THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY,! Princeton, N. J. ^TT’S Case, D DT’GO j Sect. . eVA*S9....1 Book, J «T) I » J Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2016 https://archive.org/details/monumentsofegyptOOhawk V r. - '*' > 'V' f'l '<;•■,»■ 55: ’»?i ^ • U>‘ *v. ' • ‘A ■ '* J iT #4rj; V •' . »#■ » .4 ' • a » 'i A. , ♦ r' # f % ♦ 1 «•* THE MONUMENTS OE EGYPT; OR, EGYPT A WITNESS FOE THE BIBLE. BY FRANCIS L. HAWKS, D.D., LL.D. WITH NOTES OF A VOYAGE UP THE NILE BY AN A3IEEICAN. NEW- YORK : GEO. P. PUTNAM, 155 BROADWAY. LONDON: JOHN MURRAY. M.DCCC.L. Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1849, by G. P. Pdtnam," m the Clerk’s Office of the District Court for the Southern District of New- York. John F. Trow, P Tin ter and St ereo t yper ^ 49 Ann-street, New-York. TO THE RIGHT REV. BISHOP BROWNELL, OF CONNECTICUT, THIS BOOK S0 ErspHtfEllij 3^3rrilIE^I, IN GRATEFUL RECOGNITION OF THE UNWAVERING FRIENDSHIP OF MANY YEARS. CONTENTS. EGYPT AND ITS MONUMENTS. CHAPTER I. Interest excited by Egypt. — Object of the present work. — Art of writing very ancient in Egypt. — Egyptian author, Manetho. — Greek writers, Herodotus, Diodorus. — Work of Horapollo. — Modern efforts at deciphering the hierogly- phics. — Father Kircher. — Zoega. — Warburton’s hint. — Quatremere’s discovery. — Work of the French savans. — Discovery of the Rosetta stone, . . 17 CHAPTER II. Rosetta stone. — Specimens of the inscription. — Dr. Young’s discoveries. — De Sacy. — Akerblad. — Champollion le Jeune. — Discovery of homophones. — Sir Gardner Wilkinson’s tribute to Champollion. — Exposure of the ignorance of the French savans, by Champollion, 32 CHAPTER III. Examples of Egyptian writing. — Hieroglyphic. — Hieratic. — Demotic, . 50 CHAPTER IV. Climate of the Valley of the Nile. — Extreme dryness. — General appearance of Egyptian ruins. — Temples, tombs. — Arts of design in ancient Egypt. — Princi- p.al localities on the Nile, 68 6 CONTENTS. CHAPTER V. Remarks on testimony. — Application of them to the evidence afforded by the monuments. — Facts related in Abraham’s history, tested by Egyptian re- mains, 86 CHAPTER VI. Joseph, 123 CHAPTER VII. The bondage, 174 CHAPTER VIII. The deliverance, 191 CHAPTER IX. The wanderings, 222 CHAPTER X. Direct monumental confirmation of Scriptural history, .... 244 VOYAGE UP THE NH.E. Turkish Steamer to Egypt from Constantinople, .... Page 5 PART I. Purpose in going to Egypt. — Preparatory studies. — Europe. — Greece. — Arrival in Egypt. — Atfeh. — Cairo. — Donkeys. — Lions of Cairo. — Mohammed Ali in CONTENTS. 7 1848-9. — Ibrahim Pacha’s death. — Abbas Pacha. — Our new consul-general, Mr. Macauley. — Ghizeh. — Pyramids. — Sphinxes. — Memphis. — Pelusiac branch of Nile. — Treasure Cities. — Library of Egyptian Association. — A Lion of Dongola. — Bastinado. — Ghourah bazaar. — Differei« bazaars. — Mr. Lane. — Chivalry and the East. — Sights of Cairo. — Dr. Abbot’s Museum. — Egyptian Literary Association. — Tombs of the Memlooks, of Mohammed Ali’s family. — Ibrahim Pacha. — Site of Roman Babylon. — Mosques. — Mataryeh. — Tree and fountain of Holy family. — Heliopolis. — Prophecies. — Translation of obelisks. — Rhoda island and tradition of Moses. — Departure for Upper Egypt. — River palaces of Old Cairo. — Pyramids of Howara. — Boatmen and dragoman — An Arab Sheikh. — Grottoes of El Massara and the Hebrews. — Adventures ashore — Benisooef. — Heracleopolis. — Behnesa. — Oxyrinchus. — Gebel el Teir. — Mythol- ogies and traditions. — Sheikh Said. — Gebel Aboulfaydee. — Gebel Hassan. — Site of Antinoe. — Anchorite caves. — Coloso and Almds. — Turks and Persians. English travellers. — Dangers of the Nile. — Fayoom. — Minieh. — Gebel Heredy. — Sindbad the sailor. — Colossus of Cnuphis. — Panorama of the Nile. — A fair wind. — Arab’s delight. — Manfaloot. — Beni Hassan. — Tombs. — The songstress of the Arab village. — Convents. — Oshmunein and Mercury. — Hermes and Joseph. — The Bedouin town. — Osiout. — Bazaars. — Sights. — Tombs of Mountains. — Turkish bath and the Dutchman. — A bright evening. — Arab tales. — Soohajz. — Convent of Aboo Shenood. — Carrier Arab. — Gebel-el- Said. — How. — Mountains of Egypt. — Bedouin antiquaries. — Scenery of Chen- obuscion. — Boats of lady travellers. — Crocodiles. — An Egyptian sunset. — Ikhmim and the Superior of the Convent. — Fertihty of the Nile. — Tahta. Islands. — Menshieh. — Incidents with Reis, crew and dragoman. — Girgeh, 8 PART II. PROVINCE OF THE TUEBAII), IN THE ANCIENT DIVISION OF UPPER EGYPT. CHAPTER I. Abydos, 16 8 CONTENTS. CHAPTER II. Visit to the temple of Dendera. — The walk through the doom-palm villages. — Crossing the river. — First sight of temple. — Rubbish. — Ruins. — The temple. — The effect of the front. — Columns. — Countenance of Athor the Egyptian Venus. — The idea of the temple. — The ruined temple. — Grand temple. — Ty- phonium. — Sculptures of the gods. — Sunset from the temple. — Evening in the temple. — The supper. — The Bedouin camp. — The bivouac. — The fires. — The watch-dog. — Canopus and the southern cross. — Mussulman virtues. — The women. — The morning. — The Repast. — Second visit to Dendera. — The smaller temple posterior. — Historical part of the temple. — Sculpture of Cleo- patra and the Ptolemies, Alexander, &,c. — View from the mound. . 67 CHAPTER HI. Gheneh and its bazaar. — Abyssinians. — Turco-English Consul. — Dr. Cuni. — Ar- rival at Thebes. — Luxor. — Kamac. — Temple of Ammon. — Sanctuary. — Scrip- ture proofs, 76 CHAPTER IV. West Thebes. — Medinet Habou. — The first small temple, and its histories. — The second larger temple — the Roman part. — The Christian church — palace — temple of Thothmes I. and Thothmes II. — Thothmes Moeris. — The palace residence of Rameses Meiamoum. — Memnonium. — Goumou. — An adven- ture, 92 CHAPTER V. Visit to Biban-el-Memlook. — Tombs of the Kings. — Thebes as it was, 107 CHAPTER VI. Hermonthis or Herment. — Adventure with a bull. — Esne. — Governor. — Temple. — Alm^s. — Zodiacs. — Arab songs. — Amaouts. — Cataracts. — Philae. — Nubia. — .\byssinia — Down the Nile. — Gaw or Antaeopolis. — Animals of Egypt. — Convents — Night adventure on return to Cairo, .... 124 CONTENTS. 9 CHAPTER VII. Cairo. — View from Esbekiah. — Abbas Pacha. — Illuminations. — Women in the East. — Defterdar Bey. — A Moslem Lucrezia Borgia. — Memphis. — Pyramids. — Sacred tradition. — Alexandria. — Farewell to Egypt, . . . 141 CHAPTER VIII. Alexandria and its lions, 150 Appendix, 157 ILLUSTRATIONS. 1. Temple of Karnac, 2. Gerf Hossien, 3. Map of the Valley of the Nile, 4. Aboo-Sirabul, 5. Interior of a Tomb, 6. Sphinx and Pyramids, 7. Koom-Ombos, 8. Egyptian Chair, 9. Temple of Edfou, 10. Ruins of Luxor, 11. Temple of Medinet-Habou, 12. Statues of Memnon, . . . Frontispiece. . . . Title-page. . . . To face p. 68 71 75 81 85 155 (Voyage Up THE Nile,) “ 61 « « 80 “ “ “ 93 “ ,, « 99 TVOODCUTS INSERTED EN THE TEXT. PAGE 13. Tablet of Abydus, .......... 25 14. Hieroglyphics from the Rosetta Stone, ....... 35 15. Record of a Marriage, ........ 52 16 — 22. Hieroglyphic Writing, ......... 56 — 66 23. Appearance of the Nile during an inundation, . . . . . .70 REPRESENTATIONS FROM MONUMENTS AND TOMBS. Negro Captives, .......... 74 Servant and her Mistress, . • . . . . . . . . 105 A party of Egyptian Ladies, ........ 106 Scribe taking account of Black Slaves, . . . . . . .107 White Slaves, ....... 107 Steward overlooking the Tillage, etc., ........ 129 Egyptian mode of bearing on the head, .......' 132 Signet-rings and Bracelets, ........ 139 Necklaces and Ornaments, ....... 143 Investing with the Necklace, ......... 142 Egyptian Granary, .......... 148 Storing Corn. ........... 149 Egyptians at Meat, .......... 154 Guests at an Egyptian Entertainment, . . . . . . . .156 Carus from Egyptian Sculptures, ........ 157 Sculptures supposed by some to represent .Joseph emd his Brethren, . . . 158 40. Egyptian Funeral Procession, ........ 171 41. The Bastinado, ........... 177 42. Brickmaking, ........... 181 43. Working in Metals, .......... 226 44. Sentence affixed to a House, ......... 237 45. Doorway with name upon it, ........ . 237 46. Figure sculptured at Karnac— supposed to represent a King of Judah, . . . 247 EGYPT AND ITS MONUMENTS. ■ •• - ..^ v» - vm '•v^i * ' jj" ' ■ 'i • •* i ili ^ ** ‘j4a‘ i«# ■ f*’ r'i INTRODUCTION. The compiler of the following pages was prompted to the work partly by his own reflections, and partly by the request of a friend, who thought that such a labor might be useful to the cause of truth. It is not a scientific work, nor was it penned for the learned. They probably will have already acquired, in their studies, all the information they can gather from its pages. On such a subject as this book presents, to have attempted originality, would unavoidably have been to commit error ; for its simple object was to collect into a plain and com- prehensible compend, the results of the research of many different inquirers in the field of Egyptian archaeology. The writer, therefore, begs leave distinctly to disavow all claim to the merits of authorship. He aspires here to no more than the humble office of a compiler. He will be abundantly satisfied, if he shall be found to have so used the materials, furnished by others more learned than himself, as to have made an intelligible, true, and readable book. He would not be guilty of the injustice of robbing those to whose labors he has been so largely indebted. He has 14 INTRODUCTION. used them without hesitation or reserve, wherever they could, in his view, advance the cause of truth ; because, first, he believed of many of them that, as lovers of truth, they would not withhold such use ; and next, because he meant distinctly to declare to the world, as he has done, that he claims to be no more than a compiler. He has often referred in the follow- ing pages to the writer from whom he obtained information, and has quoted his words ; but as in some instances this is not done, he begs leave to make a general acknowledg- ment, and enumerate the principal authors to whom he is indebted. These are Champollion le Jeune, Champollion Figeac, Rosellini, Young, Spineto, Lepsius, Wilkinson, Birch, Osborn, Bunsen, Kitto, Hengstenberg, and the “ Description ” of the French savans. Had there been -precisely such a work as is here attempted, accessible to English readers, the writer would, with becoming modesty, have withheld his efforts. The only one of a similar kind, is the truly learned work of Hengstenberg, “ Egypt and the Books of Moses very well translated into English from the German, in 1843, by Mr. Robbins, then of the Andover Seminary, and published in the same year. But this work, valuable as it confessedly is, (and none has been more useful to the compiler,) is almost too learned for general readers : its arrangement also seemed susceptible of improvement ; but above all, there was additional testimony resting in the writings of others, which it was desirable to incorporate with the valuable contributions of Hengstenberg. Hence the pre- sent attempt. It had been easy to make the work more full. Many more illustrations and confirmations might have been pro- duced, and a chapter might have been written on the fulfil- INTRODUCTION. 15 merit of prophecies concerning Egypt : but to have done this, would have been in some measure to defeat the object of the work ; which was to select the plainest and most intelligible proofs, and to present them with reasonable brevity ; in the hope that without wearisomeness they might engage the attention of the general reader, who could not be expected to find much interest in evidence that could be made plain by learned discussion only. To Mr. Gliddon undeniably belongs the merit of having first awakened general attention, in the United States, to the very interesting subject of Egyptian antiquities. As the result of his labors in that cause, many intelligent and edu- cated Americans have since busied themselves in the field of research. Several have visited Egypt ; and while the following sheets were passing through the press, one of them returned from that country, who, at the request of the writer, placed at his disposal a brief journal of his voyage up and down the Nile. This is printed at the close of the present volume, with a note explanatory of the causes which led to its appearance. New- York, September, 1849 . i- EGYPT AND ITS MONUMENTS. CHAPTER I. Interest excited by Egypt. — Object of the present work. — Art of writing very ancient in Egypt. — Egyptian author Manetho. — Greek WTiters, Herodotus, Diodorus. — AVork of Horapollo. — Modern efforts at deciphering the hierogly- phics. — Father Kircher. — Zoega. — AVarburton’s hint. — Quatremere’s discovery. — AV'ork of the French savans. — Discovery of the Rosetta stone. “Egypt. — This country offers subjects of conversation and meditation which no traveller can entirely neglect, Avho- ever he may be, if he have eyes to see, a memory to remem- ber, and a sprinkling of imagination Avherewith to dream. Who can be indifierent to the tableau of unaccountable Nature on the banks of the Nile : at the spectacle of this river-land, that no other land resembles? YVho Avill not be moved in the presence of this people, Avhich of old accom- plished such mighty deeds, and now are reduced to misery so extreme ? W*ho can visit Alexandria, Cairo, the Pyramids, Heliopolis, Thebes, without being moved by reminiscences, 2 18 EGYPT AND ITS MONUMENTS. the most imposing and the most diverse 1 The Bible, Homer, Philosophy, the Sciences, Greece, Rome, Christianity, the Monks, Islamism, the Crusades, the French Revolution : almost every thing great in this world’s history seems to con- verge into the pathway of him who traverses this memorable country ! Abraham, Sesostris, Moses, Helen, Agesilaus, Alex- ander, Pompey, Caesar, Cleopatra, Aristarchus, Plotinus. Paco- mus, Origen, Athanasius, Saladin, St. Louis, Napoleon ! what names ! what contrasts i * *•»*** ^ country made to occupy eternally the world, Egypt appears at the very origin of the traditions of Judea and of Greece. Moses issues from her ; Plato, Pythagoras, Lycurgus, Solon, Herodotus, Strabo and Tacitus enter into her bosom to be initiated in her sciences, religion and laws.” Thus breaks forth the enthusiasm of an eloquent French writer, as he kindles in the contemplation of a favorite theme. Without participating in the excitement of his feelings, it must still be confessed, that there is an absorbing interest in the land which he thus glowingly depicts. The attention that it has excited within the last half century has developed so much, which neither the Christian nor the scholar is willing to neglect ; that patient labor still employs itself in research, undeterred by unusual difficulties, and undisgusted by the ex- aggerations of the too credulous archaeologist. Persevering industry will overcome the one, and a sound judgment affords a corrective to the other. Nor must it be supposed that the exaggeration is all on one side. If there be those who have prematurely sounded the note of triumph in their supposed discovery of monumental testimony that disproves the truth of the sacred records ; it must not be forgotten, that, on the other hand, there are some who have found, as they imagine. ANTIQUITY OF WRITING. 19 in certair. particulars, evidence for the Bible, of the conclusive- ness of w hich, even the sober-minded Christian will entertain a doubt. He who is best acquainted with the present state of Egyptian discoveries, cannot but feel, that our knowledge is yet much too imperfect on some points, to justify over-confident assertion or critical dogmatism. From the tomb of past ages, much that is very valuable has undoubtedly been disinterred : that much yet remains to be unburied, is proved by the con- stant accumulation of facts, daily added to our already exist- ing knowledge of Egyptian antiquities. It is, perhaps, not saying too much to assert, that, with our present materials, any attempt at generalization on all the points brought to our notice by a study of Egyptian archasology, is premature, and as to some points, must terminate in erroneous conclusions. The object of the present volume, therefore, is neither to afford a connected history of Egypt, nor to furnish the reader with a satisfactory explanation of every inscription or represen- tation on the walls of its venerable ruins. Its less ambitious, and it is hoped not less useful aim, is to bring forward, in an intelligible form, certain facts that appear to be well attested, and thus to afford to the reader the means of judging for him- self how far they furnish illustration of, or give direct confirma- tion to, the truth of events recorded in the Scriptures. A necessary preliminary to the performance of this under- taking, is a recital of the sources of information we possess in matters relating to Egypt ; and particularly an account of the discoveries made in hieroglyphical interpretation within the last half century. With that, therefore, we commence. Of the very great antiquity of writing among the Egyp- tians, and of their consequent early possession of books, little doubt seems now to be entertained among the learned. The 20 EGYPT AND ITS MONUMENTS. inkstand and the stylus are found on monuments which cany us back to a period anterior, as is supposed, to the time of which we have any recorded history. But on this subject we are not left to a mere inference from monumental remains. The earliest writings of the Egyptians, are believed to have been contained in their sacred books. For our knowledge of these writings we are indebted chiefly, and indeed almost entirely, to Clemens of Alexandria. He is entitled to belief, as having been a resident in Egypt, if not a native, eminently learned, and of unimpeachable Christian character. His life terminated between the years of our Lord 200 and 220 ; and he states that in his time the Egyptians had forty-two sacred books. These books were divided into several classes ; one, for instance, was on medicine ; another on astronomy ; a third was on the hieroglyphical art, and consequently taught the rudiments of Egyptian writing ; a fourth class was devoted to religious worship, while another comprised the sacerdotal books, and bore the general name of Hieratic writings. These last, as Clement states, treated of “ the Laws, the Deities, and the entire education of the Priests.” The only portion of these writings of which the moderns are as yet possessed, is in what Champollion called the “Ritual,” and Lepsius named “The Book of the Dead.” It was originally found in the tombs of the kings at Thebes, in the form of a hieroglyphical papyrus. Its pictorial ornaments showed that it treated of ceremonies in honor of the dead, and the transmigration of souls. Afterward, Champollion found a much more perfect copy in the museum of Turin : this has been published by Lepsius, with the remark that “ this book furnishes the only example of a great Egyptian literary work, transmitted from the old Pharaonic times.” It possesses one BOOK OF THE DEAD. 21 peculiarity that is significant of its great antiquity ; it is written in the pure monumental hieroglyphic character, while in all the other extant remains of Egyptian literature, the hieratic character is employed. This difference is important in other aspects, to which we advert not here, as the object now is simply to illustrate the fact of the great antiquity of the art of writing in Egypt. The next question that naturally arises, is an inquiry whether any, and if any, what historical works have come down to our day from Egyptian authors? The answer to this must be, that although we have some fragments, of which to speak presently, yet that nothing deserving the name of an authentic and continuous history concerning ancient Egypt, has yet been found in her monuments or elsewhere ; while of some portions of that history, the only records worthy of con- fidence, are contained in the Bible. For the preservation of these, the pride of a tyrannical Pharaoh little dreamed that it would be indebted to the oppressed victims of its persecution. The proud triumphs of Egyptian kings are lost in the past, or but indistinctly read in a mysterious language on the de- caying walls of temples, tombs, and palaces ; while the heart- less cruelties that preceded the exode of a race, outcasts in Egypt and trampled in the dust, are chronicled by the pro- vidence of God, for all time, on imperishable pages : “ The evil that men do lives after them.” Egypt has no certain history of her ancient greatness. That her “sacred books did not contain any history of the Egyptian nation,” says the Chevalier Bunsen, “ is no less certain than that the Old Testament does contain that of the Jews. The 22 EGYPT AND ITS MONUMENTS. idea of a people did not exist — still less that of a people of God, the Creator of the heavens and the earth. History was born in that night, when Moses, with the law of God, moral and spiritual, in his heart, led the people of Israel out of Egypt.” It has already been intimated that fragments of Egyptian writers have come down to our days. Of these, the only one worthy of note is Manetho. He lived in the time of Ptolemy Philadelphus, about 180 b. o. His work, originally in three volumes or books, was written, it is said, at the command of Ptolemy, and is now lost. All that we have of it is to be found in quotations from it, in the writings of Josephus, Euse- bius, and Syncellus. The last of these quotes from two abbreviators of Manetho, one of whom was Eratosthenes ; the work of the other is called “ The Old Chronicle.” JIanetho (as Plutarch informs us) was a priest of Seben- nytus ; hence he is sometimes called the Sebennyte. He wrote in the Greek language, but professed to draw his materials from Egyptian sources. Manetho’s history, like that of many other ancient nations, refers the origin of his people to gods and demigods, who reigned for hundreds of thousands of years. The first of these was the Sun or Phra, whence came the name Pharaoh, as a generic term applied to all the Egyptian monarchs. He then commences with the reign of men, and extends his list of sovereigns over an incredibly long period, if time were computed then as it is now. But it is no part of the purpose of the present work to enter into the much disputed question of Egyptian chronology. The gen- eral reader will find in it little to interest him, and we are not presumptuous enough to suppose that our pages will furnish any attraction to the historical antiquarian. Beside, without MANETHO. 23 meaning to undervalue chronology, as a very important feature in the study of history, we may yet be permitted to say in the words of a modern Avriter on Egypt, that “ the disclosures made by inscriptions on public buildings, of kings, wars, and conquests, may, Avhen verified as to age, and placed in their probable order by the aid of learning and criticism, reveal more as to the dynasties and individual sovereigns ; but on such information, even Avhen free from doubt and most accu- rate, little real value can be set ; while the Bible supplies, either by express statement or obvious implication, facts and principles which constitute genuine history, and go far to give the past all the value which it can possess for the men of these times.” It is proper to add that, while, among the learned gene- rally, there seems to be no doubt that Manetho had a real existence, and wrote what has been preserved in quotations from his works ; yet there have not been wanting some who deem the writings under his name to be entirely fabulous. The learned Hengstenberg is of this class. In his work, enti- tled “ Egypt and the Books of Moses,” he devotes an entire article in his appendix to this subject ; and, with great inge- nuity, throws more than the shadow of a suspicion on the authenticity and credibility of the supposed Egyptian histo- rian. He considers the work to be spurious, and of later times than the reign of Ptolemy Philadelphus. In this conclusion we are not prepared entirely to acquiesce, though it is possible that an exaggerated importance may have been given by some, to the writings under the name of Manetho. They derive, however, so much confirmation from the discovery of what is known as the “ tablet of Abydus,” that their entire rejection as authority seems scarcely consistent with sound criticism. 24 EGYPT AND ITS MONUMENTS. Tlie tablet of Abydus, which is now in the British Mu- seum, is delineated on the opposite page. It is a series of royal rings inclosing the inaugural titles of the names of many of the ancient kings of Egypt, in the order of their succession. It was engraved on the wall of one of the vestibules of a tem- ple, which has been excavated in the mountain to the north of the city of Abydus. It is not, however, to be concealed, that, while in some instances it confirms Manetho’s lists, in others, it is directly at variance with them. Another source of information concerning Egypt is in the writings of Herodotus. This oldest of the Greek histo- rians was born about 484 b. c., and having from political causes become an exile from his native city, he travelled through Greece, Egypt, Asia, Scythia, Thrace, and Mace- donia. His work is divided into nine books, which he named after the nine muses. The second of these, Euterpe, is devoted to Egypt, and contains an account not merely of what he saw, but also of such explanations as he received from the Egyptian priests, together with observations on the manners and customs of the country, and a long dissertation on the succession of its kings. He does not pretend, in this latter subject, to observe strict chronological order ; and his work is chiefly valuable when brought into juxtaposition with other authorities that can be relied on. Diodorus Siculus is another writer, of less value, however, than Herodotus. He professes to treat of the affairs of Egypt. He visited the country about 58 b. c., though his work was written at a later period. He brought to his task (says Bunsen) “a mere acquaintance with books, without either sound judgment, critical spirit, or comprehensive views. He was more successful consequently in complicating and mysti- TABLET OF ABYDUS. 26 EGYPT AND ITS MONUMENTS. fying, than in sifting and illustrating the traditions with which he had to deal.” This, however, will probably be deemed by some, and those not altogether unlearned, a harsher judgment than Diodorus deserves. There is a school of “ Egyptologists,” as they somewhat aftectedly style themselves, with whom it is fashionable to depreciate Diodorus ; though some among them can and do quote and rely on him when his testimony confirms their views. That Diodorus often betrays a want of sound judgment, and writes silly things, may be true ; so do Herodotus and others, at times ; but Diodorus often relates facts, the truth of which is established by other testi- mony as well as his. The Christian student of Egyptian antiquities, however, is at no loss to find a cause for the studied depreciation of Diodorus. To these might be added other authorities of minor importance ; while of all it may be said that they shed little, if any, light upon the system of hieroglyphic writing, and certainly none upon its proper inter- pretation. It was believed, long ago, that the singular devices and in- scriptions to be found on the temples and tombs of Egypt, were historical documents ; and that, if correctly interpreted, they would probably furnish a more correct account of the early con- dition of this ancient and long-civilized nation, than could be de- rived from any other source. Many obelisks and other works of art may still be seen at Rome, which had been carried thither from Egypt by the emperors : these are covered with hiero- glyphics, the meaning of which had provoked the curiosity, and stimulated the study, of men of letters, almost from the period of the revival of learning in Europe, in the fifteenth century. The classic authors of Greece and Rome, however, who had written on the hieroglyphics, without understanding HORAPOLLO. 27 them, had created the impression that their correct interpreta- tion had been so studiously concealed by the priests, and was, withal, so imperfectly understood even by them, that it had been irrecoverably lost before the days of the latter emperors. Notwithstanding this discouraging view, however, some among the moderns ventured to hope that persevering indus- try, added to critical skill, might solve the mystery, and read this strange “ handwriting on the wall.” There was known to be in existence a work, purporting to have been written by Horapollo, and professing to give a meaning to some, at least, of the sculptured figures common in Egypt. Horapollo was an Egyptian scribe ; but he did not live until the beginning of the fifth century of our era ; and conse- quently all that he could do was to gather the traditionary and fast fading interpretation of such symbols as were then under- stood by his countrymen. But even the original of his work, imperfect as it must necessarily have beeri, was lost; and all that remains of it is a Greek translation made by Philip, who is supposed to have lived a century or two later than Horapollo, and at a time when every vestige of certain knowledge, in the work of interpretation, must have been lost. Philip undoubt- edly introduced new matter of his own invention, but with all its imperfections, the book Avas not without value in the earlier modern efforts at interpretation ; and is at least curious, as being “ the only ancient volume entirely devoted to the task of unra- velling the mystery in which Egyptian learning has been involved ; and as one, Avhich, in many instances, unquestiona- bly contains the correct interpretation.”* One of the earliest of the moderns, in the field as an interpreter, was the learned * A very beautiful edition of Horapollo, accompanied with an English transla- tion, was published a few years since by Mr. Cory, of Pembroke College, Cam- 28 EGYPT AND ITS MONUMENTS. Jesuit, Father Kircher. In 1636 he published six bulky folios, in which he professed, to explain and read most of the hiero- glyphical inscriptions on the Egyptian monuments then in Europe. His interpretations were all wrapped in an unin- telligible mysticism ; and at least proved that the imagination of the worthy father was as prolific as his learning was un- questionable. If, however, he failed in interpretation, his labors were not useless. Osborn remarks that “ Kircher emi- nently assisted the researches that ultimately proved successful, by bringing together in his book a voluminous collection of passages from the Greek and Latin authors respecting Egypt. And still more, by calling the attention of the learned to the Coptic tongue, in which a vast number of MSS. were collected in the Vatican and other libraries, both public and private, in Italy.” Kircher had many able successors, than whom, per- haps, none deserves more honorable mention than the learned Dane, George Zoega. He published in 1797 his work on the origin and use of the obelisks, and very many of his sugges- tions were undoubtedly of great use to those who came after him. An incidental hint was thrown out, also, by the acute mind of 'Warburton, which, though viewed by the learned of that day with incredulity, has subsequently been found to point to the truth. In his “ Divine Legation ” he was led, from an attentive perusal of what had been said by Clement of Alexandria, and Porph}Ty, to conclude that “ hieroglyphics were a real written language, applicable to the purposes of his- tory and common life, as well as those of religion and my- thology and further, that among the different sorts of hiero- bridge, to which we are indebted for the facts above stated concerning the author and his work. SPINETO— QUATREMERE. 29 glyphics, the Egyptians possessed those which were used jdio- netically, that is, alphabeticalhj as letters. Zoega had also conjectured that certain figures of animals, &c., represented sounds, and were possibly letters ; and from the Greek word, (limr'ij, (a voice or articulate sound,) he had applied to them the term phonetic. It is obvious, as has been remarked by the Marquis Spineto, that to verify this conjecture, three things were indispensable. If these characters were phonetic, the words they expressed could belong to the ancient spoken language of Egypt only ; it was therefore indispensable first, to ascertain what was that language, and whether we had any remains of it. Secondly, a considerable number of inscriptions or fac -similes of them was necessary for purposes of comparison. Thirdly, it was indispensable to possess an authentic translation of some one of these ancient Egyptian inscriptions into a language known to modern scholars. Perhaps the ditficulty, not to say appre- hended impossibility, of finding the happy combination of these three pi’erequisites, may have led the learned of that day to pay less attention to the conjecture and hint of Zoega and Warburton, than they deserved; and yet it so happened that Providence was gradually bringing together this indispensable combination of circumstances. As to the first, Quatremere produced his work la langue et litteraturede VEgypte,^'' and satisfactorily proved, to the surprise even of scholars, that the Coptic was the language of the old Egyptians. The Copts are, in fact, the only direct descendants in Egypt of the primitive race, and until within about a hundred years they still spoke the Coptic tongue, though imperfectly ; but the lan- guage has been preserved in writing, and has come down to our day. The alphabet in which it is written is the Greek, 30 EGYPT AND ITS MONUMENTS. with the addition of seven other characters, taken from what is known as the enchorial or demotic writing, wliich will be explained hereafter. As we now have it, it came into use in Egypt with the introduction of Christianity ; and is still used in the Coptic Christian liturgies. The means of comparison are not wanting in the study of the language, for to this day, the Christians have their liturgy, the pentateuch, and nearly the whole of the Scriptures in the Coptic, accompanied with Greek and Arabic translations. The first desideratum was thus brought within reach. As to the second, the memorable expedition of Napoleon to Egypt furnished that. He was ac- companied by the ablest savans of France, and the “ Descrip- tion de VEgypte^' which the French government published on their return, placed before Europe such a collection as it had never before seen of fac-similes of inscriptions. In some cases the hieroglyphics were not scrupulously exact copies ; but still, a vast amount of valuable material was furnished to the patient decipherer. Egypt was now opened, however, and the various museums of Europe began to be enriched with spoils from the banks of the Nile. There soon ceased to be a want of inscriptions to examine. But the third great element of research, which, in fact, could alone give the stamp of certainty to any supposed discovery in interpretation, must also appear. An authentic translation of some ancient Egyptian inscription into a language known to modern scholars, was indispensable. Nothing else was wanting for successful archaeological research ; and as if to supply the want, the Rosetta stone providentially came forth from its grave to furnish what was needed. The consequences resulting from this important discovery, afford one of the most interesting developments of the progress of the human mind in its patient and laborious search for truth, in ROSETTA STONE. 31 the midst of uncommon difficulties. As a remarkable phe- nomenon in intellectual history, and an application of ingenuity in overcoming obstacles, it deserves to be studied as a curious chapter in psychology, and we therefore invite attention to it. CHAPTER II. Rosetta Stone. — Specimens ol the inscriptions. — Dr. Young’s discoveries. — De Sacy. — Akerblad. — Champollion le Jeune. — Discovery of homophones. — Sir Gardner Wilkinson’s tribute to Champollion. — Exposure of the ignorance of the French savans, by Champollion. It was in August, 1799, that Bouchard, a French officer of Artillery, in digging at Rosetta for the foundations of a re- doubt, found a large stone of black syenite basalt, marked with various characters. Upon closer inspection, it was seen that the stone bore three inscriptions : the upper one was in hiero- glyphics, the lowest in Greek letters, while that between was in a different character, which it was subsequently found, on reading the Greek text, was therein called enchorial or popu- lar. The stone finally found its way to the British Museum, where it now is. Owing to the fracture of the stone, no one of the inscriptions was entire, but still, much the larger part of each was remaining. On its arrival in Europe, its import- ance as a probable key to interpretation, was at once seen; and the Antiquarian Society caused the inscriptions to be engraved, and generally circulated among the European lite- rati. The French general, Duqua, had also caused a cast of two impressions of the stone to be made at Cairo, and had taken them to Paris. And here one cannot but be struck by the reflection with which Buiasen accompanies his state- ROSETTA STONE. 33 ment of the discovery of this interesting memorial. “This seemingly insignificant stone,” says he, “ shares with the great and splendid work, ‘La Description de I’Egypte,’ the honor of being the only result of vital importance to universal history, accruing from a vast expedition, a brilliant conquest, and a bloody combat for the possession of Egypt. That grand conception, the early forecast of a young hero — the colonization of Egypt by Europeans, which Liebnitz had proposed to Louis XIV., and Bossuet, as a passage in his universal history proves, urgently recommended — had wholly failed, and seemed destined to disappear from the page of history, like a stroke upon the waters, without leaving a trace behind it. After a bloody and fruitlessly protracted struggle, upon which millions of treasure and unnumbered hecatombs of human life were sacrificed, the cradle of civilization, the land of monuments, was again unconditionally surrendered to the dominion of barbarians. * * * » ♦ Under these circumstances, we may consider that splendid work on Egypt as a sort of sin-otfering for all the blood which has been so vainly shed on her soil.” European scholars, having, obtained copies of the in- scriptions, directed their attention, as was natural, first to the Greek, which was found, upon translation, to contain a record, or recognition of the highest honors of the Pharaohs in the person of Ptolemy Epiphanes, by the Egyptian priest- hood, assembled at Memphis. Its concluding sentence was as follows — “that it maybe known that the Egyptians elevate and honor the God Epiphanes Eucharistes in a lawful man- ner, and that this decree should be engraved on a tablet of hard stone in hieroglyphical, [sacred characters, \ enchorial, [common writing of the country,^ and Greek characters, and 34 EGYPT AND ITS MONUMENTS. should be set up in each of the first, second, and third-rate temples at the statue of the ever living king.” The period of time of which the stone records events, is about 196 b. c., and the inscriptions on it furnish, probably, the most ex- tended and important document of the Graeco-Egyptian period.* The general impression of the learned is, that the Greek was the original document, and the hieroglyphics and enchorial writing are translations from it. Porson in England, and Heyne in Germany, together with members of the Insti- tute in France, were not long in establishing the proper reading of the Greek text to the satisfaction of scliolars ; though a full philological analysis of all the inscriptions, in the opinion of Birch and other good Egyptian antiquarians, is yet a de- sideratum. It is obvious however, from what has been stated, that the discovery of this stone advanced the facilities and means of research far beyond any and all the advantages pre- viously possessed. And here, that we may make ourselves more intelligible to the general reader, we subjoin a specimen of the three different inscriptions found on the Rosetta stone ; not with the view at present of showing the mode of interpre- tation, but that a clear perception may be had of the nature of those labors of the learned which we are about to detail. * Some years ago it was suggested by Mr. Sharpe, and afterward by Mr. Gliddon, that other copies of this stone might be found. Lepsius of Berlin has a fragment from Philte, containing part of this decree. ROSETTA STONE. 35 Hieroglyphics. Corresponding Enchorial or Demotic. Corresponding Greek. ZTHCAI El KONA TOT BAClAEilC HTOAEMAIOT TOT AmWOBIOT TOT HEAnHMENOT TPO TOT fhQA EriKItANOTC ETXAPICTOT. Thus translated literally from the hieroglyphics into English by Bunsen : To SET UP THE Statue of Ptolemy the King, ever LIVING, ETERNAL, BELOVED OF PhTHA, THE APPARENT God, the best Lord — [Epiphanes Eucharistes.] After the Greek had been translated, attention was directed to the two Egyptian texts. De Sacy and Akerblad employed themselves on the enchorial or demotic writing; under the erro- neous impression, probably, that as it was the best preserved of all the inscriptions, and was moreover the common writing, it would prove the easiest to decipher; while Dr. Young and Champollion may be deemed the first adventurers into the field of hieroglyphical interpretation, though they were not unmindful of the enchorial also. Several incorrect opinions have been enumerated by Bunsen, as retarding the progress of the first attempts. In the first place, it was assumed that the hieroglyphic character was purely symbolic. Zoega had 36 EGYPT AND ITS MONUMENTS. repudiated such an opinion some time before ; but his now verified conjectures seem, at that time, not to have been known by some, and where known, to have been disregarded. Another assumption was, that the enchorial text was purely alphabetical. Hence resulted a third error, viz., that the language in both inscriptions was the same ; but that they were written merely in two different ways. It was De Sacy who was the first successful decipherer. He resorted to the plan usually pursued in interpreting any secret writing. The first object in such a work is to ascertain by close examina- tion the number of difierent signs or characters ; next to distinguish the groups or combinations that occur most fre- quently ; and lastly, according to the supposed or ascertained sense of the general purport of the writing, to explain the characters by the words of the language they are supposed to embody. Here, the purport was fully known from the Greek inscription ; and it was the natural presumption, in the ab- sence of all proof, that the Coptic was the language embodied in these characters. Q,uatremere had, however, satisfactorily shown that it was in substance the language of ancient Egypt. De Sacy saw that the only sure basis of interpreta- tion was to take the proper names occurring in the Greek, and to ascertain, if possible, their equivalents in the Egyptian text. This he did ; and in 1802 communicated to Chaptal his discovery of the names of Ptolemy^ Berenice, and Alexander in the enchorial writing. Akerblad went further, and in the same year showed, in a letter to De Sacy, that these groups which he had discovered thus expressing proper names, could be decomposed into letters. By means of these groups and thirteen others, he formed an alphabet for nearly all the letters of the enchorial character ; but he never suspected, what was DR. YOUNG’S DISCOVERIES. 