<s= 
 
 V26  1897 
 
 'V. 
 
 ^-^^ 
 
 ^n.u^lj^:A^ 
 
 BR  874  .H46  1869  v. 2 
 Hemans,  Charles  Isidore, 
 
 1817-1876. 
 A  history  of  mediaeval 
 
 Christianity  and  Sacred  arU 
 
A    HISTORY 
 
 OF 
 
 MEDIEVAL    CHRISTIANITY 
 AND   ART   IN   ITALY. 
 
 VOL.    II. 
 
Recently  pubUshed  hy  the  same  Autliory 
 
 A    HISTORY    OF    ANCIENT    CHRISTIANITY 
 AND   SACEED    ART  IN    ITALY, 
 
 Crown  8vo.  cloth,  7s  ^d. 
 
 A  HISTORY  OF  MEDIAEVAL    CHRISTIANITY 
 AND    SACRED   ART  IN   ITALY, 
 
 A.D.  900-1350. 
 
 VOL.  I. 
 
 Crown  8vo.  cloth,  7s  6^. 
 
 WILLIAMS  AND  NORGATE,  London  and  Edinburgh. 
 
A  HISTORY 
 
 OP 
 
 MEDIAEVAL  CHEISTIANITY 
 
 AND 
 
 SACRED  Am, 
 
 IN   ITALY  EEOM  1350    TO    1400, 
 IN    EOME  TEOM   1350    TO    1500. 
 
 BY 
 
 CHARLES    ISIDORE    HEMANS. 
 
 YOL.  n. 
 
 "WILLIAMS    AND    NOHaATE, 
 
 14,    HENRIETTA    STREET,    COVENT   GARDEN,   LONDON; 
 
 AND  20,  SOUTH   FREDERICK   STREET,  EDINBURGH. 
 
 GOODBAN,  Floeence.     PIALE,  Rome. 
 
 1872. 
 
LONDON: 
 
 G.  NORMAN   AND  SON,   PRINTERS,   MAIDEN   LANE, 
 
 COVENT  GAKDEN. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 In  tlie  present  volume  is  completed,  so  far  at 
 least  as  Rome  and  the  Papacy  are  considered,  my 
 attempt  to  supply  a  historic  sketch  of  the  rise  and 
 vicissitudes  of  the  Christian  Church  in  Italy  down  to 
 the  last  year  of  the  fifteenth  century.  With  that 
 period,  however,  so  vast  a  field,  illumined  by  ever- 
 productive  genius  and  marked  by  extraordinary  ener- 
 gies, opens  before  me,  that  I  have  found  it  necessary 
 to  extend  the  treatment  of  my  subject  beyond  the 
 limits  at  first  proposed  to  myself,  and  undertake  to 
 prepare  another  small  volume  by  way  of  Appendix  to 
 the  present.  The  general  aspects  of  religious  life  during 
 that  century  in  the  Italian  cities  and  regions  have  yet 
 to  be  considered  as  entering  into  my  theme ;  for  I  have 
 here  confined  my  attention  mainly  to  Rome  as  the 
 centre,  and  to  the  Supreme  Pontificate  as  the  chief  re- 
 presentative, while  scarcely  glancing  at  the  movements 
 impelled  by,  or  afiecting,  the  religious  principle  and 
 interest  elsewhere  in  the  course  of  the  eventful  epoch 
 from  A.  D.  1400  to  1500.  With  such  a  subject  before  me 
 as  the  Italian  Church  and  Italian  Ai-t  during  the  whole 
 of  that  century  — and  seeing  that  the  last  should  be  the 
 most  important  section  of  the  work  commenced  by  me 
 
VI  PREFACE. 
 
 some  years  ago — it  will  be  apparent  to  the  reader  that 
 nothing  like  an  adequate  treatment  can  be  supplied, 
 even  with  the  means  at  my  disposal^  in  the  compass  of 
 the  few  hundred  pages  here  dedicated  to  it.  I  have 
 desired  to  consider  the  Fine  Arts  of  this  country  in  their 
 connexion  with  other  expressions  of  thought,  feeling, 
 and  faith,  with  the  institutions,  the  literature,  and  wor- 
 ship of  the  land  where  their  triumphs  have  been  so 
 illustrious.  Strictly  speaking,  I  may  submit  this  volume 
 to  my  readers  as  the  completion  of  my  undertaking  with 
 reference  to  the  first  fourteen  centuries,  but  the  com- 
 mencement only  of  that  part  which  refers  to  the  fifteenth 
 century  of  Christian  civilization  south  of  the  Alps. 
 
 C.  I.  H. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 PAOR 
 
 CHAPTER  r. 
 
 The  Fourteenth  Century  (1350  to  1370)         .  .  .1 
 
 CHAPTER  11. 
 
 The  Fourteenth  Century  (1370  to  1399)        .  .  .50 
 
 CHAPTER  III. 
 The  Fourteenth  Century;    General  Retrospect  .     110 
 
 CHAPTER  IV. 
 
 Monuments  of  the  Fourteenth  Century:  Rome,  Naples, 
 
 and  Southern  Italy  .  .  .  .187 
 
 CHAPTER  V. 
 
 Monuments  of  the  Fourteenth  Century:  Florence  and 
 
 Central  Italy  .  .  .  .  .  .249 
 
 CHAPTER  VI. 
 
 Monuments  of  the  Fourteenth  Century  :  Northern 
 Italy,  Venice,  Padua,  Milan,  and  Lombardic  Cities, 
 Bologna         ,  .  .  .  .  .  .327 
 
 CHAPTER  VII. 
 
 The  Fifteenth  Century  (1400  to  1447)  .  .  .417 
 
 CHAPTER  VIII. 
 The  Fifteenth  Century  (1447  to  1500)  .  .  .497 
 
 CHAPTER  IX. 
 Monuments  of  the  Fifteenth  Century  ;    Rome        .  .     593 
 
 Appendix    ........     646 
 
 Index  ........     657 
 
ERRATA. 
 
 Page  207,  for  Innocent  VIII.  read  Innocent  VIL 
 „     302,  for  S.  Mark,  read  S.  Luke. 
 
CHAPTER  I. 
 
 The  ForRTEEXTTi  Cextury  :    1350  to  1870. 
 
 Deyotioxax  excitements,  a  fervour  of  re-awakeucd  piety 
 and  zeal,  the  thronging  of  multitudes  from  all  parts  of 
 western  Europe  to  the  City  regarded  as  the  centre  of 
 spiritual  benefits — while  that  sacred  City  was  at  the  same 
 time  a  prey  to  anarchy  and  social  disorder — such  were  the 
 salient  features  of  the  picture  presented  by  Italy  and 
 Bome  at  the  period  when  this  narrative  begins.  The 
 Jubilee,  instituted  by  Boniface  Till,  for  the  first  year  of 
 each  century,  had  been  appointed  for  the  fiftieth  year  by 
 Clement  YI.,  in  conformity  with  the  urgent  entreaties  of 
 the  E-omans,  conveyed  to  Avignon  by  an  embassy  in  which 
 the  two  chief  speakers  were  Petrarch  and  Cola  di  Rienzo. 
 Pope  Clement  had  yielded  to  the  eloquently  expressed 
 desire  of  his  Italian  subjects,  represented  by  two  such  able 
 orators,  and  had  granted  a  second  Jubilee  for  each  century,  in 
 consideration  of  the  shortness  of  human  life  and  the  desir- 
 ableness that  each  generation  of  mankind  in  Christendom 
 might  receive  the  chance,  at  least,  of  benefiting  by  the 
 treasures  of  the  Church,  unlocked  for  the  welfare  of  souls 
 at  that  holy  season.*     Matteo  Yillani,  our  best  authority 
 
 *  The  Bull  of  Pope  Clement  for  this  Jubilee  assiu-cs  the  pilgrims  who 
 might  die  on  tlieii*  journey  of  eternal  life,  if  their  sins  had  been  confessed  ; 
 and  commaivls  the  angels  to  escort  their  sduls  fiom  Piu-gatory  into 
 
 B 
 
13  MEDIJ3VAL    CnRISTIANITY    AKD 
 
 for  this  celebration  in  1350,  tells  of  the  discipline  and  order, 
 the  patience  and  good  humour  maintained  among  the  pil- 
 grims on  their  toilsome  journey,  begun  in  an  unusually 
 severe  winter,  along  wretched  roads,  where  such  inns  as 
 then  existed  were  far  from  sufficient  to  accommodate  the 
 ever-increasing  crowd.  The  Germans  and  Hungarians, 
 better  able  to  endure  cold  than  others,  used  to  spend  the 
 nights  in  the  fields,  sleeping  in  the  midst  of  circles  of  fire. 
 After  the  caravans  had  entered  the  Eoman  States  they 
 were  frequently  attacked  by  brigands,  who,  not  contented 
 with  robbery,  sometimes  murdered  their  victims.  But 
 here,  too,  were  made  benevolent  exertions  on  behalf  of  the 
 pilgrims,  and  respectable  natives  of  those  provinces  kept 
 guard  along  the  highways  by  night.  The  pilgrims  them- 
 selves administered  summary  justice  on  the  criminals  they 
 were  able  to  seize.  AVhen  they  left  inns,  where  the  host 
 had  had  no  time  to  keep  accounts,  they  used  to  place  the 
 sum  due  on  the  table,  and  none  (we  are  assured)  would 
 touch  that  money  before  it  came  into  the  proper  hands. 
 
 Ill  did  the  conduct  of  the  Bomans  correspond  to  this 
 piety,  so  laudably  united  with  honesty  and  good  faith ! 
 The  police  of  the  city  was  bad  as  possible.  The  market- 
 prices  were  arbitrarily  fixed  by  those  interested ;  articles 
 
 Paradise  :  **  Item  concedimus  quod  si  vere  confessus  in  via  moriatiir, 
 ab  omnibus  peccatis  suis  sit  immunis  et  penitus  absolutus.  Et  nihi- 
 lominus  prorsiis  mandamus  Angelis  Paradisi  quatenus  animam  illius 
 a  Purgatorio  penitus  absolutum  in  Paradisi  gloriam  introducant."  Not 
 only  monks,  but  nuns  are  urged  to  undertake  this  pilgrimage  ;  the  latter, 
 however,  only  with  consent  from  their  superiors,  whilst  those  who 
 remain  in  their  convents  are  enjoined  to  say  the  whole  Psalter  for  their 
 wayfaring  sisters.  The  Churches  where  the  indulgence  was  to  be 
 obtained,  in  Pome,  were  S.  Peter's,  the  Lateran,  and  the  Ostiaa 
 (S.  Paul's)  basilica.  Villani  tells  us  that  all  the  pilgrims  offered  money, 
 according  to  their  means  (cM  poco,  e  chi  assai,  co7iie  gli  parea),  eYery 
 time  they  went  for  the  prescribed  devotions  to  those  basilicas. 
 
SACRED    ART    IX    ITALY.  3 
 
 of  food  were  monopolized;  the  only  accommodation  tho 
 strangers  obtained  in  houses  where  they  lodged  was  a 
 wretched  bed ;  food  for  themselves  and  their  horses  had 
 to  be  sought  elsewhere.*  A  Cardinal  Legate,  sent  for  the 
 occasion  from  Avignon,  could  win  neither  respect  nor 
 obedience,  though  he  kept  up  a  degree  of  pomp  and  exer- 
 cised an  authority  not  less  than  might  have  satisfied  the 
 spiritual  and  temporal  Sovereign  himself.  He  resided  at 
 the  Vatican ;  sat  in  judgment  over  all  causes,  ecclesiasti- 
 cal and  civil ;  distributed  offices  and  dignities ;  published 
 indulgences,  threatened  penalties;  celebrated  pontifical 
 High  Mass  with  not  less  splendour  than  did  the  Pope ; 
 and  when  he  rode  from  his  palace  to  churches,  his  passage 
 was  proclaimed  by  sound  of  silver  trumpets.  One  day 
 when  he  went  with  his  usual  retinue  to  S.  Paul's  basilica, 
 he  was  shot  at  with  the  arrows  of  a  cross-bow  from  a  paltry 
 house,  and  one  of  two  arrows,  thus  aimed  at  him,  pierced 
 his  hat.  His  attendants  rushed  into  the  house,  found  the 
 cross-bow,  but  not  one  of  the  inmates,  who  had  escaped  by 
 a  back-door  or  window.  The  terrified  Cardinal  was  little 
 consoled  by  the  only  punishment  that  could  be  inflicted — 
 the  instant  demolishing  of  that  deserted  house.  On  an- 
 other occasion  some  scuffle  occurred  between  his  servants 
 and  the  people,  who  were  crowding  into  the  court  of  his 
 palace  to  see  a  camel, — the  curiosity  he  had  brought  with 
 him  from  France.  From  a  trifle  this  disturbance  rose  into 
 furious  tumult ;  the  inhabitants  of  the  Borgo  quarter  armed 
 
 *  "  The  Eomans,  in  order  to  profit  irregularly,  whilst  they  were  able 
 to  afford  everything  in  abundance  and  at  cheap  price  to  the  pilgrims, 
 kept  up  the  dearness  of  bread,  and  wine,  and  meat  for  the  whole 
 year  ;  and  prevented  the  merchants  from  importing  either  foreign  wine, 
 or  corn,  or  oats,  so  that  they  (the  citizens)  might  sell  their  own  provi- 
 sions dearer." — M.  Villani,  Cronica,  c.  Ivi. 
 
 b2 
 
4  MEDL^TAL    CHEISTIAKITY    A^J) 
 
 in  revolt,  ready  to  attack  the  Vatican.  They  were  finally 
 pacified  by  the  firmness  and  influence  of  the  Commendator 
 of  the  S.  Spirito  Hospital ;  and  the  Legate,  witnessing  this 
 scene  from  a  balcony,  made  the  remark,  natural  enough, 
 "that  the  Eomans  themselves  were  to  blame  for  the  pro- 
 longed absence  of  their  Pontiff's  ;"  also,  that  "  the  poorest 
 parish  priest  at  Avignon  was  more  to  be  envied  than  the 
 greatest  prelate  at  Eome."  That  Cardinal,  named  Ceccano, 
 soon  left  for  Naples,  and  died,  on  his  journey  thither,  at  a 
 village  near  S.  Germano.  His  body  was  brought  to  Eome 
 in  a  coffin  slung  on  the  back  of  a  mule,  and  thrown  into 
 the  vault  of  his  family-chapel  at  S.  Peter's,  wdthout  funeral 
 rites  or  attendant  mourners. 
 
 "We  read  of  tlie  intense  eagerness  and  dangerous 
 pressure  of  multitudes  at  the  Eoman  basilicas.  Every 
 Sunday  and  festival  the  "  Volto  Santo "  used  to  be 
 exhibited  at  S.  Peter's,  and  on  those  occasions  not  a  few 
 — sometimes  so  many  as  twelve — persons  at  a  time  were 
 left  dead,  trampled  under  the  feet  of  thousands,  at  the 
 doors.  The  number  of  pilgrims  (if  we  may  accept  Yillani's 
 report)  exceeded  that  which  had  filled  Eome  in  1300 : 
 throughout  Lent  and  Easter- week,  1,200,000 ;  at  the  fes- 
 tivals of  Ascension  and  Pentecost,  800,000  ;  and  during  the 
 rest  of  the  year,  200,000.  Among  the  devout  throng  came 
 Petrarch — his  third  visit  here,  assuredly  less  pleasant  to 
 himself  than  his  former  sojourns  at  Eome,  for  all  his  friends 
 of  the  Colonna  house  were  no  more  ;  and  it  is  probable  that 
 the  melancholy  impressions  he  now  received  may  have  been 
 uppermost  in  his  mind  when  he  urged  on  Pope  Urban  V. 
 the  duty  of  restoring  the  Holy  See  to  its  proper  centre, 
 representing  the  unhappy  conditions  of  this  City  as  result- 
 ing from  the  injuries  caused  by  the  pontifical  exile.  Cola 
 di  Eienzo  also  came,  probably  incognito,  but  discovered 
 before  long ;.  and  the  Cardinal  Legate  suspected  him  (with- 
 
SACRED    AET    IN    ITALY.  5 
 
 out  any  proof),  of  the  attemjDt  against  his  life  above-men- 
 tioned. The  Legate  denounced  Eienzo  to  the  Pope,  while 
 thus  unjustly  accusing  him ;  and  it  is  probable  that  this 
 led  the  ex-tribune  to  leave  Eome  and  Italy,  in  order  to 
 seek  that  protection  from  the  German  King,  Charles  IV, 
 which  resulted  in  his  betrayal  to  pontific  authorities  and 
 imprisonment  at  Avignon.  There  were  great  personages 
 who  desired  the  indulgences  without  the  pilgrimage  of  the 
 Jubilee  year  ;  but  Clement  YI.  refused  the  exceptional 
 favour,  even,  in  one  instance,  to  royalty,  when  a  King  of 
 Cyprus  applied.  At  last,  however,  he  yielded  so  far  as  to 
 allow  an  Archbishop  of  Bari  to  extend  those  spiritual 
 benefits  with  dispensation  to  thirty  individuals  who,  not 
 having  visited  Eome,  were  ready  to  advance  sums,  at  the 
 disposal  of  the  Pope,  for  charitable  or  pious  objects,  and 
 equivalent  to  the  costs  of  such  a  journey.  Towards  the 
 end  of  the  year,  when  the  period  for  obtaining  indulgences 
 was  abridged,  tumults  broke  out  at  Eome ;  the  large  profits, 
 gained  from  the  pilgrims,  only  stimulated  the  avarice  and 
 perhaps  excited  the  restless  spirit  of  the  turbulent  citizens. 
 The  two  senators  then  in  office,  a  Colonna  and  an  Orsini, 
 were  powerless  to  still  the  tempest.  The  Vicar  of  the 
 Pope,  Ponzio,  Bishop  of  Orvieto,  who  had  garrisoned  the 
 Oapitol  in  his  Sovereign's  name,  was  opposed  by  the 
 Colonnas  and  their  faction.  Jacopo  Savelli  made  himself 
 master  by  force  of  the  public  palace  on  that  hill,  while 
 Stefanello  Colonna  seized  the  adjacent  tower  of  the  Conti. 
 General  anarchy  ensued;  the  streets  were  filled  with  a 
 lawless  mob  ;  brigands  and  robbers  committed  outrages  at 
 the  gates.  At  last,  on  the  day  after  Christmas,  1351,  a  re- 
 action against  the  aristocratic  ascendancy  ensued.  An 
 esteemed  citizen,  named  Giovanni  di  Cerroni,  w^as  urged  to 
 accept  the  office  of  chief  magistrate.  Savelli  was  compelled, 
 or  found  it  prudent,  to  give  up  the  Capitoline  palace  ;  and 
 
b  MEDIEVAL   CnEISTIANITY   AND 
 
 Cerroni  was   elected  Eector  and  Senator  by  unanimous 
 votes  of  the  people  on  the  Capitol. 
 
 The  Papal  Yicar  ratified  this  choice  after  the  Senator  had 
 sworn  fealty  to  the  Pontiff.  Por  a  timCf  Cerroni' s  authority 
 was  efficiently  enforced  and  obeyed.  In  the  spring  of  1352, 
 an  expedition  against  Viterbo  and  the  turbulent  Del  Yico, 
 lord  of  that  city,  was  undertaken,  but  without  success  ;  and 
 this  discomfiture  injured  the  credit  of  Cerroni.  He  re- 
 solved to  retire  from  office.  The  struggle  between  those 
 who  supported  and  those  who  opposed  him  gave  rise  to 
 combat  and  bloodshed.  The  Senator  fled  to  the  Abruzzi 
 mountains.  The  people  elected  two  other  Senators,  Ste- 
 fanello  Colonna  and  Bertoldo  Orsini,  and  no  Papal  ratifica- 
 tion was  sought  for.  It  appears  that  the  Bishop  of  Orvieto 
 threatened  the  ban  of  the  Church  against  these  unautho- 
 rized magistrates,  but  that  his  menaces  were  disregarded. 
 
 The  contributions  from  the  devout  pilgrims  were  absorbed 
 by  the  hiring  of  troops  in  a  war  for  the  restoration  of  Papal 
 government  in  Eomagna,  and  other  provinces  lost  by  the 
 Holy  See.  The  Archbishop  of  Milan,  the  Pepoli  and  Este, 
 lords  of  Bologna  and  Perrara,  and  Mastino  della  Scala,  lord 
 of  Verona,  supplied  money  or  troops,  or  both,  for  this 
 campaign  in  behalf  of  the  enfeebled  sovereignty  of  the 
 Popes,  whose  absence  at  Avignon  had  well-nigh  cost  the 
 total  loss  of  their  States  in  Italy.  The  political  condition 
 of  the  States  nominally  pertaining  to  the  Church  displayed 
 signs  and  portents  of  dissolution.  The  origin  of  the  tem- 
 poral power  of  the  Popes,  in  the  VIII.  century,  was,  strictly 
 speaking,  popular,  and  in  the  highest  degree  honourable  to 
 the  Supreme  Priests  who  had  been  led  from  the  altar  to  the 
 throne,  and  urged  to  wield  the  sceptre,  as  well  as  the 
 crozier,  by  the  respectful  persuasion  of  their  feUow-citizens. 
 But  subsequent  donations  from  Princes,  and  the  arbitrary 
 bestowal  of  cities  aud  provinces  on  the  tiara,  had  founded 
 
SACRED    ART    IX   ITALY.  7 
 
 a  fabric  wautiug  the  elements  of  genuine  strength,  though 
 indeed  destined  for  long  endurance.  In  1375,  eighty 
 towns  and  fortified  places  threw  off  their  allegiance  to  the 
 Pope,  in  the  course  of  a  few  days.  The  means  used  for  re- 
 covering lost  possessions  by  the  agents  of  the  Pontificate,  in 
 this  century,  were  sometimes  more  compromising  than 
 defeat.  Cardinals  were  seen  at  the  head  of  armies,  which 
 they  led  to  the  siege  and  sack  of  cities,  and  in  some  in- 
 stances allowed  to  commit  every  outrage  that  disgraced  war- 
 fare in  the  Middle  Ages.  The  carnage  at  Cesena,  ordered 
 (or  at  least  sanctioned)  by  the  Cardinal  of  Geneva — which 
 we  shall  have  to  notice  farther  in  these  pages — is  a  horror- 
 striking  example  of  the  contradiction  between  the  princi- 
 ples of  the  Church  and  the  acts  of  pontifical  government. 
 
 Benedict  XII,  assuming  the  right  to  administer  the 
 Imperial  States  during  the  vacancy  of  the  Grerman  throne, 
 affected  to  bestow  on  the  Lombardic  princes  the  terri- 
 tories they  had  already  reduced  under  their  sway.  In 
 return  the  Bavarian  Louis,  Emperor  elect,  but  never 
 recognised  as  such  by  the  Popes,  retaliated  by  sanctioning 
 the  occupation  of  provinces  and  cities,  lawfully  pertaining  to 
 the  Holy  See,  by  numerous  usurpers,  whose  authority  had 
 thus  the  pretence  of  imperial  ratification.  The  Malatestas 
 became  recognised  lords  of  Rimini,  Pesaro,  Pano ;  the 
 Polenta  family  of  Eavenna ;  the  Montefeltro  of  Urbino  ;  the 
 Ordelaffi  of  Porli  and  Cesena ;  the  Gabrielli  of  Gubbio ; 
 the  Alidosi  of  Imola.  Gentile  da  Pabriano  obtained  almost 
 independent  sway  at  Camerino  :  Buonconti  de'  Monaldeschi 
 held  undisputed  lordship  over  Orvieto  after  he  had  caused 
 two  colleagues  to  be  put  to  death.  Bologna,  the  city  next 
 in  importance  and  grandeur  to  Eome,  was  effectually  ruled 
 over  by  Taddeo  de'  Pepoli,  though  he  satisfied  himself  with 
 the  title  of  Yicar  of  the  Church,  and  was  pledged  to  an 
 annual  tribute  of  SOOO  lire.     At  Paenza  resided  a  Papal 
 
8  MEDIEVAL   CHEISTIANITY   AND 
 
 Governor,  with  the  rank  of  Count  of  Eomagna ;  but  the 
 occupant  of  this  office,  Hector  de  Durfort,  a  relative  of 
 Clement  VI.,  was  obliged  to  share  his  authority  with  the 
 Manfredi,  the  principal  family  of  the  place ;  and  in  1350 
 the  Erench  Count  was  violently  expelled  from  Eaenza  by 
 IVancesco  Ordelaffi,  lord  of  Cesena,  and  another  Manfredi, 
 lord  of  Eorli.  It  was  this  provocation  that  induced  Pope 
 Clement  to  undertake  the  war,  which  begun  with  an  ex- 
 pedition, commanded  by  the  same  Durfort,  against  Eaenza 
 — May,  1351.  The  Pepoli  and  the  Alidosi  sided  with  the 
 pontific  leaders.  But  the  Count  of  Homagna  suspected  the 
 fidelity  of  Griovanni  de'  Pepoli  (son  of  the  lately  deceased 
 Taddeo),  and  caused  him  to  be  treacherously  arrested.  He 
 was  soon  released,  owing  to  a  revolt  among  the  discon- 
 tented and  ill-paid  troops  under  the  Count's  command. 
 Such  ill-advised  proceeding  naturally  made  an  enemy  of 
 one  disposed  to  be  a  powerful  friend.  Griovanni  de'  Pepoli 
 soon  afterwards  sold  Bologna  with  its  province  for  200,000 
 gold  florins  to  the  Archbishop  Yisconti,  now  absolute  lord 
 of  Milan.  The  general  decline  of  ecclesiastical  govern- 
 ment, under  the  Avignonese  Popes,  is  noticed  in  language 
 and  tone  almost  comic  by  a  chronicler  of  Arezzo  in  his 
 metrical  history  of  that  city,  extending  from  1310  to  1384. 
 He  supposes  himself  a  father  thus  addressing  his  son : 
 
 Dimmi,  figluol,  s'avesse  mai  crcduto 
 Ch'l  gran  poter  ch'avia  la  Chiesa  Santa, 
 Fosse  in  si  breve  tempo  caduto  ? 
 De  la  Marca,  Romagna,  tutto  quanta, 
 Del  Ducato  Perosgia,  e  Patrimonio 
 Si  subito  la  Chiesa  se  ha  smanta. 
 
