. 1, above. 3. (Sept. JQv.) A shorter form (Amos x, 8) of Beth- aven (q. v.) or Bethel. I Avenarius, John, a Protestant theologian, born .at Eger in 1520, died at Zeitz, Dec. 5, 1590. After having been in succession pastor at Plauen, Gessnitz, Schoenfels, he was appointed professor of theology at Jena, and in 1575 became superintendent at Zeitz. He is the author of a celebrated Prayer-book, which went through a great number of editions (Strasburg, Avila, Juan de, a famous Spanish preacher, sur- named the "Apostle of Andalusia," because he spent 40 years of his life in preaching to the towns and vil- lages of Andalusia, was born in 1500 at Almodovar del Campo, in New Castile, and died May 10, 1509. He is the author of a number of religious works, which are still held in great esteem by Roman Catholics. A complete edition of his works, together with a biogra- phy, was published by Martin Kuiz under the title Vida y Obras de Juan de A rili, predicador apostolico de VAndahma (Madrid, 1618, 2 vols. 4to, reprinted in 1757). A French translation of his works was pub- lished by Arnauld d'Andilly (Paris, 1073, fol.), and a 1578, etc.), and was translated by Zader into Latin He also published a Hebrew Grammar and Dictionary, J Qe^an bv Schermer ( and several other works. — lloefer, Biographic Gene- \ rale, iii, 826. A'vim (Heb. Avvim', with the article, b^Stt, the Avenger of Blood (biti, goeV , fully Gin ixa), I ruins, or the Avmtet1 tower ; Sept. Aiifi v. r. Aveiv), a a term applied to the nearest relative of a murdered I «tv in the tribe of Benjamin, mentioned between person, inasmuch as he had the right, and on him de- ! Bethel and P?rah (J?sb- svnl: 2:3)- ? 'Wl,avc been volved the obligation of killing the murderer (2 Sam. xiv, 7, 11) wherever he met him (outside an}' of the cities of refuge). Respecting this custom, universal among the Hebrews from the earliest times (Gen. x, 14; xxvii, 45), as among other nations of antiquity (e. fr. the Greeks ; see Welker, p. 301 sq. ; Wachsmuth, ITellen. Alterth. iii, 241, 2*4: the inhabitants of Tra- so named as having been settled by the Avites (q. v.) when expelled from Philistia, although it is uncertain whether they penetrated so far into the interior of the country (Keil, Comment, in loc). The associated names afford a conjectural location eastward of Bethel, and it is possibly the same with Ai (q v ). See Avite. Avis or Aviz, knights of a military order of Por- chonitis; see Josephus, Ant. xvi, 9, 1), and in the East tugal (order of St. Benito de. Ariz), instituted by Al- to this day among the Arabians, Persians, Abyssini- ! phonso I, in 1147 or 1162, in commemoration of the ans, Druses, Circassians, etc. (see Chardin, iii, 417 sq. ; capture of Evora from the Moors, whence the knights Niehuhr, Beschr. p. 33 sq. ; Reisen, ii, 430 ; East Ind. ! of this order were at first called knights of Santa Ma- Mission. Her. iii, 491 ; Burckhardt, Trav. ii, 872, 1011 ; ria oV Evora. They were afterward styled the Knights Lobo, Relation d1 Abyss, p. 123 sq.), the Jewish law- : of Avis, from a place of that name giver, in order to restrain its abuse, appointed (Exod. j where they built a fortress. These xxi, 13 ; Numb, xxxv, 9 sq. ; Deut. xix, 1 sq. ; comp. Joseph. Ant. iv, 7, 4) six cities of refuge (B5J3Q ^S') in different parts of the country, to which the man- slayer might have recourse, and where, if his offence had not been premeditated, he might remain in safety till the death of the high-priest at that time acting should release him from the danger of retribution, knights followed the rule of Cv- « teaux, with some variations, and 1' their duty was to defend the true faitli by force of arms, to keep chastity, and to wear a religious dress, consisting of a scapulary and hood, so made that it did not hinder their fightine. Their while, on the other hand, the wilful murderer w^s to | dresg of ceremonv is a white be in any case surrendered to the pursuer for ven- Lloak havm on [he left side a geance. _ It however, the man-slayer quitted the city ; „0S8 1kur_de_(;,^ at the foot of (Deut. xix, 6), or even went beyond the prescribed l.m- | which' are twQ b'irdg Jn their its of its environs (Numb, xxxv, 25 sq.), the avenger I armo].ial ))eari they alg0 hav might kill him with impunity. See Asylum. A similar provision prevailed among the Athenians (see Wachsmuth, Hellen. Alterth. II, i, 263; Hefter, Athen. Gerichtsverf, p. 136) for the rescue of the accidental man-slayer. (See generally Michaelis, Mos. Recht. ii, 401 sq. ; vi, 32 sq. ; Hoffmann, in the Hall. Encycl. xi, 89 sq. ; Jahn, Archaol. II, ii, 372 sq.) — Winer, 'i, 189. See Blood-revenge. Avera. See Aara. Avesta. See Zend-Avesta. two birds and a tower. They Badge ofthe Order of possessed in Portugal about fort}' commanderies, and since 1550 the grand mastership of the order has been in the crown. — Helyot, Ordres Reliy. i, 350; Landon, Eccl. Diet, i, 674. A'vite (Heb. Avvi', only in the plur. D^jlS, gen- tile from Ava), the name of two tribes of people. 1. (Sept. Eimloi, Auth. Vers. "Avims," in Deut. ; Eocrioc, "Avites"' in Josh.) A people who originally occupied the southernmost portion of that territory in Avignon {Avenio), an episcopal see of France, on ! Palestine along the Mediterranean coast which the the Rhone, capital ofthe department of Vaucluse, 20 ] Caphtorim or Philistines afterward possessed (Deut. miles N.E. of Nismes. In 1348 it passed into the pos- j ii, 23). They are usually considered a branch of the session of Pop? Clement VI and his successors, and j Hivites, a people descended from Canaan (Gen. x, 17). was the see ofthe pontiffs from Clement X to Gregory ; See IIivite. As the territory of the Avites is men- XI, i. e. for sixty years. Baluze's Vies des Rapes [ tioned in Josh, xiii, 3, in addition to the five Philis- d'A vignon (1G93, 2 vols. 4to) is an admirable refutation i tine states, it would appear that it was not included in of the ultramontane pretensions. It maintains that '' theirs, and that the expulsion of the Avites was by a the holy see is not necessarily fixed at Rome. By the Philistine invasion prior to that by which the five Concordat of 1801 Avignon ceased to be a metropolis, principalities were founded. Their territory began but by that of 1821 it was re-established. See Pa- pacy Several councils were held in Avignon. The most important were . 1, in 1209, in which 29 canons were adopted, some concerning discipline, and the others against heretics ; the inhabitants of Toulouse were ex- communicated for not having expulsed the Albigenses ; 2, in 1327, against the antipope Pierre de. Corbiere. — Landon, Manual of Councils, Smith, Tables of Church Hist. I at Gaza, and extended southward to "the river of Egypt" (Deut. ii, 23), forming what was the Philistine kingdom of Gerar in the time of Abraham, when we do not hear of any other Philistine states. There were then Avites, or Hivites, at Shechem (Gen. xxxiv, 2), and wc afterward find them also at Gibeon (Josh. ix, 7), and beyond the Jordan, at the foot of Mount Hermon (Josh, xi, 3) ; but we have no means of know- ing whether these were original settlements of the Avites, or were formed out of the fragments of the AVITII 570 AWAKENING nation which the Philistines expelled from southern Palestine. See Gerak; Philistine. According to Ewald (Geschkhte, i, 310) and Bertheau, the Avvim ■were the aborigines of Palestine Proper. They may have been so, but there is nothing to prove it, while the mode of their dwellings points rather to a no- madic origin. Thus they may have made their way northward from the Desert (Stanley, Sinai and Pal. App. § 83). In Dent. ii. 23, we see them "dwelling in 'the' villages" (or nomade encampments — Ckat- -_, rim) in the south part of the " plain," or great west- ern lowland, "as far as Gaza." In these rich posses- sions they were attacked by the invading Philistines, "the Caphtorim which came forth out of Caphtor," and who, after '-destroying" them and "dwelling in their stead," appear to have pushed them farther north. This must be inferred from the terms of the passage in Josh. xiii. 2, 3, the enumeration of the rest of the land still remaining to be conquered. (The punctuation of this passage in our Bibles is not in ac- cordance with the Hebrew text, which has a full stop at Geshuri [vcr. 2], thus : " This is the land that yet remaineth, all the herders of the Philistines and all the Geshurite. From Sihor even to the border of Ekron northward, is counted to the Canaanite," etc.) Beginning from" Sihor, which is before Egypt," prob- ably the Wady el-Arish, the list proceeds northward along the lowland plains of the sea-coast, through the five lordships of the Philistines- — all apparently taken in their order from south to north — till we reach the Avvim, as if they had been driven up out of the more southerly position which they occupied at the date of the earlier record into the plains of Sharon. It is per- haps worth notice, where every syllable has some sig- nificance, that while "the Gazathite the Ekron- ite," are all in the singular, "the Avvim" is plural. So with the other aboriginal names. Nothing more is told us of this ancient people, whose very name is said to signify " ruin." Possibly a trace of their existence is to be found in the town " Avim" (accurately, as in the other cases, "the Avvim"), which occurs among the cities of Benjamin (Josh, xviii, 23), and which may have preserved the memory of some family of the extinct people driven up out of their fertile plains to take refuge in the wild hills of Bethel ; just as in the " Zemaraim" of the preceding verse we have probably a reminiscence of the otherwise forgotten Zemarites. But, on the other hand, it is possible that the word in this place is but a variation or corruption of the name ofAi. SeeAviM. The inhabitants of the north-cen- tral districts of Palestine (Galila?ans) were in later times distinguished by a habit of confounding the gut- turals, as, for instance. " with H (see Lightfoot, Chor. Cent. ch. 87 . P.uxtorf, Lex. Talm. col. 134). It is pos- sible that "^It, Hivite, is a variation, arising from this cause, of ""'. Avite, and that this people were known to the Israelites at the. date of the conquest by the name of Ilivitcs. At any rate, it is a curious fact that both the Sept. and Vulg. identified the two names, and also that the town of ha-Avvim was in the actual dis- trict of the Hivites, in the immediate neighborhood of Gibeon, Chephirah, and their other chief cities (Josh, ix, 7, 17. compared with xviii, 22-27). The name of the Av\ im lias been derived from Avva (Ava), or Iv- vah ( I '.ali), as if they had migrated thence into Pales- tine; but there is no argument for this beyond the mere similarity of the names. See Ava. 2. (Sept. Rvaloi, Auih. Vers. "Avites.") The oric-- iual designati f the colonists transported from Ava into Samaria !,\ Shalmaneser (2 Kingsxvii, 31). Thev were idolaters, worshipping gods called Nibhaz and Tartak. See Ava. A'vith (Heb. Avith', tVW, nans; Sept. Vidaift, Vulg. Avith), a city of the Edomites, and the native place (capital) of one of their kings, Hadad ben-Bedad, before there were kings in Israel (Gen. xxxvi, 35; 1 i Chron. i, 46, where the Heb. text has rVP3>j Ayoth', Sept. TfSrbafi, v. r. Pf^at'/t, EviS, Vulg. Avith). It would seem to have been situated at the north-eastern extremity of the range of Mount Seir, as the king is i stated to have thence made a hostile incursion into the territory of his Moabitish neighbors who were leagued' with the Midianites. The name may be compared with el-Ghoweitheh, a "chain of low hills" mentioned by Burckhardt (p. 375) as lying to the east of the dis- trict of Kerek in Moab (Knobel, Genesis, p. 257). Avltus (properly Fextus Alcimus Edicmt, or Ecdi- tius, Avitus), bishop of Vienne, was born at Vienne about the middle of the fifth century. At a religious disputation between the orthodox "and Arian theolo- gians in 499, he was the leading spokesman of the orthodox, and gained the confidence of king Gonde- baud of Burgundy, whose son and successor, Sigis- mund, he converted from Arianism (after Gondebaud's | death). He vigorously attacked the Arian heresy, ! both by writing and speaking, and presided at the I council of Epaone in 517. He died, according to the commonly received opinion, February 5th, 525, al- though other accounts assign an earlier date. He was a man of great learning, and there are still extant a number of his letters, homilies, and poems, which may be found in Bib. Max. Patr. ix, 560 ; and in Bib. Patr. Gotland, t. x. — Dupin, Hist. Eccl Writers, v, 4. Avoidance, in the Church of England, takes place where a benefice becomes void of an incumbent. This happens either by the death of the incumbent, or by his beina; appointed to a preferment of such a kind as necessarily makes the living vacant ; as when a cler- gyman is made a bishop all the preferments he holds fall to the crown, who is the patron for that time, un- less there be some special dispensation ; or, finally, by cession, deprivation, or resignation. In the first-named instance, which is avoidance by fact, the patron must take notice of the avoidance at his peril ; in the last case, which is avoidance by law, the ordinary must give notice to the patron to prevent a lapse. Avrillon, John Baptistk Eltas, a Franciscan (Minim), born at Paris, 1652 ; he made profession, Jan- uary 3d, 1671, in the convent of the Minims (called Bons-hommes) at Nigeon. He began his career as a preacher in 1676, and continued until 1728, i. c. for fifty-three years, and died at Paris, May 16th, 1729, aged seventy-eight. He was much sought after as a preacher, and left many devotional works, which are highly esteemed in the Roman Church. '1 he follow- ing have been translated by the Romanizing party of the ( Ihurch of England ; "Conduite pour passer sainte- ment le temps de PA vent," Guide for passing Advent holily, with preface by Dr. Pusey (Loncl. 1844, 12mo) ; J "Conduite pour passer saintement le Caremc," Guide for passing Lent holily, ed. by Pusey (Lond. 1844, jl2mo); ''LAnnee Affective," The Year of Affections^ ed. by Pusey (Lond. 1845, 12m o) ; Eucharistic Medita- tions, ed. by' Shipley (Lond. 1862, 12mo). Awakening#(l) is used with regard to individu- als, and designates the first work of the Spirit in con- version, i. e. conviction; (2) it is also applied to revi- vals of religion, in which multitudes of sinners are awakened. The state of sin is in the New Testament represented as a sort of sleep or death; Eph. 5, 14, "Awake, thou that sleepesf, and arise fr< m the dead, and Christ shall give thee light." "When man. then, is brought to a consciousness of his sins, and to feel sorrow and contrition on account of them, and these arc followed by a desire for the forgiving and renew- ing grace of God, and partly for improvement, the process is called awakening. The expression is not found in the New Testament, although the thing itself is largely explained therein. The prodigal son was awake 1 by his self-inflicted poverty, Peter by the AWAKENING 571 AXE correcting look of the Lord, Paul by the miraculous; apparition of Christ, Judas by the consequences of his betrayal, and many by the preaching of Jesus or by his miracles. Awakening takes place when the sin- ner, who before did either not know the truth, or else treated it lightly, becomes strongly impressed with it, and gives up his heart and mind to it. Comp. Acts ii, 36, 37 : "Therefore let all the house of Israel know assuredly that God hath made that same Jesus whom ye have' crucified both Lord and Christ. Now when thej' heard this they were pricked in their heart, and said unto Peter and to the rest of the apostles, Men and brethren, what shall we do ?" (Comp also ii, 43 ; iv, 4 ; v, 11 ; xi, 23, 24.) One of the principal aims of the preacher in presenting the word of God and of the church in the exercises of divine worship is to produce the awakening of sinners. As, according to the doctrine of the New Testament, all possible agencies of deliverance and of moral im- provement in humanity are to be ascribed to the Holy Spirit, the church holds, and rightly, that the opera- tion of the Holy Spirit is united with the word of Christian truth, and also with visible religious exer- cises, in the awakening of sinners. It is also right in considering the word as the messenger or the medium of the Holy Spirit. Awakening may also result, from external changes and events in life, by which truth, previously received into the heart and mind of the sinner, after lying apparently dead, is rendered active, as if awakened from slumber, so that the sinner him- self awakes from the sleep or death of sin. Among the outward causes often producing awakening are sick- ness, either our own or others, particularly such as is the result of sin ; the death of those we love, or some- times of those who have fallen victims to their sins or to those of others, or perhaps have ended their life by sui- cide ; or the death of such as were associated with us in our sinful career , also shame and contumely or a fall into gross sin, either by ourselves or others, which dis- closes to us the bottomless nature of sin ; deliverance out of danger, or, on the other h"nd, undeserved bless- ings. Intercourse with pious and good persons, or sometimes of the bad, may lead to awakening. Some- times the Spirit uses the memories of youth and of its inexplicable feelings and of confused impulses , some- times solitary meditation ; sometimes the contempla- tion of nature; the reading of biographies, the study of works of art, as means of awakening. Both good and evil can be made awakening in the life of man , thus Rom. ii, 4: "Or despisest thou the riches of his goodness, and forbearance, and long-suffering; not knowing that the goodness of God leadeth thee to re- pentance?" xi, 22: "Behold therefore the goodness and severity of God: on them which fell, severity ; but toward thee, goodness, if thou continue in his goodness; otherwise thou also shaltbe cutoff;" 1 Cor. x, 0, 11 : "Now these things were our examples, to the intent we should not lust after evil things, as the)' also lusted. Now all these things happened unto them for ensamples ; and they are written for our admonition, upon whom the ends of the world are come." The effects produced by an awakening cause differ widely, both for objective and subjective reasons. In more quiet and tranquil natures, its effect may be slow and gentle; in the more vigorous ones it is more forcible, and often sudden. But the weaker natures are, on the other hand, more easily awakened than stronger ones, while the latter, though requiring a stronger impulse, are more likely to be lastingly im- pressed. Where moral self- consciousness, or con- science, is yet awake, the feeblest awakening can act effectually ; but where conscience has become be- numbed and dormant, a more powerful impression is required. It is evident, besides, that the result will be influenced by a variety of other causes, such as the more or less enlightened state of the subject, the ener- gy- of the impulses, the relations of life, either favora- ble or unfavorable to the development of moral sense, etc. Of course, to produce saving effects, the impres- sion must be lasting, i. e. it must not merely had to a resolve to amendment, but must work it out also. This, however, is not the work of a moment, but of a whole lifetime, through which the awakening must steadfastly and unceasingly act. The sinner must do all in his power to apply the prevenient grace, which is the source of the awakening, to the redemption of his soul; for without the sinner's own co-operation, the work of sanctification will not be accomplished. In order, then, to render the effect of awakening persist- ent, it is necessary to keep the memory of it continu- ally in the soul, and to connect with it all that follows. We see, therefore, how great an obstacle is frivolity, which never looks back, but only considers the present or the future; and for that reason the sanguine tem- perament, while more readily awakened for a moment, is more difficult to impress lastingly , choleric natures are touched easily and deeply, the melancholy lasting- ly, and the phlegmatic with difficulty. The strength of the awakening is measured by the inward pains of penitence, but cannot be estimated by the outward tears or demonstrations, partly on account of differ- ence in .temperaments. Sanguine and choleric sub- jects will be more demonstrative than phlegmatic or melancholic while under the same force of awakening. — Krehl, Ar. T. Handworterbuch, s. v. See also Con- viction ; Revival. Awl (l"£~i'Q,marise' ii, perforator , Sept. gtt)]tioi>), an instrument for boring a small hole (Exod. xxi, 6 ; Deut. xv, 17). Considering that the Israelites had re- cently withdrawn from their long sojourn in Egypt, there" can be no doubt that the instruments were the same as those of that country, used by the sandal- makers and other workers in leather (Wilkinson, ii, Ancient Egyptian A 105). In the above passages the word is employed in reference to piercing the ear as a sign of perpetual servitude, which it seems was a custom among other Oriental nations (Petronius. Satyr. 102), and it was the practice in Lydia, India, and Persia to perforate the ears of bovs dedicated to the service of the gods (Xen. Anab. iii, 1, 31 ; Plutarch, Sympos. ii, 1, 4). See Servant. Axe. Several instruments of this description are so discriminated in Scripture as to show that the He- brews had them of different forms and for various uses. (1.) "jna, garzm' (so called from chopping), which occurs in Deut. xix, 5; xx, 19; 1 Kings vi, 7; Isa. x, 15; a'tivri, Mitt, iii, 10; Luke iii, 9; corre- sponding to the Lat. s"curis). Erom these passages it appears that this kind was employed in felling trees (comp. Isa. x, 34), and in hewing large timber for building. The conjecture of Gesenius, that in 1 Kings v, 7, it denotes the axe of a stone-mason, is by no means conclusive. The first text supposes a case of the head slipping from the helve in felling a tree (comp. 2 Kings vi, 5). This would suggest that it was shaped like tig. 3, which is just the same instrument as our common hatchet, and appears to have been applied by the an- cient Egyptians to the same general use as with us. The reader will observe the contrivance in all the oth- ers (wanting in this) of fastening the head to the haft by thongs. (2.) nxSJiO, madtsad' (a hewing instru- AXE 572 AXLE Ancient Kgyptian Axes, ( leaver, and Adzes. From the Brit- ish Museum. ment), which occurs only in Isa. xliv, 12 (where it is rendered "tongs") and Jer. x, 3. From the latter of these passages it appears to have been a lighter in- strument than the preceding, or a kind of adze, used for fashioning or carving wood into shape ; it was probably, therefore, like tigs. 4 to 7, which the Egyp- tians employed for this purpose. Other texts of Scrip- ture represent such implements as being employed in carving images, the use to which the prophets refer. The differences of form and size, as indicated in the figures, appear to have been determined with reference to light or heavy work. The passage in Isaiah, how- ever, as it refers to the blacksmith's operations at the. forge, may possibly designate some kind of chisel. (3.) n^lj?, k'ardoni (from its sharpness) ; this is the commonest name for an axe or hatchet. It is of this which we read in Judg. ix, 4* ; Psa. lxxiv, 5 ; 1 Sam. xiii, 20, 21 ; Jer. xlvi, 22. It appears to have been more exclusively employed than the garzen for felling trees, and had therefore probably a heavier head. In one of the Egyptian sculptures the inhabitants of Leb- anon are represented as felling pine-trees with axes like fig. 1. See Lebanon. As the one used by the Egyptians for the same purpose was also of this shape, there is little doubt that it was also in use among the Hebrews. (4.) The term 2"in, che'rcb (destroyer), usu- ally '"a sword," is used of other cutting instruments, as a "knife" (Josh, v, 2), or razor (Ezek. vi, 1), or a tool for hewing or dressing stones (Exod. xx, 25), and is once rendered "axe" (Ezek. xxvi, 9), and there may probably mean a heavy cutlass, like fig. 2, or per- haps battle-axe, or possibly even pick-axe, as it is there used to denote a weapon for destroying build- ings. (.">.) A similar instrument, 3*1!!??, kaslishil' (J'ell- once spoken of (Psa. lxxiv, (!) as a battle-axe. 1 1 also occurs in the Targum (Jer. xlvi, 22) in the Bense of broad-axe. (6.) Iron implements of severe labor. ""*:.", magzerah' ("axe," 2 Sam. xii, 31), and --;:. megi rah' (--axe," 2 Chron. xx, 3; also in the same verse more properly "saw," and in 2 Sam. xii, 31 ; 1 Kings vii. It), were used by David in the mas- sacre of the inhabitants of Rabbah, but their form can- not be made out. See Saw. (7.) The word Vna, ban I '. rendered "axe-head" in 2 Kings vi, 5, is liter- ally "iron;" but, as an axe is certainly intended, the is valuable as Bhowing that the axe-heads among the Hebrews were of iron. Those which have been found iii Egypt are of. bronze, which was very anciently and generally nsed for the purpose. But this does not prove thai they had none of iron; it seems rather to suggest thai those of iron have been consul I by the corrosion <>f three thousand j'ears, while those of bronze have been preserved. See Helve. (8.) The " battle-axe," "j'B1?, mappets' (Jer. li, 20), was probably, as its root indicates, a heavy mace or maul, like that which gave his surname to Charles Muriel. See Battle-axe. Ancient Assy.ian Axe-head. From the British Museum The most common use of the axe, as is well known, is to cut down trees ; hence the expression in Matt, iii, 10, and Luke iii, 9, "the axe is laid at the root of the trees" (comp. Silius Italicus, 10; also Virgil, Aln. vi, 180; Isa. x, 33). That trees are a general symbol of men is well known. See Forest ; Tree. (See also Ezek. xxxi, 3; Dan. iv, 7, 8; Matt, vii, 19; xii, 33; Psa. i, 3 ; Zech. xi, 1, 2). What John Baptist there- fore refers to is probably the excision of the Jewish nation. But there is a force in the preposition used here which escapes the ordinary reader : the expression ;rpo£ ti)v pi%av ruJv SivOpwv Kilrai, denotes that it b:;d already been struck into the tree preparatory to felling it, and now only awaited the signal for the utter ven- geance of Heaven. The axe was also used as the in- strument of decollation, to which there is allusion in Iiev. xx, 4, "The souls of them that were leheaded for the testimony of Jesus," literally, "cut with an axe." Hence the axe becomes a symbol of the divine judgments. Sometimes it is applied to a human instru- ment, as in Isa. x, 15, "Shall the axe boast itself against him that heweth therewith ?" i. e. Shall the proud king of Assyria boast himself against God, whose instrument he is to execute his purpose ? In Jer. li, 20, the army of the Medes and Persians is most probably intended, as elsewhere the instrument of God's vengeance is called a sword, a rod, a scourge (see also Jer. xlvi, 22). By axes, which were a part of the insignia of the Roman magistracy, was denoted the power of life and death and of supreme judgment. Axes were also used in war (Sidonius, Carm. El. v, 247 ; Horace, Ode iv, 4 ; Carm. Seait. 54 ; Virgil, j£n. ii, 480). Axes were used in sacrifice ; hence called the axe of the, Hierophant. These are seen on various coins (Smith's Hist, of Class. Ant. s. v. Securis). Axel. See Absalon. Axioramus ( k^uopa^oQ), given by Josephns (Ant. x, 8, G) as the son (or successor) of Isus, and fa- ther (or predecessor) of Phideas, in the list of the Jew- ish high-priests, apparently instead of Jehoiada (q. v.). See High-priest. Axle occurs only in 1 Kings vii, 32, 33, as a trans- Ancient Egyptian • ' the Axle to the W Car. it, Bhowing the niel s, to the Pole, and to the Body of the AXTELL 573 AZAIIAZL lation of "P, yad, hand, in the phrase d^SBIittl Hff, yedoth' ha-ophannim' , Aarads o/" fAe wheels, i. e. their axle-trees, as in the Auth. Vers. ; Sept. X"P££ '" ro't' rpovole, Valg. axes. See Chariot. Axtell, Henry, D.D., was born at Mendham, N. J., June 9, 1773, and graduated at Princeton in 1796. After teaching several years in New Jersey, he re- moved in 1804 to Geneva, N. Y , where he kept a clas- sical school. In 1810 he was licensed, and in 1812 called to the Presbyterian Church in Geneva. At the time of his ordination in 1812, his church consisted of 70 members ; at the time of his death of about 100. In two revivals his labors had been particularly bless- ed. He died Feb. 11, 1829. His eldest daughter died a few days after him, and was placed in the same grave. — Sprague, A nnals, iv, 454. Ayah. ' See Kite. Aydelott, Joseph, a minister of the Methodist Episcopal Church, was born in 1758, and entered the itinerant ministry in the Philadelphia Conference in 1802. After 23 years of active service, he died at Phil- adelphia, in May, 1824. "Perhaps no man gave a more decided character to the purity and excellence of religion. His life, as well as his preaching, was a living comment upon the doctrines and precepts of Christ, and his Master owned his labors." — Minutes of Conferences, i, 47a. Ayir. See Foal. Ayliffe, John, D.D., fellow of New College, Ox- ford ; degraded and expelled for the publication of a work said to contain scandalous aspersions, entitled "The Ancient and Present State of the University of Oxford" (2 vols. 8vo, 1714), taken, in fact, chiefly from Wood's Athene. He also published Parergon Juris Canonicl Ang'icani, 1726, and a ''New Pandect of the Roman Civil Law" (Lond. 1734, fol.), one of the most elaborate works in English on the civil law. — New Gen. Biog. Diet. Aylrner, John, bishop of London, born in 1521, of a good family, in Norfolk. He studied at Oxford and Cambridge, but chiefly at the latter ; and after leaving the universities was appointed tutor to the cel- ebrated Lady Jane Grey. In 1553 he was made arch- deacon of Stow, but on the accession of Queen Mary was obliged to leave England, and retired to Zurich. In 15G2 he became archdeacon of Lincoln, and in 1576 succeeded Sandys in the see of London. He seems to have been as vigorously opposed to the Puritans as to the Romanists ; and unhappily, amid many excellen- cies of character, he had a persecuting spirit. On more than one occasion his severity M"as rebuked by the privy council. In the case of a clergyman named Benison, who was imprisoned by Aylrner for a sup- posed irregularity in regard to his marriage, the bishop was desired by the privy council to make him com- pensation, lest in an action for false imprisonment he should recover damages " which would touch his lord- ship's credit." By the Puritans Aylrner was ridiculed in pamphlets, scandalous reports were actively circu- lated to his injury, and frequent complaints of his con- duct were made to the privy council. Aylrner would gladly have exchanged into a more retired diocese, but none of his plans for this purpose succeeded; and he was still bishop of London when he died on June 3d, 1594. See Maitland, Essays on tlm Reformation; Neal, Hist, of Puritans, i, 224, 365, etc. Aylworth, James P., a minister of the Methodist Episcopal Church, and one of the fathers of the Oneida Conference, was born in 1783. He entered the minis- try in 1822, serving chiefly in Central New York, un- til his superannuation in 1847 He died in 1848. — Minutes of Conferences. Aymo. See IIaymo. Aymon, John, a French writer, lived at the close of the 17th and the beginning of the 18th century. He was at first a Catholic priest, then left the Roman Catholic Church at Geneva, and married at the Hague. He again returned to the Church of Rome, and in 1706 was put by the Cardinal de Noailles in the Sem- inary of Foreign Missions. In 1707 he fled to Holland with a manuscript (the original of the Acts of the Council held at Jerusalem in 1672 and 1673), and had it printed at the Hague under the title Monuments Authentiques de V Eglise Grecque (1708, 4to), reproduced under the title Lettres Anecdotes de Cyril Lucar (Am- sterdam, 1708). Aymon was judicially pursued by Clement, the librarian of the French king, and in 1709 the States-General ordered the restoration of the manuscript. Aymon wrote also Actes Ecclesiastiques et civils de tous les Sy nodes Nationaux des Eglisis Re- formees de la France (Rotterdam, 1710. 4to), and sev- eral works on the Roman Catholic Church. — Hoefer. BiogrcqMe Generate, iii, 900. A'zael ('A^aj/Aoc), the father of Jonathan, which latter was one of those who superintended the repudi- ation of the Gentile wives after the return from Baby- lon (1 Esdr. ix, 14); evidently the Asahel (q. v.) of the genuine text (Ezra x, 15). Azae'lus ( A£«(/Aor), one of the Israelites, "sons of Maani," who is said to have divorced his < untile wife after the exile (1 Esdr. ix, 34) ; but the name is apparently an erroneous repetition for the Esril just preceding* it (Azareel of Ezra x, 41). See Azael. A'zal (Hcb. AtsaV, hsU, prob. the same as Azel, in pause; Sept. Affo^Xv.r. 'laoui"), apparently a place near Jerusalem on the east, mentioned only in Zech. xiv, 5, as the limit to which the "ravine'' or cleft (SOS) of the Mount of Olives will extend when "Je- hovah shall go forth to fight." Henderson (Comment. in loc.) regards it as the proper name of a place close to one of the gates on the east side of Jerusalem, to which the cleft or valley was to extend westward, so as at once to admit those who should flee from the en- emy ; but this seems too strict a literalism for so figu, rative a prophecy. Fi'irst (lleb. Worterb. s. v.) inclines to identify it with the Beth-ezel of Mic. i, 11. Perhaps the conjecture of Gesenius (Thes. Hcb p. 144) is the most easy of adoption, that the term is simply an ap- pellative for b^N, q. d. at the side, i. e. foot of the mountain, sc. Olivet. The supposition of Schwarz (Palest, p. 135) that it is the present village Azaria, or Bethany (according to him, the Huzal of the Talmud, Megillah, v, 6), evidently proceeds from his Jewish prejudices against the account respecting Lazarus in the Gospels. Sec Erogl-. Azali'ah (Heb. in the prolonged form Atsalya'hu, WlpXK, reserved by Jehovah ; Sept. 'EvotXiac, v. r. 'ECeXfac; in Chron. 'Etrekia v. r. SAi'a), the son of Meshullam (2 Kings xxii, 3), and father of the scribe Shaphan, which last was sent with others by Josiah to repair the Temple (2 Chron. xxxiv, 8). B.C. ante 623. Azani'all (Heb. Azamyah', FP3JK, heard by Jeho- vah; Sept. 'AZavia), the father of Jesb.ua, which lat- ter was one of the Levites that subscribed the sacred covenant after the exile (Neh. x, 9). B.C. ante 410. Aza'phion CAaoairipubS), given in 1 Esdr. v, 33, as the first named of the family heads of the "sons of Solomon's servants" that returned from Babylon; ap- parently meaning the Sophereth (q. v.) of the genu- ine text (Ezra ii, 55), where the Heb has the article, rVns'Srt, has-Sophereth. Az'ara ('Affapd), one of the heads of the "temple servants," said to have returned from the exile (1 Esdr. v, 31) ; but the genuine text (Ezra ii, 49) has no such name at all. Azar'ael (Neh. xii, C6). See Azareel. AZAUEEL 574 AZARIAS Aza'reel (Deb. Azarel', P&ntN, helped by God), the name of five men. 1. (Sept '0£pi//\ v. r. K\n)\.) One of theBenjamite slingers and archers that repaired to David at Ziklag (1 Chron. xii, 6). B.C. 1054. 2. (Sept. i:-!fi>i//A.) Son of Jeroham, and viceroy over the tribe of Dan under David and Solomon 1 1 Chron. xxvii, 22). B.C. 1014. 4. (Sept. 'Kl';in'/\.) An Israelite, one of the descend- ants of Bani, who renounced the Gentile wife whom he had married on the return from Babylon (Ezra x, 41). B.C. 459. 5. (Sept. 'EapiTjX v. r. 'Eaiou'iX, Ol'u'/X.) Son of Ahasai and father of Amashai, which last was one of the chiefs of the 128 mighty men of the priests who served at the Temple under the supervision of Zabdiel, on the restoration from Babylon (Neh. xi, 13). B.C. cir. 440. He is probably the same with one of the first company of priests who were appointed with Ezra to make the circuit of the newly completed walls with trumpets in their hands (Neh. xii, 30, where the name is Anglicized "Azarael"). B.C. 446. Azari'ah (Heb. Azaryah', ili'ntS, helped b.v Je- hovah, answering to the German name Gotthe'f, also in the prolonged form .4 zaryahu, lii^'lTS, * Kings iv, 2, 5: 2 Kings xv, 6, 8 ; 2 Chron. xvVl; xxi, 2; xxii, G; xxiii, 1; xxvi, 17, 20; xxviii, 12; xxix, 12; xxxi, 10, 13; Sept. 'A^apiag and 'Autpia), a very common name among the Hebrews, and hence borne by a con- siderable number of persons mentioned in Scripture, especially in the families of the priests of the line of Eleazar, whose name has precisely the same mean- ing as Azariak. It is nearly identical and is often confounded with Ezra, as well as with Zerahiah and Serai.ih. See also Azarias. 1. Apparently the only son of Ethan, the grandson of Judah (1 Chron. ii, 8)." B.C. 1856. 2. A son of Jehu and father of Helez, of the tribe of Judah (1 Chron. ii, 38, 39). B.C. post 1046. 3. A person named as son of the high-priett Zadok, and an officer in the cabinet of Solomon (1 Kings iv, 2 |. !!.('. cir. 1000. He is perhaps the same, however, with Xo 0 below. 4. A son of Nathan and captain of King Solomon's guards (1 Kings iv, 5). B.C. cir. 1000. 5. A prophet who met King Asa on his return from a great victory over the Cushite king Zerah (2 Chron. xv. 1, where he is called the son of Oded, but Oded simply in ver. H). See Asa. B.C. 939. He power- fully stirred up the spirit of Asa, and of the people of Judah and Benjamin, in a brief but pithy prophecy, which has been preserved, to put away all idolatrous worship, and to restore the altar of the one true God before tie' porch of the Temple. Great numbers of Israelites from Ephraim, and Manasseh, and Simeon, and all Israel, joined in the national reformation, to the great strengthening of the kingdom ; and a season of rest and great prosperity ensued. — Smith, s. v. 6. A high-priest, son of Ahimaaz and father (grand- father, of Johanan d Chron. \i. 9), perhaps the father ofAmariah, who lived under Jehoshaphat, king of Ju- dah i 2 Chron. xix, 11). B.C. ante 912. See IIigh- l-l.-n ST. 7. One of the of kin- Jehoshaphat (2 Chron. j xxi, 2, where the m is repeated, as if he had two BOnS "I this name) B.C. post 912. 8. Otherwise called Ahaziah (q. v.), king of Judah (2 Chron. xxii. 6). 9. A bod of Jeroham, who joined Jehoiada in his pious efforts to restore the worship of the Temple, and put down the usurpation of Athaliab (2 Chron. xxiii 1). B.C.K77. 10. A son of Obed, another " captain of a hundred," who joined Jehoiada in the same enterprise (2 Chron. xxiii, 1). B.C. 877. 11. A person named as son of Johanan and father of another Amariah, a high-priest (1 Chron. vi, 10, 11), whom some suppose the same as Zechariah, son of Jehoiada, who was killed in the reign of Joash of Ju- dah (2 Chron. xxiv, 20-22). In Ezra vii, 3, either his or a former person's father is called Mesaroth. B C. cir. 809. See High-priest. From the date he ap- pears to be the same with the high-priest who opposed King Uzziah (q. v.) in offering incense to Jehovah (2 Chron. xxvi. 17, 20). B.C. 781. 12. Otherwise called Uzziah (q. v.), king of Judah, (2 Kings xiv, 21 ; xv, 1, G, 7, 8, 17, 23, 27 ; 1 Chron. iii, 12, etc.). 13. A son of Johanan and chief of the tribe of Ephraim, one of those that protested against enslaving i their captive brethren of Jerusalem during the reign of Ahaz (2 Chron. xxviii, 12). B.C. 739. 14. A Levite, son of Zephaniah and father of Joel (1 Chron. vi, 3G). In ver. 24 he is called Uzziah, the i son of Uriel and father of Shaul. It appears from 2 Chron. xxix, 12, that his son Joel lived under Heze- | kiah. B.C. ante 726. 15. A high-priest in the time of Hezekiah (2 Chron. xxxi, 10,13). B.C. 7iG. He seems to be the same incorrectly called Ahitdb in 1 Chron. vi, 11, 12. He appears to have co-operated zealously with the king in that throrough purification of the Temple and restora- tion of the Temple services which was so conspicuous an event in Hezekiah's reign. He especially interest- ed himself in providing chambers in the house of the Lord in which to stow the tithes, and offerings, and consecrated things for the use of the priests and Le- vites, and in appointing overseers to have the charge of them. As the attendance of priests and Levites and the maintenance of the Temple services depended entirely upon the supply of such offerings, whenever the people neglected them the priests and Levites were forced to disperse themselves to their villages, and so the house of God was deserted (comp. Neh. x, 35-39 ; xii, 27-hO, 44-47) — Smith, a. v. 16. The son of Hilkiah and father of Seraiah, which latter wTas the last high-priest before the captivity (1 Chron. vi, 13, 14 ; ix, 11 ; Ezra vii, 1, 3). B.C. cir. 6C0. 17. One of the "proud men" who rebuked Jere- miah for advising the people that remained in Pales- tine after the expatriation to Babylon not to retire into Egypt, and who took the prophet himself and Ba- ruch along with them to that countrv (Jer. xliii, 2-7). B.C. 587. 18. The Hebrew name of Abednego (q. v.), One of Daniel's three friends wdio were cast into the fiery furnace (Dan. i, 7; iii, 9). He appears to have been of the royal lineage of Judah, and for this reason se- lected, with Daniel and his two other companions, for Nebuchadnezzar's especial service. The three chil- dren, as they were called, were remarkable for their 1 eanty, and wisdom, and knowledge, and intelligence. They were no less remarkable for their piety, their strict adherence to the law of Moses, and the steadfast- ness of their faith, even in the face of death, and their wonderful deliverance. . B.C. 003. See Daniel. 19 One of the nobles who returned from Babylon (Neh. vii, 7 ; xii, 33), and joined in the oath of fidelity to the law (x, 2), and assisted in interpreting it to the people ( viii, 7). 1 1 is father's name was Maaseiah, and he repaired that part of the wall of Jerusalem opposite his house (iii, 23, 24). In Ezra ii, 2, he is called Se- raiah. B.C. 446-410. Azari'as ('A'Caaiag, the Greek form of AzarlaK), the name (if several men in the Apocrypha. 1. The last named of the "sons" of Emmen (rather Ilarim) among the priests who promised to renounce their Gentile wives after the captivity (1 Esdr. ix, 21) ; AZAZ 575 AZAZEL evidently the UzziAH (q. v.) of the true text (Ezra x, 21). 2. One of the nobles stated to have supported Ezra on the right while reading the law to the people (1 Esdr. ix, 43) ; but the genuine list (Neh. viii, 4) does not contain this name. 3. One of the priests who expounded the law on the same occasion (1 Esdr. ix, 48) ; the AzARIAH (q. v.) of the Heb. text (Neh. viii, 7). 4. The son of Helchias and father of Seraias in the genealogy of Ezra (2 [Vulg. 4] Esdr. i, 1) ; the Aza- IlIAH (q. v.) of the Heb. lineage (Ezra vii, 1). 5. A name assumed by the angel Raphael (Tobit v, 12; vi, 6,13; vii, 8; ix, 2). . . 6. The name (Song of 3 Children, ver. 2, 26, 66) of Abednego, Daniel's companion in trial, i. c. Azariah (q. v.) of Dan. i, 7. He is mentioned by this Greek appellation also in 1 Mace, ii, 59, and by Josephus (Ant. x, 10, 1). See Daniel, Additions to. 7. One of the generals under Judas Maccabeus (1 Mace, v, 18) ; he was defeated by Gorgias near Jamnia (1 Mace, v, 56, 60 ; Josephus, Ant. xii, 8, 2 and 6). A'zaz (Heb. Azaz', TT2>, strong; Sept. 'AZavZ v. r. 'OZoii'Q, the son of Shema and father of Bela, a Reu- benite (1 Chron. v, 8). B.C. apparently ante 747. Azazel [so Milton] (Heb. Azazel', hlXIS), a word of doubtful interpretation, occurring only in the ordi- nance of the festival of expiation (Lev. xvi. 8, 10, 26). 1. Some contend that it is the name itself of the gnat sent into the desert. So Symmachus roayog a— spvo/ffi'of, Aquila rpc'iyos cnro\i\vfxivoc, Vulgate hircus emissarius; but not the Septuagint (fur r<£ 'A7ro- Tro/(7T«(^, in ver. 8, is by no means to be explained, with Theodoret and Cyril, by T), nor the Mishna (for the expression ffiflin I"1"-, hircus emissus, of Yoma, iv, 2 ; vi, 1, 2, is only added as a gloss on account-of the occurrence of Tli'C in the Heb. text). It should also be observed that in the latter clause of Lev. xvi, 10, the Sept. renders the Hebrew term as if it was an abstract noun, translating ^TNT"b by tic ti)v a— otto/ct//?'. Buxtorf (Ileb. Lex.) and Fagius (Critici Sacii in loc.), in accordance with this view of its meaning, derived the word from T;.", a. goat, and PTX, to depart. To this derivation it has been object- ed by Bochart, Winer, and others, that 1" denotes a she-goat. It is, however, alleged that the word ap- pears to be epicene in Gen. xxx, 33, Lev. iii, 12, etc. But the application of b"XT" to the goat itself in- volves the Hebrew text in insuperable difficulties. In ver. 10, 26, the azaz I clearly seems to be distinguished as that /wr or to which the goat is let loose. It can hardly be supposed that the prefix which is common to the designation of the two lots should be used in two different meanings, if both objects were beings. 2. Some have taken Azazel for the name of the place to which the goat was sent. (1) Aben-Ezra quotes the words of an anonymous writer referring it to a hill near Mount Sinai. Vatablus adopts this opinion (Cri- tici Sacri, in Lev. xvi). (2) Some of the Jewish writers, with Le Clerc, consider that it denotes the cliff to which the goat was taken to be thrown down. So Pseudo-Jonathan, Saadias, Arabs Erpenii and Jarchi, interpret a hard or difficult place (romp. .Mishna, Yoma, vi, 0). (3) Bochart (Hieruz. i, 740 sq.) regarded the word as a "pluralis fractus" signifying desert /dans, and understood it as a general name for any lit place to which the goat might be sent. This has the appro- bation of Hackmann (Prcecid. Sacr. i, 232-275). But Gesenius remarks that the "pluralis fractus," which exists in Arabic, is not found in Hebrew. Moreover, on this interpretation the context (ver. in) would con- tain a palpable tautology, for the goat was to be sent to Azazel in the wilderness. Moreover, no such place as Azazel is elsewhere mentioned ; anfl had it been a mountain, *ifi would not have been omitted. 3. Many of those who have studied the subject very closely take Azazel for a personal being to whom the goat was sent. (1 ) Gesenius gives to b"TXT" the same meaning as the Sept. has assigned to it, if aironofi- Tralog is to be taken in its usual sense ; but the being so designated he supposes to be some false deity who was to be appeased by such a sacrifice as that of the goat. He derives the word from a root unused in He- brew, but found in Arabic, Pt2J, to remove or take a wag (Heb. Lex. s. v.). Ewald agrees with Gesenius, and speaks of Azazel as a daemon belonging to the pre- Mosaic religion. (2) But others, with scarcely less su- perstition, have regarded him as an evil spirit, or the devil himself. So, among the rabbins, Menahem, who mentions the four arch-daemons Sammael. Azazel, Aza- 61, and Machazecl. In Pirke Elieser, c. 46, it is stated that Azazel, for the propitiation of which the goat was let loose, is the same daemon with Sammael (compare Eisenmenger, L'n/d. Judenth. ii, 157 ; Zohar, ad Gen. ii, in Castell, Opp. Posth. p. 309). In the apocryphal book of Enoch, Azazel (not Azazyel) is among the chief of the spirits by whose doctrine and influence the earth was corrupted (viii, 1 ; x, 12 ; xiii, 1 sq. ; xv, 9) , and among the Greek writers the same name (Azalzel, 'A'£a As'yA) occurs (Fabric. Cod. pseudepigr. i, 18, 183 ; sometimes Azt'el, 'AZa>)\, but this by confusion for an- other daemon, Asael); and in Syrian authors (Cod. Xasur. i, 240) it is the name of an evil spirit otherwise called Barbag. The same title ('A£a£»;X) among the Gnostics signified either Satan or some other daemon (Epiphan. Hcer. 34); on which account Origen (contra Cds. vi, p. 305, ed. Spenc.) did not hesitate, in the pas- I sage of Leviticus in question, to understand the devil \ as meant. From the Jews and Christians, the word passed over to the Arabians (see Relandj De Rel. Mo- hammed, p. 189); and so, in later magical treatises, j Azazel and Azael are reckoned among the genii that j preside over the elements. Among moderns this view- has been copiously illustrated by Spencer (De legibus j Hebrceorum ritualibus, iii, diss. 8, p. 1039-1085), and has been assented to by Rosenmuller (ad Lev. in loc), Amnion (Bill. Theol i, 360), Von Coin (Bibl. Theol. i, 199), Hengstenberg (Christol. I, i. 36). The following are the arguments used in its support : («) The con- trast of terms ("to the Lord," ''to Azazel") in the text naturally presumes a person to be intended, in opposition to and contradistinction from Jehovah. (b) The desert, whither the consecrated goat of Azazel was sent away, was accounted the peculiar abode of | daemons (sec Isa. xiii, 21 ; xxxiv, 13, 14 ; Baruch iv, 135; Tobit viii, 3; Matt, xii, 43; Lev. xviii, 2; Mai- ! monid. Nevoch. iii, 30). (c) This interpretation may j be confirmed by the early derivation of the word, i. q. I bx~TT", signifying either strength of God (comp. Ga- j briel), if referred to a once good but now fallen angel, or powerful against God, as applied to a malignant daa- I mon. Spencer derives the word from 1$,jbrtis, and ; PTX, explaining it as cito recedens, which he affirms to | be a most suitable name for the evil spirit. He sup- j poses that the goat was given up to the devil, and j committed to his disposal. Hengstenberg affirms with great confidence that Azazel cannot possibly be any thing but another name for Satan. He repudiates the conclusion that the goat was in any sense a sacrifice to Satan, and does not doubt that it was sent away laden with the sins of God' a people, now forgiven, in order to mock their spiritual enemy in the desert, his proper abode, and to symbolize by its free gambols their ex- ulting triumph. He considers that the origin of the rite was Egyptian, and that the Jews substituted Satan for Typhon, whose dwelling was the desert. On the other hand, this explanation is forbidden by the total absence in the O. Test, of any reference to AZAZIAH 576 AZIEL evil genii ; and it would be especially abhorrent to the spirit of the Mosaic economy to suppose a solemn offer- ing of this kind to have been made out of deference to any of those daemons the propitiation of which the law so explicitly condemns (Lev. xvii, 7; Dent, xxii, 17; comp. 2 Chron. xi, 15; Psa. cvi, 37). The obvious ob- jection to Spencer's view is that the goat formed part of a sin-offering to the Lord. Few, perhaps, will be satisfied with Hengstenberg's mode of meeting this difficulty. 4. A better explanation of the word renders the de- signation of the lot PTKtSa, "for complete sending away" — solitude, desert, by reduplication from ?T3> (the root adopted by Gesenius), being the Pealpal form, which indicates intensity (see Ewald, Kr. Gr. p. 242; comp. Lehrgeb. p. 869), so as to signify total sep iration (Tholuck, J/ebr. p. 80: Bahr, Symbolik d. Mos. Cullvs, ii, 668), i. e. from sin, q. d. a bearer away of guilt; a sense agreeable to the rendering of the Sept. (0x0- 7TO|U7r«(or, as explained by Suidas, and as used b)r .Pol- lux, v. 26), the solution of Josephus (Ant. iii, 10, 3), and the explanation of other ancient writers (Cyrill, contra Julian, ix ; comp. Suicer. Thesaur. Eccles. i, 468). The only objection that has been offered to this interpreta- tion is that it destroys the exact antithesis between Jehovah and Azazel, by making the latter a thing and not a person, like the former. But this assumes that it was the design of Moses, in expressing himself thus, to preserve an exact antithesis, which is by no means evident. If we render "the one for Jehovah and the other for an utter removal," a meaning sufficiently clear and good is obtained. See Atonement, Day of. For a farther discussion of the import and applica- tion of this word, see Prof. Bush, Azazel. or the Levit- ical Scape-goat, in the Am. Bib. Bepos. July. 1842, p. 116-136; Hermansen, Obs. de nomine Azazel (Havn. 1833; comp. Tkeobg. Literafarbl.1835)', Gesenius. Thes. lleb. p. 1012 sq. ; Schaffshausen, De kirco emissario ejusque ritibus (Lips. 173G); Shroder, De Azazelis hirco ejusque n't. (Marb. 1725) , Von Slooten, De hirco qui ex- piationis die cessit. Azazeli (Franec. 1726) ; Frischmuth, De hirco emissario (Jen. 1664-1668); Zeitmann, Dejdrci emissarii ductore (Jen. 1701). See Scape-goat. Azazi'ah (Heb. in the prolonged form Azazya'hu, *ll"Pn", strengthened by Jehovah ; Sept. 'O'^tac, but v. r. in 2 Chron. rO£«£dc), the name of three men. 1. One of the Levitical harpers in the Temple un- der David (1 Chron. xv, 21). B.C. cir. 1043. 2. The father of Hoshea, which latter was the vice- roy over the Ephraimites under David and Solomon (1 Chron. xxvii, 20). B.C. ante 1014. 3. < hie of the inferior overseers of the Temple offer- ings under Hezekiah (2 Chron. xxxi, 13). B.C. 726. Azbaz'areth('Ao-/3o<7rtpt3v.r. 'Aff/3n/ca(/)«c,Vulg. AsbazaretK), given (1 Esdr. v, 69) as the name of the Assyrian king who planted the Samaritan colonies in Palestine; evidently a corruption for Esarhaddon (q. v.) in the true text (Ezra iv, 2). Az'buk (lleb. Azbuk', p12T3>, strong devastation; Sept. A£/3ow> v. r. 'A^a/SovK), the father of Nehe- miali. which latter was ruler of the half of Beth-zur, and repaired part of the walls of Jerusalem after the return fr Babylon (Neh. iii, 16). B.C. ante 446. Aze'kah (Heb. Azekah', M^.fr, dug over; Sept. in Josh xv, 85, laZnicd; Jer. xxxiv, 7, *A£?jica; else- where Afrficd), a town in the plain of Judah (Josh, xv, 35; 1 Sam. xvii, 1). It had suburban villages (Neh. i. 30), and was a place of considerable strength (Jer. \wiv. 7 1. The confederated Amoritish kings of Jerusalem, Hebron, Jarmuth, Lachish, and Eglon, were here defeated and slain by Joshua, and their army totally destroyed by an extraordinary shower of hailstones from heaven (Josh, x, 10, 11). It is named with Adullam, Shaaraim, and other places known to have been in that locality (Josh, xv, 35; 2 Chron. xi, 9 ; Neh. xi, 30), but is most clearly defined as being near Shochoh (that is, the northern one) [see Shochoh] (1 Sam. xvii, 1). Joshua's pursuit of the Canaanites after the battle of Beth-boron extended to Azekah (Josh, x, 10, 11). Between Azekah and Shochoh, an easy step out of their own territory, the Philistines en- camped before the battle in which Goliath was killed (1 Sam. xvii, 1). It was among the cities fortified by Rehoboam (2 Chron. xi, 9), was still standing at the time of the invasion of the kings of Babylon (Jer. xxxiv, 7), and is mentioned as one of the places re- occupied by the Jews after their return from captivity (Neh. xi, 30). Eusebius and Jerome state (Onomast. s. v.) that there was in their time a town in this quar- ter called Ezeca, situated between Jerusalem and Eleu- theropolis, which was probably the same as that men- tioned by Joshua (see Reland, Pakest. p. 603). Ac- cording to Schwarz (Palest, p. 102), it is represented by the modern village Tell Ezakaria, three miles east of Saphia or Alba Specula ; but this appears rather to be from the name Zechariah (Tell Zachariyn, Robin- son's Researches, ii, 343). The notices would corre- spond better to the present Zaokuka, marked on Zim- mermann's Map a little to the north-cast of Beit-Jibrin (Eleutheropolis) ; but that is in the hill country, be- yond the Jerusalem road, which was the boundary of the group in Josh, xv, 35. See Tribe. Van de Yelde (Memoir, p. 291) seems to have fixed its site as that of a village on a high hill-top called Ahbek, about H miles N. of Daman, and between 4 and 5 miles E.N.E. of Shuweikeh (Robinson, Researches, ii, 342 note). A'zel (Heb. Atsel', bsX, noble; Sept. 'EorjK), the son of Eleasah, of the descendants of king Saul, and father of six sons (1 Chron. viii, 37, 38; ix, 43, 44). B.C. considerably post 1037. See Azal. A'zem (Heb. E'tsem, CSV, a bone, in pause A 'tsem, t3X5; Sept. Aai/i v. r. 'Aaop, 'laooi'), a city in the tribe of Simeon, originally included within the south- ern territorvof Judah, in the neighborhood ofBalab (or Bilhah) and Eltolad (or Tolad) (Josh, xv, 29; xix, 3; 1 Chron. iv, 29, in which last passage it is Anglicized "Ezem," Sept. Boncrd/j v. r. Aiatfi). These notices afford only a slight ground for a conjectural location, perhaps in the great plain at the south-west extremity of the tribe, possibly at the ruins on TeU Akhmar (Van de Velde, Map). Azephn'ritll ('Apaapovni^. Yulg. omits), given (1 Esdr. v, 16) as the name of a man whose descend- ants (or a place whose inhabitants), to the number of 102, returned from the captivity ; but the original lists have the name Jorah (Ezra ii, 18) or Haripii (Neh. vii, 24), and the number 112. Aze'tas ('A'CnTe'ir v. r. 'A^nvdv"), given (1 Esdr. v, 15), in connection with Ceilan, as the name of an- other man whose descendants (or place whose inhab- itants), to the number of 67, returned from the captiv- ity; but the genuine lists (Ezra ii, 16; Neh. vii, 21) have no corresponding names. Az'gad (lleb. Azgad', ~ir an Israelite, one of the descendants of Zattu, who di- vorced the foreign wife that he had married on the re- turn from Babylon (Ezra x, 27). B.C. 45!). Azizus ('A'Ci'Coc), a king of Emesa, who embraced Judaism in order to marry Drusilla ; but she after- ward deserted him for Felix (Josephus, Ant. xx, 7, 1, ' 2). He died in the first year of Nero (A.D. 54), and j was succeeded by his brother Soasmus (Joseph, ib. 8, 4). Az'maveth (Heb. Azma'veth, T^)", perhaps strong as death ; Sept. 'Aoy.) One of the chief Israelites who signed the covenant of faith with Jehovah on the re- turn from Babylon (Nch. x, 17). B.C. cir. 410. B. Baader, Francis Xavier, a Roman Catholic phi- losopher of Germany, was born at Munich in 17C5, and died in the same city in 1841. In early life he devoted himself especially to the study of medicine and natural science, and was rewarded for his services in the mining interests of his country by the title of nobility. He established a greater reputation by his lectures and works on philosophy and theology. Though a layman, he was appointed, in 1S27, Professor of Speculative Dogmatics at the University of Munich, which chair he retained until 1838, when a ministerial decree excluded laymen from the delivery of lectures on the philosophy of religion. From early youth he had a great aversion to Rationalism, and a great long- ing for a deeper understanding of the mysteries of the Christian revelation. He studied with particu- lar interest the mystic and theosophic writers, among whom he took especially Jacob Boehme (q. v.) for his guide. After his example, he built up a system of theology and philosophy, which, as all admit, is full of profound and original ideas, though, on the whole, visionary and paradoxical in the extreme. Baader nev- er separated from the Roman Church, but published several works against the primacy of the Pope. His system of philosophy has still (1860) a number of followers, both among Romanists and Protestants. Among his principal works are : Vorlemngen ubet tpec- uhitm Dni/matik (Stuttg. 5 vols. 1828-38) ; Revision dcr PI, lusnpheme der Ifer/dschen Schule (Stuttg. 18,'!9) ; D. in iri/ciil'lndische mid der abendliindische Kafholicisiirns (Stuttg. 1841). His complete works have been edited, with explicit introductions, by six of his followers, Fr. Hoffmann, Ilamberger, Lutterbeck, Oten-Saeken, Schaden, and Schluter (Baader's Sammt'iehe Werle, Leipz. 1850-GO, 1G vols.). The sixteenth volume con- tains a copious general index, and an introduction on t !;< -\ Btem and the history of the philosophy of Baader, by Dr. Lutterbeck. See also Hoffmann, VorkaUe zur .-;« ulativi n Lehre Frar.z Baaders (Aschaffenburg, 183G). Ba'al (Heb. id. ?V2, lord or master), a generic term for f) d in many of the Syro-Arabian languages. As the idolatrous nations of that race had several gods, this word, by means of some accessory distinction, be- came applicable as a name to many different deities. See Baal-Berith, Baal-Peor; Baal-Zebub. There is no e\ idence, however, that the Israelites ever called Jehovah by the name of Baal ; for the passage in Hos. ii, 1G, which lias been cited as such, only contains the *ord Umd as the sterner, less affectionate representa- tive of husband. It is spoken of the master and owner of a house (Kxod. xxii, 7; Judg. xix, 2'2); of a land- holder (Job xxxi, 39); of an owner of cattle (Kxod. xxi, 28 ; Isa. i, 3) ; of a lender of monev, i. c. creditor (Deut. xv, 2) ; r.lso of the head cf a family (Lev. xxi, 4) ; and even of the Assyrians (or the princes) as con- querors of nations (Isa. xvi, 8). See Baalim. It also occurs very frequently as the first part of the names of towns and men, e. g. Baal-Gad, Baal-Ha- juon, Baal-Hanan, etc., all which sec in their al- phabetical order, and compare Baal-. As a strictly proper name, and in its simple form, Baal stands in the Bible for a deity, and also for two men and one village. See also Gur-Baal; Kirjatii-Baal ; Me- rib-Baal. Ancient Medals v.-ith tin- Head ot linul. 1. This name (with the article, ??3^i hab-Ea'al, Judg. ii, 13 ; Sept. 6 B««X, but also >'/ Baa\, Jer. xix, 5 ; xxxix, 35 ; Rom. xi, 4) is appropriated to the chief male divinity of the Phoenicians, the principal scat of whose worship was at Tyre, and thus corresponds with Ashtoreth, their supreme female divinity. Both names have the peculiarity of being used in the plural, and it seems that these plurals designate either (as Gesenius, Thes. s. v. maintains) statues of the di- vinities, or different modifications of the divinities themselves. That there were many such modifica- tions of Baal is certain from the fact that his name occurs with numerous adjuncts, both in the O. T. ; nd elsewhere, as we have seen above. The plural Baalim is found frequently alone (e. g. Judg. ii, 11; x, 10; 1 Kings xviii, 18; Jer. ix, 14; Hos. ii, 17), as well as in connection with Ashtoreth (Judg. x, G ; 1 Sam. vii, 4), and with Asherah, or, as our version renders it, "the groves" (Judg. iii, 7 ; 2 Chron. xxxiii, 3). There is no difficulty in determining the meaning of the name, since the word is in Hebrew a common noun of fre- quent occurrence, having the meaning lord, not eo much, however, in the sense of ruler as of master, owner, possessor. The name of the god, whether sin- gular or plural, is always distinguished from the com- mon noun by the presence of the article (?^'?ri, E^b-^ti), except when it stands in connection with some other word which designates a peculiar moriifi- BAAL 579 BAAL cation of Baal. In the Chaldaic form the word be- comes shortened into ?"3, and thence, dropping the guttural, ^3, Bel, which is the Babylonian name of this god (Bnxtorf, Lex. Chald. et Talm. ; so Gesenius, Fiirst, Movers ; the identity of the two words is, how- ever, doubted by Kawlinson, Herod, i, 247). There can be no doubt of the very high antiquity of the worship of Baal. We find his cultus establish- ed among the Moabites and their allies the Midian- ites in the time of Moses (Num. xxii, 41), and through these nations the Israelites were seduced to the wor- ship of this god under the particular form of Baal-peor (Num. xxv, 3 sq. ; Dent, iv, 3). Notwithstanding the fearful punishment which their idolatry brought upon them in this instance, the succeeding generation returned to the worship of Baal (Judg. ii, 10-13), and with the exception of the period during which Gideon was judge (Judg. vi, 26 sq. ; viii, 33) this form of idol- atry seems to have prevailed among them up to the time of Samuel (Judg. x, 10 ; 1 Sam. vii, 4), at whose rebuke the people renounced the worship of Baalim. Two centuries pass over before we hear again of Baal in connection with the people of Israel, though we can scarcely conclude from this silence that his wor- ship was altogether abandoned. We know that in the time of Solomon the service of many gods of the sur- rounding nations was introduced, and particularly that of Ashtoreth, with which Baal is so frequently con- nected. However this may be, the worship of Baal spread greatly, and, together with that of Asherah, be- came the religion of the court and people of the ten tribes under Ahab, king of Israel, who, partly through the influence of his wife Jezebel (q. v.), the daughter of the Sidonian king Ethbaal, appears to have made a systematic attempt to suppress the worship of God altogether, and to substitute that of Ba il in its stead (1 Kings xvi, 31-33; xviii, 19, 22). And though this idolatry was occasionally put down (2 Kings iii, 2 ; x, 28). it appears never to have been permanently or ef- fectually abolished in that kingdom (2 Kings xvii, 1G). In the kingdom of Judahalso Baal-worship extensive- ly prevailed. During the short reign of Ahaziah and the subsequent usurpation of his mother Athaliah, the sister of Ahab, it appears to have been the religion of the court (2 Kings viii, 27; comp. xi, 18), as it was subsequently under Ahaz (2 Kings xvi, 3; 2 Chron. xxviii, 2), and Manasseh (2 Kings xxi, 3) Smith. The worship of Bail among the Jews appears to have been appointed with much pomp and ceremonial. Temples were erected to him (1 Kings xvi, 32 ; 2 Kings xi, 18); his images were set up (2 Kings x, 26); his altars were very numerous (Jer. xi, 13), being erected particularly on lofty eminences [see High-place] (1 Kings xviii, 20), and on the roofs of houses (Jer. xxxii, 29); there were priests in great numbers (1 Kings xviii, 19), and of various classes (2 Kings x, 19) ; the worshippers appear to have been arrayed in appropriate robes (2 Kings x, 22 ; comp. Lucian, De Be-% Sijra, 50). His priesthood (the proper term for which seems to be Q-H^S), kemarim', so called from their bitch garments) were a very numerous body (1 Kings xviii, 19), and were divided into the two classes of prophets and of priests (unless the term "servants," which comes between those words, may denote a third order — a kind of Levites, 2 Kings x, 19). As to the rites by which he was worshipped, there is most frequent mention of incense being offer- ed to him (2 Kings xxiii. 5), but also of bullocks being sacrificed (1 Kings xviii, 26), and even of children, as to Moloch (Jer. xix, 5). According to the description in 1 Kings xviii, the priests during the sacrifice danced (or, in the sarcastic expression of the original, limped) about the altar, and, when their prayers were not an- swered, cut themselves with knives until the blood flowed, like the priests of Bellona (Lucan. Pharstd. i, 565; Tertull. Apologet. ix; Lactant. Div. In-tit. i, 21). AVe also read of homage paid to him by bow- ing the knee, and by kissing his image (1 Kings xix, 18; comp. Cicero, in Verrem, iv, 43), and that his worshippers used to swear by his name (Jer. xii, 16). — Kitto; Smith. See Chemauim. Throughout all the Phoenician colonies we contin- ually find traces of the worship of this god, partly in the names of men, such as A&her-bal, Azdm-bul, Ilan- m-bal, and still more distinctly in Phoenician inscrip- tions yet remaining (Gesenius, Mon. Phcen. passim). Nor need we hesitate to regard the Babylonian Bel (Isa. xlvi, 1) or L'elus (Herod, i, 181) as essentially identical with Baal, though perhaps under some mod- ified form. Bawlinson distinguishes between the sec- ond god of the first triad of the Assyrian pantheon, whom he names provisionally Bel-Nimrod, and the Babylonian Bel, whom ho considers identical with Me- rodach {Herod, i, 510 sq.; 521 sq.). Traces of the idolatry symbolized under it are even found in the British Isles, Baal, Bal, or Beal being, according to many, the name of the principal deity of the ancient Irish ; and on the tops of many hills in Scotland there are heaps of stones called by the common people " Bel's cairns," where it is supposed that sacrifices were of- fered in early times (Statistical Account of Scotland, iii, 105; xi, 621). See Ethbaal. The same perplexity occurs respecting the connec- tion of this god with the heavenly bodies as we have already noticed in regard to Ashtoreth. Creuzer (S/jmb. ii, 413) and Movers (Phon. i, 180) declare Baal to be the Sun-god ; on the other hand, the Bal >y Ionian god is identified with Zeus by Herodotus, and there seems to be no doubt that Bel-Merodach is the planet Jupiter (Bawlinson, Herod, i, 512). On the whole, Baal probably represents properly the sun, and, in connection with Astarte, or the moon, was very generally worship- ped by the idolatrous nations of Western Asia, as rep- resenting the great generative powers of nature, the former as a symbol of the active, and the latter of the passive principle. Traces of this tendency to worship the principal luminaries of heaven appear frequently in the history of the Israelites at a very early period, before Sabianism as such was distinctly developed (Exod. xx, 4; Deut. iv, 19; xvii, 3; 2 Kings xxiii, 11). Gesenius, however (in his Tkesiur. Heb.), con- tends that Baal was not the sun, but the planet Jupi- ter, as the guardian and giver of good fortune ; but the view of Milnter (in his Relgion der Babi/lonkr) seems most tenable, who, while he does not deny the astro- logical character of this worship, still maintains that, together with and besides that, there existed in very earl}' times a cosmogonical idea of the primitive power of nature, as seen in the two functions of generation and conception or parturition, and that the sun and moon were the fittest representatives of these two powers. It is quite likely that in the case of Paul, as well as of Ashtoreth, the symbol of the god varied at different times and in different localities. Indeed, the great number of adjuncts with which the name of Baal is found is a sufficient proof of the diversity of charac- ters in which he was regarded, and there must no doubt have existed a corresponding diversity in the worship. It may even be a question whether in the original no- tion of Baal there was reference to any of the heaven- ly bodies, since the derivation of the name does not in this instance, as it does in the case of Ashtoreth, point directly to them. If we separate the name Baal from idolatry, we seem, according to its meaning, to obtain simply the notion of lord and proprietor of all. With this the idea of productive power is naturally associ- ated, and that power is as naturally symbolized by the sun ; while, on the other hand, the ideas of providen- tial arrangement and rule, and so of prosperity, are as naturally suggested by the word, and in the astral mythology these ideas are associated with the planet Jupiter. In point of fact, we find adjuncts to the name of Baal answering to all these notions, e. g. Bff\aafxr,v, BAAL 5SU BAALAH Bdbamen (Plant. Pan. v, 2, G7) = liBO-PSa, "Lord of the heavens" *"r!->rn, Baal-Hamon (Gesenius, Man. Phan. p. 349), the Sun-Baal (comp. the similar name of a city in Cant, viii, 11); ^5~P53, Baal-Gad, the name of a city (Josh, xi, 17), q. d. Baal the For- tune-bringer, which god may he regarded as identical with the planet Jupiter. Many more compounds of Baal in the 0. T. occur, and among them a large num- ber of cities, which are given below. There has re- cently been discovered among the ruins of a temple on Mount Lebanon an inscription containing the name BaUmarcos, the first part of which is evidently identical with the Phoenician Baal, -who appears to have been ■worshipped then under the title of "the god of dancing" (Bihlioth. Sacra, 1843, p. 559 sq.). Dr. "Wilson, -when at Damas- cus, obtained the impression of an ancient scarabaws, on which was carved an in- scription, in the old Phoenician alpha- bet, containing the title bl"zb, "to Baal" (Lands of Bible, ii, 769). See Baalim. 2. (Sept. B««X.) A Benjamite, fourth son of Jehiel, the progenitor of the Gibeonites, by his wife Maachah (1 Chron. viii, £0 ; ix, 3C). B.C. post 1618. 3. (Sept. B«fi\ v. r. Bit)\ and even 'W/X.) AReu- benite, son of Reia and father of Beerah, which last was among the captives transported to Assyria by Tiglath-Pileser (1 Chron. v, 5). B.C. ante 738. 4. (Sept. BadA.) A place in the vicinity of Ain and Ashan, inhabited by the Simeonites (1 Chron. iv, 33); probably the same elsewhere (Josh, xix, 8) called Baalath-Beer (q. v.). See Baal-. Baal- or -baal (Ileb. id. ~'""3 or £>?3~, i. e. Baal), a geographical word occurring as the prefix or suffix to the names of several places in Palestine (see those following, also Glr-Baal, etc.). Gesenius has ex- pressed his opinion (Thes. Beb. p. 225, col. o) that in these cases it has no reference to any worship of the god Baal at the particular spot, but merely expresses that the place "possesses" or contains something spe- cial denoted by the other part of the name, the word Baal bearing in that case a force synonymous with that of Beth (q. v.). See Baal-tamar, etc. "With- out contradicting this conclusion, some reasons may be mentioned for reconsidering it. Sec Baalim. 1. Though employed in the Hebrew Scriptures to a certain extent metaphorically, and there certainly with the force of "possession" or "ownership," as a "lord of hair" (2 KiiiL's i, 8), "lord of dreams" (Gen. xxxvii, 10), etc., Baal never seems to have become a naturalized Hebrew word, but frequently occurs so as to betray its Canaanite origin and relationship. Thus it is several times employed to designate the inhabi- tants of towns either certainly or probably heathen, but rarely, if ever, those of one undoubtedly Hebrew. It is applied to the men of Jericho before the conquest (Josh, xxiv, 11); to the men of Shechem, the ancient city of Hamor the Hivite, who rose to recover the rights of Hamor's descendants long after the conquest of the land (Judg. ix, 2 51, with Ewald's commentary, Gesch. ii, 1 15 1 17), and in the account of which strug- gle the distinction between the "lords" (Erbr'£) of Shechem and the "men" (D"Va5K — Hebrew relations) of Abimelech is carefully maintained. It is used for the men of Keilah, a place on the western confines of Judah, exposed to all the attacks and the influen- ces of the surrounding heathen (1 Samuel xxiii, 11, 12), for Uriah the Hittite (2 Sam. xi, 26), and for Others (Isa. xvi. 8, etc.). Add to this the considera- tion that if Baal forms part of the name of a person, we arc sure to find the name mentioned with some Ile- brew alt. rati. .u. as Jerubbesheth for Jerub-haal; Me- phiboBheth for Merib-baal; Ishbosheth for Esh-baal, and others. In Hos. ii, 16, a remarkable instance is preserved of the distinction, noticed above in connec- tion with the record of the revolt at Shechem, between the heathen Baal and the Hebrew Ish : "At that day, saith Jehovah, men shall call me ' Ishi,' and shall call me no more 'Baali,' " both words having the sense of "my husband." 2. Such places called by this name, or its compounds, as can be identified, and several of which existed at the time of the conquest, were either near Phoenicia, as Baal-gad, Baal-hermon, Belmarkos (of later times), or in proximity to some other acknowledged seat of heathen worship, as Baal-meon and Bamoth-Baal, near Baal-poor; or Kirjath-Baal and Baal-tamar, connected with Gibeon and Bethel (see Denis, "Der Baal in d. Hebr. F.igennamen," in the Zeilschr. d. deutsch. mor- qenl. Gesellsch. 1862, iv, 728). 3. On more than one occasion Baal forms part of the names of places which we elsewhere discover to have been elevated spots, spots in which the worship of the Canaanites delighted. Thus Baal-hermcn in elsewhere called "Mount Baal," and Baal-Pcrazim is (very probably) "Mount Perazim." Baalath-beer, too, is called in the parallel lists Ramath (i. e. "height") Compare the Vulgate rendering of Baalah in 1 Chron. xiii, 6, "ad collem Cariathiarim ;" also Mount Baalah (Josh, xv, 11). 4. There is the consideration of the very deep sig- nificance with which the name of Baal must always have been invested, both for the Israelites and for their predecessors in the country — for those who venerated and those who were commanded to hate him. Surely this significance must have been sufficient to prevent that portentous name from becoming a mere altc rna- tive for a term which, like Beth- (q. v.), wa's in tho commonest daily use.— Smith, s. v. 5. The most significant form in which this compcund word occurs is its use as an element (in a manner com- mon to all the Shemitic languages) in proper names, like el- (PX) and Jah (PP) of the Hebrew ; sometimes at the end, c. g. Eth-baal\b?2Ti<), Meri-baal(bv^.";^\ Esh-baal (?r'Z"l:X), Jerub-baal fcv'2.^), etc. (which see severally); at other times at the beginning, e. g. Baal-hancn ("I'rbvi'), Eali-yah (fi'bv^), and in some instances the heathenish "Baal"' has supplanted the corresponding Jewish sacred name, e. g. El-ir.da (ST&B, 2 Sam. v, lQ>) = EeeU:;da (V^bv'Z, 1 Chrcn. xiv, 7). This was a frequent method of formation in Phoenician proper names, as appears from those occur- ring in classical and Biblical history, and still mere clearly in inscriptions en coins, e. g. Btobaal (b"'ZV',iiJ "with Baal," Gcrb. i, 2), Bathbaal (bvzrs, "daugh- ter of Baal," Carth. 8), Hikkembaal (bv'Z-Ztr, "sage of Baal," Numid. i, 2), Hikkebbaal (V?5isfl, the same by assimilation of the "2, ib. ii, 3), IliHemshlbaal (bv'Z'-'Zt.y*, the same with the insertion of the rela- tive prefix D, ib. ii, 2), Jevbaal (bi'^X/, "desire of Baal," Cit. 26), Jaasherbaal (^SS^S??!1, " enriched by Baal," Numid. vii, 1), MalMbaal (bv'Z'lb-g, "ruled by Baal," Malt, iii, 1), Mezclhbaal (bt'Sr-^-;, "kindled by Baal,'' Numid. i, 4), Mosibaal (bv^"'^ for bv'Z'tV-t, "made by Baal," ib. i, 3), Mottanbaal (bvZtV^, "given by Baal," ib. vii, 1), etc. (see Gese- nius, Thes. I/ih. p. 224, b~). — Fiirst, s. v. See Name. Ba'alah (Heb. Baalah', fibr'.a, mistress, civi/as), the name of two cities and of one mountain. See also Baalath. 1. (Sept. Baa\a$ v. r. B«X«.) A city in the south- ern part of Judah, mentioned in connection with Beer- sheba and Iim (Josh, xv, 29), apparently the same elsewhere called Balaii (Josh, xix, 3), also Biliiaii, and assigned to Simeon (1 Chron. iv, 29). In the first- named passage it forms part of the preceding name — Bizjothjah-Baalah. See Bizjothjaii. BAALATH 581 BAALBEK 2. (Sept. Btttt\«.3r v. r. BadX, but omits in 1 Chron.) A city on the northern border of Judali (Josh, xv, 10), better known as Kirjatii-jearim (q. v.) (Josh, xv, 9 ; 1 Chron. xiii, C), otherwise called Baale of Judah (2 Sam. vi, 2). In Josh, xv, GO, and xviii, 14, it is call- ed Kirjath-Baal. From the expression "Baalah, which is Kirjath-jearim" (comp. " Jebusi, wMch is Je- rusalem," xviii, 28), it would seem as if Baalah were the earlier or Canaanite appellation of the place. 3. (Sept. yf; BaaXaSt v. r. trri Xifia, etc.) A moun- tain (TT.) on the N.W. boundary of Judah, between j Shicron and Jabneel (Josh, xv, 11), usually regarded as the same with Mount Jearim (ver. 10), from the ', neighboring Kirjath-baal ; but erroneously (see Keil, j Comment, in loc), for the direction in the text requires j a location more westerly, apparently at the modern Tell Hermes (Van de Velde, Map). See Teibe. Ba'alath (Heb. Baalath', ni?a, another form of the name Baalah; Sept. BaaXdS [v. r. rtSstXdv in Josh.], but Ba\n«3 v. r. BaXadg in 2 Chron.), a town in the tribe of Dan, named wTith Gibbethon, Gath- rimmon, and other Philistine places (Josh, xix, 44), apparently the same that was afterward rebuilt by Solomon (1 Kings ix, 18; 2 Chron. viii, 6). Many have conjectured this Baalath to be the same as Baal- bek (so Schwarz, Palest, p. 62); but in that case it must have lain in northernmost Dan, whereas the pos- session of it is ascribed to that tribe when its terri- tory was wholly in the south near Judah, and many years before- the migration (recorded in Judg. xviii) which gave Dan a northern territory. Correspond- ingly, Josephus places the Baalath of Solomon (which he calls Baleth, BaXtSi) in the southern part of Pales- tine, near Gazara or Gezer (Ant. viii, 6, 1), within the territory which would have belonged to Dan had it acquired possession of the lands originally assigned to it. The Jerusalem Talmud (Sanhedr. 1) affirms that Baalath lay so near the line of separation between Dan and Judah that the fields only were in the former tribe, the buildings being in the latter. Schwarz, however {Palest, p. 138 note), disputes this position; the statement seems to have reference to the post- exilian distribution of Palestine, by which Judah gave name (Judaea) to the entire neighborhood, including Benjamin as well as Dan and Simeon, an arrange- ment evidently growing out of the earlier division into the two rival kingdoms of Judah and Israel. Van de Velde is probably correct in identifying the Kite with that of Dor Balut, on the high southern brow of Wady Kerama, about half way between Jaffa and Nablous ; but he distinguishes this from the Baalath of Solomon, assigning only the insufficient reason that this locality is not situated near a highway where a fortified place would be required {Memoir, p. 291). Ba'alath-be'er (Ileb. Baalath' Beer', rb"3 "1X3, Baalah of [or having] a well; Sept. BaaXdS c. r. BrtXk-), probably the same as the Baal of 1 Chron. iv, 33, a city of Simeon ; mentioned in connec- tion with RAMATK-Negeb, or Southern Ramah (Josh. xix, 8 ; comp. 1 Sam. xxx, 27), in such a manner as to make them identical (so the Sept. B. iropcvoniviov ByppafithS ; Vulg. Baalath- Beerramoth). See Ra- math. It is also the same with the Bkaloth (q. v.) of Judah (Josh, xv, 24). Other sacred wells in this parched region were the Beer-lahai-roi, the " well of the vision of God;" and Beer-sheba, the "well of the oath." See Beer-. Baalbek, a city of Code-Syria, celebrated for its superb ruins yet extant of an ancient temple of the sun, and supposed by many to be the site designated by Solomon's famous " House of the Forest of Leba- non" (1 Kings vii, 2 ; x, 17 ; 2 Chron. ix, 16). We are also informed that among those parts of Palestine which were unsubdued by the Hebrews at the death of Joshua was "all Lebanon toward the sun-rising, from Baal-gad, under Mount Hermon, unto the enter ing into Hamath" (Josh, xiii, 5). This position ot Baal-gad is not unfavorable to the conclusion which some have reached, that it is no other than the place which, from a temple consecrated to the sun that stood there, was called by the Greeks Heliopolis, i. e. city of the sun ; and which the natives called and still call Baalbek, a word apparently of the same meaning. The honor of being identified with Baalbek has also been claimed for the Baalath which Solomon built or fortified ; but this claim has already been disposed of [see Baalath] ; and no weight is to be attached to the local traditions which claim Solomon as the found- er of Baalbek, seeing that it is the practice of the na- tives to ascribe to that great king every grand ancient work of unknown date which the country contains. It is also to be observed that those who contend for Baalath admit its possible identity with Baal-gad, and hence there are no conflicting claims to adjust. Even those who suppose the Baal-hamon of the Canticles (viii, 11) to be Baalbek, conceive that to be a later name for Baal-gad, and hence the only question that remains is whether Baal-gad be not the more ancient name of the place afterward known as Heliopolis and Baalbek. Baalbek, in the Syrian language, signifies the city of Baal, or of the sun ; and, as the Syrians never borrowed names from the Greeks, or translated Greek names, it is certain that when the Greeks came into Syria they found the place bearing this name, or some other signifying "city of the sun," since they termed it Heliopolis, which is doubtless a translation of the native designation. Now the question is wheth- er this word has the same meaning as Baal-gad, and, if not, whether any circumstances can be pointed out as likely to occasion the change of name. If we take Baal for the name of the idol, then, as in the case of Baalbek, the last member of the word must be taken as a modifying appellation, not as in itself a proper name; and as Gad means a troop, a multitude, or a press of people, Baal-gad will mean Baal's crowd, whether applied to the inhabitants, or to the place as a resort of pilgrims. The syllable bek has precisely the same meaning in the Arabic. If this should not seem satisfactory, we may conclude that Baal was so com- mon an element in the composition of proper names that it is not sufficiently distinctive to bear the stress of such an interpretation, and may rather take it to signify (as Gesenius says it always does in geograph- ical combinations) the place where a thing is found. See Baal-. According to this view, Baal-gad would mean the place of Gad. Now Gad was an idol (Isa. lxv, 11), supposed to have been the god or goddess of good fortune (comp. Sept. Ti>xn; Vulg. Fortuna), and identified by the Jewish commentators with the planet Jupiter. See Gad. But it is well known that Baal was identified with Jupiter as well as with the sun ; and it is not difficult to connect Baalbek with the wor- ship of Jupiter. John of Antioch affirms that the great temple at Baalbek was dedicated to Jupiter; and in the celebrated passage of Macrobius {Saturn, i, 23), in which he reports that the worship of the sun was brought by Egyptian priests to Heliopolis in Syria, he expressly states that they introduced it under the name of Jupiter (sub nomine Jovis). This implies that the worship of Jupiter was already established and popu- lar at the place, and that heliolatry previously was not; and therefore we should rather expect the town to have borne some name referring to Jupiter than to the sun, and may be sure that a name indicative of heliolatry must have been posterior to the introduction of that worship by the Egyptians ; and, as we have no ground for supposing that this took place before or till long after the age of Joshua, it could not then be call- ed by any name corresponding to Heliopolis. But 1 see Baal-gad. Baalbek is pleasantly situated on the lowest decliv- ity of Anti-Libanus, at the opening of a small valley BAALBEK 532 BAALBEK i;:ii:i-' nf Haalbek. into the plain El-Bekaa. Through this valley runs a small stream, divided into numberless rills for irri- gation. The place, according to the determination of Maj. Rennell (Geogr. of W. Asia, i, 75), is in N. hit. 34° 1 80", and E. long. 36° 11', distant 109 geog. miles from Palmyra, and 082 from Tripoli. Its origin appears to be lost in the most remote antiquity, and the historical notices of it are very scanty ; the silence of the classical writers respecting it would alone, seem to imply that it had previously existed under another name. In the absence of more positive information, we can only conjecture that its situation on the high- road of commerce between Tyro, Palmyra, and the farther East, must have contributed largely to the wealth and magnificence which it manifestly attained. It is mentioned under the name of Heliopolis by Jo- scphus (Ant. xiv, 3, 4), and also by Pliny (Hist. Nat. v. 22). Two Roman inscri] tions of the time of Anto- ninus Pius give sanction to the statement of John of Antioch, who alleges that this emperor built a great temple to Jupiter at Heliopolis, which was one of the wonders of the world (Hist. Citron, lib. xi). From the reverses of Roman coins we learn that Heliopolis was constituted a colony by Julius Caesar; that it was the seat of a Roman garrison in the time of Augustus, and obtained tho Jus Italicum from Scverus (Ulpian, It. Censibus,ff). Some ofthe coins oflater date con- 4- tain curious representations of the temple (Acker- man, Rom. Coins, i, 339). After the age of Constan- tine the splendid temples of Baalbek were prob- ably consigned to neglect and decay, unless, in- deed, as some appearances indicate, they were then consecrated to Christian worship (see Chron. Pasch. p. 303, id. 1'i.ilin; comp. Sozomen, Hist. Eccles. v, 10; Theodoret, Hist, Eccles. iii, 7; iv, 22). From the accounts of Oriental writers Baalbek seems to have continued a place of importance down to the time of the Moslem invasion of Syria (see Am- mian. Marcell. xiv, 8). They describe it as one of the nmst splendid of Syrian cities, enriched with stately palaces, adorned with monuments of ancient times, and abounding with trees, foun- iri I whatever contributes to luxurious enjoy- ment (D'Herbelot, Biblwth. Or. s. v.). On the ad- vance ofthe Moslems, it was reported to the Emperor Heraclius as protected by a citadel of great Btrength, and well able to sustain a siege. After tho capture of Damascus it was regularly invested by the Mos- lems, and, eont lining an overflowing population, am- ply supplied With provisions and military stores, it nurageous defence, but at length capitulated. !t- invtortance at that period is attested by the ran- som exacted by the conquerors, consisting of 2f 00 ounces of gold, 4000 ounces of silver, 2000 silk vests, and 1000 swords, together with the arms ofthe garri- son. It afterward became the mart for the rich pil- lage of Syria ; but its prosperity soon received a fatal blow from the caliph of Damascus, by whom it was sacked and dismantled, and the principal inhabitants put to the sword (A.D. 748). During the Crusades, being incapable of making any resistance, it seems to have quietly submitted to the strongest. In the ye;.r 1400 it was pillaged by Timour Beg, in his ingress to Damascus, after he had taken Aleppo. Aftcrwurd it fell into the hands of the Mctawcli— a barbarous predatory tribe, who were nearly exterminated when Djezzar Pasha permanently subjected the whole dis- trict to Turkish supremacy. In 1750 an earthquake completed the devastation already begun 1 y Moham- medan vandalism. The ruins of Heliopolis lie on an eastern branch of the mountain, and are called, by way of eminence, tho Castle. The most prominent objects visible from the plain are a lofty portico of six columns, part of the great temple, and the walls and columns of another smaller temple a little below, surrounded by green Octagonal Temple at Baalbek, trees. There is also a singular temple of nearly cir- cular form. These, with a curious column on the highest point within the walls (winch may possibly have been a clepsydra, or water-dial), form the only erect portions ofthe ruins. These ruins have been so often and so minutely described by scores of travel- lers, as well as in many works of general reference, that, since their identification as a Scriptural site is uncertain, a few additional observations only may suffice. The ruins of Baalbek in the mass are eppar- BAALBEK 583 BAAL-GAD ently of three successive eras : first, the gigantic hewn stones, in the face of the platform or basement on which the temple stands, and which appear to be re- mains of older buildings, perhaps of the more ancient temple which occupied the site. Among these are at least twenty standing upon a basement of rough stones, which would be called enormous anywhere but here. These celebrated blocks, which in fact form th-3 great wonder of the place, vary from 30 to 40 feet in length; but there are three, forming an upper course 20 feet from the ground, which together meas- ure 190 feet, being severally of the enormous dimen- sions of 63 and 64 feet in length, by 12 in breadth and thickness (Addison's Damascus and Palmyra, ii, 55). "They are," says Richter (Wallfuhrlen, p. 281), "the largest stones I have ever seen, and might of them- selves have easily given rise to the popular opinion that Baalbek was built by angels at the command of Solomon. The whole wall, indeed, is composed of immense stones, and its resemblance to the remains of the Temple of Solomon, which are still shown in the foundations of the, mosque Es-Sakkara on Mount Mori- ah, cannot fail to be observed.'' This was also point- ed out by Dr. Richardson. In the neighboring quar- ries (q. v.) from which the}- were cut, one stone, hewn out but not carried away, is of much larger dimensions than any of those which have been mentioned. To the second and third eras belong the Roman temples, which, being of and about the time of Antoninus Pius, present some of the finest specimens of Corinthian architecture in existence, and possess a wonderful grandeur and majesty from their lofty and imposing Twcltc pedestab In the wall. nuuuuuuuuuuLXi Plan of the Great Temple at Baalbek. situation (Addison, ii, 57). Among the ornaments of these buildings Richter finds confirmation of the fol- lowing statement of Macrobius: " Isis and Horus often unequivocally appear. The winged globes sur- rounded with serpents show that the priests of Baalbek received their ideas of divinity from On, the Heliopo- lis of Egypt." Speaking generally of these remains, Burckhardt says, "The entire view of the ruins of Palmyra, when seen at a certain distance, is infinitely more striking than those of Baalbek, but there is not any one spot in the ruins of Tadmor so imposing as the interior view of the temple of Baalbek" {Syria, p. 13). He adds that the architecture of Baalbek is richer than that of Tadmor. Mr. Addison remarks that "the ruins, though so striking and magnificent. are, nevertheless, quite second-rate when compared with the Athenian ruins, and display in their decora- tion none of the bold conceptions and the genius which characterize the Athenian architecture." The present Baalbek is a small village to the east of the ruins, in a sad state of wretchedness and decay. It is little more than a heap of rubbish, the houses being built of mud and sun-dried bricks. The population of 5000 which the place is said to have contained in 1751 is now re- duced to barely 2000 persons; the two handsome mosques and fine serai of the emir, mentioned by Burckhardt, are no longer distinguishable; and trav- ellers may now inquire in vain for the grapes, the pomegranates, and the fruits which were formerly so abundant (Iken, Dissert, de Baal-Hamon et Baal-Gad, in Dissertt. Ph:,lologico-Theolog. i, 136 ; Wood and Daw- kins, Ruins of Baal'jec, Lond. 1757; Pococke, Descrip- tion ofthe East, ii, 106-113; Maundrell, Journey from Aleppo to Jerusalem, p. 134, 139; Volney, Voyage en rie, ii, 215-230; Thevet, Cosmngraplw, bk. vi, ch. xiv; Schubert, Reise in das Morgenland, Erlangen, 1841 ; see also Rosenmuller, Biblical Geography, ii, 252-257; Thomson, Land and Boole, i, 350-361; Kel- ly's Syria, p. 256-266; Smith's Diet, of Class. Geg. s. v. Heliopolis Syrise). — Kitto, s. v. Baal-gad. Ba'al-be'rith (Heb. Ba'al Berith', m">3 ?33, covenmt-lord; Sept. Baa\j3tpi9 v. r. Baa\ cia9r)KiiQ ; Judg. ix, 4) is the name of a god worshipped by the people of Shechem (Judg. viii, 33), who, on account of the signification of the name, has been compared to the Zs<''c "OpicioQ of the Greeks, and the Latin Deus Fidius. Bochart and Crcuzer think that this name means "God of Berj-tus;" bat, whether or not the name of that town is to be recognised in the Berothah of Ezek. xlvii, 16, there is hardly any ground for their opinion. Movers (Phonizer, i, 169) considers the name equivalent to " Baal in covenant with the idolaters of Israel." The meaning, however, does not seem to be the god who presides over cove- nants, but the god who comes into covenant with the worship- pers. In Judg. ix, 46, he is called simply "the god Berith" (n"73 bx). We know nothing of the particular form of worship paid to this god. See Baalim. Ba'ale of Judah (Heb. Ba~ aley Yehuddi, rnirn r?r3, lord; or cities of Judah; Sept. and Vulg. translate oi dpxovrtc 'Invda, liri Judo), a city in the tribe of Judah, from which Da- vid brought the ark into Jerusa- lem (2 Sam. vi, 2). It is else- where called Baai.au (q. v.), and was still better known as Kik.jath-jeaium (1 Chron. xiii, 6). Ba'al-gad^Heb. id., 13 W3, lord of fortune ; Sept. BaaXydS BAAL-GUR 584 BAALIM r. r. BaXaydc, once [Josh, xiii, 5] r«Xy«X), a city of the Canaanites, perhaps in the valley of Leb- anon, at the source of the Jordan and foot of Mount Hermon, whose kings were taken and put to death by Joshua, hut the city itself remained unsubdued in his day (Josh, xi, 17; xii, 7; xiii, 5). It was a place evidently well known at the time of the con- quest of Palestine, and, as such, used to denote the most northern (Josh, xi, 17 , xii, 7), or perhaps north- western (xiii, 5, Hamath being to the extreme north- east) point to which Joshua's victories extended. It was in all probability a Phoenician or Canaanite sanc- tuary of Baal under the aspect of Gad or Fortune [see Gad] , from whose worship it appears to have derived its name. See Baalim. The words "the plain (nrpa) of Lebanon" would lead to the supposition that it lay between the two ranges of Lebanon and Anti-Leba- non, which is still known by the same name el-Biikaa , and it has according^ been identified b)r Iken and others (including Thomson, Land and Book, i, 353) with Baalbek (Ritter, Erdkunde, xvii, 230). See Baal- bek. But against this are the too great distance of Baalbek to the north, and the precise expression of the text — "under Mount Hermon." The conjecture of Schwarz (Palest, p. 60), supported by Robinson (Researches, new ed. iii, 519), is, that the modern rep- resentative of Baal-gad is Banias, a place which long maintained a great reputation as the sanctuary of Pan. See C.esarea Philippi. From its association with Mount Hermon, it would seem to be the same with Baal-hermon (Judg. iii, 3; 1 Chron. v, 23). — Smith. Baal-gur. See Gcr-baal. Ba'al-ha'mon (Heb. Ba'iil Hainan', "l-fl ^ra, place of multitude ; Sept. Re iXci/im/), a place where Solomon is said to have had an extensive vineyard (Cant, viii, 11). Rosenmiiller (AllertL I, ii, 281)"con- ceives that if this Baal-hamon was the name of a place that actually existed, it may be reasonably sup- posed identical with Baal-gad or IMwpolis; for Ha- mon was a chief Phoenician god (Davis, Carthage, p. 256, 262), perhaps the Amnion of the Egyptians (see Nah. iii, 8), whom the Greeks identified with Jupiter (Bib. Geog. ii, 253). We are not inclined to lay much stress on this conjecture (see Iken, Dissertt. philol. in loc), which, however, is adopted by Schwarz (Palest, p. 61). See Baal-gad. There was a place called Ilammon, in the tribe of Asher (Josh, xix, 28), which Ewald (Comment, in loc.) thinks was the same as Baal-hamon ; but there is little probability in this conjecture. The book of Judith (viii, 3) places a Bala- mon (BaXafttoi) or Belamon (RtXctjiMv) in central Pal- estine, near Doth aim, and therefore in the mountains of Ephraim, not far north of Samaria. See Balamo. If it be the same place (see Gesenius, Thes. Heb. p. 225), this vineyard may have been in one of the " fat valleys" of the "drunkards of Ephraim, who are over- come with wine," to which allusion is made in Isa. xx viii, 1. It appears to have been situated among the eminences south-east of Jenin. — Kitto ; Smith. See Beth-haggan; Baalim. Ba'al-ha'nan (Heb. Ba'iil Chanan , 'SH bra, lord stini, i, 377). Perhaps Baal-hazor is the same with Hazor (q. v.) in the tribe of Benjamin (Neh. xi, 33), now Asur in the vicinity indicated (see Schwarz, Palest, p. 133). Ba'al - her'mon (Heb. Ba'iil Chermon , bra "(i-*n, lord of Hermon), the name of a city and a hill adjoining. 1. (Sept. makes two names, Bo«X 'Ep/.twv.) A town not far from Mount Hermon, mentioned as inhabited by the Ephraimites in connection with Bashan and Senir (1 Chron. v, 23). It was probably the same with the Baal-gad (q. v.) of Josh, xi, 17 (Robinson, Researches, new ed. iii, 409). 2. (Sept. translates 6'poc. too 'Aip/.uov, Mount Ihr- mon.) A mountain (~!l) east of Lebanon, from which the Israelites were unable to expel the Hivites (Judg-. iii, 3). This is usually considered as a distinct place from Mount Hermon ; but the only apparent ground J for doing so is the statement in 1 Chron. v, 23, " unto Baal-hermon, and Senir, and [unto] Mount Hermon;" but it is quite possible that the conjunction " and" may be here, as elsewhere, used as an expletive-^" unto Baal-hermon, even Senir, even Mount Hermon." Perhaps this derives some color from the fact, which Ave know, that this mountain had at least three names (Deut. iii, 9). May not Baal-hermon have been a fourth, in use among the Phoenician worshippers of Baal, one of whose sanctuaries, Baal-gad, was at the foot of this very mountain ? — Smith. See Baalim. Ba'ali (Heb. Baali' , hbS3, mylord, Sept. RaaXei/i), a colder and more distant title for husband, which the prophet reproaches the Jewish Church for hitherto ap- plying to Jehovah, instead of the more endearing term Ishi (my man, i. e. husband), which he predicts she would be emboldened to employ when freed from her idolatries (Hos. ii, 16). Some have supposed from this that the JewTs had even borrowed the term Baal from the surrounding nations as expressive of sover- eign deity, and so applied it to Jehovah ; but this is not likehy. See Baal. Ba'alim (Heb. hab-beiilim' , cbrart, plural of Baal, with the def. article prefixed; Sept. BcraXi'//), according to most, images of the god Baal set up in temples and worshipped, usually in connection with those of Astarte (Judg. ii, 11; 1 Sam. vii, 4, etc.); according to others, various forms of Baal (Ort, Dienst der B. in Israel, Leyden, 1864). See Ashtoretii. Baal seems to have been the general name for the deity among the Phoenicians and Carthaginians (Ser- vius, ad jEn. i, 729; "lingua Punica Deus B il dici- tur," Isidor. Orig. viii, 11), but with the article (bra!~t, hab-Baal, "the Baal'1) Baal distinctively, the chief male divinity (on the fern, i) RaaX, Rom. xi, 4, and often in the Sept. , see Winer, New Ted. Gr. § 205) of the Phoenician (i. e. proper Sidonian, Syrian, Cartha- ginian, and colonial Punic) race (hence the syllable -(iaXoc or -bal so often found at the end of their prop, er names, e. g. 'I3-o/3nXo£ or Ethbaal (q. v.), "Ay/SoXog [Herod, vii, 78], 'EwifiaXoc and Mfp/3d\oc [Joseph. Ap. i, 21]; also Hannibal, Ahibal, Adherbal, Hasdru- bal, Maharbal, etc. [comp. Fromann, Be cultu dei.r. ex ovofiaStoia illustri., Altdorf, 1744-45, p. 17 sq.] ; yet that the suffix in these names is not expressive of deity BAALIM 585 BAALIM in general, but only of Baal specifically, appears from a similar use of the titles Melkart, Astarte, etc., in oth- er personal appellations [see generally Munter, Re'ig. d. Karthager, 2d ed. Kopenh. 1821]), like Bel among the Babylonians (for the contraction 52, Bal, for 522, Baal, see Gesenius, Monum. Phan. p. 452), and the tu- telary Be'us of Cyprus ("Citium of Bel," Steph. Byz. p. 510). The apostate Israelites worshipped him (in connection with Astarte) in the period of the judges (Judg. ii, 11, 13 ; ill, 7 ; vi, 25 sq.), and the later kings, especially Ahaz (2 Chron. xxviii, 2) and Manasseh (2 Kings xxi, 3) of Judah, and Ahab and Hoshea of Is- rael (1 Kings xvi, 31 sq. ; xviii, 19 sq. ; 2 Kings xvii, 1G sq. ; comp. also Jer. ii, S ; vii, 9 ; xxxii, 29, etc.), with but little interruption (2 Kings iii, 2; x, 28; xi, 18). They had temples to him (1 Kings xvi, 32 ; 2 Kings x, 21 sq.), and altars (Jer. xi, 13) erected espe- cially on eminences and roofs (Jer. xix, 5 ; xxxii, 29), as well as images set up in his honor (2 Kings iii, 2). Respecting the form of his worship we have very few distinct notices. His priests and prophets were very numerous (1 Kings xviii, 22; 2 Kings x, 19 sq.), and divided into various classes (2 Kings x, 19). They ottered incense to this god (Jer. vii, 9; xi, 13; xxxii, 29, etc.), and, clothed in a peculiar costume (2 Kings x, 22), presented to him bloody offerings, including children (Jer. xix, 5). In connection with these, the priests danced (derisively, "leaped," 1 Kings xviii, 2(5) around the altar, and gashed themselves with knives (1 Kings xviii, 28) when they did not speedily gain their suit (Propert. ii, 18, 15 ; Tibull. i, G, 17 sq. ; Lucan. i, 565; Lucian, Dei Syra, 50 [Ling. 1723]; Movers, Phoniz. i, G82). On the adoration (q. v.) by kissing (1 Kings xix, 18), see Kiss. That this Baal worshipped by the Israelites was the same as the wide- ly famed Tyrim Baal, whom the Greeks called Hercu- les, admits of scarcely a doubt (Movers, i, 178 sq.), and thus Baal is identified with Melkart also. The an- cients in general compare Baal with the Greek Zeus or Jove (Sanchoniathon, p. 11, ed. Orelli ; Augustine, (incest, in Jud. 16 ; Dio Cass, lxxviii, 8), as they still more frequently do the Belus of the Babylonians [see Bel], but sometimes identify him with Chronus or Saturn (Ctes ap. Phot. p. 343). Most investigators recognise in him the sun as the fructifying principle of nature (Creuzer, Symbol, ii, 2GG sq. ; comp. Vatke, BUI. Theol. p. 3G6 sq.) ; while Gesenius {Comment, zu Jes. ii, 335, and Thesaur. p. 224) interprets the Babylo- nian Bel and the Phoenician Baal as the principal lucky etar of the Asiatic astrolatry, i. e. the planet Jupiter. The latter view has the following considerations in its favor : (1.) In the sacred writings of the Saltans, the usual title of this planet (in Syriac) is Beil; (2.) A star of good fortune, Gad, was evidently esteemed a deity in Western Asia (comp. Isa. lxv, 11), and from this the city Baal-Gad doubtless had its name ; (3.) In 2 Kings xxiii, 5, Baal (52211) would seem to be distin- guished from the sun as an object of worship ; (4.) On Phoenician coins likewise the sun-god is constantly named distinctively "Lord of Heaven" (E7"2'.2 522), " Lord of Heat" (]*2tl 522), " Lord of the Sun" (O'aia 522). But that Baal originally represented the sun, which with its light and warmth controls and vitalizes all nature, is clearly indicated by Sanchonia- thon (ut sup.) in the statement that the Phoenicians had designated the sun as the "sole lord of heaven, BeeUameii'1 (jiovov ovpavoii icvpiov, WitXaapijv, i. e. ■pO'JB 522; comp. also Augustine, in Jud. 10). The same name (Balsameri) occurs in Plautus (Pan. v, 2, G7). For other reasons for the identification of the Babylo- nian, Syrian, and Phoenician Baal with the solar deity, see Movers, Phon. p. 180 sq., who has extensively in- vestigated (p. 185 sq.) the relations of this divinity to the other ancient Asiatic deification of the powers of nature, some of which appear in the names Tammuz, Moloch, and Chiun (q. v. severally). Without tracing these out minutely, it is appropriate in this connection to specif}' some of the functions and spheres of activ- ity which Baal, like Zeus among the Greeks, appears to have fulfilled among the Phoenicians, especially in- asmuch as the plural form Baalim is thought by many to be expressive of this multiform development. The following are referred to in the Bible. 1. Baal-Berith (r^"i2 522, Covenant-Baal'), cor- responding to the Zei'Q onictog, Deus Fidius, of the Greek and Roman mythology, lie was worshipped in this capacity in a special temple by the Shechemites (Judg. viii, 33; ix, 4, 4G), among whom Canaanites were also resident (Judg. ix, 28). Bochart (Canaan, xvii, p. 859), whom Creuzer (Symbol, ii, 87) follows, renders the name "Baal of Berytus" (comp. also Steph. Byz. s. v. Bipvrog), like the titles Baal of Sy- rus (-12 522), Baal of Tarsus (Tin 522), found in inscriptions. As the Heb. name of Berytus (q. v.) accords with this title (WHS or "iri12), and a deity of alliance or contracts might well be requisite to the polity of the Phoenicians (in whose territory this city was included), q. d. a guardian of compacts ; the inter- pretation'of Movers (p. 171), with which Bertheau (on Judg. ix, 4) accords, namely "Baal with whom the league is formed" (comp. Gen. xiv, 3; Exod. xxiii, 32 ; xxxiv, 12 sq.), gives a signification not altogeth- er inapposite. See Baal-berith. 2. Baal-Zebub (2^12T 522, Fly-Baal; the Sept. construes the latter part of the name differently, iizi- £i)Tiiv tu T 'AxKapdv, but Josephus has the usual interpretation, Ant. ix, 2, 1), an oracu- lar deity of the Philistines at Ekron (2 Kings i, 2, 3, 1G), corresponding to the Zero, airopviog or pviaypog (Pausan. v, 14, 2 ; viii, 26, 4) and Deus Myiagrus or Myiodes (Plin. x, 40 ; xxix, 24) of the Greeks and Romans (Salmas. Exerc. p. 9 sq. ; Creuzer, Symbol, ii, 487 ; iv, 392 ; Hitzig, Philist. p. 313), and to the Her- cules Myiagrus (jiviaypog) of other notices (Solin. c. 2 ; Clem. Alex. Protrept. p. 11, ed. Sylb.). Flies (and gnats) are in the East a much greater annoyance than with us (comp. Bochart, Hieroz. iii, 346 sq.). See Fly. From this explanation of Baal-Zebub only Hug has of late dissented (Freiburg. Zeitschr. vii, 104 sq.); his assertion, however, that this Philistine divinity is the dung-beetle (scarabams pillularius), worshipped also in Egypt (as a symbol of the world-god), rests on many uncertain assumptions, and is therefore improb- able. (For other interpretations, see the Exeg. Iland'o. d. A. T. ix, 2 sq.) See Beel-zebub. 3. Baal-Peor C*liSfi 522, Priapism-Baal), or sim- ply Peor (1125), was the name of a god of the Moab- ites (Num. xxv, 1 sq. ; xxxi, 1G ; Josh, xxii, 17), ap- parently worshipped by the prostitution (perhaps pro- ceeds of the hire) of young girls (whence, according to the rabbins, the name, from *\'$l3,paar/, to frac- ture, i. q. to deprive of virginity, comp. Jonathan, Targ. on Num. xxv, 1), probably corresponding to the Roman Priapus (see Jerome, ad Has. iv, 14) and Mu- tunus (Creuzer, Symbol, ii, 976). If the above rabbin- ical significance of the title be correct, he would seem to have given name to Mt. Peor [see Beth-peor], where was the seat of his worship ; but it is more like- ly that the title was borrowed from the hill (q. d. "ra- vine") as a distinctive epithet (Movers, p. 6G7) for his form of worship in that locality (see Creuzer, Symbol. ii, 85). Jerome (in Jovin. i, 12) considers this deity to be Chemosh (q. v.). — Winer, i, 118. See Baal-peor. 4. The deity styled emphatically the Baal (522H, q. d. " the great lord"), whose worship was introduced into Israel by Jezebel (1 Kings xvi, 32 sq.), was ap- parently the god with whom the Greeks compared their Hercules (2 Mace, iv, 18, £0). His Phoenician appellation was Melkart ("king of the city," i. c. BAALIM 586 BAAL-MEOX Tyre), or Harold (" merchant," he being supposed to be a great navigator), which the Greeks corrupted into a resemblance to their own 'HpdjcAjje, and under the name of the " Tyrian Hercules" he was much cele- brated (Pliny, Hist. Nat. xxxvi, 5; Arriau, Exped. Alex, ii, lb'). When Herodotus was in Egypt he learned that Hercules was there regarded as one of the primeval gods of that country, and being anxious to obtain more explicit information on the subject, he undertook a voyage to Tyre. The priests there inform- ed him that the foundation of the temple was coeval with that of the city, which they said was founded 2300 years before that time. It was in honor of this god that the Carthaginians for a long time annually sent the tenth of their income to Tyre (Herod, ii, -14). The account of the Baai of Jezebel and Athaiiah agrees with this Hercules, since the representation of Scrip- ture (1 Kings xix, 18) is the same with that of Dio- dorus Siculus (ii, 10), that the fire was always burn- ing on his altar, the priests officiated barefooted, and kissing was among the acts of worship (Cicero, in Verrem, iv, 43). Many representations of the Tyrian Hercules are extant on coins, of which there are two specimens in the British Museum. The first was found in the island of Cossyra (now Pantellaria), which belonged to the Tynans ; the other is a Tyrian coin of silver, weighing 214J grains, and exhibits a very striking head of the same idol in a more modern and perfect style of art. One of the figures of the date is obliterated, but it is thought that the complete date may have given 84 B.C. See Hercules. Coins with 7'lifigipi of the Tyrian Daal. 5. In addition to the above, Fiirst (Htb. TTi:ndwurtcr- buch, s. v.) enumerates the following as local or special attributes of Baal. (<<) Baal-Gad (13 b?3, q. d. Luck-Baal), the epithet of Baal as bringing good fortune, like the luck-dispensing star Jupiter; and thence given as the name of a city (Josh, xi, 17 ; xii, 7; xiii, 5) at the foot of Mount Hermon (Jebel esh- Sheik), in which neighborhood was also situated the city Baal-Hermon (1 Chron. v, 23). See Baal-gad. (h) Baal-IIamon (lion bra, q. a. Heat-Baal), the title of the Phoenician Baal, as representing the vivi- fying warmth of nature, like the Egyptian Amnion (Sun-god) [see Amon] ; and thence given to a city in Samaria (Cant, viii, 1' ), where his worship may have 1 " practised. See Baal-hamon. (<•) Baal-Chat- sou (~"Un bra, q. d. i»7%e-protecting Baal), the cpi- "'"! of Baal as the tutelary deity of Hazor (q. v); then tin- name of a city in the vicinitv of Ephraim or Ephron (2 Sam. xiii, 23; 2 Chron. 'xiii, 10). Sec Baal-hazor. Baa] is repeatedly named among the Phoenicians as the guardian divinity of towns, e. g. "Baal-Tyre" (-;; bra, Malt, i, 1), "Baal-Tarsus" 0?& ^a.on coins of thai city), " Baal-Lybia" (bra -z'rn. ZmV \;/3vc, Numid. iv, 1), etc. Sec Baal-. Ch Baal-Chermon (--;-n bra, q. d. Hill-Baal), 1 as the protector of Mount Hermon, in a city near which his worship was instituted; thence applied to the city itself 1 1 < Jhron. v. 23), mar Baal-gad (q. v.). That part of Hermon (q. v.) on which this town lav is called (Judg. iii, 3) Mount Baal-Hermon (q. v.). See Baai.-iihkmon. (e) Baal-Mkon ("p'sa bra, q. d. heaven-dwellMy Baal), i. e. Baal as associated with the hill of Baal or Saturn, supposed to be in the seventh heaven, as the term divine "habitation" ("ir^) often signifies (Deut. xxvi, 15 ; Psa. lxviii, 6), and thus equivalent to the later Baal-Zebul (biat bra, lord of the celestial dwelling, i. e. "prince of the power of the air"), and the Phoenician Beelsamen (BmX v. r. V,n\jutnrn'ov, and in Ezek. omits ; other- wise Beth-Meon, Jer. xlviii, 23, and Betii-Baal- Meon, Josh, xiii, 17), a town in the tribe of Reuben beyond the Jordan, or at least one of the towns which were " built" by the Ueubenites (Num. xxxii, 38), and to which they "gave other names." Possibly the " Beth-" (q. v.), which is added to the name in its mention elsewhere, and which sometimes superseded the " Baal-" (q, v.) of the original name, is one of the changes referred to. See Baalim. It is also named in 1 Chron. v, 8, and on each occasion with Nebo. BAAL-PERAZIM 587 BAAL-ZEBUB In the time of Ezekiel it was in the possession of the Moabites, and under that prosperous dominion had evidently become a place of distinction, being noticed as one of the cities which are the "glory of the coun- try" (Ezek. xxv, 9). In the days of Eusebius and Jerome (Onomast. s. v. BuXfiaovc, Balmen) it was still a very larije village called Balmano, 9 miles distant from Heshbon Qlkjiovq, Esbus), near the "mountain of the hot springs," and reputed to be the native place of Elisha. At the distance of two miles south-east of Heshbon, Burekkardt (ii, 624) found the ruins of a place called Myoun, or (as Dr. Robinson [Researches, iii, Append, p. 170] corrects it) MdVn, which is doubt- less the same; so Sehwarz, Mam {Pahs', p. 227). In Num. xxxii, 3, apparently the same place is called Beon, perhaps by an error of the copyists or by con- traction.— Kitto ; Smith. Ba'al-pe'or (Heb. Ba'al Peor', *)i"3 ?V2, lord of Peor, or sometimes only "fi"B, Peor, respectively represented in the Sept. by BaXriT£iyS|-"ja, snn nf A sain h, or work of Jehovah; Sept. Baaaia), a Gershonite Levite, son of Malchia, and father of Mi- BAASHA 589 BABEL chad, in the lineage of Asaph (1 Chron. vi, 40 [25]). B. C. cir. 1310. Ba'asha (Heb. Basha', &WJ3S, for SWJ?3, from an obsolete root, 113S3, signifying, according to Furst [Heb. Handw. s. v.], to be bold, but according to Gese- nius [Thes. Neb. s. v.] = U3X3, to be offensive, hence wicked; Sept. Baaaa, Josephus Baaavijc, Ant. viii, 11, 4, etc.), third sovereign of the separate kingdom of Israel, and the founder of its second dynasty (1 Kings and finally to the whole province of Babylonia (Ezek. xxiii, 17, margin), of which this was the capital. For these latter, see Babylon-, Babylonia. 1. Origin of the Tower. — From the account in Gen. xi, 1-9, it appears that the primitive fathers of man- kind having, from the time of the Deluge, wandered without fixed abode, settled at length in the land of Shinar, where they took up a permanent residence. As yet they had remained together without experien- cing those vicissitudes and changes in their outward 2 Chron. xvi ; Jer. xli, 9). He reigned i lot which encourage the formation of different modes B.C. 950-927. Baasha was son of Ahijah, of the tribe of speech, and were therefore of one language. Ar- of Issachar, and commander of the royal forces of the I rived, however, in the hind of Shinar, and finding ma- northern kingdom ; he conspired against King Nadab, i terials suitable for the construction of edifices, they son of Jeroboam, when he was besieging the Philistine I proceeded to. make and burn bricks, and using the town of Gibbethon, and, having killed him, proceeded j bitumen, in which parts of the country abound, for to extirpate his entire circle of relatives. He appears cement, they built a city and a tower of great eleva- to have been of humble origin, as the Prophet Jehu ! tion. A divine interference, however, is related to speaks of him as having been "exalted out of the j have taken place. In consequence, the language of dust" (1 Kings xvi, 2). In matters of religion his j the builders was confounded, so that they were no reign was no improvement on that of Jeroboam ; he equally forgot his position as king of the nation of God's election, and was chiefly remarkable for his per- severing hostility to Judah. It was probabpy in the twenty-third year of his reign [see Asa] that he made war on its king, Asa, and began to fortify Raman as a barrier against it. He was compelled to desist, how- ever, being defeated by the unexpected alliance of Asa with Bcnhadad I of Damascus, who had previously been friendly to Baasha. Benhadad took several towns in the north of Israel, and conquered lands be- longing to it near the sources of Jordan (1 Kings xv, 18 sq.). Baasha died in the twenty-fourth year of his reign, and was honorably buried in the beautiful city of Tirzah (Cant, vi, 4), which he had made his capital (1 Kings xv, 33). — Smith, s. v. For his idolatries, the Prophet Jehu declared to him the determination of God to exterminate his family likewise, which was ac- complished in the days of his son Klah (q. v.) by Ziinri (1 Kings xvi. 30 13). See Israel, Kingdom of. Baba. See Mishxa. Babai (Bd lag or Ba'/3«, since the latter only ap- pears as a genitive), a person mentioned by Josephus as the last descendant of the Asmonteans, but simply to relate that his sons were preserved by Costabarus from the general massacre of the adherents of Antigo- nus ordered by Herod the Great on obtaining posses- sion of Jerusalem, until their concealment was dis- closed by Salome to the tyrant, who immediately made sure of their death (Ant. xv, 7, 10). Babe (5?ii3>, del', or bhs, olal', so called from its petulance, Psa. viii, 2; xvii, 14, elsewhere "child" or "infant ;" WOAbvp}, taalulim' ', from the same root, Isa. iii, 4; once "C'3, na'ar, Exod. ii, G, usually a "fore?;" Gr. j3pi> another version, the Gale, through which alone truth and eternal bliss can be reached. A more re- cent account is given by Gobineau, Les Religions et les Philosophies d'Asie Centra/e (cited in The Nation, June 22, 1866, from which this account is taken). About 18-13 a youth of Shiraz, named Mirza Ali Mo- hammed, after reading the Christian Scriptures, as well as the Oriental Sacred Books, came out as a prophet, to reform or destroy Islamism. He is said to have been endowed with many graces of person and manner, and to have soon made many prose- lytes. Inspired by success, he now declared that, in- stead of the Gate, he was the Point; that is, the very creator of truth ; no longer a simple prophet, but a liv- ing manifestation of divinity. The title of the Bab was now conferred upon a priest of the Khorassan, Moollah Housseln Bousrhewich, who became the act- ive chief and soon the warrior -apostle of Babism. Houssei'n was sent on a missionary tour into Irak and Khorassan, taking with him the writings of his master. He made a great sensation by his preaching. Another missionary was a woman, possessed of extraordinary beauty and eloquence. About 1848, Houssei'n and the Babists generally gathered at a place called Sheik Te- bersi, and built a huge tower, providing it for a siege. They now gave out political predictions, in which the advent of the Bab as universal sovereign was an- nounced. All who died fighting for the new faith were to rise again, to become princes of some of the countries over which the Bab would extend his sway. Two large armies sent against the Babists were sur- prised and routed. A third expedition, though it suc- ceeded in withstanding the sortie of the Babists, and in mortally wounding the Babist chief, Moollah Hous- seln, retired. The next campaign was more success- ful. For four months the Babists held out, in spite of tremendous odds, but at last, worn out by famine, they tried to force their way through the enemy's lines, but were overpowered, and when the}' surrendered only 214 were living. The survivors, and multitudes of others, even those who professed to renounce the heresy, were cruelly put to death. A similar Babist insurrection in Khamseh was also put down. Mean- while Ali Mohammed had been living in semi-conceal- ment at Shiraz. After the insurrection of Mezenderan he was brought before a court of royal commissioners and Mohammedan priests. In the examination which took place, the Bab, as he was still popularly called, gained the advantage. Seeing this, the discussion was abruptly broken off, and the Bab, with two of his disciples, was condemned to death, which was inflicted the next day. Even-thing now seemed to be finished ; but the new Bab, Mirza Iaia, whom a divine mark had pointed out at the age of fifteen as the successor to the office, established himself at Bagdad, where he kept up communication with his followers through the pil- grims to the shrines there. The Babists were now forbidden from making any more attempts at insur- rection until the Bab should decide that the hour had come and should give them the signal. In 1852 an attempt was made to assassinate the king, but failed. The attempted assassins were recognized as Babists. Forty others were arrested, among them the feminine apostle, Gourret-Oul-Ajm, the Consolation of Eves. The next, day Bhe publicly confessed her Babism, was burnt at the stake with insult and indignity, and her ashes were scattered to the wind. The rest of the prisoners were distributed each to a courtier as his es- pecial victim. Then was seen at Teheran a si«bt never to be forgotten. Through the streets, between the lines of executioners, marched men, women, and Children, with burning splinters flaming in 'their wounds. The victims sing : " In truth we come from God, and we return to him." A sufferer falls in the road ; he is raised by lashes and bayonet thrusts. But no apostate was found among the sufferers. Babism, like Mohammedanism, asserts the absolute unity of God ; but the eternal unity, far from shut- ting himself up in himself, is, on the contrary, an ever-expanding principle of life. It is ceaselessly moving, acting, creating. God has created the world by means of seven words — Force, Power, Will, Action, Condescension, Glory, and Revelation — which words embrace the active plenitude of the virtues which they respectively represent. God possesses other virtues, even to infinity, but he manifests only these. The creature who emanates from God is distinguished from him by the privation of all emanatory action, but he is not altogether separated from him, and at the last day of judgment he will be confounded anew with him in the eternal unity. The Babist doctrine of revelation does not claim that the Bab has revealed the complete truth, but only as his predecessors, the prophets before him, have done — that portion of truth necessary for the age. The Bab is declared superior to Mohammed as Mohammed was to Jesus ; and another revelation, which will complete the Bab's, is announced as com- ing in the future. Nineteen is a sacred number, which the Bab declares ouuht to preside over every- thing. Originally, he says, the Unit}- was composed of nineteen persons, among whom the highest rank belongs to the Bab. All the prophets who have ap- peared are, like the world, manifestations of God ; di- vine words; not God, but beings who come from God more really than common men. At the death of a prophet or a saint, his soul does not quit the earth, but joins itself to some soul still in the flesh, who then completes his work. Babism enjoins few prayers, and only upon fixed occasions, and neither prescribes nor defends ablutions, so common in the religious rites of Mohammedanism. All the faithful wear amulets. Mendicancy, so much in honor among the Mussulman people, is forbidden. "Women are ordered to discard veils, and to share in the intercourse of social life, from which Persian usage excludes them. "What will be the future of Babism it is difficult to tell. Since 1852 it has changed its character to a se- cret doctrine, which recruits its disciples in silence. The same Babists who before suffered martyrdom so courageously rather than deny their religion, now, obedient to the new order of their chief, conceal their faith with Oriental dissimulation. Babism is much more in harmony with the subtle and imaginative genius of the Persian people than the Shiite Moham- medanism. The growing spirit cf nationality makes their present religion and the present dynasty, both of which were established among them by foreign con- quest, less and less acceptable every year. The hour when the Bab shall send word from Bagdad that the time has come for the Babists to take up arms again will be a very critical one for the present dynasty of Persia and for Shiite Mohammedanism. The first thorough work on the origin and the his- tory of the Babis is the one above referred to by Count Gobineau (formerly French minister in Teheran). Little had previously been published in Europe con- cerning the sect. (See Zatschrift tie)- dcittschen Mor- genldnd. Gesellschaft, vol. v ; Petermann, Rcisen im Orient, vol. ii.) The history of the Babis in Gobineau's work is followed by treatises on their doctrines, and, as a concluding appendix, he gives the sacred book of the Babis, "The Booh of Precepts." See also Polak (a German, court-physician of the shah, and director of a medical school at Teheran), Per sien. Das Land und seine Bewohncr (Leipzig, 18G5, 2 vols., vol. i, p. 350- 351). — Pierer, Universal Lerikon, ii, 117; The Nation, June 22, 18GG ; Avierican Ann. Cyclopaedia, 18C5, p. 698. Babington, Gervase, an eminent English prel- ate, was born at Nottingham in the year 1551. He BABYLAS 595 BABYLON was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he became master of arts in 1578. He applied himself closely to theology, and became one of the most im- pressive and useful preachers of his da}'. In 1588 he was installed into the prebend of Wellington, in the cathedral of Hereford, and through the interest of the E.irl of Pembroke was advanced to the bishopric of Llandaff in 1591. In 1594 he was translated to the see of Exeter, from whence, in 1597, he was translated to Worcester. Bishop Babington was a man of emi- nent Christian character as well as scholarship. Ful- ler testifies that he " was not tainted with pride, idle- ness, or covetousness." He died 17th May, 1G10. His works are collected under the title " The Works of the Right Reverend Father in God, Gervase Babing- ton, late Bishop of Worcester" (Lond. 1C22, fob). They contain Notes on the Pentateuch, Exposition of the Creed, the Commandments, and the Lord's Prayer, with a Conference between Man's Frailty and Faith, and three sermons. — Jones, Christian Biography, p. 16; Hook, Eccl. Biog. i, 446. Babylas, St., became bishop of Antioch about the year 230. When the Emperor Philip, who, in ascend- ing the throne, had murdered the young Emperor Gor- dian, came to Antioch on his way to Rome, about East- er, 244, Babylas repulsed him from the church door, and refused to permit him to join in worship. Philip, according to the legend, humbly confessed his sins, and appeared among the public penitents. After a time Decius robbed Philip of his empire and life, and stirred up a virulent persecution against the Chris- tians. Babylas, conspicuous from his lofty station, did not escape this storm, and about the end of the year 250 he was arrested and thrown into prison, where, in the following year, he died. The Latins commem- orate him on the 24th of January, the Greeks on the 4th of September. Chrvsostom has a homily in honor of Babylas (t. ii, 575, ed. Montf.). See Eusebius, Ch. Hist, vi, 39; Gibbon, Decline and Fall, ch. xxiii. Bab'yloil (Heb. and Chald. Babel', ^22, Gr. B«/3u\ai)'), the name of more than one city in the Scrip- tures and other ancient writings. See also Babel. 1. Originally the capital of the country called in Genesis Shinar ("Cri"). and in the later Scriptures Chaldcea, or the land of the Chaldeans (r^bS). See those articles severally. 1. The Xante. — The word Babel seems to be con- nected in its first occurrence with the Hebrew root .-32, balal' , "to confound" (as if by contraction from the reduplicated form 22?2, Balbel'), " because the Lord did there confound the language of all the earth" (Gen. xi, 9) ; but the native etymology (see the Koran, ii, 66) is Bab-il, " the gate of the god //," or perhaps more simply "the gate of God;" and this no doubt was the original intention of the appellation as given by Nimrod, though the other sense came to be attach- ed to it after the confusion of tongues (see Eichhom, Biblioth. d. bibl. Lit. iii, 1001). Another derivation de- duces the word from b2 2X2, "the court or city of Belus" (see Abulfeda in Rosenmuller, Aliherth. ii, 60), or ^2"-l2 (= *P3), Bel's Hill (Furst, lib. Ilandu: s. v.). A still different etymology is proposed by Tuch {Gen. p. 270), from ^2 PH3, "the house of Bel." Whichever of these etymologies may be regarded as the preferable one, the name was doubtless understood or accommodated by the sacred writer in Genesis so as to lie expressive of the disaster that soon befell the founders of the place. In the Bible at a later date the place is appropriately termed " Babylon the Great" (rnrnn b22, Jer. li,_58; Xr>2^ ^22, Dan. iv, 27), and by Josephus also (Ant. viii, 6, 1, i) j.nya\i) Bafiv- \tbv). The name Babylon is likewise that by which it is constantly denominated in the. Sept. and later ver- sions, as well as by the Apocrypha CI Mace, vi, 4; Susann. i, 5) and New Test. (Acts vii, 43), and final- ly by the ancient Greek and Roman writers (see Smith, Diet, of Class. Geogr. s. v.). On the outland- ish name Shesh ik (TltijttJ), applied to it in Jer. xxv, 26 ; li, 41, see the various conjectures in Rosenmuller, Altherth. I, ii, 50 sq. The Jews believe it is a cabalis- tic mode of writing by the method known as "Ath- bash" (q. v.). See Shishak. The word "Babel," besides its original application to the tower (Gen. xi, 9), and its usual one (in the original) to the city of Babylon, is also occasionally applied to the whole district of Chaldaja, coincident with the plain of Shinar (Isa. xiv. 2), as well as to Babylonia, the province of the Assyrian empire of which it was the metropolis (2 Chron. xxxii, 31; xxxiii, 11), and eventually to Persia itself (Ezra v, 13; Neh. xiii, 6). See Nineveh. 2. Origin and Growth of the City. — This famous city was the metropolis of the province of Babylon and of the Babylonio-Chaldsean empire. It was situated in a wide plain on the Euphrates, which divided it into two nearly equal parts. According to the book of Genesis, its foundations were laid at the same time with those of the Tower of Babel. In the revolutions of centuries it underwent man}' changes, and received successive reparations and additions. The ancients were not agreed as to the authors or times of these, and any attempt to determine them now with strict accuracy must be fruitless. Semiramis and Nebu- chadnezzar are those to wdiom the city was indebted for its greatest augmentations and its chief splendor. Probably a temple was the first building raised by the primitive nomades, and in the gate of this temple justice would be administered in early times (comp. 2 Sam. xix, 8), after which houses would grow up about the gate, and in this way the name would readily pass from the actual portal of the temple to the settlement. According to the traditions which the Greeks derived from the Babylonians in Alexander's age, the city was originally built about the year B.C. 2230. The archi- tectural remains discovered in southern Babylonia, taken in conjunction with the monumental records, seem to .indicate that it was not at first the capital, nor, indeed, a town of very <;reat importance. It prob- ably owed its position at the head of Nimrod's cities (Gen. x, 10) to the power and pre-eminence to which it afterward attained rather than to any original su- periority that it could boast over the places coupled with it. Erech, Ur, and Ellasar appear to have been all more ancient than Babylon, and were capital cities when Babil was a provincial village. The first rise of the Chaldasan power was in the region close upon the Persian Gulf, as Berosus indicated b}r his fish-god Oannes, who brought the Babylonians civilization and the arts out of the sea (ap. Syncell. p. 28, B). Thence the nation spread northward up the course of the riv- ers, and the seat of government moved in the same direction, being finally fixed at Babylon, perhaps not earlier than B.C. 1700. — Kitto; Smith. See Assyria. 3. Its Fall and subsequent Condition. — Under Nabon- nadus, the last king, B.C. 538, Babylon was taken by Cyrus, after a siege of two years, in the dead of the night. Having first, by means of its canals, turned the river into the great dry lake west of Babylon, and then marched through the emptied channel, he made his way to the outer walls of the fortified palace on its banks, when, finding the brazen gates incautiously left open by the royal guards while engaged in carous- als, he entered with all his train ; "the Lord of Hosts was his leader," and Babylon, as an empire, was no more. An insurrection, under Darius Hystaspis (B.C. 5011), the object of which was to gain emancipation from Persian bondage, led that prince to punish the Babylonians by throwing down the walls and gates which had been left by Cyrus, and by expelling them from their homes. Xerxes plundered and destroyed the temple of Belus, which Alexander the Great would BABYLON 596 BABYLON rrobably, but for his death, have restored. Under Seleucus Nicator the city began to sink speedily, after that monarch built Seleucia on the Tigris, and made it his place of abode. In the time of Strabo and Di- odorus Siculus the place lay in ruins. Jerome, in the fourtli century of the Christian era, learned that the site of Babylon had been converted into a park or hunting-ground for the recreation of the Persian mon- arch*, and that, in order to preserve the game, the walls had been from time to time repaired. If the following extract from Rich (p. 30) is compared with these historical facts, the prophecy of Isaiah (xiii, 19) will appear to have been strikingly fulfilled to the let- ter: "I had always imagined the belief of the exist- ence of satyrs was confined to the mythology of the West ; but a choadar who was with me when I exam- ined this ruin (the Mujelibeh) mentioned that in this desert an animal is found resembling a man from the head to the waist, but having the thighs and legs of a sheep or goat ; he also said that the Arabs hunt it with dogs, and eat the lower parts, abstaining from the upper, on account of their resemblance to those of the human species." More thorough destruction than that which has overtaken Babylon cannot well be conceived. Rich was unable to discover any traces of its vast walls, and even its site has been a subject of dispute. " On its ruins," says he, " there is not a single tree growing, except an old one," which only serves to make the desolation more apparent. Ruins like those of Baby- lon, composed of rubbish impregnated with nitre, can- not be cultivated. For a more detailed account of the history of Babylon, see the article Babylonia. — Kitto. 4. Ancient Descriptions. — The statements respecting the topograph}- and appearance of Babylon which have come down to us in classical writers are derived chiefly from two sources, the works of Herodotus and of Ctesias. These authors were both of them eye- witnesses of the glories of Babylon — not, indeed, at their highest point, but before the}* had greatly de- clined— and left accounts of the city and its chief buildings, which the historians and geographers of later times were, for the most part, content to copy. To these accounts are to be added various other details by Quintus Curtius, and Pliny, and a few notices by other ancient visitors. According to the account of Herodotus (i, 178-18G) the walls of Babylon were double, the outer line being 56 miles in circumference, built of large bricks cement- ed together with bitumen, and raised round the city in the form of an exact square; hence they measured 14 miles along each face. They were 87 feet thick and 350 feet high (Quintus Curtius says four horse-chariots could pass each other on them without danger), pro- tected on the outside by a vast ditch lined with the same material, and proportioned in depth and width to ation of the walls. The city was entered by twenty-five gates on each side, made of solid brass, and additionally strengthened by 250 towers, so placed thai between every two gates were four towers, and four additional ones at the four corners. From all I is proceeded streets running in straight lines, each Btreet being nearly fifteen miles in length, fifty in number, ami crossing each other at right angles. Other minor divisions occurred, and the whole city ' 676 squares, each about two miles and a quarter in circumference. Herodotus appears to im- ply that this whole space was covered with houses, which, lie observes, were frequently three or four sto- The river ran through the city from north to -"lib, and on each side w;ls a quay of the same thickness as the walls of the city, and 100 stadia in length. In these quays wen- gates of brass, and from each of them steps descending into the river. A bridge was tlirown across the river, of great beauty and admirable contrivance, a furlong in length and 30 feet in breadth. As the Euphrates overflows during the summer months, through the melting of the snows on the mountains of Armenia, two canals were cut to turn the course of the waters into the Tigris, and vast artificial embankments were raised on each side of the river. On the western side of the city an immense lake, forty miles square, was excavated to the depth, according to Herodotus, of 35 feet, and into this lake the river was turned till the work was completed. At each end of the bridge was a palace, and these had a subterraneous communication. In each division of the town, Herodotus says, there was a fortress or strong- hold, consisting in the one case of the royal palace, in the other of the great temple of Belus. This last was a species of pyramid, composed of eight square towers placed one above the other, the dimensions of the base- ment tower being a stade — or above 200 yards — each way. The height of the temple is not mentioned by Herodotus. A winding ascent, which passed round all the towers, led to the summit, on which was placed a spacious ark or chapel, containing no statue, but re- garded by the natives as the habitation of the god. The temple stood in a sacred precinct, two stades (or 400 yards) square, which contained two altars for burnt- ofi'erings and a sacred ark or chapel, wherein was the golden image of Bel. — Kitto; Smith. According to Ctesias (ap. Liod. Sic. ii, 7 sq.), the cir- cuit of the city was a little, under 42 miles. It lay, he says, on both sides of the Euphrates, and the two parts were connected together by a stone bridge above 1000 yards long, and 30 feet broad, of the kind described by Herodotus. At either extremity of the bridge was a royal palace, that in the eastern city being the most magnificent of the two. It •was defended by a triple enceinte, the outermost 7 miles round ; the second, which was circular, A\ miles ; and the third 1\ miles. The height of the second or middle wall was 300 feet, and its towers were 420 feet. The elevation of the inner- most circuit was even greater than this. The walls of both the second and the third enclosure were made of colored trick, and represented hunting scenes — the chase of the leopard and the. lion — with figures, male and female, regarded by Ctesias as those of Ninus and Semiramis. The other palace was inferior both in size and magnificence. It was enclosed within a single enceinte 8§- miles in circumference, and contained rep- resentations of hunting and battle scenes, as well as statues in bronze, said to be those of Ninus, Semiramis, and Jupiter Belus. The two palaces were joined, not only by the bridge, but by a tunnel under the river. Ctesias' account of the temple of Belus has not come down to us. We may gather, however, that he rep- resented its general character in much the same way as Herodotus, but spoke of it as surmounted by three statues, one of Bel, 40 feet high, another of Rhea, and a third of Juno or Beltis. — Smith. The account given by Quintus Curtius (v, 1) of the entrance of Alexander into Babylon may serve to en- liven the narrative, and, at the same time, make the impression on the reader's mind more distinct. "A great part of the inhabitants of Babylon stood on the walls, eager to catch a sight of their new monarch. Many went forth to meet him. Among these, Ba- gophanes, keeper of the citadel and of the royal treas- ure, strewed the entire way before the king with flow- ers and crowns ; silver altars were also placed on both sides of the road, which were loaded not merely with frankincense, but all kinds of odoriferous herbs. He brou.L'ht with him for Alexander gifts of various kinds — flocks of sheep and horses; lions also and panthers were carried before him in their dens. The magi came next, singing, in their usual manner, their an- cient hymns. After them came the Chaldaeans, with their musical instruments, who are not only the proph- ets of the Babylonians, but their artists. The first are wont to sing the praises of the kings ; the Chal- daeans teach the motions of the stars and the periodic vicissitudes of the times and seasons. Then followed, last of all, the Babylonian knights, whose equipment, BABYLON 597 BABYLON as well as that of their horses, seemed designed more for luxury than magnificence. The king, Alexander, attended by armed men, having ordered the crowd of the towns-people to proceed in the rear of his infantry, entered the city in a chariot and repaired to the pal- ace. The next day he carefully surveyed the house- hold treasure of Darius, and all his money. For the rest, the beauty of the city and its age turned the eyes not only of the king, but of every one, on itself, and that with good reason." Within a brief period after this Alexander lay a corpse in the palace. One or two additional facts may aid in conveying a full idea of this great and magnificent city. When Cyrus took Babylon by turning the Euphrates into a neighboring lake, the dwellers in the middle of the place were not for some time aware that their fellow- townsmen who were near the walls had been captured. This, says Herodotus (i, 191), was owing to the mag- nitude of the city, and to the circumstance that at the time the inhabitants were engaged in carousals, it be- ing a festive occasion. Nor, according to Xenophon, did the citizens of the opposite quarter learn the event till three hours after sunrise, the city having been taken in the night. Alexander had to employ 10,000 men during two months to remove the accumulated ruins precipitated by order of Xerxes nearly 200 years before. From the fallen towers of Babylon have aris- en not only all the present cities in its vicinity, but others which, like itself, have long since gone down into the dust. Since the days of Alexander, four cap- itals, at least, have been built out of its remains : Se- leucia, by the Greeks; Ctesiphon, by the Parthians; Al Maidan, by the Persians; and Kufa, by the ca- liphs; with towns, villages, and caravansaries with- out number. The necessary fragments and materials were transported along the rivers and the canals. The antiquity of the canals of Babylonia dates from the most remote periods of the Chaldseo-Babylonian monarchy. The ancient kings of Assyria and Babj'- lonia well understood the value of canals, and their empire arose upon alluvial plains, amid a system of ir- rigation and draining which spread like a net-work over the land. It may be sufficient to specify the Nahr Malikah, or Royal Canal, the origin of which has been referred both to Nimrod and Cush. Abydenus, however, attributes it to Nebuchadnezzar. From the account of Herodotus, it appears to have been of suffi- cient breadth and depth to be navigable for merchant vessels. It is not, therefore, surprising that some writers have considered it as the ancient bed of the Euphrates. The soil around Babylon is of a light, yielding nature, easily wrought for canals and other purposes, whether of art or war. Cyrus, therefore, would find no great difficulty in digging a trench about the city sufficient to contain the waters of the river (Cyrop. vii). Alexander (Strabo, xvi, p. 510), in en- larging one of the canals and forming basins for his fleet, laid open the graves of many buried kings and princes, which shows how readily the soil yields and gives way before the labors of man. The new palace built by Nebuchadnezzar was pro- digious in size and superb in embellishments. Its outer wall embraced six miles; within that circum- ference were two other embattled walls, besides a great tower. Three brazen gates led into the grand area, and every gate of consequence throughout the city was of brass. In accordance with this fact are the terms which Isaiah (xlv, 1, 2) employs when, in the name of Jehovah, ho promises Cyrus that the city should fall before him: " I will open before him the two-leaved gates ; I will break in pieces the gates of brass;" a prophecy which was fullilled to the letter when Cyrus made himself master of the place. The palace was splendidl}' decorated with statues of men and animals, with vessels of gold and silver, and fur- nished witli luxuries of all kinds brought thither from conquests in Egypt, Palestine, and lyre. Its great- est boast were the hanging gardens, which acquired even from Grecian writers the appellation of one of the wonders of the world. They are attributed to the gallantry of Nebuchadnezzar, who constructed them in compliance with a wish of his queen Amytis to pos- sess elevated groves such as she had enjoyed on the hills around her native Ecbatana. Babylon was all flat; and to accomplish so extravagant a desire, an artificial mountain was reared, 400 feet on each side, while terraces one above another rose to a height that 1 overtopped the walls of the city, that is, above 300 feet in elevation. The ascent from terrace to terrace I was made by corresponding flights of steps, while the | terraces themselves were reared to their various stages J on ranges of regular piers, which, forming a kind of j vaulting, rose in succession one over the other to the J required height of each terrace, the whole being bound together by a wall of 22 feet in thickness. The level of each terrace or garden was then formed in the fol- lowing manner : the top of the piers was first laid over with flat stones, 16 feet in length and 4 feet in width ; I on these stones were spread beds of matting, then a thick layer of bitumen ; after which came two courses of bricks, which were covered with sheets of solid lead. j The earth was heaped on this platform ; and in order to admit the roots of large trees, prodigious hollow I piers were built and filled with mould. From the ' Euphrates, which flowed close to the foundation, water was drawn up by machinery. The whole, says Q. Curtius (v, 5), had, to those who saw it from a dis- [ tance, the appearance of woods overhanging moun- tains. Such was the completion of Nebuchadnezzar's work, when he found himself at rest in his house, and flourished in his palace. The king spoke and said, "Is not this great Babylon that I have built for the house of the kingdom by the might of my power and the honor of my majesty" (Dan. iv), a picture which is amply justified by the descriptions of heathen writ- ers. Nowhere could the king have taken so compre- hensive a view of the city he had so magnificently constructed and adorned as when walking on the high- est terrace of the gardens of his palace. Babylon, as the centre of a great kingdom, was the seat of boundless luxury, and its inhabitants were no- torious for their addiction to self-indulgence and ef- | feniinacy. Q. Curtius (v, 1) asserts that " nothing could be more corrupt than its morals, nothing more j fitted to excite and allure to immoderate pleasures. I The rites of hospitality were polluted by the grossest and most shameless lusts. Money dissolved every ! tie, whether of kindred, respect, or esteem. The I Babylonians were very greatly given to wine and the enjo}rments which accompany inebriety. Women were ' present at their convivialities, first with some degree of propriety, but, growing worse and worse by de- grees, they ended by throwing off at once their modes- ty and their clothing." Once in her life, according to Herodotus (i, 199), every native female was obliged to visit the temple of Mylitta, the Babylonian Astarte (q. v.) or Venus, and there receive the embraces of the first stranger who threw a piece of money into her lap; an abominable custom, that is alluded to in the Apocrypha (Baruch vi, 43) and by Strabo (vi, 1058). On the ground of their awful wickedness, the Baby- lonians were threatened with condign punishment, through the mouths of the prophets ; and the tyranny with which the rulers of the city exercised their sway was not without a decided effect in bringing on them the terrific consequences of the Divine vengeance. Nor in the whole range of literature is there any thing to be found approaching to the sublimity, force, and terror with which Isaiah and others speak on this painful subject (Isa. xiv. 11; xlvii, 1; Jer. li, 39; Dan. v, 1). Babylon even stands, therefore, in the New Test. (Iiev. xvii, 5) as the type of the most shame- less profligacy and idolatry. — Kitto. 5. Investigation of th; ancient Topogroj)hy .■ — In ex- BABYLON 598 BABYLON amining tlic truth of these descriptions, we shall most conveniently commence from the outer circuit of the town. All the ancient writers appear to agree in the fact of a district of vast size, more or less inhabited, having been enclosed within lofty walls, and included under the name of Babylon. With respect to the ex- act extent of the circuit they differ. The estimate of Herodotus and of Pliny (//. K. vi, 26) is 480 stades, of Strabo (xvi, i, 5) 385, of Q. Curtius (v, i, 2G) 368, of Clitarchus (ap. Diod. Sic. ii, 7) 365, and of Ctesias (ap. eund.) 3G0 stades. It is evident that here we have merely the moderate variations to be expected in independent measurements, except in the first of the numbers. Setting this aside, the difference between the greatest and the least of the estimates is little more than one half per cent. With this near agree- ment on the part of so many authors, it is the more surprising that in the remaining case we should find the great difference of one third more, or 33J- per cent. Perhaps the true explanation is that Herodotus spoke of the outer wall, which could be traced in his time, while the later writers, who never speak of an inner and an outer barrier, give the measurement of Herodo- tus's inner wall, which may have alone remained in their day. This is the opinion of M. Oppert, who even believes that he has found traces of both enclosures, showing them to have been really of the size ascribed to them. This conclusion is at present disputed, and it is the more general belief of those who have exam- ined the ruins with attention that no vestiges of the ancient walls are to be found, or, at least, that none have as yet been discovered. Still it is impossible to doubt that a line of wall inclosing an enormous area originally existed. The testimony to this effect is too gtrong to be set aside, and the disappearance of the wall is easily accounted for, either by the constant quarrying, which would naturally have commenced with it (Rich, First Mem. p. 4-1), or by the subsidence of the bulwark into the moat from which it was raised. Taking the lowest estimate of the extent of the cir- cuit, we shall have for the space within the rampart an area of above 100 square miles — nearly five times the size of London. It is evident that this vast space cannot have been entirely covered with houses. Dio- dorus confesses (ii, 0, cdft'n.) that but a small part of the enclosure was inhabited in his own day, and Q. Curtius (v, i, 27) says that as much as nine tenths con- sisted, even in the most flourishing times, of gardens, parks, paradises, fields, and orchards. With regard to the height and breadth of the walls there is nearh' as much difference of statement as with regard to their extent. Herodotus makes the height 200 royal cubits, or 337i feet ; Ctesias, 50 fathoms, or SOOfee't; Pliny and Solinus, 200 royal feet ; Strabo, 50 oubits, or 75 feet. Here there is less appearance of in- dependent measurements than in the estimates of length. The. two original statements seem to be those i !' Herodotus and Ctesias, which onPy differ accidental- ly, the Litter having omitted to notice that the royal BCale was used. The later writers do not possess fresh data ; they merely soften down what seems to them an ition— Pliny and Solinus changing the cubits of Herodotus into feet, and Strabo the fathoms of Cte- Bias into cubits. We arc forced, then, to fall back on the earlier authorities, who are also the only oye-wit- and, surprising as it seems, perhaps we must believe the Btatement that the vast enclosed space above mentioned was surrounded by walls which have well l n termed "artificial mountains," being nearly the height of the dome of St. Paul's (see Grote's Greece, iii, 39; ; and, on the < the,- side, Mure's Lit, of Greeco, iv, 5 16 i. The ruined wall of Nineveh was, it must be remembered, in Xenophon's time, 150feet high (Anuh. iii. I, 1"). and another wall which he passed in Meso- pol imia was loo feet (ib. ii. 1, 12). The estimates for the thickness of the wall are the following; Herodotus, 50 royal cubits, or nearly 85 feet ; Pliny and Solinus, 50 royal, or about 60 common feet ; and Strabo, 32 feet. Here again Pliny and So- linus have merely softened down Herodotus ; Strabo, however, has a new number. This may belong prop- erly to the inner wall, which, Herodotus remarks (i, 181), was of less thickness than the outer. According to Ctesias, the wall was strengthened with 250 towers, irregularly disposed, to guard the weakest parts (Diod. Sic. ii, 7) ; and, according to He- rodotus, it was pierced with a hundred gates, which were made of brass, with brazen lintels and side-posts (i, 179). The gates and walls are alike mentioned in Scripture, the height of the one and the breadth of the other being specially noticed (Jer. Ii, 58 ; comp. 1, 15, and li, 53). Herodotus and Ctesias both relate that the banks of the river, as it flowed through the city, were on each side ornamented with quays. The stream has proba- bly often changed its course since the time of Baby- lonian greatness, but some remains of a quay or em- bankment on the eastern side of the stream still exist, upon the bricks of which is read the name of the last king. The two writers also agree as to the existence of a bridge, and describe it very similarly. Perhaps a remarkable mound which interrupts the long flat valley — evidently the ancient course of the river — closing in the principal ruins on the west, may be a trace of this structure. 6. Present Character and Extent of the Ruins of Babylon. — The locality and principal structures of this once famous city are now almost universally admitted to be indicated by the remarkable remains near the modern village of Hillah, which lies on the W. bank of the Euphrates, about 50 miles directly S. of Bagdad. 7/.'- CI 1 >" V rian of part of the Ruins of Babylon, on the eastern hr.uk c.r the Euphrates. About Cwc miles above Hillah, on the opposite bank of the Euphrates, occur a series of artificial mounds of enormous size, which have been recognised in all ages as probably indicating the site of the capital of south- ern Mesopotamia. They consist chiefly of three great masses of building— the high pile of unbaked brick- work called by Rich " Mujellibe," but which is known to the Arabs as "Babil;" the building denominated tho "A'asr" or palace; and a lofty mound upon which BABYLON 599 BABYLON stands the modern tomb of Amran ihn-Alb (Loftus's Chaldxa, p. 17). Besides these principal masses the most remarkable features are two parallel lines of rampart bounding the chief ruins on the east, some similar but inferior remains on the north and west, an embankment along the river side, a remarkable iso- lated heap in the middle of a long valley, which seems to have been the ancient bed of the stream, and two Ion? lines of rampart, meeting at a right angle, and with the river forming an irregular triangle, within j which all the ruins on this side (except Babil) are enclosed. On the west, or right bank, the remains ar3 very slight and scanty. There is the appearance of an enclosure, and of a building of moderate size with- j in it, nearly opposite the great mound of Amran, but otherwise, unless at a long distance from the stream, this side of the Euphrates is absolutely bare of ruins. (See Rawlinson*s Herodotus, ii, 473). Scattered over the country on both sides of the Eu- phrates, and reducible to no regular plan, are a num- ber of remarkable mounds, usually standing single, which are plainly of the same date with the great mass of ruins upon the river bank. Of these by far the most striking is the vast ruin called the Mrs Nimrud, which many regard as the Tower of Babel, situated about six miles to the S.W. of Hillah, and almost that distance from the Euphrates at the near- est point. This is a pyramidical mound, crowned ap- parently by the ruins of a tower, rising to the height of 153$ feet above the level of the plain, and in cir- cumference somewhat more than 20U0 feet. See Ba- bel (Tower of). There is considerable reason to be- lieve from the inscriptions discovered on the spot, and from other documents of the time of Nebuchadnezzar, that it marks the site of Borsippa, and may thus have been beyond the limits of Babylon (Beros. Fr. 1-1). Portion.? of ancient Babylon distiagui-hable in the present Ruina 7. Identification of SIIjs. — On comparing the exist- in i ; ruins with the accounts of the ancient writers, the great difficulty which meets us is the position of the remains almost exclusively on the left bank of the river. All the old accounts agree in representing the Euphrates as running through the town, and the prin- cipal buildings as placed on the opposite sides of the stream. In explanation of this difficulty, it has been urged, on the one hand, that the Euphrates, having a tendency to run off to the right, has obliterated all trace of the buildings in this direction (Layard's Nin. and Bab. p. 420) ; on the other, that, by a due exten- sion of the area of Babylon, it may be made to include the Birs Nimrud, and that thus the chief existing re- mains will really lie on the opposite banks of the river (Rich, Second Memoir, p. 32 ; Ker Porter, Travels, ii, 383). But the identification of the Birs with Borsippa seems to interfere with this latter theory; while the former is unsatisfactory, since we can scarcely suppose the abrasion of the river to have entirely removed all trace of such gigantic buildings as those which the an- cient writers describe. Perhaps the most probable solution is to be found in the fact that a large canal (called Shcbll) intervened in ancient times between the Kasr mound and ¥^=__J?T the ruin now called Kpv_ ^ Babil, which may ea- sily have been con- ■=■_ founded by Herodotus "- ""_._ with the main stream. This would have had the two principal buil- dings upon opposite sides; while the real -~" river, which ran down the long valley to the west of the Kasr and Amran mounds, would also have separated(as Ctesias related) be- tween the greater and the lesser palace. If this explanation be ac- : cepted as probable, we m may identify the prin- cipal ruins as follows : 1. The great mound of Babil will be the ancient temple of Be- lus. It is an oblottg BABYLON 600 BABYLON of the Kasr. mass, composed chiefly of unbaked brick, rising from the plain to the height of 140 feet, flattish at the top, in length about 200, and in breadth about 140 yards. This oblong shape is common to the temples, or rather temple-towers of Low- er Babylonia, which seem to have had near- ly the same propor- tions. It was origi- nally coated with fine burnt brick laid in an excellent mortar, as was proved by Mr. Layard (Xin. and Bab. p. 452) ; and was, no doubt, built in stages, most of which have crumbled down, but which may still be in part concealed under the rubbish. The statement of Berosus {Fragm. 14), that it was rebuilt by Nebu- chadnezzar, is con- firmed by the fact that all the inscribed bricks which have been found in it bear the name of that king. It form- ed the tower of the temple, and was sur- mounted by a chapel; but the main shrine, thealtars,andnodoubt the residences of the priests, were at the foot, in a sacred pre- cinct. 2. The mound of the Kasr will mark the site of the great palace of Nebuchad- nezzar. It is an irreg- ular square of about 700 yards each way, and may be. regarded as chiefly formed of the old palace plat- form (which resem- bles those at Nine- veh, Susa, and else- where), upon which I are still standing cer- tain portions of the ancient residences to which the name of "A'«sr" or " palace" ^ especialky attaches.' j The walls are com- posed of burnt bricks, |S of a pale yellow col- v or, and of excellent 9 quality, bound to- i^ gether by a fine lime M^- cement, and stamped g^, with the name and ■''^ titles of Nebuchad- nezzar. They con- tain traces of archi- tectural ornament — piers, buttresses, pi- lasters, etc. ; and in the rubbish at their base have been found slabs inscribed by Nebuehadnezzar,ancl containing an ac- count of the building of the edifice, as well as a few sculptured fragments, and many pieces of enamelled brick of brilliant hues. On these last portions of figures are traceable, recalling the statements of Ctesias (ap. Chart of the Country round Babylon, with Limits of the ancient City. BABYLON C01 BABYLON Diodor. Sicul.) that the brick walls of the palace were colored, and represented hunting-scenes. No plan of the palace is to be made out from the existing re- mains, which are tossed in apparent confusion on the highest point of the mound. 3. The mound of Amran is thought by M. Oppert to represent the "hanging gardens" of Nebuchadnezzar; but this conjecture does not seem to be a very happy one. The mound is com- posed of poorer materials than the edifices of that prince, and has furnished no bricks containing his name. Again, it is far too large for the hanging gar- dens, which are said to have been only 400 feet each way. The Amran mound is described by Rich as an irregular parallelogram, 1100 yards long by 800 broad, and by Ker Porter as a triangle, the sides of which are respectively 1400, 1100, and 850 feet. Its dimensions therefore, very greatly exceed those of the curious structure with which it has been identified. Most probably it represents the ancient palace, coeval with Babylon itself, of which Nebuchadnezzar speaks in his inscriptions as adjoining his own more magnificent residence. It is the only part of the ruins from which bricks have been derived containing the names of kings earlier than Nebuchadnezzar, and is therefore entitled to be considered the most ancient of the existing re- mains. 