37 nevertheless true, that beside letters, the enchorial used sym- bolic signs ; and beside symbols, the hieroglyphic used phone- tic signs. These two important facts were the discovery of Dr. Young. After Akerblad’s labors, some time elapsed before any further progress was made. It was not until 1814 that Dr. Young offered his “conjectural translation of the Egyptian inscription of the Rosetta stone.” The plan which he pur- sued, as described by himself, was, in substance, as follows. He first acquired the Coptic language, and adopted Akerblad’s alphabet of the enchorial text, suspecting, however, from the beginning, that this writing contained symbolic signs as well as letters. He then commenced comparing groups of charac- ters in the Egyptian writing with proper names in the Greek. Thus, finding in the fourth and fourteenth lines of the Greek, the words Alexander and Alexandria, he found in the second and tenth lines of the demotic inscription, groups which he conjectured were expressive of the same words. He states that he did not trouble himself, by an analysis of the groups, to ascertain the value of each particular character. Again, he observed the occurrence in almost every line of a small group of characters ; he naturally concluded that it was either a common termination, or else some common particle. It was finally found to be the conjunction equivalent to our English and. He next noticed that a remarkable collection of charac- ters was repeated some thirty times in the inscription ; on looking to the Greek, he found the Greek word for king repeated about the same number of times ; he hence trans- lated the unknown group by that word. So also with the name of Ptolemy and the word Egypt ; he compared as before the number of repetitions of these words in the Greek, with 38 EGYPT AND ITS MONUMENTS. the repetitions of certain combinations of characters in tiie inscription. His next step was to write the Greek text over the enchorial in such a manner, that what he supposed to be coincident words and passages should be brought into juxta- position ; thus the intermediate parts of the respective writings were of course brought near together, and the field of compari- son became constantly less. As the result of the whole, he found nineteen letters of Akerblad’s, and twelve more of his own, beside a star at the end of proper names. He had also, as he believed, found fifty groups of words, the first three of which were those already indicated by De Sacy, and analyzed by Akerblad : to these followed sixteen words which Akerblad had analyzed, and the residue of the fifty were his own. To these he added one hundred and fifty more, for which he thought he had found the corresponding word in the Greek inscription. Some of these afterward proved to be entirely wrong. It would be most unjust to an acute, ingenious, and indefatigable mind, to undervalue the discoveries of Dr. Young. If he did not discover the whole art of deciphering the mysterious characters of Egypt, let it be remembered that the merit of complete discovery belongs to no one individual ; and that where all were contributors to a common end, no one had, up to the time of Young’s discoveries, accomplished as much as he had. He certainly, as Mr. Gliddon has stated, “cast the first beam of true light on the method adopted by the Egyptians in their peculiar art of writing.” He first posi- tively indicated on the Rosetta stone the name of Ptolemy, and on the doorway of Karnac read that of Berenice, both in the hieroglyphic characters. He it was who first showed that of the two Egyptian inscriptions, the one, the enchorial, was CHAMPOLLION LE JEUNE. 39 “ in good measure a corruption, abridgment, or running form of the other.” He also is entitled to the merit of having found out the Egyptian mode of writing numbers. But he probably never contemplated the possibility of an entire phonetic alpha- bet as existing in the hieroglyphics. The utmost that he did was to suspect the existence of what he indicates by the vague phrase “ a certain kind of syllabic system and that some few of the characters were the representatives of letters ; he certainly knew nothing of the important fact of the use of what are called homophones ; that is, of several different signs, which, by means of the initial letter in the name of that which they represent, are made to express the same sound.* Still it must be admitted that Young prepared the way, in many respects, for Champollion le Jeune ; so called, to dis- tinguish him from his elder brother, Champollion-Figeac. Jean Francois Champollion Avould have been deemed, in any age, an extraordinary man. He was born in 1790, and from his earliest youth seemed destined to excel in that de- partment of letters to which he ‘devoted his life. The expe- dition of Napoleon, led to results which filled his mind with the contemplation of the strange revelations unfolded by a land of wonders. His imagination kindled as he dwelt upon the mysterious symbols which he knew embodied the long lost history of the early civilization of our globe. He found a fascination in the very effort to understand them ; and, while yet a boy, at the age of seventeen, he laid before his teachers, as a literary exercise, an outline of a treatise on the ancient geography of Egypt, with an introduction and map. These he presented, as a specimen of the first part of a compre- Homophones will be fully illustrated on a future page. 40 EGYPT AND ITS MONUMENTS. hensive work which he contemplated, on the language, writ- ing, and religion of the ancient Egyptians. The boy who, at the age of seventeen, indulged in such lofty aspirations, and found agreeable mental excitement in the pursuit of such studies as he had adopted, needed but health and opportunity to leave behind him an honored name, and to rear a monu- ment on which the lettered men of future times would look with grateful admiration. With his MSS. in his hand he presented himself, ere yet he was a man, to the principal scientific men of Paris, and, fos- tered by the advice and guidance of De Sacy, at the age of twenty, he commenced printing the introduction to his pro- posed work. It appeared in 1814, when he was twenty-four years old, and contained corrections of, and additioirs to Aker- blad’s alphabet, and related the result of his own researches into the Coptic. The grammar and dictionary of that lan- guage, which he then projected, maintains to this day its high repntation. But he was travelling over an untried field, where way-marks were few and indistinct at best, and his steps were necessarily slow and toilsome. His enthusiasm, however, sustained him. He was laboring under an error, which he afterward discovered, and magnanimously con- fessed. Champollion le Jeune proved himself to be a great man, for he was not ashamed to say “ I have been wrong.” The error alluded to, consisted in his deeming the hiero- glyphics to be purely symbolic. Out of this error he extri- cated himself; but not until he satisfied himself that the hieroglyphical was the most ancient form of Egyptian writ- ing, and that, would he succeed, his researches must begin with that. He had devoted time, as Young and others had done, to the enchorial or demotic writing, and had also studied the CHAMPOLLION LE JEUNE. 41 hieratic, as it is called, which we will explain presently ; but now, leaving these, his whole attention was directed to the hieroglyphics ; and it was in this work that he reared for himself an enduring renown. It is pleasant to remark, in tracing the progress of the human mind in any discovery, the seemingly fortuitous con- cun’ence of circumstances which not unfrequently sheds un- expected light on the path of the discoverer, and without which, to all human seeming, the discovery would, probably, not then have been made. Champollion, in determining to com- mence with the hieroglyphics, knew full well what others had done. Dr. Young had steadily expressed his belief, that all Egyptian writing originated in the hieroglyphics, and there- fore must contain symbolic signs ; and not, simply, the alpha- betic characters which Akerblad had found in the enchorial inscriptions : this principle he had endeavored to apply to the hieroglyphic names of kings, and had read “ Ptolennj ” and ^‘•Berenice." Dr. Young, however, never had explained the method by which he had proceeded. Beyond these particu- lars, Champollion derived no aid from him. Having, however, from Young’s success, become satisfied of the importance of the royal rings containing proper names, he turned to them. It so happened that as early as 1816, Caillaud, the French tra- veller, who discovered Meroe, had met at the island of Philae with a small obelisk, which was first discovered by Belzoni. On the pedestal of this obelisk is a Greek inscription, in which occur the names of Ptolemy and Cleopatra. Caillaud made a fac-simile of this inscription ; and afterward, an English gen- tleman, Mr. William Bankes, transported the monument itself to his residence in Dorsetshire, and circulated copies of its hiero- glyphic inscriptions among the learned. Both Young and 42 EGYPT AND ITS MONUMENTS. Champollion were acquainted with this monument. To the latter only was it of any value in interpretation. He observed on it hieroglyphics in a ring, precisely similar to those on the Rosetta stone, which Young had interpreted to mean Ptolemy; the Greek inscription led him to suspect that the other ring must contain the name of Cleopatra. The result of his inves- tigation may best be told in his own words, as contained in a letter to M. Dacier : we prefix copies of the two sets of hiero- glyphics to make his letter intelligible. This hieroglyphic Dr. Young had inter- preted, on the Rosetta stone, to be the name iT-'3s: of Ptolemy. Champollion, proceeding on the opinion that the characters within the ring might be, in some instances at least, phonetic or alphabetic, thus felt his way to the truth. “ The first sign of the name of Cleopatra, which re- presents a kind of quadrant, and which ought to be the letter K, (C)* should not occur in the name of Ptolemy, and it is not there. The second, a crouching lion, which should re- present the L, is identical with the fourth of Ptolemy, which is also an L. The third sign is a feather or leaf, which should represent the short vowel E. Two similar leaves may be ob- served at the end of the name of Ptolemy, which, by their position, must have the sound of E long. The fourth charac- ter to the left, represents a kind of flower or root with its stalk bent downward, and should answer to the letter O, and is accordingly the third letter in the name of Ptolemy. The fifth, to the right, is a sort of square, which should represent the let- ter P, and it is the first in the name of Ptolemy. The sixth, * The Greek Alphabet has no C in it ; K is its substitute. CIIAMPOLLION. 43 to the left, is a hawk, which should be the letter A. Thai letter does not occur in the Greek name Ptolemy, neither does it occur in the hieroglyphic transcription. The seventh is an open hand, representing the T, but this character is not found in the name of Ptolemy, where the second letter, T, is ex- pressed by the segment of a sphere. The eighth sign, a mouth, seen in front, ought to be the letter R, and as that letter does not occur in Ptolemy, it is also absent from his hieroglyphic name. The ninth and last sign, which ought to be the vowel A, is a repetition of the hawk, which has that sound in the sixth. The signs of the feminine on each side of this hawk, terminate the name of Cleopatra ; that of Ptolemy ends with a bent stalk, which we conclude to be the letter S.” If the reader as he proceeded has compared the letter with the hieroglyphics, he will have perceived that the ingenuity of Champollion had discovered in the hieroglyphical name of Cleopatra, certain signs, which, if alphabetic, served to ex- press the letters /, o, />, a, t ; and, that if used for the signs of those letters, they also harmonize very well with the literal spelling of the name of Ptolemy. By means of the two rings, therefore, assuming that these characters were phonetic, he had actually discovered what we should call twelve letters. But how did these palpable images of sensible objects ex- press letters ? That remained to be discovered : he knew their value as letters, but it was yet to be found out on what principle or rule they were made to have that value. He had observed of one letter ^T, which occurred in both rings, that, in the one it was indicated by the segment of a sphere, and in the other by an open hand. If the assumption on which he was proceeding were correct, it was obvious that here were tiro signs for the same letter. Instead of hence hastily con- 44 EGYPT AND ITS MONUMENTS. eluding, as some would have done, that his whole assumption was erroneous, his sagacious mind instantly saw a mode of explanation that removed the difficulty, by the supposition that the principle or rule by which a phonetic value was given to these pictured representations, was the very simple one of taking either the syllable or initial letter of the word, wliich in the ancient language of Egypt, expressed the name of the thing represented. Thus, if he saw a mouth delineated, pho- netically it was R, because the word for mouth was ro. So of an eagle, it was A, because Akhom was the word for eagle. A hand was Tot ; phonetically, therefore, it became T. Now it was obvious that the names of a great many different objects used in hieroglyphics might begin with the same letter, and hence that letter might be expressed by different signs, as con- venience, or a neat arrangement of the writing, or some other cause, might dictate. Here, then, was the mystery of homo- phones laid open. All symbols or characters that phonetically expressed the same letter were homophones ; and subsequent and long continued examination and comparison could alone show him whether this system of homophones was limited to a certain number of different objects, or was as extensive as the objects themselves. He found them limited, as will be seen hereafter in the alphabet of hieroglyphics. He Irad now reached a grand result ; he proceeded to verify it by an ex- amination of all the royal rings to which he had access, (the number was large,) and he triumphantly established the fact that he had discovered the long buried secret, and applied the true key, which Amung had picked up but never used, to the intricate lock of hieroglyphical interpretation ; for he read the names in all the rings he examined. Discarding all other methods, acting on A'oung’s hint, he had sought the key to CHAMPOLLION. 45 an entire system of deciphering in the hieroglyphics alone ; that course led to the discovery of the phonetic signs in the royal rings ; and that again led to the discovery of the homo- phones. The work was done, he was on the right path, and he had but to proceed, for the whole hieroglyphic research was now in his hands ; and he, whom we saw as the enthu- siastic boy of seventeen with his bold but immature specu- lations, now knew that the name of Champollion le Jeune would not be forgotten until Egypt herself should cease to be remembered. , It is a curious fact that we so frequently find, in the history both of literary and scientific research, the claims of contemporaneous discoverers to be nearly equally balanced. Champollion’s reading of the name of Cleopatra in the royal ring on the obelisk of Philse has already been related, together with his own statement of the ingenuity by which he accom- plished it ; but the very same thing had been done, as it appears, by Mr. Bankes in 1818, though the fact was unknown to the world until after the publication of Champollion’s letter to M. Dacier. The process pursued by Mr. Bankes is fully stated in a long note to a pamphlet on the phonetic system of hieroglyphics, published by Mr. Salt. Champollion, however, was prior in his publication by two or three years, and to him, as Mr. Gliddon has said, “exclusively belongs the merit of putting forth his system at once, and complete beyond all previous anticipation, applicable to every epoch, and to every legend in Egyptian history.” Pursuing his investigations, and strictly adhering to the path on which he had entered, Cham- pollion compiled an alphabet of hieroglyphics, and in 1824 gave to the world his magnificent work, Precis du Systeme Hie- roglyphique.” A hieroglyphical dictionary, and an Egyptian 46 EGYPT AND ITS MONUMENTS. grammar, are also to be enumerated in the list of his labors. At the age of forty-two he died, leaving behind him the mer- ited reputation of having been discoverer, master, and guide in the intricate mysteries of hieroglyphic interpretation. It would be unjust to one who has himself acquired no small reputation in the field of Egyptian research, to withhold the generous tribute which Sir Gardner Wilkinson has ren- dered to the merits of Champollion. To have had frequent occasion to introduce the name of Champollion, to whom we are so deeply indebted, without paying a just tribute to his talents, is to me a reproach which I cannot sufier to remain unrenioved. I do not wish to enter into the question respecting the discovery of the proper mode of reading the hieroglyphics : suffice it to say, that Dr. A^oung gave the first idea and proof of their alphabetic force, which was even for some time after doubted by Champollion. And that the merit of originality in this point is due to our dis- tinguished countryman, I can bear a satisfactory testimony, having, with my much-regretted friend. Sir William Gell, as early as the summer of 1821, so far profited by Dr. Young’s opinions on the subject, as to be enabled to suggest the sup- posed value of two or three other characters, beside those he had already ascertained ; our taking this view of the question being solely in consequence of his discovery that they were the representatives of letters. ' But it remained for the genius of a Champollion to kindle the spark thus obtained into a flame, and to display by its light, the path which led to a clear insight into the subject, to perfect the discovery, and to lay down certain rules, applicable in individual as well as in general cases ; and in justice to him be it confessed, that, if our knowledge of hieroglyphics were confined to the limited CHAMPOLLION. 47 extent to which it was carried by Dr. Young, we should have no regxdar system to guide us in the interpretation of them, and should know little more than the alphabetic value of a few letters, without the means of affixing a positive construc- tion to a single sentence on any Egyptian monument. “Had Champolhon been disposed to give more credit to the value and originality of Dr. Young’s researches, and to admit that the real discovery of the key to the hieroglyphics, which in his dexterous hand proved so useful in unlocking those hidden treasures, was the result of his labors, he would unquestionably have increased his own reputation, without making any sacrifice. In this, as in the case of Mr. Burton’s trilingual’ (or rather trigrammatic) stone, and in a few other points, he may have shown a want of ingenuousness : all have their faults and vanities ; but this is not a reason that the memory of one so respectable as Champolhon should be aspersed, or due praise refused him ; and we cannot forgive the ungenerous conduct of those who, from private pique, summon up and misapply talents to pervert truth ; denying the merit of labors, which every one, acquainted with the subject, knows to have been crowned with unexampled and wonderful success. This is not an era when we could believe men capable of lending themselves to the unworthy office of maligning one no longer living to defend himself, and one who, present or absent, merits and possesses the respect and admiration of every unprejudiced person. Yet have some been found, in more than one country, prompted to this mali- cious act by personal enmity, envy of his superior talents and success, or by that affectation of skepticism, which, while it endeavors to conceal ignorance, often hopes to acquire credit for discernment and superior knowledge. 48 EGYPT AND ITS MONUMENTS. “ When the subject of hieroglyphics becomes better under- stood, and the world is capable of judging how much we owe to him, the wonderful ingenuity of Champollion will be appre- ciated ; and the greatest praise we can bestow on him is confi- dently to pronounce, that time will do justice to his merits, and experience prove the truth of what inexperience now calls in question.” If we do not dwell upon the works of Rosellini, Salvolini, Lepsius, Bunsen, Wilkinson, Birch, and others, worthy co- laborers or successors in the field which Champollion had opened, it is not from non-appreciation of their merits, but from want of the necessary space in which to do them justice. Suffice it, however, to say, that no point is, at this day, better established, from the labors of the learned, than that the inscriptions found on the decaying monuments and frail papyri of ancient Egypt, are, in many instances, perfectly intelligible ; and it is perhaps not too much to hope, that the day will come when men may read, in their own tongues, the translation of all. The statement of an amusing and interesting result that followed upon Champollion’s discovery of the reading of the hieroglyphics, will not inappropriately close our narrative of his important and extraordinary labors. Among the monu- ments which had, in an especial manner, attracted the notice of the French savans who had accompanied Napoleon to Egypt, none had excited more learned controversy than two zodiacs, the one sculptured upon the ceiling of the temple of Dendera, and the other upon that of the temple at Esneh, in upper Egypt. For these monuments there was claimed an extraordinary antiquity, and it was confidently asserted that they completely exploded all Scriptural chronology. M. CIIAMPOLLION. 49 Jomard made theiii at least 3000 years old when the Christian era commenced ; while M. Dupuis would not abate a second of 4000 years ; and M. Gori was very sure they could not be younger than 17,000 years ! “Like birds of the night,” (says Osborn,) “hovering over, or perching upon, the uncouth remains of ancient superstition, they filled the air with their dismal fore- bodings of the downfall of Christianity, or with shrieks of laughter still more revolting, when they thought that their object was accomplished. All these, however, were soon to be put to flight by that of which they professed themselves to be all the while most devoted worshippers — the light of truth.” "When Champollion, in the course of his researches into royal rings, came to read that upon the zodiac of Dendera, he found the title of Aitgushis Censor ; while on that at Esneh, he read the name of Antonin7is. That temple, therefore, which M. Dupuis had declared to be 4000 years older than the Chris- tian era, proved to have been built about the time of its com- mencement and the edifice at Esneh, which had been pro- foundly demonstrated to be 17,000 years old when the Saviour came, was shown to belong to a period 140 years after his ad- vent. And thus were exposed the pretence of learning and the insolence of arrogance, on the part of a class of men who sought, by bold perversion and confident dogmatism, to distort all that Egypt might reveal, into testimony against the Bible. 4 CHAPTER III. Examples of Egyptian writing. — Hieroglyphic. — Hieratic. — Demotic. Having, in the previous pages, endeavored to give to the gene- ral reader a brief outline, presenting an intelligible view of the chief features in the history of hieroglyphic interpretation ; it only remains to complete this division of our task by an effort to illustrate, by exa?nples, the subject of Egyptian writing. That some of the ancients were not entirely ignorant of the phonetic character of Egyptian writing is certain. We have no evidence, however, that any of them knew how to interpret it. Thus Pliny says, “for those sculptures and likenesses which we see, are Egyptian letters.’’’* Porphyry, also, in the “ Life of Pythagoras,” states that the Egyptians had three different kinds of letters, epistolographical. hieroglypliical, and symbolical. But the most particular account is to be found in Clement of Alexandria. The passage is not without obscurity in some par- ticulars, in others it is direct and plain. We give what seems to be the substance of his meaning, according to the interpreta- tion of Bunsen, who has examined it with great critical care. The English version, as well as the original Greek, may be found in his first volume of “Egypt’s place in the AVorld’s History.” According to Clement, the Egyptians taught, first Etenim sculpturse illae effigiesque, quas videmus, Egyptiae sunt literae. HIEROGLYPHIC WRITING. 51 of all, the method of writing called the epistolographic ; secondly, the hieratic., which the sacred scribes employ ; and last of all the hieroglyphic. The epistolographic, according to the judgment of the learned, is the same that is sometimes called the enchorial, and sometimes, as by Herodotus and Dio- dorus, the demotic. It is necessary to speak of these sepa- rately. I. — HIEROGLYPHIC WRITING. This was the original mode of Egyptian writing. It has been conjectured by some who have speculated on the origin of the art of writing, (and with how near an approximation to truth the reader can judge for himself,) that the earliest attempt at conveying ideas to tlie mind, by marks addressed to the eye, is to be found in what is usually termed “ picture writing.” That such a mode has been resorted to by savage nations, as well as by those more or less advanced in civiliza- tion, is undoubtedly true. We know, for instance, that among the Indians, as tliey are termed in our own country, their rude representations of men, and brutes, and other physical objects, delineated on bark or skins, have been used, and are still, to convey information that is intelligible to their own people. So, too, in Mexico, intelligence of the landing of Cortez was communicated to the capital, by this mode of writing. In- deed, among the Mexicans, it had been carried to an extent much greater than is usually supposed, and is worthy of a more attentive study than it has yet received. It may not be uninteresting to present the reader with a specimen. It is the record of a marriage. 52 EGYPT AND ITS MONUMENTS. Such events as are here commemorated, were usually brought about by an old woman, who was a species of mar- riage broker. Here she may be seen (T) carrying the bride (W) on her back to the house of the bridegroom, accompanied by four women (X Z) bearing torches. At the house the bride (L) and the bridegroom (M) are seated on a mat ; they are tied together by the corners of their garments, and are distinguishable from each other by the fact of the man’s sitting on a stool. Two old women (N V) are sitting at one end of the mat, and two old men (I R) at the other. These are the witnesses. After offering to their gods a perfume of co- pal, came the marriage feast ; there are two kinds of meat (P Q.) and some pulse (S), and the cup out of which they were both to drink (A), is also delineated. The witnesses dined after the new married couple. Signs are seen coming from the mouths of the four witnesses; these are tongues, signifying speech. HIEROGLYPHIC WRITING. 53 Here they import the advice which it was usual for the aged witnesses to give to the new married couple. Here it will be remarked that every thing delineated is but the sign of some sensible object. The imagination, added to a knowledge of Mexican marriage customs, makes the rude pic- ture intelligible ; but it conveys no sound of letter or word ; it merely tells to the eye a story, which, though perfectly intelli- gible to every ancient Mexican, woidd not probably be read off or translated by any two into precisely the same language. It is not at all improbable, in the view of the Chevalier Bunsen, that the first writing of the Egyptians was of this pictorial char- acter ; though he thinks that the fact is not to be proved from the monuments. He deduces it from the essential nature and requisites of a figurative character, and a comparison of them with the individual elements of the system of hieroglyphical writing, as they are now known to exist. According to Clement there were three modes of expressing ideas by hieroglyphic characters, all being the representations of physical objects, more or less exact. I. The idea might be conveyed by direct imitation ; that is, by a picture of the object intended to be expressed. Thus, the picture of a man denotes a man, and that of a horse, a horse. II. By a symbolic or enigmatic use of the pictures of objects : that is, by the representation of one object conveying an idea of another. Thus, the relation of a son is desig- nated by an egg, a goose, an eye, or a seed germinating, We do not now stop to ask why these signs indicate this relation, or hoto the fact that they do so was discovered ; our object is, at present, simply to illustrate 54 EGYPT AND ITS MONUMENTS. one of the modes of using the hieroglyphic symbols. It verifies Clemenfs remark, as quoted by Bunsen, that “they apply pictorial signs to objects of different import, and bring them, as it were, under another category, {i. e., transfer them or express them metaphorically, as we should describe it,) for they sometimes interchange them, at others modify them in various ways.’ Under this species of hieroglyphic^ writing, there were, as is stated very perspicuously by Mr. Gliddon, /o?=< is the symbol of the goddess Neith, because in the ancient language, neth was the word that meant shuttle. The idea of a physician is often represented by a duck ; the name of the duck was cem, the Egyptian word for physician was ceini. As to the mode of writing the hieroglyphics, it was sometimes vertical and sometimes horizontal ; it might be from EGYPTIAN NUMERALS. 65 left to right, or from right to left ; the latter was, perhaps, the more usual. The reading always commences from that end of the line to which the animals that may be delineated are represented as looking. It should also be remarked, that the hieroglyphics themselves may be jmre or linear : thus Pure. Linear. Reed — phonetically A. Jackal — symbolically a priest. Goose — phonetically S, symboli- cally offspring. The pure class was always used in sculpture and painting ; the linear was more common in ordinary life and in the lite- rature of the earlier periods. The system of mmieration, which was discovered by Dr. Young, yet remains to be explained. The hieroglyphical numerals are as follows : I n <5 1 ' 1 1 10 100 1000 10.000 1 .000.000 1 .000.000.000.000.000.000 The units are expressed by a stroke, but in groups, thus: II 4 as 2 -f 2. 'I'l' 5 as 3 -f- 2. III 6 as 3-f 3. ill nil 7 as 3 -f 4. ;;i|8as4 + 4. 9 as 3 + 3 + 3. 66 EGYPT AND ITS MONUMENTS. To this we have only to add that the names of kings are always written in hieroglyphics, in a ring, or as the French call it, in a cartouche ; and now, with the hope that what has been said will suffice to give the reader a correct gen- eral idea of the hieroglyphic writing, we proceed to consider. II. — HIERATIC WRITING. This is a running form of hieroglyphics, and differs from that system chiefly in the more frequent substitution of what may be considered alphabetic characters for pictured objects. In many instances, however, the transition from the picture to the letter is plain. As an illustration of this, we subjoin part of the sixth line of the hieroglyphical inscription on the Rosetta stone, with the same text below, in hieratic characters, as drawn up by Lepsius. lU a ut CP s r.f Clement of Alexandria informs us that this character was peculiar to the priests, hence it was called hieratic. It is found in the papyri which have been discovered in the tombs of Egypt. Some of these papyri contain but repetitions, more or less abbreviated, of the great funeral “ ritual ” or Book of the Dead, to which we have already alluded. Of this book, Lep- sius has published a copy, which plainly shows that its charac- ters were frequently but linear copies of the sculptured hiero- glyphics of the monuments. Some of the papyri that have HIERATIC AND ENCHORIAL WRITING. 67 been found contain genealogies of kings, revenues of temples, &-C. ,■ while another class gives details of the expeditions and foreign conquests of the ancient kings of Egypt. As, however, this mode of writing formed part of the instruction of the priestly order only, it never (says Bunsen) could have held more than the second place in the educational system of the Egyptians. III. THE ENCHORIAL OR DEMOTIC WRITING. This is what Clement called the epistolographical. Of this we have already given a specimen on a previous page ;* and we have now to add that, in the opinion of Bunsen, this also is derived directly from the hieroglyphic, though some have supposed it to proceed from the hieratic. He supposes this character to have been popularly used for the purposes of common life ; and explains the fact of two different modes of writing, viz., the hieratic and demotic, having been derived, independent of each other, from the hieroglyphics as a com- mon source, by the circumstance that the first sprang from the Theban dialect, and the latter from the Memphitic, be- tween which there were fundamental differences. It seems, however, to be certain, that whatever may have been its source, the enchorial or demotic writing is comparatively modern, and probably made its appearance on the decline of the arts in Egypt. It is believed that no document in this character has been yet found of a date anterior to that of the Ptolemies ; and this in Egypt may be considered modern. * Ante, p. 35. CHAPTER IV. Climate of the valley of the Nile. — Extreme dryness. — General appearance of Egyptian ruins. — Temples, tombs. — Arts of design in ancient Egypt. — Princi- pal localities on the Nile. It may serve to make more intelligible what follows, to advert here to the general appearance of the Egyptian rnins, the arts of design as exhibited in paijiting and scnlptnre, and the climate of the valley of the Nile. We mnst therefore detain the reader for a short time with the consideration of these. Egypt is a valley lying between two ranges of mountains, that extend from south to north ; and is bounded also, on ■ three of its sides, by deserts. The mountains are of no great elevation ; on the east are the deserts of Arabia, interrupted only by the comparatively narrow waters of the Red Sea ; while on the south and west stretches out the vast expanse of sand known as the Libyan desert, reaching on the south into the heart of Africa, and on the west, to the shores of the Atlantic. The position of Egypt, therefore, is marked by a striking peculiarity. It is in the centre of the largest tract of uninterrupted sterility and sand, on the face of our globe ; V and, as one of the consequences of its position, rain in Lower Egypt (which is the only Egypt spoken of in the Mosaic his- tor\") is generally said to be altogether unknown. It has. Page 68. VALLEY OF THE NILE. 69 however, been known to fall near the shores of the Mediter- ranean ; this, however, is rare. Even in the Thehaid, or Upper Egypt, where it has sometimes fallen, its appearance is so rare, that the occurrence is deemed very remarkable. This valley which we have desQribed is, throughout its whole length, traversed by the river Nile ; which, rising in the • regions south of ancient Egypt, holds on its course north- wardly, and empties its waters into the MediteiTanean. To this river Egypt is indebted for its wondrous fertility. Ordi- narily the waters of the river are somewhat muddy ; and yet the universal testimony, both of natives and foreigners, bears witness to the pleasantness and salubrity of the water. Place the Egyptian where you will, there is no physical enjoyment of his country which memory oftener recalls, or for which he pines with more irrepressible longing, than for the waters of his beloved river. Regularly, every year, about the time of the summer solstice, (June 21,) the waters of the Nile sud- denly change their appearance, and become red and turbid, being highly charged with fine black alluvial matter washed down by the torrents from the table lands of Abyssinia. They begin gradually to rise within the banks of the stream until about the middle of July, when they overflow them ; and as the surface of the valley is convex, and the river runs as it were in a furrow over the highest part, it will be seen that a beautiful provision is thus made by nature for watering a region, that otherwise would be utterly barren. About the 20th of August, the valley presents the appearance of a great inland sea, spotted over with villages and towns. Causeways that have been laid on ridges or mounds erected for the purpose, furnish the only means of land communication be- tween them. 70 EGYPT AND ITS MONUMENTS. About the period of the autumnal equinox the waters begin to subside, and before the end of November, the river is once more within its banks. The skill and industry of the inhabitants have for years been employed to increase, by artificial aids, this periodical season of natural irrigation. By canals and embankments, and in former* times, by artificial lakes of almost incredible size, they have sought to lose not the smallest advantage that could be derived from the increase of the waters. Another remarkable feature in Egypt is the extraordinary dryness of the atmosphere. The question has sometimes been asked, how it has been possible that the monuments of this ancient nation should have survived the touch of time for so many centuries, and, though dilapidated in some degree, should yet present to the eye of the traveller, “ A noble wreck, in ruinous perfection,” SO widely different from the architectural memorials of the past, to be found in the tropical regions of our own Central America and Yucatan? The burning sands of the almost boundless deserts have abstracted, from the atmosphere of Egypt, the great physical agent in the decomposition of mat- ter, — moisture. Hence but little corrosion of the monuments, p } V, ATMOSPHERE IN EGYPT. • 71 but little obliteration of the paintings, is found. When injury has been sustained from natural causes, it has been produced by other physical agencies than those of moisture : the sand has sometimes done its work of destruction. Thus, among the ruins of Alexandria, an obelisk is still standing, which, on its north and east faces, retains much of the freshness and sharp- ness of its original chiselling ; while on the other two sides, the sands of the desert, which have been beating against them for several hundred years, have partially, effaced the inscriptions. In any other country than Egypt, the whole would, probably, long since have been destroyed. A few years ago, the French transported an obelisk from Luxor, and raised it in Paris ; and though the material is granite, and though for many centuries it had stood uninjured in its original position ; yet it has already been found necessary to cover it with a liquid preparation of caoutchouc, to protect it from the corrosive effects of the atmosphere in Paris. There are temples in Egypt which have been roofless for 2,000 years ; their walls are covered with paintings. The colors are still distinctly perceptible, and in many instances, retain all their original freshness. It is not strange, then, that the sculptured stone should remain, often with the polish undimmed that it received from the hands of the workmen, many hundreds of years ago. Such is at this moment the case with fragments of temples, the demolition of which falls within the historic period, as it is known they were destroyed by Cambyses, 500 years before the Christian era. The same freshness, the same strange union of seeming youth with acknowledged age, is also to be seen iir some of the cavern temples and tombs, excavated in the sides of the mountains. At Aboo-simbul, in Nubia, the white of the walls is unstained 72 EGYPT AND ITS MONUMENTS. by any touch of time’s finger ; the outlines of the figures never could have been sharper, the colors of the paintings never more vivid, than they are now. Indeed, it is said, that when one comes to that part where the tracings and outlines show that this great work was never finished, he is almost cheated into the illusion that it is still in progress, and that the work- men have but temporarily suspended their labors ; so fresh is the appearance of the portion that is completed. But for the peculiarities of climate, we should probably at this day have few or no memorials of Egypt, to which we could turn, for the study of her history and progress in the arts of civilized and social life. For the last 1600 years these venerable and interesting ruins have been utterly neglected by the inhabi- tants ; no Egyptian hand has been extended to prevent the wantoimess of destruction, or stay the ravages of dilapida- tion. The marvel is, that any thing remains to be destroyed. Egypt has passed through strange vicissitudes since the erection of the pyramids of Ghizeh. An ancient monarchy has crumbled into ruins, repeated conquests have placed over her many foreign masters, civil wars have thimied her popu- lation, few of her ancient stock are left. In the circum- stances that must have attended national calamities like these, it had not been strange, had almost every architectural or pictorial vestige of the past been lost to the world for ever. Is it superstitious to suppose that there may have been a Pro- vidence in their preservation ? Is it a presumptuous interpre- tation of the purpose of God in his providence, to observe that an inquiring, searching spirit, demanding the proof of every thing, predominates in the minds of men at the present day ; and from thence to infer the importance of this opening of a new and hitherto unexplored field of inquiry, and the PALACE-TEMPLES. 73 ■vaiue of a powerful array of unanswerable evidence in favor of the Scriptures, which doubtless will be obtained from it ? May it not be, that the real and true “ philosophy of this age will be the instrument in God’s hands wherewith he will oppose its infidelity ?”