 The  conditions  of  Eome  at  this  period  have  been,  perhaps, 
 represented  in  colours  of  exaggerated  gloom.  Contem- 
 porary writers  indeed  accord  in  depicting  dismal  realities, 
 the  consequences  of  licentious  violence,  unstable  govern- 
 
SACKED    ART    IX    ITALY.  9 
 
 ment,  uncliecked  crimes  and  outrages.  An  able  historian, 
 whose  works  throw  light  on  many  mediieval  pictures,  Von 
 Beumont,  rejects  the  tradition  that  the  Boman  population 
 had  sunk  so  low  as  17,000  during  the  absence  of  the  Popes ; 
 and  we  must  agree  mth  him  if  the  statement  can  he  ad- 
 mitted, that  when  Henry  YII.  visited  this  city  in  1312,  the 
 one  region  which  alone  adhered  to  him,  whilst  other  civic 
 wards  opposed  him,  could  supply  10,000  combatants ;  that 
 (as  also  stated  by  chroniclers),  fifty  years  later,  the  people, 
 apart  from  the  Barons  and  their  factions,  could  bring 
 22,000  armed  men  into  the  field,  (?)  The  total  number  of 
 Clergy  in  Eome,  about  this  period,  was  758  of  the  secular, 
 317  of  the  regular  order ;  the  nuns,  471 ;  and  the  hos- 
 pitalers, devoted  to  the  care  of  the  sick,  97.  The  churches, 
 all  included,  were  424,  among  which  eleven  ranked  as 
 basilicas,  252  as  parochial ;  20,  formerly  privileged  as  abba- 
 tial,  having  passed  into  other  hands  or  lost  their  privileges  ; 
 and  44  churches  are  described  as  either  ruinous  or  shut  up 
 and  totally  neglected.* 
 
 In  the  spring  of  1353,  the  high  prices  of  grain  were  the 
 provocation  or  pretext  of  a  revolt.  Two  Senators,  an 
 Orsini  and  a  Colonna,  then  in  office,  became  the  mark  for 
 popular  fury,  and  examples  of  the  hard  fate  of  those  who 
 attempted  to  control  these  turbulent  citizens.  With  the 
 customary  cry,  "  Popolo,  Popolo  !"  a  multitude  rushed  to  the 
 Capitol,  and  threw  stones  at  the  windows  of  the  palace  where 
 those  officials  then  were.  Colonna  escaped,  assuming  mean 
 disguise,  and  causing  himself  to  be  let  down  by  a  cord  from 
 a  back  window.  Bertoldo  Orsini,  less  fortunate  though 
 more  courageous,  appeared  in  armour  amidst  the  angry 
 crowd,  and  descended  the  stairs  of  the  Capitoline  hill, 
 hoping  to  mount  his  horse  and  fly.     Before  he  could  pro- 
 
 *  These  statistics  are  given  more  at  full  by  Von  Keumont ;  and  I  have 
 inserted  them  in  the  volume  of  which  the  present  forms  a  sequel,  p.  535. 
 
10  MEDIiEVAL    CHEISTIANITT    AND 
 
 ceed  far  he  was  struck  by  stones,  obliged  to  turn  back,  and, 
 while  attempting  to  regain  the  palace,  fell  before  an  image 
 of  the  Madonna,  under  the  shower  of  stones  which  inflicted 
 the  death  he  met  in  silence.  The  Capitoline  palace  was 
 seized  by  the  armed  people,  who  drove  away  the  retainers 
 of  the  patrician  Senators.  Presently  was  elected  by  popular 
 acclamation  an  experienced  citizen  named  Francesco 
 Baroncelli,  who  had  been  senatorial  secretary,  and  was  now 
 installed  as  Tribune.  A  multitude  escorted  him  to  the 
 Capitol  with  the  banners  of  the  city,  of  the  Caporioni,  and 
 also  one  displaying  the  image  of  the  "Virgin.  He  exercised 
 his  office  well  and  vigorously,  though  but  for  a  brief  period, 
 and  was  never  recognised  by  the  Pope. 
 
 Before  proceeding  farther  we  may  consider  the  peculia- 
 rities of  the  municipal  system  in  Eome  during  the  absence 
 of  the  Popes.  The  Senator,  who,  according  to  recognised 
 rights,  was  nominated  by  the  Pope,  or  by  his  Legate,  held 
 chief  authority,  was  the  highest  administrator  of  justice, 
 and  from  the  year  1358  united  to  his  office  that  of  Captain 
 of  the  People.  Prom  the  same  date  it  was  invariably  re- 
 quired that  he  should  be  a  stranger,  i.  e.  an  Italian  not  of 
 Eoman  birth,  nor  related  to  any  of  the  great  Eoman 
 families.  His  office  was  originally  shared  by  two  persons 
 (like  the  Consulate  of  old),  and  held  for  one  year  ;  later  it 
 was  held  but  by  one  at  a  time,  and  for  only  half  a  year. 
 The  two  Senators  associated  together,  for  one  year,  received 
 3000  gold  florins  each.  In  1340  the  same  salary  wa» 
 settled  on  them  for  the  period  now  limited  to  six  mouths  of 
 office.  This  appointment  was  afterwards  reduced  to  1800, 
 and  finally  to  1500  gold  florins.  The  six  Judges  of  the 
 Capitol,  "  Judices  Palatini,"  were  the  assessors  of  the  Se- 
 nator. Pive  Notaries,  two  Sergeants,  each  with  four  as- 
 sistants and  eight  servants,  who  wore  a  fantastic  striped 
 livery,  swelled  the  retinue  of  the  Senator.     From  1358  he 
 
SACRED    AIIT    IX    ITALY.  11 
 
 was  also  assisted  by  a  board  of  "  Eiforinatori,"  seven  in 
 number.  Next  in  honour,  and  by  many  degrees  superior 
 in  authority,  were  the  "  Caporioni,"  thirteen  magistrates, 
 who  had  command  over  troops,  had  power  over  life  and 
 death,  and  represented  the  civic  "  Eioni "  (or  wards)  of  the 
 same  number.  Their  Prior,  or  president,  was  elected  among 
 themselves.  They  are  said  to  have  been  constituted  as  a 
 privileged  magistracy,  a.d.  958,  in  the  time  of  Pope  John 
 XII. ;  but  were  called  Decurions  in  earlier  ages,  probably 
 till  1370,  when  they  acquired  a  new  name — "  Banderesi" — 
 the  origin  of  which  is  thus  accounted  for  :  in  that  year 
 the  Florentines,  suspecting  the  Legate  of  Bologna  of  hostile 
 co-operation  with  the  citizens  of  Prato  against  their  Re- 
 public, endeavoured  to  excite  revolt  in  the  cities  lately  re- 
 subjected  to  the  Papacy  by  another  Legate's  exertions.  For 
 this  purpose  they  sent  to  each  of  those  cities  certain  banners 
 with  the  word  "  Libertas"  inscribed  in  gold  letters.*  The 
 symbol  was  received  by  the  Eomans  with  enthusiastic  joy ; 
 and  such  banners  were  distributed  to  each  of  the  thirteen 
 wards,  and  hung  before  the  houses  of  the  Decurions.  Hence 
 those  magistrates  took  their  new  title.  Their  attributions 
 were  subsequently  developed :  they  were  charged  with  the 
 preservation  of  public  order,  the  suppression  of  tumults,  and 
 the  guarding,  or  general  police,  of  the  city ;  and  they  had 
 under  theii'  command  a  civic  militia,  3000  strong.  Essen- 
 tially democratic  was  the  principle  of  this  constitution,  not- 
 withstanding the  fact  that  E-ome  submitted,  theoretically, 
 to  despotic  sovereigns.  Before  laws  and  edicts'proposed  by 
 the  Senator  could  have  force,  or  be  formally  published,  the 
 people  were  summoned  to  the  Capitol  by  herald  and  sound 
 
 *  A  shield  with  that  inscription  appears  amidst  the  painted  heraldry 
 under  the  machicolations  of  the  grand  old  Palazzo  della  Signoria  at 
 ilorencc. 
 
12  MEDIAEVAL    CHEISTIANITT   AND 
 
 of  bell,  to  give  their  suffrages  by  vote.  Tbey  were  repre- 
 sented by  two  Councils,  one  general,  one  special ;  the 
 former  composed  of  various  classes,  and  of  members  cbosen 
 by  lot ;  the  latter  invested  with  greater  authority,  and 
 formed,  it  seems,  of  persons  who  held  other  appointments, 
 as  the  seven  "  Eiformatori/'  all  entitled  to  sit  in  that 
 Council. 
 
 A  senatorial  procession  in  these  times  was  one  of  those 
 mediaeval  pageants  that  might  figure  on  the  page  of  historic 
 romance ;  and  it  seems  that  the  shows  of  outward  pomp 
 were  especially  desired  in  Eome,  where  they  formed  singu- 
 lar contrast  to  the  severe  simplicity  of  antique  manners 
 and  observances  in  that  City  of  the  Seven  Hills.  Escorted 
 by  many  officials,  and  followed  by  pages,  sergeants, 
 trumpeters,  mounted  guards,  came  the  Senator  riding  on  a 
 white  palfrey  caparisoned  in  crimson  velvet,  with  fringes 
 and  tassels  of  silk  and  gold  ;  that  high  functionary  himself 
 attired  in  a  long  robe  of  crimson  velvet  fastened  with 
 gold  buttons,  doublet  of  gold  brocade  curiously  plaited 
 and  lined  with  ermine,  mantelet  (or  cape)  of  ermine,  scarlet 
 hose,  ducal  cap  of  gold  brocade  lined  with  ermine,  and 
 shoes  of  red  velvet  with  gold  buckles ;  white  doe- skin 
 gloves  with  gold  embroidery ;  on  his  fingers  three  gold  rings, 
 set  with  a  diamond,  a  ruby,  and  an  emerald ;  in  his  hand  a 
 gold  wand,  with  ball  and  cross  at  the  summit.  The  Bande- 
 resi  appeared  in  robes  of  crimson  velvet  with  short  sleeves, 
 lined  with  blue  silk  and  embroidered  with  gold,  doublet 
 of  purple  satin,  ducal  caps  of  crimson  velvet,  hoses  with 
 one  leg  scarlet,  the  other  red  and  yellow,  red  velvet  shoes, 
 and  a  white  wand  in  the  hand ;  the  Prior  distinguished  by 
 a  robe  called  laticlave,  of  purple  velvet,  lined  with  ermine  ; 
 all  riding  on  horses  whose  trappings  were  of  green  velvet, 
 embroidered  with  silver  and  gold,  with  tassels  and  fringes 
 also  golden.     Six  pages,  bearing  banners,  preceded  them. 
 
SACRED    ART    IX    ITALY.  13 
 
 The  Judges  of  the  Capitolmc  Court  came  in  long  robes, 
 silk  and  velvet,  of  graver  hue ;  besides  pages,  trumpeters, 
 minor  officials,  came  fifty  armed  men  on  horseback  ;  and  the 
 procession  was  completed  by  two  bands  of  musicians,  in  all 
 sixteen  persons,  eight  of  whom  sang,  and  eight  played  on 
 instruments.* 
 
 The  Banderesi  merged  at  last  into  the  "  Caporioni,"  of  the 
 same  number,  who  continued  to  represent  the  thirteen 
 wards.  Even  in  modern  times,  and  under  the  fully  de- 
 veloped absolutism  of  the  Popes,  these  officials  retained  a 
 remnant  and  shadow  of  their  ancient  attributions.  During 
 the  vacancy  of  the  throne,  they  enrolled  troops,  became 
 responsible  for  public  safety  ;  and  when  informed  of  the 
 Pontiif 's  decease,  that  Caporioni  in  whose  ward  was  situated 
 the  public  prisons,  went  with  banners  and  guards,  and  beat 
 of  drum,  to  liberate  the  captives,  according  to  the  some- 
 what perilous  precedents  of  clemency  on  those  occasions. 
 During  the  period  of  "  Sede  Yacante,"  each  Caporioni  had 
 the  banner  of  his  ward  floating  before  his  official  residence. 
 jSTo  Eoman  citizen  could  be  a  "  Judex  Palatinus,"  or 
 assessor  of  the  Senator ;  but  the  post  of  Senatorial  Secre- 
 tary was  usually  held  by  a  Eoman  of  respectability,  some- 
 times of  the  minor  patrician  class.  In  1380,  we  find  a 
 painter  and  a  notary  among  the  Banderesi,  while  four  of 
 the  second-class  nobility  held  office  among  their  counsel- 
 lors. 
 
 The  year  1362  proved  stormy  in  Eome.     The  Senator, 
 
 *  See  for  all  these  and  many  more  particulars  of  costume,  *'  Order  and 
 Magnificence  of  tlie  Roman  IMagistrates  in  the  time  the  Pontific  Court 
 was  at  Avignon,"  edited  from  a  Vatican  MS.  by  Muratori,  ""  Antiq. 
 Ital.  Med."  Disser.  29,  1.  33.  It  should  be  added  that,  according  toother 
 traditions,  the  Decurions  took  the  title  of  Banderesi  so  early  as  1262,  in 
 the  time  of  Urban  IV,  Their  original  designation  was  derived  from 
 '*  Decuria,"  a  civic  region. 
 
14  MEDIJSYAL    CHEISTIANITT   AlfD 
 
 Cancelliere  (of  a  well-known  Pistoian  house)  was  driven 
 away;  his  office  being  abolished,  and  all  the  aristocratic  fami- 
 lies alike  expelled.  One  Lello  Pocadota,  a  shoemaker,  was 
 chosen  to  act  as  chief  magistrate,  with  the  seven  Eiforma- 
 tori  as  his  assessors.  But  these  nominations  did  not  last 
 long.  Several  exiles  joined  a  company  of  disbanded  soldiers, 
 Italians  and  Germans,  called  "  Compagnia  del  Cappelletto," 
 from  their  standard,  a  cap  at  the  point  of  a  lance.  After 
 laying  waste  the  territory  of  Arezzo,  these  adventurers 
 entered  the  province  of  the  Patrimony.  Panic  prevailed  in 
 E-ome,  where  it  was  feared  they  might  venture  to  attack  the 
 city  itself.  Foreign  soldiers,  Germans  and  Hungarians, 
 were  recruited  to  assist  the  civic  militia ;  and  a  force  of 
 22,000  is  said,  (probably  with  exaggeration),  to  have  been 
 under  arms  within  the  walls.  The  marauders,  however, 
 did  not  approach  nearer ;  but  the  effect  of  this  alarm  was 
 such  that  the  revolutionized  system  came  to  an  end ;  Lello 
 Pocadota,  erroneously  reported  to  have  been  slain  in  a 
 skirmish,  actually  disappeared ;  the  citizens  submitted  to 
 the  Pope,  only  making  the  condition  that  the  Legate  Albor- 
 noz  should  have  no  more  control  over  them. 
 
 In  1361,  Hugo  de  Lusignan,  titular  King  of  Cyprus,  was 
 appointed  Senator  by  Innocent  YI.  The  Pope's  brief  to  the 
 Eoman  magistrates,  on  this  occasion,  contains  the  following 
 details,  but  too  well  confirmed  by  other  testimony :  "  In 
 your  city,  justice  is  subverted  ;  concord  banished ;  domestic 
 hostilities  lead  to  continual  tumults,  the  violence  of  which 
 is  daily  increasing."  In  another  brief,  of  earlier  date,  from 
 Clement  YL,  is  noticed  the  neglect  of  religious  rites  and 
 the  abandonment  of  Pome's  churches.  The  same  Pontiff, 
 who  sent  14,000  gold  florins  for  public  works,  and  other 
 things  requisite  in  this  capital,  complains  that  S.  Maria 
 Nuova,  the  church  he  assigned  to  the  Olivetan  monks,  who 
 still  officiate  there,  was  neglected  by  the  two  canons  alone 
 
SACRED    ART    IN    ITALY.  15 
 
 left  of  the  dispersed  chapter,  and  that  those  who  had  charge 
 of  that  sacred  building,  now  no  longer  a  place  of  worship, 
 w^ere  reprobates,  "  guilty  of  murder  and  other  crimes." 
 
 In  an  address  of  the  Eoman  magistrates  to  Gregory  XI., 
 urging  him  to  settle  with  his  Court  in  their  city,  they 
 represented  that  "the  cardinalitial  churches  are  aban- 
 doned by  those  who  receive  their  titles  and  honours  from 
 them ;  are  left  so  desolate  as  to  be  without  roofs  and  doors  ; 
 their  walls  dilapidated  ;  their  interiors  open  to  flocks  and 
 herds,  which  often  stray  in  for  pasture  up  to  their  very 
 altars  !  "  Such  was  the  state  of  the  Lateran,  after  having 
 been  twice  on  fire  in  this  century,  when  Petrarch  saw  it  in 
 11350.  That  writer  reprobates  the  Vandalism  of  those  who 
 used  to  demolish  Rome's  antique  edifices  for  the  sake  of 
 selling  their  marbles.  "  After  (he  says)  overthrowing  the 
 triumphal  arches,  from  which,  perhaps,  they  had  already 
 torn  down  the  statues  of  their  ancestors,  they  have  not 
 been  ashamed  to  traffic  with  the  relics  of  antiquity  for  the 
 sake  of  a  miserable  gain,  and  for  their  own  dishonour."* 
 
 *  Petrarch  infers  that  many  such  classic  spoils  went  to  adorn  new 
 buildings  at  Naples  :  "  De  vestris  marmoreis  coluranis,  de  liminibus 
 templorum — desidiosa  Neapolis  adornatur."  The  poet's  fine  Canzone, 
 "  Spirito  gentil,''  addressed  to  Eienzo,  describes  the  manner  in  which 
 sacred  edifices  were  habitually  profaned  at  Eorae.  He  supposes  the 
 Saints  to  look  down  with  sorrow  from  their  celestial  abode  on  such  pro- 
 fanation of  their  earthly  temples  : 
 
 E  se  cosa  di  qua  nel  ciel  si  cura, 
 
 L'anime  che  lassu  son  cittadine, 
 
 Ed  hanno  i  corpi  abbandonati  in  teiTa, 
 
 Del  lungo  odio  civil  ti  pregan  fine, 
 
 Per  cui  la  gente  ben  non  s'  assecura, 
 
 Onde  'I  cammin  a'  lor  tetti  si  serra, 
 -  Che  fur  gia  si  devoti,  ed  ora  in  guerra  * 
 
 Qiiasi  spelonca  di  ladron  son  fatti, 
 
 Tal  ch'  a'  buon  solamente  uscio  si  chiudc : 
 
 jE  trd  gli  altari,  e  tra  le  statue  igmule 
 
16  MEDI^YAL    CHRISTIANITY    AND 
 
 Those  classical  monuments  which  still  stood  erect,  however 
 decayed,  were  in  great  part  buried  under  ground,  or  con- 
 cealed by  other  buildings  ;  and  the  strange  mistakes  of  the 
 learned  Petrarch  himself  as  to  their  origin  or  character, 
 lead  us  to  conclude  that  the  epigraphs,  still  distinctly  legible 
 on  their  fronts,  must  at  this  time  have  been  concealed  by 
 the  barbaric  fortresses,  or  other  enormities  in  brickwork, 
 thrown  up  against  or  around  them — as  were  undoubtedly 
 the  arches  of  Titus  and  Severus,  and  the  quadruple  arch- 
 way of  Janus,  on  which  structures  some  remnants  of  pon- 
 derous brick  towers  were  to  be  seen  in  modern  times.  The 
 Mausoleum  of  Augustus,  long  held  as  a  fortress  by  the 
 Colonnas,  was  now  dismantled.  The  theatre  of  Marcellus 
 was  in  like  manner  held  and  defended  by  the  Savelli.  The 
 Porum  and  Capitol  were  encumbered  by  grim  fortresses, 
 which  looked  down  in  stern  defiance,  whilst  they  announced 
 the  prevalent  contempt  for  classical  antiquity.  The 
 Thermse  were  probably  less  injured  than  other  antique 
 structures,  because  less  suitable  for  purposes  of  fortifica- 
 tion. The  Colosseum,  fortified  and  held  by  one  baronial 
 family  after  another,  was  better  cared  for  since  it  had  passed 
 under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  magistrates.  Henry  VII., 
 during  his  stay  here  (1312),  compelled  the  Annibaldeschi, 
 its  then  owners,  to  abandon  the  castle  they  had  built 
 within  its  walls.  In  1349  these  and  other  ruins  were 
 much  injured  by  earthquake,  and  the  scattered  material 
 thus  thrown  down  at  the  amphitheatre  was  ofiered  for 
 sale.  About  the  same  time  it  was  that  the  chief  baronial 
 families  began  to  use  that  ruined  amphitheatre  as  the 
 common  quarry  for  the  travertine  or  brick  they  wanted  for 
 
 Ogw'  impresa  crudel  par  cUe  si  tratti. 
 Deh  quanto  diversi  atti  ! 
 Ne'  senza  squillo  s'incomincia  assalto, 
 Che  per  Dio  ringraziar  fur  postc  in  alto. 
 
SACBED    AET    IN    ITALY.  17 
 
 tlieir  own  buildings ;  but  this  practice  was  probably 
 checked,  owing  to  the  cession  made  by  the  magistrates  of 
 the  ground-floor  arcades  as  wards  for  the  Lateran  hospital 
 of  S.  John. 
 