4. The ruins near each side of the Euphrates, together with all the other remains on the west bank, may be considered to represent the lesser palace of Ctesias, which is said to have been connected with the greater by a bridge across the river, as well as bj' a tunnel under the channel of the stream (!). The old course of the Euphrates seems to have been a little east of the present one, passing between the two parallel ridges near it at the bend in the middle, and then closely skirting the mound of Amran, so as to have both the ruins just named upon its right bank. These ruins are of the same date and style. The bricks of that on the east bank bear the name of Neriglissar ; and there can be little doubt that this ruin, together with those on the opposite side of the stream, are the remains of a palace built by him. Perhaps (as already remarked) the little mound immediately south of this point, near the east bank, may be a remnant of the an- cient bridge. 5. The two long parallel lines of em- bankment on the «ast, which form so striking a feature in the remains as represented by Porter and Rich, but which are ignored by M. Oppert, may either be the lines of an outer and inner enclosure, of which Nebu- chadnezzar speaks as defences of his palace, or they may represent the embankments of an enormous reser- voir, which is often mentioned by that monarch as ad- joining his palace toward the east. G. The southern- most embankment, near the east bank of the river, is composed of bricks marked with the name of Labyne- tus or Nabunit, and is undoubtedly a portion of the work which Berosus ascribes to the last king (Eragm. 14).— Smith. It must be admitted, however, that the foregoing scheme of identification (which is that proposed by Rawlinson, Herodotus, ii, Essay iv) involves the improb- able supposition of a mistake on the part of the ancient authorities concerning the course of the Euphrates through the middle of the city ; it seems also unduly to restrict the ancient limits, and thus excludes the Bira Nimrud ; and it affords no explanation of the re- markable line of mounds meeting in a right angle on tie east of the ruins, and most naturally thought by nearly all topographers (Rich, Ker Porter, Flandin, Layard, and Fergusson) to have been one of the cor- ners of the city wall. Nor does it altogether agree with th^ recent conjectural restoration of the royal res- idence at Babylon on the bold plan of M. Oppert (in the Altas accompanying his Expedition en Mesopotamia, Par. 1858), who supposes the extant remains opposite Hillah to be those alone of the palace, with its accom- panying structures, and gardens, and enclosing walls, the double line of city walls being of much larger ex- tent. He appears, however, to have disregarded many details of the modern as well as ancient indication in his identification (see Rawlinson, ut sup. p. 487 sq.). Perhaps it will yet appear that, while Rawlinson's lo- cations (as above) are correct so far as concerns the royal buildings themselves, the chart of Oppert (given above) truly represents the entire circuit of the city ; and that the palace, with its appendages, was enclosed in an interior quadrangle, which the river likewise di- vided diagonally, its eastern half corresponding to the triangle embracing the modern ruins here described. The most remarkable fact connected with the mag- nificence of Babylon is the poorness of the material with which such wonderful results were produced. The whole country, being alluvial, was entirely desti- tute jof stone, and even wood was scarce and of bad quality, being only yielded by the palm-groves which fringed the courses of the canals and rivers. In de- fault of these, the ordinary materials for building, re- course was had to the soil of the country — in many parts an excellent clay — and with bricks made from this, either sun-dried or baked, the vast structures were raised which, when they stood in their integrity, provoked comparison with the pyramids of Egypt, and which, even in their decay, excite the astonishment of the traveller. A modern writer has noticed, as the true secret of the extraordinary results produced, " the unbounded command of naked human strength" which the Babylonian monarchs had at their disposal (Grote's Hist, of Greece, ii, 401); but this alone will not ac- count for the phenomena ; and we must give the Baby- lonians credit for a genius and a grandeur of concep- tion rarely surpassed, which led them to employ the labor whereof the)' had the command in works of so imposing a character. With only " brick for stone," and at first only "slime (T^n) for mortar" (Gen. xi, 3), they constructed edifices of so vast a size that they still remain at the present day among the most enor- mous ruins in the world, impressing the beholder at once with awe and admiration. — Smith. 8. Literature. — For the descriptive portions, Rich's Two Memoirs on Babylon ; Ker Porter's Travels, ii, 238 sq. ; Layard's Xineveh and Babylon, ch. xxii ; Fresnel's Two Letters to M. Mold, in the Journal Asiatique, June and July, 1853 ; Loftus's Chaldwa, ch. ii ; Olivier, Voyages, ii, 436 sq. ; Maurice, Observ. on the Ruins of Bab. (Lond. 1816); Wellsted, Travels (Lond. 1838); Ritter, Erdkunde, xi, 865 sq. ; Mannert, Geographic, VI, i, 408 sq. ; Ainsworth's Researches (Lond. 1838) ; Chesney, Euphrates Exped. (Lond. 1850); Bucking- ham, Trav. in Mesopotamia (Lond. 1828); Mignan, Trav. in Chaldcca (Lond. 1829); Fraser, Travels in Kurdistan (Lond. 1840). On the identification of the ruins with ancient sites, compare Rawlinson's Ileroditus, vol. ii, Essay iv ; Oppert's Maps and Plans (Paris, 1858) ; Rennell's Essay in Rich's Bahybm and Persepolis (Lond. 1839) ; Jour. Royal Asiatic Soc. (Lond. 1855), xv, pt. 2. On the architecture, Hirt, Gesch. d. Bauhmst, 5, 145 sq. ; Fergusson, Palaces of Nineveh and Persepilis (Lond. 1851). On the religion, language, arts, and customs, Munter, Rel. d. Babylon. (Copenh. 1829) ; Miiller, Archaol. p. 283 sq. ; Botticber, Vasengemalde, i, 105 sq. ; Heine, Be Babyism, mulier, in templo Veneris, in the Comment. Soc. Coiling, xvi, 32 sq. ; Bertholdt, Ueb. d. Magier-Institut, in his ote Exc. zu Dan. ; Wahl, Gesch. d. morg. Spr,,ch. p. 570 sq. ; Jahn, Einleit. i, 284 ; Grotefend, in the Zeitschr.f. Kunde d. Morgenl. i, 212 sq. ; ii, 171 sq. ; iii, 179 sq. ; Rawlinson, Cuneiform In- scriptions (Lond. 1850) ; Jour. Sac. Lit. Jan. 1859. See Babylonia. 2. Another Babylon la}' in Eg}'pt, south of Heliop- olis, on the east bank of the Nile (Strabo, xvii, 807) ; it was founded by Babylonians, who had emigrated to Egypt during the civil commotions between the two empires (Diod. Sic. i, 56; Joscphus, Ant. ii, 15, 1). Its ruins are described by Ilartmann (Erdbeschr. u. Africa, 192G), Prokesch (Erinnervngen, i, 59 sq.), and BABYLONIA 002 BABYLONIA Champollion (VEgypte, ii, 33). It is now called Ba- boul (Smith's Diet, of Class. Ueogr. s. v.). 3. The Babylon in 1 Pet. v, 13, is thought by some to be Rome, but by others (in accordance with a tradi- tion of the Coptic Christians) to be the above place in Egvpt. Baroniua contradicts this last assertion by Baying there is no mention of a Bishop of Babylon till ,r,iHi years after Peter's time, under Justin the Younger (see" also Bertholdt, EM. vi, 3063; Steiger, Br. Pet. p. 21 sq.). There is no good reason for supposing any other than ancient Babylon to be here meant, since it is known that this continued to be inhabited by Jews down to the Christian era (Gesen. Jesa. i, 470. Com- pare Neander, Ch. Hist, i, 79, 80; Davidson, Introd. to K. T. iii, 366. See Peter (Epistles of). 4. In the Apocalypse (xiv, 8; xvi, 10; xvii, 5; xviii, 2) Babylon stands for Iiome, symbolizing hea- thenism : " Babylon is fallen, that great city, because she made all nations drink of the wine of the wrath of her fornication." This reference appears to have been derived from the practice of the Jews, who were accustomed to designate Rome, which they hated, by the opprobrious and not inappropriate name of Bal y- lon (Schottgen, Ear. Hebr. i, 1125). The literal Baby- lon was the beginner and supporter of tyranny and idolatry ; first by Ximrod or Ninus, and afterward by Nebuchadnezzar; and therefore, in Isa. xlvii, 12, she is accused of magical enchantments from her youth or infancy, i. e. from her very first origin as a city or na- tion. This city and its whole empire were taken by the Persians under Cyrus ; the Persians were subdued by the Macedonians, and the Macedonians by the Ro- mans ; so that Rome succeeded to (he power of Old Baby- lon. And it was her method to adopt tlie v-orship of the false deities she had conquered ; so that by her own acts she 1 lecame the heiress and successor of all the Baby- lonian idolatry, and of all that was introduced into it by the intermediate successors of Babylon, and conse- quently of all the idolatry of the earth. See Revela- tion. Further, that Babylon is Rome is evident from the explanation given by the angel in Rev. xvii, 18, where it is expressly said to be " that great, city which rulcth over the kings of the earth ;" no other city but Rome being in the exercise of such power at the time when the vision was seen. That Constantinople is not meant by Babylon is plain also from what Mcde has stated (Works, p. 922): "The seven heads of the beast (says he) are by the angel made a double type, both of the seven hills where the woman sitteth, and of the seven snrerdrjiitks with which in a successive order the beast should reign. This is a pair of fetters to tie both beast and whore to Western Eome." Rome or Mystic Babylon (says the same author, p. 484) is call- ed the " Grc t City," not from any reference to its ex- tent, but because it was the queen of other cities. See Rome. Babylonia (Bafiv\wvia), a name forthe southern portion of Mesopotamia, constituting the region of which Babylon was the chief city. The latter name alone is occasionally used in Scripture for the entire region; but its most usual designation is Chalikea (q. v.). The ( ihaldseans proper, or < 'hasc&m, however, were probably originally from the mountainous region farther north, now occupied by the Kiir, or Beli- bus, upon the thn.ne, who ruled as his viceroy for three years. At the end of this time, the party of Merodach-Baladan still giving trouble, Sennacherib descended again into Babylonia, once more overran it, removed Be lib, and placed his eldest son — who appears in the canon as Aparanadius — upon the throne. Apa- ranadius reigned for six years, when he was succeeded b}- a certain Regibelus, who reigned for one year ; after which Mesesimordacus held the throne for four years. Nothing more is known of these kings, and it is uncertain whether they were viceroj-s or independ- ent native monarchs. They were contemporary with Sennacherib, to whose reign belongs also the second interregnum, extending to eight years, which the canon interposes between the reigns of Mesesimorda- cus and Asaridanus. In Asaridanus critical eyes long ago detected Esarhaddon, Sennacherib's son and suc- cessor ; and it may be regarded as certain from the in- scriptions that this king ruled in person over both Babylonia and Assyria, holding his court alternately at their respective capitals. Hence we may under- stand how Manasseh, his contemporary, came to be "carried by the captains of the king of Assyria to Babylon" instead of to Nineveh, as would have been done in any other reign. See Esarhaddox. Saos- duchinus and Ciniladanus (orCinneladanus), his broth- | er (Polyhist.), the successors of Asaridanus, are kings | of whose history we know nothing. Probably they ' were viceroys under the later Assyrian monarchs, who are represented by Abydenus (ap. Euseb.) as retaining their authority over Babylon up to the time of the last 1 siege of Nineveh. "With Nabopolassar, the successor of Cinneladanus, , and the father of Nebuchadnezzar, a new era in the : history of Babylon commences. According to Aby- denus, who probably drew his information from Be- rosus, he was appointed to the government of Babylon i by the last Assyrian king, at the moment when the Medes were about to make their final attack ; where- upon, betraying the trust reposed in him, he went over to the enemy, arranged a marriage between his son i Nebuchadnezzar and the daughter of the Median lead- er, and joined in the last siege of the city. See Nin- eveh. On the success of the confederates (B.C. 625) j Babylon became not only an independent kingdom, I but an empire ; the southern and western portions of the Assyrian territory were assigned to Nabopolassar in the partition of the spoils which followed on the conquest, and thereby the Babylonian dominion be- came extended over the whole valley of the Euphrates as far as the Taurus range, over Syria, Phoenicia, Pal- estine, Idumsea, and (perhaps) a portion of Egypt. Thus, among others, the Jews passed quietly and al- most without remark from one feudal head to another, exchanging dependency on Assyria for dependency on Babylon, and continuing to pay to Nabopolassar the same tribute and service which they had previously ' rendered to the Assyrians. Friendly relations seem to have been maintained with Media throughout the reign of Nabopolassar, who led or sent a contingent to j help Cyaxares in his Lydian war, and acted as medi- I ator in the negotiations by which that war was con- | eluded (Herod, i, 74). At a later date hostilities broke out with Egypt. Necho, the son of Psamatik I, about ! the year B.C. 608 invaded the Babylonian dominions on the south-west, and made himself master of the en- ; tire tract between his own country and the Euphrates I (2 Kings xxiii, 29, and xxiv, 7). Nabopolassar was I now advanced in life, and not able to take the field in ! person (Beros. Frag. 14). He therefore sent his son, , Nebuchadnezzar, at the head of a large army, against the Egyptians, and the battle of Carchemish. which soon followed, restored to Babylon the former limits of her territory (comp. 2 Kings xxiv, 7 with Jer. xlvi, 1 2-12). Nebuchadnezzar pressed forward and had reached Egypt, when news of his father's death re- called him, and hastily returning to Babylon, he was fortunate enough to find himself, without any strug- gle, acknowledged king (B.C. 604). A complete account of the works and exploits of this great monarch— by far the most remarkable of BABYLONIA 605 BABYLONIA all the Babylonian kings — will be given in the article Nebuchadnezzar. It is enough to note in this place that he was great both in peace and in war, but great- er in the former. Besides recovering the possession of Syria and Palestine, and carrying off the Jews after repeated rebellions into captivity, he reduced Phoeni- cia, besieged and took Tyre, and ravaged, if he did not actually conquer, Egypt. But it was as the adorner and beautifier of his native land — as the builder and restorer of almost all her cities and temples — that this monarch obtained that great reputation which has handed down his name traditionally in the East on a par with those of Nimrod, Solomon, and Alexander, and made it still a familiar term in the mouths of the people. Probably no single man ever left behind him as Ids memorial upon the earth one half the amount of building that was erected by this king. The an- cient ruins and the modern towns of Babylonia are alike built almost exclusively of his bricks. Babylon itself, the capital, was peculiarly the object of his at- tention. It was here that, besides repairing the walls and restoring the temples, he constructed that mag- nificent palace, which, with its triple enclosure, its hanging gardens, its plated pillars, and its rich orna- mentation of enamelled brick, was regarded in ancient times as one of the seven wonders of the world (Strab. xvi, 1, § 5). Nebuchadnezzar died B.C. 561, having reigned 43 years, and was succeeded by Evil-Merodach, his son, who is called in the Canon Illoarudamus. This prince, who, "in the year that he began to reign, did lift up the head of Jehoiachin, king of Judah, out of pris- on" (2 Kings xxv, 27), was murdered, after having held the crown for two years onhr, by Neriglissar, his brother-in-law. See Evil-Merodach. Neriglissar — the Nerigassolassar of the Canon — is (apparently) identical with the " Nergal-shar-ezer, Bab-Mag" of Jeremiah (xxxix, 3, 13, 14). He bears this title, which has been translated "chief of the Magi" (Gesenius), or " chief priest" (Col. Rawlinson), in the inscriptions, and calls himself the son of a "king of Babylon." Some writers have considered him identical with "Da- rius the Mede" (Larcher, Conringius, Bouhier); but this is improbable [see Darius the Mede], and he must rather be regarded as a Babylonian of high rank, who, having married a daughter of Nebuchadnezzar, raised his thoughts to the crown, and finding Evil- Merodach unpopular with his subjects, murdered him, and became his successor. Neriglissar built the pal- ace at Babylon, which seems to have been placed originally on the west bank of tho river. He was probably advanced in life at his accession, and thus reigned but four years, though he died a natural death, and left the crown to his son Laborosoarchod. This prince, though a mere lad at tho time of his father's decease, was allowed to ascend the throne without difficulty; but when ho had reigned nine months he became the victim of a conspiracy among his friends and connections, who, professing to detect in him symptoms of a bad disposition, seized him, and tor- tured him to death. Nabonidus (or Labynetus), one of the conspirators, succeeded ; he is called by Bcrosus "a certain Nabonidus, a Babylonian" (ap. Joseph. Ap. i, 21), by which it would appear that lie was not a member of the royal family; and tins is likewise evi- dent from Ids inscriptions, in which he only claims for his father the rank of " Rab-Mag." Herodotus seems to have been mistaken in supposing him (i, 188) the son of a great queen, Nitocris, and (apparently) of a former king, Labynetus (Nebuchadnezzar?). Indeed, it may be doubted whether the Babylonian Nitocris of Herodotus is really a historical personage. His authority is the sole argument for her existence, which it is difficult to credit against the silence of Scripture, Berosus, the Canon, and the Babylonian monuments. She may perhaps have been the wife of Nebuchadnez- zar, but in that case she must have been wholly un- connected with Nabonidus, who certainly bore no re- lation to that monarch. Nabonidus, or Labynetus (as he was called by the Greeks), mounted the throne in the year B.C. 555, very shortly before the war broke out between Cyrus and Croesus. He entered into alliance with the latter of these monarchs against the former, and, had the struggle been prolonged, would have sent a contingent into Asia Minor. Events proceeded too rapidly to al- low of this ; but Nabonidus had provoked the hostility of Cyrus by the mere fact of the alliance, and felt at once that sooner or later he would have to resist the attack of an avenging army. He probably employed his long and peaceful reign of 17 years in preparations against the dreaded foe, executing the defensive works which Herodotus ascribes to his mother (i, 185), and accumulating in the town abundant stores of provisions (ib. c. 190). In the year B.C. 539 the attack came. Cyrus advanced at the head of his irresistible hordes, but wintered upon the Diyaleh or Gyndes, making his final approaches in the ensuing spring. Nabonidus appears by the inscriptions to have shortly before this associated with him in the government of the king- dom his son, Bel-shar-ezer or Belshazzar ; on the ap- proach of Cyrus, therefore, he took the field himself at the head of his army, leaving his son to command in the city. In this way, by help of a recent discovery, the accounts of Berosus and the book of Daniel — hith- erto regarded as hopelessly conflicting — may be recon- ciled. See Belshazzar. Nabonidus engaged the army of Cyrus, but was defeated and forced to shut himself up in the neighboring town of Borsippa (mark- ed now by the Birs-Ximrud), where he continued till after the fall of Babylon (Beros. ap. Joseph. Ap. i, 21). Belshazzar guarded the city, but, over-confident in its strength, kept insufficient watch, and recklessly in- dulging in untimehr and impious festivities (Dan. v), allowed the enemy to enter the town by the channel of the river (Herod, i, 191 ; Xen. Cyrop. vii, 7). Baby- lon was thus taken by a surprise, as Jeremiah had prophesied (li, 31) — by an army of Medes and Persians, as intimated 170 years earlier by Isaiah (xxi, 1-9), and, as Jeremiah had also foreshown (li, 39), during a festival. In the carnage which ensued upon the tak- ing of the town, Belshazzar was slain (Dan. v, 30). Nabonidus, on receiving the intelligence, submitted, and was treated kindly by the conqueror, who not only spared his life, but gave him estates in Carmania (Beros. id sup. ; comp. Abyd. Fragm. 9). Such is the general outline of the siege and capture of Babylon by Cyrus, as derivable from the fragments of Berosus, illustrated by the account in Daniel, and reduced to harmony by aid of the important fact, ob- tained recently from the monuments, of the relation- ship between Belshazzar and Nabonidus. It is scarce- ly necessary to remark that it differs in many points from the accounts of Herodotus and Xcnophon ; but the latter of these two writers is in his Cr/ropwdia a mere romancer, and the former is very imperfectly ac- quainted with the history of the Babylonians. The native writer, whose information was drawn from authentic and contemporary documents, is far better authority than cither of the Greek authors, the earlier of whom visited Babylon nearly a century after its capture by Cyrus, when the tradition had doubtless become in many respects corrupted. According to the book of Daniel, it would seem as if Babylon was taken on this occasion, not by Cyrus, king of Persia, but by a Median king named Darius (v, 31). The question of the identity of this person- age with any Median or Babylonian king known to us from profane sources will be discussed under Darius the Mede. It need only be remarked here that Scripture does not really conflict on this point with profane authorities, since there is sufficient indication, from the terms used by the sacred writer, that " Darius the Mede," whoever he may have been, was not the BABYLONIA 6 real conqueror, nor a kin? who ruled in his own right, but a monarch intrusted by another with a certain delegated authority (see Dan. v, 31, and ix, 1). With the conquest by Cyrus commenced the decay and ruin of Babylon. The "broad walls" were then to some extent "broken down" (Beros. Fr. 14), and the "high gates" probably "burnt with fire" (Jer. li, 58). The defences, that is to say, were ruined ; though it is not to be supposed that the laborious and useless task of entirely demolishing the gigantic fortifications of the place was attempted or even contemplated by the conqueror. Babylon was weakened, but it con- tinued a royal residence not only during the lifetime of Darius the Mede, but through the entire period of the Persian empire. The Persian kings held their court at Babylon during the larger portion of the year, and at the time of Alexander's conquests it was still the second, if not the first city of the empire. It had, however, suffered considerably on more than one oc- casion subsequent to the time of Cyrus. Twice in the reign of Darius (Behist. Ins.), and once in that of Xerxes (Ctes. Pers. § 22), it had risen against the Per- sians, and made an effort to regain its independence. After each rebellion its defences were weakened, and during the long period of profound peace which the Persian empire enjoyed from the reign of Xerxes to that of Darius Codomannus they were allowed to go completely to decay. The public buildings also suf- fered grievoush' from neglect. Alexander found the great temple of Belus in so ruined a condition that it would have required the labor of 10,000 men for two months even to clear away the rubbish with which it was encumbered (Strabo, xvi, 1, 5). His designs for the restoration of the temple and the general embel- lishment of the city were frustrated by his untimely death, and the removal of the seat of empire to Anti- och under the Seleucida; gave the finishing blow to the prosperity of the place. The great city of Seleucia, which soon after arose in its neighborhood, not onlj' drew away its population, but was actually construct- ed of materials derived from its buildings (Plin. //. JV. vi, 30). Since then Babylon has been a quarry from which all the tribes in the vicinity have perpetually derived the bricks with which the}' have built their cities, and (besides Seleucia) Ctesiphon, Al-Modain, Bagdad, Kufa, Kerbelah, Hillah, and numerous other towns, have risen from its ruins. The "great city," "the beauty of the Chaldees' excellency," has thus emphatically "become heaps" (Jer. li, 37) — she is truly "an astonishment and a hissing, without an inhabit- ant." Her walls have altogether disappeared — they have "fallen" (Jer. li, 44), been "thrown down" (1, 15), been " broken utterly" (li, 58). " A drought is upon her waters" (1, 39); for the system of irrigation, on which, in Babylonia, fertility altogether depends, has long been laid aside ; " her cities" are everywhere " a desolation" (li, 43), her "land a wilderness;" "wild beasts of the desert" (jackals) "lie there," and "owls dwell there" (comp. Layard, Nin. and Bab. p. 4*4, with Isa. xiii, 21, 22, and Jer. 1, 39) : the natives regard the whole site as haunted, and neither will the "Arab pitch tent nor the shepherd fold sheep there."— Smith. After the exile many of the Jews continued settled in Babylonia; the capital even contained an entire quarter of them (comp. Susann. i, 5 sq. ;1 Pet. v, 13; Josephus, Ant. xx, 2, 2; xv, 3, 1; xviii, 9, 1; Philo, Opp. ii. 578, 68< ) ; and after the destruction of Jerusa- lem these Babylonian Jews established schools of con- siderable repute, although the natives were stigmatized as "Babylonians" by the bigoted Jewish population (Talm. Babyl. Joma, fol. 66). Traces of their learn- ing exist not only in much rabbinical literature that emanated from tin-- now extinct schools, but M. Layard has recently discovered several earthen bowls covered with their Hebrew inscriptions in an early character, copies and translations of which are given in his Bab. and Nin. p. I: 6 pq. 6 BACA III. Literature. — On the history, see Niebuhr's Ge- schickte Asshur's und Babel's ; Brandis's Iicmm Assyr- iarum Tempora Emendata; Bosanquet's Sacred and Profane Chronology; and Bawlinson's Herodotus, vol. i, Essaj's vi and viii. Compare also the A in. Biblical [ Repository, April, 183G, p. S64-3G8; July, 1836, p. 158- [ 185 ; Jour. Sac. Literature, July, 1860, p. 492 sq. ; Kollin, Anc. Hist, ii, 54 etc. ; Prideaux, Connection, i, | 51 etc. ; Heeren, Ideen, I, ii, 172 sq. ; Cellarii No/it. ii, 746 sq. ; Norberg, Opusc. acad. iii, 222 sq. ; Kesler, Ilistoria excidii Babyl. (Tubing. 1766) ; Bredow, Un- tersuchungen ub. alt. Gesch. (Altona, 1800); Jour. Boy. As. Soc. (Lond. 1855), xv, pt. 2, and Maps accompa- nying it. See Babylon. Babylo'nian (Heb. Ben-Babel', bia-^, son of ! Babel or Babylon, Ezek. xxiii, 15, 17,T23- Chald. ! Bablay, "£na, Ezra iv, 9 ; Gr. Baj3v\mnoc, Bel 3), j an inhabitant of Babylon or Babylonia. Babylo'nian Captivity. See Captivity. ( Babylo'nish Garment C'Ji^ ^1?'iJK, adde'reth Sh'nar'; Sept. ipi\>} ttoikiXii, Vulg. pallium coccineuni), a Babylonish mantle [see Attire], i. e. a large robe \ variegated with the figures of men and animals intcr- 1 woven in rich colors (comp. Pliny, Hist. Nat. viii, 48), I such as were fabricated at Babylon (q. v.) ; hence a valuable piece of clothing in general (Josh, vii, 21). ; Sec Emeroidery. ; Ba'ca, Valley of (Heb. E'mclc hab-Baha', p~V | ^:an, vale of [the'] weeping; Sept. koi\«c tov kXou- Buuii'OQ, Vulg. Vallis lacrymaruni), a valley apparently somewhere in Palestine, through which the "exiled Psalmist sees in vision the pilgrims passing in their march toward the sanctuary of Jehovah at Zion (Psa. lxxxiv, 6). The passage seems to contain a play, in the manner of Hebrew poetry, on the name of the trees (D^Nra, beha'im' ; see Mulberry) from which the valley probably derived its name, and the " tears" (^za, held') shed by the pilgrims in their joy at their approach to Zion. These tears are conceived to be so abundant as to turn the dry valley in which the bafot- trees delighted (so Lengerke, Ktnaan, p. 135) into a I spring}' or marshy place ("£""?). That a real locality j was in the mind of the Psalmist is most probable, from the use of the definite article before the name (Gesen. Tins. p. 205). A valley of the same name (Bekad) still exists in the Sinaitic district (Burckhardt, p. 619) ; but this, as well as the valley near Mecca (Niebuhr, Beschr. p. 339), is entirely out of the region demanded by the context. Some regard this as a valley (el- Behaa) or plain in which Baalbek is situated. But this spot is far from possessing the dreariness and drought on which the point of the Psalmist's allusion depends. The rendering of the Targum is Gehenna, i. e. the Ge-Hinnom or ravine below Mount Zion. This i locality agrees well with the mention of bahrim-trecs in 2 Sam. v, £3. To the majority of interpreters, how- ever, it docs not appear necessary to understand that there is any reference to a valley actually called by this name. The Psalmist in exile, or at least at a I distance from Jerusalem, is speaking of the privileges and happiness of those who are permitted to make the usual pilgrimages to that city in order to worship Je- hovah in the Temple : " They knew the ways that lead thither; yea, though they must pass through rough and dreary paths, even a vale of tears; yet such are their hope and joy of heart, that all this is to them as a well-watered country, a land crowned with bless- ings of the early rain." Dr. Robinson (Add. to t'al- mct's Diet.) concludes that something like this is the sense of the passage ; and it seems, on the whole, the most intelligible and forcible explanation of the pas- i sage to suppose that the sacred writer thus poetical- ! ly describes some one of the many desolate valleys I which the stated worshippers at Jerusalem were obliged BACCALAUREUS G07 BACCHUS to traverse in their yearly visits to the solemn festi- vals.— Smith, s. v. ; Kitto, s. v. Baccalaureus (i. e. Bachelor), one who takes a first decree in divinity, arts, medicine, or civil law. This degree was first introduced in the thirteenth cen- tury by Pope Gregory IX. L'henanus maintains that the title is taken from the Bandits placed in the hand of the new graduate. The usual derivation is that given by Alciatus, viz. lacca laurea, a laurel berry; "but the Spanish bachillir, which means at once « babbler and a master of arts, taken in conjunction with the Portuguese bacharel and baclllo, a shoot or twig of the vine (from the Latin bacillus or bacvlum, a stick or shoot), and the French bachelette, a damsel, seem to point to its original and generic meaning, which prob- ably was a, person shooting or protruding from one stage of hk career Into another more advanced. AYith this general signification, all the special meanings of the word given by Ducange (Glossarium, s. v.) eeem to have some analogy. 1. It was used, he says, to indi- cate a person who cultivated certain portions of church lands called baccalarla — which he supposed to have been a corruption of vassele.ria — a feu belonging to an inferior vassal, or to one who had not attained to a full feudal recognition. 2. It indicated ecclesiastics of a lower dignity than the other members of a religious brotherhood, i. e. monks who were still in the first stage of monkhood. 3. It was used hy later writers to indicate persons in the first or probationary stage of knighthood ; i. e. not esquires simply, but knights who, from poverty and the insufficient number of their retainers, from their possessing, perhaps, only the bac- calaria above referred to, or from nonage, had not yet raised their banners in the field (leve banniere). 4. It was adopted to indicate the first grade or step in the career of university life. As an academical title, it was first introduced by Pope Gregory IX in the thir- teenth century into the University of Paris to denote a candidate who had undergone his first academical trials, and was authorized to give lectures, but was not yet admitted to the rank of an independent master or doctor. At a later period it was introduced into the other faculties as the lowest academical honor, and adopted by the other universities of Europe." In the Middle Ages two kinds of bachelors were recognized in theological studies, viz. Baccalaurei cursores and Baccalaurei formati. The former were those who, after six years of study, were admitted to perform their courses. There were two courses, one in explain- ing the Bible for three years, and the other in explain- ing for one year the Master of the Sentences ; conse- quently, those who performed the biblical course were called Baccalaurei biblici ; the others, Baccalaurei scn- tentiaril; while those who had finished both courses were known as Baccalaurei formati. — Chambers, En- cyclopedia., s. v. ; Herzog, Iieal-Encyldopadle , Suppl. i, 424 ; Hilscher, de nomine Baccalaurei (Lips. 17H3) ; Gottsched, de dlgnltate Bacc. Llpsiensls (Lips. 1739); Landon, Eccles. Dictionary, s. v. See Degrees ; Uni- versities. Baccanarists, a society in the Church of Pome, founded in Italy by one Baccanari after the suppres- sion of the Jesuits in 1773. Its object was to restore the order under a new name and form. Pius VI fa- vored the organization, and it spread into Austria, Hol- land, and England. In 1*14 its members were united with the re-established order of Jesuits. See Jesuits. Bac'chides (Bmcyi'c'jjc, son of Bacchus'), a friend of Antiochus Epiphanes (Josephus, Ant. xii, 10, 2) and governor of Mesopotamia (lv -oj iripav tov jrora/toS, 1 Mace, vii, 8), who was commissioned by Demetrius Soter to investigate the charges whicli Aleimus (q. v.) preferred against Judas Maccabaeus. He confirmed Aleimus in the high-priesthood ; and, having inflicted signal vengeance on the extreme party of the Assidw- ans (q. v.), he returned to Antioch. After the expul- sion of Aleimus and the defeat and death of Nicanor, he led a second expedition into Judea. Judas Macca- beus fell in the battle which ensued at Laisa (B.C. 1G1), and Bacchides re-established the supremacy of the Syrian faction (1 Mace, ix, 25, oi aatfiuc avtipeg ; Joseph. Ant. xiii, 1, 1). He next attempted to surprise Jonathan, who had assumed the leadership of the na- tional party after the death of Judas; but Jonathan escaped across the Jordan. Bacchides then placed gar- risons in several important positions, and took hostages for the security of the present government. Having completed the pacification of the country (Joseph. Ant. xiii, 1, 5), he returned to Demetrius (B.C. 160). After two years he came back at the request of the Syrian j faction, in the hope of overpowering Jonathan and Si- I mon, who still maintained a small force in the desert ; j but, meeting with ill success, he turned against those | who had induced him to undertake the expedition, and sought an honorable retreat. When this was known by Jonathan he sent envoys to Bacchides and con- cluded a peace (B.C. 158) with him, acknowledging him as governor under the Syrian king, while Bacchi- des pledged himself not to enter the land again, a con- dition which he faithfully observed (1 Mace, ix, 70 sq. ; Joseph. Ant. xii, 1, G ; xiii, 1 ; comp. 2 Mace, viii, 30). He must have been a different person from the Bac- chides, the general of Antiochus Epiphanes in charge of the fortresses of Judaia, whom the Asmomean priest Matthias, with his sons, slew with their daggers (Jo- seph. War,, i, 1, 2).— Smith, s. v. Bacchu'rns (Bn/>-\of'poc ; Vulg. Zaccarus), given as one of the "holy singers" (tmv 'teno^aXrwr') who had taken a foreign wife (1 Esdr. ix, 24); but no name corresponding with this is added in the genuine list (Ezra, x, 24). Bac'chus, the Latinized form (in the Auth. Vers, at 2 Mace, vi, 7 ; xiv, 33) of the heathen deity called by the Greeks Dionysus (q. v.). The latter occurs also in (the so-called) 3 Mace, ii, 29. In all these in- stances this mythic deity is named in connection with circumstances which would indicate that he was an object of special abhorrence to the Jews; for in the first it is stated that the Jews were compelled to go in procession to Bacchus ; in the second, the erection of a temple to him is threatened in order to compel the priests to deliver up Judas to Nicanor; and in the third, the branding with the ivy leaf, sacred to him, is reported as inflicted on them by way of punishment. This falls in with what Tacitus says, that it was a mis- take to imagine that, because the priests of the Jews ac- companied their singing with flute and cymbals, and had garlands of ivy, and a golden vine was found in the Temple, they worshipped Bacchus, for that this was not at all in accordance with their institutes (nequa- quam congruentibus institutis, Hist, v, 5). As Bac- chus was the god of wine, and in general of earthly festivity and jollity, and as his rites sanctioned the most frantic excesses of revelry and tumultuous ex- citement, he would necessarily be an object of abhor- rence to all who believed in and worshipped Jehovah. Probably also the very fact that some things connected with the Jewish worship had, as mentioned by Taci- tus, and still more full}' by Plutarch (Symposiac. iv, qu. 6), led to the supposition that they reverenced Bacchus, may have produced in their minds a more de- termined recoil from and hatred of all pertaining to his name. In the pagan system Bacchus is the god of wine, and is represented as the son of Jupiter and Semele, the daughter of Cadmus. His mother per- ished in the burning embraces of the god, whom she persuaded to visit her with his attribute of royalty, the thunderbolt; the embryo child was sewn up in Jupiter's thigh, whence, in due time, he was produced to light. Mythology abounds with the adventures of Bacchus, the most noted of which are the transforma- tion of the Tyrrhenian pirates, who carried him off to BACENOR 608 BACKUS sell for a slave, into dolphins; his revenge on the scoffing Pentiums and his invasion and conquest of India. Bacchus was generally figured as a young man of effeminate appearance (3tjA.v/m>p^o£, Eurip. Bacch. 353 : Euseb. Chron. p. 29), with a garland of ivy bind- ing his long hair (Strabo, xv, p. 1038) ; in his hand he" bore a thyrsus, or rod wreathed with ivy, and at his feet lay his attendant panther. His compan- ions were the Bacchantes, the Lenae, the Naiads and Nymphs, etc., and especially Silenus. His wor- ship seems to have arisen from that "striving after objectivity" (Wachsmuth, Ilellen. Alterthumsk. ii, 2, p. 113), which is the characteristic of a primitive people. The southern coast of Thrace appears to have been the original seat of this religion, and it was intro- duced thence into Greece shortly after the coloniza- tion by the iEolians of the Asiatic coast of the Helles- pont. " The admission of the identity of Osiris and Dionysus by Plutarch and other mythological theo- rists," as well as Herodotus's simple statement of the assertions of the Egyptian priests to that effect, is no proof of the common origin of the worship of this di- vinity in Egypt and Greece; but there is no doubt that "certain modifications of the Dionysiac rites took place after the commencement of the intercourse be- tween the Ionians and the Egyptians {Penny Cyclop. s. v.). The worship of Bacchus was intimately con- nected with that of Demeter, and under the name of lacchus he was adored along with that goddess at Eleu- sis. Virgil invokes them together (Georg. i, 5) as the lights of the universe. According to the Egyptians, they were the joint rulers of the world below (Herod. ii, 123). In a cameo he is represented as sitting with her in a chariot drawn by male and female centaurs. (For a fuller account of the mythological history and attributes of Bacchus, see Creuzer, Xymbolik unci My- thologie, pt. iii, bk. 3, ch. 2 of Moser's Abridgment.) Bace'nor (Baicljvwp ; Vulg. Bttcenor), apparenth' a captain of horse in the army of Judas Maccabseus, to whose detachment Dositheus belonged ("2 Mace, xii, 35) ; or possibly it may have been only the title of one of the Jewish companies or squadrons. Bachelor. See Baccalaurecs. Bach'rite (Heb. with the article hab-Bakri, *1"|r??1; Sept. omits, but some copies have 6 BtYtpi ; Vulg. familia Becheritarum ; Auth. Vers, "the Bach- rites"), the family name of the descendants of Bechek (q. v.), the son of Ephraim (Num. xxvi, 35). See Beriaii. Bachuth. See Allon-bachuth. Backbite (in Psa. xv. 3, ijp, vagal', to run about tattling; in Prov. xxv, 23, "tro, se'ther, secj-ecy in tale-bearing ; in Rom. i, 30, /camXaXoc, an evil speak- er,- in 2 Cor. xii, 20, KaraXaXici, evil-speaking), mali- ciously to defame an absent person. See Slander. Backslide (in Prov. xiv, 14, MO, sug, to go back; in Hos. iv. 1G, "HO, sarar' ', to be refractory; else- where in the O. T. ~rr, slmb, to return; in Heb. x, 39, viroorkWii), to "draw back"). See Apostasy. 1. This term popularly denotes a falling off or do- faction in matters of religion; an apostasy, Acts xxi, 21 ; 2 Thess. ii, 3; 1 Tim. iv, 1. This mav be either partial or complete; partial, when it is in the heart, as Prov. xiv, 1 1 ; complete, as that described in Heb. vi, *, etc. : s, 6, etc. On the latter passage Chrvsostom observes: "When a house has a strong foundation, Buppose an arch fall, some of the beams break, or a wall decline, while the foundation is good, these breaches may be repaired ; so in religion, while a per- son maintains the true doctrines, and remains on the firm rock, though he fall, true repentance mav restore him to the favor and image of God: but as in a house, when the foundation is bad, nothing can save the building from ruin ; so, when heretical doctrines are admitted for a foundation, nothing can save the pro- fessor from destruction." It is important, in inter- preting these passages, to keep it steadfastly in mind that the apostasy they speak of is not only moral, but doctrinal. See Falling away. 2. It is also used less accurately of a loss of fervor in religious feeling and of zeal in religious duty. In this sense it should be called partial backsliding, which must be distinguished from hypocrisy, as the former may exist where there are good intentions on the whole ; but the latter is a studied profession of appear- ing to be what we are not. The causes of backsliding are — the cares of the world; improper connections; inattention to secret or cioset duties ; self-conceit and dependence ; indulgence ; listening to and parleying with temptations. A backslidden state is manifested by indifference to prayer and self-examination ; trifling or unprofitable conversation; neglect of public ordi- nances ; shunning the people of God ; associating with the world ; thinking lightly of sin ; neglect of the Bi- ble ; and often by gross immorality. The consequences of this awful state are — loss of character ; loss of com- fort ; loss of usefulness ; and loss of a well-grounded hope of future happiness. To avoid this state, or re- cover from it, we should beware of the first appearance of sin ; be much in prayer ; attend the ordinances ; and unite with the people of God. We should consider the awful instances of apostasy, as Saul, Judas, Demas, etc. ; the many warnings we have of it, Matt, xxiv, 13; Heb. x, 38; Luke ix, 02; how it grieves the Holy Spirit; and how wretched it makes us; above all things, our dependence should be on God, that we ma}' always be directed lry his Spirit, and kept by his power. — Watson, Theol. Dictionary, s. v. ; Buck, Theol. Dictionary, s. v. ; Clarke, Theology (by Dunn), p. 360. On the possibility of " falling from grace," see Perse- verance. Backus, Azel, D.D., president of Hamilton Col- lege, was born at Norwich, Conn., Oct. 13th, 1765. While yet a boy he imbibed infidel principles, but was reclaimed by the instructions of his uncle, the Rev. Charles Backus. He graduated A.B. at Yale in 1787. He was licensed in 1789, and succeeded Dr. Bellamy as pastor at Bethlem in 1791. Here he labored faith- fully, both as pastor and as principal of a classical school, till 1812, when he was elected president of Hamilton College. After five years of successful ad- ministration, he died of typhus fever, Dec. 9, 1817. He was a man of tjood endowments and great indus- try.— Sprague, Annals, ii, 287. Backus, Charles, D.D., an eminent Congrega- tional minister, was born in Norwich, Conn., Nov. 5, 1749. He lost his parents in his childhood, but, as he early discovered a love of learning, his friends assist- ed him to obtain a liberal education. He graduated A.B. at Yale in 1769, and, after studying theology under Dr. Hart, of Preston, he was licensed in 1773. In 1774 he was ordained pastor of the Congregational Church in Somers, where he remained until his death, December 30, 1803. During the course of his minis- try nearly fifty young men studied theology under his roof, and among them were Dr. Woods, of Andovcr, President Moore, of Amherst, and others. His repu- tation brought him invitations to the chair of theology at Dartmouth, and also at Yale, but he declined both calls. He published a number of occasional sermons. — Sprague, Annals, ii, 61. Backus, Isaac, A.M., a distinguished Baptist minister, was born at Norwich, Conn., Jan. 9, 1724. In 1748 he was ordained pastor of a Congregational church in Titicut, Middleborough, Mass. In 1749 a number of the members of Mr. Backus' s church alter- ed their sentiments with regard to baptism, and he at length united with them in opinion. He was immersed in 1751. For some years he held to open communion, but afterward abandoned it. A Baptist church was BACON GOO BACON duly constituted in 1756, and he was installed its pas- tor. He faithfully discharged his pastoral duties for more than half a century. To his labors during this long period the Baptists of America owe much of their success. He was a voluminous writer, and published, among other works, a History of the Bajitists (3 vols.), and also an Abridgment of the same (1 vol.). A list of his writings may be seen in Sprague, Annals, vi, 56. See also Hovey, Life and Times of Backus (Bost. 1858, 12mo) ; Christian Review, xiv, 197. Bacon, Francis, Viscount St. Albans and Baron Verulam, one of the most celebrated philosophers of modern times, was born in London, Jan. 22, 1560. His father, Sir Nicholas Bacon, was keeper of the seal under Elizabeth, and a distinguished lawyer and states- man; his mother was a learned and pious woman, who had translated several ascetic works from Italian, and had taken part in the theological controversies of her time. Early in life he gave signs of extra- ordinary talent, and Queen Elizabeth used to call him playfully her young lord keeper. In his twelfth year he is said to have speculated on the laws of imag- ination, and in the next year he was matriculated at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he remained for three years and a half. After the termination of his studies in 1577, his father sent him to France, under the care of Sir Amyas Paulet, English ambassador at the French court. There he came in contact with a number of distinguished men, and laid out a plan for a reconstruction of the philosophical sciences. The death of his father recalled him to England in 1580, and, failing to get an office for which he applied, he devoted himself to the study of law. In 1582 he was called to the bar, in 1586 he was made a bencher, and in 1580, at the age of 28, counsel extraordinary to the queen. Still he could not rise under Elizabeth, who rejected his claims for preferment on the ground that he was " not very deep." As some compensation for his disappointment, Count Essex made him a present of Twickenham Court, worth about £1800, and so beau- tiful that Bacon called it the Garden of Paradise. Ba- con, some years later, was charged with rewarding this disinterested kindness with ingratitude on the trial of Essex ; but probably unjustly (see the Penny Cyclopae- dia, s. v.). In 1595 he was returned to Parliament as member for Middlesex, and greatly distinguished himself for parliamentary eloquence. After the ac- cession to the throne of James I, he rapidly rose in dignities and influence. In 1C03 he received the hon- or of knighthood, in 1604 he was appointed king's counsel, in 1607 solicitor general, in 1613 attorney gen- eral, in 1617 keeper of the great seal. In January of 1618 he was appointed lord high chancellor, and in the same year raised to the peerage as Baron of Ve- rulam. Three years later the title of Viscount of St. Albans was conferred on him. From the same year, 1621, dates his fall. A committee of the House of Commons reported two cases of corruption against him, and before the close of the proceedings similar cases to the number of 24 were presented. When his case was referred to the House of Peers he abandoned all defence, confessed his guilt, and was sentenced, on May 3d, to a fine of £40,000, and to imprisonment in the Tower during the king's pleasure. The sen- tence proved to be little more than a form. He was released from imprisonment after two days, and the fine was subsequently remitted, but he never recov- ered bis standing. Only once he was afterward sum- moned to attend Parliament, and the remainder of his life was spent in humble circumstances and among the few friends whom adversity left him. He died at Highgate, April 9, 1626. Bacon was tho author of a philosophical system which is called after him the Baconian philosophy, and which has had a marked influence on the subsequent development of philosophy and of literature in gen- eral. "The sciences," he savs, "have hitherto been QQ in a most sad condition. Philosophy, wasted in emp- ty and fruitless logomachies, has failed during so many centuries to bring out a single work or experiment of actual benefit to human life. Logic hitherto has served more to the establishment of error than to the investigation of truth. Whence all this ? Why this penury of science ? Simply because they have broken away from their root in nature and experience. The blame of this is chargeable to many sources : fir6t, the old and rooted prejudice that the human mind loses somewhat of its dignity when it busies itself much and continuously with experiments and material things ; next, superstition and a blind religious zeal, which has been the most irreconcilable opposer to nat- ural philosophy; again, the exclusive attention paid to morals and politics by the Piomans, and since the Christian era to theology by every acute mind ; still farther, the great authority which certain philosophers have exercised, and the great reverence given to an- tiquity ; and, in fine, a want of courage, and a despair of overcoming the many and great difficulties which lie in the -way of the investigation of nature. All these causes have contributed to keep down the sciences. Hence they must now be renewed, and re- generated; and reformed in their most fundamental principles ; there must now be found a new basis of knowledge and new principles of science. Thus rad- ical reformation of the sciences depends upon two con- ditions— objectively, upon the referring of science to experience and the philosophy of nature ; and sub- jectively, upon tho purifying of the sense and the in- tellect from all abstract theories and traditional preju- dices, Both conditions furnish the correct method of natural science, which is nothing other than the meth- od of induction. Upon a true induction depends all the soundness of the sciences." In these propositions the Baconian philosophy is contained. The historical significance of its founder is, therefore, in general this : that he directed the attention and reflection of his con- temporaries again upon the given actuality, upon na- ture; that he affirmed the necessity of experience, which had been formerly only a matter of accident, and made it as in and for itself an object of thought. His merit consists in having brought up the principle of scientific empiricism, and only in this (Schwegler, History of Philosophy, transl. by Seelye, p. 166). The principles of his method are to be found in many writ- ers before him, even in Aristotle ; but it was Bacon's glory that he so set forth those principles as to bring mankind to act upon them. His plagiarisms, espe- cially from his great namesake, Itoger Bacon, are un- questionable (see De Maistre, Soirees de St.Petersbourg ; Methodist Quarterly, Jan. and April, 1858 ; and Bacon, Roger). So far as Bacon's own mind was concerned, he was a firm believer in divine revelation (see his Confes- sion of Faith; Prayers; Character of a Christian; Works, ed. Montague, vol. vii). Theology, as science, he held to rest on data given by inspiration, just as metaphysics must rest on postulates. On this last point the following passage is pregnant: "Where- fore, whatever primitive matter is, together with its influence and action, it is sui generis, and admits of no definition drawn from perception, and is to be taken just as it is found, and not to be judged of from any preconceived idea. For the mode of it, if it is given to us to know it, cannot be judged of by means of its cause, seeing that it is, next to God, the cause of causes, itself without cause. For there is a certain real limit of causes in nature, and it would argue levi- ty and inexperience in a philosopher to require or im- agine a cause for the last and positive power and law of nature, as much as it would not to demand a cause in those that are subordinate" (Fable of Cupid, Works, ed. Montague, xv, 45). As to theology, his language is: "Omnis enim scientia duplicem sortitur informa- i tionem. Una inspiratur divinitus ; alter oritur a sen- BACON 610 BACOX su. Partiemur, igitur, scientiam in theologian) et philoscphiam. Theologiam hie intelligimus inspira- tam, iion naturalem" (/' Augmentis, iii, 1). In book ix of the same work be expressly sots religion in op- position, so far as its Bource is concerned, totbe induc- tive sciences, inasmuch as in religion the first princi- ples are independent and self-subsistent {per si subsis- •Let u.s conclude," he says, "that sacred theology ought to be drawn from the word and oracles of God, not from the light of nature or the dictates of reason. For it is written, the heavens declare the glory of God, but not the heavens declare the will of God." See also his striking prayer in the preface to the In- stauratio Magna. Bacon's own position, then, is clear- ly defined, although De Maistre, in his Soirees de St. j\ I, rsbourg, seeks to deprive him not only of all merit with regard to the science of induction, but also al- most of the name of Christian. It is another question how far the influence of the Baconian system, confined as it is to the material sciences, has tended to generate a materialist and rationalist way of thinking. On this point, see Rationalism; Philosophy. The greatest of the philosophical works of Bacon is the Novum Orgamim (Lond. 1620, translated in Bonn's Scit iithic library, Lond.). The most important among the other works of Bacon are: (1) Essays, or Counsels Civil and Moral (Lond. 1597, augment, edit. 1012 and 1624), the best known and most popular of his works. A new edition, with an introduction and many valua- ble notes, has been published by archbishop Whately (Lond. 1857 ; Boston, I860) : — (2) A treatise On the Advancement of Learning (Lond. 1605). This work, revised and enlarged, was afterward translated by Ben Jonson, George Herbert, and other friends of Ba- con, into Latin, and published under the title De Avg- mentis Scientiarum ( Lond. 1623). The works Be Sa- pientia Veterum, Sylva Sylvarum, Nova Atlantis, are likewise highly valued. Complete editions were pub- lished by Rawley (Amsterd. 1663, 6 vols.); Mallet (Lond. 1740); Stephens, Locker, and Birch (Lond. 1765, 5 vols. 4to); Basil Montagu (Lond. 1825-34, 17 vols. 8vo); Spedding, Ellis, and Heath (Lond. 1857 sq.) ; American ed., Boston, 1*63-65. A biography of Bacon may be found at the head of every complete edition of his works ; that by Montagu is especially valued (reprinted in Bacon's Works, Fhila. 3 vols. 8vo). See also Bouillet, Les (Euvres Philos. de B. (Paris, 1834 35); De Maistre, Examen de, la Philos.de /;. i Paris, 1836, 2 vols.) ; Remusat, Bacon,sa Tieetson fajuenct (Paris, 1857); Tenison, Baconicma (167!)); Macaulay, in Edinburgh Review, July, 1837 ; Methodist Quarterly, Jan. 1848, p. 22; April, 1851, art. 1 ; Jan. 1859, art. 1 ; April, 1851, art. 1 ; Princeton Review, xii, 350; xv, 1^1 ; Am. Bib. Repository, 3d series, iii, 127; Qu. Christian Spectator, iv, 528; Encyclop. Brit. (1st and 3d Prelim. Diss, by Stewart and I'layfair); K. Fisher, Bacon von Verulam (Leipz. 1856, tr. by Oxen- ford, Lond. 1*57); Dixon, Personal History of Bacon (L 1.1860); l-ini/li.-h Cf/e/nprdi,i ; Morell, History of Philosophy, pt. i, oh. i, § 1 ; Lewes, Biog. Hist. ofPhi- los. vol. iii, epoch. 1. Bacon, John, an English writer of the fourteenth centurj . born at Baconthorp, in Norfolk, and styled "the Resolute Doctor" i Doctor Resolutw). He took the degrees of doctor of canon and civil law and of divinity at Paris, and became so strongly attached to the opinion- of the Averroists that he was looked upon as their head. In 1829 he was elected provincial of the < larmelite order, which he had out. rod in his youth, and died at London in 1346. He wrote Commentaria tuper quatuor libros sententiarum i Paris, 1484, fol., often reprinted), and many other works. See Dupin, //is/. Eccl. Writers, I lth cent. ; Landon, Eccl. Diet, i, 192. Eacon, Roger, the greatest of English philoso- phers before the time of Ins namesake. Lord Bacon, was born near [lchester, in Somersetshire, about 1214. ' He was educated at Oxford, and, according to the cus- tom of his day, proceeded to the university of Paris to study philosophy and theology. Here he received his doctor's degree. About 1240 (?) he returned to Ox- ford, and there (perhaps on the advice of Grossetete J q. v.), be took the vows as a Franciscan, and applied himself closely in his convent to the study of lan- guages, as w.ell as to experimental philosophy. It was the mistake of his life that he joined the Francis- ' cans ; his brethren soon began to manifest a spirit of enmity, a prohibition being issued against Bacon's ; lectures in the university, as well as against the pub- lication of any of his writings. He was charged with magic and diabolism, as was commonly the case at | that time with those who studied the sciences, and particularly chemistry. Bacon was a true thinker, and, as such, was necessarily regarded as an innovator ! in such an age, although it was the age of Thomas Aquinas and Bonaventura. He complained of the ' absolute submission to authority. "I would burn all | the books of Aristotle if I had them in hand" {Comp. j Theol. pt. i, ch. 2). He was very severe upon the scholastic theology, even upon Alexander de Hales, Albert the Great, and Thomas Aquinas, whom be styles vir erroneus etfamosus. It was not unnatural that the monks should suspect so plainspoken a man, j especially one who kept cauldrons and crucibles at work, studied the stars, and made strange experiments of all sorts. Wadding, the historian of the Francis- cans, says that Bacon was condemned propter novitatcs quasdam suspectas. From 1257 until 1267 he was con- tinually persecuted; most of the time kept in prifon, his studies hindered, and all intercourse with the outer world prohibited. In 1265 Clement IV (Guy Foulques, a Frenchman) became pope. He had been Bacon's friend when cardinal legate in England, had taken great interest in his studies, and had sought to get hold of his writings, but the strict watch kept on Bacon prevented him from sending them. Bacon managed to get letters conveyed to the new pope, stating his sad case, and asking help in the name of : religion and good learning. Clement's answer re- quired him to send his writings with haste, any com- , mand of his superiors or constitution of his order not- withstanding. Bacon at once prepared his Opus Ma- jus from his materials on hand, with an account of his troubles and persecutions in the preface. The book was sent in the year 1267, but the pope did not ven- ture to release him from prison till several months had elapsed, so great was the power of the Franciscan order. Clement died in November, 1268, and Bacon was thus again at the mercy of his enemies ; but he still pursued his studies, and was allowed to remain free from open persecution up to 1278 ; but in that year Jerome of Ascoli, general of the Franciscan or- ' der, afterward pope under the title of Nicholas IV, was appointed legate to the court of France. Bacon, I then sixty-four years old, was summoned to Paris, where a council of Franciscans, with Jerome at their head, condemned his writings, and committed him to close confinement. A confirmation of the proceeding was immediately obtained from the court of Pome.1 During ten years every effort made by him to procure his enlargement was without success; but, on the ac- cession of Jerome (Nicholas IV), that which was not to be obtained from the justice of the pope was con- ceded to private interest, and Bacon was at last re- stored to liberty by the intercession of some powerful nobles. Some say he died in prison; but the lest authorities unite in stating that he returned to Oxford, where he wrote his Compendium Theologice, and died some months, or perhaps a year and a half, after Nicholas IV (who died April, 1292). The suspicion and fear of the monks followed the great man's Looks after his death ; " the books were nailed to boards, so that they could not be read, and were left to rot amid dirt and damp.'' BACON 611 BACON Of the grandeur of Bacon's scientific intellect, and of the marvellous discoveries made by him, this is not the place to speak at length. Humboldt calls him the greatest apparition of the Middle Ages. In the depths of an age of tradition, he saw what science was, and devoted his life to its pursuit. In languages, he mastered Latin, Greek, Hebrew, and Arabic. He held, with Plato, that Mathematics is the mistress and key of all the sciences {Opus Majus, pt. iv). In twen- ty years he spent 2000 livres (a vast sum for that age) in books, apparatus, and experiments. As early as 1264 he sent the pope a proposal to rectify the Julian calendar — three centuries before the thing was done. " Roger Bacon, the vastest intellect that England has produced, studied nature as a natural philosopher rather than as a chemist, and the extraordinary dis- coveries he made in those branches of science are fa- miliarly known : the rectification of the errors com- mitted in the Julian calendar with regard to the solar year ; the physical analysis of the action of lenses and convex glasses ; the invention of spectacles for the aged ; that of achromatic lenses ; the theory and per- haps the first construction of the telescope. From the principles and laws laid down or partially apprehend- ed by him, a system of unanticipated facts was sure to spring, as he himself remarked ; nevertheless, his in- quiries into chemical phenomena have not been with- out fruit for us. He carefully studied the properties of saltpetre, and if, in opposition to the ordinary opin- ion, he did not discover gunpowder, which had been explicitly described by Marcus Grsecus fifty years be- fore, he improved its preparation by teaching the mode of purifying saltpetre by first dissolving the salt in water and then crystallizing it. He also called atten- tion to the chemical action of air in combustion" (Fi- guier, UAlchimie et les A/ckimistcs, part i, ch. iv, p. 80, 81). The history of Bacon's writings is among the curi- osities of literature. A number of his smaller works were printed before the 18th century, but his greatest writings waited until that date. Among the former are his Perspectiva (Frank. 1614) ; Be Speculis and Specula Mathematica (Frank. 1G14, reprinted in 1671); De. Mirabili Potestate Artis et Naturcc (Paris, 1542); Gi- rard, De V admirable Pouvoir, etc., ou est traicle de la Pierre Philosophale (translation of the preceding) (Par- is, 1557, reprinted in 1629); Scripta quadam de Arte Chemio? (Frank. 1603 and 1620); Speculum Alcliemw: and De Secretis Operibus Artis et Natures, et de Nullitctte Hughe (in vols, ii and v of Zetzner's Theatrum Chem- icum, Strasb. 1659, transl. by Girard, under the title Miroir d'Alauimie, Lyon, 1557 ; Paris, 1612 and 1627) ; De retardandis Senectutis Accidentilvs (Oxf. 1590, trans- lated by Dr. R. Browne, Lond. 1683). The greatest of his works were not published until 1733. A num- ber of Bacon's MSS. were known to exist in the libra- ries of the Continent and of England, especially in the Cottonian Library and in that of Dublin, and Dr. Samuel Jebb, at the request of Eichard Mead (court physician), edited and printed the. Opus Majus (Lond. 1733, fol.). It is carefully done, but yet omits ch. vii (the Ethicd), and inserts other things not belonging to this book. Professor Ingram, of the University of Dublin, has discovered some of the missing part of the work, and a complete edition of his works is prom- ised, as the British government intrusted the task to Professor Brewer, of King's College, who published vol. i in 1859, including the Opvs Minus, Opus Tertium, Compendium ph'losnphice, and de Nuliitate Magia (large 8vo). The Opus Minus is an epitome and complement of the Opus Majus; the Opus Tertium is an enlarge- ment of it. Cousin discovered a MS. of this last work in the library of Douai, and published an enthusiastic account of it and of Bacon in the Journal des Savants, 1848. Pursuing his researches, he found in the Amiens library a manuscript, commenting on Aristotle. Cousin now appealed to England to vindicate the name of one of her greatest sons, and the result is seen in the edition announced above. A French scholar, M. Emile Charles, also devoted years of study and travel to Roger Bacon, and published Roger Bacon, sa vie, ses ceuvres, ses doctrines, d'apr'es des textes inedits (1862, 8vo). Roger Bacon was the forerunner, in philosophy, of Lord Bacon, who borrowed largely from him, not only in method, but also even in details. The monk pos- sessed, what the chancellor had not, the power of pen- etrating the secrets of nature. Lord Bacon promoted science by his method, but in actual application of the method he was a child. Roger Bacon anticipated him in the method, and was, at the same time, himself a great experimenter and successful inventor. On the relations between these two great men, see Professor Holmes's excellent articles in the Methodist Quarterly, January and April, 1858, where the subject is more ably and thoroughly treated than by any other writer. Professor Holmes sums up as follows: "That Lord Bacon was anticipated by Roger Bacon in nearly everything that was most distinctive in the double forms of the same identical philosophy cannot be doubted after the copious illustrations given in this essay. That he borrowed directly and consciously from him is our own private conclusion ; and that the forced loan amounted to plagiarism, and was levied, like one of James I's voluntary gifts from his people, forcibfy and without acknowledgment, is also our con- viction, though we will not demand from the public an absolute verdict to this effect. But we do claim that the highest honors which -have been assigned to Francis Bacon are due to Roger Bacon and his con- temporaries, and we do assert that the friar has been as harshly and unjustly dealt with by the lord chan- cellor of nature as Aubrey, and Egerton, and the other suitors in the court of equity were handled by the lord high chancellor of England." "Throughout the whole of his writings Bacon is a strict Roman Catholic ; that is, he expressly submits matters of opinion to the authority of the church, say- ing (Cott. MSS. cited by Jebb) that if the respect due to the vicar of the Savior (yicarius Salvatoris) alone, and the benefit of the world, could be consulted in any other way than by the progress of philosophy, he would not, under such experiments as lay in his way, proceed with his undertaking for the whole Church of God, however much it might entreat or insist. His zeal for Christianity, in its Latin or Western form, breaks out in every page ; and all science is considered with direct reference to theology, and not otherwise. But, at the same time, to the credit of his principles, consid- ering the book-burning, heretic-hunting age in which he lived, there is not a word of any other force except that of persuasion. He takes care to have both au- thority and reason for every proposition that he ad- vances; perhaps, indeed, he might have experienced forbearance at the hand of those who were his perse- cutors, had he not so clearly made out prophets, apos- tles, and fathers to have been partakers of his opinions. 'But let not your serenity imagine,' he says, 'that I intend to excite the clemency of your holiness, in or- der that the papal majesty should employ force against weak authors and the multitude, or that my unwor- thy self should raise any stumbling-Uoek to study' {Penny Cyclopadia, s. v.)„ Indeed, the whole scope of the first part of the work is to prove, from authority and from reason, that philosophy and Christianity cannot disagree — a sentiment altogether of his own revival, in an age in which all philosophers, and mathe- maticians in particular, were considered as at best of dubious orthodoxy. The effect of his writings on the- ology was to introduce a freer spirit, and to prepare the way for Wickliffe, -Huss, and the later reformers. He combated the one-sided supremacy of Aristotle, and even the authority of the fathers ; he pointed out errors in their writings, and appealed to the original BACON 612 BADEN sources of theological knowledge. He was distin- guished for his knowledge of languages, and made himself familiar with the original Scriptures. In a treatise on the advantages of grammar, he endeav- ored to prove the necessity of linguistic studies, in order better to understand the Bible, which, he said, every layman ought to study in the original. He dis- puted the authority of the Vulgate, in which he de- tected mi-takes. The Bible, according to his view, ought to he the supreme law. to which every depart- ment of life and knowledge, must be subjected. A reformatory germ lay in this exaltation of the Bible above the authority of the church and tradition. The- ology he placed at the head of all the sciences; reve- lation is the completion and perfecting of human rea- son ; in all knowledge, including philosophical and theological, harmony necessarily reigns. " Theology develops immediately the contents of Scripture; spec- ulation is the link between Scripture and natural reason. It receives what is true in earlier specula- tion, and connects with it those truths which reason might indeed know of itself, but which it would never have found without the impulse which revelation gives it. ( hristian philosophy can therefore be reconciled with faith, since it asserts rational truths which every wise man admits, although if left to himself he would not have known them. This corresponds not only to Christian philosophy, but also to the Christian con- sciousness, which must bring all truth to divine truth, to be subordinate to it and serve it. Propter conscien- tiani Chrisiianam, qiue valet omnem veritalem ducere ad dirinam, >it i i snhjiriatur et famuletur. Opus Ma-jus, p. 41." I Neander, History of Dogmas, ii, 554, 577.) See an essay by Saisset, in the Revue des Deux Mondes, also in Saisset's Precurseurs et disciples de Descartes (Paris, 1862 ; transl. by Howland, in American Presb. Review, Oct. 1863); and, besides the works cited in the course of this article, see Daunou and Leclerc, in Hist. Lift, de li France, xx, 230 ; Hoefer, Histoire de la Chimie, t. i . Iloefer, Novo. Bioy. Generate, iii, 91; Bitter, Oeschiehte d. Ckristlicken Philosopkie, iv, 17:! sq. : Gieseler, Chunk Hist. § 74 ; Neander, Church Hist, iv, 424 ; Btographia Britannica, iv, 01(5: Ingram, On the Opus Majus of Roger Bacon (Dublin, 1858. 8vo). Bacon, Thomas, one of the early Episcopal min- isters of America, was born in the Isle of Man about 1700, and was ordained deacon and priest 1744. He had previously been engaged in civil pursuits, and in 17:;7 published, by order of the chief commissioners and governors of the revenue of the kingdom, a vol- ume entitled a "Complete System of Revenue in Eng- ine!." fn 1715 he came to Maryland, and became pastor of the English church at Oxford, Talbot county. Here he labored faithfully both for whites and colored and published in 1750 Four Sermons on the Duties of Masters (London, 12m.,). They were republished in IBM by the Rev. Dr. Meade (late bishop of Virginia), who, however, left out the title-page, the very valua- ble preface, and some other portions, in one place to the amount of six pages, and this, too, without a hint of any such omissions. In 1758 be was transferred to A Saints , Frederick county, a parish worth about «°°°Per annum. I„ 1765 he published a Collection <;/ no /,,„■; oj Maryland 1 1000 pp. fob). He did May -.' ,68; fPrajruo,^nnafo, v, 120; Am. Quar. Church ', Oct. I860. Bacon, William, a Preshyterian (X. S.) minis- ,,,r; ,l""'",i" Cherry Valley, K.Y., August, 1789, S££**»5Jif Union College in 1815. lie studied ^e°i°eyjfDrs.Nott and Yates, and was ordained bj he Presbytery ol Buffalo in 1817. He served as pastoral Waterloo, Cayuga, Cortland, and Saral , Springs, and as missionary in Troy, N.T.,and Phila- ''•■'l'1"1- Pa., and New Orleans, La. m. Liter years were spentin retirement and affliction, but not in idle- ness; his time was taken up in writing for the press Besides numerous contributions to periodicals, he pub- lished Tracts on Episcopacy, Old and Xctc School Pres- byterianism, Salvation made Sure, Salvation in Earnest, etc. He died April 2, 1863.— Wilson, Presbyterian Hist. A Imanac, 1864, p. 283. Baconthorp. See Bacon, John. Bacularii, a sect of Anabaptists which sprung up in 1528, and was so called because its members be- lieved that it was a sin to carry any other arms than a stick (baculus): and that it was forbidden to Chris- tians to resist violence by violence, because our Lord orders him who is smitten on one cheek to offer the other ; they also held it to be contrary to the spirit of Christianity to bring any one to justice. They are also called Steblevians. — Landon, Eccl. Diet, i, 693. Bad. See Linen'. Badby, John, an English mechanic, horn in the 14th century, and who fell a martyr in the persecution against the Lollards, whose principles he had adopted. He replied to Arundel, the archbishop of Canterbury, who was disputing with him on transubstantiation, that, were the Host the body of God, there would be some 20,000 gods in England, while he believed but in one. He was burnt at Smithfield in 1409, and re- mained steadfast to the end. Badcock, Samuel, an English theologian, born at South Molton, Devonshire, in 1747, died at London in 1788. He was first a dissenting minister, but in 1787 took orders in the Church of England. He was a contributor to the London Review, Monthly Review, and several other periodicals. His review of Priest- ley's History of the Corruptions of Christianity (in Monthly Review, June and August, 1783) was general- ly regarded as the best refutation of Priestley's views. Priestley answered immediately (".4 Reply to the An- imadversions, etc, in the Monthly Review for June, I 1783,"), and Badcock again replied by another article ' in the Monthly Review (Sept. 1783)." He also pub- | lished in the Gentleman's Magazine, 1785, some me- ' moirs of the Wesleys, charging them with Jacobitism, which John Wesley refuted. — Allibone, Dictionary of Authors, i, 98 ; Jones, Christ. Biography, s. v. ; Weslej-, 1 1 'oris, N. Y. ed. vii. 256, 414. Baden, Grand-duchy of, one of the minor Ger- man states. See Germany. I. Church History. — We have no precise information as to the first introduction of Christianity into the country now forming the grand-duchy of Baden. The reports of the missionary labors of Fridolin (q. v.) in the 6th or 7th century, Trudprat in the Breisgau about 640, and Pirmins on the island of Reichenau, are large- ly mixed up with legends. Toward the beginning of the 8th century the majority of the population was (■(inverted, principally through the efforts of the bish- ops of Strasburg and Constance, which sees had been creeled in the 7th century. The University of Heidel- berg, in the Palatinate, was founded in 1386; that of Freiburg (then under Austrian rule) in 1456, both of which fostered a spirit of opposition to the corruptions in the Church. Under the influence of Tauler (q. v.) when preacher at Strasburg, and of the writings of Suso (q. v.), an association of pious mystics, the Friends of God (<). v.), labored zealously for evangelizing the low- er classes of the people. Among other illustrious men who prepared, in this region, the way for the Reforma- tion of the 10th century, we mention Jerome of Prague, John Wessel, Keuchlin, Agricola, and, later (1511), Wolfgang Capito. Of great influence was the visit of Luther and his disputation in April, 1518, and two years later be received assurances of the approbation of bis writings from John von Botzheim in Constance, and Caspar Hedio (Heyd). Among the pioneers of evangelical preaching were Urban Begins, John Eber- lin. Jacob Otter, Erhard Schnepf, etc.; among the first noblemen who embraced the doctrines of the Ref- BADEN 613 BADER ormation, the Count von Wertheim and Goetz von Berliehingen. The bishops of Mentz, Wurzburg, and Spires, however, opposed the Reformation, especially after the promulgation of the Edict of "Worms. In Freiburg some 2000 evangelical books were burnt in the presence of the minister, and many Protestants, both ministers and laymen, had to flee. In Constance, however, the citizens protected the works of Luther against the imperial edict, and John Wanner, a follow- er of Luther, became cathedral preacher. In the Aus- trian part of Baden, where Anabaptist and revolution- ary movements mixed themselves up with the progress of the, Reformation, the Austrian government succeed- ed in crushing out Protestantism altogether(Dec.l525). After the Diet of Spires (1521)) the Reformation made rapid progress in Wertheim, the Lowlands of Baden, Pforzheim, Durlach, and even in the Palatinate under the ministry of John Gailing. Yet the opposition con- tinued in the upper countries, and in Freiburg Peter Speyler, preacher at Schlatt, was drowned in the 111. In Constance, on the other hand, the Reformation was firmly established ; clerical celibacy was abolished in 1525, and the bishops and chapter were compelled to leave. In 1530 Constance adopted the Tetrapolitan Confession, and joined the Schmalcaldian confederacy. After Margrave Philip's death, 1535, the northern half became altogether Protestant, while the southern remained Romish. In August, 1548, Constance was put under the ban of the empire for not accepting the Interim (q. v.), and the Romish worship was re-estab- lished, and- persecutions commenced afresh, which did not end even at the peace of Augsburg (1555). Yet after that event, Margraves Charles II of Baden-Dur- lach, Philibert of Baden-Baden, and Duke Christopher of Wiirtemberg aided the progress of Protestantism. Under the Elector Frederick III Calvinism was more particularly favored. In 15(31 the elector introduced the Heidelberg Catechism, which he himself had com- posed with the aid of Olevianus and Ursinus, in the place of the catechisms of Luther and Brentz. In his possessions Calvinism was established, but in the other districts of Baden Lutheranism maintained the ascendency. The Romish worship was for a time re- established in Baden-Baden by Duke Albrecht of Ba- varia and Margrave Philip, successor of Philibert, who joined the Romish Church in his fifteenth year. The contest between the two evangelical confessions was renewed by the Formula Concordia; (q. v.), till a union was effected in 1821 at a synod of the clergy and laity of both the churches. Since 1834, when the General Synod met again for the first time, this union has been confirmed by the introduction of a new catechism, a new agenda (q. v.), and a new hymn-book. In 1843 a supreme ecclesiastical council was created for the ad- ministration of ecclesiastical affairs. The greater por- tion of the clergy and people were pleased with the union : only a small body of Lutherans -demanded the maintenance of the pure doctrines and practices of their church ; and when they saw that their wishes could not be gratified in the State Church, they se- ceded. Several years of persecution, however, passed before the}' succeeded in obtaining legal recognition as a Lutheran Church. Within the State Church, in which, at the conclusion of this union, Rationalism pre- vailed, and was taught by men like Paulus (q. v.), a hot contest arose between the Rationalistic and evan- gelical parties. The.' General Synod of 1857 resolved to introduce after 1859 a new agenda, in which the lit- urgical part of divine service is considerably enlarged and the forms of prayer greatly changed (see Bahr, Das Badische Kirchenbuch, Carlsruhe, 1859). About the beginning of the 19th century, the more cultivated of the Roman clergy of Baden, under the guidance of such men asWessenberg (q.v.), proposed many liberal reforms. Indeed a large portion of the priesthood de- manded the abolition of celibacy, the introduction of the German language at divine service, the convoca- tion of diocesan synods with lay delegations, and oth- er reforms. The government desired to make Wes- senberg the first archbishop of the newly-erected see of Freiburg, but could not obtain the papal confirma- tion. A reaction in favor of ultramontane views com- menced under the Archbishop Vicari (1844), and in 1853 a violent contest began between State and Church. The priests received one class of directions from the archbishop, and another from the supreme ecclesiastical council of the state. Some priests were arrested for siding with the archbishop, others were suspended ec- clesiastically for obeying the government. The arch- bishop excommunicated the members of the Catholic supreme ecclesiastical council, and was himself arrest- ed in 1854. The Legislature unwaveringly supported the government, which, however, showed itself anxious to conclude a compromise with the archbishop. Ne- gotiations with Rome concerning a convention (con- cordat) were eagerly pursued in 1855, but Avere not concluded before 1859. The convention with Rome created a great deal of dissatisfaction among the peo- ple ; the Chambers in 1860 decidedly refused to ratify it, and it was at length abandoned by the government also. . See Concordat. II. Ecclesiastical Statistics. — The number of Roman Catholics was, in 1864, 933,476; of members of the Evangelical Church, 472,258 ; of Mennonites and other dissidents, 2554 ; of Israelites, 25,263. The Evangeli- cal Church is divided into 28 dioceses (deaneries) and 330 parishes. All the pastors of a diocese, with half the number of lay deputies of the local church coun- cils, meet ever}- third year in a synod. In the year after the meeting of a synod, all the clergymen of a diocese meet under the presidency of the dean for the discussion of moral questions ; and in the third year a school convention is held in a similar manner for discussing the affairs of the primary schools, which in Baden, as in every German state, have a denomina- tional character, and are subject to the control of the clergy. The General Synod meets regularly every seventh year, but may at any time be convoked by order of the grand-duke. Every two dioceses elect a clerical delegate, and every four dioceses a lay dele- gate. The grand-duke adds to this number of dele- gates two clerical and two lay members of the supreme ecclesiastical council, one professor of the theological faculty of Heidelberg, and a commissary Avho pre- sides. A theological faculty is connected with the University of Heidelberg: it has counted among its members some of the most distinguished theologians of Germany, such as Rothe, Schenkel, Umbreit, and Ullmann. The two latter are known in the literary world as the founders of the best German theological quarterly, the Studien and Kritihen. Connected with the theological faculty is also an evangelical Preach- ers' Seminary, at which every native candidate for the ministry must spend one year. For the training of teachers there is a Protestant Normal School. The Roman Catholic Church, under the Archbishop of Frei- burg, has 35 deaneries, with 747 parishes, 2 normal schools, and a theological faculty connected with the University of Freiburg. The liberal school among the Roman clergy is dying out. A theological quarterly was for some years published by the theological fac- ulty of Freiburg, but is discontinued. The most cel- ebrated Roman theologians in the present century have been Hug and Hirscher; a Romanist wrriter of great influence among the people is Alban Stolz. Some convents of nuns have been established since 1848. The Lutheran seceders from the State Church (old Lutheran Church) had, in 1859, three parishes with about 900 members. The principal work on the his- tory of Protestantism in Baden is Vierordt, Geschichte der Evang< lischm Kirche in Baden. See also Wiggers, Kirchl. Statist!/.-, ii, 203, 207 ; Schem, Eccles. Year-book for 1859, p. 115 sq., and p. 203. Bader, Johannes, one of the German reformers BADGER 6 of the 10th century, was born about 1490. He was the tutor of Duke Ludwig II of Zweibrucken, and sub- sequently (after 1518) pastor of Landau, a town in the I', ivarian Palatinate. He adhered to the Reformation in 1521, and worked for its introduction into Landau with such zeal and success, that at the time of his death only a few canons and monks of the Augus- tine convent remained in connection with the Roman Catholic Church, Bader was one of the first reform- er- who published an outline of the doctrines held by the reformed churches (E'm Gesprach-Buchlein vom Anfange d,s christlichen Lebens, Strasburg, 1526) sev- eral years before the appearance of Luther's cate- chisms. In 1527 he wrote a pamphlet against the Anabaptists, and especially against the learned Denck. His views on the Lord's Supper were nearly the same as those of Zuinglius and Biicer, and a tabular sum- mary of them [S'liiiiiitiriiiii) und Rechenschaft vom Oil unseres //■mi J. <_'.') was printed in 1533 at Sflfasbnrg on one side of a folio sheet. He was, in general, like his friend Bucer, for a reconciliation of the reformatory parties. In later years Bader was on friendly terms with Schwenkfeld, who visited him at Landau, and most of his friends at Strasburg and Zweibrucken were on this account greatly displeased with him. Bader died in August, 1545. — Herzog, /: al-Encyklopadie, supplem. i, 1G0. Badger is the interpretation in the Auth. Vers, of t!i" word "l'~n, lack' ask (Ezek. xvi, 10; Sept. Cipria- ni vciKivQiva ; Aid. ed. iavdiva ; Compl. vc'ivBiva, al. imrvpiDixtva in Exod. xxv, 5 ; Alex, cipjiara ciyia in Exod. xxxv, 7; viikivOoc, Aq. and Sym. iavdiva in Ezek. xvi, 10; Vulg. pelles ianthinie, ianthinus) • but many doubt its correctness, since the badger is not found in Southern Asia, and has not as yet been no- ticed out of Europe. The word occurs in the plural firm in Exod. xxv, 5; xxvi, 14; xxxv, 7, 23; xxxvi, 19; xxxix, 34; Nam. iv, 6, 8, 10, 11, 12, 14, 25 ; and, in connection with tV\3, oroth', "skins," is used to d snote the covering of the Tabernacle, of the Ark of the ( lovenant, and of other sacred vessels. In Ezek. xvi, 10, it indicates the material of which the shoes of Women wen- made. Possibly the Latin taxus or taxo, th riginal of the Spanish taxon, Ital. tasso, Fr. tais- sm, Germ, docks, is the same word as taehash; and these designate the badger. This, however, appears to I"- the only support for the rendering "badger" (pieles taxus) besides that of the Chaldee paraphrast (NJISDD, "taxus, sic dictus quia gaudet et superbit in coloribus multis," Buxtorf, Lex. Rab. s. v.). See Zo- OLOGY. The ancienl interpreters understand by it a color Sept. vaKivSiva: so Aquila Bymmachns, and the Syriac, which are followed by Bocharl (Iheroz. ii, 387), I;.. enmuller (Schol ad V T Exod. xxk.-,; Ezek. xvi. 10), Bynaus , ,/. Cdcek Utbrwomm, hb. i, ch. :;;. Scheuchzer (I'hys. Sacr in 4 BADGER Exod. xxv, 5), and others. Parkhurst (Heb. Lex. s. v.), ohsarves that "an outermost covering for the tabernacle of azure or sky-blue was very proper to represent the sky or azure boundary of the system." But this is mere conjecture. The Talmudists say that it is an animal like a weasel. Others, as Gesner and Harenberg (in Mus;eo Brem. ii, 312), have thought that some kind of wolf, known by the Greek name &.jc, and the Arabic Shaghul is intended. Hasaeus (in Dissert. Philolog. Sylloge. diss, ix, § 17) and Bus- ching, in his preface to the Epitome of Scheuchzer's Physica Sacra, are of opinion that taehash denotes a cetacean animal, the Trickechus manatus of Linnoeus, which, however, is only found in America arid the West Indies. Others, with Sebald Rau {Comment, de iis quae, ex Arab, in usum Tabernac. fucrunt repetila, Traj; ad Rhen. 1753, ch. ii), are in favor of taehash rep- resenting some kind of seal (Phoca vitulina, Lin.). Dr. Geddes (Crit. Hem. Exod. xxv, 5) is of the same opin- ion. Gesenius understands (Heb. Lex. s. v.) some '• kind of seal or badger, or other similar (!) creature." Of modern writers Dr. Kitto (Pict. Bibl. on Exod. xxv, 5) thinks that taehash denotes some clean animal, as in all probability the skin of an unclean animal would not have been used for the sacred coverings. The corresponding Arabic word is not only a dolphin, but also a seal, and seals (?) were numerous on the shores of the peninsula of Sinai (Strab. xvi, 776). The ety- mology of the word in Heb. is favorable to this view, from the root Hun, chashah', to rest; and seals no less than badgers are somnolent animals. (See Simonis Exercitatio de CJnin, Hal. 1735.) Maurer, however (Comment, in Exod.), derives it from the root 'i'ljp, taehash', to penetrate, a notion which suits the burrow- ing of the badger as well as the plunging of the seal. Pliny (ii, 56) mentions the use of the skins of seals as a covering for tents, and as a protection from light- ning. (Comp. Pint. Symp. v, 9; Sueton. Oct.iv. 90; Faber, Archaol. Hebr. i, 115.) The taehash has also been identified with the Trickechus marlnus of Lin- na?us, and with the sea-cow called lamantin or dugnng. Others find it in an animal of the hyena kind, which is called by the Arabs tahesh (Botta's Voyage in Yemen, 1841). Robinson (Researches, i, 171) mentions sandals made of the thick skin of a fish which is caught in the Red Sea. It is a species of halicore, named by Ehren- berg (Symb. f:hys. ii) Halicora Ilempriehii. The skin is clumsy and coarse, and might answer very well for the external covering of the Tabernacle. According to Ehrenberg, the Arab's on the coast call this animal NaJsa and Lottnm. Arabian naturalists applied the term ensan alma, "man of the sea," to this creature. Thevenot speaks of a kind of sea-man, which is taken near the port of Tor. " It is a great strong fish, and hath two hands, which are like the hands of a man, saving that the fingers are joined together with a skin, like the foot of a goose ; but the skin of the fish is like the skin of a wild goat or chamois. "When they spy that fish, they strike him on the back with harping irons, as they do whales, and so kill him. They use the skin of it for making bucklers, which arc musket- proof." Niebuhr adds the information that "a mer- chant of Abushahr called dakash that fish which the captains of English ships call porpoise." The same traveler reports that he saw prodigious schools of these animals swimming. Professor Etippell (Mns. Send-. i. 113, t. 6), who saw the creature on the coral banks of the Abyssinian coast, ascertained by personal ex- amination that the creature in question was a sort of dugong, a genus of marine Pachydermata, to which he gave the name of Halicore tabemaculi, from a convic- tion that it was the taehash of Moses. It grows to eighteen feet in length. See WhAUB. " In the present state of zoological knowledge, how- ever, it is not necessary to refute the notions that taehash was the naino of a mermaid or homo-marinus, BADGEU 615 BAG Halicore Tabernaculi, with enlarged drawiug of the head. or of ths walrus, a Polar animal, or of the dugong or seal, for neither of these is known in the Indian, Red, or Persian Seas, and there is little probability that in remote ages they frequented the south-east extremity of the Mediterranean, where the current sweeps all things northward ; still less that they nestled in the lakes of the Delta, where crocodiles then abounded. But Niebuhr's hint respecting the name tackash, given, with some reference to colors, to a species of delphinus or porpoise, by the Arabs near Cape Mussendum, may deserve consideration, since the same people still make small rounded bucklers and soles of sandals of the koufs skin, which is a cetaceous animal, perhaps iden- tical with Niebuhr's. This material might have been obtained from the caravan-traders of Yemen, or from the Ismaelites of Edom, but does not appear to have been litted for other purposes than pack-saddles and sandal-soles. Considering tackash, therefore, not to in- dicate a color, but the skin of an animal, which may have derived its name from its color, probablj- deep gray, ash, or slaty (hysr/huis), we must look for the ob- ject in question to the zoology of the region around, or to places accessible by means of the traders and trib- ute importations of raw materials in Egypt, where we actually observe leopard or panther skins, and others of a smaller animal with a long fox-tail, represented in the triumphal procession ofThothmes III at Thebes (Wilkinson's A nc. Egyptians, i, pi. 4). These may have been of a canine genus, such as the agriodus, or mega- lotis Lalandii, which is actually iron-gray ; or of a viverrous species, of which there are many in Africa both gray and spotted. Still these are unclean ani- mals, and for this reason we turn to another view of the case, which may prove the most satisfactory that can now be obtained. Negroland and Central and The Taehaitze (.Antilope Darbata). Eastern Africa contain a number of ruminating ani- mals of the great antelope family ; they are known to the natives under various names, such as pacasse, empacasse, tkacasse, facasse, and tachaitze, all more or less varieties of the word tackash ; they are of consid- erable size, often of slaty and purple-gray colors, and might be termed stag-goats and ox-goats. Of these one or more occur in the hunting-scenes on Egyptian monuments, and therefore we may conclude that the skins were accessible in abundance, and may have been dressed with the hair on for coverings of bag- gage, and for boots, such as we see worn by the human figures in the same processions. Thus we have the greater number of the conditions of the question suf- ficiently realized to enable us to draw the inference that tackash refers to a ruminant of the Aigocerine or Damaline groups, most likely of an iron-gray or slaty- colored species" (Kitto, s. v.). See Antelope. Bag, a purse or pouch. The following words in the original are thus rendered in the English version of the Bible: 1. D^M, charit', a pocket (Sept. QvXa- koc, Vulg. saccus), the " bags" in which Naaman bound up the two talents of silver for Gehazi (2 Kings v, 23), probably so called, according to Gesenius, from their long, cone-like shape. The word only occurs be- sides in Isa. iii, 22 (A. V. " erisping-pins"), and there denotes the reticules carried by the Hebrew ladies. 2. Dn3, Ms (Sept. fu'lfxnTrTroc, pafjuinrioi', Vulg. saccuhts, saccellus), a bag for carrying weights (Deut. xxv, 13 ; Prov. xvi, 11 ; Mic, vi, 11) ; also used as a purse (Prov. i, 14 ; Isa. xlvi, 6) , hence a cup (Prov. xxiii, 31). 3. 1^3, Mi' (Sept. kuCwv, Vulg. pera), translated " bag'' in 1 Sam. xvii, 40, 49, is a word of most general mean- ing, and is generally rendered "vessel" or "instru- ment." In Gen. xlii, 25, it is the "sack" in which Jacob's sons carried the corn which they brought from Egypt, and in 1 Sam. ix. 7 ; xxi, 5, it denotes a bag or wallet for carrying iood (A. V. "vessel;" compare Judg. x, 5 ; xiii, 10, 15). The shepherd's " bag" which David had seems to have been worn by him as necessary to his calling, and was probably, from a comparison of Zech. xi, 15, 1G (where A. V. "instruments" is the same word), for the purpose of carrying the lambs which were unable to walk or were lost, and contained materials for healing such as were sick and binding up those that were broken (comp. Ezek. xxxiv, 4, 16). 4. 11*121, tseror' (Sept. h- tW/toc, Smt/.i<)£, Vulg. saccuhis), properly a "bundle" (Gen. xlii, 35 ; 1 Sam. xxv, 29), appears to have been used by travellers for carrying money during a long, journey (Prov. vii, 20; Hag. i, 6; compare Luke xii, 33 ; Tob. ix, 5). In such " bundles" the priests bound up the money which was contributed for the restora- tion of the Temple under Jehoiada (2 Kings xii, 10 ; A. V. "put up in bags"). 5. The "bag" (yXwffffOKO- fiof, Vulg. loculi) which Judas carried was probably a small box or chest (John xii, G ; xiii, 29). The Greek word is the same as that used in the Sept. for "chest" in 2 Chron. xxiv, 8, 10, 11, and originally sig- nified a box used by musicians for carrying the mouth- pieces of their instruments, 6. The (3a\avTtov, or wal- let (Luke x, 4 ; xii, 33 ; xxii, 35, 36). Of these terms it will only be necessary here to discuss one application, which they all sustain, i. e. as a receptacle for money. The money deposited in the treasuries of Eastern princes, or intended for large payments, or to lie sent to a government as taxes or tribute, is collected in long, narrow bags or purses, each containing a certain amount of money, and sealed with the official seal. As the money is counted for this purpose, and sealed with great care by officers properly appointed, the bag or purse passes current, as long as the seal remains unbroken, for the amount marked thereon. In the receipt and payment of large sums, this is a great and important convenience in countries where the manage- BAGGER 61G BAHURIM Ancient Egyptian Money-bags. ment of large transactions by paper is unknown, or where a currency is chiefly or wholly of silver; it Baves the great trouble of counting or weighing loose money. This usage is so well established that, at this daw in the Levant, "a purse" is the very name for a certain amount of money (now twenty -five dollars), and all large payments are stated in "purses." The antiquity of this cus- tom is attested by the monuments ofEgypt, in which the ambas- sadors of distant na- tions are represented as bringing their trib- utes in sealed bags of money to Thothmes III; and we see the same bags deposited intact in the royal treasury (Wil- kinson, i, 148, abridgm.). When coined money was not used, the seal must have been considered a vouch- er not only for the amount, but for the purity of the metal. The money collected in the Temple, in the time of Joash, seems to have been made up into bags of equal value after this fashion, which were probably delivered sealed to those who paid the workmen (2 Kings, xii, 10 ; comp. also 2 Kings v, 23 ; Tobit ix, 5 ; xi,lG).— Smith, Append. ; Kitto, s. v. See Money. Bagger, Hans Olesan, a Danish theologian, born at Lund in 1646, became bishop of Zealand in 1675, and died at Copenhagen in 1693. He is the author of the Danish Church-Ritual, which was introduced in 16^6, and of a revised altar-book, both of which are still in use in the Danish Church. Being consulted by tin- Danish government as to whether the interest of the Lutheran Church allowed the admission to Den- mark of the French Calvinists, who had been expelled by Louis XIV, he answered in the negative, because such an admission "would expose the souls of the Lu- therans to temptation and to the risk of everlasting d initiation." — Pierer, Universal-Lexikon, s. v. Ba'go (Bayw). the head of one of the Israelitish families ("sons"), to which is assigned the Uthi, son of Istalcuriorus, who returned from the captivity (1 Efldr. viii, 40); evidently the Bigvai (q. v.) of the true text ( Ezra viii, 14). Bago'as (Baywac), the eunuch (or chamberlain) who had charge of the tent of Ilolofernes, and intro- duced Judith (Jud. xii, 11, 13, 15; xiii, 1, 3; xiv, 14). The name is said (Pott, Etymol. Forsch. I, xxxvii) to be equivalent to eunuch in Persian (Plin. Hist. Nat. .xiii, 4, 9), and, as such, was probably a title of office rather than a personal appellation (see Quintil.v, 12; comp. Burmann ad Ovid. Am. ii, 2,1). Accordingly, we find the name often recurring in Eastern history (see Smith's Diet, of Class. Biog. s. v.) even so late as that of tin- chief eunuch of Herod's harem, who was put to death for intriguing with the Pharisees (Jose- phus, Ant, xvii, 2,4 ad I'm.). Bag'oi (Bayot), one of the Israelitish family beads, whose -son-" (to the number of 2066) returned from I l Esdr v. 1 1 ) ; evidently the Bigvai (q. v.) of the Heb. text (Ezra ii, 14). Bagoses (Bayuwjc), the general of Artaxerxcs (probably Mnemon; the text, as emended by Hudson, has roS aA " ' Ipr.) ; he ously entered the Temple at Jerusalem, and Imposed oppressive taxes upon the Jews (Josephus, Ant. xi.7, 1,. ' ' Bagot, Lewis, a bishop of the Church of England, was born in 1, 10. He was a gon ofLord Bagot. After studying at the University of Oxford, be became a canon, and late,-, successively bishop of Bristol, Nor- wich, and St. Asaph, lb- died in 1802. He is the ;ui. ♦hoi- of mi reus theological works, the mosl important of which ia Twelve Discovnei on tht Prophecies concern? i ing flic first Establishment and subsequent nistory of Christianity, preached at the Warburtonian Lecture, in Lincoln's Inn Chapel, 1780. — Allibone, Dictionary of Authors, i, 99; Hoefer, Biographie Ginirale, iv, 168. Bagsliaw, William, a Nonconformist minister, was born in 1628, and died in 1702. His zeal in the northern parts of Derbyshire acquired for him the title of "the Apostle of the Peak." He published Water for a Thirsty Soul, in several sermons on Rev. xxi, 6 (1653), and a number of other works. Some 50 of his works, upon various subjects, have never been printed. — Allibone, Die ionary of Authors, i, 99. Baha'rumite (Heb. with the art. hab-Bacharuml' , "^"iPtan ; Sept. 6 Bapo-api v. r. Bapw///), an epithet of Azmaveth, one of David's warriors (1 Chron. xi, 33) ; doubtless as being a native of Bahurim (q. v.). Bahat. See Marble. Bahr, Joseph Friedrich, a German theologian, was born in 1713, and died in 1775. He became, in 1739, deacon at Bischofswerda ; in 1741, pastor at Schbnfeld ; and, after filling several' other church po- sitions, finally became superintendent. He wrote, among other works against the Socinians, Abhandlung cler reinen Lehre unserer ecangelischen Kirehe von der Sterblichheil und dem leiblichen Tode des menschlichen Geschlechtes : a life of Christ (Lebensgeschichte Jesu Christi), 1772. — Hoefer, Biog. Generate, iv, 172. Bahrdt, Charles Frederick, a German Ration, alist, notorious alike for his bold infidelity and for his evil life, was born in 1741 at Bischofswerda. He stud- ied at Pforta and at Leipzig, where his father .was pro- fessor of theology. The old Lutheran faith was still taught there ; but Ernesti was one of the professors, and a new era was dawning. Bahrdt first imbibed Crusius's (q. v.) philosophical orthodoxy. In 1701 he became master, and began to lecture, and did it flu- ently and with applause, on dogmatic theology. He soon became very popular, also, from his eloquence in the pulpit. In 1708 he was compelled to resign as professor ext. of theology on account of a charge of adulter}', and it is clear that even thus early he was leading a very immoral life. Through the influence of Klotz, a man of kindred spirit, he was made pro- fessor of Biblical archaeology at Erfurt; but he soon fell into ill repute there, and next obtained a chair at Giessen. Here he abandoned the doctrines of the Trinity and the Atonement, and published several books which brought down the wrath even of Semler (q. v.). After many wanderings to and fro in search of fame and wealth, of which he was always greedy, yet always poor, he returned to Halle in 1779. His career here for ten years was erratic and disgraceful ; he wrote books, lectured when he could get hearers, and opened a tavern in a vineyard, with the assistance of his maid, who lived with him as his wife, though his own good wife was yet alive. In 1787 he was im- prisoned for one year in a fortress. In 1792 he died. He was the living type and illustration of the vulgar rationalism of his age. His writings were -ery nu- merous (nearly 150 in number), but are of no critical or theological value, and therefore need not be enu- merated.— Kahnis, German Protestantism, ch. ii, p. 130; Hurst, History of Rationalism, p. 139-142. Bahu'rim (Heb. Bachurirn, O^Fia, or [in 2 Sam. iii, 1G ; xix, 17] fi'H^na, low grounds, otherwise young mi u's village ; Sept. B«o»'pi//,but Ba\ovpifi [v. r. Bapaicifi] in 2 Sam. iii, 16; Josephus Baxovprje, Ant, vii, 9,7, ed. Havercamp ; for other var. readings, see Reland, Potest, p. 611), a place not far from Jerusa- lem, of which the slight notices remaining connect it almost exclusively with the flight, of David (q. v.)from his son Absalom (q. v.). It was apparently on or close to the road leading up from the Jordan valley to Jeru- salem. Shimei, the son of Gera, resided here (2 Sam. I xvii, 18; 1 Kings ii, 8), and from the village, when BAIER 617 BAILLIE David, having left the " top of the mount" behind him, •was making his way down the eastern slopes of Olivet into the Jordan valley below, Shimei issued forth, and running along (Josephus StaTpkxwv) on the side or "rib" of the hill over against the king's party, flung his stones and dust, and foul abuse (xvi, 5), with a virulence which is to this day exhibited in the East toward fallen greatness, however eminent it may pre- viously have been. Here in the court of a house was the well in which Jonathan and Ahimaaz eluded their pursuers (xvii, 18). In his account of the occurrence, Josephus (Ant. vii, 9, 7) distinctly states that Bahurim lay oft' the main road (7r«iffc ticrpairevrtg rijc u/JoiJ), which agrees well with the account of Shimei's be- havior. Here Phaltiel, the husband of Miehal, bade farewell to his wife on her return to king David at Hebron (2 Sam. iii, 16). Bahurim must have been near the southern boundary of Benjamin ; but it is not mentioned in the lists in Joshua, nor is any expla- nation given of its being Benjamite, as, from Shimei's residing there, we may conclude it was. In the Tar- gum Jonathan on 2 Sam. xvi, 5, we find it given as Almon (""2?") ; but the situation of Almon (see Josh. xxi, 18) will not at all suit the requirements of Bahu- rim. Dr. Barclay conjectures that the place lay where some ruins (apparently those called Kubbeh on Van de Velde's Map, near the remains of Deir es-Sid, as in Robinson's Researches, ii, 109) still exist close to a Wa- dy Ruwaby, which runs in a straight course for three miles from Olivet toward Jordan, offering the near- est, though not the best route (City of the Great King, p. 563). Azmaveth "the Barhumite" (2 Sam. xxiii, 31), or "the Baharumite" (1 Chron. xi, 33), one of the heroes of David's guard, is the only native of Bahurim that we hear of except Shimei. — Smith, s. v. Baier, John William, a Lutheran divine, born at Nuremberg in 16-17. He was a member of several German universities, and rector and theological pro- fessor of the University of Halle, where he died in 1694. He wrote, Compendium Tkeologice Positives (Jena, 1686, 8vo, often reprinted) : — De Purgatorio (Jena, 1677, 4to) : — De A qua lustrali Pontificiorum (Jena, 1692, 4to) : — Collatio doctrinal Quackerurum et Protestantium (Jena, 1694, 4to).—Biog. Univ. iii, 223 ; Winer, Thtol. Litera- tur. — Landon, Eccles. Dictionary, s. v. Bail (Heb. S'lS, urab' , to become surety; Gr. ey- yvaaSrai), as a legal regulation, does not occur in the Mosaic civil polity, nor is the word found in the Auth. Vers, of the Scriptures ; but the custom nevertheless prevailed among the (later) Hebrews, as is evident from the many allusions to it in the Book of Proverbs. Indeed, these maxims are evidence of great rigor in the enforcement of such obligations (Prov. xi, 15 ; xvii, 18; xxii, 26), and recommend great caution (vi sq.) in view of the fact that the security was treated quite as severely as the debtor (comp. the Mishna, Baba Bathra, x, 7) in whose stead he was held (Prov. xx, 16 ; xxii, 27). A somewhat milder sentiment is ex- pressed in the Apocrypha (Sir. xxix, 17), yet not with- out a warning to prudence (viii, 16; xxix, 21 [24]). — Winer, i, 200. See Surety. Bailey, Jacob, a "frontier missionary" of the Protestant Episcopal Church, was born in Rowley, Mass., 1731. He graduated at Harvard in 1755, and in 1758 was licensed to preach hy the Congregational Association at Exeter, N. H. In 1759 he left the Con- gregational Church, and embarked for England, to be ordained for the ministry in the Church of England. In March of the following year he was ordained, and appointed a missionary of the " Society for Propagat- ing the Gospel in Foreign Parts" to Pownalboro', Me. He immediately returned and entered on his duties. Taking the side of England in the Revolution, he es- caped to Halifax, N. S., in 1779. and labored as a mis- sionary there and at Cornwallis until his death, July 26, 1808. See Bartlct, Life of Rev. Jacob Bailey (N. Y. 8vo). — Sprague, Annals, v, 204. Bailey, John, Congregational minister, was born in Lancashire, England, Feb. 24, 1044, studied under Dr. J. Harrison, and entered the ministry at Chester, 1666. As a Nonconformist, he was imprisoned in Lan- cashire jail for some time, and after his release he went to Limerick, Ireland, where he labored faithfully as pastor for 14 years. The office of chaplain to the Duke of Ormond, with the promise of a deanery and bishopric, was tendered to him on condition of con- forming to the Established Church, but he refused. He was finally imprisoned, and only released on a promise to leave the country. About 1684 he came to New England, and was ordained minister of the Con- gregational Society at Watertown, October 6, 1686, with his brother, Thomas Bailey, as his assistant. He removed to Boston in 1692, and became assistant to Mr. Allen, of the First Church, in 1693. Here he la- bored, as his failing health would allow, till his death, December 12, 1697. He was a man of eminent piety and exemplary life. A volume of his discourses was published in 1689. — Sprague, Annals, i, 201. Baillet, Adrian, a Bomanist writer of repute, was born at Neuville, near Beauvais, June 13th, 1649, and was educated at a Franciscan convent. He afterward \ studied at Beauvais, and in 1676 was admitted to holy I orders. For a time he served a cure ; but, feeling himself to be unsuited for this kind of life, he left it, and took the charge of the library of M. de Lamoig- non, the advocate general, with whom he passed the [ remainder of his days, and died January 21st, 1706. His works are: Jvgtment des Suvans (4 vols.). The j work was to have consisted of seven parts ; the first is , a kind of preface to the other, and gives general rules for forming a sound judgment of a work ; the other six parts were to have contained his own opinions and the judgments of others concerning works of every kind; but he only finished a small part of his design. This work was reprinted, revised, at Paris (7 vols. 4to, 1722) ; and Amsterdam (1725, 17 vols. 12mo) : — Life of Descartes (1692) : — Treatise, on Devotion to the Bless- ed Virgin Mary (1693). This work was condemned at I Rome in 1695, and denounced to the Sorbonne as soon as it appeared as derogating from the worship due to the Virgin: — Les Vies des Saints, his most celebrated work, printed in 1701, in 3 vols. fol. and in 12 vols. 8vo; and reprinted in 1704 and 1708 with the addition of the Histoire des Fetes Mobiles and Les Vies des Saints de PAncien Testament, in 4 vols. fol. and 17 vols. 8vo. These last editions are the most highty esteemed. Baillet also published several less important works, and left thirty-five folio volumes in MS., containing the catalogue of the library of Lamoignon. During the twenty-six years that he was librarian to that gentleman, he only went out once a week ; all the rest of his time he spent in reading or conversing with the savans. He slept only five hours, and most frequent- ly in his clothes. — Bug. Univ. iii, 226 ; Landon, Eccles. Diet. s. v. Baillie (or Bailey), Robert, principal of the University of Glasgow, was born at Glasgow in 1599, and educated at the university of that town. During the rebellion he was an active opponent of Episcopacy, and he obtained much credit for his refusal in 1Q37 to preach before the General Assembly in favor of the lit- urgy and canons, which the. king was desirous to intro- duce into Scotland. In 1638 he was appointed a mem- ber of the assembly held at Glasgow, where the Cov- enant was agreed upon, and in 1640 he was deputed to London to carry the accusations of the lords of the cov- enant against Laud. In 3642 he was appointed pro- fessor of divinity in the University of Glasgow. In 1643 he was sent as one of the commissaries of the Scotch Presbyterians to the assembly at Westminster: He execrated the murder of the king, and denounced BAIN BRIDGE CIS BAIUS it as a horrible parricide, and was always faithful to the house of Stuart. Charles II would have made him bishop, but, true t i his principles, Baillie refused this. He was said to know twelve or thirteen languages, and wrote very pure Latin. In 1661 he was appoint- ed principal of the university. In 1GG2 he died. Of Baillie's works, the most important are, Dissuasivefrom i ofth Time (4to, Lond. 1645) : — Anabaptism, /mn, fain of Independency, Brotcn:sm, Antino- my. Familism, etc. (a second part of the Dissuasive, Ho, Lond. 1647): — App ndix Practica ad Joannis Buxtorfii Grammatical Behram (8vo, Edinh. 1653): — Op ris Historic* et Ckronoloffici Libri Duo (fol. Amst. 1663, and Basil, 1669). He also published several ser- ninn^ and other short tracts. But of all the produce of his pen. by far the most interesting part consists of his Letters, written to various friends, which throw much light on the history of the times. A complete edition was produced under the care of David Laing, Esq. ( in 3 vols, crown 8vo, Edinh. 1841-4-2), with anno- tations and a life of Baillie. See Hetherington, Church of Scotland, ii, 135. Bambridge or Bambridge, Christopher, archbishop of York, and cardinal-priest of the Roman Church, was born at Hilton, in Westmoreland, and edu- cated at Queen's College, Oxford, of which he became provost in 1495. lie was afterward a liberal benefactor to his college. In 1503 he became dean of York ; in 15 »5 dean of Windsor. In 1507 he was advanced to th ■ Bee of Durham, and was translated the next year to the archbishopric of York. Bainbridge distinguished himself chiefly by his embassy from King Henry VIII to Pope Julius II, who created him cardinal of St. Praxede in March, 1511. His letter to King Henry VIII concerning the pope's hull, giving him the title of Most Christian Kin.:, is extant in Rymer's Fcedsra (edit. 1704-1735, xiii, 376). Cardinal Bainbridge died at Rome, July 14, 1514. His death was caused by poison administer d by Rinaldo de Modena, a priest whom he had employed in menial offices, and who, af- ter confessing that he was suborned to this act by Syl- vester de Giglis, bishop of Worcester, who was at that time envoy from Kin- Henry VIII to Rome, commit- ted suicide. Sit Engl. Cyclop, s. v. ; Biog.Britan. ed. 177*. i, 515 : Wood, Mli> nee Oxon. ed. Bliss, ii, 702. Baines, Ralph, was born in Yorkshire, and edu- cated at St. John's College, Cambridge: he was emi- n nt as a Hebraist, and was made regius professor of Hebrew at Paris. In 1554 he was made bishop of Lich- field and Coventry; in 1559 he was ejected by Quesn Elizabeth, and very shortly after died at Islington, llr wrote a Commentary mi the Proverbs, 1555, and a f.u Hebrew works. — Godwin ,DePrass. Ang!ia;,p. 324. Baird, Robert, D.D., an eminent Presbyterian minister and philanthropist, was born in Fayette Co., Penn.,Ocl sr6, 17ns. After academical training at Dniohtown, he entered Washington College, and pass- ed tie ne.' to Jefferson College, where he graduated in Lfter spending a year as a teacher in Belle- fonte, where heVas a frequent newspaper contributor, he entered the theological seminary at Princeton, where lie rtudied for three years, officiating one year as tutor '" toe college. In 1822 he was licensed to preach by th- Presbytery of New Brunswick, and in the same year took charge of an academy in Princeton, which position he held for live years. In 1828 he was or- dain, -d to the work of the Gospel ministry. In 1827 1 i the great field of all Ids' subsequent n of Protestantism and the evan- gelization oftl "I connection with the great re- ligious and benevolent societies." He took a leading pari in the movement m ide by the New Jersey Bible Society to supply every destitute family in New Jersey with the Script,,,-,.. This plan was carried into exe- cution -i„ Hilly. Next, a- agent of the New Jer- krnary Society, Dr. Baird did much to lay the foundation of public education in that state, and orig- inated the first system of common schools established in the state, which, with few modifications, still remains in force. In 1829 he became agent of the American Sunday-school Union, and for live years he held meet- ings all over the country, doing much to advance the influence of the society, and adding largely to its funds. In 1835 Dr. Baird went to Europe, and resided in Paris and Geneva, with the exception of a few months, for the next eight years. His primary object was to as- certain what the American churches could do to re- 1 vive the Protestant faith where it had lost its vitality, and to convert the Roman Catholics. Among the re- sults of his labors was the formation of the Foreign Evangelical Society, since merged into the American and Foreign Christian Union, of which he was one of the founders. In the Scandinavian countries, in Rus- ' sia and in Germany, he met with extraordinary suc- cess in giving an impulse to the temperance reform. His exertions in behalf of the Bible and Tract Socic- | ties were confined to no single country of Europe, j while his intercessions for the persecuted were put forth alike in Protestant Sweden and in Roman Cath- olic France. The recent translation ami pul lication of the Sacred Scriptures in the modern Russ, under the auspices of the imperial government, are believed to have been greatly attributable to Dr. Baird's stren- uous personal efforts. To the cause of Protestantism, of temperance, and of education, Dr. Baird was en- thusiastically devoted. Possessed of a fine personal appearance, an amiable disposition, and rare affability of manner, an accomplished linguist, and a man of broad information, Dr. Baird had a large personal ac- quaintance among the great and good men of America and Europe. He was admitted to interviews and dis- cussions with all the monarchs that rule the destinies of the Old World. His thorough honesty and sincer- ity, his pure religious character, and his unbounded charity, stamped him as a man who could give counsel to kings, and who had access by right to every source of influence and power. In 1843 he returned to Amcr- I ica, continuing to be corresponding secretary of the Foreign Evangelical Society and of the American and Foreign Christian Union (with slight interruption, and making several visits to Europe) to the time of his death, March 15, 1863. This brief sketch suffices to show Dr. Baird as an indefatigable laborer. His sympathies were eminently catholic, and his activities were cosmopolitan. His name, and even his person, were known to all Protes- tant branches of the church throughout the United States and Europe. Amid his incessant missionary labors and travels he found time also for a large lit- erary activity. Besides numerous reports for the be- nevolent societies with which he was connected, and many contributions to newspapers, magazines, and re- views, he wrote A View of the Valley of the Mississippi (Phila. 1832, 12mo); Memoir of Anna Jane Linnard (Phila. 1835, 18mo); Memoir of the Rev. Joseph San- ford (Phila. 1836, 121110s); Histoiredes Societesd Tem- perance ,-. Baird (Albany, 1863). Baius, or De Bay, Michael, a Romanist writei BAIUS 619 BAKE of eminence, was born at Melun in 1513, and studied at Louvain. In 1551 lie was appointed professor of theology at Louvain, as substitute for Professor Tap- per, a delegate to the Council of Trent. The lectures which he delivered in this capacity gave great offence, and when Tapper and Ravenstein returned, they de- nounced eighteen propositions taken from his lectures and writings to the faculty of theology at Paris as he- retical. In 1560 a censure was issued by that body, whereby three of these dogmas were declared to be erroneous, and fifteen either wholly or partly heretical. The following propositions and the corresponding cen- sures may be cited : " Proposition 4. Free-will is in itself sinful; and every act of the free-will, left to itself, is either mortal or venial sin.- — Censure. This proposition is heretical in both its parts. Proposition 5. Man sins in every thing that depends on himself, and cannot avoid sinning.— Censure. This proposition is heretical. Proposition 7. Man's free-will cannot avoid sin without God's special grace ; whence it follows that all the actions of unbe- lievers are sinful. — Censure. That the second part of this proposition is not properly deduced from the first, and is false. Proposition 9. A schismatic or a heretic, or a man who is not purely an infidel, may sometimes merit eternal life by merit of condignity. — Censure. This proposition is heretical. Proposition 11. Contri- tion does not remit sin without the sacrament of bap- tism or that of penance, except in cases of martyrdom or necessity. —Censure. This proposition is heretical. Proposition 12. If a sinner does all that is ordered him, neither his contrition nor his confession avail to the remission of his sin, unless the priest gives him abso- lution, even though the priest refuse absolution out of malice, or unreasonably. — Censure. This proposition is heretical. Proposition 14. Grace is never given to those who oppose it, and the same holds of the first justification ; for justification is faith itself, and it is through faith that the sinner is made righteous. — Cen- sure. The first two parts are heretical, and the last false. Proposition 16. No one is w ilhout original sin, save Jesus Christ only ; and, accordingly, the Blessed Virgin died owing to the sin which she had contracted in Adam ; and all her sufferings in this life were, like those of all the other righteous, the penalty of actual or original sin. — Censure. This proposition is heretical in all its parts, and injurious to the Blessed Virgin and all the saints." The Franciscans appealed against the doctrines of Baius to the Cardinal Granvella, governor of the Low Countries, but he refused to receive the appeal, and enjoined silence on all parties. Baius and John Hes- sels were sent, in 1563, to the Council of Trent by Granvella as deputies of the University of Louvain. At the council the learning and talent of Baius gained him general admiration. On his return he published several works on the controverted points, viz. De Mentis Operum (1561) : — De Prima Hominis Justitia et I "trtatihiis Impiorvm (1565) :—De Saeramt litis in C< in re contra Calvinum (1565): — De Libera Hominis Arbitrio, de Charitatc et Justijkatione (1566). The controversy was bitterly renewed, and on the 1st of October, 1567, Pius V issued a bull condemning seventy-six dogmas, but without naming Baius, for whom he had great re- gard ; and to this Baius, after having written to the pope, was compelled to yield, which he did before Mo- rillon, the grand vicar of the Cardinal Granvella, and afterward before Cardinal Tolet. In 1577 he was made inquisitor general of Holland. lie died December 16th, 15S9. His doctrine (called Baianisni) was after- ward taken up by the Jansenists. His works were edited 1)}' Quesnel and Gerberon (Colon. 16f!6, 2 vols. 4to) : the edition was condemned at Borne, 1697. — Biog. Univ. iii, 215 ; Duchesne, Jlistoire du Biijnnismi (Douay, 1731); Bayle, Dictionary, s. v.; Kulin (R. C), Dqg- matik; p. 180 sq. ; answered by Schazler (II. C), Dogma v. der Gnade (Mainz, 1865, 8vo) ; Wetzer u. Welte, Kirchen-Lerikon, s. v. The bull of Pius V is given in Dens, Theoloijia, viii, 139. Ba'jitll (Ileb. with the art. hab-ba yith, r^3n, the house), taken by some to be the name of a city in Moab, where there may have been a celebrated idol temple. It occurs in the prophecy against Moab (Isa. xv, 2): "He is gone up to Bajith and to Dibon, the high places, to weep," which passage is thus interpreted by Bishop Lowth : "He is used for the people of Moab. Bajith and Dibon are in the Chaldee and Syriac versions made into the name of one place, Beth-Dibon. Beth [ i. e. BajHft] may signify the house or temple of an idol." The Sept. has AvTrtlaSe i' iavrovc, Vulg. Ascendit domus. Gesenius (Comment, zu Jesa. in loc.) under- stands it as referring, not to a place of this name, but to the "temple" of the false gods of Moab, as opposed to the " high places" in the same sentence (comp. xvi,12). The allusion has been supposed to be to Beth-Baal- meon, or Beth-diblathaim, which are named in Jer. xlviii, 22, as here, with Dibon and Nebo. In this view Henderson (Comment, in loc.) coincides. See Bamoth. Baka. See Mulberry. Bakar. See Ox. Bakbak'kar (Heb. Bakbakkar', "ip3p3, prob. from "Ip3 reduplicated, admirable or searcher, perhaps i. q. ^i?~p3p3, wasting of 'the mount; Sept. BaKfictKap), one of the Levites inhabiting the villages of the Ne- tophathites, who were carried captive to Babvlon (1 Chron. ix, 15). B.C. 588. Bak'buk (Heb. Bakbuk' ', p^pS, a bottle; Sept. BaKfiovic), the head of one of the families of the Nethi- nim that returned from Babylon (Ezra ii, 51 ; Neb. vii, 53). B.C. ante 536. Bakbuki'ah (Heb. Bakbukyah' , |-Pp3p3, prob. u-asting of Jehovah ; Sept. Bak-/3ai.-i'ac, BoKyn'ac, but other copies omit), a Levite. " second among his breth- ren," who dwelt at Jerusalem: on the return from Baby- lon (Neh. xi, 17 ; xii, 9, 25, where the identity- is proved by the associated names). B.C. post 536. Bake 0"!EX, aphah"). This domestic operation was usually, among the ancient Israelites, committed to the females or slaves of the family (Gen. xviii, 6 ; Lev. xxvi, 26; 1 Sam. viii, 13; xxviii, 24; 2 Sam. xiii, 8 ; Matt, xiii, 33 ; comp. Jer. vii, 18 ; xliv, 19 ; see the Mishna, Challah, ii, 7; Thilo, Cod. apocryph. i, 96; Pliny, xviii, 28; Arvieux, Yeyages, iii, 226; v, 418; Burckhardt, ii, 1003; Russell, Aleppo, i, 146; Robinson, ii, 180), but later they had regular bakers (CSN, opium' ', Hos. vii, 4, 6; comp. Joseph. Ant. xv, 9, 2), and in Jerusalem (Jer. xxxvii, 21) there was a special " Bakers' Street" (bazaar, forum pistorium). See Mechanic. The dough (p^3, batsek', Sept. aralc) was made of wheat, barley, or spelt flour (Mish- na, Shebuoth, iii, 2), and every family took care to bake their own supply in small quantities fresh daily (comp. Arvieux, i, 69; iii, 227; Tavernier, ii, 280; Harmer, iii, 474), prepared in a wooden bowl or trough (r"iX'd"0, mishe'reth, Exod. xii, 28 ; comp. Shaw, Trav. p. 231 ; Rosenmullcr, Morge.nl. i, 303 sq.), leaven- ed (an act denoted by the verb VEfi, chamets") proper- ly (Plin. xviii, 26), and kneaded (an operation desig- nated by ttJlb, lush). The ferment was omitted when- ever it was necessary to bake in haste (Gen. xix, 3 ; Exod. xii, 34 sq., 39; Judg. vi, 19; 1 Sam. xxviii, 24 ; comp. Plin. xviii. 27), and the modern Bedouins scarce- ly use leaven at all (Arvieux, iii, 227; Robinson, iii, 76); and even in cities, for the most part, bread is baked unfermented in the East (Ruppell, Abyss, i, 199). See Passover ; Leaven. The bread is made in the form of long or round cakes (2~3 n'~22, kikkeroth' le'chem, Exod. xxix, 23; 1 Sam. ii, 36; Judg. viii, 5; Sept. KoXkvpic, apTOv), of the size of a plate and the BAKE 620 (jbicknesa of the thumb (Korte, Rets. p. 436; Russell, Aleppo, i, 1 1<> : Banner, Obs. iii, 60 sq. ; Robinson, ii. 4%); hence in eating they were not cut, but broken (Isa. lvii, 7; Matt, xiv, 1!); xxvi, 26; Acts xx, 11; comp. Xenoph. An to. vii, 3, 22 ; Phut. Pan. iii, 5, 19 ; Curt, iv, 2, 1 ! ; Robinson, ii, 497). See Meal. The proper oven C"1"", tannur', comp. Hos. vii, 4, 6), which in Oriental cities is sometimes public (Shaw, Trav. p. 202; Manner, i, 246), diners little from ours (Arvieux, iii, 229). But, besides these, use was prin- cipally made of large stone jars, open at the mouth, about three feet high, with a fire made inside (regular- ly with wood, comp. Isa. xliv, 15, but on occasion also of dry dung, Ezek. iv, 12 ; comp. Arvieux, iii, 228 sq. ; Korte, p. 438 ; see Fuel), for baking bread and cakes, as suon as the sides were sufficiently heated, by apply- BAKE ing the thin dough to the exterior (according to oth- ers, to the interior surface likewise), the opening at the top being closed (comp. Arvieux, iii, 227; Niebuhr, Beschr. p. 57 ; Tavernier, i, 280 ; Riippell, ut sup.). Such a pot is still called tanur by the Arabs (Michaelis, Orient. Bib!, vii, 176). Another mode of baking, which is still very common in the East, consists either in fill- ing a shallow pit with red-hot gravel-stones, which, as soon as they have imparted their heat to the hole, are taken out and the cakes of dough laid in their place (Tavernier, i, 64) ; or a jar is half filled with hot peb- bles and the dough spread on the surface of these (Ar- vieux, iii, 229). This preparation of bread is prob- ably denoted by the C^S^l T^yj, tiggoth' retsaphimf (" cakes baken on the coals"), of 1 Kings xix, 6. That baked regularly in the oven, ou the other hand, is call- BAKE-MEATS 621 BALAAM ed ""IISPl SlSX'S, maapheh' tannur' ("baken in the oven," Lev. ii, 4). Still another kind was baked in the ashes (comp. Robinson, ii, 49G). See Ash-cake. The Israelites doubtless became early acquainted with the liner method of preparing bread practised among the Egyptians (comp. Kossellini, II, ii, 464). See Cook. The operations are delineated on the annexed cut, taken from the representations on the tombs of Kameses III at Thebes (Wilkinson's Anc. Egyptians, abrklgm. i, 174 sq.). — Winer, i, 129. See Bread. Bake-meats (IlSX i"lil)55a 33 XT3, maakal' maii- seh' opheh' , food the work of the bake?-), baked provi- sions (Gen. xl, 17). See Bake. Baker. See Bake. Baker, Charles, a minister of the Methodist Epis- copal Church, was born in Scituate, R. I., April 7, 1798. In 1821 he was received into the New England Conference on probation, and subsequently labored for thirty-six consecutive years chiefly in Maine and Massachusetts. After eight years of superannuation, he died, in triumph, at Somerville, Mass., August 16, 1864.— Minutes of Conferences, 1865, p. 61. Baker, Daniel, D.D., a Presbyterian minister, was born in Midway, Ga., Aug. 17, 1791, and studied at Hampden Sidney College, and at Princeton, where he graduated A.B. in 1815. He studied theology with Mr. Hill, pastor of the Presbyterian church in Win- chester, Va., and was ordained pastor of the church in Harrisburg, Va., March 5, 1818. Finding himself called to a missionary career, he resigned his charge in 1821 ; and from 1822 to 1828 was pastor in Wash- ington, D. C. Here John Quincy Adams was one of his hearers, and several acts of great kindness on the part of that eminent man are recorded in his life. Here he wrote A Scriptural View of Baptism, afterward expanded into a work with the quaint, title, Bap/ism in a Nutshell. In 1830, his great success as a revivalist having been noised abroad, he began to travel among the churches, and the remainder of his life was chiefly spent in this way. His travels extended through- out the Southern States, and even to Texas, -where he finally settled. Here, among other labors, he founded Austin College, of which he was the first president. He died at Austin, Dec. 10, 1857. — ^[emoirs of Daniel Baker, by his Son (Philadelphia, 1859, 12mo). Bakers, one of the scurrilous names given by the heathen to the early Christians. In Minucius Felix (Octavius, c. 14), the heathen interlocutor calls the Christians Planting prosapim homines et pistores, "men of the race of Plautus, bakers." Jerome says that Plau- tus was so poor that, in a time of famine, he was com- pelled to hire himself out to a baker to grind in his mill (Chron. an. 1. Olymp. 145). Such sort of men Csecilius says the Christians were in the dialogue above cited from Minucius. — Bingham, Orig. Eccles. bk. i, ch. ii, § 12. Baking. See Bake. Ba'laam (Heb. Bilam' ', 35^3; Sept. and N. T. and Philo, Ba\aa/.i, Josephus, Bd\a/.ioc). The name is derived by Vitringa from 3^3 and D3>, q. d. lord of the people ; but by Simonis from "bs and 3", de- struction of the people — an allusion to his supposed su- pernatural powers; Gesenius derives it from 33, not, and C", in the sense of foreigner ; Fiirst does not de- cide which etymology to prefer. His father's name, Beor, comes likewise from a root which means to con- sume or devour. It is deserving of notice that Pela (q. v.), the first king of the Edomites, was also the son of a Beor (Gen. xxxvi, 32). In 2 Peter ii, 15, Balaam is called the son of Bosor, which Gesenius attributes to an early corruption of the text; but Lightfoot con- siders it to be a Chaldaism, and infers from the apos- tle's use of it that he was then resident at Babylon {Works, vii, 80 ; Sermon on the way of Balaam). See Bileam. In the other passage of the New Testa- ment (Rev. ii, 14, 15), the sect of the Nicolaitans is described as following the doctrine or teaching of Balaam ; and it appears not improbable that this name is employed symbolically, as Nicolaus (NucoXaof, peo- ple-conquering) is equivalent in meaning to Balaam. The first mention of this remarkable person is in Numbers xxii, 5, where we are informed that Balak " sent messengers unto Balaam, the son of Beor, to Pethor, which is by the river of the land of the chil- dren of his people." B.C. 1619. He belonged to the Midianites, and perhaps, as the prophet of his people, possessed the same authority that Moses did among the Israelites. At any rate, he is mentioned in con- junction with the five kings of Midian, apparently as a person of the same rank (Num. xxxi, 8 ; cf. xxxi, 16). He seems to have lived at Pethor, which is said at Deut. xxiii, 4, to have been a city of Mesopotamia (D"nrO DnX). He himself speaks of being " brought from Aram out of the mountains of the East" (Num. xxiii, 7). The reading, therefore, "pHS 1.53, instead of "IB2 153) which at Num. xxii, 5, is found in some MSS., and is adopted by the Samaritan, Syriac, and Vulgate, versions, need not be preferred, as the Am- monites do not appear to have ever extended so far as the Euphrates, which is probably the river alluded to in this place. If the received reading be correct, it intimates that Pethor was situated in Balaam's native country, and that he was not a mere sojourner in Mes- opotamia, as the Jewish patriarchs were in Canaan. In Josh, xiii, 22, Balaam is termed "the Soothsayer, " B31p, a word which, with its cognates, is used almost without exception in an unfavorable sense. Josephus calls him an eminent diviner (^c'ivtiq uqkjtoq, Ant. iv, G, 2) ; and what is to be understood by this appella- tion may be perhaps best learned from the following description by Philo: "There was a man at that time celebrated for divination who lived in Mesopotamia, and was an adept in all the forms of the divining art ; but in no branch was he more admired than in augury ; to manj' persons and on many occasions he gave great and astounding proofs of his skill. For to some he foretold storms in the height of summer; to others drought and heat in the depth of winter ; to some scarcity succeeding a fruitful year, and then again abundance after scarcitj' ; to others the overflowing and the drying up of rivers ; and the remedies of pes- tilential diseases, and a vast multitude of other things, each of which he acquired great fame for predicting" (Vita Moysis, § 48). Origen speaks of Balaam as fa- mous for his skill in magic, and the use of noxious in- cantations, but denies that he had any power to bless, for which he gives the following reason : " For magic, like dcemons, is unable to bless" (In Num. Horn. xiii). Balak's language, "I wot he whom thou blessest is blessed" (Num. xxii, 6), he considers as only designed to flatter Balaam, and render him compliant with his wishes. (See Berr, La prophetie de Balaam, Par. 1832.) Balaam is one of those instances which meet us in Scripture of persons dwelling among heathens, but possessing a certain knowledge of the one true God. He was endowed with a greater than ordinary knowl- edge of God; he was possessed of high gifts of intel- lect and genius ; he had the intuition of truth, and could see into the life of things- — in short, he was a poet and a prophet. Moreover, he confessed that all these superior advantages were not his own, but de- rived from God, and were his gift. And thus, doubt- less, he had won for himself, among his contemporaries far and wide, a high reputation for wisdom and sanc- tity. It was believed that he whom he blessed was blessed, and he whom lie cursed was cursed. Elated, however, by his fame and his spiritual elevation, he had begun to conceive that these gifts were his own, and that they might be used to the furtherance of his own ends. He could make merchandise of them, and might acquire riches and honor by means of them. A BALAAM '.22 BALAAM custom existed among many nations of antiquity of devoting enemies to destruction before entering upon a war with them. At this time the Israelites were marching forward to the occupation of Palestine; they were now encamped in the plains of Moab, on the east of Jord in liy Jericho. Balak, the king of Moab, bav- in- witnessed the discomfiture of his neighbors, the Amorites, by this people, entered into a league with the Mldianites against them, and despatched messen- gers to Balaam with the rewards of divination in their hands. We see from this, therefore, that Balaam was in the habit of using his wisdom as a trade, and of mingling with it devices of his own by which he im- posed upon others and perhaps partially deceived him- self. When the elders of Moab and Midian told him their message, he seems to have some misgivings as to the lawfulness of their request, for he invited them to tarry the night with him, that he might learn how the Lord would regard it. These misgivings were con- firmed by the express prohibition of God upon his journey. Balaam reported the. answer, and the mes- Bengers of Balak returned. The King of Moab, how- ever, not deterred by this failure, sent a-ain more and more honorable princes to Balaam, with the promise that he should be promoted to very great honor upon complying with his request. The prophet again re- fused, but, notwithstanding, invited the embassy to tarry the night with him, that he might know what the Lord would say unto him farther; and thus, by his importunity, he extorted from God the permission he desired, but was warned at the same time that his ac- tions would be overruled according to the Divine will. Balaam therefore proceeded on his journey with the messengers of Balak. But God's anger was kindled at this manifestation of determined self-will, and the angel of the Lord stood in the way for an adversary against him. The words of the Psalmist, " Be ye not like to horse and mule which have no understanding, whose mouths must be held with bit and bridle, other- wise they will not come near unto thee" (Psa. xxxii, 9), had they been familiar to Balaam, would have come home to him with most tremendous force ; for never have they received a more forcible illustration than the comparison of Balaam's conduct to his Maker with his treatment of his ass affords us. The wisdom with which the tractable brute was allowed to " speak with in ins voice," and " forbid" the untractable " madness of the prophet," impalpable and conspicuous. He was taught, moreover, that even she had a spiritual percep- )i on to which he, though a prophet, was a stranger; and when bis eyes were opened to behold the angel of the Lord, "he bowed down his head and fell flat on Ills fiee." It is hardly necessary to suppose, as some do, that the event here referred to happened only in a " '■!"■ ' vision, though such an opinion might seem to be supported by the fact that our translators render tie- word hz: in xxiv, ■!, 16, ^falling into a trance," Whereas no other idea than that of simple falling is 1 by it. Tin- Apostle Peter refers "to it as a real historical event: " The dumb ass, speaking with man's voice, forbade the madness of the prophet" (2 Pet. ii, 16). We are not told how these things happened, but that they did happen, and that it pleased God thus to int srfere ,,n behalf of His elect people, and to bring forth from the genius of a self-willed prophet, who thought thai his talents were his own, strains of poetry bearing upon the destiny of the Jewish nation and the Church at large, which are not surpassed throughout the Mosaic records. It is evident that Balaam, al- though acquainted with God, was desirous of throwing an air of mystery round his wisdom, from the instruc- tions lie gave Balak to offer a bullock and a ram on •i"1 seven all « I verywhere prepared for him; but he -rem- to have thought also that these sacrifices would be of some avail to change the mind of the Al- mighty, because he pleads the merit of them (xxiii, 4), and after experiencing their impotency to effect such an object, "he went no more," we are told, "to seek for enchantments" (xxiv, 1). His religion, therefore, was probably such as would be the natural result of a general acquaintance with God not confirmed by any covenant. He knew Him as the fountain of wisdom ; how to worship Him he could merely guess from the customs in vogue at the time. Sacrifices had been used by the patriarchs ; to what extent they were ef- ficient could only be surmised. There is an allusion to Balaam in the Prophet Micah (vi, 5), where Bishop Butler thinks that a conversation is preserved which occurred between him and the King of Moab upon this occasion. But such an opinion is hardly tenable, if ws bear in mind that Balak is nowhere represented as consulting Balaam upon the acceptable mode of wor- shipping God, and that the directions found in Micah are of quite an opposite character to those which were given by the son of Beor upon the high-places of Baal. The prophet is recounting " the righteousness of the Lord" in delivering His people out of the hand of Moab under Balak, and at the mention of his name the histor3r of Balaam comes back upon his mind, and he is led to make those noble reflections upon it which occur in the following verse. " The doctrine of Balaam" is spoken of in Lev. ii, 14, where an allusion has been supposed to the founder of the sect of the Nicolaitans, mentioned in v. 15. See Nicolaitans. Though the utterance of Balaam was overruled so that he could not curse the children of Israel, he nevertheless sug- gested to the Moabites the expedient of seducing them to commit fornication. The effect of this is recorded in ch. xxv. A battle was afterward fought against the Midianites, in which Balaam sided with them, and was slain by the sword of the people whom he had en- deavored to curse (Num. xxxi, 8). B.C. 1018. (Comp. Bishop Butler's Servians, scrm. vii; Ewald, Gesch. des Volkes Israel, ii, 277; Stanley, Jewish Ch. i, 209 sq.) i Of the numerous paradoxes which we find in " this strange mixture of a man," as Bishop Newton terms him, not the least striking is that with the practice of an art expressly forbidden to the Israelites ("there shall not be found among you one that useth divina- tion" [Dent, xviii, 10], " for all that do these things are an abomination to the Lord," ver. 12) he united the knowledge and worship of Jehovah, and was in the habit of receiving intimations of his will : "I will bring you word again as the Lord (Jehovah) shall speak unto me" (Num. xxii, 8). The inquiry natu- rally arises, by what means did he become acquainted with the true religion ? Dr. Hengstenberg suggests that he was led to renounce idolatry by the reports that reached him of the miracles attending the Exodus ; and that, having experienced the deceptive nature of the soothsaying art, he hoped, by becoming a worship- per of the God of the Hebrews, to acquire fresh power over nature, and a clearer insight into futurity. Yet the sacred narrative gives us no reason to suppose that he had any previous knowledge of the Israelites. In Num. xxii, 11, he merely repeats Balak's message, " Behold, there is a people come out of Egypt," etc., without intimating that he had heard of the miracles wrought on their behalf. The allusion in Num. xxiii, 22, might be prompted by the divine afflatus which he then felt. And had he been actuated in the first in- stance, by motives of personal aggrandizement, it seems hardly probable that he would have been favored with those divine communications with which his language, in Num. xxii, 8, implies a familiarity. Since, in the case of Simon Magus, the offer to " purchase the gift of God with money" (Acts viii, 20) called forth an im- mediate and awful rebuke from the apostles, would not Balaam's attempt to obtain a similar gift, with a direct view to personal emolument and fame, have met with a similar repulse ? Dr. Hengstenberg supposes, indeed, that there was a mixture of a higher order of sentiments, a sense of the wants of his moral nature, which led him to seek Jehovah, and laid a foundation BALAAM 623 BALAMO for intercourse with him. In the absence of more co- pious and precise information, may we not reasonably conjecture that Jacob's residence for twenty years in Mesopotamia contributed to maintain some just ideas of religion, though mingled with much superstition? To this source, and the existing remains of patriarchal religion, Balaam was probably indebted for that truth which he unhappily "restrained by unrighteousness" (Rom. i, 18). (See Onder, De Bileamo, Jen. 1715.) On the narrative contained in Num. xxii, 22-35, a difference of opinion has long existed, even among those who full}' admit its authenticity. The advo- cates for a literal interpretation urge that, in a histori- cal work and a narrative bearing the same character, it would be unnatural to regard any of the occurrences as taking place in vision, unless expressly so stated ; that it would be difficult to determine where the vision begins and where it ends; that Jehovah's "opening the mouth of the ass" (Num. xxii, 28) must have been an external act ; and, finally, that Peter's language is decidedly in favor of the literal sense : " The dumb ass, speaking with a man's voice, reproved the madness of the prophet" (2 Pet. ii, 1G). Those who conceive that the speaking of the ass and the appearance of the an- gel occurred in vision to Balaam (among whom are Maimonides, Leibnitz, and Hengstenberg) insist upon the fact that dreams and visions were the ordinary methods by which God made himself known to the prophets (Num. xii, G) ; they remark that Balaam, in the introduction to his third and fourth prophecies (xxiv, 3, 4, 15), speaks of himself as "the man who had his eyes shut," and who, on falling down in pro- phetic ecstasy, had his eyes opened ; that he express- ed no surprise on hearing the ass speak ; and that nei- ther his servants nor the Moabitish princes who accom- panied him appear to have been cognizant of any su- •pernatural appearance. Dr. Jortin supposes that the angel of the Lord suffered himself to be seen by the beast, but not by the prophet ; that the beast was ter- rified, and Balaam smote her, and then fell into a trance, and in that state conversed first with the beast and then with the angel. The angel presented these objects to his imagination as strongly as if they had been before his eyes, so that this was still a miraculous or preternatural operation. In dreaming, many sin- gular incongruities occur without exciting our aston- ishment ; it is therefore not wonderful if the prophet conversed with his beast in vision without being startled at such a phenomenon (sec Jortin' s Disserta- tion on Balaam, p. 190-194). See Ass (of Balaam). The limits of this article will not allow of an exam- ination of Balaam's magnificent prophecies, which, as Herder remarks (Gdst der Ebrdischen Poesie, ii, 221), "are distinguished for dignity, compression, vividness, and fulness of imager}'. There is scarcely any thing equal to them in the later prophets, and" (he adds, what few readers, probably, of Dent, xxxii, xxxiii, will be disposed to admit) "nothing in the discourses of Moses." Hengstenberg has ably discussed the doubts raised by De Wette and other German critics respecting the antiquity and genuineness of this por- tion of the Pentateuch. A full discussion of the Char- acter and Prophecies of Balaam may be found in the Bib. Sac. 1846, p. 347 sq.— Kitto, s. v.; Smith, s. v. See generally Moebius, Hist. Bileami (in his Dis- ser/t. theol. p. 286 sq.) ; Benzel, Dissent, ii, 37 sq. ; Riehter, De Bil. incantatore (Viteb. 173!)); Luderwald, Gesck. Bil. erldart (Helmst. 1781); Geer, Diss, de Bi- leamo (Utrecht, 1816); Tholuck, in the Lit. Anzeig. 1832, No. 78-80; 1833, 1 (also in his Verm. Schrift. i); Hoffmann, in the Hall. Encyclop. x, 184 sq. ; Steudel, in the Tithing. Zeitschr. 1831, ii, 66 sq. ; Hengstenberg Gesch. Bileams (Berl. 1842 ; History and Prophejvs of Balaam, transl. by Ryland, in Clark's ed. of his Authn- ticity of Dan. Edinb. 1847) ; Wolff. Demodo vaticinandi Bileam (Lips. 1741); Niemeyer, Charakt. iii, 37:5 sq. ; Less, Verm. Schrift. i, 130 sq. ; Justi, Diss, de Beleami asina (Marb. 1774); Bauer, Heir. Mytlwlogie, i, 306 sq. ; Hartmann, Exc. zu Micha, p. 255 sq. ; also Kjerner, Circa hist. Bileami (Gryph. 1786); Rungius, Abhandl. f. Freunde d. Bibel (Lp'z. 1786-1789), ii ; Geer, De Bi- leamo (Traj. a. R. 1816) ; Jortin, Hist, and Charach r of Balaam (in the Brit. Theol. Mag. I, i, 72 sq. ; also in his Dissertations, p. 127); Ward, Character of Balaam (ib. iv, 574 sq.) ; Butler, id. (ib. I, ii, 36 sq.) ; Benner, D. Esel Bileams (Giess. 1759) ; Schutte, Vaticin. Bilea- mi (in the Bibl. Ilagan. I, i, 2); Origen, Opp. ii, 316, 325; Saurin, Dissert, p. 597; Deyling, Observatt. iii, 102; Sherlock, Works, v; Essays (Lond. 1753) ; New- ton, Prophecies, i, 66; Bryant, Observations, i; Hunter, Sacred Biog. iii, 226 ; Horsley, Bib. Criticism, ii, 407, 4J9 ; Robinson, Script. Characters, i ; Evans, Script. Biog. ii, 28; Williams, O. T. Characters, p. 130; Sime- on, Works, ii, 131, 136, 141 ; Cowie, Hulsean Led. (1853), p. 25 ; Noel, Hist. Eccles. ii, 413 ; Collyier, Script. Proph- ecy, p. 172; Kitto, Daily Bible Ilhist'.W, 201, 206; Bud- dan Hist. V. T. i, 753 ; Witsii Mscell. i, 143 sq. ; Wolf, De exemplis Bibl. ii, 13 sq. ; De Wette, Kritik: i, 363, 365; Vater, Comment, iib. Pentat. iii, 119; Ranke, Pcn- tat. ii, 234; Jahn, Einleit. ii, 132; Havernick, Einleit. I, ii, 505; comp. Mosch. Idyll, ii, 119 sq. ; Plutarch, Fluv. i, 6; iElian, Anim. xii, 3; Val. Max. i, 6, 5; Jour. Asiatique (1843), i, 216; Bochart, Hieroz. i, 161; Fabricii Cod. Pseudepigr. V. T. i, 801 ; Thilo, Apocr. p. 307; Talmud, Pirhe A both, v, 19 ; Targum of Jonathan, in loc. ; Wetstein, N. T. ii, 707. Ba'lac (BaXcac), another method of Anglicizing (Rev. ii, 14) the name Balak (q. v.). Bal'adan (Heb. Baladan , 17^2, Bel is his lord; Sept. BaXadav), a name used in a double ca- pacity. Fiirst observes (fleb. Handw. s. v.) that, if of Shemitic origin, it corresponds to the Phoenician Baal-Adonis CpX ^??> Ba' al-Adon of coins, Numid. v, 1); but as the associate name ^rerodach (q. v.) is prob. not Shemitic, we may perhaps better derive Bal- adan from the Sanscrit bala (strength) and dhana (rich- es), with the sense of valiant and icealthy. 1. The father of the Babylonian king Merodach. baladan (2 Kings xx, 12 ; Isa. xxxix, 1). B.C. ante 711. See Merodach-Baladan. 2. A surname of Merodach-baladan (Isa. xxxix, 1), or Berodacii-daladan (2 Kings xx, 12) himself (q. v.). Ea'lall (Heb. Balali, hba, a contraction of the name Baalah or Bilhah; Sept. Ba\d v. r. BwXa), a city in the tribe of Simeon, mentioned in connection with Hazar-shual and Azem (Josh, xix, 3). It seems to have been the same with that elsewhere called Bil- hah (1 Chron. iv, 29) or Baalah (Josh, xv, 29), and, if so, it must have been transferred to Judah, or so ac- counted in later times, like many other cities of this region. See Bizjothjaii. Ba'lak (Heb. Balak', pba, empty; Sept. and N, T. BoXck-, Jocephus, BaXaicoc, Ant. iv, 6, 2), son of Zippor, and king of the Moabites (Num. xxii, 2, 4); he was so terrified at the approach of the victorious army of the Israelites, who, in their passage through the desert, had encamped near the confines of his ter- ritory, that he applied to Balaam, who was then re- puted to possess great influence with the higher spirits, to curse them. B.C. 1618. But his hostile designs (Josh, xxiv, 9) were frustrated. See Balaam. From Judg. xi, 25, it is clear that Balak was so certain of the fulfilment of Balaam's blessing, " Blessed is he that blesseth thee, and cursed is he that curseth thee" (Num. xxiv, 9), that he never afterward made the least military attempt to oppose the Israelites (comp. Mic. vi, 5; Eev. ii, 14).— Kitto, s. v. Bal'amo (rather Bel'amon, BtXa/itor, v. r. Bat '- amon, BaXapwi'), a place named in the Apocrypha (Jud. viii, 3) as not far from Dothaim (Dothar), and usually supposed to be the same as the Bclmen of J udith BALANCES 624 BALD iv, 4, ami the Abel-maim (q. v.) of Scripture. Reland p. 615, 022) inclines, however, to identify it with the Bekmoth (Bt.\f/«"c) stated by Epiphanius (lit. Prophetarum, p. 244) to have been the native place of the prophet Hoaea, and called Bt lemon (Bt\t- fmv) in the Packed Ch Balances (IIeb. in the dual D?3tXB, mozena'yim, i. e. ttoopoisi rs ; and so the Chald. equivalent, ""'DTK'S, '/?, Pan. v. 27; once the Heb. n.D£, kaneh', j,ro|.. a branch, as of "cane," used in the sing. Isa. xlvi, G, the rod or beam of a steel-yard; in Rev. vi, 5, %{-k of squalor and misery (2 Kings ii, 23; Isa. iii, 24, "instead of well-set hair, baldness, and burning instead of beauty." Isa. xv, 2; Jer. xlvii, 5 ; Ezek. vii, 18, etc.). For this reason it seems to have been included under the "scab" and "scurf" (Lev. xxi, 20, perhaps i. q. dandruff), which were dis- qualifications for priesthood (Mishna, Bcrachoth, vii, 2). In Lev. xiii, 29 sq., very careful directions are given to distinguish the scall (pf?'3, bohak' , "freckled spot," ver. 39), described as "a plague (SM, ne'gn, stroke) upon the head and beard" (which probably is the Mentagra of Pliny, and is a sort of leprosy), from mere natural baldness which is pronounced to be clean, v, 40 (Jahn, Bibl. Arch. 189). See Lep- rosy. But this shows that even natural baldness subjected men to an unpleasant suspicion. It was a defect with which the Israelites were by no means familiar, since the Egyptians were very rarely subject to it, according to Herodotus (iii, 12) ; an immunity which he attributes to their constant shaving. They adopted this practice for purposes of cleanliness, and generally wore wigs, some of which have been found in the ruins of Thebes. Contrary to the general prac- tice of the East, they only let the hair grow as a sign of mourning (Herod, ii, 36), and shaved themselves on all joyous occasions ; hence in Gen. xli, 44, we have an undesigned coincidence. The same custom obtains in China and among the modern Egyptians, who shave off all the hair except the shoosheh, a tuft on the fore- head and crown of the head (Wilkinson, Anc. Egypt. iii, 359 sq. ; Lane, Mod. Egypt, i, ch. 1). Baldness was despised both among Greeks and Romans. In Homer (II. ii, 219) it is one of the defects of Thersites ; Aristophanes (who was probably bald himself, Pax, 767 ; Eq. 55b) takes pride in not joining in the ridicule against it (Nub. 540). Caesar was said to have had some deformity of this sort, and he generally endeav- ored to conceal it (Suet. Caes. 45; comp. Bom. 18). BALDACHIN 625 BxVLE Artificial baldness marked the conclusion of a Naza- rite's vow (Acts xviii, 18 ; Num. vi, 9), and was a sign of mourning (Cic. Tusc. Z%). iii, 2G). It is often al- luded to in Scripture, as in Mic. i, 16 ; Amos viii, 10 ; Jer. xlvii, 5, etc. ; and in Deut. xiv, 1, the reason for its being forbidden to the Israelites is their being "a holy and peculiar people" (comp. Lev. xix, 27, and Jer. ix, 26, marg.). The practices alluded to in the latter passages were adopted by heathen nations (e. g. the Arabs, etc.) in honor of various gods. The Aban- tes and other half-civilized tribes shaved off the fore- locks, to avoid the danger of being seized by them in battle (Herod, ii, 36 ; i, 82).— Smith. See Hair. Baldachin or Baldaquin (utribraculuni), (1.) the cilorium, or canopy, overhanging the altar, imitating a, roof supported by pillars. (2.) The canopy which is borne over the host, or over the head of the pope, on daj's of ceremony. The name itself is an ancient French term, signifying the richest kind of silks and tissues, especially of gold thread ; so called, perhaps, because imported from Baldak, the mediaeval name of Babylon in Persia, — Ducange, Gloss, s. v. Balde, Joiiann Jacob, surnamed by his contem- poraries "the German Horace," was born at Ensis- heim, near Colmar, Alsace, in 1603, and was educated at the University of Ingolstadt. He entered the order of Jesuits in 1624, became in 1G38 court preacher at Munich, and afterward confessor of Philip William, duke of Bavaria. He died Aug. 9th, 1668. His prin- cipal writings, all of which are written in classic Latin, are — Carmina lyrica libri IV, Epoclon liber, Sylvtv lyri- ca>. Be vanitate mundi: — Solatium podagricorum (Co- logne, 1660):— Opera poetica (Munich, 1726, 8 vols.), etc. His Uranie victorieuse was rewarded by Alex- ander VII with a gold medal. A selection of his works was published by Orelli (Zurich, 2d ed. 1818) and by Cleska (Augsbg. 1829, 2 vols.) ; a biography by Cleska (Nurnb. 