* The remains of former grandeur m this most interesting country, consist chiefly of edifices connected with religious ceremonies, and of places for civil assemblies. A few words of explanation on these may prove useful. There was scarce a city of note in Egypt which had not its temple, or, as it has been well termed by some, palace-temple, serving at once for the residence of the monarch and for the place consecrated to the rites of religion, or appropriated to important civil assem- blies. On these ruins are found sculptured reliefs, which are generally colored, and have some reference to the false god of Egyptian mythology, in whose honor they were erected. This pagan divinity is commonly represented as receiving the homage of the king by whom the edifice was founded. This representation was usually delineated on the propj/la, or two truncated pyramids, which stood, one on either side of the grand entrance, and served in the translation of its reliefs and hieroglyphics, as a sort of title-page to what was within. An example is afforded in the view of Luxor, annexed. In the interior, by means both of sculpture and of large paintings on the walls, the battles, sieges, marches, triumphs, &c., of the king were delineated. The spoils obtained by the victor often furnished, as it is supposed, a part at least of the means employed in the erection of the edifice. The halls in the interior are sometimes very large, as at Thebes, for instance. * Osborn. 74 EGYPT AND ITS MONUMENTS. where there are some sixyliuudred feet in length, and half that distance in breadth, supported by massive columns twelve feet in diameter, and sixty-six feet high, placed at regular in tervals throughout the area of the apartment. The walls, pillars, &c., are covered with colossal sculptures of deities, kings, priests, religious processions, &c., while on the walls similar scenes are delineated in lively paintings. Some idea may be formed of part of the interior of one of these halls by the frontispiece to this volume. In the representations of triumphs, the costume, and pecu- liarities of color and feature, among the captives of ditferent nations, are carefully preserv^ed, and often render essential aid in deciphering the sculptured history of the event commemo- rated. Of this we shall have occasion to speak more particu- larly hereafter. In almost all the representations of conquests, the king is represented as marching in triumph to the temple, and dragging long lines of captives, fastened by the neck, and TOMBS OF EGYPT. 75 with limbs distorted by being bound in the most painful posi- tions. These reliefs are always accompanied by hierngbjpliic inscriptions explanatory of the scene, and are indispensable in attaining to a correct understanding of the representation. The neglect of them has led to some strange errors. The sculptured representations of kings invariably have their names written over them, and commonly inscribed within an oval or cartouche. The names of the foreigners with whom they were at war, of towns they were besieging, as well as of the captives they are leading, are usually written in the hiero- glyphics : sometimes the date of the erection of the edifice, and of the king by whom it was built, may be read. These dates are expressed by such a month in such a year of the monarch’s reign. The tombs of Egypt furnish also not only abundant evi- dence of her former grandeur, but also very valuable subjects of study to the antiquarian. In Upper Egypt, rocky moun- tains form the western boundary of the valley of the Nile. In these, immense caverns Avere cut, with incredible labor, as receptacles for the dead. In Lower Egypt, where no moun- tains exist, deep pits were dug, and lined with brick ; or, Avhere rock existed, they were dug into the rock, as places of interment. Nothing presents itself in the study of the man- ners and customs of ancient Egypt, as developed in her exist- ing remains, more striking than the respect shown to the dead. Diodorus has remarked, that the Egyptians spent more upon their tombs than they did upon their houses. Some of the cemeteries are filled with the remains of the common people. These are not always in coffins, but, enveloped in the folds of the linen with Avhich they were swathed, they are piled in the mummy pits with great regularity. They were all embalmed. 76 EGYPT AND ITS MONUMENTS. and the number is immense. Again, there are the family vaults of the wealthy, the priesthood, the military, &c. These are sometimes very extensive, consistmg of various rooms con- nected by galleries, with the walls of the apartments covered with paintings. The scenes delineated most commonly have reference to the operations of ordinary life. The deceased is represented with his family around him ; sometimes they are at the banquet, sometimes listening to music, or amusing themselves with the dance. Again, he is seen in the country, hunting, fowling, or fishing ; next, he is superintending agri- cultural labors. In short, almost every species of mechanical trade is depicted in the tombs : all are scenes of activity, and it has been well said, that “ every thing in them savors of life, but the corpse.” The predominant wish seems to have been, to banish from them all that could suggest the idea of death ; and the only explanation that offers itself of this singular custom is, that the proprietor of the tomb employed himself, while living, in the preparation for his posterity of what may be called a pictorial autobiography. But the aristocratic dead of these costly resting-places, unlike the poor, whose swathed mummies are packed in tiers, sleep in their respective sarco- phagi of granite, basalt, or alabaster, sculptured over with figures and inscriptions, which it is charitable to suppose are at least as truthful as the majority of modern epitaphs. These stone coffins, it was doubtless supposed by their occupants, would protect their bodies, after death, from an unhallowed disinterment ; but the very care taken to secure their remains from violation has often led to the desecration against which they would guard. The linen bandage around the common mummy of the pits offered nothing to the decipherer, while the inscriptions on the sarcophagus afforded to the zealous antiqua- ARTS OF DESIGN. 77 rian an opportunity not to be neglected, of adding characters to his hieroglyphic alphabet, or words to his Egyptian vocabu- lary. Many of the cabinets of Europe can show fragments of sarcophagi ; few take the trouble to preserve many speci- mens of the common mummy of the pit. Sometimes these wealthy dead were coffined in a wooden case, or double case, of sycamore, covered with gilding and painting. These, as they offered the same temptation as the inscribed sarcopha- gus, have often shared the same fate. But the tombs contain beside the dead, other articles, the removal of which involves no charge of desecration. With the dead it was usual to deposit, in the tombs, articles of luxury on which they had set a value while living ; and in the case of the humble artisan, the tools or utensils which he used in life, were laid with him when he rested from his toil. Heii9e various objects of inter- est have been found in the tombs. Elegant vases of granite, alabaster, metal, and eartb are abundant in the various muse- ums of Europe. The tools of the mason and carpenter, arti- cles of household furniture, models of boats and houses, the pallets used by the sacred scribes, with their cakes of ink and reed pons or brushes, with various other articles, are by no means uncommon. Books written on rolls of the papyrus (made from the inner coat of a species of reed once abundant on the canals and lakes of Egypt, though now rarely to be met with) are also found, sometimes inclosed in the swathings of the mummy, sometimes in hollow cases of wood or in earthen jars. It has thus happened, that though Ave have no continuous Avritten history of ancient Egypt, yet, from .a combination of unusual circumstances, AAm actually knoAv more of the details of CA^ery-day life among its ancient people, than Ave do of snoli 78 EGYPT AND ITS MONUMENTS. particulars in any other nation of antiquity. These details have already served to elucidate such fragments of their his- tory as are contained in the imperfect accounts of the Greek writers ; and we trust they will be found also to confirm and elucidate the more accurate accounts that we have, in the sacred writings, of another and not less interesting people. In inspecting the specimens of sculpture and painting pre- sented in the remains of ancient Egypt, one is forcibly struck with the manifold defects to be found generally, alike in the design and execution ; and these are the more surprising, when occasionally some specimen is met with confessedly of high merit, as exhibiting practised artistic skill. It is observa- ble also, that these better specimens are delineations of some- thing other than the human figure. Perhaps a reason for this may, to a certain extent, be found in a consideration of the purpose to which the Egyptians applied the arts of design. The effort was not with them, as with the Greeks, (from whom modern art is derived,) to speak through the eye to the imagination : theirs was the more matter-of-fact business of addressing the understanding. They were not seeking the beautiful, but the useful merely. Clement of Alexandria says truly that an Egyptian temple was yQaufm^ “ a writing and grace was not the prime object of the manuscript. The painting and sculpture of Egypt were meant, then, simply to convey facts, or what it was intended should be considered facts. The characters by which they sought to do it were but visible and often rude imitations of sensible objects ; the heavenly bodies, men, brutes, birds, fishes, dress, furniture, &c. In fulfilling their design, therefore, it was more important to convey the idea coiTectly and avoid mistakes, than it was to produce a finished work of art. Hence the representation EGYPTIAN ART. 79 of the human figure seldom affords proof of elaboration in its execution ; a very rude sketch was sufficient to show that nothing but man could be ixieant by it ; commonly the face and lower limbs are in profile, while the body is presented with its full front ; proportion also is sometimes utterly neglected. In fact, the rough drawing served but to spell the word man, while the hieroglyphics above it, informed him who could read them, who or what the man was. But in the very same picture, perhaps, containing a rough sketch of the human figure, birds, or other objects would be repre- sented, drawn with great spirit, and colored with a minute attention to nature. Accuracy of delineation was resorted to when such accuracy was necessary to guard against mistakes, and it was therefore required to show the species of the bird represented. All that the artist sought was to convey an idea with precision, and in doing this he could call in the aid of hieroglyphics, both symbolic and phonetic. It was perhaps strange that he did not think of using either painting or hieroglyphics separately, to accomplish his object ; but so it was that, using both, he could effect his purpose, and he con- sequently made no eftbrt at improvement. It must not, how- ever, be supposed that there was entire absence of artistic skill in the Egyptians, when they found an occasion for its exer- cise. There are not wanting statues executed by them, in which the anatomical proportions of the human figure are carefully represented ; they unquestionably, also, were suffi- ciently minute and accurate in their work to produce portraits when necessary. It was, therefore, not want of capacity entirely that caused the jiroductions of Egyptian art to fall so far short of the polished works of the Grecian chisel ; their defects were purposed. 80 EGYPT AND ITS MONUMENTS. There was, however, one department of drawing, in which all the specimens yet seen, would justify the conclusion that they were entirely ignorant. They knew nothing of per- spective, and some of their devices to remedy defects arising from this cause, are clumsy in the extreme. Thus, if it became necessary to depict three sides of an apartment, (as may be seen in the pictures of some of the granaries,) a sepa- rate elevation of each wall was made, and the distant end of the room was placed, in the drawing, above the eleva- tion of the sides, as an entirely separate feature. From these and other causes, it requires some little practice and famili- arity with the representations in Egyptian paintings and re- liefs, to understand them. They present, at first, an indis- tinctness and confusion that make their comprehension difficult. There was another particular in which, as artists, they were deficient. They seem to have known little or nothing of the application, in their coloring, of light and shade; nor is there now remembered among all the specimens yet seen, a solitary attempt at what is termed by artists, foreshortening. In d.eir ignorance of perspective, and light and shade, it is perhaps worthy of note that they find, at this day, an exact resem- blance in one of the most ancient civilized nations of the world, the Chinese. It may, perhaps, aid the reader, if before entering upon the work of a comparison of the Bible with the existing Egyptian remains, we detain him long enough for the accom- plishment of an imaginary voyage up the Nile from Cairo, touching only at certain prominent points, with the view of fixing in the mind localities. Near Cairo, at the distance of about two hours’ journey, is Heliopolis or Ou, now known as Matar^eh. “ Its site is marked by low mounds, inclosing a MEMPHIS. 81 space about three-fourths by half a mile, once occupied by houses and the temple of the Sun. This area is now a ploughed field, a garden of herbs, and the solitary obelisk (of Osirtasen I.) which still rises iu the midst, is the sole remnant of the former splendors of the place.” A little above Cairo, on the western side of the river, are the pyramids of Ghizeh, Saqqara, and Dashour. “ The pyramids of Ghizeh ” (thus writes a modern traveller) “ are numerous ; but those which are spoken of as the pyramids are three in number ; they are situated at the confines of the great Libyan desert, on a bed of limestone rock about one hundred and fifty feet above the level of the sand, and one hundred and sixty above the river. There is now scarcely a vestige of the ruins of Memphis ; but sufficient observation has been made to determine the site of that ancient city ; and the pyramids are believed to mark the situation of its loestern suburbs.” The Greek writers, who have said any thing illustrating the history of Egypt, all concur in stating that it was the unanimous tradition of the Egyptian priests, that the pyramids were the oldest of their monuments. According to Manetho, the three great pyramids at Mem- phis were built by the first three kings of the fourth dynasty. In a small tomb near the great pyramid, the name of the founder has been discovered. Manetho writes it in Greek, Hovqtg (Suphis) ; Eratosthenes says that, in Egyptian, this means xoftaoTog, i. e. “one who has much hair.” The phone- tic hieroglyphics, it is said, furnish as the name, two words, which in Coptic mean “ much hair.” The name of his son, who founded the second pyramid, has also been discovered in an adjacent tomb. In the cartouche it reads She-fre. Mane- tho calls him Suphis II., and Herodotus writes it Cephrenes. Col. Vyse deciphered the name of the founder of the third 6 82 EGYPT AND ITS MONUMENTS. pyramid on the remains of a coffin, which he discovered in the interior of it. The name, as usual, is in a cartouche ; read off into characters familiar to us, it is Mcn-ka-re. According to Manetho, the name of the builder of the third pyramid was Mencheres. As to Memphis, once known as Moph, Noph, Menf, (as well as by other names,) and now Mitraheny ; little of it is left. “ Large mounds of rubbish, a colossal statue sunk deep in the ground, and a few fragments of granite are all that re- mains.” So says a modern authority, without making any allusion to the great Sphinx, which is in this neighborhood. The colossus above spoken of is of Remeses II. Proceeding up the river and passing by Benisooef, from which a road leads to the Fyoom, we pause at Beni Hassan, on the eastern bank of the river. Here are some very fine grottoes with curious paintings. These grottoes are cut in the solid rock, and Sir Gardner Wilkinson states that “ from the sculptures of Beni Hassan we learn that the Egyptians were acquainted with the manufacture of linen, glass, cabinet work, gold ornaments, and numerous objects indicative of art and refinement, and various gymnastic exercises ; the games of draughts, ball, mora^ and other well-known modern amuse- ments were common at the same period. The style of archi- tecture was grand and chaste, and the fluted columns of Beni Hassan are of a character calling to mind the purity of the Doric, which, indeed seems to have derived its origin from Egypt.” AVe next reach Girgeh, three hours’ ride distant from Aby- dus, (now known as Arabat el matfoon.) Here are groves of acacia, and here also was found the tablet of which a repre- sentation has been given on a previous page. This spot was LOCALITIES IN EGYPT. 83 also deemed peculiarly sacred, as being the burial-place of Osiris. There are two temples at Abydus and many tombs. The next locality designated on the map is Dendera (Ten- tyris). Here was found the zodiac, from which, as has already been mentioned, the French savans deduced such extraordinary conclusions as to the antiquity of the work ; all of which were quietly disposed of by Champollion’s reading on the zodiac itself the name of Augustus Csesar. We next come upon Thebes, once the proud capital of upper Egypt (Diospolis Magna). On the eastern bank are Karnac’and Luxor; on the western the tombs of the kings, private tombs, several temples, and colossi of the plains. It would require a volume to describe the objects of interest that here arrest the archaeologist. Sir Gardner Wilkinson has given a volume to the subject, to which the inquiring reader is referred. We present the account afforded by another traveller of his approach to Thebes. “We saw before us” (says he), “ the bed of a fine river, and an extensive plain, but no buildings, nor was there the distant hum of human beings; the only sounds that reached the ear were the gently rippling current of the waters, and the hoarse croaking of the bull- frogs now in full chorus. At last, the top of a lofty propylon was pointed out, marking the situation of Karnac, and we could just catch a glimpse of the ruins of Luxor.” We can- not withhold the picture which follows of antiquarian enthu- siasm. “M. Bonomi, pointing to the heights of Q,h’oornah, in- formed us that he had taken up his residence there, among the tombs, one of which he had swept and purified, and by put- ting up a door and making other necessary arrangements, had converted it into a very commodious, dry, and comfortable 84 EGYPT AND ITS MONUMENTS. dwelling. Here he had resided several years, devoting him- self to the study of Egyptian antiquities. Like Robinson Crusoe, he kept his boat, his cat, his dog, his goats, and — not a parrot, but an ostrich, which took her flights into the desert, and regularly came to be fed. He had fowls also which sup- plied him with eggs ; and from time to time he laid in a stock of provisions from Kheneh. Engaged in intellectual pursuits, his wants were few ; the climate suited his constitution ; he enjoyed the best of health, and the habits of the people were agreeable to his taste. He was acquainted with the language, and by continued acts of kindness and philanthropy, had secured the friendly auspices of the natives, who called him ‘ Aboo Nom,’ sometimes ‘ Aboo Youssouf Nom,’ his own name being Joseph ; and as he often acted the part of the good Samaritan, they would add ‘ El Hhakkim Ingles^,’ regarding him as the ‘favored of Allah,’ and applying to him on all occasions for advice. His appearance was venerable ; and having adopted their costume, they seemed to forget that he Avas a Christian : they occasionally interchanged presents, and lived on terms of the greatest harmony ; for whatever disputes arose, no one oflered to molest Aboo Nom.” Agreeable as it Avould be to dwell longer among these interesting ruins, we must not forget that the purpose we have in view is not to write the narrative of a picturesque tour up the Nile. Referring our readers, therefore, to the views pre- sented on previous pages of portions of Luxor and Karnac, as aflbrding some faint idea of these stupendous monuments of ancient art, we pass on to Esneh. Here it will be remembered was another zodiac, on which Champollion found the name of Antoninus, to the utter over- throw of the learned calculations and conjectures of the f'-’i : * \ i ; • 'i LOCALITIES ON THE NILE. 85 French literati. The temple at Edfou next attracts our notice. We come next upon Koom Ombos. Here is the great temple of i^evek-ra^ a magnificent structure. The portico is presented in the annexed view. Our next landing place is Syene, now E’Sooan, which was the southern boundary of Egypt. Passing this, we enter Nubia and reach Gerf Hossain ; a view of the ruins in which place forms the frontispiece of this volume. The last locality designated on the map is Aboo-simbel, and here is a temple, remarkable as being the only one in Egypt or Nubia that has suffered from dampness. Some of the paintings are here obliterated, and the walls are crumbling. Still much of great interest remains, and particularly battle scenes and victories, supposed by some to represent those of Sesostris. His opponents in battle are white, having black hair and eyes, and a long black beard. Having thus completed our imaginary voyage, and fur- nished our readers, we trust, with such preliminary informa- tion as may be useful, we now proceed to bring the testimony furnished by Egyptian antiquities into juxtaposition with the sacred history. CHAPTER V. Remarks on testimony. — Application of them to the evidence afforded by the monuments. — Facts related in Abraham’s history tested by Egyptian re- mains. w HEN a number of well-authenticated contemporaneous facts are brought into juxtaposition ; and when thus combined, they show, that except in a certain contingency, their simul- taneous existence was not possible ; that contingency is as clearly proved as are the well-authenticated facts that thus constitute what is called circumstantial evidence. “ Circum- stances,” it has been said, “ cannot lie this is true ; but those who relate the circumstances may ; hence it is all- important that the facts which constitute the circumstances should be verified beyond all reasonable question ; when thus verified, the inevitable deductions from them are entitled to just as much confidence as if they were proved by direct testimony. Again, it often happens that most important testimony is purely incidental. The facts or circumstances that furnish the incidents, have seemingly no direct connection with the point to be proved. They are brought forward with reference to another and totally different point, when their coincidence with the alleged fact under investigation is, for the first time, unexpectedly developed. Such testimony has the advantage of being unsuspected, for it could not have been manufactured INCIDENTAL TESTIMONY. 87 for the occasion ; undesigned coincidences, therefore, (particu- larly when found in documents having no connection with, or reference to, the same principal subject,) are never to be slighted in weighing testimony. These are important considerations to be borne in mind upon the very threshold of the investigation on which we are about to enter. What, for instance, are the facts? We are in possession of a very ancient documentary history, the Bible, the truth of which is established satisfactorily to our minds by distinct and independent testimony, directly applicable to the question of its truth or falsehood. Almost within the present generation, the interesting discovery has been made of the mode of interpreting the characters, long illegible, delineated on the monuments and in the writings of an ancient country, a part of whose history is found incidentally written in our Bible, because it was connected with the progress of another people, of whom our book professedly gives the history. Now it is very obvious, that if these modern discoveries bring to light historical events which synchronize with the relation of them given in our book ; or if they illustrate, in hundreds of par- ticulars, national usages, or manners, or arts, all of which are found to harmonize with what our document casually illus- trates of customs, (fcc., among the ancient people to whom it incidentally refers ; then cumulative testimony is atforded thereby to the truth of our document, so far, at least, as our book and the monuments professedly speak of the same thing. It is true, indeed, that the Bible does not actually need this cumulative testimony to its authenticity. Every subject of investigation must primarily be examined by the species of testimony applicable to the proof of its truth ; and of this suitable proof, we apprehend there is quite enough to sustain 8S EGYPT AND ITS MONUMENTS. the Bible. It is not, therefore, because there is a deficiency of evidence that investigations like the present have been made : they have been called for, rather, by the bold assertions of those who have proclaimed their discovery in the monuments, of evidence directly contradicting the truth of the Bible. It is not pretended by them, that some of the facts and circum- stances mentioned in the Old Testament are not confirmed by the monuments ; but their objection is founded chiefly on the chronology of the book : they afiirm an existence and occu- pancy of Egypt by man, many thousands of years anterior to the supposed date of the creation of man. It is no part of our purpose in this work, (as we have already said,) to enter into the examination of their supposed chronology. We would, however, here simply say, that, even on their own grounds, it is, in the judgment of men as learned as themselves, beset with insuperable difficulties ; and is so far from having reached the certainty of proofs that great differences of opinion exist among themselves, on the subject. Beside, even supposing the com- monly received chronology of the Pentateuch, or that of the Septuagint, to be erroneous, (which, as to the latter, we are very far from conceding,) it would be difficult to perceive how this disproves the existence of a fact distinctly recorded, in its historical statements ; such as the exode of the Israelites, for instance. That may have occurred, though the precise time of its occurrence be inaccurately stated. It does not affect the respect due to the book as an inspired volume of fact or doc- trinCy to consider its general chronology an open question : that it has been so considered and treated by some of the most pious and learned men, is a fact well known to the Biblical student. When time is not of the essence of a fact recorded, it is unimportant. There are few, even of modern histories, TESTIMONY OF THE BIBLE. 89 that harmonize in dates ; yet no one doubts the facts they state. In this case, as in the kindred one of geological science, it would seem that the simple purpose for which the book was written has been overlooked. The Bible was never intended to be a system of chronology, nor a treatise on geology. Its chief purpose (we speak now of the Pentateuch, the part more immediately before us) was, first, to communicate the great truth of one only God, the Creator, thus giving a death-blow to idolatry ; and secondly, to preserve the leading facts connected with the origin and progress of a nation, designed by God to preserve, in the midst of error and corruption, certain religious truths important to man to know. If matters connected with science be mentioned or alluded to, the occurrence is inciden- tal ; and though what is said is true, it does not necessarily embody all truth on that subject, nor profess so to do. These remarks are not made as an apology for the Bible, in its sup- posed disagreement with the discoveries of science : we say supposed disagreement ; for we are free to confess that there is not, in our view, one syllable in the Bible contradicted by the discoveries of the geologist, however ancient he may make the oldest strata ; nor have we any belief in the assumption that a chronology derived (as it is pretended) from monumen- tal evidence in Egypt, proves the falsehood of the ancient and only authentic history of man, contained in our Bible. But may it not with truth be said, that the Bible has not been treated with fairness by those who would find, in the monuments, its refutation 1 By common consent they seem to have rejected its aid, though it is the only written record in existence professing to be conteinporary with some of the events sculptured on the monuments : they have turned away 90 EGYPT AND ITS MONUMENTS. from it, to rely upon the classical authorities, the oldest of which dates at least 1000 years after the temples on which the sculptures occur. Now, that a record of the same fact is sometimes preserved both in the Bible and on the monuments, is undeniable ; should not this coincidence have at least begot- ten the suspicion that possibly, as a mere history, illustrative of the monuments, the Bible was actually the best help to he had ? Indeed, had it been presented to the world as a mere history of human events, without any other claim to acceptance than that which belongs to Herodotus, for instance ; had it not professed to fulfil the higher object of being a guide from God, authoritatively addressed to man ; who can doubt that many a modern archaeologist would have gladly availed him- self of its aid, and trumpeted forth the accuracy of his hiero- glyphical interpretations as proved by the wonderful confirma- tion they received from that veritable historian, Moses? Very sure it is, that, as yet, the perfect certainty in some instances of correct hieroglyphical interpretation can be proved only by referring to the narratives of the Bible. The book is not indebted to the monuments for confirmation of its truth, as much as the monuments are to it, for proof of their correct interpretation. It would seem, too, that there has been an error even on the part of some of the friends of revelation, in presenting the coincidences between the Bible and the monu- ments, as exhibited in the pictures merely, while the in- script io7is that accompany them, and, in truth, form their explanation, have been neglected. Entering upon a comparison of the Bible with Egyptian monuments, these preliminary remarks may not be without use, as indicating, in some degree, what we may expect to find. Whoever supposes that he will meet with a continuous sculp- ANCIENT DIVISION OF EGYPT. 91 tured history of Egypt, or even of that part of her history to which the Bible refers, will find disappointment. The memo- rials that we now see were not designed by those who made them to present any such history ; they are the records of sin- gle events, most commonly conquests and triumphs in war, and were erected by pride to perpetuate the atrocities of blood- thirsty ambition : they never tell a story of Egyptian humilia- tion. No success over Egypt, no national misfortune or dis- grace ever called forth the labor of her teeming population, or employed the skill of her artists. If, therefore, we find aught to repay the toil of research, it must be gathered, here and there, in isolated facts : grouping them all together they form a mass of testimony, the more valuable from being incidental ; and interesting as tending, if not to confirm, yet to shed light on many portions of that book, the truth of which is, by other and independent testimony, already, to our minds, satisfactorily established. Egypt was formerly divided into three great provinces. The most southern part, or Upper Egypt, was known as the Thebaid, and is that portion of the great valley of the Nile, in which was situated one of the great capitals of the whole em- pire, the city of Thebes. The grandeur and extent of this once great city are attested by the colossal ruins which still remain to mark its site, now occupied in part by the modern towns and villages of Luxor, Karnac, and other places of infe- rior note. Middle Egypt, as it was called, lies immediately on the north of the Thebaid ; and was anciently known as fire Hepta- 92 EGYPT AND ITS MONUMENTS. nomis, from the fact that it was divided mto seven nomes or districts. Lower Egypt comprised all the northern portion from the Heptanomis to the Mediterranean. Tire great capital here was 3Iemphis. Its site is now covered with a growth of date palms ; while the great Sphinx, the pyramids of Ghizeh, and the rock tomhs, are almost the sole monuments of its former splendor. The geographical feature, however, which, in our present work, is most interesting to us, is in the fact of the contiguity of Egypt to Canaan. The countries were separated by that part of Arabia Petraea which extends to the shores of the Mediterranean. Relations of a political and commercial kind existed between Eg}^pt and Canaan at a very early period, and we learn as much from the Greek historians : but a more authentic testimony to the same fact is to be found in the his- tory contained in the Bible. The oriental name of Egy’pt, according to the Scriptures, was Mizraim. Mizraim and Canaan were two of the sons of Ham [Gen. x. 6]. It seems to be generally conceded that Egypt, as well as the neighbor- ing regions, was peopled by some of the descendants of Ham ; and we know that it was Canaan who gave his name to the country that was colonized by his family. Nothing, therefore, was more natural than that an intercourse should exist between these descendants of a common stock. We have the history in the Scriptures of such intercourse ; and we now enter upon the direct inquiry, how far the statements of our history derive mcidental confirmation from facts concerning Egypt, gathered from other sources. ABRAHAM. 93 ABRAHAM. It is with this individual that the history of the Hebrews begins, and it is bis Scripture biography that first brings us into contact with Egyptian usages. For our present purpose it is not necessary that we should follow out his life in all its details. Certain acts of it only, bring Egypt into view, and it is with these alone that we are now concerned. Leaving Ur of the Chaldees, (now Urfah, as it is supposed,) the place of his nativity, we find him at length in the land of Canaan, a pastoral chief, leading his flocks and herds to fresh pasture grounds, as necessity might require. At length a famine arises in Canaan, and Abraham, who was then in the southern part of that country, heard that there was corn in Egypt, and determined to proceed thither with his family. Beside his wife Sarai, his household consisted then of his servants only, for at that time, he was childless. When he reached the borders of Egypt, he had an opportunity of comparing the personal ap- pearance of his wife with that of the females of Egypt, and found the complexion of the one much fairer than that of the others. Abraham was apprehensive that the personal appear- ance of his wife might render her an object of attraction to the monarch of Egypt, (who was known by the general term. Pharaoh ;) and was thereby induced to represent her as his sister; and it appears that his fears were not unfounded. “ The princes of Pharaoh ” saw the handsome stranger, and their reports of her beauty soon reached the ears of the king, lie took the woman into his house, and made valuable presents to her husband ; they are particularly enumerated ; “ sheep and oxen, and he-asses, and men-servants, and maid-servants, and she-asses and camels.” Pharaoh presently discovered that 94 EGYPT AND ITS MONUMENTS. Sarah was Abraham’s loife, and not his sister, as he had sup- posed, and therefore desired Abraham to take her and go his way. Abraham accordingly left Egypt, taking with him his wife and all that he liad, and is represented as having been very rich in cattle, in silver, and in gold. These are substantially the incidents of the story, as it stands recorded in the latter part of the twelfth chapter of Genesis. And here, our first business is to cull from this nar- rative, \\\e facts expressed or implied in it. They appear to be these : 1. Egypt was then a powerful nation., rich and civilized. 2. Lower Egypt was then dry. 3. Its kings were known by the name of Pharaoh. 4. Domestic servitude then existed there. 5. There was fainine in Canaan and abundance in Egypt. 6. Sarah was fair, and used no covering or veil over her face. 7. Pharaoh wished to place her in his harem. 8. There teas no dislike of Ahrahaml s pastoral occupation then manifested. 9. His gifts were sheep, oxen, he and she-asses, men arid maidservants, camels, gold and silver. 10. Abraham accepted these gifts. Our next inquiry is this : Are these facts illustrated or incidentally confirmed by any evidence we possess relating to Egypt? 1. Egypt was then a powerful nation, rich and civilized. A certain class of '• Egyptologists ” is not disposed to con- tradict this. In fact they claim that many thousands of years ABRAHAM. 95 before Abraham, Egypt was a populous and highly cultivated country. The scope of their argument is that the monuments sustain their view of a chronology, that carries them back to a period of time very much earlier than the days of Abraham ; and they thence infer that it must have taken many thousands of years for a people to grow up from a state of barbarism, into the “ high civilization ” that must have existed at the time of the earliest monuments. They thus build upon an infer- ence founded on an assimnption. The assumption is that they find, in Egyptian antiquities, a support for their chronology ; a point which they certainly cannot prove by any thing yet discovered ; and they thence deduce an inference founded, as it seems to us, on an error. For, by what authority, we ask, are they sustained in the position, that the career of early nations commenced in barbarism 1 How will they establish the fact that the earliest races of men were savages 7 From the testimony of the oldest authentic history of man, a differ- ent conclusion seems inevitable. Take the only history we have of the antediluvian period, and what trace do we find in it of savage life? Not one. Does not this fact, then, rather indicate that savageism was a degeneracy, in some portion of the human family, from an original condition of civilization existing in some greater or less degree ? There is nothing in what we know of man’s history and progress to justify the opinion, that in early times he proceeded from a savage to a civilized state ; but, on the contrary, much to confirm the belief, that from civilization he degenerated into barbarism. Be this, however, as it may, it is still true that Egypt had long been occupied by civilized men, before Abraham saw it. It is by no means improbable that his eye rested on some of the monuments of Lower Egypt, on which we may now look. 96 EGYPT AND ITS MONUMENTS. Its condition as a country, subsisting under a well established form of government, is an important fact, as we shall see, in our further progress ; and the monuments, without carrying us back into a past, too remote for reasonable belief, do still indicate the existence of all those arts of civilization and government, which mark a social existence, extending back- ward for at least several ages, and certainly, to a time long before the days of Abraham. There are architectural remains in Egypt that have outlived the touch of time’s hand for more than thirty centuries. These conclusively show that the country possessed its palaces, propyla, tombs, and temples, at the time when the children of Israel, under tlie successors of Joshua, were contending with the Canaanites for the pos- session of the promised land; or even yet earlier, when the children of Israel were slaves in Egypt. But, we may go back further still, and find abundant evidence that no small degree of political freedom, as well as a long-continued civili- zation, must have existed among the Egyptians long before Abraham’s day. And with this, the story now before us, as well as all others in the Bible relating to Egypt, will be found to harmonize. 2. Lower Egypt was then dry. It is not necessary here to enter minutely into a geological discussion; or to attempt a scientific solution of the question, ‘ How long a time must it have required to form the Delta of the Nile?’* All that concerns us at present is the fact, that in * The whole subject of the formation of Deltas, is one requiring more facts than geology has yet accumulated, to enable scientific men to speak with absolute certainty. Other causes than that of the gradual deposit of soil, washed down by the river, are to be examined. Thus, as it respects the Delta of the Mississippi, ABRAHAM. 97 Abraham’s day. Lower Egypt was dry, and habitable. Facts, now existing in Egypt, would seem to show that there had been ample time for the production of such a result. The soil of Egypt was, doubtless, originally formed in great part, by the earth brought down by the river, from Abyssinia and the interior of Africa, and deposited during the periodical annual inundations. From the same cause, in the progress of years, it has been gradually elevated. There are towns and buildings which we know, from history, to have been originally built on mounds above the reach of ordinary inun- dations, that are now so much below the level of the river, that they are regularly overflowed ; for it must not be forgotten that the rise in the bed of the river keeps pace with the extent of every fresh deposit on the adjacent land. Thus, the ancient Nilometer at Elephantine, mentioned by Strabo, is still in existence. The highest measure marked on it is twenty-four cubits. At this day, the water, in its greatest elevation, rises eight feet above that mark ; while an inscrip- tion on the wall, made in the third century of our era, shows that the water then rose but one foot above the twenty-four cubit, or high water mark. Here, then, is a difference of elevation of seven feet in about sixteen hundred years : i. e. of five and a quarter inches in a century ; and there is inde- pendent testimony to show, that in the circumjacent soil, the for instance, it is an undoubted fact, that new land successively rises and dis- appears at the mouths of the river, from upheavals and depressions, occasioned by subterraneous agencies. When, in 1811, New Madrid, on the Mississippi, was destroyed, and the city of Caraccas was simultaneously overthrown by the same convulsion, the effects and agitation about the mouths of the Mississippi, it is said, were such as to indicate that the locality was in the line of communication by which the mighty subterraneous agent reached from New Madrid to Caraccas. 