 We  must  conclude  that  the  Home  of  the  XIV.  century 
 presented  nothing  like  the  architectural  style,  character, 
 or  grouping  of  the  scene  now  before  us,  save  at  the 
 centres  most  distinguished  by  classical  antiquities.  Not 
 one  inhabitable  building,  palace,  castle,  or  monastery  then 
 stood  in  the  same  condition  as  at  this  day ;  still  less  any 
 street  or  public  place.  Even  among  churches  the  few  then 
 characterized  by  the  same  leading  features,  in  their  prin- 
 cipal masses  at  least,  as  at  present,  may  be  counted  in  a 
 single  line :  S.  Maria  in  Trastevere,  Aracoeli  on  the  Capitol, 
 S.  Stefano  Eotundo,  S.  Sabina  and  S.  Sabba  on  the  Aven- 
 tine,  and  the  extramural  S.  Lorenzo.  Eight  churches  are 
 said  to  have  been  built  in  Eome  during  this  century ;  but 
 I  believe  we  cannot  make  out  this  number  without  in- 
 cluding the  restorations,  more  or  less  complete,  of  those 
 injured  by  fire  or  otherwise  reduced  to  ruin.  And  the 
 Campagna — now  in  desolate  solitude,  monotonous,  but  so 
 impressive  in  its  harmony  with  the  memories  of  the 
 "  Niobe  of  Nations  " — the  Campagna  was  in  those  times 
 devastated  by  frequent  war,  disturbed  by  military  tumult, 
 and  overspread  by  a  gloom  different  indeed,  as  to  cause 
 and  effects,  from  th6  silent  melancholy  which  there  reigns 
 at  the  present  day.  Petrarch  best  describes  such  realities 
 in  a  letter  to  his  friend  Griovanni  Colonna,  written  from 
 the  castle  of  another  friend,  Orso,  Count  d'Anguillara,  at 
 Capranica,  where  the  writer  took  refuge,  was  indeed  under 
 the  necessity  of  remaining,  for  many  days,  owing  to  the 
 feud  between  the  Orsini  and  Colonna,  which  then  spread 
 terror  and  tumult  over  this  region,  and  prevented  his  pro- 
 
18  MEDIEVAL    CHRISTIANITY    AND 
 
 ceeding  on  the  last  stage  of  his  journey  to  Eome  in  13S6 — 
 Petrarch's  first  visit  to  this  capital.* 
 
 The  Erench  Popes,  and  their  Court  at  Avignon,  cannot 
 be  passed  over  in  our  review  of  the  state  of  Italy  during 
 the  period  of  the  so-called  Babylonian  Exile — that  desertion 
 of  their  see  by  the  Pontiffs  which  Muratori  considers  as, 
 together  with  the  incessant  wars  during  this  time,  the 
 principal  cause  of  "  the  general  corruption  of  morals  then 
 prevailing  throughout  Italy."  (Annali,  an.  1373.)  That 
 ecclesiastical  Court  on  the  banks  of  the  Ehone  was  a  source 
 of  scandals ;  the  growing  and  long-permitted  abuses  within 
 its  sphere  were  an  offence  to  conscience,  an  opprobrium  to 
 the  Christianity  of  the  age.  Illustrious  writers  denounced 
 and  deplored ;  saintly  men  and  women  threatened  the 
 wrath  of  Grod  against  these  patent  evils.  Not,  however, 
 that  the  personal  character  of  the  crowned  High  Priests 
 who  sat  at  Avignon  was  generally  reprehensible.  On  the 
 contrary,  there  were,  among  the  seven  who  reigned  in  Prance 
 
 *  "  Peace  alone  is  banished  from  these  regions,  whether  through  the 
 guilt  of  the  people,  through  a  decree  of  Heaven,  or  the  wrath  of  Fate 
 and  evil  influences  of  the  stars,  I  know  not.  The  shepherd  keeps  watch 
 by  his  flock  in  arms,  less  anxious  to  defend  them  against  wolves  than 
 against  robbers.  The  husbandman,  wearing  a  cuirass,  drives  his  oxen 
 to  labour  with  a  spear  instead  of  a  goad.  The  fowler  covers  himself 
 with  a  shield  as  he  draws  his  nets;  the  fisherman  fastens  his  bait  to  a 
 lance.  Water  is  drawn  from  the  deep  wells  in  a  rusty  casque  instead 
 of  a  pail.  In  a  word,  every  man  here  is  armed  at  all  times.  At  night 
 one  hears  from  the  walls  the  challenge  of  the  sentinel  and  the  cry  to 
 arms.  There  is  no  safety,  no  word  of  peace,  no  impulse  of  humanity 
 for  the  inhabitants  of  this  region  :  all  breathes  war,  enmit}^,  and  pas- 
 sionate hate.  Here  have  I  been  staying,  half  with  half  against  my  will, 
 for  sixteen  days  ;  and  whilst  the  soldiery  are  hastening,  summoned  by 
 the  din  of  trumpets,  to  battle,  I  roam  over  the  hills  in  solitude.  All 
 wonder  to  see  me  unarmed  and  heedless,  as  much  as  I  wonder  at  their 
 continual  agitations." 
 
SACRED    ART    IN    ITALY.  19 
 
 over  the  Church,  men  of  sanctified  life,  against  whose 
 morals  and  example  contemporary  biographers  bring  no 
 charge.  "We  possess  several  histories  of  them  by  writers 
 of  their  time,  no  doubt  trustworthy  ;  seven  of  JohnXXII., 
 eight  of  Benedict  XII.,  six  of  Clement  VI.,  four  of  Urban 
 Y.  (vi.  Baluze.)  The  two  Yillani  are  indeed  less  favourable 
 witnesses  as  to  the  conduct  and  character  of  some  among 
 these  Pontiffs.  Matteo  says  of  Clement  YI.  that  "he  filled 
 the  Church  with  Cardinals,  his  own  relatives,  some  of  whom 
 were  so  young  and  addicted  to  such  disreputable  courses 
 that  the  consequences  were  most  abominable."  Yet  an- 
 other chronicler  calls  the  same  Pope,  "  a  model  of  modesty 
 and  exemplar  of  piety." 
 
 As  to  his  unfortunate  choice  of  Cardinals,  the  Augustinian 
 Luigi  Marsigli  declares  that  they  were  "  avaricious,  disso- 
 lute, importunate,  and  shameless  Limousins" — being  in  the 
 plurality,  if  not  all,  natives  of  that  province.  At  Avignon 
 was  introduced  the  system  of  the  reservation  of  bishoprics 
 and  benefices  ;  also  that  of  "  commenda,"  or  bestowal  of 
 abbacies  and  other  preferments  upon  clerics  hot  bound  to 
 residence, sometimes  even  upon  laymen,  who  naturally  cared 
 for  nothing  but  the  revenues  they  were  thus  entitled  to. 
 The  "  Annates,"  originally  limited  to  the  smaller  bene- 
 fices, were  extended  by  John  XXII.  to  all  preferments  the 
 disposal  of  which  was  claimed  by  the  Holy  See,  thus  being 
 imposed  a  tax  from  every  vacant  post  in  the  Church  for  the 
 benefit  of  the  Papacy.  Spiritual  supremacy  became  avast 
 and  complicated  scheme  for  financial  aggrandisement !  The 
 nomination  of  bishops  and  abbots  was  taken  from  the 
 Chapters,  and  appropriated  by  the  Popes.  The  issue  of  com- 
 mendatory letters  for  future  appointment  to  benefices  not 
 yet  vacant,  by  Papal  behest,  was  carried  to  the  utmost 
 extent  The  creating  of  new  bishoprics  led  to  a  general 
 breaking  up  of  the  ancient  dioceses ;  and  the  transfer  of 
 
 c  2 
 
20  MEDIiEVAL   CnmSTIANITT   AND 
 
 prelates  from  one  see  to  another  became  more  and  more 
 frequent.     A  new  source  of  revenue,  whicli   promised  to 
 be  inexbaustible,  was  opened   by  the   exacting  of  tithes 
 on  ecclesiastical  property   in   different  countries  for  the 
 benefit  of  the  Holy  See,  and  often  for  the  furtherance  of 
 purely  mundane    interests,   especially  for  the    wars   the 
 Pontiffs  were  so  frequently  engaged  in.      Not  only  were 
 reserves   and   expectatives  continually  multiplied,  but   the 
 same  benefice  was  sometimes  bestowed  on  different  persons, 
 as  each  in  succession  offered  a  higher  price  for  it.    Cardinals 
 attached  to  the  Curia  were  now  allowed  to  hold  bishoprics, 
 in  whatever  country,  without  obligation  of  residence ;   and 
 the  accumulation  of  pluralities  reached  a  climax,  one  ex- 
 ample of  which  we  have   in   the   case  of  the  nephew  of 
 Clement  YI.,  who  became   Pope   as  Grregory  XI.     Made 
 Cardinal  by  his  uncle  at  the  age  of  seventeen,  he  held  at 
 the  same  time  preferment  as  Archdeacon  of  three  cathedral 
 churches    (Canterbury   among   the   rest),    Canon  of  two 
 chapters,  and   Provost  of  another  church,   yet  never  re- 
 ceived priest's  orders  till  after  his  election  to  the  Papacy!* 
 The  Prench  Pontiffs  could  not  emancipate  themselves  from 
 thraldom  to  the  Prench  crown ;  and  vacant  mitres,  in  that 
 country,  had  to  be  bestowed  according  to  royal,  rather  than 
 Papal,  preference.   We  are  not  surprised  to  find  the  heroic 
 but  simple-minded  Catherine  of  Siena  admonishing  Gregory 
 XI.  that  the  stench  of  corruptions  in  the  Curia  had  reached 
 her  even  at  her  native  town  among  the  Tuscan  mountains  ; 
 for  that  Saint  believed  herself  possessed  of  the  unenviable 
 faculty  of  discerning  the  existence  of  vices  by  their  offen- 
 
 *  "  The  Roman  Court  became  the  universal  head  of  all  authorities  and 
 institutions  in  the  Church.  The  inevitable  consequence  was  to  cripple 
 the  pastoral  administration,  whether  parochial  or  diocesan,  and  intro- 
 duce a  general  state  of  religious  disease  and  decay  ;  bishops  and  parish 
 priests  withdrawing  more  and  niore  from  their  pastoral  charges." — 
 Janus. 
 
SACKED    ART    I2>"    ITALY.  2ri 
 
 sire  smell !     Dante  declared  that  wliilc  worthless  Pontiffs 
 sat  in  the   chair   of  S.  Peter,  that  throne   was   vacant  iu 
 the  sight  of  Grod  !  and  Petrarch  saw  in  the  Papal  residence 
 on  the  Ehone  the  mystic  Babylon  of  the  Apocalypse  : — 
 L'avara  Babilonia  ha  colmo  '1  sacca 
 D'  ira  di  Dio,  e  di  vizi  empi  e  rei, 
 Tanto  che  scoppia ;  ed  ha  fotti  suoi  Dei, 
 Non  Giove  e  Palla,  ma  Venere  e  Bacco! 
 
 Terrible  is  the  chastisement  inflicted  by  the  never- for*- 
 gotten  denunciations  of  Genius  ;  and  vain  was  the  effort  of 
 Pope  Pius  Y.  to  stifle  the  testimony  of  that  Poet  by  order- 
 ing the  suppression  of  the  Sonnets  against  Avignon  in 
 future  editions  of  his  works. 
 
 Such  scandals  in  the  Church  had  their  natural  eff'ect  in 
 the  intellectual  and  political  spheres.  Long  maintained 
 ecclesiastical  immunities  were  now  encroached  on  ;  the  pre- 
 rogatives of  the  privileged  caste  began  to  be  interfered  with. 
 At  Plorence,  the  clergy  were  subjected  to  the  same  taxa- 
 tion, and  made  amenable  to  the  same  tribunals  as  the 
 laity.  At  Genoa,  ecclesiastics  were  excluded  from  all 
 public  employments.  At  Venice,  the  regular  clergy  were 
 required  to  take  part  in  the  defence  of  the  State  during  the 
 war  of  that  republic  with  the  Genoese ;  and  those  able- 
 bodied  monks  who  refused  to  take  arms  in  the  cause  were 
 expelled.  At  Turin  was  passed  a  statute  to  check  "  the 
 iniquity,  pride,  and  immoderate  avarice  of  the  clergy.*' — 
 {Super  iniquitate,  superhid  et  immoderata  avaritid  cleri  et 
 preslyieroriLm.)  At  Pistoia,  it  was  decreed  that  eccle- 
 siastics should  forfeit  all  claim  on  family-property,  and 
 could  only  apply  to  their  kindred  for  assistance  in  the  way 
 of  charitable  succour.  At  Perugia,  an  official  was  appointed 
 (1319)  expressly  to  watch  over  the  conduct  of  the  clergy  ; 
 and  it  was  proposed  that  no  letters  should  be  forwarded  to 
 the  Pope,  not  even  by  the  bishop  of  the  diocese,  without 
 the  municipal  seal  being  affixed. 
 
22  MEDIiEVAL    CHllISTIANITT   AND 
 
 After  the  death  of  Clement  VI.,  was  elected  Stephen 
 d' Albert  of  Limoges,  Cardinal  Bishop  of  Ostia,  who  took 
 the  name  of  Innocent  YI.  (1352-62).     During  the  inter- 
 regnum   the   Cardinals  passed  a  regulation  to  which  all 
 pledged  themselves  by  oath — though  some  added  the  con- 
 dition "  if  conformable  to  law" — obliging  the  new  Pope 
 and  all  his  successors  neither  to  create,  depose,  nor  subject 
 to  censures  any  Cardinal  without  consent  of  at  least  two- 
 thirds  of  the  Sacred  College ;  never  to  alienate  or  bestow 
 as  a  fief,  under  condition  of  tribute,  any  city,  castle,  or 
 territory  of  the  Holy  See,  without  similar  consent  from 
 that  cardinalitial  body  ;  to  cede  to  the  Cardinals  one  half 
 of  the  revenues,  taxes,  &c.  accruing  to  the  Eoman  Church 
 — other  less  important  obligations  being  included  in  the 
 prospective  arrangements  here   prescribed.     The  elected, 
 one  of  those  Cardinals  who  had  only  signed  conditionally, 
 abolished  this  entire  regulation  by  bull,  the  year  after  he 
 had  been  raised  to  the  Papal  throne.     Innocent  YI.  was  an 
 exemplary   man,   of   austerely    devout    life,   and    always 
 animated  by  pure  intentions ;  not  learned  or  particularly 
 enlightened,  indeed,  if  we  may  judge  from  the  fact  that  he 
 suspected  Petrarch  of  practising  the   black   art,  because 
 knowing  him  to    be  an  enthusiastic  admirer  of  Yirgil ! 
 "Whatever  the  cause  (says  the  innocent  poet  himself),  it 
 is   certain   that   he   affirmed  I  was  a  magician,  nor  was 
 ashamed  to  adduce,  as  proof  thereof,  that  I  had  read  and 
 continued  to  read  \\Yg\V  —  {Lettere  Senile  IV— Tie  Mon- 
 nier  edition.)     He   energetically   undertook   the   task   of 
 cleansing   the    Augsean   stable   of  abuses   by   which    the 
 Church    was    compromised    and    the     Curia     disgraced. 
 Scarcely  had  he  been  crowned  when  he  enjoined  on  all 
 bishops  and  beneficed  clergy,  then  in  his  court,  to  return  to 
 their  dioceses  and  parishes  under  pain  of  excommunication. 
 He  suspended  an  immense  number  of  reserves,  commendas, 
 
SACRED   AET   IN   ITALY. 
 
 23 
 
 and  expectativcs  granted  by  Clement  YI. ;  retrenched  the 
 €'xpenses  of  his  palace  and  domestics ;  endeavoured  also  to 
 check  the  excessive  luxuries  of  the  Cardinals.  Economical 
 and  self-denying  in  his  private  life,  he  was  liberal  in  the 
 furtherance  of  political  undertakings  and  public  works. 
 He  caused  Avignon,  hitherto  an  open  city,  to  be  sur- 
 rounded by  strong  walls,  with  moats,  including  space  suffi- 
 cient for  new  buildings,  gardens,  orchards,  &c.  He  spent 
 enormous  sums  (pecunias  infinltas)  for  the  recovery  by 
 armed  force  of  the  States  lost  to  the  Pontificate.  In  1353 
 he  appointed  as  Legate  for  the  Papal  States,  an  individual 
 well  chosen  for  the  arduous  task  of  re-subjecting,  whether 
 by  force  or  policy,  the  many  cities  and  provinces  which  had 
 cast  off  their  allegiance  to  the  Holy  See — Gril  Alvarez 
 Carillo  Albornoz,  a  Spaniard  descended  from  the  Kings  of 
 Aragon  and  Leon.  "While  still  young,  this  person  had  been 
 raised  (1337)  to  the  Archbishopric  of  Toledo,  and  had,  even 
 in  that  capacity,  distinguished  himself  as  a  warrior  in  the 
 campaigns  against  the  Moors.  After  the  great  victory  of  the 
 Christians  over  the  Moslems,  on  the  field  of  Tarifa  (131:0), 
 Alfonso  XL  of  Castillo  desired  to  receive  knighthood 
 from  the  hands  of  this  warlike  Prelate.  Under  the  reign 
 of  Peter  the  Cruel,  Albornoz  had  been  obliged  to  quit 
 Spain,  and  repaired  to  Avignon,  where  his  talents  were  soon 
 recognised,  being  rewarded  by  the  CardrQal's  hat  in.  1350. 
 "Whilst  iu  Italy  he  was,  we  are  assured,  either  loved  or 
 feared  wherever  known.  Besides  iudefatigable  energies, 
 he  did  not  want  the  more  attractive  qualities  of  magnani- 
 mity, learning,  affability.  Unblemished  in  moral  life,  he 
 seems  a  perfect  type  of  the  warrior  and  statesman-priest 
 of  the  XIV  century,  in  whom  the  union  of  essentially  op- 
 posed and  apparently  irreconcilable  professions  and  func- 
 tions, the  most  singular  contrast  between  individual  pro- 
 
24  MEDIEVAL   CHRISTIANITY   AND 
 
 clivitles  and  tlie  sacred  career  chosen,  gave  no  offence  to 
 the  religious  feeling  of  the  age.* 
 
 The  Legate  was  either  accompanied,  or  soon  foUoM^ed,  on 
 his  journey  from  Prance  to  Italy  by  another  celebrated 
 person  whom  we  have  lost  sight  of  since  his  mysterious 
 appearance  at  Eome  during  the  Jubilee  of  1350 — Cola  di 
 Eienzo.  The  former  Tribune  had  been,  after  hospitable 
 entertainment  for  a  time  at  the  Court  of  Charles  lY.  at 
 Prague,  delivered  up,  as  suspected  of  heresy,  to  the  Arch- 
 bishop of  that  See ;  and  after  several  months  of  close  con- 
 finement in  the  Bohemian  fortress  of  Paudvitz,  been  finally 
 consigned  to  Papal  authorities,  and  led  into  Avignon 
 (July,  1352),  a  captive,  on  foot,  guarded  by  two  archers, 
 though  not  chained.f  Soon  afterwards  he  was  brought  to 
 trial  for  heresy,  before  commissioners  nominated  by  the 
 Pope.  Petrarch  appealed  earnestly  to  the  Pomans  on 
 behalf  of  one  to  whom  they  owed  so  much — "  Tour  former 
 Tribune,  now  a  prisoner  in  a  foreign  land,  and  obliged  to 
 defend  his  cause  in  chains  like  a  thief  or  traitor — the  man 
 whose  counsels  and  acts  once  filled  not  only  Pome,  but 
 all  Italy,  with  joyful  hopes."  Eienzo  was  found  guilty,, 
 and  confined  in  a  tower  of  the  Papal  palace.  But  Clement 
 YI.  was  too  enlightened,  and  too  much  a  man  of  the  world 
 to  treat  such  an  illustrious  captive  with  insulting  harsh- 
 ness. He  allowed  him  the  solace  of  books,  the  Scriptures, 
 and  his  favourite  historian,  Titus  Livius  ;  and  after  a  time 
 released  him  from  confinement,   though  not   giving  him 
 
 *  A  writer,  edited  by  Baluze,  says  of  him  :  "  In  factis  armorum,  non 
 omissa  pontificali  decentiS,,  doctus  et  expertus." 
 
 t  The  contemporary  biography,  edited  by  Mnratori,  and  with  ample 
 annotations  by  ZefFerino  Re,  in  a  later  edition,  says  that  Rienzo  was 
 absolved  and  appointed  Senator  of  Rome  by  the  Pope  in  July,  13.53,  and 
 that  he  quitted  Avignon  together  with  Albornoz  in  the  next  month. 
 Von  Reumont  (•' Geschichte  der  StadtRom")  supposes  that  he  followed 
 the  Legate  into  Italy,  and  joined  him  at  Montefiascone. 
 
SICRED   ART    IN    ITALY.  25 
 
 permission  to  quit  Avignon,  where  lie  still  remained  under 
 certain  restraints.  Innocent  YI.  not  only  absolved  this 
 distinguished  exile  from  all  ecclesiastical  censures,  but 
 appointed  him  Senator  of  Eome,  and  announced  to  the 
 people  of  that  city,  in  a  brief,  10th  September,  1353,  the 
 delivery  of  "their  fellow-citizen,  the  knight  and  nobleman, 
 Cola  di  Eienzo ;"  enjoining  on  them  to  receive  him  with 
 good  will,  and  strenuously  co-operate  with  him  for  the 
 rescue  of  their  city  from  its  deeply-fallen  fortunes,  opposing 
 firm  resistance  to  domestic  and  foreign  foes. 
 
 Albomoz  was  received  with  honours  in  Lombardy ;  but 
 when  he  reached  Bologna,  he  found  the  gates  shut  against 
 him,  In-  the  (nominally)  Ecclesiastical  States  he  found,  be- 
 sides Eome,  but  two  insignificant  towns,  Montefiascone,  near 
 Yiterbo,  and  Mont efalco,  in  the  Spoleto  province,  still  loyal  to 
 the  Papacy  and  unoccupied  by  usurpers.  A  deputation  from 
 the  E-omans,  which  greeted  him  at  Montefiascone,  bore  the 
 voluntary  submission  of  that  people  to  the  Papal  sovereignty, 
 and  invited  the  Legate  to  come  among  them  as  their  patron 
 and  as  recognised  representative  of  the  Pontiff ;  at  the 
 same  time  ofiering  to  assist  him  in  arms  against  Giovanni  di 
 Yico,  lord  of  Yiterbo,  who  had  made  himself  master  of 
 almost  the  entire  province  of  tbe  Patrimony,  and  also  of  Terni, 
 Narni,  and  Orvieto.  The  Eomans  had  recently  overthrown 
 the  ephemeral  authority  entrusted  by  the  popular  voice  to 
 their  new  tribune,  Baroncelli,  who  was  assassinated.  Albor- 
 noz  published  the  ban  of  the  Church  against  Di  Yico,  and 
 all  other  usurpers  of  her  temporal  dominions.  That  anta- 
 gonist off'ered  terms  of  peace,  but  soon  violated  the  engage- 
 ments made  with  the  Legate  ;  and  the  latter  proceeded  to 
 declare  his  forfeiture  of  the  cities  he  had  possessed,  Yiterbo 
 and  Toscanella.  Di  Yico  took  refuge  in  Orvieto.  The 
 Legate  besieged  that  rock-built  town,  so  singularly  fortified 
 by  nature,  and  was  soon  successful,  for  the  haughty  enemy 
 
26  MEDIAEVAL    CHRISTIANITY    AND 
 
 of  the  Pope  deemed  it  prudent  to  submit,  surrendered  the 
 city,  and  threw  himself  at  the  feet  of  Albornoz,  craving 
 forgiveness.  His  example  was  soon  followed  by  Gentile 
 da  Migliano,  lord  of  Fermo,  who  spontaneously  gave  up 
 that  city  in  an  interview  with  the  Legate  at  Eoligno — • 
 another  town  already  re-subjected  to  the  tiara.  The  ex- 
 ruler  of  Fermo  was  appointed  G  onfaloniere  of  the  Church 
 in  reward  of  his  submission.  Next  was  undertaken  the 
 siege  of  Yiterbo,  which  lasted  about  two  months  (May  and 
 June,  1354).  It  was  whilst  the  pontifical  army  was  before 
 those  walls  that  the  E-oman  troops  marched  to  assist  there  ; 
 and  Eoman  deputies  came  to  request  that  Jlienzo,  who  had 
 fought  gallantly  before  Toscanello  and  Yiterbo,  should  at 
 once  assume  the  authority  conferred  on  him  as  Senator. 
 The  Legate  refused  to  supply  the  money  requisite  for 
 Eienzo's  return  and  instalment  in  his  new  office  ;  but  suf- 
 ficient means  were  obtained  by  a  loan  from  the  brothers 
 of  the  famous  Gondottiere^  Fra  Moriale,  at  Perugia,  whither 
 E-ienzo  went  after  leaving  the  camp  before  Yiterbo.  Es- 
 corted by  the  soldiery  hired  for  his  service,  the  Senator  set 
 out  from  Perugia,  and  entered  Eome  on  the  1st  of  August, 
 1354.  He  was  received  with  the  utmost  enthusiasm,  and 
 all  those  honours  of  festivity  which  Eoman  citizens  so  well 
 understand  the  art  of  preparing  in  gorgeous  and  picturesque 
 forms.  He  entered  on  the  exercise  of  his  ofiice  a  changed 
 man  in  many  respects,  less  affable  in  manners,  more  prone  to 
 severities,  but  still  full  of  energy,  and  bent  on  high  objects. 
 Determined,  as  in  the  days  of  his  tribunate,  to  put  down  the 
 licentious  and  lawless  insolence  of  the  barons,  he  attacked  the 
 Colonnas  in  their  chief  stronghold,  the  castle  of  Palestrina, 
 which  still  stands  in  grim  decay  on  the  steep  hill-side  above 
 the  classic  Praeneste  ;  but  was  forced  to  abandon  this  enter- 
 prise for  want  of  sufficient  troops.  Thefinances  of  theSenator 
 were  far  from  adequate  for  his  numerous  and  bold  under- 
 
SACRED    ART    IN    ITALY.  27 
 
 takings.  He  imposed  a  tax  on  wine  and  salt ;  and  tlii.s,  a 
 burden  felt  most  by  the  poorest,  prepared  the  way  for  the 
 ruin  of  Rienzo. 
 