1842). Bald Locust. See Locust. Baldness. See Bald. Baldwin, archbishop of Canterbury, was born at Exeter, where he received a liberal education. He became archdeacon of Exeter, but soon resigned, and became a monk in the Cistercian abbey of Ford, in Dev- onshire, of which in a few years he was elected abbot. In 1181 he was made bishop of Worcester, and in 1184 Henry II translated him to the see of Canterbury. Ur- ban III afterward made Baldwin his legate for the dio- cese of Canterbury. On September, 3, 1189, Baldwin performed the ceremony of crowning Richard I at West- minster ; and in the same year, when that king's nat- ural brother, Geoffrey, was translated from the see of Lincoln to York, he successfully asserted the pre-emi- nence of the see of Canterbury, forbidding the bishops of England to receive consecration from any other than the Archbishop of Canterbury. In 1190 he made a progress into Wales to preach the Crusade ; and in the same 3Tear, having held a council at Westminster, he followed King Richard I to the Holy Land. He em- barked at Dover March 25, 1191, abandoning the im- portant duties of his station, and, after suffering many hardships on his voyage, arrived at Acre during the siege, where he died, November 20, in the same year, and where his body was interred. Bishop Tanner has given a list of a great many treatises by Archbishop Baldwin, which remain in manuscript, and has noticed the different libraries in which they are deposited. The most important were collected by Bertrand Tis- sier, and published, in 1602, in the fifth volume of the " Scriptores Biblioth. Cisterciensis." See Engl. Cyclo- pedia; Godwin, De Frees. Ang. p. 79; Collier, Eccl. Hist, ii, 374 sq. Baldwin, Ebenezer, a Congregational minister, was born at Norwich, Conn., July 3, 1745. He gradu- ated at Yale in 1763, and became tutor there in 17PD, Re In 1770 he was ordained minister of the first Cong, church in Danbury. In the Revolution he was an ar- dent Whig, and, as chaplain in the army, contracted the disease of which he died, Oct. 1, 1776. — Sprague, Annals, i, 645. Baldwin, Elihu W., D.D.,an efficient Presbyte- rian minister, born in Greene Co., N. Y., in 1789, and educated at Yale and Andover, was licensed to preach in 1817, and by his labors established the Seventh Presb. Church in New York, of which he became pas- tor in 1820. In 1835 he became president of Wabash College, at that time a very arduous post, on account of the pecuniary difficulties in which the institution was involved. In 18: 9 Mr. Baldwin received the de- gree of D.D. from Indiana College. He died Oct. 15, 1840, having published several tracts and sermons. — Sprague, Annals, iv, 572. Baldwin, Thomas, D.D., a Baptist minister, was born at Bozrah, Conn., Dec. 23, 1753, and died at Wa- terville, Me., Aug. 29, 1826. Though educated among Pasdobaptists, he adopted Baptist views, and was bap- tized by immersion in 1781. In the following year he began to preach, and was ordained in 1783 pastor of the Baptist church in Canaan, N. H., where he was re- siding. In 1790 he removed to Boston, taking charge of the Second Baptist Church in that place. In 1794 he received the degree of A.M. from Brown Univer- sity, and in 1803 that of D.D. from Union College. From the latter year till his death he was the chief ed- itor of the "Mass. Bapt. Miss. Magazine," published in Boston. Dr. Baldwin published several pamphlets on baptism and communion, besides "A Series of Letters in Answer to the Rev. Samuel Worcester," published in 1810, and various tracts and sermons. — Sprague, A nnals, vi, 208 ; Mass. Bapt. Miss. Mag. v. Bale, John (Batons), bishop of Ossory, an English historian and theologian, was born rt Cove Hithe, in Suffolk, Nov. 21, 1495, and was educated at Jesus Col- lege, Cambridge, where he early gained a reputation for letters and opposed the Reformation. He attributes his conversion to Lord Wentworth, and soon beijan to write against Romanism ; and although protected for a time by the Earl of Essex, he was, after the death of Cromwell, obliged to retire into Flanders. He returned under Edward VI, and received the living of Bishop- stoke, in Hampshire. On Feb. 2, 1553, he was made 1 >isk- op of Ossory. When Edward died he took refuge at Ba- sle, where he remained till 1559, when ho returned into England, and, refusing to resume his bishopric (which he at the first was earnestly desirous not to accept), he was made prebend of the Church of Canterbury. His chief work is his Ilhistrium majoris Britannia- Scrijito- rum Summarium, first printed at Ipswich in 1549. This edition contained only five centuries of writers ; but an enlarged edition was published at Basle in 1557, etc., containing nine centuries, under the following title : Scriptorum Illustrium, M. Britannia, quain nunc Angli- can et Scotiam meant, Catalogue, a Japketoper 3618 an- nos usque ad annum hunc Domini 1557, ex Beroso, Gen- nadio, Beda, etc collectus ; and in 1559 a third edition appeared., containing five more centuries. Ho was a very voluminous writer ; a long list of his print- ed works is given by Fuller, and also in the Engl. < '//- clopadia (s. v. Bale). His works were placed on the prohibitory Index, printed at Madrid in 1667, as those of a heretic of the first class. No character has been more variously represented than Bale's. Gesner, in his Bibliotheca, calls him a writer of the greatest dili- gence, and Bishop Godwin gives him the character of a laborious inquirer into British antiquities. Similar praise is also bestowed upon him by Vogler (Introd. Universal, in Notit. Scriptor.). Anthony a Wood, how- ever, styles him "the foul-mouthed Bale." Hearne (Pre/, to Ileminrf.) calls him " Baljcus in multis men- dax." And even Fuller {Worthies, last edit, ii, 332) says " Biliosus Balauis passeth for his true character." BALFOUR 626 BALLDIATHLE He inveighed with much asperity against the pope I and papists, and his intemperate zeal, it must be ac- knowledged, often carried him beyond the bounds of and candor. Fuller, in his Church History (cent. ix. p. 68), pleads for Hale's railing against the! papists. "Old age and ill usage," he says, "will make any man angry. When young, he had seen tin ;r superstition ; when old, he felt their oppression." The greatest fault of Hale's book on the British writers i- its multiplication of their works by frequently giv- ing the heads of chapters or sections of a book as the titles of distinct treatises. A selection from his works was published by the Parker Society (Cambridge, 1849, 8vo). See Sfrype, Memorials qfCranmer, p. 206, 3C0; Collier, Eccl. Hist, v, 500 ; Penny Cyclop, s. v. Balfour, Walter, was born at St. Ninian's, Scot- land, 1776, and educated in the Scotch Church at the expense of Mr. Robert Ilaldane. After some years' preaching he came to America, and became a Baptist about 1806. In 1823 he avowed himself a Universal- ist, and labored, both as preacher and writer, in behalf ofTJniversalism until his death at Charlestown, Mass., Jan. 3, 1852. He published Essays en the intermediate Stat of the Dead (Charlestown, 1828, 12mo). See Whit- temore, M< moir of Rev. W. BaJfjur (Bost. 1830). Balguy, John, an English divine, was born at Sheffield in 1686, and educated at Cambridge, where he passed M.A. in 1720. In the Bangorian controver- sy (q. v.) he maintained the views of Bishop Hoadley, and wrote, in 1718, 1719, several tracts on the dispute. In 1726, in view of the infidel principles of Lord Shaftes- bury, he published A Letter to a Deist, and The Foun- dati m of Moral Virtue. These, with others, are given in .1 Collection of Tracts, by the Rev. J. Balguy (Lond. 1734, 8vo). His Sermons (2 vols. 8vo) had reached a third edition in 1790. Balguy was a " latitudinarian" (q. v.) in theology. He died in 1748. — Allibone, s. v. Balguy, Thomas, D.D., son of John, was born in Yorkshire in 1716, and educated at St. John's College, Cambridge, where in 1741 he became M.A., and in 1758 D.D. In 1757, under the patronage of Hoadley, he was made prebendary of Winchester, and afterward archdeacon of Salisbury and Winchester. He aban- don d Hoadley's " latitudinarianism," and brought his sound scholarship to the "defence of the Christian re- ligion and of the English Church." He wrote a num- ber of excellent sermons and charges, which may be found in his I)isrniir.,es on various Subjects, edited by Drake, with a .Memoir of Balguy (Cambridge, 1822, 2 vols. 8vo). lb' wrote, also. Divine Hiwvilence vindi- catedfrom th> Reflections of Sceptics (Lond. 2d ed. 1803, 12mo). lie died unmarried, Jan. 19, 1795. See Hook, / . Bioff. i, 177 ; Hose, BlOff. Diet. s. v. Ball (in, dur), well known as being used in vari- rl and games from the earliest times, several kind- of which are depicted on the Egyptian monu- ments (Wilkinson, i, 198 sq. abridg.). The word oc- cura in tlii- sense in Isa. xxii, 18, but in a subsequent K3UX, 3) it is employed of a ring or circle, and translated '-round about" in the prophecy of the siege of Jerusalem. In Ezek. xxiv, 5, in the symbol of the same event, it i. translated "burn," but probably 'r. as in the margin. Auriont Egyptian Balls— 1. Leather; 1. Painted r.anhemrare. Among the Egyptians the balls were made of leather or skin, sewed with string, crosswise, in the same man- ner as our own, and stuffed with bran or husks of corn ; and those which have been found at Thebes are about three inches in diameter. Others were made of string, or of the stalks of rushes platted together so as to form a circular mass, and covered, like the for- mer, with leather. They appear also to have a smaller kind of ball, probably of the same materials, and cov- ered, like many of our own, with slips of leather of an elliptical shape, sewed together longitudinally, and meeting in a common point at both ends, each alter- nate slip being of a different color; but these have only been met with in pottery (Wilkinson, i, 200). Ball, John, a Roman priest, who seems to have imbibed Wickliffe's doctrines, and who was (previous- ly to 1366) excommunicated repeatedly for preaching "errors, and schisms, and scandals against the pope, archbishops, bishops, and clergy." He preached in favor of the rebellion of Wat Tyler, and was executed at Coventry in 1381. See Collier, Eccl. Hist, iii, 148 sq. Ball, John, a Puritan divine, was born in 1585, at Cassington, in Oxfordshire. He studied at Brazen- nose College, Oxford, and was admitted to holy orders, and passed his life in poverty on a small cure at Whit- more, Staffordshire, to which was united the care of a school. He died in 1640. His Catechism had gone through fourteen editions before the year 1632, and has had the singular lot of being translated into Turk- ish. His Treatise on Faith (Lond. 1632, 4to) also passed through many editions. He published also Th? Power of Godliness and other treatises (Lond. 1657, fol.) See Rose, Biog. Diet. s. v. ; Allibone, i, 108. Balle, Nikolai Edinger, a distinguished Luther- an theologian of Denmark, was born in 1744 in Zealand, became in 1772 Professor of Theology at Copenhagen, and in 1783 bishop of Zealand. He died in 1816. He wrote, Theses theologicce (Copenh. 1776), and A Manual of Religious Doctrines (Copenh. 1781); he was also the editor of a magazine for modern church history of Den- mark {Magazin for den nyere danske Kir Ice historic, Co- penh. 1792-94, 2 vols.). Ballerini, Peter and Jerome, brothers, priests of Verona, distinguished for their learning. Peter was born in 1698, Jerome in 1702. They lived and studied together, and published, in conjunction and separately, many important worlds on jurisprudence and theology. Among these were, The Works of < 'ar- dinal Norris, containing, among other matters, a Life of the Writer; a History of the various Congregations hehl for the Reform of the Calendar, at which the car- dinal presided ; a History of the Donatists, in 2 parts, Supplements, and an Appendix (Verona, 1732, 1 vols. fol.); Suncti Antonini Archiep. Florentini Siimma The- ologice, etc. (Verona, 1740-41, 2 vols, fol.); 8. Pai- mundi de Pennaforte Summa Theologicalis, etc. (Verona, 1744). Among the works edited by them may be mentioned the Sermons of Zeno, bishop of Verona, 1739; the works, of John Mathew Gibert, bishop of Verona, 1736 ; the works of Pope St. Leo, in 3 vols, folio, containing works of that pope which are not to be found in Qnesnel's edition. Peter wrote several treatises in behalf of the papacy, especially De Pntes- tafe 8. Pontif. etc. (1765), and De Vi ac ratione prima- tes Pontif. (1766). — Biog. Universelle. Ballimathise {wanton dances, from fia\\iZfu\ is generally understood to refer to those wanton dances which were practised at marriage festivals, but some- times indicates the practice of playing on cymbals and other musical instruments. The word flaWiZfiv means to throw the legs and feet about rapidly ; hence to dance a certain lively dance peculiar to Magna Greecia and Sicily. The words ballet and ball are from this root. The Council of Laodicea, and the third Council of Toledo, forbade the promiscuous and lasciv- BALLOU 627 BALM ious dancing of men and women together under this name, which is generally interpreted wanton dances associated with lascivious songs. Ambrose, Chrysos- tom, and others of the fathers, are faithful in condemn- ing the practices which were adopted in their day at marriage ceremonies, many of which were highly dis- graceful. See Bingham, Oriff, Eccles. bk. xvi, ch. xi, §16. Ballou, Hosea, a Universalist minister, was born April 30th, 1771, at Richmond, N. II. At an early age he joined the Baptist Church, of which his father was a minister, but was soon after expelled on account of his embracing Universalist and Unitarian opinions. At the age of twenty-one he became an itinerant preacher of the then new doctrines he had adopted. His ability and eloquence attracting attention, he was invited in 1791 to a permanent charge at Dana, Mass., which he accepted. In 1802 he removed to Barnard, Vt. ; in 1807, to Portsmouth, N. H. ; and in 1815, to Salem, Mass. Two years later he accepted the charge of the. Second Universalist Society at Boston, which he held till his death, June 7th,'l852. Mr. Ballou was an industrious writer. In 1819 he commenced the Universalist Magazine, and in 1831 the Universalist Expositor (now the Universalist Quarterly). He pub- lished The Doctrine of future Retribution (1834), and numerous other controversial works, besides Notes on the Parables ; A Treatise on the A tonement ; and several volumes of Sc rmons. See Whittemore, Life of the Rev. H. Ballou. Balm (for the original term, see below), a produc- tion more particularly ascribed to Gilcad (Gen. xxxvii, 25; Jer. viii, 22). Balm or bals in is used as a com- mon name for many of those oily, resinous substances which flow spontaneously or by incision from certain trees or plants, and are of considerable use in medicine and surgery. Kimchi and some of the modern inter- preters understand the Ileb. word rendered "balm" to be that particular species called opobalsamum, or balm of Gilead, so much celebrated by Pliny, Strabo, Diodorus Siculus, Tacitus, Justin, and others, for its costliness, its medicinal virtues, and for being the prod- uct of Juckea only ; and which Josephus says grew in the neighborhood of Jericho, the tree, according to tradition, having been originally brought by the Queen of Sheba as a present to King Solomon. On the other hand, Bochart strongly contends that the balm men- tioned Jer. viii, 22, could not possibly be that of Gil- ead, and considers it as no other than the resin drawn from the terebinth or turpentine tree. Pliny says, "The trees of the opobalsamum have a resemblance to fir-trees, but they are lower, and are planted and hus- banded after the manner of vines. On a particular season of the year they sweat balsam. The darkness of the place is, besides, as wonderful as the fruitfulness of it; for, though the sun shines nowhere hotter in the world, there is naturally a moderate and perpetual gloominess of the air.*' Mr. Buckingham observes upon this passage, that "the situation, boundaries, and local features of the valley of Jericho are accurately given in these details, though darkness, in the sense in which it is commonly understood, would be an improp- er term to apply to the gloom. At the present time there is not a tree of any description, either of palm or balsam, and scarcely any verdure or bushes to be seen, but the complete desolation is undoubtedly rather to be attributed to the cessation of the usual agricultural labors, and to the want of a proper distribution of wa- ter over it by the aqueducts, the remains of which evince that they were constructed chiefly for that pur- pose, rather than to any radical change in the climate or the soil." The balsam, carried originally, says Arab tradition, from Yemen by the Queen of Sheba, as a gift to Solomon, and planted by him in the gardens of Jericho, was brought to Egypt by Cleopatra, and planted at Ain-Shemesh, now Matara, in a garden which all the old travellers, Arab and Christian, men- tion with deep interest. The balsam of Jericho, or true balm of Gilead, has long been lost (De Sacy). Balsam, at present, is procured in some cases from the fruit of a shrub which is indigenous in the moun- tains between Mecca and Medina. This shrub was cultivated in gardens in Egypt in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, and that this was also the case in Palestine, in very early times, appears from the original text in Gen. xliii, 11, and Jer. xlvi, 11. The balsam of Mecca has always been deemed a substance of the greatest value ; though it is not the only one possessing medicinal properties, yet it is, perhaps, more eminently distinguished for them than other balsamic plants of the same genus, of which sixteen are enu- merated by botanists, each exhibiting some peculiari- ty. There are three species of this balsam, two of \n Inch are shrubs, and the other a tree. In June, July, and August they yield their sap, which is received into | an earthen vessel. The fruit, also, when pierced with I an instrument, emits a juice of the same kind, and in I greater abundance, but less rich. The sap extracted I from the body of the tree or shrub is called the opobal- ) samum ; the juice of the balsam fruit is denominated I carpobalsamum, and the liquid extracted from the I branches when cut off, the xylobalsamum (Jahn, Bibl. | Arckceol. i, § 74). According to Bruce, "The balsam I is an evergreen shrub or tree, which grows to about j fourteen feet high, spontaneously and without culture, | in its native country, Azab, and all along the coast to i Babelmandeb. The trunk is about eight or ten inches j in diameter, the wood light and open, gummy, and , outwardly of a reddish color, incapable of receiving a ! polish, and covered with a smooth bark, like that of a ! young cherry-tree. It is remarkable for a penury of leaves. The flowers are like those of the acacia, small and white, only that three hang upon three filaments or stalks," where the acacia has but one. Two of these flowers fall off", and leave a single fruit. After the blossoms follow yellow fine-scented seed, inclosed in a reddish-black pulpy nut, very sweet, and containing a yellowish liquor like honey." A traveller, who as- "15alm of Gilcad" (Halmmodendron Gileadense). sumed the name of Ali Bey, says that " there is no balsam made at Mecca ; that, on the contrary, it is very scarce, and is obtained principally in the territory of Medina. As the repute of the balsam of Mecca rose, the balm of Gilead disappeared ; though in the era of Galen, who flourished in the second century, and trav- BALMES 628 BALSAM clled into Palestine and Syria purposely to obtain a knowledge of this Bubstance, it grew in Jericho and many other parts of the Holy Land. The cause of its total decay has been ascribed, not without reason, to the royal attention being withdrawn from it by the distractions of the country. In more recent times its naturalization seems to have been attempted in Egypt; for Prosper Alpinus relates that forty plants were brought by a governor of Cairo to the garden there, and ten remained when Belon travelled in Egypt, nearly two hundred and fifty years ago ; but, whether from "not agreeing with the African soil or otherwise, only one existed in the last century, and now there appears to be none. (See also Thomson, Land and Book, ii. 193, 457.) See Gilead, Balm of. The word balm occurs frequently in the Authorized Version, as in Gen. xxxvii, 25; xliii, 11; Jer. viii, 22; xlvi, 11; li,8; and Ezek. xxviii, 17. In all these passages the Hebrew text has 1*1^ or 1*13 Qsori' or tseri', Sept. pnrivri), which is generally understood to be the true balsam, and is considered a produce of Gilead, a mountainous district, where the vegetation is that of the Mediterranean region and of Europe, with few traces of that of Africa or of Asia. Lee {Lex. p. 520) supposes it to be mastich, a gum obtained from the Ptsfaccia Lentiscus; but Gescnius defends the com- mon rendering, balsam. It was the gum of a tree or shrub growing in Gilead, and very precious. It was one of the best fruits of Palestine (Gen. xliii, 11), ex- ported (Gen. xxxvii, 25; Ezek. xxvii, 17), and espe- cially used for healing wounds (Jer. viii, 22 ; xlvi, 11 ; li, 8). The balsam was almost peculiar to Palestine (Strab. xvi, 2, p. 7(33; Tac. Hist, v, 6; Plin. xii, 25, § 54 ; 32, § 59), distilling from a shrub like the vine and rue, which in the time of Josephus was cultivated in the neighborhood of Jericho and of the Dead Sea {Ant. xiv, 4, 1 ; xv, 4, 2), and still grows in gardens near Tiberias (Burckhardt, Syria, p. 323). In Ezek. xxvii, 17, the Auth. Vers, gives in the margin rosin. The fact that the tsori grew originally in Gilead does not forbid us to identify it with the shrub mentioned by Josephus as cultivated near Jericho. The name bal- sam is no doubt derived from the Arabic balasan, which is probably also the origin of the /3«Au the balsams of modern commerce, sec the Penny Cyclop ?dia, -. v. Balsaminea; el sq.) See Bal- sam. Balmes, Jaime, a Spanish theologian, was born Aug. 28, 1810, at VieJi iii Catalonia, and died there July 9, 1848. He was for some time teacher of math- ematics at Vich, was exiled under the regency of Es- partero, and founded in 1844, at Madrid, a political weekly, El Pensamiento de la Nation, as an organ of the Conservative or Catholic party. In 1847 a pamphlet in favor of the political reforms of Pius IX {Pio IX, Madrid and Paris, 1847) brought him into conflict with his party. His principal works are a comparison of the relation of Protestantism and Roman Catholicism to European civilization {El Protestantismo comparado con el Catolicismo en sits relaciones con la ciriHsacion, Europea, 3 vols. 8vo, Madrid, 1848; Engl, transl. Lon- don, 1849, 8vo) ; a Filosojia fondamental (Barcelona, 1846, 4 vols. ; translated into French, 3 vols. 1852 ; into English, by H. F. Brownson, 2 vols. New York, 1857); and a Curso de Filosofta Elemental (Madrid, 1837). See A. de Blanche-Baffin, Jacques Balmes, sa vie et ses ouvrages (Paris, 1850) ; North British Review, May, 1852, art. iv. ' Balnu'us {BaXvovoc), one of the " sons" of Addi that divorced his Gentile wife after the exile (1 Esdr. ix, 31) ; evidently the Binxui (q. v.) of the true text (Ezra x, 30). Balsac. See Bolsec. Balsam (Gr. /3a\aafjoy, i. e. opobahamnm, Arab. balasan), the fragrant resin of the balsam-tree, possess- ing medicinal properties ; according to Pliny (xii, 54), indigenous only to Judaea, but known to Diodorus Sic. (iii, 46) as a product of Arabia also. In Palestine, praised by other writers also for its balsam (Justin, xxxvi, 3; Tacit. Hist, v, 6; Plutarch, Vita Anton, c. xxxvi ; Florus, iii, 5, 29; Dioscor. i, 18), this plant was cultivated in the environs of Jericho (Strabo, xvi, 763 ; Diod. Sic. ii, 48 ; xix, 98), in gardens set apart for this use (Plin. xii, 54; see Joseph. Ant. xiv, 4, 1; xv, 4, 2; War, i, 6, 6); and after the destruction of the state of Judaja, these plantations formed a lucra- tive source of the Roman imperial revenue (see Diod. Sic. ii, 48). riiny distinguishes three different species of this plant; the first with thin, capillaceous leaves; the second a crooked scabrous shrub; and the third with smooth rind and of taller growth than the two former. He tells us that, in general, the balsam plant, a shrub, has the nearest resemblance to the grape- vine, and its mode of cultivation is almost the same. The leaves, however, more closely resemble those of the rue, and the plant is an evergreen. Its height From Bruce. does not exceed two cubits. From slight incisions made very cautiously into the rind (Joseph. Ant. xiv, 4, 1; War, i, 6, 6) the balsam trickles in thin drops, which arc. collected with wool into a horn, and then preserved in new earthen jars. At first it is whitish and pellucid, but afterward it becomes harder and red- dish. That is considered to be the best quality which BALSAM 629 BALTTZE trickles before the appearance of the fruit. Much in- ferior to this is the resin pressed from the seeds, the rind, and even from the stems (see Theophrast. Plantt. ix, 6; Straho, xvi, 763; Pausan. ix, 28, 2). This de- scription, which is not sufficiently characteristic of the plant itself, suits for the most part the Egyptian bal- sam-shrub found by Belort (Paulus, Samml. iv, 188 sq.) in a garden near Cairo (the plant, however, is not indigenous to Egypt, but the layers are brought there from Arabia Felix ; Prosp. Alpin. De balsamo, iii ; Plant, .Eg. xiv, 30, with the plats ; Abdullatif, Me- moirs, p. 58). Forskal found between Mecca and Me- dina a shrub, abusham (Niebuhr, Reis. i, 351), which he considered to be the genuine balsam-plant, and he gave its botanical description under the name Amyris opobalsamum, in his Flora /Egypt. Arab. p. 79 sq., to- gether with two other varieties, Amyris kataf and Amyris kafal. There are two species distinguished in the Linnsean system, the Amyris Gileadensis (Forsk. "A. opobals.") and A. opobals. (the species described by Belon and Alpin) ; see Linne's Vollst. Pflanzensyst. i, 473 sq., plates; Plenck, Plantt. Med. pi. 155; Ber- lin. Jahrb. d. Pharmac. 1795, pi. i ; Ainslie, Mater. Indira, i, 26 sq. More recent naturalists have in- cluded the species Amyris Gilead. in the genus Proti- um ,- see Wight and Walker (Arnott), Prodrom. florce pminsulce India Orient. (London, 1834), i, 177; Lind- ley, Flora Medica (London, 1838, 8vo), p. 169. This tree, .from which the Mecca balsam is gained in very small quantity (Plin. xii, 54, " succus e plaga manat sed tenui gvitta plorata"), which never reaches ns unadulterated, grows only in a single district of Yemen ; of late, however, it was discovered in the East Indies also. See generally Prosp. Alpin. Dial, de bal- salmo (Venet. 1591 ; as also, in several editions of his •work De Plantt. /Eg. p. 1592 ; and in Ugolini, Thesaur. xi, with plates) ; Veiling, Opobalsami veterib. cogniti vindxia?, p. 217 sq. ; Bochart, Ilieroz. i, 628 sq. ; Mi- chaelis, Suppl. 2142 sq. ; Le Moyne, Diss. Opobaham. declaratum (Upsal. 17C4) ; Wildenow, in the Berl. Jahrb. d. Pharmac. 1795, p. 14.3 sq., with plates ; Oken, Lehrb. d. Botanik. II, ii, 681 sq. ; Martius, Pharmakogn. p. 343 sq. ; Sprengel, zu Dioscor. ii, 355 sq.— Winer. Our only reason for mentioning all this is of course the presupposition that the Palestinian balsam is named in the Bible also, and, indeed, the bosem (~i*3, Cant. v, 13), also basam (Qb3, v, 1 ; comp. Arab, bashauni), ■which in loth passages appear to be names of garden- plants, must be taken for the balsam-shrub (the ancient translators consider the word as a name). It is more difficult to determine whether the resin of the balsam- tree is mentioned also in the books of the 0. T. The tseri or tsori (*~}'4 or "'"^I) is commonly taken for such. This name is given to a precious resin found in Gilead (Gen. xxxvii, 25 ; Jer. xlvi, 11), and circulated as an article of merchandise by Arab and Phoenician mer- chants (Gen. xxxvii, 25; Ezek. xxvii, 17). It was one of the principal products of Palestine which was thought to be worth}' to be offered as a gift even to Egyptian princes (Gen. xliii, 11), and was considered a powerful salve (Jer. viii, 22; xlvi, 11; li, 8). He- brew commentators understand, in fact, balsam by tseri. The ancient translators render it mostly by gum. Others, however (Oedmann, Samml. iii, 110 sq. ; Rosenmuller, Alt, tilt. IV, i, 168 sq.), take it to be the oil of the Myrobalanus of the ancients (Plin. xii, 46 sq.) or the Elaagnus angustifolia of Linnaeus. The fruit of this plant resembles the olive, and is of the size of a walnut. It contains a fat, oily kernel, from which the Arabs press an oil highly esteemed for its medicinal properties, especially for open wounds (Maundrell, in Paulus, Samml. 1, 110; Mariti, Trav. p. 415; Troilo, Trav. p. 107\ That this tree grows in Palestine, especially in the environs of Jericho, we are told not only by modern travellers (Hasselquist, Voyages, p. 150 ; Arvieux, ii, 155 ; Pococke, East, ii, 47 sq. ; Yolney, Voyages, ii, 240 ; Robinson, ii, 291), but even by Jo- sephus (War, iv, 8, 3). We must admit, however, that the Hebrew name tseri seems to imply rather a resin trickling from some plant than a pressed oil, and that the arguments of Rosenmuller in favor of his statement, that the Mecca balsam is a mere perfume and not a medicine, have not much weight (see Ge- senius, Thes. iii, 1185). Our physicians make, indeed, no medicinal use of it ; but we can never obtain the genuine Mecca balsam. The ancients certainly as- cribed medicinal powers to the balsam (see Dioscor. ut sup.), and it is considered even at present as a med- icine of well-attested quality, especially if applied ex- ternally (Prosp. Alpin. Rer. sEg. iii, 15, p. 192 ; Has- selquist, p. 565, "rescivi quod vulnerarium Turcis sit excellentissimum et palmarium, dum in vulnera recens inflieta guttas aliquot infundunt quo continuato brevis- simo tempore vulnera maximi momenti persanant"). The tseri, therefore, might have been the balsam, and if so, the shrub, which originally grew in Gilead, may have been transplanted and cultivated as a gar- den-plant on the plains of Jericho, and preserved only there. We greatly doubt, however, -whether the bal- sam shrub ever grew wild anywhere but in Arabia, and it seems to us more probable that it was brought from Arabia to Palestine, though, perhaps, not by the Queen of Sheba (Josephus, Ant. viii, 6, 6). Besides the tseri (^X), another word, nataph (~-3), mentioned in Exod. xxx, 34, as an ingredient of the holy incense, is taken by Hebrew commentators for opobalsamum ; this, however, is perhaps rather Stacte (q. v.). See Mastick ; Aromatics. Balsamon, Theodore, an eminent canonist of the Greek Church, was born at Constantinople in the twelfth century; was made chancellor and librarian of the church of St. Sophia, and about 1186 became patriarch of Antioch, without, however, being able to go there to discharge the functions of the office, since the city was occupied by the Latins, who had intruded a bishop of their own. He died about 1200. His first work (which he undertook at the wish of the Emperor Manuel Comnenus and the patriarch Michael Anchia- lius) was Photii Nomocanon Canones SS. Apostolorum, etc. (with a Commentary on the Canons of the Apostles and the general and particular Councils, and on the Canonical Epistles of the Fathers), printed at Paris, 1615, fol. ; also a Commentary on the Syntagma of Photius, given in Beveridge, Synodicon, sire, Pandeclce Canonum (Oxon. 1672-82, 2 vols. fol.). For an ac- : count of Balsamon and his works, see Beveridge's : Synodicon, Prolegomena to vol. i. — Cave, Hist. Lit- i anno 1180 ; Hoefer, Bi«g. Generate, iv, 311. Baltha'sar (Ba\-d<7an), a Grascized form (Baruch ; i, 11, 12) of the name of the Babylonian king Bel- j SHAZZAR (q. v.). | Balthasar, the name given in the Romish legends, without any foundation, to one of the magi who came j to adore our Lord Jesus Christ. See Magi. Baltus, John Francis, a Jesuit, born at Metz, ! June 8th, 1667. He became a Jesuit in 1682, and in 1717 was called to Rome to examine the bocks writ- I ten by the members of his company. Returning to I France, he was, in succession, rector of several col- j leges of his order, and died at Rheims, librarian of the college, March 19th, 1743. He wrote, Reponse a THis- j toire des Oracles de M. Fnntenel/e (Strasb. 1707 and 1 1709, 8vo) :—Dty nse des Saints Peres accuses de Platan. isme (Paris, 1711, 4to); now ed. under the title Purete da Chrltiairismei P;iri-, 2 vols. 8vu, 1838): — Defense drs ProphJties de la Rel'giin Chritienne (1737, 3 vols. 12mo), j with other works.. — h'iog. Universelle. j Baluze, Stephen, an eminent canonist and his- torian, was born at Tulle, in Limousin, December 24th, i 1630. He studied first among the Jesuits at Tulle, I and in 1646 was sent to the college of the company at BAMAH 630 BAMPTON LECTURES Toulouse, where ho remained for eight years. He soon acquired a higb reputation in ecclesiastical his- tory and the canon law. Not wishing to serve as a priest, bul desirous of opportunity to pursue his studies quietly, he received the tonsure, and put himself under the patronage of Peter de Marca, who brought him to Paris in 1656, and made him the associate of his la- bors. Upon the death of He Marca in 1602, the chancellor of France, Le Tellier, took Baluze under his pro! sction ; but in 1GG7 he attached himself to Col- bert, who made him his librarian, and it was by his care that the library of that eminent man acquired its richest treasures, and attained to such great celebrity among the learned. He left the family of Colbert in 1670, and afterward Louis XIV mad' him director of the royal college, with a pension. This situation he held until his eightieth year, when he was banished for having published the " Genealogical History of the House of Auvergne," in 2 vols. fol. (170>), by order of the Cardinal de Bouillon, who had fallen into disgrace at court. He obtained a recall in 1713, after the peace of Utrecht, without, however, recovering his appoint- ments, and died July 28th, 1718. His library, when it was sold after his death, contained 1500 MSS., which were purchased for the Bibliotheque Royale. Baluze left as many as forty-five published works, of which the most important are — Regnum Francorum Capitularia (1677, 2 vols. fol. ; also, edited by Chiniac in 1780, 2 vols. fol. a superb edition) -.—Epistolce Innocentii Papce III (1682, 2 vols. fol. This collection is incomplete, owin_c to the unwillingness of the Romans at the time to give him free access to the pieces in the Vatican li- brary. Brequiny and De la Porte du Theil, in their Diplomat^ Charta, etc., 1701, have given the letters which Baluze could not obtain): — Condl'orwn Nova Col- lect to (1683, vol. i, fol. This work was intended to em- brace all the known councils which Labbe has omitted in his collection, and would have filled many volumes ; but Baluze abandoned his first design, and limited him- self to one volume): — Vita Paparum Avinioncnsium (■' Vies des Papes d' Avignon," 1693, 2 vols. 4to, an ad- mirable refutation of the ultramontane pretensions. Hi- maintains that the holy see is not necessarily fixed at Home) : — Miscellanea (7 vols. 8vo. A new edition, considerably enlarged and improved, was published by Mansi at Lucca in 1761, in 4 vols. fol.). A complete list of his works may be found at p. 06 of the Capitu- laria. See Dupin, Eccl. Writers, 17th cent. ; ViedeBa- luze, written by himself, and continued by Martin. Ba'mah (Heb. Bamah', tltt, a height; Sept. \ lafia), an eminence or high-place, where the Jews worshipped their idols, occurs as a proper name, Ezek. xx, 29. In other passages it is usually translated "high place;" and in Ezek, xxxvi, 2, such spots arc termed 'ancient high places, "or ancient heights. See Bamoth. (In such high places the Hebrews made oblations to idols, and also to the Lord himself, before "lit. lined that unity <>f place for the divine worship was indispensable. The Jewish historians, re, for the most part, describe this as an unlaw- ful worship, in consequence of its being so generally associated with idolatrous rites. See High-place. The above passage in Ezekiel is very obscure, and full ol' the J • i r asia so dear to the Hebrew poets, so difficult for us to appreciate : " What is the high place (""9"' whereunto ye hie f^xan)? and the name of it i- called Bamah (rnaa) unto' this day." Ewald (Prophetm, p. 286) pronounces this verse to be an ex- tra, t from an older prophet than Ezekiel. The name here, however, seems to refer, not to a particular spot, but to any Buch locality Individualized by the- term I nderson, Comment, in loe.). Bambas, Nbophytos, an archimandrite of the Greek Church, and on.- of tin- principal prose writers of modem Gr a, was horn upon the island of I Ihios, aud died at Athens ja Feb. 1855. lie studied at the College of Chios and at the University of Paris, reor- ganized, after his return from Paris, the College of Chios, and remained its president until the war of in- dependence in 1821. In 1824 he became Professor of Philosophy at the University of Corfu, afterward di- rector of the college at Syra, and, at last, Professor of Philosophy and Rhetoric at the University of Athens. On account of his extensive learning, the British and Foreign Bible Society confided to him the task of translating, in union with Rev. Mr. Lowndes, and Mr. Nicolaides of Philadelphia in Asia Minor, the Bible into modern Greek. During the latter years of his life, Mr. Bambas attached himself, however, to the Russian or Napsean party, which is hostile to the reformation of the Church. He wrote a manual of sacred elo- quence (Eyxtipiciov Tiig rov \epov «/< / .1 //ants, a site marked by stone-heaps observed both by Seetzen (ii, 342) and Burckhardt (Syria, p. 370); but this is rather the summit of Neho. Bampton Lectures, a course of eight sermons preached annually at the University of Oxford, under the will of the Rev. John Bampton, canon of Salis- bury, who died in 1751. According to the directions in his will, they are to be preached upon any of the fol- lowing subjects: To confirm and establish the Chris- tian faith, and to confute all heretics and schismatics; upon the divine authority of the holy Scriptures ; upon the authority of the writings of the primitive fathers as to the faith and practice of the primitive Church; upon the divinity of our Loud and Saviouk Jesus BAN G31 BAND Christ ; upon the divinity of tlic Holy Ghost ; upon the articles of the Christian faith, as comprehended in the Apostles' and Nicene Creeds. For the support of this lecture he bequeathed his lands and estates. The lecturer must have taken the degree of master of arts in Oxford or Cambridge, and must never preach the sermons twice. When the lectures were commenced in 1780, the income of the estate was £120 per annum. A list of the Bampton Lectures, as far as published in 1854, is given by Darling, Cyclopaedia Bibliographiea, i. 1GG. More than seventy volumes (8vo) of the Bamp- ton lectures are now before the public, and one is added annually. The most remarkable are the following: Those delivered in 1784, on Christianity and Moham- medanism, by Dr. White, who was accused of having obtained assistance in their composition from Dr. Parr and Dr. Badcock ; those by Dr.Tatham in 1790, on the Logic of Theology ; those of Dr. Nott in 1802, on Re- ligious Enthusiasm — this series was directed against Weslev and Whitefield ; those of Dr. Mant in 1812 ; those of Reginald Ileber in 1815 ; Whately in 1822 ; Milman in 1827; Burton in 1829, on the Heresies of the Apostolic Age; Soames in 1830, on the Doctrines of the Anglo-Saxon Church. But of the whole series, none have caused greater controversy than those by Dr. Hampden in 1832, on The Scholastic Philosophy considered in its Relation to Christian Theology. They •were attacked on all sides, but especially bjr the lead- ers of the Oxford Tract Association. When Hampden was appointed Regius Professor of Divinity in 1836, a petition against his appointment was sent up to the throne, and upon this being rejected, a censure was passed upon him in convocation by a large majori- ty, declaring his teaching to be unsound, and re- leasing undergraduates from attendance at his lec- tures. In spite of this clerical persecution, he was raised to the see of Hereford in 1847. A recent course of Bampton Lectures, delivered by Mansel in 1858, on The Limits of Religious Thought, has caused a less bit- ter, but scarcely less interesting controversy. The main position which he takes up is, "That the human mind inevitably, and by virtue of its essential consti- tution, finds itself involved in self-contradictions when- ever it ventures on certain courses of speculation," i. e. on speculations concerninii; the infinite nature of God. He maintains that all attempts to construct an objective or metaphysical theology must necessarily fail, and that the attainment of a philosophy of the in- | finite is utterly impossible, under the existing laws of human thought — the practical aim of the whole course being to show the "right use of reason in religious questions." Mr. Mansel has been accused by his crit- ics of condemning all dogmatic theology (e. g. all creeds and articles), and of making revelation itself impossible. The Bampton Lectures for 1859 were de- livered by Geo. Rawlinson, the subject being The llis- torical Evidences of the Truth of the Scripture Records, statu/ anew, with Special Reference to the Doubts and Discoveries of Modern Times. The volume for 1862 was Farrar's Critical History of Free Thought (N. Y. 1863, 12mo). — Chambers, Encyclopedia, s. v. ; Metho- d's! Quarterly, 1863, p. 687. Ban (bannus, bannum), in ancient jurisprudence, a declaration, especially a declaration of outlawry; in ecclesiastical law, a declaration of excommunication (q. v.). According to the canon law of the Roman Church the authority to decree the ban lies in the pope for the whole church, in the bishop for his dio- cese, in the apostolic legate for his legation, and in the prior of an order for his subordinates. Priests had formerly an independent right of excommunication, but can now exercise that right only by authority of the bishop. The ban covers all Christians, whether heretics or not, under the jurisdiction of the adminis- trator (Cone. Trident. Sess. xxv, cap. 3). See Ex- communication. For Banns of Marriage, see Banns. Ban (too TSav v. r. Baivav ; Vulg. Tubal), given as the name of one of the priestty families that had lost their pedigree after the exile in a very corrupt passage (1 Esdr. v, 37) ; it doubtless stands for TobiAH (q. v.), i. e. nr2b~^:2, in the parallel lists of Ezra (ii, 60) and Nehemiah (vii", 62). Banai'as (Bavaiac), the last named of the "sons of Ethma" among the Israelites who had taken foreign wives after the captivity (1 Esdr. ix, 35); evidently the Benaiah (q. v.) of the genuine list (Ezra, x, 43).* Bancroft, Aaron, D.D., was born at Reading, Penn., 1755, and graduated at Harvard College. In 1785 he became pastor of the Congregational Church of Worcester, Mass., where he remained until his death. He was educated a Calvinist, but became an Arian in middle life. In 1808 he published a Life of Washing- ton, which was well received, and has been often re- printed (last ed. N. Y., 2 vols. 12mo). In 1822 he published a volume of Sermons. — Allibone ; New Am. Encycl. Bancroft, Richard, archbishop of Canterbury, was born at Farnworth in 1544, and entered at Christ's College, Cambridge. In 1584 he was made rector of St. Andrew's in Holborn. When chaplain to Arch- bishop Whitgift, he delivered a sermon at St. Paul's Cross, in which he strongly warned the Parliament against the Puritans. In 1597 he was made bishop of London through the influence of the archbishop, and was sent by Queen Elizabeth in 1600 to Embden, to put an end to the differences which existed between the English and Danes, but his mission was unsuc- cessful. He attended the Hampton Court Conference in 1603-4, and in March in that year was appointed by the king's writ president of convocation, the see of Canterbury being vacant. In the eleventh session, held May 2d, he presented the Book of Canons now in force, which he had selected out of the articles, injunc- tions, and synodical acts passed in the two previous reigns. After this he was promoted to the see of Can- terbury, and his primacy is distinguished for the com- mencement of the now authorized version of the Scrip- tures. He was a strenuous High-Churchman, and a bitter opponent of the Puritans. He was the first An- glican divine who publicly maintained the divine right of bishops. This was in a sermon preached at St. Paul's Cross, February, 1588-9, in which he main- tained that " bishops were, as an order, superior to priests and deacons ; that they governed by divine ap- pointment ; and that to deny these truths was to deny a portion of the Christian faith." On the effect pro- duced by this sermon, see Heylin, Aerius Redivivus, p. 284. He died at Lambeth in 1610, leaving his hooks to his church. His principal published works were, Discovery of the Untruths and Slanders against Reforma- tion (sermon preached February, 1588): — Survey of the pretended Holy Discipline (Loud. 1593, 4to) :—Danffi r- ous Positions and Proceedings jmblishtd umhr the I'n.~ fence of Reformation, for the Presbyterial Discipline (Lond. 1595, 8vo). See Biog. Brit. vol. i ; Neal, Hist, of Puritans, i, 449 ; Lathbury, Hist, of Convocation (Lond. 1842, 8vo): Hook, Eccles. Biography, i, 506. Band, the representative of several Heb. and Gr. words, and in the N. T. especially of oiruQa, a cohort (q. v.). Band, a part of clerical dress, said to be. a relic of the ancient amice (q. v.). It belongs to the full dress of the bar and university in England. " In Scotland it distinguishes ordained ministers from licentiates or probationers, and is said to be a remnant of the old cravat worn universally by the clergy a hundred years ago." — (Eadie.) It is worn in the Church of England, in the Protestant Episcopal Church in America, and by the Protestant ministers of the Continental churches of Europe generally. See Clergy, Dress of the. Band (Societies); See Bands. r.ANDIXEL G32 BANGS Bandinel, James, D.D., was educated at Jesus . i >xford : became M.A. in 1758, D.D. in 1777, and died at Winchester in 1804. He was rector of Netherby, Dorsetshire, for many years. He publish- ed Eight Sermons on the p adiar Doctrines ofCkristi- ing the Bampton Lectures for 1780 (Oxford, 1 1, which arc marked by ingenuity and critical talent Bands, small societies instituted by Wesley to promote personal holiness and good works among the [ethodists. The first "rides of the band socie- rawn up December 25, 1738, may be found in History of the Methodist luscijiline, p. -NO. ocietics were more select than class-meetings (q. v.\ and admitted only persons of the same sex, all married <>r all single, who were put in charge of a ■• band-leader." They have nearly gone out of use in America, the article relating to them in the Discipline having been struck out by the General Conference of 1856. They still may be found in England, though not very numerous. See Emory, History of the Discipline, p. 200sq. ; Grindrod, Compendium of Laws of Method- ism, 17-1 sq. ; Porter, Compnidimn of Methodism, 50, 460; Stevens. History of Methodism, i, 122 ; ii, 455; Wesley, Works, x, 183. Banduri Manuscript. See Moxtfaucon's "Mam script. Bangius or Bang, Pkter, a Swedish theologian, was born at Helsingfors in 103:;, was made professor of theology in the University of Abo, and bishop of Wiborg. He died in 1696, having published a Com- ius in Hebrccos, and a Hlstoria Ecclesiastica. Bangor (Bangertiuni), an episcopal see in Wales, in Caernarvonshire. The foundation of this see is al- together involved in obscurity. The cathedral is dedi- cated to St. Daniel, its first bishop, and the chapter con- sists of a dean, treasurer, precentor, two archdeacons, five canons, and two minor canons. The diocese com- prises Anglesea, and parts of Caernarvonshire, Den- bigh. Montgomery, and Merionethshire, containing one hundred and seventy parishes, of which thirty-seven are impropriated. The present (1866) incumbent is James Colquhoun ( lampbell, D.D., consecrated in 1859. Bangorian Controversy, a title derived from the bishop of Bangor (Hoadley), who, in the reign of <■ "ge [, wrote "A Preservative against the Prin- ciples and Practices of Non-Jurors;" and afterward preached and published a sermon from the passage, " My kingdom is not of this world" (John xviii, 36), in which he maintained the supreme authority of Christ as king in his own kingdom ; and that he had not del- egated hi- power, like temporal lawgivers during their absence from their kingdom, to any persons as his n nis and deputies. The publication of this ser- mon by order of the king led to the controversy above named, in which Dr. Snape and Dr. Sherlock, the i baplains, took a prominent part as the oppo- nents of Hoadley, maintaining that (here were certain powers distinctly vested in the church by Christ, its king, of which the ministers of the church were the constitutionally -appointed executive. This contro- versy lasted many veins, and led to the discontinu- ance of the Convocation. The pamphlets on the sub- ject are very numerou : on of the most important is, William Law, Thret Letters to Bishop Hoadley, to be found in Law's Scholar Armed, i, 279, and also in La-vt 's l.i See England, ii of; Hoadley. Bangs, John, a Methodist Episcopal minister, was lorn in Stratford,) onn.,in 1781, commenced preach- ing in 1806, entered the itinerant ministry in N. Y. Conference in 1819, became supernumerary in 1836, and died in great peace, Feb.4, 1849. His youth was vain and profane. I, ui from his conversion ho was full of holy zeal and love fur BOuls. "lie preached holi- ness to others, and enjoyed its exalted felicity himself," and about three thousand conversions were the fruit of his labors. — Minutes of Conferences, iv, 328. Bangs, Nathan, D.D., an eminent minister of the Methodist Episcopal Church, was born May 2, 1778, near Bridgeport, Conn. When he was about thirteen, the family removed to Stamford, Delaware Co., N. Y., and here, on the home farm, the boj- grew up, receiv- ing the common school education of the time, by which he profited so well that at eighteen he was capable of teaching such a school himself. In 1799 he went to Canada, and spent three years there in teaching and in surveying land. In 1800 he was converted, and in 1802 was admitted into the New York Conference of the Methodist Episcopal Church, which then embraced Canada. The next six years he spent in arduous la- bors in Canada, going from village to village'as an itinerant minister, often through virgin forests, guided only by the "marks" of the wood-cutter or the hunter. In 1808 he was returned to the state of New York, be- ing appointed by the bishop to Delaware Circuit. Such had been his rapid rise in influence that his brethren sent him to the General Conference of this .year, and so commanding were his subsequent services that he was a delegate in every session after, except that of 1848, down to 1856, when his advanced years justified bis release from such responsibilities. In 1810 he was sent to New York City, which was ever after the head- quarters of his labors and influence for his denomina- tion. Methodism here was then still in its youthful struggles ; it consisted of one circuit, with five preach- ing-places. The city population was below one hun- dred thousand. The city and its suburbs now (1865) comprise a million of people, and more than twice as manjr Methodist preachers as the whole Conference then reported, though it swept over much of Connecti- cut, Massachusetts, Vermont, and over Eastern New York, up the Hudson into Canada to even Montreal and Quebec! What a history for one. life! In 1813 he was appointed presiding elder of the Rhinebeck Dis- trict ; from 1817 to 1820 he was pastor in New York ; and in 1820 he was elected "Book Agent," and as- sumed the charge of the Methodist Book Concern, then a small business, and deeply involved in debt. Under his skilful management (from 1820 to 1828) the Con- cern rapidly recovered from its embarrassments, and its business was immensely extended. In 1826 the "Christian Advocate" was established, and the edi- torial matter from 1826 to 1828 was chiefly furnished by Dr. Bangs, though he was still discharging the ar- duous duties of senior book-agent. During the whole period of his agency (1820-1828) he was also editor of the Methodic Magazine. Such an amount of labor would have worn out any man not endowed with great intellectual and bodily vigor — qualities which, in Dr. Bangs, were supplemented by indomitable industry and perseverance. In 1828 he was appointed editor of the Advocate, including, also, the editorial labors of the Magazine. In 1832 the General Conference ap- pointed him editor of the Methodist Quarterly Review, a new form of the Methodist Magazine. His office com- prised also the editorial charge of the books of the general catalogue. He had no paid assistance in the labors of the two periodicals, no appropriation being made for contributions; but the variety and vigor of his own articles imparted continued freshness and power to their pages. His services to the missionary cause were perhaps the most important of all his vast and varied labors. He was one of the founders of the. Methodist Mission- ary Society ; he framed its original Constitution; he v rote its first " Circular Address" to the church. Dur- ing sixteen years prior to the organization of the sec- retaryship as a special and salaried function, he la- bored jndefatigably and gratuitously for the society as its vice-president, secretary, or treasurer. He wrote in these years all its annual reports. In 1836 he was BANGS C33 BAN I appointed " Missionary Secretary." He now devoted his entire energies to the Missionary Society, conduct- ing its correspondence, seeking missionaries for it, planning its mission-fields, pleading for it in the pul- pits, and representing it in the Conferences until 1841, ■when he accepted the presidency of the Wesleyan Uni- versity at Middletown, Conn. In 1842 he returned to pastoral work in New York, and remained in active service until 1852. The remainder of his life was passed in quiet literary labor, with occasional preach- ing as his health served. Much of the literary labor of Ins later years was devoted to the exposition of the doctrine of entire sanctitication. In his eightieth year he preached with vigor, and his writings of that period are luminous and powerful. His last sermon was on the certain triumph of the Gospel. He died in great peace May 3, 1862. Dr. Bangs was a man of vigor and force — a fighter, when need be, to the last. " No man could show a nobler indignation against anything unrighteous or mean ; no man could speak more unflinchingly or di- rectly to the very face and teeth of a pretentious, an evasive, or disingenuous disputant, but no man ever had a more genial heart, a more instinctive sympathy with whatever is generous, heroic, or tender. His friendships were as steadfast as adamant. Unlike most old men, he was, to the last, progressive in his views. He sympathized with all well-considered meas- ures for the improvement of his church, but its old honor was dearer to him than life, and woe to the man that dare impeach it in his presence. To him its his- tory was all providential, and the very necessity of changes was the gracious summons of Providence for it to arise and shine still brighter. This hearty, reso- lute love of his friends and Ins cause, was one of the strongest, noblest traits of the war-worn old hero. It made him lovable as he was loving. His old age seemed to mellow rather than wither his generous dis- positions. He was always deeply devout, but with advanced years he seemed to attain advanced heights of Christian experience and consolation. The Pauline doctrine of sanctitication, as denned by Wesley, be- came his habitual theme ofiiiierest and conversation. He delighted to attend social gatherings for prayer on this subject, and during several late years he presided over one of the most frequented assemblies of this kind in New York. He seemed to take increasingly cheer- ful views of life, and of the prospects of the kingdom of God in the world, as he approached the end of his career. There was no querulousness in his temper, no repining in his conversation, at the changes which ware displacing him from public view." His writings alone would have made him an histor- ical character of his church. His editorial productions in the Advocate, the Magazine, and the Quarterly Re- r:< w would fill scores of volumes. His Annual Mis- sionary Reports would make no small library of mis- sionary literature. His more substantial publications are more numerous than those of any other American Methodist. As early as 1809 he began his career as an author by a volume against " Christianism," an heretical sect of New England. Three years later the General Conference appointed him chairman of a com- mittee to collect the historical materials of the denom- ination, and thus began the researches which resulted in his History of tlie Methodist Episcopal Church. Be- fore the appearance of this, his most important pro- duction, he published Errors of //ojikinsianism (1815, 12nio) ; Predestimd'on examined (1817, 12mo) ; Refor- mer Reformed (1818, 12mo); Methodist E.piscopacy (1*820, 12mo) ; Life of the Rev. Freeborn Garrettson, one of the best of our biographies, and an essential collection of data for the history of the church. In 1832 appeared his Authentic History of the Missions tauter tin- emu if the Methodist Episcopal Church, a volume which has aided much the missionary enterprise of the denomi- nation. In 1835 he published Letters to a Young Preach- er, full of excellent counsels on ministerial habits, on books, study, preaching, etc. ; and in 1836, TJie Orig- inal Church of Christ (12mo). In 1839 appeared the first volume of his History of the M. E. Church. In three years the remaining three volumes were issued. It was a book for the times, if not for all time. His other publications are an Essay on Emancipation (1818, 8vo); Stale and Responsibilities of the Methodist Epis- copal Church (1850, 12mo); Letters on Sonet feat ion (1851, 12mo); Life of Arminius (18mo); and numerous ; occasional sermons. His scheme of " Emancipation" is substantially that recommended in the message of I the President of the United States to Congress, 1862. I "Let Congress," he says, "make a proposition to the several slave states that so much per head shall be al- lowed for every slave that shall be emancipated, leav- I ing it to the state Legislatures respectively to adopt | their own measures to effect the object." Thus did i this sagacious old man anticipate by several years the I best suggestion which our national leaders were able to utter on our greatest national problem before its final solution by the sword. It is elaborated with skilful and intrepid ability, and fortified by decisive proofs from facts and figures. It has been said of his concluding "array of motives to emancipation," that they "are strong enough, one would think, to rouse all but the dead to the importance of the task." See Stevens, Life and Times of Xatlian Bangs, D.D. (N. Y. 1863, 12mo) ; Ladies' Repository, June, 1859 ; The Mt th- odist, May 10, 1862 ; Methodist Quarterly, Januarv, 1864, p. 172. ' Bangs, Stephen Beekman, a prominent young Methodist preacher, son of the Rev. Heman Bangs, was born in New York in 1823. graduated at the N. Y. University in 1843, and was licensed to preach in the following year, joining the N. Y. Conference. His style of preaching excited strong anticipations of great usefulness, which were, however, disappointed by his early death, March 20,1846 — Magruder, Memoir of 3. B. Bangs (New York, 1853); Minutes of Conferences, iv,3I. Bangs, William M'Kendree, son of the Rev. Nathan Bangs, D.D., was born in New York, Decem- i ber 15, 1810, and graduated at 19 years of age at the | University of Ohio with the highest honors. He was immediately offered a professorship in Augusta Col- lege, Ky., which he held for only one year, being im- pressed with the dut}' of entering the Christian minis- try. In 1831 he entered the N. Y. Conference of the M. E. Church, and continued to labor, except when his I feeble health compelled him to desist, till his death in 1852. His logical powers were of the highest order, and his command of language rarely equalled. "Whether conversing familiarly with his friends, discussing some difficult abstract question, or preaching to a congre- gation, his style was remarkably adapted to the sub- J ject and the occasion. His sermons were clear, sys- j tematic, easy to be understood, neither encumbered by extraneous matter, nor disfigured by learned pedantry. They were characterized by a beautiful simplicity, and 1 always bore the impress of a great mind." As a con- troversial writer he excelled greatly; his articles in the Methodist Quarterly Review, especially those of 1836 and 1837, in reply to the "Christian Spectator," and his reviews of Watson's Theo/oyind. Institutes, are fine specimens of analytical as well as comprehensive thinking. — Minutes of Conferences, v, 211 ; Sprague, Annals, vii, 773. Ba'ni (Heb. Bani', h53, built; Sept. usually Bavl, sometimes Boui'i or Bavov't, etc.), the name of at least five men. 1. A Levite, son of Shamer, and father of Amzi, of the family of Gershon (1 Chron. vi, 46). B.C. long ante 1043* 2. A Gadite, one of David's thirty-seven warriors (2 Sam. xxiii, 3G). B.C. 1046. BANID 634 BANNER 3. A descendant <>f Pharez, and father of Imri, one I parentlv a corruption for Zabad (q. v.) of the genuine of whose descendants returned from Babylon (1 Chron. text (Ezra x, 33). Ancient Banner? ix, 4). B.C. long ante 536. 4. One of the heads of families whose retainers to the number of 642 returned from Babylon with Zerub- babel (Ezra ii. 1"; x, 29, 34 ; Neh. x, 14; 1 Esdr. v, 12). 11.- is elsewhere (Neh. vii, 15) called Binnui (q. v.). See also Banid. He was himself one of those who di- vorce'1 their heathen wives (Ezra x. 38). Others consider this last a different person, and identify him with some, of those referred to below. B.C. 536-410. 5. A Levitc, whose son Rehum repaired a portion of the (branch) wall of Jerusalem skirting the brow of Mount Zion on the east (Neh. iii, 17). Apparently the same Bani was among those who were conspicuous in all the re- forms on the return from Babylon (Neh. viii, 7 ; ix, 4 twice, 5 ; x, 13). He had another son named Uzzi, who was appointed overseer of the Levites at Jeru- salem ; his own father's name was Hashabiah (Neh. xi, 22). B.C. 446-410. See Chenani. Ba'nid (Baviag v. r. Bavi; Vulg. Banid), the an- cestor or family-head of one of the parties (that of As- salimoth, son of Josa, with 160 retainers) that returned from Babylon with Ezra (1 Esd. viii, 36). This rep- resents a name, Bani (q. v.), which has apparently escaped from the present Hebrew text (Ezra viii, 10). Banish (found in the Auth. Vers, only in the forms "banished," Heb. m?, niddach', 2 Sam. xiv, 13, 14, out- cast, as elsewhere ; and " banishment," Heb. DTIWi, madduch ductions; Chald. rzJTJ or "<^'2 , sheroshu' or sheroshi', lit. a rooting out, Ezra vii, 26). This was not a pun- ishment enjoined by the Mosaic law; but after the captivity, both exile and forfeiture of property were introduced among the Jews ; and it also existed under the Romans, by whom it was called d'minntio capitis, because the person banished lost the rights of a citi- zen, and the city of Rome thereby lost a head. But there was another description of exile termed disporta- >'">, which was a punishment of greater severity. The party banished forfeited his estate, and, being bound, was put on board ship and transported to some island specified by the emperor, there to be confined in per- petual banishment (see Smith's Diet, of Class. Antiq. s. v. Banishment). In this manner the apostle John was exiled to the little island of I'atmos (Rev. i, 9). See Exile. Bank. In Luke xix, 23, the Greek word Tpairtfa, table, is rendered "bank" in the modern sense of the term, which, by a similar appropriation, is derived from the same root as bench. In Matt, xxi, 12; Mark xi, 15; and John ii, 15, it is employed literally, and de- notes Hi' ••table" ,,f the money-changer '(q. v.), at which he satin the market-place, as is still the custom '" ""' East, and also in the outer court of the Temple. In oiler passages it denotes an ordinary table for food. '"' "bank," rttb, soldah', also occurs in 2 Sun. xx. 15; 2 Ki„,s xix, 3.'; Isa. xxxvii, 33, as the named the mound raised against a besieged city; it "'" rendered "mount" in the same sense. See Si: I he - bank" or shore of a river or sea is designated by the ii,.,,. ter,„ rr,:, or rrns, gadah' or gidyah', and iphah', a Up, Bann. See Banns. Bannai'a « 2a/3awatoc v. r. Bavvaioc, Vulg. Ban- Ofthe "BOnSofAsom" that renounced their Gentile wives after the captivity i l Esdr.ix,33); ap- Banner, or Standard, or Ensign, or Signal (q. v. severally). These words are probably used indis- criminately by the sacred writers. Some of the rab- bins suppose that the ancient Hebrew tribe-standards were flags bearing figures derived from the compari- Kgyptian ; 3, 4, Persian ; 5, 6, Roman. sons used by Jacob in his final prophetic blessing on his sons. Thus they have Judah represented by a lion, Dan by a serpent, Benjamin by a wolf, etc. (Gen. xlix, 1-28). Sir Thomas Brown, indeed, observes (Vulgar Errors, v, 10), "The escutcheons of the tribes, as determined by these ingenious triflers, do not in ev- ery instance correspond with any possible interpreta- tion of Jacob's prophecy, nor with the analogous proph- ecy of Moses when about to die." However, there may he some truth in the rabbinical notion after all. And as the tribe of Judah was represented by a lion, may not its motto have been, " Who shall rouse him up?" Thus the banner of the royal tribe would be an interesting prediction of the appearance and universal triumph of Christ, who is called "the lion of the tribe causes of ban.," Lam. ii, 14, rather se- J of Judah" (Hos. v, 14 ; Rev. v, 5). The four follow- ing Hebrew words signify banner, standard, ensign, flag, or signal : 1. Ds'gel (PW, as being conspicuous'), flag, ban- ner, or standard of a larger kind, serving for three tribes together, one of which pertained to each of the four general divisions. The four standards of this name were large, and ornamented with colors in white, purple, crimson, and dark blue. The Jewish rabbins assert (founding their statement on Gen. xlix, 3, 9, 17, 22, which in this case is very doubtful authority) that the first of these standards, that of Judah, bore a lion; the second, or that of Reuben, bore a mn: that of Ephraim, which was the third, displayed the figure of a bull: while that of Dan, which was the fourth, ex- hibited the representation of cherubim. The standards were wrorked with embroidery (Num. i, 52 ; ii, 2, 3, 10, 18, 25 ; Sol. Song ii, 4 ; vi, 4," 10). See Camp. 2. Otii (riX, a sign), an ensign or flag of a smaller kind. It belonged to each single tribe, and perhaps to the separate classes of families. Most likely it was originally merefy a pole or spear, to the end of which a bunch of leaves was fastened, or something similar. Subsequently it may have been a shield suspended on the elevated point of such pole or spear, as was some- times done among the Greeks and Romans. The Tar- guinists, however, believe that the banners were dis- tinguished by their colors, the color for each tribe be- ing analogous to that of the precious stone for that tribe in the breast-plate of the high-priest; and that the great standard (tlgel) of each of the four camps combined the three colors of the tribes wdiich composed it. They add that the names of the tribes appeared > 15~ "14 X^"1S 1G n 18 19 20 Aoclenl I jrptUn Party of G urate, to whom Wine, Ointment, and Garlands are brought. a cup of wine to n gentleman and lady, 2, 3, seated on chairs with cushions, probably of leather; 4. Anothi r holding n vase of ointment and n garland; 5, Present* a lotus-flower, and 9, a necklace or garland, wl" h ' ' """"1 tlin neck ol the. guest, 10; 12, A female attendant offering wine to a guert; in her left hand r •■. ,|„iil- tlir month after drinking. The tables, «.-./, have cakes of Invad, c, r; meat, \). The reminder sent to the guests (Luke xiv, 17) was prol ably only usual in princely banquets on a large scale, involving protract- ed preparation. There seems r.o doubt that the Jews of the O. T. period used a common table fcr all the guests. Li Joseph's entertainment a ceremonial sep- aration prevailed, but there is no reason for supposing a separate table for each, as is distinctly asserted in the Talmud ( Tosejahot Bciach. c. vi) to have been usual. The latter custom certainly was in use among the ancient Greeks and Germans (Horn. Od. xxiii, xxii, 74; Tae. Germ. 22), and perhaps among the Egyptians (Wilkinson, ii, 202, engravings). But the common phrase to "sit at table," or "eat at any one's table," shows the originality of the opposite usage. The separation of the woman's banquet was not a Jew- ish custom (Esth. i, 9). Portions or messes were sent from the entertainer to each guest at tabic, and a special part was sometimes reserved for a late comer ( 1 Sam. i, 5; Gen. xliii, 34; 1 Sam. ix, 23, 24). Por- tions were similarly sent to poorer friends direct from the banquet-table (Neh. viii, 10; Esth. ix, 19, 22). The kiss on receiving a guest was a point of friendly courtesy (Luke vii, 45). It was strictly enjoined by the rabbins to wash both before and after eating, which BANUAS C39 BAPTISM they called the "first water" and the "last water" (B^ibiO d?B and CJ^SiltlSjl &??); but washing the feet seems to have been limited to the case of a guest who was also a traveller. See Ablution. In religious banquets the wine was mixed, by rab- binical regulation, with three parts of water, and four short forms of benediction were pronounced over it. At the Passover four such cups were mixed, blessed, and passed round by the master of the feast (dpxirpi- kXivoq). It is probable that the character of this official varied with that of the entertainment ; if it were a religious one, his office would be quasi-prisstly ; if a revel, he would be the mere symposiarch (ti^itto- mdpxns) or arbiter blbendi. (See Smith's Diet, of Class. Ant. s. v. Symposium; Comissatio.) — Smith, s v. See Entertainment ; Eating ; Hospitality, etc. Ban'uas (Bdvvog, Vulg. Bamis), a name of a Le^ vite occurring in the lists of those who returned from captivity (1 Esdr. v, 26) ; this, with the following name, answers to Hodaviah (q. v.) or Hodevah in the parallel lists of Ezra (ii, 40) and Nehemiah (vii, 43). Baphomet (Batp)) MrjTSwg, baptism of Metis, or of fire, the Gnostic baptism), is the name given to cer- tain symbolic figures, half male and half female, carv- ed in stone, etc., which are said by some to have be- longed to the insignia of the Knight Templars. Speci- mens of them are to be found in the collections of an- tiquities of Weimar and Vienna. These figures have generally two heads or faces, one of which is bearded; they are surrounded by serpents, and bear various in- scriptions and representations of the sun, moon, trun- cated crosses (otherwise called Egyptian key of life and death), etc. Some have considered them as im- ages of the devil, others as representing Mete (Wis- dom), the Gnostic divinity, and others, seeing in them busts of Mohammed, considered them as proofs of the apostasy of the Templars. It seems more probable, however, that they were merely some alchemico-theo- sophical symbols. See Joseph von Hammer, Fund- gruben d. Orients (6 vols.); Von Nell, Baphometische Actenstiicke, etc. (Vienna, 1819); Same, Essay on a Cosmological Interpretation of ih: I'hanician Worship of the Cabiri, etc. Baptism, a rite of purification or initiation, in which water is used; one of the sacraments (q. v.) of the Christian Church. The word baptism is simply an Anglicized form of the Greek fiairTiopoc, a verbal noun from liairri'^oj (likewise Anglicized "baptize"), and this, again, is a derivative from f3dirr rbv Aiuvvtrov irpbg ti)v QaXarrav (Ibid. p. 914). (2.) The plunging or sinking of an object: as OvSt yap roic dKo\vp/3oig fiairrCCtaBai avfifiaivti ZvXtov Tpbirov iTrnroXa^ot'tri, where f3aTTTiX,to9ai, in the sense of "submerged," is contrasted with t7rnroXdc,ovot, in the sense of "float;" iv vSaai yivtaOcii t>)v noptiav ovvkj3n, iik%pi 6pa\ov fiairnZopsvwv, being in water up to the navel (Strabo, Geogr. xiv, p. 667) ; poXtg 'itoc tojv patJTM> in ire%oi fiaTrnZofitvoi fiiefiaivov {Polyb. iii). So Pindar says (Pyth. ii, 145), dfldirTWTOQ tlpi, tptXXbg H>Q, where the cork of the fisherman is styled unbaptized, in contrast with the net which sinks into the water. From this, by metonomy of cause for ef- fect, is derived the sense to drown, as tfic'nrTia tig rbv olvov, "I whelmed him in the wine" (Julian iEgypt. Anacreont.'). (3.) The covering over of any object by the flowing or pouring of a fluid on it; and metaphorically (in the passive), the. being overwhelmed or oppressed: thus the Pseudo-Aristotle speaks of places full of bulrushes and sea-weeds, which, when the tide is at the ebb, are not baptized (i. e. covered by the water), but at full tide are flooded over (Mirabil. Auscult. § 137, p. 50, in Wester- man's edit, of the Script. Per. Mir. Gr.); Diodorus Siculus (bk. i) speaks of bind animals being destroyed by the river overtaking them {UiatpQtiptTai fianTt'Cv- /.ni'tt); Plato and Athenaaus describe men in a state of ebriety as baptized (Sympos. p. 176 B. ; and Deipnos. v.); and the former says the same of a youth over- whelmed with sophistry (Eulhyd. 277 D.); Plutarch denounces the forcing of knowledge on children be- yond what they can receive as a process by which the soul is baptized (De Lib.educ.'); and he speaks of men as baptized by debts (Galbce, v. 21); Diodorus Siculus speaks of baptizing people with tears (bk. i, c. 73) ; and Libanius says, " He who hardly bears what he now bears, would be baptized by a little addition" (Epist. 310). and " I am one of those baptized by that great wave" (Ep. 25). (4.) The complete drenching of an object, whether by aspersion or immersion; as 'AcKvg /SoTrn^y, vbvca St BAPTISM 640 BAPTISM ?oi ov Ot^uc tan, "As a bladder thou shaltbe washed ( i. e. by the waves breaking over thee), but thou canst HOI go down" (Oruc. Sibyll. de Athenis. ap. Plutarch, From this it appears that in classical usage [iaTrri- _',,r is not fixed to any special mode of applying the baptizing element to the object baptized; all that is implied by the term is, that the former is closely in contact with the latter, or that the latter is wholly in the former. 2. By the Septuagint. — Here the word occurs only four times, viz. 2 Kings v, 14: "And Naaman went down and baptized himself (j-fSaTrrioaTd) seven times in the river .Ionian," where the original Hebrew is Vz-"", from "-, to dip, plunge, immerse; Isa. xxi, 4, " Iniquity baptizes me" (») avofxia jit fia~-iZti), where the word is plainly used in the sense of overwhelm, answering to the lleb. MS, to come upon suddenly, to terrify; Judith xii, 7, "She went out by night . . . and baptized herself (ijiairriZ.tTo) at the fountain;" and Ecclus. xxxi [xxxiv], 30, "He who is baptized from a corpse" (jicnrriZofikvog c'nrb vtKpov), etc. In these last two instances the word merely denotes w ished, without indicating any special mode by which this was done, though in the former the circumstances of the case make it improbable that the act described was that of bathing (camp. Num. xix, 19). In the Greek, then, of the Sept., j3cnrri^ttv signifies to plunge, to bathe, or to overwhelm. It is never used to describe the act of one who dips another object into a fluid, or the case of one who is dipped by another. 3. In the New Testament. — Confining our notice here simply to the philology of the subject, the instances of this usage may be classified thus : (1.) The. verb or noun alone, or with the object baptiz-d merely: as fiawrtaOrjvai, Matt, iii, 13, 14; jiaiTTiadtir, Mark xvi. 16; fiairriZuv, Mark i, 4; fiaTrriaiovTai, vii, 4; liaTTTt'ltic, John i, 25; ijic'nrT icy a, 1 Cor. i, 14, etc. ; /3<<7T7inrTia\\a, Eph. iv, 5 ; ilc'nrriapa, Col. ii, 12 ; 1 Pet. iii, 21, etc. ; j3aTr- riofioi'C 7TOTT)piwv, Mark vii, 4, 8; ija-rayf-iojv SiSa- XJIC, lleb. vi, 2 : Sia(p6poiQ pa— napoXc, ix, 10. (2.) With addition of the element of baptism: as iv vdan, Mark i, 8, etc.; iv ■Kvivfian ayim icai irvpi, Matr. iii, 11, etc. ; 'vdan, Luke iii, 16, etc. The force of iv in such formulae has by some been pressed, as if it indicated that the object of baptism was in the ele- ment of baptism; but by most the iv is regarded a- mereh the nota dativi, so that iv vcan means no more than the simple JuSan, as the iv Ti\oiit> of Matt. xiv,13, means no more than the -\oii;j of Mark vi, 32. (See Matthias, sec. 401, ohs. 2 ; Kiihner, sec. 585, Anm. "-'. ) Only in one instance does the accusative appear in the X. T., Mark i, 9, where we have tic -iv 'lopcd- j)/r, and this can hardly lie regarded as a real excep- tion to the ordinary usage of the N. T., because tic here is loeal rather than instrumental. In connection with this may be noticed the phrases Kara)iaivuv tig . and airoftaivuv tic or euro roe vScitoq. Ac- cording to some, these decisively prove that the party baptized, ae "ell a- the baptizer, went down into the water, and came up out of ii. lint, on the other hand. it i- contended thai the phrases do not necessarily im- ply more than that they went to (i. e. to the margin ol") tin- water and returned thence. (.;. i With specification ofth end or purpose for which tl,< baptism is effected. This is usually indicated by e«c: as Qam ovopa, Matt, xxviii, 19, and frequently; Iftairriafhiutv u'r Xpiar&v . . . tic rbv Rom. vi, 3, al. ; tic rbv Mwvarjv i/3ax- ria9qaav,l Cor. x, 3; u'r j'j. awfia ipairriaBnpev, xii, irrta9j)Tw iKaeroc. . . . tit- dftaiv aftapnwv, Acts ii. ."•-<, etc. In ft etains its proper ?ignificancy, as indicating tin- terminus ad quern, ami tropically, that for which, or uith ./ view /,, which the thing is done, modified according as this is a person I or a thing. Thus, to be baptized for Mose*;, means to be baptized with a view to following or being subject to the rule of Moses; to be baptized for Christ means to be baptized with a view to becoming a true follower of Christ; to be baptized for his death means to be | baptized with a view to the enjoyment of the benefits of his death ; to be baptized for the remission of sins means to be baptized with a view to receiving this ; to be baptized for the name of any one means to be bap- tized with a view to the realization of all that the meaning of this name implies, etc. In one passage Paul uses oirifj to express the end or design of baptism, /x(— TiZi'i^uvoi i'—'to riitv vtKpwv, 1 Cor. xv, 29; but here the involved idea of substitution justifies the use of the preposition. Instead of a preposition, the geni- tive of object is sometimes used, as iia7TTiapa ptra- voiaq, Luke iii, 3, al. =/3ft manner in each case: in the first by dipping, or im- mersing, or rinsing, or pouring, or simply wiping with a wet cloth ; in the second by aspersion and wiping; and in the third by plunging or stepping into the bath. 3. Bajitism cf affliction, Mark x, 38, 39; Luke xii, 50. In both these passages our Lord refers to his im- pending sufferings as a baptism which he had to un- dergo. Chrysostom, and some others of the fathers, understand this objectively, as referring to the purga- tion which his sufferings were to effect (see the pas- sages in Suicer, Tins. s. v. fidima/ia, i, 7); but this does not seem to be the idea of the speaker. Our Lord rather means that his sufferings were to come on him as a mighty overwhelming torrent (see Kumol on Matt, xx, 22, -3; Blomfield, ibid.). Some inter- preters suppose there is an allusion in this language to submersion as essential to baptism (see Olshausen in loc. ; Meyer on Mark x, 3*~) ; but nothing more seems to be implied than simply the being overwhelmed in a figurative sense, according to what we have seen to be a common use of the word by the classical writers. 1. Baptism with the Spirit, Matt, iii, 11 ; Mark i, 8; Luke iii, 16; John i, 33; Acts 5,5; xi,16; 1 Cor. xii, 13. In the first of these passages it is said of our Lord that he shall baptize with the Holy Spirit and with tire. Whether this be taken as a hendiadys the Spirit as fire, or as pointing out. two distinct baptisms, the one by the Spirit, the other by lire; and whether, on the latter assumption, the baptism by fire means the destruction by Christ of his enemies, or the miraculous endowment of his apostles, it does not concern us at present to inquire. Respecting the intent of baptism BAPTISM G41 BAPTISM by the Spirit, there can bo little room for doubt or dif- I ference of opinion ; it is obviously a figurative mode of describing the agency of the Divine Spirit given ! through and by Christ, both in conferring miraculous endowments and in purifying and sanctifying the | heart of man. By this Spirit the disciples were bap- J tized on the day of Pentecost, when " there appeared ' unto them cloven tongues of lire, and it sat upon each ; of them ; and they were all filled with the Holy Ghost, j and they began to speak with tongues as the Spirit , gave them utterance" (Acts ii, 3, 4); by this Spirit men are saved when they are ''born again of Mater and of the Spirit" (John iii, u) , when they receive j " the washing of regeneration and renewing of the j Holy Ghost" (Tit. iii, 5); and when there is the put- ting away from them of the tilth of the flesh, and the)' have the answer of a good conscience toward God (1 j Pet. iii, 21) ; and by this Spirit believers are baptized ; for one body, when through his gracious agency they | receive that Spirit, and those impulses by which they j are led to realize their unity in Christ Jesus (1 Cor. j xii, 18). Some refer to the Spirit's baptism also, the apostle's expression, iv ftcnvrtcr^ia, Eph. iv, 5 ; but the common and more probable opinion is that the refer- ence here is to ritual baptism as the outward sign of that inner unity which the tic; Kvpioc and the ptia j iritmc. secure and produce (see Alford, Ellicott, Meyer, Matthies, etc. etc. in foe). In this figurative use of the term " baptism" the tertium eomparatiords is found j by some in the Spirit's being viewed as the element in which the believer is made to live, and in which he receives the transforming influence ; while others find it in the biblical representation of the Spirit as com- ing upon men, as poured upon them (Isa. xxxii, 15; Zech. xii, 10; Joel ii, "28 ; Acts ii, 17), and as sprinkled on them like clean water (Ezek. xxxvi, 25). 5. Baptism for Moses.— In 1 Cor. x, 2, the apostle says of the Israelites, "And they all received bap- tism (' the middle voice is selected to express a recep- tive sense,' Meyer) for Moses (tig tuv Mojvai'iv ifiair- rieavTv) in (or by, iv) the cloud, and in (or by) the sea." In the Syr. ejc t. M. is translated "by the; hand of Moses ;" and this is followed by Beza and oth- ers. Some render una cum Mose; others, auspiciis J\/osis; others, in Mose, i. e. "sub ministerio ct ductu j Mosis" (Calvin), etc. But all these interpretations are precluded by the proper meaning of tic, and the fixed significance of the phrase ftairri'Cuv sir in the N. T The only rendering that can be admitted is "for Moses," i. e. with a view to him, in reference to him, in respect of him. '"They were baptized for Moses. i. e. they became bound to fidelity and obedience, and were accepted into the covenant which God then made with the people through Moses" (Ktickcrt in foe; sec also Meyer and Alford on the passage). III. The Types of Baptism. — 1. The apostle Peter (1 Pet. iii, 21) compares the deliverance of Noah in the Deluge to the deliverance of Christians in baptism. The apostle had been speaking of those who had per- ished " in the days of Noah when the. ark was a-pre- paring, in which few, that is eight souls, were saved by water." According to the A. V., he goes on, " The like figure whereunto baptism doth now save us." The Greek, in the best MSS., is"() Ka\ »//uac civtitv- ■kov vi'V c(o£ei l3c'n7Ti(Tiia. Grotius well expounds avrirvTrov by avrio-oi\cv, "accurately correspond- ing." The difficulty is in the relative o. There is no antecedent to which it can refer except i>8aTOQ, "wa- ter;" and it seems as if ficnrTitrpa must be put in ap- position with o, and as an explanation of it. Noah and his company were saved by water, "which water also, that is, the water of baptism, correspondin' ly saves us." F.ven if the reading were <7i, it would most naturally refer to the preceding vccitoc. Cer- tainly it could not refer to Kifiwrov, which is feminine. We must, then, probably interpret that, though water was the instrument for destroying the disobedient, it was j'et the instrument ordained of God for floating the ark, and so for saving Noah and his family ; and it is in correspondence with this that water also, viz. the water of baptism, saves Christians. Augustine, commenting on these words, writes that "the events in the days of Noah were a figure of things to come, so that they who believe not the Gospel, when the church is building, may be considered as like those who believed not when the ark was preparing; while those who have believed and are baptized (i. e. arc saved by baptism) may be. con pared to those who were formerly saved in the ark by water" (Epist. 1G4, torn, ii, p. 579). "The building of the ark," he says again, "was a kind of preaching." "The waters of the deluge presignified baptism to those who believed — punishment to the unbelieving" («'&.). It would be irrip< ssible to give any def nitc explana- tion of the w< rds " baptism doth save us" without en- tering upon the theological question of baptismal re- generation. The apostle, however, gives a caution which no doubt may itself have need of an interpreter, when he adds, " not the putting away the filth of the flesh, but the answer (tiripurrifjia) of a rood conscience toward God." Probably all will agree that he intended here to warn us against resting on the outward admin- istration of a sacrament, with no ccrres ponding prepa- ration of the conscience and the soul. I he connection in this passage between baptism and "the resurrection of Jesus Christ" may be compared with Col. ii, 12. 2. In 1 Cor. x, 1, 2, the passage of the Red Sea end the shadowing of the miraculous cloud are treated as tj'pes of baptism. In all the early part of this chap- ter the wanderings of Israel in the wilderness are put in comparison with the life of the Christian. '1 he being under the cloud and the passing through the sea resemble baptism ; eating manna and drinking of the rock are as the spiritual food which feeds the church; and the different temptations, sins, and punishments of the Israelites on their journey to Canaan are held up as a warning to the Corinthian Church. It ap- pears that the Rabbins themselves speak of a hi ptism in the cloud (sec Wetstein in loc, who quotes Piike I!. Eliezer, 44 ; see also Schottgen in loc). The pas- sage from the condition of bondmen in Egypt was through the Red Sea, and with the protection of the luminous cloud. When the sea was passed the peo- ple were no longer subjects of Pharaoh, but were, un- der the guidance of Moses, forming into a new com- monwealth, and on their ivay to the promised land. It is sufficiently apparent how this may reseml le the enlisting of a new convert into the body of the Chris- tian Church, his being placed in a new relation, under a new condition, in a spiritual commonwealth, with a way before him to a better country, though surround- ed with dangers, subject to temptations, and with ene- mies on all sides to encounter in his prof ress. 3. Another type of, ^airriafian. "The aorist participle, as often, is contemporary with the preceding past verb."— Alford in lcc.). The obvious reason for the comparison of the two rites is that cir- cumcision was the entrance to the Jewish Church and the ancient covenant, baptism to the Christian Church and to the new covenant; and perhaps also that the spiritual significance of circumcision had a resemblance to the spiritual import of baptism, viz. "the putting off the body of the sins of the flesh," and the purifica- tion of the heart by the grace of God. Paul therefore calls baptism the circumcision made without hands, and speaks of the putting off of the sins of the flesh by Christian circumcision (iv Tt) rripiTopiJ rov Xpiarov), i. c. by baptism. BAPTISM 642 BAPTISM 4. Before leaving this part of the subject, we ought perhaps to observe that in more than one instance death is called a baptism. In Matt, xx, 22; Mark x, 29, our Lord speaks of the cup which he had to drink, and tlic baptism that lie was to he baptized with ; and again, in Luke xii, ">i», " I have a baptism to he bap- tized with." It is generally thought that baptism here means an inundation of Borrows; that, as the baptized went down in the water, and water was to be poured over him, so our Lord meant to indicate that he himself had to pass through "the deep waters of affliction" (see Kuinol on Matt, xx, 22 ; Schleusner, s. v. nu-ri-w). In after times martyrdom was called a baptism of blood. But the metaphor in this latter case is evidently different; and in the above words of our Lord baptism is used without any qualification, whereas in passages adduced from profane authors we always find some words explanatory of the mode of the immersion. Is it not then probable that some deeper significance attaches to the comparison of death, especially of our Lord's death, to baptism, when we consider, too, that the connection of baptism with the death and resurrection of Christ is so much insisted on by Paul ? IV. Names of Baptism. — 1. "Baptism" (/3«— nupa : the word fiaTTTUTpoQ occurs only three times, viz. Mark vii, 8; Heb.vi, 2; ix, 10). The verb fiaTrri'Cuv (from fid-KTtiv, to wet) is the rendering of h'Sa, to plunge, by the Sept. in 2 Kings v, 14 ; and according- ly the Rabbins used fih"^ for /3«-n£- voq (ppovTiatv, absorbed in thought (Chrysost.). Tate Qapwdraiq apapriaig fiefiairTia pivot, steeped in sin i Justin M.). See Suicer, s. v. |3. 2. " The Water" (to vCiop) is a name of baptism which occurs in Acts x, 47. After Peter's discourse, the Holy .Spirit came, visibly on Cornelius and his company; and the apostle asked, "Can any man for- bid the water, that these should not be baptized, who have received the Holy Ghost?" In ordinary cases the water had been first administered, after that the apostles laid on their hands, and then the Spirit was given. But here the Spirit had come down manifestly, before the administration of baptism; and Peter ar- gued that no one could then reasonably withhold bap- tism (calling it " the water") from tho"se who had vis- iblj received that of which baptism was the sign and >eal. With this phrase, T0 vSo»p, "the water," used of baptism, compare - the breaking of bread" as a title of the Eucharist, Acts ii, 12. B. •'! be Washing of Water" (Tb \o„mw to? }'.,?„. bathofthe water") occurs Eph.v, 26. There api-ar- clearly in these words a reference to the bridal bath : but the allusion to baptism is dearer still, bap- U* ' wh,ch the bridal bath was an emblem, a type or mystery, signifying to us the spiritual union be- fcWIXl I hrist and his church. For as the bride was """' '" batho l"'l'",v being presented to the bride- rr"""'-.\" "»<>hingii, the water is that initiatory rite ">'.? Mch ""• Christian Church is betrothed to the Bridegroom, Christ. There u, gome difficulty in the construction and in- terpretation of the qualifyinR words. ;,. p>ar«, " by the word. According to the more ancient interpre- tation, they would indicate that the outward rite of washing is insufficient and unavailing without the added potency of the Word of God (eomp. 1 Pet. iii, 21), "Not the putting away the tilth of the flesh," etc.) ; and as the Xovrpbv too vCcitoc, had reference to the bridal bath, so there might be an allusion to the wt rds of betrothal. The bridal bath and the words of betrothal typified the water and the words of baptism. On the doctrine so expressed the language of Augus- tine is famous: " Detrahe verbum, et quid est aqua nisi aqua? Accedit verbum ad elementum, ct fit sac- ramentum" (Tract. 80 in Jolian.). Yet the general use of pi)j.ia in the New Testament and the grammati- cal construction of the passage seem to favor the opin- ion that the Word of God preached to the church, rather than the words made use of in baptism, is that accompaniment of the laver without which it would be imperfect (see Ellicott, in loc). 4. " The washing of regeneration" (\ovrpov ttoXij- ytvtoiac) is a phrase naturally connected with the foregoing. It occurs Tit. iii, 5. All ancient and most modern commentators have interpreted it of baptism. Controversy has made some persons unwilling to ad- mit this interpretation ; but the question probably should be, not as to the significance of the phrase, but as to the degree of importance attached in the words of the apostle to that which the phrase indicates. Thus Calvin held that the " bath" meant baptism ; but he explained its occurrence in this context by saying that "Baptism is to us the seal of salvation which Christ hath obtained for us." The current of the apostle's reasoning is this. He tells Titus to exhort the Christians of Crete to be submissive to authority, showing all meekness to all men : " for we ourselves were once foolish, erring, serving our own lusts ; but when the kindness of God our Saviour and His love toward man appeared, not by works of righteousness which we performed, but according to His own mercy He saved us by (through the instrumentality of) the bath of regeneration, and the renewing of the Holy Ghost (cut Xovrpov TraXiyytviaiaq Kai dvaKaivdimoig ni'ii'jxuTOQ ayiov), which He shed on us abundantly through Jesus Christ our Saviour, that, being justified by His grace, we might bo made heirs of eternal life through hope (or according to hope, kcit iXiriSa)."' The argument is, that Christians should be kind to all men, remembering that the}' themselves had been fc r- merly disobedient, but that by God's free mercy in Christ they had been transplanted into a better state, even a state of salvation (tvwatv )//<«<_'). and that by means of the bath of regeneration and the renewal of the Holy Spirit. If, according to the more ancient and common interpretation, the laver means baptism, the whole will seem pertinent. Christians are placed in a new condition, made members of the Church of Christ bjr baptism, and the}- arc renewed in the spirit of their minds by the Holy Ghost. There is so much resemblance, both in the phrase- ology and in the argument, between this passage in Titus and 1 Cor. vi, 11, that the latter ought by all means to be compared with the former. Paul tells the Corinthians that in their heathen state they had been stained with heathen vices ; " but," he adds, "ye were washed" (lit. ye washed or bathed yourselves, cnrtKovtmatii), "but ye were sanctified, but yc were justified in the name of the Lord Jesus Christ, and 1 y the Spirit of our God." It is generally believed that lure is an allusion to the being baptized in the name of the Lord Jesus Christ ; though some connect "sanc- tified" and "justified," as well as ••washed," with the words " in the name," etc. (see Stanley, in loc). But, however this may be, the reference to baptism seems unquestionable. Another passage containing very similar thoughts, clothed in almost the same words, is Acts xxii, lo', where Ananias says to Saul of Tarsus, "Arise, and be baptized, and wash away thy sins, calling upon the name of the Lord" (uraffTctg jid-Tirrcn rcri air'XiWcai BAPTISM 643 BAPTISM Tt)g iipapriaQ gov, iTTiKaXtaai.itvoc. to uvofia aixot). See Calvin's Commentary on this passage. 5. " Illumination" (wr«x/«Jc). It has been much questioned whether QtoriZtoOai, "enlightened," in Heb. vi, 4 ; x, 32, be used of baptism or not. Justin M., Clement of Alexandria, and almost all the Greek fathers, use (tnoriapoc as a synonym for baptism. The Syriac version, the most ancient in existence, gives this sense to the word in both the passages in the Epistle to the Hebrews. Chrysostom, Theodorct, Tlieophylact, and other Greek commentators so inter- pret it; and they are followed by Ernesti, Michaelis, j and man}' modern interpreters of the highest author- i ity (Wetstein cites from Orac. Sibyll. i, vean 0wri's«T- 6ai). On the other hand, it is now very commonly alleged that the use is entirely ecclesiastical, not scrip- ] tural, and that it arose from the undue esteem for bap- tism in the primitive church. It is impossible to enter '■ into all the merits of the question here. If the usage be scriptural, it is to be found only in the two passages in Hebrews above mentioned ; but it ma}' perhaps cor- respond with other figures and expressions in the New Testament. The patristic use of the word may be seen by referring to Suicer, s. v. 0(or<ipiov tovtov, oq tmiv Xpicsroc Iv vfjlv. (2) In Col. ii, 2, Lachmann; Tregelles, and Ellicott, as we j think on good grounds, adopt the reading too pvoTi]- piov rov Ofof', XpifTToi; rightly compared by 15]). El- licott with the preceding passage occurring only four verses before it, and interpreted by him " the mystery of God, even Christ." (3) It deserves to be careful- ly considered whether the above usage in Colossians does not suggest a clear exposition of 1 Tim. iii, 10, to r»/£ tvatjhictc /ivryTiiptov o£ iavip6T] k. t. A For, if Christ be the " Mystery of God," he may well be called also the "Mystery of godliness;" and the masculine relative is then easily intelligible, as being referred to Xoiotoc. understood and implied in uvo~Ti\- piov; for, in the words of Hilary, "Ueus Christus est Sacramentum." But, if all this be true, as baptism is the initiatory Christian rite admitting us to the service of God and to the knowledge of Christ, it may not improbably have been called (pioTiapoc, and afterward Quraytoyia, as having reference, and as admitting to the mystery of the Gospel, and to Christ himself, who is the Mys- tery of God. V "We pass to a few of the more prominent pas- sages, not already considered, in which baptism is re- ferred to. 1. John iii, 5 — il Except a man be born of water and of the Spirit, he cannot enter into the kingdom of God" — has been a well-established battle-field from the time of Calvin. Hooker states that for the first fifteen centuries no one had ever doubted its applica- tion to baptism {Feci. Pol. v, lix). Zuinglius was probably the first who interpreted it otherwise. Cal- vin understood the words "of water and of the Spirit" as 'iv did cvolf, "the washing or cleansing of the Spir- it" (or rather perhaps " by the Spirit"), " who cleanses as water," referring to Matt, iii, 11 ("He shall bap- tize you with the Holy Ghost and with fire"), as a parallel usage. Stier (Words of the Lord Jesus, in loc.) observes that Liicke has rightly said that we may re- gard this interpretation by means of a heudi id;/.', which erroneously appealed to Matt, iii, 11, as now g( n rally abandoned. Stier, moreover, quotes with entire ap- probation the words of Meyer (on John iii, 5) : "Jesus speaks here concerning a spiritual baptism, as in chap. vi, concerning a spiritual feeding ; in both places, how- ever, with reference to their visible auxiliary means." That our Lord probably adopted expressions famili.r to the Jews in this discourse with Nicodemus may be seen by reference to Lightfoot, Ilor. Heb. in loc. 2. The prophecy of John the Baptist just referred to, viz. that our Lord should baptize with the Holy Ghost and with fire (Matt, iii, 11), has usually been interpreted by that rhetorical figure (kmdiadys) which designates one thing by a double expression. Ben- gel thus paraphrases it : " The Holy Spirit, with which Christ baptizes, has a fiery force, and this was once even manifest to human sight" (Acts ii, 3). The fa- thers, indeed, spoke of a threefold baptism with fire : first, of the Holy Ghost in the shape of fiery tongues at Pentecost; second!}', of the fiery trial of affliction and temptation (1 Pet. i, 7) ; thirdly, of the fire which at the last day is to try every man's works (1 Cor. iii, 13). It is, however, very improbable that there is any allusion to either of the last two in Matt, iii, 11. There is an antithesis in John the Baptist's language between his own lower mission and the divine author- ity of the Saviour. John baptized with a mere earth- ly element, teaching men to repent, and pointing them to Christ ; but He that should come after, 0 tp\opn'oe, was empowered to baptize with the Holy Ghost and with fire. The water of John's baptism could but wash the body; the Holy Ghost, with which Christ was to baptize, should purify the soul as with fire. See Baptism with Fire. 3. Gal. iii, 27 : "For as many as have been baptized into Christ have put on Christ." In the Avhole of this very important and difficult chapter Paul is rea- soning on the inheritance by the Church of Christ of the promises made to Abraham. Christ — i. e. Christ comprehending his whole body mystical — is the true seed of Abraham, to whom the promises belong (vcr. 1G). The law, which came afterward, could not annul the promises thus made. The law was fit to restrain (or perhaps rather to manifest) transgression (ver. 23). The law acted as a pedagogue, keeping us for and leading us on to Christ, that he might bestow on us freedom and justification by faith in him (ver. 21). But after the coming of faith we arc no longer, like young children, under a pedagogue, but we arc free, as heirs in our Father's house (ver. 25; eon p. ch. iv, 1-5). "For ye all are God's sons (filii emancipati, not ~(;7t~:c, but viol, Bengel and Ellicott) through the faith in Christ Jesus. For as many as have been bap- tized into Christ have put on (clothed yourselves in) Christ (see Schottgen on Pom, xiii, 14). In him is neither Jew nor Greek, neither 1 ond nor free, neither male nor female ; for all yc are one in Christ Jesus" (ver. 26-28). The argument is plain. All Christians are God's sons through union with the Only-begotten. Before the faith in him came into the world, men were BAFflSM 044 BAPTISM held under the tutelage of the law, like children, kept as in a stal ■ of bondage under a pedagogue, lint after the preaching of the faith, all who are baptized into < 'liri-t clot he t hemselves in him ; so they are esteemed as adult sons of his Father, and by faith in him they may be justified from their sins, from which the law could not justify them (Acts xiii, 37). The contrast is between the Christian and the Jewish Church: one bond, the oth r free ; one infant, the other adult. The transition point is naturally when by baptism the service of Christ is undertaken and the promises of tin- Gospel are claimed. This is represented as put- ting on Christ and in him assuming the position of full-grown men. In this more privileged condition there is the power of obtaining justification by faith, a justification which the law had not to offer. •1. 1 (or. xii, 13: "For by one Spirit (or in one spirit, iv iri -I'si'/ion) we were all baptized into one body, whether Jews or Greeks, whether bond or free, ami wore all made to drink of one Spirit." The re- semblance of this passage to the last is very clear. In the old dispensation there was a marked division be- tweenJew .nil Gentile; under the Gospel there is one body in Christ. As in Gal. iii, 16, Christ is the seed (to n-rn/ict), so here he is the bod}' (to adfia) into which all Christians become incorporated. All dis- tinction; of .lew and Gentile, bond and free, are abol- ished. By the grace of the same Spirit (or perhaps •• in ono spirit" of Christian love and fellowship (comp. Eph. ii, is i, without division or separate interests) all ar^ joined in baptism to the one body of Christ, his universal church. Possibly there is an allusion to both sacraments. "We were baptized into one body, v. ■ wore made to drink of one Spirit" (cvTIvEvpa tiro- rioQnfiev : Lachm. and Tisch. omit ta). Both our baptism and our partaking of the cup in the commu- nion are tokens and pledges of Christian unity. They in uk our union with the one body of Christ, and they sir • means of grace, in which we may look for one Spirit to be present with blessing (comp. 1 Cor. x, 3, 17; see Waterland on the Euchari t, ch. x, and Stan- ley on 1 Cm-, xii, 13). 5. Com. \i, !. and Col. ii, 12, are so closely parallel that we may notice them together. As the apostle in the two last-considered passages views baptism as a joining to the mystical body of Christ, so in these two passages he goes on to speak of Christians in their b iptism as buried with Christ in his death, and raised again with him in Ins resurrection. As the natural bodj of I Ihrisl was laid in the ground and then raised ii]> again, so his mystic d body, the church, descends in baptism into the waters, in which also (ev <.j, sc. ftrnrrlo-pan, Col. ii, 12) it is raised up again with Christ, through " faith in the mighty working of God, who raised him from the dead." Probably, as in the former passages Paul had brought forward baptism as the Bymbol of Christian unity, so in those now before M- he refers t > it as the token and pledge of the spirit- ual death to sin and resurrection to righteousness; and moreover of the final victory over death in the through the power of the resurrection of It is said that it was partly in reference to ' i i in Colossians that the early Christians so gen irally used trine immersion, as signifying thereby the three days in which Christ lay in the grave (see Suicer,s. .. ...,„, II. a).— Smith, Append, s. v. J Jewish Baptism. — Purifications by washing common among the Jews. See Ad- 1 ''•''.%. I" the language of the prophets, cleansing d as an emblem ofthe purification of I whii l, in the Messianic age is to glorify the - iul in her innsrmost recesses, and to embrace the who! » of I ti nation | Ezek. xxxvi, 25 sq. ; Zech. xiii 1 >. Of the antiquity of lustrations by wal rows there is no question, but it is still 1 ! I whether baptism was practised, as an rite, in connection with circumcision before the coming of Christ. It is well established that, as early as the second century ofthe Christian sera, this proselyU baptism was an established rite among tiro .lews; and their writers, as well as many Christian theologians (e. g. Lightfoot, Wetstein, Wall, and oth- ers), claim for it a much greater antiquity. But this opinion is hardly tenable, for, as an act which strictly gives validity to the admission of a proselyte, and is no mere accompaniment to his admission, baptism certain- ly is not alluded to in the New Testament; while, ::s to the passages quoted in proof from the classical (pro- fane) writers of that period, they are all open to the most fundamental objections. Nor is the utter silence of Josephus and Philo on the subject, notwithstanding their various opportunities of touching on it, a less weighty argument against this view. It is true that mention is made in the Talmud of that regulation as already existing in the first century A.D. ; but such statements belong only to the traditions of the Gema- ra, and require careful investigation before they can serve as proper authority. This Jewish rite was prob- ably originally only a purifying ceremony ; and it was raised to the character of an initiating and indispensa- ble rite, co-ordinate with that of sacrifice and circum- cision, only after the destruction of the Temple, when sacrifices had ceased, and the circumcision of prose- h'tes had, by reason of public edicts, become more and more impracticable. See Proselyte. 2. John's Baptism. — " It was the principal object of John the Baptist to combat the prevailing opinion that the performance of external ceremonies was suffi- cient to secure participation in the kingdom of God and his promises; he required repentance, therefore, as a preparation for the approaching kingdom of the Messiah. That he may possibly have baptized heathens also seems to follow from his censuring the Pharisees for confiding in their descent from Abraham, while they had no share in his spirit ; yet it should not be overlooked that this remark was drawn from him by the course of the argument (Matt, iii, 8, {) ; Luke iii, 7, 8). We must, on the whole, assume that John con- sidered the existing Judaism as a stepping-stone by which the Gentiles were to arrive at the kingdom of God in its Messianic form. The general point of view from which John contemplated the Messiah and his kingdom was that of the Old Testament, though close- ly bordering on Christianity. He regards, it is true, an alteration in the mind and spirit as an indispensa- ble condition for partaking in the kingdom of the Mes- siah ; still, he looked for its establishment by means of conflict and external force, with which the Messiah was to be endowed ; and he expected in him a Judge and Avenger, who was to set up outward and visible distinctions. It is, therefore, by no means a matter of indifference whether baptism be administered in the name of that Christ who floated before the mind of John, or of the suffering and glorified One, such as the apostles knew him ; and whether it was considered a preparation for a political, or a consecration into a spiritual theocracy. John was so far from this latter view, so far from contemplating a purely spiritual de- velopment of the kingdom of God, that he even began subsequently to entertain doubts concerning Christ (Matt, xi, 2). John's baptism had not the character of an immediate, but merely of a preparatory conse- cration for the glorified theocracy' (John i, 31). The apostles, therefore, found it necessary to rebaptize the disciples of John, who had still adhered to the notions of their master on that head (Acts xix). To this apos- tolic judgment Tertullian appeals, and in his opinion coincide the most eminent teachers of the ancient church, both ofthe East and the West.". — Jacobi, in Kitto1* Cyclop, s. v. See John (the Baptist). The Baptism of Jesus hij John (Matt, iii, 13; Mark i, 0 ; Luke iii, 21 ; comp. John i, 19), as the first act of Christ's public career, is one of the most important events recorded in the evangelical historv. We might BAPTISM C45 BAPTISM he apt to infer from Luke and Matthew that there had been an acquaintance between Christ and John prior to i he baptism, and that hence John declines (Matt. iii, 14) t> baptize Jesus, arguing that he needed to be baptized by him. This, however, has been thought to be at variance with John i, 31, 33. Lucke (Comment. i, 416 sq., 3d edit.) takes the words " I knew him not" in their strict and exclusive sense. John, he says, could not have spoken in this manner if he had at all known Jesus; and had he known him, he could not, as a prophet, have failed to discover, even at an earlier period, the but too evident " glory" of the Messiah. On the other hand, the narrative of the first three Gos- pels presupposes John's personal acquaintance with him, since, although the herald of the Messiah, he could not otherwise have given that refusal (Matt, iii, 14 ) to the Messiah alone ; for his own language neces- sarily implies that Jesus was not a stranger to him. See Messiah. With regard to the object of Christ in undergoing baptism, we find, in the first instance, that he ranked this action among those of his Messianic calling. This object is still more defined by John the Baptist (John i, 31), which passage Liicke interprets in the following words : ' ' Only by entering into that community which was to be introductory to the Messianic, by attaching himself to the Baptist like any other man, was it pos- sible for Christ to reveal himself to the Baptist, and , through him to others." Christ himself never for a moment could doubt his own mission, or the right pe- j riod when his character was to be made manifest by j God ; but John needed to receive that assurance, in order to be the herald of the Messiah who was actually come. For all others whom John baptized, either be- j fore or after Christ, this act was a mere preparatory , consecration to the kingdom of the Messiah ; while for Jesus it was a direct and immediate consecration, by means of which he manifested the commencement of his career as the founder of the new theocracy, which began at the very moment of his baptism, the initia- tory character of which constituted its general princi- ple and tendency. See Jesus. Baptism of the Disciples of Christ. — Whether our | Lord ever baptized has been doubted. (See Schenk, De lotione a Christo administrate), Marb. 1745.) The only passage which may distinctly bear on the ques- tion is John iv, 1, 2, where it is said "that Jesus made , and baptized more disciples than John, though Jesus himself baptized not, but his disciples." We neces- , sarily infer from it that, as soon as our Lord began his ' ministry, and gathered to him a company of disciples, lie, like John the Baptist, admitted into that company by the administration of baptism. Normally, howev- er, to say the least of it, the administration of baptism was by the hands of his disciples. Some suppose that the first-called disciples had all received baptism at the hands of John the Baptist, as must have pretty j certainly been the case with Andrew (see John i, 35, ' 37, 40), and that they were not again baptized with water after they joined the company of Christ. Oth- ers believe that Christ himself baptized some few of his earlier disciples, who were afterward authorized to ' baptize the rest. But in any case the words above cited seem to show that making disciples and baptiz- ing them went together; and that baptism was, even ! during our Lords earthly ministry, the formal mode of accepting his service and becoming attached to his company. Alter the resurrection, when the church was to be spread and the Gospel preached, our Lord's own com- mission conjoins the making of disciples with their | baptism. The command, "Make disciples of all na- ; tions by baptizing them" (Matt, xxviii, 19), is merely I the extension of his own practice, "Jesus made disci- ples and baptized them" (John iv, 1). The conduct of the apostles is the plainest comment on both ; for so soon as ever men, convinced by their preaching, asked for guidance and direction, their first exhortation was to repentance and baptism, that thus the convert should be at once publicly received into the fold of Christ (see Acts ii, 38 ; viii, 12, 36 ; ix, 18 ; x, 47 ; xvi, 15, 33, etc.). (See Zimmcrmann, De Baptsmi or'gine et usu, Gott. 1816.) See Disciple. 3. Christian Baptism is a sacrament instituted by Christ himself. When he could no longer personally and immediately choose and receive members of his kingdom, when at the same time all had been accom- plished which the founder thought necessary for its completion, he gave power to the spiritual community to receive, in his name, members by baptism. The au- thority and obligation of baptism as a universal ordi- nance of the Christian Church is derived from tiie commission of Christ, "Go ye therefore, and teach all nations, baptizing them in (to, tic) the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost" (Matt, xxviii, 19). See II below. I. Design and Benefits of Baptism. — As to the design and benefits of baptism there are various views held. The principal are the following: 1. That it is a direct instrument of grace ; the application of water to the person by a properly qualified functionary being re- garded as the appointed vehicle by which God bestows regenerating grace upon men. This is the view of the Roman and Eastern churches, and of one (the "High- Church") party in the Protestant Episcopal and the Lutheran churches. Nearly the same view is held by the Disciples of Christ (Campbellites), who regard bap- tism as the remitting ordinance of the Gospel, or the appointed means through which the penitent sinner obtains the assurance of that remission of sins procured by the death of Christ. See Regeneration. 2. That it is neither an instrument nor a seal of grace, but simp'g a ceremony of initiation into church membership. This is the Socinian view of the ordinance. 3. That it is a token of regeneration, to be received only by those who give evidence of being really regenerated. This is the view adopted by the Baptists. 4. That it is a sym- bol of purification, the use of which simply announces that the religion of Christ is a purifying religion, and intimates that the party receiving the rite assumes the profession, and is to be instructed in the principles of that religion. This opinion is extensively entertained among the Congregationalists of England. 5. That it is the rite of initiation into the visible church, and that, though not an instrument, it is a seal of grace, divine blessings being thereby confirmed and obsignated to the individual. This is the doctrine of the Confessions of the majority of the Reformed churches. The Augs- burg Confession states, Art. 9 : " Concerning baptism, our churches teach that it is a necessary ordinance ; that it is a means of grace, and ought to be adminis- tered also to children, who are thereb}' dedicated to God, and received into his favor. They condemn the Anahaptists who reject the baptism of children, and who affirm that infants may be saved without bap- tism." The Westminster Confession, Art. 28 : " Bap- tism is a sacrament of the New Testament, ordained b)' Jesus Christ, not only for the solemn admission of the party baptized into the visible church, but also to be unto him a sign and seal of the covenant of grace, of his ingrafting into Christ, of regeneration, of remis- sion of sins, and of his giving up unto God, through Jesus Christ, to walk in newness of life; which sacra- ment is, by Christ's own appointment, to be continued in his church until the end of the world. The out- ward element to be used in this sacrament is water, wherewith the party is to lie baptized in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost, by a minister of the Gospel lawfully called thereunto. Dipping of the person into water is not necessan- ; but baptism is rightly administered by pouring or sprink- ling water upon the person. Not only those that do actually profess faith in and obedience unto < Ihrist, but also the infants of one or both believing parents, are to IJAITISM 646 BAPTISM i baj tized. Although it be a great Bin to contemn 01 oe^lect this ordinance, yet grace and salvation are inseparably annexed unto it as that no person ; {generated or Bared withoutit, or that all that ate baptized arc undoubtedly regenerated. The effi- cacy "I" baptism is not tied to that moment of time wherein it i> administered; yet, notwithstanding, by the right use of this ordinance the grace promised is not only offered, but really exhibited and conferred by ; ■ Holy Ghost to such (whether of age or infants) as that grace belongeth unto, according to the counsel of ( io l's <>w a will, in his appointed time. The sacrament < f bapl ism is l>ut once to lie administered to any person." in the 17th article of the Methodist Episcopal Church it is declared that "Baptism is not only a sign of pro- fession and mark of difference ■whereby Christians are distinguished from others that are not baptized, but it i- also a sign of regeneration, or the new birth. The baptism of young children is to be retained in the church." The same formula appears in the Articles of the Church of England and of the Protestant Episco- pal Church in the United States, with certain addi- tions, as follows : " Art. '27. Baptism is not only a sign of profession and mark of difference whereby Chris- tian men are discerned from others that be not chris- tened, but it is also a sign of regeneration, or new birth, whereby, as by an instrument, they that receive baptism rightly are grafted into the church : the prom- ises of the forgiveness of sin, and of our adoption to be the -ons of Cod by the Holy Ghost, are visibly signed and sealed : faith is continued, and grace increased by virtue of prayer unto God. The baptism of young children is in any wise to be retained in the church as most agreeable with the institution of Christ." The following excellent summary of the benefits of baptism is given by Watson (Institutes, ii, G46) : "Baptism in- trodu ;es the adult believer into the covenant of grace and the Church of Christ, and is the seal, the pledge to him on the part of God of the fulfilment of all its provisions in time and in eternity, while on his part he takes upon himself the obligations of steadfast faith and obedience. To the infant child it is a visible re- ception into the same covenant and church — a pledge of acceptance through Christ — the bestowment of a title to all the grac ■ of the covenant as circumstances may require, ami as the mind of the child may be ca- pable, or made capable of receiving it, and as it may ill in future life by prayer, when the period of and moral choice shall arrive. It conveys, al-o, the present L blessing' of Christ, of which we are assured by his taking children in his arms and bless- ing them; which blessing cannot be merely nominal, but musl be substantial and efficacious. It recures, too, the git! of the Holy Ghost in those secret spiritual influences by which the actual regeneration of those children who die in infancy is effected, and which are a -.-oil of life in those who arc spared, to prepare them lor instruction in the Word of (bid, as they are taught ii by parental care, to incline their will and affections to g I- aid lo begin and maintain in them the war againsl inward and outward evil, so that they may be divinely assist* d, as reason strengthens, to make their calling and election Bure. in a word, it is, both as to infants and lo adults, the Blgn and pledge of that in- ward grace which, though modified in its operations by tin- difference of their circumstances, has respect to, and flows from, a covenant relation to each of the three ■' whose one n ime they an- baptized— accept- ance bj lb- Father, union win, Christ as the head of his mystical body, the church, and the communion of the i. To these advantages must lie added the i- io il„. believing acl of tin parents, ami to their solemn prayers on tin- occasion, in both which ih- . bild h interested, as well as in that solemn engagement of the parents which the rite neces- sarily implies to brio- up their children in the nurture and admoniti m of the Lord." Exaggerated ideas of the necessity and efficacy of baptism developed themselves as early as the second and third centuries (see references in llagcnbach, His- tory of Doctrines, § 72). It became the custom to de- fer baptism as Ioul; as possible (a practice recommend- ed, e. g. by Tertullian, Be Bapt. c. 18). Many would not be baptized until just before death ; e. g. Constan- titie. They supposed that baptism removes all pre- vious sins in a sort of magical way ; but that sins after baptism are remitted with difficulty, or not at all. Hence the baptism of new converts was delayed, en- tirely contrary to the spirit and practice of the apos- tles, who baptized converts immediately (Acts ii, 41 ; xvi, 15). See Baumgarten, Be Proerastinativne Bap- tismi np. Veteres, Halle, 1747. After Augustine, throiiL h whom the doctrine of " no salvation out of the church" came to be received, it began to be held that infants dying without baptism were lost, and the baptism of very young infants became the common rule, while the baptism of adult converts was hastened (Knapp, Theolorjy, § 141). The Church of Rome continues to teach that original sin is effaced by the sacrament of baptism. The An- glican Church holds that " this infection of nature doth remain in them that are regenerated." The Rus- sian Catechism declares that in holy baptism the be- liever " dies to the carnal life of sin, and is born again of the Holy Ghost to a life spiritual and holy;" which is the doctrine of the Greek Church generally. Sea Grace; Regeneration ; Sacraments. II. Obl'ffilion and Perpetuity of Baptism.— That bap- tism is obligatory is evident from the example of Christ, who by his disciples baptized many that, by his miracles and discourses, were 1 rought to profess faith in him as the Messiah ; from his command to his apostles after his resurrection (Matt, xxviii, 10 1 : end from the practice of the apostles themselves (Aits ii, 38). But the Quakers assert that Water baptism was never intended to continue in the Church of < hrist any longer than while Jewish prejudices made such an ex- ternal ceremony necessary. They argue from Eph. iv, 5, in which one baptism is spoken of as neoersavy to Christians, that this must be a baptism of the Spirit. But, from comparing the texts that relate to this inrti- tution, it will plainly appear th; t water baptism was instituted by Christ in more general terms than will agree with this explication. That it was administered to all the Gentile converts, and not confined to the Jews, appears from Matt, xxviii, lit, 20, compared with Acts x,47; and that the baptism of the Spirit did not supersede water baptism appears to have been the judgment of Peter and of those that were with him ; so that the one baptism spoken of seems to have Ik en that of water, the communication of the Holy Spirit being only called baptism in a figurative sense. As for any objection which may be drawn from 1 Cor. i, 17, it is sufficiently answered by the preceding verses, and all the numerous texts in which, in epistles writ- ten long after this, the apostle speaks of all Christians as baptized, and argues from the obligation of baptfcm in such a manner as we could never imagine he would have don- it' he had apprehended it to have been the will of (bid that it should be discontinued in the church (compare Rom. vi, •'', etc. ; Col. ii, 12; Gal. iii, 27). — Doddridge, Lectures on Divinity, Lect. 201. For a clear view of the obligation of baptism, see Hibbard on Christian Baptism, pt. ii, ch. x. See Anti-bap- tists; Quakers. III. Mode of Baptism. — The ceremonies used in bap- tism have varied in different ages and countries; a brief account of them is given below (VII). Among Protesl ints baptism is performed with great simplici- ty; all that is deemed essential to the ordinance being the application of water by sprinkling, pouring, or im- mersion, in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy (.host. 1. The Baptists (q. v.) maintain, however, that im- BAPTISM mersion is the only valid baptism, in this point sepa- rating themselves from all the rest of Christendom. They rely for their justification chiefly upon the follow- ing arguments : (1.) That the word |3a7rTi£w means, literal!//, to '•immerse," and nothing else; while its figurative uses always include the idea of "burying" or "overwhelming;" (2.) that the terms washing, pu- rifying, burying in baptism, so often mentioned in the Scriptures, allude to this mode ; (3.) that the places se- lected for baptism in the New Test, imply immersion ; (1.) that immersion only was the practice of the apos- tles, the first Christians, and the church in general for many ages, and that it wa.s only laid aside from the love of novelty and the coldness of climate. These positions, they think, are so clear from Scripture and the history of the church that they stand in need of hut little argument for their support. (5.) Farther, they also insist that all positive institutions depend en- tirely upon the will and declaration of the institutor ; and that, therefore, reasoning hy analogy from pre- viously abrogated rites is to be rejected, and the ex- press command of Christ respecting baptism ought to be our rule. See Lmmersiox. 2. The Christian Church generally, on the other hand, denies that immersion is essential to the ordi- nance of baptism, and admits any of the three modes, sprinkling, pouring, or immersion. The Greek ( Ihurcb requires trine immersion in its rubrics, but in Russia baptism by sprinkling or affusion is regarded as equal- ly valid. The lioman ritual favors affusion thrice re- peated, but admits also of immersion. In the " Office fur tbe Public Baptism of Infants" in the Church of Eng'and it is directed that the "priest shall dip the clulil in the water if the sponsors shall certify him th it the child may well endure it ;" but " if they ccr- tify that the child, is weak, it shall suffice to pour wa- ter upon it." In the " Office for the Private Baptism of Infants" it is directed that tbe baptism shall be by affusion, the infant in such cases being always certi- fied to be weak. In the "Office for the Baptism of Adults," it is left altogether to the discretion of the minister to dip the person to be baptized in the water or to pour water upon him. The framers of the Office evidently, by the discretionary power left to the offi- ciating minister, have decided that the mode in this respect is immaterial. The ritual of the Methodist Episcopal Church, in like manner, leaves the adminis- trator free; and he is so, in fact, in most (but not all) Protestant Churches. The substantial question, there- fore, between the Baptists and the Christian Church generally, is whether immersion is essential to baptism or not. The negative is maintained by the following arguments (besides others for which we have not space), viz. : (1.) As to the meaning of /3rt7rn'sw, it is allowed, on all hands, that it is (at least sometimes) applied to acts involving the process of immersion both by profane and sacred writers (see above). But the best lexi- cographers agree that this is not its exclusive mean- ing, and none but a daring controversialist would as- sert that it is. The word /3«7rri^u> is derived from fiairroc., the verbal adjective of /3aVrw, to icet thorough- ly, and its etymological meaning is to put into a dnnc/t- ed or imbued condition (Meth. Quart Tiev. i860, p. 406). In the New Testament it generally means to purify by the application of water. (See Beecher on B.ip- t sm ; Mnrdock, in Bib. Sac. Oct. 1850, on the Syriac words for baptism.) "As the word fiairTi'Coi is used to express the various ablutions among the Jews, such as sprinkling, pouring, etc. (Heb. ix, 111), for the cus- tom of washing before meals, and the washing of household furniture, pots, etc., it is evident from hence that it does not express the manner of doing a thing, whether by immersion or affusion, but only the thing done — that is, washing, or the application of water in some form or other. It nowhere signifies to dip, but in denoting a mode of, and in order to, washing or 047 BAPTISM cleansing; and the mode or use is only the ceremonial part of a positive institute, just as in the Lord's Sup- per the time of day, the number and posture of the communicants, the' quantity and quality of bread and wine, are circumstances not accounted essential by any part of Christians. If in baptism there be an expres- sive emblem of the descending influence of the Spirit, pouring must be the mode of administration, for that is the scriptural term most commonly and properly used for the communication of divine influences (Matt, iii, 11; Mark i, 8, 10; Luke iii, 16-22; John i, 33; Acts i, 5; ii, 38, 39; viii, 12, 17; xi, 15, 16). The term sprinkling, also, is made use of in reference to the act of purification (Isa. Iii, 15 ; Ezek. xxxvi, 25 ; Heb. ix, 13, 14), and therefore cannot be inapplicable to baptismal purification" (Watson). So far, then, as the word /3«7rri£w is concerned, there is no foundation for the exclusive theory of the Baptists. (2.) As for the fact that John baptized " in Jordan,' it is enough to reply that to infer always a plunging of the whole body in water from this particle would, in many instances, be false and absurd. Indeed, if immersion were intended, the preposition should be- tie and not iv. The same preposition, Iv, is used when it is said 'they should be " baptized with fire," but few will assert that the)' should be plunged into it. The apostle, speaking of Christ, says he came not, iv, "by water only," but, iv, "by water and blood." There the same word, iv, is translated by; and with justice and propriety, for we know no good sense in which we could say he came in water. Jesus, it is said, came up out of the water, but this is no proof that he was im- mersed, as the Greek term e'nro properly significsyVom ; for instance, "Who hath warned you to flee /row," not out of the "wrath to come?" with many others that might be mentioned. Again, it is urged that Philip and the eunuch went down both into the water. To this it is answered that here also is no proof of im- mersion , for if the expression of their going down into the water necessarily includes dipping, then Philip was dipped as well as the eunuch. The preposition tig, translated into, often signifies no more than to or unto, see Matt, xv, 24 ; Rom. x, 10 ; Acts xxviii, 14 ; Matt, iii, 11 ; xvii, 27; so that from none of these cir- cumstances can it be proved that there was one person of all the baptized who went into the water ankle deep. As to the apostle's expression, " buried with him in baptism," that has no force in the argument for im- mersion, since it does not allude to a custom of dip- ping, any more than our baptismal crucifixion and death has an)' such reference. It is not the sign, but the thing signified, that is here alluded to. As Christ was buried and rose again to a heavenly life, so we by baptism signify that we are separated from sin, that we may live a new life of faith and love. (See above.) (3). It is urged further against immersion that it carries with it too much of the appearance of a burden- some rite for the Gospel dispensation ; that it is too in- decent for so solemn an ordinance; that it has a ten- dency to agitate the spirits, often rendering the subject unfit for the exercise of proper thoughts and affections, and, indeed, utterly incapable of them ; that in many cases the immersion of the body would, in all probabil- ity, be instant death ; that in other situations it would be impracticable for want of water : hence it cannot be considered as necessary to the ordinance of baptism, and there is the strongest improbability that it was universally practised in the times of the New Testa- ment, or in the earliest periods of the Christian Church; indeed, the allegation of the txclusiveness of this mode is far from being adequately supported by ancient tes- timony, while in many instances (e. g. that of the Phil- ippine jailer, Acts xvii, 33) this theory involves the most unlikely suppositions. See above (I-V). 1Y. Subjects of Baptism. — The Christian churches generally baptize infants as well as adult believers, and this is believed to have been the practice of the BAPTISM 648 BAPTISM church from the apostolical age. The Roman ana Lutheran churches teach that baptism admits children into the church and makes them members of the body of Christ The Reformed churches, generally, teach that the children of believers are included in the cov- enant, and arc therefore entitled to baptism. The Methodist Church holds that all infants are redeemed by Christ, and are therefore entitled to baptism, wher- ever tluy can receive the instruction and care of a Christian church or family. (i.) As to the antiquity of infant baptism, it is ad- mitted by Baptist writers themselves that it was prac- ticed in Tertullian's time (A.D. 200); but they insist that beyond that date there is no proof of any other baptism than that of adult believers. The principal passages cited in the controversy are from Origen, Tertullian, Irenaws, and Justin Martyr. 1. Origen (A.D. 185-253) speaks in the most un- equivocal terms of the baptism of infants, as the gen- eral practice of the church in his time, and as having been received from the apostles. His testimony is as follows : " According to the usage of the church, bap- .tism is given even to infants; when, if there were nothing in infants which needed forgiveness and mercy, the grace of baptism would seem to be super- fluous" {Homil. VIII in Levit. ch. xii). Again : " In- fants are baptized for the forgiveness of sins. Of what sins ? Or, when have they sinned ? Or, can there be any reason for the laver in their case, unless it be ac- cording to the sense which we have mentioned above, viz. that no one is free from pollution, though he has lived but one da}- upon earth? And because by bap- tism native pollution is taken away, therefore infants are baptized" (flomil. in Luc. xiv). Again: "For this cause it was that the church received a tradition from the apostles (-apdeome; aTTOTroXiKi)) to give baptism even to infants" (Comm. on Rom. lib. v, cap. 9). Ne- ander (Ch. Hist, i, 514) depreciates this testimony, but without any real ground. On any ordinary subject it would be taken as decisive, at least as to the prevalence of infant baptism in Origen's time, and long before. 2. 7\ rtullian (A.D. 1G0-240), in his treatise De Bap- tismo (e. 18), opposes infant baptism on the ground (1) "that it is too important; not even earthly goods are intrusted to infants;" (2) that "sponsors are imper- illed by the responsibility they incur." Tertullian adopted tie- superstitious idea that baptism was ac- companied with the remission of all past sins, and that sins committed after baptism were peculiarly danger- ous. He therefore advised that not merely infants, but young men and young women, and even young widows and widowers, should postpone their baptism until the period of their youthful appetite and passion should have passed. In short, he advised that, in all e i-es in which (hath was not likely to intervene, bap- tisra lie postponed until the subjects of it should have arrived at a period of life when they would be no longer in danger of being led astray by youthful lusts. And thus, f,,r more than a century after the age of Tertullian, we find some of the most conspicuous con- vert, to the Christian faith postponing baptism till the - lose of life. Further, if he could have said that infant baptism was ••an innovation," he would; no argu- ment was -nr-r or weightier in that age; and lie con- st intly appe lis to i other subjects. All attempts to invalidate this testimony have failed. If any fact in history is certain, it is that infant baptism was prac- tised io Tertullian'- time, and long before. For the. Baptist \i. w, however, on this point, see an able arti- cle in the Chrutian Review, xvi. 610. See also Bib- I ..•/„, ;, Sat ii. iii. 680; v, ::ii7. B. frenaut (circ. A.D. 125 190) has the following Gib. 'i- cap. S9): "Omnes venit per semetip- Bum salvare; omnes, inquam, qui per cum renatcuntor in Deum, infantes el parvulos ,.t pueros," etc.- i.e. "He « me to gave all by himself; all, I say, who.'by him, an born agak unto God, infanta, and little chil- dren, and youth," etc. All turns here on the mean- ing attached by Irenasus to the word renasci; and this is clear from a passage (lib. iii, c. 19) in which he speaks of the Gospel commission. " When," says he, "[Christ] gave this commission of regenerating to Cod [renasci], he said, 'Go, teach all nations, baptizing them, etc' " Neander (whose loose admissions as to the entire question are eagerly made use of by Bap- tists) remarks of this passage that "it is difficult to conceive how the term regeneration can be employed in reference to this age (i. e. infancy), to denote any- thing else than baptism" (Ch. Hist. \, 314). i 4. Justin Martyr, who wrote his "Apology" about A.D. 138, declares that there were among Christians, in his time, "many persons of both sexes, some sixty and some seventy years old, who had been made dis- ciples to Christ from their infancy" (r it ire of the bu] - ject is very ample. Resides the work; cited in the course of this article, and the writers on systematic theology, see Baxter, Plain Prof of Ji fin's' Church Membership (1656); Wall, History of Infant Baptism, with Gale's Reflections and Wall's Defence, edited by Cotton (Oxford, 1836 ami 1844, 4 vols.W) : Matthies, Baptismatis Expositio Bibl.-Hisl.-Dogmaiica (Berlin, 1831, 8vo) ; Range, Die Kin lertaufe (Jena, 1*34, 8vo); Walch, Historia Pcedobaptismi (Jenae, 1739); Williams, Aut'p edobap'ism examined (1789, 2 vol?. 12mo); Facts and Evidences on Baptism, by the editor of Calmet's Dictionary (London, 1815, 2 vols. 8vo ; condensed into one vol., entitled Apostolic Bap'ism, X. Y. 1850, 12mo) ; Towgood, Dissertations on Christian Baptism (Lond. 1815, 12mo); Ewing, Essay on Baptism (Glasgow, 1823) ; Bradbury. Duty and Doctrine of Baptism (Lond. 1749, 8vo); Woods, Lectures on Infant Baptism (Ando- ver, 1829, 12mo) ; Slicer On Baptism ( X. Y. 1841, 12mo) ; Wardlaw, Dissertation on Infant Baptism i Lond.l2mo) ; Neander, History of Doctrines, i, 229 sq. ; Beoeher, Bap- tism, its Import and Modes (N. Y. 1849, 12mo) ; Cole- ridge, Works (X. Y. ed., v, 187); Hibbard, Christian Baptism, its Subjects, Mode, and Obligation (X. Y. 18-15, 12mo); Ilouing, Sacrament der Taufe (Erlang. 1846, 2 vols.); Rosser, Baptism, its Nature, Obligation, etc. (Richmond, 1853, 12mo) ; Gibson, The Fathers on Na- ture and Effects of 'Baptism (Lond. 1854); Cunning- ham, Reformers an I Theology of Reformation, Essay v ; Summers On Baptism (Richmond, 1853, 12mo) ; Hall. Law of Baptism (X. Y. 1846, 12mo) ; Studkn u. Kritiken, 1861, p. 219; Litton On the Church, 243 sq. One of the best tracts on infant baptism is Dr. Miller's, No. VIII of the Tracts of the Presbyterian Board. On early history, doctrines, and usages, Coleman, Ancient ( la's' in nity, ch. xix ; Sehaft', Apostolical Church, § 142 ; Palmer, Origines Liturgica, ii, 166 sq. ; Procter On Common Prayer, 361 sq. ; Mosheim, Commentaries ; Dorner, Doctrine of the Person of Christ, i, 168 sq. On the Baptist side: Gale, Reply to Wall (bound in Cotton's edition of Wall) ; Booth, Apology fa- the Baj)- tists ( Works, vol. ii) ; Booth, Ptedobaptism Examined (Lond. 1829, 3 vols. 8vo) ; Gill, Divine Right of Infant Baptism and other Essays (in "Collection of Sermons and Tracts," Lond. 1773, 2 vols. 4to) ; Hinton, History of Baptism (Phil. 1849, 12mo) ; Robinson, History of Baptism (Lond. 1790, and later editions, 4to); Carson, Baptism in its Mods and Objects (Lond. 1844, 8vo; Phila. 5th ed. 1857, 8vo) ; Xoel, Essay on < 'liristian Bap- tism (X. Y. 185b, 12ino) ; Orchard, Concise History of Foreign Baptists, etc. (Lond. 1838) ; < 'urtis, Progress of Baptist Principles (Boston, 1856) ; Pengilly, Scripture Guide to Baptism (Phila. 1849, 12mo); J. T. Smith, Ar- guments for Infant Baptism examined (Phila. 1850, 12mo); Haynes, The Baptist Denomination (X.Y. 1856, 12mo) ; Jewett On Baptism (Bapt. Pub. Soc.) ; Conant, Meaning and Use of ' Baptist in (X.Y. 1860, 4 to). On sacramental grace and regeneration by baptism, see Grace; Sacraments ; Regeneration (Baftis? MAT.). BAPTISM, LAY, baptism administered by uncr- ddntd persons. In ordinary practice, the Christian Church has always held that baptism should lie per- formed by ordained ministers (see above, Ministi rs of Bapt ism). Nevertheless, in case of necessity, baptism may be performed by any Christian, and is valid if performed according to Christ's order in Matt, xxviii, 19. It would be clearly wrong to assert that lay bap- tism is, under all circumstances, as regular as that by a minister; but it is also very difficult to decide that lay baptism is invalid where the services of a minister cannot be procured. The principle upon which this view of the case rests has been thus fairly stated by Hooker (Eccl. Polity, bk. v, Ixii, 19) : "The grace of baptism cometh by donation from God alone. That God hath committed the ministry of baptism unto spe- cial men, it is for order's sake in his church, and not to the end that their authority might give being, or add force to the sacrament itself. That infants have right to the sacrament of baptism we all acknowledge. Charge them we cannot as guileful and wrongful pos- sessors of that whereunto they have right, by the man- ifest will of the donor, and are not parties unto any defect or disorder in the maimer of receiving the same. And, if any such disorder be. we have sufficiently be- fore declared that, 'delictum cum capite semper am- bulat,' men's own faults are their own harms." From this reasoning (which appears to be just), the inference is, that in the case of lay baptism, infants are not de- prived of whatever benefits and privileges belong to that sacrament, the administrator, in any instance, be- ing alone responsible for the urgency of the circum- stances under which he performs the rite. By the rubrics of the second and of the fifth of Edward VI it was ordered thus: "The pastors and curates shall often admonish the people, that without great cause and necessity they baptize not children at home in their houses ; end when great need shall compel them so to do, that then they minister it in this fashion: First, let them that be present call upon God fir his grace, and say the Lord's Prayer, if the time will suf- fir; and then cne of them shall name the child and dip him in the water, or pour water upon him, saying these words : I baptize thee in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost." But in the revision of the Prayer-boc k after the Hampton Court Conference (1604), the nil rics were altered so as to exclude entirely this authority for lay baptism. Still, such baptism is not decided to be invalid. The Ro- manists admit its validity. Sec Procter On Common Prayer, p. 378, 382 ; Bingham, Orig. Eccl. Ik. xvi, ch. i, § 4. On the practice of the Church of England with regard to lay baptism, sec Bingham, Scholastical His- tory of Lay Baptism (1712, 2 vols.), ch. iii, § 5, ex- tracted in Henry, Compendium of Christian Antiquities, Appendix. See also Waterland, Letters on Lay Bapt t'sm ( Works, vol. x) ; Hagenbach, History of Doctrines, § 137 ; Summers On Baptism, ch. iv. The Presbytc BAPTISM G52 BAPTISM nan Directory for Worship declares that "baptism is not to I"' unnecessarily delayed; nor to be adminis- tered in any case, by any private person, but by a minister of Christ, called to be the steward of the mys- ,..,.; ,a of God" (ch. vii, § 1). The Reformed Confes- sions, so fir a- they speak on this point, generally oppose 1 ly baptism : see t 'onf //< In t. ii, 20 ; Conf. Sco- tica xxii. Comii. also Calvin, Institutes, bk. iv, ch. xv, BAPTISM FOE THE DEAD (vrrip tSjv vtupCov, 1 Cor. xv. 29). This difficult passage has given rise to multitudinous expositions. Among them are the following (see also Am. Presb. Rev, Jan. 18G3): 1. The Corinthians i according to Suicer), and after them the Marcionites and other heretics, practised a sort of vicarious baptism in the case of those who had died unbaptized; that is, they caused a relation or friend of the dead person to be baptized in his stead, in the belief that such baptism would operate to ob- tain the remission of the sins of the deceased in the other world (< 'hrysostom, Horn, xl in 1 Cor., and Ter- tullian c ntra Marcion, lib. v, cap. 10). The apostle then drew an argument from the heretical practice to prove their belief in the resurrection. 2. Chrysostom, however, declares that Paul refers to the declaration made by each catechumen at his baptism, of his belief in the resurrection of the dead, meaning to say this : " If there is, in fact, no resurrec- tion of the dead, why, then, art thou baptized for the de el. i. e. the body?" An improvement, perhaps, upon thi- interpretation would be to consider the ancient martyrs to be referred to, over whose remains the churches were often built (probably, however, not as yet), in which such vows were taken. .'i. Among the best interpretations is that of Span- h 'ni i see Wolf, Cur. in N. T. in loc), which considers '"the dead" to be martyrs and other believers, who, by firmness and cheerful hope of resurrection, have given in death a worth)' example, by which others were also animated to receive baptism. Still, this meaning would he almost too briefly and enigmatically express- ed, when no particular reason for it is known, while also the allusion to the exemplary death of many Christians could chiefly apply to the martyrs alone, of whom there were as yet none at Corinth. This inter- pretation, however, may perhaps also be improved if ch 1st be considered as prominently referred to among these deceased, by virtue of whose resurrection all his followers expect to be likewise raised. I. i Hshausen's interpretation is of a rather doubtful oh ir act r. The meaning of the passage he takes to be, that "all who are converted to the church arc b iptiz 'A for ih<> good of the dead, as it requires a cer- t till number ( Rom, xi, 12-25), a 'fulness' of believers, before the resurrection can take place. Every one, therefore, who is baptized is for the good of believers collectively, and of those who have already died in the Lord." Olshausen is himself aware that the apostle could not have expected that such a difficult and re- mol ' id,-.,, which he himself calls "a mystery." would be understood by his readers without a further ex- planation and development of his doctrine. He there- fore proposes an explanation, in which it is argued tint tic miseries and hardships Christians have to 'Struggle againsl in this life can only be compensated by resurrection. Death causes, as it were, vacancies in the full ranks of the believers, which are again fill- ed up by othe,- individuals. » What would it profit those who ore baptized in the plqce of the dead (to fill up their place in the community) if there be no resur- rection ?"— Kitto, o. v. ■'>• ■N"1 f these explanations, however, well suits t:. ■ signification of f,mp, "for," i. e. in behu'fof, on ' I • ' lie -ame tine-, consistent in other Dr. Tregelles | Printed '/'- H of the Gr. Test. p. 216) has proposed a slight e ndation of the text that opp tie- difficulty almost entirely. It consists simply in the following punctuation : " Elso what shall they do which are baptized? [It is] for the dead, if the dead rise not at all," i. e. we are bap- tized merely in the name of (for the sake of, out of re- gard to) dead persons, namely, Christ and the proph- ets who testified of him. This interpretation renders No. 3 above more easy of adoption. Treatises entitled De bqptismo imp riov vucntZv have been written by Schmidt (Argent. 1C5G), Calon (Viteb. 1C84), Deutsch (Kegiom. 1G'J8), Grade (Gryph. lG'JO), Hastcus (Brem. 1725), Milller (Host. 1665), Ole- arius (Lips. 1704), Reichmann (Viteb. 1652), Schenck (Franeq. 1667), Zeutschner (Fcft. a. V. 170G), Facius (Col. 17!>2), Neumann (Jen. 1740), Nobling (Sus. 1784), Kichter (Zwic. 180;?), Heumann (Isen. 1710, Jen. 1740), Streccius (Jen. 1730). BAPTISM OF THE DEAD, a superstitious custom which anciently prevailed among the people in Africa of baptizing the dead. The third council of Carthage (canon vi) speaks of it as a matter of which ignorant Christians were fond, and forbids " to believe that the dead can be. baptized." Gregory Nazianzen also ob- serves that the same superstitious opinion prevailed among some who delayed to be baptized, it is also mentioned by Philastrius (De Uteres, cap. 2) as the \ general error of the Montanists or Cataphrygians, that they baptized men after death. The practice seems to be founded on a vain opinion that when men had ne :- lected to receive baptism during their life, some com- pensation might be made for this default by receiving I it after death. Sec Burton, Bampton Lectures, art. 78 ; Bingham, Oriq. Keel. bk. xi, ch. iv, § 3. BAPTISM' OF FIRE. The words of John the Baptist (Matt, iii, 11), " He that cometh after me sh .11 baptize you with the Holy Ghost and with fire," have I given occasion to various interpretations. Soma of j the fathers (e. g. John Damascenus) hold it to mean i the everlasting fire of hell. Others of the fathers (as j Chrj'sostom, Horn. 11 in Matt.') declare that by fire in ; this passage the Baptist means the Holy Spirit, who, I as fire, should destroy the pollutions of sin in the re- generation conferred by holy baptism. Others again, I as Hilary and Ambrose, as well as Origen, believe it to mean a purifying fire through which the faithful shall pass before entering Paradise, thus giving rise to the Romish doctrine of purgatory. Others think that it means the fire of tribulations and sorrows; oth- ers, the abundance of graces; others, the fire of peni- tence and self-mortification, etc. (Suicer, Thesaurus, p. 629). Some old heretics, as the Seleucians and Her. mians, understood the passage literally, and maintain- ed that material fire was necessary in the adminis- tration of baptism ; but we are not told either how, or to what part of the body they applied it, or whether they obliged the baptized to pass through or over the flames. Valentinus rebaptized those who had received baptism out of his sect, and drew them through the fire ; and Heraclion, who is cited by Clemens Alex- andrinus, says that some applied a red-hot iron to the ears of the baptized, as if to impress on them some mark. The simplest and most natural view is that the pas- sage is not to be interpreted of any separate form of baptism from that "with the Holy Ghost;" but the expression "with fire" is epexegetical, or explanatory of the words "with the Holy Ghost." Such a mode 1 of expression, in which the connecting particle and j only introduces an amplification of the former idea, is very common in the Scriptures. The sense will there- fore be, " He shall baptize you with the Holy Ghost, through the outward symbol of fire," viz. the "cloven ton/lies like as of tire''' (Acts ii, 3). See PENTECOST; Iloi.v Ghost. It must be admitted, however, against this view, that ''fire" elsewhere is the symbol of ven- geance or destruction, and that in all the parallel pas- sages it has this import (see Kuinol in loc). It would therefore be more appropriate to understand the fiery B AP TI SM AL FORMULA 653 BAPTISTS Baptism to lie the temporal and eternal punishments to which the Jews were exposed, in contrast with the spiritual baptism offered as the other alternative (comp. the context in Matt, and Luke ; also the parallel pas- sages in Acts). See Fire. Baptismal Formula (Matt, xxviii, 19). See Baptism; Trinity; Sacrament. Baptismal Regeneration. See Baptism; Re- generation. Baptist, John the. See John (the Baptist). Baptist Denomination. See Baptists. Baptistery, a place or room set apart for per- forming baptism. We have no account in the New Testament of any such separated places. John and the disciples of our Lord Jesus Christ baptized in the Jordan. But baptism could be administered in other places (see Acts viii, 36, 37; xvi, 13-16'). There was a public baptism of three thousand converts on the day of Pentecost (Acts ii, 41), but no account is given of the place. Examples also occur in the Acts of the Apostles of baptism in private houses. Passages in the writings of Justin Martyr, Clement, and Tertullian show that, during their time, there were no baptisteries. In later times the baptistery was one of the exedrce, or buildings distinct from the church itself, and consist- ed of the porch, where the person about to be baptized made the confession of faith, and an inner room, w here the ceremony was performed. Thus it remained till the sixth century, when the baptistery was taken into the church porch, and afterward into the church it- self. The ancient baptisteries were sometimes called foj-irrri'ipia (iUumhmtorui), either because baptism was sometimes called q&wrtcr/zoc, illumination, or because they were places of illumination or instruction, preced- ing baptism, where the catechumens were taught the first principles of the Christian faith. We occasion- ally meet with the word KoXvjxfiriQpa, or piscina (the font). The octagonal or circular form was adopted, surmounted with a dome, and the baptistery was situ- , ated at the entrance to the principal or western gate. ' These edifices arc of considerable antiquity, since one was prepared for the ceremonial of the baptism of Clo- vis. It is not possible to decide at what period they began to be multiplied, and at length united to, or I changed into parish churches ; yet it appears that the alteration took place when stated seasons of baptism ceased, and the right of administration was ceded to ; all presbyters and deacons. The word baptistery is now applied also to the baptismal font. — Bingham, Orifj. Eccles. bk. viii, ch. vii, § 14; Farrar, s. v. Baptists, a name given to those Christian denom- inations which reject the validity of infant baptism, and bold that the ordinance of baptism can be administered only to those who have made a personal profession of faith in Christ. The Baptist churches also, in general, maintain that the entire immersion of the body is the only scriptural mode of baptism ; yet the Mennonites, who are generally regarded as Baptists, use sprinkling. The name Baptist, as assumed by the Baptist denom- inations, of course implies that they alone maintain the Christian doctrine and practice of baptism ; and in this j sense their right to this distinctive name is denied by . all other Christian denominations, as well as the simi- lar claims of the Unitarians and (Raman) Catholics to their respective names. But, as established by usage, without having regard to its original signification, it is now generally adopted. The name Anabaptist is ! rejected by the Baptists as a term of reproach, because they protest against being identified with the Anabap- tists of Minister, and as also incorrect, because most of their members receive the rite for the first time on their admission to a Baptist church. I. History. — 1. Before the sixteenth Century. — All Baptists, of course, claim that the apostolic church was essentially Baptist, and that infant baptism is an innovation. But Baptist writers differ concerning the time of the introduction of infant baptism, and also as to the question whether it is possible to trace an unin- terrupted succession of Baptist churches from the apos- tles' time down to the present. Some Baptist writers have attempted to trace this succession, as Orchard (History of Foreign Baptists, Lond. 1838), who gives, as the summing up of his researches, that "all Chris- tian communities during the first three centuries were of the Baptist denomination in constitution and prac- tice. In the middle of the third century the Kovatian Baptists established separate and independent societies, which continued until the end of the sixth age, when these communities were succeeded by the Patcrines, which continued until the Reformation (1517). The Oriental Baptist churches, with their successors, the Paulicians, continued in their purity until the tenth century, when they visited France, resuscitating and extending the ( 'hristian profession in Languedoc, where they nourished rill the crusading army scattered, cr drowned in blood, one million of unoffending profess- ors. The Baptists in Piedmont and Germany are ex- hibited as existing under different names down to the Reformation. These churches, with their genuine suc- cessors, the Mcnnonilcs of Holland, are connectedly and chronologically detailed to the present period." This view is, however, far from being shared by all Baptists. The leading Baptist Quarterly of America, The Christian tttview (Jan. 1855, p. 23), remarks as fol- lows : "We know of no assumption more arrogant, and more destitute of proper historic support, than that which claims to be able to trace the distinct and un- broken existence of a church substantially Baptist from the time of the apostles down to our own." Thus also Cutting (Historic Vindications, Boston, 1859, p. 14) remarks on such attempts : " I have little confidence in the results of any attempt of that kind which have met my notice, and I attach little value to inquiries pursued for the predetermined purpose of such a dem- onstration." The non-Baptist historians of the Christian Church almost unanimously assert that infant baptism was practised from the beginning of Christianity [see Bap- tism], and generally maintain that no organized body holding Baptist principles can be found before the rise of the Anabaptists (q. v.), about 1520. See Pauli- cians: Lollards; Waldenses. Soon after the An- abaptists, Menno (q. v.) renounced the doctrines of the Roman church, and organized (after 153(i) a Baptist denomination, which spread widely, especially in Ger- many and Holland, and still exists. See Menno- nites. . 2. Great Britain. — Whether and to what extent Bap- tist principles were held in Great Britain before the sixteenth century is still a matter of historic contro- versy. In 1535 Henry VIII ordered sixteen Dutch- men to be put to death for being Anabaptists, and in 1539, 30 persons were exiled because they rejected in- fant baptism. The general pardon of 1550 excepted the Baptists. Elizabeth commanded all Anabaptists to depart out of the kingdom within 21 days. King James refused all concessions to Baptists, as well as to Nonconformists in general. At the beginning of the seventeenth century, Mr. Smyth (1610), a leading min- ister among the Baptists, published a work against persecution, but it called forth a new proclamation against the Baptists and their looks, and in 1611, an- other Baptist, Mr. Wightman, was burned. Cromwell protected the Baptists, but they were again persecuted under Charles II and James II. The Toleration Act of William III, 1689, recognised them as the third dissenting denomination. The first Baptist churches were Arminian ; a Calvinistic Baptist church was es- tablished about 1033. In 1640 there were 7 Baptist congregations in London, and about 40 more in the country. Those who held Arminian views received the name General, those who held Calvinistic views, T.ALTISTS 654 BAPTISTS the name Particular Baptists. Many General Bap- ' founded in Bhodc Island, with full and entire freedom tists adopted Arianism and Socinianism ; and in 1770, j of conscience. Ehode Island thus became the rirst the orthodox portion seceded, and formed what is Christian stato which ever granted full religious lib- known as the "New Connection of General Baptists." erty. In the other British colonies the persecution Jn 17!»2 William Carey prevailed on the Nottingham against the Baptists continued a long time. Massa- Aasociation to found the Baptist Missionary Society, an chusetts issued laws against them in 1G14, imprisoned event of the utmost importance in the history of the ■ several Baptists in 1651, and banished others in 16G9. Christian church in general, for from it dates the J In 1GS0 the doors of a Baptist meeting-house were awakening of a new zeal in the European and Amer- \ nailed up. In New York laws were issued against lean churches for the conversion of the pagan world, j them in 1G62, in Virginia in 1GG4. With the begin- in 1842 the Baptist Missionary Society reported at its ' ning of the eighteenth century the persecution greatly "Jubilee" that it had translated the Scriptures, whol- ly or in part, into forty-four languages or dialects of India, and printed, of the Scriptures alone, in foreign languages nearly half a million. abated. They were released from tithes in 1727 Massachusetts, in 1729 in New Hampshire and Con- necticut, but not before 1785 in Virginia. The spread of their principles was greatly hindered by these per- Among the earliest writers of the Baptist denomi- j seditions, especially in the South, where in 177G they nation in England were Edward Barker, Samuel Eieh- i counted about 100 societies. After the Revolution ardson, Christopher Blackwood, Hansard Knollys, I they spread with extraordinary rapidity, especially in Francis Cornwell, and in the latter half of the seven- j the South and South-west, and were inferior in this t i nth century, Jeremiah Ives, John Tombes, John , respect only to the Methodists. In 1817 a triennial Norcott, Henry D'Anvers, Benjamin and Elias Reach, general convention was organized, which, however., Edward Hutchinson, Thomas Grantham, Nehemiah has since been discontinued. In 1845 the discussion Cox, D.D., Thomas de Launne, and Dr. Russell Col- , of the slavery question led to a division of the North- lins. But by far the most celebrated of all Baptist ; em and Southern Baptists. The destruction of slav- writers is John Bunyan. John Milton also is claimed by the Baptists, though not as a member of their de- nomination, at least as a professor of their distinctive principles; for they say he "composed his two most cry, in consequence of the failure of the Great Rebellion and the adoption of the constitutional amendment in 18G5, led to efforts to reunite the societies of the North- ern and the Southern States. The Northern associa- i-l a borate, painstaking volumes to prove from the , tions generally expressed a desire to co-operate again Scriptures the divine origin and authority of the dis- with their Southern brethren in the fellowship of languishing principles of Baptists." Among the Bap- j Christian labor, but the}' demanded from the Southern tist writers in the early part of the eighteenth century associations a profession of loyalty to the United States were Samuel Ewen, John Brine, Benjamin Beddome the three Stennetts (Joseph Stennett, Joseph Sten- nett, jun., D.D., Samuel Stennett, D.D.), John Ev- ans. LL.D., J. H. Evans, Dr. Gala, the famous Dr. Gill, Joseph Burroughs, William Zoat, Caleb Evans. D.D., Abraham Booth, and Joseph Jenkins. Toward the close of the last and the beginning of the present century, the Baptist denomination had a large num- ber of writers, among whom were William Jones, Thomas Llewellyn, William Richards, Robert Hall, John Foster, Andrew Fuller, Christopher Anderson. government, and they themselves deemed it necessary t j repeat the testimony which, during the war, they had, at each annual meeting, borne against slaver}'. The Southern associations that met during the year 18G5 were unanimous in favor of continuing their for- mer separate societies, and against fraternization with the Northern societies. They censured the American Baptist Home Missionary Society for proposing, with- out consultation or co-operation with the churches, associations, conventions, or organized boards of the Southern States, to appoint ministers and missionaries and Joseph [vimey. The Rev. F. A. Cox (a Baptist j to preach and raise churches within the bounds of the writer) -tabs (Encyc. Metrop.}, however, that, "till Southern associations. Some of the Southern associ- of late years, Baptist literature must be regarded as, on ations, like that of Virginia, consequently advised the the whole, somewhat inferior." Cox enumerates among churches "to decline any co-operation "or fellowship the great men of the English Baptists, "Gale and Car- I with any of the missionaries, ministers, or agents of son for Greek scholarship; Gill for Hebrew knowledge the American Baptist Home Mission Society." A and rabbinical lore; Carey for Oriental research ; Ful- number of negro Baptist churches in the Southern ler for theological wisdom and controversial acuteness ; States separated from the Southern associations, and Hughes for the union of elegant taste and public zeal either connected themselves with those of the North, in the formation of the Bible and Tract Societies; Fos- j or organized, with the co-operation of the Northern ter for the reach and profundity of his mind ; and Hall ! missionaries, independent associations. Divisions as the most chaste and beautiful of writers, and, per- among the American Baptists commenced early to haps, the greatest of English preachers." More re- 'take place; see Six -Principle Baptists; Sev- cently, the Rev. C. II. Spurgeon acquired the reputa- kxtii-day Baptists; Seventh-day German Bap- tura of being one of the most popular preachers of the tists; Anti-mission Baptists; Free-will Bap- nineteenth century. Sir Morton Pcto has become a tists; Disciples; Church of Gon. Somediviskms prouim.