7 98 EGYPT AND ITS MONUMENTS. rise has been in about the same proportion. There are isolated spots where, from local causes, the rise of the soil may be more or less than this, but these are occasional irregularities, not affecting the general result. Of course, as in all long rivers that form Deltas, the strata of deposit will diminish in thick- ness as the river approaches the sea ; thus. Sir Gardner Wil- kinson tells us, that “ at Elephantine, the land has been raised about nine feet in seventeen hundred years, at Thebes, about seven, and so on gradually diminishing to the mouth.” He also indicates the ratio of gradual diminution by the sta.te- ments, that around the base of the obelisk of Osirtasen, at Heliopolis, the alluvial soil has accumulated to the height of five feet ten inches ; and that around a monument — had one been erected at Elephantine, when the obelisk was reared — there would now have been an accumulation of about nineteen feet. The swell of the river varies in different parts of its chan- nel. In Upper Egypt it is from thirty to thirty-five feet ; at Cairo, it is about twenty-three feet ; in the northern, or most seaward part of the Delta, it is not more than four feet. This arises, first, from the breadth of the inundation, (the waters spreading over a large extent of level formation,) and secondly, from the fact that its volume in the river is dimin- ished by the numerous artificial channels, all over the country, into which it is conducted for purposes of irrigation ; and in which channels it is retained after the river has subsided. The inhabitants of Egypt have, with great labor, cut a vast num- ber of canals and trenches through the whole extent of the land, and the object of these is to convey the waters to spots where the inundation does not directly extend. But there is additional evidence, adduced by Osborn, in ABRAHAM. 99 support of the fact we are considering. Herodotus informs us that in the days of Menes, (the first of Egypt’s line of human monarchs,) the Delta of the Nile was already a reclaimable marsh. Now let us inquire if there he any data on which to form an opinion as to the time it would require so to elevate the land, by means of art aiding the deposits of the river, as to render this reclaimable marsh fit for occupancy. Juvenal in- forms us that about 1600 years ago, the Nile emptied itself by many mouths ; we now know that the deposits of the river have filled up all its mouths but two. If then 1600 years were sulficient to produce the effect of stopping all the mouths but two ; and if, in Menes’s day, (who was confessedly, ac- cording to the anti-Bible school of “ Egyptologists,” many hundreds of years before Abraham,) the Delta was then re- claimable ; is it unreasonable to conclude that Lower Egypt was a dry country, and thickly inhabited when Abraham first saw it ? — We are unwilling to leave this subject without advert- ing to the testimony it incidentally affords to the point in proof of which Osborn originally adduced it : viz., that Menes (who we readily admit lived in a very distant period from the present) did not live, as some have informed us, about 6000 years before Christ ; for had this been the case, if Herodotus and Juvenal may be credited in their statements, the Delta, instead of being in his day, a reclaimable marsh, would have been an expanse of deep sea. But there is still another, and to our minds most conclusive proof on this subject, which shows “ that the Egypt of the, Bible is Egypt indeed, not a fiction, nor an imposture, nor a blunder — ^as writers of the Voltaire school would persuade the world — but a reality, so far as it goes, a picture copied from actual life.” 100 EGYPT AND ITS MONUMENTS. If the reader will tarn to the map of ancient Egypt, he will find that on that branch in the Delta, which empties by the Tanitic, or, as Herodotus terms it, the Saitic mouth, stands Tunis, not far from the sea. This place is known in Scripture by the name of Zoan. In Numbers xiii. 22, it is stated that “ Hebron was built seven years before Zoan in Egypt.” Zoan, then, we remark in passing, seems to have been proverbially ancient, as it was used as a standard of reference, to indicate the age of other cities. Now we have but to ascertain whether Hebron existed in Abraham’s day. To this the answer is, that when Abraham reached Canaan, the Scriptural history tells us, he found Hebron there ; and for aught that is known to the contrary, it might then have been standing for many years. 3. The kings of Egypt were then known by the title, Pharaoh. This word is sometimes used in Scripture, as if it were a proper name ; and sometimes the phrase, “ King of Egypt,” is added to it. Sometimes, also, the real proper name, as it may be called, is added ; thus we read of Pharaoh Necho, and Pharaoh Hophra. The word is written in Hebrew, Phrah, and different opinions have been expressed as to its ori- gin. Josephus, in his antiquities, intimates that it is derived from the ancient Egyptian word, onro, meaning “king;” pre- fixing the masculine article, in Coptic, it becomes p-onro, “ the king,” or ph-ouro, whence Pharaoh. A later, and probably more correct opinion, derives it from the Egyptian word Phra, “the sun,” which both Rosellini and Lepsius have remarked, is often written hieroglyphically, on the monuments, over the heads of the kings, where it is represented by the hawk and globe, or by the symbol of the sun. Sir Gardner Wilkinson ABRAHAM. 101 thus writes : “ I have frequently had occasion to notice the true meaning and purport of this name. I shall, therefore, only observe, that it is written in Hebrew, Phrah, and is taken from the Egyptian word Pile or Phre, (pronounced Phra,) signi- fying the sun, and represented, in hieroglyphics, by the hawk and globe, or sun, over the royal banners. It was through the well-known system of analogies that the king obtained this title, being the chief of earthly, as the sun was of heavenly bodies. But the word is not derived from, or related to ouro, “ king,” as Josephus supposes. Phouro is like Pharaoh ; but the name is Phrah, in Hebrew, and Pharaoh is an unwarranted corruption.” It has been suggested that the two derivations are quite reconcileable ; inasmuch as it is not only possible, but highly probable, that the Egyptians, in conformity with a very com- mon usage among modern oriental sovereigns, should make the name of the sun a royal title, and that thence, custom should make it equivalent to the word “ king.” But, at pres- ent, our business is with the fact that, in Abraham’s day, the monarch of Egypt was known by the title of Pharaoh ; and that the monuments clearly show that it was the generic term applied to all the native sovereigns of Egypt. As far as the Bible conveys any information on the subject, it tells exactly the same story. We leave this point here, for the present, as we shall have occasion to resume it on a future page. 4. Domestic servitude then existed in Egypt . Pharaoh gave to Abraham men-servants and maid-ser- vants, according to our history. Had Egypt at that day household slaves? It is difficult, in tracing the history of slavery, to say when it did not exist. We meet with it in the 102 EGYPT AND ITS MONUMENTS. earliest \vritten record we have of our race ; and indeed we are aware of its prevalence, in a greater or less degree, among all early nations. In some instances, in the Bible, the word servant may, and we think does, mean some humble friend, or dependent, or disciple performing servile offices ; but the mass of those called servants in Scripture were absolute and perpetual slaves. They generally were either captives taken in war, or were foreigners that had been purchased. They, with their descendants, were considered the property of their masters, and, as such, might be exchanged or sold ; nay, among some nations, a power of life and death over his unfor- tunate slave was confided to his master. Abraham’s servants were, we apprehend, slaves : but the revolting circumstances attending slavery in some of its exhibitions, were generally unknown among the early orientals. The slaves were rather deemed, and treated, as humble members of the family ; though to this there were doubtless, in some instances, cruel exceptions. Whatever may have been the case, however, as to the extent of a master’s power, servitude of some kind, and a right of alienation, are distinctly declared. The monuments show us the existence of slavery. “ From them Ave find ” (says Taylor) “ that the mistress of a mansion was very rigid in enforcing her authority over her female domestics. We see these unfortunate beings trembling and cringing before their superiors, beaten with rods by the overseers, and sometimes threatened Avith a formidable Avhip, Avielded by the lady of the mansion herself” In other cases, the relation subsisting betAveen the mistress and her slaves appears to be of a gentler and more affectionate character. In a tomb at Thebes is a representation, copied by Wilkinson, of a lady enjoying the bath, Avho is Avaited on by four female servants, Avhere nothing ABRAHAM. 103 appears to indicate any other feeling than that of mutual kind- ness, and, on the part of the attendants, respectful affection. 5. There was famine in Canaan, and abundance in Egypt. Egypt in early times was regarded as the granary of west- ern Asia. It owes its fertility to the periodical inundations of the Nile ; these are, of course, the consequence of the rains in the remote country in which the river takes its rise, or through which it passes in the upper part of its course ; for it is the peculiarity of Egypt that it does not depend for its fertility, as most other lands do, on local rains ; of which, as we have already stated, it may be said to have comparatively none. It may therefore be, that a want of local rains in Canaan would produce a scarcity there ; while in the adjacent region of Lower Egypt, overflowed by reason of rain in a far-distant and mountainous land, there would be abundance. Such, we believe, is at this day sometimes the case ; Egypt is fertile, while local causes occasion more or less of dearth in Canaan. It sometimes happens, though rarely, that there is want in Egypt ; but we will not now dwell on this, as we shall have occasion to speak of it, more particularly, hereafter. The coexistence of want in Canaan, and abundance in Egypt, is thus seen to be in perfect harmony with the natural pheno- mena of the country. G. Sarah was fair, and used no covering or veil over her face. Sarah was a native of Mesopotamia ; and from the com- plexions of different nations as painted on the monuments, we learn that the Egyptians were not so dark as the Nubians and Ethiopians ; but were of a browner tinge than the Asiatics. Hence “ the Egyptians beheld the woman, that she was very 104 EGYPT AND ITS MONUMENTS. fairP We read, too, that “the princes of Pharaoh also saw her.” Hence she must have been unveiled. This is in accordance with what we learn from the monuments ; and, though seemmgly a small matter, is yet valuable for the inci- dental testimony it affords to the fact that the writer of our history, whoever he may have been, knew well the fashions of Egypt in the days of Abraham, and described things as they were. Oriental women generally veil their faces in pub- lic ; and out of Egypt, such was the custom from the earliest times : but in Egypt, such was not the fashion until after the conquest of the country by the Persians. In the reign of the Pharaohs, as the monuments abundantly show, the women exposed their faces, and were permitted to enjoy as much liberty as the ladies of modern Europe. This was the result of an advanced state of civilization. We have numerous illustrations on the walls of Egypt, showing the habits of social life among the ancient inhabi- tants. Thus, in the representation of an entertainment, we may see the ladies and gentlemen sometimes assembled in the same apartment, and mingling together with all the freedom of modern social intercourse. The children also, instead of being shut up in the harem, according to present oriental custom, are introduced into the company, and are depicted as sitting by the mother’s side or on the father’s knee. In fact, no ancient nation allowed to its females greater luxuries and privileges than were granted to the Egyptian women. Their dresses were exceedingly rich and costly. As has been inti- mated by Mr. Taylor, the inventory of female ornaments, furnished by the prophet Isaiah, (ch. iii. 18-23,) might be made from an inspection of the monuments. We see on them “the bravery of their tinkling ornaments about their ABRAHAM. 105 feet, and their cauls, and their round tires, like the moon ; the chains and the bracelets, and the mufflers ; the bonnets and the ornaments of the legs, and the headbands, and the tablets, and the ear-rings ; the rings and nose-jewels, the changeable suits of apparel, and the mantles, and the wim- ples, and the crisping-pins ; the glasses (mirrors), and the fine linen, and the hoods, and the veils.” Some of the representa- tions of entertainments, on the monuments, are not a little amusing ; and certainly indicate a state of female freedom, quite as liberal as could have been desired. The ladies are sometimes to be seen engaged in an animated discussion on the respective merits of their ear-rings and the arrangement of their plaited hair, and exhibiting a characteristic rivalry. Sometimes, too, may be seen unfortunate ladies paying the penalty of excess in wine, and evidently unable “ to carry their liquor discreetly.” Sir Gardner Wilkinson supplies us with a representation, from Thebes, and thus describes it. “ Some call the servants to support them as they sit, others, with difficulty prevent themselves from falling on those be- hind them ; a basin is brought too late by a reluctant servant, Servant called to support her mistress.— ITAefies. 106 EGYPT AND ITS MONUMENTS. and the faded flower, which is ready to drop from their heated hands, is intended to be characteristic of their own sensa- tions.” 7. Pharaoh wished to place Sarah in his harem. To this it has been objected, that Herodotus has stated that each Egyptian had but one wife. This was true of the practice of the common people, of whom Herodotus was then speaking ; but the law allowed more ; as Diodorus informs us that, “ among the Egyptians, the priests marry only one woman, but the rest of the men, each one as many as he pleases.” The difierence is merely between what the law permitted, and what were the usages of the country. Dio- dorus states the first, and Herodotus the last. The same state of things still exists at the East, for, though polygamy is permitted to the Moslem, yet it is not deemed reputable to have more than one wife. “But,” (says Sir Gardner Wilkin- son,) “ though the Egyptians generally confined themselves to one wife, they, like the Jews and other Eastern nations, both of ancient and modern times, scrupled not to admit other inmates to their harem., most of whom appear to have been ABRAHAM. 107 foreigners, either taken in war, or brought to Egypt to be sold as slaves. These women were white or black slaves, accord- ing to the countries from which they were brought.” The monuments atibrd evidence of this. Below we give repre- sentations taken from Thebes ; the first group is of white slaves, of whom the scribe is taking account. From Thebes. We have also the following, where the slaves are black. From Thcbeo. 108 EGYPT AND ITS MONUMENTS. Generally speaking, the blacks were employed merely as domestics. The whites also officiated as servants, but held a rank above the black slaves. Wilkinson is of opinion that the women represented at Medinet Aboo, attending upon Remeses, were of this class of persons, and, at all events, not the wives of the monarch. It was for the purpose of being introduced into the harem that Pharaoh took Sarah from Abraham ; and here one cannot help being struck with the perfect orientalism of the whole proceeding. We find in the Scriptures accounts of Abraham’s dealings with the kings of Siddim, the king of Gerar, and others, in which the patriarch stands seemingly on the ground of an equal with these rulers. He was, therefore, of some note ; yet, notwithstanding this, when he comes into Egypt, his position is one of such marked inferiority, that we can account for it only on the supposition that Egypt was the most powerful nation then known, and resistance to its iron hand of despotism was useless. At any rate, here is the case of one, who was no subject of the Egyptian king, but a newly-arrived stranger of distinction, toward whom is at once exercised the most offensive privilege of oriental despotism. We know that, even to this day, eastern despots act thus with reference to their own subjects, and transplant into the harem whomsoever they please : this instance shows that the prac- tice is of great antiquity ; and from some cause, Abraham, who never could willingly have assented to the arrangement, is compelled to submit in silence. Such an invasion of the sanctity of private life could occur only in the East ; and the whole proceeding is in perfect keeping with the known ha’iits of the Eastern people. ABRAHAM. 109 8. There was no dislike of Abraham's pastoral occupation shoicn on this visit to Egypt. This is an important particular, as will be seen more fully when we come to speak of incidents in the life of Joseph. “ It would be a valuable piece of information,” (says Kitto,) “ to know what king or dynasty reigned in Egypt at the time of Abram’s visit. But the sacred narrative does not mention any king of Egypt by his proper name, till after the time of Solomon ; and the Egyptian chronology at, and for some time after, this early date, is still involved in much uncertainty and confusion, notwithstanding the light which has been thrown on the general subject by the progress made in deciphering the hieroglyphic inscriptions.”* The question as to who was the king at the period of Abraham’s visit becomes important here, when we find that afterward, in Joseph’s time, “every shepherd Avas an abomi- nation to the Egyptians.” The inquiry arises, why were not shepherds an abomination when Abraham was in Egypt? The answer to this involves a somewhat obscure portion of Egyptian history, which, with as much brevity as is in our power, we will etideavor to make as plain as we can to our readers. Before we enter upon our attempt to do this, we would remark, that there are some who have undertaken to answer the proposed inquiry, without reference to any part of Egyp- tian history. Some writers have supposed that the aversion in Egypt to shepherds arose from the animal worship of these ancient people ; and that they disliked the shepherds, because * This was written in 1841. Whatever may have been discovered since," (as to which large promises have been made,) nothing has been made public, to affect the truth of what is said in the quotation. To the first part of this remark the work of Nolan, published in 1848, may form an exception. no EGYPT AND ITS MONUMENTS. they fed on animals which, in their view, were sacred. This scarcely affords a satisfactory solution ; for the Egj'ptians themselves by no means concurred in their animal deities. Almost every district had, in this matter, a different usage. In one, they worshipped goats, and ate sheep ; in another, tire sheep was deified, and the goat was eaten. In some parts, crocodiles were venerated ; in others, they were slain without mercy. In truth, of the larger animals, the cow was the only one deemed sacred by the Egyptians ; and the nomade shep- herds do not kill cows for food. There was, indeed, the worship of the bull Apis, but this was confined to a particular animal. Bulls and oxen generally were not made objects of worship ; and the sculptures show, in some instances, the sacrifice of bulls. We know that the Eg}"ptian priests ate beef and veal. If any prejudice against shepherds existed on account of the Egyptian reverence for animals, it was probably connected almost entirely with the cow ; but we doubt its existence on this ground. Ileeren intimates that the aversion to shepherds resulted, not from their occupation as herdsmen, but from the fact that the class of cattle rearers were addicted to lawless habits and pursuits, which would make them objects of aversion to a refined and civilized people like the Egyptians. It was nomade shepherds whom they abominated, not shepherds generally ; for they had such among themselves, taking care of the cattle which we know the Egyptians had. But the habits of nomades were turbulent and aggressive ; they were difficult of control by law, and felt themselves to be independ- ent of all the wholseome restraints of a well-organized state of society. They were wanderers, free and bold, and wher- ever they planted themselves on the borders of civilization. ABRAHAM. Ill were apt, for the time, to prove very disagreeable neighbors. Hence the ruling priestly caste, among the Egyptians, ex- tended to them no countenance, but sought, rather, to put them down, and forbade the Egyptians to eat with them. — This conjecture of Heereii has been deemed plausible by some able men ; but we would, with all diffidence, submit, that a much more satisfactory explanation of the aversion to shep- herds, is to be found in early Egyptian history ; and to that we now proceed. It seems to be one of the best established facts in the early history of Egypt, that its lower portion was for many years under the dominion of a race of pastoral nomades, (known as the Hyksos, or shepherd kings,) while the upper part of the country was under the native sovereigns. It is not, how- ever, to be concealed, that any such pastoral dominion is denied by some ; among whom are to be numbered Perizon, Hengstenberg, and others. Their denial results from their distrust of the authenticity of Manetho, and from the strange mingling together, in the narrative under his name, of facts well known in Hebrew history, with certain Egyptian stories. This has subjected his statement to suspicion; and yet, with a majority of the writers on this subject, we are disposed to think that Manetho’s account is not entirely to be rejected as untrue ; though it is mixed up with some very evident false- hood, which may easily be detected and separated. This is Manetho’s story, as it is preserved in a fragment by Josephus : “ In the reign of King Timasus, there came up from the East men of an ignoble race, who had the confidence to invade our country ; and easily subdued it without a battle, 'burning the cities, demolishing the temples, slaying the men, and reducing the women and children to slavery. They made 112 EGYPT AND ITS MONUMENTS. Salatis, one of themselves, king. He reigned at Memphis, and made the upper and lower regions [of Eg}^t] tributary ; gar- risoned fit places, particularly in the eastern frontier, through fear the Assyrians should invade the country. He rebuilt and strongly fortified the city of Avaris, in the Saite nome, upon the east of the Bubastite channel, and garrisoned it with tAvo hundred and fifty thousand men, as a treasure city. He reigned nineteen years.” Manetho then gives the names of firm successors ; the whole number of years occupied by the six kings being, according to the version of Manetho by Jose- phus, 284 ; and according to that by Eusebius, 250. He then informs us that the 16th dynasty, which he calls shepherd kings, was composed of thirty-two sovereigns, who reigned 518 years ; and that the 17th, composed of forty- three shepherd kings, and forty-three (contemporary) Theban kings, reigned 151 years ; and, in reference to these dynasties, he thus Avrites : — “ All this nation Avas called Hyksos, or shepherd kings ; for the first syllable, Hi/k, in the sacred dialect, means a king, and SOS, in the vulgar tongue, a shepherd : some say they Avere Arabs. These shepherd kings and their descendants retained possession of Egypt 511 years.” He then proceeds, and thus explains the removal of these Hyksos : — “ The kings of the Thebaid and the other [i. e. Lower) Egypt rose against the shepherds, and after a long war, Alis- phragmuthosis drove the shepherds, or captives as they Avere sometimes called, out of the other parts of Egy'pt, and confined them to the district of AA'aris, Avdiich they strongly fortified to protect their property. Amo sis or Thummosis, his son, besieged’ them in their stronghold Avith 480,000 men ; reduced them to ABRAHAM. 113 capitulate, and they left Egypt in number 240,000, and marched through the desert toward Syria, and built the city of Jerusalem, in the country now called Judea, which they fortified against the Assyrians.” Thus far, we have, at least, an intelligible story : whether it be probably tr^le, in every particular, is to be seen. In the main features of an invasion of Egypt by a race of shepherds from tlie East, of their dominion in the lower part of the coun- try for many years, and of their final expulsion, tlie story is probably true ; but the invaders were not Arabs ; nor would we vouch for tlie entire accuracy of the details as to numbers, &c., given by Manetho. Hengstenberg objects to the whole story as being a fabrication, and one of his grounds for reject- ing it calls for a passing remark. The word Hi/ksos, accord- ing to Manetho, is as to the first syllable, derived from the sacred dialect, and as to the last, from the vulgar tongue : Hengstenberg says there is nowhere else found any such union of a sacred and vulgar dialect in Egypt. Hence he infers the ignorance of the pretended Manetho as to the Egyptian lan- guage, in confounding the difference between sacred and com- mon writing, with a diflerence between sacred and common language. He also, on the authority of Jablonski, says that the word Hyk is found where it cannot mean a king. In the first of these reasons there would be force were it certainly true ; but we arc not sure that there is not a diflerence between the ancient sacred and vulgar language. It is true, as Bunsen has remarked, that “all sacred language is essentially nothing but an earlier stage of the popular dialect, preserved by the sacred books and he illustrates it by the case of the Hebrew with the so-called Chaldee ; the old Hellenic in the Greek church, with the modern Greek, &c. : but he adds, “it does 8 114 EGYPT AND ITS MONUMENTS. not follow that the more modern idiom [the vulgar] is every where the offspring of the sacred language. The ‘ common dialect ’ of the Egyptians, therefore, is not necessarily the im- mediate descendant of the sacred language of this nation.” As to the word Hyk, we presume there can be no doubt that it does mean king ; though it may also mean something else : there are woixis in our own, and every language, with a double meaning. But leaving this out of view, the main features of Manetho’s narrative are worthy of belief, because, if we mis- take not, they find some confirmation from the monuments, if the mscriptions be not, as is often the case, overlooked. The tomb of one of the officers of Amosis, (who, according to Manetho, expelled the shepherds,) has been found at Thebes. An inscription on it implies that the war against the shepherds was severe, and that many hard battles were fought before they were expelled. The shepherd kings, Manetho tells us, reigned at Memphis, and he gives the names of the first six. Two of these names, Aphophis and Assis, have been discovered in the burial-place of ancient Memphis. The tomb of Assis, is said by its dis- coverer, M. PHote, to be executed in cavo-relievo, with surpass- ing skill. Rosellini gives a plate of the conquests by Sethos, taken from the walls of Karnac, which helps us much toward a dis- covery of who these shepherd kings were. The name of one of the string of captives, translated from the hieroglyphics, is the Coptic word shos, which means shepherd, and is what Josephus, in his version of Manetho, writes in Greek, [so5.] If we can ascertain the locality of this representation of a conquered people, thus delineated in the triumphs of Sethos, it will aid us in settling who were the shepherd ABRAHAM. 115 invaders. Turning to the first picture of the war of Sethos with the shos', on Rosellini’s plate, we find the representation of a sanguinary defeat of the shos, in the immediate vicinity of a fort on a high hill, covered with trees, and with a lake on one side of it. On this fort is inscribed in hieroglyphics, ‘ the fort (stronghold) of the land of Canaan.' The shepherds then, who invaded Egypt, were, as Josephus has said, Canaan- ites, and not Arabs, as Manetho writes. We therefore reach the conclusion that, in substance, the narrative of Mauetho, no matter by whom written, is correct. There was a race of shepherds who invaded and conquered Lower Egypt, ruled over it for many years, and were finally expelled by the sovereigns of Upper Egypt. AVe now return to the residue of Manetho’s story. The dynasty founded by Arnosis (who expelled the shepherds) consisted of sixteen kings, who, together, reigned two hundred and sixty-three years. The last of these kings, Amenophis, or one of his immediate predecessors, “ being warned by the priests to cleanse the whole country of lepers and unclean persons, gathered them together, and sent them to the number of 80,000, to work at the quarries on the east side of the Nile. And there were among them some learned priests equally affected Avith leprosy. AVhen they had been for some time in that miserable state, the king set apart for them the city of Avoids, which had been left empty by the shepherds. AVhen they had possession of the city they revolted, and made Osar- siph, a priest of Heliopolis, their ruler, who afterward changed his name to Moses. He made many laws directly opposed to the customs of the Egyptians, forbidding them to worship their gods and sacred animals. He sent ambassadors to Jerusalem, to the shepherds, whom Tethmosis had driven 116 EGYPT AND ITS MONUMENTS. out, who gladly sent 200,000 men to their assistance, in hope of regaining the dominion of Egypt. Amenophis at first re- treated to Ethiopia, whose king was his friend ; but returning with a great force, slew many of the shepherds, and pursued the rest into Syria.” This is Manetho’s account, and the reader will perceive at once how he has confounded the affairs of the Jews with the shepherds. It is this statement which has exposed Manetho to the strong suspicions of some. For ourselves, we venture to express the opinion, that the whole passage is unworthy of confidence. Bunsen, in his anxiety to save Manetho, says that “he relates it as a mere popular legend.” Manetho, however, does not say so, and we do not believe he ever re- lated it at all. To us it seems — -we speak with deference toward others who differ from us — that there was a genuine Manetho, who probably was a man of character; that it is also probable he preserved some of the historical incidents of his country ; — but there was also a spurious Manetho, that lived afterward ; one who stole a respected name, and made it a cov^er for his falsehoods. It is quite probable that some matters recorded by the genuine Manetho may have come down to us in the fragments under his name ; but those fragments contain, also, that which we believe he did not write ; and this passage we think is not his. The obvious intention of the passage is to cast opprobrium upon the Jews, as unclean and leprous persons ; and this passage appears at a very suspicious j^eriod. It purports to be the work of a Manetho who lived in the time of Ptolemy Philadelphus. Now it was in the reign of this very king that the septuagint version of the Scriptures, from Hebrew into Greek, was made ; of course, the whole true story of the bondage and exode of ABRAHAM. 117 the Jews was made accessible, and could not but attract the attention of the learned in Egypt ; and it was a story that reflected little honor on the Egyptians. Hence, to gratify national conceit, and wipe off national disgrace, it became necessar}^ to put forth another version, more soothing to Egyptian pride, and more creditable to Egyptian character. The Jews are accordingly made odious as lepers, and we are furnished with a distorted picture of the residence of the Hebrews in, and their exode from Egypt, for the purpose of vindicating the conduct of the Egyptian government. lJut whether the passage be from the pen of the true Manetho, or of one who put forth falsehoods under his name, is, for our present purpose, comparatively unimportant ; for if written by the real Manetho, and if founded, as we are told his writings are, on ancient Egyptian records ; then it must follow that, according to the ancient records of Egypt itself there was a man called Moses, of a different race from the Egyp- tians; that he lived in Egypt, that he taught his countrymen to shun idolatry, and that, finally, he and they left Egypt together. Leper or no leper, these facts at least are distinctly and une- quivocally recorded ; and thus the ancient Egyptian records hear testimony to the truth of the Bible. Again, if we suppose the passage to have been the production of a spu- rious Manetho, then it is obvious, that long after the events of the bondage and exodus of the Hebrews, there must have existed some traditionary knowledge, at least in Egypt, of these . great events ; and that tradition must have preserved the facts above enumerated, and contained in the statement itself, (for we cannot suppose that writer to have merely drawn on his invention, and yet to have come so near historic truth ;) and we respectfully submit whether such a tradition 118 EGYPT AND ITS MONUMENTS. could possibly have existed for centuries in Egypt, without a basis of fact, as to its grand features. Whether, therefore, the ancient records of Egypt, or centuries of tradition, preserved the facts, that Moses lived there, that he and his people were not Egyptians, that he denounced idolatry, and at last, that all left the country together, is quite unimportant ; for in either case we are furnished with strong and undesigned testimony for the truth of at least one part of the Bible. But this is not all. Manetho, without intending it, has furnished another example of incidental proof corroborating, in a striking manner, the Scriptures. The reader will remem- ber, that he tells us the first shepherd kings were very much afraid of an invasion from the Assyrians. Now it so happens, that at the very date of the shepherd kings, (which we will demonstrate directly,) we learn from the Bible, that the Assy- rians had actually established their power on this side of the Euphrates, and had even conquered part of Palestine. Returning from this digression, which has been made for the purpose of presenting the incidental testimony for the Scriptures, unconsciously furnished by Manetho ; we proceed to the ultimate object we have had in view in dwelling thus long, and we fear somewhat tediously, on the shepherd kings. That object is this. If Abraham, on his visit to Egypt, was not an “abomination” as being a shepherd ; we mean now to show that it was because that part of Egypt in which he was. was ruled by shepherd kings, and inhabited by shepherds. The whole period of the intrusion of these shepherds, is stated by Manetho as having been 511 years, and it is clear that these years terminate at the exode of the Hebrews. We now refer to comparatively modern chronology, not contradicted by the “ Egyptologists.” ABRAHAM. 119 Hales makes the exode 1648 b.c. Add to these the whole time of the shepherds . . 511 “ This makes the commencement of the shepherd rule 2159 “ Abraham was born (according to Hales) .... 2153 “ It is therefore obvious, that during Abraham’s time there was abundant reason why he should not be slighted or despised in Egypt as being a shepherd.* lint the question may arise, whether the shepherd kings Avere known by the title Pharaoh ; inasmuch as the Bible applies it to the reigning monarch of Egypt at the time of Abraham’s visit. It would appear from all the light yet shed on the subject, that the shepherds, during their stay, had adopted the religion, the manners, and the customs of Egypt. Considerations derived from the monuments also justify the opinion, that the name, or rather title, of the first monarch of Egypt; Phra, became the generic title of all his successors. 9. The gifts made to Abraham, consisted of sheep, oxen, he and she-asses, men and maidservants, camels, gold and silver. To this a German writer (Von Bohlen) objects as follows : * Those whose curiosity may lead them to further investigation on the obscure and much-discussed subject of the shepherd kings, are referred to Bunsen, Ileng- stenberg, Wilkinson, Nolan, and the notes of Kitto in his Pictorial Bible, particularly to that on Gen. xlvi. 34. In that the reader will find a substantial agreement with the views expressed in the ‘text, though there is a difference on the subject of Manetho. We gladly avail ourselves of this opportunity of making a distinct acknowledgment to this author for the very valuable aid we have derived from his labors, both in his Bible and his “ Palestine.” We have used them freely when they were applicable, not with the view of appropriating his toil, or robbing him of his merited honors, but to make our compilation more valuable to the general reader. 120 EGYPT AND ITS MONUMENTS. “ The narrator mentions the animals of his own native land, a part of which Abraliam could not receive in Egypt. He ascribes to him no horses, which were native to Egypt, as the relator is indeed aware. But, on the other hand, he men- tions sheep, which are found in the marsh lands of Egypt ” [Abraham’s visit was to the lower part of Egypt] “ as seldom as camels (hence these last are denied to the country by the ancient writers) and asses, which were specially odious to the Egyptians, on account of their color.” Hengstenberg has very satisfactorily answered all this. Horses certainly were abun- dant among the Egyptians, as the monuments show. They were used chiefly in the war chariots ; and though there were horsemen in Egypt, it is remarkable that but a single instance of a man on horseback has yet been found among the repre- sentations. But, common as the animal was in Egypt, it was not used among the Israelites until the time of the kings. There were none used, either in peace or war, in the time of Joshua. Horses were not likely, then, to be used in Are earlier days of Abraham’s time, when, as far as we know, the chief object of keeping them in Egypt did not exist in Canaan. If this be the reason why the horse was not among the gifts to Abraham ; if the present would have been useless, because the habits of his country did not require its use ; then, as Hengstenberg remarks, the omission of horses among the gifts, is a fact in favor of the true historical character and Mosaic origin of the narrative. For if the history had been compiled in the time of the kings or afterward, the horse (which was then used in Israel) would probably have been mentioned ; since we cannot suppose the precise time of their introduction would have been accurately known. In fact, the introduction of the animal among the Israelites was gradual, and we have ABRAHAM. 121 no direct historical account of the time when it commenced. By an examination of many scattered passages, modem schol- ars have proved it to have been about the time of the kings ; but the Israelites, after that day, finding horses in the country, troubled themselves not with an inquiry as to the time of theii introduction. How many of onr own countrymen can, at the present day, tell when and hoio the horse was introduced into America ? In all the enumerations of patriarchal wealth in the Bible, horses are never mentioned ; oxen drew the tabernacle in the desert, and in truth, in the further history of the people de- scended from Abraham, we find that God specially forbade their kings to have many horses, or to trust to Egyptian cavalry ; for his purpose was to hedge his people around from the temptation of coming into contact with idolaters, and Egypt would have been the great horse-market of the Israel- ites. The non-introduction of the horse by Abraham, may, therefore, have been*a part of the providential designs of God for the future. Von Bolden, also, denies that there were asses in Egypt ; but, as Ilengstenberg says, it never occurred to any one before to deny it. There are numerous representations of them on the monuments. It is also said there were no sheep. They are very often mentioned by ancient authors. Herodotus informs us that the Egyptians had them, so also does Diodorus. They may be seen in large numbers on the monuments ; and numerous flocks of them were kept near Memphis, the region where Abraham was. As to the camel, it is reasonable to mfer, from present facts and usages, that it existed in ancient Egypt. Munitoli 122 EGYPT AND ITS MONUMENTS. thinks that he discovered traces of the representation of a camel on the obelisks at Luxor. They may not, however, have been very numerous in Abraham’s day, yet the king of Egypt would possess them. IMen and maid-servants were also given. It has, by some, been deemed probable, that among these maid-servants was Hagar ; for she is expressly said in Scripture to be an Egyp- tian. If this conjecture be well founded, it would serve to prove that, though the great body of slaves were foreigners and captives taken in war, yet that sometimes Egyptians held their own people in servitude. The monuments confirm this view. 10. Abraham accepted the gifts of Pharaoh. However unnatural and unmanly such conduct may appear in our time and in our state of society, yet, as Kitto has remarked, those who are acquainted with the usages of the East, know that he dared not refuse them. CHAPTER VI. JOSEPH. The greater part of the life of Joseph having been passed in Egypt, many incidents in his career furnisli us with the means of comparison, in the work on which we have entered. Indeed, from the time of his sale to Potiphar, through the bondage, up to the exode, the Jews are brought into uninter- rupted intercourse with the Egyptians for several hundred years. In this period, therefore, we may expect to meet with abundant facts, to the consideration of which we now proceed. The story of Joseph, touchingly simple and beautiful in the Scripture narrative, is so familiar, that any outline of it here would be perfectly needless, but for the advantage of bringing at once into view the facts connected with our sub- ject. We shall condense it as much as we can. At the age of seventeen, he incurred the displeasure of his brothers, “ who hated him, and could not speak peaceably to him,” and this aversion was, soon after, carried to the highest pitch. Availing themselves of a favorable opportunity, they sold him to a caravan of Arabian merchants, who were bearing spices and aromatic gums of India, to the well-known and much frequented market of Egypt. On arriving in Egypt, the merchants disposed of their young slave, by sale, to 124 EGYPT AND ITS MONUMENTS. Potiphar, an Egyptian, at that time high in office in the court of Pharaoh. Here he possessed his master’s confidence, and prospered. At length his personal beauty excited the libi- dinous passions of his master’s wife ; and on his virtuous rejection of her wanton allurements, she contrives, with much art, to make it appear to her husband that Joseph had aimed a blow at his masters honor, by tempting her. Her unprin- cipled falsehood succeeds, and Joseph is cast into prison. At length, his correct interpretation of the dreams of two of Pharaoh’s officers who were in prison with him, leads to his being summoned before Pharaoh to interpret for him also. He predicts a period of plenty, to be succeeded by an equal period of famine ; and recommends measures to the king for averting the calamity foretold. Charged by Pharaoh with the execution of these measures, he rises to a station ol eminence, and marries an Egyptian lady of rank : and his own name is changed to an Egyptian one. At length famine drives his brethren (who had sold him) to Egypt to procure food, when, after many interesting incidents, he makes him- self known to them, and at length establishes all his family, including his aged father, in Goshen. After death his body, as that of his father’s had before been, is embalmed, and both finally rest in a distant land. We now enter, in detail, upon the facts brought to our notice by the history of Joseph. 