 AValter  di  Montreal,  a  ProveuQal  knight  of  S.  John 
 (whose  name  was  Italianized  into  Fra  Moriale),  had  gone 
 through  the  career  of  a  gallant  adventurer  in  the  Neapo- 
 litan kingdom,  and,  after  being  banished  from  thence  by 
 Louis  of  Anjou,  tried  his  fortune  in  the  Roman  States, 
 where  continual  warfare  oifered  an  opening  to  his  restless 
 ambition.  He  allied  himself  with  Griovanni  di  Vice,  and, 
 having  promised  pay  to  all  recruits,  soon  found  himself  at 
 the  head  of  between  3000  and  4000  volunteers  thus  col- 
 lected for  whatever  service,  to  the  manifest  peril  of  the 
 regions  they  swept  over.  Unfortunately  for  himself,  Mont- 
 real ventured  into  E-ome  whilst  E/ienzo  still  held  the  reins 
 of  government,  and  w^here  his  two  brothers  resided  at  the 
 time,  themselves  on  good  terms  with  the  Senator.  It  was 
 reported  to  the  latter  that  Montreal  had  threatened  his  life. 
 This  redoubted  Condottiere  was  immediately  arrested, 
 brought  to  trial,  tortured,  sentenced  to  the  death  of  a 
 malefactor.  Bribes,  threats,  entreaties  were  tried  by  him 
 in  vain.  The  proud  adventurer  could  not  at  first  believe 
 that  the  base-born  Hienzo  would  dare  to  send  him,  a  cheva- 
 lier, rich,  dreaded,  powerful,  to  die  on  the  scaffold ;  but 
 when  his  fate  became  certain,  he  gave  signs  of  repentance, 
 kissed  the  block,  and  exclaimed,  "  Grod  save  thee,  sacred 
 Justice !"  His  own  and  his  contemporaries'  estimate  of  his 
 character  serves  to  illustrate  the  moral  feeling  of  the  day. 
 One  winter  compares  him  to  Julius  Caesar,  and  the  biogra- 
 pher of  E-ienzo  says  that  "  all  Italy  resounded  to  the  fame 
 of  his  virtues  and  glory."  His  own  parting  words,  addressed 
 to  his  brothers,  express  his  complacence  at  the  retrospect 
 of  a  career  neither  better  nor  worse  than  that  of  other 
 soldiers  of  fortune  at  this  epoch  :  "  I  beg  you  to  love  each 
 
28  MEDIAEVAL    CHRISTJATsITY    AIS^D 
 
 other,  and  to  be  valorous  before  the  world,  as  I  have  been, 
 who  have  forced  Apulia,  Tuscany,  and  the  Marches  to  show 
 me  submission !"  By  his  death,  as  the  above-named  biogra- 
 pher informs  us,  "  all  Eome  was  troubled."  The  Italian 
 princes  approved  of  this  execution,  but  the  E-omans  im- 
 puted to  Eienzo  the  selfish  desire  of  appropriating  the 
 wealth  of  Montreal,  which  was  indeed  great, — for  he 
 left  100,000  gold  florins,  of  which  60,000  are  said 
 to  have  been  confiscated  by  the  Pope.  If  the  Sena- 
 tor secured  any  share  of  this  ill-gotten  treasure,  it  was 
 not  certainly  the  maximum.  Montreal's  execution  was 
 soon  followed  by  another  far  less  justifiable,  and  still  more 
 injurious  to  the  popularity  of  Eienzo — that  of  Pandolfo  di 
 Guido,  a  generally  esteemed  and  influential  citizen,  who 
 could  only  be  accused  on  mere  suspicion  of  a  design  to  raise 
 himself  into  power  as  the  rival  of,  or  successor  to,  the 
 Senator. 
 
 At  last  the  once-idolized  "  Tribune," — such  he  was  still 
 popularly  styled — became  hated  or  feared  by  the  fickle 
 multitude,  who  (says  his  biographer)  "  did  not  dare  to 
 speak,  so  much  did  they  dread  the  Tribune,  even  as  a 
 Demon  !"  Innocent  YI.  sent  him  the  confirmation  by 
 brief  (9th  September)  of  his  senatorial  appointment,  to- 
 gether with  wise  and  benevolent  counsels  as  to  the  con- 
 duct of  municipal  government.  A  month  after  the  date  of 
 this  document,  the  Senator  was  awakened  in  his  chamber,  in 
 the  Capitoline  palace,  by  tumult  and  menacing  cries,  first 
 heard  at  an  early  hour,  and  becoming  more  vehement  as  the 
 day  advanced.  A  multitude  had  assembled  before  that 
 palace,  throwing  stones,  and  shouting  :  "  Death  to  the 
 traitor,  Cola  di  Eienzo,  who  has  imposed  the  taxes."  He 
 rose,  armed  himself  as  a  knight  with  cuirass  and  crested 
 helm ;  took  the  Oonfalone^  or  standard  of  the  Eoman 
 people  in  his  hand,  and  thus  showed  himself  on  the  balcony. 
 
SACRED    ART    IN    ITALY.  29 
 
 The  shouts,  the  execrations  were  redoubled.  In  vain  did 
 Kieuzo  make  signs  to  indicate  his  wish  to  speak  ;  in  vain  did 
 he  raise  the  cry,  all  unheard,  of  "  Viva  il  popolo,"  whilst  he 
 dis23layed  the  Papal  diploma,  written  in  gold  letters.*  The 
 troops  of  the  rioni  joined  the  throng  on  the  Capitol,  and  the 
 onset  became  still  more  formidable.  Darts,  as  well  as  stones, 
 were  now  hurled  against  the  Senator  as  he  stood,  calmly 
 dauntless,  on  the  balcony.  An  arrow  wounded  him  in  the 
 hand.  The  gates  of  the  palace  were  fired ;  the  flames  burst 
 in ;  the  roofing  fell ;  the  great  staircase  came  down  with  a 
 crash  ;  and  at  this  crisis  E/ienzo  found  himself  almost  de- 
 serted in  that  burning  pile ;  his  guards,  officers,  notaries, 
 servants,  had  fled,  or  remained  absent  from  their  posts  all  that 
 morning ;  three  persons  alone,  one  a  relative,  were  still  in 
 the  building  with  him.  He  hesitated  between  two  alterna- 
 tives— either  to  come  out,  armed  as  he  was,  and  force  his 
 way  through  the  crowd  with  his  sword,  or  to  escape  in  dis- 
 guise. Unfortunately  he  chose  the  latter,  the  less  noble  ex- 
 pedient ;  laid  aside  his  armour,  blackened  his  face,  cut  oif 
 his  beard,  wrapt  himself  in  a  coarse  peasant's  cloak,  placed 
 a  mattress  on  his  head  for  protection  from  the  fire,  and 
 caused  himself  to  be  let  down  by  a  table-cloth  from  a  back 
 window  above  the  prisons,  the  key  of  which  he  took  with  him, 
 for  there  were  prisoners  whose  escape  he  desired  to  prevent 
 even  at  that  moment.  In  this  disguise  he  passed  through 
 one  of  the  burning  doors,  adding  his  voice  to  the  cries  of 
 the  angry  crowd  against  himself.  His  treacherous  relative 
 appeared  on  the  balcony,  and  signified  by  dumb  show  the 
 fact  of  his  escape.  At  the  outer  door,  just  as  he  was 
 quitting  the  vestibule  of  the  palace,  he  was  stopped  :  Non 
 gire,  dove  vai  ?  ("  Move  not ;  whither  are  you  going  ?  ") 
 said  some  unwashed  artificer.  The  people  pressed  around 
 him,  and  tore  off"  his  disguise.  His  gilt  bracelets  (a  patri- 
 *  Confii-matorv  of  his  senatorial  office. 
 
30  MEDIAEVAL    CHRISTIANITY    AND 
 
 cian  ornament  then  in  fashion)  sufficed  to  betray  him  ;  and 
 there  he  stood  in  the  costume  of  a  Roman  baron,  with 
 doublet  of  green  silk  and  purple  hose.  At  first  no  insult 
 was  offered  to  him  ;  he  was  led  by  the  arms,  unmolested, 
 down  the  stairs  of  the  Capitoline  hill  to  the  sculptured  lion 
 at  its  base,  tbe  fatal  spot  where  sentence  of  death  used  to 
 be  read  and  inflicted — where  those  condemned  by  Eienzo 
 himself  had  met  the  fate  of  criminals  at  llie  block.  Por 
 nearly  an  hour  did  the  destined  victim  remain,  silent  and 
 passive,  seated  on  the  lion's  back,  his  arms  folded,  his  glance 
 directed  now  to  one  side,  now  to  the  other,  amidst  the 
 eagerly-gazing  crowd.  We  may  suppose  that  the  dignity 
 of  his  aspect  combined  with  the  remembrances  of  an  illus- 
 trious past  to  overawe  the  fierce  multitude.  At  last  an 
 artisan  seized  a  sword,  and  wounded  him,  perhaps  mortally. 
 The  work  of  butchery  was  soon  finished,  No  word  nor 
 groan  was  heard  from  Eienzo  after  that  first  death-blow, 
 which  probably  killed  him  on  the  spot.  The  mangled 
 corpse  was  dragged  by  a  rope  through  the  streets,  amidst 
 the  brutal  insults  of  the  mob,  as  far  as  the  church  of  S. 
 Marcello,  on  the  modern  Corso.  There  it  was  hung  up  by 
 the  feet  to  a  balcony ;  and  thus  left  exposed,  for  a  night 
 and  two  days,  to  be  pelted  by  the  boys  who  passed  below. 
 At  last  the  Colonnas  ordered  it  to  be  taken  to  the  Mauso- 
 leum of  Augustus,  their  now  dismantled  fortress.  Either 
 within  the  rotunda  of  that  imperial  tomb,  or  in  the  area 
 before  it,  called  "  Campo  dell'  Austa,"  the  Jews,  to  whom 
 the  grim  task  had  been  assigned— all  of  that  community  in 
 Rome,  it  is  said — assembled  to  burn  those  poor  remains  on 
 a  fire  of  dried  thistles.  The  ashes  were  scattered  to  the 
 winds  ;  not  one  relic  was  left  of  the  once  idolized  Tribune 
 and  Senator,  not  one  Christian  rite  celebrated  over  his 
 bier  !  Thus  perished  Cola  di  Eienzo  seven  years  after  his 
 first  ajjpearance  on  the  political  stage,  and  but  nine  weeks 
 
SACRED    ART    IX    ITALY.  31 
 
 after  his  second  elevation  to  power  and  eminence  !  His  per- 
 sonal property  was  confiscated.  Among  his  effects  was 
 found,  in  his  bedroom,  a  polished  steel  mirror,  covered 
 with  strange  figures  and  characters,  which  he  had  used 
 for  magical  purposes— for  invoking  spirits,  as  supposed, 
 and  especially  some  hobgoblin  of  mediaeval  fantasy  called 
 "Fiorone" — so  his  quaint  biographer  informs  us  {costringeva 
 lo  spirito  di  Fiorone). 
 
 G-reatness  of  ideas,  elevation  of  purpose,  and  a  high  sense 
 of  justice,  distinguish  E,ienzo  above  the  level  of  vulgarly 
 ambitious  demagogues.     He  embodied  notions  as  to  the 
 destinies  of  Eome,  which  were,  no  doubt,  shared  by  many 
 of  her  citizens — the  cherished  tradition  of  a  supremacy  sup- 
 posed to  be  indefeasible.     ''  Hs  ont  pris  les  souvenirs  pour 
 des  esperances,"  is  finely  said  by  Madame  de   Stael   in 
 reference  to  him  and  others  like-minded  with  him.     His 
 laws  (the  temper  of  the  times  being  considered)  were  sin- 
 gularly enlightened.     Almost  his  first  j)ublic  act  (1348)  was 
 to  constitute  a  species  of  representative  assembly ;  and  a 
 letter  is  extant,  in  which  he  summons  the  people  of  Yiterbo 
 to  send  t^^o  elected  deputies,  their  spokesmen,  to  that  par- 
 liament.    He  was  the  first  legislator  to  abolish  the  Yandal 
 practice,  so   common  in  earlier  ages,  of  demolishing  the 
 houses  and  castles  of  those  struck  by  sentence  of  the  law, 
 as  part  of  the  penalty  required  by  justice.      A  devout 
 Catholic,  he  claimed,  and  no  doubt  believed  in,  something 
 mystic  and  divine  in  his  vocation  and  destiny.     Petrarch 
 commends  the  piety  with  which  he  received  the  Holy  Com- 
 munion every  day.     And  it  is  remarkable  that  he  neither 
 adopted   nor  sanctioned  such  theories  or  maxims  as  have 
 been  current  in  later  times  against  the  temporal  power  of 
 the  Popes.     ]N"otwithstanding  the  Avignon  exile,  and  all  its 
 evil  efi'ects  to  Eome  and  to  the  Church,  he  still  shared  the 
 conviction  that  the  headship  of  Catholicism  reflected  the 
 
82  MEDIAEVAL    CHRISTIANITY    AND 
 
 greatest  glory  on  the  capital  of  ancient  Empire,  elected  as 
 seat  of  that  supremacy. 
 
 Cardinal  Albornoz,  aided  by  the  Marquis  Francesco 
 d'Este  of  Ferrara  and  by  E-idolfo  di  Yarano,  lord  of  Came- 
 rino,  continued  vigorously  and  successfully  to  prosecute  his 
 task  of  resubjecting  the  cities  and  provinces  severed  from 
 the  Papal  States — or  rather,  in  fact,  of  reconstituting  a 
 government  completely  dissolved  in  those  parts.  In  1355, 
 an  attempt  was  made  to  resist  his  conquering  career  by  a 
 league  in  which  the  parties  were  Malatesta,  lord  of  Eimini, 
 the  OrdelafB,  lords  of  Eorli,  and  G-entile  da  Migliano,  who 
 had  broken  the  peace  already  stipulated,  and  made  himself 
 again  master  of  Fermo.  But"  the  genius  of  Albornoz  over- 
 came all  these  obstacles.  He  laid  siege  to  Eimini,  where 
 Galeotto  Malatesta  finally  surrendered ;  and  at  the  same  time 
 was  recovered  Ancona,  which  also  had  been  held  by  the 
 Malatesta  family.  The  latter  were  still  allowed  to  retain 
 authority,  as  Yicars  and  tributaries  of  the  Church,  over 
 Eimini,  Pesaro,  Fano,  Fossombrone.  The  Polenta  family, 
 lords  of  Eavenna  and  Cervia,  soon  afterwards  submitted 
 under  like  terms.  The  Trinci  family,  who  held  Foligno  and 
 Fabriano,  and  had  long  defied  the  Legate,  at  last  yielded, 
 consenting  to  become  alike  dependents,  bound  to  pay  annual 
 census  to  Eome.  By  the  year  1356  Albornoz  had  recovered 
 for  the  Pope  the  entire  Patrimony,  the  Spoleto  Duchy,  and 
 the  Anconitan  Marches,  besides  many  districts  of  Eomagna. 
 Soon  after  Eienzo's  death  he  entered  Eome,  took  measures 
 for  the  restoration  of  order  and  peace,  instituted  something 
 like  a  prosecution  for  the  punishment  of  the  Senator's 
 murderers  (who,  however,  escaped  with  impunity),  and 
 appointed,  as  successor  in  that  office,  Guido  di  Patrizi,  a 
 nobleman  of  Siena.  The  crusade  published  by  the  Legatee 
 against  the  Ordelaffi  family  and  Manfredi,  who  still  held 
 Forli  and  Faenza,  was  supported  by  ample  contributions 
 
SACRED    ART    IN    ITALY.  33 
 
 in  money.  Faenza  was  besieged,  and  entered  by  tlie 
 Legate  in  triumph,  17th  November,  1356.  In  the  next 
 year  Albornoz  was  replied,  perhaps  owing  to  some  intrigue 
 against  him  at  Avignon,  and  another  person,  strangely 
 chosen  for  such  responsible  post,  was  sent  to  succeed  to  him 
 in  office  and  command  — an  abbot  of  Clugni,  who  (says 
 Muratori)  "  knew  better  how  to  say  his  Breviary  than  to 
 direct  military  enterprises."  This  new  Legate  seems  to 
 have  felt  his  inefficiency,  and  Albornoz  was  entreated  to 
 delay  his  departure.  The  Cardinal  summoned  a  Parlia- 
 ment at  Fano,  to  address  his  farewell  counsels  to  the 
 representatives  of  cities,  on  whom  he  enjoined  fidelity  to 
 the  Papal  throne.  At  this  juncture  came  intelligence  of  a 
 popular  movement  at  Cesena,  then  besieged  by  the  legatine 
 troops,  one  party  within  its  walls  being  adverse  to  the 
 Ordelaffi  and  favourable  to  the  pontific  cause.  Albornoz 
 hastened  to  avail  himself  of  the  opportunity  for  conquest ; 
 took  possession  of  Cesena,  but  had  to  encounter  vigorous 
 resistance  from  a  heroic  woman,  Cia,  wife  of  Francesco 
 degli  Ordelaffi,  who  defended  the  citadel  after  the  city 
 itself  had  been  occupied  by  the  assailants,  nor  would  yield 
 till  the  donjon- keep  had  been  reduced  to  ruin — then 
 only  could  Cia  and  her  children  be  made  prisoners.  Al- 
 bornoz laid  siege  also  to  Forli,  and  before  his  departure 
 made  a  league,  ofi*ensive  and  defensive,  against  the  Yis- 
 conti — having  penetration  to  perceive  that  the  power  and 
 ambition  of  that  family  threatened  the  greatest  danger  to 
 the  Papal  cause.  The  Este,  the  Doge  of  G-enoa,  the  Mar- 
 quis of  Montferrato,  the  Beccaria  of  Padua,  and  Yisconti 
 da  01eggio,now  almost  independent  master  of  Bologna,  were 
 parties  to  that  league.  When  the  Cardinal  appeared  at 
 Avignon  he  was  accompanied  by  Malatesta  of  E-imini,  the 
 former  antagonist,  but  now  reconciled  ally  and  vassal  of 
 the  Papacy.     In  the  course  of  thenext  year  Albornoz  was 
 
 D 
 
34  MEDIEVAL    CHRISTIANITY   AND 
 
 reinstated  in  the  office  of  Legate,  and  resumed  his  task  of 
 conquest.  He  again  directed  the  siege  of  Forli,  and  before 
 long  took  possession  of  that  city,  aflter  Ordelaffi  had  capi- 
 tulated and  been  allowed  to  retain  dominion  over  two  other 
 towns,  Porlimpopoli  and  Castrocaro.  At  Ravenna  the 
 recognised  ruler,  Bernardino  da  Polenta,  a  cruel  and 
 voluptuous  tyrant,  was  about  this  time  succeeded  by  his 
 son  Guido,  who  applied  to  the  Legate  for  the  ratification 
 of  his  authority  as  vicar  and  tributary  of  the  Holy  See. 
 All  Eomagna  was  now  subjected  to  the  Church.  The  petty 
 despots  who  had  usurped  the  Ecclesiastical  States  off'ered 
 more  or  less  resistance,  but  were  speedily  subdued,  because 
 supported  by  no  vigorous  or  organized  popular  efforts. 
 Their  struggles  had  been  actuated  by  selfish  ambition ;  they 
 fought  not  for  the  emancipation  of  a  people,  but  for  their 
 own  interests  ;  and  it  is  evident  throughout  this  war  that  a 
 general  antipathy  against  ecclesiastical  rule  was  not-vthe 
 inspiring  motive  which  had  led  to  it,  or  influenced  the 
 populations  alternately  withdrawn  from  and  subjected  to 
 the  power  of  the  tiara. 
 
 Bologna  alone  was  still  held  by  a  petty  despot  able  to 
 defy  the  Legate,  and  to  subject  the  city  to  his  tyrannical 
 sway — Griovanni  Visconti  da  Oleggio,  an  illegitimate  son  of 
 the  famous  Archbishop  of  Milan.  In  1350  Bologna  was 
 basely  sold  to  that  powerful  Prelate  for  200,000  gold  florins 
 by  Griovanni  Pepoli,  who  had  leagued  with  the  pontific  cause, 
 but,  notwithstanding,  had  been  treacherously  made  pri- 
 soner, together  with  numerous  attendants  and  200  mounted 
 soldiers,  by  the  Count  of  Eomagna  in  his  camp,  where 
 Pepoli  had  presented  himself  for  amicable  conference.  The 
 Pope  laid  the  Milanese  States  under  interdict,  and  cited 
 the  Archbishop  Yisconti  to  Avignon.  The  latter  declared 
 himself  ready  to  obey  the  summons,  and  meantime  ordered 
 lodgings  to  be  prepared  in  that  city  for  himself  and  for 
 
SACRED    ART    IN    ITALY.  35 
 
 his  servants,  also  for  12,000  horse  and  GOOO  foot  soldiers. 
 Clement  VI.  thought  best  to  dispense  with  so  formidable  a 
 visit,  intimated  to  the  Archbishop  that  he  need  not  take 
 the  trouble  of  coming,  and  even  paid  on  his  behalf  40,000 
 florins  towards  the  expense  of  those  alarming  prepara- 
 tions. The  contest  was  settled  by  pecuniary  transaction ; 
 and  the  investiture  of  Bologna  for  ten  years  Was  bestowed 
 on  the  lord  of  Milan  at  the  price  of  100,000  gold  florins. 
 One  of  his  nephews  was  deputed  by  the  Archbishop  to 
 govern  there ;  and  after  the  death  of  the  latter,  the  prelate's 
 son,  Giovanni,  above  named,  entered  on  the  same  post,  which 
 he  abused  by  tyranny,  but  had  the  means  to  maintain 
 against  the  armed  opposition  of  Bernabo  Yisconti,  his 
 cousin.  A  long  struggle  ensued,  with  desolating  warfare, 
 which  drew  down  every  kind  of  suffering  on  the  inhabitants 
 of  the  environs.  The  Count  of  Eomagna,  as  well  as  the 
 Yisconti,  led  armies  against  Bologna,  and  laid  waste  its 
 territory.  On  one  occasion,  when  the  city  was  taken  and 
 held  for  a  time  by  the  Count,  that  leader  is  said  by  a 
 chronicler  of  the  period  to  have  actually  destroyed  Bologna 
 [destruxit  Bononiam  usque  ad  portas]  ;  but  this  may  be 
 understood  with  reference  to  the  fortifications  alone.  At 
 last  Giovanni  da  Oleggio  became  unable  to  resist  longer 
 against  his  various  foes,  and  ceded  that  city  to  the  Legate, 
 who  entered  at  the  head  of  his  troops,  March  13G0.  But, 
 instead  of  bringing  peace,  this  surrender  only  provoked  a 
 renewal  of  war.  Bernabo  Yisconti  now  commenced  a  con- 
 test with  the  Legate  for  possession,  and  the  often  devas- 
 tated environs  of  Bologna  were  the  theatre  of  their  strug- 
 gles. Every  imaginable  atrocity  and  licence  were  committed, 
 both  in  this  and  the  neighbouring  Modenese  territories,  by 
 the  Hungarian  archers,  some  5000  strong,  a  contingent 
 sent  by  the  king  of  that  country  to  fight  under  the  legatine 
 standard.     The  last  success  of  the  energetic  Albornoz  was 
 
 D  2 
 
36  MEDI.13YAL    CHRISTIANITY   AND 
 
 the  taking  of  Assisi,  1367  (the  last  year  of  his  active  life), 
 soon  after  that  town  had  emancipated  itself  from  the  sway 
 of  Perugia,  its  more  powerful  neighbour. 
 
 As  usualj  the  war  waged  for  the  temporal  interests  of 
 the  Papacy,  cruel  as  were  any  other  contests  of  the  time, 
 was  backed  by  all  the  threats  and  supported  by  all  the 
 thunders  of  spiritual  supremacy.  Ecclesiastical  agents 
 enriched  themselves  by  the  traffic  in  dispensations,  which 
 were  declared,  or  believed  to  be,  sufficient  for  release  from 
 every  bond,  absolution  from  every  sin.  Plenary  indul- 
 gences rewarded  those  who  contributed  either  by  pecuniary 
 or  military  aid ;  and  for  some  time  the  average  received  by 
 the  Legate  every  day  was  said  to  be  from  1000  to  1200 
 gold  florins — perhaps  an  -exaggerating,  but  still  very  signi- 
 ficant report. 
 