„t m3mber of the House of Commons. See have become extinct, as the Rogerenes, organized in < rou.-il. Lit, r ititre of Ann rican Baptists in Missionary 1680 in Connecticut, and called after Jonathan Rogers. ■'"..' ' ' P; ''l!l' l03 ■ They observed the seventh dav instead of Sunday, and ... United States. — The Baptist churches in the believed in spiritual marriages. The Free or Open uted States owe their origin to Roger Williams (q. Communion Baptists, who were organized about 1810, v.;, who, before his immersion, was an Episcopalian United in 1841 with the Free-will Baptists, minuter. Io was persecuted for opposing the au- The Baptist literature of the United States begins ■ "".' q"' "' ecclesiastical affairs and for in the seventeenth century with the pleas of Roger '""l "l"'1' 'ended to Anabaptism." In 1689 Williams and his companion, John Clarke, for religious 'mmersed by Ezekiel Holliman, and in turn liberty. Contributions to the denominational litera- ." '•"I 'I 'II""". and ten others, who with him or- tore were also made by the Wightmans, of Connecti- ganizeda Baptist Church al Providence, Rhode Island, cot (Valentine, Timothy, and John Gano"), the two a raw yean before (163o . though unknown to Wil- Abel Morgans, John Callender, and Benjamin Griffith. ban-, a Bapt.stprcacherof England, Hansard Knol- The first Baptist book on Systematic Theologv was l.y, had settled in Nee Hampshire and taken charge published in 1700 by the Rev. John Watts. 'About Of a Cure!, ,,, Dover; but he resigned in 1689 and re- the middle of the eighteenth centurv the Rev. Isaac turned to England. Wilhai bfc 1 in Kill a Backus commenced bis literary career. He was fol- . I. r. r for the colony which he and his associates had lowed by the Rev. Dr. Stillman, Rev. Morgan Edwards, BAPTISTS 655 BAPTISTS Samuel Shepard, Rev. William Roger?, Rev. Richard Furman, and the eccentric John Leland. Fruitful authors at the beginning of the present century were Thomas Baldwin, D.D., Rev. Henry Holcombe, James Manning, D.D., Rev. Dr. Stanford, Rev. Dr. Mercer, Rev. A. Broaddus, Rev. Jonathan Maxey, D.D., and Rev. William Staughton, D.D. The literature of the last fifty years is very numerous. We give below (from Crowell, Literature of the American Baptists during the last fifty years, in Missionary Jubilee, N. Y. 1865, p. 405-465) a list of the most important denomi- national works of Baptist authors, and of the most important contributions of Baptist authors to religious and general literature. A. Denominational Literature. — a. Didactic. — Jesse Mercer, of Georgia (on Ordination; Church Authority; Lord's Supper) ; Andrew Broaddus, Va. (Church Dis- cipline) ; W. Crowell, 111. (Church Members' Manu- al); Warham Walker, N. Y. (Church Discipline); E. Savage (Church Discipline) ; J. L. Reynolds (Church Order) ; Th. F. Curtis (Progress of Baptist Principles , Communion) ; Fr. Wayland (Principles and Practices of Baptist Churches) ; D. C. Haynes (The Baptist De- nomination) ; E. T. Hiscox (Church Directorv) ; W. Jewell, S. W. Lynd, Mill, R. Fuller, T. L. Davidson, N. M. Crawford, E. Turney, W. C. Duncan, M. G. Clarke (Baptism); A. N. Arnold (Communion); J. L. Dagg (Church Order), b. Historical. — Benedict (Hist, of Baptists, the standard American work) ; Duncan (Early Baptists) ; W. Gammell (American Baptist Mis- sions) ; W. Hague (Baptist Church transplanted from the Old to the New World) ; J. Newton Brown (Hist, of Bapt, Publication Society ; Baptist Martyrs ; Simon Menno) ; F. Dennison (Baptists and their Principles) ; S. S. Cutting (Provinces and Uses of Baptist History). c. Polemic (against other denominations). — S. Wilcox, D. Haseall, Th. Baldwin, G. Foote, J. T. Hinton, W. Hague, J. Richards, J. J. Woolsey, C. H. Hosken, R. B. C. Howell, E. Turney, G. W. Anderson, J. T. Smith, T. G. Jones, S. Henderson, A. C. Dayton (the latter two specially against Methodism). .—We belive the Scriptures teach that the fsah ation are made free, to all by the Gospel; that it i- the immediate duty of all to accept tluni by a cordial, |, nit, -it. and obedient faith; and that nothing prevents the salvation of the greatest sinner on earth but his own deter- mine ! depravity and voluntary rejection of the Gospel, which reji cioii involves him in an aggravated condemnation. 7, Regeneration.— We believe the Scriptures teach that in order to be saved sinners must be regenerated, or born again; that rig iteration consists in giving a holy disposition to the mind; that it is effected in a manner above our comprehen- sion by the power of the Holy Spirit, in connection with divine truth, so as to secure our voluntary obedience to the Go-pel; tin 1 that its proper evidence appears in the holy fruits of re- pentance, .and faith, and newness of life. B. /.' />■ ntan ■<: and Faith. —We believe the Scriptures teach that repentance and faith are sacred duties, and also insepa- rable graces, wrought in our souls by the regenerating Spirit ot t ... 1. w hereby, being deeply convinced of our guilt, danger, and helplessness, and of the way of salvation by Christ, we turn to God with uufeigned contrition, confession, and suppli- cation for mercy; at the same time heartily receiving the I. md .lesii- Christ as our prophet, priest, and king, and rely- ing on him alone as the only and all-sufficient Saviour. 9. God's Purpose of Grace. — We believs the Scriptures teach that election is the eternal purpose of God, according to which he graciously regenerates, sanctiti s, and saves sinners ; that, being perfectly consist, ait with the free agency of man, it a Is all the means in connection with the end; that r is a most glorious display of God's sovereign goodness, being infinitely tree, wise, holy, and unehangeabl ■; that it utterly excludes boasting, and pr tes humility, love, prayer, praise, tru-t in God, and active imitation of his free mercy; that it encourages the use of means in the highest degree; that it may be ascertained by its effects in all who truly believe the Gospel; that it is the foundation of Christian assurance; and thai to ascertain i; with regard to ourselves demands and de- serves (he utmost diligence. 10. Saiirti/ication We believe the Scriptures teach that e, ,u is the process by which, according to the will of c,,!. we are made partaken of his holiness; that it is a work; that it ie begun in regeneration; and that it i- carried Oil in the bear s of believers by the presence and power of the Holy Spirit, the Sealer and' Comforter, in the continual use of the appointed means especially the word of God, self-examination, self denial, watchfulness," and prayer. 11. Pi-meverancc of Saint* We beli ve the Scriptures teach that Buch only are real believers as endure unto the end; that their | n ring attachment to Chri-t is the grand ich distingui In- them from superficial professors; K C al Providcnc ■ watches OV r their welfare; and thej are kepi by the power of God through faith unto salva- ti in. 12. The Law and. Gospel. -We believe the Scriptures teach thai the la« refGod i- the eternal and inn haieje able rule of I ivernment; that it is holy, just, and good; and tint the inability « h'ch Hi- Scriptures ascribe to fallen man •" ml"' Its pre epta (irises entirely from their love of sin; to deliver thorn (mm which, and to restore them through a Me- dial.,r to i, nt ague 1 oho ho-,ee (,, th holy law, is ,„„. gr at end the i. .-pel. and of the means of g •;,,.,. connected with the establishment of the risible church. ':;- •' '■ kVe believe the Scriptures tench that ' a ■ .llgfeeatio-l of baptized h liev- ml in the faith nnd fellowship of the Co- pel ; ob-.rviie.- the ..,■ li„ ,,,,, .,._ ,,| ( ],,.;,, . ,.,lVeriied bv his I its.and p ivlle a- invested In them , ••,i,,,-,i"„fncers are an 1 d ■ai- a-, w le.-e on ,| ti ation- claims end duties are define I in the i i,i.n... t,, ■ i --.,,...» i .. - ..,,,i" ■!•,,, . ' the dying love of Christ, preceded always by solemn self-ex- amination. 15. The Christian Sabbath. —We believe the Scriptures teach that the first day of the week is the Lord's day, or Christian Sabbath; and it is to be kept sacred to religious purposes by abstaining from all secular labor and sinful re- creation , by the devout observance of all the means of grace, both private and public, and by preparation for that rest which teiiiainetli for the people of God. 10. Civil Government. —We believe the Scriptures teach that civil government is of divine appointment, for the inter- est and good order of human society; and that magistrates are to be prayed for, conscientiously honored and obeyed, ex- cept only iu tilings opposed to the will of our Lord Jesus Christ, who is the only Lord of the conscience, and the Prince of the kings of the earth. IT. Righteous and Wicked. — We believe the Scriptures teach that there is a radical and essential difference between the righteous and the wicked ; that such only as through faith are justified in the name of the Lord Jesus, and sanctified by the :?pirit of our God, are truly righteous in his esteem ; while all such as continue in impenitence and unbelief are, in his sight, wicked and under the curse ; and this distinction holds among men both in anil after death. IS. The World to Come We believe the Scriptures teach that the end of the world is approaching; that at the last day Christ will descend from heaven, and raise the dead from the grave for tinal retribution ; that a solemn separation will then take place; that the wicked will be adjudged to endless pun- ishment, and the righteous to endless joy ; and that this judg- ment will fix forever the final state of men in heaven or hell, on principles of righteousness. 19. Covenant. — Having been, as we trust, brought by divine grace to embrace the Lord Jesus Christ, and to give ourselves wholly to him, we do now solemnly and joyfully covenant wi.h each other to walk TOGETHER in him, with brotherly love, to his glory as our common Lord. We do therefore, in his strength, engage — That we will exercise a Christian care and watchfulness over each other, and faithfully warn, exhort, and admonish each other as occasion may require : That we will not forsake the assembling of ourselves togeth- er, but will uphold the public worship of God and the ordi- nances of his house : That we will not omit closet and family religion at home, nor neglect the great duty of religiously training our children and those under our care for the service of Christ and the en- joyment of heaven : That, as we are the light of the world and salt of the earth, we will seek divine aid to enable us to deny ungodliness, and even worldly lust, and to walk circumspectly in the world, that we may win the souls of men: That we will cheerfully contribute of our property, accord- ing as God has prospered us, for the maintenance of a faith- f nl and evangelical ministry among us, for the support of the poor, and to spread the Gospel over the earth : That v.* will in all conditions, even till death, strive to live to the glory of him who hath called us out of darkness into his marvellous light. "And may the Cod of peace, who brought again from the dead our Lord Jesus, that great shepherd of the sheep, through the blood of the everlasting covenant, make us perfect in every good work, to do his will, working in us that which is well pleading in his sight, through Je.-us Chri.-t; to whom be glory forever and ever. Amen." Cjnfession of Faith of Baptist Churches (Southern). 1. Holy Scripture.— The holy Scripture is the only snffi. cient, certain, and infallible rule of all saving knowledge, faith, and obedience; the supreme judge by which all con- troversies i)f r, ligion arc to be di ter mined, and all decrees of councils, opinions of ancient writers, doctrines of men, and private spirits, are to be examined, and in whose sentence we are to rest. 2. God the Trinttv The Lord our Clod is but one only liv- ing and true Cod, infinite i:i being and perfection. In this divine and infinite being there are three snbsisteneies, the Lather, the Word (or Son), and Holy Spirit, of one substance, power, and eternity. 3 God's Decree.— Those of mankind that are predestinated to life, Cod, before the foundation of the world was laid, ac- cording to his eternal and immutable purpose, and the secret Counsel and good pleasure of his will, hath chose in Christ unto everlasting glory, out of his mere free grace and love, without any other tliing in I he creature as a condition or cause moving him thereunto. As Cod bath appointed the I I / •t the I ather. and Son, and Holy nd beautiful emblem our a Saviour, with its effect irrectlon to a new life; that it is te to the privilege* ,,f „ ,.,,„,,.,, lv,;lti,„,_ „„,, ,,, „|(. upper, lii «h eh the members of the church by the ..-■! use of bread and wine, are to commemorate together lore thev who are elected, being fallen in Adam, are redeemed by Chris,, are effectually called unto faith by Christ, by his Spirit working in due season, are justified, adopted, sanctified, and kept by his power through faith unto salvation. 4 The Fall of Man and Sin, — Although God created man upright and perfect, and gave to him a righteous law, yet he did not long abide In this honor, but did Wilfully transgress the command given unto him in eating the forbidden fruit; which God was pleased, aceordiiig to hi- wise and holy ,-ounscl, to permit, having purposed to order it to his own glory. I Irr first parents, by this »j>, fell from their original righteous- ness and communion wi h God, whereby death came upon all; BAPTISTS 057 BAPTISTS nil becoming dead in sin, and wholly defiled in all the facul- ties and parts of .soul and body. They being the root, cor- rupted nature was conveyed to all thi ir posterity, descending from them by ordinary generation, being now conceived in sin, and by nature children of wrath. 5. God's Covenant. — .Man having brought himself under the curse of the law by his fall, it pleased the Lord to reveal the Covenant of Grac •, wherein he freely offereth unto sinners life and salvation by Jesus Christ, requiring of them faith in him that they might be saved ; and promising to give unto all those that are ordained unto eternal lite his Holy Spirit, to make them trilling and able to believe. 0. Christ the. Mediator.— The Son of Cod, the second person in the Holy Trinity, being very and eternal God, the bright- ness of the Father's glory, of one substance, and equal with him, who made the world, who upholdeth and governeth all things he hath made, did, when the fullness of time was come, take upon him man's nature, with all the essential properties and common infirmities thereof, yet without sin — so that two whole, perfect, and distinct natures were inseparably joined together in one person, which person is very God and very man, yet one Christ, the only Mediator between God and man. 7. Redemption.— The Lord Jesus, by his perfect obedience and sacrifice of himself, which he, through the eternal Spirit, once offered up unto God, hath fully satisfied the justice of God, procured reconciliation, and purchased an everlasting inheritance in the kingdom of heaven for all those whom the Father hath given unto him. To all those for whom Christ hath obtained eternal redemp- tion he doth certainly and effectually apply and communicate the same ; making intercession for them ; uniting them to himself by his Spirit ; revealing unto them, in and by the word, the mystery of salvation; persuading them to believe and obey; governing their hearts by his word and Spirit, and overcoming all their enemies by his almighty power and wisdom, in such manner and ways as are most consonant to his wonderful and unsearchable dispensation, and all of free and absolute grace, without any condition foreseen in them to procure it. S. The K'?7/.— Man, by his fall into a state of sin, hath whol- ly lost all will to any spiritual good accompanying salvation; so as a natural man, being altogether averse from that good, and dead in sin, is not able by his own strength to convert himself, or to prepare himself thereunto. When God converts a sinner, and translates him into a »tate of grace, he freeth him from his natural bondage under sin, and by his grace alone enables him freely to will and to do that which is spiritually good. i». Effi-c'ual Calling.— Those whom God hath predestinated unto life he is pleased, in his appointed and ace pted time, effectually to call by his word and Spirit out of that state of sin and death in which they are by nature, to grace of salva- tion by Jesus Christ. 10. Justification.— Those whom God effectually calleth he also freely justifieth. accounting and accepting their persons as righteous; not for anything" wrought in them or done by them, but for Christ's sake alone. 11. Adoption. — All those that are justified, God vouchsafed, in and for the sake of Irs only Son, Jesus Christ, to make par- takers of the grace of adoption, by which they are taken into the number, and enjoy the liberties and privileges of children of God. 12. Sanctification.— They who are united to Christ, effectu ally called and regenerated, having a new heart and a new spirit created in them, through the virtue of Christ's death and resurrection, are also further sanctified, really and per s inally, through the tame virtue, by his word and Spirit dwelling in them. 13. Saving Faith. — The grace of faith, whereby the elect are enabled to believe to the saving of their souls, is the work of the Spirit of Christ in their hearts, and is ordinarily wrought by the ministry of the word. 14. Hcpentanec.—X-.wing repentance is an evangelical g'aoe, whereby a person, being by the Holy Spirit made sensible of the manifold evils of his sin, doth, by faith in Christ, humble himself for it, with godly sorrow, detestation of it, and self-ab- horreney. 15. Gdod Works. — Good works, done in obedience to God's commandments, are the fruits and evidences of a true and live- ly faith. 111. I •ersererance.— Those whom God hath accepted in the Beloved, effectually called and sanctified by his Spirit, shall certainly persevere therein to the end, and b • eternally savul. IT. Moral Lave. — The moral law doth forever bind all, as well justified persons as others, to the obedience thereof, and that not only in regard to the mutter contained in it, but also in respect of the authority of God the Creator who gave it; neither doth Christ in the Gospel any way diss< lvc, but much strengthen this obligation. IS. Tlic Sabbath. — God, by his word, in a positive, moral, ami perpetual commandment, binding all men, in all ages, hath particularly app >inted one day in seven for a Sabbath to bo kept holy unto him, which, from the beginning of the world to the" resurrection of Christ, was the last day of the week; and from the resurrection of Christ was changed into the first day of the week, which he called the Lord's day. 19. The Chui ch The Lord Jesus Christ U the head of the church, in whom, by the appointment of the Fatlu r, all pow< r for the calling, institution, order, or government of the church is invested in a supreme and severer n m:\nrie"-. : n the ex en- Tt tion of this power, the Lord Jesus calleth out of the world unto himself, through the ministry of his word, by his Spirit, tho-e that are given unto him by his Father, that they may walk before him in all the ways of obedience, which he prescribeth to them in his word. 20. Church Officers.— A particular church gathered, end completely organized according to the mind of Christ, consists of officers and members: and the officers appointed by Chr'st to be chosen and set apart by the church are bishops, or elders, and deacons. 21. Minister ', their Luty and Support The voik of rap- tors being constantly to attend the service of Christ, in his churches, in the ministry of the word, and prayer, with watch- ing for their souls, as they that must give an account to him, it is incumbent on the churches to whom they minister not only to give them all due respect, but to communicate to them of all their good things, according to their ability. 22. Baptism.— Baptism is an ordinance of the New Testa- ment, ordained by Jesus Christ to be unt.o the party baptized a sign of his fellowship with him in Ins death and resurrec- tion; of his being ingralted into him; of remission of sins; and of his giving up unto God, through Jesus Chiist, to live and walk in newness of life. Those who do actually profess repentance toward God, and obedience to our Lord Jesus t hrist, are the only props r subjects of this ordinance. '1 he outward element to be used in this e refinance is water, where- in the party is to he immersed, in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Gh( st. 23. Loia's Supper The supper of the Lord Jesus was in- f tit u ted by him, the same night wherein he was betrayed, to be observed in his chinches unto the end of the world, for the perpetual remembrance and showing forth the sacrifice of himself in his dt ath. 24. The Reiurrection.—The bodies of men after death re- turn to dust, hut their souls, which neither die nor sleep, hav- ing an immortal subsistence, immediately return to Cod who gave them ; the souls of the righteous, being then made per- fect in holiness, are leceived into paradise, wl e:e they are with Christ, and behold the face of Gi d, in light and glory, waiting for the full redemption of their booh s ; aid the si uls ef the wicked are cast into hell, where (bey remain in torment rnd utter darkness, reserved to the jucgnient of the gr.Kt day. 25. The Judgment — God hath appointed a day wherein he will judge the world in righti ousness,by Jesus Chiist. to whom all power and judgment is given of the Father , then shall the righteous go into c vei lasting life, and receive the fulness of joy and gloiy, with evei lasting reward, in the presence of tha Lord; but the wicked who know not God, and obey not the Gospel ef Jesus Christ, shall be east into eternal torments, and i uni.-hed with everlasting destracti' n, from the presence of the Lord, and from the gloiy of his pi wer. The American Br.ptists differ clso from the Pritish in a mere general adoption of ''elese communion." See Communion. III. statistics: 1. United States.— According to the Baptist Almcnac for I860, there were, in 18G5, 502 asso- ciations, 12,7C2 churches, 7807 ordained ministers, end 1,040,31 3 members. Of the latter, E244 -were members in German and Dutch, 600 in Swedish, end 1400 in Welsh churches. The number of Baptist colleges in 1859 was i'4. The oldest is Brown University, at Provider.ce, l.hcde Island, which was founded in 1704. The next in age, Madison University, at Hamilton, New York, was founded in 1819. Fifteen were organ- ized from le55 to 1859. The oldest theological school was organized in connection with Madison University in 1820. The whole number in If- 59 was 12. 'lhe Baptists, in 1859, published 28 weekly papers, 14 month- j lies, and 2 quarterlies — the Christian Review, at New ! York, and the Southern Review and Eclectic, at Nash- ville, Tenn. Two of the monthlies were published in ! foreign languages — one in German, one in Welsh. . During the Civil War (from 18C0 to 1£64) nearly all ! colleges, seminaries, and papers in the states 1 eh ng- j ing to the Southern Confederacy were suspended, but after the close of the war were gradually revived. The general benevolent associations are (1.) Amer- ican Baptist Missionary Union, established in 1814. The receipts in 18G5 were $169,792. The Board has , under its care 19 missions: 3 among the Indians of i North America, 2 in Europe, and 14 in South-eastern | Asia. The Asiatic missions have 15 stations, and more than 400 out-stations. There are now connected with the missions, including tlmse in this country and exclusive of Europe, 84 American laborers — 41 males and -!3 females— together with over 500 native help- | ert, of whom about 50 are ordained.. Of native labor- BAPTISTS 058 BAPTISTS ers in Europe there are 200. According to incomplete returns, there are about 36,000 members. Sec Mis- SIOKS. (2.) American Baptist Publication Society, estab- lished in 1824. In 1865 its receipts amounted to $158,954 93. Twenty-eight new publications were issued during the year, making 99,997,150 pages 18mo. The total uumber of pages printed since the society's organization is about 531,000,000. The Reaper has a circulation of over 100,000. Twenty-six colporteurs were in commission, distributed in the different states and in Sweden. Connected with the American Baptist Publication Society is the American Baptist Historical Society, which was established in 1853. (3.) American Baptist Home Mission Society, estab- lished in 1832. Total receipts in 1865, $122,519. Mis- sionaries and agents employed during the year, 24G. (4.) American and Foreign Bible Society. See Bi- blb Societies. (5.) American Baptist Free Mission Society, estab- lished in 1843. Total receipts for the year 1865, $26,631. (6.) Southern Baptist Convention, established in 1845. It holds biennial meetings. Its Foreign Mis- sion Board is located at Richmond, Va., and reported in 1859, receipts, $39,824 38 ; expenditures, $31,024 63. The Domestic and Indian Mission Board is located at Marion, Ala. Receipts, $47,698 27 ; expenditures, $41,369 70. There have been under commission dur- ing the year 35 missionaries : 19 among the Creeks, 10 among the Choctaws, and 6 anions the Cherokees. The Bible Board is located at Nashville, Tenn. (7.) Southern Baptist Publication Society, estab- lished in 1847. Receipts in 1858, $9794 25 ; expend- itures, $9159 69. The amount of volumes issued by the society from the first is 222,175, containing 82,775, 666 'pages. 2. Great Britain. — According to the English Baptist Manual for 1858, there were in Great Britain and Ire- land 33 associations of Particular Baptists, 1917 church- es (of which 1132 were associated), 101,397 members, 137,524 pupils of Sunday-schools. The annual report of the secretary of the Baptist Union in 1865 contained the following statistical statements: "All the coun- try and district associations in England but one were now affiliated with the Union, and in all Great Britain and Ireland but four. Twenty churches had joined the Union during the year. The total number of churches in connection with the Union is 1332, the number of Baptist churches in the kingdom (England and Wale-) being about 2400. Returns had been ob- tained from 1898 churches, and these showed a total Of 198,295 members, or an excess of 22,063 over the preceding year.'' In Scotland there were, in 1865, 97 Baptist churches, 95 ministers, and 5000 members. In Ireland, 37 churches, 24 ministers, 950 members. The Particular Baptists have 6 colleges: Bristol (founded in 1770): Horton College, Bradford (1804); Regent's Park, London (1810) ; Pontypool (1807) ; Haverford West (1841 I; and Edinburgh. The first five had to- gether, in 1859, 103 pupils. The General Baptists li ive a college at Nottingham (since 1798), with 7 stu- dent- ; the New Connection of General Baptists a col- lege at Leicester. The religious and benevolent so- cietiea arc very numerous: the Baptist Year-book for itions 17. The Baptist Missionary Socu fy had in 1859 an income of £26,518, and missions in India, Ceylon, the West Indies, Africa, and Trance. The trives to be a bond of union for the independent churches, to obtain statistical information on Baptist churches and institutions throughout the world, and to prepare an annual report on the stale of the denomination. I ]„■ General Baptist Missionary Society of the New Connection of General Baptists sus- tains a mission in India. (A complete list is also given in Schem'a Ecclesiastical Year-book for 1859, p. 110.) According to th ./„„,/■, the period- icals of the English Baptists consist of 1 weekly, 3 annual, and 9 monthly magazines. 3. In other Countries. — The British Possessions in America had, in 1859, 17 associations, 460 churches, 337 ordained ministers, 65,450 members, and 6 periodicals, of which one was in the French language. For Ger- many, the Report of the American Baptist Missionary Union, in Ma}', 1866, gives 11,239 members; for Switzerland, 269; for Denmark, 1702. Sweden had, in 1865, 6606 members. The membership of the Bap- tist churches in France is estimated at about 700. Baptist periodicals are published in Sweden and in Germany. The number of Baptists in Holland is given (by Dr. Cox) in the Encyclopedia Metropolitana as 238. The mission in Greece has been discontinued. In Asia the missions of the American Baptist Mission- ary Union (in India, Burmah, and Ceylon) reported, in 1859, 14,323 members; those of the English Baptist Missionary Society (in India and Ceylon), 2123 mem- bers ; those of the General Baptist Missionary Society of England (in India), 333 members ; those of the American Southern Baptists (in China), 30 members. In Africa, the American Southern Baptists have mis- sions in Liberia, with about 1200 members. The mis- sions, of the English Baptist Missionary Society had, in 1859, 184 members. The number of Baptists in Australasia is estimated at from 4000 to 6000. — Bene- dict, History of the Baptists ; Cox, The Baptists (in the Enc. Metr.) ; Missionary Jubilee (N. Y. 1865) ; Smith, Tables of Church History; Herzog, Real-Encyklopddie, s. v. ; Baptist Manual (of England) ; American Baptist Almanac ; Schem, Ecclesiastical Year-book for 1859, p. 27, 41, 110; Cutting, Historical Vindications. For a fuller account of works on the history of American Bap- tists, compare above, Baptist Literature. BAPTISTS, FREE -COMMUNION, a denomina- tion of Baptists which arose in the eighteenth century in Rhode Isand and Connecticut, and owed its origin to the preaching of Whitfield. Many of those who were converted through his instrumentality formed a separate organization, and took the name " Separates." Gradually they became Baptists, without, however, practicing close communion. In 1785 they formed an association called the "Groton Union Conference." In 1820 they had 25 churches, some of which soon united with the Free-will Baptists. A General Con- ference was organized in 1835, but in 1841 the whole body united with the Free-will Baptists. See Belcher, Religious Denominations ; Cox, The Baptists (in the En- cyclopedia Metropolitana). BAPTISTS, FREE-WILL, a section of Baptists which commenced in North America in 1780. The first church was organized at New Durham, N. H., by Benjamin Randall, who in his twenty-second year was a convert of George Whitfield. In 1784 the first quar- terly meeting was organized : in 1792, the first yearly meeting, consisting of delegates of the quarterly meet- ings. The most successful minister of this denomina- tion was John Colby, who entered the ministry in 1809, and died in 1817. In 1827 a general conference was formed, which was at first annual, then biennial, and is now triennial, and is composed of delegates ap- pointed by the yearly meetings. In 1841, nearly the whole body of another Baptist denomination, the Free- Communion Baptists, united with them, while, on the other hand, they withdrew, a few years ago, connection from 4000 members in North Carolina on account of their being slaveholders. On the same principle, they refused to receive into the connection some 12,000 from Kentucky and vicinity, who sent deputies to the gen- eral conference for that purpose. They are Arminians, and agree in doctrine almost wholly with the New ( onnection of General Baptists in England, except that they are open communionists, while the English New Connection generally hold to strict communion. At the fifth general conference, held at Wilton, Me., in October, 1831, the subject of "Washing the Saints' BAPTISTS 059 BAPTISTS Feet," which had produced no small excitement among this denomination, was discussed, and it was agreed that the churches of the denomination should be at full liberty to retain the ordinance or not. It is now not generally practised, though not entirely in desuetude. The ecclesiastical bodies among Free-will Baptists are, the church, the quarterly meeting conference, the an- nual meeting, and the general conference. The offi- cers in the church are two — elders and deacons. Each church elects its own pastor, and exercises discipline over its own members ; but, as a church, it is account- able to the yearly meeting. Also ministers are ac- countable to the quarterly meetings to which they be- long, and not to the churches over which they are pastors. A council from the quarterly meeting or- ganizes churches and ordains ministers. The quar- terly meetings consist of ministers and such brethren as the churches may select. The general conference meets every three years, and consists of delegates chosen from the annual conferences. Confession of Faith. 1. The Scriptures.— The Holy Scriptures, embracing the Olil and New Testaments, were giveu by inspiration of God, and constitute the Christian's perfect rule of faith and prac- tice. 2. God. — There is only one true and living God, who is a spirit, self-existent, eternal, immutable, omnipresent, omni- scient, omnipotent, independent, good, wise, just, and merci- ful; the creator, preserver, and governor of the universe ; the redeemer, saviour, sanctifier, and judge of mi n ; and the only proper object of divine worship, lie exists in three persons, offices, distinctions, and relations — Father, Son, and Ih>ly Ghost, which mode of existence is above the understanding of finite men. 3. Christ. The Son of God possesses all divine perfections, which is proven from his titles : true God, great God, mighty (oid, ( rod over all, etc. ; his attributes : eternal, unchangeable, omniscient, etc., and from his works, lie is the only incarna- tion of the Divine Being. 4. The Until Spirit.— He has the attributes of God ascribed to him in the Scriptures ; is the sanctifier of the souls of men, and is the third person in the Godhead. 5. Creition. — God created the world and all it contains for his own glory, and the enjoyment of his creatures; and the angels, to glorify and obey him. C. Marts Primitive State, and his Fall.— Out first parents were created in the image of God, holy, and upright, and free; but, by yielding to temptation, fell from that state, and all their posterity with them, they then being in Adam's loins ; ami the whole human family became exposed to temporal and eternal death. 1. The Atonemen'. — As sin cannot, be pardoned without a sacrifice, ami the blond of beasts could never actually wash away sin, Christ gave himself a sacrlfi-e for the sins of the world, and thus mad'' salvation possible for all men. Through the redemption of Christ man is placed on n second state of trial; this second state so far differing from the first, that non- men are naturally inclined to transgress the commands of God, and will not regain the image of God in holiness but through the atonement by the operation of the Holy Spirit. All who die short of the aire of accountability are rendered sure of eternal life. Through the provisions of the atonement all are abilitated to repent of their sins and yield to God; the Gospel call is to all, the Spirit enlightens all, and men are agents capable of choo-ing or refusing. S. Ucarncration is an instantaneous renovation of the soul by the Spirit of God, whereby the p nit nt sinner, belli ving in and giving up all for < 'brist, receives new life, and becomes a child of (oid. This change is preceded by true conviction, repentance of and penitent sorrow for sin; it is called in Scrip- ture being born again, born of the Spirit, passing from death unto life. The soul is then justified with God. 0. SanctifiC'ition is a setting apart the soul and body for holy service, an entire consecration of all our ransomed pow- ers to God; believers arc to strive for this with all diligence. 10. I'erseee hi nee. — As the regenerate are placed in a state of trial during life, their future obedience and final salvation are neither determined nor certain ; it is, however, their duty and privilege to be steadfast in the truth, to grow in grace, persevere in holiness, and make their election sure. 11. Immediately after death nun enter Into a state of hap- piness or misery, according to their character. At some fu- ture period, known only to God, there will be a resurrection both of the righteous and the wicked, when there will he a general jiuhniient, when all will lie judged according to the deeds done in the body; the righteous be admitted into eter- nal happiness, and the wicked assigned to eternal misery. 12. The Church.— A Christian church is an assembly of persons who believe in Christ, and worship the true God agreeably to his word. In a more general sense, it signifies the whole body of real Christians throughout the. world. The church being the body of Christ, none but. the regenerate, wdio obey the Gospel, are its real memb rs. Believers are re- ceived into a particular church on their giving evidence of faith, covenanting to walk according to the Christian rule, and being baptized. 13. Bajjtism.— Baptism is an immersion of the candidate in water, in the name of the lather, of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost; the only proper candidate being one who gives evidence of a change of heart. 14. Communion.— Communion is a solemn partaking of bread and wine, in commemoration of the death and suffer- ings of Christ. — American Christian Record. The denomination has a printing establishment at Dover, N. H. ; two colleges — Bates, at Lewiston, Me., with 48 students, and Hillsdale, Mich., with COO stu- dents ; two theological institutions — one at New Hamp- ton, N. H., with 16 students, the other at Hillsdale, Mich., with 21 students (1SG7). In 1866 the following statistics were reported: Yearly meetings, 31; quar- terly meetings, 117; ordained preachers, 1076; licensed preachers, 161 ; churches, 1264 ; total membership, 56,258. The Foreign Missionary Society has a mis- sion at Orissa, India (receipts for 1866, $12,166) ; they have also a Home Miss. Society and an Education So- ciety. In New Brunswick and Nova Scotia they have about 4000 members, and a journal, the Religious In- telligencer, published at St. John's, N. B. See Stewart, History of Free-vnll Baptists, Dover, 1862, vol. i, from 1780 to 1*830 ; (Winebrenner) History of Denominations in the United States ; Belcher, Religious Denominations ; Cox, The Baptists (in the Encyclopedia Metropolitana) ; Schem, Ecclesiastical Year-book for 1859 ; Free-trill Baptist Register. BAPTISTS, GERMAN, a denomination of Ameri- can Baptists who are commonly called Dunkers, while they call themselves Brethren. They originated at Schwarzenau, in Germany, in 1708, but were driven by persecution to America between 1719 and 1729. They purposely neglect any record of their proceed- ings, and are opposed to statistics, which they believe to savor of pride. They originally settled in Pennsyl- vania, but are now most numerous in Ohio. In 1790, a party of Universalists, led by one John Dam, sepa- rated from the Dunkers, since which time there has been no connection between them. The seceders are to be found in Kentucky, Illinois, Missouri, and Iowa. The whole denomination has been believed to hold Uni- versalist views, but they have always protested against the charge. With the Mennonites, they appeal to the Confessions of Faith published in Holland two centu- ries ago. They practise trine immersion, with laying '' on of hands while the person is in the water. They lay their candidate forward in the water instead of | backward, as the regular Baptists do. Their officers are bishops (or ministers), elders, teachers, and dea- cons (or visiting brethren). They also have deacon- esses— aged women, who are allowed to exercise their gifts statedly. Bishops arc chosen firm the teachers, after they have been fully tried and found faithful It is their duty to travel from one congregation to an- other, to preach, to officiate at marriages and funerals, to set in order whatever may be wanting, to be pres- ent at love-feasts and communions, when a bishop is to be ordained, when teachers or deacons are chosen or elected, and when any officer is to be excommuni- cated. An elder is the first or eldest chosen teacher in a congregation where there is no bishop. It is his duty to appoint meetings, to assist in excommunica- tion, to exhort and preach, to baptize, to travel occa- sionally, and, where no bishop is present, to perform all the duties of the latter. Teachers are chosen by vote. It is their duty to exhort and preach at any of their stated meetings, and, when so requested by a bishop or elder, to perform the ceremonies of matrimo- ny and of baptism. It is the duty of deacons to keep a constant oversight of poor widows and their chil- dren, and give them such aid from time to time as may be necessary ; to visit all the families in the congre- gation at least once a year, and exhort, comfort, and edify them, as well as to reconcile all offences and misunderstandings that may occur from time to iJAPTISTS 660 BAR time; and. whtn necessary, to read the Scriptures, pray, and exhort at the regular meetings. An an- nual meeting is held about Whitsuntide, and attended by bishops and teachers, as well as by such other mem- bers as may he delegated by the congregations. A committee of five of the oldest bishops hears those ( s a which may be referred to them by the teachers | and representatives from the congregations. Their de- cisions are published in English and German. In plainness of speech and dress they resemble the So- ciety of Friends. They will not go to law, nor engage in war. and seldom take interest for the money which they lend to their poorer brethren. The Baptist Al- manac for 1860 estimates the number of their preachers at 200, of congregations at 150, of members at 8200. ; The census of 1850 gives them only 52 church edifices, which indicates that a large number of their congrega- tions worship in school-houses. See Belcher, Religious Denominations; Baptist Almanac for 1860. BAPTISTS, OLD-SCHOOL. A name assumed by those Baptists who, in the second half of the past cen- tury, opposed the formation of missionary societies, Sunday-schools, and similar institutions, which they considered as floodgates for letting in all those con- trivances in religion which make the salvation of men appear to depend on human effort. They are frequent- ly, also, called Anti-mission or Anti-effort Baptists. \ 1 hey have neither colleges nor theological institu- I tions, and are almost entirely confined to the Western and South-western States. Their number is at present I on the decrease. In 1844 they counted 01,000 mem- | hers; in 1854, 66,500; in 1859, 58,000. In 1859 thoy had 155 associations, 1720 churches, 825 ordained min- isters, and 15(10 had been baptized in 1858. Sec Bel- cher, Religious Denominations; Cox, The Baptists; A mi fir, m Baptist Almanac. BAPTISTS, SEVENTH-DAY, a denomination of Baptists who keep the seventh day of the week instead of the first as the Sabbath. In England they assumed, soon after the Reformation, the name of Sabbatarians ; but in 1818 this term was rejected by the general con- fcrence in America, and the term Seventh-day Bap- tists adopted. They believe that the first day was not generally used in the Christian Church as Sabbath be- I fore the reign of Constantine. Traces of seventh-day 1.' ipers are found in the times of Gregory I, Gregory VII, and in the twelfth century in Lombardy. In j Germany they appeared late in the fifteenth, ;:nd in England in the sixteenth century. In 1595, a work advancing their views was published in England by on ! Nicholas Bound, D.D., and several of their mem- | bers suffered imprisonment. They assumed adenomi- ! n itional organization in 1650, and counted at the end | of the seventeenth century eleven churches, of which now only three remain. In America the first Seventh- ! ■ ' Baptists were connected with First-day Baptist churches. A separate organization was commenced in 1671. Yearly meetings commenced at the begin- ning of the eighteenth century, and a general confer- ence was organized at the beginning of the nineteenth century, which held its meetings at first annually, later (since 1846) triennially. In 1845 they divided them- into live associations (Eastern^ Western, Cen- tral. Virginia, and Ohio). They have repeatedly u tion against slavery, and in favor of temper- ance and other reforms. A foreign missionary society w:i~ e-t iblishcd iu 1842, and supports missionaries in China and Palestine. Besides, they have a Trad and Publishing Society. The latter issues a weekly, a monthly, and a quarterly periodical. Their literary institutions are De Ruyter institute and Alfred (ni- v rsity, both In the State of New York, besides several smaller academies. The Bap'ist llmanac for 18G0 givea the following statistics: 07 churches, 70 minis- ters, 17 licentiates, 7250 members. See Belcher, Re- ligious hi nominations. BAPTISTS, SEVENTH-DAY (GERMAN), a de- nomination of Baptists which arose by secession ficm the German Baptists (q. v.) or Dunkers. In 1725 Conrad Beissel published a tract against the celebra- tion of the first day, and, when this created some dis- turbance in the society at Mill Creek, of which he was a member, he retired to a cell on the banks of the Co- calico, and lived there for some time unknown to the people he had left. When discovered, some other members of the society at Mill Creek settled around him, and in 1728 introduced the seventh day into pub- lic worship. In 1732 the solitary life was changed into a conventual one, and a monastical societ}- was established in May, 1733. The establishment received the name Ephrata. The habit of Capuchins was adopt- ed by both the brethren and the sisters, and monastic names given to all who entered the cloister. No mo- nastic vows, however, were taken, neither had they any written covenant. The property which belonged to the society was common stock, yet none were obliged to give up any of their possessions. Celibacy they recommend as a virtue, but do not require it. Gov- ernor Penn, who visited them frequently, offered to them five thousand acres of land, but they refused it. At an earl}' period they established a literary institu- tion, a Sabbath-school, and a printing-office, and great- ly cultivated music. Branches of the society of Ephra- ta were established in 1756 in York count}-, and in 1763 in Bedford county. Their principal settlement at present is at Snowhill, near the Antidam Cretk, in Franklin county, Pa. Dr. Baird says, "They are not believed to exceed a few hundreds in numbers, and. their ministers may be as many as ten or twelve." See Belcher, Religious Denominations ; (Winebrenner) Hist, of Denom. in the U.S. BAPTISTS, SIX -PRINCIPLE. The six prin- ciples which distinguish this section of Baptists from all others are those mentioned in the Epistle to the Hebrews vi, 1, 2, viz. : 1. Repentance from dead works ; 2. Faith toward God ; 3. The doctrine of bap- tisms; 4. The laying on of hands; 5. The resurrection of the dead ; 6. Eternal judgment. They distinguish four baptisms : 1. John's " baptizing with the baptism of repentance ;" 2. The baptism of the Holy Ghost and with fire on the day of Pentecost; 3. The baptism of Christ's sufferings. But after the resurrection of Christ there is only one kind of baptism to remain, viz., 4. The 1 aptism of the believers in Christ in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost. Their rite of "laying on of hands" corresponds with Episcopal confirmation, and is the chief point in their system on which they insist. They refuse communion as well as church-fellowship with churches who do not practise it. The Six-Principle Baptists are Armeni- ans, holding to a general atonement. Their ministry generally has not been liberally educated nor adequate- ly supported. They are almost confined to Rhode Inland, out of which they have < nly a few congrega- tions in Massachusetts, New York, and Pennsylvania. They originated as a separate organization in 1639, and at no period of their history counted more than 39 churches. In 1852 they formed two yearly confer- ences, the one of Rhode Island and Massachusetts, the other of New York and Pennsylvania. The Bap- tist Almanac for 1860 gives the following statistics: 18 churches, 16 ordained ministers, 3000 members. See (Winebrenner) History of Denominations in the U.S. : Belcher, Uilir/ii.iis Denominations : Smith, Tables of Church History; American Baptist Almanac. Baptize. Sec Baptism. Bar (properly rj"1*!^, heri'aih) chiefly occurs in the following senses: that whereby a door is bolted and made fast (Neb. iii, 3) ; a narrow cross-board or rafter wherewith to fasten other boards (Exod. xxvi, 26); a rock in the sea (Jonah ii, 6) ; the bank or shore of the sea, which, as a bar, shuts up its waves in their own place (Job xxxviii, 10) ; strong fortifications and pow- BAR- 661 BARBADOES erful impediments are called bars, or bars of iron (Isa. xlv, 2; Amos i, 5). See Door. Bar. See Corn. Bar- Q3ch-, Heb. and Chald. 13, a son), a patro- nymic sign, as Bar-Jesus, Bar-Jona, etc. Sec Ben-. Barabbas (Bapa/3/3«r, for the Chald. N3X 13, son of Abb i, Simonis, Onom. N. T. p. 38 ; a common name in the Talmud, Lightfoot, Hot: Heb. p. 489), a robber (Kytrrqc, John xviii, 40) who had committed murder in an insurrection (Mark xiv, 7 ; Luke xxiii, 10) in Jerusalem, and was lying in prison at the time of the trial of Jesus before Pilate, A.D. 29. The procu- rator, in his anxietj' to save Jesus, proposed to release him to the people, in accordance with their demand that he should release one prisoner to them at the Pass- over. As a rebel, he was subject to the punishment laid down by the Roman law for such political offences, ■while as a murderer he could not escape death even by the civil code of the Jews. But the latter were so bent on the death of Jesus that, of the two, they pre- ferred pardoning this double criminal (Matt, xxvii, 16-26; Mark xv, 7-15; Luke xxiii, 18-25 ; John xviii, 40), who was accordingly set free (Acts iii, 14). There appears to have been a usage in Jerusalem, at the pas- chal feast, for the governor to release to the people a prisoner whom they might particularly desire. This custom does not appear to have been ancient ; it was probably derived either from the Syrians or from the Greeks and Romans, the former of whom had such a custom at their Thesmophorise, the latter at their Lec- tisternh. Some think the policy of this provision was obviously to conciliate the favor of the Jews to- ward the Roman government. See Passover. Origan says that in many copies Barabbas was also called Jesus ( I y to vvBapafifiav; see the Darmst. Liter. III. 1843, p. 538). The Armenian Version has the same reading: "Whom will you that I shall deliver unto you, Jesus Barabbas, or Jesus that is called Christ?" Griesbach, in his Comment., considers this as an inter- polation, while Fritzsche has adopted it in his text (so also Tischendorf in Matt, xxvii, 16, 17, but not his lasted.). We can certainly conceive that a name afterward so sacred may have been thrown out of the taxt by some bigoted transcriber. On the other hand, the contrast in ver. 20, " that they should ask Barab- bas and destroy Jesus," seems fatal to its original po- sition in the text. See Jesus. Bar'achel (Heb. BaraheV, ixa^S, whom God has blessed; Sept. Bap«x<''/X), the father of Elihu the Buzite, one of Job's three " friends" (Job xxxii, 2, G). B.C. prob. ante 2000. Barachi'ah (same name as Bereciiiaii ; Sept. Bapa\iac), the father of the prophet Zechariah (Zech. i, 1, 7). B.C. ante 500. Barachi'as (Bapaxiag, the Greek form of the name Baraciiiah), fatherof the Zechariah (Zacharias) men- tioned in Matt, xxiii, 35, as having been murdered by the Jews. See Zechariah. BaradcEUS, Jacobus. See Jacobites. Barah. See Beth-barah. Ba'rak (Heb. Barak', p^3, lightning; Sept. and N. T. BapaK, Joseph. Ant. v, 5, 2, BdpaieoQ ; comp. the family name of Hannibal, Barca=" lightning of war"), son of Abinoam of Kedesh-naphtali, a Galilean city of refuge in the tribe of Naphtali (Judg. iv, 6 ; comp. Josh, xix, 37 ; xxi, 32). He was summoned by the prophetess Deborah to take the field against the hostile army of the Canaanitish kins Jabin (q. v.), commanded by Sisera (q. v.), with 10,000 men from the tribes of Naphtali and Zebulon, and to encamp on Mount Tabor, probably because the 900 chariots of iron (Judg. iv, 3), in which the main force of Sisera consisted, could not so easily manoeuvre on uneven ground. After some hesitation, he resolved to do her bidding, on condition that she would go with him, which she readily promised. At a signal gfven by the prophetess, the little arm}', seizing the opportunity of a providential storm (Joseph. Ant. v, 4) and a wind that blew in the faces of the enemy, boldly rushed down the hill, and utterly routed the unwieldy host of the Canaanites in the plain of Jezreel (Esdraelon), "the battle-field of Palestine." From the prominent mention of Taanach (Judg. v, 19, " sandy soil") and of the river Kishon, it is most likely that the victory was partly due to the suddenly swollen waves of that im- petuous torrent, particularly its western branch, called Megiddo. The victory was decisive, Harosheth taken (Judg. iv, 1C), Sisera murdered, and Jabin ruined. A peace of forty years ensued, and the next danger came from a different quarter. The victors composed a splendid epinician ode in commemoration of their de- liverance (Judg. v). Sec Deborah. Barak's faith is commended among the other worthies of the Old Test, in Heb. xi, 32. See also Bene-barak. From the incidental date apparently given in Judg. v, 6, some have regarded Barak as a contemporary of Shamgar. If so, he could not have been so late as 178 years after Joshua, where he is generally placed Lord A. Hervey supposes the narrative to be a repeti- tion of Josh, xi, 1-12 {Genealogies, p. 228 sq.). A great deal may be said for this view : the names Jabin and Hazor; the mention of subordinate kings (Judg. v. 19 ; comp. Josh, xi, 2 sq.) ; the general locality of the battle ; the prominence of chariots in both narratives, and especially the name Misrephoth-maiin, which seems to mean "burning by the waters," as in the margin of the A. V., and not "the flow of waters." Man)' chronological difficulties are also thus removed ; but it is fair to add that, in Stanley's opinion (Palest. p. 392 note), there are geographical difficulties in the way (Ewald, Gesch. des Israel; Thomson, Land and Book, ii, 141 sq.). There appears, therefore, on the. whole, no good reason for departing from the regular order of the judges, which places his rule B.C. 1409- 1369. — Kitto, s. v. ; Smith, s. v. See Judges. Baratier, John Philip, an eminent boy-scholar, was born January 19th, 1721, at Schwabach, in An- spach. His father, Francis, was pastor of the French Protestant church in Schwabach, and gave his son careful education from infancy. At five years old he could speak Latin, French, and German, and at seven he knew by heart the Psalms in Hebrew. In his tenth year he composed a Hebrew Dictionary of rare words, and in his thirteenth he translated the Itinerary of Benjamin of Tudcla (Amst. 1734, 2 vols. 8vo). He afterward applied himself to ecclesiastical history, the fathers, and theology, and answered a Unitarian work which Crellius published (under the name of Artemo- nius) in a book entitled Antiartemonius (Xuremb. 1735). In 1735, on his way to Berlin, he passed through Halle, where he was made M.A. ; upon which occasion he composed, impromptu, fourteen theses in the pres- ence of the professors, and on the following day de- fended them for three hours before a public audience with entire success. At Berlin he was received with honor by the king, and was enrolled among the mem- bers of the Royal Society. At the king's request he established himself at Halle to study law, and died there October 5th, 1740, being only nineteen years of age. He also published Dbquidtio Chronologica de Successione antiquissima Rom. Pontijicum (Utrecht, 1740, 4to), and some other works. His life, by Formey, was published at Halle, 1741 (2d ed. Frankfort, 1755).— Biog. Univ. iii, 322 ; Landon, Eccl. Diet. s. v. Barbadoes, one of the Windward group of the West India Islands, which in 1850 had a population of 125,864 inhabitants, seven eighths of wdiom arc Macks. It is the see of a bishop of the Church of England, whose diocese comprises all the British Windward Isb ands, and had, in 1859, 88 clergymen, including two BARBARA 662 BARBER -.t hdeacons. There are many well-endowed public schools, among which Codrington College lias a rev- i Que of £8 a year {Clergy Lktfor I860, Lond. 18G0, See \Ve8t Ihdii -• Barbara, St., whose day is observed in the Greek and Roman churches December 4th, is said to have Buffered martyrdom at Helicpolis, Egypt, under Ga- 1 rius, A. 1 1. 306 (Assemanni, Bibl. Orient, i, 63). An- other account makes the place Nicomedia, the time A. P. '-':'.•">. and says that after her conversion she ex- h< rtcd her father to be converted, but he accused her and put her to death with torture. — A. Butler, Lives of Saints, Dec. 1. Barbarian (jSao/Saoof), a term used in the New Testament, as in classical writers, to denote other na- tions of the earth in distinction from the Greeks (Serv. ai Virg. .7:'n. ii, 504). "I am debtor both to the Greeks and Barbarians" (Rom. i, 14). (Comp. Plato, Polit. p. -JGO; Erai. p. 383; Theat. p. 175; Pliny, xxix, 7 ; Aristot. De Cado, i, 3; Polyb. v, 33, 5.) In Coloss. iii, 11, "Greek nor Jew — Barbarian, Scythian" — Bap- fiapoi; seems to refer to those nations of the Roman empire who did not speak Greek, and SkuSjjc. to nations not under the Roman dominion. In 1 Cor. xiv, 11, the t arm i- applied to a difference of language: ''If I know not the meaning of the voice, I shall be unto him that speaketh a barbarian, and he that speaketh shall be a barbarian unto me." Thus Ovid, "Barba- ras hie ego sum, quia non intelligor ulli" (Tiist. v, 10, 37). In Acts xxviii, the inhabitants of Malta are called fiapfiapoi, because they were originally a Car- thaginian colony, and chiefly spoke the Punic lan- guage. In the Sept. fiapjictpoc; is used for the Hebrew *;•". ///:', "a people of strange language" (Psa. cxiv, 1) ; Chaldee ",N"212. In the rabbinical writers the same lleli. word is applied to foreigners in distinction from the Jews; and in the Jerusalem Talmud it is ex- plained as meaning the Greek language; Rabbi Solo- mon remarks that whatever is not in the holy tongue is called by this term (Buxtorf, Lex. Talm. s. v.). Ac- cording to Herodotus, the Egyptians called all men barbarians who did not speak the same language as themselves (ii, 158). Clement of Alexandria uses it respecting the Egyptians and other nations, even when speaking of their progress in civilization, as in his Strom, i, ch. xvi, § 74: "Barbarians have been in- ventors not only of philosophy, but likewise of almost every art. The Egyptians, and, in like manner, the Chaldseans, first introduced among men the knowledge of astrology." In a singular passage of Justin Mar- tyr's lirst Apology the t srm is applied to Abraham and other distinguished Hebrews : " We have learned and have before explained thai Christ is ih- first-begotten of God, being the Word (or reason, \6yov ovra) of which the whole human race partake. And they who live agreeably to the Word (or reason, ol fitra \6you (iuii- a 'i - ■ I are I 'hristians, even though esteemed atheists: such among the n i So :ra1 is, Heraclitus, and Hi ■ I i : and an ong the barba- t'.n . n itionp,' Chev- ron?.), ti'/3«p/3rt|Ooie,Abra- h im, Ananias, Azarias, Misael, and I I many othci -." l/< ./. i, 16. Stral o i -.;•:. 2) suggests that the word /- ir-bar-t g was originally an im- itative sound, designed to express a harsh, di sonant language, or some- times the indistinct articulation of Hi" < ir.v-k by foreigners, and m- : inces ili • I larians, who, on 1 1 1 - - lat- t r account, he conjectures, were t nrmedl yHo ovot 1 11- .'. ', ii, E67), although ii is doubtful whether in the same sense (Thucyd. i, 3). The word appears to have acquired a reproachful sense during the wars with the Persians ; their country was called ») [Hapfiapoc (yi)) (Demosth. Pkilipp. iii). In 1 Cor. v, 13, 1 Tim. iii, 7, we have "those outside" (oi i£w)f and Matt, vi, 3:', "the nations" (rii 'iOvij), used He- braistically for "the Gentiles" (Q^IJ, C'N, in very : much the same sort of sense as that of fiapj3apot), to distinguish all other nations from the Jews; and in ! the Talmudists we find Palestine opposed to " the lands" (r.ijnN), just as Greece was to Barbaria or i) liapjiapoc. (con p. Cic. Fin. ii, 15 ; Lightfoot, Centuria Chorogr. ad ink.). And yet so completely was the term (SapjSapoG accepted, that even Josephus (Ant. xi, 7, 1; xiv, 10, 1; xxvi, 6, 8; War, introd. ; Apion, i, 11 and 22) and Philo (('pp. i, 29) scruple as little to reckon the Jews among them as the early Romans did to ap* ply the term to themselves (" Deniophilus scripsit, Marcus vertit barbare," Plant. Asm. prol. 10). Very naturally, the word, after a time, began to involve no- tions of cruelty and contempt (Brjpbg liapfiapov, 2 Mace, iv, 25 ; xv, 2, etc.), and then the Komans ex- cepted themselves from the scope of its meaning (Cic. J'e Rep. i, 37, § G8). Afterward only the savage na- tions were called barbarians, though the Greek Con- stantinopolitans called the Romans "barbarians" to the very last (Gibbon, li ; Ai, 351, cd. Smith). See I ken, De Scylhis et Barbaris, in the Biblioih. Brem. I, v, 767 sq. ; Kvpe, Observ. ii, 152 ; Schleusncr, TJies. Phil, i, 50; Dougtiei Analect. ii, 100 sq. ; Rauth, Utfi, Sinn v. Gibrauch des Wortes Barbar (Nurnb. 1814). — Kitto, s. v. ; Winer, i, 137. See Hellenist.' Barbelo, one of the chief female a>ons of the Gnos- tics, especially of the'Nicolaites and the Borborians, the mother of every thing living. She lived with the father of the universe and with Christ in the eighth heaven. Hence the surname Barhelkcs, which was given to the Gnostics. Sec Gnosticism. Barber (-.22, gallab'). "Son of man, take thee a sharp knife, take thee a barler's razor, and cause it to pass upon thine head and upon thy beard" (Ezek. v, 1). Shaving the head was custcmai}' among the Jews as an act of mourning. See Grief. Sometimes, for the same reason, the hair of the beard was also shaven, or plucked off, as was done by Ezra on his arrival at Jerusalem on rinding that the Hebrews had intermixed with the nations around them, and plunged into all their idolatries (Ezra ix, 3). See Hair. The opera- tion of shaving the head was probably performed much in the same manner as is now usual in the East. 'I he operdor rubs the head gently and comfortably with Modern Egyptian Barber. BARBER 660 BARCLAY his hand moistened with water. This he does for a j considerable time ; and he afterward applies the razor (q. v.), shaving from the top of the head downward. Barber, John, an English civilian of All Souls', Oxford, who graduated D.C.L. in 1532. He was pat- ronized l>y Archbishop Craumer, and assisted in the preparation of the well-known king's book, the X> 0- essary Doctrine of a Christian Man. Barber died at Wrotham about the beginning of 1549. — New Gen. B'wg. Diet, iii, 143 ; Landon, Eccl. Diet. s. v. Barbets, a name given to the Vaudois of the mountains of Piedmont from the fact of their minis- ters being styled Barbes, or elders. See Vaudois. Barburim. See Fowl, Barcelona, one of the chief cities of Spain, and .see of a Roman Catholic archbishop. Councils were held there in 540, 599, 90G, 1054, and 1068. They passed canons respecting church discipline and church property, and the last, in particular, proposed the sub- stitution of the Roman for the Gothic rite. Bar-cepha, Moses a Jacobite bishop and author, who early in life entered the convent of Sergius, on the Tigris. He was afterward raised to the episcopal order under the name of Severus, and is sometimes called bishop of Beth-Ceno, sometimes of Bethraman. He is said to have died in 913. He composed a "Com- mentary on Paradise" in Syriac, which was trans- lated into Latin by And. Masius, and printed at Ant- werp in 15G9, 8vo (also in Bibliotheca I'atrum and in Critic. S.tai). This work is divided into three parts. Part I inquires whether there was both a terrestrial and a spiritual paradise, and concludes that there was but one. Part II gives the mystic signification of all the passages of Holy Scripture relating to the terres- trial paradise. Part III answers the objection of her- etics, e. g. that of Simon Magus, who accused the Al- mighty of the want of power to preserve Adam from the full'— Clarke, Sacred Literature, ii, 555. Barckhausen, Conrad Heixricii, a German theologian of the 18th century. He was professor, and later rector of one of the Berlin colleges. He had with his colleague Volckmann an animated controversj' on the subject of divine grace, Volckmann advocating universal grace, and Barckhausen maintaining particu- larism. The title of the work of Barckhausen, which he published under the name of Pacificus Verinus, is Arnica Collatio doctrine de gratia quam vera reformata confitetur ecclesia, cum doctrina quam. Volckmannvs pub- lici juris fecit (Furth, 1714). The controversy was joined iu by several other theologians on both sides ; and Barckhausen himself is said to be the author of another work on the subject, published in the German language (Abgenothigfe Ehr- und Lehr-Petiung der Re- formirtcn Ktrchen [1714]). In 1719, a royal edict of King Friedrich Wilhelm f. imposed silence upon both parties. — Herzog, Siqip'em. i, 167. Barclay, Barklay, or De Barklay, Alexan- der, a poet and prose writer, born toward the end of ! the 15th century, but whether English or Scotch by birth is uncertain. He was certainly at Oriel ( !ollegc, Oxford, about 1495, and, after finishing his studies, he ' travelled in Holland, Germany, Italy, and France, and . studied the languages and literature ofthose countries. Returning to England, he became one of the priests or I prebendaries of the college of St. Mary Ottery, Devon- shire, and was afterward a monk of the Benedictine monastery of Ely, where ho continued till the suppres- sion of the monastery in 1539. In 1546 he obtained the vicarage of Great Badow and that of Wokey. On 30th April, 1552, he was presented to the rectory of Allhallows, but died in June of that year at Croydon. His character as a priest is dubious, but of his merit as a writer there is no dispute, if there were no other proof of it than his famous Ship of Fooh, partly a translation and partly an imitation from the German of Sebastian Brandt, the old title being The Shyp of Folys of the Worlde (London, 1509). — New Gen. Bug. Diet, ii, 47 ; Allibone, Dictionary of Authors, i, 116. Barclay, Henry, D.D., was born in 1714, and graduted at Yale in 1734, serving for some years as missionary among the Mohawks. He went to England in 1737 to be ordained, and on his return assumed the charge of the Protestant Episcopal Church at Albany In 1746 he became rector of Trinity Church, New York, where he remained till his death in 1764. He was made D.U. by the University of Oxford in 1760. Dr. Barclay was zealous and indefatigable, his disposi- tion engaging, and his life most exemplary.— Sprague, Annals, v, 91. Barclay, John, was born at Pont-a-Mousson, in Lorrain, where his father, William Barclay (q. v.), was law professor, in 1582. He studied at the college of the Jesuits there, and the brethren, observing his gen- ius, attempted to draw him into their order. This offended his father, who left the college with his son in 1603 and returned to England. He wrote verses in praise of King James, and would doubtless have succeeded at court had he not been a Romanist. His literary' reputation rests on his Argenis (1621, and many editions since), which had an immense popular- ity, and was translated into various languages. We mention him here for the following works : Series patefacte divinitus pirricid'i, etc. (A History of the Gunpowder Plot, Amst. 1605, 12mo); Pietas, etc. (a defence of his father's work, De Potentate Papa', against Bellarmine ; Paris, 1611, 4to) ; Paranesis ad Sectarios hujus temporis (Rome, 1617, 12mo; an appeal to Prot- estants in favor of Romanism). He died at Rome, Aug. 12. 1621.— Neio Gen. Biog. Dictionary, ii, 49 ; Alli- bone, Dictionary of Authors, i, 117. Barclay. John, founder of the " Bereans" (q. v ), was born at Muthill, Perthshire, Scotland, in 1734, and studied at St. Andrews, where he graduated A.M. In 1759 he was licensed by the presbytery of Auchtcrar- der, and became assistant minister of Errol, and in 1763 assistant minister of Fettercairn in Forfarshire. Here he began to act the religious leader, and attract- ed crowds of hearers by his novelties of doctrine. In 1766 be published a Paraphrase of the Book of Psalms, with a dissertation on interpretation, which was cen- sured by the presbytery. On the death of the clergy- man to whom he was assistant in 1772, the presbytery refused him the necessary testimonials for accepting a benefice elsewhere, and he then left the Church of Scotland, and became the leader of the sect called Be- reans, of which a few congregations still exist. He preached for some time in Edinburgh, and subsequent- ly in London and Bristol. In London he kept open a debating society, where he supported his doctrines against all impugners. He died on the 29th of July, 1798.— Penny Cyclopedia, s. v. See Bereans. Barclay, Robert, of Fry, the eminent Quaker, was the son of Colonel David Barclay, and was born at Gordonstown, in Morayshire, Scotland, December 23, 1648. His elementary education over, he was sent to the Scotch college at Paris, where his uncle was rector, and there he imbibed a strong predilection for Romanism. His uncle offered to make him his heir if he would stay in France and enter the Roman Church ; but, though bis youthful imagination had been impressed by the splendid services of the church, he refused, and returned to England in 1664. It is said that even at this time (when he was only sixteen) he was an excellent scholar, and could speak in the Latin language, with wonderful fluency and correct- ness. His father joined the Quakers in 1666, and his example was soon followed by his son, who thence- forward bee;. me an indefatigable propagator of their opinions both at home and in Holland. He gives an account of his change, in substance, as follows (in his Treatise on Universal Love), viz. : that "his 'first ed- BARCLAY 664 BARCLAY ■cation fell among the strictest sort of Calvinists,' those of hi9 country 'surpassing in the heat of zeal not only Geneva, from whence they derive their pedi- gree, but all the other so-called reformed churches;' That Bhortly afterward, his transition to France had thrown him among the opposite 'sect of papists,' whom, after a time, he found to he no less deficient in charity than the other: and that consequently he had refrained from joining any, though he had listened to several. '1'he ultimate eil'ect of this was to liberalize hi- mind by convincing him of the folly and wicked- ness of religious strife. In both Calvinists and Cath- olic- he found an absence of 'the principles of love,' 'a straitness of doctrine,' and a 'practice of persecu- tion.' which offended his idea of Christianity, as well as bis gentle and generous nature. He therefore al- lied himself gladly to this new sect, whose distinguish- ing feature was its charity and pure simplicity of Christian life, and soon became one of its most devo- ted adherents and its ablest advocate. In the course of his life he made several excursions into England, Holland, and Germany, earnestly propagating his peaceful views wherever he went, and occasionally en- joying the companionship of William Penn." Barclay believed, as the Society of Friends now do, that divine revelation is not incompatible with right reason, yet he believed, as orthodox Friends also now do that the faculty of reason alone, unassisted by di- vine illumination, is unable to comprehend or receive the sul lime truths relative to that redemption and sal- vation which came by Jesus Christ. To show that the tenets held by the society were capable of a rational vindication, Barclay employed all the powers of his in- tellect and produced a succession of works in explana- tion and defence of Quakerism. The first was Truth cleared of ('alumnus (1607), especially in reply to Mitchell, a minister near Aberdeen, who reiterated his Bland) is in a pamphlet, which was answered by Bar- clay in his William Mitchell unmasked, etc. (Cry, 1G71). Then followed an exposition of the doctrines and prin- ciplcs of the Quakers, bearing the title ".-1 Catechism mi! CtniJ'i-ssiiDi i j Fn'th, approved of and agreed unto by the General Assembly of the Patriarchs, Prophets, and Apostles, Christ himself chief Speaker in and among them; in which the answers are all given in the language of the Bible" (1675); translated into Latin, Catechismw et Fidei Confess/o Approbata, etc. (Eotterd. ir,:r,. 8vo); The Anarchy of the Ranters (1676, 12mo) ; a Vindication of the same (1679); Tins s Theolcg'.cce, comprising, in fifteen propositions, the doctrines maintained by the Quakers. This was sent abroad, in various languages, to the principal clergy of Europe, and was made the basis of Barclay's greatest work, Theologies vere Christiana Apologia (Am- Bterd. 1676, 4to) ; translated into English, A n Apology for the int" Christian Divinity, etc. (London, 1678 ; of- ten nprinted, and translated into German and other languages). The Apology was dedicated to King Charles II, and had the misfortune to receive the praise of Voltaire. " The leading doctrine which runs through the whole look is, that "divine truth is made known to us not by logical investigation, but by intu- ition or immediate revelation ; and that the faculty, if >' can be technically defined, by which such intuition '-1 possible, is the 'internal light,' the source of which i- Cod, or, more properly, Christ, who is the 'light that lighteth every man that eometh into the World.' I he identity of this doctrine with that held by Mr Maurice and others of the Broad Church in the present daj has been more than once remarked." "Hoi] Writ," according to Barclay,"is a declaratio fontis, not the original source of knowing the truth ; it la no adequate rule f,,r doctrine and morals, though it gives a true and credible testimony to the original source of knowledge. It is subordinate to the HolySpir- it, from whom it derives it- excellence. It is worthy of notice, that ho argues for the sul ordination of Scrip- ture to the inward light on the same grounds as Boman- ism pleads for the necessity of tradition. He points to the many contradictory interpretations of the Bible, which require a higher criterion, and asserts that this can only be found in the inward divine word. The subjective tendency, if carried out to its consequences, might lead to entirely giving up the objectivity of di- vine revelation" (Neander, History of Dogmas, ii, 672). So able a book naturally gave rise to controversy, the assumption of inward light being supposed by many to set aside the superior authority of Scripture, and the denial of the perpetuity of baptism and the Lord's Supper occasioning a suspicion of infidelity. On this supposed tendency' of the system it was acri- moniously attacked by John Brown, in a work to which he gave the title of " Quakerism the Pathway to Pa- ganism." The Apology was also much canvassed in various seats of learning. Nicholas Arnold, a pro- fessor in the University of Franeker, wrote against it, and Barclay replied ; and in the same year an oral discussion took place between some students in the University of Aberdeen on the one side, and the au- thor, assisted by his friend George Keith, on the other. "No part of the 'Apology' was controverted by so many opponents as that in which the necessity of an inward and immediate revelation was insisted upon. It was the only portion of the work which could be considered original. The other doctrines contained in it had all been maintained by abler defenders, their arrangement in the Quaker system of theology being the only point in which they differed from the Armin- ian scheme. None of the numerous publications in which this leading tenet of this new faith was at- tempted to be disproved called forth a reply from the writer ; but having been requested by Adrian Paets, an ambassador from the court of the Netherlands, with whom he had some conversation on the principles of the Friends, to reconsider the strength of some objec- tions which he had advanced against them, Barclay addressed him in Latin on the subject while he was in the prison at Aberdeen, reviewed his former arguments, and declared himself more convinced of their truth than he had ever been, in his treatise on Immediate Revelation (see below). "The discipline or church government of the So- ciety of Friends was as much defamed as their relig- ious opinions. It could not be denied that in their forms of worship, of marriage, and of burial there was a wide departure from the customary ceremonial, and it was generally understood that the society carried its interference to a great extent in the private con- cerns of those who belonged to its communion. These regulations were vindicated by Barclay in a work wherein he contrasts the internal government of the Quakers with the anarchy of the Banters and the hier- archy of the Bomanists, justifying the discipline of his sect, and defending its members 'from those who ac- cuse them of confusion and disorder, and from such as charge them with tyranny and imposition.' The pub- lication of this treatise engaged its author in a long altercation with some persons of his own persuasion, who took offence at various parts of it as tending to violate the rights of private judgment and to restrain the operations of the Spirit. Their opposition, being discountenanced by the society, soon passed away, and the work itself rose into such favor among the sect that its title was changed at one of its yearly meet- ings to A Treatise on Christian Discipline, and it lo- came the standard authority on all matters to which it relates." In 1677 Barclay was in prisoned at Aberdeen, to- gether with his father and many others, but was re- leased at the instigation of Elizabeth, the princess palatine of the Rhine, who greatly favored him and "William Penn. While in prison he wrote his Uni- versal Lave cons/den d and < stallhluil vp) say only that the Jews intended to rebuild the :.ksl fif Rar-coclii bo. representing tin' porch of the T.niplj an 1 his "star;" on the other side a pot of manna c>r bunch of fruits), with tli- inscription (in old llehj, " Fur the deliv- erance of Jerusalem." | Temple. All the thieves, murderers, and disorderly characters in the country quickly repaired to his stand- ard, and he was soon strong enough to vanquish, in several engagements, J. Annius Rufus, the Roman commandant in Judaea. On this the emperor Hadrian ordered his most able commander, Julius Severus, to leave his post in Britain and repair to Palestine ; but the time which elapsed during his journey was favor- able to the rebels. After his arrival, Julius Severus prudently avoided battles, but took a number of forti- fied places before he marched against Jerusalem, which he took and destroyed after sustaining great losses. The Jews, after the capture of the city, concentrated their forces in the mountain-fortress of Bethar, in the neighborhood of Jerusalem. While Julius Severus was gradually reconquering the country, Bar-cocheba still played the king in Bethar for three years, and, on the unfounded suspicion of treason, executed the learned Eleazar of Modain, who, having prayed for the welfare of the fortress, was slandered by a Cuthite (that is, a Samaritan), as if he intended to betray Bethar to Ha- drian. According to Talmudical statements, Bethar was taken in 135 by the Romans, on the 9th day of the month of Ab, the anniversary of the burning of the Temple under Titus. It has been stated that on this occasion 580,000 Jews perished, but this must be great- ly exaggerated. Bar-cocheba fell in the combat, and his head was brought into the Roman camp. Akiba (according to most accounts), and many rabbins, who were considered authors of the rebellion, were put to a cruel death. The new city, yElia Capitolina (q. v.), was founded on the site of Jerusalem. — Jost, t:_.:_i-, , <• _._*._... meaning evolved in Kitto's Phis. Hist, of Palis! me, p. Bar'kos (Heb. Barhos , blp^a, prob. for Sip? (|, 2U . ^ p 229) The b&T^y of the ^ crop W;;s painter; Sept. Bap/coe, Bap/cove), the head of one of I readv by the time of the passover) jn the month Abib, the families of Nethinim that returned with Zerubba- March— April (Ruth i, 22; 2 Sam. xxi, 9; Judith viii, bel from Babylon (Ezra ii, 53 ; Neh. vii, 55). B.C. I 2) . and if not ripe at the expiration of a (Hebrew) year ante 530. Schwarz, however, regards it as the name from the last celebration, the year was intercalated of a place, identical with the modern village Berkusia, (Lightfoot, ut supra) to preserve that connection he- six: miles north-west of Beit-Jebrin (Palestine, p. 110). ! tvveen the feast ancl the barley-harvest which the law Barlaam, a martyr of Syria or Cappadocia (men- required (Exod. xxiii, 15, 16 ; Deut. xvi, 16). Accord- tioned by Basil and Chrysostom), who was forced to ingly, travellers concur in showing that the barley- hold liia hand, filled with incense, over the fire of an ! harvest in Palestine is in March and April — advancing idol altar, in order that the pain might compel him to ' into May in the northern and mountainous parts of open his hand, and so let the incense fall upon the the land ; but April is the month in which the barley- flames. In the course of this torment he died. — Basil, j harvest is chiefly gathered in, although it begins earlier Horn, xviii ; Chrysost. Horn, lxxiii ; Butler, Lives of ■ in some parts and later in others (Pict. Palestine, p. 214, Saints, Nov. 19. 229, 239). At Jerusalem, Niebuhr found barley ripe at Barlaam, a Calabrian monk of St. Basil. He was the end of March, when the later (autumnal) crop had educated among the Latins, but afterward went over to ! only been lately sown (Beschreib. von Arabien, p. 160). the Greeks. He is chiefly known for his attack upon the [ It was earlier than wheat (Exod. ix, 31), and less Hesychists or Quietists, as the monks of Mount Athos j prized (Thomson, Land and Booh, ii, 166), although were styled, who held certain very peculiar views, reckoned among the valuable products of the promised The question was brought before a synod at Constant'!- land in Deut. viii, 8. We read of barley-meal in Num. nople in 1341, but nothing was definitively determined, v, 15, of barley-bread in Judg. vii, 13, and barley-cakes In 1339 Barlaam went to Pope John, at Avignon, to in Ezek. iv, 12. It was measured by the ephah and induce him to take up the case, but in vain. He was I homer. The jealousy-offering (Num. v, 15) was to be afterward condemned in various synods. He then for- sook the Greek side, and took part with the Latins, strenuously opposing the dogmas peculiar to the Greek Church, for which service he was rewarded with the see of Gierace, in Naples. He was the Greek tutor of Petrarch. He died about A.D. 1:98. He wrote a number of controversial bocks, and ami ng them a Li- ber contra Primatum Papce (Oxford, 1592 ; Hanov. 1638). Also Ethica secundum Stoicos, lib. 2 (Bib. Mar. Pat. xxvi, 4). See Cave, Hist. Lit. aim. 1340 ; Floefer, Liioij. Generate, iv, 575 ; Landon, Feci. Diet, ii, Hesychists. barley-meal, though the common mincha was of fino wheat-flour (Lev. ii, 1), the meaner grain being ap- pointed to denote the vile condition of the person on whose behalf it was offered. The purchase-money of the adulteress in Hos. iii, 2, is generally believed to be a mean price. See Cereals. The passage in Isa. xxxii, 20, has been supposed by many to refer to rice, as a mode of culture by submer- sion of the land after sowing, similar to that of rice, is indicated. The celebrated passage, "Cast thy bread See! upon the waters," etc. (Eccles. xi, 1), has been by I some supposed to refer also to such a mode of culture. Barletta, Gabriel, a Dominican monk of Barlet- 1 But it is precarious to build so important a conclusion ta, in Naples, who was living in 1-180. He became ro j as that rice had been so early introduced into the distinguished as a preacher that it was a saving in his Levant upon such slight indications; and it now ap- time, "Qui nescit Barlettare nescit prajdicare." He | Pears that barley is in some parts subjected to the published some extraordinary sermons, entitled Ser- j same submersion after sowing as rice, as was particu- ffionn a Septuagesima ad Feriam tertium post Pascha. I krly noticed by Major Skinner (., 320) in the vicinity Item Sermones 28 de Sanctis. Item Sermones 3, de Pau- | of Damascus. In Exod. ix, 31, we are told that the cite salvandorum, de Ira Dei, et de Chords, et 4 pro Plag™s of hail, some time before the Passover, destroy- Dominicis Acbentus (Brescia, 1498, Bio,,. Un>r. ; Paris, | «1 the barley, which was then in the green ear; but 1502), etc.— Biog. Univ. iii, 384; Landon, Eccles. Die- .not the wheat or the rye, which were only in the iionary ii 37. " I blade. This is minutely corroborated by the tact that „''".. , . „ .,.,., . the barley sown after the inundation is reaped, some Barley (ST^S, seorah , from its bristling beard; I after nine'ty dayg] some in the fourth month cWKkm- the plur. C^SIB, scorini ', designates the grains; Gr. son's Thebes, p. 395), and that it there ripens a month tcp&ij), a grain mentioned in Scripture as cultivated \ earlier than the wheat (Sonnini, p. 395). — Kitto, s. v. and used in Egypt (Exod. ix, 31), and in Palestine I See Agriculture. (Lev. xxvii, 16; Num. v, 15; Deut. viii, 8; 2 Chron. I Barlow, Thomas, Bishop of Lincoln, born in ii, 10; Ruth ii, 17; 2 Sam. xiv, 30; Isa. xxviii, 25; i Westmoreland in 1607; educated at Appleby, and re- Jer. xli, 8 : Joel i, 11 ; etc.). Barley was given to cat- moved thence to Queen's College, Oxford. Although tie, especially horses (1 Kings iv, 28), and was, indeed, ! no favorer of the Parliamentary party, he retained his the only corn grain given to them, as oats and rye fellowship through the Commonwealth, and in 1054 were unknown to the Hebrews, and are not now grown was appointed keeper of the Bodleian. Afterward he in Palestine, although Volney affirms (ii, 117) that was made provost of his college, Lady-Margaret pro- small quantities are raised in some parts of Syria as fessor, and in 1675 Bishop of Lincoln, being then near- food for horses (comp. Homer, //. v, 196). Hence ly seventy years of age. He never removed to his see. barley is mentioned in the Mishna (Pesach, fol. 3) as ' He died in 1691, on the 8th of October. He was of the the food of horses and asses. This is still the chief use Calvinistic school of theology, and left, among other of barley in Western Asia. Bread made of barlej- was, | writings, the following, viz. : (1.) The Case of Tolera- however, used by the poorer classes (Judg. vii, 13; 2 tion in Matters of Religion (1660) ; (2.) The Original Kings iv, 42 ; John vi, 9, 13; comp. Ezek. iv, 9). In ' of Sinecures (1676) ; (3.) Popery, or the Principles and Palestine barley was for the most part sown at the time j Opinions of the Church of Rome ; (4.) Brntum fulrm », of the autumnal rains, October — November (Lightfoot, \ or the Bull of Pope Pins V, etc. (Lond. 1681, 4to). After Hor. Hebr. ad Matt, xii, 1), and again in early spring, ! his death, Sir Peter Pett published a volume of Cases BARLOW G68 BARNABAS of Conscience, resolved by Barlow, and another volume of <;, mtim /.'< ma nt I Lond. 1693, 8vo).— Darling, s. v. Barlow, William, Bishop of Chichester, was born in Essex, and educated at Oxford. He was a regular canon of St. Augustine, and became prior of tli" In. us.' of Bisbam, in Berks, in 1535, in which year Henn VIII sent him on an embassy into Scotland. He rendered up his house at the time of the dissolu- tion of the monastic houses, and endeavored to induce others to follow his example. He was rewarded with the see of St. Asaph in 1535, from which he was trans- lated, in 1536, to St. David's, and thence again to Bath and Wells in 1547. He was one of the strongest op- ponents of popery in England, and was largely instru- mental in spreading the reformation. He married Agatha Wellesbourne, and was, in consequence, de- prived on the accession of Queen Mary. During the reign of that princess he lived in Germany ; but after her death he returned to England, and was appointed, in 1559, to the see of Chichester, which he held till his death in August, 15G8. He left eleven children ; five of them were daughters, all of whom were married to bishops. His son William was an eminent mathema- tician. See Burnet, Hist, of Reformation, iii, 158, 391, 623 ; Hook, Eccl. Biog. i, 512. Barn (EOS, asam', Prov. iii, 10; "store-house," Deut. xxviii, 8; «jto3//k»/, "barn" or "garner"), a magazine or place of deposit for grain, which, among the < (rientalSjWas frequently under-ground. See Cave. The phraseology in Luke xii, 18, shows that the Jews at that time had granaries above-ground, but it does not follow that they had altogether relinquished the older and still common custom of depositing grain in subterranean store-houses, in which it was more secure, and, as some think, preserved in better condition, than in the other. Those who are exposed to danger and alarm would naturally prefer the. subterraneous gran- ary, which may, on occasions of emergency, be aban- doned by the proprietor with tolerable confidence that when he is enabled to return he shall find his treasured grain untouched, the entrance being so carefully con- cealed that it is sometimes discovered with difficulty even by the owner himself. This plan may in general be said to be resorted to by the peasantry throughout the East, granaries above-ground being confined to towns and their vicinities, a distinction which may also have prevailed among the Jews. See Granary. The Heb. word """•, go'ren, rendered "barn" in Job xxxix, 12 ; 2 Kings vi, 27, signifies rather a threshmg- Jloor, as it is elsewhere translated. In Hag. ii, 19; Joel i. 17, the original terms are fTn^O, megurah' ', and n~5"2"C, mammegurah' , a granary. See Agriculture. Bar'nabas (Bapvafiae, from the Syro-Chaldee riX"~: "2 i, originally 'lworjc, Jose.i, or 'Iwo7;, Joseph (Acts Lv, ISii); but he received from the apostles the i urname of Barnabas, which signifies the so?i ofproph- itis interpreted in the above text, eioc. irapa- rXjjfffujc, i. e. ton of exhortation (Auth. Vers, less accu- rately, "son of consolation"). The Hebrew term fix": and its cognates are used in the Old Testament wiMi a certain latitude of meaning, and are not limited to that of foretelling future events (see Gen. xx, 7; Exod. \ ii, i ). See Prophecy. In like manner, -n,,'. nr, 1. 1. in the New Testament, means not merely prediction, bul includes the idea of declarations, ex- hortation . or warnings uttered by the prophets while under divine influence (seel Cor. xiv, 3). Of Silas and .lie la- it i- said, "being prophets, they exhorted (iraptKoXtaav) the brethren" (Acts xv, 32). It can hardly be doubted that this name was given to Joses to denote bi< eminence as a Christian teacher. In Act- \iii. 1, his name is placed first in the list of proph- ets and teachers belonging to the Church at Antioch. loin, however, understands the surname to have been given to Barnabas on account of his mild I and gentle disposition (In Act. Apost. Horn. xxi). He ! is described by Luke as " a good man, full of the Holy Ghost and of faith" (Acts xi, 24). He was a native of Cyprus, but the son of Jewish parents of the tribe ' of Levi ; be was possessed of land (but whether in Ju- j dsea or Cyprus is not stated), and generously disposed of the whole for the benefit of the Christian commu- nity, and " laid the money at the apostles' feet" (Acts iv, 36, 37). A.D. 29. As this transaction occurred soon after the day of Pentecost, he must have been an earl}r convert to the Christian faith (comp. Asscmr ni, Bill. Or. Ill, i, 319 sq.). According to Clement of Alexandria (Strom, ii, c. 20, vol. ii, p. 192, ed. Klotz), Eusebius (Hist. Eceles. i, 12), and Epiphanius (Ilcer. xx, 4), he was one of the seventy disciples (Luke x, 1). I It has been maintained that Barnabas is identical with Joseph Barsabas, whose name occurs in Acts i, 23. Most modern critics, however, embrace the contrary opinion, which they conceive is supported by the cir- cumstantial manner in which Barnabas is first men- tioned. However similar in sound, the meanings of the names are very different ; and if no farther notice is taken of Barsabas (a circumstance which Ullmann urges in favor of his identity with Barnabas), the same may be affirmed of Matthias (see Chrysostom, In Ait. Apost. Homil. xi, 1). From the incident narrated in Acts xiv, 8-12, Chrysostom infers that the personal appearance of Barnabas was dignified and command- i Lag, "When the inhabitants of Lystra, on the cure of i the impotent man, imagined that the gods were come i down to them in the likeness of men, they called Bar- nabas Zeus (their tutelary deity), and Paul Hermes, because he was the chief speaker" (In Act. Apost. Horn, xxx). When Paul made his first appearance in Jerusalem after his conversion, Barnabas introduced him to the apostles, and attested his sincerity (Acts ix, 27). A.D. 30. This fact lends some support to an ancient tradi- tion (Theodor. Lector, Hist. Eccl. ii, 557, ed. Vales.) that they had studied together in the school of Gama- liel ; that Barnabas had often attempted to bring his companion over to the Christian faith, but hitherto in vain ; that, meeting with him at this time in Jerusa- lem, not aware of what had occurred at Damascus, he once more renewed his efforts, when Paul threw him- self weeping at his feet, informed him of " the heaven- ly vision," and of the happy transformation of the persecutor and blasphemer into the obedient and zeal- ous disciple (Acts xxvi, 16). Though the conversion of Cornelius and his household, with its attendant cir- cumstances, had given the Jewish Christians clearer views of the comprehensive character of the new dis- pensation, yet the accession of a large number of Gen- tiles to the Church at Antioch was an event so extra- ordinary that the apostles and brethren at Jerusalem resolved on deputing one of their number to investi- gate it. Their choice was fixed on Barnabas. After witnessing the flourishing condition of the Church, and adding fresh converts by his personal exertions, he visited Tarsus to obtain the assistance of Saul, who returned with him to Antioch, where thej' labored for a whole year (Acts xi, 23-26). A.D. 34. In antici- pation of the famine predicted by Agabus, the Anti- ochian Christians made a contribution for their poorer brethren at Jerusalem, and sent it by the hands of Barnabas and Saul (Acts xi, 28-30), A.D. 44, who speedily returned, bringing with them John Mark, a nephew of the former. By divine direction (Acts xii, 2), they were separated to the office of missionaries, and as such visited Cyprus and some of the principal cities in Asia Minor (Acts xiii, 14). §oon after their return to Antioch, A.D. 45, the peace of the Church was disturbed by certain zealots from Judaea, who in- sisted on the observance of the rite of circumcision by the Gentile converts. To settle the controversy, Paul and Barnabas were deputed to consult the apostles and BARNABAS BARNABAS elders at Jerusalem (Acts xv, 1, 2) ; they returned to communicate the result of their conference (ver. 22) accompanied by Judas Barsabas and Silas, or Silva- nus, A.D. 47. On preparing for a second missionar}' tour a dispute arose between them on account of John Mark, which ended in their taking different routes ; Paul and Silas went through Syria and Cilicia, while Barnabas and his nephew revisited his native island (Acts xv, 36-41). A.D. 47-51. In reference to this event, Chrysostom remarks, "What then ? Did they part as enemies ? Far from it. For you sec that after this Paul bestows in his Epistles many commendations on Bjrnabas." If we may judge from the hint fur- nished by the notice that Paul was commended by the brethren to the grace of God, it would seem that Bar- n.ibas was in the wrong. At this point Barnabas dis- appeai's from Luke's narrative, which to its close is occupied solely with the labors and sufferings of Paul. From the Epistles of the latter a few hints (the only authentic sources of information) may be gleaned rel- ative to his early friend and associate. From 1 Cor. ix, 5, 6, it would appear that Barnabas was unmarried, and supported himself, like Paul, by some manual oc- cupation. In Gal. ii, 1, we have an account of the re- ception given to Paul and Barnabas by the apostles at Jerusalem, probably on the occasion mentioned in Acts xv. In the same chapter (ver. 13) we are- informed that Barnabas so far yielded to the Judiizing zealots at Antioch as to separate himself for a time from com- munion with the Gentile converts. This event took place about A.D. 47. See Paul. It has been infer- red from 2 Cor. viii, 18, 10; that Barnabas was not only reconciled to Paul after their separation (Acts xv, 39), but also became again his coadjutor; that ho was "the brother whose praise was in the Gospel through all the churches." Chrysostom says that some suppose the brother was Luke, and others Bar- nabas. Theodoret asserts that it was Barnabas, and appeals to Acts xiii, 3, which rather serves to disprove his assertion, for it ascribes the appointment of Paul and Barnabas to an express divine injunction, and not to an elective act of the Church; and, besides, the brother alluded to was chosen, not by a single church, but by several cliMtches, to travel with Paul (2 Cor. viii, 19). In Coloss. iv, 10, and Philemon, ver. 24, Paul mentions Mark as his fellow-laborer; and at a still later period, 2 Tim. iv, 11, he refers with strong approbation to his services, and requests Timothy to brin ;■ him to Rome; but of Barnabas (his relationship to Mirk excepted) nothing is said. The most proba- ble inference is that he was already dead, and that Mark had subsequently associated himself with Paul. Barnabas seems not to have possessed Paul's thorough- ness of purpose. For the latter years of Barnabas we have no better guides than the Acta et Passio Barnabas in Cupro (first complete edition, from a Paris codex of the 9th cent., in Tischendorf's Acta. Apostolorum Apocrypha, Lpz. 1841), a forgery in the name of John Mark, and, from the ac- quaintance it discovers with the localities of Cyprus, probably written by a resident in that island ; and the legends of Alcxandei-, a Cyprian monk, and of Theo- dore, commonly called Lector (that is, an avayvioari'tc, or reader), of Constantinople ; the two latter belong to the sixth century. According to Alexander, Barnabas, after taking leave of Paul, landed in Cyprus, passed through the whole island, converted numbers to the Christian faith, and at last arrived at Salamis, where he preached in the synagogue with great success. Thither he was followed by some Jews from Syria (the author of the Acta names Bar-jesus as their leader), who stirred up the people against him. Barnabas, in anticipation of bis approaching end, celebrated the Eu- charist with his brethren, and bade them farewell. He give his nephew directions respecting his interment, and charged him to go after his decease to the apostle Paul. He then entered the synagogue, and began as usual to preach Christ. But the Jews at once laid hands on him, shut him up till night, then dragged him forth, and, after stoning him, endeavored to burn his mangled body. The corpse, however, resisted the action of the flames ; Mark secretly conveyed it to a cave about five stadia from the city; he then joined Paul at Epbesus, and afterward accompanied him to Rome. A violent persecution, consequent on the death of Barnabas, scattered the Christians at Salamis, so that a knowledge of the place of his interment was lost. This account agrees with that of the pseudo Mark, ex- cepting that, according to the latter, the corpse was reduced to ashes. Under the emperor Zeno (A.D. 474-491), Alexander goes on to say, Peter Fullo, a noted Monophysite, became patriarch of Constantino- ple. He aimed at bringing the Cyprian church under his patriarchate, in which attempt he was supported by the emperor. When the Bishop of Salamis, a very worthy man, but an indifferent debater, was called upon to defend bis rights publicly at Constantinople, he was thrown into the greatest perplexity. But Bar- nabas took compassion on his fellow-countryman, ap- peared to him by night no less than three times, as- sured him of success, and told him where he might find his body, with a copy of Matthew's gospel lying upon it. The bishop awoke, assembled the clergy and laity, and found the body as described. The sequel may easily be conjectured. Fullo was expelled from Antioch ; the independence of the Cyprian church ac- knowledged ; the manuscript of Matthew's gospel was deposited in the palace at Constantinople, and at Easter lessons were publicly read from it; and by the em- peror's command a church was erected on the spot where the corpse had been interred. These suspicious visions of Barnabas are termed by Dr. Cave "a mere addition to the story, designed only to serve a present turn, to gain credit to the cause, and advance it with the emperor." Neither Alexander nor Theodore is very explicit respecting the copy of Matthew's gospel which was found with the corpse of Barnabas. '1 he former represents Barnabas as sa3'ing to Anthemius, "There my whole body is deposited, and an autograph gospel which I received from Matthew." Theodore says, " Having on his breast the Gospel according to Matthew, an autograph of Barnabas." The pseudo Mark omits the latter circumstance. If we believe that, as Alexander reports, it was read at Constantino- ple, it must have been written, not in Hebrew, but in Greek. The year wdien Barnabas died cannot be de- termined with certainty; if his nephew joined Paul after that event, it must have taken place not later than A.D. 56 or 57. "Chrysostom," it has been as- serted, "speaks of Barnabas as alive during Paul's first imprisonment at Rome." The exact statement is this : in bis Eleventh Homily on the Epistle to the Co- lossieins he remarks, on ch. iv, 10, " 'touching whom ye received commandments, if he come unto you re- ceive him' — perhaps they received commands from Barnabas." There is a vague tradition that Barnabas was the first bishop of the church at Milan, but it is so ill supported as scarcely to deserve notice. It is enough to say that the celebrated Ambrose (b. A.D. 340, d. 397) makes no allusion to Barnabas when speak- ing of the bishops who preceded himself (see Hefele, Das Sendschreiben eles Apostels Barnabas, Tubing. 1840, p. 42-47). His festival is celebrated throughout the Roman Church on the 11th of June. The Church of Toulouse pretends to possess his body, and no less than eight or nine other churches lay claim to the posses- sion of his head. See the Acta Sanctorum, torn, iii ; Baronius, Martyrol. Rom. 11th of June; Fabric. Cod. Apocr. p. 781 sq. ; Ullmann, in the Theol. Stud, i, 382 sq. ; Hug, in the Freiburg. Zeitschr. ii, 132 sq. ; Schul- thess, in the Neuest. theol. Anna!. 1829, p. 943 sq. ; Ne- ander, Planting, etc. i, 190 sq. ; conip. generally Mo- sheim, Comment, de reb. Christianor. ante Constant, p. 1G1 sq. ; Rysewyk, Diss. hist. -theol. de Barneiba (Arnh. BARNABAS G70 BARNABAS 1835); also Brehme, De Barnabajusto (Leucop. 1735); I'm belli, l/' i di Sant ■ B trnaba (Mediol. 1649).— Etto. BARNABAS, EPISTLE OF. An epistle has come dun n to us bearing the name of Barnabas, but clearly not written by him. 1. literary History. — This epistle was known to the early church, as it is cited by Clement of Alexandria (Strom. 1. ii. p. 273, Paris, 1G29, et al. seven times); by Origen (contra Celsurn, p. 49, Cantab. 1*577, et al. three times); and is mentioned by Eusebius (Hist. Eccks. vi, 14), and by Jerome (( 'atal. Script. Eccles. c. vi). It was lost sight of for several centuries, until Sirmond (17th century) discovered it at the end of a manuscript of Polycarp's Epist. ad Pkilpp. Hugo Menardus also found a Latin version of it in the abbey of Corbey, and prepared it for publication. It appeared after his death, edited by D'Achery (Paris, 1645), and this was tli ■ first printed edition of the epistle. Isaac Yossius had previously obtained a copy of the Corbey MS. and of that of Sirmond, and had conveyed them to arch- bishop I'sher. who annexed them to a copy of the Ig- nati.m Epistles lie was preparing for the press. But the tire at Oxf< rd (1614) destroyed all but a few pagss, which are given by Fell in the prof ice to his edition of Barnabas (Oxford, 1685). Yossius published tli ! epistle in 1646, at the end of the Ignatian Epistles. It is given also in Cotelerius, Pair. Apostol. (1072). in both what was then known of the Greek text and also in the Corbey Latin version ; in Eussel, A post. Fathers (1716); Galland, Biblioth. Patrum (17G5); and recent- ly in llefele, Pair. Apostol. Opera (1842). Several German translations were made; also an English one by Wake, Apostolic Fathers. All these editions were based on the same materials, viz. a defective Greek text, iii which the first four chapters, and part of the fifth, were wanting, and the Latin version of Corbey, which lacked four chapters at the end. But in 1859 Tischendorf brought from Mt. Sinai a manuscript con- t lining the entire epistle in Greek, with a part of the Pastor of Hernias. It was published in his Novum Testamentum Sinaiticum (2d edit. Lips. 186:3). The first live chapters are also given in the second edition of Dressel, Pair. Apostol. Opera (Lips. 1863, 8vo), with a preface by Tischendorf; also, separately, byVolk- mur, under the title Monumentum vetust. Christiana: in- (Zurich, 1864), with a critical and exegetieal commentary. The best edition is that of Hflgenfeld, // 1 n hi i Epist. : integ. Grmce primum ed., with the an- cient Latin version, a critical commentary and notes ( Lips. 1865, 8vo). An English version of "the Epistle, from the Codex Sinaiticus, is given in the Journal of So-:-,, I Literature, Oct. 1863; reprinted in the Ameri- can Presbyterian Review, Jan. and July,1864. •_'. Au/h irsMp mi./ Date.— Some of the e irly editors (e. g. Voss), and some eminent modern critics (e. g. Pearson, Carr, Wake, Lardner, Giescder, Black), main- tain tint this epistle was written by Barnabas, the companion of St. Paul. But the current of criticism i In- other way, and it is now held as settled that Barnabas was not the author. For a history of the discussion, see Jones, Canonical Authority of the New Testament (Lond. 1726; new ed. Oxford", 1827, 3 vol-. 8vo); Lardner, Credibility, etc.. Works, ii, 19; Hefele, Patres Apost. Prolegomena. Kitto's Cyclopae- dia gives tb- following summary of the reasons against '"■lie- of the epistle: ' " '■ Though the exact date of the death of Barnabas cannot be ascertained, yet, from the particulars already -t ,t id respecting his nephew, it is highly probable that that eve,,' took plaee before the martyrdom of Paul, A.D.64. Bui a passage in the epistle (ch.xvi) speaks ■ J the r/emple at Jerusalem as already destroyed, it was consequently written after ti„. vear 7o_ •••-'. Several passages have been adduced to show writer, as well a- the persons addressed, be- longed to the Gentile section of tl hurcn ; but. waiv- ing this point, the whole tone of the epistic is different ' from what the knowledge we possess of the character of Barnabas would lead us to expect, if it proceeded from bis pen. From the hints given in the Acts, he appears to have been a man of strong attachments, keenly alive to the ties of kindred and father-land. We find that, on both his missionary tours, his native island and the Jewish synagogues claimed his first attention. But throughout the epistle there is a total absence of sym- pathetic regard for the Jewish nation ; all is cold and distant, if not contemptuous. ' It remains yet that I speak to you (the lGth chapter begins) concerning the Temple ; how those miserable men, being deceived, have put their trust in the house.' How unlike the friend and fellow-laborer of him who had ' great heaviness and continual sorrow in his heart for his brethren, his kindred according to the flesh' (Rom. ix, 2). " 3. Barnabas was not only a Jew by birth, but a Levite. From this circumstance, combined with what j is recorded in the Acts of the active part he took in ! the settlement of the points at issue between the Jew- ish and the Gentile converts, we might reasonably ex- I pect to find, in a composition bearing his name, an ac- j curate acquaintance with the Mosaic ritual, a clear conception of the nature of the Old Economy and its relation to the New Dispensation, and a freedom from that addiction to allegorical interpretation which mark- ed the Christians of the Alexandrian school in the sec- ond and succeeding centuries. But the following spe- cimens will suffice to show that exactly the contrary may be affirmed of the writer of this epistle ; that he makes unauthorized additions to various parts of the Jewish Cultus ; that his views of the Old Economy arc confused and erroneous; and that he adopts a mode of interpretation countenanced by none of the inspired writers, and at utter variance with every principle of sound criticism, being to the last degree puerile and absurd. "(1.) He mentions in two passages the fact record- ed in Exod. xxxii, 19, of Moses breaking the two ta- bles of stone, and infers that Jehovah's covenant was thereby annulled. The falsity of this statement need not be pointed out to the Biblical student. He says, • They (the Jews) have forever lost that which Moses received. For thus saith the Scripture : And Moses received the covenant from the Lord, even two tables of stone, etc. But, having turned them- selves to idols, they lost it ; as the Lord said unto Mo- ses, Go down quickly, etc. And Moses cast the two tables out of his hands, and their covenant was broken, that the love of Jesus might be sealed in your hearts unto the hope of his faith' (eh. iv). The second pas- sage, in eh. xiv, is very similar, and need not be quoted. "(2.) On the rite of circumcision (Acts xv, 1, 2) wc find in this epistle equal incorrectness. The writer denies that circumcision was a sign of the covenant. 'You will say the Jews were circumcised for a sign, and so arc all the Syrians and Arabians, and all the idolatrous priests.' Herodotus (ii, 37), indeed, asserts that the Syrians in Palestine received the practice of circumcision from the Egyptians ; but Josephus, both in his Antiquities and Treatise against Apion, remarks that he must have alluded to the Jews, because they were the only nation in Palestine who were circum- cised (A nt. viii, 10, 3 ; Apion, i, 22). ' How, ' says H ug, 'could Barnabas, who travelled with Paul through the southern provinces of Asia Minor, make such an asser- tion respecting the heathen priests !' "(3.) Referring to the goat (ch. vii), either that mentioned in Num. xix or Lev. xvi, he says, 'All the priests, and they only, shall eat the unwashed entrails with vinegar.' Of this direction, in itself highly im- probable, not. a trace can be found in the Bible, or even in the Talmud. "(4.) In the same chapter, he says of the scape-goat that all the congregation were commanded to spit upon it, and put scarlet wool about its head; and that the BARNABAS 671 BARNABAS person appointed to convey the goat into the wilder- ness took away the scarlet wool and put it on a thorn- bush, whose young sprouts, when we find them in the field, we are wont to eat; so the fruit of that thorn only is sweet. On all these particulars the Scriptures are silent. "(5.) In ch. viii the author's fancy seems to grow more fruitful and luxuriant. In referring to the red heifer (Num. xi.x), he says that men in whom sins are come to perfection (ii' oig ufiapriai riXfiai) were to bring the heifer and kill it ; that three youths were to t.ike up the ashes and put them in vessels ; then to tie a piece of scarlet wool and h3'ssop upon a stick, and so sprinkle even' one of the people. ' This heifer is Jesus Christ ; the wicked men that were to offer it are those sinners that brought him to death ; the young men signify those to whom the Lord gave authority to preach his gospel, being at the beginning twelve, because there were twelve tribes of Israel.' But why (he asks) were there three young men appointed to sprinkle ? To denote Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. And why was wool put upon a stick ? Because the kingdom of Jesus was founded upon the cross, etc. " (6.) He interprets the distinction of clean and un- clean animals in a spiritual sense. ' Is it not CAria ci'K — see Dr. Hefele's valuable note, p. 85) the com- mand of God that they should not eat these things ? (Yes.) But Moses spoke in spirit (tv nveufiaTi). He named the swine in order to say, " Thou shalt not join those men who are like swine, who, while they live in pleasure, forget their Lord," ' etc. He adds, 'Neither shalt thou eat of the hyena ; that is, thou shalt not be an adulterer.' If these were the views entertained by Barnabas, how must he have been astonished at the want of spiritual discernment in the apostle Peter, when he heard from his own lips the account of the symbolic vision at Joppa, and his reply to the com- mand, 'Arise, Peter, slay and eat. But I said, Not so, Lord, for nothing common or unclean hath at any time entered into my mouth' (Acts xi, 8). "(7.) In ch. ix he attempts to show that Abraham, in circumcising his servants, had an especial reference to Christ and his crucifixion: 'Learn, my children, that Abraham, who first circumcised in spirit, having a regard to the Son (in Jesum, Lat. Vers), circumcised, applying the mystic sense of the three letters (Xajlujv tiuCjv ypafUfiaTwv BoyfxaTa — den geheimen Sinn dreier Buchstaben anwendend, Hefele). For the Scripture says that Abraham circumcised 318 men of his house. "What, then, was the deeper insight (yvSiciQ) imparted to him ? Mark first the 18, and next the 300. The numeral letters of 18 are I (Iota) and H (Eta), I = 10, H = 8; here you have Jesus, 'lHffovv; and because the cross in the T (Tau) must express the grace ("of our re- demption), he names 300 ; therefore lie signified Jesus by two letters, and the cross by one.' It will be ob- served that the writer hastily assumes (from Gen. xiv, 11) that Abraham circumcised only 318 persons, that being the number of 'the servants born in his own house,' whom he armed against the four kings ; but he circumcised his household nearly twenty j'ears later, including not only those born in his house (with the addition of Ishmael), but ' all that were bought with money' (Gen. xvii, 23). The writer evidently was un- acquainted with the Hebrew Scriptures, and has com- mitted the blunder of supposing that Abraham was familiar with the Greek alphabet some centuries before it existed." The probable opinion is that this epistle existed an- onymously in the Alexandrian Church, and was igno- rantly attributed to Barnabas. It was probably writ- ten by a Jewish Christian, who had studied Philo, and who handled the O. T. in an allegorical way in behalf of his view of Christianity. Its date is assigned to the first centurj' bv Hilgenfeld, Die App. Vater (Halle, 1853); Reuss, Geschichte d. Schriften d, N. T. i, 233; Lwald. Gesch. d. Volls Israel, vii, 13G ; and to the ear- j ly part of the 2d century by Dressel, Patres Apost. ' Proleg., and Kitsch], Entstehung d. Altkath. Kirche, 294. Volkmar gives the date as 119, or later, in Ha- drian's time. Hefele puts it between 107 and 120. Weizsacker, in his treatise Zur Kritik d<:s Barnabas- \ briefes am dem Codex Sinaiticus (Tubingen, 1801), seeks to prove that the epistle was written shortly after the destruction of Jerusalem, and not under Hadrian. See also Weizsacker in d. Jahrbuclier fur Deutsche Theologie, 18G5, p. 391. 3. Contents and Object of the Epistle. —The first part of the epistle (ch. i-xvii) is directed against the Ju- daizing party, and aims to show that the abolition of Judaism, by means of the spiritual institutions of Christianity, is foretold in the O. T., so that the true covenant people of God arc the Christians, not the Jews. The four remaining chapters are ethical, con- taining practical advices and exhortations for walking "in the way of light," and avoiding "the way of dark- ness." "The names and residence of the persons to whom it is addressed are not mentioned, on which account, probably, it was called by Origen a Catholic epistle (Origen contr. Cels. lib. i, p. 49). But if by this title he meant an epistle addressed to the general body of Christians, the propriety of its application is doubtful, for we meet with several expressions which imply a personal knowledge of the parties. It has been disputed whether the persons addressed were Jewish or Gentile Christians. Dr. Hefele strenuously contends that they were of the former class. His chief argument appears to be, that it would be unnecessary to insist so earnestly on the abolition of the Mosaic economy in writing to Gentile converts. But the EpiS- | tie of Paul to the Galatians is a proof to what danger Gentile Christians were exposed in the first ages from the attempts of Judaizing teachers ; so that, in the ab- sence of more exact information, the supposition that the persons addressed were of this class is at least not inconsistent with the train of thought in the epistle. , But more than this: throughout the epistle we find a distinction maintained between the writer and his friends on the one hand, and the Jews on tl c other. Thus, in chap, iii, 'God speaketh to them (the Jews) concerning these things, "Ye shall not fast as ye do this day," etc. ; but to us he saith, " Is not this the fast that I have chosen ?" ' etc. ; and at the end of the same chapter, ' He hath shown these things to all of us, that we should not run as proselytes to the Jewish law.' This would be singular language to address to persons who were Jews by birth, but perfectl}- suited to Gen- tile converts. In chap, xiii he says, ' Let us inquire whether the covenant be with us or with them' (tin: Jews); and concludes with quoting the promise to Abraham (with a slight verbal difference), ' Behold, I have made thee a father of the nations which vilhout ! circumcision believe in the Lord' — a passage which is totally irrelevant to Jewish Christians. For other ' similar passages, sec Jones On the Canon, pt. iii, chap. i xxxix" (Kitto, Cyclopaedia, s. v.). Dr. Schaff remarks of the epistle, as a whole, that "it has many go< d ideas and valuable testimonies, such as that in favor of the observance of the Christian Sabbath. But it goes to extremes in opposition to Judaism, and in- dulges in all sorts of artificial, sometimes absurd, al- legorical fancies. . . . It is an unsound application of the true thought, that the old is passed away, ami that all is made new by ( 'lirist. Compare especially ch. iv" I (Schaff, History of the Christian Church, § 121). Be- sides the works cited in the course of this article, sec Zeitschrift f. d. histor. Theologie, 1800, p. 32 ; Donald- 1 son, Christian Lit. i, 201 sq. ; Neander, Church History, l, 381 ; Henke, Be epistohc qua: Barnabo', tribuitur au- theniia (Jen. 1827) ; Rordam, De authentia ep. Barnabas (Havn. 182s) (both argue for the genuineness of the epistle); Heberle. in the Stud. d. ururt. Geistl. 1846, i ; LTlmann, in the Stud. u. Krit. 1828, p. 2 (opposes the genuineness) ; Schenkel, ib. 1837 (contends that ch. vii BARNABAS 6- -xvii are interpolations) ; Hug, in the Zeitschrift ad annum 1198 France, and was educated at Bourges. Having em- i braced Protestantism, he came over into England in the time of Elizabeth to avoid persecution. Here he , entered himself at Trinity College, Cambridge, and in (J™*. ™ «»', 12 vols, fob). It was followedby 1575 was made Lady Margaret professor of divinity : « jtjons at Antwerp, 1589 sq and Paris 1609. The on the recommendation of Lord Burghley. Dr. Whit- «**•» °f.Me"tz (1601-1605, 12 vols fob) was revised aker, then professor of divinity, and several of the ^ Baronius himself, and designated as a standard for heads of houses, were strong Calvinists. Baro, in his ! future e^ons Many Protestant authors, as Casau- lectures, opposed the doctrine of predestination, and \ b°n, Basnage, Ivor hold, and others, wrote against him about 1581 he was charged with heresy. From that | ««. ^as defended by the Franc.scan Pagi in his work time on he suffered many vexations and annoyances, I CriUcausorrco-chronologicam vmversnsannaksC.Ba. but he held his ground until 1595, when his opponents, ; ro»u (Ant w. 1 , 0o 4 vols. ; rev.ed.t 1,24 , who, howev- desiring to support their Calvinistic views by author- j ™, himself corrected many chronological errors of Ba- itv, drew up the nine celebrated articles known as the f~ ' T>'e m08t <7?le'e J^10" f *J? ^ '. ! Lambeth Articles (q. v.), which were confirmed by | *V Mansi (L«<*a, V 38-1. A 38 vols.), which contains Archbishop Whitgift and others. These articles Baro : the CnHca of Pag, printed under the corresponding opposed in a sermon, whereupon he was ordered by the Pf ™&s °f Baronius, the Continuation of Raynaldus, v e-chancellor to give in a copv of his sermon, and to j the learned Apparatus of the editor, and very valuable abstain thenceforward from all controversy on articles , ^exes in 3 vols Abraham Bzovius, a Polish Dom.n- of faith. His position was made so disagreeable that : >can> P"0™ a C™*" ?" f ^Z 5. in 159G he resigned his professorship and removed to year 1571 (Rome, 1616 sq. 8 vols ) ; another was pub- London, where he died about 1G00. He wrote, among hshed by Henry Spondanus, at Pans, in 1640, 2 vols. other things-1. In Jonam Prophetam Prvlectioncs 39, <°'-> and fe* ^ j™ ^ T* C°^'fTZ ( etc. (London, 1579) :-2. De Fide, ejusaue Ortu et Na- ; Je year 1198 to 1566) is perhaps that by Odericus fam, etc. (Ibid. 1580) :-3. SummatriL Smtentiarum ^ynaMus, of the Con,regat,on of the Oratory (Rome de Preeekstinatione (1613) :-4. Sermons, etc. (4to):-5. : 1640-1663, 9 vols.) The work of Ra naUus was far, De Pra-slimtia el Dianitate Divince legis (Loncl. 8vo, n. ! ther continued by Laderchi Lome, 1^8-1,0,, 3 vols.). d.)._Haag, La France Protestante, i, 202 ; Hook, Feci. ' ^tot add.fon to the work ,s that ot helner (Rom. Biog. i, 540; Strvpe, Life of Whhgft) Hardwick ,! ^ 3 ^ ;f°V'bn"f1| *? j1^ ^'VlSn Histon of the Article, ch. vii. I ^an style, to 1586 The Epistote of Baronius, his 1 ita •>•>■> St.Gregom A as., together with a brief biography ot Baro'dis (Baow&c.Vulg. Rahohs), a name insert- i BaroniuSj were published by Albericus (Rome, 1670). ed in the list of those " servants of Solomon" whose There are j~eg of Baronius in Latin by the Oratorian " sons" returned with Zerubbabel (1 Esdr. v, 34); but B.n.nabeus (translated into German by Fritz, Wien, there is no corresponding name in the genuine list of m8 an abriagment of which translation was pub- Ezra (ii, 57) or Nehemiah (vii, 59). | lishedi Augsb# 1845)j and in French by La Croze. See Baronius or Baronio, C.esak, the eminent Ro- ' Dupin, Eccks. Writers, cent, xvii ; Schaff, Apostolic man ecclesiastical annalist, was born at Sora, in Na- ! Church, p. 56 ; Christian Remembrancer, xxiv, 232 ; pies, October 30th, 1538. He pursued his first studies | Landon, Feel. Diet, ii, 42. at Veroli, and theology and jurisprudence at Naples. | Barre, Joseph, a French priest and writer, born In 1557 he went with his father, Camillo Baronio, to 1G98) entered early into the congregation of St. Gene- Rome, where he placed himself under the direction of v;eve) at Paris, and became eminent for his historical Philip Neri, who had, at that period, just founded the anci ecclesiastical knowledge. He was made chancel- Congregation of the Oratory, whose chief pursuit was ]or of tne University of Paris, where he died, 1764. to be the study of ecclesiastical antiquity. The rules h;s principal works are Vindicin- Lihromm d-ut. -canon. prmcipa ! Vtt. Test. (1730, 12mo) : — Histoire d'Allemagne (1784, 11 vols.) -.—Examen des difauts theologiques (Amst. 1744, ! 2 vols. 12mo). i Barre, Louis Francois Joseph de la, an in- dustrious French scholar, was born at Toumay, March 9, 1688. At Paris he met with Banduri, who had ar- rived thither from Florence, and whom he assisted in \ the preparation of the Imperium Orientate (2 vols, ml.), and his work on Medals (Pecueil de Mnlnlles (hs Fm- j pereurs). Afterward De la Barro published a new edi- tion of the Spicikgivm of Luc d'Achery (3 vols. fol. j 1723), with corrections and notes. He also had a large share in the edition of Moreri's Dietionnaire Jlistorique, published in 1725. He died in 1738. He was a mem- of the order, requiring a portion of each day to be given to the study and discussion of points in church history, antiquities, and biography, gave the bent to Baronius's pursuits for life. Clement VIII made him his confess- or, and created him cardinal, by the title of SS. Mar- tyrum Nerei and Achillei, 5th June, 1596. Soon af- ter he was made librarian of the Vatican Library and member of the Congregation of Rites. On the death of Clement, and again upon the death of Leo XI, he was within a little of being elected pope ; but his own strong opposition, and the opposition of the Span- iards, who could not forgive his De Monarchia Sicilire, in which he opposed the claim of Spain to Sicily, pre- vented it. He died June 30th, 1607. His Annales Fcclesiastki was undertaken in obedience to the in- , , ... . „,.,. >T . . . - , t, ber of the "Academv of Inscriptions, junction of his superior, Philip Jseri, to defend Rome • ' against the Magdeburg Centuries (q. v.) For thirty j Barrel (12, lead [koSoq, cadus~], a pitcher or pail), j'ears he labored at this immense work, and in 1586, in a vessel used for the keeping of flour (1 Kings xvii, 12, order, as it were, to try his strength, he put forth the I 14, 16; xviii, 33). The same word is in other places Notes on the Roman Martyrology. This was shortly rendered " pitcher," as the same vessel appears to have after (in 1588) followed by the first volume of the An- ! been also used for carrying water (Gen. xxiv, 14 ; U u BARREN 674 Judg. vii, lf> ; Ecel. xii, 6). It was borne on the shoulders as is tin- custom in the East in the present day. See Pitcher. Barren (when spoken of persons, properly "ij??, al i/-'. artiooe)- Barrenness is, in the East, the hard- est lot that can befall a woman, and was considered among the [sraelites as the heaviest punishment with which the Lord could visit a female (Gen. xvi, 2; xxx, 1 23; 1 Sam. i, 6, 29; Isa. xlvii, 9; xlix, 21; Luke i, 25; Niebubx, p. 76; Volney, ii, 359; Lane's Egyptians, i, 74). In the Talmud (Yeramoth, vi, 6) a man was bound, after ten years of childless conjugal life, to marry another woman (with or without repu- diation of the first), and even a third one it* the second proved also barren. Nor is it improbable that Moses himsi If contributed to strengthen the opinion of dis- grace by the promises of the Lord of exemption from barrenness as a blessing (Exod. xxiii, 26; Deut. vii, 14). Instances of childless wives are found in Gen. xi, 3!); xxv, 21 ; xxix, .".1 ; Judg. xiii, 2, 3; Luke i, 7, 36. Some cases of unlawful marriages, and more especially with a brother's wife, were visited with the punishment of barrenness (Lev. xx, 20, 21); Mi- chaelis, however {Mosalsches Recht, v, 290), takes the word ----" ,/ stUute, ■•childless") herein a figurative sense, implying that the children born in such an il- licit marriage should not be ascribed to the real father, but to the former brother, thus depriving the second husband of the share of patrimonial inheritance which would otherwise have fallen to his lot if the first broth- er had died childless. The reproach attached to steril- ity, especially by the Hebrews, ma)' perhaps be ac- counted for by the constant expectation of the Messiah, and the hope that every woman cherished that she might be the mother of the promised Seed. This con- stant hope seems to account for man}' circumstances in the Old Testament history which might otherwise ap- pear extraordinary or exceptionable (Gen.iii, 15 ; xxi, 6,7; xxv, 21-23;" xxvii, 13; xxviii, 14; xxxviii, 11- 18; Deut. xxv, 9). This general notion of the dis- grace of barrenness in a woman may earl)' have given rise, in the patriarchal age, to the custom among bar- ren wives of introducing to their husbands their maid- servants, and of regarding the children born in that concubinage as their own. by which they thought to cover their own disgrace of barrenness (Gen. xvi, 2; xxx, 3). — Kitto, s. v. See Child. Barri, Giualdus de. See Giu.yldus Camerex- SIS. Barrington (John Shute), Viscouxt, was born 1678, educated at Utrecht, created Viscount Barrington 1720, and died 1734. He was a friend and disciple of Locke, and greatly devoted to theological pursuits. In the year 1725 he published, in two volumes octavo, his Mi a Han* a Sacra, or a New Method of considering so much of the History of the Apostles as is contained in Scripture, with four Critical Essays : 1. On the Wit- ness of the Holy Spirit; 2. On the distinction between the Apostles, Elders, and Brethren; 3. On the Time when I 'aid and Barnabas became Apostles ; 4. On the Apostolical Decrees. In this work the author traces the methods take,, by the apostles and first preachers of the Gospel for propagating Christianity, and ex- plains, «,tl, rr,.at ,listinetness, the several gifts of the Spirit by which they Were enabled to discharge that office. ,\ new edition of hi. Theological Work, was published m London in 1828 (3 vols. 8vo).— Jones <- p. 27; Allibone, Did. of Authors, s. v. Barrow, Isaac, D.I)., one of the most eminent '■ ' -' ]l h livini and a distinguished mathematician. ',m "' London, October, 1630, and was educa- ted •'' "'" Cbarl r I rouse, and at Felsted in Essex Af- terward ho wet to Cambridge, and became a pension- er of Trinity College in 1645. In 1649 he was elected fdlow of his college; but the religious and political BARROW troubles of the time greatly checked his progress, and induced him to leave England to travel abroad. He visited France and Italy, and proceeded as far as Smyrna, in the course of which voyage he signalized himself by his courage in a combat with an Algerine pirate. At Constantinople he remained some time, and returned to England, through Germany and Hol- land, in 1659. He was ordained by Bishop Brownrigg, and in 1660, after the restoration, obtained the Greek chair at Cambridge. In 1662 he was made Gresham Professor of Geometry, and in 1663 Lucasian Professor of Mathematics, in which capacity he had Newton as a pupil. In 1670 he was made D.D., and in Febru- ary, 1672, was nominated to the mastership of Trinity College. In his later years he gave up mathematics for divinity, feeling himself bound to this course by his ordination vows. He died in London on the 4th of May, 1677, and is buried in Westminster Abbey. His moral character was of the highest type, resting upon true religion. Tillotson says that he "came as near as is possible for human frailty to do to the per- fect man of St. James." Barrow's intellect was of the highest order. As a mathematician he was "second only to Newton," ac- cording to English writers, though this is rather too high praise. Of his numerous mathematical writings this is not the place to speak ; his fame as a theologian rests chiefly upon his Treatise on the Pope's Supremacy, his Exposition of the Creed, and on his Sermons. Of the Supremacy, Tillotson remarks that " no argument of moment, nay, hardly any consideration properly be- longing to the subject, has escaped Barrow's compre- hensive mind. He has said enough to silence' the con- troversy forever, and to deter all wise men, of both sides, from meddling any farther with it." See Til- lotson, preface to the Theological Works of Dr. Barrow (Lond. 16S3, 3 vols. fol.). In theology Barrow was an Arminian, and his writings are, in many respects, an illustration of the Arminian system, though not con- troversially so. "His sermons," as Le Clerc observes, " are rather treatises and dissertations than harangues, and he wrote and rewrote them three or four times. They are always cited as exact and comprehensive arguments, the produce of a grasp which could collect and of a patience which could combine all that was to be said upon the subject in question. But, in addition to this, Barrow was an original thinker. From his desire to set the whole subject before his hearers, he is often prolix, and his style is frequently redundant. But the sermons of Barrow are store-houses of thought, and they are often resorted to as store-houses by popu- lar preachers and writers. Nor are they wanting in passages which, as examples of a somewhat redund- ant, but ^rave, powerful, and exhaustive eloquence, it would be difficult to parallel in the whole range of English pulpit literature." The best edition of his the- ological writings is that published at Cambridge (1859, 8 vols. 8vo) ; a cheaper and yet good one, with a me- moir by Hamilton, London, 1828 (3 vols. 8vo), reprint- ed N. Y. 1846 (3 vols. 8vo). They include seventy- eight sermons on various topics; an Exposition of the Apostles1 Creed, in 34 discourses; expositions of the ford's Supper, the Decalogue, the Sacraments; the Trea- tise on the Pope's Supremacy ; with his Opuscula Thcolo- aica, including a number of Latin dissertations, etc. See Methodist Quarterly Renew, 1846, p. 165 sq. ; Alli- bone, Dictionary if Authors, i, 130 sq. ; Hook, Eccles. Hi igraphy, i, 555. Barrow, William, LL.D., was born in Yorkshire about 1754, and was educated at Queen's College, Ox- ford. In 1814 he was made prebendary of Southwell, and shortly afterward vicar of Farnsfield. In 1829 he was made archdeacon of Nottingham, which office he held till his death in 1836. He published Eight Ser- mons on ///■ Bampton Lecture (Lond. 1799, 8vo): — Fa- miliar Sermons on Doctrines and Duties (Lond. 3 vols. 8vo).— Darling, C:/c'. BibKogr. i, 185. BARSABAS 675 BARTHOLOMEW Bar'sabas (Bapaafici';, a Chald. patronymic), the surname of two men. 1. Of Joseph (q. v.), mentioned in Acts i, 23. 2. Of Judas (q. v.), mentioned in Acts xv, 22. Barsuma or Barsumas, bishop of Nisibis, a zeal- ous Nestorian of the fifth century. Having been eject- ed from the school of Edessa, he was made bishop of Nisibis A.D. 435, and devoted himself earnestly for nearly half a century to the establishment of Nestori- anism in Persia. He founded the school of Nisibis, a prolific source of Nestorianism. He advocated the right of priests to marry, and himself married a nun. See Assemanni, Bibl. Orient. Ill, ii, 77; Moshcim, Ch. Hist, i, 3G3. See Nestorians. Barsumas, a Syrian archimandrite, head of the Eutychian party at the robber-council of Ephesus, A.D. 449. Among the Jacobites (q. v.) he is held as a saint and miracle-worker. See Ephesus, Robber- council of. Bar'tacus (Bapraeoe ; "Vulg. Bczax), the father of Apame, the concubine of King Darius (1 Esdr. iv, 29, where he is called "the admirable" [o Bav/iaaro^, probably an official title belonging to his rank). The Syriac version has Artak, a name which recalls that of Artachoeas ('Ap7-«Yo<>/<), who is named by Herodo- tus (vii, 22, 117) as being in a high position in the Per- sian army under Xerxes, and a special favorite of that kin-j; (Simonis, Onom.; Smith's Bid. of Class. Biog. i, 369). See Apame. Bartas, Du. See Du Bartas. Earth, Christian Gotti.ob, D.D., an eminent German divine and philanthropist, was born at Stutt- gardt, Juh7 31, 1799, obtained his academical education at the Gymnasium there, and from 1817 to 1821 studied theology at Tubingen. He early manifested strong religious feelings, and during all his life kept him- self free from the prevailing rationalism. In 1824 he became pastor at Mottlingen, Wurtemberg, and in 1838 retired to Calw, in order to devote himself to the missionary cause, and to the production of books of practical religion, to which objects he had already given much of his attention. He had, with the flour- ishing missionary institute at Basle, formed the first (Calwer) missionary society in Wurtemberg, published a periodical, " The Calwer Mission Sheet," and was the means of exciting a wide-spread interest in the cause of missions. From this period his life became still more, active. The interests of the mission led him to travel far and near, sometimes to England, to France, and to the in- terior of Switzerland ; and he was brought into friend- ly relationship with the courts of Wurtemberg, Baden, Bavaria, Austria, Russia, England, Prussia, etc. His house became a sojourn for persons from all parts of the world. He founded a conference of evangelical pastors and a training-school for poor children. Among his multitudinous publications of practical reading, both for adults and children, are Kindcrbliltter (Calw, 1836); Christ. Kinderschrif 'ten (Stuttg. 4 vols.); Christ Gedichte (Stutt. 1836); Kirchengeschichte fur Schuhn und Familial (Calw, 1835) ; Bihlische Geschichte fur Schulen und Familien. The sale of these books has been unparalleled. Of the Bible History and Bible Stories more than a million copies have been pub- lfehed in ten or twelve languages of the Christian and heathen world. He was also a ready versifier, and wrote many hymns and short poems for children ; and several of bis hymns, especially those on Missions, have found their way into the later German collections of hymns. In 1838, the University of Tubingen confer- red upon him the decree of Doctor of Theology. His health was feeble during his later years, but he contin- ued to work up to the last day, and was only induced to lie down about half an hour before his death, Nov. 12, 18G2. — Pierer, Universal-Lexiccn, s. v. ; Herzog, Real-Encyklop. Supp. i, p. 1G8. Barthel, Johann Caspar, a German canonist, born in 1697 at Kitzingen. He studied at Wurzburg with the Jesuits, and subsequently at Pome under Car- dinal Lambertini, afterward Benedict XIV. In 1727 he was made professor of canon law in the University of Wurzburg, of which he afterward became vice-chan- cellor. To intense hatred of Protestantism Barthel .united a steadfast resistance to all papal claims unau- thorized by law. He died in 1771, having greatly im- proved the teaching of the canon law, which before his time consisted simply in repeating the decretals and comments of the court of Pome. Barthel followed zealously in the path of De Marca, Thomassin, Fleury, and other great theologians of France, and reduced the canon law to a form suited to the wants and peculiar circumstances of Germany. The following are his chief works: 1. Historia Pacificaiionum Imperii circa Religionum consistent (Wurzburg, 1736, 4to) : — 2. De Jure Reformandi antiquo et novo (Ibid. 1744, 4to) : — 3. De restituta canonlcarum in Gcrmanid electionum poli- tid (Ibid. 1749) : — Tractatus de to quod circa liberta- tem exercitii religionis ex lege d'vina et ex lege imperii justum est (Ibid. 17G4, 4to). — Landon, Eccl. Diet, ii, 47; Hoefer, Nouv. Biog. Generale, iv, 645. Barthol'omew (BapOoXopcuog, for Chald. 13 h,?5Fi, i. e. son of Tolmai; the latter being a name that occurs in Josh, xv, 14, Sept. QoXafii and QoX/iai ; Auth. Vers. Tolmai ; 2 Sam. xiii, 37, Sept. GoA/u and QoXofiai. In Josephus we find OoXo/jcuoo, Ant. xx, 1, 1. The OoXficuor in Ant. xiv, 8, 1, is called nro\- f/<«ioe in War, i, 9, 3, not improbably by an error of the transcriber, as another person of the latter name is mentioned in the same sentence), one of the twelve apostles of Christ (Matt, x, 3 ; Mark iii, 18 ; Luke vi, 14; Acts i, 13), generally supposed to have been the same individual who in John's Gospel is called Na- tiianael (q. v.). The reason of this opinion is that in the first three gospels Philip and Bartholomew are constantly named together, while Nathanael is no- where mentioned ; on the contrary, in the fourth gos- pel the names of Philip and Nathanael are similarly combined, but nothing is said of Bartholomew (see As- semanni, Biblioth. Or. Ill, i, 306 ; ii, 4 sq. ; Nahr, De Nathan, a Earth/lorn, non dicerso, Lips. 1740). Na- thanael, therefore, must be considered as his real name, while Bartholomew merely expresses his filial relation (see Lightfoot, Hor. Hebr. p. 325). If so, he was a na- tive of Cana in Galilee (John xxi, 2). Bernard and Abbot Rupert were of opinion that he was the bride- groom at the marriage of Cana. (For traditions re- specting his parentage, see Cotelerius, Pair. Apost. 372). He was introduced by Philip to Jesus, who, «n seeing him approach, at once pronounced that eulogy on his character which has made his name almost sy- nonymous with sincerity, " Behold an Israelite indeed, in whom there is no guile" (John i, 47). A.D. 26. He was one of the disciples to whom our Lord appeared after his resurrection, at the Sea of Tiberias (John xxi; 2) ; he was also a witness of the ascension, and return- ed with the other apostles to Jerusalem (Acts i, 4, 12, 13). A.D. 29. On his character, see Niemeyer, Charakt. i, 111 sq. See Apostle. Of the subsequent history of Bartholomew, or Na- thanael, we have little more than vague traditions. According to Eusebius (Hist. Ecclcs. v, 10), when Pan- t:cnus went on a mission to the Indians (toward the close of the second century), he found among them the Gospel of Matthew, written in Hebrew, which had been left there by the Apostle Bartholomew. Jerome (De Vir. Illustr. c. 36) gives a similar account, and adds that Pantsenus brought the copy of Matthew's Gospel back to Alexandria with him. See Matthew, Gos- pel of. But the title of "Indians" is applied by an- cient writers to so many different nations that it is dif- ficult to determine the scene of Bartholomew's labors. Moshcim (with whom Neander agrees) is of opinion that it was a part of Arabia Felix, inhabited by Jews, BARTHOLOMEW 076 BARTHOLOMEW'S DAY to whom alone a Ik-brow gospel could be of any ser- vice. Socrates (Hist. Eccles. i, 19) says that it was the India bordering on Ethiopia; and Sophronius reports that Bartholomew preached the Gospel of Christ to the inhabitants of India Felix ('Ivootc role KciXovfisvoic tbSaipoaiv). This apostle is said to have suffered cru- cifixion with his head downward at Albanopolis, in Ar- nunia Minor (Assemanni, Bibl. Or. Ill, ii, 20), or, ac- c irding to the pseudo-Chrysostom (Opp. viii, 622, ed. Par. nor.), in Lycaonia; according to Nicephorus, at (Jrbanopotis, in Cilicia (see Abdias, in Fabricius, Cod. Apocr. ii, 685 sq. ; Baronius, ad Martyrol. Rom. p. 500 sq. ; Perionii Vitm Apostelor. p. 127 sq.). See Bar- tholomew's Day. A spurious Gospel which bears his name is in the catalogue of apocryphal books condemned by Pope Gc- lasius (Fabric. Cod. Apocr. X. T. i, 341 sq.).— Kitto, s. v. See Gospels (spurious). Bartholomew of Edessa, a monk, probably a Syrian, but of what date is totally unknown. Accord- ing to Cave, he displays considerable learning and a profound knowledge of the writings and ceremonies of the Chaldees, Arabians, and Mohammedans. He wrote, in Greek, Elenchus, or Confutatio Hagarmi, in which he exposes the follies of the Koran, and the or- igin, life, manners, rites, and dogmas of the false prophet Mohammed. This work, in Greek, with a Latin version, is given by Le Moyne at p. 302 of his Collection (Lyons, 1685). — Landon, Eccl. Diet, ii, 49. Bartholomew of Cotton, a monk of Norwich, who flourished about 1292. He wrote a History of England, divided into three parts. Part I contains an a i omit of the Britons; Part II treats of the Saxon and Norman kings down to the year 1292; Part III gives much information concerning the archbishops and bishops of England from 1152 to 1292, and may be found in Wharton, Anglia Surra, i, 397. See Clarke, Succession of Sac. Lit. ii, 764 ; Landon, s. v. Bartholomew of Glaxville (also called An- glicus), an Englishman, of the family of the earls of Suffolk, and a Franciscan. He applied himself to the discovery of the morals hidden under the outward ap- pearance of natural things, on which he composed a large work, entitled Opus de Proprietatibw Rerum, in nineteen I ooks: (1.) Of God; (2.) of angels and dev- ils ; (3.) of the soul ; (4.) of the bod}', etc. (Argent. 1488: Nnremb. 1492; Strasb. 1505 ; Paris, 1574). He flourished about 1360, and a volume of Sermons, print- ed at Strasburg in 1495, is attributed to him. See I ave, Uist. Lit. anno 1360; 1 lupin, Eccl. Writers. Bartholomew or Bartolomeo dos Marty- res, so called from the name of the church of "Our Lady of Martyrs" at Lisbon, in which he was bap- tized, was one of the best men in the Romish Church of the 16th century. He was born at Lisbon in May, l"'l I, and assumed the habit of St. Dominic at Lisbon, II h December, 1528. Having been for twenty years professor of philosophy and theology, his high reputa- 1 a ed him to be selected as preceptor of the son ' I Dom Louis, infant of Portugal. It was only at the positive command of Louia of Granada, as his superior, thai he accepted the archbishopric of Braga (1558), and tint with such reluctance as threw him upon a bed of sickness. He entered upon his see on the 4th tnd commenced af once the execution < f hi- design of teaching his (lock by his own example H of his household, lie Belected one small room out of all the magnificent apartments of the pal- furnished it like a cell; he went to bed at el( v in at night, and rose at three in the morning ; his bed was bard and Bcanty; his body always covered With the hair cloth ; his table always poorly supplied. Of the usi. .1 attendants of great houses, such as mdvbret d'Mtel, etc., he had none, contenting himself with e fen necessary domestics. As booh as be had thus le) hi- own house in order, he hastened to endeavor to do the same with the city of Braga and his diocese in general. He established schools and hospitals, and devoted himself to works of charity and mercy. As one of the delegates to the Council of Trent, he espe- cially signalized himself there by his zeal on the sub- ject of the reform of the. cardinals. On one occasion he delivered those well-known words on this subject, " Eminentissimi Cardinales eminentissima egent re- formation," and expressed his strong condemnation of their luxurious and unfitting kind of life. He it was also who first induced the council to begin their sessions with the question of the reform of the clergy. In 1582 Pope Gregory XIII allowed him to resign his see, and he retired to a convent at Viana, where he died in 1590. His life was written by Isaac de Sacy, and his writings, among which the Stimulus Pastorum, a guide for bishops, has had the largest circulation, were published by P. dTnguimbert at Pome, 17,'!4-35 (2 vols, fol.), and by Fessler (Einsiedeln, 1863, 8vo). Bartholomew's Day, 1, a festival celebrated on the 24th day of August (or 25th at Rome) in the Church of Rome, and on the 11th of June in the Greek Church, in commemoration of the apostle Bartholo- mew. 2. The day has been rendered infamous in history J in consequence of the massacre of the Protestants in France in 1572. The principal Protestants were in- I vited to Paris, under a solemn oath of safety, to cele- I brate the marriage of the King of Navarre with the I sister of the French king. The queen-dowager of Navarre, a zealous Protestant, died before the mar- riage was celebrated, not without suspicion of poison. The massacre commenced about twilight in the morn- ing on the tolling of a bell of the church of St. Ger- main. Admiral Coligni was basely murdered in bis i own house, and then thrown out of a window, to grati- fy the malice of the Duke of Guise. His head was j afterward cut oft* and sent to the king (Charles IX) ! and the queen-mother, the bloody Catherine de Medi- cis; his body, after a thousand indignities offered to it, was hung up by the feet on a gibbet. The murder- ■ ers then ravaged the whole city of Paris, and put to death more than ten thousand of all ranks. De Thou says, " The very streets and passages resounded with the groans of the dying and of those who were about to be murdered. The bodies of the slain were thrown out of the windows, and with them the courts and j chambers of the houses were filled. The dead bodies of others were dragged through the streets ; and the i blood flowed down the channels in such torrents that I it seemed to empty itself into the neighboring river. ! In short, an innumerable multitude of men, women, and children were involved in one common destruc- tion, and all the gates and entrances to the king's pal- 1 ace wrere besmeared with blood." From Paris the massacre spread through the kingdom. The total number that fell during this massacre has been esti- ' mated by De Thou at 30,000, by Sully at 60,000, and by Perefixe, a popish historian, at 100,000. The news of this atrocious murder was received at Pome with unrestrained joy and delight; a universal jubilee was proclaimed by the pope: the guns of St. Angelo were ! fired, and bonfires lighted in the streets. A medal was struck in the. pope's mint, with his own head on one side, and on the other a rude representation of the massacre, with an angel brandishing a sword, and bearing the inscription " Hvgonotorum strages." See j Huguenots. Romanist writers treat this massacre in three ways: (1.) Some, like Caveirac, De Falloux, and Rohrbacher, justify it ; (2.) others affirm that the Romanists were only following the example set by Protestants ; (3.) others again, like Theiner, in his new volumes of the Annates Ecclesiastici, attribute it to politics, not to re- ligion. Theiner's view is refuted, and the complicity | of the Roman Church, with the pope at its head, in this great crime is shown in the Christian Remem- BARTHOLOMEW'S GOSPEL 67: brancer, xxiv, 245. Lingard, in his History of Eng- land, gives a favorable view of the facts for the Roman side, which is refuted in the Edinburgh Review, vols, xlii, liii ; and in Lardner, Hist, of England (Cab. Cy- clopaedia, vol. iii. See Curths, Die Bartholomausnacht (Lpz. 1814); Wachler, Die Pariser Blutkochzeit (Lpz. 182G) ; Audin, Hist, de la St. Barthelemy (Paris, 1829) ; also, Turner, Hist, of England, vol. iii, Appendix ; Cob- bin, Historical View of the lief Church of France (Lond. 1816) ; Weiss, History of the Prof. Ref. in France (New York, 1854, 2 vols. 12mo); Shoberl, Persecutions of Popery, ii, 1 sq. ; Ranke, Hist, of Papacy, i, 27C, 424, 491; Gieseler, Ck. Hist, iv, 304, Smith's ed. 3. On St. Bartholomew's day in 16G2, the year in which the Act of Uniformity (q. v.) was passed, two thousand non-conforming ministers were ejected from their benefices in England. — Mosheim, Ch. Hist, iii, 173 note. Bartholomew's Gospel. See Bartholomew (Jh ' Apostle). Bartholomites, 1, an order of Armenian monks. See Armenia. 2. A congregation of secular priests, who take their name from Bartholomew Holshauser, who founded the order at Salzburg, August 1st, 1G40. Pope Innocent XI approved their constitutions in 1680 and 1684. This congregation was established for the purpose of forming good priests and pastors, and was governed by a chief president, whose duty it was to maintain uniformity of discipline throughout the congregation, and by diocesan presidents, who were to attend to the same thing in their respective dioceses, b}' watch- ing over the curates and other ecclesiastics belonging to their institution, visiting them annually, and report- ing the result of their visitations to the ordinary. Curates belonging to this institute were never placed singly in any cure; an assistant priest was almost al- ways appointed with each curate, who was paid either out of the revenues of the parish, or by the revenues of some richer parish, likewise filled by a Bartholo- mite, if the former be too poor. They had many mem- bers in Germany, France, Italy, Hungary, Poland, and other countries, but have long been extinct. See Hel- yot, Ord. Religieux, i, 373. Bartimae'us (Baprijuaioc.for the Chald. ^XHa ^3? son of Timmai), one of the two blind beggars of Jericho who (Mark x, 46 sq. ; comp. Matt, xx, 30) sat by the wayside begging as our Lord passed out of Jericho on his last journey to Jerusalem, A.D. 29. Notwith- standing that many charged him to be quiet, he con- tinued crying, "Jesus, thou son of David, have mercy on me !" Being called, and his blindness miraculous- ly cured, on the ground of his faith, by Jesus, he be- came thenceforward a believer. BARTON taught rhetoric for four years. For twelve years he exercised the ministry of preaching in the principal towns of Italy, and died at Rome, January 13th, 1685. Bartoli is considered as one of the best writers of his countn', and is the author of man)' works, all written in Italian, but of which Latin and other translations have been published. The most important of his works is the History of the Company of Jesus (Istoria della Compagnia di Gesu), in several parts, forming 6 vols, folio, viz. : (i.) "The Life and Institute of St. Ignatius" (Rome, 1650). (ii.) "The History of the Company of Jesus," Asia, Part I (Rome, 1650). (iii.) "History of Japan," Part II of Asia (Rome, 1660). (iv.) "Histon' of China," Part III of Asia (Rome, 1061). (v.) " History of England," Part of Europe (Rome, 1667). (vi.) " History of Italy," Part I of Europe (Rome, 1673). He wrote also lives of Loyola, Caraffa, and other Jesuits, which, with the work above named, are repositories of facts as to the history of the Jesuits. His complete works were published by Marietti (Turin, 1825, 12 vols.), and a selection, under the title Descrizioni geograf e stor., by Silvestri (Milan, 1826).— Landon, Eccl. Did. ii, 55. Bartine, David, an eminent Methodist preacher, was born in Westchester county, N. Y., Jan. 26, 1767. He was converted at twenty-one, and his piety, zeal, and talent early drew the eyes of the Church toward him as one called to preach the Gospel. His first field of labor was Salem Circuit, to which he was sent by Bishop Asbury. The next year (1793) he was received into the travelling connection, and from that time till he became supernumerary (1835) he labored without intermission, principally in New Jersey. His natural talents were of a ver}' high order ; he had a judgment clear and penetrating, powers of perception compre- hensive and discriminating, a memory acute and very retentive, and an energy which insured success. In his preaching he usually addressed the understanding and the judgment, and yet often, in the application of his argument, his appeals to the heart were peculiarly eloquent and impressive. He died April 26th, 1850. —Minutes of Con f. iv, 567; K J. Conf. Memorial, 183. Bartoli, Daniel, an Italian Jesuit, born at Fer- rara in 1608, who entered the company in 1623, and Barton, Elizabeth, the "holy maid of Kent," first becomes known to us in 1525, when, while a ser- vant at an inn at Aldington, in Kent, she began to ac- quire a local reputation for sanctity and miraculous endowments. She was subject to epileptic fits, and in the paroxysms vented incoherent phrases, which Richard Master, parson of Aldington, took advantage of to make people believe that she was an instrument of divine revelation. A successful prediction lent its aid to the general delusion. A child of the master of the inn happened to be ill when Elizabeth was at- tacked by one of her fits. On recovering, she inquired whether the child was dead. She was told that it was still living. " It will not live, I announce to you; its death has been revealed to me in a vision," was the answer. The child died, and Elizabeth was immediatelj- regarded as one favored by Heaven with the gift of prophecy. She soon after entered the con- vent of St. Sepulchre's at Canterbury, and became a nun. In this new situation her revelations multiplied, and she became generally known as the "holy maid of Kent." Bishop Fisher and Archbishop Warham countenanced her pretensions. Led by her zeal, or more probably worked upon by others, she boldly prophesied in reference to the divorce of Henry VIII from Catherine and his marriage with Anne Boleyn, "that she had knowledge by revelation from heaven that God was highly displeased with our said sovereign lord, and that if he proceeded in the said divorce and separation and married again, he should no longer be king of this realm ; and that, in the estimation of Al- mighty God, he should not be king one hour, and that he should die a villain's death." The prediction was widely diffused, and caused great popular excitement. I In November, 1533, the nun, with five priests and three lay gentlemen, her accomplices, were brought before the Star Chamber, and sentenced to do public penance 1 as impostors at St. Paul's Cross. But the nun's con- fession, whatever were its motives, availed her noth- ing. From the pillory she and her companions were led back to prison, where they lay till the following January, when they were attainted of high treason. ! On the" 21st of April, 1534, the nun was beheaded at Tyburn, together with the five priests.— English Cy- clopadia; Burnet, History of Reformation, i, 243-219. Barton, John B., a Methodist Episcopal minister I and missionary, was born in Savannah 1806, convert- ed 1831, entered the itinerant ministry in the Georgia Conference 1834, and was sent as missionary to Africa, where he arrived in August, 1835, and was appointed to Bassa Cove. In 1837 he returned to the United States, and married Eleanor Gilbert, of Charleston, S. C. In 1838 he went back with his family to Africa, 15AUT0N G78 BARUCH and was stationed .it Monrovia until his death, which occurred March 19, 1839. He was much loved and honored by the people among whom he labored.— Min- utes qfCi nferences, iii, 61. Barton, Thomas, M.A., an early Episcopal min- ister in America, was horn in Ireland 17.-'0, and edu- cati d at Trinity College, Dublin. Soon after he came to America, and after teaching two years in the Acad- emy of Philadelphia, he went to England for ordina- tion, and in 1755 was appointed missionary to Hunt- ingdon. He extended his held of labor to Carlisle, Shippensburgh, and York, and was specially interested in the Indians. Me served the Church in Lancaster twenty years, travelling largely to preach at destitute points. When the Revolution broke out he refused the oath of allegiance, and had to pass to the British lines at New York, lie died 1780. — Spraguc, Annals, v. 169. Ba'ruch (Ileb. Baruk', 7^*3, Messed; Sept. Ba- i.p<'\. Josephus Bfmot'Yuc), the name of three men. 1. The faithful friend of the prophet Jeremiah (Jer. xxxii, 12 : xxxvi, 4 sq.) was of a noble family of the tribe of Judah (Jer. li, 59; Bar. i, ] ; Joseph. Ant. x, 6, 2 ; 9, 1), and generally considered to be the brother of the prophet Seraiah, both being represented as sons of Neriah ; and to Baruch the prophet Jeremiah dic- t .!■ d all his oracles. Sec Jeremiah. In the fourth year of the reign of Jehoiachim, king of Judah (B.C. 605), Baruch was directed to write all the prophecies delivered by Jeremiah up to that period, and to read them to the people, which he did from a window in the Temple upon two solemn occasions (Jer. xxxvi). He afterward read them before the counsellors of the king at a private interview, when Baruch, being asked to give an account of the manner in which the prophecy had been composed, gave an exact description of the mode in which he had taken it down from the prophet's dictation. Upon this they ordered him to leave the roll, advising that he and Jeremiah should conceal themselves. They then informed the king of what had taken place, upon which he had the roll read to him ; but, after hearing a part of it, he cut it with a penknife, and, notwithstanding the remonstrances of his counsellors, threw it into the fire of his winter par- lor, where he was sitting. He then ordered Jeremiah and Baruch to be seized, but they could not be found. The Jews to this day commemorate the burning of this roll by an annual fast. See Calendar (Jewish). Another roll was now written by Baruch from the prophet's dictation, containing all that was in the for- mer, with some additions, the most remarkable of which is the prophecy respecting the ruin of Jehoia- chim and his house as the punishment of his impious act. This roll is the prophecy of Jeremiah which we now possess. Baruch, being himself terrified at the threats contained in the prophetic roll, received the comforting assurance that he would himself be deliv- ered from the calamities which should befall Judah and Jerusalem (Jer. xlv). During the siege of Jerusalem Baruch was selected as the depositary of the deed of purchase which Jeremiah had made of the territory of Hanamecl, to which deed he had been a witnes's >'- L2 m .. B.C. 589. His enemies accused him of influencing Jeremiah in favor of the Chaldaans (Jer. xliii, .",; comp. xxxvii, 13); and he was thrown Into prison with that prophet, where he remained till ure of Jerusalem, B.C. 588 (Joseph. Ant. x, 9, 1 I. !'• the permission of Nebuchadnezzar he remain- ed with Jeremiah at Masphatha (Joseph. I.e.); but in the fourth yearofZedekiah (B.C. 595) Baruch is sup- posed by some to have accompanied Seraiah to Baby- lon, when the latter attended Zedekiah with the proph- 11 'i'"''1 in Jeremiah, ch. 1 and li, which he was commanded by Jeremiah to read on the banks of the Euphrates, and then to east the prophetic roll into the river, with a stone attached to it, to signify the ever- lasting ruin of Babylon (Jer. li, 01). At least Ba- ruch, in the book which bears his name (in the Apoc- rypha), is said to have read these prophecies at Baby- lon, in the hearing of King Jehoiachim and the cap- tive Jews, in the fifth year of the taking of Jerusalem by the Chaldaeans (see below), which must have been the same taking of it in which Jehoiachim was madi prisoner ; for after the other taking of Jerusalem, in ' the eleventh year of the reign of King Zedekiah, w hen the Jews, after their return from Babylon, obstinately ; persisted in their determination to migrate to Egypt against the remonstrances of the prophet, both Baruch and Jeremiah accompanied them to that country (Jer. xliii, 6; Joseph. Ant. x, 9, 6), from whence there is no account in Scripture of Baruch's return. The rab- bins, however, allege that he died in Babylon in the twelfth year of the exile (see Calmet's Pre fur). Je- I rome, on the other hand, states, "en the authority of ! the Jews" (Hebrcti tradunt), that Jeremiah and Ba- , ruch died in Egypt " before the desolation of the eoun- I try by Nabuehodor.osor" (Coram, in Is. xxx, G, 7, p. i 405). Josephus asserts that he was well skilled in the Hebrew language ; and that, after the taking of : Jerusalem, Nebuzaradan treated Baruch*vith consid- eration from respect to Jeremiah, whose misfortunes he had shared, and whom he had accompanied to pris- on and exile (Ant. x, 9, 1 and 2). — Kitto; Smith. BARUCH, BOOK OF (Apocryphae), follows next after the Book of Jeremiah in the Septuagint printed text, but in MSS. it sometimes precedes and some- times follows Lamentations. It stands between Ec- ; clesiasticus and the Song of the Three Children in the I Engl. Auth. Vers. See Apocrypha. 