1. He was sold hi/ his brethren to Arabian merchants^ travelling icith their spices, cj'c., to Egypt. “ Then there passed by Midianites, merchantmen ; and they drew and lifted up Joseph out of the pit, and sold Joseph JOSEPH. 125 to the Ishmaelites for twenty pieces of silver: and they brought Joseph into Egypt.” Gen. xxxvii. 28. Were Arabian caravans accustomed at that time to go into Egypt with merchandise 1 There seems to be no doubt that they were. Among other facts tending to prove it, Sir Gardner Wilkinson refers to certain wells in the desert over which the caravans were obliged to pass ; and states that, as appears from the monuments, the king Amun-in gori II. (of the IGth dynasty), caused a station to be erected at the Wady Jasoos, to command these wells for the comfort of the caravans pass- ing from Arabia into Egypt. The same respectable authority deems it “ highly probable that the port of Philoteras or iEn- num, on the Red Sea, was already founded and adds, “thus we have an additional reason for concluding, the commerce with Arabia to have commenced at a very early period ; and that its gums and spices found a ready market in the opulent Egypt, is sufficiently proved by the Ishmaelites or Arabs of those days bringing them for sale into the lower country.” Heeren expresses also a similar opinion as to the very early commerce between Arabia and Egypt. 2. Joseph “ loas sold to the Ishtnaelites for twenty pieces of silver P The expression is usual in Scripture “pieces of silver,” “ pieces of money ;” but we do nowhere find, in these early times, mention made of any specific coin having a fixed value. Had such been the case here, it would, have thrown suspicion on the story. History offers no intimation that, any where, either in the east or west, coined money existed, until many hundred years after the date of this transaction. In fact, it seems doubtful whether coined or stamped money is of oriental 12G EGYPT ANy ITS MONUMENTS. origin. The precious metals passed hy weighty in the form of ingots, bars, and rings ; and such the monuments now sliow to have been the case in Egypt. The Greeks, we know, had coined money before the Egyptians, and nations of Western Asia had it. The incident liere mentioned there- fore, though in itself considered it is comparatively trifling, yet deserves to be noted because it is in harmony with the customs of that day. 3. Joseph was sold for a household slave. “ And the Midianites sold him into Egypt unto Potiphar, an oflicer of Pharaoh’s, and captain of the guard.” Gen. xxxvii. 36. In addition to the remarks already submitted on the sub- ject of slavery in the last chapter, we would here observe, that probably, the first slaves were prisoners taken in war ; and that the traffic in slaves arose from the fact that these prisoners at length came to be sold by their captors, to persons who had not known them in war at all, nor ever met them as enemies. The next step was that of buying up as slaves, any persons oflered for sale, though they were not taken in war, — solely as a speculation. These purchased persons were carried to a distant market, and sold at a profit : and Egypt always has been, and is yet, a great market for slaves. On this subject. Sir Gardner Wilkinson thus embodies what he has collected from the monuments. “ The captives braught to Egypt were employed in the service of the monarch in building temples, cutting canals, raising dykes and embankments, and other public works ; and some who were purchased by the grandees, were employed in the same capacity as the Memlooks of the present. Women JOSEPH. 127 slaves were also engaged in the service of families, like the Greeks and Circassians in Modern Egypt and other parts of the Turkish empire ; and from finding them represented in the sculptures of Thebes, accompanying men of their own nation who bear tribute to the Eygptian monarch, we may conclude that a certain number were annually sent to Egypt from the conquered provinces of the north and east, as well as from Ethiopia. It is evident that both white and l)lack slaves were employed as servants. They attended on the guests when invited to the house of their master ; and from their being in the families of priests, as well as of the military chiefs, we may infer that they were purchased with money, and that the right of possessing slaves was not confined to those who had taken them in war. The traffic in slaves was tolerated ; and it is reasonable to suppose that many persons were engaged, as at present, in bringing them to Egypt for public sale, independent of those who were sent as part of the tribute, and who were probably at first the property of the monarch. Nor did any ditficulty occur to the Ishmaelites in the purchase of Joseph from his brethren, nor in his subsequent sale to Potiphar on arriving in Eygpt.” 4. He was sold to “ Potiphar^ an officer of Pharaoh's, and captain o f the guard." Me should not have deemed it necessary to call attention to this part of the story, had it not been made the foundation of a very causeless objection. The original word saris, translated officer, literally means eunuch ; and hence a German writer objects ; because, he says, there were no eunuchs in Egypt. This is not true, as he might have learned from 128 EGYPT AND ITS MONUMENTS. Rosellini, and the “ Description de I’Egypte.” Both furnish nioninnental proof that it is not true. The translators of our Bible, to the word “ officer,” add this marginal note : “ Heb. Eunuch ; but the word doth signify, not only eimuchs, but also chamberlains, courtiers, and officers. Esth. i. 10.” It is conceded that the primary meaning is eunuch, but as such persons were, in the East, usually employed about the court in situations of trust, the word came to signify any courtier or palace officer, whether he were an eunuch or not. Potiphai is also called “ captain of the guard.” The marginal note in our English translation is, “ Heb : chief of the slaughtermen or executioners, or chief marshal.’’^ That the Pliaraohs had a body-guard is expressly stated by Herodotus ; and is also proved by battle scenes, &c., on the monuments, where such a guard is seen around the person of the king,’and is distin- guished by a particular dress. Potiphar, as captain of this band, was the chief of the executioners : but it must be re- membered that, at the East, this is a high court office ; he was no common headsman, for he executed the sentences or awards only that were pronounced by the king himself. His office was considered one of great honor and responsibility ; and the incidental allusion to it in the story, shows on the part of its author, minutely accurate information as to the customs and usages of the Pharaonic court. Joseph was 7nade overseer of PharaolCs house. “ And Joseph found grace in his sight and he served him : and he made him overseer of his house, and all that he had, he put into his hand.” Gen. xxxix. 4. This is a peculiar and characteristic feature of Egyptian life. The monuments furnish numerous evidences of it. The JOSEPH. 129 steward or overseer is often delineated. Rosellini has the copy of a painting from a tomb at Beni Hassan, and remarks of it, — “ in this scene, as also in many others which exhibit the internal econ- omy of a liouse, a man carrying imple- ments for writing, — the pen over his ear, the tablet or paper in his hand, and the writing-table under his arm, — either follows or goes before the ser- vants.” And all doubt is removed as to the otiice and character of this per- sonage, by an inscription over him stating that he is the overseer of the slaves, or the steward. Wilkinson has also the drawing of an Egyptian steward “ overlooking the tillage of the lands.” “Among the objects of tillage and husbandry” (says Rosellini), “we often see a steward, who takes account and makes a re- gistry of the harvest, before it is deposited in the storehouse.” A repre- sentation of such a scene is annexed, •“ where the steward is placed on the top of a heap of grain, while one of the men below is informing him of the amount of work done, and accom- panying his statement of numbers with manual signs. “ In a tomb at Kum el Ahmar,” (according to Rosellini,) “the otiice of a steward with all its apparatus is represented : 9 130 EGYPT AND ITS MONUMENTS. two scribes appear with all their preparations for writing, and there are three rows of volumes, the account and household books of the steward.” 0. Potiphar's wife seeks to seduce Joseph. We liave here first to remark the low state of morals among the Egyptians, with reference to the marriage relation. Have we any ground for believing there was a laxity of prin- ciple in this particular ? Herodotus and Diodorus both state that there was. We have already seen, from the monuments, the great liberty allowed to the women of Egypt, and the sensuality which prompted them to excess in drinking. It is not difficult, in such a state of society as these representations indicate, to believe the accounts of Herodotus. It will be remembered that, according to the Scripture narrative, Potiphar’s wife availed herself of an opportunity to seduce Joseph, when he came into the house “ to do his business ; and there was none of the men of the house then within.” (Gen. xxxix. 11.) To this it has been objected by some of the German school, that the statement betrays an ignorance of Egyptian customs : that it would not have been permitted to Joseph to come into the presence of the women, much less into the harem. Another objector remarks that the author of the Pentateuch here leaves the representation of the custom in the house of a distinguished Egyptian, to describe that which existed in a common domestic establishment. The ignorance is on the side of the critics ; neither in the house of a distinguished, nor of a common Egyptian, was there any restriction placed on the ordinary intercourse of the sexes. We have already seen that from the monuments. Those who made the objection, inferred that there must have been such a restriction in Egypt from the fact of its existence throughout JOSEPH. 131 the East generally ; and had the author of the Pentateuch been writing a story made up of probable inferences, he would have fallen into the error that we have seen in these objectors. That he did not do so, but discriminated between Egypt and the rest of the East in this particular, goes far to strengthen the impression that he drew from the life. 7. Joseph in prison, interprets the dreams of the chief baker and butler. Here, several particulars present themselves that call for a passing remark. The existence of such officers as the chief butler and baker, afford renewed testimony of the fact of an advanced and complex state of social life ; of which we pre- sume that our readers are by this time convinced. But if additional evidence were wanting, it is abundantly afforded by the monuments. Rosellini has depicted the kitchen scenes upon the tomb of Remeses IV. at Biban el Moluk ; — “ from all these representations” (says he), “it is clear that the Egyptians were accustomed to prepare many kinds of pastry for the table, as we see the very same kinds spread out upon the altars and tables which are represented in the tombs. They made even bread in many and various forms. These articles are found in the tombs kneaded from barley or wheat, in the form of a star, a triangle, a disk, and other such like things.” Wilkinson also furnishes delineations of similar articles which he found. According to the baker’s dream, he was carrying' three wicker-baskets on his head, filled with the productions of his skill. The monuments show us the form of these flat wicker- baskets, of which, from the shape, one might be placed above another. But the peculiarity here is in the mode of carrying 133 EGYPT AND ITS MONUMENTS. them, — on his head. This is to this day characteristic of the Egyptians, and we believe, peculiar to them among Eastern nations. Herodotus speaks of the custom as being singular in his eyes. “ Men bear burdens on their heads, and women on their shoulders.” We present an example taken from the monuments, in which the servant is kneeling to facilitate the removal of his load. Egyptian mode of bearing on the head. The head butler, it will be remembered, in his dream saw a vine. This has been made a ground of objection to the truth of the narrative. Herodotus has stated, that the vine did not grow in Egypt. This furnishes one, among other instances which might be cited, wherein Herodotus was JOSEPH. 133 mistaken. The vine did grow in Egypt ; and Sir Gardner Wilkinson has furnished the most abundant proof of the fact in various drawings from the monuments, showing not merely the vine growing, but also the whole process of converting the grape into wine. 8. Joseph is sent for., to interpret Pharaoh! s dream. The first particular here to be noticed, is the preparation Joseph makes to appear before Pharaoh ; “ and he shaved himself,” &c., “ and came in unto Pharaoh.” To us, with our habits, there may appear to be nothing but what, under similar circumstances, we ourselves should do ; but if care- fully considered, this is one of the many passages to be found, in which the truth of the Scripture story is attested by a casual and slight allusion to remarkable customs, which a mere inventor would not be likely to introduce at all ; or at any rate, to introduce without explanation. Most oriental nations have always cherished the beard, and do so to this day. The loss of it is regarded as a disgrace. Such was undoubtedly the feeling of the Hebrews. Now in this com- mon trait of orientalism, the Egyptians did not share. The monuments and paintings generally represent to us the male Egyptians as beardless. Some of the sculptures indeed some- times show a species of rectangular beard-case, attached to the chin by straps or bands, which, passing by the side of the face, were fastened to the cap. It is evidently an artificial appendage, and it has been conjectured that it was used on the monuments to indicate the male character. Certain it is, however, that the great mass of Egyptian men in the sculp- tures, are represented without beards. On the subject of shaving their beards, Wilkinson remarks: 134 EGYPT AND ITS MONUMENTS. “ SO particular were they on this point, that to have neglected it was a subject of reproach and ridicule ; and whenever they intended to convey the idea of a man of low condition, or a slovenly person, the artists represented him with a beard.” The priests shaved the head as well as the beard ; and others who did not the first, wore their hair cropped as close as pos- sible. When the monuments show us heads with abundant and long hair, the individual delineated is wearing a wig, of which Wilkinson furnishes us with drawings. From Rosel- lini, we learn that this custom of the Egyptians with respect to the hair and beard, was considered by the neighboring nations, and especially by the Asiatics, as peculiar and characteristic. Hence Joseph (who was not an Egyptian, and who had been several years in prison, where he permitted his beard to grow) would not dare to enter the presence of Pharaoh without shaving ; and the particularity with which the writer mentions the circumstance, shows that, among orientals generally, to shave Avas not a matter of course ; and next, that he knew the customs of Egypt rendered the act, on the part of Joseph, indispensable. The next point calling for remark, is the dream of Pharaoh ; for it is in perfect accordance Avith Egyptian opinions, and can scarce be the invention of an author who is relating mere fables. It Avill be remembered that the chief feature of the one dream, is the appearance of seven fat and seA^en lean kine ; and the destruction of the former by the latter. We learn from Clement of Alexandria, that in the symbolical Avritings of the Egyptians, the ox signified agriculture and subsistence ; and as the Nile (out of Avhich the cattle came) was the source of Egypt’s fertility, there is a peculiar Egyp- JOSEPH. 135 tian appropriateness m the mode adopted to prefigure an abundance and subsequent dearth of the fruits of the earth. There was also an apt and striking significancy in the second dream, in the seven ears of corn [wheat] that came up on one stalk. Some have sought for an explanation of this, in the number of separate stalks germinating from a single seed. Thus Jowett, in his Christian Researches, states that he “ counted the number of stalks which sprouted from single grains of seed, carefully pulling to pieces each root, in order to see that it was one plant. The first had seven stalks ; the next three ; then eighteen ; then fourteen. Each stalk would bear an ear.” But an easier solution is found in the species of wheat, the Triticum compositum, or Egyptian wheat as it is sometimes called ; which was then, and still is extensively cultivated in Egypt, and indeed, as we are inclined to think, originated there. It is the peculiarity of this species that it bears several ears on one stalk ; and it is not unknown, at this day, on our own continent, for it grows in California, and there usually produces seven ears to the stalk. We have not been able to ascertain that this species of wheat was culti- vated in Palestine by the Hebrews, or that it will grow there ; for though all the varieties of wheat cannot be found in a natural state, and therefore all probably are but modifications from a common original ; yet will not all grow in every climate or soil. The best and heaviest Avheat of Palestine was and is the variety now known as Heshbon wheat ; because discovered at Heshbon, by Captain Mangles. Laborde describes the same, but this wheat does not yield several ears to a single stalk. The writer of the Pentateuch, therefore, here incidentally describes a production of the earth, which 136 EGYPT AND ITS MONUMENTS. he probably never could have seen in Palestine ; and which was, as far as we can learn, peculiar at that day, to Egypt. Pharaoh, as we read, “ sent and called for all the magi- cians of Egypt, and all the wise men thereof,” to interpret his dreams. We meet with these men here, and again, as we shall see hereafter. Who were these magi or wise men? Do we learn, from the antiquities of Egypt, that any such class was known ? We do find in ancient Egypt an order of men, to whom that which is here ascribed to the magicians, is perfectly appropriate. “ The priests ” (says Hengstenberg) “ had a double office ; the practical worship of the gods, and the pursuit of that which, in Egypt, was accounted as wisdom. The first be- longed to the so called prophets, the second to the holy scribes [leQoyQa/jfmtsh). These last were the learned men of the nation ; as in the Pentateuch they are called wise men, so the classical writers named them sages. These men were applied to for explanation and aid in all things which lay beyond the circle of common knowledge and action. Thus, in severe cases of sickness, for example, along with the physi- cian a scribe was called, who, from a book and astrological signs, determined whether recovery was possible. The inter- pretation of dreams, and also divination, belonged to the order of the holy scribes. In times of pestilence, they applied themselves to magic arts to avert the disease. A passage in Lucian furnishes a peculiarly interesting parallel to the accounts of the Pentateuch concerning the practice of magic arts : — “ There was with us in the vessel, a man of Memphis, one of the holy scribes, wonderful in wisdom, and skilled in all sorts of Egyptian knowledge. It was said of him, that he JOSEPH. 137 had lived twenty-three years in subterranean sanctuaries, and that he had there been instructed in magic by Isis.” 9. Joseph's elevation to office and honor by Pharaoh. Under this head, several particulars invite our notice. I. Pharaoh says: “Thou shalt be over my house;" and, “ see, I have set thee over all the land of Egypt.” II. Pharaoh “took otf his ring from his hand, and put it on Joseph’s hand.” III. He “arrayed him in vestures of fine linen." IV. He “put a gold chain about his neck.” V. He changed Joseph’s name to an Egyptian one. VI. He married him to Asenath. VII. Her father was Potipherah, priest of On. “ Over my house.” — We have had occasion already, in speaking of the confidence reposed in Joseph by Potiphar, to advert to the office of a steward among the Egyptians, so often delineated on the monuments. This honorable station in the East, is one of far more authority and power than any thing, in our own state of society, would suggest. The phrase “ over my house,” would have imported magisterial power in Egypt, if used by a subject of high rank merely : but here, when it is used by the king himself, it at once places Joseph before every man in the kingdom but the sovereign ; for Pharaoh immediately adds, “according unto thy word, shall all my people be ruled : only in the throne will I be greater than thou.” Despotism is the characteristic of all oriental governments ; and to this day, the grant of almost unlimited powers to the sovereign’s representative is to be found. The vizier, the pachas, and even the beys of the Sultan, have even now absolute power of life and death ; and 138 EGYPT AND ITS MONUMENTS. all may, and do, with impmiily, practise the most revolting cruelties. There is, therefore, nothing inconsistent with orientalism in this large grant of power to Joseph. Pharaoh gives to Joseph his ring. This was an act of investiture, such as is not entirely foreign to the usages of Europe, in the middle ages. But here, the ring was a signet or seal ring, delivered, precisely as it is at this day, to the king’s chief officer, for the purpose, by its impress, of attesting his official acts as the acts of royalty. The more usual mode in the East of authenticating a document, is not by a written signature, but by the seal. The orientals have seals in which their names and titles are engraved ; with this they make an impression with thick ink on occasions where we should affix our signatures with the pen. To give a man your seal, there- fore, is to give him the use of that authority and power which your own signature possesses. Hence the extraordinary in- terest manifested about seals in the laws and usages of the East. In Eygpt, the punishment for counterfeiting a seal was the loss of both hands. The seal-cutter in Persia is, at this day, obliged to keep a register of every seal he makes, and to affix the date at which it was cut. To make another like it, is punished with death. If the seal be lost or stolen, the only resource of its owner is to have another cut, %vith a new date^ and to inform his correspondent that all documents attested by his former seal are null from the time of its loss. That the ring given to Joseph was Pharaoh’s signet-ring, appears from other passages which show that it was used for sealing. But one of the German school of critics, remarking on this transaction, writes : — “ It is scarcely, however, necessary to mention that these objects of luxury, especially polished stones, belonged to a later time.” This is a striking instance JOSEPH. 139 of bold and unfounded assertion. There is at this moment, in the very valuable cabinet of Dr. Abbot at Cairo, a large collection of bracelets, rings, seals, &c., some of which are Egyptiaa signet-rings, and bracelets. 140 EGYPT AND ITS MONUMENTS. undoubtedly remains of the time of Cheops in the fourth dynasty, a period long anterior to the days of Abraham. In- deed, there is in the collection, a golden bracelet bearing the hieroglyphic of Menes ; but of the genuineness of this, we think doubts may well be entertained. These are cut, some in stone, and some in gold. The evidence from the monu- ments also most abundantly refutes the assertion of the German neologist. We subjoin a specimen of signet-rings, with a bracelet or two, copied from the monuments, which may not be without interest for the reader. Of one of these rings, it will be observed that the stone is a cube, made to turn on pivots ; on the different sides of which were different inscriptions. Some of these ornaments appear to have been designed for ear-rings. Pharaoh also arrayed Joseph “ in vestures of fine linen." Few subjects have provoked more discussion among the learned than the question, whether the Egyptians had in ancient times any knowledge of cotton ; some having sup- posed that the word rendered linen in our version, really means cotton. At length it was supposed that the microscope had settled the question. The coverings or swath ings of the mummies were examined by Mr. Bauer, and he found that they were linen. The ultimate fibre of cotton, under the microscope, appears to be a transparent, ffattened tube without joints, and twisted like a corkscrew : while the fibres of linen, and of the mummy cloths, are transparent cylinders, jointed like a cane, and neither ffattened, nor spirally twisted. And as Herodotus states that the Egyptians wrapped their dead in cloth of the byssus, it was concluded that byssus meant Jlax. But Rosellini afterward “ found the seeds of the cotton plant in a vessel in the tombs of Egypt and Dr. Bowring, it is JOSEPH. 141 said, has ascertained that “ the mummy cloth of a child was formed of cotton and not of linen, as is the case with adult mummies.” Whether the ancient Egyptians, however, had any know- ledge of cotton or not, it is very certain that the cultivation of flax and the use of linen among them was very general. Herodotus informs us that they were so regardful of neatness that they wore only linen, and that always newly washed : the priesthood, also, he tells us, was confined to one particular mode of dress ; they had one vest of fine linen. Without undertaking to settle the disputed point to which we have referred above, we pass to the more im2:)ortant parti- cular that this arraying of Joseph in vestures of bi/ssus, was an additional act of investiture in his high office. At this day in the East, a dress of honor accompanies promotion in the royal service. In a tomb at Thebes, as we learn from Wilkin- son, “ an instance occurs of the investiture of a chief to the post of fan-bearer ; in which the two attendants or inferior priests are engaged in clothing him with the robes of his new office. One puts on the necklace, the other arranges his dress, — a fillet being already bound round his head,” &c. : — “ the office of fan-bearer to the king was a highly honorable post, wliich none but the royal princes, or the sons of the first nobility, were pennitted to hold.” ' Pliaraoh put a gold chain about Joseph’s neck. This also was another part of the ceremonial of investiture. On this subject the monuments afford the most satisfactory explanations. ‘As Hengstenberg writes : “ In the tombs of Beni Hassan, many slaves are represented, each of whom has in his hand something which belongs to the dress or orna- ments of his master. The first carries one of the necklaces 142 EGYPT AND ITS MONUMENTS. with which the neck and breast of persons of high rank are generally adorned. Over it stands, ‘ necklace of gold.' At Beni Ilassan there is also a similar representation, in another tomb, of a noble Egyptian.” Wilkinson has a representation from Thebes, which he applies as illustrative of the very incident we are now con- sidering. “ The investiture of a chief,” thus he writes, “ was a ceremony of considerable importance, when the post con- ferred was connected with any high dignity about the person of the monarch, in the army, or the priesthood. It took place in the presence of the sovereign, seated on his throne ; and two priests, having arrayed the candidate in a long, loose vesture, placed necklaces round the neck of the person thus honored by the royal favor.” EGYPTIAN NECKLACES AND OTHER ORNAMENTS 144 EGYPT AND ITS MONUMENTS. Pharaoh changed Joseph’s name to an Egyptian one. Our version gives us, as the new name, Zaphnath-Paaneah. The Septuagint gives us Psonthom-phanech, and Josephus Psothom-phanech. Egyptian scholars herein recognize the Egyptian word Psotomfexeh, meaning the “ salvation,” or the “ saviour of the age.” Jerome translates it “ salvator mundi.” Gesenius makes the Egyptian word — Psontm- FENEH, i. e. “ sustainer of the age.” This custom of changing names, still prevails in the East. One of the most striking instances is in the case of the Persian king Suffee, whose reign commenced in 1667. The first years of his sway were marked by calamities ; and having been persuaded that these were, in some mode, connected with his name, he changed it, and with many solemn ceremonies, assumed that of Solyman. All the seals and coins bearing the name of Suffee were broken, as if Sutfee were dead ; and he 'Was crowned anew by the name of Solyman. Here doubtless the change was designed to honor Joseph, in acknowledgment of the obligations of Pharaoh to him ; and also to naturalize him as an Egyptian. The latter is an important point, when subsequent events are considered. Pharaoh married Joseph to Asenath. There has been some discussion concerning this name. The Hebrew form, given above, and the Septuagint, Aseneth, are considered by Jablonski as the Coptic compound word, Asshe-neit, which he interprets, worshipper of Neith, the titular goddess of Sais. Gesenius supposes the name to be in Coptic, Assneith, signifying belonging to. Neith. Champollion. however, read the name on an Egyptian relic of enamelled earth, in the cabinet of the French king, Charles X. ; and he translated the hieroglyphic, ^‘belonging JOSEPH. 145 to Isis.” All these explanations are rendered probable from the fact, which we know, that it was usual among the Egyptians to make names, expressive of some relation to their gods ; and this was the more likely to be done in the case of a priest’s daughter. At any rate, Champollion’s discovery shows that there was such a person as Asenath. She was the “ daughter of Potipherah, priest of On.” The word priest, is in the margin of our version translated also, prince ; and properly enough, because in Egypt, the priest of one of the cities was also its prince or chief ruler under Pharaoh, who was not only king, but also over all the priesthood as high priest. It is the same name as that we have already considered, Potiphar ; and means “ of, or belong- ing to the sun.” On (signifying in ancient Coptic the sun) is the same place that is called in Jeremiah xliii. 13, Beth- shemesh (house of the sun) : the Septuagint calls it in Greek, Heliopolis (city of the snn) : the old Egyptian name Re-ei or Ei-re is of the same import, “ abode of the sun.” It is of great antiquity as the monuments show : there is an obelisk there bearing the name of Osirtasen, showing that the place must have had existence at a period before the times of Joseph. Strabo speaks of the great antiquity of its temple in his day. It is evident that Pharaoh, by marrying Joseph into an Egyptian family of distinction, meant to give stability to the new and extraordinary powers with which he had invested him. Two things, therefore, may fairly be inferred ; first, that the Egyptian high priest occupied a very elevated position of influence ; and next, that among the Egyptian priesthood, the most distinguished was the priest of Oir. History con- firms both these particulars. As to the first point, Heeren remarks : “ The priesthood 10 14G EGYPT AND ITS MONUMENTS. belonging to each temple were again organized among them- selves with the greatest exactness. They had a high priest, whose office was also hereditary. It is scarcely necessary to mention, that the stations of the high priests in the principal cities in Egypt were first and highest. They were in a manner hereditary princes, who stood by the side of the kings, and enjoyed almost the same prerogatives. ***** Their statues were placed in the temples. When they are intro- duced into history, they appear as the first persons of the state.” As to the second point, Herodotus speaks of the priests of Heliopolis as the most learned among the Egyptians ; while the most ancient accounts of the city describe it as not only famous for its temple, but as the principal seat of learning in Egypt, and the usual resort of foreigners who wished to learn “ the wisdom of the Egyptians.” When Strabo visited the place, he was shown the houses in which Eudoxus and Plato were said to have studied thirteen years under the Heliopolite priests. It was then a deserted city ; for Cambyses had been there : and after his invasion, it was no longer the great school of Egypt. At a subsequent day, Alexandria became the chief seat of Egpytian learning. But to the Scriptural account, according, as it does remarkably, with what we know to have been, at that day, the state of things in Egypt, an objection is made from the usual source. A German critic tells us, that “ an alliance of intolerant priests with a foreign shepherd is entirely opposed to the character of the Egyptians.” Two facts are here as- serted, first, that such a marriage could not have taken place ; and secondly, that the Egyptians were very intolerant. The JOSEPH. 147 first is an error, the last a trutli. The critic overlooks the peculiar circumstances of preparation for this marriage, as well as the peculiar relative position of Pharaoh and Potiphar. Joseph was not married to Asenath while he was a foreign shepherd, an obscure alien ; but after he had become a naturalized Egyptian, and assumed the Egyptian dress and name. Beside, a Pharaoh had commanded it, and a Potiphar did not dare to disobey ; for he who ordered, possessed a double sovereignty over him whom he commanded. He was not only his king, but he was also the chief priest over all the priesthood. As to the intolerance of the Egyptians, and their assumed superiority to all strangers, the critic admits it ; and it is strange that he did not in this very transaction find one of the strongest manifestations of its exhibition, when even a Pharaoh, in overcoming it, found it necessary not only to make Joseph a naturalized Egyptian, but also to allay Egyp- tian prejudice, and strengthen Joseph’s hands by an alliance with a noble family. Except as an Egyptian by naturaliza- tion, and as the husband of Asenath, Egyptian intolerance would probably never have submitted to his rule. The story, therefore, is in harmony with the known historical fact of Egyptian conceit and intolerance. 10. During the seven years of plenty, Joseph collected the fruits of the earth and laid them up. The monuments furnish numerous representations, illus- trative and confirmatory of the labors of Joseph during the seven years of plenty. “ In one of the grottoes of Eleithuias, a man is depicted whose business it evidently was to take an account of the number of bushels, which another man, acting 148 EGYPT AND ITS MONUMENTS. imder him, measures. The inscription over him is, “The writer, or registrar of bushels, ThutnofreP Tlien follows the transportation of the grain. From the measurer, others take it in sacks and carry it to the storehouses. “At Beni Hassan, in the tomb of Amenemhe, there is a painting of a great storehouse ; before the door of which lies a large heap of grain, already winnowed. The measurer fills a bushel, in order to pour it out into the sacks of those who carry the grain to the granary. The bearers go to the door of the storehouse, and lay down their sacks before an officer who stands ready to receive the corn. This is the owner of the storehouse. Near by stands the bushel with which it is measured, and the registrar who takes the account. At the side of the windows, there are characters which indicate the quantity of the mass which is deposited in the magazine.” {Hengstenberg^ Kitto.) From the cuts, it will be seen that the granaries consisted of a series of vaulted chambers. The grain was carried by means of steps to the top of these, when it was cast through an opening at the top. In the other cut, this opening is seen; JOSEPH. 149 as is also the sliding door at the bottom of the vault, by which the grain was removed when needed. In our history we read : “ And Joseph gathered corn as the sand of the sea, very much, until he left number mg . An illustration of this may be found in a cut on a previous page,* representing the numberer as sitting on a heap of corn, and receiving an account from a man standing below, who is using his hands to express the numbers. 11. The famine of the seven years of dearth was over all laridsi’^ We have already seen, that ordinarily, when there was famine in other countries of the East, their inhabitants looked to Egypt for a supply of food : but in this instance the famine reached Egypt also. Hence it has been said, that the author of the Pentateuch proves himself to be ignorant of the natural * Vide ante, page 129. 150 EGYPT AND ITS MONUMENTS. condition of Egypt ; for that in that country, a famine never occurs. We will dispose of that assertion first. It is boldly made, as most of Von Bohlen’s assertions are, and betrays his own ignorance of the subject. The truth is that the swelling of the Nile a few feet only above or below a certain point, is alike destructive to the productions of the country : and there is scarcely a land on the face of the earth in which famine has raged so terribly as in this very Egypt ; or in which measures, similar to those adopted by Joseph, could have been more needed. Ordinarily, the Nile is very uniform in its rise and fall : when it is so, abundance is the result : but it is not always so ; and as its abundance in a favorable season is probably beyond that of any equal extent of cultivated land on the globe ; so, as a counterpoise, its famine in an unfavor- able year, exceeds in scarcity that of any other country of equal extent. In other lands watered by rains, the failure of food may not be total ; if one crop fail, there still may be a chance left that refreshing rains will enable men to make a crop of some other production, in the course of the season, Avhich will sustain life : but Egypt has no season but one, no watering of her land but once in the year ; and if that fail, she is utterly without resource. But history on this subject is explicit enough. There is a writer, Makrizi, who has found materials for a whole volume in the narratives of famines in Egypt. The accounts that have come down to us, are full of horrors. De Sacy gives this relation from Abdollatiph, an Arabian writer : “ In the year 569 [of the Hegira, 1199 of our era], the height of the flood was small almost without example. The consequence was a terrible famine, accompanied by indescribable enormities. Parents consumed their children, human flesh was in fact a JOSEPH. 15i very common article of food ; they contrived various ways of preparing it. They spoke of it, and heard it spoken of, as an indifferent affair. Man-catching became a regular business. The greater part of the population were swept away by death. In the following year, also, the inundation did not reach the proper height, and only the low lands were overflowed. Also much of that which was inundated could not be sown for want of laborers and seed ; much was destroyed by worms which devoured the seed-corn ; also of the seed which escaped this destruction, a great part produced only meagre shoots which perished.” Makrizi gives an account of a famine in the year 457 of the Hegira, not at all less severe than that described above. So much then, for the assertion that Egypt never knows famine. But the peculiarity here is, not only that Egypt knew famine, but that other lands were simultaneously suflering. This was unusual, though history shows that there have been such occurrences. Makrizi describes a famine in 444 of the Hegira, which, like this, extended at the same time over Syria, and reached even to Bagdad. Now (thus say the objectors), as Egypt derived her fertility from the Nile, and other nations from occasional rains, it is not probable that there would be a simultaneous famine. Generally there would not be ; and yet, from known physical causes it is perfectly obvious that such an event might occur. Even Herodotus knew that the waters causing an increase in the Nile, were the result of the tropical rains in the mountains of Abyssinia. To the quantity of water falling in these rains, two causes contribute, which in diflerent years, may make them more or less. The one cause is in the formation of rain-clouds in Abyssinia itself, attracted by the mountains and 152 EGYPT AND ITS MONUMENTS. discharging their contents on them : the other cause (as has been well explained by Le Pere in the Descript, de VEgpyte) is, that at a certain season of the year, a long-continued and steady wind, coming from the north, blows over the whole length of Egypt, as every traveller on the Nile has reason to know. This wind drives the water-clouds that are formed on the Mediterranean, and carries them toward the high lands of Abyssinia ; here, the contiguity of mountains produces the usual effect, the clouds are attracted, become surcharged, and empty themselves. Now, it is very plain, that in some years rain enough might fall on the mountains of Abyssinia, inde- pendent of any clouds from the Mediterranean, to afford the Nile a sufficient supply; in which case Egypt xcould have abundance, though Syria and the countries adjacent to the Mediterranean might then suffer for want of the Mediterra- nean rains on which they entirely depend. So, also, it is equally plain that if the Mediterranean rains should from any cause be deficient, and, at the same time, less than the usual local rains of the Abyssinian Mountains should fall, both Egypt and Syria, with other adjacent countries, would simultaneously suffer from droughf, and might therefore simultaneously experience famine. But whatever may be the scientific explanation of such a result, the fact stares us in the face that it has actually occurred. Now, had the author of the Pentateuch been drawing on his invention for the incidents of his story, we scarcely think his scientific knowledge would have enabled him to understand the natural causes which made such an event as a simultaneous famine possible ; and he would, therefore, have framed his story to suit the fact so well known, in his day, that Egypt depended for her fertility on the river, and not on local rains ; and con- JOSEPH. 