 In  the  October  of  1354,  Charles  lY.,  Emperor  elect, 
 entered  Italy,  and  (3rd  November)  arrived  at  Pavia,  invited 
 by  the  Lombardic  cities,  being  himself  eager  to  obtain  the 
 imperial  crown  at  E-ome.  He  travelled  with  the  insigni- 
 ficant escort  of  200  mounted  men,  and  Matteo  Yillani  says 
 he  appeared  like  a  merchant  in  haste  to  arrive  in  time  for 
 a  fair !  The  Lombardic  league  had  expected  to  secure  his 
 assistance  in  opposing  the  ever-encroaching  power  of  the 
 Yisconti.  The  allies  were  disappointed.  Charles  was  bribed 
 into  alliance  with  that  family  by  the  splendid  gifts,  with  the 
 promise  of  the  iron  crown  of  Italy,  sent  to  welcome  him  on 
 his  approach.  His  avarice,  weakness,  and  the  want  of 
 dignity  with  which  he  submitted  to  insults  from  the  free 
 Italian  cities,  drew  down  general  contempt ;  yet  all  the 
 illusions  as  to  the  quasi-diyine  prerogatives  and  boundless 
 rights  of  the  imperial  sovereignty  seem  to  have  still  occu- 
 pied many  minds,  in  the  sense  that  they  are  eloquently 
 expressed  by  Petrarch,  who  hailed  this  advent  as  fraught 
 with  happy  and   glorious  promises  for  his   country.     At 
 
SACEED    ART    IN    ITALY.  37 
 
 Milan  the  Grermau  was  magnificently  entertained  by  Ber^ 
 nabo  and  Gian  Galeazzo  Yisconti,  nephews  of  the  lately 
 deceased  archbishop  ;  and  the  then  occupant  of  the  Metro- 
 politan See  placed  the  iron  crown  on  his  head,  with  the 
 usual  splendours  of  ceremonial,  at  the  S.  Ambrose  basilica. 
 The  Yisconti  supplied  a  retinue  of  men-at-arms  to  escort 
 Charles,  with  fitting  honours,  to  E-ome.     He  set  out  from 
 Siena  for  that  journey  on  the  28th  March,  1355,  his  retinue 
 now  consisting  of  4000  Italians  and  Germans.      He  had 
 made  the  humiliating  promise  to  the  Pope  not  to  pass  a 
 single  night  in  Eome  after  his  state  entry  and  coronation ! 
 On  the  way  he  was  refused  admission  into  the  gates  of 
 Yiterbo,  and  had  to  proceed,  with  all    his  company,  to 
 Sutri  before  rest  or  refreshment  could  be  enjoyed.      He 
 evaded  the  precise  fulfilment  of  his  promise  by  entering 
 Eome,  at  first,  incognito  ;    and,  though  the  representatives 
 of  the  city  had  come  out  to  meet  him  a  mile  beyond  the 
 gates,  he  left  the  highway  to  reach,  unperceived,  the  Porta 
 Pertusa,  near  the  Yatican,  where  he  entered,  unnoticed 
 and  unknown,  thence  proceeding  to  the  residence  of  the 
 Canons  of  S.  Peter's,  who  gave  him  lodging.    At  midnight  he 
 visited  that  church,  where  was  shown  to  him  by  the  Cardinal 
 Bishop  of  Ostia   (who  had  made  his  entry  publicly  the 
 same  day)  that  relic  so  much  revered,  the  Yeronica,  or 
 "  Yolto  Santo."     The  morrow  being  Good  Friday,  the  pious 
 Emperor-elect  went  on  foot,  still  incognito,  to  S.  Paul's, 
 the  Lateran,  and  S.  Maria  Maggiore,  fasting  and  praying, 
 and  venerating  all  the  relics  in  those  churches.     That  night 
 he  passed  in  the  monastery  of  S.   Prossede,    where,    of 
 course,  he  did  not  fail  to  pay  honour  to  the  Holy  Column. 
 Next  day  he  entered  the  Yatican  palace,  dined  there,  and 
 received  the  Senators  with   the  other  chief  magistrates. 
 On  Easter  Sunday  (5th  April)   he  was  crowned,  together 
 with  his  yoiuig  bride,  Anna,  by  the  Cardinal  Bishop  of 
 
38  MEDIiEVAL    CHEISTIANITT   AND 
 
 Ostia,  after  having  first  left  and  then  re-entered  the  city 
 by  the  Porta  Castello,  the  Senators  leading  his  horse  from 
 that  gate  to  the  stairs  before  S.  Peter's.  At  the  Pontifical 
 High  Mass  the  Emperor  served  as  Deacon.  After  the 
 coronation  he  rode  in  state  to  the  Lateran,  distinguished 
 citizens  leading  his  horse  and  that  of  the  Empress,  others 
 holding  a  canopy  over  their  heads.  Money  was  thrown  to 
 the  people  during  this  procession.  After  a  devotional 
 visit  to  the  Lateran  Church,  was  held  a  banquet  in  the 
 adjacent  palace,  so  long  left  deserted  and  in  part  ruinous. 
 Conformably  with  his  promise,  Charles  had  scarce  time  to 
 finish  his  meal,  when  it  was  necessary  to  quit  Eome,  and 
 the  cavalcade  proceeded  to  S.  Lorenzo  beyond  the  walls, 
 in  the  cloister  adjoining  which  church  the  Emperor  and 
 Empress  passed  the  night,  and,  next  day,  gave  a  banquet 
 to  the  representatives  of  the  Eoman  people.  The  day 
 after,  they  went  to  Tivoli,  but  could  not  remain  there  long, 
 owing  to  the  want  of  pecuniary  means,  and  the  difficulty 
 of  obtaining  provisions ;  also  to  the  tumults  which  arose 
 among  the  dissatisfied  and  probably  ill-paid  troops  at  that 
 little  town,  the  inconveniences  of  which  in  the  XIV.  cen- 
 tury may  be  imagined  from  what  it  is  now. 
 
 This  was  almost  the  first  instance  of  an  imperial  corona- 
 tion at  Eome  attended  by  no  bloodshed,  or  contest  between 
 German  troops  and  Italian  citizens. 
 
 At  Siena  the  Emperor  was  besieged  in  the  palace  where 
 he  lodged,  and  obliged  to  accept  the  conditions  of  imme- 
 diately quitting  the  city,  after  20,000  florins  had  been 
 paid  down  for  his  urgent  expenses.  At  Cremona  and 
 Bergamo  he  was  forced  to  wait  two  hours  before  being 
 allowed  to  enter  the  gates,  nor  could  do  so,  at  last,  with 
 more  than  one-third  of  his  retinue,  after  all  had  laid 
 down  their  arms.  At  Elorence  the  magistrates  took 
 oath  of  fealty   to  him,  and  advanced  100,000  florins,  with 
 
SACEED    ART    IX    ITALY.  39 
 
 promise  of  4000  Horins  per  annum  to  this  imperial  men- 
 dicant, as  ransom  for  the  regalia  in  the  states  of  their 
 Eepublic.  They  stipulated  that  their  laws  and  statutes 
 should  be  confirmed  by  the  sanction  they  seem  to  have 
 deemed  of  such  importance  ;  but  added  the  humiliating 
 requirement  that  Charles  IV.  should  not  even  enter  Flo- 
 rence or  any  other  walled  city  in  its  territories  !  The 
 indignity  to  imperial  rank  in  the  conditions  imposed  by 
 the  Pope  that  he  should  quit  Eome  immediately  after  the 
 coronation,  was  felt  by  others,  if  not  by  Charles  himself. 
 "  Oh,  day  of  opprobrium  (exclaims  Petrarch),  oh,  insup- 
 portable oath !  The  Pope,  who  has  renounced  Eome,  does 
 not  wish  that  others  should  remain  there  !  "  One  Italian 
 Prince,  the  Marquis  of  Moutferrato,  was  glad  to  obtain 
 from  Charles  TV.  the  sanction  of  the  authority  he  had 
 already  exercised  over  Turin,  Susa,  Ivrea,  and  Alessandria. 
 Innocent  YI.  was  succeeded  by  a  Benedictine  Abbot, 
 Guillaume  de  Grimoard,  w^ho,  not  being  Cardinal,  had  no 
 place  in  the  conclave  where  he  was  elected,  and  took  the 
 name  of  Urban  Y.  (1362-70).  He  was  a  truly  religious,  con- 
 scientious and  virtuous  man,  one  of  the  best  among  Popes, 
 and  certainly  the  most  respectable  among  sovereigns  of  his 
 time.  It  is  said  that  he  bad  in  early  life  desired  above  all 
 things  to  see  the  restoration  of  the  Pontificate  to  Eome,  and 
 formed  the  resolution  to  efiect  that  object  should  it  ever 
 be  in  his  power  to  accomplish  what  was  so  important  for 
 the  Church.  In  the  same  year,  before  the  death  of  Inno- 
 cent YI,  Avignon  had  been  disturbed  by  a  lawless  invasion^ 
 which  might  have  convinced  the  Prench  Pontiff's  that  they 
 were  not  secure  even  in  their  fortified  retreat  on  the 
 Ehone.  The  so-called  "  Great  Company,"  a  horde  of  mer- 
 cenaries, English,  Prench,  Normans,  and  Spaniards,  led  by 
 the  famous  Breton  Captain,  Bertrand  du  Guesclin,  entered 
 that  territory,  on  their  march  to  fight  against  the  Moors  in 
 Spain.     They  affected  the  yocation  of  Crusaders,  and    in 
 
40  MEDIiEYAL    CHKISTIANITT    AND 
 
 that  character  demanded  from  the  Pope  a  subsidy  of 
 200,000  florins,  as  well  as  absolution  from  their  sins.  The 
 latter  boon  was  unhesitatingly  granted,  the  former  de- 
 murred to  ;  but  it  was  finally  deemed  best  to  comply  with 
 this  also,  and  the  sum  was  presented.  When,  however, 
 De  Gruesclin  learned  that  it  had  been  pressed  by  taxation 
 out  of  the  citizens  of  Avignon,  he  refused  it,  protesting  his 
 desire  to  obtain  payment,  not  from  the  necessitous  people, 
 but  from  the  well-filled  coffers  of  the  Papacy.  This  demand 
 of  the  scrupulous  invader  was  actually  satisfied,  and  the 
 same  amount  (it  is  said),  supplied  from  other  sources,  paid 
 down  to  him — but  how  ascertain  the  reality  of  the  substi- 
 tute in  such  a  case  ? 
 
 The  pontificate  of  Urban  Y .  proved  eventful  for  Italy  and 
 beneficial  to  the  interests  of  the  Church.  He  felt  that  by 
 the  abandonment  of  their  ancient  seat  the  Popes  had  en- 
 feebled their  influence  and  betrayed  their  trust ;  and  he 
 was  anxious  to  rescue  the  Holy  See  from  compromising 
 subjection  to  the  crown  of  Prance.*  He  intimated  his  in- 
 tention to  the  E/omans,  to  the  Grerman  Emperor,  and  to 
 Charles  Y.  the  Prench  King.  The  latter  sent  Nicholas 
 D'Oreme  (his  former  preceptor)  to  dissuade  Urban ;  and 
 in  full  Consistory  this  envoy  made  a  speech  against  the 
 projected  removal,  on  a  text  strangely  chosen  from  the 
 legend  of  the  vision  of  the  Saviour  to  S.  Peter,  when  that 
 
 *  In  June,  1 366,  Petrarch  addressed  to  the  Pope,  from  Venice,  the  letter, 
 often  quoted,  which  represents  so  vividly  the  miseries  of  Rome,  caused  by 
 the  absence  and  neglect  of  her  supreme  pastors :  "  With  what  heart,  Holy 
 Father — forgive  the  boldness  of  my  zeal — with  what  heart  canst  thou 
 sleep  under  the  gilded  ceilings  of  thy  chambers  on  the  banks  of  the 
 Khone,  whilst  the  Lateran  is  lying  low,  the  mother  of  all  Churches  left 
 roofless,  abandoned  to  the  winds  and  inclemencies  of  seasons  ;  whilst  the 
 sanctuaries  of  S.  Peter  and  S.  Paul  are  tottering  in  decay,  and  what 
 once  were  temples  of  Apostles  lying  ruinous,  formless  heaps  of  stone, 
 which  might  truly  draw  tears  from  hearts  of  stone  ?" 
 
SACKED    ART    IN    ITALY.  41 
 
 Apostle  fled  from  his  prison  at  Eome,  and  was  encountered 
 by  the  Divine  Being  on  the  Appian  Way — '*  Domine  quo 
 vadis  ?"  The  French  Cardinals  added  their  remonstrances  : 
 France,  more  peaceful  and  better  governed  than  Italy,  was 
 the  suitable  seat  of  the  supreme  Pontificate ;  Avignon  was 
 a  more  holy  city  than  Eome ;  even  Julius  Csesar  had  called 
 this  land  "  most  religious  ;"  and  the  Druids  had  estab- 
 lished a  religious  system  there  before  the  birth  of  Chris- 
 tianity— such  the  precious  arguments  adduced!  Urban 
 answered  by  giving  directions  for  speedy  departure ;  sent 
 his  Chancellor  to  Eome  to  prepare  the  Vatican  Palace  for 
 residence,  and  gave  orders  to  Cardinal  Albornoz  to  put  in 
 order  for  his  reception  the  castle  built  by  that  Legate  at 
 Viterbo — a  still  imposing  edifice,  though  altered  and  applied 
 to  other  uses,  which  stands  on  an  ample  piazza  near  the 
 gate  leading  to  the  Florence  road  from  that  town.  On 
 the  30th  April,  1367,  Urban,  with  several  Cardinals  and 
 many  other  ecclesiastics,  quitted  Avignon;  on  the  17th 
 May  they  embarked  at  Marseilles  in  twenty-five  galleys 
 furnished  by  the  Queen  of  Naples,  by  the  Eepublics  of 
 Pisa,  Venice,  Grenoa,  and  Lucca.  The  travellers  landed  at 
 several  ports,  Toulon,  Villafranca,  Albenga,  Genoa,  Piom- 
 bino,  Portovenere,  before  arriving  at  the  last  on  their 
 voyage,  Corneto.  At  Grenoa,  more  than  a  thousand  per- 
 sons, all  in  white  vestments,  formed  a  procession  accom- 
 panying the  Pope  as  he  rode  through  the  streets,  ponti- 
 fically  vested,  his  horse  led  by  the  Doge  and  the  Podesta 
 of  Pisa.  On  the  coast,  below  the  heights  crowned  by  the 
 old  towers  of  Corneto,  silken  tents,  decked  with  garlands 
 of  evergreen,  were  erected,  and  an  altar  in  the  midst, 
 under  a  rich  pavilion,  was  prepared  for  mass,  which  the  Pope 
 celebrated  before  he  mounted  his  horse  to  ride  to  that  city. 
 There  the  travellers  arrived  on  the  3rd  June,  and  lodged 
 in  the  Franciscan  convent,  where  deputies  from  the  Eomau 
 
42  MEDIEVAL    CHRISTIANITY    AND 
 
 people  came  to  welcome  their  yet  unknown  Sovereign,  and 
 offer  to  him  the  keys  of  their  city  and  of  the  S.  Angelo 
 Castle,  also  a  more  significant  donation,  which  they  deemed  it 
 in  their  power  to  bestow — the  absolute  dominion  over  their 
 city  and  commonwealth.  After  three  days'  rest  at  Corneto, 
 the  Pope  travelled  by  Toscanella  to  Viterbo,  where  he  ar- 
 rived on  the  9th  June.  There  he  was  received  with  popular 
 rejoicings  and  every  suitable  honour ;  but  his  prolonged 
 sojourn  was  overclouded  by  more  than  one  disaster.  On 
 the  24th  August,  Cardinal  Albornoz  died  in  that  city  of  the 
 fever  which  had  long  consumed  him,  and  prevented  him 
 from  meeting  the  Pope  at  Corneto.  On  one  occasion  Urban 
 V.  asked  this  talented  and  most  energetic  man,  who 
 had  held  the  legatine  office  for  fourteen  years,  to  give 
 account  of  the  large  sums  entrusted  to  him.  He  replied  by 
 directing  his  Holiness's  attention,  from  the  window  of  the 
 palace  where  both  stood,  to  a  waggon  now  driven  into  the 
 court  of  that  building,  completely  laden  Tvdth  the  keys  of 
 the  cities  he  had  re-subjected  to  the  tiara.  "  There  (he  said) 
 is  my  reckoning !"  on  which  the  Pontiff  embraced  him, 
 more  than  satisfied.  A  chronicler  of  Perugia  says  cor- 
 rectly, that  "  the  Spanish  Cardinal  was  a  noble  lord,  and 
 of  a  truly  great  soul"— that  he  had  pacified  and  reduced 
 to  order  the  Eomagna  provinces,  where,  after  his  death,  "  all 
 took  arms  again  without  scruple."  He  left  a  monument  of 
 his  abilities  as  a  statesman  in  the  constitution  he  drew  up 
 for  the  reconquered  cities,  which  continued  to  be  their 
 norma  of  government  for  centuries  subsequent.  His  body 
 was  laid  in  the  Pranciscan  basilica  at  Assisi,  but  trans- 
 ferred, in  1371,  to  his  own  cathedral  at  Toledo ;  and  on 
 that  occasion  G-regory  XL  granted  indulgences  to  all  who 
 attended  the  funeral  convoy  on  its  way  from  Umbria  to 
 Spain. 
 On  the  5th  September  broke  out  a  tumult  at  Viterbo, 
 
SACEED   ART    ES'    ITALY.  43 
 
 originating  in  a  mere  trifle,  a  quarrel  between  the  servants 
 of  Cardinals  and  some  citizens  who  were  washing  a  dog  at 
 a  fountain.  The  pox^ulace  took  arms,  and  raised  cries  of 
 "  Death  to  the  Church !  Long  life  to  the  people  !"  The 
 movement  soon  assumed  the  proportions  of  formidable 
 revolt.  The  Pope  fled  from  the  episcopal  palace,  his  resi- 
 dence hitherto,  and  took  refuge  in  the  castle.  For  six  days 
 he  and  the  Cardinals  with  him  sustained  a  siege  in  that 
 fortress.  At  last  came  armed  assistance  from  other  towns, 
 Corneto,  Montefiascone,  and  Orvieto.  The  Count  de  Monte- 
 marte,  an  Orvietan,  quelled  the  rioters  by  his  timely  inter- 
 position with  soldiery.  And  soon  the  populace,  struck  with 
 remorse,  appeared  penitent,  and  entreating  pardon  before 
 the  Pontiff",  giving  up  their  weapons  and  the  chains  with 
 which  they  had  barricaded  the  streets.  Of  their  own  accord 
 they  hanged  the  most  culpable  rioters  before  the  doors  of 
 the  Cardinals  who  had  been  insulted ;  and  it  was  ordered 
 that  all  the  lofty  brick  towers  in  the  city  should  be  levelled 
 to  the  height  of  the  house-tops— no  doubt  far  below  their 
 original  altitude.  This  revolt  made  a  most  painful  impres- 
 sion on  the  mind  of  Urban  V.  He  observed  that  it  was 
 "  the  beginning  of  the  troubles  and  severe  trials  awaiting 
 the  Church  ;"  and  it  is  supposed  that  the  resolution  to 
 return  to  Avignon  was  formed  by  him  in  consequence.* 
 
 On  the  16th  October  a  numerous  and  splendid  cavalcade 
 left  Yiterbo,  in  the  early  morning,  for  E-ome.  The  Mar- 
 quis Nicholas  d'Este,  who  had  arrived  on  the  14th  from 
 Perrara,  opened  the  procession  with  700  mounted  and  2000 
 foot  soldiers,  all  in  rich  uniform,  commanded  by  one  of  the 
 Malatesta  family ;  next  rode  eleven  Cardinals  with  their 
 chaplains  and  domestics  ;  the  Pope  followed  on  a  palfrey, 
 his  bridle  held  (as  they  entered  Eome)  by  Amadeus  lY. 
 tlie  Count  of  Savoy,  known  on  the  historic  page  as  "  Conte 
 
 *  Von  Rcumont,  "  Geschichte  der  Stadt  Horn,"  B.  VI.  section  ii. 
 
44  MEDIiEVAL    CHRISTIANITY    AND 
 
 Verde ;"  behind  His  Holiness  came  Eidolfo  di  Camerino, 
 holding  over  his  head  the  sacred  vexillum  of  the  Church ; 
 Galeotto  Malatesta  followed,  with  200  horse  ;  and  the  rear 
 of  the  procession  was  formed  by  Archbishops,   Bishops, 
 Abbots,   monks,   and   other    ecclesiastics ;    servants    and 
 guards — in  all,  2000  persons.    At  a  church,  a  mile  from  the 
 city,  they  were  met  by  the  Emperor  Charles  lY.  who  had 
 visited  Urban  at  Viterbo,  and  preceded  him  to   Eome, 
 arriving  there  five  days  previously.     From  that  spot  he 
 shared  with  the  Conte  Yerde  the  task  of  leading  the  Pon- 
 tiff's palfrey  till  they  reached  the  stairs  before  S.  Peter's. 
 On  the  piazza  before  the  Yatican  all  alighted  ;  the  Count 
 Amadeus   gave  the  accolade    of    knighthood    to   twelve 
 nobles  present ;  the  Pope  entered  the  Church,  knelt  at  the 
 Apostle's  tomb,  and  shed  tears  as  he  recited  the  appro- 
 priate psalm :  "  By  the  waters  of  Babylon  we  sat  down  and 
 wept."     After  granting  indulgences  from  his  throne  in  the 
 basilica.  Urban  entered  the  Yatican  palace,  thenceforth 
 preferred  for  pontific  residence  to   the  long  silent  and 
 still  perhaps  ruinous  Lateran.     On  the  vigil  of  All  Saints 
 Urban  celebrated  high  Mass  at  the  chief  altar  of  S.  Peter's, 
 where  that  rite  had  not  been  witnessed  since  the  time  of 
 Boniface  YIII.      Next  day  took  place  the  renewed  coro- 
 nation of  the  Emperor,  together   with   his   fourth   wife, 
 Isabella,  who  were  crowned  in  the  same  church  by  the  Pope, 
 A  few  days  afterwards  was  celebrated  the  solemn  installation 
 of  Pope  Urban  at  the  Lateran,  according  to  antecedent 
 observances  at  that  cathedral- church  of  the  Pontificate; 
 and  for  this  occasion  it  was  necessary  to  clear  away  accu- 
 mulated ruins  along  the  path  followed  by  the  procession,  for 
 the  passage  from  the  Colosseum  to  the  S.  Clemente  church. 
 In  the  following  year  arrived  another  Emperor,  John 
 Palseologus,  now  on  a  progress  through  Europe  with  the 
 object  of  obtaining  aid  against  the  ever-encroaching  and 
 
SACEED    AET    IN    ITALY.  45 
 
 overwhelming  power  of  the  Turks.  This  Potentate  did 
 not  hesitate  to  abjure  all  those '  doctrines  of  the  Greek 
 Church  condemned  by  Eome,  and  to  recognise  the  Papal 
 Supremacy  in  an  emphatic  profession  of  faith  received  by 
 four  Cardinals  at  the  church  of  S.  Spirito,  and  read  by  him 
 from  a  document  drawn  up  in  Greek  and  Latin,  with  a 
 golden  seal  appended.  A  few  days  afterwards  (12th  Octo- 
 ber, 1369),  this  act  was  more  solemnly  repeated.  The 
 Pope,  on  a  throne  surrounded  by  Cardinals  and  Prelates, 
 received  the  Emperor  at  the  summit  of  the  stairs  before 
 S.  Peter's.  Palaeologus  knelt,  kissed  the  foot  and  hand  of 
 Urban,  who  then  embraced  him,  and  led  him  into  the 
 basilica,  whilst  the  Te  Deum  was  chanted  by  all  present. 
 
 The  profession  of  faith  was  renewed  at  the  high  altar 
 during  the  pontifical  Mass ;  but  neither  this  pompously 
 celebrated  conversion,  nor  all  his  entreaties  and  compacts, 
 availed  to  protect  the  Greek  Autocrat  from  the  miserable 
 series  of  humiliations  and  defeats  which  were  awaiting  him. 
 He  left  Eome  after  an  unprofitable  stay  prolonged  for 
 some  months.  Another  sovereign,  the  beautiful  Joanna  of 
 Naples,  visited  Urban  Y.  not  long  afterwards,  and  came  with 
 all  the  splendours  of  her  luxurious  court,  a  train  of  barons 
 and  knights  clad  in  silk  and  gold,  so  numerous  indeed 
 that  it  was  difficult  for  all  to  find  lodgings.  Urban  re- 
 ceived the  Queen  at  the  entrance  to  S.  Peter's ;  and  on 
 the  fourth  Sunday  of  Lent  presented  her  with  the  Golden 
 Eose,  annually  blessed  by  the  Popes  before  the  High  Mass 
 in  their  chapel  on  that  day.  Not  a  little  sarcasm  was  ex- 
 cited among  the  Eomans  by  the  devout  eagerness  of  these 
 Neapolitan  visitors  to  obtain  indulgences — ^just  as  would  be 
 the  case  at  the  present  day. 
 