1. ConUnts. — It is remarkable as the only hook in ( the Apocrypha which is formed on the model of the Prophets ; and, though it is wanting in originality, it presents a vivid reflection of the ancient prophetic fire. | The subject of the book is (1.) an exhortation to wisdom and a due observance of the law ; (2.) it then introduces Jerusalem as a widow, comforting her chil- dren with the hope of a return ; (3.) an answer follows in confirmation of this hope. A prologue is prefixed, stating that Baruch had read his book to Jeremiah and the people in Babylon by the river Sud (Euphrates), by which the people were brought to repentance, and J sent the book with a letter and presents to Jerusalem. It may be divided into two main parts, i-iii, 8, and i iii, 9-end. The first part consists of an introduction (i, 1-14), followed by a confession and prayer (i, 15- '. iii, 8). The second part opens with an abrupt address to Israel (iii, 9-iv, 30), pointing out the sin of the peo- I pie in neglecting the divine teaching of wisdom (iii, 9- j iv, 8), and introducing a noble lament of Jerusalem i over her children, through which hope still gleams j (iv, 9-30). After this the tone of the book again changes suddenly, and the writer addresses Jerusalem in words of triumphant joy, and paints in the glowing J colors of Isaiah the return of God's chosen people and their abiding glory (iv, 30 -v, 9). II. Text: 1. Greek. — The book at present exists in Greek, and in several translations which were made from the Greek. The two classes into which the Greek MSS. may be divided do not present any very remark- able variations (Fritzsche, Einl. § 7); but the Syro- Hexaplaric text of the Milan MS., of which a complete edition is at length announced, is said to contain ref- erences to the version of Theodoticn (Eiehhorn, Einl, in die Apoc. Schrifl. p. 388 note), which must imply a distinct recension of the Greek, if not an independent rendering of an original Hebrew text. Of the two old Latin versions which remain, that which is incorpo- rated in the Vulgate is generally literal; the other (Cams, Horn. 1688) is more free. The vulgar Syriac and Arabic follow the Greek text closely (Fritzsth?, 1. c). 2. Hebrew. — Considerable discussion has been raised ' as to the original language of the book. Those who BARUCH G79 BARUCH advocated its authenticity generally supposed that it was first written in Hebrew (Iluet, Dereser, etc. ; but Jabn is undecided : Bertholdt, Einl. 1755), and this opinion found many supporters (Bendtsen, Griineberg, Movers, Hitzig, De Wette, Einl. § 323). Others again have maintained that the Greek is the original text (Eichhorn,-&'»f.388sq.; Bertholdt, EM. 1757; Haver- nick ap. De Wette, 1. c.) The truth appears to lie be- tween these two extremes. The two divisions of the book arc distinguished by marked peculiarities of style and language. The Hebraic character of the first part (i-iii, 8) is such as to mark it as a translation, and not as the work of a Hebraizing Greek : e. g. i, 14, 15, 22; ii, 4, 9, 25 ; iii, 8 ; and several obscurities seem to be mistranslations: c. g. i, 2, 8, ii, 18, 29. The second part, on the other hand, which is written with great- er freedom and vigor, closely approaches the Alexan- drine type. The imitations of Jeremiah and Daniel which occur throughout the first part (comp. i, 15-18 = Dan. ix, 7-10; ii, 1, 2 = Dan. ix, 12, 13; ii, 7-19 = Dan. ix, 13-18) give place to the tone and imagery of the Psalms and Isaiah. The most probable explanation of this contrast is gained by supposing that some 0113 thoroughly conversant with the Alexandrine transla- tion of Jeremiah, perhaps the translator himself (Hit- zig, Fritzsche), found the Hebrew fragment which forms the basis of the book alread3r attached to the writings of that prophet, and wrought it up into its present form. The peculiarities of language common to the Sept. translation of Jeremiah and the first part of Baruch seem too great to be accounted for in any other way (for instance, the use of ota/twr/jc, c'nrocro\)), /3ojUj8/j(T(f [_0Ofi/3ttv], d—oiKirrpdc;, fidvva, dironrphpHv [_neut.~], tpyd^taOai nvi, vvofia tTracaXuaQai tiri run*) ; and the great discrepanc^y which exists between the Hebrew and Greek texts as to the arrangement of the later chapters of Jeremiah, increases the proba- bility of such an addition having been made to the canonical prophecies. These verbal coincidences ceasj to exist in the second part, or become very rare ; but this also is distinguished by characteristic words : c. g. b atioinoQ b uyiOQ, iirdyuv. At the same time, the gen- eral unity (even in language, e. g. y«p/to<7<;i');) and co- herence of the book in its present form point to th:s work of one man. (Fritzsche, Einl. § 5 ; Hitzig, Psalm. ii, 119 ; Ewald, Gesch. d. Volkes Isr. iv, 232 n.). Ber- tholdt appears to be quite in error {Einl. 1743, 17G2) in assigning iii, 1-8 to a separate writer (De Wette, Einl. § 322). (See Siebenberger's Ileb. Comm. Warsaw, 1840.) 3. The Epistle of Jeremiah, which, according to the authority of some Greek MSS., stands in the English version as the 6th chapter of Baruch, is probably the work of a later period. It consists of a rhetorical dec- lamation against idols (comp. Jerem. x, xxix) in the form of a letter addressed by Jeremiah "to them which were to be led captive to Babylon." The letter is di- vided into clauses by the repetition of a common bur- dan : they arc no gods ; fear them not (vv. 10, 23, 29, 6G) : how can a man thin'; or s vj that they are gods? (vv. 40, 44, 5G, G4). The condition of the text is closely analo- gous to that of Baruch ; and the letter found the same partial reception in the Church. The author shows an intimate acquaintance with idolatrous worship ; and this circumstance, combined with the purity of the Hellenistic dialect, points to Egypt as the country in which the epistle was written. — Smith, s. v. 4. A Syriac first Epistle of Baruch "to the nine and a half tribes" (comp. 4 Esdr. xiii, 40, Arab. Vers.) is found in the London and Paris Polyglots. This is made up of commonplaces of warning, encouragement, and exhortation. Fritzsche (Einl. § 8) considers it to be the production of a Syrian monk. It is not found in any other language. Whiston (.4 Collection of Au- thentick Records, etc., London, 1727, i, 1, sq., 25 sq.) endeavored to maintain its authenticity. See a full introd. by Ginsburg, in the new ed. of Kitto's < '/,r/. III. Writer. — The assumed author of the book is undoubtedly the companion of Jeremiah, but the de- tails are inconsistent with the assumption. If Baruch be the author of this book, he must have removed from Egypt to Babylon immediately after the death of Jere- miah, inasmuch as the author of the book lived in Bab- ylon in the fifth year after that event, unless we sup- pose, with Eichhorn, Arnold, and others, that the refer- ence (Baruch i, 1) is to the fifth year from the captivity of Jehoiachim. Jahn (Introductio in Epitomen redacta, § 217, etc.) considers this latter opinion at variance with the passage in question, since the destruction of Jerusalem is there spoken of as having already taken place. De Wette (Lehrbuch der Einleitung in das A. I und N. T.) ingeniously conjectures that tru ()rear) is a mistake or correction of some transcriber for prp>i (month) ; and there is no question that the present reading, which mentions the year, and the day of the month, without naming the month itself, is quite un- accountable. If the reading in i, 1, be correct (comp. 2 Kings xxv, 8), it is impossible to fix "the fifth year'" in such a waj' as to suit the contents of the book, which exhibits not only historical inaccuracies, but also evident traces of a later date than the beginning of the captivity (iii, 9 sq. ; iv, 22 sq. ; i, 3 sq. Comp. 2 Kings xxv, 27). Its so-called Epistle of Jeremiah, however, is confessedly more ancient than the second book of Maccabees, for it is there referred to (2 Mace, ii, 2, comp. with Baruch vi, 4) as an ancient document. In the absence of any certain data by which to fix the time of the composition of Baruch, Ewald (1. c. p. 230) assigns it to the close of the Persian period ; and this may be true as far as the Hebrew portion is concern- ed ; but the present book must be placed considerably later, probably about the time of the war of liberation (B.C. cir. 1G0), or somewhat earlier. IV. Canonicity. — The book was held in little esteem among the Jews (Jerome, Prof, in Jerem. p. 834 . . . nee habetur apud Hebreeos ; Epiphanius, demens. oil Ktly- Tai tTTiaroXai [Bo-poi'v] Trap 'Eiipaioic), though it is stated in the Greek text of the Apostolical Constitutions (v, 20, 1) that it was read, together with the Lamenta- tions, " on the tenth of the month Gorpiaeus" (i. e. the day of Atonement). But this reference is wanting in the Syriac version (Bunsen, Anal. Ante-Nic. ii, 187), and the assertion is unsupported by any other author- ity. There is no trace of the use of the book in the New Testament, or in the Apostolic Fathers, or in Justin. But from the time of Irenams it was fre- quently quoted both in the East and in the West, and generally as the work of Jeremiah (Irenaaus, Ilcer. v. 35, 1, " significant Jermms, Bar. iv, 36-v ;" Tertullian, Gnost. 8, " Ilieremim, Bar. [Epist.] vi, 3;" Clement, Peed, i, 10, § 91, " 81a 'lepipiov, Bar. iv. 4 ;" id. Peed. ii, 3, § 36, "0«d ypaQi), Bar. iii, 16, 19;" Origen, ap. Euseb. //. E. vi, 25, "'Itptpiag avi' Opi'ivoic. Kai ry t7n) Barjicapa, Joscphus Baatca), a place in Gilead where Jonathan Maccabrcus was killed by Trypho, and from which his bones were afterward dis- interred and conveyed to Modin by his brother Simon (1 Mace, xiii, 23 ; Joseph. A nt. xiii, 6, 6). Schwarz supposes it to be the Talmudical Eashkar (":»;) or Basgar (15&3) "of Arabia" (Palest, p. 236, 237> The route of the Syrian murderer is given with so much confusion (see Fritzsche, in loc.) that some have even supposed the Bozhath of Judah to be meant. Bascom, Henry B., D.D., one of the bishops of the Methodist Episcopal Church South, was born in Hancock, N. Y., May 27, 17S6. He united with the Methodist Church in Western Pennsylvania in 1811, and was licensed to preach in 1813. His preaching soon began to attract attention, and before many years his fame as a pulpit orator was widely spread. In 1823 he was elected chaplain to Congress. In 1827 he was called to the presidency of Madison College, Pa., which he held till 1829, when he accepted the agency of the American Colonization Society. In 1832 he be- came Professor of Morals in Augusta College, and in 1842 President of Transylvania University. He ed- ited the Quarterly Review of the M. E. Church South from 1846 to May, 1850, when he was elected bishop. Worn out with toil, he died Sept. 8, 1850. Bishop Bas- com's course of labor thus embraced almcst everjT ex- treme of human life. In his early career he is said to have preached in one year 400 times, travelled 5000 miles, and to have received as salary during that time, $12 10. At one period he was unquestionably the most popular pulpit orator in the United States. His sermons seemed invariably delivered memoriter, though usually long enough to occupy two hours ; if he did not purposely commit them to memory, yet their fre- quent repetition fixed in his mind their language as well as their train of thought. They were evident- ly prepared with the utmost labor. The paragraphs often seemed to be separate but resplendent masses of thought, written at intervals, and without very close relations. His published Sermons (Nashville, 1848-50, 2 vols. 12mo) give no just idea of the grandeur of his pulpit orations ; many of his brilliant passages seem to have been omitted in preparing the volumes for the press. Some of his other productions, in which his poetical propensities had no room to play, show that if his education had been such as to effectually discipline his imagination, his real ability would have been great- ly enhanced. His most important writings, besides those prepared for the pulpit, are his "Bill of Rights," written on behalf of the "reform" movement of 1828 ; the " Protest of the Minority," in the memorable Gen- eral Conference of 1844; the "Report on Organiza- tion," at the formation of the Methodist Episcopal Church South ; and a subsequent elaborate volume in defence of the Southern Church, entitled "Methodism and Slavery." His Works, containing Sermons and Lectures, are collected in 4 vols. 12mo (Nashville, 1856). Sec Henkle, Life of Bascom (Nashville, 1851, 12mo) ; Mf tb- Edomites (Gen. xxxvi) from those by which they have been previously mentioned in the history. Thus: UINI i (G«n. >■ 1. A'lnll. ilalC'llti-I- nt |.|,,n. •J. thollbaraab, d. of Anah. i ith, d. ><( Ishmael (On. „V|, :;4, xxviii,!) ) 2. Bashemath, d, of lilon. 1. Judith, d. of Beeri. :;. Mahalath,d. of Ishmael. Whatever be the explanation of this diversity of lere i^ every reason for supposing that they i ma respectivelv, and we may well conclude with Hengstenberg that the change of all the nam ;s cannol have arisen from accident; and, farther, that the names in the genealogical table' whi.h is ea entially an Edomitish document, are those which these women respectively bore as the wives of I .n (Hengstenberg, Autk. <1. Pent, ii, 277; English transl. ii. 22G). This view is confirmed by the fact thai the Seirite wife, who is called Judith in the nar- rative, appears in the genealogical account under the BASIL name of Aholibamah (q. v.), a name which appears to have belonged to a district of Idumrea (Gen. xxxvi, 41). The only ground for hesitation or suspicion of error in the text is the occurrence of this name Bashe- math both in the narrative and the genealogy, though applied to different persons. The Samaritan text seeks to remove this difficult}' by reading Mahalath instead of Bashemath in the genealogy. We might with more probability suppose that this name (Bashemath) has been assigned to the wrong person in one or other of the passages ; but if so, it is impossible to deter- mine which is erroneous. — Smith, s. v. See Esau. 2. A daughter of Solomon and wife of one of his of- ficers (1 Kings iv, 15, A. V. "Basjiatii"). Bashmuric Version. See Egyptian Versions. Basier. See Basire. Basil (from BamXtloc, Basilius), St., "the Great," one of the most eminent of the Greek fathers, was born about the end of the year 328, probably at Neocsesarea. He began h;s studies at Csesarea, in Palestine, whence he proceeded to Constantinople to hear the famous Libanius, and thence to Athens, where he contracted an intimate friendship with Gregory Nazianzen. About 355 he returned to his own country, but soon after left his home again and travelled into Libya, visiting the famous monasteries of those countries. Upon his re* turn he was first made reader in the church of Cajsarea, and afterward ordained deacon. But about the year 358 he retired into a solitude of Pontus, where he built a monastery near that of his sister Macrina (q. v.), and with his brothers, Peter and Naucratius, and several others, he followed an ascetic life, and, drawing up a rule for his community, became the founder of the monastic life in those regions. In 3G4 (or 362) he was ordained priest by Eusebius, and in 309 or 370, on the death of Eusebius, was elected bishop of Ca;sarea, after great opposition, which was finally overcome only by the personal efforts of the aged Gregory of Nazianzus. But the emperor Valens soon began to persecute him be- cause he refused to embrace the doctrine of the Arians, of which he and Gregory of Nazianzus were strenuous opponents. The death of Valens's son gave freedom of action to Basil, who devoted his efforts to bring about a reunion between the Eastern and "Western churches, which had been divided upon points of faith, and in regard to Meletius and Paulinus, two bishops of Antioch. The Western churches acknowledged Paulinus for the legal bishop ; Meletius was supported by the Eastern churches. But all his efforts were in- effectual, this dispute not being terminated till nine months after his death. Basil was also engaged in some contests relating to the division which the em- peror had made of Oappadocia into two provinces. Eustathius, bishop of Sebaste, had been a friend of Ba- sil, and had planted monasticism in Asia, a pursuit in which Basil fully sympathized ; but Eustathius openly embraced Arianism, and Basil in 373 broke with him and wrote against him. He also wrote against Apol- linaris; in fact, he took a part in most of the contro- versies of his age. He died Jan. 1, 379, with these words on his lips: "0 Lord, into thy hands I com- mend my spirit." Basil was a man of great piety, profound learning, and great eloquence. During the Arian controversy he was an unflinching champion of the orthodox doctrine. At first, through fear of Sa- bellianism, he preferred the homuiimsian formula; but in the strifes which followed, he was brought to clear- er apprehension of the question, and acknowledged the Nicene Creed, which he ever afterward steadfastly maintained. For a statement of his view of the Trin- ity, see 1 torner, /) tctrine «f the Pi rson of Christ, Edinb. ed., Div. I, vol. ii. p. 305 sq. See also Arianism, The (ireek Church honors him as one of its most illustrious saints, and celebrates his festival January 1st. The works of Basil were first published, with a preface of Erasmus, at Basle, 15:J2 ; a better edition, with Latin BASIL 6S3 BASIL translation and notes, was published l>y the Jesuits Fronton la Due and Morel (Paris, 1G18, 2 vols, fol., and again 1G38, 3 vols. fol.). Valuable contributions to a more correct edition were made by the Dominican Combefis, in his work Basilius Magnus, ex integro re- cens'tus (Paris, 1G79, 2 vols. 8vo). The most complete edition was prepared by the Benedictine Gamier (Par- is, 1721-1730, 3 vols, folio), reprinted in the excellent Paris edition of 1839 (G vols, royal 8vo). The contents of the Benedictine edition (1721-30, 3 vols.) are as fol- lows : Tom. i : (1.) Homilia} in llexaemeron novem; (2.) Homiliaj in quosdam Psalmos, viz. : 1, 7, 14 (part), 23, 29, 32, 33, 44, 45, 48, 59, CI, 104; (3.) Libri adver- sus Eunomium 5. Appendix, complectens Opera quas- dam Basilio falso adscripts, quibus Opus Eunomii ad- jungitur. Tom. ii: (1.) Homilise de Diversis 24; (2.) Ascetica, viz. : (i.) Prasvia Institutio ascetica; (ii.) Sermo asceticus de Renunciatione Saeculi, etc. ; (iii.) Sermo de ascetica Disciplina, etc. ; (iv.) Prooemium de Judicio Dei ; (v.) Sermo de Fide ; (vi.) Index Mo- ralium ; (vii.) Initium Moralium ; (viii. and ix.) Sermo asceticus ; (x.) Prooemium in Regulas fusius tracta- tas; (xi.) Capita Regularum fusius tractatarum ; (xii.) Regulas fusius tractate ; (xiii.) Pcenaj in Monachos delinquentes ; (xiv.) Epitimia in Canonicas; (xv.) Capita Constitutionum ; (xvi.) Constitutiones Monas- tica? ; (xvii.) Homilia de Spiritu S. ; (xviii.) Homilia in aliquot Scrip. Locis, dicta in Lazicis ; (xix.) Ho- milia in Sanctam Christi Generationem ; (xx.) Ho- milia de Pcenitentia; (xxi.) Homilia in Calumniato- res S. Trinitatis ; (xxii.) Sermo de Libero Arbitrio ; (xxiii.) Homilia in illud, "Ne dederis somnum oculis tuis," etc.; (xxiv.) Homilia 3 de Jejunio; (xxv.) Sermo asceticus; (xxvi.) Liber 1 de Baptismo; (xxvii.) Liber 2 de Baptismo ; (xxviii.) Liturgia S. Basilii Alexandrina; (xxix.) Liturgia S. Basilii Coptica ; (xxx.) Tractatus de Consolatione in Ad rersis ; (xxxi.) De Laude solitariaj Vitas ; (xxxii.) Adn.onitio ad Fili- um Spiritualem ; (3.) Homilia? [8] S. Basilii quas transtulit Ruffinus e Graeeo in Latinum ; (4.) Notaj Fron- tonis Ducrei ; (5.) Xota? ct Animad. F. Morclli. T( m. iii : (1.) Liber de Spiritu Sancto (Erasmus was the first to dispute the authenticity of this book, which is un- doubtedly tiie work of St. Basil. — See Casaubon, Ex- ercit. xvi, cap. 43. — Cave ; Dupin) ; (2.) S. Basilii Epistola?, distributed chronologically into three class- es— Class 1, containing those which were written from 357 to 370, i. e. before his episcopate, to which are added some of doubtful date ; Class 2, from 370 to 378 ; Class 3, Epistles without date, doubtful and spu- rious. Appendix : Sermones 24 de Moribus, per Sym- eonen Magistrum et Logothetam, selecti ex omnibus S. Basilii operibus ; De Virginitate liber. A. Jahn published, as a supplement to this edition, Animadver- siones in Basilii M. Opera Fascic. I (Bern. 1842). The best selection from his works, containing all, indeed, that ordinary theological students need, is that of Leipzic, 1854, forming the second volume of Thilo's Bibliotheca Patrum Grcecorum Dogmatica. His writ- ings are divided into, (1.) polemical, (2.) liturgical, (3.) exegetical, (4.) ascetic. Among his polemical books, that on the Holy Spirit, and the five books against the Eunomians, are the most important. His liturgical writings are of great value, and some of his services are still, in abridged forms, in use in the Greek Church. Both by his example and his writings he was the substantial founder of monasticism in the East, so that it is common, though erroneous, to call all Oriental monks Basilians (q. v.). A. Jahn, in the treatise Basilius Ploiimzans (1831), tried to show that Basil had largely copied from Plotinus. Ilis Liturgia Alexandrina Grasca is given in Renaudot, Lit. Orient. Collectw, vol. i. For a list of his genuine writings, as well as of those thought to be spurious, see Cave, Hist. Lit. anno 370; Lardner, Works, iv. 278. See also Feiffer, Dissert, de Vita Basilii (Groning. 1828, 8vo) ; Bobringer, Kirchcngeschichte in Biograj.hkn, i, 2, 153 ; Dupin, Eecl. Writers, cent, iv; Hermantius, Vie de St. Basile le Grand (Paris, 1574, 2 vols. 4to); Klose, Ba- silius der Grosse (Strals. 18;;5, 8vo) ; Fialon, Etude hist, et liter, sur St. Basile (Paris, 18GG); Palmer, Origans Liturgica, i, 4(i; Villemain, Eloqumce au IV"* Steele, p. 114 ; Landon, Eccl. Diet, ii, G2. Basil or Basilius, some time a phj'sieian, was ordained bishop of Ancyra by the bishops of the Euse- bian party in the room of Marcellus, whom they had deposed ; but Basil was himself excommunicated, and his ordination annulled, in the council of Sardica in I 347, though he still retained the see. He was an op- j ponent of the Arians, but was still considered as the ' head of the Semi-Arians. This opinion Basil procured to be established by a council held at Ancyra in the year 358, and subsequently defended it both at Selcu- cia and Constantinople against the Eudoxians and Acacians, by whom he was deposed in 3G0. Jerome 1 (De Viris Must. 89) informs us that Basil wrote a book ! against Marcellus, his predecessor, a treatise De Vir- \ ginitate, and some other smaller pieces, of which no remains are extant. Basil is warmly commended by Theodoret for his exemplary life, which was probably the secret of his influence with the emperor Constan- , tius ; and Sozomen speaks of him as celebrated for learning and eloquence. See Cave, Hist. Lit. anno ! 347; Dupin, Eecl. Writers, cent, iv ; Theodoret, Hist. i Eccles. ii, 27 ; Sozomen, Hist. Eccles. bk. ii ; Socrates, '< Hist. Eccles. bk. ii ; Lardner, Works, iii, 589. ! Basil, bishop of Seleucia in Isauria (not to be con- ! founded with the Basil who was the intimate friend ! of Chrysostom). At the Council of Constantinople in 448, he gave his vote for the condemnation of Euty- ! ches ; but in the following year, at the robber-council of Ephesus, through fear of the threats and violence of Dioscorus, or from actual weakness and fickleness of judgment, he took precisely the opposite ground, and anathematized the doctrine of two natures in Je- sus Christ. In the Council of Chalcedon, 451, Basil, together with the other leaders in the assembly at Ephesus, was deposed, but in the fourth session of the council he was restored to his dignity. He wrote Forty-three Bonn/its; seventeen on the Old, and twen- ty-six en the New Testament (Dupin reckons only forty). These were published in Greek at Heidelberg (1596, 8vo) ; Greek and Latin, with notes, by Dausque (Heidelb. 1G04, 8vo), together with the Oratio in Trans- figurationem Domini, in Greek and Latin. The fol- lowing are supposed to be spurious : 1. A Demonstra- tion of the Coming of Christ, against the Jews, in Latin, ed. by Turrianus (Ingolstadt, 1G1G, 4to); Greek, in the Heidelberg edition of the Homilies (159G). This is clearly, from its style, not the work of Basil, and is not found in any MS. of his writings. 2. Life and Miracles of St. Thecla, virgin and martyr, which, ac- cording to Caveare, is evidently the work of some Greek monk of a late age, edited by Pantinus, Ant- werp (1608, Gr. and Lat.). All the above were pub- lished in Greek and Latin (Paris, 1622, fol.), with the works of Gregory Thauniaturgus. See Cave, Hist. Lit. anno 448; Dupin, Eccl. Writers, cent, v, p. 28 ; Landon, Eccl. Diet. s. v. Basil or Basilius, chief of the Bogomiles of the twelfth centur}-. This sect took its rise in Bulgaria. Though it is likely that their enemies laid false charges against them, it is clear that the}- held many corrupt I ideas and practices. From their habit of incessant praying they derived the name of Bogomili, which in the Sclavonic language means "God have mercy upon us." In their notions they resembled the Manichseans and Paulicians, which last sect arose about the same time. They denied the Trinity ; held that the body of Jesus was a phantom, and that Michael the archangel was incarnate. They opposed the worship of the Vir- gin, of the saints, and of images. They affected an appearance of extreme sanctity, and wore the monkish BASIL 684 BASILIAN MANUSCRIPT dress. Basilius was a physician, and had twelve prin- | cipal followers, whom he designated his apostles, and also some women, who went about spreading the poison of his doctrine everywhere. When before the council called by the patriarch John IX in 1118 to examine Into the matter, Basilius refused to deny his doctrine, and declared that he was willing to endure any tor- ment, and death itself. One peculiar notion of this sect was that no torment could affect them, and that the angels would deliver them even from the fire._ Ba- silius himself was condemned in the above-mentioned council, and burnt in this year. Several of his follow- ers, when seized, retracted ; others, among whom were some of those whom he called his apostles, were kept in prison, and died there. Several councils were held upon this subject. See Neander, Ch. Hist, iv, 555 sq. ; Landon, Eccl. Diet, ii, 67. See Bogomiles. Basil (St.), Liturgy of, one of the three litur- gies used in the Greek Church, the other two being those of St. Gregory and St. Chrysostom. They are read at distinct seasons of the year ; that of Basil be- ing read on the five Sundays of the Great Lent, on the Thursdays and Saturdays of the Holy Week, on the eves of Christmas and the Epiphany, and on the first day of the year.— Palmer, Orig. Liturg. i, 46 sq. See Basil; Liturgies. Basilean Manuscript (Codex Basilensis), the name of two important MSS. of the Greek Test, now in the public library of Basle. See Manuscripts (Biblical). 1. An uncial cop}' of the Four Gospels, with a few hiatus (Luke iii, 4-15 ; xxiv, 47-53, being wanting ; while Luke i, 60— ii, 4 ; xii, 58-xiii, 12 ; xv, 5-20, are by a later hand), usually designated as E of the Gos- pels (technically K, iv, 35; formerly B, vi, 21). It is written in round full letters, with accents and breath- ings, one column only on the page, with the Ammoni- an sections ; but, instead of the Eusebian canons, there is a kind of harmony of the Gospels noted at the foot of each page by a reference to the parallel sections in the other evangelists. This MS. appears to belong to the eighth century, and the additions of a subsequent hand seem to indicate that they were made in the ninth cen- tury. It appears that it Was formerly used as a church MS. at Constantinople, and it may be considered to be one of the best specimens of what has been called the Constantinopolitan class of texts. It was presented to a monastery in Basle by Cardinal de Ragusio in the fifteenth century. Wetstein collated this MS., and this was also done (independently) by Tischen- dorf, Miiller of Basle, and Tregelles. It has never been published in full.— Tregelles, in Home's Introd., new ed. iv, 200 ; Scrivener, Introduction, p. 103 sq. A 3JB f[5AMMATG!C,TO T\U> CAN 6AW C 0 H A^ ^5* N , 6 Y O E> O y NTWfAp TDSiA^ON G1CHA06 K A,SC4f Specimen of the uncial L'usle Manuscript (Luke xxii, 2, 3 : Kai t£i;Toi'v ol up; Kuothpa* 2. A cursive MS. of the entire N. T. except the Apocalypse, numbered 1 of the Gospels, Acts, and Epistles (technically designated as K, iii, 3 ; formerly B, vi, 27). It was known to Erasmus, who, however, used it but little, although his associates thought high- ly of it. It was for a considerable time in the posses- sion of Reuchlin, who borrowed it from the Dominican monks at Basle : the latter received it from Cardinal de Ragusio. Wetstein was the first who thoroughly examined it ; he used it with great commendation at first, but afterward disparaged it. The reason for these discordant opinions is doubtless to be found in the character of the MS. itself, which differs greatly Basilian Manuscript (Codex Basiliaxus), an uncial copy of the whole Apocalypse (of which it is usually designated as B), found among ancient hom- ilies of Basil and Gregory of Nyssa, and valuable from the scarcity of early MSS. of the Revelation. It de- rives its name from having formerly belonged to the Basilian monaster}' at Rome (then designated as No. 105), but it is now deposited in the Vatican library (where it is known as 2066). It was first known from a notice and fac-simile by Blanchini (Evangelariarum Quadruplex, 1748, ii, 525). Wetstein requested a col- lation of it from Cardinal Quirini, but the extracts sent came too late for publication in his N. T., and proved in the several portions. The Acts and Epistles con- J very loose and defective. When Tischendorf was at tain a text <>f no great importance ; but the text of the j Rome in 1843, although forbidden to collate it anew, Gospels (now bound at the end of the vol.) is very re- i he was permitted to make a few extracts, and im- markable, adhering pretty closely to the oldest class j proved the privilege so well as to compare the whole of uncials. The lasl has recently been collated (in- text with a Greek Test. He published the result in dep ndentlj | by Tregelles and Dr. Koth. There are ' his Monumenta Sacra Inedita (1846, p. 407-432), which 88 lines in each page, elegantly and minutely written, Tregelles, who was allowed to make a partial exami- witli breathings, accents, and iota subscript*, and a few j nation of the codex in 1845, has since somewhat cor- illuminations. It. has, apparently on good grounds, j rected. Card. Mai has published it, in order to supply been assigned to the tenth century. Codex 118 of the j the text of the Apocrypha in his edition of the Cod. Bodleian Library seems to be a copy from it. — Trc- ' Vatieanus, but the work is very imperfectly done. In gelles, ni sup. p. Jos Bq. . Scrivener, p. 142. | form this MS. is rather an octavo than a folio or quar- to. The letters are of a peculiar kind, die place between the square and the ob- Iong character. Several of them indi- cate that they belong to the latest uncial fashion. The breathings and accents are by the first hand, and pretty correct. It probably belongs to the beginning of the 8th century. — Tregelles, in Home's 6-,oo iroA-^-u-oo|y.X(S p S]i ■< i mi ti of tiie cursive i; lie Manuscript (Matt. w. 1, ! " " '. ■ ' u \iyov ipaiocw twi | 7rpccr/3t.Tfpa)i/ ' BASILTANS 685 BASILICA _nt Habit of the Nuns of St. Basil. Introd., new ed. iv, 20G sq. ; Scrivener, Introduction, p. 140 sq. See Manuscripts, Biblical. Basilians, monks and nuns following the rule of St. Basil the Great, first published A.D. 363. The or- der spread with so great rapidity that it is said to have numbered at the death of the founder about 90,000 members. In the West it established convents in Spain, Italy, Germany, and Sarmatia, and the Basilian rule, up to the time of St. Benedict, was the basis of all mo- nastic institutions. Af- ter the separation cf the Greek Church from the Roman, the Basilian or- der remained the only one in the Greek church- es of Russia (where there are about 400 mon- asteries of monks with about G000 monks, and about 110 monasteries of nuns with some 3000 nuns), Austria (which in 1849 had 44 monas- teries of monks with 271 members, but no nuns), and Greece, and in the Armenian Church. In Turkey, where especial- ly the monastic estab- lishments of Mt. Athos A (q. v.) are celebrated, all the convents of the Greek Church follow the rule of St. Basil, with the ex- ception of those on Mts. Sinai and Lebanon. In the Roman Church, the monks of St. Basil, for- merly constituting several independent communities, were placed by Pope Gregory XIII, in 1579, under an abbot-general. They were divided into the provinces of Borne, Calabria, Sicily. Spain, Germany, and Po- land, and followed partly the Greek, partlj' the Roman rite. A congregation of Reformed Basilians (Tardon- ites) was established by Mutteo de la Fuente in Spain in 1557, and joined by a part of the Spanish convents. In Germany and Spain they disappeared with the other convents. In Russia, large numbers of Basilians, to- gether with the whole body of United Greeks, sepa- rated from the Roman Church in 11-39. At present only a few convents of Basilians acknowledge the ju- risdiction of the pope. They arc divided into four con- gregations: (1.) the Ruthenian, in Russia, Poland, and Hungary, with 24 houses; (2.) the Italian, the princi- pal convent of which is that of St. Saviour at Messina, in Sicily, which still preserves the Greek rite ; (3.) the French, which has its principal house at Viviers ; (4.) the MelcMte, in the United Greek Church of Asia Minor, which held, a few years ago, a general chapter, under the presidency of the popal delegate in Syria. According to the historians of the order, it has pro- duced 14 popes, numerous patriarchs, cardinals, and archbishops, 1805 bishops, and 11,805 martyrs; One house of Basilians is at Toronto, Canada. Altogether there arc about fifty houses with 10C0 members. See Helyot, Ordrcs Reliyieux, i, 379 sq. Basilica (from aroa /3«ctiXi;>-/;, one of the porches or colonnades facing the Agora at Athens), the name of an ancient secular building, afterward applied to Christian church edifices. On the overthrow of the kings at Athens, their power was divided among sev- eral arclions. The remains of the old power were, however, too strong to be swept all away, and the charge of the Eleusinian mysteries, of the flower-feasts of Bacchus, of all legal processes concerning matters of religion, and of all capital offences, was referred to the apx<*>v fiacriXcvg (comp. with rex sacrorum in the republic of Rome). This archon held his court in the sioa basilica. Basilicas for similar purposes were built in all the chief cities of Greece and her colonies, and later in Rome and the Roman colonial cities. They were built with as great splendor and architectural merits as the temples themselves. Those in Italy were devoted to purposes of business (like our modern bourses or exchanges), and to general legal processes. They had a central nave, separated from two side aisles by grand colonnades. This space was devoted to business. Above the side aisles were galleries for spectators and others. At the rear end was a semi- circular space, separated from the main part by grat- ings when court was held. In Rome there were 29 (others say 22) of these basilicas. Ground-plan of Basilica of St. Paul, Rome. When Christianity took possession of the Roman empire, these basilicas were taken as models for church edifices. The pagan temples were built for residences of the deities, not for holding large bodies of people ; and also, being given to unholy purposes, could not be used or copied in Christian churches. The basilicas, on the other hand, had been polluted by no heathen rites, and corresponded with the traditional synagogue in much of their interior construction. Some of the basilicas were given to the Church, and devoted to sa- cred purposes; and the same plan of building was fol- lowed in new church edifices. The plan included a broad central nave with a pointed roof (instead of the arched roof of the classic Roman basilica or the cpen nave of the Grecian), and on each side were one or tvo side aisles, covered by a single roof. In the semicircular apsis, opposite the entrance, the seats of the judges were appropriated by the bishops. In front of this, and under the round arched tribune, was the high altar over the crypt (q. v.). Beyond this were two pulpits, one on each side of the nave, for reading the Scriptures and preaching. The pillars in the. colonnades separating the aisles were joined by round arches instead of beams, as in the Roman basilicas. During the lasilican period (A.D. 300 to A.D. 700-800) no towers or spires were built. In Rome the oldest basilicas are those of St. Peter, St. Paul, St. John Lat- eran, St. Clement, Sta. Maria in Trastevere, and St. Lawrence. Others, as Sta. Maria Maggiore, Sta. Ag- nes, Sta. Croce in Jerusalem, were built after the true basilican period, as were also the present edifices of St. Peter, St. Paul, and St. John Lateran. St. Cle- ment, and SS. Nereo and Achilleo, preserve most dis- tinctly the features of the original basilica. Out of BASILIDES 686 BASIN Rome, the best preserved ancient basilicas are those of St. Apollinari in Classe (near Ravenna), and of St. Apollinari in Ravenna, Basilican churches were built extensively in Asia Minor, other parts of Italy, and South France, and in these last two this style has ever exercised almost a controlling influence on eccle- siastical architecture. It gave also the general ground- plan and many other elements to the succeeding Ro- manesque, and even to the contemporary Byzantine Btvles. In the same general style are the churches of St. Boniface (Roman Catholic) in Munich, and of St. Jacob (Protestant) in Berlin, both built within the last twenty years. There is no prospect, however, that the style will ever be generally adopted in the erection of modern churches. Sec Zestermann, De An- tic, ei Christ. Basilicis (Brussels, 18-17); Bunsen, Die Christlichen Basiliken Roms (Munich, 1843) ; Kugler, Geschichii <1 r Baukunst (Stuttgardt, 1859); Ferguson, Dictionary of Architecture ; Bingham, Orlg. Eccles.bk. viii, eh. i, § 5. See also Architecture; Church Edii tCES. Basilides, the chief of the Egyptian Gnostics in the second century. The place of his birth is un- known ; some call him a Syrian, others a Persian, others an Egyptian. According to Clemens Alex. {stmm. vii, 17) lie appeared in the reign of Hadrian ; li.ironius and Pearson suppose him to have begun his h sresy in the latter part of the first century. The probable date of his deatli is A.D. 125-130. He pub- lished a book which he called "the Gospel," and wrote also 24 hooks exegetieal of the Gospel, but whether it was a comment upon his own "Gospel" or upon the four evangelists is uncertain. He left a son, Isidorus, who defended his opinions. Fragments of both Ba- silides and Isidorus are given in Grabe, Spkileg. saec. ii, p. 37, G4. (Burton, Ecclcs. Hist. Lect. xv; Burton, Bampton Lectures, note 13.) Our knowledge of Basilides is chiefly derived from Irenseus (Adv. II" r. i, 24), Epiphanius (liar, xxiv), and the newly- discovered Philiinphonmena (bk. vii) of Hippolytus (q. v.). Eusebius (Hist. Eccl. iv, 7) speaks of a refu- tation of Basilides by Agrippa Castor. He taught that the supreme God, perfect in wisdom and goodness, the un begotten and nameless Father, produced from his own substance seven ceons of a most excellent nature. According to Irenajus (Adv. Hcer. i, 24), from the Belf-existent Father was born NoCc, Intelligence; from Nous, Adyor, the Word; from Lngos, . Prud snee; from Phronesis, ~2.o for carrying their tools. This is still the common kind of basket throughout Western Asia; and its use in ancient Egypt is shown by an actual specimen Which was found in a tomb at Thebes, and which is now in the British Museum. It was, in fact, a carpen- ket, ami contained his tools (tig. 1 above). Son fthe Egyptian baskets are worked ornament- ally with .dors (figs. :;, 5, above; also the modern examples, figs. 2, 7, below). And besides these the monuments exhibit a large variety of hand-baskets of different shapes, and 0 extensively employed as to : bow the numerous applications of basket-work in the remote times to which these representations extend. They ure mostly manufactured, the stronger and larger sorts of the tibres. and the liner of the leaves of the palm-tree, ami not infrequently of rushes, but men' Of reeils. Kiit., -. \ . : Smith, S. V. Modern Oriental Uaskets. In the N. T. baskets are described under the three following terms, kuQiiwc, eTrvpic, and ffapyavr/. The last occurs only in 2 Cor. xi, S3, in describing Paul's escape from Damascus : the word properly refers to any thing twisted like a rope (/Esck. Svppl. 791), or any article woven of rope (irkkyjia n Ik (T\oi)iov, Suid.); fish -baskets specially were so made (c'nro )v i\0vwr, Etym. Mag.). It was evidently one of the larger and strong- er description (Hackett's J /lustra, of Script, p. 69). With regard to the two former words, it ma)- be re- marked that KuifHvoi; is exclusively used in the descrip- tion of the miracle of feeding the five thousand (Matt. Mark 48; Luke ix, 17; John vi, 13), and oTrvpuj in that of the four thousand (Matt. xv, 87 ; Mark viii, 8), the distinction is most definitely brought out in Mark viii, 19, 20. The a-vpic is also mentioned as the means of Paul's escape (Acts ix, 25). The difference between these two kinds of baskets is not very apparent. Their construction appears to have been the same; for ko^ivoq is explained by Sui- das as a " woven vessel'' (ayytTov TrXncTiiv), while' (TTTvpuj is generally connected with sowing (rnrtli a). The (nrvpic (Vulg. sporta) seems to have been most appropriatelj- used of the provision-basket, the Roman sporlula. Ilesychius explains it as the "grain-basket" (to tCuv TtvpCov uyyoc, compare also the expression hlnvov ti-u GirvpifoQ, Athen. viii, 17). The kcQivoq seems to have been generally larger (Etym. Mag. j3a6v Kai Kotkov ^wpijjua); since, as used by the Ro- mans (Colum. xi, 8, p. 4G0), it contained manure enough to make a portable hot-bed (sec .Smith's Diet, of Class. Ant. s. v. Cophinus) ; in Rome itself it was constantly carried about by the Jews (quorum ccphinns fanumquc svpellex, Juv. Sat. iii, 14; vi, 5421. Gros- well (Diss, viii, pt. 4) surmises that the use of the cophinus was to sleep in, but there is little to support this. Baskets probably formed a necessary article of furniture to the Jews, who, when travelling either among the Gentiles or the Samaritans, were accus- tomed to carry their provisions witli them in baskets, in order to avoid defilement. — Smith, s. v. Basle (Basiled), the capital ofa canton of the same name in Switzerland, with a university. In 1505 the people of Basic entered into the Swiss alliance, and, having declared themselves in favor of the Reformation, drove out John Philip, their bishop, from which time the Roman bishops of Basle made Porentrui their residence, and the chapter was at Freiburg, in Breisgau. At present the bishops of Basle have their residence at Solothurn. The cathedral church contains the tomb of Erasmus. The University was founded in 1459 by Pope Pius II, and has a line library. It is the seat of an active and prosperous Protestant Missionary Soci- ety. See Missions. The bishop was a prince of the German empire. Sec Switzerland. — Landon, Eccl. Diet. s. v. BASLE, CONFESSION OF, a Calvinistic confes- sion adopted by the Protestants of Basle in 1581. CEco- lampadius, a short time before his death, introduced a BASLE 689 BASLE short confession of faith in a speech he delivered at the opening of the synod of Basle in Sept. 1531. This short confession became the basis of the Confession of Basle, which latter was prepared, probably by Myco- nius (q. v.), between 1532 and 1534. It was officially promulgated Jan. 21st, 1534, and shortly after sent to Strasburg to refute some objections of the theologians of that place on the articles concerning the Eucharist (Letter of Myconius to Bullinger, Oct. 14th, 1534). The title of the oldest edition, probably printed in 1534, reads, Bekannthnus misers heyligen christlichen gloubens, ■une er die Kylch zu Basel hnldt. It is accompanied by commentaries in Latin, which had their origin proba- bly in the different changes the Confession underwent before its final adoption and publication. These com- mentaries are omitted in the editions after 1547. Af- ter the official adoption of the Confession, an order was issued to all citizens to assemble in the corporations, and to declare whether they were prepared to accept and uphold this Confession by all means in their power. Afterward it became a practice in the city to have the Confession read every year in the corporations on the Wednesday of Holy Week. Miilhausen adopted the same Confession, from whence it also received the name of Confessio MiiMhusana (in the same manner as the first Helvetic Confession [q. v.] received, on account of its having been prepared at Basle, the name of sec- ond Confession of Basle). It is also found in Augusti, Corpus Libror. Symbolicor. Reform at or nm, p. 103 sq. ; Hagenbach, Kiitische Gesch. d. Entstehung u. d. Sehick- sale d. ersten Basler Confession (Basel, 1827). BASLE, COUNCIL'OF, called by Pope Martin V, and continued by Eugenius IV. It was opened on the 23d of July, 1431, by Cardinal Julian, and closed on the 16th of May, 1413, forty-five sessions in all having been held, of which the first twenty-five are acknowl- edged by the Gallican Church. The Ultramontanes reject it altogether, but on grounds utterly untenable. The council, in its thirtieth session, declared that "a general council is superior to a pope ;" and in 1437 Eu- genius transferred its sessions to Ferrara (q. v.). The council refused to obey, and continued its sessions at Basle. The principal objects for which the council was called were the reformation of the Church and the re- union of the Greek with the Roman Church. Man}' of its resolutions were admirable both in spirit and form ; and, had the council been allowed to continue its sessions, and had the pope sanctioned its proceedings, there would have ensued a great and salutary change in the Roman Church. But the power of the papacy was at stake, and the reform was suppressed. Its most important acts were as follows. In the first ses- sion (Dec. 7, 1431), the decree of the council of Con- stance concerning the celebration of a general council after five and after seven years, was read, together with the bull of Martin V convoking the council, in which he named Julian president; also the letter of Eugene IV to the latter upon the subject; afterward the six objects proposed in assembling the council were enumerated : 1, The extirpation of hcres}r ; 2, the re- union of all Christian persons with the Catholic Church ; 3, to afford instruction in the true faith ; 4, to appease the wars between Christian princes ; 5, to reform the Church in its head and in its members ; 6, to re-estab- lish, as far as possible, the ancient discipline of the Church. It soon appeared that Pope Eugene was de- termined to break up the council, which took vigorous measures of defence. In the second session (Feb. 15, 1432) it was declared that the synod, being assembled in the name of the Holy Spirit, and representing the Church militant, derives its power directly from our Lord Jesus Christ, and that all persons, of whatever rank or dignity, not excepting the Roman pontiff him- self, are bound to obey it ; and that any person, of whatsoever rank or condition, not excepting the pope, who shall refuse to obey the laws and decrees of this or of any other general council, shall be put to penance Xx and punished." In the third session (April 29, 1432), Pope Eugene was summoned to appear before the council within three months. In August the pope sent legates to vindicate his authority over the coun- cil ; and in the eighth session (Dec. 18) it was agreed that the pope should be proceeded against canonically, in order to declare him contumacious, and to visit him with the canonical penalty ; two months' delay, how- ever, being granted him within which to revoke his bull for the dissolution of the council. On the 16th of Jan. 1433, deputies arrived from the Bohemians demand- ing (1) liberty to administer the Eucharist in both kinds ; (2) that all mortal sin, and especially open sin, should be repressed, corrected, and punished, according to God's law ; (3) that the Word of God should be preach- ed faithfully by the bishops, and by such deacons as were fit for it; (4) that the clergy should not possess authority in temporal matters. It was afterward agreed that the clergy in Bohemia and Moravia should be allowed to give the cup to the laity ; but no recon- ciliation was made. In April, 1433, Eugene signified his willingness to send legates to the council to preside in his name, but the council refused his conditions. In the 12th sesdon (July 14, 1433), the pope, by a de- cree, was required to renounce within sixty days his design of transferring the council from Basle, upon pain of being pronounced contumacious. In return, Eugene, irritated by these proceedings, issued a bull, annulling all the decrees of the council against himself. Later in autumn, the pope, in fear of the council, sup- ported as it was by the emperor and by France, agreed to an accommodation. He chose four cardinals to pre- side with Julian at the council; he revoked all the bulls which he had issued for its dissolution, and pub- lished one according to the form sent him by the coun- cil [session xiv]. It was to the effect that, although he had broken up the Council of Basle lawfully assem- bled, nevertheless, in order to appease the disorders which had arisen, he declared the council to have been lawfully continued from its commencement, and that it would be so to the end ; that he approved of all that it had offered and decided, and that he declared the bull for its dissolution which he had issued to be null and void ; thus, as Bossuet observes, setting the coun- cil above himself, since, in obedience to its order, he revoked his own decree, made with all the authority of his see. In spite of this forced yielding Eugene never ceased plotting for the dissolution of the council. In subsequent sessions earnest steps were taken toward reform ; the annates and taxes (the pope's chief rev- enues) were abrogated ; the papal authority over chap- ter elections was restricted; citations to Rome on minor grounds were forbidden, etc. These move- ments increased the hatred of the papal party, to which, at last, Cardinal Julian was won over. The proposed reunion of the Greek and Roman churches made it necessary to appoint a place of conference with the Greeks. The council proposed Basle or Avignon ; the papal party demanded an Italian city. The latter, in the minority, left Basle, and Eugene called an opposition council to meet at Ferrara (q. v.) in 1437. After Juli.in's departure the Cardinal Arch- bishop of Aries presided. In the 31s/: session, Jan. 24, 1438, the council declared the Pope Eugene contuma- cious, suspended him from the exercise of all jurisdic- tion either temporal or spiritual, and pronounced all that he should do to be null and void. In the 34^A session, June 25, 1439, sentence of deposition was pro- nounced against Eugene, making use of the strongest possible terms. France, England, and Germany dis- approved of this sentence. On October 30, Amadeus (q. v.), duke of Savoy, was elected pope, and took the name of Felix V. Alphonso, king of Aragon, the Queen of Hungary, and the Dukes of Bavaria and Austria, recognised Felix, as also did the LTniversities of Germany, Paris, and Cracow ; but France, England, and Scotland, while they acknowledged the authority BASLE 090 BASSUS of the Council of Basle, continued to recognise Eugene as the lawful pope. Pope Eugene dying four years after, Nicholas V was elected in bis stead, and recog- nised by the whole Church, whereupon Felix V re- nounced the pontificate in 1449, and thus the schism ended. For the acts of the council, see Mansi, vols. 2g | , 31. See also Wessenberg, Concilien des 15 unci 16 Jahrhundert, 2 vols. ; Binterim, Deutsche National . vol. i 1 1- — - Landon, Manual of Councils, 71: Palmer On the Churchy pt. iv, ch. xi ; Mosheim, Ci. Hist. cent, sv, pt. ii, 11 ; Ranke, Hist, of Pap icy, 1,86,243. Basle, MSS. of. See Basilean Manuscript. Bas'math (Heb. Basmath', niOJSa, fragrant), the name of two women. 1. (Sept. UaamctS.) One of ths wives of Esau (Gen. xxvi, 34 : xxxvi, 3, 4, 10, 13, " Bashemath"). 2. (Sept. BaaEfifidS.) A daughter of Solomon, and wife of Ahimaaz, the viceroy in Naphtali (1 Kings iv, 15). B.C. post HH4. Basnage, the name of a French family which has produced many distinguished men. (See Haag, La France Protestante, ii, 5-15.) 1. Benjamin, was horn at Carentan in 1580, and during fifty-one years was pastor of the church which his lather had held at Carentan. He attended, as provincial deputy, nearly all the synods of the Prot- estant churches of France held during his lifetime. He presided over the assembly held at Roehelle in 1622, which decided on resisting the king. He also signed the project of defence under the title of " Mode- rateur Ajoint," and went to England to solicit aid. On the termination of hostilities, Basnage returned to France, and was appointed deputy to the synod at Charenton, 1623. The zeal with which he maintained the reformed religion rendered him an object of in- creasing suspicion to the court. The king, by a de- cree, forbade him to take part in the synod of Charen- tuii in 1631. This synod made remonstrances against this decree so forcibly that the court yielded, and Bas- nage was admitted to the synod, in which he exercised great influence. He was elected president of the na- tional synod at Aleneon in 1G37. He died in 1652. His principal work was a treatise on the Church (De rested visible et invisible d I'J'g'ise, etc., Eochelle, 1G12, 8vo). He left imperfect a work against the worship of the Virgin. 2. Antoine, eldest son of Benjamin, was born in Kilo, lie was minister at Bayeux, and during the renewed persecutions of the Protestants he was, at the age of sixty-live, placed in the prison of Havre de Grace ; but his firmness remained unshaken. After the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, he escaped to Holland in L685, and died in 1691 at Zutphen, in which place be had held a pastoral charge. 3. Samuel (de Flottemanville), son of Antoine, was born at Bayeux in 1638. He preached at first in his native place, but escaped with his father to Holland in 1685. He died a preacher at Zutphen in 1721. His principal works were — L'Jiistoire een politely furnished with a mat on which to pros- trate his guilty person. Among other amusing privi- leges in modern Ervpt is that conceded to the gran- dees, or officers of high rank. Ordinary culprits are punished by the hand of persons usually employed on rich occasions ; but a bey, or the governor of a dis- trict, can onlv receive his chastisement from the hand BASTON 692 BAT Ancient Egyptian Bastinado: 1, inflicted upon Boys; 2, upon Meu ; 3, upon Women. of a pacha, and the aristocratic daboss (mace) is substi- tuted for the vulgar stick. This is no trifling privi- lege : it becomes fully impressed upon the sufferer, and renders him, long after, sensible of the peculiar honor he has enjoyed ; nor can any one doubt that an iron mace, in form not very unlike a chocolate-mill, is a distingue mode of punishing men who are proud of their rank (Wilkinson, Anc. Eg. i, 210 sq. abridgm.). See Flagellation. The punishment of tympanism, rvfiiravtofios, or beat- ing upon the tympanum, was practised by Antiochus ] toward the Jews (2 Mace, vi, 19, 28; comp. ver. SO; , Auth. Vers, "torment"), and is referred to by Paul (Ilcb. xi, 35; Auth. Vers, "tortured"). The "tym- panum" was a wooden frame, probably so called from resembling a drum or timbrel, on which the sufferer was fastened, and then beaten to death with sticks. See Corporal Inflictions. Baston, Guillaume-Andre-Rene, a French Po- manisl divine, was burn at 1,'ouen, Nov. 29, 1741. Af- pli ting his studies, he became professor of the- ology at Rouen, emigrated during the Revolution, and "ii his return became grand-vicar of Rouen. In 1813 he was made bishop of Seez, but had to give up his see mi Hi- return of the Bourbons. He died at St. Laurent, Sept. 26, 1825. Among his published works ; de Theohgie (Paris, 177:; 1784); Les Entre- '« iduPapi GanganelU (177 7, 12mo) ; Premiere journee] i! M.Votiain dam V autre Monde (1119, 12mo); L'Eglue M. le Maistre (2 vols. 8vo, 1821-1824). — Hoefer, Biog. Generate, iv,726. Bastwick, John, M.D., was born at Writtle, Es- I, and studiedat Cambridge. He took bis de- gree of M.D. at Padua, and settled at Colchester, as physician, in 1G24. During the rest of his life he seems 1 >H his leisure time to theological study and controversy. His first publication was Elenchus nquapr6baturnequeApostolicam,n qui CathoUcam, imo »..///-• Romanam esse (Leyden, 1624). His next was FlageUum Pontificum et Episcoporum ( bond. 16 16, and again 1641 1 This work greatlj of- f! old the bishops; In- was fined £1000, forbidden to 1 ractice medicine, and imprisoned. In prison he wrote ApeiogeH (1688, 8vo), and J% New Lit- mil/, m which he sharply censured the bishops. This made matters worse, and he was condemned to a fine of £5000, to the pillory, and to lose his ears. He was kept in a prison in the Scilly Islands till 1C40, when the Commonwealth Parliament released him. He af- terward wrote several bitter pamphlets against Inde- pendency, such as Independency not God's Ordinance (Lond. 16-15) ; Banting of the Army of Sectaries (1616). He died about 1650 (?).— Darling, Cyclop. Biblhgraph- ica, i, 196 ; Hoefer, Biog. Generale, iv, 726 ; Allibone, Dictionary of A nthors, i, 139. Bat (C]feMS, atalhph'; Sept. vvKrepig; SyriacVers. peacock) occurs in Lev. xi, 19 ; Deut. xiv, 18 ; Isa. ii, 20; and Baruch vi, 22. In Hebrew the word implies "flying in the dark," which, taken in connection with the sentence, " Moreover, the bat and every craping thing that Jlieth is unclean unto you ; they shall not be eaten," is so clear, that there cannot be a mistake re- specting the order of animals meant, though to mod- ern zoology neither the species, the genus, nor even the famity is thereby manifested : the injunction mere- ly prohibits eating bats, and may likewise include some tribes of insects. At first sight, animals so di- minutive, lean, and repugnant to the senses must ap- pear scarcely to have required the legislator's atten- tion, but the fact evidently shows that there were at the time men or women who ate animals classed with bats, a practice still in vogue in the great Australasian islands, where the frugivorous Pteropi of the harpy or goblin family, by seamen denominated flying-dogs, and erroneously vampires, are caught and eaten ; but where the insectivorous true bats, such as the genera common in Europe, are rejected. Some of the species of harpies are of the bulk of a rat, with from three to four feet of expanse between the tips of the wings ; they have a fierce dog-like head, and arc nearly all .marked with a space of rufous hair from the forehead over the neck and along the back (Kitto). For a de- scription of the various kinds of bats, see the Penny Cyclopedia, s. v. Cheiroptera. In the foregoing enumeration of unclean animals, the bat is reckoned among the birds, and such ap- pears to be the most obvious classification ; but mod- < era naturalists have shown that it has no real affinity with birds. It is now included in the class of mammif- erous quadrupeds, characterized by having the tegu- mental'}' membrane extended over the bones of the extremities in such a manner as to constitute wings capable of sustaining and conveying them through the air. The name of Cheiroptera, or hand-winged, has therefore been bestowed on this order. It comprises a great number of genera, species, and varieties ; they are all either purely insectivorous or insecti-frugivo- rous, having exceedingly sharp cutting and acutely tuberculated jaw teeth, and the whole race is noctur- nal. They vary in size from that of the smallest common mouse up to that of the vampire, or gigantic ternate bat, whose body is as large as that of a squir- rel. The smaller species are abundantly distributed over the globe ; the larger seem to be confined to warm and hot regions, where they exist in great numbers, ami are very destructive to the fruits. The purely BAT 693 BATES Common Bat. insectivorous species render great service to mankind by the destruction of vast numbers of insects, which they pursue with great eagerness in the morning and evening twilight. During the daytime they remain suspended by their hinder hooked claws in the lofts of barns, in hollow or thickly-leaved trees, etc. As winter approaches, in cold climates, they seek shelter in caverns, vaults, ruinous and deserted buildings, and similar retreats, where they cling together in large clusters, and remain in a torpid condition until the re- turning spring recalls them to active exertions. In the texts of Scrip- ture, where allusion is made to caverns and dark places, true Vespcrtilioni- dae, or insect-eating bats, similar to the European, are clear- ly designated. The well-known habits of the bat afford a forcible illustration of a portion of the fearful picture drawn by Isaiah (ii, 20) of the day when the Lord shall arise "to shake terribly the earth :" "A man shall cast his idols of silver and his idols of gold to the moles and to the bats," or, in other words, carry his idols into the dark caverns, old ruins, or desolate places, to which he himself shall flee for refuge ; and so shall give them up, and relinquish them to the filthy animals that fre- quent such places, and have taken possession of them as their proper habitation. Bats are very common in the East (Kitto, Pict. Bible, note on Isa. ii, 20). Layard {Nineveh and Babylon, p. 307) describes his visit to a cavern on the banks of the Khabour swarming with bats. "Flying toward the light," he adds, "these noisome beasts compelled us to retreat. They clung to our clothes, and our hands could scarcely prevent them settling on our faces. The rustling of their wings was like the noise of a great wind, and an abom- inable stench arose from the recesses of the c*ave." They are also found delineated upon the Egyptian monuments (Wilkinson, i, 232, 234, abridgm.). Sev- Egyptian Bats, and their Heads in full size. 1. Tai'hozoua Perfomtus; 2. Rliinolojihus Tridzns. eral species of these animals are found in Egj'pt, some of which occur doubtless in Palestine. Mo/ossus Rup- pelii, Vespertilio pipistrellus var. Aegyp>tius, V. ouritus var. Aegijpt., Taphozous perforatus, Nycteris Thebaica, Rhinopoma mieruphylhtm, Rkinolophus tridens, occur in the tombs and pyramids of Egypt. See Zoology. Batanaea. See Bashan. Batchelder, George W., a Methodist Episcopal minister, was born in Philadelphia, June 15, 1836. He was educated at the Pennington Seminary, N. J., and afterward was engaged as classical teacher at Case- ville, Pa., and New Egypt, N.J. In 1857 he entered the itinerant ministry, and was appointed to Prince- ton, N. J. Here his preaching made an extraordinary impression, and Princeton College conferred upon him the degree of A.M. His next appointment was State Street, Trenton, and his last Bayard Street, N. Bruns- wick. He died of consumption at Princeton, March 30, 1865. He was a young man of rare promise, of deep piety, of fine culture, and of extraordinary elo- quence.— Minutes of Conferences, 1864, p. 20. Batchelder, William, born at Boston, March 25, 1768, was a Baptist minister of considerable note. His parents dying when he was but 13, he began a roving life, in the course of which he had many re- markable adventures ; among others was the being elected captain, or master of a ship which had lost its officers, before he was 16. Becoming connected with the Baptist Church, after some years spent in preach- i ing, he was, in 1796, ordained pastor of a church at J Berwick, which place he chose, it is said, "as the least attractive, where the greatest good could be done." In 1805 Mr. Batchelder removed to Haverhill, -where he labored till his death, April 8, 1818, which was ' caused by over-exertion in raising funds for Water- vine College. Mr. Batchelder was a man of fine pres- ence and of great popularity. — Spraguc, Annals, vi, 319. Bate, James, an English divine, was born 1703, educated at Corpus Christi College, Cambridge, and in 1731 became rector of Deptford. He died 1775, having published A Rationale of tM Literal Doctrine of Original Sin (Lond. 1766, 8vo), with a number of occasional sermons. — Darling, Cycl. Bibl. i, 197. Bate, Julius, brother of James, born about 1711, and educated at Jesus College, Cambridge. He be- came rector of Sutton, and died 1771. He was an in- timate friend of Hutchinson, whose ethical principles he imbibed and defended. He wrote An Inquiry into the Similitudt s of Cod in O. T. (Lond. 1756, 8vo) :— The Integrity of the, Hebrew Text vindicated against Kennicott (Lond. 1754, 8vo): — .4 New Translation of the Penta- teuch, with Notes (Lond. 1773, 4to), "so literal as to be nearby unintelligible" (Monthly Rev."); with several controversial essays against Warburton, and minor tracts. — Darling, s. v. ; Allibone, s. v. Bateman, James, a Methodist Episcopal minister, was born in Maryland 1775, converted in 1800, enter- ed the itinerant "ministry in the Philadelphia Confer- ence in 1806, located in 1814, re-entered in 1817, and preached until his death in 1830. As a man he was amiable, urbane, and generous ; as a Christian, gentle, candid, and full of charity ; as a preacher, sound, ear- nest, and warm ; and as a presiding elder, discreet, firm, and wise. His life was useful and loving, and his death triumphant. — Minutes of Conferences, ii, 118. Bates, Lewis, an American Methodist minister, died in Taunton, Mass., March 24, 1865, aged 85 years. He was a descendant in the seventh generation of John Rogers, the martyr. At the age of thirteen he was converted, and in 1801 he, with two others, joined the Methodist Episcopal Church in Springfield, Vt.. thus originating the church in that place, and on Decem- ber 5, 1802, he consecrated himself to the ministry. In 1804 he was admitted ou trial in the New York BATES 094 BATHE Conference; in 130C he was admitted into full con- nection in the New England Conference, and ordain- ed deacon l>y Bishop Asbury, and appointed to Tuf- tonborough, which was set off from the New York Conference. In 1807 he was at Scarborough and Livermore, Me. ; in 1808, ordained elder, and sta- tioned for the third time at Tuftonborough ; in 1809, Pembroke ; 1810, Barnard, Vt. ; 1811, 1812, Salisbury and < rreenland Circuit. In 1813 he located. In 1817 he was readmitted to the New England Conference, and sent to Vershire Circuit, Vt. ; 1818, 1819, Landaff, N. II. : 1820, New London Circuit. In 1821 he was appointed to Norwich; 1822, Warwick, R. I. ; 1823, 1824, Barnstable, Mass.; 1825, 1826, Wellfleet; 1827, i em, N. II. ; 1829, Easton and Stoughton ; 1830, Easton and Bridgewater; 1831, Bristol, R. I.; 1832, Mansfield; 1833, 1834, East Weymouth ; 1835, Saugus; 1836, 1837, Pembroke ; 1838, 1839, Scituate Harbor; 1840, N. W. Bridgewater, etc.; 1841, Taun- ton First Church ; 1842, Nantucket ; 1843, Falmouth ; 1844, S. Dartmouth; 1845, Pembroke; 1846, 1847, West Sandwich ; 1848, Hull and Cohasset; 1849, Chil- mark, Martha's Vineyard. This was his last appoint- ment from the Conference. In 1850 he asked a super- annuated relation, and located in Taunton, where he remained till his death, beloved and respected by all who knew him. His ministry was every where ef- fective, and many were converted to God through his labors; among them several who became preachers of the Gospel. He was sixty-one years a preach- er, forty-two of which were spent as an itinerant, moving almost yearly, most of the time with a large family. During the years he was superannuated, whenever his health would admit he was active in visiting the churches, preaching, and attending prayer and class-meetings. — Christian Advocate, May 18,1865 ; Minutes, 1865, p. 43. Bates, William, D.D., a learned Nonconformist, was born in 162.% place unknown. He was educated at Cambridge, where he was admitted D.D. in 1660. Soon after the Restoration he was appointed chaplain to Charles II, and was also, for some time, minister of St. Dunst. m's, from whence he was ejected by the Act of Uniformity. He was one of the commissioners at the Savoy Conference in 1660 for reviewing the Litur- gy, and assisted in drawing up the exceptions against the Book of Common Prayer. He was likewise chosen on the part of the Nonconformist ministers, together with Dr. Jacomb and Mr. Baxter, to manage the dis- pute with Dr. Pearson, afterward bishop of Chester, Dr. Gunning, afterward bishop of Ely, and Dr. Sparrow, afterward bishop of Norwich. The object of this con- ference was to persuade the dissidents to fall in with ih" requirements of the Church of England in regard to its rituals and ceremonies. But to the reasonings of Gunning, who seemed disposed to forward a recon- ciliation between the Church ofEnglandandRome,Dr. B i is urged that, on the very same grounds on which they imposed the erueilix and surplice, they might bring in holy water, and all the trumpery of popery. I»r. Bates was on intimate terms with Lord-keeper Bridgman, Lord-chancellor Finch, the Earl of Notting- ham, and Archbishop Tillotson. He was offered the deanery of Lichfield and Coventry at the Restoration, but he declined the offer; and, according to Dr.Cala- my, he might have been afterward raised to any bish- opric in the kingdom, could he have conformed. He resided for the latter part of bis life at Hacknej', where '"■ died L9th July, 1699. According to Calamy, "he was generally reputed 01 f the best orators' of the : was well versed in the politer arts of learn- ing, which bo seasoned hie conversation as to render it highly entertaining to the more sensible part of man- kind*. Hi* apprehension was quick and clear, and Ids reasoning faculty acute, prompt, 1 expert. His judgment was penetrating and solid, .stable and firm. Hit memory was singularly tenacious, und scarcely impaired at the period of his death. His language was always neat and fine, but unaffected. His method in all his discourses would bear the test of the severest scrutiny." Dr. Bates was one of the best thei logical writers of his time ; his Harmony of the Divine A ttributes in the Work of Man's Redemption is still deservedly popular, and, in fact, all his writings are in demand. They are collected in his Whole Works, u-ith a Memoir. by F'armer (Lond. 1815, 4 vols. 8vo).— Jones, Chiist. Biog. p. 30 ; Allibone, Diet, of Authors, i, 141. Bath. See Bathe. Bath (Heb. and Chald. id., »*2, Sept. %o~ivi^, icorvX)]; occurs 1 Kings vii, 26, 38; 2 Chron. ii, 10; iv, 5; Isa. v, 10; Ezek. xlv, 10, 14; Ezra vii, 22), a Hebrew measure for liquids, as wine and oil, equal to the ephah for things dry (Ezek. as above), each being the tenth part of a homer (Ezek. as above). In Luke xvi, 6, the Greek form jSutoq occurs, where it is render- ed "measure." According to Josephus fjSdooc)', it contained 72 sextarii (Ant. viii, 2, 9). Its ordinary capacity appears to have been 8 galls. 3 qts. See Measures. Bath (Bathonia) and "Wells CWellia, Fontma, an- ciently Tnd ngtmi), a diocese of the Church of England, combining the two ancient sees of Bath and Wells, which were united in the beginning of the twelfth cen- tury. The episcopal residence and chapter are now at Wells; the chapter consists of the dean, four canons residentiary, a precentor, treasurer, three archdeacons, a sub-dean, forty-four canons non-resident, and two minor canons. The united dioceses, which contain the whole county of Somerset except Bedminster and Abbots-Leigh, contain four hundred and forty-seven benefices. The present bishop is Lord Auckland, ap- pointed in 1854. Bathe (in Heb. yrn, racliats', Gr. Xouw). The bath is in the East, on account of the hot climate and abundant dust, constantly necessary for the preserva- tion of health, especially the prevention of cutaneous disorders; hence it was among the Hebrews one of the first purificative duties (Neh. iv, 23), and in certain cases of (Levitical) uneleanness it was positively pre- scribed by the Mosaic law (Lev. xiv, 8 sq. ; xv, 5, 13, 18 ; xvii, 16 ; xxii, 6 ; Num. xix, 19 ; Deut. xxiii, 11), being treated as a part of religion, as with the ancient Egyptians (Herod, ii, 37) and modern Mohammedans (Niebuhr, Eeisen, ii, 47; Beschr. p. 39). The Jews bathed not only in streams (Lev. xv, 13; 2 Kings v, 10 ; on Exod. ii, 5, comp. St. Irwin's Trav. p. 272 sq.), but also in the houses, the court-yard of which always contained a bath (2 Sam. xi, 2 ; Susan, ver. 15) ; and in later times, as among the Greeks and Romans (Pot- ter, Gr. Archceol. ii, 654 sq. ; Adam's Rom. Antiq. ii, 214 sq. ; comp. Fabric. Bibliogr. Antiq. p. 1006), there were likewise public baths (Talmud fi1KSn*133) in the cities of Judasa (Josephus, Ant. xix, 7, 5; Mishna, Nedar. v, 5; comp. Mikvaoth, vi, 15; Shebiith, 8, 5; Baba Bathra, iv, 6), as in the East at present there universally are (see the descriptions in Mariti, i, 125 ; Arvieux, ii, 42 ; Troilo, p. 672 ; Russell, i, 172 sq. ; Ancient Egyptian Lady in the Bath with her Attendants. Fig. 1, The. lady, seated on a mat or carpet . 2, An attendant holding a flower and supporting her; 3, Rubs her arm with the hand, ns in the modern Turkish bath; 4, i'oura water over her; &, Takes cure of her clothes and ornaments. BATHER 695 BATH-SHEBA D'Ohsson, i, 264 sq. ; Lane, Mod. Egypt, ch. xvi), and p:ilaces had bathing-rooms (Joseph. Ant. xiv, 15, 13). In places of a mixed population the Jews resorted to the heathen baths (Mishna, Aboda Sara, iii, 4; see Circumcision, and comp. Otho, Lex. Rabb. p. 78). Besides water, persons (females) sometimes used bran for ceremonial cleansing (Mishna, Pesach, ii, 7). In like manner, the modern Arabs, in the failure of water, universally perform their lustrations by rubbing them- selves with sand, a usage that has been thought (Ro- senmiiller, Morgenl. iii, 228 sq.) to explain Naaman the Syrian's request of some of the sacred soil of Pales- tine (2 Kings v, 17). — "Winer, i, 130. The cere- monial law also prescribed bathing after mourning, which always implied defilement (e. g. Ruth iii, 3; 2 Sam. xii, 20). The high-priast at his inauguration (Lev. xiii, 6) and on the day of atonement, once before each solemn act of propitiation (xvi, 4, 24), was also to bathe. This the rabbins have multiplied into ten times on that day. Maimon. {Constit. de Vasis Sand. v, 3) gives rules for the strict privacy of the high- priest in bathing. There were bath-rooms in the later Temple over the chambers Abtines and Happarvah for the priests' use (Lightfoot, Descr.ofTemp. 24). With sanitory bathing anointing was customarily joined ; the climate making both these essential alike to health and pleasure, to which luxury added the use of per- fume (Susan. 17 ; Jud. x, 3 ; Esth. ii, 12). The "pools," such as that of Siloam and Hezekiah's (Neh. iii, 15, 16; 2 Kings xx, 20; Isa. xxii, 11 ; Johnix,7), often sheltered by porticoes (John v, 2), are the first indications we have of public bathing accommodation. Ever since the time of Jason (Prideaux, ii, 168) the . Greek usages of the bath probably prevailed, and an allusion in Josephus (Xovaoptvoc, arpaTiMriKioTepov, War, i, 17, 7) seems to imply the use of the bath (hence, no doubt, a public one, as in Rome) by legion- ary soldiers. We read also of a castle luxuriously provided with a volume of water in its court, and of a Herodian palace with spacious pools adjoining, in which the guests continued swimming, etc., in ver}' hot weather from noon till dark (Joseph. Ant. xii, 4, 11 ; xv, 3, 3). The hot baths of Tiberias (Pliny, v, 15), or more strictly of Emmaus (Euseb. Onomast. AifJdp, query Aifta.9? Bonfrerius) near it, and of Cal- lirrhoe, near the eastern shore of the Dead Sea, were much resorted to (Reland, i, 46; Joseph. Ant. xviii, 2; xvii, 6, 5; War, i, 33, 5; Amm. Marcell. xiv, 8; Stanley, p. 375, 295). The parallel customs of an- cient Egypt, Greece, and Rome are too well known to need special allusion. (See Smith's Diet, of Gr. and Rom. Ant. s. v. Balneae ; Laurie, Roman or Turkish Bath, Edinb. 1864.)— Smith, s. v. See Water. Bather, Edward, A.M., an English divine, born in 1770, educated at Oriel College, Oxford; became vicar of Meole Brace 1S04, and afterward archdeacon of Salop. Died in 1847. He published Sermons, chief- ly practical (Lond. 3 vols. 8vo, 1840), which are praised in the British Critic (iii, 161). Bath-Gallim (EPlrrrra, "daughter of Gallim," Isa. x, 30). See Gallim. Batll-Kol (b"p~ra, daughter <]f the voice), a rabbin- ical name for a supposed oracular voice, which Jewish writers regard as inferior in authority to the direct reve- lation that the O. T. prophets enjoyed (Vitringa, Observ. Sacr. ii, 338), although the Targum and Midrash affirm that it was the actual medium of divine communication to Abraham, Moses, David, Nebuchadnezzar, etc. (Re- land, Ant. Sacr. pt. ii, ch. ix). Neither are the Jewish au- thorities agreed as to what the Bath-Kol itself was, many maintaining that it was merely the echo of the divine ut- terance (Buxtorf, Lex. Talm. s. v. M). Some scholars have incorrectly rendered the term "daughter-voice," daughter's voice (Home, Jntrod. iv, 119; Jennings, Jewish Antiq. bk. i, ch. vi). It has been supposed that Josephus alludes to the Bath-Kol in the annunciation to Hyrcanus that his sons had conquered Antiochus {Ant. xiii, 10, 3), and the awful warning voice in the Tem- ple prior to its destruction {War, v, 5, 3); but thefc and other instances seem to fall short of the dignity required. Prideaux, however, classes them all with the heathen species of divination called Sortes Vigili- ance {Connection, ii, 354), and Lightfoot even considers them to be either Jewish fables or devices of the devil {Hor. Ileb. ad Matt, iii, 17). Yet instances of voices from heaven very analogous occur in the history of the early Christian Church, as that which was instru- mental in making Alexander bishop of Jerusalem, and that which exhorted Polycarp to be of good courage (Eusebius, Hist. Keel, vi, 11 ; iv, 15). See Danz, De jilia vocis (Jen. 1716 ; also in Meuschen's Nov. Test, ex Tcdmude illustr. p. 351-378) ; Haner, Be blp TQ (Jen. 1673) ; Metzler, De vocis jilia (Jen. 1673). Bathra. See Mishna. Bath-rab'bim (Heb. Bath-rabbim', CPS^-Fa, daughter of many ; Sept. translates literally Svyariip iroWwv), the name of one of the gates of the ancient city of Ileshbon, by (5S) which were two " pools," to which Solomon likens the eyes of his beloved (Cant, vii, 4 [5]). The "Gate of Bath-rabbim" at Heshbon would, according to the Oriental custom, be the gate pointing to a town of that name. The only place in this neighborhood at all resembling Bath-rabbim in sound is Kabbah {Amman), but the one tank of which we gain any intelligence as remaining at Heshbon is on the opposite (S.) side of the town to Amman (Por- ter, Handbook, p. 298).— Smith, s. v. Bath'-sheba (Heb. Bath-She'ba, SniiTinS, daugh- ter of the, oath, or of seven [sc. years] ; Sept. Br]paaj3tk, Josephus BttdaarJi) : also "TJT3, Bath-Shu' a, an- other form of the same name; Sept. as before ; 1 Chron. iii, 5; in ch. ii, 3, this form is translated "daughter of Shua" in the English version), daughter of Eliam (2 Sam. xi, 3) or Ammiel (1 Chron. iii, 5), the grand- daughter of Ahithophel (2 Sam. xxiii, 34), and wife of Uriah. She was seduced by King David during the absence of her husband, who was then engaged at the siege of Rahhah (2 Sam. xi, 4, 5; Psa. Ii, 2). B.C. 1035. The child thus born in adultery became ill and died (2 Sam. xii, 15-18). After the lapse of the period of mourning for her husband, who was slain by the contrivance of David (xi, 15), she was legally married to the king (xi, 27), and bore him Solomon (xii, 24 ; 1 Kings i, 11 ; ii, 13; comp. Matt, i, 6). It is probable that the enmity of Ahithophel toward David was in- creased, if not caused, by the dishonor brought by him upon his family in the person of Bath-sheba. The other children of Bath-sheba were Shimea (or Shammuah), Shobab, and Nathan, named in 2 Sam. v, 14 ; 1 Chron. iii, 5. When, in David's old age, Adonijah, an elder son by Haggith, attempted to set aside in his own fa- vor the succession promised to Solomon, Bath-sheba was employed by Nathan to inform the king of the conspiracy (1 Kings i, 11, 15, 23). After the accession of Solomon, she, as queen-mother, requested permis- sion of her son for Adonijah (q. v.) to take in mar- riage Abishag (q. v.) the Shunamite. B.C. 1015. This permission was refused, and became the occasion of the execution of Adonijah (1 Kings ii, 24, 25). See David. Bath-sheba is said by Jewish tradition to have com- posed and recited Prov. xxxi by way of admonition or reproof to her son Solomon on his marriage with Pharaoh's daughter (Calmct, Diet. s. v. ; Corn, a La- pid. on Prov. xxxi). The rabbins describe her as a woman of vast information and a highly-cultivated mind, to whose education Solomon owed much of his wisdom and reputation, and even a great part of the practical philosophy embodied in his Proverbs (q. v.). A place is still shown at Jerusalem, called "the Pool of Bath-sheba," as being the spot where she was seen bathing by David, but it is an insignificant pit, r.ATir-snrA e evidently destitute of any claim to antiquity (Biblioth. Sacra, 1843, p. 33) Kitto, b. v. ; Smith, s. v. Bath'-shua, a variation of the name of Bath-she- i;a (q. v.l, mother of Solomon, occurring only in 1 Chr. iii, 5. It is perhaps worth notice that Shua was a Ca- naanite nunc (comp. 1 Chr. ii, 3, and Gen. xxxviii,2, 12, where "Bath-shua" is really the name of Judah's wife), while Bath-sheba'a original husband was a Hittite. Bathurst, Henry, LL.D., bishop of Norwich, Eng- land, was horn in 1744, and was educated at Winches- ter and New College, Oxford. He was made canon of Christ Church, Oxford, 1775; and bishop of Nor- wich,1805. He died in London, 1837. His publica- tions were few, consisting of Charges to his clergy, occasional Sermons, and a Letter to Wilberforce, 1818. 11 is Memoirs, by Archdeacon Bathurst, appeared in 1837, 2 vols. 8vo"; with Supplement in 1842, 8vo.— Dar- ling, Cyc. Bib. i, 202 ; Allibone, Diet, of Authors, i, 141. Bathurst, Ralph, an English physician and di- vine, was born in Northampton, 1G20. Having studied physic, he was made a naval surgeon under Cromwell ; but after the return of Charles II he gave himself to divinity, and was appointed chaplain to the king. In 1664 he was elected president of Trinity College ; in 1G70, dean of Wells ; in 1673, vice-chancellor of the University of Oxford ; in 1G88, president of the Royal Society. In 1691 he refused the see of Bristol ; died in 1704. He published Prcekcliones de Respiratione, 1654; News from the Dead (an account of Anne Green, executed in 1650, and restored to life), 1651, 4to; and several Latin poems. — Warton, Life of Bathurst, 17G1, 8vo ; New Gen. Biog. Diet, ii, 84. Bath-zachari'as ( Baif>Za\apla v. r. Josephus Bi0'^a\apia; for the Heb. iTn=f I"Ha, House of Zech- ariah), a place named only in 1 Mace, vi, 32, 33, to which Judas Maccabasus marched from Jerusalem, and where he encamped for the relief of Bethsura (Bethzur) when the latter was besieged by Antiochus Eupator. The two places were seventy stadia apart (Joseph. Ant. xii, 9, 4), and the approaches to Bath-zacharias were intricate and confined (Joseph. War, i, 1, 5; and compare the passage cited above, from which it is evi- dent that Josephus knew the spot). This description is met in e\«ery respect by the modern Beit-Saharieh, which has been discovered by Robinson at nine miles north of Beit-Sur, "on an almost isolated promontory or tell, jutting out between two deep valleys, and con- nected with tin- high ground south by a low neck be- tween the heads of the valleys, the neck forming the only place of access to what must have been an almost impregnable position" {Later Researches, p. 283, 284). The place lies in the entangled country west of the Hebron road, between four and five miles south of Hcbrtfn. — Smith, s. v. See Bethzur. Batman, Stephen', an English divine and poet, was born at Bruton, Somerset, in 1537, studied at Cam- bridge, became chaplain to Abp. Parker, and died in 1587. He published The Travayl d Pilgrim. " an alle- gorico-theological romance" of human life (1560, 4to); .1 Cristall Glass of Christian Reformation (1569, 4to); Joyful News m,t of Helvetia, declaring the fall of the Pa. pal Dignity (1570, 8vo); Treatise against Usury (1575, Bvo); Golden Bool of th Leaden Gods (1577) ; The Doom, warning all men to Judgment (1581, 8vo)._ Rose, Biog. Did. b. v, ; Allibone, Diet, of Authors, i, 141. Battelle, Gobdon, D.IX, a Methodist Episcopal minister, was born in Newport, Ohio, Nov. 14, ism. He entered Marietta College in 1883, and graduated at All. ;hanj College in 1840. In 1842 he was licensed to preach; and from 1843 to 1851 he was head of an acade,,,v a< ( llarksburg, Va. Meanwhile he had been ordained deacon in 1847, and elder in 1849. From 1851 to 1860 he labored efficiently as preacher and presiding elder. He tfai a member of the General Conferences Of 1856 and i860. His iafluenoe iu Western Virginia 6 BATTERING-RAM was very great, and on the breaking out of the rebellion in 1861, he was called to serve as visitor to the military camps. He was a member of the Convention which framed the Constitution of West Virginia, and to him, more largely than to any other man, is due the aboli- tion of slavery in that region. In November, 1861, he was chosen chaplain of the 1st Va. Regiment, and con- tinued in the service till his death of typhoid fever, Jan. 7, 1862.— Minutes of Conferences, 1863, p. 34. Battering-ram C"l3, lar, a lamb, Ezek. iv, 2 ; xxi, 22; and so Josephus, icpioc, War, iii, 7, 19, where the instrument is described ; but Sept. in the above passages distinctively fitXvoTao-ic. ; Targ. and Kimchi, i?-p ^rfO), a military engine for forcing a breach in walls (comp. 1 Mace, xiii, 43), of very high antiquity, being in use by the Babjdonians (Ezek. 1. c), and ap- parently still earlier by the Israelites in the siege of Abel-Beth-Maachah (2 Sam. xx, 15); it may have been one of the "engines" of war employed by Uz- ziah, king of Jud;.h (2 Chron. xxvi, 15). This machine was a long beam of strong wood, usually oak. One end was made of iron, shaped like a ram's head, and when driven repeatedly and with great force against the wall of a city or fortification, either pierced it or battered it down (see Diod. Sic. xii, 28; Plinv, vii, 57, p. 416, ed. Hard. ; Vitruv. x, 19 [13], 2). There were three kinds of battering-rams: (1.) One that was held in suspension, like a scale-beam, by means of cables or chains in a frame of strong timber. This must have been easy to work and of great power, as a very heavy body suf- pended in the air requires no great strength to move it with much force. (2.) In an- other kind of ram, the mighty instrument acted upon rollers, and its power appears to have been very great, although it must have been worked with more labor than the preceding. (3.) There was another ram, which was not suspended or mounted on rollers, but borne and worked by manual strength. The ma- chine was generally covered by a movable shed or roof, which protected the men by whom it was worked. It has been calculated, that the momentum of a bat- tering-ram 28 inches in diameter, 180 feet long, with a head of a ton and a half, weighing 41,112 pounds, Oldinary Batttring- Ancitnt Assyrian Battering-ram supporting a Tower contain- ing Warriors. BATTLE 697 BATTLEMENT and worked by a thousand men, would only be equal to a point-blank shot from a thirty-six pounder. The ' ram was used by Nebuchadnezzar against Jerusalem, and also by Titus, with terrible force, in the final de- J struction of that city (Ezek. and Josephus, ut sup.). It was a favorite method of attack by the Romans (see Smith's Diet, of Class. Antiq. s. v. Aries), and no less so with the Babylonians (Layard's Nineveh, ii, 274). See Engine ; War ; Siege. Battle (properly tVQ'rib'O, milckamah', -KoXijioo). 'Though the Hebrews in their mode of conducting war- like operations varied somewhat in the course of ages, and are elsewhere shown to have been swayed by the \ practice of greater and more military nations, still, from the period when the institution of royalty gave rise to an organized system, it was a maxim to spare the sol- j diers all unnecessary fatigue before an engagement, and to supply them "liberally with food. Their arms were enjoined to be in the best order, and when drawn up for battle they formed a line of solid squares of a I hundred men, each square being ten deep, and with | sufficient interval between to allow of facility in move- ! ments, and the slingers to pass through. The archers \ may have occupied the two flanks, or formed in the , rear, according to the intentions of the commander on the occasion ; but the slingers were always stationed in the rear until they were ordered forward to impede a ■ hostile approach, or to commence the engagement, some- J what in the manner of modern skirmishers. Mean- j time, while the trumpets waited to sound the last sig- nal, the king, or his representative, appeared in his sacred dress (rendered in our version " the beauty of holiness"), except when he wished to remain unknown, as at Megiddo (2 Chron. xxxv, 22) ; and proceeded to make the final dispositions, in the middle of his chosen j braves, attended by priests, who, by their exhortations, animated the ranks within hearing. It was now, we may suppose, when the enemy was at hand, that the slingers would be ordered to pass between the intervals of the line of solid squares, open their order, and with shouts, let fly their stone or leaden missiles, until, by the gradual approach of the opposing fronts, they would be hemmed in, and be recalled to the rear or to cover j a flank. Then would come the signal to charge, and the great shout of battle; the heavy infantry, receiv- ing the order to attack, would, under cover of their shields and levelled spears, press direct upon the front of the enemy ; the rear ranks might then, if so armed, cast their second darts, and the archers from the rear shoot high, so as to pitch the arrows over their own main line of spearmen into the dense masses beyond them. If the enemy broke through the intervals, we may imagine that a line of charioteers in reserve, breaking from their position, might in part charge among the disordered ranks of the foe, drive them back, and facilitate the restoration of the oppressed masses, or, wheeling round a flank, fall upon the en- emy, or be encountered by a similar manoeuvre, and perhaps repulsed. The king, meanwhile, surrounded by his princes, posted close to the rear of his line of battle, and iii the middle of the showered missiles, would watch the enemy and remedy every disorder. : In this position it was that several of the sovereigns of Judah were slain (2 Chron. xviii, 33, and xxxv, 23), | and that such an enormous waste of human life took place ; for the shock of two hostile lines of masses, at least ten in depth, advancing under the confidence of breastplate and shield, when once engaged hand to hand, had difficulties of no ordinary nature to retreat; because the hindermost ranks, not feeling personally the first slaughter, would not, and the foremost could not, fall back; neither could the commanders disen- gage the line without a certainty of being defeated. The fate of the day was therefore no longer within the control of the chief, and nothing but obstinate valor was left to decide the victory. Hence, from the stub- I born character of the Jews, battles fought among them- selves were particularly sanguinary, such, for example, as that in which Jeroboam, king of Israel, was defeat- ed by Abijah of Judah (2 Chron. xiii, 3, 17), where, if there be no error of copyists, there was a greater slaughter than in ten such battles as that of Leipsic, although on that occasion three hundred and fifty thousand combatants were engaged for three succes- sive days, provided with all the implements of modern destruction in full activity. Under such circumstances, defeat led to irretrievable confusion ; and where either party possessed superiority in cavalry and chariots of war, it would be materially increased ; but where the infantry alone had principally to pursue a broken en- emy, that force, laden with shields, and preserving order, could overtake very few who chose to abandon their defensive armor, unless they were hemmed in by the locality. Sometimes a part of the army was posted in ambush, but this manoeuvre was most commonly practised against the garrisons of cities (Josh, viii, 12; Judg xx, 38). In the case of Abraham (Gen. xiv, 16), when he led a small body of his own people suddenly collected, and fell upon the guard of the captives, re- leased them, and recovered the booty, it was a surprise, not an ambush; nor is it necessary to suppose that he fell in with the main army of the enemy. At a later period, there is no doubt that the Hebrew armies, in imitation of the Romans, formed into more than one line of masses ; but there is ample evidence that they always possessed more stubborn valor than discipline; — Kitto, s. v. See Army ; War ; Siege, etc. Battle-axe (yS^O, moppets', breaker in pieces; Sept. and Vulg. render as a verb, cia., pastor at Wollmirstadt. He then studied at Halle, and, after filling several minor offices, was mad.' professor of theology at Halle, 1734. His lectures were very popular, and he secured a still wider reputation by bis writings. Educated in the school of Spener and Franke, he retained the forms of orthodoxy, but imbibed Wolff 's philosophy, and taught in a far more scientific spirit than bad characterized the pietistic school. He is regarded in Germany as the forerunner of rationalism, which, indeed, found its first free exponent among theologians in his disciple Bemler. Hedied I7.">7. His writings, some of which are posthumous, are chiefly historical and exegetical; amongthese are r,,/ rricht t>.d.Ausl nungd.fa If. Schrift. < Halle, 171-'. 8vo) ■ Auslegung d. Briefe Pauli ( Halle, 1749 1767): Evangel. Glaubenshhre, ed. Sender (Malic, k.v.i 6 i. 3 v, 1-. Ho):— Begriff. ,/. theol. StrdUg- I. Semler (Halle, 1771, 8vo) i—Theolog. Beden- lcm (Hall 1742 50. , ■■!-. gvo): Geschichte t"iN) occurs only once in Scripture as the name of a tree, namely, in Psa. xxxvii, £5: "I have seen the wicked in great power, spreading himself like a green bay-tree ;" where some suppose it to indicate a specific tree, as the laurel ; and others, supported by the Sept. and Vulg. the cedar of Lebanon. It is by some considered to mean an evergreen tree, and by others a green tree that grows in its native soil, or that has not suffered by trans- planting, as such a tree spreads itself luxuriantly (so Gesenius, Thes. Ileb. s. v. in accordance with the ety- mology). Others, again, as the unknown author of the sixth Greek edition, who is quoted by Celsius (i, 194), consider the word as referring to the " in- digenous man," in the sense of self -sufficiency ; and this opinion is adopted by Celsius himself, who states that recent interpreters have adopted the laurel or bay-tree for no other reason than because it is an evergreen. Sir Thomas Browne, indeed, says, "As the sense of the text is sufficiently answered by this, we are un- willing to exclude that noble plant from the honor of having its name in Scripture." Isidore de Barriere, on the contrary, concludes that the laurel is not men- tioned in Scripture because it has been profaned by Gentile fables. But the abuse of a thing should not prevent its proper use; and if such a principle had been acted on, we should not have found in Scripture mention of any trees or plants employed by the Gen- tiles in their superstitious ceremonies, as the vine, the olive, and the cedar. — Kitto. See Native. Bayer, Theophilus Siegfried, was born in 1G94 at Konigsberg, where he acquired his first knowledge of the Oriental languages under Abraham Wolf. In 1720 he was called to St. Petersburg to fill the chair of Greek and Roman antiquities. He died Fob. 21, 1738. Among his numerous works arc the following — 1. Ilistoria cor.greyativnis Cardinalium de Pnpnganda BAYLE Fid (Petersburgj 1721, 4toj a satire against the Church of Borne) : — -'. I 'ualiciir n rbtirum Ckristi, Eli, Eli, Lama S iliacth n/t (1717j Ito): — 3. Eistoria Regni Grcecorum Bactriatd, etc. (1737); and many works relating to Chinese and Oriental literature. — Biog. Univ. iii, 603. Bayle, Peteh, was horn at Carlat, formerly in the Comte de i'oix. November 18th, 1617, his father being a Prol sstant minister. At the age of nineteen he was Bent to the college at Puy-Laurens, where he studied from 1666 to 1669 with an ardor that permanently in- jured bis health. Subsequently he was sent to Tou- louse, where he put himself under the philosophical course of the Jesuits. The end of this was his conver- sion from Protestantism, but for a time only. In August, 1G70, he made a secret abjuration of Catholi- cism, and went to Geneva, where he formed an ac- qu lint nice with many eminent men, and especially contracted a close friendship with James Basnage and Minutoli. At Geneva and in the Pays de Vaud he lived four years, supporting himself by private tuition. In 1674 he removed tirst to Rouen, and soon after to Paris. The treasures of the public libraries, and the easy access to literary society, rendered that city agreeable to him above all other places. He corre- sponded freely on literary subjects with his friend Basnage, then studying theology in the Protestant University of Sedan, who showed the letters to the theological professor, M. Jurieu. By these, and by the recommendations of Basnage, Jurieu was induced to propose Bayle to fill the chair of philosophy at Se- dan, tn which, after a public disputation, he was elect- ed, November 2, 1675. For five years he seems to have been almost entirely occupied by the duties of his office. In the spring of 1681, however, he found time to write his celebrated letter on comets, in conse- quence of the appearance of the remarkable comet of 1680, which had excited great alarm among the super- stitious. In 1681 the college at Sedan was arbitrarily suppressed by order of the king, and Bayle went to Rotterdam, where, in 1681, he was called to fill the same chair. Here he published his Critique ginerale il rilitt.'uv da C,i7ri>ii$mc de Mahnbourg, a work ad- mired for its ability by both Catholics and Huguenots, but nevertheless burnt by the hands of the hangman at Paris. About this time a work appeared called VAvis aux Refugies, a satirical work, which treated the Protestants with very little delicacy. This book Jurieu (who had written unsuccessfully in opposition to the Critijue generate above mentioned, and had, in consequence, imbibed a bitter hatred against Bayle) attributed to him; and although Bayle, in more than one Apology, denied the imputation, succeeded so far in raising a belief that Bayle was the author, that in L69 I h ■ was removed from his professorship at Rotter- ! dun. Having now entire leisure, lie commenced his great work, the Dktionnain Historique et Critique, the first edition of which was published in 2 vols. fol. in L696, and the see, mil, much enlarged, in 1702. This edition, and that of 1720 (both in 6 vols, fol.), are es- teemed the l.e-t. Tin: last edition was published at Paris L820 23, 16 vol.. The English edition of 1735, ••dit id, \s it li additions, by liirch and others for the Lon- don booksellers, is more valuable than even the original Him work was undertaken principally to rec- tify the mistakes and Bupply the omissions of Moreri, hut gave great ami just offence in many parts from ,1'" indecency of il j l ingnage, its hold leaning toward Manicbasism, and the captious sophistries which ob- M"'" ''"■ I'1'1"" I truths and infuse doubts into the """ll "' ,!l " reader. Besides Jurieu, two new enemies appeared on this occa ion, Jacquelot and Leclerc, who both attacked Bayle's supposed infidelity. His contro- ,. . 5 with them lasted until near the period of his death, which happened on the 28th of September, 1706, in bia fifty-ninth year. Among his other works are, I. Commentoiresurces paroles d\ Pevangile: Contraim-ks tPentrer (1686):— 2. La Cabak chimeriqw (16:»1):— 3. '04 BAZAAR Reponses aux Questions aVun Provincial (5 vols. 12mo, 1702, 1704) : — 4. Janua Calorum Reserata : — 5. /Selected Letters (best ed. 3 vols. 1725) :— 6. Entretiens de Max- ime et de Themiste; ou, Reponse ii M.Leclerc (1706) :— 7. Opuscules, etc. His life was written by Des Maizeaux, in 2 vols. 12mo, 1722, and by Feuerbach (Augsb. 1838). See Haag, La France Protestante, ii, 60-63; Rev. des deux Mondes, Dec. 1835 ; Landon, Eccl. Diet, i, 08. Bayley, Solomon, a colored preacher of the Meth- odist Episcopal Church in Liberia. He was born a slave in Delaware, and, after cruel hardships, gained his freedom. He emigrated to Liberia about 1832, and, at the organization of the Conference in 1834, was returned supernumerary. He died at Monrovia in great peace in Oct., 1839. ' ' Father Bayley was a good preacher. His language was good, his doctrine sound, and his manner forcible ; his conversation was a bless- ing, and his reward is on high." — Mott, Sketches of Persons of Color ,■ Minutes of Conferences, iii, 62. Bayly, Lewis, a Welsh prelate, was born at Caer- marthen, and educated at Oxford. In 1616 he was consecrated bishop of Bangor. He died in 1632. He is worthy of mention for his Practice of Piety, one of the most popular religious works of the 17th and 18th centuries. It reached its 51st edition in 1714. Baz. See Maiier-shalal-hash-baz. Bazaar, an Oriental " market-place." In the ear- lier times of the Jewish history it appears that the markets were held near the gates of towns, sometimes within, sometimes without, where the different kinds of goods were exposed for sale, either in the open air or in tents. See Market. But we learn from Jose- phus that in the time of our Saviour the markets, at least in cities, had become such as they now are in the East. These establishments are usually situated in the centre of the towns, and do not bj' any means an- swer to our notion of V a market" — which is usually appropriated to the sale of articles of food — for in these bazaars all the shops and warehouses of the town are collected, and all the trade of the city carried on, of whatever description it may be. In these also are the workshops of those who expose for sale the products of their skill or labor, such as shoe-makers, cap-makers, basket-makers, smiths, etc. ; but every trade has its distinct place to which it is generally confined. Hence one passes along between rows of shops exhibiting the same kinds of commodities, and sometimes extending to the length of a moderate street. Other rows make a similar display of commodities of other sorts. The bazaar itself consists of a series of avenues or streets, with an arched or some other roof, to afford protection from the sun and rain. These avenues are lined by the shops, which are generally raised two or three feet above the ground upon a platform of masonry, which also usually forms a bench in front of the whole line. The shops are in general very small, and entirely open in front, where the dealer sits with great quietness and patience till a customer is attracted by the display of his wares. No one lives in the bazaar: the shops are closed toward evening with shutters, and the bazaar itself is closed with strong gates, after the shopkeepers have departed to their several homes in the town. It sometimes happens that a part of the bazaar consists of an open place or square, around which are shops under an arcade. When this occurs the shops are generally those of fruiterers, green-grocers, and other dealers in vegetable produce, the frequent renewals of whose bulky stock renders it undesirable that their shops should be placed in the thronged and nar- row avenues. In these bazaars business begins very early in the morning — as soon as it is light. During the day it seems to be the place in which all the ac- tivities of the town are concentrated, and presents a scene remarkably in contrast with the characteristic solitude and quietness of the streets, which seem ex- hausted of tiicir population to supply the teeming con- BAZLITII 705 BDELLIUM s^m^M^ ] mure man piouauii \l \ as yet unknown in i illy he would certainly V from the costly con Bazaar at Alexandria. course which it offers. And this is partly true ; for the market is the resort not only of the busy, but of the idle and the curious — of those who seek discussion, or information, or excitement, or who desire "to be seen of men ;" and where, consequently, the exterior aspect of Oriental life and manners is seen in all its length, and breadth, and fulness. — Kitto, Pict. Bible, note on Mark vii, 32. See Merchant. Baz'lith or Baz'luth (Heb. Batslitti or Batsluth', fl^OSSl or DSlPSS, nakedness; Sept. BaaaXwS), the head of one of the families of Nethinim that returned to Jerusalem from the exile (Ezra ii, 52 ; Neh. vii, 54). B.C. 536. Bdellium (nb"73, bedo'lacli) occurs but twice in the Scriptures — in Gen. ii, 12, as a product of the land of Ilavilah, and Num. xi, 7, where the manna is likened to it and to hoar-frost on the ground. In the Sept. it is considered as a precious stone, and trans- lated (Gen.) by avOpaE, and (Num.) liy icpwraWoc ; while Aquila, Symmachus, Theodotion, and the Vul- gate render it bdellium, a transparent aromatic gum from a tree. Of this opinion also is Josephus {Ant. iii, 1, 6), where he describes the manna — ojioiov ry twv dpufiaTOJV fiSeWy, i. e. similar to the aromatic bdellium (Num. xi, 7). See Manna. Reland sup- poses it to be a crystal, while Wahl and Hartmann render it beryl (reading ttbia). The Jewish rabbins, however, followed by a host of their Arabian trans- lators, and to whom Bochart (Hieroz. iii, 593 sq.) and Gesenius (Thesaur. i, 181) accede, translate bedolach by pearly and consider Havilah (q. v.) as the part of Arabia, near Catipha and Bahrein, on the Persian Gulf, where the pearls are found. Those who regard bedolach as some kind of precious stone rest their argument on the fact that it is placed (Gen. ii, 12) by the side of "the onyx-stone" (EiTJ, shoham), which is a gem occurring several times in Yy the Scriptures, and that they are both mentioned as belonging to the produc- tions of the land Havilah. But if this meaning were intended, the reading ought to be, "there is the stone of the onyx and of the bdellium," and not "there is the bdellium and the stone of the onyy," expressly excluding bedo- lach from the mineral kingdom. Those who translate bedolach by "pearl" refer to the later Jewish and Arabian ex- pounders of the Bible, whose authority, if not strengthened by valid arguments, is but of little weight. It is, moreover, more than probable that the pearl was the time of Mosef, »r not have excluded it contributions to the tab- ernacle, the priestly dresses, or even the Urim and Thummim, while its fellow shoham, though of less value, was va- riously used among the sacred ornaments (Exod. xxv, 7 ; xxxv, 9, 27 ; xxviii, 20 ; xxxix, 13). Nor do we find any men- tion of pearl in the times of David and Solomon. It is true that Luther trans- lates B^JPiS, peninim' (Prov. iii, 15; viii, 11 ; x, 25 ; xxxi, 10), by pearls, but this is not borne out by Lament, iv, 7, where it is indicated as having a red color. The only passage in the Old Test, where the pearl really occurs under its true Arabic name is in Esth. i, 6 ("fl, dar); and in the N. T. it is very frequently mentioned under the Greek name jiap- yaplrng. See Pearl. It is therefore most probable that the Hebrew bedolach is the aromatic gum bdellium, which issues from a tree growing in Arabia, Media, r.nd the Indies. Di- oscorides (i, 80) informs us that it was called //«- deXicov or fioXx^'i and Pliny (xii, 19), that it bore the names of brochon, malacham, and maldacon. The frequent interchange of letters brings the form very near to that of the Hebrew word ; nor is the similar- ity of name in the Hebrew and Greek, in the case of natural productions, less conclusive of the nature of the article, since the Greeks probably retained the ancient Oriental names of productions coming from the East. Pliny's description of the tree from which the bdellium is taken makes Ksempfer's assertion (Amcen. Exot. p. 068) highly probable, that it is the sort of palm-tree (borassus j!ab"/'ifnrmis, Linn. ci. 6, 3, Trigynia) so frequently met with on the Persian coast and in Arabia Felix. The term bdellium, however, is applied to two gum- my-resinous substances. One of them is the Indian bdellium, or false myrrh (perhaps the bdellium of the Scriptures), which is obtained from Amt/r's (balsamo- dendron?) Commiphora. Dr. Roxburgh QFlor. hid. ii, 245) says that the trunk of the tree is covered with a light-colored pellicle, as in the common birch, which peels off from time to time, exposing to view a smooth green coat, which, in succession, supplies other similar exfoliations. This tree diffuses a grateful fragrance, like that of the finest myrrh, to a considerable distance around. Dr. Royle (lllmt. p. 170) was informed that this species yielded bdellium; and, in confirmation of this statement, we may add that many of the speci- mens of this bdellium in the British Museum have a yellow pellicle adhering to them, precisely like that of the common birch, and that some of the pieces are perforated by spiny branches, another character serv- ing to recognise the origin of the bdellium. Indian bdellium has considerable resemblance to myrrh. Many of the pieces have hairs adhering to them. The other kind of bdellium is called African bdellium, and BEACH 706 BEAN Is obtained from HeudolotM Africana (Richard and Guillemin, Fl. >!, Senegambie). It is a natural pro- duction of Senegal, and is called by the natives, who ,,, ,k ■ tooth-picks of its spines, niottout. It consists of rounded or oval tears, from one to two inches in diam- et t. of a dull and waxy fracture, which, in the course of time, become opaque, and are covered externally by a white or yellowish dust. It has a feeble but pe- culiar odor, and a bitter taste. Pelletier (Ann. de CAiin.lxxx, 39 i found it to consist of resin, 59.0 ; solu- ble gum, it.-' : bassorin, 30.6 ; volatile oil and loss, 1.2. Resin of bdellium (African bdellium?) consists, ac- cording to Johnstone, of carbon, -10; hydrogen, 31; oxygen, 5. See Penny Cyclopaedia, s. v. — Kitto, s.v. Beach, Abraham, D.D., a minister of the Prot- estant Episcopal Church, was born at Cheshire, Conn., 1740, graduated at Yale College 1757, passed from the Congregational to the Protestant Episcopal Church, and was ordained by the Bishop of London 1767. His first service was as missionary at Piscataqua, N. J., where he served up to the Revolution, when his church was shut up on account of the troubles of the time. In 1784 he was appointed assistant minister at Trinity Church, N. Y. In 1789 ha was made D.D. by Colum- bia ( lollege. In 1813 he resigned his charge and re- tired to his farm on the Raritan, where he died, Sept. 14, 1828. He was a strict Episcopalian, and in 1783 opposed Dr. (afterward Bishop) White's proposal to organize the Church and ordain ministers without a consecrated bishop. — Sprague, Annals, v, 2G5. Beach, Jolin, a Protestant Episcopal minister, was bom in 1700, and graduated at Yale College in 1721. For several years he served in the Congrega- tional Church at Newtown, Conn., but in 1732 con- formed to the Church of England, and was ordained by the Bishop of London in that year. He served as mis- sionary at Newtown and Reading for 50 years, and died March 8, 1782. He published several tracts in favor of the Church of England, and a number of oc- casional sermons. — Sprague, Annuls, v, 8-1. Beacon ("pH, to'reri), Isa. xxx, 17, in the margin in that place, and in the text in chap, xxiii, 23, and Ezek. xxvii, 5, rendered "mast." It probably signifies a poU used as a standard or "ensign" (03, nes), which was set up on the tops of mountains as a signal for the assembling of the ] pie, sometimes on the invasion of an enemy, and sometimes after a defeat (Isa. v, 26; xi, 12 ; xviii, 3 ; lxii, 10). See Banner. Beads. Strings of beads are used in the Roman ( ihurch on which to count the number of paters or aves recited. They are generally supposed to have been introduced by Peter the Hermit. The Saxon word b / me ins a prayer; it is the past participle of biddan, ire, to bid. Bt ad-roll was a list of those to be pray- ed for in the Church, and a beadsman one who prayed for another. From this use beads obtained theirname. — Bergier, s. v. Chapelet. See Rosary. Beale, Oliver, a Methodist Episcopal minister, was born in Bridgewater, Mass., Oct. 13, 1777, convert- ed 18 (0, and entered the itinerant ministry at Lynn, 1801. After filling several of the most impor- tant stations, he was presiding elder from 1806 to 1 during the nexl ten years, while effective, be was missionan at Piscataquis, and also presiding f''1'1'- He was made "superannuate" in 1833, and '1'"-'1 •'< Balti " Dec. 30, 1836. lie was a devoted ; minister, "and did more to plant Meth- odism in Maine than any other man" (Rev. T. Mcr- i, during bis long and faithful service, became well known to the < hurch as a wise man and discreet counsellor. He was five times a delegate to the Gen- eral I onfer mi i 1/ nub oft ovferencee, ii, 493. Beali'ah (Heb. Btalyah', n;'.rn, whose lordisJe- hovah} remarkable as containing the names of both Baal and Jah ; Sept. BaaXia), one of David's thirty Benjamite heroes of the sling during his sojourn at Ziklag (1 Chron. xii, 5). B.C. 1054. Be'aloth (Heb. Bealoth' ', PliiSSl, the plur. fern, of Baal, signifying prob. citizens ; Sept. BaaXixiSr v. r. BaXioB and BaXpaivav), the name of two places. 1. A town in the southern part of Judah (i. e. in Simeon), mentioned in connection with Telem and Ha- zor (Josh, xv, 24) ; evidently different from either of the two places called Baalath (ver. 9, 29), but probably the same as the Baalath-beer (q. v.) of chap, xix, 8. Schwarz (Pa'est. p. 100) thinks it is a " Kulat til-Baal situated "i\ English miles S.E. of Telem and N.W. of Zapha;" but no such names appear on any modern map, and the region indicated is entirely south of the bounds of Palestine. 2. A district of Asher, of which Baanah ben-Hushai was Solomon's commissariat (1 Kings iv, 16, where the Auth. Vers, renders incorrectly "in Aloth," Sept. t v Baa\ w.&, Vulg. in Baloth) ; apparently = ' ' adjacent cities," i. e. the sea-coast, where the river Belcus (13/;- Atoc, Joseph. War, ii, x, 2) ma)' be a trace of the name. See Belus. Schwarz (Pa'est. p. 237) unnecessarily identifies it with Baal-gad or Laish. Beam, the rendering in the Auth. Vers, of the fol- lowing words : SIX, e'reg, a web, Judg. xvi, 14 ; "shut- tle," Job ii, 6; Tl3tt, manor', a. yoke, hence a weaver's frame, or its principal beam, 1 Sam. xvii, 7 ; 2 Sam. xxi, 19; 1 Chron. xi, 23; xx, 5; 3.3, neb, a board, 1 Kings vi, 9; CE3, Tcaphis', a cross-beam or girder (Sept. KavStaooQ), Habak. ii, 11; 3>PS, tsela' , a rib, hence a joint, 1 Kings vii, 3; "board," vi. 15, 16; "plank," vi, 15 ; iT^p, hurah' ', a cross-piece or ?-afttr, 2 Kings vi, 2, 5 ; 2 Chron. iii, 7 ; Cant, i, 17 ; 3S, ab, a projecting step, or architectural ornament like a moulding, answering for a threshold, 1 Kings vii, 6 ; "thick plank," Ezek. xli, 25; FiniS, JcerutAoth', hewed sticks of timber, 1 Kings vi, 36; vii, 2, 12; flip (in Piel), to jit beams, hence to frame, Neb. iii, 3, (I ; Psa. civ, 3 ; of no Heb. word (being supplied in italics) in 1 Kings vi, G; Sokoq, a stick of wood for building purposes, Matt, vii, 3, 4, 5 ; Luke vi, 41, 42. In these last passages, Lightfoot shows that the ex- pressions of our Lord were a common proverb among the Jews, having reference to the greater sins of one prone to censure the small faults of another. The "»wfe," Kaptyoc, may be understood as any very small dry particle, which, by lodging in the eye, causes dis- tress and pain, and is here given as the emblem of lesser faults in opposition to a beam for the greater, as also in the parallel proverb, "Strain [out] a gnat and swallow a camel" (Matt, xxiii, 24). Bean (bi%,pol; Sept. Kva/.ioc') occurs first in 2 Sam. xvii, 28, where beans are described as being brought to David, as well as wheat, barley, lentils, etc., as is the custom at the present day in many parts of the East when a traveller arrives at a village. So in Ezek. iv, 9, the prophet is directed to take wheat, bar- ley, beans, lentils, etc. and make bread thereof. This meaning of the Heb. word is confirmed by the Arabic fitl, which is applied to the bean in modern times, as ascertained by Forskal in Egypt, and as we find in old Arabic works. The common bean, or at least one of its varieties, we find noticed by Hippocrates and The- ophrastus tinder the names of kvcijioq iWrfVtKOC,, or "Greek bean," to distinguish it from jevafiog ai-yinr- Tinc, the "Egyptian bean," or bean of Pythagoras, which was no doubt the large farinaceous seed of Ne- lumbium apeciomm (Theophr. Plant, iv, 9; Athen. iii, 73; comp. Link, I'nnlt, i, 224; Billerbeek, F'.or. Class. ' p 139). Beans were employed as articles of diet by the ancients, as they are by the moderns, and are con- ! sidered to give rise to flatulence, but otherwise to be BEAN 707 BEAR wholesome and nutritious (comp. Pliny, xviii, DO). Beans are cultivated over a great part of the Old World, from the north of Europe to the south of India ; in the latter, however, forming the cold-weather culti- vation, with wheat, peas, etc. The}' are extensively cultivated in Egypt and Arabia. In Egypt they are sown in November, and reaped in the middle of Feb- ruary (three and a half months in the ground) ; but in Syria they may be had throughout the spring. The stalks are cut down with the scythe, and these are afterward cut and crushed to fit them for the food of camels, oxen, and goats. The beans themselves, when sent to market, are often deprived of their skins. Basnagc reports it as the sentiment of some of the rabbins t'lat beans were not lawful to the priests, on account of their being considered the appropriate food of mourning and affliction ; but he does not refer to the authority ; and neither in the sacred books nor in the Mishna (see Shebiith, ii, 9) can be found any traces of the notion to which he alludes (see Otho, Lex. Rub. p. 223). So far from attaching any sort of im- purity to this legume, it is described as among the first-fruit offerings ; and several other articles in the latter collection prove that the Hebrews had beans largely in use after they had passed them through the mill (Kitto, Phys. Hist, of Palestine, p. cccxix). The paintings on the monuments of Egypt show that the bean was cultivated in that country in very early times (comp. Strabo, xv, 822), although Herodotus states (ii, 37 ; comp. Diog. Laert. viii, 34) that beans were held in abhorrence by the Egyptian priesthood, and that they were never eaten by the people (but see Wilkinson, Anc. Eg. i, £23 abridgm.); but as they were cultivated, it is probable that they formed an ar- ticle of diet with the poorer classes (comp. Horace, Sat. ii, 3, 182; ii, G, 03) ; and beans with rice, and dhourra bread, are the chief articles of food at this day among the Fellah population. The}' are usually eaten steep- ed in oil. Those now cultivated in Syria and Pales- tine are the white horse-bean and the kidney-bean, called by the natives mash. — Kitto, s. v. Pol. Be'an, Children of (eioi Baifiv; Josephus, viol roi' Bacivov, Ant. xii, 8, 1), a tribe apparently of pred- atory Bedouin habits, retreating into "towers" (jrvp- yovc) when not plundering, and who were destroyed by Judas Maccabseus (1 Mac. v, 4). The name has been supposed to be identical with Beon (Num. xxxii, 2); but this is a mere conjecture, as it is very difficult to tell from the context whether the residence of this people was on the east or west of Jordan. Bear (afa or 21, dob, in Arabic dub, in Persic deeb and dab ; Greek apicroe) is noticed in 1 Sam. xvii, 34, 36, 37 ; 2 Sam. xvii, 8 ; 2 Kings ii, 24 ; Prov. xvii, 12 ; xxviii, 15; Isa. xi, 7 ; lix, 11 ; Lam. iii, 10; Hos. xiii, 8 ; Amos, v, 19 ; Dan. vii, 5 ; Wisd. xi, 17 ; Ecclus. xlvii, 2; Rev. xiii, 2. Although some moderns have ulj^; < *- ^ -:,_ *,, ^ Syrian Hoar. denied the existence of bears in Syria and Africa, there cannot be a doubt of the fact, and of a species of the genus Ursus being meant in the Hebrew texts above noted (Thomson, Land and Boole, ii, 373). David de- fended his flock from the attacks of a bear (1 Sam. xvii, 34, 35, 3G), and bears destroyed the youths who mocked the prophet (2 Kings ii, 24). Its hostility to cattle is implied in Isa. xi, 7 — its roaring in Isa. lix, 11 — its habit of ranging far and wide for food in Prov. xxviii, 15 — its lying in wait for its prey in Lam. iii, HI ; and from 2 Kings ii, 24, Ave may infer that it would attack men. See Elisha. The genus Ursus is the largest of all the plantigrade carnassiers, and with the faculty of subsisting on fruit or honey unites a greater or less propensity, according to the species, to slaughter and animal food. To a sul- len and ferocious disposition it joins immense strength, little vulnerability, considerable sagacity, and the power of climbing trees. The brown bear, Ursus arc- tos, is the most sanguinary of the species of the Old Continent, and Ursus Syriacus, or the bear of Pales- tine, is one very nearly allied to it, differing only in its stature being proportionably lower and longer, the head and tail more prolonged, and the color a dull buff or light bay, often clouded, like the Pyrenaean variety, with darker brown (Forskal, Descr. Anim. iv, 5, No. 21). On the back there is a ridge of long semi- erect hairs running from the neck to the tail. It is* yet found in the elevated woody parts of Lebanon (Kitto, Phys. Hist, of Palest, p. ccclv). In the time of the first Crusades these beasts were still numerous and of considerable ferocity ; for during the siege of Antioch, Godfrey of Bouillon, according to Math. Paris, slew one in defence of a poor woodcutter, and was himself dangerously wounded in the encounter. See Penny Cyclopaedia, s. v. The sacred writers frequently associate this formi- dable animal with the king of the forest, as being equally dangerous and destructive ; and it is thus that the prophet Amos sets before his countrymen the suc- cession of calamities which, under the just judgment of God, was to befall them, declaring that the removal of one would but leave another equally grievous (v, 18, 19). Solomon, who had closely studied the char- acter of the several individuals of the animal kingdom, compares an unprincipled and wicked ruler to these creatures (Prov. xxviii, 15). To the fury of the fe- male bear when robbed of her young there are several striking allusions in Scripture (2 Sam. xvii, 8; Prov. xvii, 12). The Divine threatening in consequence of the numerous and aggravated iniquities of the king- i dom of Israel, as uttered by the prophet Hosea, is thus forcibly expressed : "I will meet them as a bear be- reaved of her whelps" (xiii, 8; see Jerome in loc), which was fulfilled by the invasion of the Assyrians and the complete subversion of the kingdom of Israel. " The she-bear is said to be even more fierce and ter- rible than the male, especiallj' after she has cubbed, and her furious passions are never more fiercely ex- hibited than when she is deprived of her young. When she returns to her den and misses the object of her love and care, she becomes almost frantic with rage. Disregarding every consideration of danger to herself, she attacks with great ferocity every animal I that comes in her way, and in the bitternesss of her heart will dare to attack even a band of armed men. The Russians of Kamtschatka never venture to fire on a young bear when the mother is near; for if the cub drop, she becomes enraged to a degree little short of madness, and if she get sight of the enemy will only quit her revenge with her life. A more desperate at- tempt can scarcely be performed than to carry off her young in her absence. Her scent enables her to track the plunderer; and unless he has reached some place of safetj' before the infuriated animal overtake him, his only safety is in dropping one of the cubs and con- tinuing his flight ; for the mother, attentive to its safety, carries it home to her den before she renews the pursuit" (Cook's Voyages, iii, 307). In the vision of Daniel, where the four great mon- archies of antiquity are symbolized by different beasts BEARD "OS of prev, whose qualities resembled the character of veral Btates, the Medo-Persian empire is rep- resented by a bear, which raised itself up on one side, and had between its teeth three ribs, and they said thus onto it, " Arise, devour much flesh" (vii, 5). All the four monarchies agreed in their fierceness and ra- Aacitj : bat there were several striking differences in the subordinate features of their character and their mode of operation, which is clearly intimated by the different character of their symbolical representatives. ian monarchy is represented by a bear to de- note its cruelty and greediness after blood. Bochart b is enumerated several points of resemblance between racter of the Medo-Persians and the disposition of the bear (Hieroz. i, 806 sq.). The variety of the Asiatic bear which inhabits the Himalayas is especial- ly ferocious, and it is probable that the same species among the mountains of Armenia is the animal here referred to. The beast with seven heads and ten horns (Rev. xiii, 2) is described as having the feet of a bear. The bear's feet are his best weapons, with which he fights, either striking or embracing his an- tagonist in order to squeeze him to death, or to trample him under foot. For the constellation Ursa Major, or "the Great Bear," see Astronomy. Beard (",pT, zdkan'; Gr. iruiyutv). The customs of nations in respect to this part of the human coun- tenance have differed and still continue to differ so widely that it is not easy with those who treat the beard as an incumbrance to conceive properly the im- portance attached to it in other ages and countries. I. The ancient nations in general agreed with the modern inhabitants of the East in attaching a great value to the possession of a beard. The total absence of it, or a sparse and stinted sprinkling of hair upon the chin, is thought by the Orientals to be as great a deformity to the features as the want of a nose would appear to us; while, on the contrary, along and bushy beard, flowing down in luxuriant profusion to the breast, is considered not only a most graceful orna- ment to the person, but as contributing in no small degree to respectability and dignity of character. So much, indeed, is the possession of this venerable badge associated with notions of honor and importance, that it is almost constantly introduced, in the way either of allusion or appeal, into the language of familiar and daily life. In short, this hairy appendage of the chin i- um-t highly prized as the attribute of manly digni- ty ; and hence the energy of Ezekiel's language when, describing the severity of the Divine judgments upon the Jews, he intimates that, although that people had BEARD Beard ot ancient Assyrian King. been as dear to God and as fondly cherished by him as the beard was by them, the razor, i. e. the agents of his angry providence, in righteous retribution for their long-continued sins, would destroy their existence as a nation (Ezek. v, 1-5). With this knowledge of the extraordinary respect and value which have in all ages been attached to the beard in the East, we are prepared to expect that a corresponding care would be taken to preserve and improve its appearance ; and, accordingly, to dress and anoint it with oil and per- fume was, witli the better classes at least, an indis- pensable part of their daily toilet (Psa. exxxiii, 2). In many cases it was dyed with variegated colors, by a tedious and troublesome operation, described by Mo- rier (Journ. p. 247), which, in consequence of the ac- tion of the air, requires to be repeated once every fort- night, and which, as that writer informs us, has been from time immemorial a universal practice in Persia. That the ancient Assyrians took equally nice care of their beard and hair is evident from the representa- tions found everywhere upon the monuments discov- ered by Botta and Laj'ard. From the histoiy of Me- phibosheth (2 Sam. xix, 24), it seems probable that the grandees in ancient Palestine " trimmed their beards" with the same fastidious care and by the same elaborate process ; while the allowing these to remain in a foul and dishevelled state, or to cut them off, was one among the many features of sordid negligence in their personal appearance by which they gave outward indications of deep and overwhelming sorrow (Isa. xv, 2; Jer. xli, 5; comp. Herod, ii, 36; Suet. Caligula, 5; Theocr. xiv, 3). The custom was and is to shave or pluck it and the hair out in mourning (Isa. 1, G ; Jer. xlviii, 37 ; Ezra ix, 3 ; Bar. vi, 31). David resented the treatment of his ambassadors by Hanun (2 Sam. x, 4) as the last outrage which enmity could inflict (comp. Lucian, Cynic. 14). The dishonor done by Da- vid to his beard of letting his spittle fall on it (1 Sam. xxi, 13) seems at once to have convinced Achish of his being insane, as no man in health of body and mind would thus defile what was esteemed so honor- able. It was customary for men to kiss one another's beards when they saluted, for the original of 2 Sam. xx, 9, literally translated, would read, "And Joab held in his right hand the beard of Amasa, that he might give it a kiss ;" indeed, in the East, it is gener- ally considered an insult to touch the beard except to kiss it (comp. Homer, Iliad, i, 501 ; x, 4.54 sq.). Among the Arabs, kissing the beard is an act of respect ; D' Ar- vieux observes (Coutumes d?s Arabes, ch. 7) that "the women kiss their husbands' beards, and the children their fathers', when they go to salute them" (see Har- mar, Obs. ii, 77, 83; iii, 179; Bohlen, Indien, ii, 171; Deyling, Obs. ii, 14; Lakemacher, Obs. x, 145; Taver- nier, ii, 100 ; Niebuhr, Beschr. p. 317 ; Kitto, Pict. Bi- ble, notes on 1 Sam. xxxi, 13; 2 Sam. x, 4; xix, 24; xx, 9; 1 Chron. xix, 4; Volney, ii, 118; Burekhardt, Arabia, p. 01 ; Lane, Mod. Egyptians, i, 322). See Hair. The Egyptians, on the contrary, sedulously, for the most part, shaved the hair of the face and head, and compelled their slaves to do the like. Herodotus (i, 36) mentions it as a peculiarity of the Egyptians that they let the beard grow in mourning, being at Beards of various ancient Nations. From the Egyptian Monuments. BEARD 709 BEAST Ancient Egyptian f:il*e Beards. all other times shaved. Hence Joseph, when released from prison, "shaved his beard" to appear before Pharaoh (Gen. xli, 14). Egyptians of low caste or mean condition are represented sometimes, in the spir- it of caricature apparently, with beards of slovenly growth (Wilkinson, ii, 127). The enemies of the Eg3rptians, including probably many of the nations of Canaan, Syria, Armenia, etc., are represented near- ly always bearded. The most singular custom of the Egyptians was that of tying a false beard upon the chin, which was made of plaited hair, and of a peculiar form, according to the person by whom it was worn. Private individuals had a small beard, scarcely two inches long ; that of a king was of considerable length, square at the bottom ; and the figures of gods were distinguished by its turning up at the end (Wil- kinson, iii, 362). No man ven- tured to assume, or affix to his image, the beard of a deity ; but after their death, it was permitted to substitute this divine emblem on the statues of kings, and all other persons who were judged worthy of admittance to the Elysium of futurity, in consequence of their having assumed the character of Osiris, to whom the souls of the pure returned on quitting their earthly abode. The form of the beard, therefore, readily dis- tinguishes the figures of gods and kings in the sacred subjects of the temples ; and the allegorical connection between the sphinx and the monarch is pointed out by its having the kingly beard, as well as the crown and other symbols of royalty (Wilkinson, Anc. Eg. suppl. plate 77, pt. ii). From the above facts, it is clear that the Israelites maintained their beard and the ideas connected with it during their abode among the Egyptians, who were a shaven people. This is not unimportant as one of the indications which evince that, whatever they learned of good or evil in that country, they preserved the appearance and habits of a separate people. As the Egyptians shaved their beards off entirely, the in- junction in Lev. xix, 27, against shaving "the cor- ners of the beard" must have been levelled against the practices of some other bearded nation. The prohibi- tion is usually understood to apply against rounding the corners of the beard where it joins the hair ; and the reason is supposed to have been to counteract a superstition of certain Arabian tribes, who, by shaving off or rounding away the beard where it joined the hair of the head, devoted themselves to a certain deity who held among them the place which Bacchus did among the Greeks (Herodot. iii, 8 ; comp. Jer. ix, 26 ; xxv, 23 ; xlix, 32). The consequence seems to have been altogether to prevent the Jews from shaving off the edges of their beards. The effect of this prohibi- tion in establishing a distinction of the Jews from other nations cannot be understood- unless we con- template the extravagant diversity in which the beard was and is treated by the nations of the East. See Corner. The removal of the beard was a part of the ceremonial treatment proper to a leper (Lev. xiv, 9). There is no evidence that the Jews compelled their slaves to wear beards otherwise than they won' their own; although the Romans, when they adopted the fash- ion of shaving, compelled their slaves to cherish their hair and beard, and let them shave when manumitted (Liv. xxxiv, 52; xlv, 44). — Kitto ; Smith; Winer. In 2 Sam. xix, 24, the term rendered "beard" is in the original E2b, sapham' ' , and signifies the mustache (being elsewhere rendered "upper lip"), which, like the beard, was carefully preserved. II. The 44th canon of the council of Carthage, A.D. 308, according to the most probable reading, forbids clergymen to suffer the hair of their heads to grow too long, and at the same time forbids to shave the beard. Ckricus nee comim nutriat nee barbam radat. Accord- ing to Gregory VII, the Western clergy have not worn beards since the first introduction of Christianity ; but Bingham shows this to be incorrect. — Bingham, Orig. Eccl. bk. vi, ch. iv, § 15. Beard, Thomas, the "protomartyr of Methodism," was one of Mr. Wesley's first assistants. In 1744, during the fierce persecutions waged against the Meth- odists, he was torn from his family and sent away as a soldier. He maintained a brave spirit under his sufferings, but his health failed. He was sent to the hospital at Newcastle in 1774, "where," says Wesley, "he still praised God continually." His fever be- came worse, and he was bled, but his arm festered, mortified, and had to be amputated. A few days later he died. Charles Wesley wrote the hymn Soldier of Christ, adieu ! as a tribute to the memory of Beard. — Wesley, Works, iii, 317 ; Stevens, Hist, of Methodism, i, 210 ; Atmore, Memorial, p. 46. Beasley, Frederick, D.D., was born in 1777, near Edenton, N. C. After graduating at Princeton, 1797, he remained there three years as tutor, studying theolog}' at the same time. In 1801 he was ordained deacon, in 1802 priest ; in 1803 he became pastor of St. John's, Elizabethtown ; in the same year he was trans- ferred to St. Peter's, Albany, and in 1809 to St. Paul's, Baltimore. In 1813 he became provost of the Univer- sity of Pennsylvania, which office he filled with emi- nent fidelity and dignity until 1828. He served St. Michael's, Trenton, from 1829 to 1836, when he retired to Elizabethtown, where he died, Nov. 1, 1845. His principal writings are, American Dialogues of the Bead (1815) -.—Search of Truth in the Science of the Human Mind (vol. i, 8vo, 1822 ; vol. ii left in MS.). He also published a number of pamphlets and sermons, and was a frequent contributor to the periodicals of the time. — Sprague, Aimals, v, 479. Beast, the translation of i~!^fj2, behemah', dumb animals, quadrupeds, the most usual term; also of "P"3, be'ir' ', grazing animals, flocks or herds, Exod. xxii, 5; Num. xx, 4, 8, 11; Psa. lxxviii, 48; once beasts of burden, Gen. xlv, 17 ; ill, chay, Chaldee N^n, chaya', a wild beast, frequently occurring ; T^E3, nt'phesh, creature or soul, only once in the phrase "beast for beast," Levit. xxiv, 18; t"f2B, te'bach, slaughter, once only for eatable beasts, Prov. ix, 2; and m*3~0, Idrkaroth' , "swift beasts," i. e. dromedaries, Isa. Ix, 20 [see Cattle] ; in the New Test, properly tyUiov, an animal; Snoiov, a icild beast, often ; kt\)voc, a domestic animal, as property, for merchandise, Rev. xviii, 13 ; for food, 1 Cor. xv, 39 ; or for service, Luke x, 34 ; Acts xxiii, 24 ; and otyayiai', an animal for sac- rifice, a victim, Acts vii, 42. In the Bible, this word, when used in contradistinction to man (Psa. xxxvi, 6), denotes a brute creature generally; when in contra- distinction to creeping things (Lev. xi, 2-7; xxvii, 26), it has reference to four-footed animals ; and when to vMd mammalia., as in Gen. i, 25, it means domesticated cattle. Tsiyim', fi^S ("wild beasts," Isa. xiii, 21 ; xxxiv, 14 ; Jer. xl, 39), denotes wild animals of the upland wilderness. Ochim', CnS ("doleful crea- tures," Isa. xiii, 21), may, perhaps, with more propriety- be considered as "poisonous and offensive reptiles." Seirim', D",1'1"b, shaggy ones, is a general term for apes — not satyrs (Isa. xiii, 21; xxxiv, 14; much less "devils," 2 Chron. xi, 15), a pagan poetical creation unfit for Scriptural language; it includes Shedim', E^TwJ ("devils," Deut. xxxii, 17; Psa. cvi, 37), as a species. See Ape. Tannim', B^SFl, are monsters of the deep and of the wilderness — boas, serpents, croco- diles, dolphins, and sharks. See Animal. The zoology of Scripture may, in a general sense. be said to embrace the whole range of animated na- BEAST 710 BEAST ture ; but, after the first brief notice of the creation <.f animals recorded in Genesis, it is limited more par- ticularly to the animals found in Egypt, Arabia, Pal- estine, "Syria, and the countries eastward, in some those beyond the Euphrates. It comprehends mammalia, birds, reptiles, fishes, and invertebrate animals. See each animal in its alphabetical order. Thus, in animated nature, beginning with the lowest organized in the watery element, we have first "~}'^, She 'rets, '-the moving creature that hath life," ani- malcula, Crustacea, insecta, etc. ; second, C^SP), Tan- nini.m'. fishes and amphibia, including the huge ten- ants of the waters, whether they also fiequent the land or not, crocodiles, python-serpents, ami perhaps even those which are now considered as of a more ancient zoology than the present system, the great Saurians of geology ; and third, it appears, birds, rp2, Opii, "flying creatures" (Gen. i, 20); and, still ad- vancing (cetaceans, pinnatipeds, whales, and seals be- ing excluded), we have quadrupeds, forming three other divisions or orders : (1st.) cattle, ITCHa, Beiie- maii'. embracing the ruminant herbivora, generally gregarious and capable of domesticity; (2d.) wild beasts, Fl^tl, Chayaii', carnivora, including all beasts of prey ; and (3d.) reptiles, iU^H, Re'mes. minor quad- rupeds, such as creep by means of many feet, or glide along the surface of the soil, serpents, annelides, etc. ; finally, we have man, C1X, Adam', standing alone in intellectual supremacy. The classification of Moses, as it may lie drawn from Deuteronomy, ap- pears to be confined to Yertebrata alone, or animals having a spine and ribs, although the fourth class might include others. Taking man as one, it forms five classes: (1st.) Man; (2d.) Beasts; (3d.) Birds; (4th.) Reptiles ; (5th.) Fishes. It is the same as that in Leviticus xi, where beasts are further distinguished into those with solid hoofs, the solipedes of systematists, and those with cloven feet (bisulci), or ruminantia. But the passage specially refers to animals that might be lawfully eaten because they were clean, and to others prohibited because they were declared unclean, although some of them, according to the common be- lief of the time, might ruminate ; for the Scriptures were not intended to embrace anatomical disquisitions aiming at the advancement of human science, but to convey moral and religious truth without disturbing the received opinions of the time on questions having little or no relation to their main object. The Scrip- tures, therefore, contain no minute details on natural history, and notice only a small proportion of the ani- mals inhabiting the regions alluded to. Notwith- standing the subsequent progress of science, the obser- vation of Dr. Adam Clarke is still in a great measure true, that "of a few animals and vegetables we are comparatively certain, but of the great majority we know almost nothing, (iuessing and conjecture are endless, and they have on these subjects been already sufficiently employed. What learning— deep, solid, extensive learnin \ and judgment could do, has already been <\ by the incomparable Bochart in his Hiero- tmcon. The learned reader may consult this work, and. while he gains much general information, will <>< '' be can apply so little of it to the main and gr ind question." The chief cause of this is doubtless the general want of a personal and exact 1 f natural history on the part of those who have discussed these questions (Kitto). SeeZooLOGT. The Mosaic regulations respecting domestic animals exhibit a great superiority over the enactments of other ancient nations (for those of the Areopagus, see « .'uint. I. Juslit. v,9,13; forthose of the Zend-avesta Bee Rhode, ffeU. s ,, , ,, ;:;*. m, W5), and contain the following directions: 1. Beasts of labor must have rest on the Sabbath | Exod. xx. 10; xxiii, 12), and in the sabbatical year cattle were uliowed to roam free and eat whatever grew in the unfilled fields (Exod. xxiii, 11 ; Lev. xxv, 7). See Sabbath. 2. No an- imal could be castrated (Lev. xxii, 24); for that this is the sense of the passage (which Le Clerc combats) is evident not only from the interpretation of Josephus {Ant. v, 8, 10), but also from the invariable practice of the Jews themselves. See Ox. The scruples that may have led to the disuse of mutilated beasts of bur- den are enumerated by Michaelis (Mas. Recht, iii, 161 sq.). The prohibition itself must have greatly sub- served a higher and different object, namely, the pre- vention of eunuchs ; but its principal ground is certain- ly a religious, or, at least, a humane one (see Ilottin- ger, Leges Hebr. p. 374 sq.). 3. Animals of different kinds were not to be allowed to mix in breeding, nor even to be yoked together to the plough (Lev. xix, 19 ; Deut. xx, 10). See Diverse. 4. Oxen in thresh- ing were net to be muzzled, or prevented from eating the provender on the floor (Deut. xxv, 4 ; 1 Cor. ix, 9). See Threshing. 5. No (domestic) animal should, be killed on the same dajr with its young (Lev. xxii, 28), as this would imply barbarity (see Jonathan's Targum in loc. ; Philo, Opp. ii, 398). The Jews ap- pear to have understood this enactment to apply to the slaughtering (::nu.;) of animals for ordinary use as well as for sacrifice (Mishna, Chollin, ch. v). Respect- ing the ancient law referred to in Exod. xxiii, 19, see Victuals. (Comp. generally Schwabe, in the Kir- chenze.it. 1834, No. 20). Other precepts seem not to have had the force of civil statutes, but to have been merely injunctions of compassion (e. g. Exod. xxiii, 5 ; Deut. xxii, 4, (5, 7). The sense of the former of these last prescriptions is not very clear in the orig- inal (see Rosenmi'iller in loc), as the Jews apply it to all beasts of burden as well as the ass (see Josephus, Ant. iv, 8, 30; comp. Philo, Opp. ii, 39). Deut. vi, 7 sq., however, appears to be analogous to the other reg- ulations under this class (Winer, ii, 610). See Fowl. The'word "beast" is sometimes used figuratively for brutal, savage men. Hence the phrase, " I fought with wild beasts at Ephesus," alluding to the infuri- ated multitude, who may have demanded that Paul should be thus exposed in the amphitheatre to light as a gladiator (1 Cor. xv, 32; Acts xix, 29). A similar use of the word occurs in Psa. xxii, 12, 16 ; Eccl. iii, 18 ; Isa. xi, 6-8 ; and in 2 Pet. ii, 12 ; Jude 10, to de- note a class of wicked men. A wild beast is the sym- bol of a tyrannical, usurping power or monarchy, that destroys its neighbors or subjects, and preys upon all about it. The four beasts in Dan. vii, 3, 17, 23, rep- resent four kings or kingdoms (Ezek. xxxiv, 28; Jer. xii, 9). Wild beasts are generally, in the Scriptures, to be understood of enemies, whose malice and power are to be judged of in proportion to the nature and mag- nitude of the wild beasts by which they are represent- ed ; similar comparisons occur in profane authors (Psa. lxxiv, 1 !). In like manner the King of Egypt is com- pared to the crocodile (Psa. lxviii, 31). The rising of a beast signifies the rise of some new dominion or gov- ernment ; the rising of a wild beast, the rise of a ty- rannical government; and the rising out of the sea, that it should owe its origin to the commotions of the people. So the waters are interpreted by the angel (Rev. xvii, 15). In the visions of Daniel, tho four great beasts, the symbols of the four great monarchies, are represented rising out of the sea in a storm : " I saw in my vision by night, and behold, the four winds of the heaven strove upon the great sea, and four great beasts came up from the sea" (Dan. vii, 2, 3). In va- rious passages of the Revelation (iv, 0, etc.) this word is improperly used by our translators to designate the living ci-i n/ //ri.< (.v., r ) that symbolize the providential agencies of the Almighty, as in the vision of Fzekiel (ch. i). The "beast" elsewhere spoken of with such denunciatory emphasis in that book doubtless denotes the heathen political power of persecuting Rome. See Wemys's Symbol. Diet. a. v. BEATIFICATION" Til BEAUCIIAMP Beatification, an act by which, in the Romish Church, the pope declares a person blessed after death. It is to be distinguished from canonization (q. v.), in which the pope professes to determine authoritatively on the state of the person canonized ; but when he beati- fies he only gives permission that religious honors not proceeding so far as worship should be paid to the de- ceased. The day of their office cannot be made a festi- val of obligation. Before the time of Pope Alexander VII beatification was performed in the church of his order if the person to be beatified was a monk; and in the case of others, in the church of their country, if there was one at Rome. Alexander, however, ordered that the ceremony should in future be always in the ba- silica of the Vatican ; and the first so solemnized was the beatification of Francis de Sales, January 8, 1662. At present the custom is not to demand the beatification of any one until fifty years after his death. See Lam- bertini (afterward Benedict XIV), Ds Servorum Dei Be- afficatione el Beaforum Canonisatione, lib. i, cap. 24, 39. — Farrar, Eccl. D.ct. s. v. ; Christ. Examiner, Jan. 1855, art. vii. Beatific Vision, a theological expression used to, signify the vision of God in heaven permitt3d to the blessed. Beating. See Bastinado. Beatitudes, the name frequently given to the first clauses of our Saviour's Sermon on the Mount (q. v.), beginning with the phrase " Blessed," etc. (Matt, v, 3-11). The present "Mount of th'. Beatitudes" on which they are said to have been delivered is the hill called Kurun Hnttin, or "Horns of Hattin," on the road from Nazareth to Tiberias — a not unlikely posi- tion (Hackett, Illustr. of Script, p. 313). Beaton, Beatoun, or Bethune, Cardinal Da- vid, archbishop of St. Andrew's, notorious as a perse- cutor, was born in 1491, and educated at the Univer- sity of Glasgow. He studied the canon law at Paris. In 1523 he was made abbot of Arbroath, and in 1525 lord privy seal. His life was now devoted to politics, which he endeavored to make subservient to the uses of the Papal Church. In 1537 he was promoted to the see of St. Andrew's, and in 1538 was made cardinal by Pope Paul III. In 1543 he obtained the great seal of Scotland, and was also made legate a latere ly the pope, thus combining civil and ecclesiastical domin- ion in his own person. In the beginning of 1545 46 he held a visitation of his diocese, and had great num- bers brought before him, under the act which had pass- ed the Parliament in 1542-43, forbidding the lieges to argue or dispute concerning the sense of the Holy Scriptures. Convictions were quickly obtained; and of those convicted, five men were hanged and one wom- an drowned ; some were imprisoned, and others were banished. He next proceeded to Edinburgh, and there called a council for the affairs of the Church ; and hear- ing that George Wishart, an eminent reformer, was at the house of Cockburn of Ormiston, Beaton caused Wishart to be apprehended, carried over to St. An- drew's, and shut up in the tower there. The cardinal called a convention of the clergy at St. Andrew's, at which Wishart was condemned for heresy, and ad- judged to be burnt — a sentence which was passed and put in force by the cardinal and his clergy, in defiance of the regent, and without the aid of the civil power. The cardinal afterward proceeded to the abbey of Ar- broath, to the marriage of his eldest daughter by Mrs. Marion Ogilvv of the house of Airly, with whom he had long lived in concubinage, and there gave her in marriage to the eldest son of the Earl of Crawford, and with her 1000 mcrks of dowry. He then returned to St. Andrew's, where, on Saturday, May 29, 1546, he was put to death in his own chamber by a party of Reformers, headed by Norman Leslie, heir of the noble house of Rothes, who, we find, had on the 24th of April, 1545, given the cardinal a bond of " manrent" (or ad- mission of feudal homage and fealty), and who had a personal quarrel with the cardinal. The death of Cardinal Beaton was fatal to the ecclesiastical oli- garchy which under him trampled alike on law and liberty. Three works of the cardinal's are named: De Legationibus Suis, De Primatu Petri, and Epidolm ad Diverscs. See Engl. Cyclopaedia; Burnet, Hist, of Engl. Reformation, i, 491-540; Hetherington, Church of Scot- land, i, 42-52. Beatrix or Beatrice, St., sister of Simplicius and Faustinus, who were beheaded in 303, and their bodies thrown into the Tiber. Beatrix rescued the bodies from the water and buried them, for which she was condemned ; but for seven months she escaped the fury of her persecutors. She was eventually ar- rested and strangled in prison. The Poman Church honors these martyrs on the 29th of July. — Landon, Eccl. Diet, ii, 105 ; ^Butler, Lives of Saints', July 29. Beattie, James, poet and moralist, was the son of a small farmer, and was born at Laurencekirk, in Kin- cardineshire, 5th December, 1735. After pursuing Lis studies with brilliant success at Marischal College, Aberdeen, he was appointed usher to the Grammar School of that city, 1758, where he enjoyed the society of many distinguished men, by whose aid he was ap- pointed professor of moral philosophy in Marischal College in 17G0. In the same year he made his first public appearance as a poet in a volume of original poems and translations. With these poems he was afterward dissatisfied, and he endeavored to suppress them. His Essay on Truth, written avowedly to con- fute Hume, and published in 1770, became highly pop- ular, and procured him the degree of LL.D. from the University of Oxford, and a private interview and a pension from George III. Solicitations were also made to him to enter the Church of England; but he ■ declined, in the fear that his motives might be misrep- I resented. In the same year he gave to the world the ; first book of the Minstrel, and the second book in 1774. This work gained him reputation as a poet. He sub- sequently produced Dissertations, Moral and Critical I (1783, 4to ; 1787, 2 vols. 8vo) -.—Evidences rf the ( hr >- ! tian Religion (1786 ; 4th ed. 1795, 2 vols. 12mo) :— Ele- ments of Moral Science (3d ed. with Index, 1817, 2 vols. |8vo); and An Account of the Life and Writings rf his [eldest Sen. He died at Aberdeen, Aug. 18, 1803. His Life and Letters, by Sir William Forbes, appeared in 1807 (3 vols. 8vo). It is honorable to Beattie that, long before the abolition of the slave-trade was brought before Parliament, he was active in protesting against that iniquitous traffic ; and he introduced the subject into his academical course, with the express hope that such of his pupils as might be called to reside in the West In- dies would recollect the lessons of humanity which he inculcated. Of his writings, the Minstrel is that \\ hich probably is now most read. It is not a work of any very high order of genius; but it exhibits a strong feeling for the beauties of nature ; and it will probably long continue to hold an honorable place in the collec- tions of minor poetry. Bcattie's metaphysical writings have the reputation of being clear, lively, and attrac- tive, but not profound. The Essay on Truth was much read and admired at the time of its publication. — Engl. Cyclopadia, s. v. ; Allibone, Diet, of Authors, i, 147. Beauchamp, William, an early and distinguish- ed MethodiVt Episcopal minister. He was lorn in Kent County, Del., April 26th, 1772; joined the M. E. Church about 1788. In 1790 he taught a school at Monongahela, Va., began to preach in 1791, and in 1793 he travelled under the presiding elder. In 1794 he joined the itinerancy ; and in 1797 he was station- ed in New York, and in 1798 in Boston. In 1801 he located, from ill health, and married Mrs. Russel, "one of the most excellent of women." In 1807 he settled on the Little Kenawha, Va. Here he preach- ed with great success until 1815, when he removed to BEAUMONT 712 BEAUTY Chilicothe, Ohio, to act as editor of the Western Chris- Am Monitor, which he conducted " with conspicuous ability," preaching meantime "with eminent success." In 1817 ho removed to Mount Carmel, 111., and cn- gaged in founding a settlement, in every detail of which, civil, economical, and mechanical, his genius eminent He was pastor, teacher, lawyer, and engineer. In 1822 he re-entered the itinerancy, in the Missouri Conference; "in 1823, was appointed presiding elder on Indiana District," then embracing nearly the h hole state. In 1824 he was a delegate to til Conference at Baltimore, "and lacked but two votss of an election to the episcopacy" by that body. He died at Paoli, Orange County, Ind., Oct. 7th, 182 I. By diligent study, often pursued by torch- light in his frontier life, he made himself master of Latin, Greek, and Hebrew. "His preaching was chasl • and dignified, logical, and sometimes of over- powering force." He possessed a great and organizing mind, and a peculiar and almost universal genius, and, with adequate advantages for study, would certainly have influenced widely the history of this country. His Essays on the Truth of tit? Christian Religion is "a work of decided merit." His Letters on the Itinerancy, with a memoir by Bishop Soule, were published after his death, and he left several fine MSS., which remain unpublished. — Minutes of Conferences, i, 474; Methodist Magazine, 1825; Stevens, Memorials of Methodism, i, ch. xxix; Sprague, Annals, vii, 235. Beaumont, Joseph, M.D., one of the most em- inent preachers in the Methodist Church of England, was the son of the Rev. John Beaumont, and was born at Castle Donington, March 19, 1794. He received his cdination at Kingswood school, and was there con- verted to God. After some years spent in the study of medicine, he determined to enter the ministry ; and though Ids way would hive been opened into the Es- tablished Church by tho kindness of friends, he pre- ferred to remain with the Wesleyan Methodists, and was received on trial by the Conference of 1813. He was soon recognised as a preacher of more than com- mon promise. An impediment in his speech appeared likely to hinder his success, but by great resolution he surmounted it, and became a fluent and effective speaker. His preaching was characterized by bril- liancy of illustration, by repeated bursts of impassion- ed eloquence, and an earnestness of manner and deliv- er}' often amounting to impetuosity. For many years he n is one of the most popular pulpit and platform speakers in Great Britain. His last, appointment was Hull, where he died suddenly in the pulpit, January 21, 1855. A number of his occasional sermons and arc published; a specimen of them will be found in the English Pulpit, 1849, p. 123. His Vfe, written by his son, appeared in 1856. — Wesleyan Min- utes (Lond. 1855 1 ; London /.'■ v. July, 185G, p. 564. Beausobre, Is\.\c de, born at Niort, March 8th, n anci Mit family, originally of Limousin. His parents were Protestants, and educated him at Sau- mur. In 1683 he u is ordained minister at Chatillon- snr-Indr.', iuTouraine. The French government caused his church to be sealed up, and Beausobre was bold enough to break tb • se il, for which he was compelled to flee, and at Rotterdam he became chaplain to the Prince of \i.hah. |„ [693 he published bis Defence viiij that the prophet Jeremiah, when he would describe a ; j where he ig expressly called the second, and the omis- beautiful woman, represents her as one that keeps at ■ gion of Aghbel m x Chr_ vii) 6j would all be accounted home because those who are desirous to preserve i supposition of 132 having been accidentally their beautv go very little abroad. Statelmess ot the rr . o j body has always been held in great estimation in | taken for a proper name instead ot in the sense of Eastern courts/nor do they think any one capable of j ^^T" R m%h* acU*ed tarther .tlla ' in 1 Chr; great services or actions to whom nature has not ™, 38, the same contusion has arisen in the case of vouchsafed to give a beautiful form and aspect. It the sons of Azel, of whom the second is in the Auth. still is and has always been the custom of the Eistern j Vers, called Bocheru, in Heb. Sf"D2, but which in the nations to choose such for their principal officers, or to j Sept. is rendered TrpmroroKoc, avrov, another name, wait on princes and great personages (Dan. i, 4). Sir 'Aau, being added to make up the six sons of Azel. Paul Rycaut observes that "the youths that are de- ! And that the Sept. is right in the rendering is made signed for the great offices of the Turkish empire must j highly probable by the very same form being repeated be of admirable features and looks, well shaped in their | in ver. 39, "And the sons of Esliek his brother were, Ulam bodies, and without any defects of nature ; for it is \ his first-born (\'y\2'3>\ Jehushthe second" etc. The sup- conceived that a corrupt and sordid soul can scarce in- j portj to0j wn;ch Becher, as a proper name, derives from habit a serene and ingenuous aspect ; and I have ob- | the occurrence 0f the same name in Num. xxvi, 35, is sarved not only in the seraglio, but also in the courts j SOmevvhat weakened by the fact that Bered (q. v.) of great men, their personal attendants have been of ] seems to be substituted for Becher in 1 Chron. vii, 20, comely lusty youths, well habited, deporting them- anci that the latter is omitted altogether in the Sept, selves with singular modesty and respect in the pres- ence of their masters ; so that when a pacha, aga-spahi travels, he is always attended with a comely equipage, followed by flourishing youths, well mounted." BEAUTY OF HOLINESS. See Holiness, Beau- ty of. Beb'ai, the name of one or two men, and a place. 1. (Heb. Bebay', "U2, from the Pehlvi bob, father; Sept. j3a[3ai, fitifiai, pa/31, and /SjjjSi), the head of one of the families that returned from Babylon with Zerub- babel (B.C. 53G) to the number of 623 (Ezra ii, 11 ; 1 Esdr. v, 13), or 628 by a different mode of reckoning (Neh. vii, 16), of whom his son Zechiriah, with 28 males, returned (B.C. 459) under Ezra (Ezra viii, 11 ; 1 Esdr. viii, 37). Several other of his sons are men- i version of Num. xxvi, 35. Moreover, which is per- haps the strongest argument of all, in the enumeration of the Benjamite families in Num. xxvi, 38, there is no mention of Becher or the Bachrites, but Ashbel and the Ashbclites immediately follow Bela and the Bela- ites. This last supposition, however, is decidedly neg- atived by the mention (1 Chron. vii, 8) of the distinctive sons of Becher as an individual. Becher was one of Benjamin's five sons that came down to Egypt with Jacob, being one of the fourteen descendants of Rachel who settled in Egypt. See Jacob. As regards the posterity of Becher, we find neverthe- less the singular fact of there being no family named af- ter him at the numbering of the Israelites in the plains of Moab, as related in Num. xxvi. But the no less tioned in chap, x, 28. He (if the same) subscribed to j singular circumstance of there being a Becher, and a the sacred covenant with Nehemiah ( Ezra x, 15). B.C. I family of Bachrites, among the sons of Ephraim (ver. gest an explanation. The by the men of Gath, fthe land of Goshen, imed only in Judith xv, 4. It is, perhaps, a mere rep- j m that border affray related in 1 Chron. vii, 21, had etition of the name Chobai (q. v.), ocurring next to it. sadly thinned the house of Ephraim of its males The Beccarelli. See Mysticism ; Quietism. | daughters of Ephraim must therefore have sought hus- Beccold. See Boccold. | bands in other tribes, and in many cases must have been heiresses. It is therefore possible that Becher, or his heir and head of his house, married an Ephraim- itish heiress, a daughter of Shuthelah (1 Chron. vii, 20, 21), and that his house was thus reckoned in the tribe of Ephraim, just as Jair, the son of Segub, was reckoned the sacred covenant with Nehemiah ( Ezra x, 15). B.C. I tamny oi nacnrues, among uie boi 410. Four of this family had taken foreign wives 35) has been thought to suggest an (Ezra x, 28 ; 1 Esdr. ix, 29). ! slaughter of the sons of Ephraim b 2. (Alex. Bjj/3at,Vat. omits ; Vulg. omits). A place ; who came to steal their cattle out of Be'cher (Heb. Be'her, 132, perh. first-born, but, according to Gesenius, a young camel ; so Simonis, Ono- mast. p. 399), the name of one or two men. 1. (Sept. Boyop and Bn\i'p.) The second son of Benjamin, according to the list both in Gen. xlvi, 21, and 1 Chr. vii, 6; but omitted in the list of the sons of Benjamin in 1 Chr. viii, 1, 2, as the text now stands, | the ^phraimTtes" viz], just before the entering into tl the tribe of Manasseh (1 Chron. ii, 22 ; Num. xxxii, •10, 41). The time when Becher first appears among unless, as seems, on the whole, most probable, he is isod land when the people were numbered by there called Nohah, the fourth son.