153 sequently would not have risked the seeming improbability, to the men of that time, of a famine, as well in Egypt as out of it. Therefore, that he does relate the fact of such a famine is, to our mind at least, evidence that he did not draw on his invention. 12. Joseph eyitertains his brethren on their second visit to Egypt. There is here, in the Scripture narrative, a somewhat minute enumeration of circumstances, worthy of notice. Joseph said, “Set on bread. And they set on for him by himself, and for them by themselves, and for the Egyptians which did eat with him, by themselves : because the Egyp- tians might not eat bread with the Hebrews ; for that is an abomination unto the Egyptians. And they sat before him : — and he took and sent messes unto them from before him ; but Benjamin’s mess was five times so much as any of theirs.” The refusal of the ancient Egyptians to have familiar intercourse with foreigners in eating, is fully sustained by history. Herodotus remarks on it, and assigns as one reason, that strangers ate food which the Egyptians deemed sacred. This feeling was carried very far : “ Neither will any man or woman among them kiss a Grecian, nor use a knife, or spit, or any domestic utensil belonging to a Greek ; nor will they eat even the flesh of such beasts as by their law are pure, if it has been cut with a Grecian knife.” In seating on for Joseph “ by himself,” they but paid the respect due to his rank ; for they doubtless considered him as one of their own people, which by naturalization he was : but not so with his brethren. The monuments show the customs in eating, and from these 154 EGYPT AND ITS MONUMENTS. it will be seen how matters, on this occasion, were probably arranged. A small table was appropriated, either to each guest singly, or to each couple of them. The customs of Persia, at this day, illustrate this. The dishes are not brought in successively during the course of an JOSEPH. 155 entertainment, bnt are placed at once upon the table, or rather floor. A tray containing a variety of dishes is placed between every two, or at most three guests, from which they help themselves, without attending in any degree, to the party at the next tray. Another peculiarity here meets us. Joseph’s brethren “ sat before him.” The usual custom of the ancients was to eat in a reclining position : but not so among the Egyptians. They had couches for sleeping; but sat at their meals. Some- times they sat upon a stool or chair. We subjoin a cut from Wilkinson ; and Rosellini furnishes a painting of simitar character, in which the guests summoned to a feast are repre- sented as occupying each a chair. Indeed, among all the relics of domestic life yet found in Egypt, none are more striking or beautiful than their chairs. In variety of form and gracefulness of outline, they are not surpassed by any similar article of modern construction. Benjamin’s mess, we read, was “ five times so much as any of theirs.” The quantity of food placed before any guest, was the usual mode of expressing the approbation in which he was held by the host. Five or six difierent dishes or bowls for a guest, aflbrd evidence of a liberal hospitality ; but in Persia, now, when the guest is a person of consideration, other dishes are introduced, until at last there may be fifteen or more upon the same tray. Herodotus tells us that in the public banquets in Egypt, tivice as much was placed before the king as before any one else. If a double quantity was a king’s measure, Benjamin was here very greatly honored. 13. Joseph sent for his father. Here “ wagons ” are introduced to our notice as vehicles 156 GUESTS AT AN EGYPTIAN ENTERTAINMENT. JOSEPH. 157 for conveying his father and household, in the Hebrew, may fairly be rendered some small exception, it may be said, that wheel-carriages are not now employed in Western Asia, or Africa ; but the ancient Egyptians used them, and they were also used in what is now Turkey in Asia. The war- chariot was very common in Egypt. But the monuments show also, a species of light- covered cart or wagon, which it is supposed were not of Egyptian origin, but taken from some nomade people who fled before them in war. With these, probably, Joseph was fur- nished. They seem not to have been used by the inhabitants of Palestine, and yet to have been known to them as a con- venience resorted to in Egypt ; for when Jacob saw those which J^eph sent, he knew, at once, that they must have come from Egypt ; and they furnished to him confirmation of the story of his sons. The original word, With ' wagons. 14. The arrival of the father and brethren of Joseph in Egypt, and their settlement in Goshen. In one of the tombs at Beni Hassan, there is a representa- 158 EGYPT AND ITS MONUMENTS. tion of an interesting nature, which by some has been, too hastily we think, considered as a sculptured story of the arrival of Jacob and his household, and their presentation to Pharaoh. We subjoin a copy of it in part, and remark that JOSEPH. 159 though it may not afford any testimony to the particular event we are considering, yet it is evidence illustrative of our subject in general. Here it will be seen that two persons, seemingly in office, and indicating, both by physiognomy and costume, that they are Egyptians, appear to be conducting those who follow them into the presence of Pharaoh, or one of his principal officers (who is not seen in the drawing). The hieroglyphical inscriptions show who they are. The first holding out the tablet, reads “ the royal scribe, Nofropth the second is “ the president of the treasury, Roti.” The tablet held forth by the scribe is dated in the sixth year of the reign of the king to whom it is presented ; and sets forth that certain indi- viduals, either as such, or as the representatives of nations, had been taken captive. The number thirty-seven is written over them in hieroglyphics. It is necessary to observe parti- cularly the appearance of these captives. The profile differs from that of the Egyptians ; the nose and chin both project, and the former is aquiline. In the original the complexion was yellow, the hair and beard black ; and the latter much more abundant than on an Egyptian face. The first figure in the line of captives, is a man clad in a rich tunic : he holds a gazelle, and is followed by an attendant leading another. He holds also in his hand, the horn of some animal, and is making a low obeisance to the king. His name and title are written in hieroglyphics before him : the upper group, accord- ing to Osborn, reads hik — king, chief [of] “ the land.” The group below is letter for letter the transcription of the Hebrew word which is rendered in the English Bible, Jebusites. The meaning seems, therefore, to be “ chief of the 160 EGYPT AND ITS MONUMENTS. land of the Jebusites,” which bordered on the deserts, and in which the gazelle abounded. Immediately following the first two, are four men ; the first carrying a bow, the last a spear, and the two between each with a club : their dress shows them to be of some rank, and they have sandals on their feet. Next comes an ass, bearing a package or pannier, tied with cords ; within are two children, and on the top a shield. These children are probably hostages ; as are also the boy and four women, who follow next. All of these are richly dressed, and wear boots reaching above the ankles to protect them from the burning sands of the desert. Another ass, loaded with spears and shields, is next ; then a man, playing with the plectrum upon an instrument closely resembling the Grecian lyre. The case is slung at his back. The last figure carries a bow, quiver and war club, and is probably the bow-bearer of the first or some of the other personages. Such a figure is often repre- sented in the reliefs on the temples. The beards are remarkable, because though common in the East, the Egyptians did not wear them ; and in the sculp- tures generally, they are used as one of the characteristic peculiarities of foreign and uncivilized nations. In the inscription the word “ captives ” is used, and this has led to some difficulty in the interpretation of the scene. Wilkinson at first supposed, from the use of this word, that it was a representation of ordinary prisoners taken by the Egyptians in war : he afterward modified this opinion, and remarked that “ the contemptuous expressions common to the Egyptians in speaking of foreigners, might account for the use of this word.” They probably are not “captives” in the common sense of that term. Most of the captives that are JOSEPH. 161 seen on the monuments, are represented as bound, with their limbs in the most painful positions. Beside, these have arms and are playing on musical instruments ; two things, which, according to alt the representations in Egypt, are incompatible with the fact of their being captives. Rosellini, on the ground of the inscription alone, supposed them to be cap- tives. He, however, gives a copy from a representation of “ some foreign slaves, sent by king Osirtasen II. as a present to a military chieftain.” Such may be the story told here ; for the individual to whom these persons are presented, is not, according to Wil- kinson, the king himself, but one of his officers. If we may venture to give our own interpretation, we should say that they are either the representatives of some distant and subju- gated people, bringing their customary tribute as vassals ; or they are “ strangers,” coming to ask an abode in Egpyt, and seeking to enforce their petition by gifts. Of this latter custom, we find evidence in the monuments. Although, therefore, we do not believe that the coming of Jacob and his sons is here storied, yet the sculpture is valuable for two purposes ; first, as confirming the Scripture history as to the existence and condition of the Jebusites ; and secondly, as proof that emigration with women and children, and formal admission of them into Egypt as inhabitants, took place in the earliest times of which we have any certain knowledge : and with this, the story of Jacob’s coming agrees. It will be remembered that Joseph informed his father and brethren, on their arrival, that, with a view to their settlement in Goshen, he would tell Pharaoh that they were “ shepherds,” and had brought with them “ their flocks and their herds and he instructed them to say the same thing to Pharaoh, 11 162 EGYPT AND ITS MONUMENTS. adding, — “ that ye may dwell in the land of Goshen ; for every shepherd is an ahomination to the Egyptians.” After this Joseph presented five of them to the king, of whom his father was one : “ And Pharaoh said unto his brethren. What is your occupation? And they said unto Pharaoh, Thy servants are shepherds, both we and our fathers. They said, moreover, unto Pharaoh : For to sojourn in the land are we come ; for thy servants have no pasture for their flocks ; for the famine is sore in the land of Canaan : now, therefore, we pray thee, let thy servants dwell in the land of Goshen.” Pharaoh granted their request. Here we must fix our attention upon two facts distinctly stated. First, that “every shepherd was an abomination to the Egyptians ;” and secondly, that these shepherds were settled in Goshen. As to the first, our readers will remember that in speaking of Abraham, we showed that though his was a pastoral calling, yet in his day, no objection was made to him on that account ; and we endeavored to show that the cause of this was to be found in the fact that a race of invading shepherds, governed by “ shepherd kings,” then had sway in Lower Egypt, where Abraham was. But now, in the same locality, we find the state of feeling entirely changed ; and we will add, in passing, that the truth of the statement we are now considering, is confirmed by hundreds of representations, to be gathered from the monuments. As if to show their utter contempt of them, the artists, both of Upper and Lower Egypt, delighted, on all occasions, in repre- senting shepherds as dirty and unshaven ; and caricatured them as a deformed and unseemly race. Sometimes, they were delineated, as were the captives taken in war, on the soles of their sandals ; that they might express the fulness of JOSEPH. 163 habitual contempt by treading them under their feet. So much for the fact of the “ abomination.” In the absence of all other testimony but the simple fact of the different feeling toward shepherds, in the days of Abra- ham and in those of Joseph, we should, if required to account for it, naturally conclude that events had transpired, in the interval of time between these two personages, which in some way were connected with shepherds, and by some means had created an aversion toward them in the ruling powers. And here, actual history comes in and confirms this conclu- sion. It is not our purpose to weary the reader with the uninteresting details of our chronological research : we must, therefore, for the present, content ourselves with the statement, that the result of it has been the satisfactory establishment, to our own minds at least, of the fact, that the “ shepherd kings,” of whom we spoke in the chapter on Abraham, and who ruled in his day, were expelled from their last stronghold in Egypt, and the native sovereigns had again obtained sway, Jusi before Joseph was brought down and sold as a slave in Egypt^ "t ^liat these shepherd kings and their followers (Manetho's fable to the contrary notwithstanding) never were invited back by the pretended leprous followers of Moses, and never did come back ; that the Egyptians, on the re-establishment of a native dynasty, under a sense of national humiliation to which they had been subjected by a foreign yoke, not only cordially hated all shepherds, but looked on all pastoral people with distrust and suspicion ; that Joseph himself, had he come down avowedly as a shepherd, would have fared accordingly ; but he was brought as a slave, sold as a slave, with little of interest, and less of inquiry, as to his origin ; that rising by degrees, by a providential combination of circumstances, in 164 EGYPT AND ITS MONUMENTS. the fulfilment of God’s purposes, he had become a naturalized Egyptian, of strong family alliance and of great power ; and that he did not suffer from this aversion to shepherds ; be- cause no man in Egypt ever could have known him as a shepherd boy ; and none probably knew of his alliance with a shepherd race, until the strange news was rumored in the palace, “Joseph’s brethren have come.” The aversion to shepherds, therefore, mentioned in the sacred writings, is to our minds one of the strong proofs of the truth of the story ; for history, we think, furnishes a full and satisfactory expla- nation of that aversion, in the existence of adequate causes for it ; which causes perfectly synchronize with the true date of events, recorded in our Scriptural narrative. Of this national aversion to shepherds, Joseph took a wise advantage, in the settlement of his father and brethren : — “ Say (thus he directed them), thy servants’ trade hath been about cattle from our youth, even until now, both we, and also our fathers ; that ye may dwell in the land of Goshen.'^ Now where, and in what condition was this land of Goshen 1 The Pentateuch is not a formal treatise on geog- raphy ; it is, therefore, not surprising that it does not give us a minute and direct account of the situation of this land. But it is very gratifying to remark that it incidentally fur- nishes so many particulars concerning it as fully enable us to identify its locality ; and that facts so fully substantiate what, at first view, would seem to be discrepancies in these particu- lars, that the very references to Goshen conclusively show that the author of the Pentateuch (no matter now who he may have been) possessed a most accurate knowledge of the topography of the country about which he was writing. He was not dependent on uncertain reports for his information. He JOSEPH. 165 had seen, and knew for himself; and on no other principle can we explain the fact that all his allusions to the position and nature of the land are sustained by its actual geography, without the slightest reference to any imaginary region. A study of the whole subject, will (as Hengstenberg has remarked) impress conviction on the impartial mind that the writer of the Pentateuch “ wrote from personal observation, with the freedom and confidence of one to whom the informa- tion communicated comes naturally and of its own accord ; and from one who has not obtained it for a proposed object.” Let us first look at the supposed discrepancies. It would appear, on the one hand, that it was the eastern border-land of EgpytP “And he [Jacob] sent Judah before him unto Joseph, to direct his face unto Goshen.” Gen. xlvi. 28. Now, Jacob came from the East. Jacob did not receive any instructions or orders from Joseph, until he had reached Goshen ; this shows it to have been the border of the country on the eastern side. Joseph tells Pharaoh, that his father and brethren were in Goshen. There they were obliged, in conformity with Egyp- tian custom, to abide until they had permission to enter Egypt. This shows it to have been on the eastern border. Tell Pharaoh, says Joseph to his relations, that your business through your lives has been about cattle ; and he gives them this reason for it: — “that ye may dwell in the land of Goshen; for every shepherd is an abomination to the Egyptians.” Un- less Goshen were a frontier province, what force would there have been in this reason? If it were, then the Israelites would not be brought into close contact with the great mass of Egypt’s inhabitants, to whom they were an “ abomination.” When Moses led the children of Israel out, they went east- 166 EGYPT AND ITS MONUMENTS. ward. They departed from the chief town of this very land. In two days, they had reached the confines of the Arabian desert. This shows that Goshen must have been the eastern boundary. But again, on the other hand, there are incidental passages about Goshen, which represent it as lying immediately around the chief city of Egypt ; for Joseph, who must then have lived in the principal city, says : “ And thou shalt dwell in the land of Goshen, and thou shalt be near to me.” Gen. xlv. 10. What was the chief city of Egypt in that day? The Pentateuch nowhere expressly tells us. But perhaps it fur- nishes data, by which to determine it. The whole Pentateuch shows in a general manner, that the abode of royalty then, was somewhere in Lower Egypt. Tanis, the Zoan of Scrip- ture, we have already seen was one of the oldest cities of Egypt ; for it was there in Abraham’s day, and was then of some note and considered as a sort of standard with which to compare other cities : “ And Hebron was built seven years before Zoan in Egypt.” Numb. xiii. 22. The monuments there, show that Tanis existed in the times of Rameses the Great. When Moses performed his miracles before the Pha- raoh, who refused to let the Israelites go, where was the residence of that Pharaoh ? At his chief city. Where were the miracles wrought ? Let the Bible answer : “ Marvellous things did he in the sight of their fathers, in the land of Egypt, in the field of Zoan.” Psalm Ixxviii. 12. “How he had wrought his signs in Egypt, and his wonders in the field of Zoan. And had turned their rivers into blood,” &c. Psalm Ixxviii. 43, et seq. On the supposition that Tanis or Zoan was the chief city ; we ask. Was it in or near Goshen? The question will be JOSEPH. 167 answered by a reply to the inquiry whether Moses and his parents were Israelites ; for if they were, they lived in Goshen. Now, where was Moses found 1 On the banks of the Nile, where the king’s daughter was accustomed to walk and to bathe. And his parents lived near, for his sister watched to see what would become of him, and ran, not far, to bring his mother as a nurse. It only remains to ask, where must have been the home of Pharaoh’s daughter? And the obvious answer is, in the palace of her father, in the chief city of his kingdom. And thus, by a proper arrangement of facts gathered from Scripture, it is plain that Goshen might have included or was not far from Tanis ; and that Joseph’s father and brethren might have lived in Goshen, and yet not been very distant from him in Tanis. There is not here, then, necessarily, any discrepancy. But if it should be thought that Tanis or Zoan was not the chief city, and On or Heliopolis should be considered the residence of Joseph, still would his relations, living in Goshen, have been near to him ; for this land lay along the Pelusiac or most eastern branch of the Nile ; as it is evident that the Isra- elites, on being led out by Moses, nowhere crossed the Nile ; and thus Goshen would have included a part of the nome of Heliopolis, of which On was the capital. But again : the land of Goshen is described in Scripture as a pasture ground. It was for the sake of its good pasture that Jacob and his sons asked to be placed there. It is also, on the other hand, spoken of as a region of arable land. “ And he [Joseph] gave them a possession in the land of Egypt, in the best of the land, in the land of Raineses.” Gen. xlvii. And we know that the Israelites 168 EGYPT AND ITS MONUMENTS. while in Egypt did cultivate the land, and obtained an abun- dance of its agricultural products. Is there here a real discrepancy? Goshen, according to Hales, in which he is sustained by the best authorities, “ stretched along the Bubastic or Pelusiac branch of the Nile, and formed the eastern barrier of Egypt, toward Palestine and Arabia, the quarters from which they most dreaded invasion.” It therefore comprised a tract of country very various in its nature ; part of it arable, and part pasture lands. There is even at this day, in the interior of ancient Goshen, a large tract of land good for tillage, and fruitful. A valley stretches through the whole breadth of it ; and, according to Le Pere, this whole tract, from the ancient Bubastis on the Pelusiac branch of the Nile, to the entrance of the Wady Tumilat, is now under full cultivation, and annually overflowed by the river. It had also good pasture lands, so that it combined the peculiarities of both Arabia and Egypt. Michaelis intimates that it was not probable the king of Egypt would give to these shepherds “ the best of the land.” But, adverting to the circumstances of the case, there would seem to be nothing very surprising in his so doing. This very Goshen was the last stronghold of the shepherd kings who, but a few years before Joseph came, had been driven out ; and during the greater part of their abode in Egypt, it was their chief settlement. It was not long, since they had been driven out. The Egyptians needed it but little for pastoral purposes, and it was consequently but sparsely peopled. In permitting the Hebrews to occupy it, therefore, not only was no one dispossessed, but the new comers were fixed in the only unoccupied part of Egypt adapted to their calling ; were kept in a very great degree apart from the Egyptians ; and above JOSEPH. 169 all, formed, on the defenceless side of Egypt, the barrier of a brave and numerous people, occupying as it were the gateway to the kingdom, through which the invading hordes of the desert, and of the East generally, always passed on their war- like and predatory incursions. Whatever it might have been to the Hebrews, in their peculiar avocation, to Pharaoh it was not “ the best of the land and even had it been, its surrender was fully compensated by the additional security which the rest of the kingdom obtained from its occupancy by the Hebrews. The story of the Bible is altogether probable, and certainly in harmony with known facts in Egypt. 15. Jacob dies, and is embalmed by Joseph's physicians at his command. The language implies that Joseph had among his servants, many who were physicians. This is in entire conformity with what we know of .Egyptian customs. From Herodotus we learn that the faculty in Egypt was very humerous ; and that no doctor was allowed to practise in more than one branch of the profession. Some were oculists ; others at- tended to diseases of the head only ; others, solely to intes- tinal maladies, &c. Nor was the profession deficient in skill, or in a reputation which reached beyond Egypt. As to skill, they took the best mode to obtain it ; for Pliny tells us that the}'’ made j)ost mortem examinations ; and this, by the way, we think, is the first historical evidence we have of such a practice. They studied also the nature and properties of drugs ; for Homer, in his Odyssey, describes Egypt as a country producing many drugs, some salutary, others perni- cious ; and tells us that every physician there possessed knowledge above other men. 170 EGYPT AND ITS MONUMENTS. As to their reputation abroad, we learn from the third book of Herodotus (Thalia) that Cyrus had a physician sent to him from Egypt, and that Darius also had Egyptian physicians about him. Indeed, to those curious in such investigations, Egypt atibrds a chapter of no small interest in the history of the progress of medical science. The physicians, or a portion of them, were the embalmers ; these embalmers were a hereditary class in Egypt, according to the later classical writers. Both statements are true. The first relates to the most ancient, and the latter to modern times. The monuments show that embalming was a very ancient usage of Egypt. Mummies, also, have been found bearing the date of the oldest kings. It is probable the custom originated in Egypt, and was founded on their religious belief that the con- tinuance of the soul in the region of happiness was dependent on the preservation of the body. Some have thought that a physical notion may have also had its influence. Egypt is annually, for three months, under water, and is at the same time exposed to a burning sun. It is therefore important that all decomposition of animal matter should, as much as possi- ble, be prevented. Hence inferior animals were embalmed. The practice, it is said, was put an end to by the preaching of St. Anthony and other Eremitic fathers who, in their zeal, de- nounced it as idolatrous. With this, some significantly con- nect the fact, that, since the conversion of Egypt to Christianity, the plague, which Avas utterly unknown in ancient times, now commonly makes its annual appearance on the subsidence of the Nile; and that its first introduction maybe historically traced to a period someAvhere about the time of the successful efibrt of St. Anthony and his confreres against embalming. In such a discussion. JOSEPH. 171 “ Non nobis, tantas componere lites. * “ And forty days were fulfilled for him ; for so are fulfilled the days of those which are embalmed : and the Egyptians mourned for him threescore and ten days.” Gen. 1. 3. The author here mentions two numbers, forty and seventy ; the latter, doubtless, including the former as a part of it The meaning, in the judg- ment of the best writers, is that the whole period of the mourning embraced seventy days, of which the process of embalming occupied forty ; and with this, the statements both of Herodotus and Diodo- rus may be reconciled. Mourning for the dead, among the Egyptians, and especially when the deceased was of high rank, was a very solemn ceremony. Herodo- tus says, with respect to their funerals and ceremonies of mourning ; whenever a man of any importance dies, the females of his family, dis- figuring their heads and faces with dirt, leave the corpse in the house, run publicly about, accompanied by their female * On this subject of embalming, see Wilkinson, Vol. V. chap. xvi. 172 EGYPT AND ITS MONUMENTS. relations, with their garments in disorder ; their breasts exposed, and beating themselves severely : the men, on their parts, do the same.” Diodorus says ; “ If any one dies among them, all his relatives and friends cover their heads with mud, and go about the streets with loud lamentations, until the body is buried. In the meantime, they neither use baths, nor even take wine, or any other than common food ; they also do not put on beautiful garments.” On the previous page, may be seen the representation of a solemn act of mourning, copied from the monuments. We must not here omit a seemingly slight circumstance, but really important, as indicating a very familiar acquaint- ance on the part of the author of the Pentateuch with Egyptian usages. He has written, “ And when the days of his [Israel’s] mourning were past, Joseph spake unto the house of Pharaoh, saying. If now I have found grace in your eyes, speak, I pray you, in the ears of Pharaoh, saying,” &c. Gen. 1. 4. It will hardly be suspected that in writing these words, the author supposed he was furnishing incidental testimony to his own truth, when it should be called in question at a future day ; and yet it is such testimony. Why did not Joseph go in person to Pharaoh to speak for himself, as we have seen he did on the occasion of his father’s and brothers’ arrival in Egypt ? Herodotus, speaking of the customs of Egypt, tells us that “ it is elsewhere customary, in case of death, for those who are most nearly affected to cut off their hair in testimony of sor- row ; but the Egyptians, who, at other times, have their heads closely shorn, suffer the hair on this occasion to grow on both head and chin.” Joseph was now mourning, consequently his hair and beard were both apparent, and in that condition, he knew that Egyptian etiquette and propriety did not allow of JOSEPH. 173 his appearance before the sovereign. He could not now shave, as he did when summoned from the prison. l(j. Joseph died, and they cmhalnied him, and he was put hi a coffin in Egypt. 'I'he particular mention of a coffin seems here to imply a distinction. Coffins have never been much used in the East, though royal personages have sometimes been put in stone sarcopliagi. Coffins, however, were more common in Egypt than elsewhere ; but still the common people were, for the most part, obliged to dispense with them, and were merely swathed in wrappers with bandages. The original word used here [aron) denotes that the coffin was of wood ; and we know that sometimes persons of wealth and distinction had two, three, or even four : one within the other. Herodotus particularly describes the Egyptian coffin ; and those found, we believe, have generally been of sycamore. It has been objected, that the writer of the sacred history proves himself to have been ignorant of Egyptian usages, because lie makes the body of Joseph to be deposited in a coffin ; and it is said that one of his rank would have occu- pied a sarcophagus of stone. The very fact of his being put in a coffin of wood confirms the story ; for such were in general use, while those of stone were appropriated to royal personages. Beside, it must not be forgotten that the body of Joseph was to be transported from Egypt, and this circum- stance alone would have indicated the propriety of placing his remains in a coffin of wood. CHAPTER VII. THE BONDAGE. After the death of Joseph, sixty-five years elapsed before the birth of Moses, according to the chronology of Dr. Hales. The author of the Pentateuch distinctly informs us that during this interval all the sons of Jacob, and the men of their generation, had died ; and toward the latter part of the interval above named, the fact meets us that “ there arose a new king over Egypt^ which knew not Joseph.” This is a particular of Egyptian history, in the explanation of which confusion has arisen, from the fabrication of the pretended Manetho about the leprous Israelites under Moses, and their recall of the shepherd kings, to which we have already adverted. Some have thought that the monarch of this new dynasty was the first sovereign furnished on the re-intrusion of the pastoral invaders. In opposition to this opinion, we are met by the fact that these shepherds are represented by Manetho (the only authority for the return of the shepherds at all,) as coming back on the invitation of the Israelites ; the shepherds, therefore, were not likely to become their oppressors. But further, according to Manetho, the Israelites were not oppressed during this supposed second period of pastoral sway, but, in conjunction with the shepherds, were themselves the oppressors. The document of Manetho on this subject, therefore, can only be made intelligible by inter- THE BONDAGE. 175 preting it to mean exactly the contrary of what it says ; and of course is not entitled to the least respect as historical authority. We therefore reject as spurious the whole para- graph from Manetho giving the story of the return of the shepherds on the invitation of “ the lepers.” As far as our investigations have enabled us to discover, the eighteenth dynasty of Egypt began to reign about sixty years after Joseph’s death, and the first king was Tliothmes, Tethmosis or Amosis, or Ames or Amos, for in all these various modes has it been written. The chronological coinci- dence would, therefore, suggest that he was the king who “ knew not Joseph.” By this expression we understand, not that he was ignorant of the past history of Joseph, but that he was not so deeply impressed as the last dynasty had been with a sense of the services Joseph had rendered to the state ; and therefore not equally disposed to acknowledge the claims of the Israelites upon the Egyptian government. But why was this ? Because he was from the distant province of Thebes, knew nothing personally of the Hebrews, and, with the usual haughty arrogance of Egyptian monarchs, probably viewed them with the contempt and suspicion that attached to foreigners, and, as we have seen, especially to shepherds. vSir Gardner Wilkinson has made a suggestion on this subject, well worthy of consideration. He thinks that the Jews, who had come in under the pressure of a famine, had asked and obtained a grant from the Egyptian authorities, on condition of the performance of certain services by them and their descendants. This is rather corroborated by the fact that some of them were agriculturists, while others were shep- h.erds ; for we read that, beside their labor “ in mortar and brick,” they were also employed “ in all manner of service in 176 EGYPT AND ITS MONUMENTS. the field,” Ex. i. 14 : — and in Deuteronomy, the phrase occurs, “ Egypt where, thou sowedst thy seed and wateredst it.” While the Memphitic dynasty lasted, Wilkinson thinks this grant was respected, and nothing more was required of the Hebrews than a compliance with the terms on which it was made. But when the Theban family came to the throne, m the grant was rescinded, and the services notwithstanding required ; and thus commenced the bondage, when despotism and prejudice soon found a pretext for imposing additional burdens. It was pretended that the Hebrews, who certainly had rapidly increased in numbers, had thereby become dan- gerous to Egypt ; particularly as they lived on the side next to the Nomade tribes, with whom they might make alliances ; and, more especially, as they were not very far distant from the descendants of the old invaders, the shepherds, who had withdrawn to Palestine only, and there constituted the valiant and powerful race of the Philistines. Whether this pretext were well or ill founded, it furnished the Egyptian monarch with sufficient grounds for treating the Israelites like captives taken in Avar, and compelling them gratuitously to erect “ treasure cities ” for him, Avhich they did. All AA'^e can say of this conjecture, in the absence of positive proof, is that it does not violate probability, and is perfectly consistent with the details of the Bible story. The next point that we have to consider, consists of the details of Jewish oppression, at the hands of Egypt : — “ They did set over them taskmasters, to affiict them with their burdens. And they built for Pharaoh treasure cities, Pithom and Raamses.” — “ And the Egyptians made the children of Israel to serve, with rigor : and they made their lives bitter with hard bondage in mortar and in brick, and in all manner THE BONDAGE. 177 of service in the field : all their service, wherein they made them serve was with rigor.” I. They set over them taskmasters. This is perfectly Egyptian ; and exists at this day, with the single difference that the Egyptians occupy the place of the oppressed, instead of the oppressors. The bitter cup is returned to their own lips. A modern writer states that, “ when the labor of the people is required for any public work, the officers of Mehemet Ali collect the whole neighborhood — men, women, and chil- dren ; and dividing them into so many companies or droves, appoint taskmasters over them. These are armed with whips which they use pretty freely, as they are responsible for the completion of the work.” The monuments show that this was precisely the custom of ancient Egypt. Below are representations in illustration. In the first, the culprit is sub- jected to the bastinado ; a punishment by no means uncommon now in Egypt, which is governed very much by the cudgel or stick. The following affords another example, where the task- masters all appear with sticks ; and while one offender has 12 178 EGYPT AND ITS MONUMENTS. hands already laid upon him. another is in the posture of deprecatory supplication. They were employed in building cities. Josephus tells us, that his nation was also engaged in building pyramids, and making canals and embankments. It seems questionable, however, whether the Israelites took any part in the work of building the pyramids of Memphis, or the Arsinoite nome. The better opinion is, that they did not. But captives were, in general, the builders of public works. Thus Diodorus tells us, that Sesostris placed on all his buildings erected by captives, an inscription, stating that no native citizen had been engaged in the servile work. II. Pithom and Raamses were the cities they built. They were fortified towns, in which provisions were stored up. The first named, is the Patumos of Herodotus ; which, as we learn from him, was on the Pelusiac arm of the Nile, not far from the entrance of the canal which, in his day, connected the Nile with the Red Sea. The initial P, is but the Egyp- tian article ; and in the rest of the name, we recognize the T/«m, which the Itinerary of Antoninus places at twelve THE BONDAGE. 179 Roman miles from Heroopolis. Guided by these indications, the French savans place Pithom on the site of the present village of Ahbaseh. This is in ancient Goshen. The same scholars have also satisfactorily shown, that Raamses was the same place which the Greeks called Heroopolis ; and was between the Pelusiac arm of the Nile and the Bitter Lakes, at a place now called Abu Keisheid. This also is within ancient Goshen. With the opinions of the French scholars, we may add that Hengstenberg, who has bestowed great labor and learning on this subject, entirely concurs. HI. They were subjected to hard bondage in mortar and brick. Bricks in Egypt are of great antiquity, and, as we learn from the Scripture story, were usually made with straw, intermixed with clay. Thus writes Wilkinson : — “ The use of crude brick baked in the sun, was universal in Upper and Lower Egypt, both for public and private buildings ; and the brick field gave abundant occupation to numerous laborers throughout the country. These simple materials were found to be peculiarly suited to the climate ; and the ease, rapidity, and cheapness with which they were made offered additional recommendations So great was the demand that the Egyptian government, observing the profit which would accrue to the revenue from a monopoly of them, undertook to supply the public at a moderate price, thus preventing all unauthor- ized persons from engaging in their manufacture. And in order more effectually to obtain their end, the seal of the king, or of some privileged person, was stamped upon the bricks at the time they were made.” Bricks have been found thus marked, both in public and private buildings. The monopoly must have been profitable to tbe kings, inasmuch as they availed themselves of the cheap, because unpaid, labor of the 180 EGYPT AND ITS MONUMENTS. captives. It would seem, however, from the monuments, that some native laborers were employed, though the majority there represented are foreigners. As to the use of straw, it is proved, by an examination of the bricks brought by Rosellini from Thebes, bearing the stamp of Thothmes IV., the fifth king of the eighteenth dy- nasty. “The bricks” (says Rosellini) “which are now found in Egypt belonging to the same period, always have straw mingled with them, although in some of those that are most carefully made, it is found in very small quantities.” Another writer, quoted by Hengstenberg, Prokesch, says, “ The bricks (of the first pyramid at Dashoor) are of fine clay from the Nile, mingled with chopped straw. This intermixture gives the bricks an astonishing durability.” In connection with this subject of brick-making in Egypt, a most interesting painting was found by Rosellini, at Thebes, in the tomb of Roschere. He did not hesitate to call his com- ments on it, “ explanation of a picture representing the He- brews as they were engaged in making brick.” We present a copy of it, from Wilkinson’s drawing, and cannot but consider it one of the most interesting of the pictorial representations yet found in Egypt, even should it be supposed not to repre- sent the Hebrews. Wilkinson’s copy is too small to bring out all the details as Rosellini’s representation does : we will first give Rosellini’s description. “ Of the laborers,” (says he,) “ some are employed in trans- porting the clay in vessels ; some in intermingling it with the straw ; others are taking the bricks out of the form and placing them in rows ; still others, with a piece of wood upon their backs and ropes on each side, carry away the bricks already burned or dried. Their dissimilarity to the Egyptians appears Brick-making in Egypt. i The reader will be pleased to suppose the right end of the lower cut to be joined to the left end of the upper, and he will then have a view of the picture as it is in the original. 