 The  last  years  preceding  the  pontifical  restoration  had 
 been  marked  by  troubles,  though  not  so  serious  or  tragic  as 
 others  of  recent  occurrence  in  Eome.     In  1363  the  Sena- 
 
46  MEDI.i:VAL    CHEISTIANITY    AND 
 
 tors  had  been  driven  away,  and  all  authority  vested  for 
 some  months  in  the  Eiformatori,  After  another  period 
 of  senatorial  office,  that  magistracy  had  been  suspended 
 for  almost  a  vi^hole  year  (1365-6).  In  1362  a  warfare, 
 insignificant  indeed,  was  carried  on  between  the  Eomans 
 and  their  neighbours  of  Yelletri.  A  series  of  invasions 
 followed,  spreading  terror  and  tumult  over  the  wa^te  Cam- 
 pagna.  Two  adventurers,  the  Englishman  John  Hawk- 
 wood,  and  the  G-erman  Baumgarten,  led  into  that  district 
 their  bands  of  mercenary  soldiers,  the  refuse  of  armies  no 
 longer  in  the  pay  of  any  government ;  and  for  the  winter 
 of  1364-5  the  Germans,  fierce  marauders  like  the  rest  of 
 such  disbanded  troops,  took  up  their  head-quarters  at 
 Sutri. 
 
 "Within  tlie  walls  of  Eome  prevailed  comparative  tran- 
 quillity; and  the  Pope  was  able  to  accomplish  certain  re- 
 forms of  the  municipal  system  without  any  violent  opposition. 
 The  Eiformatori  henceforth  disappear.  Urban  restored 
 another  body,  the  "  Conservfttores,"  or  assessors  of  the 
 Senator,  who  had  existed  in  the  earlier  part  of  this  century, 
 three  in  number,  served  by  twelve  subordinate  officials  ; 
 the  special  attributes  of  these  Conservatores  being  to  pre- 
 side over  the  civic  finances,  the  guilds,  the  prisons,  aque- 
 ducts, the  repair  of  churches,  public  buildings,  and  walls, 
 <fec.  Another  council,  invested  with  some  authority,  was 
 brought  into  being,  but  not,  it  seems,  for  long  duration, 
 by  TJrban's  influence.  The  Senator  was  desired  to  sum- 
 mon the  people,  and,  in  co-operation  with  the  Banderesi, 
 elect  four  experienced  persons  out  of  each  "  Eione,"  as  a 
 board  for  deliberating  and  voting  on  future  questions  of 
 civic  interest. 
 
 Par  less  pacific  was  the  state  of  the  provinces,  and  at 
 the  favourite  summer  residence  of  IJrban  Y.,  Montefiascone, 
 troubles  awaited  him.     The  citizens  of  Perugia  had  shown 
 
SACEED    AUT    in    ITALY.  47 
 
 an  independent  spirit,  loatli  to  recognise  the  absolute  sway 
 of  the  Papacy ;  and  the  Baglioni  family,  who,  with  their 
 partisans,  supported  the  Pontifical  interest  in  that  city,  had 
 been  deprived  of  all  power,  shortly  before  an  open  revolt 
 against  the  government  of  the  Church.  The  Perugians 
 had  positively  refused  to  recognise  the  Papal  sovereignty 
 when  summoned  by  Urban  to  do  so.  In  the  spring  of 
 1368,  Perugia  commenced  war  against  the  Pontiff;  and 
 whilst  he  was  at  Montefiascone  sent  its  forces  against  that 
 small  but  well-fortified  town,  beneath  whose  walls  4000 
 horse  were  seen  scouring  the  environs,  and  within  whose 
 gates  the  missiles  of  that  besieging  force  from  time  to  time 
 fell.  The  Pope  found  himself  in  personal  danger.  He 
 was  rescued  at  last  by  the  interposition  of  the  same  Count 
 di  Montemarte  of  Orvieto,  who  had  proved  so  efficient  a 
 protector  against  the  violence  of  the  Yiterbese.  "With 
 comparatively  few  troops,  the  Count  defeated  and  drove 
 away  the  Perugian  force,  who  left  that  neighbourhood  and 
 the  entire  district  of  Orvieto,  bordering  on  that  of  Monte- 
 fiascone, in  the  most  dreary  desolation. 
 
 Urban  V.  possessed  virtues  which  commanded  respect, 
 and  gave  an  example  of  piety  which  touched  the  hearts  of 
 those  around  him.  But  he  wanted  the  courage  of  con- 
 stancy. Influenced  either  by  his  fears  or  affections,  by  the 
 remembrance  of  what  he  had  suffered  dming  his  stay  in 
 Italy,  or  his  attachment  to  his  country  and  to  the  Cardinals 
 of  that  country,  who  ceased  not  to  urge  his  return,  he  at 
 last  resolved  on  that  step,  the  announcement  of  which, 
 made  at  Montefiascone  in  the  summer  of  1370,  with  inti- 
 mation to  his  court  to  prepare  for  the  journey  in  two 
 months,  excited  distress  and  astonishment.  Deputies  from 
 Eome  came  to  entreat  him  to  abandon  such  purpose,  and 
 return  to  his  metropolis  ;  he  answered  that  he  trusted  in 
 the   guidance   of   the   Holy   Spirit.      A   saintly   matron, 
 
48  MEDIAEVAL    CnRISTTA:p^TTT    AND 
 
 Brigida  of  Sweden,  who  had  obtained  from  him  the  sanc- 
 tion of  a  religious  society  founded  by  herself,  came  to  warn 
 him  of  the  Divine  displeasure,  declaring  that  it  had  been 
 revealed  to  her  by  the  Blessed  Virgin,  that,  should  Urban 
 return  to  Avignon,  the  wrath  of  Heaven  against  him  would 
 be  speedily  manifested  by  the  death  of  the  erring  Pontiff. 
 Eemonstrances  were  in  vain ;  the  pretext  alleged  to  the 
 world  was  the  Pope's  desire  to  intercede  as  peacemaker 
 between  Erance  and  England,  the  long  wars  between  which 
 countries  had  broken  out  anew  and  with  redoubled 
 violence ;  Charles  Y.  having  announced  to  the  States  Gene- 
 ral at  Paris  (9th  May,  1369)  the  rupture,  after  a  truce  of  brief 
 duration,  with  Edward  III ;  and  from  this  time  till  the  armis- 
 tice of  1375,  hostilities  were  incessant,  their  course  being 
 marked  by  a  great  misfortune  to  the  English,  the  death  of 
 the  Black  Prince.  On  the  7th  September,  1370,  Urban  V. 
 and  his  attendants  embarked  at  Corneto  in  thirty-four 
 galleys  supplied  by  Erance,  Aragon,  and  Naples— three 
 years  and  three  months  after  this  Pontiff  had  disembarked 
 on  the  same  coast  where  he  first  trod  Italian  soil.  The  tra- 
 vellers reached  Avignon  on  the  24th  of  September.  On 
 the  19th  December  following,  Urban  died,  in  his  sixty- 
 first  year,  not  at  the  Papal  palace  but  in  the  house  of  his 
 brother  at  that  city ;  having  desired,  when  he  felt  the 
 approach  of  death,  to  be  carried  to  that  house^  and  laid  on 
 a  humble  couch,  in  his  Benedictine  habit,  within  a  chamber 
 open  to  every  visitor,  where  all  classes,  clergy  and  laity, 
 might  witness  the  last  scene,  and  look  on  the  Supreme 
 Pastor  at  the  moment  which  levels  all  earthly  distinctions. 
 Petrarch  wrote  to  this  Pontiff  with  severe  but  sad  re- 
 proaches for  the  desertion  of  his  See.  Yet  the  great  poet 
 believed  in  the  miracles  ascribed  to  Urban  after  his  death  ; 
 for  his  memory  was  cherished  as  that  of  a  saint.  Waxen 
 images  hung  over  his  tomb  at  S.  Yictor,  and  the  church  of 
 
SACEED    ART    IN    ITALY.  49 
 
 tlie  Abbey  lie  had  governed  at  Marseilles,  attesting  the 
 miraculous  cures  wrought  through  his  intercession ! 
 Scarcely,  says  a  chronicler  of  the  time,  "was  there  a 
 church  in  any  important  city  of  the  world  where  the  image 
 of  Urban  was  not  painted,  and  honoured  with  vigils  and 
 oblations."  De  Sade  states  that  eighty-two  of  his  supposed 
 miracles  were  found  to  be  authentic,  when  subjected  to 
 formal  tests,  according  to  a  MS.  record  thereof  in  the  Vati- 
 can. 
 
 "We  may  prefer  to  dwell  on  the  substantial  benefits 
 secured  to  the  Church  by  this  virtuous,  if  not  altogether 
 blameless,  Pontifi".  He  exerted  himself  to  extirpate  simony 
 and  pluralities,  and  in  a  "  constitution,"  (Horrihilis)  de- 
 nounces particularly  the  latter  abuse.  One  of  the  reforms 
 he  laboured  to  effect  in  Italy  and  other  countries  was  that 
 of  monastic  discipline,  now  woefully  declined.  At  Monte 
 Cassino,  which  had  become  a  deplorable  example  of  dere- 
 liction from  the  high  standard,  he  restored  the  abbatial 
 office,  together  with  the  genuine  Benedictine  observance. 
 Notwithstanding  all  prohibitions  against  the  multiplication 
 of  religious  orders,  he  approved  the  rules  of  two  such  socie- 
 ties, newly  founded,  the  Jesuati,  originated  by  S.  Gio- 
 vanni Colombini  of  Siena,  and  the  Congregation  of  S. 
 Salvator,  formed  by  the  Swedish  saint,  Brigida,  whose  pro- 
 phetic warnings  we  have  seen  fulfilled  in  the  death  of 
 Urban  Y. 
 
50  MEDIAEVAL    CHETSTIANITY    AND 
 
 CHAPTEE   II. 
 The  Fourteenth  Century — 1370  to  1399. 
 
 The  successor  to  Urban  Y.,  elected  at  Avignon  on  the 
 SOtli  December,  1370,  was  Pierre  Roger,  lord  of  Beaufort 
 in  Anjou,  and  Cardinal  Deacon,  who  took  the  name  of 
 G-regory  XI.  Froissart  tells  us  he  had  made  a  vow  in  his 
 youth  to  restore  the  Holy  See  to  Eome,  should  it  ever  be 
 in  his  power  to  accomplish  a  step  so  important.  The 
 Eomans,  loyally  disposed  towards  him,  sent  an  embassy, 
 soon  after  his  election,  to  offer  to  him,  for  the  term  of  his 
 life,  and  in  his  private,  not  public  or  hierarchic,  capacity, 
 the  dominion  over  their  city.  Other  embassies,  which 
 reached  Avignon  from  Eome  in  1374,  urged  the  immediate 
 restoration  of  the  Pontificate  to  its  proper  seat,  and  repre- 
 sented to  Gregory  the  probabilities  even  of  another  schism 
 — the  raising  up,  namely,  of  an  Anti-Pope — should  the  See 
 of  S.  Peter  be  longer  abandoned  by  those  hitherto,  though 
 at  a  distance,  considered  its  legitimate  occupants. 
 
 The  Abbot  of  Monte  Cassino  was  ready  to  accept  the  prof- 
 fered tiara.  Gregory,  aware  of  the  dangers  which  beset 
 his  temporal  sovereignty,  made  a  league  with  the  Estes,  the 
 Marquis  of  Montferrato,  and  other  Italian  princes,  against 
 the  Yisconti,  both  of  whom,  Bernabo  and  Galeazzo,  he 
 excommunicated.  One  clause  in  the  Papal  sentence  against 
 that  powerful  family  imported  the  prohibition  to  contract 
 matrimony  with  any  individual   of  the  Yisconti  house.* 
 
 *  This  cxconimimicatiou  was  iuscrted  iu  the  Bull,  "  In  Coena  Domini." 
 
SACRED    ART    IN    ITALY.  51 
 
 Tithes,  for  the  expenses  of  the  projected  war,  were  imposed 
 on  the  clergy  of  England,  Norway,  Sweden,  Denmark, 
 Hungary,  and  Poland.  The  Visconti,  on  their  part, 
 strengthened  themselves  by  a  league  with  Florence  and 
 the  Neapolitan  crown.  Occasion  soon  occurred  for  the 
 Florentines  to  avenge  themselves  on  the  Pontific  govern- 
 ment, suspected  of  practices  injurious  to  theii'  immediate 
 interests.  A  French  Cardinal,  who  acted  as  Legate  at 
 Bologna,  was  believed  to  have  encouraged  the  lawless 
 designs  of  the  English  adventurer  Hawkwood  against 
 Prato,  a  town  the  industrious  neighbour  of  Florence,  and 
 subject  to  the  same  republic.  The  complicity  of  the  Legate 
 in  a  secret  treaty  for  the  occupation  of  Prato  seems  cer- 
 tain. Hawkwood  and  his  mercenary  troops  were,  however, 
 bought  off  by  payrnxnt  and  by  promises  to  that  leader  of 
 annual  subsidies  from  Florence.  A  revolt,  for  which  the 
 Papal  States  were  ripe,  was  now  excited  and  supported  by 
 the  Florentines,  who  sent  a  banner,  with  the  inspiring 
 device,  "  Libertas,"  round  the  cities  on  the  banks  of  the 
 Tiber  and  among  the  mountains  of  Umbria.  Citta  di  Cas- 
 tello  was  first  to  set  the  example  (November,  1375)  ; 
 Yiterbo,  Montefiascone,  Narni,  followed.  The  Cardinal  at 
 Bologna  was  deprived  of  authority ;  his  palace  invaded  and 
 sacked  ;  he  himself  compelled  to  fly  in  disguise  to  Ferrara, 
 with  which  city  he  was  suspected  of  holding  treasonable 
 correspondence,  for  a  projected  sale  of  Bologna  to  the  Este 
 house.  Perugia,  impatient  of  the  government  tyrannically 
 exercised  by  a  French  Abbot  as  Papal  Vicar,  emancipated 
 herself  at  once.  Assisi,  Spoleto,  Gubbio,  Urbino,  Eavenna 
 alike  revolted.  In  the  course  of  a  few  days,  eighty  places, 
 cities,  fortified  villages  and  castles  included,  had  cast  oflT 
 their  allegiance  to  the  tiara.  "  It  seemed  (says  Muratori) 
 'that  all  the  populations,  even  of  the  smallest  towns,  were 
 
 ibeut  on  gaining  indulgences  by  rebelling  against  the  Pope, 
 
 I  E  2 
 
52  MEDIEVAL   CHEISTJANITT   AND 
 
 their  lawful  sovereign !  "*  Thus  were  the  fruits  of  Al- 
 bornoz'  brilliant  victories  instantly  lost  to  the  Church  !  In 
 several  cities,  the  aristocratic  dominions  cast  do"WTi  by  that 
 warlike  Legate  were  again  set  up :  the  potent  families 
 again  obeyed.  Eorli  now  submitted  to  the  Ordelaffi  ; 
 Macerata  and  Camerino  recognised  Rodolfo  de  Yarano  as 
 their  lord.  At  Faenza,  a  movement  for  placing  the  city 
 under  the  lordship  of  Astorre  de'  Manfredi  was  checked  by 
 the  arms  of  Hawkwood  and  his  fierce  mercenaries,  sent 
 thither  by  the  Cardinal  Bishop  of  Ostia,  who  held  also 
 rank  and  office  as  Count  of  E/omagna,  in  the  Pontific  cause. 
 A  general  sack  of  that  ill-fated  city  ensued  ;  about  three 
 hundred  victims  (mostly  children)  were  put  to  the  sword  ; 
 three  hundred  of  the  principal  citizens  were  made  captives ; 
 and  about  eleven  hundred  more,  of  both  sexes,  driven  into 
 exile.f 
 
 Meantime,  the  Pope,  personally  blameless  for  the  atroci- 
 ties committed  in  his  name,  used  the  thunders  of  the 
 Church  against  Florence,  in  his  eyes  most  culpable.  In 
 solemn  consistory  (31st  March,  1376)  that  city  was  laid 
 under  interdict ;   and  about  a  month   afterwards   divine 
 
 *  "  Gregory  XL  was  a  good  Pope  ;  but  the  Ultramontane  officials  sent 
 by  bina  to  govern  in  Italy  were  not  good  men.  All  were  eager  to 
 devour  the  revenues  of  the  Pontifical  Camera,  and  to  extort  money  by 
 whatever  means,  whilst  careless  of  administering  justice.  Thus  did  the 
 Pastors  of  the  Church  (as  they  were  called)  win  not  only  discredit,  but 
 disapproval  and  hatred,  from  all— nor  was  there  any  remedy  against  the 
 jBood  of  disasters." — Muratori,  Annali,  an,  mccclxxv. 
 
 t  "  Tutta  la  citta  con  nudita  crudelta  fu  interamente  data  a  sacco, 
 e  vi  restarano  trucidate  circa  300  persone,  massimamente  fauciulli. 
 L'iniquo  Inglesi  col  protesto  che  meditassero  ribellione,  300  de'  princi- 
 paU  cittadini  caccio  in  prigione  ;  spinse  fuor  di  citta  gli  altri  (erano 
 circa  11,000  persone  dell'  uno  e  dell'  altro  sesso)  con  ritener  solamente 
 quelle  donne,  che  jMacquero  a  lui  ed  ai  suoi."  Such  Muratori's  narrative, 
 which  I  prefer  quoting  in  the  original  Italian,  Annali,  mccclxxvi. 
 
SACRED   ART    IX    ITALY.  53 
 
 worsliip  was  suspended  in  its  cliurclies.  All  intercourse  of 
 whatever  description,  and  all  commerce  with  the  Floren- 
 tines were  forbidden.  Their  property,  of  every  kind,  was  to 
 be  confiscated.  Their  persons  might  be  seized,  and  reduced 
 to  slavery,  by  whomsoever  in  whatever  country,  without 
 law  or  mercy  for  the  reprobate  people.  Many  availed 
 themselves  of  this  license  to  pillage  and  confiscate.  Flo- 
 rentine banks  were  despoiled ;  and  several  natives  of  that 
 doomed  city,  settled  in  Avignon  or  other  towns  of  different 
 countries,  were  compelled  to  return  to  their  homes  after 
 suffering  ruinous  injury,  loss  of  means  and  position.* 
 
 This  example  of  the  exercise  of  Pontific  power,  at  a 
 period  of  comparatively  advanced  civilization,  is  the  more 
 strikingly  illustrative  of  the  tendencies  peculiar  to  hier- 
 archic absolutism,  because  proceeding,  not  from  a  sternly 
 ambitious  or  worldly-minded,  but  from  a  pious,  estimable, 
 and  self-devoting  man,  well  entitled  to  the  reverence  and 
 affection  he  won  from  his  contemporaries  ! 
 
 Grenoa  and  Pisa  were,  soon  afterwards,  laid  under  inter- 
 dict for  the  sole  offence  of  not  expelling  all  Florentines 
 from  their  gates.  At  this  emergency  it  was  that  Grregory, 
 moved  by  many  entreaties,  and  among  others  by  those  of 
 an  extraordinary  woman,  to  be  farther  mentioned  in  these 
 pages,  Catherine  of  Siena,  determined  at  last  to  satisfy 
 
 *  A  compendium  of  the  proceeding  is  thus  supplied  by  one  of  the 
 contemporary  biographers  of  Gregoiy  XI.  :— "  Ne  aliquis  eis  vel  corum 
 alicui  participaret  loquendo,  comedendo,  bibendo,  emendo,  vendendo,  aut 
 ahas  quovis  modo,  daret  consilium,  auxilium,  vel  favorem  directe  vel 
 
 indirecte Mandavit  quod  panni  aut  aliae  merces  quscunque  per 
 
 eos  aut  in  eorum  territorio  factse  sive  titulo  emptionis,  sive  donationis, 
 aut  alias  qualitercunque  ad  usum  ahquorum  nullatenus  cederent  aut 
 recipcrentur  nisi  in  quantum  hoc  ad  eorum  damnum  scu  jucturamcedere 
 posset.  Confiscavit  nihilominus  omnia  eonim  bona  tarn  mobilia  quara 
 immobilia  ubicunque  consisterent.  Personas  insuper  corum  cupicutium 
 suas  fieri,  fieri  ordinavit."— -v.  Baluze,  Prima  Yiio>  Greg.  XI. 
 
54*  MEDIEVAL    CHRISTIANITT    AND 
 
 the  desire  of  Italy  and  the  Church  by  restoring  the  Holy 
 See  to  Eome. 
 
 He  left  Avignon  on  the  13th  September,  1376,  and  em- 
 barked with  thirteen  Cardinals  and  several  prelates  at 
 Marseilles,  on  galleys  supplied  by  the  Queen  of  Naples, 
 the  Pisans  and  Genoese,  2nd  October.*  The  voyage  was 
 tempestuous  ;  some  of  the  ships  were  wrecked  on  the  Tus- 
 can Maremma  coast.  One  prelate,  the  Bishop  of  Luni,  was 
 drowned ;  and  one  of  the  Cardinals  died  of  suffering  and 
 fatigue  at  Pisa,  where  it  had  been  necessary  to  leave  him. 
 At  G-enoa  the  travellers  were  obliged  to  remain,  owing  to 
 stress  of  weather,  from  the  18th  to  the  29th  October.  Cha- 
 racteristic of  the  manners  of  the  time  were  some  of  the 
 hospitalities  offered  to  the  distinguished  travellers.  At  the 
 port  of  Pisa,  (one  writer  says,  at  Livorno)  the  magistrates 
 made  jDresents  in  substantial  kind — calves,  lambs,  loaves, 
 wine,  and  other  good  things  for  his  Holiness ;  also  for  each  of 
 the  Cardinals,  two  barrels  of  wine  (described  as  G-reek  wine 
 and  claret),  two  calves,  two  sheep,  and  four  sacks  of  bread. 
 The  voyagers  stopped  at  several  other  ports.  The  fortified 
 Orbitello,  on  the  low  sea-coast  between  lakes  of  salt  water, 
 
 *  We  fortunately  possess  a  most  curious  metrical  narrative  of  this  jour- 
 ney by  one  of  the  prelates  of  the  party,  Peter  Amelias  of  Brenac,  an 
 Augustinian,  and  Bishop  of  Senigallia,  whose  Itinerariuon  Gregorii  XI. 
 is  edited  by  Muratori  (Rer.  Ital  Scrix't.  T.  iii.  p.  11.)  He  begins  with 
 an  invocation  to  the  Virgin  as  '*  Maris  Stella  ;"  and  frequently  rebukes 
 the  turbulent  ocean  for  not  submitting  in  peace  to  the  Lord  of  the 
 w^orld.  Indeed  the  doctrine  of  Papal  Infallibility  is  anticipated  here, 
 with  the  superadded  attribution  of  almost  absolute  Divinity  to  the  person 
 of  the  Pontiff : 
 *'  Cur  a  tuo  mundique  Principi  non  vis  dominari  ? 
 
 Dominus  seculi  est,  quem  tu  vehis,  cui  te  oportet  humiliari. 
 ***** 
 
 Tempus  esset,  ut,  mare,  tuum  Dominum  cognosceres,  illiquc  obediens^ 
 Deus  in  terris  est,  quem  utero  tuleris,"  &c. 
 
SACRED   ART    IN    ITALY.  55 
 
 was  passed  by  on  foot,  after  they  had  landed  near,  soon  to  re- 
 embark  at  Porto  Ercole,  the  PortusIIcrculis  of  the  ancients.* 
 Sailing  by  night  under  the  mountain  promontory  of  Argen- 
 taro,  which  shelters  both  Orbitello  and  that  small  sea-port, 
 they  saw  its  swelling  acclivities  rise  distinct,  illuminated  by 
 countless  torchlights,  against  the  darkness — for  even  the 
 desolate  Maremma  gave  tokens  of  rejoicing  at  the  restora- 
 tion of  the  Holy  See.  On  the  Cth  December  they  landed 
 at  the  haven  below  Corneto,  and  thence  rode  up  to  that 
 castellated  town,  once  defended  by  one  hundred  towers, 
 but  now  little  noticeable  save  for  the  picturesque  gloom 
 of  its  old  palaces  and  solitary  streets  !  Here  they  passed 
 five  weeks,  the  Pontift'  and  several  (if  not  all)  of  his  suite 
 being  lodged  in  a  Franciscan  convent,  where  they  celebrated 
 Christmas.  Treaties  w^ere,  meantime,  concluded  with  the 
 E-oman  citizens,  as  stipulated  and  drawn  up  by  three  Car- 
 dinals empowered  so  to  act.  The  Pope  was  to  enjoy  un- 
 limited authority  (plenum  et  liberum  Urhis  dominium) 
 over  Eome  from  the  moment  of  his  landing  at  Ostia. 
 About  midnight,  13th  January,  all  re-embarked  at  the 
 haven  of  Corneto,  and  about  noon,  next  day,  the  ships 
 were  at  anchor  before  Ostia — not  then,  as  now,  a  desolate 
 and  pestilential  coast,  but  for  this  occasion  animated  by 
 the  colicourse  and  jubilation  of  multitudes,  who  had  come 
 from  Eome  to  greet  their  yet  unknown  Pontiff  with  ex- 
 ulting demonstrations.  After  sunset  were  heard  choral 
 songs  from  groups  assembled  by  torchlight.  On  the  fol- 
 lowing night,  after  a  religious  service,  the  travellers  pro- 
 ceeded up  the  Tiber ;  and  when  the  galleys  approached  the 
 extramural  basilica  of  S.  Paul's  they  found  the  river's 
 banks  covered  with  throngs  of  spectators,  ready  to  pay 
 
 •  "  Non  enim  decuit  Papam  in  Orbitello  parvulo  cum  tanta  acie  re- 
 manere ; 
 Calcato  marc  parvulo,  pedcstcr  progreditur  Pastor  cum  suo  baculo." 
 