^ rhere is also ^nealogies for the express purpose of dividing the in- heritance equitably among the tribes, is evidently good reason to identify him with the Ir of 1 Chr. vii 12. B.C. 1856. No one, however, can look at the Hebrew text of 1 Chr. viii, 1 (3b2TX TiVlfi "ja^ia brriX 11132), without at least suspecting that 1132, his first-born, is a corruption of 132, Becher, and that highly favorable to this view. (See Num. xxvi, 52- 56; xxvii.) The junior branches of Becher' s family would of course continue in the tribe of Benjamin. Their names, as given in 1 Chron. vii, 8, were Zemira, , Joash, Eliezer, Elioenai, Omri, Jerimoth, and Abiah ; the suffix 1 is a corruption of 1, and belongs to the other branchea possePsed the fields around Anathoth following P2EJX, so that the genuine sense, in that ) and Alameth (called Alemeth vi, 60, and Almon Josh, case, would be, Benjam'n begat Bela, Beehr, and Ash- xxi, 18). As the most important of them, being ances- bel, in exact agreement with Gen. xlvi, 21. The enu- tor to King Saul, and his great captain Abner (1 Sam. meration, the second, the third, etc., must then have xiv, 50), the last named, Abiah, was literally Becher's KECIIORATH 714 BECKET son, it would Been) that the rest (with others not there named) were likewise. See Jacob. The generations appear to have been as follows : Becher— Abiah ; then (after a long interval, see .Sail) Aphiah (1 Sam. ix, l)_Bechorath— Zeror— Abiel (Jehiel, 1 Chron. ix, 35) — Ner— Kish— Saul. Aimer was another son of Ner, brother therefore to Kish, and uncle to Saul. Abiel or Jehiel seems to have been the first of his house who settled at Gibeon or Gibeah (1 Chron. viii, 29; ix, 35), whicb perhaps he acquired by his marriage with Maa- chah, and which became thenceforth the seat of his family, and was called afterward Gibeah of Saul (1 Sam. xi, 4; Isa. x, 29). From 1 Chron. viii, G, it would seem that before this, Gibeon, orGeba, had been possessed by the sons of Ehud (called Abihud ver. 3) and other sous of Bela. Another remarkable descend- ant of Becher was Sheba, the son of Bichri, a Benjamite, who headed the formidable rebellion against David described in 2 Sam. xx ; and another, probably Shimei, the son of Gera of Bahurim, who cursed David as he lied from Absalom (2 Sam. xvi, 5), since he is said to be "a man of the family of the house of Saul." But if so, Gera must be a different person from the Gera of Gen. xlvi, 21 and 1 Chron. viii, 3. Perhaps therefore ~n~'l""2 is used in the wider sense of trile, as Josh, vii, 17, and so the passage may only mean that Shimei was a Benjamite. A third solution of both the above difficulties is to transfer from the 35th verse to the 38th of Num. xxvi the clause, " Of Becker the family of the Backrites," in- serting it in its natural place between Bela and his family and Ashbel and his family; the 38th verse would then stand thus: uThe sons of Benjamin, after their families : of Bela, the family of the Belaites; of Becher, the family of the Bachrites; of Ashbel, the family of the Ashbelites," etc. This conjectural emendation is in part confirmed by the reading of the Sept. Thus, in the case before us, we have the tribe of Benjamin described (1) as it was about the time when Jacob went down into Egypt, or rather at his death ; (2) as it was just before the entrance into Ca- naan : (3) as it was in the days of David; and (4) as it was eleven generations after Jonathan and David, i. e. in Hezekiah's reign. — Smith. See Genealogy. 2. (Sept. omits.) The second son of Ephraim ; his posterity were called Bachrites (Num. xxvi, 35). In 1 Chron. vii, 20, Bered seems to have" been his nephew rather than the same person, as the margin Bupposes. B.C. post 1874. There is some reason, however, for identifying him with the preceding (see above). Becho'rath (Heb. BehoratV, STrtiaa, first-born ; Sept. Bj xwpaS v. r. li,i\in), the son of Aphiah, and the great-grandfather of Ner, the grandfather of King Saul (1 Sam. ix, 1). B.C. long ante 1093. Becker for Bekkeu), Balthasar, was born Mar. 30, 1634, in Friesland, and became a minister at Am- Btefdam. He was a zealous ( !artesian, and was charged wiib Socinianism. His reputation chiefly rests upon a work in Dutch, entitled />< Betooverdt Wereld,"The Enchanted World" (Amst. 1691-93), which undertakes to show that the devil never inspires men with evil thoughts, nor tempts them, and that men have never iessed will, devils, etc. His views of damion- i ical possession, etc., arc in Bubstance those of the mod- i ni I: itionalists, of whom ho was a forerunner in other doctrines aswel] asinthi . The Consistory of Amster- ,1:"" deposed him i„ LG92. The above work was trans- 1,1 '' ""■■ I rench | i vols. Amst. 1694), into German (by Schwager, Amst. 1693, new ed. by Sender, Leipz. ■ and into English. Backer died June 11,1698. S-- /.;/: bySchwabe(Kopenh.l780); Mos- beim, ), which seems to be the proper term. Such pillows are common to this day in the E ist, formed of sheep's fleece or goat's skin, with a stuffing of cotton, etc. We read of a "pillow," f.lso, in the boat in which our Lord lay asleep (Mark iv, 38) as he crossed the lake. The block of stone, such as Jacob used, covered, perhaps, with a garment, was not unusual among the poorer folk, shepherds, etc. See T'ili.i i\v. 6. The ornamental portions, and those which luxury added, were pillars and a canopy (Judith xiii, 9); ivory carvings, gold and silver (Joseph. Ant. xii, 21, 14), and probably mosaic work, purple and fine linen, are also mentioned as constituting parts of beds (Esth. i. G; Cant, iii, 9, 10), where the word "P'1",?>f;, appiryon' (Sept. (popelov), seems to mean " a litter"' (Prov. vii, 16, 17 ; Amos xi, 4). So also are perfumes. — Smith, s. v. See SLEEP. Be'dad (Ileb. Br dad', 1^2, separation, otherwise for -HX---:. son o/Adad; Sept. Bapad), the father of Iladad, a king in Edom (Gen. xxxvi, 35; IChr. i, 4C). B.C. ante 1093. Be 'dan (Ileb. Bedan', -,na, signif. doubtful; see below), the name of two men. 1. In 1 Sam. xii, 11, we read that the Lord sent as | deliverers of Israel Jerubbaal, Bedan, Jephthah, Sam- uel. Three Of these we know to have been judges of Israel, but we nowhere find Bedan among the number. I h ■ Targum understands it of Samson, and so Jerome an 1 the generality of interpreters ; but this interpreta- ti >n goes on the supposition that the name should be rendered in Dan, i. e. one in Dan, or of the tribe of Dan, as Samson was. In this sense, as Kiinehi ob- would have the same force as Ben-Dan, a son of Dan, a Danite. Such an intermixture of proper n itni - and appellatives, however, is very doubtful; and II '- to I"- noted thai Bedan is mentioned before Jeph- thah, whereas Samson was after him. The Septua- gint. Syria.-, and Arabic have Barak, which many think the preferable reading (comp. Heb. xi, 32). Oth- ers think there was an actual judge of this name not mentioned In the < >. T. ; but this view is subversive of the whole history, and discountenanced by the par- allel account of Josephus. See Judge. A man of the name of Bedan occurs, however, among the poster- BEDE ity of Manasseh (1 Chron. vii, 17), and Junius, follow- ed by some others, thinks that the judge Jair is meant, and that he is here called Bedan to distinguish him from the more ancient Jair, the son of Manasseh. The order in which the judges are here named is not at va- riance with this view (Num. xxxii, 41 ; Judg. x, 3, 4); but surely, if Jair had been really intended, he might have been called by that name without any danger of his being, in this text (where he is called a deliverer of Israel, and placed among the judges), confounded with the more ancient Jair. It is therefore most prob- able that Bedan is a contracted form for the name of the judge Abdon (q. v.). 2. (Sept. liavctft.) The son of Ullam, the great- grandson of Manasseh (1 Chron. vii, 17). B.C. post 1856. See the foregoing. Bedchamber (rYlBXlh ItJ room of the beds, 2 Kings xi, 2; 2 Chron. xxii, 11 ; elsewhere aS^1? "I^fi, sleeping-room, Exod. viii, 3; 2 Sam. iv, 7; 2 Kings vi, 12 ; Eccles. x, 20). Bedrooms in the East consist of an apartment furnished with a divan, or dais, which is a slightly elevated platform at the upper end, and often along the sides of the room. On this are laid the mattresses on which the Western Asiatics sit cross- legged in the daytime, with large cushions against the wall to support the back. At night the light bedding is usually laid out upon this divan, and thus beds for many persons are easily formed. The bedding is re- moved in the morning, and deposited in recesses in the room made for the purpose. This is a sort of general sleeping-room for the males of the family and for guests, none but the master having access to the inner parts i of the house, where alone there are proper and distinct i bedchambers. In these the bedding is either laid on the carpeted floor, or placed on a low frame or bed- j stead. This difference between the public and private I sleeping-room, which the arrangement of an Eastern household renders necessary, seems to explain the dif- ficulties which have perplexed readers of travels, who, j finding mention only of the more public dormitory, the j divan, have been led to conclude that there was no other or different one. See Divan. Josephus (Ant. xii, 4, 11) mentions the bedchambers in the Arabian palace of Hyrcanus. The ordinary furniture of a bedchamber in private life is given in '2 Kings iv, 10. The "bedchamber'' in the Temple where Joash was hidden was probably a store-ch; m- ber for keeping beds, not a mere bedroom, and thus better adapted to conceal the fugitives (2 Kings xi, 2; 2 Chr. xxii, 11). The position of the bedchamber in the most remote and secret parts of the palace seems marked in Exod. viii, 3; 2 Kings vi, 12. See Bed. Bede, "The Venerable" one of the moft eminent fathers of the English Church, was born in the county of Durham, in the year 072 (073, Collier). His early years were spent in the monastery of St. Paul at Jar- row, and his later education was received in that of St. Peter at Wearmouth. In these two monasteries, which were not above five miles apart, he spent his life, under the rule of Benedict and Ceolfride, who was the first abbot of Jarrow, and who, after the death BEDE 717 BEDE of Benedict, presided over both houses. At nineteen ! following is the catalogue of liis writings given by years of age he was made deacon, and was ordained to Cave : 1. D.i Rerwn Natura Hber: — 2. De Temporum the priesthood, as he himself tells us, at thirty- years Itatione : — 3. De Sex .Etntibus Mundi (separately, at of age, by John of Beverley, Bishop of Hagustald Paris, 1507 ; Cologne, 1537): — 4. De tempuribus ad in- (Hexham). Pope Sergius I invited him to Rome to | telligendam supputationem temporum S. Script urw : — 5. assist him with his advice; but Bede, it appears, ex- Si nt< utia- ex Cicerone et Aristotele : — G. De Proverliis : — cased himself, and spent the whole of his tranquil life 7. De substantia elementorum : — 8. Philosophic lib. IV: in his monastery, improving himself in all the learning — 9. De Paschate sine yEquinoctio liber: — 10. Ep:slola of his age, but directing his more particular attention de divinatione mortis s- opinion, May 20th, 735, though the exact date has J times in Octateuchum et IV libros Regum: — 39. Quces- been contested. tiones Varice: — 40. Commentaria in Psalmos: — 41. Vo- The first catalogue of Bede's works, as we have be- cabulorum Psalterii Expositio : — 42. De Diapsalmate col- tore observed, we have from himself, at the end of his | lectio: — 43. Sermo in id, " Dominus de ccelo prospcxit .-" Ecclesiastical History, which contains all he had writ- j —44. Commentarii in Boethii Libros de Trinitate : — 45. ten before the year 731. This we find copied by Le- De septem verbis Christ!: — 4G. Meditationes Passionis land, who also mentions some other pieces he had met Christi, per septem horas diei: — 47. De Remediis Pecca- with of Bede's, and points out likewise several that \torum (his Penitential) :— 48. Cunabula grammatical passed under Bede's name, though, in Leland's judg- ar/is Donati: — 49. De oeto partibus Orationis:—b0. De ment, spurious (Leland, D<> Script. Brit. ed. Hall, Ox- ; Arte Metricd :— 51 . De Orthographia:— 52. De schemali- ford, 1709, i, 115). Bale, in the first edition of his \bus S. Script urw : —53. De tropis S. Scriptural; and work on British writers (4to, Gippesw. 1548, fol. 50), j various works relating to arithmetic, astronomy, etc. mentions ninety-six treatises written by Bede, and in : etc. All these works were collected and published at his last edition (fol. 1559, p. 94) swells these to one Paris, in 3 vols, fol., 1545, and again in 1554, in 8 hundred and forty-five tracts,' and declares at the vols. ; also at Basle in 1563 ; at Cologne in 1612; and close of both catalogues that there were numberless ' again in 1688, in 4 vols. fol. The Cologne edition pieces besides of Bede's which he had not seen. The | of 1612 is very faulty. There is also a pretty com- BEDEIAII 718 BEDSTEAD plete edition in Migne, Patrohgia Cursus, vols. 90-90 I p.uis L850, 6 vols. 8vo). An edition of the historical and theological works (edited by .1. A. Giles, LL.D.) was published at London in 1842-3, in 12 vols. 8vo. The best edition of the Latin text of the Historia. Ec- clesiastica is that of Stevenson (London, 1838, 8vo), which gives also a Life of Bede, (English version by Giles, Li mdon, 1810 and 1847, 8 vo). Besides the above, we have— 54. Acta S. Cuthberti, attributed to Bede, and published by Canisius, Ant. Led. v, 692 (or ii, 4, nov. cd.) : 55. A ri. v. July, 1861, art. iii ; Biog. Univ. iv, 38 ; Engl. Cyelopadia, s. v. Bede'iah(Heb. Bedeyah', H^S, for fi^" CS, i. q. "( >! adiah," servant of Jehovah; Sept. Bao«fa), one of the family of Bani, who divorced his foreign wife on the return from Babylon (Ezra x, 35). B.C. 458. Bedel], derived by Spelman, Vossius, and others from Sax. BvhJ, which signifies a crier; thus bishops, in many old Saxon MSS., are called the "Bedells of God," preecones Dei. The name is now applied in Eng- land almost exclusively to the bedells of the univer- sities, who carry the mace before the chancellor or vice-chancellor. Martene says that the inferior appar- itors, who cited persons to court, were also called be- dells.—-Landon, Eccl. Diet, ii, 121. Bedell, Gregory T., D.D., a distinguished minister of the Prot- estant Episcopal Church, was born on Staten Island, Oct. 28, 1793, and graduated at Columbia College 1811. After studying theology under Dr. How of Trinity, he was ordained 1 y Bishop Hobart in 1814. His first chai ;e was at Hudson, N. Y., where he remained from 1815 to 1818, when he removed to Fayettevillc, N. C. Finding the climate unfavorable, he removed to Phil- adelphia in 1822, and a new church (St. Andrew's) was organized, of which he remained the faithful and devoted pastor until his death in 1834. In 1830 he was made D.l). at Dickinson College. His zeal devoured his strength; no labor seemed too great, if he could win souls; and his memory is precious among < Ihristians of all churches in Philadelphia, He vi rote a number of small religious books, and was, for ears, editor of the" Episcopal Recorder." His (Phil. 1835, 2 vols. 8vo) were edited by Dr. Tyng, with a sketch of bis life.— Sprague, Annals, v, 556j Bee also Tyng, Memoir of th Rev. G. T. Bedell (Phil. 1836, 2d ed. I ; Ulibone, Diet, of Authors, i. 154. Bedell, William, an Irish prelate, was bom at Notley, Essex, 1570, and educated at Emanuel Col- loge, Cambridge, where he became P>.1>. 1599. His in-.t preferment was St Edmondsbury, Suffolk, which he left iii 1604 to become chaplain to Sir Henry Wot- ton, ambassador at Venice. At Venice he spent 8 nd was intimate with He Dominis (q. V.) and F.aher Paul Sarpi (q. v.); and, on returning to Eng- land, he translated Father Paul's History of the Coun- cil of Trent into Latin. In 1627 he was appointed pro- vost of Trinity College, Dublin, and in 1629 bishop of Kilmorc and Ardagh. He set himself to reform abuses, and gave an example by relinquishing one of his dioceses (Ardagh). Through his labors many Bo- manists, including priests, were converted; and he had the Bible and Prayer-book translated into Irish. In 1641 he was imprisoned by the rebels, and died from his sufferings, Feb. 6. His Life, with the Letters h< tween Waddesworth and Bedell, was published by Bishop Bur- net (Lond. 1685, 8vo). See Coleridge, Works, v, 313. Bedford, Arthur, an Oriental scholar of some note, was born in Gloucestershire 1G68. He studied at Brazenose College, Oxford, where he passed A.M. in 1691. In 1692 he became vicar of Temple Church, Bristol, and in 1724 he was chosen chaplain to the Haberdashers' Hospital, London, where he died in 1745. Among his works are, 1. Evil and Danger ofStoge-plays (Lond. 1706, 8vo) :— 2. The Temple Music (Lond. 1706, 8vo): — 3. The Great Abuse of Music (8vo) : — i. An Es- say on Singing David's Psalms (8vo): — 5. Animadver- sions on Sir Isaac Newton's Chronology (Lond. 1728, 8vo) : — 6. A Sermon at St. Botolph's, Aldgate, agmist Stage-plays (1730, 8vo): — 7 '. Scripture Chronology '(Lond. 17S0, fol.) : — 8. Eight Sermons on the Doctrine of the Trin- ity (Lond. 1740, 8vo) ; — 9. The Doctrine of Justification by Faith stated (1741, 8vo).— Hook, Eccl. Biog. ii, 217. Bedil. See Tin. Bedolach. See Bdellium. Bedstead (lU'nS, e'res, Deut. iii, 11 ; elsewhere "couch," "bed"). The couches of the Jews for re- pose and for the use of the sick were usually perhaps simply the standing and fixed divans such as those on which the Western Asiatics commonly make their beds at night. The divan is probably meant in 2 Kings i, 4 ; xxi, 2 ; Psa. exxxii, 4 ; Amos iii, 12 (Haeketfs Illus- tra. of Script, p. 58-60). The most common bedstead in Egypt and Arabia is framed rudely of palm-sticks such as was used in Ancient Egypt. In Palestine, Syr- ia, and Persia, where timber is more plentiful, a bed- frame of similar shape is made of boards. This kind Ancient Egyptian Lattice Bedstead. of bedstead is also used upon the house-tops during the season in which people sleep there. It is more than likely that Og's bedstead was of this description (Deut. iii, 11). In the times in which he lived the palm-tree was more common in Palestine than at present, and the bedsteads in ordinary use were probably formed of palm-sticks. They would therefore be incapable of sustaining any undue weight without being dis- jointed and bent awry, and this would dictate the ne- cessity of making that destined to sustain the vast bulk of ( >g rather of rods of iron than of the mid-ribs of the palm-fronds. These bedsteads are also of a length seldom more than a few inches beyond the av- erage human stature (commonly six feet three inch- es), and hence the propriety witli which the length of Og's bedstead is stated to convey an idea of his stature — a fact which has perplexed those who sup- posed there was no other bedstead than the divan, see- ing that the length of the divan has no determinate reference to the stature of the persons reposing on it. There are traces of a kind of portable couch (1 Sam. xix, 15), which appears to have served as a sofa for BEDSTEAD 719 BEE Ancient Egyptian Couch, with Head-rest and Step*. sitting on in the daytime (1 Sam. xxviii, 3 ; Ezek. xxiii, 41 ; Amos vi, 4) ; and there is now the less rea- son to doubt that the ancient Hebrews enjoyed this con- venience. Such couches were capable of receiving those ornaments of ivory which arc mentioned in Amos vi, 4, which of itself shows that the Hebrews had some- thing of the kind, forming an ornamental article of fur- niture. A bed with a tester is mentioned in Judith Ancient Greek Couch. From the Sculptures in Asia Minor. xvi, 23, which, in connection with other indications, and the frequent mention of rich tapestries hung upon and about a bed for luxuriousness and ornament, proves that such beds as are still used by royal and distin- guished personages were not unknown under the He- brew monarchy (comp. Esth. i, 6 ; Prov. vii, 16 sq. ; Ezek. xxiii, 41). There is but little distinction of the iV^A^VVVXJ<,^2iE^yvvvbrgv^T m/MWMMmm Modern Oriental Bed, with Canopy. bed from sitting furniture among the Orientals ; the same article being used for nightly rest and during the day. This applies both to the divan and bedstead in all its forms, except perhaps the litter. Tbere was also a garden- watcher's bed, il3;l?p, inelunak', render- ed variously in the Autb.Ver. "cottage" and "lodge," which seems to have been slung like a hammock, perhaps from the trees (Isa. i, 8 ; xxiv, 20). — Kitto. See Bed ; Canopy. Bee (flTD1?, deborah', Gr. piXitjaa), a gregarious insect, of the family Apidce, or- der [fymenoplera, species Apis mell'ftca, com- monly called the honey-bee, one of the most generally-diffused creatures on the globe. Its instincts, its industry, and the valuable product of its labors, have attained for it universal attention from the remotest times. A prodigious number of books have been written, periodical publications have ap- peared, and even learned societies have been founded, with a view to promote the knowl- edge of the bee, and increase its usefulness to man. Poets and moralists of every age have derived from it some of their most beautiful and striking illustrations. The following is a mere outline of the facts ascer- tained by Swammerdam, Maraldi, Reaumur, Schirach, Bonnet, and Huber: — Its anatomy and physiology, com- prehending the antennae, or tactors, by which it exer- cises at least all the human senses ; the eye, full of lenses, and studded with hairs to ward off the pollen or dust of flowers, and the three additional eyes on the top of the head, giving a defensive vision upward from the cups of flowers ; the double stomach, the upper performing the office of the crop in birds, and regurgi- tating the honey, and the lower secreting the wax into various sacklets ; the baskets on the thighs for carry- ing the pollen; the hooked feet; the union of chem- ical and mechanical perfection in the sting ; its organs of progressive motion ; its immense muscular strength: — the different sorts of bees inhabiting a hive, and com- posing the most perfect form of insect society, from The Honey-Bee. 1, Female, or Queen: 2, Male, or Drone; 8, Neuter, or Worker. the stately venerated queen-regnant, the mother of the whole population and their leader in migrations, down to the drone, each distinguished by its peculiar form and occupations : — the rapidity of their multiplication ; the various transitions from the egg to the perfect in- sect ; the amazing deviations from the usual laws of the animal economy ; the means by which the loss of a queen is repaired, amounting to the literal creation of another; their architecture (taught by the great Geometrician, who "made all things by number, weight, and measure"), upon the principles of the most refined geometrical problem ; their streets, mag- azines, royal apartments, houses for the citizens ; their care of the young, consultations and precautions in sending forth a new colony; their military prowess, fortifications, and discipline; their attachment to the hive and the common interest, yet patience under pri- vate wronirs; the subdivision of labor, by which thou- sands of individuals co-operate without confusion in the construction of magnificent public works; the uses they serve, as the promoting of the fructification of BEE 720 BEECHER flowers; the amazing number and precision of their instincts, and the capability of modifying these by cir- cumstances, bo far as to raise a doubt whether they be not endowed with a portion, at least, of intelligence resembling that of man. The bee is first mentioned in Dent, i, 44, where Mo- ses alludes to the irresistible vengeance with which bees pursue their enemies. A similar reference to their fury in swarms is contained in Psa. cxviii, 12. The powerlessness of man under the united attacks of these insects is well attested. Pliny relates that bees troublesome in some parts of Crete that the inhabitants were compelled to forsake their homes, and .Elian records that some places in Scythia were formerly inaccessible on account of the swarms of bees with which they were infested. Mr. Park {Travels, ii, 37) relates that at Doofroo, some of the people, being in search of hone}', unfortunately disturbed a swarm of bees, which came out in great numbers, attacked both nun and beasts, obliged them to fly in all directions, so that he feared an end had been put to his journey, and that one ass died the same night, and another the next morning. Even in England the stings of two exasperated hives have been known to kill a horse in a few minutes. In Judg. xiv, 5-8, it is related that Samson, aided by supernatural strength, rent a young lion that war- red against him as he would have rent a kid, and that ' ' after a time. ' ' as he returned to take his wife, he turn- ed aside to see the carcass of the lion, "and, behold, there was a swarm of bees and honey in the carcass of the lion." It has been hastily concluded that this narrative favors the mistaken notion of the ancients, possibly derived from misunderstanding this very ac- count, that bees might be engendered in the dead bod- ies of animals (Virgil, Georg. iv), and ancient authors are quoted to testify to the aversion of bees to flesh, unpleasant smells, and filthy places. But it may read- ily be perceived that it is not said that the bees were LikI in the body of the lion. Again, the frequently- recurring phrase "after a time," literally "after days." introduced into the text, proves that at least sufficient time had elapsed for all the flesh of the ani- mal to have been removed by birds and beasts of prey, ant-, etc. The Syriac version translates "the bony carcass." Bochart remarks that the Hebrew phrase sometimes signifies « whole year, and in this passage it would seem likely to have this meaning, because such was the length of time which usually elapsed between espousal and marriage (see ver. 7). He refers to Gen. iv. .'. : xxiv, 55 ; Lev. xxv, 'J'.), 30 ; Judg. xi, 4 ; comp. with ver. 10; 1 Sam. i, 3; comp. with ver. 7, 20; and 1 Sou. ii, 19; and 1 Sam. xxvii, 7. The circumstance that "/' if f/" was found in the carcass as well as bees shows that sufficient time had elapsed since their pos- session of it for all the flesh to be removed. Nor is such an abode for bees, probably in the skull or thon ,x, more unsuitable than a hollow in a rock, or in a tree, or in the ground, in which we know they often reside, or those clay nests which they build for themselves in Brazil. Nor i- the fact without parallel. Herodotus (v, Hi relates that a swarm of bees took up their the skull of one Silius, an ancient invader of Cyprus, which they tilled with honey-combs, after the inhabitants had suspended it over the gate of their imilar tory is told by Aldrovandus (Z)e In- 11 f -"in" bees that inhabited and built their combs in -. human skeleton in a tomb in a church :- i. 3, the production of honey ind it- use as food, arc also mentioned, lice's mu t have b( •n very common in Palestine to justify ""• 'i'1" given to it ..f a land flowing with milk and honey. They ar- -till abundant there (Shaw. Trar. i- : Oedinann, Samml. vi, 136), and mentioned in the Talmud i ( h* Urn, wi, 7: Sabb. xxiv. 3 Philo, Qpp. ii, 638; Bochart, iii. 352. See Honey. The reference to the bee in Isa, vii, IS, has been misunderstood: "The Lord shall hiss for the fly that is in the uttermost parts of the river of Egypt, end for the bee that is i:i the land of Assyria." Here the fly and the Lee are no doubt personifications of those in- veterate enemies of Israel, the Egyptians and Assyri- ans, whom the Lord threatened to excite against his disobedient people. But the hissing for them has been interpreted, even by modern writers of eminence, as involving " an allusion to the practice of calling out the bees from their hives, by a hissing or whistling sound, to their labor in the fields, and summoning them tn n (urn when the heavens begin to hirer, or the shad tics oft V( rang to fall" (Dr. Harris's Natural History of the Bible, London, 1825). No one has offered any proof of the existence of such a custom, and the idea will it- self seem sufficiently strange to all who are acquainted with the habits of bees. The true allusion is, no doubt, to the custom of the people of the East, and even of many parts of Europe, of calling the attention of any one in the street, etc., by a significant hiss, or rather hist, as Lowth translates the word both here and in Isa. v, 26, but which is generally done in this country by a short significant hem! or other exclama- tion. Hissing, or rather histing, is in use among us for setting a dog on an}' object. Hence the sense of the threatening is, I will direct the hostile attention of the Egyptians and Assyrians against you. — Kitto. In the Septuagint version there is an allusion to the bee, immediately after that of the ant (Prov. vi, 8), which may be thus rendered — "Or go to the bee, and learn how industrious she is, and what a magnificent work she produces ; whose labors kings and common people use for their health. And she is desired ; nd praised by all. And though weak in strength, yet prizing wisdom, she prevails." This passage is not now found in any Hebrew copy, and Jerome informs us that it was wanting in his time. Neither is it con- tained in any other version except the Arabic. It is nevertheless quoted by many ancient writers, as Clem. Alex. Slrom. lib. i ; Origen, in Num. Horn. 27, and in ' Isai. II< m. 2; Basil, Hexameron, Horn. 8; Ambrose, v, 21; Jerome, in Ezek. iii; Theodoret, De Providtntia, Oral. 5 ; Antiochus, Abbas Sabba;, Horn. 30 ; and John Damascenus, ii, 89. It would seem that it was in the Ileb. copy used by the Greek translators. The ant and the bee are mentioned together by many writ- ers, because of their similar habits of industry and economy. For the natural history and habits of the bee, see the Penny Cyclojmdia, s. v. See Swarm. Beecham, John, D.D., an eminent English Meth- odist minister, was born in Lincolnshire, 1787. Con- verted at an early age, he united with the Methodists, and thereby lost the patronage of some friends who designed to educate him for the ministry in the Estab- lished Church. In 1815 he entered the Wesleyan min- istry, and for sixteen years he labored in circuits with growing usefulness and esteem. His studious hab- its enabled him early to lay deep foundations in theo- logical knowledge, and his fidelity in his work was equal to the breadth of his acquirements. In 1831 he was appointed one of the general secretaries of the Wesleyan Missionary Society, and in this highly re- sponsible office he continued to labor, with the entire confidence of the Church, up to the time of his death. In administering foreign missions he combined large- ness of views with careful attention to detail ; and it is not too much to Bay that the wonderful success of the Methodist missions during the last quarter of a century is due largely to his skill and diligence. In 1855 be visited the eastern provinces of British North America, and died April "22, 1856. He wrote many of the missionary reports, and also An Essay on tin' Constitution of Wesleyan Methodism (Lond. 1850, 8vo). — Wesleyan M'nutes\ Lond. 1850), p. 30 ; Wesleyan Mag' azine, July, 1856. Beecher, Jacob, a minister of the German Be- BEECHER m BEECHER formed Church, was born near Petersburg, Adams Co., Penn., May 2d, 1799, and studied first at an acad- emy in Hagerstown, Md., and afterward in Jefferson College, Cannonsburg, Penn. ; pursued his theolog- ical studies first at Princeton Seminary, and afterward continued them, in connection with the German lan- guage, in the newly-established Theological Seminary of the German Reformed Church, then located at Car- lisle, Penn. He was licensed and ordained in 1826. lie immediately took charge of the German Reformed Church of Shepherdstown, Va., together with several affiliated congregations. His health was always fee- ble. With the hope of improving it, he spent the winter of 1830-31 in the South, in the service of the American Sunday School Union. He died July loth, 1831. Though his life and the period of his labors were brief, such were his piet}' and zeal that few min- isters are more sacredly remembered in the German Reformed Church. He preached both in the German and English languages. Beecher, Lyman, D.D., an eminent Presbyte- rian minister, was born at New Haven, Conn., October 12th, 1775. His father, David Beecher, was a black- smith, " whose strong, positive character, whose many eccentricities, and whose great dark ej'es gave him a celebrity in all the country round. As a boy he was placed with his uncle, Lot Benton, to learn farming, but it was soon found that his bent did not lie that way, and he was sent to Yale College, where he grad- uated A.B. in 1797. During his college career ho earned no distinction by scholarly acquirements, but was early noticed as a remai'kably vigorous and orig- inal thinker and reasoner. In a debate on baptism, started among the students, he took the Baptist side, ' because,' as he said, ' no one else would take it.' He studied theology with Dr. Dwigl^t for one year, and was licensed to preach by the New Haven West As- sociation in 1798. In 1799 he was ordained, and in- stalled as pastor at East Hampton, Long Island, where he remained eleven years, at a salary of $300 a year. In 1810 he removed to Litchfield, Conn., then the seat of a famous law-school, in which many of the states- man of the last generation were trained. Here ho spent sixteen years of indefatigable pastoral labor, and here, too, he wrote his famous ' Six Sermons on In/ m/i ranee,' which were suggested by the sudden downfall of two of his most intimate friends. In 1826' he accepted a call to the Hanover Street Church, Boston, where he spent six years of immense activity and popularity, distinguished also by the boldness and success with which heoppposed Dr. Channing and grap- pled Unitarianism, which has never since been as donj- inant in Boston as before. In 1832 he accepted the presidency of Lane Theological Seminary, Cincinnati, in which service, and that of the Second Presbyterian Church, Cincinnati, he remained during twenty event- ful years. In 1833 seventy students withdrew from the seminary on account of a stupid rule, adopted by the trustees in Dr. Beecher's absence, with regard to the discussion of slavery, and this secession laid the foun- dation of Oberlin College. Oddly enough, Dr. Beecher, himself an abolitionist, and the father of Abolitionists, was now the head of an institution stigmatized as ' pro- slavery.' The doctrinal views of Dr. Beecher had al- ways been moderately Calvinistic, and he was charired by some of the stronger Calvinists with heresy. A trial ensued, ending in 1835, by the adoption of resolutions to which Dr. Beecher assented ; but the controversy went on until at last the Presbyterian Church (q. v.) was rent in twain by it. In 1852 Dr. Beecher re- signed the presidency of the seminary and returned to Boston. His declining years were spent in Brooklyn, where he died Jan. 10th, 1863. He was three times married, and was the father of thirteen children, of whom several have risen to eminence : Edward, Henry Ward, Charles, and Thomas as preachers, and Catha- rine and Harriet (Mrs. Stowe, the author of " Uncle Zz Tom's Cabin") as writers. He had a vigorous organ, ization, both physical and mental, and was equally noted for boldness and kindness. As an orator, he was one of the most peculiar, brilliant, and effective of his day. By nature he was a strong reasoner, yet he reasoned rather in the style of an advocate, aiming at a point, than of a judge or a statesman, aiming to cover a whole field of discussion. He spoke and wrote always for some immediate purpose." Albert Barnes states that " no oratory he ever heard equalled Beech- er's in his grand flights." Dr. Noah Porter {New Englander, xxiii, 354) characterizes Dr. Beecher as follows: "As a preacher, Dr. Beecher was deservedly eminent. But it would be a mistake to account him a ranter, or a fervid declaimer, or an energetic exhort- er, or a devout rhapsodist. He was a thinker and a reasoner. His own sturdy and thoughtful intellect could be satisfied with no aliment less substantial than solid reasoning and sound common sense, and he could not bring himself to present to other minds any ma- terial different from that which he required for him- self. But reasoning in a sermon for the sake of its ingenuity, or speculation for mere speculation's sake, his own soul abhorred. He must needs bring every argument to its practical conclusion, and then press it upon the conscience and the heart with all the pow- er which fervor, and energy, and tact could furnish. Plain language, apt illustrations, and fervent appeals, were the investments with which his nice sense of adaptation and his apostolical love of souls led him to clothe his reasonings. He did not trust exclusively or chiefly to his extemporary power, rare and service- able as this might be. On many single discourses he bestowed the labor of weeks, and the felicity and choiceness of the language, as well as the arrangement and power of the thoughts, testify to the value of the labor and time expended. Some of his ablest occa- sional discourses will never cease to be models of the noblest kind of pulpit eloquence. As a reformer he was enterprising, bold, and judicious. The secret of his power and success lay in his firm faith in the pow- er of truth as adapted to change the moral convictions of men, and thus to reform the sentiments and prac- tices of society, and, as designed in the purposes of God, to accomplish great revolutions by means of its faithful proclamation. His policy was bold, because he believed in God. He was enterprising, because he was assured that the cause was not his own. He was judicious, because his heart was set upon the work to be accomplished, and not upon any traditional ways of procedure on the one side, or any novel devices on the other. Hence he was inventive and docile ; skil- ful by his quiet discernment to judge when the old methods were outworn, and fertile to devise those un- tried expedients which were best fitted to the ends which he believed could and should be accomplished. He was all things to all men, in the good sense of the phrase, because the apostolic feeling was eminent in him, that by any means he might save forae. But in all his reforming movements his public spirit was con- spicuous in a large-hearted sympathy with the public interests, and an intense personal concern for the Church, his country, and his race. This led him, when in an obscure parish on the farthest extremity of Long Island, to lay upon his own soul the responsi- bility for the practice of duelling, and to sound the I trumpet note which rung throughout the land. This I induce 1 him to sympathize with the feebler churches j in the thinly-peopled and decaying towns of Connecti- cut, and to "lay the duty of sisterly sympathy and aid upon the wealthier parishes. This moved him to see and feel the wasting desolations of intemperance, not in this or that family or social circle in Litchfield alone, but to make this family and circle the image of thousands of families and communities throughout 1 the country, till the word of the Lord was a fire in his I bones, and "he could not but lift his voice in the appall- EEEF 722 BEER-ELM ing energy of a commissioned prophet. The preva- 1 -I],- 1 of dan ;erous error depressed and vexed his spir- it till it found relief in plans, and protests, and move- ments which wriv felt through New England. As a theologian he was thoroughly practical, and bis views of theology were moulded by a constant reference to its manifest adaptation to the great end for which a revelation was given to man." His autobiography and life, edited by the Rev. Charles Beecher, appeared in 1864 5(N. Y. 2 vols. 12mo). His writings, chiefly ser- mons, temperance essays, lectures, and review arti- cles, were collected substantially, and published un- der his own supervision, in the Works of Lyman Beecher, D.D. (Boston, 1852, 3 vols. 8vo ; vol. i, Lec- tures on Political Atheism ; vol. ii, Sermons; vol. iii, Views in Theology).— Wilson, Presbyterian Almanac, 1861; Amer. Plirenolrgical Journal, Feb. 1863; Auto- biography of Dr. Lyman Beecher (N. Y. 1864-5, 2 vols. 12mo) : /; bliotheca Sacra, April, 1852 ; NewEnglander, April, 1864. Beef. See Ox ; Food. BeeTi'ada (Heb. Bcelyada', r"i^?"3, whom Baal knows; Sept. 'EXtaSs v. r. BaWiada), one of David's sons, born in Jerusalem (1 Chron. xiv, 7). B.C. post 1045. In the parallel lists (1 Sam. v, 16; 1 Chron. iii. 8 i he is called by the equivalent name Eliada, El being, perhaps, originally in the name rather than Baal. See Baal-. Beel'sarus (RnXaapoc), one of the chief Israel- ites ("guides") that returned from Babylon with Ze- rubbabel (1 Esdr. v, 8) ; evidently the Bilshan (q. v.) of the genuine texts (Ezra ii, 2; Nell, vii, 7). Beelteth'mus(B« Xrtfyioc v.r. BssXtsuujO, Vulg. Balthemus \ given as the name of an officar of Arta- xerxes residing in Palestine (1 Esdr. it, 16, 25); evi- dently a corruption of U"'J ??3i lord of judgment, A. V. " chancellor;" the title of Rehum, the name imme- diately before it (Ezra iv, 8). BeeT'zebub (Btt\^tj3oi\, Beelzebdx) is the name assigned (Matt, x, 25; xii, 24; Mark iii, 24; Luke xi, 15 sq.) to the prince of the daemons. It is remarkable that, amid all the daemonology of the Tal- mud and rabbinical writers, this name should be ex- clusively confined to the New Testament. There is no doubt that the reading Beelzebul is the one which baa the support of almost every critical authority; and the Beelzebub of the Peskito (if indeed it is not a corrup- tion, as Michaelis thinks, Suppl. p. 205), and of the Vulgate, and of some modern versions, has probably been accommodated to the name of the Philistine god Baal-zeihi; (q. v.). Some of those who consider the latter to have been a reverential title for that god be- lieve that Beelzebul is a wilful corruption of it, in order to make it contemptible. It is a fact that the .lens are very fond of turning words into ridicule by such changes of letters as will convert them into words qf contemptible signification (e.g. Sychar, Beth-aven). Of this usage Lightfoot gives many instances (Ilor. Hebr. ad Matth. xii, 24). Beelzebul, then, is con- sidered to in -.in bat bS2, i. q. dung-god. Some con- nect the term with 5^7, habitation, thus making Beelzebul oiKoounrornc.' (Matt, x, 25), the lord of ,'/. whether as the "prince of the power of t1"' :,i' prince of the lower world (Paulus, quoted by Olshausen, Comment, in M '"■ ' ibiting human bodies (Schleus- '"''■ ' • •■ ■ « -'■ or a occupj ing a mansion in the sev- enth heaven, Like Saturn in Oriental mythology (Mo* *G0). Hug supposes that the fly, under which Baalzebub was represented, was the Scarabaw piUulariui, or dunghill beetle, in which case Baalzebub and Beelzebul might be u8ed indifferently.— Kitto, s. V ; Smith, s. v. See BAALIM ; I'm . Be'Lr (Heb. /:< /. 1N3, a aelT), a local proper name, denoting, whether by itself or in composition, Beer-, the presence of an artificial well of water. See Well. It was thus distinguished from the frequent pretix En- (q. v.), which designated a natural spring. There were two places known by this name simply. See the compounds in their alphabetical order. 1. (With the art., "lX3il; Sept. u (ppiap.) A place in the desert, on the confines of Moab, where the Hebrew princes, by the direction of Moses, dug a well with their staves, being the forty-fourth station of the He- brews in their wanderings from Egypt to Canaan (Num. xxi, 16-18). It seems to have been situated in the south part of the plain Ard Ramadan, not very far north-east of Dibon. See Exode. The "wilder- ness" ('"Q'TO), which is named as their next starting- point in the last clause of vcr. 18, may be that before spoken of in 13, or it maj- be a copyist's mistake for TX2"2. So the Sept., who read icai enro tpp'iaroQ — "and from the well," i. e. " from Beer." Probably the same place is called more fully Beer-elim in Isa. xv, 8. (See Ortlob, Defonte baculisfosso, Lpz. 1718.) According to the tradition of the Targumists — a tra- dition in part adopted by the apostle Paul (1 Cor. x, -]), this was one of the appearances, the last before the entrance into the Holy Land, of the water which had " followed" the people, from its first arrival at Kephi- dim, through their wanderings. The water, so the tradition appears to have run, was granted for the sake of Miriam, her merit being that, at the peril of her life, she had watched the ark in which lay the infant Moses. It followed the march over mountains and into valleys, encircling the entire camp, and "furnish- ing water to every man at his own tent door. This it did till her death (Num. xx, 1), at which time it dis- appeared for a season, apparently rendering a special act necessary on each future occasion for its evocation. The striking of the rock at Kadesh (Num. xx, 1(1) was the first of these ; the digging of the well at Beer by the staves of the princes, the second. Miriam's well at last found a home in a gulf or recess in the sea of Galilee, where at certain seasons its water flowed, and was resorted to for healing purposes (Targums of Onkc- los and Pseudo-Jon., Num. xx, 1 ; xxi, 18, and also the quotations in Lightfoot on John v, 4). — Smith, s. v. 2. (Sept. Vat. Ban)p; the Alex, entirely alters the passage — kcil twopevOri iv oC(>i Kai i(pvytv tig 'Papa; Vulg. in Bera.) A town in the tribe of Judah, to which Jotham fled for fear of Abimelech (Judg. ix, 21). Eu- sebius and Jerome (Onomast. s. v. B>ipa, Beret) place Beer in the great plain eight Roman miles north of Eleutheropolis ; perhaps the well near Deir Dubban. By many this place is identified with Beeroth (q. v.). Beii'ra (Heb. Beera', J01X3, a Chaldaizing form = the well; Sept. Btnpa), the last son of Zophah, a de- scendant of Asher (1 Chron. vii, 37). B.C. long post 1612. Beii'rah (Heb. Be'erah' ', "1^X3, i. q. Becra, the well; Sept. Btnpa v. r. BtrjK), the son of Baal, a prince (JO'iUJ) of the tribe of Reuben, carried into captivity by the Assyrian Tiglath-Pileser (1 Chron. v, 6). B.C. cir. 738. Be'er-e'lim (Heb. Beer'E'im ', E^?X "X3, veil of heroes; Sept. to tppiap rov AiXtiu ; Vulg. puteus Elim), a spot named in Isa. xv, 8, as on the " border of Moab," apparently the south, Eglaim being at the north end of the Dead Sea. The name points to the well dug by the chiefs of Israel on their approach to the promised land, ch.se by the " border of Moab" (Num. xxi, 16; comp. ver. 13), and such is the suggestion of Gesenius (Jesaia. p. 533). See Beer simply. Beer-Elim was probably chosen by the prophet out of other places on the boundary on account of the similarity between the sound of the name and that of fi?b?— the " howling," BEERI T23 BEEROTH-BENE-JAAKAX which was to reach even to that remote point (Ewald, Proph. p. 233). — Smith, s. v. Bee'ri (Heb. Beeri' ', "1"1X3, font 'anus, according to Gesen. ; enlightener, according to Fiirst ; Sept. Bt ))p in Gen., Btijpti in Hos.), the name of two men. 1. The father of Judith, one of the wives of Esau (Gen.xxvi, 34). B.C. ante 1963. See Esau. Judith, daughter of Beeri, is the same person that is called in the genealogical table (Gen. xxxvi, 2) Aholibamah, daughter of Anah, and consequently Beeri and Anah must be the same person. See Aholibamah. Yet Beeri is spoken of as a Ilittite, while Anah is called a Horite and also a Hivite. See Anah. It is agreed on all hands that the name Horite ("pH) signifies one who dwells in a hole or cave, a Troglodyte ; and it seems in the highest degree probable that the inhabi- tants of Mount Seir were so designated because they inhabited the numerous caverns of that mountainous region. The name, therefore, does not designate them according to their race, but merely according to their mode of life, to whatever race they might belong. Of their race we know nothing, except, indeed, what the conjunction of these two names in reference to the same individual may teach us ; and from this case we may fairly conclude that these Troglodytes or Horites be- longed in part, at least, to the widely-extended Ca- naanitish tribe of the Hittites. On this supposition the difficulty vanishes, and each of the accounts gives us just the information we might expect. In the nar- rative, where the stress is laid on Esau's wife being of the race of Canaan, her father is called a Ilittite; while in the genealogy, where the stress is on Esau's connection by marriage with the previous occupants of Mount Seir, he is most naturally and properly de- scribed under the more precise terra Horite. — Smith, s. v. See Horite ; Hivite ; Hittite. 2. The father of the prophet Hosea (Hos. i, 1). B.C. ante 725. Be'er-lahai'-roi (Heb. Beer' Lachay' Pol', *iX2 ^X"1 nr&, signifying, according to the explanation in the text where it first occurs, well of [to] I'fe of vision [or, of the living and seeing God], i. e. survivorship after beholding the theophany ; but, according to the natural derivation, well of the (keel-bone [i-och] rf vision; Sept. in Gen. xvi, 14, (ppiap ov tviinriov fldov , in Gen. xxiv, C2, to (pp'tap ri)g bpaveojQ ; Vulg. puteus viventis ct videntis me), a well, or rather a living spring (A. V. "fountain," comp. ver. 7), between Kadesh and Bered, in the wilderness, "in the way to Shur," and therefore in the " south country" (Gen. xxiv, C2), which seems to have been so named by Hagar because God saw her (nXn) there (Gen. xvi, 14). From the fact of this etymology not being in agreement with the formation of the name (more legitimately, *Tb "'Xl), it has been suggested (Gesenius, Thes. p. 175) that the origin of the name is Lehi (q. v.) (Judg. xv, 9, 19), the scene of Samson's adventure, which was not far from this neighborhood. By this Avell Isaac dwelt both before and after the death of his father (Gen. xxiv, 62; xxv, 11). In both these passages the name is given in the A. V. as " the well Lahai-roi." Mr. Rowland announces the discovery of the well Lahai-roi at Moyle or Moilaki, a station on the road to Beersheba, ten hours south of Ruheibeh, near which is a hole or cavern bearing the name of Be't Hagar (Wil- liams, Holy City, i, 465); but this requires confirma- tion. This well is possibly the same with that by which the life of Ishmael was preserved on a subse- quent occasion (Gen. xxi, 19), but which, according to the Moslems, is the well Zem-zem at Mecca.— Smith. Bee'roth (Heb. Beeroth', iTVhKa, wells; Sept. BqpwT, Bnjoo^a, B//pw3), one of the four cities of the Hivites who deluded Joshua into a treaty of peace with them, the other three being Gibeon, Chephirah, and Kirjath-jearim (Josh, ix, 17). Beeroth was with the rest of these towns allotted to Benjamin (Josh, xviii, 25), in Avhose possession it continued at the time of David, the murderers of Ishbosheth being named as belonging to it (2 Sam. iv, 2). From the notice in this place (ver. 2, 3), it would appear that the original inhabitants had been forced from the town, and had taken refuge at Gittaim (Neh. xi, 34), possibly a Phi- listine city. Beeroth is once more named witli Che- phirah and Kirjath-jearim in the list of those who re- turned from Babylon (Ezra ii, 25; Neh. vii, 29; 1 Esdr. v. 19). Besides Baanah and Rechab, the mur- derers of Ishbosheth, with their father Rimmon, we find Nahari "the Beerothite'' (2 Sam. xxiii, 37), or "the Berothite" (1 Chron. xi, 39), one of the " mighty men" of David's guard Smith, s. v. See also Bee- roth-Bene-Jaakan. The name of Beeroth is the plural of Beer, and it has therefore been taken by many for the same place. Eusebius and Jerome, however, both distinguish it from Beer (Onomast. s. v. BijpwB), although there has been much misunderstanding of their language respecting it (see Eeland, Palcest. p. 618, 619). The former says that it could be seen in passing from Jerusalem to Nicopolis, at the seventh mile; a description that to this day is true of a place still bearing the correspond- ing name of el-Bireh, which, since Maundrell's time, has been identified with this locality (Journey, March 25). According to Robinson (Researches, ii, 132), the traveller in that direction sees el-Bireh on his right after a little more than two hours from Jerusalem. Jerome, on the other hand, apparently misconceiving Eusebius as meaning that Beeroth was on the road, from which he says it is visible, changes " Nicopolis" to "Neapolis," which still leaves the distance and di- rection sufficiently exact. Bireh is mentioned under the name of Bira by Brocard (vii, 278), in whose time it was held by the Templars. By the Crusaders and the later ecclesiastics it was erroneously confounded with the ancient Michmash. Bireh is situated on the ridge, running from east to west, which bounds the northern prospect, as behe'd from Jerusalem and its vicinity, and may be seen '■'rom a great distance north and south. It is now a large village, with a popula- tion of 700 Moslems. The houses are low, and many of them half underground. Many large stones and various substructions evince the antiquity of the site ; and there are remains of a fine old church of the time of the Crusades (Richter, WaVfahrten, p. 54). Ac- cording to modern local tradition it was the place at which the parents of "the child Jesus" discovered that he was not among their "company" (Luke ii, 43-45) ; and it is a fact that the spring of el-Bireh is even to this day the customary resting-place for caravans go- ing northward, at the end of the first day's journey from Jerusalem (Stanlev, Palest, p. 215; Lord Nugent, ii, 112). Bee'roth-be'ne- Ja'akan (Heb. Beeroth' Beney'- }',!,i I:, \ir~- ■PX2, wells of the so7is of Jaa- Ican; Sept. Br)pw3 v'iSiV 'Iaici/t), a place through which the Israelites twice passed in the desert, being their twenty-seventh and thirty-third station on the way from Egypt to Canaan (Num. xxxiii, 31, 32 ; Deut. x, 6). See Exode. From a comparison of these pas- sages (in the former of which it is called simply Bune- Jaakan, and in the latter partly translated "Beeroth of the children of Jaakan"), it appears to have been situated in the vallej' of the Arabah, not far from Mount Ilor (Mosera or Moseroth) in the direction of Kadesh-Barnea, and may therefore have well repre- sented the tract including the modern fountains in that region, called Ain el-Ghamr, Ain el-Weibeh, el- Hufeiry, el-Buweirideh, etc., lying within a short dis- tance of each other. Jaakan (or Aran) was a de- scendant of Seir the Horite (Gen. xxxvi, 27; 1 Chr. i, 42), and the territory designated by the name of his BEER0TfflT3 children may therefore naturally be sought in this vicinity (see Browne's nr.l, Soeclorum, p. 270). Dr. Robinson (Researches, ii, 583J inclines to identify this place with Moseroth, on account of the statement of Eusebius and Jerome (Onomast. s. v.) that Beeroth Bene Jaakan was extant in their day ten Roman miles from 1'etra, on the top of the mountain — probably a conjectural tradition. Schwarz's confusion of Wady and Jebel Araif en-Ndkah in the interior of the desert ct- l'ih with this place, under the name of Anoka (Pa- ' -'. p. 213), is unworthy of farther notice. Bee'rotliite (Ileb. Beerothi', WhKS; Sept. Brj- owSaToc v. r. BqSwpaio •), an inhabitant of Beeroth (q. v.) of Benjamin f2 8am. iv, 2 ; xxiii, 37). Beer'-siieba (Ileb. Be/ She'la, "3V3 1X3, in pause B( i / Shaba, 2nd "^2, well of swearing, or well of Si D( n ; Sept. in Gen. Optap rov uoKtai-iov or rov op- kov; in Josh, and later books, B^ptyajitt ; Josephus, 4»<. i, 12, 1, Bqoffovfiai, which he immediately inter- prets by opKiov (ppsap), the name of one of the oldest places in Palestine, and which formed the southern limit of the country. There are two accounts of the origin of the name. According to the first, the well was dug by Abraham, and the name given, because there he and Abimelech, the king of the Philistines, '•sware" (WSttJS) both of them (Gen. xxi, 31). But the compact was ratified by the setting apart of " seven ewe lambs;" and as the Hebrew word for "seven" is 53ttJ, 8heba, it is equally possible that this is the mean- ing of the name. The other narrative ascribes the ori- gin of the name to an occurrence almost precisely sim- ilar, in which both Abimelech, the king of the Philis- tines, and Phichol, his chief captain, are again concern- ed, with the difference that the person on the Hebrew side of the transaction is Isaac instead of Abraham (lien, xxvi, 31-33). Here there is no reference to the "seven" lambs, and we are left to infer the derivation of Skibeah (lnS3\a, Shibah', not "Shcbah," as in the Auth. Vers.) from the mention of the "swearing" l/'^'-V" I m v«'r- 31. Thcst two accounts, however, ap- pear to be adjusted by the statement in ver. 18 that this was one of the wells originally dug by Abraham, to Which Isaac, on reopening them, assigned the same names given them by his father. Beersheba appears to have been a favorite abode of both these patriarchs. After the digging of the well Abraham planted a "grove" (brx, E'slieV) as a place for the worship of Jehovah, such as constituted the temples of those early times; and here he lived until the sacrifice of Isaac; and for a long time afterward (xxi, 33 xxii, 1, 111). 'Ibis seems to imply the growth of the place into a considerable town. Here also Isaac was dwelling at the tim ■ of the transference of the birthright from Esau to Jacob (xxvi, 33; xxviii, 10), and from the patriarchal encampment round the wells ■ r hi- grandfather Jacob set forth on the journcv to Mesopotamia which changed the course of' liis whole life. Jacob does ,„,t appear to have revisited the place ,mlil '"' "Bade it one of the stages of his journey down to Egypt, lie then halted there to oiler sacrifice to 1 of his father," doubtless under the sacred grove of Abraham. From this time till the conquest <•■ the countrj we only catch a momentary glimpse of Beersheba in the lists of the "cities" in 'the extreme south oi Judah (xv. is, giVen to the tribe of Simeon LChr.iv,28). Samuel's sons were appointed deputy judges for the southernmost districts in Beer- Bheba(] Sam. viii, 2), its distance no doubl precluding • imongtbenumberofthe"holycities"(Sep1 ) to which he himself went in circuit every vear(vii 10)' By the times of the monarchy it had become recognised a the most southerly place ,,r ,i„. country. Its posi- tion, as the place of arrival and departure for the cara- vans trading between Palestine and the countries ).■- "L'l BEER-SHEBA ing in that direction, would naturally lead to the for- mation of a town round the wells of the patriarchs, and the great Egyptian trade begun by Solomon must have increased its importance. Hither Joab's census ex- tended (2 Sam. xxiv, 7 ; 1 Chr. xxi, 2), and here Eli- jah bade farewell to his confidential servant (r"C^) before taking his journey across the desert to Sinai (1 Kings xix, 3). Erom Dan to Beersheba (Judg. xx, 1, etc.), or from Beersheba to Dan (1 Chr. xxi, 2; cornp. 2 Sam. xxiv, 2), now became the established formula for the whole of the Promised Land ; just as " from Geba to Beersheba" (2 Kings xxiii, 8), or " from Beersheba to Mount Ephraim" (2 Chr. xix, 4), was that for the southern kingdom after the disruption. After the return from the captivity the formula is narrowed still more, and becomes " from Beersheba to the Val- ley of Hinnom" (Neh. xi, 30). One of the wives of Ahaziah, king of Judah, Zibiah, mother of Joash, was a native of Beersheba (2 Kings xii, 1 ; 2 Chr. xxiv, 1). From the incidental references of Amos, we find that, like Bethel and Gilgal, the place was, in the time of Uzziah, the seat of an idolatrous worship, apparent- ly connected in some intimate manner with the north- ern kingdom (Amos v, 5; viii, 14). But the allusions are so slight that nothing can be gathered from them, except that, in the latter of the two passages quoted above, we have perhaps preserved a form of words or an adjuration used by the worshippers, "Live the 'way' of Beersheba!" After this, with the mere menticn that Beersheba and the villages round it (" daughters") were rcinhabited after the captivity (Neh. xi, 30), the name dies entirely out of the Bible records. In the New Testament it is not once mentioned ; nor is it referred to as then existing by any writer earlier than Eusebius and Jerome, in the fourth century, who describe it as a large village (Chiomnsi. icm/uj /ityiari), licus gremlin), and the seat of a Roman garrison. The latter clsc= where {Qwest, ad Gen. xvii, 30) calls it a " town" (op- pidum). In the centuries before and after the Mos- lem conquest it is mentioned among the episcopal cit- ies of Palestine (Reland, Palcest. p. G20), but none of its bishops are anywhere named. The site seems to have been almost forgotten (see Do Vitriaco, Gesta Dei per Francos, p. 1070) till the fourteenth century, when Sir John Maundeville, Rudolf dc Suchcm, and William da Baldensel recognised the name at a place which they passed on their route from Sinai to Hebron. It was then uninhabited, but some of the churches were still standing. From that time till the recent visit of Dr. Kobinson the place remained unvisited and unknown, except for the slight notice obtained by Seet- zen from the Arabs (Zach's Monatl. Corresp. xvii, 143). Dr. Kobinson gives a clear idea of the southernmost district of Palestine, in which is Beersheba, and with which the book of Genesis has connected so many in- teresting associations. Coming from the south, ho emerged from the desert by a long and gradual ascent over swelling hills scantily covered with grass. The summit of this ascent afforded a view over a broad bar- ren tract, bounded on the horizon by the mountains of Judah south of Hebron : " We now felt that the des- ert was at an end. Descending gradually, we came out upon an open undulating country; the shrubs ceased, or nearly so ; green grass was seen along the lesser water-courses, and almost greensward ; while the gentle hills, covered in ordinary seasons with grass and rich pasture, were now burnt over with drought. In three quarters of an hour we reached Wady es-Scba, a wide water-course or bed of a torrent, running here W.S.W., upon whose northern side, close upon the bank, arc two dee]) wells, still called Bir es-Seba, the ancient Beersheba. We had entered the borders of Palestine!" ( Researches, i, 301). There are at present on the spot two principal wells, and five smaller ones. The former, apparently the only ones seen by Robin- son, lie just a hundred yards apart, and are so placed as to be visible from a considerable distance (L'onar, BEESIITERAH 725 BEETLE Land of Prom. p. 1). The larger of the two, which lies to the east, is, according to the careful measure- ments of Dr. Robinson, 12i feet diam., and at the time of his visit (Apr. 12) was 44^ feet to the surface of the water; the masonry which encloses the well reaches downward for 28$ feet. The other well is 5 feet diam., and was 42 feet to the water. The curb-stones round the mouth of both wells are worn into deep grooves by the action of the ropes of so many centuries, and " look as if frilled or fluted all round." Round the larger well there are nine, and round the smaller five large stone troughs, some much worn and broken, others nearly entire, lying at a distance of 10 or 12 feet from the edge of the well. There were formerly ten of these troughs at the larger well. The circle around is car- peted with a sward of fine short grass, with crocuses and lilies (Bonar, p. 5, 6, 7). The water is excellent, the best, as Dr. Robinson emphatically records, which he had tasted since leaving Sinai. The five lesser wells, apparently the only ones seen by Van de Velde, are, according to his account and the casual notice of Bonar, in a group in the bed of the wady, not on its north bank, and at a great distance from the other two. No ruins are at first visible; but, on examination, foundations of former dwellings have been traced, dis- persed loosely over the low hills, to the north of the wells, and in the hollows between. They seem to have been built chiefly of round stones, although some of the stones are squared and some hewn, suggesting the idea of a small straggling city. There are no trees or shrubs near the spot. The site of the wells is nearly midway between the southern end of the Dead Sea and the Med- iterranean at Raphsea, or twenty-seven miles south-east from Gaza, and about the same distance south by west from Hebron (20 Roman miles in the Onomast. ; comp. Josephus, Ant. viii, 13, 7). Its present Arabic name, Bir es-Seba, means '"well of the seven," which some take to be the signification also of Beersheba, in allu- sion to the seven ewe-lambs which Abraham gave to Abimelech in token of the oath between them. There is no ground for rendering it by " seven wells," as some have done. — Smith, s. v. ; Kitto, s. v. See Siiebaii. Beesh'terah (Ileb. Eeeshterah', l"Hnd"3, prob. house cfAstarte ; Sept. y Booopd v. r. B« Qapd ; Vulg. Board), one of the two Levitical cities allotted to the sons of Gershom, out of the tribe of Manasseh beyond Jordan (Josh, xxi, 27). In the parallel list (1 Chron. vi, 71) it appears to be identical with Ashtaroth (q. v.). In fact, the name is merely a contracted form of Beth- Ashtaroth, the "temple of Ashtoreth" (Geseni- us, Thes. p. 196 ; comp. 175). — Smith, s. v. Beetle ('"Ol1 chargo1/, q. d. " leaper") occurs only in Lev. xi, 22, where it is mentioned as one of four flying creeping things, that go upon all four, which have legs above their feet to leap withal upon the earth, which the Israelites were permitted to eat. The other three are the locust, the bald locust, and the grasshopper, re- spectively rendered by the Sept. ftpov\oc, uttcucij, and UKpiQ, while the}' translate chargol by ixpiopaxyc. (q. d. "serpent-fighter"), which Suidas explains as being a wingless locitst (fitioQ dtcpicoe, fiy i'%ov Trrtpo). Pliny (xi, 29) and Aristotle (Hist. Anim. ix, 6) mention locusts that are serpent-destroyers. This Heb. word cannot mean the beetle. No species of searaba?us was ever used as food by the Jews, or perhaps any other nation. Nor does any known species answer to the generic de- scription given in the preceding verse : " This ye may eat of every winged creeper which goeth upon four (feet) ; that which hath joints at the upper part of its hind legs, to leap with them upon the earth" (comp. Niebuhr, Descrip. de VArdbie, Copenhague, 1773, p. 33). Hence it is plain that the chargol is some winged creep- er, which has at least four feet, which leaps with its two hind jointed legs, and which we might expect, from the permission, to find actuallj' used as food. This de- scription agrees exactly with the locust-tribe of insects, which are well known to have been eaten by the com- mon people in the East from the earliest times to the present day. This conclusion is also favored by tin- derivation of the word, which signifies to gallop like the English grassh'pper and French sauterelle. Al- though no known variety of locust answers the above description of Pliny and Aristotle, and, indeed, the ex- istence of any such species is denied by Cuvier (Grand- saque's ed. of Pliny, Par. 1828, p. 451, note), yet a sort of ichneumon locust is found in the genus Truxalis (fierce Tnixaiis Xusutvs. or cruel), inhabiting Africa and China, and compre- hending many species, which hunts and preys upon insects. It is also called the Truxalis nasutus, or long- nosed. May not, then, this winged, leaping, insectiv- orous locust, and its various species, be "the chargol, after its kind," and the o^tojtid^C °f the Septuagint ? or might the name have arisen from the similarity of shape and color, which is striking, between the Truxalis nasutus and the ichneumon ; just as the locust gener- ally is, at this time, called cavalette by the Italians, on account of its resemblance in shape to the horse ? We know that the ancients indulged in tracing the many resemblances of the several parts of locusts to those of other animals (Bochart, Ilieroz. pt. ii, lib.iv, c. 5, p. 475). It may be observed that it is no objection to the former and more probable supposition, that a creature which lives upon other insects should be allowed as food to the Jews, contrary to the general principle of the Mo- saic law in regard to birds and quadrupeds, this hav- ing been unquestionably the case with regard to many species of fishes coming within the regulation of hav- ing "fins and scales," and known to exist in Palestine at the present time — as the perch, carp, barbel, etc. (Kitto's Physical History of Palestine, article Fishes). The fact that the chargol is never made the means of the divine chastisements (for which purpose a locust preying upon insects could scarcely be used), concurs with this speculation. — Kitto; Smith. See Locust. The beetle, however, was very common in Egypt, and is the species called by Linnaeus Blatta Egypiiacus, thought by many to be mentioned in Exod. viii, 21, etc., under the name 2"15, arob', where the A. V. ren- ders it "swarms of flies." See Fly. Beetles are, by naturalists, styled coleopterous insects, from their horny upper wings, or shard ; the species are exceed- ingly numerous, differing greatly in size and color, and being found in almost every country. The order of Coleoptera is divided into many families, of which the scarabseidae and blatta?, or common beetles and cock-chaffers, are known to every one. These crea- tures, like many others in the insect world, deposit their eggs in the ground, where they are hatched, and the appearance of their progeny rising from the earth is by some writers supposed to have suggested to the Egyptian priesthood the doctrine of the resurrection of the dead. Certain it is that beetles were very common in Egypt, and one of them, thence styled by naturalists Scarolions sacer, was an object of worship; and this fact gives strength to the conjecture that this creature is meant in Exod. viii, as the sacred charac- ter of the object would naturally render its employ- ment as a plague doubly terrible. Besides its being worshipped as a divinity, stones cut in the form of the beetle 6erved as talismans among the Egyptians. BEEVE r26 BEGINNING The under surface was filled with figures cut in in- t iglio of solar, lunar, and astral symbols and eharac- t ■!-. They were held, according to Pliny, to inspire the soldier with courage, and to protect his person in the day of battle, and also to defend children from the malign influence of the evil eye. There is little rea- son to doubt that the Hebrews learned the use of these things in Egypt, but they were prohibited by the Mo- saic law. The Gnostics, among other Egyptian su- perstitions, adopted this notion regarding the beetle, and gems of gnostic origin are extant in this form, especially symbolical of Isis (q. v.). Beeve ("£2, bakar', horned animals, Lev. xxii, 19, 21 ; Num. xxxi, 28, 30, 33, 38, 44 ; elsewhere ren- dered "ox," "bullock," "herd," etc.; in Arabic, al- ii ikar), cattle, herds, applicable to all Ruminantia, the camels alone excepted; but more particularly to the Bovidae and the genera of the larger antelopes. See Ox; Bull; Deer; Goat; Antelope, etc. Beg (23pS, bakash', so rendered Fsa. xxxvii, 25, elsewhere "seek," etc.; bxd, shaal', Psa. cix, 10; Prov. xx, 4; elsewhere "ask," etc.; tirairiiu, Luke xvi, 3 ; TrpovaiTiw, Mark x, 46 ; Luke xviii, 35 ; John ix, 8), Beggar ("P^X, ebyon', 1 Sam. ii, 8; ttt^Q, Luke xvi, 20, 22; Gal. iv, 9; both terms elsewhere "poor," etc.). Th? laws of Moses furnish abundant evidence that great inequality of condition existed in his time among the Hebrews, for recommendations to tin- rich to be liberal to their poorer brethren are fre- quently met with (Exod. xxiii, 11 ; Dent, xv, 11), but no mention is made of persons who lived as mendi- cants. The poor were allowed to glean in the fields, and to gather whatever the land produced in the vear in which it was not tilled (Lev. xix, 10; xxv, 5, 6; Dent, xxiv, in). They were also invited to 'feasts (Deut..xii, 12; xiv, 29; xxvi, 12). The Hebrew could not l>e an absolute pauper. His land Mas in- alienable, except for a certain term, when it reverted t i him or his posterity. And if this resource was in- sufficient, he could pledge the services of himself or hi- family for a valuable sum. Those who were indi- gent through bodily infirmity were usually taken care of by their kindred. See Poor. In the song of Han- n ih 1 1 Sam. ii, 8), however, beggars are spoken of, and Mich a fate is predicted to the posterity of the wicked while it shall never befall the seed of the righteous, in the Psalms (xxxvii, 35; cix, 10); so that the practice was probably then not uncommon. In the New Tes- tament, also, we read of beggars thai were blind dis- ' maimed, who lay at the doors of the rich, by the waysides, and also before the gate of the Tem- ple ( Mark x, 16; Luke xvi, 20, 21 ; Acts iii, 2). But • on to suppose thai there existed in the ' i hrist that class of persons called vagrant beg- gars, who present their supplications for alms from doorto door and who are found at tho present day in .although less frequently than in the countries ol Europe. I hat the custom of seeking alms by sound- ing^ trumpet or horn, which prevails among a class of Mohammedan monastics, called hal ndar or larendal prevailed abo in the time of ( hrist, has been bv some inferred from the peculiar construction of the original n .NL.it. vi. •_>. 'I her- is one thing characteristic of those Oriental! who follow the vocation of mendicants Modern Oriental Sunloii, or Religious lie; which is worthy of being mentioned; they do not ap- peal to the pity or to the almsgiving spirit, but to the justice of their benefactors (Job xxii, 7; xxxi, 1G; Prov. iii, 27, 28). Roberts, in his Orient. Illustrations, p. 5C4, says on Luke xvi, 3 ("I cannot dig; to beg I am ashamed"), " How often are we reminded of this passage by beggars when we tell them to work. They can scarcely believe their ears ; and the religious men- dicants, who swarm in every part of the East, look upon you with the most sovereign contempt when you give them such advice. ' I work ! why, I never have done such a thing ; 1 am not able.' " See Alms. Eeghards or Eeguards, a religious association in the Roman Church, which formed itself, in the 13th century, in the Netherlands, Germany, and France, after the example of the Beguines (q. v.), whom they closely imitated in their mode of life and the arrange- ment of their establishments. They supported them- selves mostly by weaving, but became neither so nu- merous nor so popular as the Beguines. More gener- ally than the Beguines they associated with the heret- ical Fraticelli (q. v.), and the "Brethren and Sisters of the Free Spirit." They were suppressed by the council of Vienna in 1311. Most of them joined the third orders of St. Francis or St. Dominic, but yet re- tained for a long time their name and their mode of life. For a time they found a protector in the Em- peror Louis, but new decrees were issued against them by Charles IV (1367) and Pope Urban V (1369). In 1467 they became, by taking the usual solemn vows, a monastic association, which gradually united with several congregations of the Franciscan order. Their 1 ast convents and the name itself were abolished by Pope Innocent X in 1650. The name Beghards was commonly given in the 13th and 11th centuries (just as "Pietist" and "Meth- odist" were afterward used) to persons who opposed or revolted from the worldly tendencies of the Roman Church. The Waldenses, Wickliffites, and Lollards, in Trance and England, were so named. See Nean- dcr, t'li. //>'. iv, 303; Mosheim, De Beghard.et Begum. (Lips. 1790); Mosheim, Ch. Hist. cent, xiii, pt. ii, ch. ii, § 40. Other treatises on these orders have been written bv Beier (Jen. 1710), Bruhns (Lub. 1719), Gotze (ib. 1719), Houston (Antw. 1628). See Be- <;riNi;s ; BbGUE. Beginning (rvl:X^2, "in the beginning," liter- ally ui the head, Gen. i, 1 ; Sept. and New Test. iv Cipxjl)i besides its ordinary import, was with the He- brews an idiomatic form of expression for eternity, q, d. originally. In this sense it is employed alike by Moses and (in its (.reek form) by the evangelist John (i, 1 1. See Creation. Our Lord is also emphatically styled the Beginning BEGUARDS 121 BEHEMOTH ('ApY;,) 1'oth by Paul and John (Col. i, 18; Rev. i, 8 ; (1318) and Italy (132G). The Reformation put an end iii. 11), and it is worthy of remark that the Greek phi- to nearly ;ill the beguinages in Germany and Switzer- losophers expressed the First Cause of all things L.y Laid; but all the larger towns of Belgium except Brus- the same word. See Logos. I sels have still beguinages, the largest of which is that Beguards. See Beghards. ' at Ghent, which in 1857 counted about 700 inmates.— Begue, Lambert, a Trench heretic, lived toward Mosheim, Be Beghardis et Beguinabus (Lipsise, 1790); the close of the 12th century. Man, he said, is able to j Kallmann, Geschichte d< s Vrsprunges der Belgixken Be- attain to the highest degree of perfection, and may guinen (Berlin, 1843). See Beghards. then accord to his body all he wants. He also denied j Behead ("?", aruph' , applied to an animal, to the adoration of the consecrated wafer. He is also break the neck, Deut. xxi, G ; like ttiXocuoj, Rev. xx, said to have preached against the corrupt life of the but rf ^^ ^ amKtfaXifrt to take clergy. See Beghards and BEGUiSES.-Hoefer, B, : ■ ^ J ^ ooranhie &t m rale, v, lo.. „„ „„ T , ' . „. ' ' , ,. ' ' li"1,\ *i - 10, 2,1 ; Luke ix, 9), a method of taking away life, Beguinage (Beguinarum domus), the residence of a society of Beguines (q. v.). Beguines, a female association in the Reman Church. The origin of I oth the name and the associ- ation is doubtful. A Belgian writer in the beginning of the 13th century derives it from a priest of Liege, Lambert le Begue. Later some beguinages traced their origin to St. Begga, daughter of Pipin of Landen, though without historical grounds. Other writers! known and practised among the Egyptians (Gen. xl. 17-19). This mode of punishment, therefore, must have been known to the Hebrews, and there occur in- dubitable instances of it in the time of the early He- brew kings (2 Sam. iv, 8; xx, 21, 22; 2 Kings x, 6- 8). It appears, in the later periods of the Jewish his- tory, that Herod and his descendants, in a number of instances, ordered decapitation (Matt, xiv, 8-12; Acts 2). The apostle Paul is said to have suffered have derived the name from be, a, ii, to bet;, though the -r, . , . •JJ. . , , 4. martyrdom by beheading, as it was not lawful to put Beguines have never been mendicants. A document T, J . .i.-7 . . .5'. . .„ .' e j ■ .i i-.li .. t-i i a 4. n t. i ! a Roman nti/.en to death bv scouriung or cruci ixion. found m the 1 , th century at V llvorde dates the estab- p J a & lishment of a beguinage at 105G, and seems to over-] feee * UNISHMENT- throw the hypothesis of priest Lambert being their Behem. See Boheim. founder; but more thorough investigations have proved Be'hemoth (Ileb. behemoth', iliEilSi, Job xl, 15; it to be spurious. The pretended higher age of some1 gept# $l}oia . m Coptic, according to Jablonski, Pehe- German beguinages rests on their being confounded mm(t) ;s regarded as the plural of n^-2, behem,,)/ witn similar institutions. I, „ , , ... .,, ., ... ,.NT 7 = The Beguines, whose number at the beginning of (usually rendered "beast or "cattle ); but commen- ce thirteenth century amounted to about 1500, spread tators are bJ' no, means *&*** as to !,ts true meaning. rapidly over the Netherlands, France, and Germany. Among those who adopt ehphant are Lrusms, Grotius, There" were often as many as 2000 sisters in their Schultens, Michaelis, etc., while among the advocates beguinages (!r q„h„«ri,r, beaninarue), occupying in of M1WP >t«mus are Bochart (Hteroz. ii, 754 sq.), Lu- couples a small separate house. A hospital and church dolf (.But. ^>><">P- h U), and Gesemus (Thes. Heb. p. form the central points of the beguinage. The Be- ls3>- 'lhc arguments of the last in favor of his own guines support themselves, and also furnish the chest view may be summed up thus : (1.) The general pr.r- of the community, and the support of the priests, the Pose and plan of Jehovah s tw o discourses with Job re- officers, and the hospitals, by their own industry. The q,lirc that the allll11il1 whlch ™ tllls second discourse is president of a beguinage is" called maglstra, and is as- dassed with tllc crocodile should be an amphibious, sisted by curators or tutors, usually mendicant friars. »ot * terrestrial animal, the first discourse (xxxviii, The vows are simple, viz., chastity and obedience to xxxix) havlnS 1)een hmlted to hmd-animals and birds. the statutes; and any beguine can be freed by leav- 02-) Tllc crocodile and hippopotamus, being both na- ing the community, after which she is at liberty to fives of Egypt and /Ethiopia, are constantly mentioned marry. As to dress, each beguinage chooses its "par- together by the ancient writers (see Herod, n, 69-71 ; ") It seems certain contrast in which ticular color, brown, gray, or blue, with a white veil 1>10tl- •» 3o '■> Plm" xxvllb 8)- over the head. Black has become their general color, I tnat an amphibious animal is meant from th and to their former habit is added a cap in the shape ' between vcr. lo, 20, 21, 22, and ver. 23, 24, of an inverted shell, with a long black tassel. The the argument seems to be, "Though he feedeth upon association made itself useful by receiving wretched ; grass," etc., like other animals, yet he liveth and de- females by mil- iiv the sick ' lighteth in the waters, and nets are set for him there and by educating °poor chil- as for fish' which h.v llis Sreat strength he pierces dren. . In Germany they were , through. (4.) The mention of his tail in vcr. 17 does therefore called *• ,ii!-v;>m, u. not agree with the elephant, nor can 1V\, as some have Like all the monastic orders, thought, signify the trunk of that animal; and (5.), their community was invaded by great disorders, and the synod of Fritzlar in 1244 for- badc to receive any sister be- fore her fortieth j'ear of age. Many were also drawn into the heresies of the Frtttic, Hi, and the whole community had to atone for it by continued persecution, ('lenient V, on the council of Vienna, in 1311, decreed by two bulls the sup- pression of the Beguines and Beghards infected with here- sy ; but John XXII explain- ed these bulls as referring merely to the heretical Be- ghards and Beguines, and in- — 7?*~z=^-~~~£zj=r^- terfered in favor of the ortho- Leguine of Amsterdam, dox Beguines in Germany though niEiia may be the plural "majestatis" of fTCll2, beast, yet it is probably an Egyptian word sig- nifying sea-ox, put into a Semitic form, and used as a singular. The following is a close translation of the poetical passage in Job (xl, 15-24) describing the animal in question : Lo, now, Behemoth that I have made [alike] with thee! Grass like the [neat-] cattle will lie eat. l.o! n,i\v, his strength [is] in his loins, Even hia force in [the] sinews of his belly. lie can curve hia tail [only] like a cedar; The tendons of his haunches must bo interlaced : llis bones [are as] tubes of copper, His frame like a welding of iron. //.- [is the] master.piece of « rod : llis .Maker [only] can supply his sword [i. e. tusl'.ei ]. 1'nr produce will (the] mountains be:ir lor lnia ; Even [though] ;ill [the] animals of the field may Fpors Beneath [the] lotuses will he lie, [there. In [the] covert of [the] reedy marsh : Lotuses shall entwine him his shade. Osier- of [the] brook shall enclose him. BEHEMOTH 728 BEHISTUN Ix>! [the] river may swell— he will not start; He will be bold, although n .Ionian should rush to his mouth. In hi- [verv] f\v shoulil lout') takehirri. Through [the] snares would [his] nose pierce. " But in some respects this description is more api.liral.Ii' to the elephant, while in others it is equally BO to both animals. Hence the term behemoth, taken intensively (for in some places it is admitted to desig- nate cattle in general), may he assumed to he a poeti- cal personification of the great Pachydermata, or even Herbivora, wherein the idea of hippopotamus is pre- dominant. This view accounts for the ascription to it of characters not truly applicable to one species; for instance, the tail is likened to a cedar (provided 33T really denotes the tail, which the context makes very doubtful ; see Zeddel, Beitr. z. Bill. Zoologle), which is only admissible in the case of the elephant; again, "the mountains bring him forth food;" "he trusteth that he can draw up Jordan," a river which elephants alone could reach; "his nose pierceth through snares," certainly more indicative of that animal's proboscis, with its extraordinary delicacy of scent and touch, ever cautiously applied, than of the obtuse perceptions of the river-horse. Finally, the elephant is far more dan- gerous as an enemy than the hippopotamus, which nu- merous pictorial sculptures on the monuments of Egypt represent as fearlessly speared by a single hunter stand- ing on his float of log and reeds. Yet, although the elephant is scarcely less fond of water, the description referring to manners, such as lying under the shade of willows, among reeds, in fens, etc., is more directly characteristic of the hippopotamus. The book of Job appears, from many internal indications, to have been written in Asia, and is full of knowledge, although that knowledge is not expressed according to the precise technicalities of modern science ; it offers pictures in magnificent outline, without condescending to minute and labored details. Considered in this light, the ex- pression in Psa. 1, 10, "For every beast of the forest is mine, and the cattle (behemoth) upon a thousand hills," acquires a grandeur and force far surpassing those furnished by the mere idea of cattle of various kinds. ]f, then, we take this plural noun in the sense here briefly indicated, we may, in like manner, con- sider the Leviathan (q. v.) its counterpart, a similar- ly generalized term, with the idea of crocodile most prominent ; and as this name indicates a twisting ani- mal, and, as appears from various texts, evidently in- cludes the great pythons, cetacea, and sharks of the surrounding seas and deserts, it conveys a more sub- lime conception than if limited to the, crocodile, an an- imal familiar to every Egyptian, and well known even in Palestine." — Kitto, s. v. See Hippopotamus. Behistun or Bisuttm (Lat. Bagistanus; Persian, Baghistdn, Place of Gardens), a ruined town of the Persian province of Irak-Ajemi, 21 miles east of Kir- manshah, lat. 34° 18' N., long. 47° 30" E. Behistun is chiefly celebrated for a remarkable mountain, which on , one side rises almost perpendicularly to the height of 1700 feet, and which was in ancient times sacred to Jupiter or to Ormuzd. According to Diodorus, Sem- iramis, on her march from Babylon to Ecbatana, in Media Magna, encamped near this rock, and, having cut away and polished the lower part of it, had her own likeness and those of a hundred of her guards en- graved on it. She further, according to the same his- torian, caused the following inscription in Assyrian letters to be cut in the rock : " Semiramis having piled up one upon the other the trappings of the beasts of burden which accompanied her, ascended b_y these means from the plain to the top of the rock." No trace of these inscriptions is now to be found, and Sir Henry Rawlinson accounts for their absence by the supposi- tion that they were destroyed " by Khusrau Parvis when he was preparing to form of this long scarped surface the back wall of his palace." Diodorus also mentions that Alexander the Great, on his way to Ecbatana from Susa, visited Behistun. But the rock is especially interesting for its cuneiform inscriptions (q. v.), which within recent years have been successfully deciphered by Sir H. Rawlinson. The principal in- scription of Behistun, executed by the command of Darius, is on the north extremity of the rock, at an elevation of 300 feet from the ground, where it could not have been engraved without the aid of scaffolding, and can now only be reached by the adventurous an- tiquary at considerable risk to his life. The labor of polishing the face of the rock, so as to fit it to receive the inscriptions, must have been very great. In places wdiere the stone was defective, pieces were fitted in and fastened with molten lead with such extreme nicety that only a careful scrutiny can detect the arti- fice. " But the real wonder of the work," says Sir H. Rawlinson, " consists in the inscriptions. For extent, for beauty of execution, for uniformity and correctness, they are perhaps unequalled in the world. After the engraving of the rock had been accomplished, a coat- ing of silicious varnish had been laid on, to give a Book Inscriptions at L$ hi.-itun (Chambers' Cyclop, s. v.). BEHMEN" 729 BELA clearness of outline to each individual letter, and to ] more justly observes that Ilera is the female counter- protect the surface against the action of the elements. ! part to Zeus-Bel, that she is called so solely because it This varnish is of infinitely greater hardness than the i was the name of the chief Greek goddess, and that she limestone rock beneath it." Washed down in some and Bel are the moon and sun. He refers for con- places by the rain of twenty-three centuries, it lies in j firmation to Berosus (p. 50, ed. Richtcr), who states consistent flakes like thin layers of lava on the foot- ! that the wife of Bel was called Omorca, which means ledge; in others, where time has honey-combed the moon; and to Aminian. Marcell, xxiii, '.\, for a state- rock beneath, it adheres to the broken surface, still ment that the moon was, in later times, zealously showing with sufficient distinctness the forms of the I worshipped in Mesopotamia. The classical writers characters. The inscriptions — which are in the three generally call this Babylonian deity by their names, forms of cuneiform writing, Persian, Babylonian, and Zeus and Jupiter (Herod, and Diod. 1. c. ; Plin. Hist. Median — set forth the hereditary right of Darius to I Nat. vi, 30), by which the}' assuredly did not mean the throne of Persia, tracing his genealogy, through I the planet of that name, but merety the chief god of eight generations, up to the Achoemenes ; they then their religious system. Cicero, however (Be A 'at. Dear. enumerate the provinces of his empire, and recount his triumphs over the various rebels who rose against him during the first four years of his reign. The monarch himself is represented on the tablet with a bow in hand, and his foot upon the prostrate figure of a man, while nine rebels, chained together by the neck, stand humbly before him ; behind him are two of his own warriors, and above him, another figure [see cut]. The Persian inscriptions which Sir II. Kawlinson has translated are contained in the five main columns numbered in cut 1, 2, 3, 4, 5. The first column con- tains 19 paragraphs, and 96 lines. Each paragraph after the first, which commences, " I am Darius the Great King," begins with, ''Says Darius the King." The second column has the same number of lines in 16 paragraphs ; the third, 92 lines and 14 paragraphs ; the fourth has also 92 lines and 18 paragraphs ; and the fifth, which appears to be a supplementary column, ?>5 lines. A transcription, in Roman characters, of the Persian part, with a translation in English, is given in Rawlinson's Herodotus, ii, 490 sq. The second, fourth, and fifth columns are much injured. Sir H. Kawlinson fixes the epoch of the sculpture at 515 B.C. See Jour, of Asiatic Society, vol. x ; Norris, Bekistun Inscription. Behmen. See Boehme. Beirut. See Berytus. Be'kah ("£3, be'lca, cleft, i. e. part), a Jewish weight of early use (Exod. xxxviii, 20), being half a shekel (q. v.), the unit of value (Gen. xxiv, 22, " half- shekel"). See Metrology. Every Israelite paid one bekah (about 31 cents) yearly for the support and re- pairs of the Temple (Exod. xxx, 13). See Didrachma. Bekaim. See Mulberry. Bekker, Balthasar. See Becker. Bekorah. See Mishna. Bel (Heb. id. ^2, contracted from P"2, the Aramaic form of hv~Z ; Sept. B//X and B;/Aor) is the name under which the national god of the Babylonians is cursorily mentioned in Isa. xlvi, 1; Jer. 1, 2; li, 44. The only passages in the (apocryphal) Bible which contain any farther notice of this deity are Bar. vi, 40, and the ad- dition to the book of Daniel, in the Sept., xiv, 1, sq., where we read of meat and drink being daily offered to him, according" to a usage occurring in classical idolatry, and termed Lectisternia (Jer. li, 44?). But a particular account of the pyramidal temple of Bel, at Babylon, is triven by Herodotus, i, 181-183. See Babel. It is there also stated that the sacrifices of this god consisted of adult cattle (-po/3fi~«), °f their young, when sucking (which last class were the only victims offered up on the golden altar), and of incense. The custom of providing him with Lectisternia may be inferred from the table placed before the statue, but it iii. 16), recognises Hercules in the Belus of India, which is a loose term for Babylonia. This favors the identity of Bel and Melkart. See Baal. The following en- graving, taken from a Babylonian cylinder, represents, according to Munter, the sun-pod and one of his priests. The triangle on the top of one of the pillars, the star with eight rays, and the half moon, are all significant sj'mbols. See Cuneiform Inscriptions. Ancient Worship of Bel. Bel AND THE DRAGON, History of, an apoc- ryphal and uncanonical book of Scripture. See Apoc- rypha. It was always rejected by the Jewish ( Jhurch, and is extant neither in the Hebrew nor the Chaldee language. Jerome gives it no better title than that of " the fable" of Bel and the Dragon ; nor has it obtain- ed more credit with posterity, except with the divines of the Council of Trent, who determined that it should form part of the canonical Scriptures. The design of this fiction is to render idolatry ridiculous, and to exalt the true God ; but the author has destroyed the illusion of his fiction by transporting to Babylon the worship of animals, which was never practised in that country. This book forms the fourteenth chapter of Daniel in the Latin Vulgate; in the Greek it was called the proph- ecy of Habald-ul; the son of Jesus, of the tribe of Levi; but this is evidently erroneous, for that prophet lived before the time of Nebuchadnezzar, and the events pretended to have taken place in this fable are assign- ed to the time of Cyrus. There are two Greek texts of this fragment; that of the Septuagint, and that found in Theodotion's Greek version of Daniel. The former is the most ancient, and has been translated into Syriac. The. Latin and Arabic versions, together with another Syriac translation, have been made from the text of Theodotion. — Davidson, in Home's Introd, new ed. i, G39. See Daniel (Apocryphal Addi- tions to). Be'la (Heb. id. "^3, a thing swallowed), the name of one place and three men. 1. (Sept. BaXatc.) A small city on the shore of the Dead Sea, not far from Sodom, afterward called Zoar, is not expressly mentioned. Diodorus (ii, 9) gives a ! to which Lot retreated from the destruction of the similar account of this temple; but adds that there | cities of the plain, it being the only one of the five that were large golden statues of Zeus, Hera, and Rhea oil was spared at his intercession (Gen. xix, 20, 30). It its summit, with a table, common to them all, before lay at the southern extremity of the Dead Sea, on the them. Gesenius, in order to support his own theory, j frontier of Moab and Palestine (Jerome on Isa. xv), endeavors to show that this statue of Zeus must have : and on the route to Egypt, the connection in which it been that of Saturn, while that of Rhea represented I is found (Isa. xv, 5; Jer. xlviii, 34; Gen. xiii, Id), the sun. Hitzia, however, in his note to Isa. xvii, 8, i We first read of Bela in Gen. xiv, 2, 8, where it is BE LA 730 BELGIUM r<„kj* Tcxol /-A,,.,, j:,lfx,.,„../ //h ---V H',-,,*^ r^iti-nrmtiiiltT ', ,-;-■-> — . \ '• A r/*„.,.';, /A.'w../--.v-: j.ll,r/-.;rA, ; ■ k nnAv YmimetV !''/' r/" ^,^b^S2 i~s^S^r^^OerrFinf>aib "il!S* Ear, »/„■ \rnUJirr.;iiI,j! .<■•'- ;. - ■-•-/;> V O I! T. /] I „!! R V I! \N T : - '• ;\& \ : -r JVEUP \fy°ern Ouclentirde//■ ■r SPalizenl' -. ?'_-//„,,. 'UrTainc hrr-—- eMiern0> emich LONCITUDE EAST GREENWICH Map of Belgii and fifteenth centuries, Belgium was the chief seat of the reformatory movements within the Roman Catholic Church, and produced several religious communities, whose discipline and life formed, by their more BiMi- cal and spiritual character, a favorable contrast to the gross superstitions of the majority of monastic institu- tions. To these belonged the Beghards and Beguines, the Lollards, and especially the Fratres Communis Vitae {Brethren of the Common Life). The Reforma- tion.of the sixteenth century was opposed by the Uni- versity of Louvain, and later also by Erasmus, but found many adherents among the people ; and its first martyrs, John Esch and Henry Vos, who were burned at Brussels July 1, 1523, were Belgians. The Inquisi- tion introduced by Philip I was unable to crush out the Reformation, and led to the revolution of the seven northern provinces. See Holland. In the southern provinces the predominance of the Roman Church was secured by Alexander of Tarma, and fortified by the Jesuits. Jansenism (q. v.) arose in Belgium, but did not long survive, as a distinct organization, the first condemnatory decrees of the pope. The edict of tol- eration (Oct. 13, 1781), by which Joseph II restrained the spiritual authority of the pope, declared marriage a civil contract, and suppressed all monastic societies, merging them into one "Fraternity of Charity," met with a violent opposition. The states were against him and refused to pay taxes, and the emperor had to make important concessions. The union of Belgium with Holland after the overthrow of the Napoleonic rule greatly dissatisfied the Roman Catholic party, which united with the Liberal opposition for the over- throw of the Dutch rule and the establishment of an independent kingdom of Belgium (ls'30). The new Constitution, a compromise between the two par- ties, gave to the Roman Catholic party the greatest BELGIUM 732 BELIEF independence of the state and a liberal support, but compelled it, on the other hand, to consent to the es- tablishment of an unlimited liberty of religion. The Bubsequent history of Belgium is a strife of these par- tially with regard to the support which the state is to give to the Church in questions of hoth an ecclesiastical and political nature (education, charitable institutions, etc.). The "Catholic" party is numeri- cally stronger than in any other European Parliament. Among its distinguished men belong l)c Merode, Count (!<■ Theux, Dechamps, Malou, Dedecker. It split, how- ever, into two subdivisions, one of which, the more ultramontane, wished to overthrow the compromise with the Liberals and put an end to religious tolera- tion, while the other, the Constitutional, declared them- selves for a faithful adherence to the Constitution. This latter view is by far the most prevailing. II. Ecclesiastical Statistics. — The total population of Belgium was, at December 31, 1*58, 4,623,089. In 1846 the non-Catholic population was stated as 10,323 (of a total population of 4,337,196), among whom were 6678 Protestants, Lutherans, and Reformed, 790 An- glicans, lo.'jii Jews, 1019 promiscuous, and 600 of no religious persuasion. Since, the number of Protestants has increased more rapidly than that of the Roman Catholics, and a number of Protestant congregations have been formed, consisting entirely of converts from the Roman Catholic Church (one in Brussels alone counts more than one thousand converts). Helfferich (see below, the literature on Belgium) estimated the Protestant population in 1848 at about 25,000, which statement may have been a little too high, though there can be no doubt that the Protestant population at present amounts to over 20,000 souls. There are two different nationalities in Belgium, the Flemish (German) and Walloon (French). 'I he Roman Cath- olic Church has her strong-hold among the former. Of the four universities, one, Louvain, is Free Catho- lic, established and controlled entirely by the bishops; one, Brussels, is Liberal and anti-Catholic; two, Ghent and Liege, are state universities, in which, therefore, professors of both parties are to be found. There is one archbishop at Mechlin, and five bishops (Bruges, Namur, Tournay, Liege, and Ghent). There are six larger and six smaller seminaries for the training of the clergy. The appropriations made for all religious denominations acknowledged by the state amounted i:i 1859 to 4,051,942 fr. 75 cts. ' The religious orders are very numerous, and many of them, especially the Jesuits, very rich. The Jesuits at Brussels continue the greatest literary work ever undertaken by the or- der, the Acta Sanett rum (q. v."). The religious orders conduct a large number of boarding-schools, and the primary instruction is almost everywhere in their hands (in particular, in the hands of the Brothers of the Christian Schools). The number of the members of the religious associations was, in 1856, 14,853, viz., n and 12,330 women, and it is rapidly increas- ;' leading periodicals of the Roman Catholics u Catholique de Louvain; Precis historiques ret ttteraires, a Bemi-monthly, published by the Jesuits in Brussels; the Journal kistoriqvt et Vtteraire, a monthly, published at Liege by Kersten. The most influential among the many political organs of the Catholic party is the Journal de BruxeUes. The largest body 0f Protestants is the Protestant Union, which is recognised and supported by the Mate, and in 1854 embraced fourteen congregations, two of uliiel, i Mary Hoorbecke, near Ghent, and Dour, in Hen- late from the time of the Reformation. The number of preachers in 1859 was sixteen. The annual synod consists of all the preachers and two or three lay - of every congregation. I he Evangelical So- ciety (SocitU Evangelique Belg, ., whirl, formed itself in Brussels in 1885, after the model of the evangelical societies of Paris and Geneva, has established a con- siderable number of congregations, which increases annually. It had, in 1864, 20 churches and stations, 18 pastors and evangelists, 12 schools attended by 075 children, and a membership of from G000 to 7000. * The Episcopal Church of England has four congregations, the Lutherans one, at Brussels, in which city there are also two independent rcdigious associations." The Bi- ble Society had distributed (up to 1850) about two hundred thousand copies of the Bible. III. Literature. — Dufau, La Belg. Ckretienne (Liege, 1847, incomplete, reaching as far as the time of the Car- lovingians) ; Helfferich, Belgien in p ilitischer, k'rchlich- er, p id igogischer und artistiscker Beziehung (Pforzheim, 1848 ) ; Horn, Statist. Gemalda cles Kbnigr. Belgien (Des- sau, 1853) ; Schem, Keel. Year-book for 1859, p. 130, 197. Be'lial stands often, in the Auth. Vers, (after the Vulg.), as a proper name for the Heb. word ~^''-2 {Belitja'dl, Sept. usually translates Xotftoc, irapavo- pia, etc.), in accordance with 2 Cor. vi, 15. This is particularly the case where it is connected with the expressions b^N, man of, or "3, son of; in other in- stances it is translated by " wicked," or some equivalent term (Deut. xv, 9; Psa. xli, 8; ci, 3; Prov. vi, 12; xvi, 27 ; xix, 28 ; Nah. i, 11, 15). There can be no question, however, that the word is not to be regarded as a prop- er name in the O. T. ; its meaning is icorthlessness, and hence recklessness, lawlessness. Its etymology is uncer- tain : the first part, ^?2, = without ; the second part has been variously connected with ?i", yoke, as in the Vulg. (Judg. xix, 22), in the sense of unbridled, rebel- lious; with FOV, to ascend, as = without ascent, that is, of the loicest condition; and lastly with is*1, to be useful, as = without usefulness, that is, good for noth'ng (Gese- nius, Thesaur. p. 209). The latter appears to lie the most probable, not only in regard to sense, but also as ex- plaining the unusual fusion of the two words, the "> at the end of the one and at the beginning of the other leading to a crasis, originally in the pronunciation, and afterward in the writing. The expression son or man of Belial must be understood as meaning simply a worthless, lawless fellow (Sept. 7rapeh>opoc). It oc- curs frequently in this sense in the historical books (Judg. xix, 22; xx, 13; 1 Sam, i, 16; ii, 12; x, 27; xxv, 17, 25; xxx, 22; 2 Sam. xvi, 7; xx, 1; 1 Kings xxi, 10 ; 2 Chr. xiii, 7), and only ence in the earlier books (Deut. xiii, 13). The adjunct OX is occasion- ally omitted, as in 2 Sam. xxiii, 6, and Job xxxiv, 18, where ~V*52 stands In' itself, as a term of reproach. The later Hebrews used paKc'i and pups in a similar manner (Matt, v, 22) ; the latter is perhaps the most analogous ; in 1 Sam. xxv, 25, Nabal (b~3 = fiwpocj is described as a man of Belial, as though the terms were equivalent. In the N. T. the term appears (in the best MSS.) in the form BtXiap, and not BtXi'oX, as given in the Auth. Vers. (So in the T< st. XII Pair. p. 539, 587, G19, etc.) The change of X into p was common ; we have an instance even in Biblical Hebrew, Mazzaroth (Job xxxviii, 32) for mazzaloth (2 Kings xxiii, 5); in Chal- dee we meet with N^"n for L'S-n, and various other instances: the same change occurred in the Doric dia- lect {ijiavpoQ for ipavXoc), with which the Alexandrine writers were most familiar. The term, as used in 2 Cor. vi, 15, is generally understood as an appellative of Satan, as the personification of all that was bad; Ben- gel {[Gnomon, in loc.) explains it of Antichrist, as more strictly the opposite of Christ. By some it is here ex- plained as referring to a daemon (Castell, Lex. s. v. Beliar), or Satan himself (com p. Ephes. ii, 2); but in the i ». T. it never has this meaning (Michaelis, Sup- plem. p. 1119) — Smith, s. v. Belief, in its general acceptation, denotes a persua- sion or an assent of the mind to the truth of any prop- osition. " In this sense belief does not relate to any BELIEF 733 BELIEF particular kind of means or arguments, but may be produced by any means whatever : thus we are said to believe our senses, to believe our reason, to believe a witness. Belief, in a more restricted sense, denotes that kind of assent which is grounded only on the au- thority or testimony of some person. In this sense belief stands opposed to knowledge and science. "VVe do not say that wc believe snow to be white, but that we know it is white. In the original structure of our mental constitution, a firm foundation has been laid for the perception of truth. We set out in our intellectual career with be- lieving, and that, too, on the strongest of all evidence, so far as we are concerned — the evidence of conscious- ness. Dr. Reid, in his Inquiry into the Human Mind, seems to think that we have been endowed with two original principles — a principle of veracity and a prin- ciple of credulity — both of which he regards as origin- al instincts. The first of these is a propensity to speak and to use the signs of language, so as to convey our real sentiments. "When I reflect upon my actions most attentively," says Dr. Reid, " I am not conscious that, in speaking truth, I am influenced on ordinary occasions by any motive, moral or political. I find that truth is always at the door of my lips, and goes forth spontaneously if not held back. It requires neither good nor bad intention to bring it forth, but only that I be artless and undesigning. There may, indeed, be temptations to falsehood which would be too strong for the natural principle of veracity, unaided by the principles of honor and virtue; but, where there is no such temptation, we speak truth by in- stinct." That there is such an original tendency both to speak the truth and to believe, we readily admit ; and it is the possession of such a principle which fits us for appreciating evidence and feeling the force of argument. If by the word instinct be meant an origi- nal principle of our nature, we are not disposed to object to the use of the expression by Dr. Reid in speaking of our tendency to believe; but there seems to be no necessity for the assertion of two original prin- ciples, the one leading us to speak, and the other to be- lieve the truth. It is enough, surely, that we set out at first with a tendency to believe dogmatically and firm- ly, and are thus far unacquainted with doubt or error. If such be the original framework of our constitution, truth will ever, while we retain our nature, be our native element, and therefore always more familiar to us than falsehood. There may be temptations to for- get this characteristic element of nature, and to trans- gress the boundary of truth ; but in doing so we are violating the original law of our mental structure, and the moment that the unnatural pressure is removed, the mind will return to its former tendency to speak truth rather than falsehood. Thus formed, we are pre- pared to believe, in the first instance, every thing in- discriminately; but when reluctantly compelled to admit the existence of falsehood, we do not, because we cannot, part with the original tendency to believe. Hesitation and doubt are introduced, not so, however, as to destroy our nature ; but, still retaining our par- tiality for the truth, we come precisely into that situa- tion which is the best fitted for balancing probabilities, and weighing the evidence for and against any state- ment which is presented to us. Wc still incline de- cidedly toward the truth, and yet we arc aware of the existence of falsehood, and to some extent, therefore, guarded against it. There is no necessity, however, for an original principle of credulity in opposition to that of veracity. It is sufficient that truth is the rule, falsehood the exception; and if the inclination pre- ponderates in favor of the rule, wc require no more than a simple knowledge that there ai-e exceptions. Thus it is that man has been provided by his Creator with a standard by means of which he may juds^e of the truth and reality of things. And while, therefore, we define belief to be the agreement or disagreement of objects and qualities with this state of things, it must be borne in mind that the primary laws of con- sciousness, the ultimate conditions of thought, are the means according to which this agreement or disagree- ment is ascertained. The standard of truth lies deep in the constitution of man, and if he fails to judge rightly in reference to any statement, the error is to be found, not in the standard, but in a perverse mis- application of the standard. And herein lies the dif- ference in the opinions of men. They are each of them provided with an unerring standard in so far as they are concerned. They do not, because the}' can- not disbelieve the primary laws of thought or self- consciousness ; but in the application of these they commence a system of error, and therefore of doubt, leading at length to disbelief. The original belief is certain, because the standard is certain on which it is grounded ; and could all other facts and events be brought back to the same standard, the judgment, as to their truth or falsehood, would, so far as we are con- cerned, be unerring. Now the great design for which, in every case of doubt or disputation, evidence and ar- guments of every kind are adduced is, that the appeal may be carried through a variety of different steps to this, the highest, the purest, the most certain of all earthly tribunals — the reason, not of an individual man, but of humanity. This is the common platform on which men of all characters, of all sects, of all opin- ions, may meet in cordial agreement. The principles are the common property of the race in general ; they are tie conditions in virtue of which they assert their position in the world as rational and intelligent crea- tures. Without such common principles all evidence would bo powerless, all argument unavailing. With- out an original standard of truth in his own breast, this world would have become a state of universal scepticism; nay, rather, for such a state of things is impossible, there would have been no ground for either belief or doubt, affirmation or denial" (Gardner, Cydo- piedia). On the relation of the will to belief we cite the following from Hopkins (Lowell Lecturts, 1844). " It is true within certain limitations, and under cer- tain conditions, and with respect to certain kinds of truth, that we are not voluntary in our belief; but then these conditions and limitations are such as en- tirely to sever from this truth any consequence that we are not perfectly read}' to admit. We admit that belief is in no case directly dependent on the will ; that in some cases it is entirely independent of it ; but lie must be exceedingly bigoted, or unobservant of what passes around him, who should affirm that the will has no influence. The influence of the will here is analogous to its influence in many other cases. It is as great as it is over the objects which we see. It does not depend upon the will of any man, if he turns his eyes in a particular direction, whether lie shall see a tree there. If the tree be there he must see it, and is compelled to believe in its existence ; but it was en- tirely within his power not to turn his eyes in that di- rection, and thus to remain unconvinced, on the high- est of all evidence, of the existence of the tree, and unimpressed by its beauty and proportion. It is not by his will directly that man has any control over his thoughts. It is not by willing a thought into the mind that he can call it there, and yet we all know that, through attention and habits of association, the subjects of our thoughts are to a great extent directed by the will. It is precisely so in respect to belief; and he who denies this, denies the value of candor, and the influence of party spirit, and prejudice, and interest on the mind. So great is this influence, however, that a keen observer of human nature, and one who will not be suspected of leaning unduly to the doctrine I now advocate, has supposed it to extend even to our belief of mathematical truth. 'Men,' says Hobbes, 'appeal from custom to reason, and from reason to custom, as it serves their turn, receding from custom when their BELIEVERS 7.34 BELL interest requires it, and setting themselves against reason as oft as reason is against them, which is the cause that the doctrine of right and wrong is perpetu- ally disputed both by the pen and the sword; whereas the doctrine of lines and figures is not so, because men care not, in that subject, what is truth, as it is a thing that crosses no man's ambition, or profit, or lust. For, J doubt not, if it had been a thing contrary to any m m's ri_;lit of dominion, or to the interest of men who have dominion, that the three angles of a triangle should be equal to two angles of a square, that doc- trine should have been, if not disputed yet by the burn- ing of all books of geometry, suppressed, as far as he whom it concerned was able.' 'This,' says Hallam, fnmi whose work I make the quotation, 'does not ex- aggerate the pertinacity of mankind in resisting the evidence of truth when it thwarts the interests or pas- sions of any particular sect or community.' Let a man who hears the forty-seventh proposition of Euclid announced for the first time trace the steps of the dem- onstration, and he nwst believe it to be true ; but let him know that as soon as he does perceive the evi- dence of that proposition, so as to believe it on that ground, he shall lose his right eye, and he will never trace the evidence, or come to that belief which re- sults from the force of the onty proper evidence. You may tell him it is true, but he will reply that he does not know — he doss not see it to be so. So far, then, from finding in this law of belief, the law by which it is necessitated on condition of a certain amount of evi- dence perceived by the mind, an excuse for any who do not receive the evidence of the Christian religion, it is in this very law that I find the ground of their condemnation. Certainly, if God has provided evi- dence as convincing as that for the forty-seventh prop- osition of Euclid, so that all men have to do is to ex- amine it with candor, then they must be without ex- cuse if they do not believe. This, I suppose, God has done. He asks no one to believe except on the ground of evidence, and such evidence as ought to command assent. Let a man examine this evidence with en- tire candor, laying aside all regard for consequences or results, simply according to the laws of evidence, and then, if he is not convinced, I believe God will so far forth acquit him in the great day of judgment. But if God has given man such evidence that a fair, and full, and perfectly candid examination is all that i- needed to necessitate belief, then, if men do not be- lieve, it will be in this verj' law that we shall find the ground of their condemnation. The difficulty will not lie in their mental constitution as related to evidence, nor in the want of evidence, but in that moral condi- tion, that state of the heart, or the will, which prevent- ed a (.roper examination. 'There seems,' says But- ler, ' no possible reason to be given why we may not be in a state of moral probation with regard to the ex- erciseofour understanding upon the subject of religion, as we are with regard to our behavior in common af- fairs. The former is a thing as much within our power and choice as the latter.' " On the relations of Beiief to Faith, sec Faith. Believers. In the early Church this term (tthtt-oi, ; • applied strictly to the believing or baptized buiy, in contradistinction to the clergy or the catechu- mens. Thej had many titles, honors, and privileges, which raised them above the catechumens. They were called "the illuminated," "the initiated," "the per- fect, ' "the favorites of heaven." They alone could partake of the Lord's Supper, the catechumens being previously dismissed; theyjoinedin all the praversof the Church; thej alone used the Lord's Prayer, for the catechumens were not allowed to Bay "Our Father;" and they were auditors of all discourses made in the church.— Bingham, Orig. Eccles. bk. i, ch. 3 and 4. Belknap, Jeremy, D.D., was born at Boston, June 4, 1, II, and graduated at Harvard in 17G2. In 1767 he was ordained pastor of the Congregational Church at Dover, N.H., where he labored for over 20 years. In 1787 he became pastor at Boston, where he died, June 20, 1799. He was one of the founders of the Massachusetts Historical Society, and devoted much of his time to the promotion of its objects. Among his writings are the History of New Hampshire (1784-1792, 3 vols.) ; American Biography (1794-1798, 2 vols.}; and a number of political and religious tracts, besides occa- sional sermons. — Allen, Blog. Diet. s. v. Bell CpOSS, paamon', something struck; Sept. po'ivKoc. ; Vulg. tintinnabuhim ; Exod. xxviii, 33, 34 ; xxxix, 25, 2G ; also ■"teX'S, metsillali ', tinkling; Sept. XaAiVoc; Zech. xiv, 20). I. The first bells known in history are those small golden bells which were attached to the lower part of the blue robe (the robe of the ephod) which formed part of the dress of the high-priest in his sacerdotal minis- trations (Exod. xxviii, 33, 34; comp. Ecclus. xlv, 11). They were there placed alternately with the pomegran- ate-shaped knobs, one of these being between every two of the bells. The number of these bells is not mentioned in Scripture ; but tradition states that there were sixt\-six (Clem. Alex. Stromaia, p. 563), or, ac- cording to the Jews, seventy-two (Jarchi, in loc.) We need not seek any other reason for this rather singular use of bells than that which is assigned : " His sound shall be heard when he goeth into the holy place be- fore the Lord, and when he cometh out, that he die not" (Exod. xxviii, 35); by which we may under- stand that the sound of the bells manifested that he was properly arrayed in the robes of ceremony which he was required to wear when he entered the presence- chamber of the Great King; and that as no minister can enter the presence of an earthly potentate abrupt- ly and unannounced, so he (whom no human being could introduce) was to have his entrance harbingered by the sound of the bells he wore. This sound, heard outside, also notified to the people the time in which he was engaged in his sacred ministrations, and during which they remained in prayer (Luke i, 9, 10). No doubt they answered the same purpose as the bells used by the Brahmins in the Hindoo ceremonies, and by the Roman Catholics during the celebration of mass (comp. Luke i, 21). To this day bells are frequently attached, for the sake of their pleasant sound, to the anklets of women. See Anklet. The little girls of Cairo wear strings of them round their feet (Lane, Mod. Egypt, ii, 370), and at Koojar Mungo Park saw a dance " in which many performers assisted, all of whom were provided with little bells fastened to their legs and arms." "Bells of the Horses" arc mentioned in Zech. xiv, 20, and ma}- have been such as were attached to the bridles or foreheads, or to belts around the necks of horses trained for war, that they might thereby be accustomed to noise and tumult, and not by their alarm expose the riders to danger in actual warfare. Hence a person who had not been tried or trained up to any thing was by the Greeks called aKbiSwviaroQ, "one not used to the noise of a bell," by a metaphor taken from horses. The mules employed in the funeral pomp of Alexander had at each jaw a golden bell. It does not appear, however, that this was a use of horse-bells with which the Jews were familiar. The Hcbr. woid is almost the same as C^03^"3, mtisi'tayhn, "a pair of cymbals ;" and as they are supposed to be inscribed with the words "Holiness unto the Lord," it is more probable that they are not bells, but "concave or ilat pieces of brass, which were sometimes attached to horses for the sake of ornament" (Jahn, Bib/. Arch. § 96). Indeed, they were probably the same as the d^jHftltf, sakarmim', "ornaments;" Sept. fnjviaicot (Isa. iii, 18; Judg. viii, 21), lunuhv of gold, silver, or brass used as ornaments, and hung b}r the Arabians BELL 735 BELL round the necks of their camels, as we still see them in England on the harness of horses. They were not only ornamental, but useful, as their tinkling tended'to en- liven the animals ; and in the caravans they thus served the purpose of our modern sheep-bells. '1 he laden an- imals, being without riders, have bells hung from their necks, that they may be kept together in traversing by night the open plains and deserts, by paths and roads unconfined by fences and boundaries, that they may be cheered by the sound of the bells, and that, if any horse strays, its place may be known by the sound of its bell, while the general sound from the caravan enables the traveller who has strayed or lingered to find and regain his party, even in the night (Rosen- miiller, Morgenl. iv, 441). That the same motto, Holi- ness to the Lord, which was upon the mitre of the hi.Lih- priest, should, in the happy days foretold by the proph- et, be inscribed even upon the Liells of tho horses, man- ifestly signifies that all things, from the highest to the lowest, should in those days be sanctified to God (Hack- ett's Illustra. of Script, p. 77) — Kitto. See Bridle. It is remarkable that there is no appearance of bells of any kind on the Egyptian monuments. Quite a number of bronze bells, with iron tongues, were dis- covered, however, among the Assyrian ruins in a cal- Ancient Assyrian Tells. dron at Nimroud by Mr. Layard, and are now in the British Museum. They vary in size from about 2 to 3 inches in height, and 1 to 2 inches in diameter, and in shape do not differ materially from those now in use among us (see Layard's Babylon and Nineveh, p. 150). II. Bells were not introduced into the Christian Church till a comparatively late period. Several in- ventions were common before the introduction of bells. In Egypt they seem to have used trumpets, in imita- tion of the Jews ; and the same custom prevailed in Palestine in the sixth century. In some monasteries they took the office by turns of going about to every one's cell, and calling the monks to their devotions by the sound of a hammer: this instrument was called the night signal and awakening instrument. Paulinus, the bishop of Nola, in Campania, who died A.D. 431, is usually regarded as the inventor of bells ; and hence the terms nola and campana are supposed to be de- rived. There is reason, however, to believe that this is a mistake, as it is remarkable that no mention of bells is made in his epistles, in his poems, or in the account of his life, which was compiled from his own works and the panegyrics of his contemporaries. The word campana is probably derived from a>s Campantem, mentioned by Pliny, the metal preferred for bells. The use of bells was not known in the Eastern Church till the year 865. when Ursus Patrisiacus made a pres- ent of some to Michael, the Creek emperor, who first built a tower in the church of Sancta Sophia in which to hang them. It is generally thought that Sabinianus, who succeeded Gregory the Great in 004, introduced them into the Latin Church, and applied them to ec- clesiastical purposes. Baronius speaks of the use of the Tintinnabida in the earliest ages of the Church {Ann. A.D. 58 and G4), and Giraldus Cambrensis says that portable bells were used in England in the time of SS. Germanus and Lupus, i. e. about 430. From all which it appears that small portable bells were in use in the Church in very ancient times, and that the large church-bells were not introduced until a later period. Certain it is, however, that there were bells in the church of St. Stephen, at Sens, in 610, the ringing of which frightened away the besieging army of King Clothaire II, which knew not what they were. Yet Bede, in his Ecclesiastical History (lib. iv, c. 23), about 670, says, "audivit subito in aere notum campana; sc- num quo ad orationes excitari solebant." A form of speaking which would imply that they were at that period in general use ; and Stavely refers to Spelman's Concil. torn, i, fol. 62, 64, where it is stated that Oudo- ceus, bishop, or archbishop, of LlandafF, about A.D. 550, took down tho bells and crosses of his church as part of a sentence of excommunication. Ingulphus relates how Turketul, abbot of Croyland, who died about 870, gave one notable great bell to the abbey- church, which he called Guthlac, and afterward abbot Egelric gave six more, named Bartholomew, Bettelimis, Terketul, Taticyn, Pega, and Bega ; and he adds, "Non erat tunc tanta consonantia campanarum in tota An- glia." (See Maitland, Dark Ages, p. 251.) Proofs ex- ist that bells were common in France as early as the seventh and eighth centuries. During the reign of Charlemagne they became com- mon in France and German}'. Bells were first hung in towers separate from the church (cam-' panili) ; later, the tower was join- ed to the church. In Italy, Greece, the Ionian Isles, and Sweden, the towers are yet usu- ally separate. As early as the eighth century bells were dedi- cated with religious ceremonies very similar to those used in bap- tism. They were sprinkled with holy water; exorcism was sj o- ken over them, to free them from the power of evil spirits ; a name was given them (as early as the tenth century) ; a blessing was pro- nounced ; and they were anointed. Later, their ring- ing was supposed to drive away evil spirits, pestilence, and thunder-storms. Being thus made objects of re- ligious faith and affection, they were ornamented in the highest style of the sculptor's art with scenes from the Bible and other religious subjects. The largest bells are: the one at Moscow, 488,000 lbs.; at Tou- louse, 66,000 lbs. ; at Vienna, 40,000 lbs. ; Paris, 38,000 lbs. ; Westminster Abbey, 37,000 lbs. The usual com- position of bells is four parts of copper and one of tin. The proportions arc sometimes varied, and bismuth and zinc added. Legends of large parts of silver in certain bells, as at Rouen, have been found by chemical analysis to be fabulous. Strength of tone in bells ds- pends upon the weight of metal, depth of tone upon the shape. By varying these chimes are produced. (See Thiers, Des Cloches (Paris) ; Harzen, Die Clock- giesserie (Weimar, 1854) ; Otto, Clockenlunde (Leipzig, 1857); Chrysander, Historische Nachrkhtcn von Kirch- engloclcn). The Blessing of Bells in the Romish Church is a most extraordinary piece of superstition. They are said to be consecrated to < Sod, that he may bestow upon them the power, not of striking the ear only, but also of touching the heart. When a bell is to be blessed, it is hung up in a place where there is room to walk round it. Beforehand, a holy-water pot, another for salt, napkins, a vessel of oil, incense, myrrb, cotton, a basin and ewer, and a crumb of bread, arc prepared. There is then a procession from the vestry, and the officiating priest, having seated himself near the bell, instructs the people in the holiness of the action he is going to perform, and then sings the Miserere, Next, he bless- es some salt and water, and offers a prayer that the bell may acquire the virtue of guarding Christians BELL 736 from the stratagems of Satan, of breaking the force of t impests, and raising devotion in the b art. etc. He then mixes salt and water, and, crossing the hulls thrice, in the name of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost, pronounces over each, "God he with you." This being done, he dips the aspergillum, or sprinkler, in the holy water, and with it washes the hell; during this ablution psalms are sung. After this, a ves- ge] containing what they call oil for the infirm, is ' v the dean, into whieh the officiating priest dip. the thumb of his right hand, and applies it to the middle of the bell, signing it with the sign of the cross. The twenty-eighth psalm being then sung, tli' hell is marked with seven other crosses, during w hieh the priest honors the bell with a sort of baptism, consecrating it in the name of the Trinity, and naming some particular saint, who stands godfather to the hell, and from that time it bears his name. It is then perfumed with incense and myrrh, which, in a prayer used on the occasion, is called the dew of the Holy Ghost. For the full forms, see Migne, Liturgie Catholique, p. 363; Boissonnet, Diet, des Ceremonies, i, 880. The practice of consecrating and baptizing bells is a mod- ern invention. Baronius refers the origin to the time of John XIII, A.D. 968, who consecrated the great bell of the Lateran Church, and gave it the name of John. The practice, however, appears to have pre- vailed at an earlier period ; for in the capitulars of Charles the Great it is censured and prohibited. The rituals of the Romanists tell us that the consecration of bells is designed to represent that of pastors ; that the ablution, followed by unction, expresses the sane- tification acquired by baptism ; the seven crosses show that pastors should exceed the rest of Christians in the graces of the Holy Ghost ; and that as the smoke of the perfume rises in the bell, and tills it, so a pas- tor, adorned with the fulness of God's spirit, receives the perfume of the vows and prayers of the faithful. The Tolling of bells at funerals is an old practice. It was a superstitious notion that evil spirits were hovering round to make a prey of departing souls, and that the tolling of bells struck them with terror. In the Council of Cologne it is said, " Let bells be 11 sed, as the trumpets of the church militant, by which the people are assembled to hear the word of God, the clergy to announce his mercy by day, and his truth in their nocturnal vigils ; that by theirsound the faithful may be invited to prayers, and that the spirit of devotion in them may he increased." The fathers have also maintained that daemons, affrighted sound of bells calling Christians to prayer, would flee away, and when they fled the persons of tie- faithful would be secure; that the destruction of li (htnings and whirlwinds would be averted, and the spirits of the .storm defeated. Durand says, in his Rational of the Roman Church, "that for expiring persons bells must lie tidied, that people may put up their prayers. This must be done twice for a woman and thrice I'm- a m in ; for an ecclesiastic as many times as he had orders; and at the conclusion a peal Of all tin- b 11- must be given, to distinguish the qual- ity of tie- persons for whom the people are to offer up their prayers." The uses of bells, according to the Romish idea, are summed up in the following distich, oft n inscribed on bells: rum; plebem v„cn; contjreqo clerum; ''■'"" ' •<„,!„: festaqu honoro." "I praise the true God; I call the people; I assemble tin- clergy; I Umenl the dead; I drive away infec- tion; I honor tin- festivals." The following are the n "in-, kind-, and offices of bells used in churches and "religious hous is:" l. Squtila or scilla, a little hell hung in tie- refectory, near tie- abbot's seat, which he ran: h. signify the end of tin- repast. It was also used to procure Bilence when there was too much noise. '-'■ Cymbcdum, need in the cloister. 3. Nola, in the choir. 1. Oampan i, in tin- Campanile (q. v.); perhaps BELL used when there was only one church-bell. 5. Signum, in the church-tower. The Campana sancta, vulgarly called in the country the " Sance-bell," was rung when the priest said the Sanctus, sanctus, sanctus, Dommus Deus Sabaoth. Matthew Paris says that it was forbid- den to ring the bells during a period of mourning; and the Church of Rome retains to this day the cus- tom of not suffering the bells to sound during the pe- riod from Good Friday to Easter Day. For an amus- ing paper on "Bells," see Southey's Doctor, vol. i.— Bergier, s. v. "Cloche;" Bingham, Orig. Eccles. bk. viii, ch. vii, § 15; Martene, De Ant. Eccles. Uitibus, t. ii; Landon, Eccles. Dictionary, s. v. "Bells;" Cole- man, Ancient Christianity, ch. xiii, § 9; Quarterly Re- view (Lond.), Oct. 1854, art. ii. Bell, Andrew, D.D. , inventor of what is called the Lancas/erian School System, was born at St. Andrew's, 1752, and educated at the University there. Taking orders in the Church of England, he was appointed chaplain at Fort St. George, and minister of St. Mary's church at Madras. Here he commenced instructing gratuitously the orphan children of the military asy- lum, and made the first attempt at the system of mu- tual instruction. On his return to England he pub- lished in London, in 1797, An Experiment made at the Male Asylum at Ma Iras, suggesting a Systi m by which a School or Family may teach itself und r th > superintend- ence of the Master or Parent. The pamphlet attracted but little attention until, in the following year, Joseph Lancaster opened a school in Southwark for poor chil- dren, supported by subscription, and conducted upon this system. It was so successful that similar, schools were established elsewhere. The education of the poor being undertaken on so large a scale by a secta- rian, the subscribers being also in the main dissidents from the Church of England, caused some alarm in the leading members of that church. Bell was opposed to Lancaster, and in 1807 was employed to establish schools where the Church doctrine would he taught, and to prepare books for them. Funds were provided, and the rivalry, by stimulating both parties to exer- tion, resulted in nothing but good; though the par- ticular feature, that of mutual instruction with the help of a master only, has been found to require very material modifications. Dr. Bell, as a reward for his labors, was made a prebendary of Westminster. He died at Cheltenham, January 28, 1832, leaving over $600,000 for educational purposes. — English < yclopcedia. Bell, "William, D.D., an English divine, was born about 1731, and was educated at Magdalen College, Cambridge. He became prebendary of St. Paul's, and throughout a long life was noted for his piety, learn- ing, and benevolence. In 1810 he founded eight new scholarships at Cambridge for the benefit of sons of poor clergymen. He died at Westminster in 1816. His writings include An Inquiry into th' d'vine Mission of John the Baptist and of Christ (Lond. 1761, 8vo ; 3d e'd. 1K1K); Defence of Revelation (1750, 8vo); Author- ity, Nature, and Design of the Lord's Supper ( ! 780, 8vo) ; Sermons on various Subjects (Lond. 1817, 2 vols. 8vo). — Darling, Cycli>p>rdin /Jiblingraphica, i, 233; Allibone, Dictionary of Authors, i, 101. Bell, Book, and Candle. In the Romish Church the ceremony of excommunication was formerly at- tended with great solemnity. Lamps or candles were extinguished by being thrown on the ground, with an imprecation that those against whom the excommuni- cation was pronounced might be extinguished by the judgment of God. The summons to attend this cere- mony was given by the ringing of a bell, and the curses accompanying it were pronounced out of a book by the ! priest. Hence the phrase of "cursing by bell, book, and candle." The following account, from the arti- cles of the General Great Curse, found at Canterbury A.D. 1502, as it is sot down by Thomas Becon, in the I Reliqucs of Rome, is taken from Eadie, s. v. This was BELLAMY 737 BELLARMINE solemnly thundered out once in every quarter — that is, as the old book saitli . — "''The Fyrst Sunday of Ad- vent, at eomyng of our Lord Jhesu Cryst : 'i he fyrst Sunday of Lenteen : The Sonday in the Feste of thj Trynyte : and Sonday within the Utas (Octaves) of the Blessed Vyrgin our Lady St. Mary.' At which Action the Prelate stands in the Pulpit in his Aulbe, the Cross being lifted up before him, and the Candles lighted on both sides of it, and begins thus, ' By Au- thority God, Fader, Son, and Holy-Ghost, and the glo- rious Mother and Mayden, our Lady St. Mary, and the Blessed Apostles Peter, and Paul, and all Apostles, Martyrs, Confessors, Vyrgyne, and the hallows of God; All thos byn accursed that purchases YVritts, or Let- ters of any Leud Court, or to let the Processe of the Law of Holy Chirch of Causes that longcn skilfully to Christen Court, the which should not be denied by none other Law: And all that maliciously bereaven Holy Chirch of her right, or maken Ho\y Chirch lay fee, that is hallowed and Blessed. And also all thos that for malyce or wrathe of Pi.tsou, Vicare, or Priest, or of any other, or for wrongfull covetyse of himself with- holden rightful Tyths, and Offerings, Rents, or Mortu- aries from her own Parish Chirch, and by way of covet}'se fals lyche taking to God the worse, and to hemself the better, or else torn him into another use, then hem oweth. For all Chrysten Man and Women been hard bound on pain of deadty Sin, not onlycheby ordinance of Man, but both in the ould Law, and also in the new Law, fur to pay trulyche to God and holy Chirch the Tyth part of all manner of encrease that they winnen trulyche by the Grace of God, both with her travell, and alsoe with her craftes whatsoe they be truly gotten.' And then concludes all with the ( lurse it self, thus, 'And now b}r Authoritie aforesaid we De- nounce all thos accursyd that are. so founden guyltie, and all thos that maintaine hem in her Sins or gyven hem hereto either help or councell, soe they be depart- ed froe God, and all holi Chirch : and that they have noe part of the Passyon of our Lord Jhesu Cryst, ne of noe Sacraments, ne no part of the Prayers among Christen Folk : But that they be accursed of God, and of the Chirch, froe the sole of her Foot to the crown of her hede, sleaping and waking, sitting and standing, and in all her Words, and in all her Wcrks; but if they have noe Grace of God to amend hem here in this Lyfe, for to dwell in the pain of Hell for ever withouten End : Fiat : Fiat. Doe to the Boke : Quench the Candles : Ring the Bell : Amen, Amen.' And then the Book is clapped together, the Candles blown out, and the Bells rung, with a most dreadful noise made by the Congregation present, bewailing the accursed persons concerned in that Black Doom pro- nounced against them." Bellamy, Joseph, D.D., an eminent New Eng- land divine, was born at New Cheshire, Conn., 1719, and graduated at Yale College 1735. He began to preach at 18, and in 1740 was ordained pastor of the church in Bethlehem, Conn. In the great revival which soon after spread over New England, he was widely useful as an itinerant evangelist. His later years were spent (in addition to his pastoral labors) in teaching theology to students, who resorted to him in numbers. He was accustomed to give his pupils a set of questions, and also lists of books on the subjects of the questions ; they were afterward made topics of ex- amination on the part of the teacher, and of essays or sermons by the pupil. Many of the most prominent divines of New England in the last generation were Bellamy's students. He was less successful as a writer than as a teacher, though some of his books are still published. His True Relifi'wn delin>ated (Boston, 1750) went through many editions in this country and in Great Britain. lie also published Thtron, Paulinug, and Aspasia, or Letters and Dialogues upon tin Natan of Lore to God, etc. (1759) ; an Essay on tin Xatvre and Glory of the Gospel of Jesus Christ, etc. (1762) ; The A A A Half-way Covenant (17G9); and a number of occasional sermons, with various controversial pamphlets, all of which may be found in his Works (N. Y. 1811, 3 vols. 8vo ; 2d ed. Boston, 2 vols. 8vo), with memoir. A careful review of his writings, by Dr. Woodbridge, is given in the Literary and Theological Review, ii, 58. — Sprague' Ann. i, 504. See New England Theology. Bellarmine, Robert, cardinal-archbishop of Cap- ua, was born at Monte Pulciano, in Tuscany, October 4, 1542, being nephew, on his mother's side, of Pope Marcellus II. His father, intending him for civil life, sent him to the University of Padua; but the bent of bis mind was toward theology, and in 1560 he entered the society of the Jesuits. His remarkable talents and progress in knowledge induced his superiors to order him to preach while as yet he was only a deacon ; and at Mondovi, Florence, Padua, and Lou vain, his talents as a preacher were first known. In 1569 he was ad- mitted to the priesthood, and in the year following lec- tured on theology at Louvain, being the first Jesuit who had done so. He preached also in Latin with great repute. Upon his return to Rome in 1576, Pope Gregory XIII appointed him lecturer in controversial divinity in the new college {Collegium Romanum) which he had just founded ; and Sixtus V sent him with Car- dinal Cajetan into France, in the time of the League, to act as theologian to that legation, in case any con- troversy should arise with the Protestants, for which his studies during his residence in the Netherlands had eminently fitted him. In 1598 he was elevated to the purple by Clement VIII, and in 1601 he was made archbishop of Capua. This see he held only four years, and resigned it on being appointed librarian of the Vat- ican, refusing to retain a bishopric at which he could not reside. He would have been elected pope had not the cardinals feared the degree of power which the Jesuits might have attained with one of their body on the papal throne. Bellarmine died on the 17th of Sep- tember, 1621, aged sixty-nine, with the reputation of being one of the most learned controversialists in Eu- rope. It is curious that the favorite maxim of such an acute and learned controversialist was, "that an ounce of peace is worth a pound of victory." The chief work of Bellarmine is his Body of Controversy (" De Controversiis Christiana? fidei," etc.), first print- ed at Ingoldstadt, in 3 vols, fob, 1587-88-90. Another edition, corrected by himself, appeared at Venica, which was reprinted at Paris in 160?, In 1608 an- other edition (that of the Triadelphi) was put forth at Paris, corrected and augmented upon a Memoir pub- lished by the author at Rome in 1607, entitled Recog- nitio Ubrorum omnium R. E. ab ipso edita. In this celebrated work Bellarmine generally lays down the positions of his adversaries fairly, without concealing their strength — a candor which, as Mosheim says, has exposed him to the reproaches of many writers of his own communion ; and as, at the same time, he states the claims and dogmas of Rome unreservedly he is a much better source of information as to real Roman doctrine than such advocates as Bossuet and Mohler. Of this celebrated work vol. i contains three general contro- versies: (1.) On the Word of God, which, he says, is either written or unwritten ; the written word is con- tained in the New and Old Testaments, the canonicity of which lie defends. He maintains that the Church alone is the lawful interpreter. (2.) Of Jesus Christ, the Head of the Church; in which he proves the di- vinity of our ],< rd against the Arians; defends the Trinity : est iblishes the Procession of the Holy Spirit, and justifies the addition of the word Filioque to the Creed. (3.) Of the Sovereign Pontiff, where he main- tains that the government of the Church is purely monarchical ; that St. Pet :r was the head of the Church, and that the popes succeed him in that quality ; that the}' are infallible in their dogmatic judgments; that thej' have an indirect power over the temporal author- ity of kings, etc. Vol ii contains four heads : (1.) BELLAY 138 BELLOWS Of the Councils and the Church : among general Council* he reckODS eighteen approved, eight disap- proved, and -ix only partly approved (among which are Frankfort, Constance, and Basle), and one (Pisa, 1509) neither approved nor disapproved. lie gives to the pope the authority to convoke and approve coun- cils, and makes him superior to a general council. In the third book he treats of the visibility and indefecti- bility of the Church, and of the Notes of the Church. ( '_'. i < (fthe Members of the Church, viz., clerks, monks, and laymen. (3.) Of the Church in Purgatory: in thi< he states, and endeavors to prove, the Roman doe- trine of purgatory. (1.) Of the Church Triumphant, relating to the beatitude and worship of the saints. Vol. iii relates to the sacraments in general and in par- ticular; and vol. iv treats of original sin; the necessi- ty of grace, free-will, justification ; the merit of good works, especially of prayer, fasting, ami alms-giving; various matters disputed among the scholastic theolo- gians, etc. Besides these works, we have of Bellar- mine 3 vols. fol. of Opera Diversa, published at Co- logne in 1017, containing, 1. Commentaries on the Psalms, and Sermons: — 2. A Treatise of Ecclesiastical Writers (often reprinted): — 3. Treatises on the Trans- lation if the Empire; on Indulgences; the Worship of Images (against the synod of Paris); and on the judg- ment on a Look entitled the "Concord of the Lutherans." Also, -1. Four Writings on the Affairs of Venice: — 5. Tiro Writings against James I of England : — 6. A Trea- tise, De pott state svmmi ponfifcis in rebus temporal Hits, against William Barclay, condemned in 1G10 by the Par- liament: — 7. Some Devotional Pieces : — 8. Treatises on the Duties of Bishops (reprinted at Wurzburg in 1749, 4to): — 9. His Catechism, or Christian Doctrine, which has been translated into many different languages : it was suppressed at Vienna by the Empress Maria The- resa. In his treatise De potestate summi Pontificis cen- tra Barelcdam (Rom. lflO, 8vo), he maintains the in- direct temporal authority ut the pope over princes and governments. '1 he best edition of his whole works is that of Cologne, 1620 (7 vols. fol.). The De Contro- versiis was reprinted at Rome, 1832-40 (4 vols. 4to). A good Life of Bellarmine is given in Rule's Cele- brated Jesuits (Lond. 1854, 3 vols. 18mo). An Italian biography of Bellarmine, based on his autobiography, ' was published by Fuligatti (Rome, 1624). S?e also J Frizon,J7< du Cardinal Bellarmin (Nancy, 1708, 4to); Niceron, Memoires, vol. xxxi ; Bayle, Diet. Crit. s. v. ; Bellarmine's Notes of the Church Refuted (Lond. 1840, 8vo)j Boefer, Biog. Generate, v, 222 ; Herzog, Real- Encyklop&du , s. v. ; Landon, Eceies. Diet, ii, 128. Bellay, Jean dd, an eminent French cardinal, was born in 1492; was made bishop of Bayonne, and in 1532 bishop of Paris. In 153:5 he returned from Eng- land, whither, in 1527, he had been sent as ambassador to llenrv VIII, who was then on the point of a rup- ture with the court of Rome, but who promised Du I;. II ,\ thai he would not take the final step provided that he were allowed time to defend himself by his proctor. Du Bellay hastened to Rome, where lie ar- rived in 1584, and obtained th.3 required delay from Clement VII. which he sent instantly by a courier to England ; but the courier not returning by the day fixed bj the pope, sentence of excommunication was pronounced against Henry, and his kingdom laid un- der an interdict, in -j.ite of the protestations of Du Bellay, at tie- instigation .if the agents of Charles V. The courier arrived two days afterward. In 1535 the bishop was made cardinal, and served Francis I so ef- fectually ae hi- lieutenant general (!) that be made him ely bishop of Limoges (1541), archbishop of Bordeaux (1544), and bishop of Mans (1546). After the death of Francis Du Bellay was superseded by the Cardinal de Lorraine, and retire.) to Rome, when he g. Generate, v, 227. Bellegarde, Gabriel du Bac de, a French theologian, was born Oct. 17, 1717. He was early made canon of Lyons, but his Port-Royalism and his severe principles shut him out from preferment and lost him his canonry. He retired to Holland, where he collected Memoires sur I'histoire de lei Bulk Unigen- itus dans les Pays Bas (4 vols. 12mo, 1755). He also wrote UHistoire abregee de VEglise iV Utrecht (1765, 12mo); editsd the works of Van Espen, with a life (Lyons, 5 vols. fol. 1778), and a complete edition of the works of Arnauld (Lausanne, 1775-82, with pref- aces, notss, etc., 45 vols, in 4to). — Hoefer, Biog. Gene- rale, v, 238. Bellegarde, Jean Baptiste Morvan de, a laborious French writer, known as the Abbe de Belle- garde, was born at Pihyriac, August 30th, 1648. He was a Jesuit 16 years, but was obliged to leave the so- ciety on account of his Cartesianism. He translated the Letters and Sermons of Basil, the Sermons of As- terius, the Moralia of Ambrose, many of the woi ks of Leo, Gregory Nazianzen, and Chrysostom, the Imita- tio Christi and other works of Thomas & Keinpis, and various other writings. His translations betray great negligence. He died April 26, 1734. — Hoefer, Biog. Generede, v, 39. Bellegarde, Octave de, a French prelate, was born in 1585, and nominated to the archbishopric of Sens in 1623. He maintained with firmness the im- munities of the French clergy at the Assembly of Mantes in 1640, and was exiled by the offended court. In 1639 he subscribed the condemnation of the two works entitled Trails des Droits et Liberies de VEglise Gallicane, and Preures of the same rights and liberties. He approved and defended the sentiments of Arnauld expressed in bis book De lei frequente Commiin'on. He wrote St. Avgustinus per se ipsum docens Catholicos et rincens Pelagietnos, and died in 1646. — Hoefer, Bieg. Generale, v, 239. Bellermann, Johann Joachim, a German theo- logian, was born at Erfurt on Sept. 23, 1754. After finishing his studies at the University of Gottingen, he accepted in 1778 a position as a private tutor in Russia. On his return in 1782 he became professor of theology in the University of Erfurt. After the suppression of this university he was called to Berlin as director of one of the colleges ("gymnasia"), and was at the same time appointed extraordinary profess- or at the L'niversity and consistorial councillor. He died Oct. 25, 1824. He is the author of numerous philological and theological works. The most impor- tant of the latter are Handbuch der biblisehen Literatur (Erfurt. 4 vols. 1787) ; I 'ersueh eint r Metrik der Ilebraeer (Berlin, 1813) , Nachrichten ?.wj- ri]o) only occurs in Jer. yi, 29, and with reference to the casting of metal. As fires in the East are always of wood or charcoal, a sufficient heat for ordinary pur- poses is soon raised by the help of fans, and the use of bellows is confined to the workers in metal. Such BELLOY 739 BELPAGE was the case anciently; and in the mural paintings of Egypt we observe no bellows but such as are used for the forge or furnace. They occur as early as the time of Moses, being represented in a tomb at Thebes which bears the name of Thothmes III. They consisted of a leathern bag secured and fitted into a frame, from which a long pipe extended for carrying the wind to the fire. They were worked by the feet, the operator standing upon them, with one under each foot, and pressing them alternately, while he pulled up each ex- hausted skin with a string he held in his hand. In one instance, it is observed from the painting that when the man left the bellows they were raised as if tilled with air, and this would imply a knowledge of the valve. The earliest specimens seem to have been simply of reed, tipped with a metal point to resist the action of the fire (Wilkinson's Anc. Egyptians, iii, 338). k I m Two Forms of ancient Egyptian Bellows, cr, &, ifc, the leather case; r, I, the pipes conveying the wind to the fire; rf, m, the fire; A, g, charcoal ; k is raised as if full of air ; ?, p, r, crucibles. Bellows of an analogous kind were early known to the Greeks and Romans. Homer (//. xviii, 470) speaks of 20 (puaai in the forge of Hepha>stus, and they are mentioned frequently by ancient authors (Smith's Diet, of Class. Ant. s. v. Follis). The ordinary hand-bellows now used for small fires in Egypt are a sort of bag made of the skin of a kid, with an opening at one end (like the mouth of a common carpet bag), where the skin is sewed upon two pieces of wood ; and these be- ing pulled apart by the hands and closed again, the bag is pressed down, and the air thus forced through the pipe at the other end. Belloy, Jean Baptiste de, cardinal-archbishop of Paris, was born October 9th, 1709, at Morangles, near Senlis. He entered the Church at an early age, was made archdeacon of Beauvais, and in 1751 became bishop of Glandeves. He was deputed to the Assem- bly of the clergy in 1755, where he sided with the moderate prelates, or Feuillunts, as they were called, from their leader, the Cardinal de la Rochefoucault, who was minister de lafeuille des binificcs. The oppo- site party were called Theatines, from the old bishop of Mirepoix, who belonged to that order. M. Belloy was afterward made bishop of Marseilles, which dio- cese he governed for forty-five years. The revolution drove him into retirement at Chambly, near his native place, where he lived till 1802, when he was made archbishop of Paris, and in the following year he was created cardinal. He died June loth, 1808, and Napo- leon, who permitted his burial in the vault of his pred- ecessors by a special privilege, desired that a monu- ment should be erected "to testify the singular con- sideration which he had for his episcopal virtues." — Biog. Univ. torn, iv, p. 128 ; Landon, Eccles. Dictionary, s. v. Belly (usually "US, be'ten, KoiMa, especially the womb; also D',""5, me'im' , yaari'ip, especially the bow- els'). Among the Hebrews and most ancient nations, the belly was regarded as the seat of the carnal affec- tions, as being, according to their notions, that which first partakes of sensual pleasures (Titus i, 2; Phil, iii, 9; Rom. xvi, 18). It is used likewise symbolically for the heart, the innermost recesses of the soul (Prov. xviii, 8 ; xx, 27 ; xxii, 18). The expression embitter- ing of the belly signifies all the train of evils which may come upon a man (Jer. iv, 19; ix, 15; comp. Num. xviii, 27). The " belly of hell" signifies the grave, or the under world. It is a strong phrase to express Jonah's dreadful condition in the deep (Jon. ii, 2). Bel'maim (BAOf/i v. r. Kt\ftaif.i, Vulg. Belmd), a place which, from the terms of the passage, would appear to have been south of Dothaim (Judith vii, 3). Possibly it is the same as Belmen (q. v.), though whether this is the case, or, indeed, whether either of them ever had any real existence, it is at present im- ' possible to determine. See Judith. The Syriac has A bel-meehola. Belmas, Louis, bishop of Cambray, was born at Montreal (Aude). At the time of the Revolution he was one of the priests who took the oath demanded by "the Civil Constitution of the Clergy." In 1801 he was appointed coadjutor to the "constitutional" bishop of Carcassonne, and in 1802 bishop of Cambray. When Napoleon was crowned, Belmas signed a formula of retractation. His pastoral letters during the reign of Napoleon showed him to be a very devoted partisan of imperialism. When, according to the Concordat of 1817, Cambray was to be made an archbishopric, the pope opposed it on account of the former views of Bel- mas. After the Revolution of 1830 the government again intended to make him an archbishop, but the design was once more abandoned on account of the op- position of Rome. In 1811 he issued a pastoral letter strongly urging sincere submission to and recognition of the government of Louis Philippe. This letter made a profound sensation in France, and greatly offend- ed the Legitimists. Belmas died on July 21, 1811, at Cambray. He was the last of the "constitutional" bishops. — See Hoefer, Biognqdiie Generate, v, 290. Bel'men (R^A/ifi/ v. r. Be\^aiv and BtX/zai'/t ; Vulg. omits), a place named among the towns of Sa- maria as lying between Bethhoron and Jericho (Judith iv, 4). The Hebrew name would seem to have been A bel-maim, but the only place of that name in the O. T. was far to the north of the locality here alluded to. See Abel-maim. The Syriac version has Abel-meho- lah, which is more consistent with the context. See Abel-meholaii ; Belmaim. Belomancy. See Divination. Belpage, Henry, D.D., a minister of the Seces- sion Church of Scotland, was born at Falkirk, May 24, 1774, where his father was minister of the Associate Church. He entered the University of Edinburgh in 17*0, and made his theological studies under Dr. Law- son, at the secession seminar}' in Selkirk. He was licensed to preach at 19, and was ordained as colleague to his father in 1794, whom he succeeded as full pas- tor in 1798. His pulpit labors were very successful ; he was one of the most popular and useful ministers of the day in Scotland. In 1814 he published Sacra- mental Addresses and Meditations (12mo, 5th edition, 1841, Edinb.); in 1817, Practical Discourses for the Young (8vo ; several editions issued) ; in 1821, Sacra- BELSIIAM 740 BELSHAZZAR mental Discourses, 2d series ; 1822, Sketches of Life and •'.• 1823, Discourses on Domestic Life (12mo) ; 1826, Discourses to the Aged; besides a number of smaller works, catechisms, etc. He died Sept. 16, 183 L— Jamieson, ( yclopadia ofRelig. Biography, p. 42. Belsham, Thomas, a Socinian divine of note, was born at Bedford, England, April 15, 1750. In 1778 he was settled as pastor of a dissenting congregation at "Worcester, from which, however, he removed in 1781 to take charge of the Daventry Academy. Here his Bentiments underwent a change so far that, in 1789, In' avowed himself a Unitarian of the school of Priestley. He resigned his station, and immediately took charge of Hackney College, a Unitarian institu- tion, which in a few years sunk for want of funds. In 1805 he became minister of Essex Street Chapel, London, where he remained during the rest of his life, lie died at Hampstead, Nov. 11, 1820. After Dr. Priestley he was regarded as the leader of Unitarian- ism in England. The "Unitarian Societ}' for pro- moting Christian Knowledge" was founded at his sug- gestion. He aided largely in preparing the Improved Version of the N. T. (Unitarian; Lond. 1808, 8vo). His principal writings are, A Calm Inquiry into the Scripture Doctrine concerning the Person of Christ, etc. (Loud. 1811, 8vo): — Evidences of Christianity : — Epis- tles of Pan! translated, with Exposition and Xotes (Lond. 1822, 2 vols. 4to) ; Discourses Doctrinal and Practical ; Review of American Unitarianism (1815, 8vo): Letters to >h Bishop of London in Vindication of the Unitarians (1815, Svo). His Life and Letters, by J. Williams, was published in 1833 (Lond. 8vo). — Darling, Cyclop. Biblio- graphica, i, 238; Allibone, Dictionary of Author?, i, 1G3 ; Christ/nn Examiner, xv, GO; Bennett, Hist, of Dissent- ers (Lond. 1830, 8vo). Belshaz'zar (Heb. and Chald. Belshatstsar' [on the signif. see below], ^2X'.y?2; Sept. YSaXraoap) is the name given in the book of Daniel to the last king of the Chaldees, under whom Babylon was taken by the Medes and Persians (chap, v, 1 ; vii, 1 ; viii, 1). B.C. 538. Herodotus calls this king, and also his fa- ther, Labynetus, which is undoubtedly a corruption of Nabonnedus, the name by which he was known to Be- rosus, in Joseph, contr. Apion. i, 20. Yet in Josephus (.1///. x, 11, 2) it is stated that Baltasar was called Naboandel by the Babylonians. Naoonad'.us in the Canon of Ptolemy, Nabonedus in Euseb. Chron. Armen. i, GO (from Alexander Polyhistor), and Xabonnidochus in Euseb. Prop. Evang. ix, 41 (from Megasthenes), are evidently other varieties of his name. The only cir- cumstances recorded of him in Scripture are his im- pious feast and violent death (Dan. v). During the period that the .lews were in captivity at Babylon, a variety of singular events concurred to prove that the sins which brought desolation on their country, and subjected them for a while to the Babylonish yoke, had not dissolved that covenant relation which, as the God of Abraham, Jehovah had entered into with them; and that any act of indignity perpetrated against this afflicted people, or any insult cast upon the service of their temple, would !»