182 EGYPT AND ITS MONUMENTS. at the first view ; the complexion, physiognomy, and beard, permit us not to be mistaken in supposing them to be He- brews. They wear at their hips the apron which is common among the Egyptians ; and there is also represented, as in use among them, a kind of short trousers or drawers Among the Hebrews, four Egyptians, very distinguishable by their mien, figure, and color, (which is of the usual reddish brown, while the others are of what we call ‘ flesh color,’) are seen. Two of them, one sitting, the other standing, carry sticks in their hands, ready to fall upon two other Egyptians, who are here represented like the Hebrews, one of them carrying upon his shoulders a vessel of clay, and the other returning from the transportation of brick, carrying his empty vessel to get a new load.” The diminished size of our representation is necessarily such, that we must request the reader to turn to our cut, while we attempt to supply, by explanation, its deficiencies on a comparison with the much larger picture of Rosellini. The three figures on the right of the upper part of the cut are all represented by Rosellini with such wigs as are usually painted on Egyptians. One of these bears a stick ; and the other two are Egyptian taskmasters, who, by their failure to exact the required amount of work from the Israelites, are compelled to perform servile work themselves, as a punish- ment. One of them bears a load, and the other (the right- hand figure, with the yoke) proves that they had not come forth for labor of this kind ; for it will be observed that he has not yet girt his loins, like all the other laborers seen in the picture, and according to invariable Eastern usage, but wears his dress loose, like the overseer with his stick raised, and the taskmaster who is sitting (No. 6). THE BONDAGE. 183 The hieroglyphical inscription at the top of the cut reads, “ Captives brought by his majesty, to build the temple of the great god.” On the left of the lower cut, is the tank or cistern from which water was obtained, and in which one laborer is seen standing, while another is dipping his vessel into the cistern. Most of the laboring figures are represented by Rosellini with hair and beards ; their complexion also, in the original, is painted of a dilferent color from that of the Egyp- tians : there is no doubt they are meant for foreigners of some kind ; and, to our eyes, the physiognomy is unmistaka- bly Jewish. They are marked also with splashes of clay, and their whole appearance indicates the most servile degradation. Three of the laboring figures, however, seem to be Egyptians, and of equal degradation with their companions. It is not surprising that this remarkable picture should have attracted much attention among the students of Egyp- tian antiquity. Heeren remarks of it, “ If this painting repre- sents the servitude of the children of Israel in these labors, it is equally important for exegesis and chronology. For exegesis, because it would be a strong proof of the antiquity of the Mosaic writings, and especially of the book of Exodus, which, in the first and fifth chapters, gives a description which applies most ac- curately to this painting, even in unimportant particulars. For chronology, since it belongs to the eighteenth dynasty, under the dominion of Thothmes Moeris, about 1740 b. c., and therefore would give a fixed point both for profane and sacred history.” Indeed, the striking character of this painting seems to have caused an intimation, if not a positive expression, of doubt as to its genuineness. The question has been asked, “ Is it not probably a supposititious work, prepared after the Pentateuch was written ?’ Rosellini first gave it to the world ; afterward. 184 EGYPT AND ITS MONUMENTS. Sir Gardner Wilkinson made a new examination of it on the spot, and his acknowledged sound judgment deliberately de- cided in its favor, as being a genuine production of the eight- eenth dynasty. His judgment, it will be seen, is entitled to the more weight when we add, that he is not prepared to say the picture refers to the work of the Israelites in their bondage ; but rather questions it ; remarking, however, “ it is curious to discover other foreign captives, occupied in the same manner, overlooked by similar ‘ taskmasters,’ and performing the very same labors as the Israelites described in the Bible ; and no one can look at the paintings of Thebes representing brick- makers, without a feeling of the highest interest.” We will now state the grounds on which the application of the picture, to the story of the Hebrews, has been questioned. First. How came this picture at Thehes, in the tomb of Roschere ? Rosellini answers thus : Roschere was a high court officer of the king ; that the tomb was his, is plainly proved, indeed it is not questioned, and it was built in the time of Thothmes IV., the fifth king of the eighteenth dynasty. Roschere was the overseer of the public buildings ; and had, consequently, charge of all the works undertaken by the king. In the tomb are found other objects of a like nature, two colos- sal statues, a sphinx, and the laborers who hewed the stone- works, which he, by virtue of his office, had caused to be made in his lifetime. All this, it is believed, is conceded as being true. Secondly. How came the Israelites to be represented as laboring at Thebes 7 This, as it seems to us, is Sir Gardner Wilkinson’s greatest objection. The scene of the labor represented is in his view undeniably at Thebes, for the lower hieroglyphics state that the bricks are made for a “ build- THE BONDAGE. 185 ing at Thebes.” It is with great diffidence we venture to entertain an opinion on this subject, different from Wilkinson’s. Yet here, we must confess that the objection does not seem conclusive. It is true that the Israelites, during their bondage, occupied their ancient home (so far as the men were allowed to enjoy a home) in Goshen, which was far distant from Thebes : but we know of nothing either in Scripture or else- where, which confined their labors to Goshen. On the con- trary, when they were ordered in this very business of brick- making, to find straw for themselves, we are constrained to believe that they were at work for the royal monopolist and brick merchant, in almost all parts of Egypt ; for in Exodus V. 12, we read, “ so the people were scattered abroad through- out all the land of Egypt to gather stubble instead of straw.” This certainly does not convey the idea that they were making bricks in Goshen only. Beside, according to Rosellini, the inscription does not so plainly declare that these bricks in the picture were made for a “ building at Thebes ;” and if they were, as Egypt formed then but one kingdom, and as there is reason from other testimony to believe that the usage in working the Israelites was to send them out in gangs, or classes, under overseers for a considerable time, making these classes suc- cessively relieve each other, we cannot see any objection to the opinion that they may have been sent as far as Thebes for the sake of their work : certain it is that no considerations of humanity, or of the convenience of these poor bondmen, would have prevented it. Beside, it is not unlikely that they were sent out of Goshen for agricultural purposes, inasmuch as we read they were employed “in all manner of service in the field ;” and their numbers had so much increased at this 186 EGYPT AND ITS MONUMENTS. time, that the tillage of Goshen alone could not possibly have required the labor of all: why then might they not have been sent out of Goshen to make bricks also? The other inscription, too, it must not be forgotten, expressly describes them as “ captives brought by his majesty to build,” &c. It certainly was for the interest of their Egyptian oppressors, who alleged their number as a reasonable ground of appre- hension to scatter them in small bodies over all Egypt, as much as possible. At this day, that degraded caste, the Fellahs, are gathered in troops from the remotest provinces of Egypt to execute any great public work. Thirdly. It is objected, that all these laborers have not beards. Certainly, however, beard is to be found on some, and we think its absence on others is easily explained, on the ground that they were probably a degraded class of Egyp- tians. How they came to be mingled with Israelites in servile work we think we can show beyond question, when we come to speak of that “ great rabble,” who accompanied the Hebrews at the exode. Another objection remains to be considered. There are those who, while they readily admit that the picture repre- sents Jews servilely employed in making brick, yet doubt whether the painting was designed to delineate the par- ticular act of servitude specified in the Scriptural history of the bondage. The ground of their doubt is this ; that from the general absence on the monuments of every thing that could reflect on the Egyptian national character, there is reason to believe that mortified pride, after the triumphant exode of the Israelites, caused the Egyptians studiously to obliterate every sculpture which could recall the fact that such a race as Israel ever was oppressed in Egypt, and sig- THE BONDAGE. 187 nally redeemed from that oppression by their God. Con- sequently it is thought this history of a part of that oppression would not have been permitted to remain. To this objection there are, as it seems to us, two satisfac- tory answers. Conceding that monuments which could recall the mortifying history of the virtual triumph of Israel in the exode were destroyed, the destruction was of public monu- ments. No sculptured story or painting of the acts of any Egyptian kmg would be left to perpetuate the record of shame. The mutilations that have been found thus far are on public national memorials. The cartouch of a monarch, for instance, is obliterated, when the remembrance of him wotdd reflect no credit on Egypt : but private tombs were not mutilated in this mode. Roschere’s tomb was no public memorial ; its representation of Jews making brick was doubt- less founded on fact, but was introduced incidentally merely to testify to his own importance as overseer of public works. Strictly private, it was not disturbed. But another and conclusive answer to our minds is this. It is conceded that these are Jews working, that they are greatly degraded, and are making brick. Now the represen- tation must have been founded on facts. We ask, then, at what period except during the oppressive tyranny of the bondage, does our historical knowledge of the connection between the Jews and Egyptians aflbrd the slightest intima- tion or probability that they were likely to be thus degraded and employed ? Certainly not before the king “ who knew not Joseph for the Jews then were in favor with the ruling powers : — certainly not afterward, until the lapse of a period long posterior to this, when Shishak conquered Reho- boam. There was then, if these be representations of Jews at 188 EGYPT AND ITS MONUMENTS. all, no period but that of the bondage to which the picture could apply. On the whole, the result of the best examina- tion we have been able to bestow on the subject, tends to pro- duce a belief that Rosellini is correct in his application of the picture to the Jews in bondage ; and if we err, we are happy in being able to say that we do it in company with such men as Rosellini, Hengstenberg, Osborn, and Kitto. Moses loas committed to an “ ark of bulrushes, daubed with slime and pitch'' Nothing is easier than to object, on the part of those who conclude that the habits and customs of all times, and of all people, must of necessity have been precisely similar to those with which only they are familiar. They have never seen a boat of bulrushes, and therefore there never was one. Just such a boat as is here described is to this day built and used in Abyssinia ; and the locality is worthy of note, because Isaiah (xviii. 2) refers to Ethiopia as sending “ vessels of bul- rushes upon the waters.” Such objectors would probably deny the former existence of the wicker coracles of the ancient Britons. The original word, translated bulrushes, is gome. It is found in three other places in Scripture. From Job viii. 1], and Isaiah xxxv. 7, compared with Isaiah xviii. 2, we gather that it was a plant growing in moist situations, and used for the construction of boats. From Theophrastus, we learn that the plant used for this purpose on the Nile was the Cyperus Papyrus, though Wilkinson thinks it was the Cyperus Dives ; the learned have, therefore, long concurred in the opinion that the cyperus, in some form, was the plant gome. It is not, strictly speaking, a rush, as our translation would THE BONDAGE. 189 imply, but one of the family of sedges. The root is about the thickness of a full-sized man’s wrist, and more than fifteen feet long, and so hard that all kinds of utensils were made of it. The stem is about six feet long, surmounted by a cluster of little spikes, which are weak, and hang down like a plume, and are applied to no useful purpose. The stem, however, was eaten raw, roasted or boiled, and furnished materials for boats, sails, mats, clothes, beds, and books. Paper was made of it before the time of Alexander the Great, as some of the papyri found at Thebes and elsewhere show. Herodotus and Pliny, both inform us that boats were made of it. In Egypt, and in Egypt only, was this plant applied to the many useful purposes we have enumerated ; and as far as we can learn, it was not used for vessels out of Egypt, except, and that possibly at a later day, in Ethiopia. With Ethiopia, the history of the Israelites had no connection. It is, therefore, evidence of the author’s acquaintance with Egypt at a very early period, that he constructs this boat for Moses, of the papyrus. The slime here mentioned, may have been asphaltum or mineral pitch ; for from various sources, we know the ancient Egyptians had bitumen ; but as this slime was mingled with ■pitch (vegetable rosins), we suppose it may have been simply the mud or slime of the Nile which, to this day, possesses peculiarly adhesive properties. A modern writer tells us, that this slime is wonderfully tenacious ; and when dry, adheres like pitch : hence, with a little straw or stubble, it needed but to be sun-dried to make bricks, which even yet remain. The natives now, when they are to descend the stream with a heavy cargo, build a wall of this mud on the gunwales or sides of their boats ; and permitting it to dry, are not afraid 190 EGYPT AND ITS MONUMENTS. to load the vessel until the water rises above the wood-work of the boat. The slime will bear the washing of the stream, when the boat is floating in mid-channel down the river. If, however, contrary winds cause rough water, accidents some- times happen from the washing away of the slime, and the boat founders. This slime, mixed with pitch and sufiered to become hard, would therefore have made a perfectly water- tight lining for the bulrush-boat of Moses. CHAPTER VIII. THE DELIVERANCE. And now in the good providence of God, the time had come for the deliverance of this down-trodden and abused race of Hebrews. Moses appears as the agent of Heaven to commence the work. In obedience to God’s command, he demands of Pharaoh : “ Let my people go, that they may hold a feast unto me in the wilderness.” “Let us go, we pray thee, three days’ journey into the desert, and sacrifice unto the Lord our God.” To this Pharaoh refuses his assent, and imposes on them additional burdens ; taking from them the straw with which they had heretofore been furnished in the manufacture of brick, and compelling them to gather stubble for the purpose. The agricultural scenes from the monuments show, that the usage among the Egyptians was to cut the grain some distance above the ground ; and to this day, old sun-dried bricks, compacted with stubble instead of straw, are found not only in Egypt, but in Babylonia. Upon the second application of Moses and Aaron, Pharaoh demands of them some miracle in proof of their commission. Such proof was not wanting : and here, before entering upon the consideration of it, a few preliminary remarks may be of service. It has been observed of all the unusual incidents 192 EGYPT AND ITS MONUMENTS. preceding the exodus, that they find a foundation in the natural phenomena of Egypt, and stand in close connection with ordinary occurrences ; and this has been urged as an argument against the truth of the story. To give force to this objection, it is necessary to establish the fact, that the performance of no act, which, under any circumstances might have occurred of itself, in the natural course of events, can possibly be miraculous. But this proposition is very far from being true. Take, for instance, hail and locusts ; it will not follow that, because both these exist in nature, they therefore never can appear under circumstances which will prove them to be miraculous. Grant them to be common manifestations in nature, still, when they, with many other events that might happen in nature occur in rapid succession and with great intensity, out of their usual order of occurrence ; when they do so in a particularly specified region of country, and at a particular time, on the bidding of some individual ; when at the same bidding they cease, and in some instances cease at a precise time previously designated by the person who is affected by them, and earnestly requests their withdrawal ; it is idle under such circumstances to view them as mere natural phenomena, presenting themselves in their ordinary occurrence. There is something preternatural here ; and the distinction must be taken between the occurrence itself, and the very unnatural and extraordinary combination of cir- cumstances under which it occurs. Hail may be very natural, and yet the attendant circumstances of its appearance may prove its presence at a particular time and place, its duration and cessation, all to be supernatural. There is, therefore, no difficulty in understanding how a natural phenomenon may be converted into miraculous proof. THE DELIVERANCE. 193 Further, in reference particularly to the plagues sent on Egypt, which merit our consideration, we should remark the fitness of the character of the miracles performed to the end proposed. A succession of strange and unprecedented terrors, brought suddenly and in rapid succession on Egypt, would not have served as well as the plagues did to accomplish the great end in view ; which was, as we are told, to show that Jehovah was “the Lord in the midst of the earth” or land. These terrors would have ordy proved that, for the moment, Jehovah possessed a terrific power : but idolatry was much more likely to find a lasting reproof and condemnation, when many events with which the Egyptians were familiar (for some of them were of annual recurrence) were seen succeed- ing each other, out of place ; showing that the Jehovah of Israel was indeed “ God in the midst of the land^^ ordering and altering, as he pleased, events with which they were well enough acquainted in their ordinary mode of occurrence. There was, therefore, here a special reason for a class of miracles, uniting the supernatural with the natural. And to this it may be added, that in the Scriptures generally, while there are miracles entirely separated from all union with natu- ral events, (such are most, if not all, of those by the Saviour,) yet there is a large class in which the supernatural is blended with the natural. Such blending does not destroy the mira- cle, or impugn its testimony to truth. We now proceed to the Scripture story. It will be remembered that certain signs, not hurtful in their effects, precede the plagues, properly so called. The first of these is, The change of Moses'' rod to a serpent. Before entering on a consideration of the fact here men- 13 194 EGYPT AND ITS MONUMENTS. tioned, it may be remarked, that we find the rod to be the inseparable companion of Moses. This was not accidental, lor it was an Egyptian custom. On the monuments, the Egyptian nobles are almost always seen with the rod when they are without the house. It is a staff from three to six feet long. Some of them have been found among the ruins, and are preserved in modern museums. One of them, thus pre- served, is of cherry wood. Generally, it would seem, the acacia was preferred. The priests also, and other persons of rank, are often represented as walking with sticks. One of the most curious subjects of inquiry connected with natural science, is the power possessed by man over the ser- pent race, both in ancient and modern times, and especially in Egypt. Indeed, the accounts are such as to startle credulity ; and yet, so strong is the testimony on which they rest, that incredulity becomes unreasonable, and betrays the vulgarity of a mind that fancies independence in the rejection of every thing that is very strange, (no matter what the testimony,) unless its existence has been verified by personal experience or observation. Some of the testimony we have on this subject does not come from a class of men, likely to betray any undue anxiety to sustain the truth of the Pentateuch. The men of science who went from France, and furnished the ‘^^Description de VEgypte^^ all agree in their accounts. Some, who candidly acknowledge that they entered on their examination of the subject with utter unbelief, were forced to acknowledge that there was in it something more than their philosophy could fathom. “We confess,” (thus write some,) “that we, far removed from all easy credulity, have ourselves been wit- nesses of some things so wonderful, that we cannot consider THE DELIVERANCE. 195 the art of the serpent tamers as entirely chimerical. We believed, at first, that they removed the teeth of serpents and the stings of scorpions ; but we have had opportunity to con- vince ourselves of the contrary.” “ I am convinced,” (says duatremere,) “ that there was a certain number of men, found among the Psylli of antiquity, who, by certain secret prepara- tions, put themselves in a condition not to fear the bite of serpents, and to handle the most poisonous of them, uninjured.” “ In Egypt and the neighboring countries,” (says the same author,) “ there are men and women who truly deserve the name of Psylli, and who, uninjured, handle the cerastes and other serpents, whose poison produces immediate death.” Hasselquist says that they do not extract their teeth. The Psylli are formed into an association, and the art is transmitted from father to son. In Egypt, serpents not unfre- quently conceal themselves in houses, and thus become very dangerous. A part of the business of the Psylli is to dislodge the unwelcome intruder. The French commander-in-chief, on one occasion, resolved to test the powers of the Psylli. Traces led to the suspicion that a serpent had found its way into the palace he occupied. The Psylli were summoned. They examined closely all moist places, and there imitated the hissing, first of the male, then of the female serpent. After a little more than two hours, they lured him out. In their religious festivals they present probably the most frightful exhibition : they then appear entirely naked, with the neck, arms, and other parts of the body, actually coiled around by serpents, wliich they permit to bite and tear their chests and stomachs, while they themselves, in a sort of wild frenzy, having their features contorted to an expression of insanity, with foam falling from the mouth, bite the serpents 196 EGYPT AND ITS MONUMENTS. in return. In fact, some modern travellers state that they have seen them actually eat their heads. Not the least singular part of their strange calling is their sleight of hand. They will change the Haje, the species of serpent which they use for this trick, into a seeming rod, and compel it to feign the rigidity of death. To perform this, they spit in its throat, compel it to shut its mouth, and lay it down upon the ground. Then, they lay their hand on its head, and immediately the serpent, stiff and motionless, falls into a kind of torpor. When they wish, they rouse it by seizing it by the tail and roughly rubbing it between their hands. To this Du Bois Ay me, one of the French school, bears witness. Of this same species, which is often to be seen sculptured on the monuments, and which is the undoubted cneph or aga- thodoemon of the ancient Egyptians, Colonel Smith informs us that it inflates the skin of the neck into an intumefaction of that part ; and the Psylli or serpent charmers, by a particu- lar pressure on the neck, can render the inflation of the animal so intense that the serpent becomes rigid, and can be held out horizontally as if it were a staff. We may, therefore, he thinks, “ infer that the magicians of Pharaoh used a real ser- pent for a rod — namely this species, now called Naja Haje, for their imposture ; since they, no doubt, did what the present serpent charmers perform with the same species by means of a temporary asphyxiation or suspension of vitality ; and pro- ducing restoration to active life, by liberating or throwing down.” This statement affords us, at least, evidence of re- markable facts connected with the serpent tamers of both ancient and modern Egypt, sufficient to show that the story we have in the Pentateuch is in harmony with an existing state of things in the time of Moses. Jannes and Jambres, who, as THE DELIVERANCE. 197 we elsewhere learn from Jewish traditions, are supposed to be those who, on this occasion, withstood Moses, may have been but expert jugglers : but it is of very little importance to inquire by which of their many tricks they accomplished their seeming miracle. The real miracle consists in this, that Moses’ rod was truly changed into a serpent, and then devoured theirs. The object was to show the power of the true God, and whatever seeming imitations the magicians might furnish, it is remarkable that in the three first signs Moses gave of his mission, that power was proved. Thus here Moses’ rod swal- lows up theirs ; they also seemingly changed, on a limited scale, water into blood, but they cannot do, as Moses does, convert it again into water ; so, too, they brought up frogs on the land, but they could not, like Moses, free the land from them. It is also to be noted that the author of the Pentateuch does not pretend to speak with certainty on the origin or nature of the acts performed by the magicians. He commits himself to no opinion by calling them either jugglery, or mira- cles performed by God’s permission under satanic influences ; but contents himself with a simple statement of the facts, without entering into an explanation of them. The only issue, therefore, that is here made, is as to the fact itself. Those who deny it are bound to produce some proof, not that it was unusual merely, but that it was actually impossible. We have shown that in Egypt, something, very similar to it at least, might have seemingly been done by these magicians ; and that, in the absence of all proof to the contrary, is quite sufficient to show that Egypt, in this particular, has revealed nothing to contradict the Bible. For ourselves, we are free to admit that, while we look on all the plagues of Egypt as mira- culous displays of Divine power, we hope to show that so far 198 EGYPT AND ITS MONUMENTS. as natural phenomena are involved in them, nothing that we know of that ancient land, will be found, but what harmonizes with the Scripture narration. The first Plague — the change of Water into Blood. The change here indicated, it is supposed, and that not without sufficient reason, (gathered from other and analogous passages,) does not imply any thing more than a change to a blood-red color. It is a very common form of Hebrew speech to express similarity by identity. Those who are anxious to find an explanation of the plagues of Egypt, in mere natural and ordinary events of that country, are peculiarly unfortunate with this one. 1. It is said, and truly, that the waters of the Nile during one period of their increase become of a brownish red color, owing probably to the earth washed down from Abyssinia, and that the discoloration here spoken of arises from that cause. The first and most obvious answer to this is ; that, on this supposition, it is not easy to understand why the Egyp- tians should have been either surprised or intimidated by so familiar an occurrence. But further : a part of the phenomenon, according to the Bible, is thus recorded : “ The river shall stink, and the Egyptians shall loathe to drink of the water of the river.” It could not then have been the ordinary discoloration of a common overflow ; for, in such case, the water does not cease to be drinkable. “ During the continuance of my journey,” (says Sonnini,) “ I, with my companions, had no other drink than the unmingled water of the Nile. We drank it without any one of us experiencing inconvenience, at all seasons of the year, even when the inundation so fills it with slime that THE DELIVERANCE. 199 it is thick and reddish, and appears truly loathsome.” The fact would appear, from the accounts of travellers, to be, that, so far from its red color making it unwholesome, it is rather a sign that it is fit for use : for it is preceded by a greenish dis- coloration, during which it is so corrupt, tasteless, and un- wholesome, that the natives confine themselves to the water which they have preserved in cisterns. But, thirdly, this could not have been the discoloration of the usual overflow, from a consideration of the time of the occurrence. It is true, as Dr. Hales has remarked, that the season of the year is not distinctly specified ; and yet there are abundant data from which it may be ascertained with certainty. We read that at the time of these plagues, and particularly of tliat of hail, which followed the one we are considering, “ the flax and the barley was smitten, for the barley was in the ear, and the flax was boiled ; hut the wheat and the rice were not smitten ; for they were not grown up.” Now these statements enable us to fix the season of the year. Flax in Egypt ripens in March, when the plants are gathered ; it must therefore have been “boiled,” or risen in stalk in February. Barley is gathered in Egypt, according to all the accounts, one month before the wheat. The wheat harvest in Upper Egypt is in April, and in Lower Egypt in May : barley, therefore, would have been in ear in February. The season, therefore, must have been about February, when the plague of hail happened ; certainly not later than that month. The change from water to blood was before the hail— probably in January ; but the discoloration of the river, from the natural overflow, does not take place until months after February, and the commencement of the rise is punctual almost to a day. The only ground, therefore, on which this 200 EGYPT AND ITS MONUMENTS. can be considered the annual, natural discoloration of the river is, that the river must have risen months before its time ; and we do not see that this anticipatory rise at the command of Moses, which is the solution of Michaelis, would have been any less miraculous than the discoloration of the water. But there is another fact stated that is conclusive. The fish died. Of such an eftect as this, produced by the annual rise of the river, there is not an instance on record. Another feature, which stamps the event as no mere natural result of well-known ordinary causes, is this, that the waters are changed suddenly, not gradually, as in a rise ; and, further, that the change was according to the prediction of Moses, and at the precise moment when he lifted his rod. There are also some matters of seemingly minor importance connected with this plague, which are yet testimony much too strong to be overlooked. Every man, familiar with the business of ex- amining evidence, knows full well that sometimes the great work of eviscerating truth is accomplished by closely marking the incidental statements of a witness, having seemingly little or no connection with the principal subject. Such remarks often betray a prepared story, of which all the little minor details that ought to belong to it, if true, have not been duly studied beforehand : and so also they often show an un- studied consistency in every minute particular, because the witness is simply telling the truth, with no further or other preparation than that of drawing on his memory for facts. Now, here are some particulars in the writer of our history of precisely this description. They are brought forward with no parade, accompanied with no labored explanation to show their consistency with the chief features of the story, but mentioned casually, as if by a man who took it for granted THE DELIVERANCE. 201 that all who heard him knew as well as he did the manners and customs of the country of which he was speaking. Thus he tells us that God commanded Moses to stretch out his rod “ that there may be blood throughout all the land of Egypt, both in vessels of wood and in vessels of stoneP Now in these latter words there is evident particularity ; they are not necessary to impress us with either the extent or reality of the miracle ; and except from a man perfectly familiar with the customs of Egypt, we should probably not have had them without explanation. The waters of the Nile are fre- quently purified for drinking in vessels both of wood and stone. As on the Mississippi river, at this day, they are placed in vessels, and crushed almonds are dropped in, to cause a speedy precipitation of the sediment. They are also filtered through porous stone. The point here to which we would attach importance is not, however, so much the coinci- dence of Egyptian usages with the language used, as it is the perfectly natural and unpremeditated manner in wliich the allusion is made. The author supposes that a mere hint is enough, without pausing to reflect whether all his readers are as familiar as he is with the peculiarities of Egypt. And by the way, we must not omit to remark, that the change in the domestic vessels of the Egyptians containing imrified water was certainly not produced by the red earth of the river, and consequently here, at least, is a miracle. All the German school are careful to overlook this part of the story. Again : Moses is commanded to stretch out his hand “upon the waters of Egypt, upon their streams, and upon their rivers, [as we translate it, but as we should read it, and as the Septuagint does, canals, ~\ and upon their ponds, and upon all their pools, [or, as in the margin, gatherings of their 202 EGYPT AJMD ITS MONUMENTS. waters.] Why this elaborate classification of the waters of Egypt ? Because of its conformity to the truth, which feared not to classify, because it feared no detection of falsehood. The streams (says Faber) are the arms of the Nile, the canals the artificial ditches for irrigation, the ponds are the stagnant bodies of water which the Nile makes, and which are called in Egypt birkeh, and the pools or gatherings of their waters are the waters left behind by the Nile on its subsidence, the lakes and puddles, from which the peasants at a distance from the river get their water. Further : the instructions given to Moses were, “ Get thee unto Pharaoh in the morning ; lo, he goeth out unto the water ; and thou shalt stand by the river’s brink against he come,” &c. And again ; “ Rise up early in the morning, and stand before Pharaoh ; lo, he cometh forth to the water,” -., li*.Hh ,4^#’ ^ - -V »•-•»' rn* ^ V-4T*--'' . m\ H t M#fi|»iii!ili -■-•-If 40imm •*■- " f": ■ . >♦ . > .; I ». »'.t** »HBiihfy'J i. # «ii^ V . w^t,i| «itir *j^>i-^' -,* ^,-tt^'/i,T«j(li Mplllllv- » .'I'n- '*»’ •*t 4l|| ■* g©(‘-'^iir«.l'Sri»-*,,fl2^ gin*4.«H»‘ * »• -;* ■ ntt ■ V Ar;l5v-'|rf • ■'""" jT ■'«'^‘'Mjr* **mr *S ■ "*> *if 1^ <^L Witr ^ -i ^.. ,.-i5 #'YV» <• '"i' -iv -■»«*- ^ -^,3wr ; 4|M|I>' .‘ y4 M> ,. ^ •*'s^ ^ ■ ' * y’-*m ?-*#VfS^' -'ir » ’•ME MONUMENTAL CONFIRMATIONS. 247 took all and, in short, reduced the kingdom to the condition of a conquered province. This Shishak is the Pharaoh Sesonchis of Manetho, and was the head of the twenty-second dynasty of kings, which originated at Bubastis, a very ancient city of Lower Egypt. It so happened (and it is a striking instance of the remarkable faculty possessed by Champollion le Jeune in prompt de- ciphering) that before the mixed commission of French and Italians that visited Egypt in 1828, Champollion, without then having ever seen Egypt, detected the cartouche of this Pharaoh in some of the engraved representations of Europe, and read it, “ Beloved of Amon, Sheshonk.” It was four years afterward before Champollion saw Egypt, “during which interval” (says Mr. Gliddon) “ the name of Sheshonk and his captive nations had been examined times without number by other hieroglyphists, and the names of all the prisoners had been copied by them and published, without any one of them having noticed the extraordinary biblical corroboration thence to be deduced.” On his passage up the Nile, Cham- pollion landed for an hour or two, about sunset, to snatch a hasty view of the ruins of Karnac ; and on entering one of the halts, he found a picture representing a triumph, in which he instantly pointed out in the third line of a row of sixty- three prisoners, (each indicating a city, nation, or tribe,) presented by Sheshonk to Amun-ra, the figure on the opposite page, and translated it, Judah melek kah, “ king of the country of Judah.” The picture had been executed by order of Shishak, or Sheshonk, so that here was found the sculptured record of the invasion and conquest recorded in the “ Chronicles.” On the same picture were shields, containing in hieroglyphics the 248 EGYPT AND ITS MONUMENTS. names Beth-horon, Megiddo, Mahanaim, and some others, all towns through which Shishak passed on his invasion of Judea. Champollion supposed that the figure of the captive was Rehoboam himself. We know not that this is so ; some have doubted it, nor is it of any moment historically, because the cartouche equally represents the conquest of Judea by Shishak, whether the picture be that of the king, or one of his captive princes or subjects. In other parts of the picture, the conquest of other places is represented without the introduction of the portrait of the subjugated monarch. It is worthy of notice, while on this subject, that in the museum of Dr. Abbot in Cairo, there is a rusty helmet and chain that were found at Thebes, and on some of the links of the latter may just be distinguished the same cartouche of Shishak that is represented in the painting. But of the numerous captives that were once represented on that picture, why is it that now, but three remain ? for such, we believe, is the fact. Those who defaced or removed some of them are known. They are Europeans, and profess to be scholars seeking for the truth. Is the suspicion well-founded that the mutilation is the work of those who deem it more honorable to be deemed scientific neologists, than it is to sus- tain Scriptural truth ? We would fain hope that the destruc- tion may have been accidental. Fortunately for truth, many copies of the picture had been made before its mutilation. It is the more to be lamented that this picture has been defaced, because the sculptured memorials of the Jews in Egypt, as we have already intimated, were not likely to be very common. The Egyptians could not but be humbled by that portion of their history which connected them with the MONUMENTAL CONFIRMATIONS. 249 Hebrews ; they never, as we have stated, perpetuated their own shame in sculpture. Accident preserved a part of that history in the tomb of Roschere, as we have seen : it is, there- fore, the more to be regretted that this picture has been defaced. The remaining direct testimony is but scanty. Pharaoh Necho and Pharaoh Hophra, both mentioned in Scripture, are proved to be real personages, as their cartouches are found on the monuments. The same may be said of Tirhakah, king of Ethiopia, mentioned in 2 Kings, xix. 9. Indeed, so far as mere names are evidence, there is no want of them, both of places and persons. Osborn, in his Onomas- ticon, furnishes a long list. Thus no less than eighty-four Canaanitish names, mentioned in Scripture, occur at Aboo-sim- bal, Thebes, &c., written in the hieroglyphics. The mere re- petition of these would, of course, afford to the general reader, little of interest or satisfaction. And now, in conclusion, we would repeat a thought that was suggested in the commencement of our work. It is this : that the truth of the Bible is not dependent, in any degree, on our being able to produce evidence for its support from the monuments of Egypt. If that country had not a monument within it, it would not affect the genuineness and authenticity of the Old Testament. That it has such monuments, and that in modern times God in his providence has permitted us to see, that in many particulars they do illustrate and confirm our sacred writings, is cause for thankfulness ; but such confir- mation, it must be remembered, when found is purely inci- dental, and cannot, therefore, be expected to present to us a con- tinued story of events, which would constitute in fact but ano- ther complete history of what is already written in the Bible. It has been too much the fashion of a certain class of men. 250 EGYPT AND ITS MONUMENTS. infidel in principle, but claiming (and in some instances justly) to be scientific, dexterously to insinuate, rather than positively to assert, that Egypt was making to them wondrous revelations at the expense of the truth of Scripture. The characters and claims of these men have, perhaps, with a class, given weight to their insinuations, when there was neither the ability nor the means to test their boasted science, or sift their artful insinua- tions. It was for this class principally that the present writer assumed the pen. Purposely avoiding all perplexing ques- tions of mere science, it occurred to him that it might be use- ful to plain Christians of honest hearts and common sense, if from the labors of men as good and as learned as the self- styled scientific, there should be gathered into one body and plainly presented, evidence from Egypt, intelligible to ordinary faculties, tending to show that the Bible found there some sup- port at least ; and that unhesitatingly to reject it, on the ground of any supposed discoveries yet made there, indicated a disease of the heart quite as much as a fault of the head. If in this, his unambitious effort, he shall prove so far suc- cessful, as to quiet the apprehensions or confirm the faith of any fellow-Christian. however humble, he will be more than repaid for his labor. FINIS. INDEX Abdollatiph, an Arabian writer, quoted, 150. Abomination of the Egyptians, what was the, 109, 118, 162, 204. Aboo-simbul, the temple of, 71, 85. Abraham, particulars concerning him, 93, 122 , 162 . Abydus, the tablet of, 23. Akerblad’s solution of the Rosetta Stone inscription, 36. Alexandria, the city of, 146. Alphabet, the ancient Egyptian, its en- igmatical character, 55, 58. Amenophis, 115. America, the name in Egyptian phone- tics, 61. Araosis, his expulsion of the shepherd kings, 115. Amosis was the “ king that knew not Joseph,” 175. Animals, the sacred ones of Egypt, 110, 205. Antoninus, his name upon the zodiac of Esneh, 49. Aphophis and Assis, two shepherd kings of Egypt, 114. Apis, the sacred bull of E^pt, 205, 227. Arabia, her intercourse with Egypt, 125. Arable land, good in Goshen, 167. Archaeology, Egyptian study of, 19. Aridity of the Egyptian atmosphere, 70, 96. Ark of bulrushes, 188. Army of Egypt, 218. Arts, the, applied only to the useful, 78, 79. Arts of design plentifully found on Egyp- tian tombs, 77. Asenath, Joseph’s wife, 144. Asphaltum or mineral pitch, used upon the ark of bulrushes, 189. Asses, shown by monumental inscrip- tions, to have been in Egypt, 121. Astronomy, early taught in Egypt, 20. Atmosphere in Egypt, state of, 70, 96. Augustus Caesar, his title found upon the zodiac of Dendera, 49. Authenticity of the books of Moses, es- tablished, 242. Baker, the office of, at Pharaoh’s court, 131. Baking, well understood by the Egyp- tians, 223. Bankes, Mr., deciphers the Philae obelisk inscription, 45. Barley in Egypt, when gathered, 199, 209. Bas-reliefs always accompanied by hie- roglyphic inscriptions, 75. Beard, the, not regarded by the Egyp- tians, 133, 160, 172. Beni-Hassan, fine grottoes and curious paintings to be found there, 82. Bethshemesh, the city of, 80, 145, 161. Bible, evidence for, 19 ; its authority on early history, 23 ; why corroborative testimony to its truth so much sought for, 87, 88 ; its own testimony valuable, 89, 90 ; testimony to its truth afforded by the ancient records of Egypt, 117; and by recent discoveries, 239, 244 ; its truth not dependent on evidence found by scientific researches. 