56  MEDIEVAL   CHRISTIAKITT    AND 
 
 the  same  honours  of  loyal  welcome  to  the  Pope.  He  did  not 
 land  until  the  morning  of  the  17th  January.  After  first 
 attending  mass,  celebrated  by  the  poetic  Bishop  of  Senigallia, 
 in  that  basilica,  and  afterwards  visiting  the  Benedictine 
 monastery  which  adjoins  it,  Gregory  desired  to  set  out  on 
 his  triumphal  progress  to  Eome.  A  troop  of  chosen  horse- 
 men escorted  his  Holiness ;  twelve  Cardinals  rode  beside  him ; 
 the  G-rand  Master  of  Ehodes  carried  the  sacred  banner  of  the 
 Church  before  him.  The  Senators,  the  Banderesi,  the  Coun- 
 sellors, all  vested  in  silk,  the  nobility  in  their  full  pomp, 
 the  military,  and  a  thousand  comedians  all  dressed  in  white, 
 swelled  the  train ;  the  players  taking  the  part  of  strenuous 
 vocalists,  singing  and  applauding  the  whole  way.*  Erom  S. 
 Paul's  to  the  Ostian  gate,  the  road  was  lined  with  decora- 
 tions of  foliage,  evergreens,  &c.  At  that  towered  gateway, 
 the  procession  was  met  by  "  innumerable  prelates,"  in  full 
 pontificals,  and  all  the  Eoman  clergy,  alike  in  sacred  vest- 
 ments, carrying  wax  torches  and  religious  insignia.  The 
 imperial  banners  as  well  as  those  of  the  "E/ioni"  floated 
 over  the  moving  multitude ;  the  clang  of  trumpets,  the 
 harmonies  of  almost  all  known  instruments,  and  the  pealing 
 of  all  the  church-bells  united  in  joyous  accord. f  At  the 
 gates  the  Senator  presented  the  keys  of  the  city  to  his 
 Holiness  ;  and  as  the  cavalcade  passed  through  the  crowded 
 streets,  women  (many  of  whom  wept  for  joy)  strewed 
 flowers  from  the  house-tops,  while  old  and  young  raised 
 
 *"Egrediente  summo   Pontifice  sancti  Pauli    palatium,   afFuerunt 
 mille  histriones. 
 Progrediente  Prsesule  ante  chorizabunt,  induti  omnes  panno  albo, 
 manibus  plaudentes." 
 We  cannot  suppose  that  these  "  comedians,"  pertained  to  a  class  Ingher 
 than  that  of  the  mime,  mountebank,  or  court  jester,    Petrarch  places 
 the  histrionic  exhibitors  of  his  time  on  the  same  level  with  the  basest 
 parasites  :  "Una est  histrionum atque parasitorum lex, utrique blanditiis 
 armati,  postfortunam  eimt."(De  Remed.utriusq.  Foriunce,  1. 1,  Dial.  28.) 
 f      "  Tintinnabula  cum  omni  genere  musicorum." 
 
SACRED    ART    IN    ITALY.  57 
 
 the  cry,  Vivat  Dominus  !*  Never  had  Rome  beheld  such  a 
 Poiitific  triumph  !  Though  they  had  entered  in  the  early 
 moruiug,  the  travellers  did  not  arrrive  before  S.  Peter's 
 till  the  hour  of  Complines,  after  Vespers.  The  whole  city 
 was  by  that  time  illuminated,  but  most  brilliant  was  the 
 display  on  the  piazza  of  the  Vatican,  also  on  the  front  and  in 
 the  interior  of  the  great  basilica,  whose  nave  and  aisles  were 
 suffused  with  light  from  8000  gold  and  silver  lamps  during 
 the  act  of  thanksgiving  now  performed  at  the  Apostle's 
 shrine.  Late  was  the  hour  when  the  weary  Pontiff  and 
 his  suite  sat  down  to  a  banquet  served  on  dishes  set  with 
 gems,  in  a  brightly  illumined  hall  of  the  Vatican — hence- 
 forth the  chosen  residence  and  privileged  home  of  the  Pon- 
 tifical Curia. 
 
 The  sequel  in  the  history  of  Gregory  XI.  failed  to  cor- 
 respond to  the  bright  promises  apparently  conveyed  in 
 this  burst  of  enthusiastic  loyalty.  He  did  not  succeed  in 
 his  attempt  to  limit  the  authority  of  the  Banderesi,  and 
 the  republican  institutions  of  civic  government  were  main- 
 tained after  as  before  the  restoration  of  the  Holy  See. 
 Some  few  weeks  after  the  Pope's  arrival  occurred  a  scene  of 
 bloodshed  and  savage  license  at  Cesena,  which  left  a  dark 
 stain  on  the  memory  of  the  Cardinal  Kobert,  brother  to 
 the  Count  of  Greneva,  whose  title  he  inherited,  and  was  the 
 last  to  bear.  He  had  been  sent  into  the  Papal  States  at 
 the  head  of  a  force  of  Bretons,  from  Avignon,  and  had 
 taken  up  his  residence  at  Cesena.  The  Bretons  made 
 themselves  hateful  by  their  violence  and  rapacity.  A 
 quarrel  arose,  caused  by  the  attempt  of  one  of  those 
 soldiers  to  take  by  force  the  meat  from  a  butcher's  stall ; 
 the  populace  took  arms  against  the  foreign  garrison,  and 
 more  than  300  Bretons  were  slain.     The  Cardinal  sum- 
 
 *  "Isteest  Dominus  quern  speravimus — vivet  Pupa,"  as  tlic  Bibhop 
 of  Senigallia  paraphrases  these  acclamations. 
 
58  MEDIiBVAL    CHRISTIANITY   AND 
 
 moned  the  English  mercenaries,  with  Hawkwood,  their 
 leader,  from  Paenza,  where  they  were  then  quartered, 
 promising  to  them  remission  of  all  their  sins,  and  offering 
 them  all  the  spoils  and  booty  of  Cesena  as  compensation 
 for  the  services,  or  rather  vengeance,  he  desired.  Another 
 captain  in  the  service  of  the  Church,  Count  Alberico  di 
 Barbiano,  arrived  with  200  lances  to  co-operate  and  share 
 those  rewards.  A  general  massacre  and  pillage  began; 
 and  it  w^as  in  vain  that  the  citizens  defended  themselves 
 against  overwhelming  numbers.  No  age,  sex,  nor  condition 
 was  spared  ;  infants  were  slain  in  the  cradle ;  children 
 dashed  against  the  pavement ;  pregnant  women  horribly 
 put  to  the  sword ;  nuns  subjected  to  brutal  outrage  in 
 their  convents.  Hawkwood  indeed  exerted  himself  to  save 
 the  weaker  sex,  and  sent  about  a  thousand  women,  under 
 military  escort,  to  E,imini,  where  they  arrived  safe.  At 
 least  3000  citizens  were  massacred,  and  about  8000,  in 
 utter  destitution,  found  tbeir  way,  begging  on  the  road,  to 
 Cervia  or  Eimini.  In  the  "  Cronaca  Eiminese,"  edited 
 by  Muratori,  we  read  that  all  the  monks  and  nuns  in 
 Cesena  were  slain,  after  being  despoiled  of  their  property  ; 
 that  more  than  1000  children  were  among  the  victims ; 
 and  that  on  the  25th  of  April  not  a  living  citizen  was  left 
 in  that  town ;  nor  any  victuals,  grain,  wine,  or  oil,  to  be 
 had — except,  of  course,  what  the  brutal  soldiery  now 
 enjoyed.  After  this  tragedy  the  Cardinal  set  out  for 
 Ferrara,  leaving  the  desolated  Cesena  in  the  power  of 
 Hawkwood  and  his  troops.  The  Cardinal  of  Geneva  (as 
 he  was  styled)  may  have  been  less  guilty  in  this  transac- 
 tion than  contemporaries  supposed.  He  had  previously 
 given  proofs  of  humanity  in  his  career  as  a  leader  of 
 armies;  and  the  circumstance  of  his  subsequent  election  as 
 an  Antipope  exposed  him  inevitably  to  the  attack,  perhaps 
 to  the  calumnies,  of  the  party  adhering  to  his  legitimately 
 
SACRED    AllT    IX    ITALY.  59 
 
 elected  rival  iu  the  Poiitifieate.  The  mercenary  troops 
 who  had  thus  preyed  on  Cesena,  and  shortly  before  on 
 Faenza  alike,  demanded  the  pay  which  that  Cardinal 
 Legate  could  not  supply.  In  order  to  obtain  it  he  deliber- 
 ately sold  Faenza  for  40,000  gold  florins  to  the  Marquis 
 Nicolo  d'Este  of  Ferrara.  Soon  after  this,  however,  that 
 city  passed  under  the  power  of  its  former  lord,  Astorre 
 Manfredi,  who,  aided  by  Bernabo  Yisconti,  and  the 
 Florentines,  effected  entrance  by  night  through  a  sewer, 
 w\as  again  recognised  as  lord  of  Faenza,  and  thus  baffled 
 the  plans  of  the  mortified  Legate. 
 
 The  Pope,  whose  disposition  was  pacific,  desired  at  last 
 to  conciliate  by  treaty,  or  concessions,  those  whom  he  had 
 so  sternly  anathematized,  the  now  irreconcilable  Floren- 
 tines. But  the  terms  he  proposed  by  embassy  were  re- 
 jected ;  both  at  Pisa  and  Florence  the  interdict,  submitted 
 to  for  a  time,  was  set  at  nought,  and  priests  were  compelled 
 to  ofiiciate  in  all  the  churches  as  usual.  This  drew  doMU 
 on  both  cities  a  renewal  of  the  disregarded  spiritual  fulmi- 
 nations. 
 
 The  Florentines  farther  injured  the  material  forces  of 
 the  Holy  See  by  winning  over  froui  its  service  to  their  own 
 the  redoubtable  Hawkwood,  whom  they  engaged  to  com- 
 mand their  army  with  the  large  stipend  of  250,000  florins 
 a-year.  The  loss  of  Faenza  was  soon  more  than  compen- 
 sated for  by  the  recovery  of  Bologna,  and  through  pacific 
 means  ;  the  citizens  entering  into  treaty  with  the  Pontift*, 
 and  agreeing  to  recognise  his  sovereignty  on  the  condition 
 of  retaining  for  five  years  their  independent  municipal 
 administration,  whilst  paying  annual  tribute  of  10,000  gold 
 florins  to  Eome.  Bolsena,  on  its  beautiful  lake,  another  of 
 the  many  towns  lost  to  the  Tiara,  was  recovered  by  a  singular 
 contrivance,  but  at  a  cost  fatally  compromising  to  the  win- 
 ning side.    The  Franciscan  friars,  whose  convent  stood  near 
 
60  MEDIiEVAL    CHEISTIANITT    AND 
 
 the  walls,  introduced  by  night  a  company  of  Breton  soldiers, 
 who  soon  became  masters  of  the  place,  but  disgraced  the 
 advantage  obtained  for  the  Pope  by  a  general  pillage  and 
 massacre,  putting  to  the  sword  about  five  hundred  inhabit- 
 ants of  both  sexes. 
 
 Grregory,  disheartened  by  the  difficulties  of  government, 
 and  the  continued  turbulence  of  the  Eomans,  thought  of 
 returning  to  Avignon,  as  the  Prench  Cardinals  ceased  not 
 to  urge  for  their  own  interests.  He  did  not  live  to  take 
 that  step.  "Whilst  at  Anagni,  during  the  last  summer  of 
 his  life,*  he  addressed  a  brief  to  the  Bishop  of  London,  en- 
 joining on  him  to  proceed  against  the  heretical  Wickliff. 
 In  the  February  of  1378,  this  Pontiff's  enfeebled  health 
 began  to  sink  under  a  chronic  malady,  and  when  scarcely 
 
 *  His  journey  to  Anagni  is  almost  as  circumstantially  described  as 
 that  from  Avignon  by  our  friend  the  Augustinian  bishop.  On  his  way 
 from  S.  Peter's  to  S.  Maria  Maggiore,  where  the  Pope  celebrated 
 High  Mass,  (thence  going  to  the  Lateran  for  the  night),  he  was  accom- 
 panied by  a  stately  procession,  all  the  clergy,  the  principal  nobles,  the 
 Senators,  and  recently  created  "  Conservatores  ;"  also  the  indispensable 
 "  histriones,"  with  musicians  and  jugglers,  whose  presence  even  the 
 gravity  of  the  Papal  Curia  admitted  no  less  than  did  the  Com-ts  of  secular 
 princes  in  these  times  : — 
 
 In  exitu  Palatii  Sancti  Petri  adfuit  Senator  cum  concivibus  nobilibus  : 
 Histriones,  Joculatoresque  erant  innumerabiles,  qui  praeibant,  etiam  et 
 
 Musici  ; 
 Rectores  Urbis  et  Sacrae  Societatis  tripudiabaut,  omnes  Clerici  et  Laici; 
 Conservatores  antecedebant  omnes,  induti  loricis. 
 
 The  picturesque  and  high-situated  town  of  Anagni,  rarely  visited  by 
 tourists,  though  well  deserving  to  be  so,  is  complimented  by  the  poet: — 
 
 Vale,  mons  et  regio  temperata,  multum  grata  cum  tuo  aspectu! 
 
 On  this  journey  the  whole  party  stopped  for  two  days  at  the  monastery 
 of  Grottaferrata,  on  the  way  to  which  one  of  the  Pope's  retinue  was 
 robbed  by  brigands. 
 
SACEEI)    ART    IN    ITALY.  61 
 
 forty-seven  years  of  age,  he  expired  on  the  27th  March  fol- 
 lowing. He  was  buried  at  S.  Maria  Nuova,  between  the 
 Forum  and  the  Colosseum,  the  church  of  which  he  had  been 
 Cardinal  Deacon,  and  where  the  Eoman  magistracy  (in 
 1584;)  erected  a  monument  to  him,  with  a  relief  rej)resent- 
 ing  his  triumphal  ingress  into  Eome.  He  had  provided  by 
 his  last  testament  that  the  election  of  his  successor  might 
 be  lawfully  made  in  whatever  city,  and  with  less  than  the 
 required  majority  of  two-thirds,  in  case  the  full  number  of 
 Cardinals  should  not  be  able  to  assemble.  His  pontificate, 
 troubled  as  it  was^  proved  in  some  respects  glorious,  and 
 honourable  to  the  credit  of  the  sacred  throne  he  filled.  He 
 worthily  sustained  the  part  of  a  peace-maker  and  umpire 
 between  contending  powers.  His  efforts  to  conciliate  France 
 and  England  were  vigorous,  persistent,  but  thwarted  by  the 
 policy  of  implacable  hostilities  under  our  Edward  III.  and 
 his  successive  opponents  on  the  French  throne.  Grregory 
 brought  about  peace  between  Castile  and  Aragon,  after 
 having  reconciled  the  King  of  the  former  country  with  that 
 of  Navarre,  and  received  from  the  Aragonese  King  the  de- 
 claration which  made  his  crown  tributary  to  the  Holy  See 
 for  the  possession  of  Sardinia  and  Corsica.  Certain  un- 
 justly severe  articles  in  the  Aragonese  code  of  laws  were 
 modified  according  to  this  Pontiff's  counsels.  Sicily  was 
 relieved  from  an  interdict,  after  the  King,  Frederick  ELI., 
 had  agreed  (in  1371)  to  pay  tribute  for  that  island,  in  the 
 amount  of  1500  gold  florins  a-year,  to  the  Neapolitan  crown, 
 and  to  take  thenceforth  the  title  of  "  King  of  Trinacria." 
 Joanna  of  Naples  promised,  after  this,  to  obtain  through 
 her  influence  at  the  Curia  the  removal  of  the  interdict, 
 which  the  Sicilians  had  not  set  at  nought ;  and  that  Queen 
 herself  renewed  the  vow  of  homage  and  fidelity  to  the  Pope 
 in  the  cathedral  of  her  capital  city  on  the  4th  January, 
 1372.     A  bull,  issued  by  Gregory  in  the  March  of   1375, 
 
62  MEDI,^YAL    CITRTSTIAXTTY    A??D 
 
 commanded  all  prelates,  abbots,  and  heads  of  Eeligious 
 Orders,  with  exception  of  the  Cardinals,  Legates,  and  Nun- 
 cios who  held  offices  at  his  own  or  other  courts,  and  the 
 four  Patriarchs  whose  sees  were  occupied  by  infidels,  to 
 return  to  their  dioceses  and  monasteries  for  permanent 
 residence  in  those  spheres  of  their  respective  duties. 
 
 Once  under  this  pontificate,  twice  in  the  course  of  this  half 
 century,  had  the  Papal  Government  been  almost  dissolved 
 — completely  so,  indeed,  beyond  the  city  and  immediate 
 environs  of  Eome.  Yet  Grregory  XI.  had  only  to  show  him- 
 self in  Italy,  and  he  was  received  like  an  angel  from  heaven  ! 
 The  best  and  worst  qualities  of  such  Government  were 
 manifested  under  his  sway ;  inherent  weakness,  betrayal, 
 and  unworthy  vicegerency  by  its  own  officials,  but  withal 
 a  certain  self-regenerating  power,  a  virtue  and  energy  suffi- 
 cient to  command  esteem.  An  administration  in  the  hands 
 of  priests  had  become  hateful,  owing  to  individual  vices, 
 but  also  proved  itself  capable  of  winning  and  deserving 
 love. 
 
 The  Conclave  which  had  now  to  elect  a  Pope  was  the  first 
 ever  held  in  the  Vatican  palace,  where  sixteen  Cardinals, 
 eleven  of  whom  were  Preneh,  assembled  on  the  7th  of 
 April,  1378.  The  Eoman  magistrates  appointed  officials  to 
 administer  justice  and  ensure  safety  to  the  sacred  College 
 and  to  all  of  the  Pontific  court  during  the  vacancy. 
 They  placed  strong  guards  in  the  purlieus  of  S.  Peter's ; 
 and  took  the  precaution  of  erecting  a  marble  block,  with 
 an  axe  laid  beside  it,  on  the  piazza  before  that  church, 
 causing  proclamation  to  be  made  three  times  a  day  that 
 instant  death  should  be  the  punishment  for  any  injury  to 
 the  ecclesiastical  dignitaries.  Nevertheless  the  Conclave 
 which  ensued  was  most  stormy ;  and  the  election  was  accom- 
 plished amidst  such  terrors  and  precipitation  as  drew  down 
 evils  upon  the  future,  affording  pretext  for  the  most  dis- 
 
SACRED    ART    IN    ITALY.  G3 
 
 astrous  schism  that  ever  afflicted  the  Roman  Church.  An 
 armed  multitude  entered  the  palace  together  with  the 
 Cardinals,  and  forty  of  these  intruders  contrived  to  remain 
 after  the  rest  had  been  got  rid  of,  and  the  doors  shut  for 
 the  night.  The  Bishop  of  Marseilles,  charged  with  the 
 guardianship  of  the  Conclave,  entertained  them  at  a  hospi- 
 table banquet,  and  at  last,  after  eating  and  drinking  their 
 fill,  they  were  induced  by  their  own  superiors  to  quit  the 
 palace  at  the  third  hour  of  night.  The  Borgo  quarter 
 round  S.  Peter's  was  crowded  with  citizens  and  peasants, 
 attracted  by  curiosity  to  see  w^hat  was  to  ensue,  just  as 
 Compagna  peasants  of  our  own  time  flock  into  this  city 
 for  the  great  religious  ceremonies  ;  and  all  that  night  the 
 eating  houses  and  wine-shops  near  the  Vatican  were  filled 
 by  noisy  customers.  The  general,  and  certainly  not  un- 
 reasonable demand,  was  that  the  new  Pontiff  should  be  a 
 E/oman,  or  at  least  an  Italian.  The  Cardinals  refused  to 
 treat  with  the  people  on  this  subject,  and  declared  that  if 
 forced  to  elect  an  Italian,  or  whomsoever  else,  such 
 nominee  would  not  be  recognised  as  legitimate  Pope. 
 
 During  the  night  and  the  whole  of  the  next  morning 
 the  Vatican  was  surrounded  by  menacing  throngs,  who 
 urged  their  demand  with  vehement  cries  :  JRomano  lo  volemo, 
 lo  Papa  Romano  lo  volemo  !  Two  deputies  of  the  people, 
 admitted  into  the  sacred  precincts,  represented  to  the 
 Cardinals  that  their  lives  would  be  in  danger  unless  the 
 popular  desire  were  complied  with.  They  answered  with 
 dignity,  asserting  their  right  to  perfect  freedom  of  action  ; 
 but  promised  that  the  election  should  be  speedily  acrom- 
 plished.  The  tumult  increased.  Furious  shouts,  heard  in 
 the  penetralia  of  the  palace,  threatened  that  all  the  Cardi- 
 nals should  be  cut  to  pieces  unless  a  Eoman,  or  at  least 
 an  Italian,  became  Pope.  A  Cardinal  who  appeared  at  a 
 window  to  parley,  was  exposed  to  the  terrors  of  a  reception 
 
04i  MEDIEVAL    CHRISTIANITY    AND 
 
 only  confirmatory  of  those  threats.  Three  other  Cardinals 
 (the  Deans  of  the  three  Orders,  namely,  Bishops,  Priests, 
 and  Deacons)  then  showed  themselves  at  the  window,  and  , 
 intimated  the  promise  that  the  Pontiff  should  certainly  be 
 an  Italian.  The  election  proceeded  with  the  usual  formal- 
 ities ;  and  after  a  struggle  between  two  parties,  the  votes 
 concurred,  almost  unanimously,  in  favour  of  an  individual 
 not  belonging  to  the  sacred  College,  and  therefore  not  pre- 
 sent in  the  Conclave,  Bartolomeo  Prignani,  a  Neapolitan, 
 recently  raised  to  the  See  of  Bari,  the  first  who  held  in  the 
 Curia  the  ofiice  of  "  Eegent  of  the  Apostolic  Chancery,"  * 
 and  the  last  ever  elected  to  the  Papacy  without  being  pre- 
 viously Cardinal.  The  event  was  announced  to  the  people 
 from  a  window  by  the  Cardinal  of  S.  Peter's  (as  the  Arch- 
 priest  of  that  basilica  was  styled)  ;  but  the  multitude 
 around  the  palace,  perhaps  not  hearing  his  words,  supposed 
 that  he  himself  was  the  elect,  greeted  him  with  shouts  and 
 cries  of  "  Yiva  San  Pietro  ! "  and  began  to  disperse.  They 
 proceeded  to  act  in  a  manner  curiously  characteristic  of 
 the  social  state  of  Eome,  and  of  law  as  enforced  there — 
 namely,  to  invade  and  pillage  the  house  of  that  aged 
 Cardinal,  named  Tebaldeschi,  whom  they  erroneously 
 believed  to  be  Pope.  And,  strange  to  say,  this  usage  has 
 been  exemplified,  indeed  tolerated,  on  like  occasions  at 
 periods  much  more  modern  than  the  XIY.  century !  As 
 soon  as  the  Archbishop  of  Bari  heard  of  the  election  above 
 narrated,  he  hastened  to  remove  his  books  and  other  pro- 
 perty to  a  safe  place,  "  lest  (says  his  secretary)  on  the 
 rumour  arising  that  he  had  been  elected  Pope,  the  Eomans, 
 as  they  were  wont,  should  break  into  his  lodgings,  to  despoil 
 
 *  A  substitute,  or  representative,  of  the  Vice-Chanccllor  of  the 
 Church,  one  of  the  highest  offices,  always  held  by  a  Cardinal.  Prignani, 
 though  Archbishop  of  Bari,  had  never  even  visited  his  metropolitan 
 See. 
 