■ regarded as an affront to the Majesty of Heaven, and not suffered to pass with im- punity. The fate of Belshazzar affords a remarkable instance of this. He had had an opportunity of seeing in the case of his ancestors how hateful pride is, even in royalty itself; how instantly (led can blast the dig- nity of the brightest crown, and consequently, how much the prosperity of kings and the stability of their thrones depend upon acknowledging that "the Most High ruleth in the kingdom of men, and giveth it to ■ *er he will." Bui this solemn lesson was lost upon Belshazzar. According to the views of some, I-aiah. in representing the Babylonian dynasty courge of Palestine, Btyles Nebuchadnezzar a "serpent," Evil-Merodach a "cockatrice," and Bel- shazzar a " fiery Hying serpent." the worst of all (Isa. xiv, 4-20) ; but there is no reason for supposing the prophet in this passage to allude to any other event than the overthrow of the Philistines in the time of Hezekiah (see Henderson, Comment, in loc). The Scriptural narrative states that Belshazzar was warned of his coming doom by the handwriting on the wall that was interpreted by Daniel, and was slain during a splendid feast in his palace. Similarly Xeno- phon (Cyrop. vii, 5, 3) tells us that Babylon was taken by Cyrus in the night, while the inhabitants were en- gaged in feasting and revelry, and that the king was I killed. On the other hand, the narratives of Berosus in Josephus {Apion, i, 20) and of Herodotus (i, 184 sq.) differ from the above account in some important par- ! ticulars. Berosus calls the last king of Babylon Na- bonnedus or Nabonadius (Xabu-nit or Xabo-nahit, i. e. ; Nebo blesses or makes prosperous), and says that in the 17th year of his reign Cyrus took Babylon, the king having retired to the neighboring city of Borsippus or Borsippa (Birs-i-Nimrud ), called by Niebuhr {Lcct. on ' Anc. Hist, xii) "the Chaldsean Benares, the city in which the Chaldeans had their most revered objects I of religion, and where they cultivated their science." Being blockaded in that city, Nabonnedus surrendered, his life was spared, and a principality or estate given to him in Carmania, where he died. According to Herodotus, the last king was called Labynetus, a name easy to reconcile with the Nabonnedus of Berosus, and the Nabanuidochus of Megasthenes (Euseb. Prop. Evang. ix, 41). Cyrus, after defeating Labynetus in the open field, appeared before Babylon, within which the besieged defied attack and even blockade,, as they had walls 300 feet high and 75 feet thick, forming a square of 15 miles to a side, and had stored up previ- ously several years' provision. But he took the city by drawing off for a time the waters of the Euphrates, and then marching in with his whole army along its bed, during a great Babvdonian festival, while the peo- ple, feeling perfectly secure, were scattered over the whole city in reckless amusement. These discrepan- cies have lately been cleared up by the discoveries of Sir Henry Bawlinson ; and the histories of profane writers, far from contradicting the scriptural narra- tive, are shown to explain and confirm it. In 1854 he deciphered the inscriptions on some cylinders found in the ruins of Um-Kir (the ancient Ur of the Chaldees), containing memorials of the works executed by Na- bonnedus {Jour. Sac. Lit. 1854, p. 252; Jan. 1862). From these inscriptions it appears that the eldest son of Nabonnedus was called Bel-shar-tzar, and admitted by his father to a share in the government. This name is compounded of Bel (the Babylonian god), Sh ir {a king'), and the same termination as in Nabopolossar, Nebuchadnezzar, etc., and is contracted into Belshaz- zar, just as Neriglissar (again with the same termina- tion) is formed from Nergal-sharezar. In a communi- cation to the Athenwum, No. 1377, Sir Henry Rawlinson says, "We can now understand how Belshazzar, as joint king with his father, may have been governor of Babylon when the city was attacked by the combined forces of the Medes and Persians, and may have per- ished in the assault which followed : while Nabonnedus leading a force to the relief of the place was defeated, and obliged to take refuge in Borsippa, capitulating after a short resistance, and being subsequently as- signed, according to Berosus, an honorable retirement in Carmania." In accordance with this view, we ar- range the last Chaldsean kings as follows : Nebuchad- nezzar, his son Evilmerodach, Neriglissar, Labroso- archad (his son, a boy, killed in a conspiracy), Nabon- ncdus or Labynetus, and Belshazzar. Herodotus says thai Labynetus was the son of Queen Nitocris; and Megasthenes (Euseb. Chr. Arm. p. 60) tells us that he succeeded Labrosoarchad, but was not of his family. In Dan. v, 2, Nebuchadnezzar is called the father of Belshazzar. This, of course, need only mean grandfa- ther or ancestor. Now Neriglissar usurped the throne BELTESIIAZZAK 741 BEN- on the murder of Evilmcrodach (Beros. ap. Joseph. Apion, i): we may therefore well suppose that on the death of his son Labrosoarchad, Nebuchadnezzar's fam- ily was restored in the person of Nabonnedus or La- bynetus. possibly the son of that king and Nitocris, and father of Belshazzar. The chief objection to this supposition would be, that if Neriglissar married Nebu- chadnezzar's daughter (Joseph, c. Ap. i, 21), Nabon- nedus would through her be connected with Labroso- archad. This difficulty is met by the theory of Rawlin- son {Herod. Essay viii, § 25), who connects Belshazzar with Nebuchadnezzar through his mother, thinking it probable that Nebu-nahit, whom he does not consider related to Nebuchadnezzar, would strengthen his posi- tion by marrying the daughter of that king, who would thus be Belshazzar' s maternal grandfather. A totally different view is taken by Marcus Niebuhr (Geschichtt Assur's und Babel's sett Pkul, p. 91), who considers Bel- shazzar to be another name for Evilmcrodach, the son of Nebuchadnezzar. He identifies their characters by comparing Dan. v with the language of Berosus about Evilmerodach (jrpoGTac. ruv irpayfiartov avopaig Kai ciGtXywc). He considers that the capture of Babylon described in Daniel was not by the Persians, but by the Medes, under Astyages (i. e. Darius the Mede), and that between the reigns of Evilmerodach or Bel- shazzar, and Neriglissar, we must insert a brief period during which Babylon was subject to the Medes. This solves a difficulty as to the age of Darius (Dan. v, 31 ; comp. Rawlinson, Essay iii, § 11), but most people will probably prefer the actual facts discovered by Sir Henry Rawlinson to the theory (though doubtless very ingenious") of Niebuhr. On Rawlinson's view, Bel- shazzar died B.C. 538, on Niehuhr's B.C. 559 (Gobel, De Belsasaro, Laub. 1757). — Smith. See Babylonia. Eelteshaz'zar (Heb. Belteshatstsar' ', ISSMBB^a, BeVs prince, that is, whom Bel favors; Sept. BaAr«<7a()),_ the Chaldee or Assyrio-Babylonish name, given to ' Daniel at the court of Nebuchadnezzar, in Babylon (Dan. i, 7, etc). See Daniel. Belus (B/)\o<_). 1. According to classical my- thology, a son of Poseidon by Libya or Eurynome. He was twin brother of Agenor, and father of ^Egyptus and Danaus. He was believed to be the ancestral hero and national divinity of several Eastern nations, from which the legends about him were transplanted to Greece, and became mixed up with Greek myths. (See Apollod. ii, 1, 4; Diod. i, 28; Servius, ad JEn. i, 733.) See Baal. 2. The father of the Carthaginian queen Dido, oth- erwise called Pygmalion, lie conquered Cyprus and then gave it to Teucer. (See Virgil, Mn. i, 621 ; Serv- ius, ad Ain. i, 625, 646.) By some he was thought to be the Tyrian king Eth-baal (q. v.), father of the Israelitish queen Jezebel (1 Kings xvi, 31), from whose period (she was killed B.C. 883) this docs not much differ, for Carthage was founded (according to Jose- phus, Apion, i, 18) B.C. 861. Belus (BijXivc), called also Pagida by Pliny (v, 19), a small river of Palestine, described by Pliny as taking its rise from a lake called Cendcvia, at the roots of Mount Carmel, which, after running five miles, en- ters the sea near Ptolemais (xxxvi, 26), or two stadia from the city according to Josephus {War, x, 2). It is chief!}' celebrated among the ancients for its vitreous sand ; and the accidental discovery of the manufacture of glass ( q. v.) is ascribed by Pliny to the banks of this river, which he describes as a sluggish stream of un- wholesome water, but consecrated to religious cere- monies (comp. Tacitus, Hist, v, 7). It is now called Nahr Xaaman, but the Lake Cendevia has disappear- ed. It is an ingenious conjecture of Roland (Palcest. p. 290) that its ancient appellation may be connected with the Greek name for glass (i'lXor or vaXoc), and it is possible that the name appears in the Scriptural one, Bcaloth (q. v.), incorrectly rendered "in Aloth" (1 Kings iv, 16). For the temple of Belus, see Ba- bel. Bema (firjfia, rostrum), the third or innermost part of the ancient churches, corresponding to what we now call the chancel. The bema was the whole space where stood the altar, the bishop's throne, and the seats of the priests ; in which sense Bingham understands the fifty-sixth canon of Laodieca, which forbids priests to go into the bema and take their scats there before the bishop comes (see Chrysost. Horn. 35, de Pentecost, torn, v, p. 553). The name bona arose from its being more exalted than the rest of the church, and raised upon steps. As the bema was especially devoted to the clergy, they were called sometimes oi rov /3?'//if<-or, and ra^ie, too ftqparoc, or "the Order of the Bema." — Bingham, Orig. Eccl. bk. viii, eh. vi ; Suicer, The- saurus, i, 682 ; Landon, Eccl. Diet, ii, 143. Bsmo, John, a Seminole Indian, converted to Christianity, and afterward instrumental in great good to his tribe. He was born in the year 1825, in Florida. When quite .young he was brought to St. Augustine by his father, who perished there through the brutality of the whites. Bemo was kidnapped by a ship's crew, and carried on a several years' voyage, visiting Eu- rope, Asia, and Africa. During this voyage he was thoroughly converted, through the agency of a pious sailor. After other voyages he attended school a year with the "Friends" in Philadelphia, and then com- menced laboring with great success among his people, at their new location in the West, and by his appeals in the Eastern cities he kept them alive when threat- ened with starvation. Further facts are wanting. He was a greatly wronged boy, but an apostolic and blessed man. — Thomson, Biographical Sketches, p. 133. Ben (Hab. id. "2, son; Sept. omits; Vulg. Ben), a Levite "of the second degree," one of the porters ap- pointed by David to the service of the ark, apparently as an assistant musician (1 Chr. xv, 18). B.C. 1043. Ben- (""3, son of) is often found as the first ele- ment of Scriptural proper names (see those following), in which case the word which follows it is always to be considered dependent on it, in the relation of our genitive. The word which follows Ben- may either be of itself a proper name, or be an appellative or ab- stract, the principle of the connection being essential- ly the same in both cases. Comp. Ab-. As to the first class, the Syro-Arabian nations being all particu- larly addicted to genealogy, and possessing no sur- names, nor family names in our sense, they have no means of attaching a definite designation to a person except by adding some accessory specification to his distinctive, or, as we would term it, Christian name. This explains why so man}' persons, both in the Old and New Testaments, are distinguished by the addi- tion of the names of their father. The same usage is especially frequent among the Arabs ; but they have improved its definiteness by adding the name of the person's child, in case he has one. In doing this, they always observe this arrangement — the name of the child, the person's own name, and the name of his fa- ther. Thus the designation of the patriarch Isaac would in Arabic run thus: Father of Jacob, Isaac, son of Abraham (Abu Ja'qub, Ishaq, ben Ibrahim). As to the latter class, there is an easy transition from this strict use of son to its employment in a figurative sense, to denote a peculiar dependence of derivation. The principle of such a connection not only explains such proper names as Bcn-Chosed (son of mercy), but ap- plies to many striking metaphors in other classes of words, as sous of the bow, a son of seventeen years (the usual mode of denoting age), a hill, the son of oil (Isa. v, 2), and many others, in which our translation effaces the Oriental type of the expression. All prop- er names which begin with Ben belong to one or tho other of these classes. Ben-Aminadab, Ben-Gaber, BEX-ABIXADAB 742 and Ben-Chesed (1 Kings iv, 10, 11), illustrate all the I possibilities of combination noticed above. In these names " Ben" would, perhaps, be better not trans- lated, as it is in our version ; although the Vulgate has preserved it, as the Sept. also appears to have once done in ver. 8, to judge by the reading there.— Kitto. These remarks apply also in part to Bar- (q. v.), the Aramaic synonyme of Ben-, as in the name Bar-Abbas. The following arc instances in -which our transla- tors have doubted whether the prefix Ben- should not be transcribed, and have therefore placed it in the margin, gi\ ing "« »" in the text: Ben-Hur, Ben-De- kar. Ben-Hesed, Ben-Abinadab, Ben-Geber (1 Kings iv. 8 13) [for each of these, see the latter part of the name]. Of the following the reverse is true: Ben- Hanan, Ben-Zoheth (1 Chron. iv, 20; Ben-o (1 Chron. xxi v. 26, 27) : Ben-jamite (Psa. vii, title ; Judg. ii, 15 ; xix, 1G ; 1 Sam. ix, 1, 4 ; 2 Sam. xx, 1 ; Esth. ii, 5). Ben-Abinadab. See Ben-. Benai'ah (Ileb. Benayah', !T32, built [i. e. made or sustained] by Jehovah, 2 Sam. xx, 23; 1 Chron. iv, 36; xi, 22, 31; xxvii, 14; 2 Chron. xx, 14; Ezra x, 25, 30, 35, 43 ; Ezek. xi, 23 ; elsewhere and oftener in the prolonged form, IJVOa, Benayahu; Sept. gener- ally [also Josephus, Ant. vii, 11, 8] Bavaiac, in Chron. occasionally v. r. Bavaia, and in Ezra Bavata, rarely anj- other v. r., e. g. Bavaiac, Bavai), the name of a large number of men in the 0. T. 1. The son of Jehoiada the chief-priest (1 Chron. xxvii, 5), and therefore of the tribe of Levi, though a native of Kabzeel (2 Sam. xxiii. 20 ; 1 Chron. xi, 22), in the south of Judah ; set by David (1 Chron. xi, 24) over his body-guard of Cherethites and Pelethites (2 Sam. viii, 18; 1 Kings i, 38 ; 1 Chron. xviii, 17; 2 Sam. xx, 23), and occupying a middle rank between the first three of the Gibborim, or " mighty men," and the thirty " valiant men of the armies" (2 Sam. xxiii. 22, 30; 1 Chron. xi, 24; xxvii, G ; and see Kennieott, Diss. p. 177). The exploits which gave him this rank are narrated in 2 Sam. xxiii, 20, 21; 1 Chron. xi, 22: he overcame two Moabitish champions ("lions of God"), slew an Egyptian 'giant with his own spear, and went down into an exhausted cistern and destroj'- ed a lion which had fallen into it when covered with snow, lie was captain of the host for the third month (1 Chron. xxvii, 5). B.C. 104G. Benaiah remained faithful to Solomon during Adonijah's attempt on the crown ( 1 Kings i, 8, 10, 26), a matter in which he took part in his official capacity as commander of the king's body-guard (1 Kings i, 32, 36, 38, 44); and after Ado- nijah and Joab had both been put to death by his hand ( 2 Kings ii, 25, 29, 30, 34), as well as Shimei (2 Kings ii. Ii. i. he was raised by Solomon into the place of Joab a- commander-in-chief of the whole armv (ii, 35; iv, 4). B.C. 1015. See David. Benaiah appears to have bad a son called, after his grandfather, Jehoiada, who succeeded Ahithophel about the person of the king (1 Chron. xxvii, 34). But this i- possibly a copyist's mistake for "Benaiah, the son of Jehoiada."— Smith, s. v. 2. A Pirathonite of the tribe of Ephraim, one of David's thirty mighty men (2 Sam. xxiii, :'.0; 1 Chron. xi. ::i i. and the captain of the eleventh monthly course (1 Chron. xxvii, 14). B.C. 1044. See David. 3. A Levite in the time of David, who "played with a psaltery on Alamoth" at the removal of the ark il Chron. xv, 18, 20; xvi, 6). B.C. 1048. 4. A priest in the time of David, appointed to blow the trumpet before the ark when brought to.Ierusalcm (1 Chron. xv, 2-1 ; xvi, 6). B.C. I'M.;. 5. 'I'll- -on of Jeiel, and father of Zechariah, a Le- vite ot the Bona of Asaph (2 Chron. xx, 14). B.C, considerably ante 890. 6. A Levite in the time of Hezekiah, one of the '•overseer- c-n-ps) of offerings" (2 Chron. xxxi 13). B.C. 720. BENEDICT 7. One of the " princes" (r^X'ip) of the families of Simeon who dispossessed the Amalekites from the pasture-grounds of Gedor (1 Chron. iv, CO). B.C. cir. 713. 8. The father of Pelatiah, which latter was "a prince of the people" in the time of Ezekiel (xi, 1, 13). B.C. ante 571. 9. One of the " sons" of Parosh, who divorced his Gentile wife after the return from Babvlon (Ezra x, 25). B.C. 458. 10. Another Israelite, of the "sons" of Pahath- moab, who did the same (Ezra x, 30). B.C. 458. 11. Another, of the "sons" of Bani, who did like- wise (Ezra x, 35). B.C. 458. 12. A fourth, of the "sons" of Nebo, who did the same (Ezra x, 43). B.C. 458. Ben-am'mi (n12t'"'2, son of my kindred, i. e. born of incest; Sept. repeats, 'Afifiav, nioc yivovg fiov), the original form of the name Ammon (q. v.), the son of Lot by his younger daughter (Gen. xix, 38). Bench (-^p, lce'resli), a j>lank (usually rendered "board"), once the deck of a Tyrian ship, represented (Ezek. xxvii, 6) as inlaid with box-wood. See Ash- lrite. Ben-Dekar. See Ben-. Bene-b'erak (Heb. Beney' - Berak' , p"13"0:2, sons of Berak or lightning [comp. Boanerges] ; Sept. BavtijSapaK v. r. BavaijiaKar; Vulg. et Bane et Ba- rucK), one of the cities of the tribe of Dan, mentioned only in Josh, xix, 46, between Jehud and Gath-rim- mon. The paucity of information wdiich we -possess regarding this tribe (omitted entirely from the lists in 1 Chron. ii— viii, and only one family mentioned in Num. xxvi) makes it impossible to say whether the "sons of Berak," who gave their name to this place, belonged to Dan, or were, as we may perhaps infer from the name, earlier settlers dispossessed by the tribe. The reading of the Syriac, Baal-debac, favors this latter foreign origin, but is not confirmed by any other version. It is evidently the Baraca, a "village in the tribe of Dan near Azotus," mentioned by Eu- sebius and Jerome (in the Onomasticon, s. v. Barath, BapaKcii), although the}- speak confusedly of its then existing name (Bareca, Bapftd'). It is doubtless the present Moslem village Burdka (Robinson, Researches, iii, App. p. 118), a little north of Ashdod (Van do Velde, Map). The same place appears to be referred to in the Talmud (Sanhedr. xxxii, 1), and was the res- idence of the famous Rabbi Akiba (q. v.). Schwarz, however, disputes this location (Palest, p. 141). Benedet. See Benezet. Benedicite, or "the song of the three Hebrew children," is a canticle appointed by the rubric of the Church of England to be said or sung at the morning service, instead of the hymn Te Deum, whenever the minister may think fit. It is a paraphrase of the forty- eighth Psalm. In the Book of Common Prayer pub- lished under the sanction of Edward VI, it was ordered that the Te Deum should be said daily throughout the year, except in Lent, when the Benedicite was to be "used. The minister had no choice according to this appointment; but in the subsequent revision of the Prayer Book, the choice was left to the option of the minister to read the Te Deum or the Benedicite. This hymn was sung as early as the 3d century. Chrysos- tom speaks of it as sung in all places throughout the world.— Bingham, Grig. Eccles. bk. xiv, ch. xi, § 6 ; Procter, On Common Prayer, p. 221. Benedict I, Pope, surnamed Bonosvs, a Roman, elected to the papal see after John III, June 3, 574. He occupied the see about four years, dying in 578. During his pontificate Rome suffered great- ly from the inroads of the Lombards and from fam- ine. Like his predecessors, he confirmed the fifth oecumenical council. An epistle to the Spanish bish- BENEDICT 743 BENEDICT op David, which has been ascribed to him, is not genuine. II, Pope, also a Roman, succeeded Leo II, 26th June, 684, and died 7th May, G85. His incumbency was marked by nothing of note. III, Tope, elected Sept. 1, 855. His title was dis- puted by Anastasius, who was supported by the em- perors Lothaire and Louis, whose deputies entered Rome, forcibly ejected Benedict, and imprisoned him. Rome was thrown into consternation at these acts ; and the bishops, assembling in spits of the threats of the emperor's deputies, refused to recognise Anasta- sius. Benedict, removed from the church where he had been imprisoned, was carried in triumph by the people to the palace of Later an. In unison with Ethel wolf, king of the Anglo-Saxons, he established an English school at Rome. He confirmed the deposition of Bish- op Gregory of Sj-racuse, pronounced in 85-1 by a syn- od of Constantinople, which occasioned soon after the Greek schism. There are still extant four of bis epis- tles (Mansi, xv, 110-120). He held the see only two years and a half, and died March 10th, 858. IV, Pope, succeeded John IX, April 6, 900, and held the papacy nearly rive years, dying Oct. 20, 004. He crowned, in 901, Louis, King of Provence, as Ro- man Emperor. There are still extant two of his epis- tles, one addressed to the bishops and princes of Gaul, and the other to the clergy and people of Langres, whose exiled bishop he reinstated (Mansi, xviii, 233- 236). V, Pope, elected in 964. John XII, his predeces- sor, who had been protected by the Emperor Otho the Great against Berenger and Adalbert, ungratefully took the part of the emperor's enemies. Otho, justly irritated by this conduct, convoked a council at Rome in 963, where John was deposed and Leo VIII elected. John soon after repaired to Rome, held another coun- cil in 964, and in his turn .deposed Leo; but soon after this John was assassinated, and his part}' elected Bene- dict V to succeed him. Otho soon appeared again on the scene, laid siege to Rome, and carried away Bene- dict (who consented to bis deposition) captive into Germany. Leo VIII died at Rome in April, 9G5 ; the people demanded Benedict as his successor, and the emperor would probably have granted their request, but Benedict died in July of the same year. The his- torians of the Church of Rome are naturally very much puzzled in deciding whether Benedict was a lawful pope or not ; but the question is generally compromised by recognising both Leo and Benedict. VI, Pope, son of Hildebrand, supposed to have been elected pope on the death of John XIII, A.D. 972. On the death of the Emperor Otho, he was strangled or poisoned in the castle of St. Angelo, 974. The papacy about this time was in a most degraded con- dition. VII, Tope, son of a count of Tusculum, ascended the pontifical throne in 975, and died July, 981. lie held two councils at Rome ; in the one he excommuni- cated the antipope Boniface VIII; in the ether, all those guilty of simony. A letter in which he confirms certain prerogatives of the bishop of Lorch is found in Lambecii, Billioih. Cws. lib. ii. Several other bulls on the privileges of certain diocesan churches are given by Mansi, torn. xix. VIII, Pope, son of Gregory, count of Tusculum, succeeded Sergius IV, July 20, 1012. He was driven from Rome by his competitor Gregory, who in turn was expelled by Henry, King of Germany. In 1014 Benedict crowned Henry Roman Emperor, and pre- sented him with a globe surmounted by a cress, which became henceforth one of the emblems of the empire. The emperor confirmed to the Church of Rome all the donations made by Charlemagne and the Othos, de- clared that the election of a pope would not require any longer the confirmation of the emperor, and reserved and his successors only the right of send- ing commissaries to the consecration of the pope. At the request of the emperor, Benedict ordered the reci- tal of the Constantinopolitan symbol during the mass, hoping that it would facilitate a reunion with the Greek Church. In 1016 the Saracens made an irrup- tion into Italy, but were defeated by an army collect- ed by Benedict's energy. He died July 10, 1024. — Gieseler, Ch. Hist, period iii, div. ii, § 22. IX, the boy-pope, one of the worst monsters that ever held the papal throne. He was elected aloit June, 1033, but his vile conduct excited the Romans to expel him in 1015, and Silvester III was elected, who held it for about three months, when Benedict, through the influence of his family, succeeded for a time in recovering his dignity. However, he was again compelled to floe, and Johannes Gratianus was, A.D. 1045, put into his place, who took the style of Gregory VI. It is said, indeed, that Gratian bovgM his elevation from Benedict, who wished to marry tn Italian princess. Thus there were three popes actual- ly living at the same time, and Rome was tilled with brawls and murders. To remedy this, Henry the Black, king of Germany, convoked a council at Sutri, near Rome, in December, 1046, where Gregory VI was deposed, and, by the common consent of Germans and Romans, Suidgcr was elected pope, and consecrated under the name of Clement II. He, however, died at the end of nine months, i. c. October 9th, 1047 ; upon which Benedict came to Rome for the third time, where he held his ground till July, 1048, when he was replaced by Damasus II, the nominee of the emperor. Noth- ing is known for certain concerning him after this pe- riod, but he is believed to have died in 1051. — Biog. Univ. iv, 183. X (John, bishop of Velletri) was raised to the pope- dom by a faction in March, 1058, the instant Pope Stephen IX had closed his eyes. Benedict was so ig- norant and obtuse that he obtained the surname of Mincio, stupid. Hildebrand, upon his return from Germany in 1059, caused Gerard to be elected under the name of Nicholas II, to whom Benedict quickly yielded. He died in confinement in 1059. — Biog. Univ. iv, 183. XI, Pope (Nicholas Boccasini), was born at Treviso in 1240, entered, at the age of fourteen, the order of 1 )ominicans, and became later the general of his order. Under Boniface he was made cardinal and bishop of Ostia. He was elected pope October 27, 1303, upon the death of Boniface VIII. When elected to the papal throne he was cardinal-bishop of Ostia. His pontificate was short, extending only to eight months. He took off the sentence of excommunication pro- nounced against the King of Denmark, and the in- terdict laid upon his kingdom, and annulled the hulls of Boniface VIII against Philippe-le-Bol of* France. He died of poison at Perugia on the 6th or 7th of July, 1304, and was enrolled among the saints by Pope Clement XII, April 21th, 1730, his festival being mark- ed on the 7th of July. He left Commentaries on Job, the Psalms, the Apocalypse, and Matthew, besides some volumes of Sermons and his Bulls. XII (.originally Jacob de Novellis), a native of Sa- verdun, and monk of Citeaux, afterward bishop of Pa- miers and of Mirepoix, pope from Dec. 1334, to April, 1312, was the third of the Avignon (q. v.) popes, the friend of Petrarch, and one of the most virtuous <>l the pontiffs. Scarcely was he elevated to the pontificate when a deputation was sent to him from Rome pressing him to return to the ancient seat; but circumstances induced him to remain at Avignon. He addressed the Castilian clergy on the necessity of reforming their lives, and endeavored, though with little success, to correct some of the more glaring evils of the Romish system. He died April 25, 1342, at Avignon. See his life in Baluzo, Vies dea Papes and of Clement VII at Avignon. Pedro de Lima took part with the latter, who made him his 1 »gate in Spain. Upon the death of Clement, Pe- dro was chosen by the cardinals attached to the party at Avignon to Bucceed him on the 28th of September, 139 1. and in the mean time Boniface VIII had ascend- ed Hi' throne at Rome. To put an end to the schism, | it was agreed by all the sovereigns of Europe, except the king of Aragon, that a cession of the p\pal digni- ty should he m.dc by both parties, hut both Benedict and Boniface refused to resign; whereupon, in a na- j tional council held at Paris May 22d, 1398, it was agreed to withdraw from the obedience of Benedict. This example having been followed in almost all the countries of Europe, sixteen of the cardinals who had adhered to Benedict deserted him. He was besieged at Avignon by the Marechal de Boucicault, and with difficulty escaped. After this the aspect of his affairs for a time brightened ; but at length, in the council of Pisa, convoked in 140!), both Benedict. and Gregory XII were excommunicated and deposed. Benedict, driven from Avignon, retired to the little castle of Peniscola, in Valencia, retaining the support of Ara- gon, Castile, and Scotland. Thus the schism still re- mained ; and it was necessary to call another council, which met at Constance in 141-1, where Ottoneo Colon- na was elected pope under the name of Martin V, who anathematized Benedict, but without producing any effect, since he continued in his rebellion till his death, which happened at Peniscola November 17th, 1424. So far did he carry his resolution to prolong the schism, that he exacted a promise from the two cardinals who continued with him that they would elect another pope to succeed him after his death : this was done in the person of Clement VIII.— Hist, of the Pojxs, p. 280. XIII (ft), Pope, originally Peter Francis Orsini, was born in 1G49, and was raised to the papal chair May 29th, 1724. He was pious, virtuous, and liberal ; but. unfortunately, placed too much confidence in Cardinal Coscia, his minister, who shamefully op- pressed the people. A fruitless attempt which he made to reconcile the Romish, Greek, Lutheran, and Calvinist churches bears honorable testimony to his tolerant spirit. His theological works, including Hom- ilies on Exodus, etc., were published at Rome (1728, 3 vols. fol.). He died in 2730. His Life was written by Alessandro Borgia (Uom. 1741). — Mosheini, Eccl. Hist, ii, 305, 370. XIV, Pope, originally Prospero Lambertini, of a nobl • family of Bologna, was born in 1G75, became in 1727 bishop of Ancona, in 1728 cardinal, in 1731 arch- 1 ishop of Bologna, and succeeded Clement XII Au- gust 17th, 1740. He was a man of great ability, learning, and industry, and was especially distinguish- ed in the canon and civil law. He died May 4th, 1758, after having signalized his pontificate by the wisdom of bis government, and his zeal for the propagation of Romanism. During the eighteen years of his reign Rome enjoyed peace, plenty, and prosperity, and half a century after his death the pontificate of Lambertini ill remembered and spoken of at Pome as the last period of unalloyed happiness which the country had enjoyed. His tolerance was remarkable; indeed, ed him to the censure of the rigorists among the college of cardinals. Without exhibiting any thing like Indifference to the doctrines of the Church of which he was the head, he showed urbanity and friond- Uness toward all Christians of whatever denomination, whether kin^s or ordinary travellers, who visited his capital; and in Germany, France, and Naples his in- fluence was constantly exerted to discourage persecu- tion, and to restrain tic abuse of ee< losiastical power. Benedict was learned not only in theology, but in his- tory, in the classical writer-, and in (lee'ant literature, and he had a taste fur the line arts. His works were published at Rome in 12 vols. 4to (1747). The most remarkable are his treatise He Nervorum Dei Beatifica- tione et Beatorum Canonizatione, in four books, a work full of historical and theological learning : — De Synodo Hiocesann, which is also much esteemed: — Institutiones EcclesiasHcae : — De Jlfissai Officio, libri iii ; besides his Bullarium, or collection of bulls issued by him, and several letters and dissertations in Italian. Benedict was always opposed to the Jesuits, and, when he died, was preparing to suppress the order. — Vie die pape Benoit XI V (Paris, 1775); Ranke, Hist, of Papicy, ii, 287. Benedict of Ncrsia, the great organizer of Western monastieism, was born at Nursia (or Korci .), in Spoleto, of wealthy parents, about A.D. 480. He was educated at Rome, but at 17 years of age he de- termined to devote himself to a monastic life. He tied secretly from Rome, and retired to the desert of Subi- aco, about forty miles distant, where he shut himself up in a dismal cave. There he continued for three years, unknown to any person save a monk (Romanus), who let down bread to him by a rope. By that time his fame had become spread abroad, and he was chosen by the monks of a neighboring monastery for their ab- bot ; but he shortly returned to his solitude, whither multitudes flocked to see him and hear him preach. His hearers soon became his disciples, and, with his consent, continued with him. So great were the num- bers who did so, that in a short time there were no less than twelve monasteries formed on the spot. Benedict occupied now too exalted a position to escape attacks ; he was menaced and persecuted, and his life even threatened by poison. . This, after a time, compelled him to remove, and he led his little army of followers to Monte Cassino, where he converted the temple of Apollo into an oratory, and laid the foundation of an order which, in an incredibly short time, spread itself over Europe. See Monte Cassino. Benedict died, as Mabillon thinks, March 21st*, 543, though others place his death in the year 542, or as late as 547. His body remained at Monte Cassino until the irruption of the Lombards, who burned and destroyed the monaster}', when, in all probability, his relics were lost, although the possession of them has been made a subject of great dispute between the Italian and Gallican monks. His Life, written by Gregory (Dialog, lib. ii), is full of ex- traordinary and absurd accounts of miracles. Ac- cording to Dupin, the "Rule of St. Benedict," Regula Monachorum, is the only work extant which is trulj- his. This Rule is divided into seventy-seven chapters, and is distinguished from others which preceded it by its mildness. A summary of it is given by Dupin (v, 45) ; see also Martene. Coram, in Regulam S. P. Benedicti (Paris, 1G90, 4to). It required no extraordina- ry macerations and mortifications, and contained such principles of conduct as were most likely to lead to the peace, happiness, and well-being of a community of men living like monks. " Three virtues constituted the sum of the Benedictine discipline : silence (with solitude and seclusion), humility, and obedience, which, in the strong language of its laws, extended to impos- sibilities. All is thus concentrated on self. It was the man isolated from his kind who was to rise to a lonely perfection. All the social, all patriotic virtues were excluded ; the mere mechanical observance of the rules of the brotherhood, or even the corporate spirit, are hardly worthy of notice, though they are the only substitutes for the rejected and proscribed pursuits of active life. The three occupations of life were the worship of God, reading, and manual labor. The ad- ventitious advantages, and great they were, of these industrious agricultural settlements were net contem- plated by the founder; the object of the monks was not to make the wilderness blossom with fertility, to extend the arts and husbandry of civilized life into barbarous regions, but solely to employ in engrossing occupation that portion of time which could not be BENEDICT 74 devoted to worship and to study." "In the Rule, Benedict distinguishes four sorts of monks: (1) Coeno- bites, living under an abbot in a monastery; (2) An- chorites, who retire into the desert; (3) Sarabaites, dwelling two and three in the same cell. (4) Gyro- vagi, who wander from monastery to monastery : the last two kinds he condemns. His Rule is composed for the Coenobites. First, he speaks of the qualifica- tions of abbots. Then he notes the hours for divine service, day and night, and the order of it. After this he treats of the different punishment-', i. e. separation from the brethren, chastisement, or expulsion. He directs that a penitent shall be received, after expul- sion, as far as the third time ; that the monks shall have all things in common, and that every thing shall be at the disposal of the abbot. The monks are to work by turns in the refectory and kitchen ; to attend and be kind to the sick ; to perform manual labors at stated hours, and to all wear the same dress." — Cave, Hist. Lit. anno 530; Milman, Lathi Christianity, i, 414— 426; Neander, Ck. Hist, ii, 262 ; Dupin, Eccl. Writers, v, 45; Lechler, Leben des he'd. Benedict (Regensb. 1857); Montalembert, Moines d'Occident (Paris, I860, torn, ii, 1-73) ; Journal of Sac. LJt. July, 1862, art. iv. ; Lan- don, Eccl. Diet, ii, 152. See Benedictines. Benedict, Biscop, St., was born of noble parents in Northumberland about the year 628. He was orig- inally bred to the profession of arms, and served un- der king Oswy, who made him his minister, with an estate suited to his rank ; but at the age of twenty- five he took leave of the court, and made a voyage to Rome, and upon his return Ik me devoted himself to study and exercises of piety. About six years after- ward he again travelled to Rome with Alfred, king Oswy's son, and subsequently retired into the monas- tery of Lerins in France, where he took the vows. Hav- ing spent two years in this retirement, he returned to England, upon occasion of Theodore's journey thither, who had been nominated to the see of Canterbury, and upon his arrival was made abbot of St. Augustine's at Canterbury. In 671 we find him again at Rome, when ho brought back to England many liturgical works. Soon after this, i. e. in 674, he retired into the county of Northumberland, and there founded the monastery of St. Peter at Weremouth, and, ten years later, that of St. Paul at Jarrow. After this he again visited Rome and many of the Italian monasteries, seemingly for the purpose of collecting books, etc., and learning the customs and discipline of those houses. He is also said to have introduced into England the Gregorian method of chanting, and for that purpose to have brought with him from Rome the abbot John, precentor of St. Peter's. During the last years of his life Benedict was afflicted with palsy, and to such an extent that his body was quite deprived of all power of motion. In this state he continued for about three years, and died on the 14th of January, COO. He wrote a "Treatise on the Method of Celebrating Festivals," and some other liturgical works, which are lost. — Bede, Vitce Beatorum Ablatum ; Landon, Eccl. Diet, ii, 235; Hook, Eccl. Bioff. ii, 256. Benedict of Aniane, or Acnana, a monastic re- former, was born in Languedoc in 750. In 774, be- ing saved from drowning, he resolved to abandon the world, and retired into the monastery of St. Sequanas, near Dijon. His fastings, prayers, and mortifications were almost incredible ; but be soon saw the folly of excess, and moderated his extravagance. In 780 he returned into Languedoc, and a little hermitage near, on the Aniane. Here a monastery was soon built, and the brotherhood became eminent for sanctity ; a large cloister and magnificent church were built, where, lie- fore long, more than three hundred monks were gath- ered together. All the monasteries of the region now regarded him as their father and superior, and he took advantage of this feeling toward him to introduce the ) BENEDICTINES needful reforms into the various houses, and thus be- came the celebrated renovator of religious discipline in France. He collected a large library, and encouraged his monks to multiply copies of the books ; and many of the secular clergy, induced by the fame of the estab- lishment, repaired to the monastery of St. Sauveur, on the Aniane, to learn the duties of their calling. He obtained great influence with Charlemagne, and used it to promote monkery. In 779 and 780 Charlemagne sent him, with Leidradus of Lyons and Nephridius of Narbonne, to Felix of Urgel ; and he composed several treatises on the Adoptianist (q. v.) controversy (given by Baluze, Miscell. v, 1-62). In 814 he became abbot of the monastery of Inda, built by Louis near Aix-la- Chapelle on purpose to have Benedict at hand. He used his clerical and political influence in behalf of monkery up to his death in 821. His principal writ- ings are, 1. Codex Rcgidarum, edited by Holstenius at Rome (1661; Paris, 1664, 4to):— 2. Concordia Regu- larnm, cd. Menard (Paris, 1638) : — 3. Modus diversarum panitentiarian (ed. Baluze, at the end of the Capitulaf ria of Charlemagne). — Cave, HistL Lit. anno 801 ; Mos- heim, Ch. Hist, ii, 75 ; Landon, Eccl. Diet, ii, 155. Benedict, Rene. See Benoit. Benedict, Joel, D.D., a Congregational minister, was born at Salem, N. Y., Jan. 8, 17-15, and graduated at the College of New Jersey 1765. In 1771 he was made pastor of the church in Ncwent, Conn. On ac- count of ill health he resigned in 1782, but on partial recovery he became pastor of the church in Plainfield, Dec. 21, 1784. He was made D.D. at Union College, 1808, and died Feb. 13, 1816. He published a funeral sermon on Dr. Hart, 1811. — Sprague's Annals, i, 682. Benedictines, a monastic order of the Roman Catholic Church, founded by Benedict of Nursia in 515 (according to others, 529) in Monte Cassino. The leading ideas in the monastic rule of St. Benedict wero [see Benedict of Nursia], that the monks should live in common a retired life, remain poor, and ren- der unlimited obedience to their superiors. Benedict states explicitly (ch. lxxiii) that his rule can lead only to the beginning of a holy life, while he refers his monks for perfectness to the Scriptures and the fathers. His aim was to give to repentant and religious men of the world a house of refuge, but he had no projects for a universal mission in the Church such as those enter- tained by the later mendicant orders. He received children into his convents, who, under the common superintendence of all the monks, and clothed in the monastic habit, were educated for the monastic life. The spread of the order was very rapid. As early as 541 it was introduced into Sicily, and in 543 into France. The order began to take extraordinary di- mensions through the exertions of Pope Gregory the Great, who lent the whole weight of his vast influence to its diffusion. Augustine introduced it into Eng- land and Ireland, and the followers of Cassian and Columban in large number exchanged their former rules for those of Benedict. When, in the eighth cen- tury, the bulk of the Cjermanic world entered into con- nection with the Ionian Catholic Church, the promi- nent influence of Boniface, himself a Benedictine, se- cured for the principles of his order almost general adoption by the rising monastic institutions of Germa- ny. As its wealth and power advanced, the Bene- dictine order by degrees almost monopolized the sci- ence and learning in the Christian Chinch, and estab- lished a large number of distinguished schools. Their many Irish teachers (known under the name of Scots) were the first to lay the foundation of the scholastic theology. As many of the convents amassed great riches, the strict rule, and primitive purity of morals disappeared, and attempts at reform were called forth. The most remarkable among these were that of Bene- dict of Aniane (q. v.) in the eighth century, of Ab- bot Benno at Clugny 910, at Hirschau 1069, at Val- E.EXEDICTINES 746 BENEDICTINE NUNS lontbrosa in the eleventh century, at Bursfield in 1425. These reforms intro- duced among the followers of Benedict the congregation- al system, combining sever- .-.1 convents into a congrega- tion, with a common govern- ment. The congregation of English Benedictines found- ed by Augustine was reform- Mi by St. Dunstan in 900, again by Lanfr.mc in 1072, and finally suppressed by Henry VIII. The congrega- tional government has since remained that of the Bene- dictines, who have never had a general and central govern- ment like the other orders. The efforts to introduce a greater centralization led, from the end of the tenth csnturv, to the establishment Early Benedictine , • ' , „, ot new orders. Thus arose, on the basis of the rule of St. Benedict, but with many alterations, the orders of Camaldoli [see Camaldu- LES], Fontevrault (q. v.), Chartreux (q. v.), Citeaux [see Cistercians], Humiliates, Olivet ins, Tironene- ans [see Bernard of Tiros], and others. English Benedictine? : I, at Home; 2, at Church. Benedict XII, in 133G, divided the Benedictines into ar, provinces, and decreed the regular holding of tri- ennial provincial chapters and annual general chap- t rs, but this Constitution could never be carried through. The rise of the mendicant orders (q. v.) de- prived the Benedictines of a great deal of their influ- ence, and their subsequent distinction lay almost whol- ly in the field of literary production. The Reforma- tion reduced the number of their convents from 15,000 ," 6000. After the Reformation, piety and discipline continued to be generally at a very low ebb through- out the Benedictine community, when; it was more difficult than with other orders to find a remedy, as frequently Laymen were made abbots {commendatory •> account of the rich revenues of the monas- 3tUl, it put forth some flourishing new branch- es, amon; which the congregation of St. Vanne and 81. Uidulph, established by Didier de la Cceur 1 1550 1623), and the congregation of St. Maur [see Maui, St.], the mo i learned of all monastic confraternities in Hi" historj of the Roman Catholic Church, are the most remarkable. The reign of Joseph II in Austria, the French Rev- olution, and the suppression of monasticism generally in Spain, Portugal, and Sardinia, reduced also the number of Benedictine convents greatly. In Austria, however, the order was restored in 1802, and at pres- ent more than one half of its members are living in Austrian convents. In Bavaria, the order received, by a rescript of 1834, the charge of several state col- leges. In France an attempt at reviving the congre- gation of St. Maur was made in 1833 by the establish- ment of a Benedictine community at Solesme. These new St. Maurines have already developed a great liter- ary activity, but have as yet neither been able to ex- tend themselves nor to attain the celebrity of their predecessors. In Switzerland the order has, besides several other convents, the convent of Einsiechln, one of the most famous places of pilgrimages in the Roman Catholic Church. The order has also been re-estab- lished in England and Belgium. In the United States they have St. Vincent's Abbey, in the diocese of Pitts- burg, which in 1858 elected for the first time an abbot for lifetime. Most of the Austrian abbeys followed, until very recently, a mitigated rule ; and the endeav- ors of papal delegates, aided by the state govern- ment, to force a stricter rule upon them, led in 1858 to protracted and serious disturbances. At the general chapter of the congregation of Monte Cassino in 1858, to which also the convent of St. Paul's in Rome be- longs, it was resolved to re-establish, for the benefit of all the monks of the Benedictine family who wish to study in Rome, the college of St. Anselm, such as it had been under the foundation of Pope Innocent XI. According to the calculation of Fessler, the Bene- dictines count among their members 15,700 authors, 4000 bishops, 10J0 archbishops, 200 cardinals, 24 popes, and 1560 canonized saints. Among the great literary names that adorn the order are those of D'Achery, Mabillon, and Montfaucon, all St. Maurines. The principal sources of information on the Benedictines are, Mabillon, Annates Orel S. Benedicti (Paris, 1703-39, 6 vols, [carries the history up to 1157]); Ziegelbauer, Historiu rei literarim Ord. S. Bened. (Aug. Vind. 1754, 4 vols. fol.). See also Helyot, Ordres Religieur, i, 425 sq. ; Montalembert, Les Moines d* Occident (Paris, 18G0). Benedictine Nuns, nuns following the order of Benedict. They claim St. Scholastics, the sister of Benedict, as their founder, but without historical grounds. All previous orders were gradually forced to adopt the Benedictine rule, and so it spread widely throughout Christendom. In France they possessed one hundred and sixteen priories and abbeys in the gift of the king alone, and in England seventy-four houses. In some of these houses the nuns followed the strictest rules, never touching meat, wearing no Reformed Benedictine Nun: 1, at Home; 2, at Church, BENEDICTION 141 BENEFICE linen, and sleeping on the bare boards. Others ad- mitted some relaxation of this severity. The Bene- dictine nunneries were rarely united in congregations, but remained single, under the jurisdiction of the dio- cesan bishops, rarely under that of the Benedictine monks. Irregularities and disorder spread among them earlier and more generally than among the monks ; a great preference was given to the nobility, and some of the richest monasteries even changed themselves into secular institutions of ladies of nobili- tjr, which retained of the Benedictine order nothing but the name. Several congregations of reformed Benedictine nuns were founded, among which the most important were the congregation of Mount Calvary, founded in 1G17, and the congregation of the Perpetual Adoration of the Sacred Sacrament, who, in addition to other austerities, are obliged to have perpetually one of their number kneeling day and night before the sacrament ! They were founded by Catherine de Bar, a native of St. Die, in Lorraine, in 1015, and ratified by Innocent XI in 1676. Both have in recent times re-established several monasteries in France, the lat- ter also in Italy, Austria, and Poland. Benediction, (1.) in the Bomish Church, an ecclesi- astical ceremony, whereby a thing is rendered sacred or venerable. It differs from consecration, in which unction is used. The Romanists consecrate the chal- ice and bless the pyx. Superstition in the Romish Church has introduced benedictions fur almost every thing. There are forms of benediction for wax can- dles, for boughs, for ashes, for church vessels and orna- ments, for flags and ensigns, arms, first-fruits, houses, ships, paschal eggs, hair-cloth of penitents, church- yards, etc. In general, these benedictions are per- formed by aspersions of holy water, signs of the cross, and forms of prayer, according to the nature of the ceremony. The forms of benediction are found in the Roman Pontifical and in the Missal. The beatic benedic- tion (benedictio beat tea) is the viaticum given to dying persons. For the history and forms of Romanist bene- diction, see Boissonnet, Diet, des Ceremonies, i, 246 sq. ; Migrie, Liturgie Catholique, p. 149 sq. (2.) In the Protestant Churches, the blessing of the people bjr the minister during divine service and at its close. In the Church of England it is given at the end of the communion service as well as at the conclu- sion of worship. The minister does not pretend to impart any blessing, but in effect prays that the " peace of God" may keep the " hearts and minds" of the peo- ple. Christ says to his Church, "My peace I give unto you" (John xiv, 27) : the officiating minister, the Church's organ, proclaims the gift in general, and prays that it may descend upon the particular part of Christ's Church then and there assembled. The bene- diction most used, at the close of worship, in Protes- tant churches, is taken chiefly from Scripture ; the first part of it from Phil, iv, 7, and the latter part be- ing a paraphrase upon Num. vi, 24, 25, viz.: "The peace of God, which passeth all understanding, keep your heart and minds in the knowledge and love of God, and of his Son Jesus Christ our Lord ; and the blessing of God Almighty, the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost, be amongst you and remain with you always. Amen." The great Christian benediction is the apostolical one: "The grace of our Lord Jesus Christ, and the love of God, and the communion of the Holy Ghost, be. with you all" (2 Cor. xiii, 14). In the ancient Church, short benedictions, such as "Blessed be God," "Blessed be the name of the Lord" (never the Ave Maria, q. v.), were often used before sermon. After the Lord's Prayer, in the Eucharist, the bene- diction, "The peace of God be with you all," was pro- nounced. See Bingham, Orig. Eccles. bk. xiv, ch. iv, § 16 ; bk. xv, ch. iii, § 29 ; Coleman, Primitive Church, ch. xiv ; Bibiiotheca Sacra, 1862, p. 707. Benefactor (tvtpyiTiio). "The kings of the Gen- tiles exercise lordship over them ; and they that exer- cise authority upon them are called benefactors" (Luke xxii, 25). This word was employed as a title of hon- or to kings and princes, corresponding to the Latin pater patriae. Ptolemy Ettergetes, king of Egypt, af- fords an instance of the application of the word" in this sense. According to Josephus and Philo, it was fre- quently applied to the Roman emperors (see Josephus, War, iii, 9, 8 ; Diod. Sic. xi, 26 ; Xen. Anab. vii, 6, 38). Benefice. I. Definition.— Benefice is defined by the canonists to be "Jus perpetuum percipiendi fruc- tus ex bonis ecclesiasticis, clerico competens propter ofneium aliquod spirituale." This term was, in its origin, applied to the lands which were given by the Romans to deserving soldiers out of the territories ac- quired by conquest. These soldiers were called mililes beneficiarii, and the lands so given beneficium. Hence the term came in time to be applied to the possessions of the Church, when certain portions were appropriated to individuals to enjoy during their life as a recom-' pense for their services. The word is now applied to all preferments in the Church of England except bish- oprics, though more commonly used to signify such churches as are endowed with a revenue for the per- formance of divine service ; it is also used for the rev- enue itself. The incumbents are said to enjoy the rev- enue of a living ex mero beneficio (from the pure kind- ness) of the patron. II. In the Roman Church benefices are divided by the canon law(l.) into secular and regular. " Secular" ben- efices are those held by secular clerks, e. g. bishoprics, and the dignities in cathedral chapters, viz. the offices of dean, archdeacon, chancellor, precentor, canon, pre- bend, etc. ; also perpetual vicarages, simple cures, chapels, etc. All benefices are held to be secular in the absence of proof or long possession to the contrary, and secular benefices may be held by regulars elevated to the episcopate. "Regular" benefices are those which are conferred only on monks. Such are titular ab- bej-s, all claustral offices enjoying an appropriated rev- enue, e. g. those of titular conventual prior, almoner, hospitaller, sacristan, cellarer, etc. (2.) Into double (dupliciti) and simple (simplicia). "Double" benefices are those to which is annexed the cure of souls, or any pre-eminence or administration of the property of the Church, e. g. pope, cardinal, dean, etc. " Simple" ben- efices are such as only carry the obligation to say the breviary or celebrate masses, such as secular priories, chapelries, etc. (3.) Into benefices titular (ti/u/aria) and benefices in commendam. The former are those which are given in perpetuity ; the latter for a time only, until a clerk, capable of discharging the duties, can be found. There are, however, perpetual comvun- dams, i. e. where the temporal revenues of a regular benefice are given to a secular clerk to hold perpetually. There are six lawful ways of obtaining a bene- fice, viz. : 1. By the presentation of the patron, and subsequent institution ; 2. by election, and the subse- quent confirmation of the person elected; 3. by popu- lation, and the subsequent confirmation of the person postulated ; 4. by free and voluntary collation ,• 5. by exchange; 6. by resignation in favor em, followed by collation. — Landon, Peel. Diet, ii, 164 III. In the Church, of England parochial benefices with cure are defined by the canon law to be a distinct portion of ecclesiastical rights, set apart from any tem- poral interest, and joined to the spiritual function, and to these no jurisdiction is annexed ; but it is otherwise as to archdeacons and deans, for they have a jurisdic- tion, because they formerly took the confession of the chapter, and visited them. It is essential to a paro- chial benefice that it be bestowed freely (reserving nothing to the patron), as a provision for the clerk, who is only a usufructuary, and has no inheritance in it; that it have something of spirituality annexed to it, for where it is given to a layman it is not prop- erly a benefice ; that in its own nature it be jierpetual EEXEFIELD 748 BENEZET — that is. forever annexed to the church ; and all man- ner of contracts concerning it are void. Beuefield, Sebastian, D.D., an eminent Calvin- istie divine, was born August 12th, 1559, at Preston- bury, Gloucestershire, and educated at Corpus Christi College, Oxford. In 1G08 he was chosen Margaret pro- fessor of divinity in the university. Dr. Beneiield was well versed in the fathers and schoolmen, and was re- an inference hearing on an affinity of race, and thence on the growth of the Semitic languages. (4) 1 Kings iv, 30, " Solomon's wisdom excelled the wisdom of all the children of the East country." (5) From Isa. xi, 14, it is difficult to deduce an argument, but in Ezek. xxv, 4, 10, Amnion is delivered to the "men of the East," and its city, Kabbah, is prophesied to become " a stable for camels, and the Ammonites a couching- markable for strictness of life and sincerity. He died P yf for >cfe - referring apparently, to the habits August 24, 1630. His principal writings are, Dodrina ?i the wandering Arabs ; while " palaces" and " dwell- 1 'hHstiana (Oxford, 1610, 4to) :—Sermons(0 xf. 1614-15, j m«s> also mentioned and thus rendered in the Auth. 2 vols. iU>y.-Exposkion of Amos (Oxf. and Lond, 1613, ^ ers;< ™*T be bft,ter/ rfyd " ««*/»" and " '«**•" The 1620 1629 4to).— Allibone, Diet, of Authors, i, 164. words of J^einiah (xhx, 28) strengthen the supposi- _,_',„, . ., , ,. . . tion just mentioned: " Concerning Kcdar, and con- Benefit Of Clergy, a privilege by which, m cerning Hazor, which Nebuchadrezzar, king of Baby- countries where popery prevailed persons in holy or- , j ghall gmit thug saith the Lord Aris ' ders were exempted, either wholly or partially, from , to Kedar? and gpoil the men of the Eagt ,f heir ^ the jurisdiction of lay tribunals. The privilege was and theh. flocks shall they take . they ghaU tak(j created out of regard to the c er.cal order but it was t0 themselves their curtains [i. e. tents,, and all their soon abused. It was originally designed for clencti vesseiS) and their cameis» (clerks), and at first none could be admitted to it but | Opinions are divided as to the extension of the ap- euch as had the usual distinction, habitus et tonsura I llation 0f Bene-Kedem ; some (as Rosenmuller and dertcalts; but subsequently in England, all persons wincr) holdi that it came tQ g> ;fv fte A].abg who could read were by law declared to be clerks, and erall From a consideration of the" a£ovo the number of claimants almost indefinitely increased. dted and that which makeg menti of the ]and f ™ ab0?lshid. ^ ** 'A and 8th of Geo IV c 28. |Ked Qen xx G [gpc Ishmael] we think (with In America tins privilege has been formally abolish- Gesenius) that it primarily signified the peoples of the ed in some ot the states, and allowed onlv in one or1 .„„,■ A , / . ~ f, , .. ■■ T ' -^ - ., ,.' . ., ,J .. , ; Arabian deserts (east of Palestine and Lower Egv lit ■), two cases m others ; while in others, again, it does not A \- a ^ i m e t u i i c r * t , , , ' , „ ' ° ' . ° and chieflv the tribes oi Ishmael and of Keturah, ex- .i r the tribes of Ishmael appear to have been known at all. By the act of Con- I * j- * v , „ . f a -i on -I-™ -. • \ -, ,, . 7\ \. „ i tending perhaps to Mesopotamia and gress of April 30, 1,90, it is enacted that 'benefit of \ , • *" ' ' „ i i , ' . '. ' „ , . . which we mav suppose kedem to applv Babylonia (to may suppose Kedem to apply in Num. xxiii, 7, as well as in Isa. ii, 6) ; and that it was sometimes applied to the Arabs and their country generally. States, the punishment is or shall be declared to be mY. , . . e .. • , .. J ■ -P .- i 4.u » » o t>i i . sr , ■ Ihe onlv positive instance oi this 1 itter signification death. See Blackstone, Comuu ntnriis. iv. 28. . T- , . ™ , ,lt. i clergy shall not be used or allowed, upon conviction of any crime for which, by any statute of the Uni stone, Commentaries, iv, 28 Be'ne-ja'akan (Heb. Beney' Yaakan', "p"? "OSl Children of Jaakan; Sept. Bavaia v. r. Bavticav ; Vulg. Benpjaacari), a tribe who gave their name to certain wells in the desert which formed one of the halting- places of the Israelites on their journey to Canaan of Kedem occurs in Gen. x, 30, where " Sephar, a mount of the East," is by the common agreement of scholars situate in Southern Arabia. Sec Arabia; Sephar. In the O. T., 2^", "Arabia," with its conjugate forms, seems to be a name of the peoples otherwis (Num. xxxiii, 31, 32). See Beeroth-bene-Jaakan. j called Bene-Kedem, and with the 'same limitations, 'I he tribe doubtless deriv 3d its name from Jaakan, the The same mav be observed of »/ avardki), " the East," son of Ezer, son of Seir the Horite (1 Chr. i, 42). See in the N. T. (Matt, ii, 1 sq.). The Heb. word " Ke- Akan ; Jakan. In the time of Eusebius and Jerome dem," with its adjuncts (in the passages above referred v. 'Iofra'/^Beroth fil. Jacin), the spot was to), is translated by the Sept. and in the Vulg., and shown ten miles from Petra, on the top of a mountain. Robinson suggests the small fountain et-Tavjilxh, at the bottom of the pass er-Rubay under Petra, a short sometimes transcribed (Ktcifi} by the former, except the Sept. in 1 Kings iv, 30, and Sept. and Vulg. in Isa. ii, 6, where they make Kedem to relate to ancient word "Beeroth," however, suggests, not a spring, but a group of artificial wells. In the Targum of Pseu- do-Jonathan the name is given in Numbers as Ahta (N~P? ^T?)- Tne assemblage of fountains near the northern extremity of the Arabah is no doubt re- ferred to. See EXODB. Bene-Kedem (Heb. Beney' -Ke' dem, Q"!p-i:a nounce< "Children of the East"), an appellation given toapeo-|at whi( pie, or to peoples dwelling to the east of Palestine. iVI11) ^ Benevent, a town in Southern Italy, and see of a Roman Catholic archbishop. A considerable number of councils have been held there, among which the fid- lowing are the most important : 1087, at which the An- tipope Guibert was excommunicated, and the investi- ture bj' laymen forbidden ; 1108, which again pro- ■d against the investiture by laymen ; and 1117, ich Bishop Mauritius Verdinus (later Gregory i, or to peoples dwelling to the east of Palestine. I v 11Jt-> was excommunicated. J! '"': »n^f Allowing passages of the O. T. : (1) Benevolence, due (// o^iXouIw; tvvoia, but best ,",'!■ X.MX: ,,' . '';"/ , Came mt" the land of the lleoI,lc I MSS. simply >) oAe^rj), a euphemism for marital duty of the East ,n which was therefore reckoned Haran. i (1 Cor. vii 33/ ^ec Cohaditation. (- 1 Job 1, .,, Job was "the greatest of all the men of j ""■ East." See Job. (3) Judg. vi, 3, 33 : vii, 12 ; Benezet, or Benedet, St., born at Hermillion; viii, 10. In the first three passages the Bene-Kedem ■ shepherd. The popes, during their residence at are mentioned together with the Midianites and the Avignon, authorized bis worship. "Benezet is said Amalekites ; and in the fourth the latter peoples seem to have been directed by inspiration to proceed to the to be included in this common name: ''Now Zebah bishop of Avignon, in September, 1176, and tell him and Zalmunna [ were] in Karkor, and their hosts with 'that bis mission was to build the bridge of that city them, abouJ fifteen thousand [men], all that were left over the Rhone. The bishop, very naturally thinking "r :l11 ,l'" '"'•|- of the children of the East." In the I him out of his mind, ordered him to be whipped. events to which these passages of Judges relate, we Benezet, however, is said to have shown his divine '""' a curious reference to the language spoken' by mission by supernatural proofs ; and the bridge was tin- ■ I', istern tribes, which was understood by Gideon commenced in 1177, and finished in 1188. He died in .-.nd his Bervant (or one of them) as they listened to' 1184, and was buried on the bridge, where afterward the talk in the camp ; and from this it is to be inferred |» little chapel was built over his remains. Subse- that they spoke a dialed intelli ii.lr to an [sraelite— • I Iquently a hospital was added, and a confraternity es- BENEZET •40 BENGEL tablished for the care of his worship and of the repair of the bridge. These things are said to be 'amply verified by the Acts drawn up at the time.' When the tomb was opened in 1670, owing to its ruinous state, it appears that the body was found in a perfect condition. The body was but four feet and a half long." This is a specimen of the so-called "lives of the Saints !" — Landon, Eccl. Diet. s. v. Benezet, Anthony, an eminent philanthropist and opponent of slavery, was born at St. Quentin, Picardy, France, January 31, 1713. His parents, driv- en from France by Popish persecution, removed to London in February, 1715, and during their residence there became Quakers. The family came to Philadel- phia in November, 1731. Anthony began a mercantile career early; but soon after his marriage, in 1740, when his affairs were in a prosperous situation, he left the mercantile business, and in 1742 he accept- ed the appointment of head of the Friends' English school of Philadelphia, which he held till 1782, when he resigned it to devote himself to teaching a school of colored children. "So great was his sympathy with every being capable of feeling pain, that he resolved toward the close of his life to eat no animal food. This change in his mode of living is supposed to have been the occasion of his death. His active mind did not yield to the debility of his body. He persevered in his attendance upon his school till within a few days of his decease, Ma}' 3, 1784." Men of all classes of society, and of all churches, as well as many hun- dred negroes, followed his remains to the grave. An officer who had served in the army during the war with Britain observed at this time, "I would rather be Anthony Benezet in that coffin than George Wash- ington, with all his fame." " Few men since the days of the apostles ever lived a more disinterested life; yet upon his death-bed he expressed a desire to live a little longer, 'that he might bring down self.' The last time he ever walked across his room was to take from his desk six dollars, which he gave to a poor widow whom he had long assisted to maintain. By his will he devised his estate, after the decease of his wife, to certain trustees, for the use of the African school." The chief object of Benezet's life, for many years, was to excite public opinion against slavery and the slave-trade. On the return of peace in 1783, he addressed a letter to the queen of Great Britain to so- licit her influence on the side of humanity. At the close of this letter he says, " I hope thou wilt kindly excuse the freedom used on this occasion by an ancient man, whose mind, for more than forty years past, has been much separated from the common course of the world, and long painfully exercised in the considera- tion of the miseries under which so large a part of mankind, equally with us the subjects of redeeming love, are suffering the most unjust and grievous op- pression, and who sincerely desires the temporal and eternal felicity of the queen and her royal consort." He published many tracts on the subject, and also an Account of that Part of Africa inhabited by Negroes (17G2) ; a Cautiem to Great Britain and her Colonies, in a shirt Representation of the Calamitous State of the Enslaved Negroes in the British Dominions (17G7) ; His- torical Account of Guinea, with an Inquiry into the Rise and Progress of the Slave-trade (1771) ; Short Account of the Religii.us Society of Friends (1780) ; Disss rtation on the Plainness and Simplicity of the Christian Religion (1782) ; Observations on the Indian Natives of this Con- tinent (1784). It is said that Benezet's writings first awakened Thomas Clarkson's attention to the question of slavery. — Allen's Biographical Dictionary: Alli- bone, Dictionary of Authors, i, 1G9; Le Bas, Diet. En- cyc. de la France. Ben-Geber. See Ben-. Bengel, John Albert, a German theologian of profound critical judgment, extensive learning, and solid piety. He was born June 24, 1687, at Winnen- den, Wurtemberg, where his father was pastor; and from him the boy received his earl}' education. After the death of his father he was received into his tutor's house ; and from 1699 to 1703 he studied at the Gym- nasium of Stuttgardt, then admirably kept. Thor- oughly prepared in philological elements, he entered the University of Tubingen in 1703, and devoted him- self especially to the study of the sacred text. From his childhood he had been earnestly pious ; and his fa- vorite reading, while at the university, apart from his severer studies, consisted of the pietist writers, Arndt, Spener, and Franke. At the same time, lie did not neglect philosophy. According to his own account, he studied Spinoza thoroughly, and it was not without mental struggles that he arrived at clearness of view on the relations of philosophy to faith. In 1705 he was brought very low by a severe illness at Maul- bronn; but he was strengthened against the fear of death by Psa. cxviii, 17, " I shall not die, but live, and declare the works of the Lord." He returned to his studies with greater zeal, and with a deeper religious life. After a year spent in the ministry as vicar at Metzingen, he became theological repetent at Tubin- gen ; and in 1713 he was appointed professor at the cloister-school of Denkendorf, a seminary for the early training of candidates for the ministry. During this year he made a literary journey, visiting several of the schools of Germany, and among them those of the Jesuits. His theological culture, by all these means, became many-sided. An illustration of the spirit, both of his studies and of his teaching, is afforded by the theme chosen for his inaugural at Denkendorf, viz. "True godliness the surest road to true science." He remained in this post for twenty-eight years — years of labor, zeal, and success as teacher, preacher, stu- dent, and writer. Here he published, for the use of his pupils, an edition of Ciceronis Epist. ad Familiares, with notes (Stuttgardt, 1719) ; also, Gregorii Thauma- tuigi Panegyrlcus ad Origenem, Gr. et Lat. (1722) ; and Chrysostomi libr. vi. de Sacerdotio (1725). Put his chief toil was given to the New Testament; for the results of which, see below. In 1749 he was appoint- ed councillor and prelate of Alpirsbach, witli a resi- dence in Stuttgardt, where he died, Nov. 2, 1751. Bengel was the first Lutheran divine who applied to the criticism of the New Testament a grasp of mind which embraced the subject in its whole ex- tent, and a patience of investigation which the study required. While a student, he was much perplexed by the various readings, which led him to form the determination of making a text for himself, which lie executed in a very careful and scrupulous manner, ac- cording to very rational and critical rules, excepting that he would not admit any reading into the text which had not been previous]}^ j rinted in some edition. In the book of Revelation alone he deviated from this rule. His conscientious piety tended greatly to allay the fears which had been excited among the clergy with respect to various readings, and to him belongs the honor of having struck out that path which lias since been followed 1 y Wetstein,Griesbach, and others. His Gnomon N. T. was so highly valued by John Wes- ley that he translated most of its notes and incorporated them into his Explanatory Notes en the N. T. The least valuable part of Bengel'sexegetical labors is that which he spent on the Apocalypse. His chief works are : 1. Apparatus Criticus ad X. T. ed. secunda, cur. P. D. Burkii (Tubing. 17G3, 4to) :— 2. Gnomon Novi Testa- m, ri/i. 3d ed. adjuv. Steudel (Tubing. 1850, 2 vols. 8vo): —3. An Explication of the Book of the Revelation of St. John (Stuttg. 1710, 1746, 8vo); translated by Robert- son (Lond. 1757, 8vo) :— 4. Harmony of the Gospels (Tubing. 173G, 1747, 1766, 8vo): — 5. Ordo temporum a principio per periodos asconomite diviner, etc. (Stuttg. 1753) : — 0. Cyclus sive de anno magno soils, ad incremen- tum doctrines prophetica (Ulm, 1745, Svo). His chro- J3EX-IIADAD 750 BEN-HAD AD nological works, endeavoring to fix the "number of the beast," the date of the "millennium" (he was posi- tive in fixing the beginning of the millennium at the peat 1836), etc., have rather detracted from his repu- tation for solidity of judgment. His fame will perma- nently rest on his Gnomon, which, as a brief and sug- gestive commentary on the New Testament, remains unrivalled. New editions, both in Latin (Berlin, I860; Tubingen, 1860; Stuttgard, I860) and German, have recently appeared, and an English translation was published in Clark's Library (Edinburgh, 1857-58, 5 vols. 8vo), of which a greatly improved and enlarged edition lias been issued in this country by Professors Lewis and Vincent (Philadelphia, 1800-G1, 2 vols. 8vo). lli> Ufi and Letters, by Burk, translated by Walker, appeared in Ls37 (London, 8vo) ; and a brief biogra- phy, by Fausset, is given in the 5th volume of the English translation of the Gnomon. An able article on his peculiar Sgn[ficancg as a Theologian was pub- lished in the J ah rb rich* r fur devtsche Theologie, 1861, and translated in the British and Foreign Evangelical Review, April, 1862. A new L[fe has just appeared (1865) under the title J. A . Bengel Lebensabriss, Char- acter, etc., von Dr.O."Wiichter(Stuttgardt, 8vo), which gives a large amount of new material, found in Ben- gel's MS. diary and other papers, which have only re- cently been given up by his family for publication. Among other curious facts, it appears that Bengel had the use of but one eye during his life-long studies, and that he sedulously concealed this privation even from his wife ! In a supplement to the volume are given a number of Bengel's sermons, addresses, and poems. Dr. Wachter also published a volume containing " Re- marks on Bengel as an exegetical writer, and in par- ticular on the Gnomon" (Beitrage zu J. A. BenjeVs SchrifterUarring, etc., Leipzic, 1865). See Hagenbaei', German Rationalism, 12G ; Herzog, Real-Encyklop'klic , ii, 57. Ben'-hadad (Heb. Ben-Hadad', bTltl"*?. *ow °f Eadad; Sept. vibq "Adtp), the name of three kings of Damascene-Syria. As to the latter part of this name, Hadad, there is little doubt that it is the name of the Syrian god Hadad (q. v.). probably the Sun (Macrob. Saturnalia, i, 23), still worshipped at Damascus in the time of Josephus (Ant. ix, 4, 6), and from it several Syrian names are derived, as Hadadezer, i. e. Hadad has helped. The expression son of Hadad, which de- notes dependence and obedience, not only accords with the analogies of other heathen names, but is also sup- ported by the existence of such terms as "sons of God" among the Hebrews (comp. Psa. lxxxii, 6). On ac- count of the nationality of this name, the term "palaces of Ben-hadad" came to be equivalent to Damascus it- self (Jer. xlix, 27 ; Amos i, 4). See Damascus. 1. The king of Syria, who was subsidized by Asa, king of Judah, to invade Israel, and thereby compel Baasha (who had invaded Judah) to return to defend bis own kingdom (1 Kin^s xv, 18). B.C. 928. See -\-\. This Ben-hadad has, with some reason, been Bupposedtobe Hadad the Edomite who rebelled against Solomon il Kings xi, 25). Damascus, after having been taken by David (2 Sam. viii, 5, 6), was delivered from subjection to his successor by Rezon (1 Kings xi, 21 i, wlio '• was an adversary to Israel all the days of Solomon." This Ben-hadad Mas either son or grand- son to Etezon, and in his time Damascus was supreme in Syria, the various smaller kingdoms which sur- rounded it being gradually absorbed into its territory. Ben-hadad musi have been an energetic and powerful sovereign, as his alliance was courted by Baasha of Israel and A -a of Judah. He finally closed with the latter on receiving a large amount" of treasure, and conquered a great part or the north of [srael, thereby enabling Asa to pursue his victorious operations in the BOUth. From 1 Kings X\, 34, it would appear that he continued to make war upon Israel in Omri's time, and forced him to make " streets" in Samaria for Syrian residents. — Kitto ; Smith. See Ahab. 2. Another king of Syria, son of the preceding. Some authors call him grandson, on the ground that it was unusual in antiquity for the son to inherit the fa- ther's name. But Ben-hadad seems to have been a religious title of the Syrian kings, as we see by its re- appearance as the name of Hazael's son, Ben-hadad III. Long wars with Israel characterized the reign of Ben-hadad II, of which the earlier campaigns are de- scribed under Ahab. His power and the extent of his dominion are proved by the thirty-two vassal kings who accompanied him to his first siege of Samaria. B.C. cir. 906. He owed the signal defeat in which that war terminated to the vain notion which assimi- lated Jehovah to the local deities worshipped by the nations of Syria, deeming Him "a God of the hills," but impotent to defend his votaries in "the plains" (1 Kings xx, 1-30). Instead of pursuing his victory, Ahab concluded a peace with the defeated Ben-hadad. Some time after the death of Ahab, probably owing to the diffiulties in which Jehoram of Israel was involved by the rebellion of Moab, Ben-hadad renewed the war with Israel ; but all his plans and operations were frustrated, being made known to Jehoram by the prophet Elisha (2 Kings vi, 8). B.C. cir. 894. After some years, however, he renewed the war, and be- sieged Jehoram in his capital, Samaria, until the in- habitants were reduced to the last extremities and most revolting resources by famine. The siege was then unexpectedly raised, according to a prediction of Elisha, through a panic infused into the besiegers, who, concluding that a noise which they seemed to hear portended the advance upon them of a foreign host procured by Jehoram from Egypt or some Canaan- itish cities, as Tyre of Ramoth, thought only of saving themselves by flight. Jehoram seems to have follow- ed up this unhoped-for deliverance by successful of- fensive operations, since we find from 2 Kings ix, 1 that Ramoth in Gilead was once more an Israelitish town. See Ahab. The next year Ben-hadad, learn- ing that Elisha, through whom so many of his designs had been brought to naught, had arrived at Damascus, sent an officer of distinction, named Hazael, with pres- ents, to consult him as to his recovery from an illness under which he then suffered. The prophet answered that his disease was not mortal, but that he would nevertheless certainly die, and he announced to Haza- el that he would be his successor, with tears at the thought of the misery which he would bring on Israel. On the day after Hazael's return Ben-hadad was mur- dered, as is commonly thought, by this very Hazael, who smothered the sick monarch in his bed, and mount- ed the throne in his stead (2 Kings viii, 7-15). See j Elisha ; Jehoram. The attributing of this murder to Hazael himself has been imagined by some to be inconsistent with his character and with Elisha's sug- gestion of the act. Ewald, from the Hebrew text and a general consideration of the chapter (Gesch. des V. I. iii, 523, note"), thinks that one or more of Ben-hadad's own servants were the murderers : Taylor (Fragm. in Calmet) believes that the wet cloth which caused his death was intended to effect his cure, a view which he supports by a reference to Bruce's Travels, iii, 33. There appears, however, to be no good reason for de- parting from the usual and more natural interpretation (so Josephus, "AcaPoc, Ant. ix, 4, 6) which assigns the deed to Hazael himself. See Hazael. Hazael suc- ceeded him perhaps because he had no natural heirs, and with him expired the dynasty founded by Rezon. Ben-hadad's death was about B.C. 890, and he must have reigned some thirty years. See Syria. The Scriptural notices of this king are strikingly confirm- ed by the cuneiform inscriptions (q. v.) on the black obelisk found among the Assyrian monuments atNim- rtul (see Rawlinson's Hist. Evidences, p. 113), and translated by Dr. Hincks {Dublin Univ. Magaz ne, Oct. BEN-HAIL Vol BENJAMIN 1853). According to these annals, the Assyrian king | Shalmanubar (reigned apparently B.C. cir. 900-8G0 or 850) had several campaigns against the nations of Pal- estine and its vicinity (in his Gth, 11th, 14th, and 18th years), among which the Hittites (Khatti) and Ben- idri (i. e. Ben-hader; comp. the Sept. uioc "Afiep, for Ben-hadad), king of Damascus, are particularly named, the latter being represented as defeated, although al- lied with at least twelve neighboring princes, and at the head of an immense army, consisting largely of cavalry and chariots (Rawlinson's Herodotus, i, 371). 3. A third king of Damascus, son of the above-men- tioned Hazael, and his successor on the throne of Syr- ia. His reign was disastrous for Damascus, and the j vast power wielded by his father sank into insignifi- cance. In the striking language of Scripture, " Jeho- , ahaz (the son of Jehu) besought the Lord, and the Lord hearkened unto him, for He saw the oppression of Is- | rael, because the King of Syria oppressed them ; and i the Lord gave Israel a saviour" (2 Kings xiii, 4, 5). This saviour was Jeroboam II (comp. 2 Kings xiv, 27); hut the prosper^ of Israel began to revive in the reign of his father Jehoash, the son of Jehoahaz. When Ben-hadad succeeded to the throne of Hazael, Jehoash, in accordance with a prophecy of the dying Elisha, re- ■ covered the cities which Jehoahaz had lost to the Syr- ans, and beat him in Aphek (2 Kings viii, 17), in the ! plain of Esdraelon, where Ahab had already defeated j Ben-hadad II. B.C. 835. Jehoash gained two more | victories, but did not restore the dominion of Israel on j the east of Jordan. This glory was reserved for his successor Jeroboam. The misfortunes of Ben-hadad III in war are noticed by Amos (i, 4) — Smith, s. v. Ben-ha'il (Heb. Ben-Cha'yil, ^"3, son of strength, i. e. warrior; Sept. translates o\ viol rwv Sv- var&v), one of the "princes" of the people sent by Je- hoshaphat to teach the inhabitants of Judah, and car- ry out the reformation begun by him (2 Chron. xvii, 7). B.C. 910. Ben-ha'nan (Heb. Ben-Chanan, "Jin- *jS, son of one gracious; Sept. v'wq 'Avdv v. r. ai'a), the third named of the four "sons" of Shimon (? Shammai), of the tribe of Judah (1 Chron. iv, 20). B.C. prob. post 1612. Perhaps the name ought to be translated "son ofllanan." See Ben-. Ben-Hesed, Ben-Hur. See Bex-. Ben'inu (Heb. Beninu', ^"3, our son; Sept. con- founds with Bani preceding, and translates both viol Bavovat v. r. Bavovaiai), one of the Levites who seal- ed the covenant on the return from Babylon (Neh. x, 13). B.C. 410. Benitier, the French name for the vessel for hold- ing the so-called holy water, placed at the entrance of Romanist places of worship. See Holy Water. Ben'jamin (Heb. Bvnyamin', "pallia, i. q. Felix [see below] ; Sept., Joseph., and New Test. B&viaplv), the name of three men. 1. The youngest son of Jacob by Rachel (Cen.xxxv, 18), and the only one of the thirteen (if indeed there were not more; comp. "all his daughters," Gen. xxxvii, 35; xlvi, 7) who was born in Palestine. His birth took place on the road between Bethel and Beth- lehem, a short distance — "a length of earth" — from the latter. B.C. 1880. His mother died immediately after he was born, and with her last breath named him "1iiS,"*|3, Ben-Oni ("son of my pain"), which the fa- ther changed into Benjamin, a word of nearly the same sound, but portending comfort and consolation, "son o/* my right hcrno7," probably alluding to the sup- port and protection he promised himself from this, his last child, in his old ape. See Jamix. This supposi- tion is strengthened when we reflect on the reluctance with which he consented to part with him in very try- ing circumstances, yielding only to the pressure of famine and the most urgent necessity (Gen. xlii). This interpretation is inserted in the text of the Vulgate and the margin of the A.V., and has the support of Gese- nius (Thes. p. 219). On the other hand, the Samaritan Codex gives the name in an altered form as 0^33, "son of days," i. e. "son of my old age" (comp. Gen. xliv, 20), which is adopted by Philo, Aben-ezra, and others. Both these interpretations are of compara- tively late date, and it is notorious that such explana- tory glosses arc not only often invented long subse- quently to the original record, but are as often at va- riance with the real meaning of that record. The meaning given by Josephus (ha tj)v t7r' avr(ij ytvo- fjtiv7]v 6Svvt}v t?j juryrpi, Ant. i, 21, 3) has reference only to the name Ben-Oni. However, the name is net so pointed as to agree with the usual signification, "son of," being "23, and not ~'3. But the first vow- el has here probably supervened (for ~33) merely be- cause of the perfect coalescence of the two elements into a single word. Moreover, in the adjectival forms of the word the first syllable is generally suppressed, as "0i?0i-i;3 or ^jPa*1!-!, i. e. "sons of Yemini'" for sons of Benjamin; ^a? d^X, "man of Yemini" for man of Benjamin (1 Sam. ix, 1; Esth. ii, 5); laiffi ""]X, " land of Yemini" for land of Benjamin (1 Sam. ix, 4) ; as if the patriarch's name had been originally "pa^, Yamin (comp. Gen. xlvi, 10), and that of the tribe Yeminites. These adjectival forms are carefully pre- served in the Sept. The prefix Ben seems to be mere- ly omitted in them for brevity, as being immaterial to the reference. Usually, however, the posterity of Benjamin are called Benjamites (Gen. xxxv, 18; xlix, 27 ; Deut. xxxiii, 12 ; Josh, xviii, 21-28 ; 1 Kings xii, 16-24 ; Judg. iii, 15 ; xix, 16, etc.). — Smith, s. v. See Ben-; Jemini. Until the journeys of Jacob's son« and of Jacob him- self into Egypt wo hear nothin ,- of Benjamin, and, so far as he is concerned, those well-known narratives disclose nothing beyond the very strong affection en- tertained toward him by his father and his whole-broth- er Joseph, and the relation of fond endearment in which he stood, as if a mere darling child (comp. Gen. xliv, 20), to the whole of his family. Even the harsh na- tures of the elder patriarchs relaxed toward him. In Gen. lvi, 21 sq., the immediate descendants of Benjamin are given to the number of ten, whereas In Num. xxvi, 38-40, only seven are enumerated, and some even under different names. This difference may probably be owing to the circumstance that some of the direct descendants of Benjamin had died either at an early period or at least childless. Considerable difficulty occurs in the several Biblical lists of the sons and grandsons of Benjamin (Gen. xlvi, 21 ; Num. xxvi, 38-40 ; 1 Chron. vii, 6-12 ; viii, 1-7), which may be removed by the following explanations. As Ben- j jamin was quite a youth at the time of the migration I to Canaan (Gen. xliv, 20. 22), the list in Gen. xlvi cannot be merely of Jacob's descendants at that time, since it contains Benjamin's children (comp. the chil- dren of Pharez, ver. 12, who was at that time a mere child, see ch. xxxviii, 1), but rather at the period of his death, seventeen years later (ch. xlvii, 28). See Jacob. Yet the list could not have been made up to a much later period, since it does not contain the grand- children of Benjamin subsequently born (1 Chron. viii, 3 sq.). The sons of Benjamin are expressly given in 1 Chron. viii, 1, 2, as being five, in the following or- der: Bela (the same in the other accounts), Ashbel (otherwise perhaps Jediael), Aharah (evidently the same with Ahiran of Num., and probably the Aher of 1 Chron. vii, 12, since this name and Ir are given ap- parently in addition to the three of ver. 6, and prob- ably also the Ehi of Gen.), Nohah (who is therefore possibly the same with Becher, and probably also with Ir, since Shupham [Shuppim or Muppim of the other] BENJAMIN 752 BENJxVMIN and Hapham [Huppim], enumerated as the sons of the latter, although they do not appear in the list of Be- cher's sons, must be Buch under other names, but — like Bela's in the same list — undistinguishable, as Jediael had but one son. and the restare otherwise identified), and finally Kapha (who vnn then be no other than Bosh). See all the names in their alphabetical place. Tribe of Benjamin. — The history of Benjamin to the time of the entrance into the Promised Land is as meagre as it is afterward full and interesting. We hnow indeed that shortly after the departure from Egypt it was the smallest tribe but one (Num. i, 36; comp. verse 1) ; that during the march its position was on the west of the tabernacle, with its brother tribes of Ephraim and Manasseh (Num. ii, 18-24). In the desert it counted 35,400 warriors, all above twenty years of age (Num. i, 36; ii, 22), and, at the entrance of Israel into Canaan, even as many as 45,600. We have the names of the "captain" of the tribe when it set forth f Michmash] ? Moharfert See Ai. Abel-mizraim. Village. Ai. Town. Ajephim. Village. Alemeth'. Town. Allon-bachuth. Oak. Amman. Hill. Ananiah. Town. Anatlioth. do. Arabah. do. Atad. Threshin Aven. Town. Avim. do. Azmaveth. do. Baal-hazor. do. Baal-perazim. inn. Baal-tamar. Town. Bahurim. do. Beeroth. do. Beth-arabah. do. Beth-aven. do. Beth-azmaveth. do. Beth-car. Hill. Beth-eL Town. Beth-hoglah. do. Bozez. Cliff. Chephar-haammonai. Town. Cliephirah. do. Cherith. Brook. Cliidon. Threshh Ebenezer. Stone. El-Bethel. Town. Eleph. do. Emmaus. do. En-shemesh. Spring. Ephraim, or Ephron. Town. Gaba. do. Gallim. do. Geba. do. Gebim. do. Geliloth. do. Giah. Village. Gjbeah. Town. Gibeon. do. Gidom. Plain. Gilgal. Town. Hai. do. Bb b Ilnzor. Town. TellAzur? Helkath-hazzurim. Plain. E. of El-Jib? Irpeel. Town. IKustulJ ? (Town. W. of er-lUha. Jericho. ■{ Waters. Ain es- Sultan. (Plain. lEl-Wadiyeh] Jerusalem. City. El-Khuds. Keziz. Valley. Wady el-Kaziz. Menukah. Town. [Hill K. ot'Gibeah]? Michmash. do. Mukmax. Migron. do. [Ruin* S. of Deir D\- wan] ? Mizpeh. do. X<''"l S'iniiril f Moza. do. Kulcnieh? Naarath, or Naaran. do. lEl-NejanehJi Xaiufli. do. See Ramaii. Nob. do. [Kurazeh]? Ophni. do. Jifna. Ophrah. do. Tayibeh t Parah. do. Farah. Ramah. do. Er-Iiam. Rekeni. do. \Deir Yesiri] ? Rephaim. Valley. Plain S.W. of Jertraw Eimmon. Rock. Rummon. Sechu. Well. See Ramaii. Sench. Cliff. In Wady Suweinit? Shalim. Region. Pee Shual. Shen. Rock. [Btit Enaiql Shual. Region. [El-Aliiay; Taralah. . Town. [licit Krs«]? Zelah or Zelzah. do. Beit Jala. Zsmaraim. City and Hill. Es-Sumrah ? 2. History. — In the time of the Judges the tribe of Benjamin became involved in a civil war with the other eleven tribes for having refused to give up to justice the miscreants of Gibeon that had publicly vio- lated and caused the death of a concubine of a man of Ephraim, who had passed with her through Gibeon. This war terminated in the almost utter extinction of the tribe, leaving no hope for its regeneration from the circumstance that not only had nearly all the women of that tribe been previously slain by their foes, but the eleven other tribes had engaged them- selves by a solemn oath not to marry their daughters to any man belonging to Benjamin. When the thirst of revenge, however, had abated, they found means to cvads the letter of the oath, and to revive the tribe again by an alliance with them (Judg. xix, 20, 21). That frightful transaction was indeed a crisis in the history of the tribe; the narrative undoubtedly is in- tended to convey that the six hundred who took refuge in the cliff Eimmon, and who were afterward provided with wives partly from Jabesh-gilead (Judg. xxi, 10), partly from Shiloh (xxi, 21), were the only survivors. The revival of the tribe, however, was so rapid that, in the time of David, it already numbered 59,434 able warriors (1 Chron. vii, G-12) ; in that of Asa, 280,000 (2 Chron. xiv, 8) ; and in that of Jehoshaphat, 200,000 (2 Chron. xvii, 17). See under < 'iii.naaxaii. This tribe had also the honor of giving the first king to the Jews, Saul being a Benjamite (1 Sam. ix, 1, 2). After the death of Saul, the Benjamites, as might have been expected, declared themselves for his son Ish- bosheth (2 Sam. ii, 8 sq.), until, after the assassination of that prince, David became king of all Israel. David having at last expelled the Jebusites from Zion, and made it his own residence, the close alliance that seems previously to have existed between the tribes of Ben- jamin and Judah (Judg. i, 8) was cemented by the circumstance that, while Jerusalem actually belonged to the district of Benjamin, that of Judah was imme- diately contiguous to it. Thus it happened that, at the division of the kingdom after the deatli of Solomon, Benjamin espoused the cause of Judah, and formed, to- gether with it. a kingdom by themselves. Indeed, the two tribes stood always in such a close connection as often to be included under the single term Judah (1 Kings xi, 13; xii, 20). After the exile, also, these two tribes constituted the flower of the new Jewish colony in Palestine (comp. Ezra xi, 1 ; x, 9).— Kitto. 3. Characteristics. — The contrast between the war- like character of the tribe and the peaceful image of its progenitor has been already noticed. That lierce- r.KX.TAMIN Ibi BENJAMIN VL Joshanah?c*" „*'' °EI.i'/oi- \ % * f°Ophm Ophraho?/ " --£ liejiharhaamoiii ? /. •■>■!■ f: Ibvi'.oth CVpW ,v Sl._..: ;v-._ Ebea-eaei f inaniah/ s v: }r. SECVln J$ .Kii'iiitli-ipai'im ../\; 1^ » ' Zelati^'^M'sTomb v D A '(lebini? • ■■,.,■■■■ . / .Apvphiin?, ' ^' .,,.' JRUSAEEM -/ oEnsliCDicsli fllipliagf | °Be1haiiyr^%l' their obstinacy there is a re- markable trail in 1 Sam. xxii, 7 18. ' Though Saul was not only the king of the nation, but the head of the tribe, and David a member of a family which had M vet no claims on the friendship of Benjamin, yet the Benjatnites resisted the sti gesl appeal of Saul to betray the movements of David; and after those 1 tmenta bad I „ revealed by Doeg the Edomite (worthy member ag |,.. „,,,., ha'v„ Beeme<] tl, them— of an act uraed race!) they still firmly refused to lift a band against those who bad assisted him (sec Niemey- cr, Charaktt rift, iii, 565 sq, . Several circumsl tnces may have conduced to the relative importance of this small tribe (see Plesken, jamin parvo, Wittenb. 1720). The Taberna- cle was at Shiloh, In Ephraim, during the time of the last judge, but tlio urk was near Benjamin, at Kir- ibe of Benjamin. jath-jearim. Ramah, the official residence of Samuel, and containing a sanctuary greatly frequented (1 Sam. ix, 12, etc.), Mizpeh, where the great assemblies of " all Israel" took place (1 Sam. vii, 5), Bethel, per- haps the most ancient of all the sanctuaries of Pales- tine, and Gibeon, specially noted as "the great high place" (2 Chron. i, 3), were all in the land of Benja- min. These must gradually have accustomed the people who resorted to these various places to as- sociate the tribe with power and sanctity, and they tend to elucidate the anomaly which struck Saul so forcibly, "that all the desire of Israel" should have been fixed on the house of the smallest of its tribes (1 Sam. ix, 21). The struggles and contests that followed the death of Saul arose from the natural unwillingness of the tribe to relinquish its position at the head of the na- tion, especially in favor of Judah. Had it been Ephra- im, the case might have been different; but Judah had as yet no connection with the house of Joseph, and was, besides, the tribe of David, whom Saul had pur- sued with such unrelenting enmity. The tact and sound sense of Abner, however, succeeded in overcom- ing these difficulties, though he himself fell a victim in the very act of accomplishing his purpose; and the proposal that David should be "king over Israel" was one which "seemed good to the whole house of Benja- min," and of which the tribe testified its approval and evinced its good faith by sending to the distant capi- tal of Hebron a detachment of 3000 men of the "breth- ren of Saul" (1 Chron. xii, 29). Still, the insults of Sliimei and the insurrection of Sheba are indications that the soreness still existed, and we do not hear of any cordial co-operation or firm union between the two tribes until a cause of common quarrel arose at the disruption, when Rehoboam .assembled "all the house of Judah, with the tribe of Benjamin, to light against the bouse of Israel, to bring the kingdom again to the son of Solomon" (1 Kings xii, 21 ; 2 Chr. xi, 1). Pos- sibly the seal may have been set to this bj' the fact of Jeroboam having just taken possession of Bethel, a city of Benjamin, for the calf-worship of the northern kingdom (1 Kings xii, 29). Bethel, however, was on the very boundary-line, and centuries before this date was inhabited by both Ephraimites and Benjatnites BENJAMITE 755 BENOIT (Judg. xix, 16). On the other hand, Rehoboam forti- fied and garrisoned several cities of Benjamin, and wisely dispersed the members of his own family through them (2 Chron. xi, 10-12). The alliance was farther strengthened by a covenant solemnly undertaken (2 Chron. xv, 9), and by the employment of Benjamites in high positions in the army of Judah (2 Chron. xvi, 17). But what, above all, must have contributed to strengthen the alliance, was the fact that the Temple was the common property of both tribes. True, it was founded, erected, and endowed by princes of " the bouse of Judah," but the city of "the Jebusite" (Josh, xviii, 28), and the whole of the ground north of the Valley of Hinnom, was in the lot of Benjamin. In this latter fact is literally fulfilled the prophecy of Moses (Deut. xxxiii, 12): Benjamin "dwelt between" the "shoul- ders" of the ravines which encompass the Holy City on the west, south, and east (see a good treatment of this point in Blunt's Uncles. Coincidences, pt. ii, § xvii). Although thereafter the history of Benjamin becomes merged in that of the southern kingdom, yet that the tribe still retained its individuality is plain from the constant mention of it in the various censuses taken of the two tribes, and on other occasions, and also from the lists of the men of Benjamin who returned with Zerubbabel (Ezra ii ; Xeh. vii), and took possession of their old towns (Xeh. xi, 31-35). At Jerusalem the name must have been always kept alive, if by nothing else, by the name of " the high gate of Benja- min" (Jer. xx, 2). (See below.) That the ancient memories of their house were not allowed to fade from the recollections of the Benjamites, is clear also from several subsequent notices. The genealogy of Saul, to a late date, is carefully preserved in the lists of 1 Chr. (viii, 33-40 ; ix, 39-44) ; the name of Kish recurs as the father of Mordecai (Esth. ii, 5), the honored de- liverer of the nation from miseries worse than those threatened by Nabash the Ammonite. The royal name once more appears, and "Saul, who also is call- ed Paul," has left on record under his own hand that he was " of the stock of Israel, of the tribe of Benja- min." It is perhaps more than a mere fancy to note how remarkably the chief characteristics of the tribe are gathered up in his one person. There was the fierceness in his persecution of the Christians, and there were the obstinacy and persistence which made him proof against the tears and prayefs of his converts, and "ready not to be bound only, but also to die for the name of the Lord Jesus" (Acts xxi, 12, 13). There were the force and vigor to which natural difficulties and confined circumstances formed no impediment; and, lastly, thsre was the keen sense of the greatness of his house in his proud reference to his forefather "Saul, the son of Cis, of the tribe of Benjamin." — Smith. Gate of Benjamin (Jer. xxxvii, 13; xxxviii, 7; "Benjamin's gate," Zech. xiv, 10; " hi^h gate of Ben- jamin," Jer. xx, 2) was doubtless on the northern side of Jerusalem, probably the same elsewhere called "the gate of Ephraim" (1 Kings xiv, 13), and apparently coinciding nearly in position with the present "Da- mascus Gate" (Strong's Harmony and Expos, of the Gos- pels, App. ii, ]). IS). See Jerusalem. 2. A man of the tribe of Benjamin, second named of the seven sons of Bilhan. and the head of a family of warriors (1 Chron. vii, 10). B.C. perh.^cir. 1016. 3. An Israelite, one of the "sons of Harim," who divorced his foreign wife after the exile (Ezra x, 32). B.C. 458, He seems to be the same person who had previously assisted in rebuilding the walls of Jerusa- lem (in connection with Haehub), opposite his house on Zion (Xeh. iii, 23). Ben'jamite (Heb. prop. Ben-Ycmini' ', *:""C"'""3, son ofjetnim, 1 Sam. ix, 21 ; xxii, 7 ; 2 Sam. xvi, 11 ; xix, 17; 1 Kings ii, 8 ; 1 Chron. xxvii, 12; "of Ben- jamin," Psa. vii, title; but simply Yetnini' , "j^"\ in Judg. iii, 15; xix, 10; 1 Sam. ix, 1, 4; 2 Sam. xx, 1; Esth. ii, 5; elsewhere the usual name Benjamin with some other prefix, see Benjamin), the patronymic title of the descendants of the patriarch Benjamin (q. v.). Bemiet, Benjamin, a Presbyterian minister, was born at Wellesburgh, Leicestershire, 1074, and was for many years pastor of a Presbyterian church at New- castle-upon-Tyne. He was an industrious and suc- cessful pastor, and still more eminent as a writer. Ho published Memorials of the Reformation (Lond. 2d ed. 1721, 8vo); Ire?iicum, a Review of Controversies on the Trinity, Church Authority, etc. (1722, 8vo) ; Christian Oratory, or ike Divot ions of the Closet (many editions); Discourses against Popery (1714, 8vo) ; Sermons on In- spiration (1730, 8vo). — Darling, Cyclop. Bibliographica, i, 243; Allibone, Diet, of Authors, i, 165. Bennet, Thomas, D.D., an eminent English di- vine, was born at Salisbury in 1673. He took his M.A. degree at Cambridge in 1694. He was made rector of St. James's at Colchester 1700, and in 1716 vicar of St. Giles's in London, where he died in 1728. He was highly esteemed by Hoadley, although he dif- fered from him in his opinions. He wrote various works against the Romanists and Dissenters, An Es- say on the Thirty-nine A rticles (Lond. 1715, 8vo), A Par- aphrase on the Book of Comnu n Prayer (Lond. 1709, 8vo), Brief History of Forms of Prayer (Camb. 1708, 8vo), etc. — Biog. Britannica. Benno, St., descended from the counts of Wolden- burgh in Saxony, was born at Hildesheim in 1010, and became, in 1060, bishop of Meissen. He eagerly ex- erted himself for the conversion of the pagan Sclavo- nians. In the struggle between the Emperor Henry IV and Gregory VII he was an unflinching adherent of the latter, and therefore expelled by the emperor from his see in 1085, but afterward reinstated. He died June 16, 1107. His canonization, in 1523, called forth the spicy pamphlet of Luther, Against the new Idol and old Devil, who is to be set vp in Afeissen. His Life was written by Emser (Leipz. 1512). See also Seyffarth, Ossiligium Bennonis (Munich, 1765) ; Kanke, History of the Reformation, i, 90. Be'llO (Heb. Bene/, 1*32, his son; Sept. inoi Boi'i'i in ver. 26, and translates literally viol abroii in ver. 27) is given as the only son, or the first of the four sons of Jaaziah the Levite, of the family of Merari, in 1 Chron. xxiv, 26, 27 ; but there is much confusion in the whole passage. B.C. perh. 1014. See Ben-. Benoit, Elie, a Protestant French theologian, was born at Palis on Jan. 20, 16-10. Having studied theology at Paris and Montauban, he became, in 1665, minister at Alencon. Here he had repeatedly theo- logical disputations with Roman Catholic priests, espe- cially the Jesuit La Rue, who tried to excite the mob against the Protestants. In consequence of the revo- cation of the Edict of Nantes he had to leave France ; he went to Holland, and became pastor at Delft, where he died Nov. 15, 1728. He was highly esteemed as a meek, peaceable man, who did not seek controversies, but did not flee from them when forced upon him. His chief work is the History of the Edict of Nantes (Hisloire de V Edit de Nantes, Delft, 1693-95, 5 vols. 4to). This work is distinguished for its accuracy, and still remains a chief source for the history of the Reformed Church of France. Among his other works are the following: IlisU.ire et Apologie de la Retraite des Pas- teurs (Francfort, 1687, 12mo ; and a defence of this Apology, Francfort, Kiss, 12mo); M*-lmiye de Re- marques critiques, hi&trriques, phUosophiques, et theolo- giques cmln deux ecrits de Loland (Delft, 1712, 8vo).— Herzog, Supplement, i, 174; Hoefer, Biog. Generate, v, 394. Benoit or Benedict, Rene, curate of the church of St. Eustache at Paris, was born near Ansrers in 1521. In 1566 he distinguished himself by a French translation of the Bibie, published in that year at Paris BEX-ONI 756 BENTHAM in fol., and in 1588 in 2 vols. 4to. He was accused of having pretended to make his translation from the Greek and Hebrew, of -which languages he knew noth- ing and of having, in feet, followed the Geneva Bi- ble, making a few verbal alterations. In spite of his defence, he was expelled from the faculty of theology by a decree dated October 1st, 1572, and the censure passed by that Bociety on his works was confirmed by I XIII; the author was subsequently com- pelled to Buhmit, was readmitted into the faculty, and made dean. Benoit had been confessor to the unhap- pv Mary, Queen of Scots, whom be accompanied into Scotland. He died at Paris March 7th, 1C08. He * published an immense number of works, among which may be specified, 1. Stromata in Uuirersa Biblia (Co- logne. 1508, 8vo) :— 2. .1 Catholic Apology (showing that the profession of the Protestant faith was not a sufficient and lawful reason for excluding the heir from the throne of France) :— 3. Exami n pacifique de la Doc- , Huguenots. (This curious work was printed at Caen in 1590, and is intended to show that the Council of Trent, not having heen fully received in Frame, was not of sufficient authority there to con- demn the Huguenots.)— Hoefer, Biog. Gen. v, 395. Ben-o'ni (Heb. Ben-Oni', "OIX"?, son of my sor- row, otherwise of my strength, i. e. of my last effort, Ililler. Onomast. p. 300; Sept. translates vibg oSivne /ioi/), the name given by Rachel in her expiring breath 1,, her youngest son, in token of the death-pangs that gave him birth (Gen. xxxv, 18); afterward changed by his father to Benjamin (q. v.). Benson, George, D.D., a learned and eminent English Dissenter, was born at Great Salkeld 1G99 ; studied at Glasgow, and settled as pastor at Abingdon about 1721. In 1729 he went to London, and in 1740 was chosen pastor of the church in Crutched Friars, where he remained until his death in 1703. He was trained a Calvini*t, but his views in later years were tinged with Arianism. He published The Design arid Pray< r (Lond. 1737, 8vo, 2d ed.) :— Paraphrase and Notes on PauVs Epistles, after Locke's Manner (Lond. 1752-56, 2 vols, ito, best ed.)-.— History of the first Planting of th Christian Religion (Lond. 1756, 2 vols. 4to, best ed.). After his death, his Life of Christ, with a memoir of the author bj' Amory, appeared | Lond. 1701, Ito).— Allibone, Lfict. of Authors, i, 166. Benson, Joseph, one of the most eminent of the early Methodist ministers in England, was born at Melmerby, in Cumberland, .Tan. 25, 1748. His father d isigned him for tin- ministry in the Established Church, and had him taught Greek and Latin by the Rev. Mr. Dean, of Parkhead, under whom he made great proficiency. At sixteen he fell in for the first time witli the Methodists and was converted. In 1700 Mr. Wesley appointed him classical master at Kings- v. I School. He devoted himself closely to philoso- phy and theology, studying constantly and zealously. In 1769 he was made head-mast r of Lady Hunting- don's Theological < lollege at Trevecca ; but in 1771 he 1 -ft it, because of its becoming a thoroughly Calvinis- I. Mr. B ii -on was th sn, and always after, a decided Arminun. While engaged in these semi- naries h ■ -till regularly kept his terms at St. Edmund Hall, i Ki'or 1. la August, 1771. he was admitted into tb ■ M ithodist Conference, and soon became one of the in the body. He filled the chief sta- tion.. Bueh as Edinburgh, Newcastle, Sheflield, Hull, Birmingham, and London, ami crowds attended his og wherever he went. After a life of great ( leric il and literarj industry, he died Feb. 10, 1821, at I don. Dr. Clarke oalla him "a sound scholar, a powerful .and able preacher, and a profound theolo^i- an." Besides editing for many years the Md:st Magvunt, he published .1 Drfenci of the Methods (Lond. 17:i:j, 12mo):— A Farther Defence of the Metho- dists (1791, 12inu); — Vwdiqatfan of the- Methodists (Lond. 1S00, 8vo) : — Apology for the Methoelists (Lond. 180], 12 mo) : — Sermons on various Occasions (Lond. 1836, 2d edit. 2 vols. 12mo) :— A Commentary on the Holy Scriptures (Lond. 1848, 6th edit. 6 vols. 8v< ) :— Life of John Fit tcht r (New York, 1 vol. 8vo). His life has been twice written, once by Macdonald (New York, 8vo), and again by Treffry (New York, 12mo). Bentham, Edward, was born at Ely in 1707, and was educated at Christ Church, Oxford, from whence, in 1723, he removed to Corpus Christi College, and in 1731 was chosen fellow of Oriel. In 1743 he obtained a prebend in the cathedral of Hereford. In 1749 he proceeded to D.D., and in 1754 was made can- on in his cathedral. On the death of Dr. Fanshaw he was nominated regius professor of divinit}' in the uni- versity. He died in 1776. Besides some single ser- mons, Dr. Bentham published, 1. An Introduction to Moral Philosophy, 8vo: — 2. A Letter to a young Gentle- man on Study ; with a Letter to a Fellow of a College, 8vo: — 3. Advice to a young Man of Rank upon coming to the University : — 4. Refections on Logic, with a Vindi- cation of the same, 8vo : — 5. Funeral Eulogies upon mil- itary Men, from the Greek, 8vo: — 6. De Studiis Theo- logicis J 'rm/ectio : — 7. Refections upon the Study of Di- vinity, with Heads of a Course of Lectures, 8vo: — 8. De Vita 1 1 Moribus Johannis Burton, S. T. I'. : — 9. An In- troduction to Logic, 8vo. — 10. De Tumultibus America- ids deque eorum concitatoribus similis meditalh. — Biog. Brit. ; Hook, Eccl. Biog. ii, 250. Bentham, Jeremy, was born in London, Febru- ary 15, 1748. He received his early education at Westminster School; and when yet a boy, being little more than twelve years of age, he went to Owen's Col- lege, Oxford, where he took his master's decree in 1766. He studied law, and was called to the bar in 1772, but devoted himself entirely to study, and be- came an able and voluminous writer on government and legislation. His name is mentioned here in view of his writings on morals, which, however, are less orig- inal and valuable than those on government. In all his writings, utility is the leading and pervading prin- ciple ; and his favorite vehicle for its expression is the phrase, " the greatest happiness of the greatest num- ber," which was first coined by Priestley, though its prominence in politics has been owing to Bentham. "In this phrase," he says, "I saw delineated for the first time a plain as well as a true standard for what- ever is right or wrong, useful, useless, or mischievous in human conduct, whether in the field of morals or politics." Accordingly, the leading principle of his ethical writings is, "that the end of all human actions and morality is happiness. By happiness, Bentham means pleasure and exemption from pain ; and the fundamental principle from which he starts is, that the actions of sentient beings are wholly governed by pleasure and pain. He held that happiness is the 'summum bonum,' in fact, the only thing desirable in itself; that all other things are desirable solely as means to that end ; that therefore the production of the greatest possible amount of happiness is the only fit object of all human exertion." He died in "West- minster, June 6, 1882. See Ethics; Morals. Bentham, Thomas, bishop of Lichfield and Cov- entry, was born in Yorkshire about 1513. He became a follow of Magdalen College, Oxford, in 1513, and distinguished himself in Hebrew. He early sided with the Reforming party, and became prominent as a zealous opponent of the superstitions of popery. ( In the accession of Mary, he disdained to conceal or re- tract his sentiments, anil he was deprived of his fellow- ship in 1558 and compelled to tro abroad. At Zurich and Basle, he preached to the English exiles. Even during the heipht of Mary's persecutions he returned to London to take charge of a Protestant congregation. In the second year of Queen Elizabeth he was raised to the see cf Lichfield and Coventry, and was conse- BENTLEY 757 BEOR crated in 1559. Had Bentham been supreme, the Eng- lish Reformation would have been far more thorough than it was, and the Christian Church would have avoided much evil. He died Feb. 19, 1578. He trans- lated the Psalms, Ezekiel, and Daniel in the "Bishop's Bible." — Hook, Eccles. Biography, ii, 249. Bentley, Richard, D. IX, called from his eminence in philological criticism "the British Aristarchus," was born at Wakefield 16G1, and admitted at St. John's College 1676. He accepted the mastership of the grammar-school of Spalding, in Lincolnshire, early in 1632. In 1683 he became private tutor to the son of Dr. Stillingfleet, afterward bishop of Worcester. He accompanied his pupil to Oxford, where he was ad- mitted M.A. At Oxford he had access to the MSS. of the Bodleian Library. At this time he meditated two very laborious undertakings — a complete collec- tion of Fragments of the Greek Poets, and an edition of the three principal Greek lexicographers, Hesychius, Suidas, and the Etymalogicum Magnum, to be printed in parallel columns on the same page. Neither scheme, however, was carried into effect. To the edition of Callimachus, published by Graevius in 1697, Bentley contributed a collection of the fragments of that poet. Bat his reputation for scholarship was established by a performance of a much more confined nature — a dis- sertation on an obscure chronicler named Malala, which was published as an Appendix to Chilmead and Mill's edition of the author in 1691. This showed such an intimate acquaintance with Greek literature, especially the drama, that it drew the eyes of foreign as well as British scholars upon him, and obtained a warm tribute of admiration from the great critics Grsevius and Spanheim to this new and brilliant star of British literature. Bentley was ordained deacon in March, 1690. In 1692, having obtained the first nomination to the Boyle lectureship, he chose for his subject the confutation of atheism, directing his arguments more especially against the system of Hobbes. In these lectures Bentley applied the principles and discoveries of Newton's Principia to the confirmation of natural theology. ."The Principia had been published about six years ; but the sublime discoveries of that work were yet little known, owing not merely to the obsta- cles which oppose the reception of novelty, but to the difficulty of comprehending the proofs whereby they are established. To Bentley belongs, as bishop Monk remarks, the undoubted merit of having been the first to lay open these discoveries in a popular form, and to explain their irresistible force in the proof of a Deity. This constitutes the subject of his seventh and eighth sermons — pieces admirable for the clearness with which the whole question is developed, as well as for the logical precision of their arguments. Among oth- er topics, he shows how contradictor}' to the principles of philosophy is the notion of matter contained in the solar system having been once diffused over a chaotic space, and afterward combined into the large bodies of the sun, planets, and secondaries by the force of mutual gravitation; and he explains that the planets could never have obtained the transverse motion, which causes them to revolve round the sun in orbits nearly circular, from the agency of any cause except the arm of an almighty Creator. From these and other subjects of physical astronomy, as well as from the discoveries of Boyle, the founder of the lecture, re- specting the nature and properties of the atmosphere, a conviction is irresistibly impressed upon the mind of the wisdom and benevolence of the Deity. We are assured that the effect of these discourses was such that atheism was deserted as untenable ground; or, to use his own expression, the atheists were 'silent since that time, and sheltered themselves under de- ism.' " This work gave him great reputation, and in 1692 he was made canon of Worcester by bishop Stil- lingfleet. In 1699 he was appointed master of Trinity College, Cambridge ; and in the following year the archdeaconry of Ely was conferred upon him. Of his contributions to Greek literature we have not room to speak; but, in the midst of personal quarrels, his liter- ary activity for many years was wonderful. In 1713 he published, under the signature of Philoleutheros Lipsiensis, a reply to Collins's Discourse of Frt > think- ing; and in none of his writings are his accurate learn- ing and matchless faculty of disputation more signally displayed. In 1717 he was chosen regius professor of divinity at Cambridge. In 1720 he issued proposals for a new edition of the N. T. in Greek, with the Latin version of Jerome. Taking up that father's observa- tion that in the translation of the Holy Scriptures "the very order of the words is mystery," he conjectured that if the most ancient Greek manuscripts were com- pared with Jerome's Latin, they might be found to agree with that version both in the words and order ; and, upon trial, his ideas were realized even beyond his expectations. He stated also in these proposals that he believed he had recovered, with very few ex- ceptions, the exemp'ar of Origeh, the great standard of the most learned fathers for more than two hundred years after the Council of Nice ; and observed that, by the aid of the Greek and Latin manuscripts, the text of the original might be so far settled that, instead of thirty thousand different readings, found in the best modern editions, not more than two hundred would deserve much serious consideration. But so much op- position was made to his plan that he dropped it. Bentlejr died July 14, 1742. His Works, collected and edited by the Rev. Alexander Dyce, were published in London in 1836 (3 vols. 8vo), but unfortunately the collection is incomplete. His Life and Writings, by bishop Monk, were published in London in 1830; and his Correspondence, edited by Wordsworth, in 1842 (2 vols. 8vo). See Foreign Quarterly Rerieu; July, 1839; North American Review, xliii, -158; Edinburgh Review, li, 321 ; Allibone, i, 169 ; Hook, Ecclesiastical Bicgra- phy, ii, 253. Benzel, Erich, a prominent Swedish theologian, was born in 1642 at Benzeby ; became in 1665 Profes- sor of History and Ethics, and in 1666 Professor of Theology, at Upsala ; in 1677 bishop of Stregnas, and in 1700 archbishop of Upsala, where he died in 1709. He wrote, among other works, Breviarium historic ec- clesiastics V. et N. Testament. (Ups. 3d ed. 1717). He also superintended the printing of the Swedish Bible translation under Charles XII. One of his sons, whose name was likewise Erich, became in 1726 bishop of Gothenburg, and died as archbishop of Upsala in 1743. Ben-zo'heth (Heb. Ben-Zocheth' ', nniT"|2, son ofZoheth; Sept. translates viol ZwajS v. r. Zwy«/3), a person named (1 Chron. iv, 20) as the second of the sons of Ishi, a descendant of Judah (B.C. apparently post 1856), the other being given as Zoheth simply ; but either the true name of the son of the Zoheth pre- ceding seems to have fallen out of the text, or this in- dividual is only mentioned patronymically as the grandson of Ishi, being son of Zoheth himself. See Ben-. Be'on (Heb. Beon , )i'2, apparently an early error of transcription for Meon [q. v.] ; Sept. Bumv v. r. Ba/(o), one of the places fit for pasturage given by Joshua to the tribes on the east of Jordan (Num. xxxii, 3). It is elsewhere more properly called Beth-Baal- Meon (Josh, xiii, 17), or more briefly Baal-Meon (Num. xxxii, 38), and Beth-Meon (Jer. xlviii, 23), for which this name may be a contraction. Be'or (Heb. Bear', "li"2, a torch; Sept. Tittup), the name of two men. See Balaam. 1. The father of Bela (q. v.), one of the kings of Edom (Gen. xxxvi, 32 ; 1 Chron. i, 43). B.C. appar- ently ante 1618. 2. The father of Balaam, the backsliding prophet (Numb, xxii, 5 ; xxiv, 3, 15 ; xxxi, 8 ; Josh, xiii, 22 ; BERA W xxiv, 9 : Mic. vi, 5 ; Deut. xxiii, 4). In 2 Pet. ii, 15, he is called Boson (q. v. I. B.C. ante 1618. Be ra (Heb. id. Sf?) llf1' otherwise excellence, but more prob. for "~~"|2, son of evil; Sept. BaWd ; Josephus, BaAAae, -<"'• »» 9> *)> king of Sodom at the time of the invasion of the five kings under Chedor- laomer (q. v. i. which was repelled by Abraham (Gen. xiv. 2 : also 17 and 21). B.C. cir. 2077. Ber'achaii (Heb. Berakah', !"I213, a blessing), the name of a valley and also of a man. 1. (Sept. translates tuXoyiaS) A valley in the direc- tion of Tekoa, so called as being the place where Je- hoshaphat celebrated the miraculous overthrow of the Moabites and Ammonites (2 Chron. xx, 26). It is still called Wady Bereikut, near the ruined village of the same name south of Tekua (Robinson's Researches, ii, 189 i. first identified by Wolcott {B'Mioth. Sac. 1*43, p. 43; comp. Wilson, LaSiels of Bible, i, 38G). See Jeruel ; Caphar-barucha. 2. (Sept. Bspyia.) One of the thirty Benjamite war- riors "Saul's brethren," who joined David while in retirement at Ziklag (1 Chron. xii, 3). 13.C. 1054. Berachi'ah (1 Chron. vi, C9). See Berechiah. Berakoth. See Mishna. Berai'ah (Heb. Berayah', !~rx~2, created by Je- hovah; Sept. Bapaia), next to the last named of the nine sons apparently of Shimhi, and a chief Benjamite of Jerusalem (1 Chron. viii, 21). B.C. perhaps 588. Be'rea (Bipsa), a place in Judea apparently not very far from Jerusalem, where Baechides, the general of Demetrius, encamped shortly before the engage- ment in which Judas Maccabants was slain (1 Mace. ix, 4). Other copies, however, read Berza/h (Berfp^ad, BiT)pSa£, lu/olV/3-, etc., see Grimm, in loc), from which Behind conjectures (Paleest. p. G24) that it may be the Bezeth (q. v.) of 1 Mace, vii, 19, especially as Jose- phus, in his parallel account (Ant. xii, 11, 4), calls the place in question Bethzetho (Bny^>fiw, Ant. xii, 11, 1 ; comp. 10, 2). See also Bercea. Bereans, a small sect of dissenters from the Church of Scotland, who profess to follow the example of the ancient Berceans (Acts xvii, 11) in building their sys- tem upon the Scriptures alone, without regard to any human authority. The sect was founded in 1773 by a clergyman Darned Barclay, who was excluded from the parish of Fettercairn. They hold the Calvinistic creed, with the following peculiarities: 1. They reject natural religion as undermining the evidences of Chris- tianity. 2. They consider faith in Christ and assur- ances of salvation as inseparable, or rather as the same thing, because (say they) '-Cod hath expressly de- clared, lie that believeth shall be saved ; and therefore i; is not only absurd, but impious, and in a manner calling God a liar, for a man to say I believe the Gos- pel, but have doubts, nevertheless, of my own salva- tion." ;;. They say that the sin against the Holy Ghost is nothing else but unbelief; and that the ex- pression, " It shall not be forgiven, neither in this world, nor th it which is to come," means only that a pen lying in unbelief would not be forgiven, neither under the former dispensation by Moses, nor under the Gospel dispensation, which, in respect of the Mosaic, '■'•'■ a kind of future world, or world to come. 4. They interpret the Old Testament prophecies, and es- pecially tic Psalms, as typical or prophetic of Christ, ami never apply them to the experience of private Christians. There are still some congregations of Bereans in Scotland, and a few, it is believed, in Amer- - II i i. HIB80NIAH8. Berechi'ah (Heb. Berekyah', rrz-z. blessed by Jehovah; also in the prolonged form Berekya'hu, ~"z~z, in 1 Chron. vi,39; w. 17 ; 2 Chron. xxviii, 12; Zech. i, 7: Sept. Bapay/ac, often Bapay/a), the »8 BERENGARIUS name of six men. See also Barachiah and Bara- ciiias. \ 1. The son of Shimea and father of Asaph, the cel- ebrated musician ; he was one of the Levites who Lore the ark to the tent prepared for it by David (1 Chrcn. vi, 39, where the name is Anglicized "Berachiah ;" xv. 17, 23). B.C. 1043. 2. The son of Meshillemeth, and one of the seven Ephraimite chieftains who enforced the prophet Oded's prohibition of the enslavement of their Judaite cap- tives by the warriors of the northern kingdom (2 I Chron. xxviii, 12). B.C. 7i9. 3. The fourth named of the five brothers of Zerub- babel (q. v.), of the royal line of Judah (1 Chron. iii, Strong's Harmony anl Expos, of the Gospels. 20; p. 17, note m). B.C. 536. 4. A son of Asa, and one of the Levites that dwelt in the villages of the Netophathites on the return from Babylon (1 Chron. ix, 16). B.C. post 536. 5. The son of Iddo and father of the prophet Zech- ariah (Zech. i, 1, 7). B.C. ante 500. 6. A son of Meshezabeel and the father of Meshul- lam, which last repaired a part of the walls of Jerusa- lem (Neh. iii, 4, CO; vi, 18). B.C. ante 446. Be'red (Heb. id. IIS, hail, in pause Bo.' reel, T*2, Gen. xvi, 14 ; Sept. always Booac"), the name of a place and of a man. 1. A town in the south of Palestine, between which and Kadesh lay the well Lahai-roi (Gen. xvi, 14 ; comp. ver. 7). The name is variously given in the ancient versions: Syriac, Gcular [? - Gerar] ; Arab. Tared, probably a mere corruption of the Hebrew name ; Onkelos, Char/ra, 505H (elsewhere employed in the Targums for "Shur"); Ps. -Jonathan, Chalutsa, RS^PJl, i. e. the Elusa, "E\ovca, of Ptolemy and the ecclesiastical writers, now eLKhulasah, on the Hebron road, about 12 miles south of Beersheba (Robinson, i, 296 ; Stewart, p. 205 ; Beland, p. 755). We have the testimony of Jerome {Vita S. Hilarionis) that Elusa was called by its inhabitants Barec, which would be an easy corruption of Bered, ~ being read for 1. Cha- luza is the name elsewhere given in the Arabic ver- sion for "shur" and for " Gerar-" — Smith. See Elisa. 2. A son of Shuthelah and grandson of Ephraim (1 Chron. vii, 20) ; supposed by some to have been identical with Becher in Num. xxvi, 35, b}' a mere i change of letters ("C2 for 112), but with little prob- ability from the context. B.C. post 1856. Berengarians, the followers of Berengarius, who taught, in the eleventh century, that the bread and wine in the Lord's Supper were not really and essen- tially, but figuratively, changed into the body and blood of Christ. See Berengarius. Berengarius or Berenger, archdeacon of An- gers, was born at Tours in the beginning of the elev- enth century, and studied first in the school of St. Martin, and subsequently at Chartres, under the cele- brated Fulbert. Upon his death Berenger left Char- tres and returned to Tours, where he taught pul lic- ly at St. Martin's. He very early manifested a lib- eral spirit of inquiry, and was distinguished for his pi- ety as well as for his industry in study. He quitted this city again and repaired to Angers, where he was well received by Hubert de Ycndome, who administer- ed the church of Angers at that period, and who made Berenger archdeacon. Scholars flocked to him from all parts of France. Some time between 1040 and 1050 he besran to publish his sentiments on the Eucha- rist, in which he opposed the doctrine of Tasehasius on transubstantiation. Lanfranc, who was then in Nor- mandy, and who had been the intimate friend of Be- renger, entered into a controversy with him on the subject. Berenger answered Lanfranc in a letter (see Gieseler, Ch. Hist. per. iii, § 19), in which he blamed BERENICE 759 BERIAH him for charging Scotus with heresy for his opinion that the bread and wine are not changed in substance by consecration in the Eucharist, and declared that in doing so he equally condemned Ambrose, Jerome, Au- gustine, and others of the fathers. This letter fell into the hands of Pope Leo IX, who convened a council at Rome in April, 1050, when Berenger was excommuni- cated. He was also, in this year, condemned in the synods of Brienne and Vercelli. In this last council, which was held in September, the books of Scotus were burned. In October in the same year he was synodically condemned, for the fourth time, at Paris. Berenger appears to have adhered to his views until 1055, when, being cited before a synod held at Tours, where Hildebrand acted as legate to Victor II, he signed a confession of faith, which, though not a com- plete retraction, was satisfactory to the prelates pres- ent, who according!}' received him into communion. He had not, however, changed his opinions, and still continued to defend in writing his real views, where- upon he was again cited before a council, held at Rome in 1059, where he again retracted, and signed a con- fession drawn up by Cardinal Humbertus. Upon his return into France he ag tin retracted his recantation, and published another work in defence of his original opinion. This work Lanfranc endeavored to answer, but without any effect so far as Berenger was con- cerned, who also, by letter, assured Pope Alexander II that his opinion was unalterable. Thus another synod was held against him at Rouen in 10G3, another at Poitiers in 1073, another at St. Maixent in 1075, an- other at Rome in 1078, where he confessed the doctrine of fcransubstantiation to save his life, but withdrew his confession as soon as he was safe in France. He died in communion with the Church in the island of Come, near Tours, January 5th, 1088, at the age of ninety. Berenger was greatly in advance of his age both in- tellectually and morally, though he had not physical to equal his moral courage. The injustice with which he was treated at Rome caused him to use the follow- ing language of Leo IX : "In him I found by no means a saint, by no means a lion of the tribe of Judah ; not even an upright man. To be declared a heretic by him I account as nothing." He styled the doctrine of transubstantiation an inepta vecordia vu'gi From his great reputation as a teacher, his views were wide- ly diffused, not only in France, but in other countries. Much light has been recently thrown upon the history and character of Berenger by the publication of Beren- garius Turonensis, oder tine Sammlung Urn lctrejf'n. v, 515. Bergius, Johannes, a Reformed theologian, was born at Stettin 1587, and studied at Heidelberg, Stras- burg, and Dantzic. In 1616 he was made professor of theology at Frankfurt-on-the-Oder. In theology he opposed Supralapsarian Calvinism, and declined to at- tend the Synod of Dort, whose cruel treatment of the Arminians he reprobated (see Limborch, Vita Epis- copii, p. 210). He taught "free grace" in his treatise In r WiUe Gottes v. aller Menschen Sel'gkrit (1653). He represented Brandenburg at the Leipsic Conference (1631) and at the Thorn Colloquium (1642). He died 1658. — Herzog, Real-Enct/klop. s. v. Be'ri (Heb. Ben', "na, q. d.fonlanus, for 'nxa, Beeri; Sept. Bapi v. r. BopiV), a chief warrior, the fourth named of the eleven sons of Zophah, a descend- ant of Asher (1 Chron. vii, 36). B.C. perh. 1016. Beri'ali (Heb. Beriah', on the signif. see below), the name of four men. 1. (Sept. Brcpia.) The last named of the four sons of Asher, and the father of Heber and Malchiel (Gen. xlvi, 17). B.C. 1856. His descendants were called Beriites (Num. xxvi, 44, 45). 2. (Sept. Rania v. r. Bspiw.) A son of Ephraim, so named on account of the state of his father's house when he was born. " And the sons of Ephraim ; Shuthelah, and Bered his son, and Tahath his son, and Eladah his son, and Tahath his son, and Zabad his son, and Ezer, and Elead, whom the men of Gath [that were] born in [that] land slew" [lit. "and the men . . . slew them"], "because they came down to take away their cattle. And Ephraim their father mourn- ed many days, and his brethren came to comfort him. And when he went in to his wife, she conceived, and bare a son, and he called his name Beriah, because it went evil with his house" [lit. "because in evil" or "a gift" "was to his house:" falM "r^n iTS^a ^S; Sept. on. h> kokoIq ty'hviro iv o'iK(>) fion; Vulg. " eo quod in malis domus ejus ortus esset"] (1 Chron. vii, 20-23). With respect to the meaning of the name, Gesenius prefers the rendering "in evil" to "a gift," as probably the right one. In this case, rt"l2 in the explanation would be, according to him, flSI with Beth essentia (Thes. s. v.\ It must be remarked, how- ever, that the supposed instances of Beth essentia- lining prefixed to the subject in the O. T. are few and incon- clusive, and that it is disputed by the Arabian gram- marians if the parallel "redundant Be" of the Arabic be ever so used (eomp. Thes. p. 174, 175, where this use of " redundant Be" is too arbitrarily denied). The Sept. and Vulg. indicate a different construction, with an additional variation in the case of the former ("my house" for "his house"), so that the rendering "in evil" does not depend upon the construction proposed by Gesenius. Michaelis suggests that ~^'7? mav BERIAH 760 BERITE meat' a spontaneous gift of God, beyond expectation I and the law of nature, as a son born to Ephraim now growing old might be called (Suppl. p. 224, 225). In favor of this meaning, which, with Gesenius, we take in the simple sense of "gift," it may be urged that it is unlikely that four persons would have borne a name of an unusual form, and that a case similar to that here supposed is found in the naming of Seth (Gen. iv, 25). Furst (Hi b. Handw. s. v.) suggests what appears a still better derivation, namely, a contraction of rtJ^"*|3 for nSTia, son of evil, i. e. unlucky. This short notice is of no slight historical impor- tance, especially as it refers to a period of Hebrew historv respecting which the Bible affords us no other I like information. The event must be assigned to the time between Jacob's death and the beginning of the op- pression. B.C. post. 185C. The indications that guide us are, that some of Ephraim's sons must have attain- ed to manhood, and that the Hebrews were still free. The passage is full of difficulties. The first question is, What sons of Ephraim were killed? The persons mentioned do not all seem to be his sons. Shuthelah occupies the first place, and a genealogy of his de- scendants follows as far as a second Shuthelah, the words "his son" indicating a direct descent, as Hou- bigant(ap. Barrett, Synopsis, in loc.) remarks, although he very needlessly proposes conjecturally to omit them. A similar genealogy from Beriah to Joshua is given in ver. 25-27. As the text stands, there are but three sons of Ephraim mentioned before Beriah — Shuthelah, Ezer, and Elead, all of whom seem to have been killed by the men of Gath, though it is possible that the last two are alone meant, while the first of them is stated to have left descendants. In the enumeration of the Is- raelite families in Numbers four of the tribe of Ephraim are mentioned, sprung from his sons Shuthelah, Becher, and Tahan, and from Eran, son or descendant of Shu- thelah (xxvi, 35, 3G.) The second and third families are probably those of Beriah and a younger son, unless the third is one of Beriah, called after his descendant Tahan (1 Chron. vii, 25) ; or one of them may be that of a son of Joseph, since it is related that Jacob deter- mined that sons of Joseph who might be born to him after Ephraim and Manasseh should "be called after the name of their brethren in their inheritance" (Gen. xlviii, C). See, however, Becher. There can be no doubt that the land in which the men of Gath were born is the eastern part of Lower Egypt, if not Goshen itself. It would be needless to say that they were born in their own land; but as this was not Gath it- self, they must have been called "men of Gath" (q. (1. Gittites) as being descended from natives of that place. At this time very many foreigners must have been settled in Egypt, especially in and about Goshen. Indeed, Goshen is mentioned as a non- Egyptian country in its inhabitants (Gen. xlvi, 34), and its own name, as well as nearly all the names of its cities and places mentioned in the Bible, save the cities built in tl ppression, are probably Semitic. In the Book of Joshua, Shihor, the Nile, here the Pelusiac branch, is the boundary of Egj'pt and Canaan, the Philistine territories apparently being considered to extend from it (Josh, xiii, 2, 3). It is therefore very probable that many Philistines would have settled ina part of Egypt so accessible to them and so similar in its population to Canaan as Goshen and the tracts ad- joining it. Or else these men ofGath may have been rcenariea like' the Cherethim (in Egyptian " Shay- ratana") who were in the Egyptian service at a later time, as in David's, and to whom lands were probably allotted as to the native army. Some suppose that the men ofGath were the aggressors, a conjecture not at variance with the words used in the relation of the cause of the death of Ephraim's sons, since we may read "when ("~i they came down," etc., instead of " because," etc. (Bagster's Bible, in loc), but it must be remembered that this rendering is equally consist- ent with the other explanation. There is no reason to suppose that the Israelites at this time may not have sometimes engaged in predatory or other war- fare. The warlike habits of Jacob's sons are evident in the narrative of the vengeance taken by Simeon and Levi upon Hamor and Shechem (Gen. xxxiv, 25-29), and that the same traits existed in their posterity ap- pears from the fear which the Pharaoh who began to oppress them entertained lest they should, in the event of war in the land, join with the enemies of his people, and thus escape out of the country (Exod. i, 8-10). It has been imagined, according as either side was supposed to have acted the aggressor, that the Gittites descended upon the Ephraimites in a predatory excursion from Pal- estine, or that the Ephraimites made a raid into Pales- tine. Neither of these explanations is consistent with sound criticism, because the men of Gath are said to have been born in the land, that is, to have been settled in Egypt, as already shown, and the second one, which is adopted by Bunsen (Egypt's Place, i, 177, 178), is in- admissible on the ground that the verb used, "I j^1, " he went down," or "descended," is applicable to going into Egypt, but not to coming from it. The rabbini- cal idea that these sons of Ephraim went to take the Promised Land needs no refutation. (For these vari- ous theories, see Poole's Synopsis, in loc.) — Smith, s.v. 3. (Sept. Bepid v. r. Bapiya.) A Benjamite, and ap- parently son of Elpaal ; he, with his brother Shimea, were founders of Ajalon, and expelled the Gittites (1 Chron. viii, 13). B.C. prob. 1612. His nine sons are enumerated in ver. 14-16. 4. (Sept. Bctpu't v. r. BtpiaJ) The last named of the four sons of Shimei, a Levite of the family of Ger shorn (1 Chron. xxiii, 10). B.C. 1014. His posterity was not numerous (ver. 11). Beri'ite (Heb. with the art., hab-Berii', >1">1'"2ij ; Sept. 6 Baptal), the patronymic title of the fami- lv of Beriah (q. v.), the son of Asher (Num. xxvi, 44). Berington, Joseph, one of the most prolific Ro- man Catholic writers of Great Britain, was born in 1743 in Shropshire, and died in 1827. He was sent by his parents for education to the College of St. Omer, in France. For many years he exercised the priestly functions in France, and in 1814 was appointed pastor at Buckland, near Oxford. He wrote a number of works on the history, present state, and rights of his co- religionists. He was regarded as a liberal Romanist, and many of his expressions were considered by his superiors as little orthodox. His principal work is a Literary History of the Middle Ages — from the reign of Augustus to the fifteenth century (Lond. 1814; new ed., with index, by D. Bogue, Lond. 1846). Be'rite (Heb. only in the plur., and with the art., hab-Berim' , d"H2il, derivation uncertain [Gesenius and Furst both overlook the word altogether], if in- deed the text be not corrupt ; Sept. tv Xappi, but most copies omit), a tribe or place named with Abel of Beth- maachah — and therefore doubtless situated in the north of Palestine — only as having been visited by Joab in his pursuit after Sheba, the son of Bichri (2 Sam. xx, 14). The expression is a remarkable one, "all the Beritcs" (comp. "all the Bithron"). The Vulgate has a different rendering — omnes viri elect! — apparently for C^na, i. c. young men, and this is, in Ewald's opin- ion, the correct reading (Isr. Gesch. iii, 249, note). Schwarz, however, is inclined to regard it as a collec- tive term for several places of similar name mentioned in Joseplms and the Talmud as lying in the vicinity of Lake Mcrom (Palest, p. 203) ; and Thomson (Land and I Utah-, i, 425) conjectures that it may specially des- ignate the Beroth (Bqob&q) of Upper Galilee, where, according to Josephus (Ant, v, 1, 18), the Canaanitish kings encamped against Joshua (comp. Josh, xi, 5). BERITH m BERNARD and which he identifies with Bin'a, a short distance north of Safed (Van de Velde, Map). Be'rith (Heb. Berith', fY^S, covenant; Sept. unites the three terms, "the house of the god Berith," into one, Bai3/3>;A/3foi'3), stands alone in Judg. ix, 46, for BAAii-BEKmi (q. v.). Berkeley, George, bishop of Cloyne, was born at Kilcrin March 12, 1G84, and educated at Trinity Col- lege, Dublin. In 1707 he published A ritlnnetlca absque A 'gebra aut Euclide demonstrate ; and in 1709 appeared his well-known Theory of Vision, the first work in which an attempt was made to distinguish the imme- diate operations of the senses from the deductions which we habitually draw from our sensations. In 1710 appeared his Principles of Human Know', dffe, in which he propounded the novel doctrine that what we call matter has no actual existence, and that the im- pressions which we believe that we receive from it are not, in fact, derived from any thing external to our- selves, but are produced within us by a certain dispo- sition of the mind, the immediate operation of God. In 1724 he was made dean of Deny, and in the year following published his propositions for the conversion of the American savages by means of a college in the Bermudas. The design was received with favor by the government and by individuals, and great prom- ises of money were made to him, such as to induce him to resign his living, worth £1100 a year, and to embark with his wife in order to purchase land for the intend- ed College of St. Paul and to prepare for its foundation Landing at Newport, R. I., he remained there for two years, and, finding all his expectations of assistance vain, he was compelled to return to England, and thus ended a noble scheme, to complete which he had spent seven years of his life, resigned his actual preferment, and refused a bishopric, declaring that he would rath- er have the office of superior in the new college of St. Paul than bo primate of all England, this superiorship being actually worth to him £100 a year., In 1732 he published Alciphron, 2 vols. 8vo, the design of which work was to refute the various systems of atheism, fa- talism, and scepticism. At length, in 1734, he was raised to the see of Cloyne. He continued to put forth from time to time works calculated to advance the cause of Christianity and his counuy, refused to ex- change his see for that of Clogher, although the income was twice as great, and died at Oxford in 1753. His Works, with a Life of the A uthor, by Wright, were re- printed, with a translation of the Latin essays, in 1843 (London, 2 vols. 8vo). Mackintosh says that Berke- ley's writings afford the finest models of philosophical style since Cicero. His style is very clear, and his bold method of thinking, and absence of all adhesion to great authorities, make his works even now valua- ble to the student. These same qualities make them difficult to describe, and the peculiar nature of the subjects which he treated has caused them to bo mis- represented, so that their true scope is less understood than that of any other writings of his day. — Landon, Eccl. Did. ii, 188 ; New Englander, vii, 474 ; Engl. Cy- clopcedia; Sprague, Annuls, v, 03; Tennemann, Man- ual Hist. Phil. § 349; Mackintosh, History of Ethics, p. 130, North Amer. Rev. Jan. 1855 ; Chris/ion Eetf.April, 1861, art. 7 ; Lewes, Hist, of Philosophy, ii, 281, 3d ed. Beikenmeyer, William Christopher, a Lu- theran minister, of whose parentage and early life lit- tle is known. He arrived in America in 1725, and became minister to the Lutheran congregation of Quas- saik Parish. His residence was at Loonenburgh (now Athens, N. Y.), but his itinerant labors extended over a large part of the colony of New York. He was re- garded as a man of great learning in his time, and tradition still speaks of his great zeal and industry as a minister. He gave special care to the negro race. — Evang. Rtv. April, 18G2 ; Doc. Hist, of N. Y. vol. iii. Berlebtirg Bible (Berkburger Bibel), an edition of the Bible published at Berleburg, Germany, 1726- 29, by anonymous editors. It gives an entirely new translation, with a running exposition, giving the lit- eral, spiritual, and hidden, or mystical interpretation. It was edited in the spirit of pietism of a mystical ten- dency (Walch, Biblioth. Theol. iv, 187). Bernard of Mentone (or or Aosta), St., was born in 923, near Annecy. He is memorable as the founder of two establishments of Hospitallers, where for more than nine hundred years travellers have found an asylum against the perils of the Alps. He was archdeacon of Aosta, and grand-vicar of the dio- cese. In his journeys he had opportunities of seeing the sufferings to which the pilgrims were exposed in crossing the Alps, and he conceived the project of es- tablishing two hospitals, one on Mount Joux (3fons Jovis), the other in a pass in the Greek Alps, called Colona Jou, on account of a pile of stones raised on the spot to point out the road to travellers. Upon these summits he raised the two hospitals known as the Great and Little St. Bernard, which he confided to the regular canons of St. Augustine, who, from that time down to the present, have continued to fulfil with a zeal and charity beyond all praise the merciful inten- tions of the founder. The chief monaster)' is on the Great St. Bernard, which is supposed to be the highest dwelling in Europe, and there, amid perpetual snows, the monks exercise their hospital >le labors. Bernard died at Novara May 28, 1008. His festival is celebra- ted on June 15, the day of his interment. His life is given in the Acta Sanctorum, June 15. — Landon, Eccl. Diet, ii, 189 ; Butler, Lives of Saints, June 15. Bernard of Tiron, St., founder of a new congre- gation of Benedictines (q. v.), viz. the Tironensians (q. v.), was born at Ponthieu about A.D. 1040. He was at first abbot of St. Cyprian's, but in 1109 found- ed the abbey of Tiron and the new congregation named from the place. The monks gave themselves to si- lence, manual labor, prayer, and psalmody, and their dress was of the commonest material. Bernard, be- fore long, found himself surrounded by more than five hundred disciples of both sexes. Each one was set to perform whatever art he best excelled in, and thus were found carpenters, smiths, goldsmiths, painters, vine-dressers, agriculturists, writers, men of all call- ings, glad to exercise their talents in obedience to their superior. A noble monastery soon arose in the soli- tude. Congregations were soon established in France, Britain, and elsewhere ; eleven abbeys were founded, subject to the chief of the order at Tiron ; of these eight were in France, one in Wales, in the diocese of St. David's, called the abbey of St. Mary de Cameis, and one in Scotland, at Roxburgh. Bernard died on the 14th of April, 1116. He has not been canonized by the Church, but the Martyrologies of the Benedic- tines and of France mention him on the 14th of April. His life is given in the Acta Sanctorum, April, t. ii. — Baillet, Vies des Saints, 14 Aprilis; Helyot, Ordres Pe- ligieux, iii, 674. Bernard of Clairvaux, St., one of the most em- inent names in the Mediaeval Church, was born of no- ble parents near Dijon, in the year 1091. He had five brothers and one sister, all of whom he persuaded to the same course of religious life with himself; and, after having lived for some time in seclusion in their father's house, the brothers all left if: together in 111", and repaired to Citeaux, where they demanded of the abbot Stephen to be admitted. Besides his brothers, he took with him other companions, making in all thirty. Having distinguished himself by his piety, devotion, and learning, he was commissioned, in 1114, to conduct a colony of monks to Clairvaux, where, having built their monastery, he was appointed the first abbot. His learning and consummate abilities could not be long concealed in the cloister, and very BERNARD 76 Boon he was called upon to take part in all the impor- tant affairs of the Church. In 1128 he was present in the Synod of Troyes, convoked by the legate Mat- j thew, cardinal bishop of Albano, where, by his means, j the order of the Knights Templars was confirmed, as well as the rule for their observation. In the schism j between Innocent II and Anacletus, Bernard took the side of the former. In 11-10 we find him strenuously opposing Abelard (q. v.), whom, both by word and by his writings, he resisted, especially in the Council of Sens held in that year. His arbitrary and persevering persecution of Abelard is one of the greatest stains upon | his reputation. "About the year 1140, Bernard was | involved in an important controversy concerning what was called the immaculate conception of the Virgin Mary. Several churches in France began about that time to celebrate the festival consecrated to this pre- tended conception. It is reported by some authors that it had been introduced into the Church of England before this period, in consequence of the exhorta- tions of archbishop Anselm. The Church of Lyons was the first which adopted this new festival in France, which no sooner came to the knowledge of St. Bernard than he severely censured the canons of Lyons on ac- count of this innovation, and opposed the immaculate conception of the Virgin with the greatest vigor, as it supposed her to be honored with a privilege which be- longed to Christ alone. Upon this a warm contest arose, some siding with the canons of Lyons, and adopting the new festival, while others adhered to the more orthodox sentiments of St. Bernard. The con- troversy, notwithstanding the zeal of the contending parties, was carried on during this century with a cer- tain degree of decency and moderation. But in after times, as Mosheim remarks, when the Dominicans were established in the Academy of Paris, the contest was renewed with the greatest vehemence, and the same subject was debated on both sides with the ut- most animosity and contention of mind. The Domin- icans declared for St. Bernard, while the Academy pat- ronized the canons of Lyons, and adopted the new fes- tival." (See Immaculate Conception.) It was in the year 114o that information was received in Europe of the perilous condition of the newly-established king- dom in the Fast. Edessa was taken by the Saracens; Antioch and Jerusalem were threatened. The news excited universal sorrow. Louis the Seventh, king of France, in a penitential spirit, was the first who pre- pared to arm in defence of the Holy Sepulchre. The French king's determination was approved by the pope, Eugenius III; and Bernard was commissioned to travel through France and Germany for the pur- pose of raising an army of crusaders. The success of Bernard was marvellous. The unwilling emperor, Conrad III. yielded at length to his impassioned elo- quence. In his management of Conrad, the tact and good taste of Bernard were conspicuous. It was at Frankfort-on-Maine that he had Ids first private au- dience. Winn the emperor then gave him to under- stand bow little interest he took in the matter, Bernard pressed the subject no farther, but awaited another op- portunity. After having succeeded in making peace between several ofthe princes of the empire, he preach- ed the crusade publicly, exhorting the emperor and princes to participate in it, at the diet held at Christ- mas in the city of Spires. Three days after this he again addressed the emperor in private, and exhorted him, in a friendly and affectionate manner, not to lose the opportunity of so short, R0 easy, and so honorable a mode of penance. ( lonrad. already more favorably disposed to the undertaking, replied that he would ad- vise With his councillors, and give him an answer on the following day. The „ext .lay Bernard officiated at the holy communion, to which be unexpectedly added a sermon in reference to the crusade. Toward the conclusion of his discourse, be turned to the em- peror, and addressed him frankly, as though he hud 2 BERNARD been a private man. He described the day of judg- ment, when the men who had received such innumera- ble benefits from God, and yet had refused to minister to Him to the utmost of their power, would be left without reply or excuse. He then spoke of the lless- ings which God had in such overflowing measure pour- ed upon the head of Conrad — the highest worldly do- minion, treasures of wealth, gifts of mind and body — till the emperor, moved even to tears, exclaimed, ' I acknowledge the gifts of the divine mercy, and I will no longer remain ungrateful for them. I am ready for the service which He Himself hath exhorted me.' At these words a universal shout of joy burst from the as- sembly ; the emperor immediately received the cross, and several of the nobles followed his example." On this occasion he went so far as to claim inspiration, and to prophesy the success ofthe undertaking. This is the most reprehensible part of his career, and he attempted to cover the failure of his prophecy ly a poor quil hie. In the same year a council was held at Chartres, where the Crusaders offered Bernard the command of the army, which he refused. In 1147, at the Council of Paris, he attacked the doctrine of Gilbert de la Porree, bishop of Poitiers, on the Trinity ; and in the following year, at the Council of Rheims, procured its condem- nation. He was an earnest and zealous advocate of practical religion, and was undoubtedly one of the ho- liest men of his time. But it must be confessed that he was misled by the love of ecclesiastical conformity to false pretensions and persecuting principles. All ecclesiastical dignities he constantly refused ; hut his virtues and talents gained him a higher influence in the Christian world than was possessed even by the pope himself, and the disputes of the Church were often referred to his arbitration. Luther says of him, " If there has ever been a pious monk who feared God, it was St. Bernard; whom alone I hold in much high- er esteem than all other monks and priests throughout the globe." His devotional Meditations are still read and admired, even among Protestants. They were translated into English by Stanhope. There can be no question but that he saw with sorrow many of the errors, corruptions, and defilements of the Church of Rome, nor did he hesitate to do all in his power to cor- rect them. In the j'ear 115:?, just before his death, he put forth his Libri de Considtratione, addressed to Pope Eugenius III, in which he handles the subject at large, and strongly urges it. In the first book of this work he inveighs against the abuses of the ecclesiastical courts. In the second he admonishes Eugenius to con- sider, as to his person, who he is, and, as to the digni- ty of his office, what he is. He reminds him that he is not set over others to domineer over them, but to minister to them and watch over them ; that he had indeed given to him the charge of all the churches, but no arbitrary dominion over them, which the Gospel disallows. "To you," he says, 'indeed the keys of heaven have been intrusted, but there arc other door- keepers of heaven and other pastors besides you ; yet arc you so much the more above them as you have re- ceived the title after a different manner. They have eveiy one a particular flock, but you are superinten- dent over them all ; you are not only supreme pastor over all flocks, but likewise over all the shepherds." In the third book he treats of his duty toward infe. riors, and complains heavily of the grievance cause i b}' the appeals to Borne, which, he says, were the oc- casion of incalculable mischief, and, justly, a source of murmuring and complaint. He further inveighs against the multitude of exemptions which destroyed the, ecclesiastical hierarchy. In the fourth book he admonishes the pope to mind his duty toward the cler- gy, cardinals, and other officers of his court, and to re- press their intrigues, luxury, and sumptuousness. He advises him as to the qualifications of those whom he should retain near his person, and, lastly, makes a re- capitulation of the qualities requisite for the due ful- BERNARD BERXARDIN filment of the papal office : " Consider that the Church of Rome, over which God hatli placed you as supreme, is the mother, and not the mistress of other churches ; and that you are not a sovereign lord over the other bishops, but only one among them ,• that you are a broth- er of those that love God, and a companion of such as fear him," etc. "His meditations have been transla- ted by Dean Stanhope. His sermons have been the delight of the faithful in all ages. ' The}' are,' says Sixtus of Sienna, 'at once so sweet and so ardent that it is as though his mouth were a fountain of honey, and his heart a whole furnace of love.' The doctrines of St. Bernard differ on soma material points from that of ths modern Church of Home ; he did not hold those refinements and perversions of the doctrine of justifi- cation which the school divinity afterward introduced, and the Reformers denounced; he rejected the notion of supererogatory works ; he did not hold the modern purgatorial doctrines of the Church of Borne; neither did he admit the immaculate conception of the blessed Virgin. He maintained the doctrine of the real pres- ence, as distinguished from the Romish doctrine of transubstantiation. In his discourse on the Lord's Supper, he joins together the oalw irdform of the sacra- ment, and the spiritual efficacy of it, as the shell and ths kernel, the sacred sign, and the tiling signified; the one he takes out of the words of the institution, and the other out of Christ's sermon in the sixth of St. John. And in the same place explaining that sacra- ments are not things absolute in themselves without any relation, but mysteries, wherein, by the gift of a vis- ible sign, an invisible and divine grace with the body and blood of Christ is given, he saith 'that the visible sign is as a ring, which is given, not for itself or abso- lutely, but to invest and give possession of an estate made over to one.' Now, as no man can fancy that the ring is substantially changed into the inheritance, whether lands or houses, none also can say with truth, or without absurdity, that the bread and wine are sub- stantially changed into the body and blood of Christ. Rut in his sermon on the Purification I13 speaks yet more plainly: 'The bod)' of Christ in the sacrament is the food of the soul, not of the bell}', therefore we cat Him not corporally ; but in the manner that Christ is meat, in the same manner we understand that He is eaten.' Also in his sermon on St. Martin: 'To this day,' saith he, ' the same flesh is given to us, but spir- itually, therefore not corporally.' For the truth of things spiritually present is certain also." Bernard died August 20, 1153, leaving one hundred and sixty monasteries of his order, all founded by his exertions. The brief character of him given by Erasmus is this: "Christians doctus, sancte facundus et pie festivus." He was canonized, with unexampled splendor, twenty years after his death, by Alexander III, and the Ro- man Church celebrates his memory on the 20th of Au- gust. Of all the editions of his works, by far the best is that by Mabillon (Paris, 1690, 2 vols. fol. ; reprint- ed, witli additions, Paris, 1839, 4 vols. imp. 8vo). — Hook, Eccles. Biography, ii, 308 sq. ; Mosheim, Ch. Hist, i, 301 -333; Neander, Ch. Hist. vol. iv, passim ; Neander, Der Heilige Bernard und sein Zeitn'ter (Ber- lin, 1813, 8vo); Neander, Life of Bernard, trans], by Matilda Wrench (bond. 1843, 12mo); Ellendorf, Der heil. Bernh trd (Essen, 1837); Ratisbonne, Hist, de St. Bern. (Paris, 2 vols. 1843,4th ed. I860); Morison, Lfe and Times of Bernard (1803, 8vo) ; and Niedner, Zeii- schrift (1862, pt. ii, art. i, by Plitt) ; Bobringer, Kircke Christi, ii, 43G ; L»nd. Quar. Rev. July, 18G3 ; Christian Remembrancer, 1861, i. Bernard of Ch.vrtres, a celebrated philosopher and theologian of the 12th century. Little is known of his life except that he was the head of the school of Chartres at the same time that Guillaume de Chartres was the head of the school of St. Victor. His writings and his philosophical views were likewise unknown until Mr. Cousin discovered in the Imperial Library one of his manuscripts, a kind of poem, followed by verse and prose, and divided into two parts, the one called Megacosmus (great world), and the other Micro- cosmus (little world ; a treatise on man). The system of Bernard was a Platonism, sometimes interpreted according to the genius of the Alexandrines. — Hoefer, Biog. Generale, v, 572; Cousin, Introduclim au£ frag- ments inedits d'Abailard. Bernard of Thuringia, a German visionary who lived toward the close of the 12th century, but of whose life nothing else is known. On the ground of some passage in the Revelation he announced the end of the world as close at hand, and produced a wonderful commotion throughout the whole of Europe. Many were induced to leave all they had and to emigrate to Palestine, where Christ was to descend from heaven to judge the quick and the dead. The secular authority had great difficulty in checking this movement. — Hoe- fer, Biog. Generale, v, 558. Bernard, Ptolomei, St., founder of the Olivetans (q. v.), was born at Sienna 1272, died August 20, 1318. He descended from one of the first families of Sienna, and had filled the highest positions in his country. In consequence of a vow to leave the world if he should be cured from a sore eye, he sold all he had, distribu- ted the money among the poor, withdrew to a desert ten miles from Sienna, and then practiced extraordinary austerities. He was soon joined by some followers ; and when the pope counselled him to connect himself with one of the monastic orders of the Church, ho adopted the rule of St. Benedict and a white habit. The congregation established by him is known under the name of Congregation of the Virgin Mary of Mount Olivet, and was approved by several popes. —Hoefer, Biog. Generale, v, 375. Bernard, Jacques, a Reformed minister of France, was born at Nions, in Dauphine, September 1, 1658, and died April 27, 1718. His father, who was a Reformed minister, sent him to Geneva to pursue his theological studies. On his return he was himself or- dained minister, and preached publicly, notwithstand- ing the prohibitive laws. He was soon compelled to flee, and went first to Lausanne, where he remained until the revocation of the Edict of Nantes. Then he went to Holland, where he established a school of belles lettres, philosophy, and mathematics. He undertook, in 1691, to continue the publication of the Bibtioth&ue Universe lie, begun by Jean Leclerc. In 1693 he suc- ceeded Bayle as editor of the journal La Ripublique dss Lettres. He wrote, besides a number of historical works, Trait e de la Repentance tardive (Amsterdam, 1712, 12mo), and Traite de I' Excellence de la Religion (Amsterdam, 1714).— Hoefer, Biog. Generale, v, 584. Bernard, Richard, a Puritan divine, was born 1566 or 1567, died in 1611. Among his numerous works are the following : Plain Evidence that the Church of England is Apostolical (bond. 1610); A Key for Opening the Mysteries of the Revelation of St. John (bond. 1617); The fabulous Foundation of the Popedom, showing that St. Peter was never at Rome (Oxford, 1619) ; and several other works against the Church of Rome ; The Isle of Man, or legit Proceedings in Manshire against Sin (Lond. 1627, 10th edit. 1635), supposed by some to have been the germ of Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress; A Guide /" Grand Jurymen with regard, to Witches (Lond. 1627, 12mo).