249. Blood, water changed into, the plague of, 201. 252 INDEX. Boils, the plague of, 208. Bondage of the Israelites in Egypt, 174. Bonomi, his residence among the tombs, 83. “ Book of the Dead,” an old literary work of the Pharaonic times, 20. Books early possessed by the Egyptians, 19,20; deposited in the tombs to ac- company the dead, 77. BowTing, Dr. quoted, 141. Bracelets worn, 230. Breastplate, the, described, 236. Bricks, manner in which they were made, 180 ; made of stubble, still to be found in Egypt, 191. Bruce, letter of, on the passage of the Red Sea, 219. Bulrushes, description of the plant so called, 188 ; boats of, used at the pre- sent day in Abyssinia, 188. Butler, the office of, at Pharaoh’s court, 131. Caillaud, a French traveller in Egypt, 41. Calf, golden, worshipped by the Israelites, 227. Cambyses mentioned, 146. Camel shown to have existed in Egypt, 121 . Canaan, the land of, at an early period in close relationship with Egypt, 92 ; subject to greater dearth than Egypt, 103. Candlestick, the golden, 231. Cats considered sacred, 205 ; anecdote concerning them related by Diodorus, 205. Ceremonies of the Hebrew Ritual, 233. Champollion, his discoveries in Egypt, 20, 39, 40, 63, 64, 247. Chamsin, the, a peculiar and often fatal wind, 211, 213, 216. Chronology of the Bible in connection with the monuments of Egypt, 48, 49, 88, 239. Chronology of Egypt, little to interest, and much to be doubtful of, 22. Cleanliness, the Egyptians scrupulously addicted to, 203. Clement of Alexandria, quoted, 20, 50, 66, 134. Climate of Egypt, the, 68, 70, 96. Cloth manufactured by the Egyptians in the early ages, 232. Coffins never much used in Egypt, 173. Commercial intercourse with Canaan and Arabia, 92, 125. Copts, the, and Coptic language proved the original of Egypt, 29 ; Coptic al- phabet, the, used in translations from the hieroglyphics, 58. Crocodile, the word phonetically written, 57. Crocodile, the, worshipped in Egypt, 205. Dancing, customary in Egypt, 221, 228. Darkness, the plague of, 213. Dead, great respect shown to the, 75. Deliverance, the, of the Israelites, 191. Delta, the, of the Nile, 97, 99. Demotic writing explained, 35, 67. Dendera, the temple of, 48, 83. Denon, quoted, 211, 213. De Sacy, his attempt to decipher the Rosetta stone inscription, 36. “ Description de I’Egypt,” the, a work of great importance, 30, 33. Despotism, the characteristic of Oriental governments, 137. Determinatives used extensively on the monuments, 62 ; explained, 63. Devices and inscriptions in Egypt, 26. Diodorus Siculus, quoted, 24, 26, 172, 205. Discoveries, Egyptian, tend to confirm, and not destroy the Bible truth, 239- 244. Dough, unleavened, 223. Drawing, the Egyptians not proficients in the art of, SO. Dreams, the butler’s and baker’s ex- plained by Joseph, 131 ; Pharaoh’s in- terpreted by Joseph, 131 ; remarks concerning them, 134. Dress, Oriental, observations on, 141, 233. Eating with strangers, not customary in Egypt, 153; the Oriental manner of, 155. Edfou, temple of, 85. Egypt, interest excited by, 1 7 ; ancient division of, 91 ; her condition at the time of Abraham, 94 ; her testimony as regards the sacred history, 18, 19, 239, 240, 244. Egyptologists, the school of, 26 ; their opinions on the Egyptian clnonology, 94. INDEX. 253 Embalming the dead, great attention paid to, 75, 170, 173. Embroidery familiar to the Eg)’ptians, 232. Enchorial writing explained, 17, 67. Ephod, the, described, 236. Eratosthenes, an abbreviator of Manetho, 22 . Esneh, the temple of, 48, 84. Eudoxus, allusion to, 146. Eunuchs in Egypt, 127. Eusebius, quoted, 22. Every-day life in ancient Egypt, our knowledge of, increased, 78. Exode of the Children of Israel, 216. Famine in Egypt and Canaan, 150. Fellahs, the, a degraded caste in Egypt, 186 ; accompany the Israelites in their exode, 216. Fertility of the land of Egypt, 103. First-born, death of the, 215. Flax, the period when it ripens, 199,209. Flies, the plague of, 203. Fogs, extremely rare in Egypt, 213. Food, want of, experienced by the Israel- ites, 223. Frogs, the plague of, 202. Garments, Oriental and Egyptian, 141, 233. Geology and the Bible, 89, 239. Gerf Hossain, ruins of, 85. Ghizeh, pyramids of, described, 81. Girgeh, the acacia groves of, 82. Gnats, or lice, the plague of, 203. Golden chain, a mark of honor, 141. Golden calf, the, set up by the Israelites, 225. Goshen, the land of, given to Jacob and his family, 161 ; where situated, 164, 168. Granary, monumental representation of, 147. Greek characters introduced into the Egyptian writing, 57. Hagar probably given to Abraham by Pharaoh, 122. Hail, the plague of, 208. Harem, the, of Pharaoh, 106. Hebrews, see Israelites. Hebron, its antiquity, 100. Heeren. quoted, 110, 145. Heliopolis, the city of, 80, 145. Hengstenberg, his objections to Manetho, 23, 113 ; his answer to Von Bohlen’s objections on Scripture, 120 ; quoted, 136, 141,165. Herodotus, his account of Egypt, 24 ; quoted, 171, 172. Hieratic writings, illustrated and ex- plained, 20, 66. Hieroglyphics, study of considered neces- sary, 20 ; the characters numerous on the monuments of Egypt, 26, 27, 30, 35 ; the writing illustrated and ex- plained, 51-66. History of early Egypt, information con- cerning the, 21, 22, 24. Homophones, mode of selecting them illustrated, 61. Horapollo, his work on the hieroglyphics, 27 ; not sustained by ancient monu- ments, 55. Horses, abundant in Egypt, but not com- mon to the Jews in their early history, 120 . Hyksos, or shepherd kings. 111. Infidelity silenced by the research of science, 194. Inkstand found inscribed on monuments at a very early date, 20. Inscriptions on the tombs and temples, 26. Intolerance of the Egyptian priests, 146. Inundation of the Nile, 69, 70,97, 151. Ishmaelites, see Midianites. Israelites, opprobrium attempted to be cast upon them, 116; bondage of, in Egypt, 174 ; their labors not confined to Goshen, 185 ; their deliverance from bondage, 191 ; their departure from Egypt, 117, 165, 216; their wanderings in the wilderness, 222. Jacob, his arrival in Egypt, 157 ; his death, 169. Jannes and Jambres, 196. Jebusites, Scripture account of them con- firmed, 161. Joseph, sold into Egypt, 124 ; imprisoned, 131 ; interprets Pharaoh’s dreams, 133 ; made overseer of Pharaoh’s house and elevated to office and honor, 128, 137 ; his marriage, 144 ; entertains his bre- thren, 153 ; his death, 173. Josephus, quoted, 22. Jowett, quoted, 135. 254 INDEX. Karnac, 83. Kircher, Father, his learned work on Egyptian hieroglyphics, 28. Language, ancient Egyptian, inquiries concerning the, 29 ; peculiarity therein similar to the Chinese, G4 ; and to the Hebrew in the uncertainty of its vow- els, 58. Leather, an important branch of Egyp- tian industry, 231. Lepsius, quoted, 20. Lice or gnats, the plague of, 203. Linen or cotton, knowledge the Egyp- tians had concerning, 140. Locusts, the plague of, 210. London, the name in Egyptian phonet- ics, 61. Lu.xor, the obelisk and ruins of, 71, 73, 83. Magicians and magical arts in Egypt, 136. Makrizi on famines in Egypt, 150. Manetho, his fragment of Egyptian his- tory, 22, ill, 114, 174, 217. Manna given to the Israelites, 223. Manners and customs, ceremonial, of the j Jews and Egyptians, strong resem- blance between, 237. Medicine, its knowledge early possessed in Egypt, 20 ; the science of, much in- terest to be gleaned therein from Egypt, 170. Memphis, the temple of, 81. Menes, the first Egyptian monarch, 99. Metallurgy, the Egvptians well skilled in, 227, 230. Mexican marriage, hieroglyphic repre- sentation of, 51, 52. Michaelis, on the land of Goshen, 168 ; on the passage of the Red Sea, 219. Midianite merchantmen, 124. Military force of Egypt, powerful, 218. Miriam, her triumphal dancing, 221. Mirrors, brazen, an article of the Egyp- tian toilet, 231. Mizraim, 92. Money, none coined in early history, 125. Monumental confirmation of sacred his- tory, 244. Morals, laxity of, among the ancient Egyptians, 130. Moses, in the ark of bulrushes, 188 ; his miracles in Egypt, 192; as an histo- rian, 90 ; his veracity, 164 ; familiar acquaintance with Egyptian usages confirmed, 172, 201 ; well skilled in scientific knowledge, 228 ; undoubt- edly the author of the Pentateuch, 241. Mosquitoes, both troublesome and abund- ant in Egypt, 203. Mourning for the dead, 171. Mummies, very numerous in Egypt, 76. Murrain of cattle, the plague of, 207. Names of persons frequently changed in the East, 144. Napoleon, his expedition into Egypt, 30. Necklace of gold, see Golden chain. Niebuhr, on the passage of the Red Sea 219. Nile, river and valley of the, 68 ; a voy- age up the, 80. Nilometer at Elephantine, still in exist- ence, 97. Numerals, hieroglyphics, 65. Obelisks of Luxor, 71, 73, 83 ; Philae 41, 45 ; Osirtasen, 145. On, the city of, 80, 145, 167. Oppression of the Israelites productive of ultimate ruin to the early fame of Egypt, 21. Osiris, his burial places, 83. Osirtasen, the obelisk of, 145. Overseer or steward, described, 129. Oxen in Egypt, 121. Paintings found upon the walls of tombs, 76 ; the Egyptians not far advanced in the art of, 78 ; a celebrated one found representing the Hebrews mak- ing brick, 180. Palace temples, numerous in Egypt, 73. Pastoral life, why an abomination in Jo- seph’s time, and not when Abraham visited Egypt, 109, 118. Pasture ground, good, in Goshen, 167. Pentateuch, its history verified by later facts, 164 ; its author showm to be Moses, 241. Pharaoh, the general import of the title, 100 . Pharaoh Necho and Pharaoh Hophra real personages, 249. Philae, the obelisk of, 41, 42, 45. 1 Phonetics, Egyptian, explained, 56, 57. INDEX. 255 Physicians, numerous and skilful in the days of Joseph, 169. Pictorial character of ancient writing, 53. Pillar of Fire, evidence of the, gathered from profane testimony, 220. Plagues oi Egypt, the, 193, 198, 215. Plato, allusion to, 146. Plenty, the seven years of, in Egypt, il- lustrated from monumental inscriptions, 147. Polygamy allowed by the Egyptian law, 106. Potiphar, his office at Pharaoh’s court, 128. Potipherah, priest of On, 145. Precious stones, 230. Priests, the, of Egypt, 136, 145 ; Hebrew, their ministry, dress and habits similar to the Egyptian priests, 234. Psylli, the, celebrated for their power over serpents, 195. Ptolemy Philadelphus, 116. Pyramids of Ghizeh, 81. Quails given to the Israelites for food, 225. Rain and rain clouds in Abyssinia, 151 ; in Lower Egypt very rare, 68. Rameses the Great, 166. Red Sea, passage of the, 218. Rehoboam, his submission to Shishak, 244. Ring, see Signet ring. Ritual, the, an old literary work of the Pharaonic times, 20. Ritual, the Hebrew, in what manner framed, 233. Rod of Moses, the, turned into a serpent, 193, 197. Rosetta stone, the, important discovery of, 30, 32, 35. Roschere, the tomb of, 180, 187. Rosellini, quoted, 129, 161, 180. Sarah, the wife of Abraham, 93, 103, 106. Sarcophagi, sculptured over with figures and incriptions, 76. Scripture, testimony of Egypt regarding the, 19, 239, 244 ; see Bible. Sculpture, the art of very defective, 78. Serpents, power possessed by man over them, 194 ; Serpent charmers, 194, 196. Servants, meaning of the word as used in Scripture, 102. Servitude, domestic, in Egypt, 101. Sethos and his conquests, 114. Shaving the beard, remarks concerning, 1.33. Sheep, numerous flocks of, kept near Memphis, 121. Shepherd kings, whether known by the title of Pharaoh, 119 ; when expelled, 163. Shepherds, why an abomination to the Egyptians, 109, 118, 162. Shishak invades Judea, 244. Signet ring, possession of, denoting au-. thority, 138, 230. Singing, much practised at the feasts, 228. Sky of Egypt, clear and transparent, 213. Slavery, existing from the very earliest time known, lOl, 126 ; the manner of treating slaves, 126, 127. Social life, habits of, in ancient Egypt, 104. Soil of Egypt, how originally formed, 97. Steward, the office of, 129, 137. Strabo, quoted, 146. Straw employed in the making of bricks, 180. Stubble given to the Israelites to increase their labor, 191. Suflee, a Persian king, 144. Syene, the southern limit of Egypt, 85. Symbolical writing, 53. Syncellus, 22. Tabernacle, making of the, 229. Tambourines used by the Egyptian dan- cers, 221. Tanis, the same as Zoan, 100. Taskmasters set over the Israelites, 177. Temples in Egypt, their excellent state of preservation, 71 ; several mentioned, 48, 71, 73,81,83-85. Testimony in general, remarks on, 86. Thebes, its great interest, 83 ; the hall of the temple of, 73. Thunder and lightning, the plague of, 208. Timbrels used in dancing, 221. Tombs, the, of Egypt, evidence of her former grandeur, 75-77 ; of Roschere, 180-187. Topographical description of Egypt, 68. 256 INDEX. Triumphs, in the sculptures of, the distin- guishing features well preserved, 74. Urim and Thummim, signification of the words, 236. Von Bohlen against certain parts of Scripture, 119-121, 212. V^eiling of women, not customary in Egypt’s early history, 104. Wagons employed in Egypt, 155. Wanderings of the Israelites, 222. Warburton on the hieroglyphics, 28. Water of the Nile, purified for drinking, 201 ; changed into blood, the plague of, 198. Weaving, a part of Egyptian knowledge, 232. Wheat, what species of, cultivated in Palestine and Egypt, 135 ; the harvest time of, 199, 209. Wilkinson, Sir G., quoted, 46, 129, 161, 175. Wise men, the, of Egypt, 136. Women of ancient Egypt, possessed more luxuries and privileges than in other nations, 104. Worship, Hebrew, respecting the, 233. Writing, its antiquity in Egypt, 19 ; examples of, 50. Young, Dr., his translation of the Ro- setta stone inscription, 37. Zaphnath Paaneah, the Egyptian name of Joseph, 144. Zoan, proverbially ancient, 100; an in- quiry as to its locality, 166. Zodiacs, the, of Dendera and Esneh,48. Zoega on the origin and use of the obe- lisks, 28. JOURNAL OF A VOYAGE UP THE NIL MADE BETWEEN THE MONTHS OF NOVEMBER, 1848, AND APRIL, 1849. His wandering step, Obedient to high thoughts, has visited The awful ruins of the days o( old : Athens, and Tyre, and Balbec, and the waste Where stood Jerusalem, the fallen towers Of Babylon, the eternal pyramids, Memphis and Thebes, and whatsoe’er of strange Scupltured on alabaster obelisk. Or jasper tomb, or mutilated sphinx. Dark Ethiopia on her desert hills Conceals. Among the ruined temples there, Stupendous columns, and wild images Of more than man, where marble demons watch The Zodiac’s brazen mystery, and dead men Hang their mute thoughts on the mute walls around. He lingered, poring on memorials Of the world’s youth, through the long burning day Gazed on those speechless shapes, nor, when the moon Filled the mysterious halls with floating shades Suspended he that task, but ever gazed And gazed, till meaning on his vacant mind Flashed like strong inspiration, and he saw The thrilling secrets of the birth of time. Shelley— AZoslor, or the Spirit of Solitude. " { i „ j;,^_ ' I * A ^-^r' .'^A^‘ )s^^' > ff '• ;jr ^,-.«arx 5 i^^ A:irt«-*'j^ M.V'.v ^ ®^-**’* ■-> fr •- „-■ i« -ilt^ .-■’ l^^<^J!'^'r <'ryr’ ■ ■ '. ^ .4 ■ *>MHi ^ .. Vj, /^S «*-• ^ /.t* : . ■ i- ; ; .-^ .n^ . . ., ^ ivH; ^ .. 'F',^ '■ ,B iSf. ,. ^if • I . L- « %j ‘.■^■■r*^!^ -.n^. *-Sd ^ V 4 4 • •Jl.V r INTRODUCTORY NOTE. The author of the following sheets, on his return from Egypt, a few weeks ago, found the previous pages of this book passing through the press. In repeated friendly conversations with the compiler, with whose views upon Egypt his own closely harmonize, he was able to communicate some facts of interest to him ; and at his request, was induced to make the following brief narrative of a few common- place incidents from his notes of his voyage up the Nile, and to place it at his disposal. Part of it is a mere transcript of notes made at the localities of which they speak. Under such circumstances, the writer hardly need stop to say, that the production lays no claim to the character of a finished literary work, or even of a full journal of the incidents of his travels or the objects of interest he saw. That friend has published it under the impression that a description of localities, furnished by an individual just from the Nile, would perhaps serve to impress more forcibly on the memory of readers, the more important monuments to which he has had occasion to refer, by associating them with places described in the following pages. A word of apology is perhaps necessary for the space devoted to the temples and tombs. General descriptions of such objects are commonly little more than lumber ; it was not, however, possible entirely to avoid it, and perhaps this part of the narrative may furnish 4 INTRODUCTORY NOTE. a memorandum not altogether without its use to one about visiting Egypt. Every candid student of Egyptian antiquities is aware, that too little is yet known to furnish a full proof of Scriptural chronology or history from the monuments alone ; but the author is happy to add his humble testimony to the truth of the Bible, in the statement, that he has seen nothing in Egypt to shake his faith in that blessed volume : but, on the contrary, much to confirm it. New-York, September, 1849. STEAMER TO EGYPT FROM CONSTANTINOPLE. Never was morning more beautiful than that in which we prepared to leave the harbor of the Golden Horn, at Constan- tinople. The thousand varied and beautiful views on all sides, from the “valley of sweet waters,” and the mosque- crowned heights of Eyaub, to Galata’s tower and the gardens of the Seraglio, left a series of pictures impressed on the memory which will long be a source of pleasure. The Turkish passengers crowd on board, and the cabins are filled with the wives of the Grand Pacha, Fuchtar Efiendi, of two tails, whom the Sultan has recently appointed Governor of Mecca. Finally, his Pacha friends crowd around in their boats to wish him adieu. With them are some European envoys, among whom is a Russian. What a group on this steamer’s deck ! The Pacha and his two attendants ; gentle- men, with about forty servants ; cawasses, eunuchs, &c. ; Kurds, Tartars, with their shawled caps, Persians, Copts, Greeks, Armenians, Jews — in fact, all the specimens of Mo- hammedanism to be found in the Turkish Empire ; and, save the engineer (an Englishman) I am the only Anglo-Saxon. The Pacha’s young and favorite wife, I have once seen distinctly. She is very beautiful. He is a man of noble presence, with the brow and features of a statesman and a 6 STEAMER TO EGYPT FROM CONSTANTINOPLE. great man. Nobler never could have belonged to the Prophet himself. Some of the Pachas who rushed to bid him farewell bent to kiss his feet. Hark ! the gun. The Sultan is in that steamboat, returning from the launch of a vessel of war. All along up the Bosphorus the ships of war are manned to their topmast yards, and the flags flying. I had recently witnessed a still more magnificent scene, where the Sultan embarked at his palace on the Bosphorus to go to mosque. Hark ! there is another gun. It is sunset, and the Moslems have all washed, and are kneeling in prayer, with their faces, as ever, turned toward Mecca. What religionists in the world observe the duties of their faith more praiseworthily than these ? The old Pacha, too, so devout ! He prays as if it were praying that had given that noble dignity to his face. It is over, and now we are under way. Farewell to Pera, and all its varied and picturesque population, roman- tic environs and its Armenian girls. Farewell to Galata, and its miserable streets of Greek fishermen, where I have so often lost my way amidst the throng of traders from every climg ; where the cannie Scotchman from Greenock strikes bargains with the Persian of the Caucasus. Farewell to the beautiful Bosphorus and the distant Symplegades, whose blue forms it must suffice to see afar OS’, without running Jason’s risk. Farewell to the gorgeous Sultan’s palace ; Bebek and its lovely bay, the castle of Venetian splendor ; Therapia, and its Greek maidens ; Buyukdere, and its beauties ; and the Asiatic shore ! the “ sweet waters,” the beautiful valley, and the Sultan’s lovely, dark-eyed Circassians ! Farewell to Scutari, and the old cypresses of the cemeteries, and Stamboul, that strange compound, so grand at a distance, so filthy within. In its old STEAMER TO EGYPT FROM CONSTANTINOPLE. 7 Seraglio, I would fain yet linger amid the crumbling capitals built by the Greek Emperors, and the chambers filled with the Caliph’s works ; the libraries of rare books, the portraits of the Sultans — every one of whom rose by the murder of some father or brother ; the beds glittering with gems in the dark old Saracenic chambers, where many a Sultan has been strangled ; the halls, where the tyrant would only show him- self through a steel grating. Farewell to all these : we are now for the land of Egypt to study its lore, as did the Grecian scholars of old, when they left the cool shades of the Academy for the priestly colleges of Sais and Heliopolis. Will it make us Christian, like Alciphron, or unbelieving, like the infidels of France ? m*, . >v.» ' .-i” ■'?*> •', '-.’'l- • ’!<- •#'>:<-. • * a ' ..j'JlU *rf ''VJ' ‘I'-- -V ^ *' '{• -fu^ v-j^: M .. . \J ''•'■ '■;•■•% VMV 4 .yy / >*»> «|MK-' ^ Wi <*<■ ■ ^ -j* -,. r-_j '■ ' ■ ^*‘***‘- .1 . .- ', ^ r ■, ^Tb telling on its ruined walls tales of Pharaoh Hophra,* Saladin, and Mohammed Ali. One must not pass over the new mosque at Cairo. Its interior architecture is of the finest Saracenic, and when completed, its exterior will be quite as imposing as that of our Capitol at Washington. It was pleasant to amble through the groves of palm and acacia that abound in the rich, wild country north of Cairo, to that rare palace of orientalism at Shoubra of Mohammed Ali, whose gardens and kiosks and mosaics, are only rivalled by those of Granada. In these rides, I frequently met Mo- hammed Ali in his carriage, like a plain English gentleman, and he always saluted me with the uniform politeness that he has ever displayed towards Anglo-Saxons. He had recently lost his eldest son, the celebrated Ibrahim Pacha. We heard * His cartouche is in the wall. CAIRO. 15 of his death at Rhodes ; and all the Arabs to whom I had spoken of it, only replied with the flashing glance of pleasure, “ Allah Akbar,” God is great. The Turks uniformly seemed pleased at the accession of a pious, bigoted Mussulman like Abbas, as the Arabs were glad to be rid of the tyranny of Ibrahim. Abbas was on his way to Mecca. Mohammed Ali merely replied, on hearing of the death of Ibrahim, that it was sad a father should live to see the day that he could not regret the death of his own son. Nearly four months after this, Abbas Pacha returned from Constantinople, where he had been to visit the Sultan, on receiving the hatti scheriff investing him with the Pachalik ; which was read soon after his accession, in the citadel. On his visit to the Sultan, his Mussulman character gained him the title of Vizier (or Mushir, the highest, next the Sultan) and Pacha of Nubia ; and his return, in February, was celebrated by illuminations throughout Cairo for three days. The English policy was much gratified by this, as they wished to reduce Egypt to a mere province, to weaken French influence there ; and thus it has lost the progressive independence of government that Mohammed Ali had given it. The English consul-general, Hon. Charles Augustus Murray, has availed himself of the weakness of Abbas Pacha’s habits and government, to gain free passage for armed English troops to India, and many other important advantages ; while the Egyptian fleet transferred to the Sultan, and the strong mea- sures of Admiral Parker against the aggression of Russia in the prohibited Bosphorus, has aided England’s design of increasing the power of the Porte, and augmented, also, her own influence in Egypt. Whether the establishment of our own lately appointed consul-general there, Mr. Macauley, who. 16 VOYAGE UP THE NILE. from his long residence in Barbary, is fully acquainted with Turkish manners, language, and diplomacy, may lessen the encroachments of English influence, is a matter that belongs alone to diplomatists. Soon after his arrival there, in the United States frigate “ Constitution,” the assault of one of the Arab soldiers on the person of a passed midshipman, who commanded one of the boats’ crews of men ashore, called for Mr. Macauley’s interference, and he was prompt enough to treat the dissimulating procrastination of the government rela- tive to the punishment of the soldier, with the threat that he would haul down his consular flag, if an answer were not given by sunrise. Such decision, and his course with the Bashaw of Tripoli, will doubtless make his representation of our country valuable. I rode to Ghizeh, and over the plain to the pyramids. Dragged to the summit, like thousands of others, I stood on Cheops’ pyramid, where Diodorus had once stood. I could not find the name of Herodotus ; but that of my hotel-keeper was boldly chiselled, and so was “ Day and Martin’s black- ing.” An Arab otfered to go up the Cephrenes pyramid for a shilling, then for a sixpence. I was awed before the Sphinx ; for, mutilated as it is, there is something in that expression alike Caucasian and great. I read the records of the fourth dynasty in the chambers ; and found Scripture proofs clear in the records of the tombs on the Libyan chain, stretching through the whole Necropolis to the Saccara and Dashoor pyramids, with its cut mummy-pits. All this, is it not written fully in the three huge volumes of Colonel Vyse ? And Memphis — that desolate plain ! One can find interest here, although the temple of Vulcan, the site of which is spoken of by antiquarians as the square where, according to MEMPHIS. 17 Herodotus, the bull Apis was kept, is gone. But the great object of interest is the Acherusian lake, which gave to the Grecians and Romans the mythology which the latter cherished in Campania. Over this, in the sacred boats, so they fabled, the souls of the dead heroes were carried. The dark groves upon its banks, the jutting points, and the setting sun over the shades, made it peculiarly picturesque. 1 had been over the scene of the mythologies of the ^neid from the grotto of the Sibyl to the Lake Avernus and Elysian Fields, and had explored Greece. How pleasant to trace here the source of these superstitions ! As for the statue of Remeses the Great, and his son and daughter, I have seen the copy in the British Museum, and it is far more impressive than the original here lying in the mud. The site of Memphis has received its best consideration in the pages of Mr. St. John, Dr. Richardson, Conder, and Shaw — and the confusion on the subject is well accounted for by Gibbon, on the supposition that it extended numbers of miles. But how unsatisfactory the exploration from Ghizeh to Mitraheny ! The fallen colossal statue alone, which is so perfectly revived in the cast in the British Museum, is all. And yet how much is here ! Was it not the first founded city by the immediate descendants of Noah 1 That it was the oldest, the decay of its monuments attest, while Thebes remains. Allowing even the superiority of the climate of the Said for the preservation of temples and sculptures, how could the granite of Syene have disappeared so entirely were it not a ruined city, after the decay of the latter Pharaonic dynasty ? How full of deep interest is this spot ! The scene of the Mosaico-Egyptiau history, the site of a city that, from B 18 VOYAGE UP THE NILE. the rule of Menes over this locality to that of Abbas Pacha, has seen a greater number of successions, preserved a greater permanence of locality for civilization, than any spot in the world. Rome and Athens are but of yesterday in comparison with Memphis. When I stood on the tomb of Cecrops in the Acropolis, I was awed by the antiquity of the pioneer of Egyp- tian emigration to Greece ; it was from Memphis that he went forth. Jerusalem was founded earlier still. Babylon, its nearer contemporary, is a howling desert : and Nineveh furnishes few wrecks of Assyrian sway ; but old Memphis is here. Stand- ing on the roof of your sojourning house in the place, Esbekiah, you may turn from glittering Turkish- Arab- Jewish- Coptic-Cairo of to-day, to the Citadel, and bring up the Mameluke-Turcoman-Saracen-Caliph-governing-Cairo of yes- terday ; live over the histories of Masr-el-Atikeh and Masr-el- Kebyr, — new Cairo and old Cairo ; — turn to the tombs of the Caliphs, and the thousand mosques, and monuments of that era ; and then to the Coptic churches, and the memorials of Christian patriarchal sway in the distance ; and then a little north your eyes wander upon Rhoda island and the shores, • whose musical palaces of Beys are the sites of the palaces of the Pharaohs of Jewish memory ; and then wandering to the pyramids, the sphinxes, the caves, and tombs on the Libyan mountain ridge, with names of kings and records of Egypt to her fourth dynasty ; and a little further rest on the plains and mounds, which need yet the labors of a Belzoni or a Vyse — where Menes and Misraim subjects gained tlie first wealth of this fertile valley of the generous Nile. Many flatter themselves that Egypt is yet to be more fully unveiled, that there are evidences in the mounds and passages tinder Memphis which will bring to light more truth. There EGYPTIAN ASSOCIATION. 19 were those too who believed that deep under yon pyramid of Ghizeh lay concealed the table of emerald on which the thrice great Hermes engraved the secret of alchemy, which was lost before the flood ; and that Egypt, through the whole valley of the Nile, was traversed by a subterranean realm, which kings who had that art which gave gold at will, used for their purposes. Devoting a little time to investigations of the Pelusiac branch of the Nile, at Heliopolis ; arriving at the conclusions of Hengstenberg ; and glancing at the subject of Pithom, the Patumos of Herodotus, which I did without visiting the in- teresting site of Sais, where Herodotus and Plato found so much, or the modern towns of Mansoura, the rice granaries of Damietta, and rich fertility of the Delta, with its peculiar Levantine characteristics, from Rosetta to Damietta ; and having spent some investigation on the fine papyri of Dr. Ab- bot’s museum and literary association, where I enjoyed the advantage of acquaintance with one of the best Coptic scholars living ; and having gained much aid from the library of the Egyptian Association, (which, by the beneficence of English noblemen, has become a mine of treasure, under the super- intendence of Dr. Lieder, containing all published on the subject, as well as all European facilities,) I engaged my boat, made a contract, employed a dragoman, and prepared for my voyage to the temples of the Nile. My boat was small, its cabin only sufficient for one ; but being recommended for speed by an English gentleman, who had just returned from the first cataract in it, I was well satisfied. Coming down from a visit to the citadel, I was told a fine lion from Dongola was shown here, belonging to Mohammed Ali, and I stopped to take a look at his majesty. We went •20 VOYAGE UP THE NILE. up a few steps, and entered a room, where stood chained, with his bushy mane, an enormous red lion. There was no grate, as at the Surrey or Regent Park gardens, to impede our view, and I did not feel particularly pleasant to be in the same room with a lion just fresh from the deserts of Dongola, with only a few iron links to prevent him from making his breakfast of his visitors ; but imagine my terror when the keeper, after having displayed some feats of animal taming that far excelled Van Amburgh, left him, and while I was gazing into his eyes, he rose and made a leap, snapping one end of his chain. I was near the door, and in an instant I was out, and the keeper against the door, which his attendants without secured, while he Avas standing up and pointing to the corner for the lion to go back to his chain. I was fairly frightened, and rushed down the steps leading into the street, glad enough to escape. I went from here to see the bastinado. I found there an imperturbable Englishman from our hotel, who was always there, I believe. He had invited me frequently to go up with him and see one, as, he said, it gave him an appetite for his dinner. For my part, it was disgusting to me. The ko7crbash is very painful for the first two or three blows, but after, it is scarcely felt, in comparison. The Mohammedan who takes his bath so frequently, and has the soles of his feet made so tender by the rubbing, must be peculiarly sensitive there. The Ghourah bazaar and its rare attractions have been well descanted on by travellers ; though not excelling in rich- ness the shawl bazaar of Constantinople, and some others there, it is fuller of various life. Every nation in the world, almost, is represented here ; Turks, Syrians, Kurds, Hindoos, Ethiopians, Abyssinians, Circassians ; and Turkish and Ara- SIGHTS OF CAIRO. 21 bian women, less veiled than those in Constantinople. The perfumery bazaar, with its quaint orientalism ; the carpet and mat bazaar, with its Turks bearded like Abraham ; the Ham- zaja bazaar ; the handkerchief and embroidery bazaar ; the bazaar of arms ; the Hanhalil ; the Settizenab, and its Be- douins of the desert caravans ; the Bab-el-Nasr, and ancient gate of the vanquishers of the Crusaders ; the Ghu-a-hinneh ; the palaces of the old Beys, and rare Turkish life in the old quarter : all this is well described in Mr. Lane’s Book of the Modern Egyptians, and you may see it recorded and pictured in his fine edition of the Illustrated Arabian Nights. Mr. Lane is one of the foreign lions of Cairo, but keeps himself very secluded, being industriously engaged on a large Arabic dictionary — a great desideratum to oriental scholars. He lives with his sister, Mrs. Poole, author of “ The Englishwoman in Egypt whose son has been well praised by Miss Martineau, as, for a young Egyptian hieroglyphical scholar, lie is almost unexcelled. The days of chivalry, as D’Israeli makes Baron Rothschild say, were not different from ours. “ Life then was a circle of great ideas ; now ’tis a circle of small ones.” Instead of Richard Coeur de Lion and Saladin, it is a Consul General and a brutal Abbas Pacha. Instead of a noble Arab, as Scott has represented in his Talisman, it is a quarrelsome Reis and his quarrelsome crew ; a swindling dragoman trying to pocket your piastres, and suiting all his plans and purposes to that end. As to what modern Egyptian life is, I cannot improve upon Mr. Lane’s description of the “ Manners and Customs of the Modern Egyptians,” and the notes that are scattered through his edition of the “ Arabian Nights and it is super- fluous to repeat in this brief and rapid sketch what others 22 VOYAGE UP THE NILE. have spent more than a quarter of a centmy in describing. A half day’s walk through Cairo sufficed to prove the remark- able accuracy of Lane’s work. My first week in Cairo was actively employed in sight seeing, and whirling around its narrow streets, with a donkey boy crying, Riglac oh bente — “ get out of the way, oh lady or Riglac nousrami, “ get out of the way, Christian — Riglac baudour, “ get out of the way, you other donkey-boy.” There is no lack of amusement in all these oddities ; and as for the sights, from the Mohammedan betrothal and wed- ding, with all its grotesque masquerading, and symbols, and Alme’s dancing, et id genus, to the circiancision with its drums, &C., the pure orientalism of the turban — the black turban of the Copt and his huge sensual neck, the bright eyes of an Arab from the shores “ Off Mozambic or where the spicy odors blow, From Araby the blest,’’ how shall I describe them There too was the Memlook dress, and its owner glittering with arms and proudly ferocious in gait ; the flaming Cairean robes of striped silk adorning the Turk or the Jew ; the Egyptian lady with her mantle of black silk, which is also worn by many Italians and French. Camels loaded with stones come along threatening to crush you and your donkey ; water-carriers, beggars, santons ; Turks sitting in their bazaars, crying, Thaijeeb Mashallah ; Greeks looking for a chance to turn a penny or to blackguard you : Arabs of every variety, from the Hadji of Mecca, the sheikh of the desert, to the boatman and camel-driver ; nhnah or sellers of sherbet, serpent charmers with their snakes, orange women, and other women with their caps or wares ; beggars. UR. ABBOT’S MUSEUM. 23 barbers, pedlers of robes from Damascus, fortune-tellers, jugglers, mountebanks, fakirs, merchants and mollahs, Mo- hammedan priests, barbers and butchers, saddlers and slipper- makers, in the narrow dingy streets— there are they all. Dr. AbboVs Museum . — This is one of the great curiosities of Cairo. Lepsius has said that the museum is worth £7000. His price is £10,000. Among the many objects of interest is the necklace bearing on several of the links the cartouche of Menes of the first dynasty, “ who walks with Amon,” a seal ring of gold, with a broad face, on which in most exquisite engraving is the car- touche of Souphis or Cheops of the fourth dynasty. An iron breastplate and chain, much covered with rust, has the name of Shishak or Sheshonk, who vanquished Jeroboam. Some of his curiosities, a lizard in metal, and some sculptures in limestone, are the most beautiful I have ever seen. His mummied bulls and human mummies, his rings and thou- sand cartouches, are antiquities of several dynasties. His mummied cats, and particularly his papyri, are very perfect. There is one containing a ritual, which is very valuable. Numerous steles or tablets of the times of the shepherd kings, &c., are full of historical interest. The Egyptian Literary Association, of which Dr. Abbot is one of the founders, and Clot Bey, Suleiman Pacha, and several learned Europeans, members, is one of the finest insti- tutions in the world for the study of Egyptian subjects. The tombs of the Memlook kings to the south of old Cairo and toward the Arabian desert in the east, are an interesting necropolis. Familiar as I was with Mohammedan cemeteries in Constantinople, Scutari and Pera, the Golden Horn and the Bosphorus, I could not but compare the beauty of those upon 24 VOYAGE UP THE NILE. which “ Anastasius ” so poetically dwells, with this forest of turbaned-headed tombstones in the skirts of the lonely desert. Here are the interesting tombs of the Memlook kings in a walled court, covered with flowered ornaments of brilliant colors and Arabic inscriptions. But the finest specimens of arabesque I saw in the tombs of the Pachas : those of Mo- hammed Ali’s family, his wives and sons, particularly that of the lamented and promising Tousson, so spoken of by travellers, were the finest. It is a beautiful thought of orientalism, to place perpetual flowers on the dwellings of the dead. Here was the tomb of Ibrahim covered with a green shroud, for it was not yet completed. Some of the family were here, and many real flowers lay scattered about, and wreaths on the head-stones. What a prolific progenitor Mohammed Ali* has been ! he may well vie with Methusaleh, and the other patriarchs, or with Solomon. A large mosque is filled with the tombs of his family, and I should judge that thirty were those of his sons and daughters, his sons’ wives, and grandsons and granddaughters. The Imaum-e-Shufier is worth visiting. I also went to the site of the Roman Babylon, which was not far from old Cairo. The mosque of Tayloom is one of the finest erections of Caliph and Mameluke architecture. I rode my donkey into it, which quite shocked the Mohammedan bystanders. Spur on my donkey — my Arab boy — to Mataryeh and the sacred tree and fountain of the Holy Family, and then over * While correcting the proofs of this work, the intelligence reaches us that •this great reformer of Egypt — great alike in his usefulness, his ambition, and his crimes — is dead. Even the shadow of his name will no longer save Egypt from England or the Porte. HELIOPOLIS. 25 the plain to the orange groves, where stand the site and obe- lisk of Heliopolis. The City of the Sun, or of Destruction, as the prophet Isaiah calls it, is one of the five cities in the land of Egypt that “should speak the language of Canaan, and swear by the Lord of hosts.” It can boast of no ruin, but a solitary obelisk in the midst of a garden marks the spot where stood the famed city. On, and its temple of the Sun. Here Joseph found in the daughter of its high priest, a wife ; and here, perhaps, Moses studied the ancient lore, The prophecy of Isaiah* was fulfilled here ; for Onias, the high priest, in the time of the Maccabees, built a temple that was much resorted to by the Jews. The obelisk bears the name of Osirtasen, the king who (as some believe) expelled the shepherd kings from Egypt. Several of the obelisks have been carried away. Those whicli are at Alexandria are said to have stood here. True, you may see in the British Museum a cast of the obe- lisk, and read its characters ; but do you stand in On, and in the place where Moses was schooled, among the shades where Plato and his companions walked in the orange groves — where Diodorus, and Herodotus, and Anaxagoras, and Solon, (the thrifty olive-merchant of Greece,) came to learn mysteries and the secret of eternal life, which the priests of Phre — the Poti-phres, or Potiphars, were suposed to have taught ? A part of the inscription on the obelisk is as follows, when trans- lated into English, beginning to read from the south side : — Verse first. “The Sun to King Ramestes. I have be- stowed upon you to rule graciously the world. He whom the Sun loves is Horus the Brave, the lover of truth, the son of Heaven, born of God, restorer of the world. He whom the Sun has chosen is King Ramestes, valiant in battle, to whom * Chap. six. vers. 18, 19. 26 VOYAGE UP THE NILE. all the earth is subject by his might and bravery. Ramestes the king, the immortal offspring of the Sun.” Verse second. “ Horus .... the brave, who sheds a splen- dor over Heliopolis, and regenerates the rest of the world, and honors the gods, who live in Heliopolis, him the Sun loves.” Verse third. “ Horus the brave, the offspring of the Sun, all glorious, whom the Sun loves,”