— Hoefer, Biog. Generale, v, 592 ; Allibone, Did. of Authors, i, 179. Bernardin, St., of Sienna, descended from the fam- ily Albiceschi, one of the most distinguished in the re- public of Sienna, was bom in 1 380 at Massa-Carrara, and entered the Franciscan order in 1101. He became one of the boldest and most famous preachers against the prevailing corruptions of the times; was appointed in 1438 vicar general of his order, and successfully ex- erted himself for the restoration of the strict monastic BERNARDIX 764 BERNICE role, lie died in 1444 at Aqnila, where his relics are still kept, and was canonized in 1450. He is com- memorated by the Roman Church on March 20. His works are mostly of a mystical character; among them is a commentary cm the Revelation. His com- plete works have been often published (Yen. 1591, 4 vols, lto ; Paris, 1636, 5 vols. fol. ; Yen. 1745, 5 vols. fol.). Bernardiu de Sahagun, a Spanish Franciscan, lived in the second half of the lGth century. He spent many years in the West Indies and Mexico, and composed a grammar and dictionary of the language of the latter country, and many other works for the use of the missionaries and native Christians. He wrote in Spanish a history of the religion, the govern- ment, and the customs of the natives of the West In- dies, and an essay on the conquest of New Spain or ■Mexico. — Hoefer, Biog. Generate, v, GOG. Bernardine Monks (the same with the Cister- cians), so called after Bernard of Clairvaux, who great- ly extended the order. See Bernard and Cister- t IA.NS. Berne, Conference or Disputation of, a name given especially to a conference held in 1528, which led to the establishment of the Reformation in that city. The soil of Berne, not originally favorable to the reform, was suddenly prepared for it by the jug- gling doings of the Dominicans (1507-1509), and by Sampson's bold traffic in indulgences (Mosheim, Ch. Hist, iii, 13, 27). The reform movement was earnest- ly preached by Kolb, Hallcr, etc. (q. v.). The bishop of Lausanne demanded the indictment of the heretical preachers, but the council of the city refused to inter- fere. Great excitement arose (D'Aubigne, Hist, of Ref. 1 k. viii). The mandates of I "iti and Jlodesti (Jure 15, 1523) were intended to mediate between the par- tics, and the council forhade any preaching, "whether of doctrine given out by Luther or other doctors, in the way of disputation, apart or aside from proof out of the Word of God." For two years the cause of reform fluctuated between advance and retreat. In 1526 the "Baden Disputation" was held, audits issue seemed likely to be fatal to the reformers. But the decisions of Baden were, too severe and partial for the patience of the Bernese, to whom Haller and Kolb were still preaching. On November 17th, 1527, the great council decided to hold a conference at Berne to settle the disputes by appeals to the Word of God. They invited the bishops of Constance, Basle, the Yalais, and Lausanne, and the Leagues of both parties were requested to send "delegates and learned men." The bishops declined the invitation, and the emperor, Charles V, sent a dissuasive, advising trust and re- course to the anticipated general council. Neverthe- less, there was a large assembly that opened on the 6th of January, 152,':, the majority being reformers, and among them Bucer, Capito, CEcolampadius, and Zuingle. A graphic account of the discussion is given by D'A\ib\gn6(HistoTyofRef mint:, n, I k.xv). Among the results of this disputation were the abrogation of the mass, the removal of images, etc., from the church- es, and the Reformation Edict of Feb. 7th, 1528, an- nulling the authority of the bishops, settling questions of Church order, etc For Heme, and, in fact, for Switzerland, this conference was the turning-point of the Reformation. See D'Aubigne, as above-cited, and Fis< In-.-.',, tchkhd d. Disputation u. ft formation in /:> m 'Berne, 1828); Herzog, ReaUEncykbp. ii, 81 ; Ruchat, Reformation in ISw /. Hand, ch. iv. Berne, Synod op, an assembly of the clergy of Berne, Switzerland, to consolidate the work of the Reformation, held in 1532. It was the first of the Re- formed synods of Berne, and was attended by 230 of the clergy, June l. 1 I, 1532. A Church Director}' and Manual fur Pastors were adopted, cont lining many ex- cellent regulations, and full of the Christian spirit, as are the Acts of the Synod. They were published in Basle, 1532 ; and again enjoined in 1728 and 1775 ; re- published, Basle, 1830, 8vo, with a German version.— Herzog, lual-EneyJdopiidie, ii, 87. Berni'ce (Bspvi'wj in Acts, also in Josephus ; Bere- nice = i, see Sturz, Dial. Maced. p. 31 ; the form Beronice is also found, comp. Eustath. ad II. x, 192 ; Yalckenaer, ad Herod, p. 477 ; Niebuhr, Kl. Schr. i, 237), the name of several Egyptian princesses (see Smith's Diet, of Class. Biog. s. v. Berenice), and also of several Jewish females of royal connection named in Josephus, and one of them in the New Testament. 1. The daughter of Costabarus and Salome, and niece of Herod the Great. She was married to Aristo- bulus, the son of Herod, who, proud of his descent from the Maccabees through his mother Mariamne, is said to have taunted her with her comparatively low origin ; and her consequent complaints to her mother served to increase the feud, which resulted in the death of Aristobulus (Josephus, Ant. xviii, 5, 4; xvi, 1, 2; 4, 1 ; 7, 3 ; War, i, 23, 1; 24, 3). See Aristo- bulus. After his execution, B.C. 6, Bernice became the wife of Theudion, maternal uncle to Antipater, the eldest son of Herod — Antipater having brought about the marriage, with the view of conciliating Salome and disarming her suspicions toward himself (Joseph. Ant. xvii, 1,1; War, i, 28, 1). Josephus does not mention the death of Theudion, but it is probable that he suffered for his share in Antipater's plot against the life of Herod (.4 n<. xvii, 4, 2; War, i, 30, 5): See An- tipater. Bernice certainly appears to have been again a widow when she accompanied her mother to Rome with Archelaus, who went thither at the com- mencement of his reign to obtain from Augustus the ratification of his father's will (Joseph. Ant. xvii, 9, 3; War, ii, 2, 1). See Archelaus. She seems to have continued at Rome the rest of her life, enjoying the fa- vor of Augustus and the friendship of Antonia (q. v.), the wife of the elder Drusus. The affection of Antonia for Bernice, indeed, exhibited itself even after the lat- ter's death, and during the reign of Tiberius, in offices of substantial kindness to her son Agrippa I (q. v.), whom she furnished with the means of discharging his del.it to the imperial treasury (Strabo, xvi, 7G5 ; Jose- phus, Ant. xviii, 6, 1-6). 2. The eldest daughter of Agrippa I (q. v.) by his wife Cypros : she was espoused at a very early age to Marcus, son of Alexander the Alabarch ; but he died before the consummation of the marriage, and she then became the wife of her uncle Flerod, king of Chalcis, by whom she had two sons (Josephus, Ant. xviii, 5, 4; xix, 5, 1 ; 9, 1 ; xx, 5, 2; 7, 3; War, ii, 2, 6). After the death of this Herod, A.D. 48, Bernice, then but 20 years old, lived for a considerable time with her own brother, Agrippa II (q. v.), and not without just suspicion of an incestuous commerce with him, to avoid the scandal of which she induced Polemon, king of ( 'ilieia, to marry her ; but she soon deserted him and returned again to her brother (Joseph. Ant. xx, 7, 3; Juvenal, vi, 156), in connection with whom she is men- tioned Acts xxv, 13, 23 ; xxvi, 30, as having visited Festus at Ca?sarea on his appointment as procurator of Judaea, when Paul defended himself before them all. A.D. 55. About A.D. 65 we hear of her being at Jerusalem (whither she had gone in pursuance of a vow), and interceding for the Jews with the procura- tor Florus, at the risk of her life, during his cruel massacre of them (Joseph. War, ii, 15, 1). Together with her lirother she endeavored to divert her country- men from the purpose of rebellion (Joseph. War, ii, 1G, 5) ; and, having joined the Romans with him at the outbreak of the final war, she gained the favor of Yes- pasian by her munificent presents, and the love of Titus by her beauty. Her connection with the latter continued at Ro no, whither she went after the capture of Jerusalem, and it is even said that he wished to make her his wife ; but the fear of offending the Ro- BERODACH-BALADAN 765 BEROTHAH mans by such a step compelled him to dismiss her. and, though she afterward returned to Rome, he still avoided a renewal of their intimacy (Tacitus, Hist, ii, 2, 81 ; Sueton. Til. 7; Dio Cass, lxvi, 15, 18). Quin- tilian (Inst. Omt. iv, 1) speaks of having pleaded her cause on some occasion not otherwise alluded to, on •which she herself sat as judge. See Nolde, Hist. lilum. p. 403 sq. 3. The daughter of Archclaus son of Chelcias, and Mariamne daughter of Herod Agrippa I (Josephus, Ant. xx, 7, 1). Bero'dach-bal'adan (I-Ieb. Berodak' Baladan', T7 - . ? ~^^"1? i Sept. Bapwcux [v- r- Mapuoax] BaXaSdv; Vulg. Berodach Baladan), the king of Babylon who sent the friendly deputation to Hezekiah (2 Kings xx, 12), called in the parallel passage (Isa, xxxix, 1), apparently more correctly, Merodach Baladan (q. v.). Berce'a (liipoia, also -written Btppoia according to Vossius, Thucyd. i, 01, the Macedonian for <&epoia), the name of two cities mentioned in Scripture. 1. A city in the north of Palestine, mentioned in 2 Mace, xiii, 4, in connection with the invasion of Judaea by Antiochus Eupator, as the scene of the mis- erable death of Menelaus. This seems to be the city in which Jerome says that certain persons lived who possessed and used Matthew's Hebrew Gospel (De Vir. Illust. c. 3). This city (the name of which is written also Bepor) ; comp. Beroansis, Plin. v, 23) was situated in Syria (Strabo, xvi, 751), about midway between Antioch and Hieropolis (Ptol. v, 15), being about two daj's' journey from each (Julian, Epist. xxvii ; Theo doret, ii, 22). Chosroes, in his inroad upon Syria, A.U 540, demanded a tribute from Beroea, which he remit- ted afterward, as the inhabitants were unable to p:iy it (Procop. Bell. Pa-s. ii, 7; Le Beau, Biu Empire, ix, 13) ; but in A.D. Oil he occupied this city (Gibbon, viii, 225). It owed its Macedonian name Beroea to Seleucus Nicator (Niceph. Hist. Eccl. xiv, 39), and continued to be called so till the conquest of the Arabs under Abu Obeidah, A.D. G38, when it resumed its an- cient name, Chalsb or Chalybon (Schultcns, Index Geogr. s. v. Haleb). It afterward became the capital of the sultans of the race of Hamadan, but in the lat- ter part of the tenth century was united to the Greek empire by the conquests of Zimisces, emperor of Con- stantinople, with which city it at length fell into the hands of the Saracens. It is now called by Europeans Aleppo (Hardouin, ad Plin. ii, 2G7), but by the natives still Halab, a famous city of the modern Orient (Man- nert, VI, i, 514 sq. ; Busching, Erdbeschr. V, i, 285). The excavations a little way eastward of the town are the only vestiges of ancient remains in the neighbor- hood: they are very extensive, and consist of suites of large apartments, which are separated by portions of solid rock, with massive pilasters left at intervals to support the mass above (Chesney, Euphrat. Exped. i, 435). Its present population ife somewhat more than 100,000 souls (see Penny Cyclopaedia, s. v. Haleb; M'Culloch, Geogr. Diet. s. v. Aleppo; Russel's Nat. Hist. <•/ Aleppo, passim). See Helbon. Coin of Bercea in Syria, with the Heart of Trajan. 2. A city of Macedonia, to which the apostle Paul retired with Silas and Timotheus, in the course of his first visit to Europe, on being persecuted in Thessaloni- ca (Acts xvii, 10), and from which, on being again per- secuted by emissaries from Thessalonica, he withdrew to the sea for the purpose of proceeding to Athens (ib. 14, 15). The community of Jews must have been con- siderable in Bercea, and their character is described in very favorable terms (ib. 11 ; see Conybeare and How- son, St. Paul, i, 339). Sopater, one of Paul's mission- ary companions, was from this place (Bipoialog, Acts xx, 4; comp. Bererus, Liv. xxiii, 39). Bercea was sit- uated in the northern part of the province of Macedon (Plin. iv, 10), in the district called Emathia (Ptolem. iii, 13, 39), on a river which flows into the Haliacmon, and upon one of the lower ridges of Mount Bermius (Strabo, vii, p. 390). It lay 30 Roman miles from Fella. (Pent. Tab.), and 51 from Thessalonica (Itin. An- tonin.), and is mentioned as one of the cities of the thema of Macedonia (Constant. De Them, ii, 2). Coins of it are rare (Rasche, i, 1492 ; Eckhel, ii, 69). Bercea. was attacked, but unsuccessfully, by the Athenian forces under Callias, B.C. 432 (Thucyd. i, Gl). It sur- rendered to the Roman consul after the battle of Pyd- na (Liv. xliv, 45), and was assigned, with its territory, to the third region of Macedonia (Liv. xlv, 29). B.C. 1G8. It was a large and populous town (Lucian, Asi- nus, 34), being afterward called Irenopolis (Cellarii Nc- tit. i, 1038), and is now known as Verria or Kara-Ver- ria, which has been fully described by Leake (Xorth- ern Greece, iii, 290 sq.) and by Cousinery (Voyage dins la Macedoine, i, 69 sq.). Situated on the eastern slope of the Olympian mountain range, with an abundant supply of water, and commanding an extensive view of the plain of the Axius and Haliacmon, it is regard- ed as one of the most agreeable towns in Rumili, and has now 15,000 or 20,000 inhabitants. A few ancient remains, Greek, Roman, and Byzantine, still exist here. Two roads are laid down in the itineraries be- tween Thessalonica and Bercea, one passing by Pella. Paul and his companions may have travelled by either of them. Two roads also connect Beroea with Diurri, one passing by Pydna. It was probably from Dium that Paul sailed to Athens, leaving Silas and Timothe- us behind ; and possibly 1 Thess. iii, 2 refers to a jour- ney of Timotheus from Bercea, not from Athens. See Timothy. Berosh ; Beroth. See Fir. Berosus (perhaps from Bar-Osea, the son of Oseas), a priest of Belus and historian at Babylon, lived, ac- cording to some, at 250 B.C., according to others, at the time of Alexander the Great. He wrote a history of Chaldrea, which he compiled from the temple ar- chives of Babylon, of which he was the keeper. This work, which was highly valued by the ancients, was still extant at the time of Josephus, who used it to a considerable extent for his Antiquities. Other frag- ments may be found in the writings of Eusebius and others. Fabrieius, in his Biblioth. Grceca (torn, xiv), has collected the least doubtful fragments of Berosus. Other collections of these fragments were made by Richter, Berosi Clmhh'nrum hi sin rice quie supersunt (Leipz. 1825), and by Didot (1848). A work with the title A nti quit at urn libri quinque cum comment ariis Joan- nis Annii, which first appeared at Rome 1498 (again Heidelb. 1599, Wittenb. 1612), is a forgery of the Do- minican Giovanni Nanni, of Viterbo. Whether the historian Berosus is the same person as the astronomer is still a controverted question. The astronomer Be- rosus, who is likewise called a Chaldaean and priest of Belus at Babylon, left his native country, and estab- lished a school on the island of Cos. See Vossius, Be Hist. Grate, xiii ; Fabricius, JBibl. Grceca, iv, 163; Biogr. Generate, s. v. ; Smith, Diet, of Class. Biog. s. v. Be'roth (Bjjpd)5 v. r. B?;pa>y), a place named in connection with Caphira, to which exiles returned from Babylon belonged (1 Esdr. v. 19); evidently the Bee- roth (q. v.) of the genuine text (Ezra ii, 25). Bero'thah (Ileb. id. Str-ina, as if meaning "to BEROTIIITE 'GO BERRY Beroth," or toward the vxlls; Sept. in most copies has I a mass of undistinguishable names, but some read Bi/- | pa&d or Bijpw&a/x; Vulg. Berotha) and Ber'othai (Heb. Berothay', *?hS, >»y wells\ SePt- «' &*»«*« 7roXeic; Vulg. Beroth). The first of these two names, each of which occurs once only, is given by Ezekiel (xl\ ii. 16), in connection with Hamath and Damascus, as forming part of the northern boundary of the prom- ised land as restored in his vision. The second is mentioned (2 Sam. viii, 8) as the name of a city of Zo- bah taken by David (from which he brought away great quantities of "brass" as spoil), also in connection with Hamath and Damascus. The slightness of these references makes it impossible to identify the names with any degree of probability', or even to decide wheth- er they refer to the same locality or not (Hassel, Volst. Erdb. xiii, 3-15). The well-known city Beirid (Beby- tis) naturally suggests itself as identical with one, at least, of the names; Lut in each instance the cir- cumstances of the case seem to require a position far- ther east, since Ezekiel places Berothah between Ha- math and Damascus, and David's war with the King of Zobah led him away from the sea-coast toward the Euphrates (2 Sam. viii, 3). In the latter instance, the difficulty is increased by the Hebrew text reading in 1 Chr. xviii, 8, Chun (q. v.) instead of Berothai, and by the fact that both in Samuel and Chronicles the Greek translators, instead of giving a proper name, translate by the phrase ' ' from the choice cities ;" clear- ly showing that they read either the same text in each passage, or at least words which bore the same sense. Furst regards Berothah and Berothai as distinct places, and identifies the first with Berytus. Mislin (Sat; IJevx, i, 244) derives the name from the wells (Bee- rotk), which are still to be seen bored in the solid rock at Beirut. Against this identification, however, there is this farther objection, that the proper boundaries of the tribes (q. v.) never extended so far north as Bery- tus (q. v.), nor did David ever molest the Phoenician sea-coast in his wars. Both Berothah and Berothai are therefore probably to be sought in the vicinity of the springs that form the source of the Nahr Hasba- ny, near the present Hasbeya. See Hazak-ejjan. Be'rothite (Heb. Berothi', ^n'l2 ; Sept. B>ipwSL v. r. Bnmi.i), an epithet of Naharai, Joab's armor-bear- er (1 Chr. xi, 19), doubtless as being a native of the Beeeotii (q. v.) of Benjamin (Josh, xi, 17). Berquin, I.nns, a French nobleman, was born in 1489. His friend Erasmus states that he was high- ly respected at the French court, and that he was a religious man, but hated the monks on account of their ignorance and fanaticism. When he transla- ted Luther's work, De \'<>tis Monasticis, he was de- nounced by the Sorbonne as a heretic. In 1523 the Parliament of Paris had his books seized, and ordered Berquin to abjure his opinions, and to pledge himself neither to write nor to translate any more books against the Church of Kome. On bis refusal he was sent before the ecclesiastical tribunal of the diocese. Francis I liberated him from prison, anil submitted his case to the chancellor of his council, who demanded of Berquin the abjuration of some heretical opinions, with which the latter complied. In 1525, two coun- cillors of the court of Rome denounced him as having relapsed into heresy, but he was again set free through the interposition of Francis I. In 1528 he was again arrested, and tried Kef. re a commission of twelve mem- bers of the Parliament, which decreed that his books should be burned, his tongue pierced, and that he should be imprisoned for life. From this judgment Berquin appealed to Francis I ; but the commission, ring this appeal as a new crime, ordered him t*. I- burned, but, in consideration of his nobility, to be previously strangled. This sentence was execu- ted on April 22, 1629.— Hoefer, BiograpMt Generate, v, 658. Berridge, John, one of the Methodist reformers of the Church of England, was 1 orn at Kingston 1716, and entered at Clare Hall 1734, and in 1755 became vicar of Everton. In 1758 he invited Wesley to visit his parish, and a widespread reformation broke out, attended by some irregularities r.nd excesses, Ber- ridge soon began to itinerate, and Everton was for some years the centre of a wide sphere of evangelical labors. He preached ten or twelve sermons a week, often in the open air. His theological opinions allied him with Whitefield. and he became a notable cham- pion of Calvinistic Methodism. He was rich, but lib- eral to excess, and rented preaching-houses, supported lay preachers, and aided poor societies with an unspar- ing hand. He was a laborious student, and nearly as familiar with the classical languages as with his native tongue. Like most good men whose temperament renders them zealous, he had a rich vein of humor, and his ready wit played freely but harmlessly through both his public and private discourse. He died 1793. His Christian World Unmasked, with his Life, Letters, etc., was reprinted in 1824 (Lond. 8vo). — Stever.s, History of Methodism, i, 3*2 ; Wesley, Works, iv, 25. Berrirnan, William, D.D., an English divine, was lorn in London 1688, and educated at Oriel Col- lege, Oxford. He. became rector of St. Andrew-Cn- dershaftand Fellow of Eton 1729. His studies were ex- tensive, especially in the Oriental languages. He died 1749. His principal writings are, Eight Sermons on the Trinity (Lond. 1726, 8vo) :— Gradual Bcvtlatkn of the Gospel's (Boyle Lectures for 1730. 1731, 1732) :— Ser- mons on Christian Doctrines and Duties (Lond, 1751, 2 vols. 8vo).— Hook, Eccl. Biog. ii, 330. Berniyer, Joseph Isaac, born November 7th, 1681, at Rouen ; became a Jesuit, and died at Paris in 1758, after having made much stir in the world by his \IIistoire d% Peuple de Dim. The first part, the O. T., app3ared in 1728 (7 vols. 4to). The work is shocking, not only from its almost infidelity, but from its style, the 0. T. history being, in fact, turned into a romance, in many cases irreconcilable with decency and pro- priety. The general of the order commanded the. writ- er to put forth a new edition, which appeared in 1733 (8 vols. 4to), but it was still very far from satisfactory. | The second part, containing the N. T., or, at least, part | of it, in style and matter even worse than the first, ap- peared in 1753 (4 vols. 4to). The superiors of the three Jesuit establishments at Paris, seeing the storm which the book had raised, immediately put forth a declara- tion to the effect that the work had appeared without their knowledge, and compelled the author to sign an act of submission to the episcopal mandate. A- formal censure on the part of the faculty of theology, and then a papal brief, and, lastly, a bull of Benedict XIV, pro- scribing the book in whatever language it might ap- pear, followed. The third part appeared in 1758 at Lyons, containing a paraphrase of the epistles, filled with absurdities, and even outraging the doctrine of the Trinity. Clement XIII condemned it in 1758. The publication of this work produced a violent com- motion among the Jesuits. Father Tourneminc, the head of the opposition parly, denounced the work to the superiors in a very forcible tract; the opposite party replied ; the dispute waxed hott t and hotter, but ulti- mately, by the death of Tournemine, the party of Ber- niyer gained the upper hand, and his infamous book is still reprinted. — Landon, Eccl. Diet, ii, 204. Berry, LuciEN W., D.D., an eminent Methodist Episcopal minister, was born at Alburg,Vt,, in 1815. He began to preach in 1833, and by his diligence as preacher, pastor, and student, he gradually acquired wide reputation and influence. lie entered the travel- ling ministry in the Ohio Conference, and succeeded I>r. Simpson in the presidency of the Indiana Asbury University in 1848. After remaining for about six years in charge of this institution, he accepted the presidency of the Iowa Wesleyan University at Mount BEKTIIIER r Pleasant. He remained in connection with this insti- tution for about three years. In the summer of 1857 he resigned his place at Mount Pleasant, and took charge of the university of Missouri at Jefferson City. He labored with great zeal and energy to build up the university; but in November, 1857, he was attacked with erysipelas, which was subsequently followed by paralysis, and he died in peace, after great suffering, July 23, 1858, at Cincinnati, Ohio, lie was "a pro- found divine, a critical scholar, an orator of uncom- mon power, and an eminently holy man." — Minutes of Conferences, 1859, p. 126. Berthier, Guillaume Francois, a Jesuit writer, born April 7th, 1704. He was first professor of the Humanities at Blois, and afterward of theology at Paris. The talent which he displayed caused him to be appointed to succeed Brumoy in 1742 as continuator of the history of the Gallican Church (Histoire de Veglise Gallicane), of which he published six volumes, carry- ing the history to A.D. 1520. In 1745 his superiors intrusted him with the direction of the Journal de Trevouz, which he edited until the suppression of the company. While thus employed he was necessarily brought into collision with Voltaire, whose works he freely criticised and stigmatized. In 1764 the ex- Jesuits were banished from court, whereupon he re- tired beyond the Rhine, and died at Bourges Decem- ber loth, 1782. After his death appeared his (Euvres Spirituelles (5 vols. 12mo, best ed. Paris, 1811) : — Psaumes et Esaie, trad, avec reflexions et Notes (Paris, 1788, 5 vols. 12mo).— Hoefer, Biog. Generate, v, 507. Berthold, a Calabrian who went to Mount Carmel about the middle of the 11th century and founded the order of Carmelites (q. v.). Berthold, the apostle of Livonia, died in 1198. After the death of the first missionary and bishop of the Livonians, Meinhard (1196), Berthold, who was at that time abbot of the Cistercian convent Loccum, was ordained missionary bishop for the Livonians by Archbishop Hartwig of Bremen and Hamburg. Hav- ing arrived at Yxkull on the Dana, he at first tried to win over the Letts by clemency, but was forced to leave the country. He then returned at the head of an army of crusaders from Lower Saxon}', and tried to conquer the Letts, and compel them by force of arms to submit to baptism. In a battle in 1198, Ber- thold was slain ; but the crusaders were victorious, and the Letts had for a time to submit ; but as soon as the crusaders had left their country they returned to pa- ganism.— Brockhaus, Conversations- Lexicon, s. v. Berthold of Ratisbon, also called Berthold the Franciscan, a Franciscan monk, and one of the most powerful preachers that ever spoke in the German tongue. He is supposed to have been born about 1225 in Regensburg, where he died in 1272. His theological education he received chief!}' in the Franciscan con- vent of Ratisbon, where a pious and learned mystic, Brother David of Augsburg, was professor of theology and master of the novitiate. It is doubtful whether, as has been asserted by some (Dr. Schmidt, in Studien iniil Kritiken, see below), he continued his studies in Paris and Italy. His first public appearance, as far as we know, was in the year 1246, when the papa] legate, Philippus of Ferrara, charged him, Brother Da- vid, and two canons of Ratisbon, with the visitation of the convent of Niedermiinster. His labors as a travelling preacher began in 1250 (according to others in 1251 or 1252) in Lower Bavaria, and extended to Alsatia, Alemannia (Baden), Switzerland, Austria, Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia, Thuringia, Franconia, and perhaps Hungary. When he was unacquainted with the language of the country he used an interpreter. Rudelbach, in the Zeits. fur Luth. Theol. 1859, calls Berthold "the Chrysostom of the Middle Ages." No church was large enough to hold the multitudes that flocked to hear him ; from a pulpit in the fields he often 07 JJEIITI addressed 60,000 hearers. He fearlessly rebuked sin- ners of all ranks. He was especially severe against the preachers of indulgences, whom he styled " penny preachers" and "the devil's agents." A volume of his sermons, edited by Kling, was published at Berlin in 1824 (/?. d s Franciscam-r's I'n digteu). The first com- plete edition of his sermons was published by F. Pfeif- fer (Vienna, 2 vols. 1862 sq.). A translation of his sermons from medieval into modern German was pub- lished by Gobel, with an introduction by Alban Stolz (2 vols. 8vo). Recently the German jurists have found that the sermons of Berthold are of the greatest importance for the history of the German law. The passages in these sermons which agree with the popu- lar law-book called the Sch/ndienyjiii gel are so numer- ous that some (as Laband, Be it rage zur Geschichte des Schcabeiupi- orum (Lugd. Bat. 1641), which is given in the Critici Sacri, vol. v.— Landon, Eccl. Diet, ii, 212. Berulle, Pierre de, institutor and first superior general of the "congregation of priests of the Ora- tory" in Frame, was born in the neighborhood of Troyes, in Champagne, February 4, 1575. After es- tablishing the Carmelites in France, he laid the foun- dation of tb" "Congregation of the Oratory" which raised a great storm on the part of the Jesuits. He, however, bad the concurrence of the pope and of the king, Louis XIII, and on the 4th of November, 1611, the Oratory [see ObATOEIANS] was established. In 1 ' ■ - 7 Urban VIII made him cardinal. He died sud- denly at the altar, Oct. 2, 1629, not without suspicion of having been poisoned by Richelieu. He left many controversial and devotional works, published at Paris (1644, L657, 2 vols. fol.). His Life was written by Hu- bert i Paris, 1746) and Tabaraud (new cd. Paris, 1817, 2 vols.).- Biog. Univ. iv, 379-384 ; Landon, ii, 214. Beryl is the uniform rendering in the Auth. Vers, only of the 11. 'b. d^fihR, tarshish' (so called, accord- resenius, as being brought from Tarshish), and ./< Sacramento Eucharistice is given in ca Patrum, vol. xvi. In this he asserts that tl"' bread and wine become tie' body and bl 1 of Christ, nol through the prayer of the priest, but by virtue ofthe words ofChrist. Other theological work's Of Bessarion may be found in the acts ofthe Council of Constance by Labbeand Hardouin.- Landon, Eccks. Dictionary, ii. 222; Hook, Eccks. Biography, ii, 346. Bessel, Gottfried von, a learned Benedictine, was born Sept. 5, 1062, at Buehheim, in the archbish- opric of Mayence. In 1G92 he entered the Benedic- tine convent of Gottweich, near Vienna. Being called to the court of Lother Franz, elector of Mainz, he was employed for diplomatic missions to Vienna, Rome, and Wblfenbuttel. He prevailed in 1710 upon the old and vain Duke Anton Ulrich, of Brunswick, to go over to the Church of Pome, the latter having previously urged his granddaughter Elizabeth to take the same step in order to become the wife ofthe Emperor Charles VI. On this occasion Bessel compiled the work Quin- quaginta Romanocatholicam fidem omnibus aliis prafe- \ rendi motiva ; also, in German, Funfzig Bedenkin, etc. (Mayence, 1708). The work purports to be written by a former Protestant, and has, therefore, been wrong- ly ascribed — for instance, by Augustin Theiner — to ■ Duke Anton Ulrich himself. H.e also began the publi- cation of the Chroniccn Godicicense, a work of great importance for the early church history of Austria ; but he finished only the 1st vol. of it (Tegernsee, 1732, j fol.). — Herzog, Eeal-Encyklop. ii, 114. Bessin, Guillaume, a French Romanist theolo- gian, was born at Glos-la-Fcrtc, in the diocese of Ev- reux, March 27, 1654. In 1074 he entered the order of Benedictines, and afterward taught philosophy and theology in the abbeys of Bee, Seez, and Fecamp. He was also made syndic ofthe monasteries of Normandy. He died at Rouen, October 18, 1736. He wrote Re- flexions sur le nouveau systeme du R. P. Lami, who maintained that our Lord did not celebrate the Jewish Passover on the eve of his death. "He is, however, chiefly known by the Concilia Rotomagensis 1'roiint iw, 1717, fol. It was first printed in 1677, and was the work of Dom Pommeraye. Dom Julien Bellaise un- dertook a new edition, which he greatly enlarged, but died before its completion, and Bessin finished it, add- ed the preface, and published it under his own name." \ He was one of the editors of the works of Gregory the J Great (1705, 4 vols. fol.). — Landon, Ecclesiastical Dic- tionary, ii, 224 ; Hoefer, Nouvelle Biographle Generate, j v, 819. Besson, Joseph, a French Jesuit missionary, was born at Carpcntras in 1607, and entered the Society of I Jesus in 1623. He became professor of philosophy, and rector of the college at Nismes ; but finally offered himself as a missionary, and was sent to Syria, where he spent many years. He died at Aleppo, March 17, 1691, leaving La Syrie Sainte, ou des Missions des J 'ires i de la Compagnie de Jesus en Syrie (Paris, 1660, 8vo). — Hoefer, Nouv. Bug. Ginirale, v, 821. i Best, David, a Methodist Episcopal minister, born in Ireland, who emigrated to America at the age of ' 22, and joined the Philadelphia Conference ofthe Mcth- 1 odist Episcopal Church in 1801. He filled various ap- pointments, with honor to himself and profit to his peo- ple, until in the spring of 1835 he took a supernumera- ry relation. He was a man of strong mind, sound judgment, and unflinching firmness, and, as a preach- er, his talents were more than ordinary. He died in Dec, 1841, in the 41st year of his ministry and C7th of his age. — Minutes of Conferences, iii, 250. Bestead, an old English word, signifying to place in certain circumstances good or ill, and used once in the Auth. Vers. (" hardly bestead," Isa. viii, 21) for the Hcb. flttJp, kasliah' , to oppress. Be'tah (Heb. Be'tach, n^3 ; Sept. Bard\ v. r. Mr- TtficiK [quasi rastt], and M«o-/3«y, Vulg. Bete), a, city belonging to Hadadezer, king of Zobah, mentioned with Berothai as having yielded much spoil of brass to David (2 Sam. viii, 8). In the parallel account (1 Chr. xviii, 8) the name is called, by an inverson of let- ters, Tibhath (q. v.). Ewald (Gesch. ii, 195) pro- nounces the latter to be the correct reading, and com- pares it with Tebaii (Gen. xxii, 24). — Smith, s. v. BETANE 771 BETHANY Bet/and (Btrdvi) v. r. BXiratRf, i. c. prob. B«(r«- vi); Vulg. omits), a place apparently south of Jerusa- lem (Judith i, 9), and, according to Keland (Palast. p. C25), identical with the AlN (q. v.) of Josh, xxi, 10', and the Bethanin (BnOaviv) of Eusebius (Onom. 'Apt, A in), two miles from the Terebinth of Abraham and four from Hebron. Others, with less probability, com- pare it with Betex (q. v.). See under Chellus. Be'ten (Heb. id. "122, belly, i. e. hollow; Sept. B:-fi' v. r. BuiOuk and Barv't), one of the cities on the border of the tribe of Asher (Josh, xix, 25, only). By Eusebius (Onom. s. v. Barvcu) it is said to have been then called Bebetin (\iif3triv'), and to have lain eight miles east of Ptolemais ; but this distance is too little, as the place appears to be the " Ecbatana of Syria" (Cellar. Not it. iii, 3, 13, 74), placed by Pliny (v, 17) on Carmel ; apparently the present village with ruins called el-Bahnch, live hours east of Akka (Van de Velde, Narrat. i, 285). Betll- (Heb. Beytk, the "construct form" of Fl*1?, ba'yith, according to Fiirst, from 1^2, to lodge in the night; according to Gesenius, from il52, to build, as So/iug, domus, from ci/no), the name of the second let- ter of the Hebrew alphabet, corresponding to our B, which was derived from it. As an appellative, it is the most general word for a house or habitation. Strict- ly speaking, it has the force of a settled stable dwell- ing, as in Gen. xxxiii, 17, where the building of a "house" marks the termination of a stage of Jacob's wanderings (comp. also 2 Sam. vii, 2, 6, and many ether places) ; but it is also employed for a dwelling of any kind, even for a tent, as in Gen. xxiv, 02, wdiere it must refer to the tent of Laban ; also Judg. xviii, 31; 1 Sam. i, 7, to the tent of the tabernacle, and 2 Kings xxiii, 7, where it expresses the textib materials (A. V. "hangings") for the tents of Astarte. From this general force the transition was natural to a house in the sense of a family, as Psa. cvii, 41, " families," or a pedigree, as Ezraii, 5!). In 2 Sam. xiii, 7, 1 Kings xiii, 7, and ether places, it has the sense of "house," i. e. "to the house." Beth also has some collateral and almost technical meanings, similar to those which we apply to the wTord "house," as in Exod. xxv, 27, for the "places" or sockets into which the bars for carrying the table were " housed ;" and others. Like JEdes in Latin and Doni in German, Beth has the special meaning of a temple or house of worship, in which sense it is applied not only to the tabernacle (see above) or temple of Jehovah (1 Kings iii, 2 ; vi, 1, etc.), but to those of false gods — Uagon (Judg. xvi, 27 ; 1 Sam. v, 2), Rimmon (2 Kings v, 18), Baal (2 Kings x, 21), Nisroch (2 Kings xix, 37), and other gods (Judg. ix, 27). "Bajith" (q. v.) in Isa. xv, 2 is really hab- Bajith = "the Temple" — meaning some well-known idol fane in Moab. Beth is more frequently employed as the first clement of the names of places than cither Kirjath, Hazer, Beer, Ain, or airy other word. See those following. In some instances it seems to be in- terchangeable (by euphemism) for Baal (q. v.). In all such compounds as Beth-el, etc., the latter part of the word must be considered, according to our Occidental languages, to depend on the former in the relation of tlte genitive; so that Bethel can only mean "house of God." The notion of house is, of course, capable of a wide application, and is used to mean temple, hab- itation, place, according to the sense of the word with which it is combined. In some instances the Auth. Vers, has translated it as an appellative ; see Beth- eked; Betii-hag-gan; Beth-eden. — Smith, s. v. Bethab'ara (B>;9a/3nn«, quasi WIS tVB, house cf the ford or ferry-), a place beyond Jordan Qrc&pav tov 'lop.), in which, according to the Received Text of the N. T., John was baptizing (John i, 28), appar- ently- at the time that he baptized Christ (comp. ver. 29, 39, 35). If this reading be the correct one, Beth- abara may be identical with Beth-barah (q. v.), the ancient ford of Jordan, of winch the men of Ephraim took possession after Gideon's defeat of the Midianites (Judg. vii, 24) ; or possibly with Beth-NIMKAH (q. v.), on the east of the river, nearly opposite Jericho. But the oldest MSS. (A, B) and the Vulgate have not " Bethabara," but Bethany (BrfSavia), a reading which Origen states (Opp. ii, 13(1, ed. Huet) to have obtained in almost all the copies of his time (cryicW Trdi'ra ra avriypcupa), though altered by him in his edition of the Gospel on topographical grounds (see Kuinul, in loc). In favor of Bethabara are (a) the extreme improba- bility of so familiar a name as Bethany being changed by copyists into one so unfamiliar as Bethabara, while the reverse— the change from an unfamiliar to a famil- iar name — is of frequent occurrence, (b) The fact i that Origen, while admitting that the majority of MSS. were in favor of Bethany, decided, notwithstanding, ; for Bethabara. (c) That Bethabara was still known in the daA's of Eusebius and Jerome (Onomasiicon, B?]Saafia(>a, Bethbaara, which is expressly stated to j have been the scene of John's baptism), and greatly resorted to by persons desirous of baptism. Still the I fact remains that the most ancient MSS. have "Beth- I any," and that name has been accordingly restored to the text by Lachmann, Tischendorf, and other modern j editors. The locality must, therefore, be sought by this name on the east shore of the Jordan. — ■ Smith, s. v. See Bethany. Beth-anab (q. d. 23"T:'12, house offys) is proba- bly the correct name of a village mentioned by Euse- bius and Jerome (Onomast. s. v. 'Avwfi, Anob) under I the form MtToaiwdic or Betkoannaba, as lying four Ro- man miles east of Diospolis (Lydda), while Jerome (ibJ) speaks of still another name, Bethannaba, as belonging j to a village eight miles in the same direction. Van dc Velde {Memoir, p. 293) ingeniously reconciles these statements by assigning the first locality as that of the modern Annabeh, and the second as Beit-Nuba, which lie respectively at the required distances south-east of Ludd. Comp. Anae. Beth'-anath (Heb. Beyth-Anath', r:"T"2, house ! of response ; Sept. Bifiavaiy v. r. Bai^Ba/je and BaiSta- va\), one of the "fenced cities" of Xaphtali, named with Bethshemesh (Josh, xix, 38) ; from neither of which were the Canaanites expelled, although made tributaries (Judg. i, S3). It is mentioned by Eusebius and Jerome (Onomast. s. v. BaOpd, Bethnath), who, however, elsewhere (s. v. BqSavaSra, Bethana) speak of a village (apparently in Asher, ib. s. v. 'Aveip, Aniel) called Bttuniru (Baravaia, Bathanroa; Bairoavaia, Betoanea), fifteen miles eastward of Cassarea (Diocas- sarea or Sepphoris), and reputed to contain medicinal springs. It is perhaps the present village A inata, north of Bint-Jebeil (Van de Velde, Memoir, p. 293). Schwarz {Palest, p. 184) confounds it with the site of Beten. Beth'-anoth (Heb. Beyih-Anoth' , ni"5?-ni2, house ' of ansicers, i. e. echo; Sept. Br]&avidr) long before (Ant. xiv, 1, 4) in such con- nection as to leave no doubt that be alludes to the same place. L/ndcr the name of Amathus (q. v.) he again mentions it (Ant. xvii, 10, G; comp. War, ii. 4, 2), and the destruction of the royal palaces there by insurgents from Peraea. At a later date it was an episcopal city (Reland, Pakest. p. 874). For Talmudical notices, sea Schwarz, Palest, p. 231. Ptolemy gives the locality of Livias (At/3idc) as 31° 26' lat", and G7° 10' long. (Ritter, Krdk. xv, ,"73 >; and Eusebius and Jerome < (Onomnst. s. v. Brfivafipdv, Bethamnaram) state thai it was live miles south of liethnahris or Bethamnaris 1 (i. c. Beth-nimrah ; see Josephus, War, iv, 7, 4 and G). This agrees with the position of the Wady Seir or Sir, which falls into the Ghor opposite Jericho, and half way between Wady Hesban and Wady Shoaib. Seet- zen heard that it contained a castle and a large tank in masonry (Reisen, 1854, ii, 3bv). According to Van de Velde (Memoir, p. 296), the ruins are still called Beit-Uaran Smith, s. v. Betharamptiia. See Betii-aram. BETII-ARBEL 773 Beth-ar'bel (Heb. Beyth Ariel', Jj&fa'lK PPa, house of God's court or courts), a place only alluded to by the prophet Hosea (x, 14) as the scene of some great military exploit known in his day, but not re- corded in Scripture: "All thj' [Israel's] fortresses shall be spoiled, as Shalman spoiled Beth-arbel (Sept. wq upxuiv 2a\afiav t/c rov oikov 'IspofiaaX [v. r. 'ltpofiodfi and Apj&i'/X]) in the day of battle." In the Vulgate, Jerome (following the Sept.) has trans- lated the name "e domo ejus quijudicavit Baal," i. e. Jerubbaal, understanding Salman as Zalmunna, and the whole passage as a reference to Gideon's victory (Judg. viii); but tliis is fanciful. Most modern com- mentators follow the Jewish interpreters (see Hender- son, in loc), who understand the verse to relate to Shalman (q. v.), or Shalmanezer, as having gained a battle at Beth-Arbel against Hoshea, king of Israel. As to the locality of this massacre, some refer it to the Arbela of Assyria (Strabo xvi, 1, 3), the scene of Alex- ander's famous victory ; but there is no evidence of any such occurrences as here alluded to in that place. It is conjectured by Hitzig (in loc.) to be the place called Arbela ('Ap/jjjXw) by Eusebius and Jerome in the Onomasticon (s. v.), where it is jilaced near Bella, east of Jordan ; but as it is spoken of in Hosea as a strong fortress, the probability is rather that the noted locality in N.W. Palestine, called Arbela (rd "Ap/3»jXa) by Josephus and the Apocrypha, is meant. This -was a village in Galilee, near which were certain fortified caverns. They are first mentioned in connection with the march of Bacchides into Judcea, at which time they were occupied by many fugitives, and the Syrian general encamped there long enough to subdue them (Ant. xii, 11, 1 ; 1 Mace, ix, 2). At a later period these caverns formed the retreats of banded robbers, who greatly distressed the inhabitants throughout that quarter. Josephus gives a graphic account of the means taken by Herod to extirpate them. The cav- erns were situated in the midst of precipitous cliffs, overhanging a deep vallej', with only a steep and nar- row path leading to the entrance ; the attack was there- fore exceeding difficult. Parties of soldiers, being at length let down in large boxes, suspended by chains from above, attacked those who defended the entrance with fire and sword, or dragged them out with long hooks and dashed them down the precipice. In this way the place was at length subdued (Ant. xiv, 15, 4, 5; War, i, 1C, 2—4). These same caverns were after- ward fortified by Josephus himself against the Romans during his command in Galilee. In one place he speaks of them as the caverns of Arbela, and in an- other as the caverns near the Lake of Gennesareth (Life, 37; War, ii, 20, 6). According to the Tal- mud, Arbela lay between Sepphoris and Tiberias (Lightfoot, Chorog. Cent. c. 8.")). These indications leave little doubt that Arbela of Galilee, with its forti- fied caverns, may be identified with the present Kulat ibn Maan and the adjacent ruins now known as Irbid (probably a corruption of Jrbil, the proper Arabic form of Arbela). The latter is the site which Pocockc (ii, 58) supposed to be that of Bethsaida, and where he found columns and the ruins of a large church, with a sculptured doorcase of white marble. The best de- scription of the neighboring caves is that of Burck- hardt (p. 333 I, who calculates that they might afford refuge to about COO men. — Kitto, s. v. See Akbela. Beth-a'ven (Hob. Beyth A'ren, "^x ~"z, house of nothingness, i. e. wickedness, idolatry; Sept. usual- ly BatStwv v. r. BtjScivv), a place on the mountains of Benjamin, east of Bethel (Josh, vii, 2, Sept. Baif)i)\ ; xviii, 12), and lying between that place and Michmash (1 Sam. xiii, 5. Sept. BacSaptr v. r. Baiiiono'iv; also xiv, 23, Sept. rrjv Ba/tw0). In Josh, xviii, 12, the "wilderness" (Midbar= pasture-land) of Beth-aven is mentioned. In Hosea iv, 15 ; v, 8; x, 5, the name is transferred, with a play on the word very characteris- BETII-BARAII tic of this prophet, to the neighboring Bethel — once the "house of God," but then the house of idols, of "naught." The Talmudists accordingly everywhere confound Beth-aven with Bethel (coinp. Schwarz, Pal- est, p. 89), the proximity of which may have occasioned the employment of the term as a nickname, after Beth- el became the seat of the worship of the golden calves. See Bethel. The name Beth-aven, however, was properly that of a locality distinct from Bethel (Josh. vii, 2, etc.), and appears to have been applied to a vil- lage located on the rocky eminence Burj Beitin, twenty minutes south-east of Beitin (Bethel), and twenty min- utes west of Tell el-Hajar (Ai) (Van de Velde, Memoir, p. 294). Beth-az'maveth (Heb. Beyth- Azma'vcth, -JV3 rf21V,houseofAzmavetk; Sept. BaiSartfjwd v.r. B))5), a village of Benjamin, the inhabitants of which, to the number of forty-two, returned with Zerubbabel from Babylon (Neh. vii, 28). In Neb., xii, 29 ; Ezra ii, 24, it is called simply Azmaveth (q. v.). Beth-ba'al-me'on (Heb. Beyth Ba'al Mean', "l""*2 P?2 n^a, house of Baal-Meon; Sept. oiKovg BesX^uv v. r. oIkoq MitXfiwS; Vulg. oppidum Baxd- maon), a place in the possession of Reuben, on the Mishor (~lid""2) or downs (Auth. Vers, "plain") east of Jordan (Josh, xiii, 17). At the Israelites' first ap- proach its name was Baal-meon (Num. xxxii, 38, or in its contracted form Beon, xxxii, 3), to which the Beth was possibly a Hebrew prefix. Later it would seem to have come into possession of Moab, and to be known either as Beth-meon (Jer. xlviii, 23) or Baal-meon (Ezek. xxv, 9). It is possible that the name contains a trace of the tribe or nation of Meon — the Maonites or Meunim. See Maon ; Mehunim. The name is still attached to a ruined place of considerable size a short distance to the south-west of Hesban, and bearing the name of "the fortress of AlVun" according to Burck- hardt (p. 8G5), or Maein according to Seetzen (Reisen, i, 408), which appears to give its appellation to Wady Zerka Main (jb. p. 402). — Smith. See Baal-meon. Beth-ba'rali (Heb. Beyth Barak', rria fi^a, prob. for "T^a? H^a, Beih-Abarah, i. e. house of cross- ing, q. A. ford; Sept. Bififiiipd v. r. BaiSnjpd), a place named in Judg. vii, 24 as a point apparently south of the scene of Gideon's victory (which took place at about Bethshean), and to which spot "the waters" (CI'HJl) were "taken" by the Ephraimites against Midian, i. c. the latter were intercepted from crossing the Jordan. Others have thought that these " waters" were the wadys which descend from the highlands of Ephraim, presuming that they were different from the Jordan, to which river no word but its own distinct name is supposed to be applied. But there can hard- ly have been any other stream of sufficient magnitude in this vicinity to have needed guarding, or have been capable of it, or, indeed, to which the name "fording- place" could be at all applicable. Beth-barah seems to have been the locality still existing by that name in the time of Origen, which he assigned as the scene of John's baptism (John ii, 28), since, as being a cross- ing rather than a town, the word would be equally applicable to both sides of the river. See Betha- BARA. The pursuit of the Midianites may readily have reached about as far south as the modern upper or Latin pilgrims' bathing-place on the Jordan. The fugitives could certainly not have been arrested any where so easily and effectually as at a ford; and such a spot in the river was also the only suitable place for John's operations; for, although on the east side, it was yet accessible to Judaea and Jerusalem, and all the "region round about," i. e. the oasis of the South Jor- dan at Jericho. See Bethany. If the derivation of the name given above be correct, Bcth-barah was probably the chief ford of the district, and may there- BETHBASI 774 BETH-EKED fore b iw been that by which Jacob crossed on his re- turn from Mesopotamia, near the Jabbok, below Suc- coth Oifii. xxxii, 22; xxxiii, 17), and at which Jeph- thab Blew the Ephraimites as they attempted to pass ..vcr from Gilead (Judg. xii, 6). This can hardly u any other than that now extant opposite Kurn Surtabeh, being indeed the lowest easy crossing- place. The water is here only knee-deep, while re- mains of an ancient bridge and of a Roman road, with other ruins, attest that this was formerly a great thor- oughfare and place of transit (Van de Yelde, Memoir, - Ford. Beth'basi (BatOfiaai), a town which, from the mention of its decays ( ra Ka9r)pv/iiva), must have been originally fortified, lying in the desert (rij tpry/uy), and in which Jonathan and .Simon Maccabseus took refuge from Bacchides (1 Mace, ix, 62, 64). Josephus (Ant. xiii. 1, 5) has Bethalaga, Bt)9a\aya (Beth-hogla), but a reading of the passage quoted by Belaud (Palcest. p. 632) presents the more probable form of Beth-keziz. Either alternative fixes the situation as in the Jordan valley not far from Jericho. — Smith. See Keziz. Beth-bir'ei (Heb. Beyth Bin', ifcOa rv»3, house of my cnation or cistern ; Sept. o7voc- Bapovp v. r. o'Ikov Bapovotwpifi [by inclusion of the next name], Vulg. Bt thberai), a town in the extreme south of Simeon, in- habited by the descendants of Shimei (1 Chr. iv, 31) ; by comparison with the parallel list in Josh, xix, G, it appears to have had also the name of Beth-lebaotii (q. v.), or LEBAOTH simply (Josh, xv, 32).— Smith. Beth'car (Heb. Beyth Kar', "I3 T"2, sheep-house, i. e. pasture; Sept. Bat£yop v. r. BeXy/p), a place named as the point to which the Israelites pursued the Philistines from Mizpeh on a memorable occasion (1 Sam. vii, 11), and therefore west of Mizpeh ; apparent- ly a Philistine guard-house or garrison. From the unusual expression "under (nHFlE) Beth-car," it would seem that the place itself was on a height, with the road at its foot. Josephus (Ant. vi, 2, 2) has "as far as Corrhaea" (ii.= \.« Koppaiiav), and goes on to say (in a. rdance with the above text) that the stone Eb- enezer was set up at this place to mark it as the spot to which the victory had extended. See Eben-ezer ; ("i.i.r. Schwarz's attempted identification (Palest. p. 136) is not sustained by accurate maps. — Smith, s. v. Beth-da'gon (Heb. Beyth Dagon', y\ifil r^2, house [i. e. tempi ]of Dagon), the name of at least two cities, one or the other of which may lie the place called by this name in the Apocrypha (B&daywv, 1 Mace, x, 63 ; eoni]i. Josephus, .1 at. xiii, 4, 4), unless this be sim- ply Dagon's temple at Ashdod (1 Sam. v, 2; 1 Chron. x, 10). The corresponding modern name Beit-Dejan is of frequent occurrence in Palestine; in addition to those iced below, one was found by Robinson (/.'<- si trches, iii, 102) east of Nablous. There can be no doubt that in the occurrence of these names we have indications of the worship of the Philistine god having spread far beyond the Philistine territory. Possibly these are the sites of towns founded at the time when this warlike people had overrun the face of the country to "Michmash, eastward of Bethaven" on the south, :""1 Gilboa on the north—that is, to the very edge of the heights n hich overlook the Jordan valley— driving "the Hebrews over Jordan into the laud of Gad and Gilead" (1 Sam. xiii, 6 7; comp. 17,18; xxix,l; xxxi Dagon i hoi se cm ). 1. I Sept. li,,--,-,,;,,/,,. v. r. BayaoHjX.) A city in the Iowcountry(5Af/efaA)0fJudah (Josh, xv, 41, where il i- oamed between Gederoth and Naamah), and there. for.- not f.„- from the Philistine territory, with which it- name implies o connection. From the absence of the copulative conjunction bofore this name, ii has liecn d that it should be taken with the preceding, " ' sroth-Bethdagon ;" In that case, probably, distin- guishing Gederoth from thu two place:, uf similar name in the neighborhood. But this would leave the enu- meration "sixteen cities" in ver. 41 deficient; and the conjunction is similarly omitted frequently in the same list (e. g. between ver. 38 and 39, etc.). The indica- tions of site and name correspond quite well to those of Bt it-J( rja, marked on Van de Yelde's Map 5| miles S.E. of Ashkelon. i 2. (Sept. Br/SrSaywv v. r. BaiSreyeviSt.") A city near the S.E. border of the tribe of A sher, between the mouth of the Shihor-libnath and Zebulon (Josh, xix, 27) ; a position which agrees with that of the modern ruined village Bqjeli, marked on Van de Yelde's Map about 3i miles S.E. of Athlit. See Tkibe. The name and the proximity to the coast point to its being a Philis- tine colony. Schwarz's attempt at a location (Palest. p. 192) is utterly destitute of foundation. 3. Eusebius and Jerome (Onomast. s. v. Bicaywv, Bethdagon) speak of a "large village" by this name (llapaSaywv, Caphardago) as extant in their day be- tween Diospolis (Lydda) and Jamnia ; without doubt I the present Beit-Dejan (Robinson, Researches, iii, 30 ; Tobler, Topiog. ii, 405 ; yet Schwarz says [Palest, p. I 104], " not a vestige can be found!"). Betli-diblatha'im (Heb. Beyth Diblatha'yim, tVa E^rsiH, house of Diblathahn ; Sept. o7«>e AifiXaSaifi [v. r. A«//3Art3«i'/(]), a city of Moab upon which the prophet denounces destruction (Jer. xlviii, 22). It is called Almon-Diblathaim in Num. xxxiii, 46. It is different from the Diblath of Ezek. vi, 14. Sec Di- elatiiaim; Riblah. Beth-e'den (Heb. Beyth E'den, )"}" fl*»a, house of pleasantness; Sept. confusedly translates civvptg \appdv; Vulg. clomus voluntatis), apparently a city of Syria, situated on Mount Lebanon, the seat of a na- tive king, threatened with destruction by the prophet I (Amos i, 5, where the Auth. Vers, renders it " house of Eden"); probably the name of a country residence of the kings of Damascus. Michaelis (Suppl. ad Leg. Hebr. s. v.), following Laroque's description, and mis- led by an apparent resemblance in name, identified it with Ehdeh, about a day's journey from Baalbek, on the eastern slope of the Libanus, and near the old cedars of Bshirrai. Baur (Amos, p. 224), in accord- ance with the Mohammedan tradition that one of the four terrestrial paradises was in the valley between the ranges of the Libanus and Anti-Libanus, is in- clined to favor the same hypothesis. But Grotius, with greater appearance of probability, pointed to the Paradise (nanactiaoc, park) of Ptolemy (v, 15) as the locality of Eden. The village Jushh el-Kadimeh, a : site with extensive ruins, about H hour S.E. of Kib- lah, near the Orontes, but now a paradise no longer, is supposed by Dr. Robinson (Later Researches, p. | 556) to mark the site of the ancient Paradisus ; and his suggestion is approved by Mr. Porter (Hondo, p. 577), but doubted by Bitter (Erdh. xvii, 997-999). ! Again, it has been conjectured that Beth-Eden is no | other than Beit-Jenn, "the house of Paradise," not far to the south-west of Damascus, on the eastern j slope of the Hermon, and a short distance from Medjel. It stands on a branch of the ancient Pharpar, near its source (Bosenmuller, Bill. Alt. ii, 291; Hitzig, Amos, in loc. ; Porter, Damascus, i, :'in'. f Bethel to the city appears not to have, been made till yet later, when it was taken by the tribe of Ephraim, after which the name of Luz occurs no more (Judg. i, 22-26). If this view be correct, there is a strict parallel between Bethel and Moriah, which (ac- cording to the tradition commonly followed) received its consecration when Abraham offered up Isaac, but did not become the site of an actual sanctuary till the erection of the Temple there by Solomon. See Mo- BiAH. The actual stone of Bethel itself is the sub- ject of a Jewish tradition, according to which it was removed to the second Temple, and served as the ped- estal for the ark, where it survived the destruction of the Temple by the Romans, and was resorted to by the Jews in their lamentations (Reland, Palcesl. p. 638). At a still earlier date, according to Gen. xii, c*, the name of Bethel would appear to have existed at this spot even before the arrival of Abram in Canaan : he removed from the oaks of Morch to " ' the' mountain on the east of Bethel," with " Bethel on the west and Hai on the east." Here he built an altar ; and hither he returned from Egypt with Lot before their separa- tion (xiii, 3, 4). In these passages, however, the name seems to lie used proleptically, with reference to the history of Jacob. After his prosperous return, Bethel became a favorite station with Jacob ; here he built an altar, buried Deborah, received the name of Israel (for the second time), and promises of blessing; and here also he accomplished the vow which he had made en his going forth (Gen. xxxv, 1-15 ; comp. xxxii, 28, and xxviii, 20-22). Although not a town in those early times, at the conquest of the land Bethel (unless this be a different place [see below]) is mentioned as a royal city of the Canaanites (Josh, xii, 1C). It became a boundary town of Benjamin toward Ephraim (Josh. xviii, 22), and was actually conquered by the latter tribe from the Canaanites (Judg. i, 22-26). In the troubled times when there Mas no king in Israel, it was to Bethel that the people went up in their distress to ask counsel of God (Judg. xx, 18, 31 ; xxi, 2; in the A. V. the name is translated "house of God)." At this place, already consecrated in the time of the patriarchs, the ark of the covenant was, apparently for a long while, deposited [see Ark], and probably the tabernacle also (Judg. xx, 26; comp. 1 Sam. x, 3), under the charge of Phinehas, the grandson of Aaron, with an altar and proper appliances for the offering of burnt-offerings and peace-offerings (xxi, 4); and the unwonted mention of a regular road or causeway as existing between it and the great town of Shechem is doubtless an indication that it was already in much repute. It was also one of the places at which Samuel held in rotation his court of justice (1 Sam. vii, 16). After the separation of the kingdoms Bethel was in- cluded in that of Israel, which seems to show that al- though originally, in the formal distribution, assigned to Benjamin, it had been actually possessed by Ephraim in right of conquest from the Canaanites, a fact that may have been held by that somewhat unscrupulous tribe as determining their right of possession to a place of importance close on their own frontier. Jerol oam made it the southern seat (Dan being the northern) of the worship of the golden calves ; and it seems to have been the chief seat of that worship (1 Kings xii, 28-.r3 : xiii, 1). The choice of Bethel was probably determined by the consideration that the spot was already sacred in the estimation of the Israelites, not only from patri- archal consecration, but from the more recent presence of the ark ; which might seem to point it out ; s a proper seat for an establishment designed to rival that of Jerusalem. This appropriation, however, complete- ly desecrated Bethel in the estimation of the orthodox Jews ; and the prophets name it with abhorrence and contempt — even applying to it, 1 ly a sort of jeu de mot, the name of Betii-avex (house of idols') instead of Beth-el (house of God) (Amos v, 5 ■ llos. iv, 15; v, 8; x, 5, 8). Tho town was taken from Jeroboam by Abijah, king of Judah (2 Chron. xiii, 10); but it again reverted to Israel (2 Kings x, 28), being probably recovered by Baasha (2 Chron. xvi, 1). It then remains unmen- tioned for a long period. The worship of Baal, intro- duced by the Phoenician queen of Ahab (1 Kings xvi, 31), bad probably alienated public favor from the sim- ple erections of Jeroboam to more gorgeous shrines (2 Kings x, 21, 22). Samaria had been built (1 Kings xvi, 24), and Jezreel, and these things must have all tended to draw public notice to the more northern part BETHEL 1 of the kingdom. It was during this period that Elijah visited Bethel, and that we hear of "sons of the prophets" as resident there (2 Kings ii, 2, 3), two facts apparently incompatible with the active existence of tli • < alf-worship. The mention of the bears so close to t!i • town (Hi, 23, 25) looks, too, as if the neighborhood ; much frequented at that time. But after his dastruction of the Baal worship throughout the coun- try, Jehu appears to have returned to the simpler and more nation d religion of the calves, and Bethel comes once more into view (2 Kings x, 29). Under the de- scendants of this king the place and the worship must have greatly flourished, for by the time of Jeroboam II, the great-grandson of Jehu, the rude village was a:ain a royal residence with a "king's house" (Amos vii, 13); there were palaces both for "winter" and "summer," "great houses" and "houses of ivory" (iii, 15), and a very high degree of luxury in dress, furniture, and living (vi, 4-6). The one original altar was now accompanied by several others (iii, 14; ii, 8); and the simple "incense" of its founder had developed into the "burnt-offerings" and "meat-offerings" of "solemn assemblies," with the fragrant " peace-offer- ings" of "fat beasts" (v, 21, 22). Bethel was the scene of the paradoxical tragedy of the prophet from Judah, who denounced the divine vengeance against Jeroboam's altar, and was after- ward slain by a lion for disobeying the Lord's injunc- tions, being seduced by the false representations of another prophet residing there, by whom his remains were interred, and thus both were eventually preserved from profanation (1 Kings xiii ; 2 Kings xxiii, 16-18). Josephus gives the name of the prophet from Judah as .Tad m, and adds an extended account of the character of the old Bethelite prophet {Ant. viii, 9), which he paints in the darkest hues (see Kitto's Daily Bible Must. ; Patrick's ami Clarke's Comment., in loe.) The lion probably issued from the grove adjoining Bethel (comp. 2 K ings ii, 23, 24). (See Keil, Com. on Josh. p. 180-182 ; Stiebritz, be prophet a a leone necato, Hal. 1733). After the desolation of the northern kingdom by the King of Assyria, Bethel still remained an abode of priests, who taught the wretched colonists "how to fear Jehovah," "the God of the land" (2 Kings xvii, 28, J'.» i. The buildings remained till all traces of this illegal worship were extirpated by Josiah, king of Judah, who thus fulfilled a prophecy made to Jeroboam 850 years before (2 Kings xiii, i, 2; xxiii, 15-18). Th • place was still in existence after the captivity, and was in the possession of the Benjamites (Ezra ii, 28; Noli, vii, 32), who returned to their native place while continuing their relations with Nehemiah and the restored worship (Neh. xi, 31). In the time of the Maccabees Bethel was fortified by Bacehides for the King of Syria (Joseph. Antiq. xiii, 1, 1:',). It is not n on sd in tlm New Testament, but it still existed and v.a- taken by Vespasian (Josephus, War, iv, 9, 9). Bethel is mentioned by Eusebius and Jerome in the Mem (<. v. H«(3ri//\, Bethel) as 12 miles from Jerus dem, on the right hand of the road to Sichem. B -lb ■] and its name were believed to have perished until within these few years; yet it has been ascer- tained by the Protestant missionaries at Jerusalem that th- name ami a knowledge) of the site still existed among the i pie of the laud. The name was indeed preserved in the f- »nu of Beifin—iha Arabic termina- tion ,„ for tic- Hebrew el beingnot an unusual change. Its identity with Bethel had been r< gnised by the Oriental Christian priests, who endeavored to bring int.. us s the Arabic form Beitil, as being nearer to the original; bul it had not ton, id currency beyond the chrcle of their influence. The situation of Beit'in cor- responds very exactly with the intimations afforded bios and others, the distance fr.au Jerusalem lieing :s ; hours. Th.- nun- ,,,,,, „,• a >|i;„.(. ,,,- .. ,1,,.,,,, , ,. four acres," and oonaist of •■very many foundations und half-standing walla uf houses and other buildings," 6 BETHER " They lie upon the front of a low hill, between the heads of two hollow wadys, which unite and run off into the main valley es-Suweinit"(Robinson,/?ese«/(7w, ii, 125, 126). Dr. Clarke, and other travellers since his visit, have remarked on the " stony" nature of the soil at Bethel as perfectly in keeping with the narrative of Jacob's slumber there. When on the spot little doubt can be felt as to the localities of this interesting place. The round mount S.E. of Bethel must be the "mountain" on which Abrain built the altar, and or. which he and Lot stood when the}' made their division of the land (Gen. xii, 7; xiii, 10). It is still thickly strewn to its top with stones formed by nature for the building of an " altar" or sanctuary. (See Stanley, Si- nai and Palest, p. 217-223). The spot is shut in by high- er land on every side. The ruins are more considerable than those of a "large village," as the place was. in the time of Jerome ; and it is therefore likely that, al- though unnoticed in history, it afterward revived and was enlarged. The ruined churches upon the site and beyond the valley evince that it was a place of import- ance even down to the Middle Ages. Besides these, there yet remain numerous foundations and half-stand- ing walls of houses and other buildings : on the highest part are the ruins of a square tower, and in the western valley arc the remains of one of the largest reservoirs in the country, being 314 feet in length by 217 in breadth. The bottom is now a green grass-plat, hav- ing in it two living springs of good water. (See Hack- ett's Illustra. of Script, p. 171-178). Professor Robinson {Biblioth. Sac. 1843, p. 456 sq.) thinks that Bethel may be identical with the Bether, not far from Jerusalem, where the revolt under Bar- cocheba (q. v.), in the time of Adrian, was finally ex- tinguished (Euseb. Hist. Ecc. iv, 6) ; the Betarum, which lay 18 Roman miles from CVsarea toward Lydda {Itin. Ant. p. 150), and differently named and located by other ancient notices. This place, he shows, is once called Bethel (Jerome, Comment, in Zach. iii, 13) ; and Bethel is once called Bethar (Bourdeaux Pilgrim, Itin. Hieros. p. 588). See Bether. 2. A town in the south part of Judah (1 Sam. xxx, 27, where the collocation of the name is decisive against its being the well-known Bethel ; many copies of the Sept. read RaiOaovp, i. e. Bethzur). Perhaps the same city is denoted in Josh, xii, 16 ; but comp. ch. viii, 17. By comparison of the lists of the towns of Judah and Simeon (Josh, xv, 30 ; xix, 4 ; 1 Chron. v, 29, 30), the place appears to have borne also the names of Chesil, Bethul (q. v.), and Bethuel. Beth/elite (Ileb. Beythha-EU', "O^ri rl^S; Sept. 6 Bn(3-(/Xir/;c), a designation of Iliel, who rebuilt Jeri- cho, and experienced the curse pronounced long before (1 Kings xvi, 34) ; doubtless a native of Bethel in Ben- jamin. Beth-e'mek (Heb. Beyth ha-E'mel, pOSri 11^3, house of the valley ; Sept. BaiScnpe k v. r. BaiSpi), a city of the tribe of Asher, apparently near its S.E. border (Josh, xix, 27). Dr. Robinson found a village called Amkah about eight miles X.E. of Akka {Biblioth, Sacra, 1*53, p. 121), which is probably the place in question, although he suggests that the above text seems to requiro a position south of the "valley of Jiphthah-el" or Jefat {Later Bib. Researches, p. 103, i 08 '. The identification proposed by Schwarz {Palest, p. 192) with the modern Amiuka (according to him also no- ticed in the Talmud), 12 miles N.N.W. of Safed, is al- together out of the region indicated. Be'ther (Ileb. id. "£), the name of certain "mountains" mentioned only in Cant, ii, 17. The word moans, properly, dissection (as in Gen. v, 10; Jer. xxxiv, 18, 19, " piece") ; the mountains of Bether may therefore he mountains of disjunction, of separation, that is, mountains cut up, divided ly ravines, etc. The Sept, gives ppn KoiXioparwi', inountaius of 'hollows. BETHESDA V77 BETHESDA in this sense. They may he the same with those ren- dered "mountains of spices" in viii, 14, from the growth of trees from which odorous gums distilled. See Bitii- RON. If it be the name of a place, it may possibly be iden- tical with the Bether where the impostor Barcocheba (q. v.) was at last overcome by Hadrian (sec the Ze- mach DavU, cited by Eisenmenger, Entdeck. Judenth. ii, 65G), a strongly fortified city (see Buxtorf, Lex. Talm. col. 371, where the Heb. form is given "ir"1^, Either, Chald. X1P3, Bithra; the correct pointing being perhaps "irn?i i. e. Baethar, for *iFrrPSl, Beth- Tar, Lat. Bethei; Biter, etc.), not far from Jerusalem (B&Sripa, Eusebius, Hist. Eccl. iv, 6). For the his- tory of the campaign at this place, see Munter, Jud. Krieg. § 20, translated under the title "Jewish War under Adrian," in the Biblioth"ca Sacra, 1843, p. 393 sq. ; and for notices of the place, see the editor's re- marks appended to the translation, p. 456 sq. The locality is thought by Dr. Robinson (Later Bib. Re- searches, p. 26(3-271) to be identical with that of the Benjamite Bethel (q. v.), the modern Beitin; but Wil- liams (Ho'y City, ii, 210) and Stewart (Tent and Khan, p. 347), apparently with better reason, fix it in the present village Bittir, two hours W.S.W. of Jerusalem (Van de Velde, Memoir, p. 295). This latter position also seems to agree with that of a Bether (Bat&r/p, i. e. Bcether, v. r. Qrj^fjp) mentioned by the Sept. in Josh. xv, 59, among the names of an additional group of eleven towns near Bethlehem, in the tribe of Judah (q. v.), thought by some to have accidentally dropped from the Heb. text (see Keil, Comment, in loc). Evidently different from this place was a Bether (with the same orthography) mentioned in the Talmud as lying four Roman miles from the sea (see Reland, Palcest. p. 639), the Betarum (of the Itin. Anton, and Hieros.) on the way from Cresarea to Antipatris ; now probably the village of Barin, about 1^ hour south of Kakun (Schwarz, Palest, p. 144 ; Van de Velcle, Me- moir, p. 295). Bethes'da (Bifierred, for Chald. inSH PHS, house of the mercy, q. d. charity-hospital ; or, according to others, for Chald. XTIJX rP3, place of the fuming, sc. of water), the name of a reservoir or tank (koXwjujS^- 6pa, i. e. swimming-pool), with five " porches" (rTroat), close upon the sheep-gate or "market" (ttri ry 7rpo- (iariKy — it will be observed that the word "market" is supplied) in Jerusalem (John v, 2). The porches — i. e. cloisters or colonnades — were extensive enough to accommodate a large number of sick and infirm people, whose custom it was to wait there for the "troub- ling of the water." One of these invalids is re- corded to have been cured by Christ in the above passage, where also we are told that an angel went down at a certain season into the pool and troubled the water, and then whoever first step- ped in was mad i whole. There seems to have been no special medicinal vir- tue in the water itself, and only he who first stepped in after the troubling was healed. It may be re- marked that the evan- gelist, in giving the ac- count of the descent of the angel into the pool and the effects following, does not seem to do any more than state the popular legend as he found it, without vouching for its truth, except so far as it ex- plained the invalid's presence there. Eusebius and Jerome — though unfortunately they give no clew to the situation of Bethesda — describe it in the Onomasticon (s. v. BnZ,a$d, Bethesda) as exist- ing in their time as two pools, the one supplied by the periodical rains, while the water of the other was of a reddish color, due, as the tradition then ran, to the fact that the flesh of the sacrifices was anciently wash- ed there before offering, on which account the pool was also called "the Sheep-pool" (Pecualis, IIpo- fiaTiKif). See, however, the comments of Lightfoot on this view, in his Exercit. on St. John, v, 2. Euse- bius's statement is partly confirmed by the Bordeaux Pilgrim (A.D. 333), who mentions in his Itinerary "twin fish-pools, having five porches, which are called Bethsaida" (quoted in Barclay, p. 299). The large reservoir called by the Mohammedans Birket Israil, within the walls of the city, close by the St. Stephen's gate, and under the north-east wall of the Haram area, is generally considered to be the modern representa- tive of Bethesda. This tradition reaches back cer- tainly to the time of Sacwulf, A.D. 1102, who mentions it under the name of Bethsaida (Early Trav. p. 41). It is also named in the Citez de Jherusalem, A.D. 1187 (sect, vii), and in more modern times by Manndrell and all the h.te travellers. The pool measures 360 feet in length, 130 feet in breadth, and 75 in depth to the bottom, besides the rubbish which has accumu- lated in it for ages. Although it has been <\xy for above two centuries, it was once evidently used as a reservoir, for the sides internally have been cased over with small stones, and these again covered with plas- ter ; but the workmanship of these additions is coarse, and bears no special marks of antiquity. The west end is built up like the rest, except at the south-west corner, where two lofty arched vaults extended west- ward, side by side, under the houses that now cover this part. Dr. Robinson was aide to trace the contin- uation of the work in this direction under one of these vaults for 100 feet, and it seemed to extend much farther. Tins gives the whole a length of KJ0 feet, equal to one half of the whole extent of the sacred en- closure under which it lies. Mr. Wolcott, writing since, says, " The southern vault extends 130 feet, and the other apparently the same. At the extremity of the former was an opening for drawing up water. The vaults are stuccoed" (JJib/iotheca Sacra, 1843, p. 33). It would seem as if the deep reservoir formerly extended farther westward in this part, and that these vaults were built up in and over it in order to support Traditionary " Pool of Bethesda. BETII-EZEL 778 BETH-HOGLA the structures above. Dr. Robinson considers it prob- able that this excavation was anciently carried quite through the ridge of Bezetha, along the northern side ofAntonia to its N.W. corner, thus forming the deep trench which separated the fortress from the adjacent kill (Bib. Res hes, i, 133, 434). 'ihe little that can be said on the subject, however, goes nearly as much to confirm as to invalidate the traditionary identification. ^i i On the one hand, the most probable position of the Bheep-gate is at the cast part of the city. See. Sheep- gate. ( )n the other hand, the Birlcet Israil exhibits none, of the marks which appear to have distinguished the water of Bethcsda in the records of the Evangelist and of Eusebius ; it certainly is neither pentagonal nor double. (2) The construction of the Eirlcch is such as to .-how that il was originally a water-reservoir, and not the moat of a fortress. See Jerusalem. (3) There is certainly a remarkable coincidence between the name as given by Eusebius, Bezatha, and that of the north-east suburb of the city at the time of the Gospel history — Bezetha (q. v.). (-i) There is the difficulty that if the Birhet Israil be not Bethesda, which of the ancient "pools" does it represent? On the whole, however, the most probable identification of the ancient Bcthesda is that of Dr. Robinson (i, 508), who suggests the "fountain of the Virgin," in the val- ley of the Kedron, a short distance above the Pool of Siloam. In favor of this arc its situation, supposing the sheep-gate to be at the south-east of the city, as Lightfoot, Rol linson, and others suppose, and the strange intermittent "troubling of the water" caused by the periodical ebbing and flowing of the supply. Against it are the confined size of the pool, and the difficulty of finding room for the five stose. (Sec Barclay's de- tailed account, City of the Great King, p. 516-524, and 325, 6.) See Jerusalem. For rabbinical allusions to this subject, see Light- foot, in loc. Joh. ; for a discussion of the medical qual- ities of the water, see Bartholin, De paralytic. N. T. p. 898; Mead, Med. Sacr. c. 8; Witsius, Miscell. ii, 2-19 sq. ; D'Outrein, in the Biblioth. Brem. i, 597 sq. ; Rus, Harmon. Evang. i, G80 ; Eschenbach, Scripta Med. Bibl. p. GO sq. ; Stiebriz, An piscina Beths. calidis aquis nu- merari queat (Hal. 1739) ; Reis, Joseph] s'dentium ev. histories mm noxium (Altorf. 1730), p. 17 sq. ; Richter, ]i< balneo animali (in his Dissert. Med. Gott. 1775, p. 107) ; Schulze, in the Berlin verm. Abhandl. ii, 146 sq. ; Jungmarker, Bdliesdei hand balm um animate (Gryph. 1766) ; on the miracle, treatises are by Harenberg (in tli- Bibl. Brem. r, vi, p. 82 sq.), Olearius (hips. 1706), Ziebich (Gerl. 1768), Schelgvig (Gcdan. 1681, 1701); also general treatises, De piscina Bethesda, by Arnold (Jen. 1661), Frischmuth (den. 1661), Hottingcr (Tigur. 1705), Sommelius (Lund. 1767), Wendeler (Viteb. 1676). The place has been described more or less fully by nearly every traveller in Jerusalem. (See especially De Saulcy, Dead Sea, ii, 244 sq.) Beth-e'zel(I!eb. Beyth ha-E'tsel, fesitfl r^S, house of ilr firm root, i. c. fixed dwelling; Sept. translates oIkoq i xpptvoc, avrije, "neighboring house," as in our margin), a town in Judsea, mentioned Mic. i, 11, where there i, an allusion to Die above etymology. Ephraem Svru understands a place near Samaria; but the con- text Beems to locate ii in the Philistine plain, perhaps •it the modern Beit-Affa (Robinson, Researches, ii, 369, miles S.E.of Ashdod (Van de Veldc's Map). Beth-ga'der i lie!,. Beytk-Gader', "Hr.-r^/tQwse o/the wall} Sept. Qa&yiSwp v. r. B&yi Stop), a place in tbc> tribe of Judah, of which Hareph is named as '■father'' or founder (1 Cbron. ii, 51) ; apparently the same with the GEDER (q. v. ) of. I,,, |,. xii, 1.'!, and prob- ably identical also -with theGEDOR(q. v.) of Josh, xix, 5s. a- il Mem- (from the associated names) to have been in the mountains. Beth-ga'mul (Heb. Beyth Gamul', Vi1 house of the weaned, or possibly camel-honsc ; Sept. oucoc Vaij-ioiX v. r. FafiGtka), a city, apparently in the " plain country" of Moab, denounced by the prophet (Jcr. xlviii, 23). Dr. Smith suggests (Biblical Researches, iii, Append, p. 153) that it is the modern Um-Jemal, a ruined site on the road (south according to Burck- hardt, p. 100) from Busrah to Dera (his Edrei) ; which is probably correct, although it is difficult to believe that Moab ever extended so far north. See Bozkaii. Beth-gaii. Sec Beth-haggax. Betll-gil'gal (Heb. Beylh hag-Gilgal' ', iaisil IT'S; house of ihe Gilgal ; Sept. omits, but some copies have Ba,Srya\ya\ v. r. Bi]Sayya\yd\), a place from which the inhabitants gathered to Jerusalem for the purpose of celebrating the rebuilding of the walls on the return from Babylon (Nch. xii, 29, where the name is tranf- lated "house of Gilgal);" doubtless the same else- where called simply Gilgal (q. v.), probably that near Bethel (2 Kings ii, 2). Eetli-hac'cerem (Heb. Beyth hah-Ke'rem, fl^3 C")2ij, house of thi. vineyard; Sept. BifiaKxapip [v. r. Br/Bayyapip, Biyjayyajiapii^C] and Bai^a\aojie'i [v. r. BrfiSaxap, BnSaxappaJ), a place in the tribe of Judah, not far from Jerusalem (Neh. iii, 14), where the chil- dren of Benjamin were to set up a beacon when they blew the trumpet of warning at Tekoa against the in- vading army of Babylonians (Jer. vi, 1). From the no- tice in Nehemiah, it appears that the town, like a few other places, was distinguished by the application to it of the word pelek ("r?Q, Auth. Vcr. "part"), and that it had then a "ruler" (""lb). According to Je- rome (Comment, in loc. Jer.), there was a village call- ed Bethacharma, situated on a mountain between Jeru- salem and Tekoa. The name also occurs in the Tal- mud (Nidda ii, 7; Middoth. iii, 4) as belonging to a valley containing a quarry. Hence Pococke (East, ii, 42) suggests that this was the fortress Herodium (Uiithiiov cr 'Hpwdaov), founded by Herod the Great (Josephus, Ant. xvi, 2, 1; War, i, 13, 8; 21, 10), and where he died (Josephus, Ant. xvii, 8, 3), being 200 stadia from Jericho (Josephus, War, i, £3, 8 ; coir.p. iii, 3, 5), and identical with the modern "Frank Moun- tain," or Jebel Furtidis (Woleott, in the BibUoiheea Sacra, 1843, p. 69, 70) ; but this is denied by Robin- son (Researches, ii, 174), although affirmed by "Wilson (Lands of Bible, i, £96), Bonar ( Mission to Jetcs, p. 247), Stanley (Sinai and Palest, p. 163, 164), and Van de Velde (Narrative, ii, 39). See Herodium. Beth-haccerem (i. e. Beth-Kerem) appears also to be identical with Carem (q. v.), one of the towns added in the Sept. to the Hebrew text of Josh, xv, 59, as in the mountains of Judah, in the district of Bethlehem. Beth'-haggan (Heb. Beyth-hag-Gan', 'Jrj r^3, house of the garden ; Sept. BaiByc'iv; Auth. Vers, "the garden-house," 2 Kings ix, 27), one of the spots which marked the flight of Ahaziah from Jehu. It is doubt- less the same place as En-gannim (q. v.) of Issachar (Josh, xix, 21), " spring of gardens," the modern Jen'm, on the direct road from Samaria northward, and over- looking the great plain (Stanley, Palest, p. 319, note). Beth-lianan. See Eeon-betii-hanan. Beth-ha'ran (Heb. Beyth Harem', "JIM rh2, a variation of Beth-Haram; Sept. ?'/ Ba&apav), one of the "fenced cities" on the east of Jordan, "built" by the Gadites (Num. xxxii, £6). It is named with Beth- ninirah, ami therefore is no doubt the same place as Beth-aram (q. v.), accurately Beth-harain (Josh. xiii. 27). The name is not found in the lists of the towns of Moal> in Isaiah (xv, xvi), Jeremiah (xlviii), and Ezckiel (xxv, 9). Beth-hog'la (Josh, xv, 6) or Beth-hog'lah (Heb. Beyth Choghh', n?:n T\^, partridge -house; though Jerome \_Onomast. s. v. Area-atad, where he BETH-HOROX 119 BETH-HOROX states that Betagla was three miles from Jericho and I two from the Jordan] gives another interpretation, locus gyri, reading the name fibs;." T^3, and connect- ing it with the funeral races or dances at the mourn- ing for Jacob [see Atad] ; Sept. BtfiayXd v. r. Bai9ay- \aap, BeOtydiw, BcuGaAaya), a place on the border of Judah (Josh, xv, 6) and of Benjamin (xviii, 19), to which latter tribe it was reckoned as belonging (xviii, 21). Eusebius and Jerome speak (Onomast. s. v. BtiSraXaifi, Bethagld) of two villages of this name, but they assign them both to the vicinity of Gaza. Jose- phus (Ant. xiii, 1, 5) reads Bethagla (Br)Sa\aya, doubt- less for B>fiaya\d) instead of the Bethuasi (q. v.) of 1 Mace, ix, 62. Dr. Robinson found a ruined site, doubtless the same, called by the Arabs Kusr-Hajla, twenty minutes S.W. by W. of a fine spring in this region called by the same name (Ain-Hajla), although he saw no ruins at the spring itself (Researches, ii, 268). It was also visited by M. de Saulcy, who states that he picked up large cubes of primitive mosaic at the place, indicating, in his opinion, the existence of a Biblical city in the neighborhood (Narrative, ii, 35) ; comp. Wilson, Lands of Bible, ii, 15; Schwarz, Palest, p. 94. Beth-ho'ron (Heb. Beyth Clwron' ', "jinn rP3 or "pin ma, once [1 Kings ix, 17] "pH FPSl, in Chron. fully 'j'hin rP2, house of the hollow; Sept. BijSwpwv or BaiSr ojpwv ; BcuS'wp'w, BatSrwpa, and BtScopov), the name of two towns or villages (2 Chron. viii, 5), an "upper" ("P"1?"^) and a "nether" Cji^Plfiftrt) (Josh, xvi, 3, 5 ; 1 Chron. vii, 24), on the road (2 Chron. xxv, 13 ; Judith iv, 4) from Gibeon to Azekah (Josh, x, 10, 11) and the Philistine Plain (1 Sam. xiii, 18 ; 1 Mace, iii, 24). Beth-horon la}' on the boundary-line between Benjamin and Ephraim (Josh, xvi, 3, 5, and xviii, 13, 14), was counted to Ephraim (Josh, xxi, 22; 1 Chron. vii, 24), and given to the Kohathites (Josh, xxi, 22 ; 1 Chron. vi, 68 [53]). In a remarkable fragment of early history (1 Chron. vii, 24) we are told that both the upper and lower towns wen built by a woman of Ephraim, Sherah, who in the present state of the pas- sage appears as a granddaughter of the founder of her tribe, and also as a direct progenitor of the great lead- er with whose history the place is so closely connected. Nether Beth-horon lay in the N.W. corner of Benja- min; and between the two places was a pass called both the ascent and descent of Beth-horon, leading from the region of Gibeon (el-Jib) down to the western plain (Josh, xviii, 13, 14; x, 10, 11; 1 Mace, iii, 16, 24). Down this pass the five kings of the Amorites were driven by Joshua (Josh, x, 11; Ecclus. xlvi, 6). The upper and lower towns were both fortified by Solomon (1 Kings x, 17 ; 2 Chron. viii, 5). At one of them Nicanor was attacked by Judas Maecabseus ; and it was afterward fortified by Bacchides (1 Mace, vii, 39 sq. ; ix, 50; Josephus, Ant. xii, 10, 5; xiii, 1, 3). Cestius Gallus, the Roman proconsul of Syria, in his march from Caesarea to Jerusalem, after having burn- ed Lydda, ascended the mountain by Beth-horon and encamped near Gibeon (Joseph. War, ii, 19, 1) ; and it was near this place that his army was totally cut up (Joseph. War, ii, 19, 8 and 9). In the time of Eusc bius and Jerome (Onomast. s. v. Bi/3.&onwi', Bethoron) the two Beth-horons were small villages, the upper Beth-horon being 12 Roman miles from Jerusalem; according to Josephus (comp. War, ii, 12, 2, with Ant. xx, 4, 4) it was 100 stadia from thence, and 50 stadia from Gibeon. From the time of Jerome (Kpit. run/. 3) the place appears to have been unnoticed till 1801, when Dr. E. I). Clarke recognised it in the present Beit-Ur (Travels, vol. i, pt. ii, p. 028); after which it appears to have remained unvisited till 1838, when the Rev. J. Paxton, and, a few days after, Dr. Robinson arrived at the place. The Lower Beit-Ur is upon the top of a low ridge, which is separated by a wady, or narrow valley, from the foot of the mountain upon which the Upper Beit-Ur stands. Both are now in- habited villages. The lower is very small, but foun- dations of large stones indicate an ancient site — doubt- less that of the Nether Beth-horon. The Upper Beit- Ur is likewise small, but also exhibits traces of ancient walls and foundations. In the steep ascent to it the rock is in some parts cut away and the path formed into steps, indicating an ancient road. On the first offset or step of the ascent are foundations of huge stones, the remains perhaps of a castle that once guard- ed the pass. It is remarkable that the places are still distinguished as Beit-Ur el-Foka (the Upper), and Beit-Ur el-Tahta (the Lower), and there can be no question that they represent the Upper and Lower Beth-horon. "In the name," remarks Dr. Robinson (iii, 59), "we find the rather unusual change from one harsh Hebrew guttural to one still deeper and more tenacious in Arabic ; in all other respects the name, position, and other circumstances agree" (compare Schwarz, Palest, p. 140, 146). See Gibeon. The importance of the road on which the two Beth- horons are situated, the main approach to the interior of the country from the hostile districts on both sides of Palestine — Philistia and Egypt on the west, Moab and Amnion on the east — at once explains and justifies the frequent fortification of these towns at different periods of the history (1 Kings ix, 17 ; 2 Chron. viii, 5 ; 1 Mac. ix, 50 ; Judith iv, 4, 5). The road is still the direct one from the site which must have been Gibeon (el-Jib), and from Michmash (Mukhmas) to the Phi- listine plain on the one hand, and Antipatris (Joseph. War, ii, 19, 9) on the other. On the mountain which lies to the southward of the nether village is still pre- served the name (YahV) and the site of Ajalon, so closely connected with the proudest memories of Beth-horon ; and the long "descent" between the two remains unal- tered from what it was on that great day, " which was like no clay before or after it." From Gibeon to the Up- per Beth-horon is a distance of about 4 miles of broken asceni and descent. The ascent; however, predomi- nates, and this therefore appears to be the "going up" to Beth-horon which formed the first stage of Joshua's pursuit. With the upper village the descent com- mences; the road rough and difficult even for the moun- tain-paths of Palestine ; now over sheets of smooth rock flat as the flagstones of a city pavement; now over the upturned edges of the limestone strata; and now among the loose rectangular stones so characteristic of the whole of this district. There are in many places steps cut, and other marks of the path having been artificially improved. But, though rough, the way can hardly be called "precipitous;" still less is it a ravine (Stanley, p. 208), since it runs for the most part along the back of a ridge or water-shed dividing wadys on either hand. After about three miles of this descent, a slight rise leads to the lower village standing on its hillock — the last outpost of the Benjamite hills, and characterised by the date-palm in the enclosure of the village mosque. A short and sharp fall below the village, a few undulations, and the road is among the dura of the great corn-growing plain of Sharon. This rough descent from the upper to the lower Beit-Ur is the " going down to Beth-horon" of the Bible narrative. Standing on the high ground of the upper village, and overlooking the wild scene, we may feel assured that it was over this rough path that the Canaanites fled to their native lowlands. This road, still, as in ancient times, "the great road of communication and heavy transport between Jerusalem and the sea-coast" (Rob- inson, iii, 61), though a route rather more direct, known as the "Jaffa road," is now used by travellers with light baggage, leaves the main north road at Tuleil el-Ful, 3£ miles from Jerusalem, due west of Jericho. Bending slightly to the north, it runs by the modern village of el-Jib, the ancient Gibeon, and then proceeds by the Beth-horons in a direct line due west to Jimzu (Gimzo) and Ludd (Lydda), at which BETII-JESIIIMOTH 780 BETH-LEIIEM it parts into three, diverging north to Caphar-Saba (Antipatris), south to Gaza, and west to Jaffa (Joppa). Beth-jesh'imoth or (as it is less correctly Angli- cized in Num. xxxiii, 49) Beth-jes'imoth (Heb. Beyth h i-Yednmoth' , r'-Z-^Ti r"3 [in Num. xxxiii, 49, r^'w^n r*2~}, house of the wastes ; Sept. Ati/h.;3' [v. r. AioifHi&l, but BqSaeLfiwS in Josh, xiii, 20, and BtiSiaoi/xovS [v. r. 'laaifwiB, B>j3a ; btSXftft in Ezra ii, 21 ; Ba&aXefi in Neh. vii, 26]; Josephus, \>„^\f/l,<; Steph. Byz. B//-\f/<«), the name of two places. 1. One of the towns in Palestine, already in exist- ence at the time of Jacob's return to the country, when its nam.' was Ephrath or Ephratah (see Gen. xxxv, 10; xhiii, 7; Sept. at Josh, xv, 59), which seen s not only to have been the ancient name of the city itself, but also of the surrounding region; its in- habitants being likewise termed EphrathiteS (Ruth l i, 2). It is also called " Beth-lehem-Epiiratah" (Mic. v, 2), and " Betii-lehem-Judah" (1 Sam. xvii, I 12), and " Beth-leiiem of Judaea" (Matt, ii, 1), to distinguish it from another town of the same name in j the tribe of Zebulun (Josh, xix, 15), and also " the city of David" (Luke ii, 4 ; John vii, 42). The inhab- itants are called Beth-lehemites (1 Sam. xvi, 1, 18; xvii, 58). It is not, however, till long after the occu- 1 pation of the country by the Israelites that we meet with it under its new name of Bethlehem. Here, as in other cases (comp. Bethmcon, Bethdiblathaim, Beth- peor), the "Beth" appears to mark the bestowal of a i Hebrew appellation ; and, if the derivations of the lex- ! icons are to be trusted, the name in its present shape appears to have been an attempt to translate the ear- I lier Ephrata into Hebrew language and idiom, just as the Arabs have, in their turn, with a further slight I change of meaning, converted it into Beit-lakm (house of flesh). However this may be, the ancient name lin- ' gered as a familiar word in the mouths of the inhabit- j ants of the place (Ruth i, 2 ; iv, 11 ; 1 Sam. xvii, 12), and in the poetry of the psalmists and prophets (Psa. exxxii, 6 ; Mic. v, 2) to a late period. In the genea- logical lists of 1 Chron. it recurs, and Ephrath appears ! as a person — the wife of Caleb and mother of Hur (~!in) (ii, 19, 51 ; iv, 4); the title of "father of Beth- lehem" being bestowed both on Hur (iv, 4) and on Sal- ' ma, the son of Hur (ii, 51, 54). The name of Salma I recalls a very similar name intimately connected with Bethlehem, namely, the father of Boaz, Salmah j (-Tcbr, Ruth iv, 20; Auth. Vers. "Salmon") or Sal- mon CjiTOPtt), ver. 21). Hur is also named inExod. xxxi, 2, and 1 Chron. ii, 20, as the father of Uri, the father of Bezaleel. In the East a trade or calling re- mains fixed in one family for generations, and if there is any foundation for the tradition of the Targum that Jesse, the father of David, was "a weaver of the veils of the sanctuary" (Tare). Jonathan on 2 Sam. xxi, 19), j he may have inherited the accomplishments and the I profession of his art from his forefather, who was "fill- | ed with the Spirit of God," "to work all manner of works," and among them that of the embroiderer and the weaver (Exod. xxv, 35). At the date of the visit . of Benjamin of Tudela there were still "twelve Jews, I dyers by profession, living at Beth-lehem" (Benj. of Tudela, ed. Asher, i, 7i>). The above tradition may possibly elucidate the allusions to the "weaver's j beam" (whatever the "beam" may be) which occur in the accounts of giants or mighty men slain by Da- vid or his heroes, but not in any unconnected with him. After the conquest Bethlehem fell within the terri- tory of Judah (Judg. xvii, 7 ; 1 Sam. xvii, 12 ; Ruth i, 1, 2). As the Hebrew text now stands, however, it is omitted altogether from the list of the towns of Judi.h in Joshua xv, though retained by the Sept. in the elev- en names which that version inserts between verses £9 and 60. Among these it occurs between Theko (Te- koa), Qikco (comp. 1 Chron. iv, 4, 5), and Phagor (? Peor, aywp). This omission from the Hebrew text is certainly remarkable, but it is quite in keep- ! ing with the obscurity in which Bethlehem remains throughout the whole of the sacred history. Not to speak of the nativity, which has made the name of Bethlehem so familiar to the whole Christian and Mus- sulman world, it was, as the birthplace of David, a place of the most important consequence to ancient Israel. And yet, from some cause or other, it never rose to any eminence, nor ever became the theatre of any action or business. It is difficult to say why Hebron and Jeru- salem, with no special associations in their favor, were tixed on as capitals, while the place in which the great ideal king, the hero and poet of the nation, drew his first breath and spent his youth remained an ' ' ordinary Judsean village." No doubt this is in part owing to what will lie noticed presently — the isolated nature of its position ; but that circumstance did not prevent BETII-LEIIEM 781 BETH-LEHEM Gibeon, Ramah, and many other places situated on eminences from becoming famous, and is not sufficient to account entirely for such silence respecting a place so strong by nature, commanding one of the main roads, and the excellence of which as a military posi- tion may be safely inferred from the fact that at one time it was occupied by the Philistines as a garrison (2 Sam. xxiii, 14; 1 Chron. xi, 1G). Though not named as a Levitical city, it was apparently a residence of Levites, for from it came the young man Jonathan, the son of Gershom, who became the lirst priest of the Danites at their new northern settlement (J udg. xvii, 7 ; xviii, 30), and from it also came the concubine of the other Levite, whose death at Gibeah caused the de- struction of the tribe of Benjamin (xix, 1-9). The Book of Buth is a page from the domestic history of Bethlehem ; the names, almost the very persons of the Bethlehemites are there brought before us ; wo are al- lowed to assist at their most peculiar customs, and to wit- ness the very springs of those events which have con- ferred immortality on the name of the place. Many of these customs were doubtless common to Israel in gener- al, but one thing must have been peculiar to Bethlehem. "What most strikes the view, after the charm of the general picture has lost its first hold on us, is the inti- mate connection of the place with Moab. Of the ori- gin of this connection no record exists, no hint of it has yet been discovered; but it continued in force for at least a century after the arrival of Buth, till the time when her great-grandson could find no more se- cure retreat for his parents from the fury of Saul than the house of the King of Moab at Mizpeh (1 Sam. xxii, 3, 4). But, whatever its origin, here we find the con- nection in full vigor. When the famine occurs, the natural resource is to go to the country of Moab and " continue there ;" the surprise of the city is occasion- ed, not at Naomi's going, but at her return. Buth was " not like" the handmaidens of Boaz : some difference of feature or complexion there was, doubtless, which distinguished the "children of Lot" from the children of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob ; but yet she gleans after the reapers in the field without molestation or remark ; and when Boaz, in the most public manner possible, proclaims his intention of taking the stranger to be his wife, no voice of remonstrance is raised, but loud con- gratulations are expressed; the parallel in the life of Jacob occurs at once to all. and a blessing is invoked on the head of Buth the Moabitess, that she may be like the two daughters of the Mesopotamian Nahor, " like Rachel and like Leah, who did build the house of Israel." This, in the face of the strong denuncia- tions of Moab contained in the law, is, to say the least, very remarkable (see Thomson, Land and Book, ii, ,500 sq.). Moab appears elsewhere in connection with a place in Judah, .fas/nib -\ehem (1 Chr. iv, 22). We might bo tempted to believe the name merely another form of 7)V//)-lehem, if the context — the mention of Ma- reshah and Chozeba, places on the extreme west of the tribe — (lid not forbid it. The elevation of David to the kingdom does not ap- pear to have aft'ected the fortunes of his native pi ice. The residence of Saul acquired a new title specially from him, by which it was called even down to the latest time of Jewish history (2 Sam. xxi. G ; Josephus, War, v, 2, 1, ra/3a9oaov\n), but David did nothing to dignify Bethlehem, or connect it with himself. The only touch of recollection which he manifests for it is that recorded in the statement of his sudden long- ing for the water of the well by the gate of his child- hood (2 Sam. xxiii, 15). Bethlehem was fortified by Rehoboam (2 Chron. xi, G), but it does not appear to have been a place of much importance ; for Micah, ex- tolling the moral pre-eminence of Bethlehem, says, "Thou, Bethlehem-Ephratah, 1h mgh thou he littk among the thousands of Judah," etc. (Micah v, 2). Matthew quotes this as, "And thou, Bethlehem of Jndah, art not the least of the cities of Judah," etc. (Matt, ii, G), which has the appearance of a discrepancy. But it is answered that a city may be littk without being the least, or that the evangelist may have quoted from memory, and hence the slight difference in expression, while the sense remains the same. By the time of the captivity, the inn of Chimham by (b^IN = " close to") Bethlehem appears to have become the recognised point of departure for travellers to Egypt (Jer. xli, 17) — a caravanserai or khan (WIS ; see Stanley, App. § 90), perhaps the identical one which existed there at the time of our Lord (KaTuXiifia), like those which still exist all over the East at the stations of travellers. Lastly, "children of Bethlehem" to the number of 123 returned from Bain Ion (Ezra ii, 21), which, with the 56 from the neighboring Netophah, slightly differs from the sum IMS of the parallel passage (Neh. vii, 26). In the New Testament Bethlehem retains its distinc- tive title of Bethlehem-judah (Matt, ii, 1, 5), and once, in the announcement of the angels, the " city of Da- vid" (Luke ii, 4; and comp. John vii, 42; Kw^rj; cas- tellwn). Its connection with the history of Christ is too familiar to all to need any notice here ; the remark should merely be made, that as in the earlier history less is recorded of the place after the youth of David than before, so, in the later, nothing occurs after the birth of our Lord to indicate that any additional im- portance or interest was fastened on the town. In fact, the passages just quoted and the few which fol- low exhaust the references to it in the N. T. (Matt, ii, 6, 8, 16 ; Luke ii, 15). After this nothing is heard of it till near the middle of the 2d century, when Justin Martyr speaks of our Lord's birth as having taken place "in a certain cave very close to the village," which cave he goes on to say had been specially pointed out hy Isaiah as "a sign." The passage from Isaiah to which he refers is xxxiii, 13-19, in the Sept. version of which occurs the following : " He shall dwell on high ; His place of de- fence shall be in a lofty cave of the strong rock" (Justin. Dial. c. Tryph. §78, 70). Such is the earliest supplement we possess to the meagre indications of the narrative of the Gospel ; and while it is not possi- ble to say with certainty that the tradition is true, there is no certainty in discrediting it. There is noth- ing in itself very probable — nor certainly is there in mo? t cases where the traditional scenes of events are laid in caverns — in the supposition that the place in which Joseph and Mary took shelter, and where was the "manger" or "stall" (whatever the Q&rvT) may have been), was a cave in the limestone rock of which the eminence of Bethlehem is composed. Yet it is not nec- essary to assume that Justin's quotation from Isaiah is the ground of an inference of his own ; it may equally be an authority happily adduced by him in support of the existing tradition. Still the step from the belief that the nativity may have taken place in a cavern, to the belief that the present subterraneous vault, or crypt is that cavern, is an equally doubtful one. (See below.) Even in the loOj'ears that had passed when Justin wrote, so much had happened at Bethlehem that it is difficult to believe that the true spot could have been accurately preserved. In that interval not only had the neighbor- hood of Jerusalem been overrun and devastated Iv (lie Romans at the destruction of the city, but the Emperor Hadrian, amongotherdesecrations, is saidto have plant- ed a grove of Adonis at the spot (h/riis hntmhrabat . I dm, '- dis, Jerome, Ep. Paid.). Tins grove remained at Beth- lehem for no less than 180 years, viz. from A.D. 135 till 315. After this the place was purged of its abom- inations by Constant inc, who, about A.D. 330, erected the present church (Euseb. Vit. Const. 3, 40. See Tob- ler, p. 102, note'). The brief notice of Eusehius in the Onomasticon (s. v. BiftXti/i} locates it 6 miles S. of Je- rusalem, to which Jerome (i'>. s. v. Bethlehem) adds a reference to the " tcwer of Edar" and his own cell in the locality. The Crusaders, on their approach to Jcrusa- BETII-LEIIEM 782 BETH-LEHEM lem, first took possession of Bethlehem, at the entreaty of its Christian inhabitants. In A.D. 1110, King Baldwin I erected it into an episcopal see, a dignity it had never before enjoyed; but, although this was confirmed by Pope Pascal II, and the title long re- tained in tin' Romish Church, yet the actual possession of thv see appears not to have been of long continu- ance. In A.D. 1244, Bethlehem, like Jerusalem, was desolated by the wild hordes of the Kharismians. 'I here was formerly a Mohammedan quarter, but, af- ter the rebellion in 1834, this was destroyed by order of Ibrahim Pasha (Tobler, Bethlehem, Bern, 1849). There never has been any dispute or doubt about the site of Bethlehem, which has always been an in- habited place, and, from its sacred associations, has been visited by an unbroken series of pilgrims and travellers. The modern town of Beit-lakm lies to the E. of the main road from Jerusalem to Hebron, 4i miles from the former. It covers the E. and N.E. parts of the ridge of a "long gray hill" of Jura lime- stone, which stands nearly due E. and W., and is about a mile in length. The hill has a deep valley on the N. and another on the S. The west end shelves down gradually to the valley ; but the east end is bolder, and overlooks a plain of some extent. The slopes of the ridge are in many parts covered by terraced gar- dens, shaded by rows of (dives with figs and vines, the terraces sweeping round the contour of the hill with great regularity. The many olive and fig orchards, and vineyards round about, are marks of industry and thrift j and the adjacent fields, though stony and rough, produce, nevertheless, good crops of grain. On the top of the hill lies the village in a kind of irregular triangle, at about 150 yards from the apex of which, and separated from it by a vacant space on the ex- treme eastern part of the ridge, spreads the noblo basilica of St. Helena, "half church, half fort," now embraced by its three convents, Greek, Latin, and Armenian. It is now a large and straggling village, with one broad and principal street. The houses have not domed roofs like those of Jerusalem and Ramleh ; they are built for the most part of clay and bricks; and every house is provided with an apiary, the bee- hives of which arc constructed of a series of earthen pots ranged on the house-tops. The inhabitants are. said to be 3000, and were all native Christians at the time of the most recent visits ; for Ibrahim Pasha, finding that the Moslem and Christian inhabitants were always at strife, caused the former to withdraw, and left the village in quiet possession of the latter, whose numbers had always greatly predominated (Wilde's Narrative, ii, 111). The chief trade and man- ufacture of the inhabitants consist of beads, crosses, and other relics, which are sold at a great profit. Smiie of the articles, wrought in mother-of-pearl, are carved with more skill than one would expect to find in that remote quarter. The people are said to lie rc- markable for their ferocity and rudeness, which is in- ch ed the common character of the inhabitants of most of the places accounted holy in the East. Travellers remark the good looks of the women, the substantial, clean appearance of the houses, and the general air of comfort I for an Eastern town) which prevails. At tie- farthest extremity of the town is the Latin convent, connected with which is the Church of the Nativity, Baid to have been built by the Empress Helena. It has suffered much from time, but still be.-irs manifest traces of its Grecian origin, and is al- leged to lie the most chaste architectural building now remaining in Palestine. It is a spacious and handsome hall, consisting Of a central nave amid aisles separated from each other by rows of tall Corinthian pillars of gray marble. As there is no ceiling, the lofty roof is exposed to view, composed (according to some) of the cedars of Lebanon, Btillingood preservation, ami affords a One specimen of the architecture ofthatage. Two spiral Staircases lead to the cave called the "Grotto of the Nativity, " which is about 20 feet below the level of the church. This cave is lined with Italian mar- bles, and lighted by numerous lamps. Here the pil- grim is conducted with due solemnity to a star inlaid in the marble, marking the exact spot where the Saviour was born, and corresponding to that in the firmament occupied by the meteor which intimated that great event; he is then led to one of the sides, where, in a kind of recess, a little below the level of the rest of the rloor, is a block of white marble, hollowed out in the form of a manger, and said to mark the place of the | one in which the infant Jesus was laid. His attention is afterward directed to the " Sepulchre of the Inno- cents;" to the grotto in which St. Jerome passed the greater portion of his life ; and to the chapels dedicated to Joseph and other saints. There has been much controversy respecting the claims of this cave to be regarded as the place in which our Lord was born. 1 Tradition is in its favor, but facts and probabilities are against it. It is useless to deny that there is much force in a tradition regarding a locality (more than it would have in the case of a historical fact), which can be traced up to a period not remote from that of the event commemorated ; and this event was so im- portant as to make the scene of it a point of such un- remitting attention, that the knowledge of that spot was not likely to be lost. This view would be greatly strengthened if it could be satisfactorily proved that Adrian, to cast odium upon the mysteries of the Chris- tian religion, not only erected statues of Jupiter and Venus over the holy sepulchre and on Calvary, but placed one of Adonis over the spot of the Nativit}' at Bethlehem. But against tradition, whatever may be its value, we have in the present case to place the utter improbability that a subterranean cavern like this, with a steep descent, should ever have been used as a stable for cattle, and, what is more, for the stable of a khan or caravanserai, which doubtless the "inn" of Luke ii, 7 was. Although, therefore, it is true that cattle are, and always have been, stabled in caverns in the East, j yet certainly not in such caverns as this, which appears to have been originally a tomb. Old empty tombs often, it is argued, afford shelter to man and cattle; but such was not the case among the Jews, who held themselves ceremonially defiled by contact with sepul- chres. Besides, the circumstance of Christ's having been born in a cave would not have been less remark- able than his being laid in a manger, and was more likely to have been noticed by the evangelist, if it had occurred ; and it is also to be observed that the present grotto is at some distance from the town, whereas Christ appears to have been born in the town; and, whatever may be the case in the open country, it has never been usual in towns to employ caverns as stables for cattle. To this we may add the suspicion which arises from the fact that the local traditions seem to connect with caverns almost even' interesting event recorded in Scripture, as if the ancient Jews had been a nation of troglodytes. See Cave. All that can be said about the "holy places" of Bethlehem has been well said by Lord Nugent (i, 13-21), and Mr. Stanley (p. 438-442). (See also, though interspersed with mu< h irrelevant matter, Stewart, p. 246, 334 sq.) Of the ar- chitecture of the church very little is known ; for a resume of that little, see Fergusson's Handbook enlarge it. The bishop of the diocese received similar orders, and be accordingly granted to them the- right of publicly celebrating in their church the mass. After the death of Betencourt, Brother An- thony became his successor as chief of the congrega- tion, and gave tn it. in accordance with the wish of the founder, a regular monastic constitution, which, Iiethleliemltj Me.nk, I'llileliendte Nun. Beth'-lehem-Ju'dah (Heb. BeytkLe'chem Ycku- dah, rn^irr Dr& rV3, Sept. B?/3X«/i 'Ioi'cYi), a more distinctive "title (Judg. xvii, 7, 8, 9; xix, 1, 18; Ruth i, 1 ; 1 Sam. xvii, 12) for the place usually called simply Bethlehem (q. v.), in the tribe of Judah. Beth-leptepha (Reland, Palcest. p. 648), the cap- ital of Bethlepthephene (Pliny, v, 15), a district oppo- site Pella, on the west of the Jordan (Josephus, ll'«r, iv, 8, 1) ; perhaps identical with the ruined site Beit- I/fa, at the north base of Mt. Gilboa (Van de Velde, Narrative, ii, S66). See Bethdlia. Bethlo'mon (Bai3v\w//£i), an incorrect form (1 Esdr. v, 17) of the name Bethlehem in Judah (comp. Ezra ii, 21). Beth-ma'achah (Heb. Beyth Maakah' [or ham- MaMalS], [or SWart] •"!=""? T'Z, house of [the] Maachah ; always with the prefix A bel or A belah ; Sept. Brt(,37i<(\rt, or BaiSruaaxd v.r. Baftaa\a, etc.), a place named in 2 Sam. xx, 14, 15, and there occurring more as a definition of the position of Abet, than for itself; more fully called Abel-beth-maachah (q. v.) in 2 Kings xv, 29. In the absence of more information, we can only conclude that it is identical with Maa- chah, or Akam-maachah, one of the petty Syrian kingdoms in the north of Palestine. Sec Aram. Beth-mar'caboth (Heb. Beyth Markaboth', F^S iTYiaa'HTa, house of chariots, in Chron. ; Sept. Ba&uap- \fi(pa\ciT or BaiScpaXdS), one of the towns in the extreme south of Judah (i. e. assigned to Simeon), named between Heshmon and Hazar-shual (Josh, xv, 27), and inhab- ited after the captivity (Neh. xi. 26, where it is Angli- cized " Beth-phelet"). It corresponds possibly to the "considerable ruin" on Till el-Kuseifeh (Robinson's Researches, ii, 620), a short distance N.E. of Moladah (Van dc Velde, Map). Beth-paz'zez (Heb. Beyth Puts/sets', ^23 tVja, house of 'dispersion ; Sept. BnSoytijp, but in Josh. Bty&^oywp or Bai9(poywp), a place in Moab, no doubt dedicated to the god Baal-peor, on the east of Jordan ; according to Eusebius and Jerome (J)nouuut. s. v. BeSnpoyop, Bcthfogo), it lav opposite Jericho, and six miles above Livias or Beth-haran. It was in the possession of the tribe of Reuben (Josh, xiii, 20). In the Pentateuch the name occurs in a formula by which one of the last halting-places of the children of Israel is designated — "the ravine (^KSrt) over against fa~) Beth-poor" (Deut. iii, 29 ; iv, 46). In this ravine Moses was probably buried (Deut. xxxiv, 6). It appears to have been situated on the slope of the eminence (Nebo or Peor), about half way between Heshbon and the north end of the Dead Sea. Here, as in other cases, the Beth- may be a Hebrew substitution for Baal-, or the name may be an abbre- viation of Baal-peor (q. v.). — Smith, s. v. Beth'phage (Bj/^ayij and Bifirpayt}, prob. for Syro-Chald. iGQ P"1?, h ruse of the unripe fig), the name of a village (iciopij) on the Mount of Olive, along the road from Jerusalem to Jericho, and situated at a fork of the road, where our Lord, on his way from Bethany to Jerusalem, procured an ass just be- fore reaching the summit of the Mount of Olives (Matt, xxi, 1 ; Mark xi, 1 ; Luke xix, 29). From the two being twice mentioned together (.Mark xi, 1 ; Luke xix, 29), it was apparently close to Bethany (q. v.), and it appears (from Matt, xxi, 1) to have 1 een nearer to the city. The fact of our Lord's making Bethany his nightly lodging-place (Matt, xxi, 17, etc.) is no confirmation of its direction from Bethphage, since he would doubtless take up his abode in a place where he had friends, even though it were not the first place BETH-PHELET 786 BETHSAIDA at whirl) he arrived on the road. Dr. Robinson argues (Researches, ii, 103) from the order of the names in these pass iges thai Bethphage lay to the east of Beth- any instead of westward, as the local tradition states; but his view has evidently been biassed by his arrange- ment of the gospel narrative at that point, by which he places this event on the way from Jericho instead <>f after the feast at Bethany (see his Harmony of the Gospels compared with Strong's Harmony and Exposi- tion). The name of Bethphage occurs often in the Talmud (Buxtorf, Lex Talm. col. 1691); and the Jew- ish glossarists misled (see Hug, Einl. i, 18,19) Light- foot (Ckoroff. Cent.ch. xli) and Otho (Lex. Rabb. p. 101 sq.) to regard it as a district extending from the foot of the Mount of Olives to the precincts of Jerusalem, and including the village of the same name (comp. Schwarz, Palest, p. 257). By Eusebius and Jerome (Onomast. -. v.), and also by Origen (see Biisching, Harmonie d. Evang. p. 35), the place was known, though no indication of its position is given ; they describe it as a village of the priests, possibly deriving the name from "Beth-phace," signifying in Syriac the "house of the jaw," as the jaw in the sacrifices was the portion of the priests (Reland, p. 653). Schwarz (p. 263 sq.) appears to place Bethphage on the southern shoulder of the " Mount of Offence," above the village of Siloam, and therefore west of Bethany. No remains which could answer to such a position have been found (Rob- inson. ii, 103), and the traditional site is above Betha- ny, half way between that village and the top of the mount (see Feustel, De Bethphage, Lips. 1686). Dr. Olin mentions (Trav. ii, 257) having seen foundations of houses and a cistern hewn in the rock at that place. Dr. Barclay, however {City of the fire if King, p. 66), identities Bethphage with traces of foundations and cisterns on the rocky S.W. spur of Olivet, a few hun- dred yards to the south of the Jericho-Jerusalem road, between Bethany and the Ivdron (comp. Stewart, Tent and Khan, p. 332). The name of Bethphage, the sig- nification of which, as given above, is generally accept- ed, is, like those of Bethany, Caphenatha, Bezetha, and the Mount of Olives itself, a testimony to the ancient fruitfulness of this district (Stanley, p. 187). Beth'-plielet (Neh. xi, 26). Sec Beth-palet. Beth'-rapha (Heb. Beyth Rapha', NSn ma, aottst <>f Rapha, or r/"the giant; Sept. Ba9pt(pd v. r. Badpata . a name occurring in the genealogy of Judah as apparently the eldest of the three sons of Eshton, '• men of Rechah" (1 Ohron. iv, 12). B.C. post 1618. There is a Rapha in the line of Benjamin and else- where, but no apparent connection exists between those and this, nov has the name been identified as be- longing to any place. — Smith, s. v. See Refhaim. Beth'-rehob (Heb. Beyth-Rechob', airrrlVa, how of Rehob; Sept. o7i>-oc 'Poo>/3 [v. v. 'Pat ; I and BatSrpowfi \ v. r. 'Pop^ She'mesh, C5E13 r.^3, house ';/'the sun ,• in pause Beyth Sha'mesh, C£C3 ~" ; Sept. in Josh, xv, 10, ttoXiq yXiov, elsewhere in Josh, and Judg. B»;3r7«/-o\tc ; Josephrs Wifzoaju]. Ant. vi, 1, 3), the name of four places. See HlCLIOPOLIS. 1. A sacerdotal city (Josh, xxi, 1G; 1 Sam. vi, 15,; 1 Chron. vi, 59) in the tribe of Dan, on the northern border (between Chcsalon and Timnath) of Judah (Josh, xv, 10), toward the land of the Philistines (1 Sam. vi, 9, 12), probably in a lowland plain (2 Kings xiv, 11), and placed by Eusebius and Jerome (Ono- mast. s. v. EtiSoa/ite, Bethsamis) ten Roman miles from Eleutheropolis, in the direction of the road to Xieopolis. The expression "went down" in Jcsh. xv, 10 ; 1 Sam. vi, 21, seems to indicate that the posi- tion of the town was lower than Kirjath-jearim ; and it is in accordance with the situation that there was a valley (p-OS) of corn-fields attache d to the place (1 Sam. v, 13). It was a "suburb city" (Josh. xxi'lG; 1 Chron. vi, 59), and it is named in one of Solomon's commissariat districts under the charge of Ben-Dekar (1 Kings iv, II). It was the scene of an encounter be- tween Jehoash, king of Israel, and Amaziah, king of Judah, in which the latter was worsted and made pris- oner (2 Kings xiv, 11, 13; 2 Chron. xxv, 21, 23). BETII-SIIEMESH 789 BETHUEL Later, in the days of Ahaz, it was tiken and occupied by the Philistines, together with several other places in this locality (2 Chron. xxviii, 18). From Ekron to Beth-shemesh a road (""H, bdoc.) existed along which the Philistines sent back the ark by milch-kine after its calamitous residence in their country (1 Sam. vi, 9, 12) ; and it was in the field of "Joshua the Betk-shemite" (q. v.) that the " great j Abel" (whatever that may have been, prob. a stone ; ssa Abel-) was on which the ark was set down (1 Sain, vi, 18). On this occasion it was that, according to the present text, " fifty thousand and threescore and ten men" were miraculously slain for irreverently exploring the sacred shrine (1 Sam. vi, 19). This number has occasioned much discussion (see Schram, Deplaga Bethschemitarum, Herb. 17. .). The numeral in the text has probably been erroneous!}' transcribed. See Abbreviation. The Syriac a-nd Arabic have 5070 instead of 50070, and this statement agrees with i 1 Cod. Kennicott (comp. Gesenius, Gesch. der Ilebr. Sprache, p. 174). Even with this reduction, the num- ber, for a provincial town like Beth-shemesh, would j still be great. We may therefore suppose that the j number originally designated was 570 only, as the ab- sence of any intermediate denomination between the ] first two digits would seem to indicate. The fact it- self has been accounted for on natural principles by some German writers in a spirit at variance with that of Hebrew antiquity, and in which the miraculous part of the event has been explained away by ungram- matical interpretations. See Number. By comparison of the lists in Josh, xv, 10 ; xix, 41, 43, and 1 Kings iv, 9, it will be seen that Ir-siiemesii (q. v.), "city of the sun," must have been identical with Beth-shemesh, Ir being probably the older form of the name ; and again, from Judg. i, 35, it appears as if Har-cheres, "mount of the sun," were a third name for the same pi ice, suggesting an early and ex- tensive worship of the sun in this neighborhood. — Kit- to, s. v. ; Smith, s. v. See Heres. Beth-shemesh is no doubt the modern Ainshems found by Dr. Robinson in a position exactly according with the indications of Scripture, on the north-west slopes of the mountains of Judah — "a low plateau at the junction of two fine plains" {Later Researches, p. 153) — about two miles from the great Philistine plain, and seven from Ekron {Researches, iii, 17-20 ; comp. Schwarz, Pa'est. p. 98). It is a ruined Arab village constructed of ancient materials. To the west of the village, upon and around the plateau of a low swell or mound, are the vestiges of a former extensive city, consisting of many foundations and the remains of an- cient walls of hewn stone. With respect to the ex- change of Beth for Ain, Dr. Robinson remarks (iii, 19) : " The words Beit (Beth) and Ain are so very com- mon in the Arabic names of Palestine, that it can ex- cite no wonder there should be an exchange, even with- out an obvious reason. In the same manner the an- cient Beth-shemesh (Ileliopolis of Egypt) is known in Arabian writers as Aiu-shems" (sec below). See Beth-; En-. 2. A city near the southern border of Issachar, be- tween Mount Tabor and the Jordan (Josh, xix, '22) ; probably the same with the present village Kaukab ("the stir') el-Hawa (Schwarz, Palest, \>. 1C7), which is also identical with the Belvoir of the Crusaders (see Robinson, Researches, iii, 22C). 3. One of the "fenced cities" of Naphtali, named (Josh, xix, 38 ; Judg. i, 33) in connection with Beth- anath, from neither of which places were the Canaan- lte inhabitants expelled, but became tributaries to Is- rael. Jerome's expression (Onom. Bethsainis) in ref- erence to this is perhaps worthy of notice, " in which the original inhabitants (cultores, ? worshippers) re- mained ;" possibly glancing at the worship from which the place derived its name. Keil (Comment on Josh. p. 440) confounds this place with the foregoing. M. De Saulcy suggests (Narrative, ii, 422) that it may have been identical with a village called Medjel esh- Shems, seen by him on the brow of a hill west of the road from Banias to Lake Phiala; it is laid down on Van de Velde's Map at 2i miles north of the latter. 4. By this name is mentioned (Jer. xliii, 13) an idolatrous temple or place in Egypt, usually called Ile- liopolis (q. v.) or On (Gen. xli, 45). In the Middle Ages Heliopolis was still called by the Arabs Ain- Shems, which is the modern name (Robinson, R< s< arch- es, i, 36). See Aven ; On. Beth'-shemite (Heb. Beyth hish-Shimshi' ', rP2 nw,"C'i*l7 ; Sept. tK BaiSroafxvg, o BaiS), a town of Judah, in the mountainous dis- trict, and near Hebron (Josh, xv, 53; comp. 1 Chr. ii, 43), where it has been discovered by Robinson (Re- searches, ii,-428) under the modern name of Tejpuh, If hour, about five miles, west of Hebron, on a ridge of high table-land. The terraces of the ancient culti- vation still remain in use; and though the "apples" have disappeared, yet olive-groves and vineyards, with fields of grain, surround the place on every side (Schwarz, Palest, p. 105).— Smith, s. v. See Apple. The simple name of Tappuah was borne by another town of Judah, which lay in the rich lowland of the Shefela (Josh, xiv, 34). See Tappuah. Also by one on the border between Manasseh and Ephraim (Josh, xvi, 8). See En-tappuah. Betlru'el (Heb. Bethuel' ', bx^a), the name of a man and also of a place. 1. (For ?X_:ir*0, individual of God [see Methu-] ; Sept. Ba&ovi]\, Josephus Ba$ovr}\oc.) The son of Nahor by Milcali, nephew of Abraham, and father of Rebekah (Gen. xxii, 22, 23; xxiv, 15, 24, 47 ; xxviii, 2). In xxv, 20, and xxviii, 5, he is called " Bethuel the Syrian" (i. e. Aramite). Though often referred to as above in the narrative of Rebekah's marriage, Bethuel only appears in person onco (xxiv, 50), fur BETIH'L 790 BETHUXE her brother Laban takes the leading part in the trans- (Robinson, ii, 172), but this is very much too far to the action. Upon this an ingenious conjecture is raised south to suit the narrative. Modern tradition has as- by Blunt (ficnmadimce. 4 i that he was the subject of sumed it to be Safed in North Galilee (Robinson, iii, Borne imbecility «r other incapacity. The Jewish tra- dition, as given in the Targum l's. -Jonathan on Gen. xxiv. 55 (comp. 33), is that he died on the morning after the arrival of Abram's servant, owing to his hav- ing eaten a sauce containing poison at the meal the evening before, and that on that account Laban re- quested that his sister's departure might be delayed for a year or ten months. Josephus was perhaps are on an "isolated rocky hill," wi aware of this tradition, since he speaks of Bethuel as siderable extent to the east, and, so dead {Ant. i, 16, 2). B.C. 2023.— Smith. See Sister. 2. (For ">X~r^2, house of God; Sept. Baiovi)\ v. r. BaBovX.) A southern city of Judah, i. e. Simeon ii Chron. iv, 30), elsewhere (Josh, xix, 4) called BETHl l. (q. V.). Beth'ul (Heb. Betkul', ^ra, contracted for Bethu- el; Sept. BaSovK v. r. BouXo),' a town of Simeon in the south, named with Eltolad and Hormah (Josh, xix, 4). In the parallel lists in Josh, xv, 30, and 1 Chron. iv, 9, the name appears under the forms of Chesil and Bethuel, and probably also under that of Bethel in Josh, xii, 16. Calmet incorrectly supposes it to be also the Bethulia of Judith (iv, 5 ; vi, 1). He has some- what greater probability, however, in identifying it with the Bethelia (BqSTjAia) of which Sozomen speaks (Eccl. Hist, v, 15), as a town belonging to the inhabi- tants of Gaza, well peopled, and having several temples I ruined village Beit-Ufa, on the northern declivity of remarkable for their structure and antiquity ; particu- Mt. Gilboa, containing rock graves, sarcophagi, and larlv a pantheon (or temple dedicated to all the gods), other marks of antiquity, and having a fountain near situated on an eminence made of earth, brought thith- (comp. Ritter, Erdk. xv, 423 sq. ; Gross, in the Zeitschr. er for the purpose, which commanded the whole city. d. mora. Gesch. iii, 58, 50). Dr. Robinson (Later Bib. He conjectures that it was named (house of God) from lies. p. 337), with his usual pertinacity, disputes this this temple. Jerome (Vita 8. Hilarionis, p. 84) al- conclusion. See BETii-LEniTEPHA. ludes to the same place (Betulhi) ; and it is perhaps the Bethune, George W., D.D., a Reformed Dutch episcopal city Betulium (BijtovXwv, Eeland, Palcest. p. minister and eminent orator, was born in the city of 639). There is a Beit-Ula extant a little south of the j New York in 1805. His father, Divie Bethune, was road from Jerusalem toward Gaza (Robinson's Res. ii, an eminent merchant, noted for his piety and philan- 342 note), about seven miles N.W. of Hebron (Van de thropy. His mother was the daughter of Isabella Velde's Map); but this is entirely too far north for Graham (q. v.), whose saintly virtues she inherited. 152), which again, if in other respects it would ;^gree with the story, is too far north. Von Eaumur (Pa 'list. p. 135) suggests Saniir, which is perhaps nearer to probability, especially since the discovery of Dothan (q. v.), which is probably meant by the Dothaim of Judith (see Schubert, iii, 161; Stewart, p. 421 ; Y;.n de Velde, Narrative, i, 367). The ruins of thtit town hill," with a plain of con- far as situation is concerned, naturally all but impregnable (Robinson, iii, 325). It is about three miles from Dothan, and some six or seven from Jenin (Engannim), which stand on the very edge of the great plain of Enlraelon. Though not absolutely commanding the pass which leads from Jenin to Sebustieh, and forms the only practicable ascent to the high country, it is yet suffi- ciently near to bear out the somewhat vague statement of Judith v, 6. Nor is it unimportant to remember that Saniir actually endured a siege of two months from Djezzar Pasha without yielding, and that on a subsequent occasion it was only taken after a three or four months' investment by a force very much out of proportion to the size of the place (Robinson, iii, 152). The most complete identification, however, is that by Schultz (in Williams's Holy City, i, Append, p. 46.1), who finds Bethulia in the still extant though the region indicated, which requires a location in the extreme S.W., possibly at the present water-pits call- After an academical education in New York, he pur- sued his collegiate studies at Dickinson College. Car- ed Themail (Robinson, i, 209), or rather the ruins just Hsle, Pennsylvania, at that time under the presidency north of them, and four miles south of Beer-sheba (Van 0f Dr. Mason, and, after graduating, entered the The- de Velde, Map). According to Schwarz (Palest, p. ological Seminary at Princeton in 1822. In 1825 he 113), it is identical with a hill (Jcbel Hassy, Van de I -was licensed by the New York Presbytery, and or- Velde, Memoir, p. 295) S. W. of Eleutheropolis, which \ dained to the ministry. After serving a year as naval he says is still called Bethulia ; but this lacks confirma- j chaplain at Savannah, he accepted the pastoral charge fcion, and is also too far north. j of the Reformed Protestant Dutch church at Rhinebeck, Bethu'lia (or rather Betylua, BervXova, for the where he remained until 1830, when he was called as Heb. rT&ina [Simonis, Churn. N. r.p.41] or n^W3 fe" t0 U?*' J™?, there*e wef to Philadelphia .■'■■■'- J T (1834) as pastor ofthe Crown Street church. He resign- for fiJPKWa, house of God Jehovah), a place men- ed his charge in &e latter city in 1849) and rernoved to tioned only in the apocryphal book of Judith (iv, G; Brooklyn, where a new church was built expressly for him, and in which he ministered until 1859, when illness compelled him to resign and spend a year in Europe. On his return he became associate pastor of Dr. Van Nest's church in New York, but, his strength continu- ing to decline, he was again compelled to go to Europe in search of health. On this tour he died at Florence, Italy, April 27, 1862, of congestion of the brain. Dr. 10, 11, 14 ; vii, 1, 3, C, 13, 20 ; viii, 3, 11 ; x, 6 19; xii. 7; xiii, 10; xv, 3, 6; xvi, 21, 23), of which it was the principal scene, and where its position is minutely described. It was near Dothaim (iv. 0), on a hill which overlooked (dirkvavn) the plain of Es- draelon (vi, 11, 13, 11: vii, 7, 10 ; xiii, 10), and com- manded the passes from that plain to the hill country of Manasseh i h Holofernes abandoned the idea of taking it by attack and determined to reduce it by possessing himself of the two s|irine;s or wells (iriiyai) which were "under the city," in tin- valley at the foot of the eminence on which it was built, and from which the Inhabitants derived tJieir chief Bupply of water (vi, 11 ; vii, 7, 13, 2] i. Notwithstanding this detail, however, the iden- tilieation of the site of Bethulia has hitherto been so great a puzzle as to form an important argument 1 |, in a position so strong that Bethune was one of the leading men ofthe Reformed Dutch Church. All the boards ofthe Church shared bis sympathies and labors, but, in particular, he devo- ted himself to the service ofthe Board of Publication. He was of opinion that a sound religious literature, doctrinal as well as practical, was needed, and must be brought down to the means ofthe masses, and that treatises on special doctrines, which general societies could not publish, should be prepared and issued. To show his interest in this work, he made over to the against the historical truth of the bopk of Judith (see board several of his own works of high character. CeUarii No**, iii. 18, 4). See Judith. In the Mid- Though always a conservative m polities, he was a de- dle Ages the name of Bethulia was given to "the termined opponent of slavery, and it was principally Frank Mountain," bctweon Bethlehem and Jerusalem due to him that the General Synod declined receiving BETII-ZECHAPJAH 191 BETOMASTHEM the chassis of North Carolina into the body. "When ' Jamos Buchanan was elected president, Dr. Bethune -wrote a long letter to that gentleman, with whom he had close personal relations, imploring him, as he loved his country, and would prevent the calamity of a civil war, to use his great influence, when in the prcsiden- [ tial chair, to arrest the march of the slave power. Dr. Bethune was for many years one of the most distin- guished ornaments of the American pulpit. He was exceedingly effective, and always popular on the plat- form and before a lyceum ; but the place in which, above all others, he loved to appear, was the pulpit, and the themes on which he delighted to expatiate were the distinctive doctrines of the old theology of Scotland and Holland. As a writer he was luminous and vigorous, with a rare grace of style. His theo- j logical acquirements were large and solid, and his general culture rich and varied. As a belles-lettres scholar he had few superiors. Himself a poet, he had | rare critical taste, as was shown in his British Female Poets, with Biographical and Critical Notices. He also edited "Walton's Complete Angler with a loving devo- tion. His works also include Lays of Love and Faith (12mo) ; Early Lost, Early Saved (Philad. 18mo) ; His- tory of a Penitent (18mo); Fruits of the Spirit (Philad. 8vo) ; Sermo7is (Philad. 1846, 12mo) ; Life of Mrs. Be- j thune (N. Y. 186,3, 12mo) : Lectures on the Heidelberg Catechism (N. Y. 1864, 2 vols. 12mo). Beth-Zechariah. See Bath-Zacharias. Beth'-zur (1Kb. Eeyth-Tmr', l^-rva, house of the rock ; Sept. Bijjaoi'p, in 2 Chron. BcaBcroi'pa, in 1 Chron. v. r. BatSaoi/p ; Apocrypha and Josephus B&vovpa'), a town in the mountains of Judah, named between Halhul and Gedor (Josh, xv, 58). So far as any interpretation can, in their present imperfect state, be put on the genealogical lists of 1 Chron. ii, 42-40, Beth-zur would appear from verse 45 to have been founded by the people of Maon, which again had derived its origin from Hebron. However this may be, Beth-zur was "built," i. e. probably fortified, by Rchoboam, with other towns of Judah, for the defence of his new kingdom (2 Chron. xi, 7). After the cap- tivity the people of Beth-zur assisted Nehemiah in the rebuilding of the wall of Jerusalem (Nch. iii, 16) ; the place had a "ruler" ("V£), and the peculiar word Pe- lelc (7j?E) is employed to denote a district or circle at- tached to it, and to some other of the cities mentioned here. See Topographical Terms. In the wars of the Maccabees, Beth-zur or Beth-sura (then not a large town, TToXixv)}, Joseph. War, i, 1, 4) plaj'ed an impor- tant part. It was "the strongest place in Judaea" (Jo- seph. Ant. xiii, 5, 6), having been fortified by Judas and his brethren "that the people might have a defence against Idumaea," and they succeeded in miking it "very strong, and not to be taken without great diffi- culty" (Josephus, Ant. xii, 9, 4) ; so much so that it was able to resist for a length of time the attacks of Simon Mac. (1 Mace, xi, 65) and of Lysias (2 Mace, xi, 5), the garrison having in the former case capitulated. Be- fore Beth-zur took place one of the earliest victories of Judas over Lysias (1 Mace. iv. 29), and it was in an attempt to relieve it when besieged by An- tiochus Eupator that he was defeated in the passes between Beth-zur and Bath-zacharias, and his brother Eleazar killed by one of the elephants of the king's army (1 Mace, vi, M2-47; Joseph. Ant. xii, 9, 3). Ac- cording to Eusebiua and Jerome (Oncmasticcn, s. v. BtSaoi'p, Bethsur), it was still called Bethsoron (Ib/5- oopuiv'), a village twenty miles from Jerusalem, on the road to Hebron, containing a fountain at the foot of a hill, said to he that where Philip baptized the officer of queen Candaee. The distance of five stadia from Jerusalem in 2 Mace, xi, 5, is too small (Cellarii Notit. ii, 565). The traditional Beth-sur of the Cru- saders, near Bethlehem, where the fountain of St. Philip is pointed out (Cotovic. p. 247 ; Pococke, ii, 67 ; ; Maundrell, p. 116), cannot be the real place, for Euse- bius places it much more to the south, and is in this supported by its history, which shows that it lay on what was the southern border of the Jordan in the time of the Maccabees, when the Idumajans had taken possession of the southernmost part of the country and made Hebron their chief town. In those times, in- deed, Beth-zur, or Bethsur, appears to have been the corresponding fortress on the Jewish side of the foun- tain to that of Hebron on the side of Idumroa, standing at a short distance, and probably over against it, as many similar fortresses are found to do at the present day. Near Hebron there is another well, called Bir es-Sur, which also gives name to the wady : this place may have been the ancient Beth-zur. However, here is no trace of ancient ruins (Robinson's lirse.tnh .■■, iii, 14). M. De Saulcy states that he heard of a modern village, corresponding in name to Beth-Zur, lying a short distjnee to the west of the road, soon after he left Hebron in passing northward, opposite Halhul, but he did not visit, it {Xurnttkr, i, 451 ). It is there- fore nearly certain that Beth-zur is near the modern ed-Dlrweh, notwithstanding the distance (about five Roman miles) of this latter place from Hebron ; it has a ruined tower, apparently of the time of the Crusades, and close by, a fountain with ruins as of an ancient for- tress, built of very large stones upon rocks hewn away to a perpendicular face (Robinson, Researches, i, 320). Mr. Wolcott learned that this hill still retained among the natives the name B it-Sur {Bib. Sac. 1843, p. 56). The recovery of the site of Beth-zur (Robinson's Lattr Researches, p. 277) explains its impregnability, and also the reason for the choice of its position, since it com- mands the road from Beershcba and Hebron, which has always been the main approach to Jerusalem from the south. A short distance from the tell, on which are strewn the remains of the town, is a spring, A in edh- Dhirweh, which in the days of Jerome and later was re- garded as the scene of the baptism of the eunuch by Philip. The tradition has apparently confounded this place with another Beth-zur (JJi3-r70i'(i)i which the Onn- masdeon (ut sup.) locates one mile from Eleutheropo- lis ; it may be noticed that Beitsur is not near the road to Gaza (Acts viii, 26 ), which runs much more to the north- west. See Gaza. This identification of Beth-zur is adopted by Wilson (Lands of the Bible, i, 386), and ap- parently coincides with that of Schwarz {Palest, p. 107). Betkiiis, Joachim, a German pastor, noted for fervent piety in a time of spiritual declension, was born in Berlin 1601, studied at Wittenberg, and was pastor of the village of Linum for 30 years. He died 1663. Me was one of the few German pastors of his time (be- fore the rise of Pietism [q. v.]) who preached and en- joyed a deep religious life. His favorite ejaculation was, "Lord, thou knowest that I love thee." He pul - lished Cliristi mismus Kthicus (Berlin, 1633): — Myste- rium cruris (Berlin, 1637) : — Sacerdotium, i. e. N. T. Kingly Priesthood (Berlin, 1640, 4to) : —Mensio Chris- tianismi et Ministerii Germanice (Measure of the Chris- tianity and Ministry of Germany by the ( Jhristian stand- ard ; Berlin, 1648, 6th ed.) :— Antichristenthum (Amst. 1650) : — Irenicum, seu fortitudn pads (Amst. 1760):— Excidium Germanice (Amst. 1766). He charged the religion of his age as being anti-Christian, partly from the faults and negligence of the pastors, and partly from the preaching of justification as if there were no sanctilication. — Herzog, Heal-EncyHop/ldie, ii, 123, Betogabris. See Eeeutheropoi.is. Beto'lius (BtroXtof), a place of which 52 Jews that returned from Babylon were inhabitants (1 Esdr. v, 21); evidently the Bethel (q. v.) of the Hebrew texts (Ezra ii, 28 ; Neh. vii, 32). Betomas'them (Bairo/iaaSraip., Judith xv, 4), o'f Betomes'tham (Bero/twffS'm'ju, Judith iv, 6), a place mentioned only in tho apocryphal book of Judith, as a ! town "over against Esdraelon, facing the plain that BETOXDI 792 BEVERIDGE is near Dothaim" (Judith iv, G), and in the vicinity of " Beliai, Chobai, and ( tola, in the coasts of Israel" (xv, t 1 "i. [,-, in the manner of its mention, it would seem to have been of equal importance with Bethulia (q. v.) it- self, bul it is doubtful whether it indicates any histor- ' ical locality whatever. See Judith. Bet'onim (Heb. Betonim', t^JbS, pistachio-nuts [comp. the botrdm, Gen. xliii, 11, and the Arabic butm terebinth]'; Sept. Boravifjt), a town in the trihe ■ of Gad, mentioned in connection with Ramath-mizpeh | and Mahanaim (Josh, xiii, 26) ; probably identical with | a ruined village Batneh (Robinson, Researches, iii, Ap- ■ p >nd. p. 169), on Mt. Gilead, about five miles west of cs-Salt (Van de Velde, Map). Betray (TrapaBidwpi), a term used especially of j the act of Judas in delivering up his Master to the Jews (Matt, x, 4 ; xxvii, 4,.etc). See Judas. Mon- , • ■graphs on several circumstances of the transaction ■ have been written by Krackewitz (Kost. 170!!), Oedcr (in his Misceli. Sacr. p. 50:5-20), Opitius (Kilon. 1710), Sommel (Lund. 1796), Gurlitt (Hamb. 1S05). Betroth (properly w^N, arash', fivnortvofiaC). A man and woman were betrothed or espoused, each to the other, when the}' were engaged to he married. See Espouse. Among the Hebrews this relation was usually determined by the parents or brothers, without consulting the parties until they came to be betrothed. The engagement took place very early, as is still the case in Oriental countries, though it was not consum- mated by actual marriage until the spouse was at least twelve years of age. The betrothing was performed a twelvemonth or more before the marriage, either in writing, or by a piece of silver given to the espoused before witnesses, as a pledge of their mutual engage- ments. Sometimes a regular contract was made, in which the bridegroom always hound himself to give a certain sum as a portion to his bride. From the time of espousal, however, the woman was considered as the lawful wife of the man to whom she was betrothed: the engagement could not he ended by the man with- out a I 'ill of divorce ; nor could she be unfaithful with- out being considered an adulteress. Tims Mary, after she was betrothed to Joseph, might, according to the rigor of the law, have been punished if the angel of the Lord had not acquainted Joseph with the mystery of the incarnation (Dent, xxviii, 30; Judg. xiv, 2, 8; Matt, i, 18-21). See Marriage. Betsel. See Onion. Betser. See Gold. Between-the-Logs. See Missions, Metho- dist. Beu'Iah (Heb. Beiilah', FftlSSL, married; Sept. paraphrases oiKovpevrf) occurs in Isa. lxii, -1, meta- phorically of Judroa, as of a land desolated, but again filled with inhabitants, when "the land shall be mar- ried (b"zr)," referring to the return from Babylon; or it may be applied to the Jewish Church to denote the intimacy of its relation to God. Beiishim. See Grapes, Wild. Bevan, Joseph Gcrney, one of the ablest writers of the Society of Friends, He Is the author of a num- bi r of Hi sological works, among which the following are the most important : l. .1 Refutation of some of the most n""f ni Misn / n s< ntations of the Socu ty oj Frii mis, ■ i called Quakers, with a Life of James Nayler (L I. 1800):— 2. The Lift of the Apostle Paul(Lond. 1*07). The latter work is highly recommended in Home's Introduction, and the geographical notes are said to stamp a r.-al value on the book. Bevans, John, a theological writer of the Society of Friends. He wn.te: | Defend oft/u Christian Doc- trines oftht Society of Friends against tht Charge of So- cinianism | Lond. 1805): — A brief View of the Doctrines of tht Christian Religion as professed ly the Society «f Friends (Lond. 1811) :— A Vindication of the Authenticity if the Xarra/ivet contained in the first two Chapters of the Gospel of St. Matthew and St. Luke (Lond. 1*22). The latter work is directed against the objections of the ed- itors of the Unitarian version of the New Testament. Beverage. The ordinary drink of the Jews was water, which was drawn from the public wells and fountains (John iv, 6, 7), and which was to be refused to no one (Matt, xxv, 35). Water also was the usual beverage of the Egyptians. Modern travellers attest that the water of the Nile, after it has been deposited in jars to settle, is particularly wholesome and pleas- ant, and is drunk in large quantities; while that from the few wells which are to be met with in that country is seldom palatable, being unpleasant and insalubrious. When the modern inhabitants of Egypt depart thence for any time, they speak of nothing but the pleasure they shall find on their return in drinking the water of the Nib. The knowledge of this circumstance gives a peculiar energy to the words of Moses, when he announced to Pharaoh that the waters of the Nile should be turned into blood, even in the very filtering vessels; and that the Egyptians should "loathe to drink of the water of the river" (Exod. vii, 17-19) ; that is, they should loathe to drink of that water which they used to prefer and so eagerly to long for. The common people among the Mohammedans drink water; the rich and noble drink a beverage called sherbet, which was formerly used in Egypt (Gen. xl, 11), where something like our ale or beer, termed bar- ley-wine, was also used, though probably not so far back as the time of Moses. The strong drink, "I30, shekar' ', or aliCEpa, of Luke i, 15, mentioned Levit. x, 9, means any sort of fermented liquors, whether prepared from corn, dates, apples, or an}' other kind of fruits and seeds. After the settlement of the Israelites in Canaan they drank wine of different sorts, which was preserved in skins. Red wine seems to have been the most esteemed (Prov. xxiii, 31). In the time of Sol- omon spiced wines were used, mingled with the juice of the pomegranate (Cantic. viii, 2), and also with myrrh. Wine was also diluted with water, which was given to the buyer instead of good wine, and was con- sequently used figuratively for any kind of adultera- tion (Isa. i, 22). Wine in the East was frequently diluted after it was bought, as may be inferred from two Arabic verbs, which still remain to indicate its dilution. From the pure wine there was made an artificial drink, VEM, chamets', which was taken at meals with vegetables and bread. It was also a com- mon drink (Num. vi, 3), and was used by the Roman soldiers (Matt, xxvii, 48). Medicated wines, it seems, were given to those who were to be crucified, in order to blunt the edge of pain .and lessen the acuteness of sensibility, which may explain the passage in Matthew xxvii, 34. See Wine. The vessels used for drinking among the Jews were at first horns ; but these were afterward used only for the purpose of performing the ceremony of anointing. The other drinking vessels were cups and bowls. See Cup. The cup was of brass covered with tin, in form resembling a lily, though sometimes circular; it is used by travellers to this day, and may be seen in both shapes on the ruins of Porsepolis. The bowl in Conn generally resembled a lily (Exod. xxv, 33), al- though it may have varied, for it had many names. Some had no cover, and were probably of a circular shape, as the Hebrew names seem to indicate. Bowls of this kind which belonged to the rich were, in the time of Moses, made of silver and gold, as appears from Num. vii, 84. The larger vessels from which wine was poured out into cups were called urns, hot- ties, small bottles, and a bottle of shell, 13, lead, with a small orifice. — Jahn, Archaeology, § 144. See Drink. Beveiidge, Thomas H., a Presbyterian divine, BEVEKIDGE 793 BEWLEY was born in March, 1830. He was the eldest son of j Dr. Thomas Beveridge, professor in the Theological Seminary of the United Presbyterian Church in Xenia, Ohio. He graduated at Jefferson College, and was ordained to the ministry in 1853 by the Associate Presbytery of Philadelphia, and in Dec. 1854, install- ed pastor of the Third Associate congregation of Phila- delphia. He was clerk of his presbytery from the time of his ordination, assistant clerk of the general assemblies of the United Presbyterian Church in 1859 and 1860, a member of the Board of Foreign Missions of his denomination, as also of the executive commit- tee of the Presbyterian Historical Society. He was a man of fine literary attainments, and for several years the able editor of the Evangelical Repository, a United Presbyterian monthly. He died suddenly of conges- tion of the brain, Aug. 15, 18C0. See Evangel. Re- pository, Sept. 18G0. Beveridge, William, D.D., bishop of St. Asaph, was born at Barrow, Leicestershire, in 1038. He was educated at Oakham, and entered the College of St. John, Cambridge, in May, 1653. He was not ordain- ed until after the Restoration, an interval which he probably employed in the investigation of the subject] to which the temper and tumult of the times directed so many other? — the primitive records and history of the Church, lie applied himself in the first instance to the Oriental languages; and his first publication, when he was only twenty years of age, was entitled Ue Linguarum Orientalium, etc., pi-cestantia et usu, cum Crammalica Syriaca (Lond. 1G58, again in 1G84, 8vo). In 1GG1 he was appointed to the vicarage of Ealing, r.nd in 1G72 to the living of St. Peter's, Cornhill. In IGG9 he published Insiiiutt. Chronol. libri duo (Lond. 1669, 4to). In 1681 he was made archdeacon of Col- chester, and in 1G91 he was offered the see of Bath and Wells, from which Ken had been expelled by the gov- ernment. This see Beveridge refused ; but in 1704 he accepted that of St. Asaph, which he held till his death, March 5th, 1708. In every ecclesiastical sta- tion which be held he exhibited all the qualifications and virtues which ought to distinguish an ecclesiastic. He was a man cf a very religious mind, and has been styled "the great reviver and restorer cf piinritive piety." His profound erudition is sufficiently evi- denced by his works, which include, besides those named above, 1. ~2.vv6Bikov sire Pandectm C tnonum SS. Apostolorum et Conciliorum, necnon canonicarum SS. Pa- trum epistolarum, cum scholis (Oxf. 1G72, 2 vols. fob). Vol. i contains the Prolegomena, canons apostolical, and those of the ancient councils, together with the Com- mentaries of Balsamon, Zonaras, and Aristenes, in Greek and Latin, in double columns ; the Arabic para- phrase of Joseph the Egyptian on the first four coun- cils, and a translation by Beveridge. Vol. ii contains the Canons of Dionysius, Peter of Alexandria, St. Gregory Thaumaturgus, St. Athanasius, St. Basil, and St. Gregory Nazianzen, together with the Scholia of the Greek Canonists, the Syntagma of Matthew Blas- tires, and tin- Remarks, etc., of Beveridge :— 2. Codex Canonum Eccl. Primitive vindicaivs et il/ustratiis (Lond. 1G78): — 3. An Explication of the Church Catechism (5th cd. 1714, 12mo):— 4. Private Thoughts (Lond. 1709: written iti his youth, but not printed until after his death):— 5. Sermons (2 vols. fol. 1720; and besides many other editions, in 1842, Oxf. 8vo) :— 6. Thesaurus Th< ologicus (Lond. 1711, 4 vols. 8vo ; Oxf. 1820, 2 vols. 8vo). His writings were collected into a new edition by T. Hartwell Home (Lond. 1824, 9 vols. 8vo), also in a more complete edition in the "Anglo-Catholic Library" (Oxf. 1844-1848, 12 vols. 8vo). Beverley, John of, a celebrated English ecclesi- astic of the 7th and 8th centuries. He was one of the first scholars of his age, having been instructed in the learned languages by Theodore, archbishop of Canter- bury, and he was himself tutor of the Venerable Bedc. The following works arc attributed to him : 1. Pro Lucd Etponendo, an essay toward an exposition of St. Luke, addressed to Bede :— 2. Homilice in Evangelia: — 3. Epistolce ad Herebaldum, Andenum, it Bertinum:— 4. Epistoloe ad Holdam Abbatissam. He was advanced to the see of Haguetold, or Hexham, by Alfred, king of Northumberland ; and on the death of Bosa, arch- bishop of York, in G87, he was translated to the vacant see. In 704 he founded a college at Beverley for sec- ular priests. In 717 he retired from his archiepiscopal functions to Beverley, where he died, May 7th, 721. — Fuller, Worthies; Engl. Cyclopedia. Bewitch signifies to deceive and lead astray by juggling tricks and pretended charms (Acts viii, 9, 11), where the Greek verb jgun-tyxi means literally to put out of one's self, to be out of one's mind. See Simon (Magus). The word used by the apostle, in the pas- sage Gal. iii, 1, "O foolish Gal.itians, who bath be- witched you ?" is fiaaKaivw, which may be understood to mislead by pretences, as if by magic arts, to fascinate. See Sorcery. Whan Christianity was first promulgated, the nations under the dominion of the Romans, which comprehend- ed the larger part of the civilized world, were greatly addicted to mysterious practices, supposing that thera existed in nature certain influences which they could control and manage by occult signs, expressed in dif- ferent ways and on different materials, and among the nations niost notorious for these opinions were the Jews and th2 Egyptians. It is not, therefore, surpris- ing that some should hive brought with them and en- grafted on Christianity such opinions and practices as they had formerly entertained. Accordingly, we see that the apostles found it necessary very early to guard their converts against such persons, cautioning them to avoid "profane and vain babblings and oppositions of science, falsely so called" (1 Tim. vi, 20); and in several other passages there are evident allusions to similar errors among the first professors of Christiani- ty. Nordic! the evil cease as the doctrines of the Gospel expanded themselves : a number of persons in succes- sion, for two centuries afterward, are recorded as dis- tinguished leaders of these wild opinions, who mixed up the sacred truths of the Gospel with the fantastic imaginations of a visionary science. See Possessed (with a Devil) ; Superstition. Bewley, Anthony, one of the Methodist anti- slaverv martyrs of America, was born in Tennefsee, May 22, 1804. In 1829 be was admitted on trial for the' Methodist ministry in the Tennessee Conference, and in 1843 he entered the Missouri Conference. On the division of the Methodist Episcopal Church in 1844 on the slavery question, Mr. Bewley refused to join the Missouri' Conference in its secession, and preached for several years independently, supporting himself and his family by the labor of his own hands. Other preachers, faithful to the Church, gathered about him, and he was, by common consent, their "presid- ing elder." In 1848 the Methodist Episcopal Church in Missouri was reorganized, and Mr. Bewley entered its service. Persecution of the "abolitionist" preach- ers sprang up every where in the South-west, foment- ed by politicians of the slaveholding class. But Mr. Bewley held on his way, and in 1858 was appointed to Texas. He was compelled by violence to leave his work, but returned to it in 1860. His friends sought to dissuade him, but bis reply was to all, ':Let them hang or burn me on my return if they choose, hun- dred" will rise up out of my ashes." Accordingly he and his family, including his two sons-in-law, one of whom lived in Kansas and the other in Missouri, re- turned to Texas. Within a few weeks an increased excitement broke out, when he was threatened anew bv the people, and he concluded to leave Texas, be. lfeving he could do no good there ; for. as mob law had been established by the Legislature, he remember- ed the injunction of our Lord, "When they persecute BEWRAY T94 BEZA you in one city, flee to another." After his departure a reward of ^1 » was offered for his capture. He D in Missouri in September, 1860, and carried back to Texas, and hanged on a tree at Fort Worth by the mob, on Sept. 13,1860.— Methodist Quarterly Review, Oct. 1863, p. 626. Bewray (in Isa. xvi, 3, nbs, galah', to reveal, or disclose, as elsewhere rendered ; in Prov. xxix, 24, IM, nagad', to tell, as elsewhere ; in Prov. xxvii, 16, SO£, torn', to call, i. e. proclaim, as elsewhere; in Matt. xx\ i, 73, woikw 5rj\ov, to make < v \l< nt), an old English Word equivalent to "betray." Bexley, Lord (Nicholas Vaxsittart), was the son of Henry Vansittart, Esq., governor of Bengal. He was born April 29, 17G6, was educated at Oxford, and was called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn in 1791. He entered Parliament for Hastings in 1796. In 1801 he was sent to Denmark as minister plenipotentiary, and alter his return he was appointed secretary of the treasury in Ireland, and in 1805 secretary to the lord lieutenant, and also a member of the Privy Council. He was chancellor of the exchequer under Lord Liv- erpool until January, 1823, when he was raised to the peerage under the 'title of Lord Bexley, of Bexley, Kent. Lord Bexley was a constant supporter of many «f the great religious institutions of our. age. He was a liberal contributor to the Religious Tract Society, and his services to the British and Foreign Bible So- ciety, especially amid its early difficulties, were of pre- eminent value. On the decease of Lord Teignmouth, February, 1834, he was chosen by the unanimous vote of the committee President of the Bible Society, an office which he held until his death in 1850, giving constant attention to the interests of the institution. A few weeks before his decease he presented to it a donation of £1000.— Timpson, Bible Triumphs, p. 379. Beyond. The phrase " beyond Jordan" (~\"2$ •jl-^n, iripav tov 'lopcc'ivov) frequently occurs in the Scriptures, and to ascertain its meaning we must, of com'-", attend to the situation of the writer (see Kuinol, ( 'omrm nt. in John i, 28). With Moses it usually signi- fies the country on the western side of the river, as he wrote upon its eastern bank (Gen. i, 10, 11; Deut. i, 1.5; iii, 8, 20; iv, 46); but with Joshua, after he had crossed the river, it means the reverse (Josh, v, 1 ; xii, 7 ; xxii, 7). In Matt, iv, 15, it means " by the side of the Jordan." See Atad. Beyrout. See Berytus. Beytsah. SccMishna. Beza (Theodore de Bkze), one of the most emi- nent of the Reformers, the friend and coadjutor of Cal- vin, wa8bornatVezelai,inthe Nivernais, June 24, 1519. lie passed the iirst years of his life with his uncle, Nich- olas de Beza, counsellor in the Parliament of Paris, who sent him, before he was ten years old, to study at Or- leans, where his preceptor was Melcbior Wolmar, a converl to Protest mtism. Beza accompanied Wolmar to the University of Bourges, and remained, in the whole, fur seven years under his tuition. During this tine- he became an excellent scholar, and he afterward acknowledged a deeper obligation to his tutor for hav- ing "imbued him with the knowledge of true piety, drawn from the limpid fountain of the Word of God." in 1635 Wolmar returned to Germany, and Beza re- paired t" » irleana to study law ; but his attention was chiefly directed to the classics and the composition of verses. [lis verses, published in 15 is, under the title Juvenilia, were chiefly written during this period of his life, and their indecency caused him many a bitter pang in afterlife. Beza obtained his degree as licentiate of civil law in 1539, upon which he went to Paris,_where he spent nine years, tie was young, handsome, and of ample means ; for, though not in the priesthood, he enjoyed the proceeds of two good benefices, amounting, he says, to 700 golden crowns a year. The death of a brother added to his income, and an uncle, who was abbot of Froidmond, expressed an intention of resign- ing that preferment, valued at 15,000 livres yearly, in his favor. Thus, in a city like Paris, he was exposed to strong temptation, and his conduct has incurred great censure. That his life was grossly immoral he denies ; but he formed a private marriage with a woman of birth, he says, inferior to his own. He was to marry her publicly as soon as the obstacles should be removed, and, in the mean time, not to take orders, a thing en- tirely inconsistent with taking a wife. Meanwhile his relatives pressed him to enter into the Church ; his wife and his conscience bade him avow his marriage and his real belief; his inclination bade him conceal both and stick to the rich benefices which he enjoyed; and in this divided state of mind he remained till ill- ness brought him to a better temper. On his recov- er}' he fled to Geneva, at the end of October, 1548, and there publicly solemnized his marriage and avowed his faith. After a short residence at Geneva, and sub- sequently at Tubingen, Beza was appointed Greek professor at. Lausanne: During his residence there he took every opportunity of going to Geneva to hear Cal- vin, at whose suggestion he undertook to complete Marot's translation of the Psalms into French verse. Marot had translated 50, so that 100 Psalms remained : these were first printed in France, with the royal li- cense, in 1561. Beza, at this time, employed his pen in support of the right of punishing heresy by the civil power. His treatise De Hatretids a Civili Magistraiu punimdis is a defence of the execution of Servetus at Geneva in 1553. Beza was not singular in maintain- ing this doctrine; the principal churches of Switzer- land, and even Melancthon, concurred in justifying by their authority that act which has been so fruitful of reproach against the party by whom it was perpetrated. His work De Jure M