SACRED    ART    11^    ITALY.  C).' 
 
 him  of  his  books  and  other  things."  Meantime  the  weary 
 Cardinals,  taking  advantage  of  an  interval  of  tranqnillity, 
 sat  down  to  a  comfortless  dinner  (jmiserrimo  prandio,  as 
 one  chronicler  describes),  but  were  soon  disturbed  by  yet 
 more  menacing  tumult.  The  doors  of  the  palace  being 
 still  shut  and  guarded,  the  people  returned,  suspecting 
 that  they  had  been  deceived  by  a  false  report ;  the  Vatican 
 was  again  surrounded,  and  many  forced  their  way  into  the 
 Conclave.  In  extreme  alarm  some  Cardinals  fled  through 
 a  gap  in  the  wall  (probably  prepared  for  such  emergency 
 of  danger),  but  they  were  brought  back  by  force ;  others, 
 however,  succeeded  in  escaping  by  different  doors  to  the 
 S.  Angelo  castle,  some  to  more  distant  places  of  refuge, 
 Zagarolo,  and  other  fortified  towTis  on  the  Campagna.  The 
 Vatican  was  in  part  sacked,  and  the  cellars  were  reached 
 by  the  invading  populace,  who  drank  their  fill  of  the  choice 
 w^nes  there  deposited.*  The  fumes  of  intoxication  now 
 augmented  the  frenzy  of  excitement  and  rage.  Accord- 
 ing to  one  account  (and  w^e  have  several  by  contempo- 
 raries) of  these  events,  the  Cardinals  in  their  extreme 
 terror  forced,  or  persuaded,  one  of  their  colleagues,  the 
 Archpriest  of  S.  Peter's,  to  assume  a  false  character,  and 
 appear  pontifically  vested  before  the  crowd  who  had  broken 
 in.  That  aged  Cardinal  was  tumultuously  led  to  the  altar 
 of  the  chapel,  and  overwhelmed  with  the  homage  eagerly 
 offered  to  him  by  the  people,  till,  compelled  probably  by 
 pain,  as  his  hands  were  swollen  with  gout,  he  protested 
 that  he  was  not  entitled  to  this,  that  he  w^as  not  the  elect 
 one.  He  was  unheard  or  disregarded;  those  deceived  could 
 not  be  as  easily  undeceived.     Meantime  the  Archbishop 
 
 •  "  Sitibundi  et  sitientes,  volentes  bibere  de  bono  vino  Papali,  apcru- 
 erant  cellarium  Domini  Papae,  in  quo  crant  vina  Graeca,  Garnaria, 
 Malvoisia,  et  diversa  alia  vina  bona." — Thomas  dc  Acerno,  apud  Miira- 
 tori,  I.  iii. 
 
GQ  .MEDIAEVAL    CHEISTIAIfITT    AND 
 
 of  Bari,  who,  without  being  informed  of  what  was  in  store 
 for  him,  had  been  privately  summoned  to  the  palace,  con- 
 trived to  keep  his  election  unknown  to,  and  his  person  un^ 
 observed  by,  the  people,  and  remained  for  the  night,  almost 
 alone,  in  the  Conclave.  The  next  morning  (9th  April)  he 
 sent  to  announce  his  election  to  the  Senators  and  Magis- 
 trates. They  hastened  to  the  Vatican,  ready  to  do  him 
 homage  as  Pope ;  but  he  desired  to  wait  till  six  Cardinals, 
 who  had  taken  refuge  in  the  castle,  could  return  with  the 
 safety  guaranteed  by  the  Senator.  Eleven  of  the  Cardinals 
 reassembled  about  the  hour  of  vespers,  and  at  last  in  peace ; 
 but  it  seems  that  this  day's  evening  did  not  pass  with- 
 out tumult  in  the  city,  owing  to  a  mistake  between  the 
 archiepiscopal  title  of  the  new  Pope,  and  the  name,  Jean  de 
 Bar,  that  of  a  Prench  Chamberlain  of  Grregory  XI,  in 
 bad  repute,  whom  report  had  represented  as  the  elect. 
 Urban  YI  (the  name  assumed  by  the  real  Pope)  now  re- 
 ceived the  usual  homage,  was  placed  in  the  chair  of  S. 
 Peter,  and  gave  his  blessing  to  the  people,  sprinkling  them 
 with  holy  water,  from  the  portico  of  the  Vatican  basilica. 
 On  the  18th  April  (Easter  Sunday)  he  was  crowned  before 
 the  gates  of  S.  Peter's,*  and  on  the  same  day  went  with 
 great  pomp,  attended  by  all  the  Cardinals,  prelates,  nobles, 
 magistrates  and  officers,  to  take  possession  of  the  Lateran 
 basilica. 
 
 In  the  first  Consistory  held  by  him,  a  few  days  after 
 these  ceremonies,  Urban  severely  upbraided  the  Cardinals 
 for  their  worldly  and  luxurious  living  ;t  declared  his  reso- 
 
 *  The  coronations  of  Popes  took  place  in  front  of  the  church,  visible 
 to  the  multitude,  before  the  new  S.  Peter's  was  built.  The  installations  at 
 the  Lateran  were  usually  the  most  splendid  of  these  inaugural  rites. 
 
 t"The  greater  number  of  them  (the  Cardinals)  kept  each  a  hun- 
 dred horses,  and  had  ten  or  twelve  bishops  and  barons  (in  their  suite)  ; 
 they  all  possessed  great  churches  as  well  as  hospices  ;  and  they  moreover 
 
SACRED    AHT    IN    ITALY.  G7 
 
 lution  to  put  a  stop  to  such  scandals  ;  required  that  eadi 
 Cardinal  and  prelate  should  be  contented  with  a  Huv^]e 
 benefice,  and  moreover  with  a  single  dish  at  meals,  at  whiidi 
 latter  requirement  the  Cardinals  (almost  all  French,  as  we 
 have  seen)  were  grievously  displeased.*  The  Pope  him- 
 self gave  example  of  this  abstemious  diet,  even  when  he 
 entertained  his  dissatisfied  guests  to  such  scanty  banquets. 
 
 Among  his  first  acts  of  foreign  policy  w^as  the  confirma- 
 tion of  the  election  of  Wenceslaus,  son  of  Charles  lY.,  to 
 the  Empire — the  consent  of  the  Holy  See  being  still  deemed 
 requisite  in  such  cases.  Another  act  was  the  acceptance  of 
 a  treaty  with  Florence,  by  which  that  Eepublic  obtained 
 relief  from  the  anathemas  thundered  against  it  by  Grregory 
 XL,  w^hilst  pledging  itself  to  the  payment  of  large  sums, 
 70,000  florins  in  that  year,  and  180,000  in  the  course  of 
 four  years,  for  the  expenses  of  the  war  carried  on  by  Eome. 
 "  This  enlightened  Eepublic  (observes  Milman)  trem- 
 bled under  ecclesiastical  censures  even  from  a  Pope  of 
 doubtful  title." 
 
 The  antecedents  of  Urban  YI.  had  been  a  personal  pro- 
 test against  the  corruptions  of  the  time  ;  modest,  austere, 
 studious,  as  his  private  life  is  described  by  Theodore  de  IN  iem, 
 his  secretary,  who  tells  us  that  "  he  never  went  abroad  with 
 more  than  one  servant  and  two  mules  ;"  and  that  he,  the 
 same  secretary,  used  every  night  to  read  the  Scriptures  to 
 him,  after  he  had  laid  down  on  his  bed,  till  he  fell  asleep. 
 But  this  pontiff  presents  an  example  of  the  deteriorat- 
 ing effects  of  power  and  irresponsibility  on  character.  The 
 modest  and  virtuous  prelate  became  an  irascible,  hard- 
 hearted, and  cruelly  vindictive  Pope.     His  treatment  of 
 
 led  ^^dcked  and  licentious  lives." — Cronica  Riminese  in  Muratori,  Ber. 
 It.  Scrix>f.  T.  XV. 
 
 •"Dequo  scandalizati  fucvunt  niniium  Domini  Cardinales,"  snys  a 
 chronicler  edited  by  Muratori. 
 
OS  MEDIAEVAL    CHRISTIANITY    \^J) 
 
 the  Ccai'dinals,  whom  he  insulted  rather  than  admonished, 
 soon  provoked  the  opposition  which  assumed  aharming  pro- 
 portions, and  led  to  a  schism  disastrous  to  the  whole  Church. 
 Thirteen  of  their  number  (twelve  Erench  and  one  Spaniard) 
 withdrew  to  Anagni,*  and  there,  having  procured  troops 
 from  Yiterbo  to  protect  them  against  violence,  drew  up  a 
 protest,  requiring  Urban  A^I.  to  abdicate,  declaring  his 
 election  to  have  been  compulsory,  and  therefore  invalid ; 
 and  threatening  him  with  canonical  penalties  unless  he 
 should  comply  with  their  mandate.  On  the  9th  August 
 (1.378)  they  passed  sentence  of  deposition  against  him. 
 Prom  Anagni  they  went  to  Fondi,  where  they  had  a  power- 
 ful protector  in  Onorato  Gaetani,  Count  and  feudal  lord 
 of  that  place.  Thither  they  invited  three  Italian  Cardinals, 
 who  had  accompanied  Urban  YI.  to  Tivoli ;  and  to  whom 
 they  held  out  the  bait  of  promising  for  each  the  Papal  tiara 
 at  the  new  election  they  meditated.  The  Italian  Cardinals 
 came,  but  did  not,  according  to  some  writers,  approve  of 
 their  counsels.  On  the  21st  September  was  held  a  Con- 
 clave in  the  Graetani  palace  at  Pondi ;  and  the  Cardinal 
 of  Geneva,  whose  acts  as  Legate  had  been  notorious,  was 
 elected  Pope.  He  took  the  name  of  Clement  Yll.,  and 
 was  crowned  in  the  Pondi  cathedral  on  the  31st  Octo- 
 ber ;  the  tiara  and  pontific  jewels  having  been  brought 
 from  the  Castle  of  8.  Angelo.  In  the  sacristy  of  that 
 cathedral  is  kept  a  marble  throne,  adorned  with  mosaics, 
 but  much  mutilated,  said  to  be  that  on  wliieh  the  Antipope 
 was  inauspiciously  installed ;  and  the  ruins  of  the  Gaetani 
 palace,  still  conspicuous  at  Pondi,  are  popularly  called, 
 "  palazzo  del  Papa."t 
 
 *  Muratori  says  their  number  was  twelve  in  all. 
 f  Von  Reumont  informs  us  that  this  cathedral  and  the  episcopal  chair 
 in  question  suffered  from   Saracenic  outrages  on  the  occasion  of  a  raid 
 against  Fondi  by  Chiareddin  Barbarossa,  1534,  with  the  object  of  carry- 
 
SACRED    ART    IX    ITALY.  GO 
 
 Clemciil  was  at  once  recoguiscd  by  theNeapDlIlaii  (^uecii, 
 and  subsequently  by  France,  Spain,  JSaxony,  Scotland,  and 
 Cyprus.  But  those  very  Cardinals  wlio  elected  liim,  had 
 voted  for,  and  during  several  weeks  treated  Urban  as  legi- 
 timate Pope.  They  had  written  to  Princes,  announcing 
 his  election  as  such.  The  Cardinal,  who  now  became  his 
 rival,  had  himself  w^ritten  in  that  sense  to  the  king  of  Eng- 
 land, Eichard  II. ;  and  the  six  French  Cardinals  at  Avignon, 
 to  whom  tidings  of  the  new  election  w^ere  sent,  refused  at 
 first  to  recognise  Clement,  whilst  they  reprobated  the 
 authors  of  the  schism.* 
 
 Joanna  of  Naples  was  at  first  favourably  disposed  towards 
 Urban,  a  born  subject  of  her  crow^n  ;  and  her  capital  was 
 illuminated  for  several  nights  in  honour  of  his  election, 
 She  received  his  envoys  with  honour,  and  sent  them  back 
 laden  with  presents  for  the  Pope  :  40,000  ducats  in  ready 
 money,  and  shiploads  of  wine,  corn,  salt  meats,  cheese — 
 "  vina  et  blada,  ac  carnes  salsas,  et  caseos  per  mare  in  navi- 
 giis,  in  magnis  quantitatibus,"  says  Theodore  de  Niem, 
 The  Queen's  fourth  husband,  Otho  of  Brunswick,  Prince  of 
 
 ing  away,  as  a  prize  for  the  Sultan,  the  beautiful  Julia  Gonzaga,  wife  of 
 Vespasiano  Colonna,  Count  of  Fondi,  after  the  Gaetani  had  lost  that  place 
 and  title.  The  fair  lady  fled  from  her  castle  to  the  mountains  on  the 
 night  of  this  attack,  and  Barbarossa  could  only  vent  his  rage  against 
 defenceless  citizens,  or  senseless  stones.  Over  the  entrance  to  the  cathe- 
 dral is  a  lunette  of  one  of  the  Gaetani  family  kneeling  before  the  Virgin. 
 Fondi  is  now  a  wild  and  savage-looking  town. 
 
 •  "  O  wicked  servants  (they  answered,  addressing  the  Cardinals  at 
 Fondi)— ye  shall  be  condemned  out  of  your  own  mouth!  Ye  say  that 
 a  tierce  multitude  of  armed  men  surrounded  your  Conclave,  with  terrible 
 and  mortal  threats,  to  force  you  to  elect  an  Italian  or  a  Roman,  yet  with- 
 out limiting  your  choice  to  any  one  person  in  particular.  It  is  there- 
 fore manifest,  as  to  the  person  whom  ye  own  to  have  elected,  that  ye 
 chose  him  freely  and  not  under  violence.  The  election  of  that  person  we 
 hold,  and  shall  firmly  hold,  to  have  been  canonically  accomplished." 
 
 Walsingiiam,  in  Richard,  an.  1378. 
 
70  MEDIAEVAL   CHRISTIANITY   AND 
 
 Tareutum,  oftered  his  respects  to  the  PoutifF  iu  person, 
 having  arrived  at  E/ome  shortly  after  his  election.*  The 
 sullen  pride  of  Urban  offended  the  Prince  ;  and  the  histo- 
 rian above-cited  describes  a  scene  at  a  banquet,  when  Otho, 
 kneeling  before  the  Pope,  offered  him  a  cup  of  wine,  which 
 he  delayed  to  receive  till  rebuked  by  a  Cardinal  for  such 
 ungracious  haughtiness.  Otho's  efforts  to  make  peace 
 between  Urban  and  the  rebellious  Cardinals  were  sternly 
 repulsed ;  and  he  remarked  that  such  a  Pontiff  would  prove 
 the  ruin  of  many  ;  that  he  should  rather  be  called  "  Tur- 
 banus"  than  Urbanus.  It  was  probably  his  conduct  to  her 
 husband,  which  alienated  Joanna  from  his  cause  ;  and  on 
 hearing  that  she  supported  the  schismatic  Cardinals,  the 
 furious  Pope  declared  he  would  send  her  to  spin  wool 
 in  the  convent  of  S.  Chiara  at  Naples. 
 
 After  finding  himself  deserted  by  almost  all  the  Cardinals 
 he  created  twenty-six  others,  and  would  have  given  the 
 Cardinalitial  rank  to  twenty-nine  at  once,  but  that  three 
 refused  the  now  somewhat  perilous  honours.  The  Anti- 
 pope  meantime  projected  an  attempt  to  expel  his  rival  by 
 armed  force  from  E-ome  ;  and  sent  the  Bretons,  still  in  his 
 pay,  to  devastate  the  Campagna,  and  effect  the  occupation 
 of  the  city.  The  towns  of  the  Comarca  were  divided 
 between  the  two  claimants.  Terracina,  Anagni,  Yeroli 
 declared  for  Clement ;  Altari  and  Perentino  for  Urban. 
 The  Count  of  Fondi  made  war  against  his  own  relatives  on 
 behalf  of  the  Antipope  ;  took  by  force  from  his  brother  the 
 picturesque  and  strong-built  town  of  Sermoneta ;  and  from 
 his  cousins  the  high-placed  Norma,  on  the  mountain  oppo- 
 site to  Sermoneta,  also  the  now  ruined  Niufa  on  the  plain 
 below.     The  Orsini  faction,  opposed  by  Francesco  di  Vico 
 
 *  According  to  Muratori,  the  Queen's  substantial  gifts  were  presented 
 by  Otlio,  not  by  the  envoys. 
 
SACRED    ART    IN    ITALY.  71 
 
 of  Yiterbo,  began  the  usual  iutercliange  of  raids  and  depre- 
 dations on  the  mournful  Campagna.  The  Bretons,  after 
 encamping  under  the  Alban  hills,  and  devastating  the  sur- 
 rounding district,  attempted  to  approach  Eome  by  the 
 Salarian  bridge  over  the  Anio.  There  meeting  with  resist- 
 ance, they  slew,  and  threw  into  the  river  many  soldiers  of  the 
 guard  on  duty.  This  being  reported  in  the  city,  a  multitude 
 marched,  tumultuously  and  without  order,  out  of  the  gates 
 against  the  invaders.  An  action  took  place  at  that  bridge 
 fatal  in  result  to  the  Romans,  and  at  least  eighty  (according 
 to  some  writers  a  much  greater  number)  of  their  militia  were 
 left  dead  on  the  Anio  banks — "  slaughtered  like  cattle  at  the 
 shambles,"  says  Theodore  de  Niem.*  When  this  disaster 
 was  known  in  the  city,  not  only  wailing  and  panic,  but 
 tumult  and  indignation  prevailed.  The  popular  hatred 
 broke  out  more  violently  than  before  (though  already  mani- 
 fested in  similar  scenes  during  this  contest)  against  the 
 prelates  and  "  curiales,"  or  courtiers  of  the  Vatican, 
 especially  against  the  foreigners  in  such  office.  Their 
 houses  were  broken  into,  their  goods  despoiled ;  their  per- 
 sons seized  and  thrown  into  prison,  where  many  remained 
 several  months.  "Women  reviled  and  spat  at  the  foreign 
 bishops  in  the  streets — such  the  odium  drawn  down  upon 
 the  ecclesiastical  court  by  Pope  and  Antipope  !  At  last 
 the  Bretons,  informed  by  their  spies  of  a  meeting  of  prin- 
 cipal citizens  on  the  Capitol,  for  consultation  at  this 
 emergency,  seized  the  opportunity  of  eifecting  entrance  by 
 the  Lateran  gate.      A  mounted  company  with  lances,  thus 
 
 *  There  are  great  discrepancies  in  the  accounts  of  tliat  action  at  the 
 bridge  over  the  Anio  ;  some  writers  reporting  the  numbers  slain  as  300, 
 others  as  200 ;  the  minimum,  80,  seems  more  credible,  if  the  slaughter 
 on  one  side  alone  be  considered.  A  recent  invasion,  1867,  induced  the 
 Pontific  officers  to  order  the  blowing  up  of  the  ancient  bridge  in  question, 
 as  it  was  feared  that  Garibaldi's  volunteers  might  api)roach  Eome  by 
 the  Salarian  "Wav,  which  crosses  it. 
 
73  MEDIEVAL    CnEISTIA:MTT    AND 
 
 entering,  rode  straight  to  the  Capitol,  and  reached  it  as 
 the  counsellors  were  dispersing.  The  citizens  took  arms, 
 and  a  tumultuous  combat  ensued,  in  which  the  horsemen 
 with  their  lances  had  naturally  the  advantage,  and  about 
 two  hundred  Eomans  were  slain  on  the  piazza  of  the 
 Capitol.  But  the  Bretons,  instead  of  following  up  their 
 victory,  and  occupying  the  city  for  the  Antipope,  at  once 
 retreated,  fearing  perhaps  the  aggregate  force  which  might 
 have  been  arrayed  against  them. 
 
 The  S.  Angelo  castle  was  held  by  a  French  captain, 
 Pierre  de  E-ostaing,  with  a  garrison  ;  he  had  never  given 
 up  that  fortress,  as  required,  to  Urban  YL,  and  now 
 defended  it  for  the  Antipope.*  From  that  gloomy  fortress 
 descended  showers  of  darts  and  bolts  ;  and  presently  began 
 a  bombardment,  spreading  conflagration,  ruin,  and  death 
 around  the  castellated  mausoleum. f  A  circle  of  warfare, 
 at  the  same  time,  environed  E/ome  ;  the  Orsini  and  Onorato 
 Graetani  had  led  their  forces  to  the  siege  ;  and  the  S.  Agnes 
 gateway  (Porta  Pia)  was  attacked  during  almost  a  whole 
 month  by  Eaynaldo,  one  of  the  Orsini  brothers.  The 
 cattle  and  flocks,  driven  to  the  city  for  the  sustenance  of 
 the  unfortunate  people,  were  seized  by  the  assailants  ;  and 
 only  the  fields  and  vineyards  nearest  to  the  walls  could  be 
 utilized  for  obtaining  other  food.  At  last  the  Eomans  had 
 strength  to  open  a  systematic  assault  on  the  castle  of  S. 
 
 *  After  the  death  of  Gregory  XI.  this  chatelain  inquired  of  the  French 
 Cardinals  at  Avignon  whether  he  should  consign  the  castle  to  that  Pope's 
 successor.  They  replied  that  it  was  manifestly  his  duty  to  do  so,  and 
 that  they  doubted  not  that  their  colleagues  in  Kome  would  be  of  the 
 same  opinion.  But  the  other  Cardinals  secretly  intimated  to  Kostaing 
 that  he  was  not  to  give  up  that  fortress  to  Urban  VI.,  who,  consequently, 
 could  not  be  completely  master  of  the  city. 
 
 f  "  Guerram  movit  cum  sagittis  et  bombardis  ad  ipsam  Urbem  vehe- 
 mcntissimc  sagittando  ;  multas  cum  eisdem  bombardis,  seu  pixidibus 
 asneis,  domos  concussit." — Theod.  a  Niem,  Historia. 
 
SACRED    ART    IN    ITALY.  73 
 
 Augelo.  That  fortress  was  besieged  for  the  greater  part  of 
 a  year,  aud  at  last  taken,  29th  April,  1379.*  The  victors 
 applied  themselves  strenuously  to  the  task  of  demolition, 
 intending  utterly  to  destroy  the  imperial  Mausoleum. 
 The  quadrangular  basement  was  reduced  to  the  state  of 
 ruin  in  which  we  now  see  it ;  all  the  marble  incrustations 
 were  stript  off ;  but  the  massive  travertine  structure  of  the 
 huge  rotunda  resisted,  in  the  lower  part  at  least,  all  the 
 efforts  of  the  assailants,  and  was  left  to  defy  time  and 
 violence  as  it  does  at  the  present  day.  It  stood  in  gaping 
 ruin  and  desolate  solitude,  like  the  colossal  tombs  on  the 
 Appian  "Way,  till  restored  in  brickwork  by  Boniface  IX., 
 finally  rising  again  into  strategic  importance,  with  buildings 
 strengthened  and  enlarged  by  the  works  of  Alexander  VI. 
 and  Paul  III.  Theodore  of  Niem  describes  vast  corri- 
 dors extending  far  below  the  central  tower,  lined  with  good 
 brickwork,  and  spacious  enough  for  two  riders  or  five 
 pedestrians  to  advance  abreast  along  their  dark  ways; 
 subterraneans  unknown  to  modern  research,  and  probably 
 formed  for  retreat  or  escape  when  the  tomb  was  first  con- 
 verted into  a  fortress.  The  first  writer  who  mentions  this 
 building  subsequently  to  the  siege  and  attempted  demo- 
 lition, is  Benvenuto  di  Eambaldi,  the  commentator  of 
 Dante.  He  describes  it,  in  the  year  13S9,  as  "  destroyed 
 and  laid  prostrate" — a  manifest  exaggeration. f 
 
 The  Antipope  who,  as  we  have  seen,  obtained  support 
 and  recognition  from  Queen  Joanna  and  her  fourth  hus- 
 band, Otho,  who  had  been  present  at  his  coronation,  was 
 invited  by  the  Queen  to  Naples,  and  escorted  thither  from 
 Pondi  by  troops  sent  for  the  purpose.  At  Naples  he  was 
 entertained  in  the  royal  residence,  that  gloomy  Castel  dell' 
 
 *  "  That  fortress"  (says  Muratori)  "  was  constrained  to  surrender 
 either  by  famine,  or  more  prol>a])ly  by  payment." 
 
 t  •'  Istud  suniptuosum  oj«Ub  destruclum  et  prostratum  est.'' 
 
74  MEDIEVAL    CHEISTIANITT   AND 
 
 Uovo,  which  looks  like  a  mass  of  solid  rock  rising  out  of 
 the  sea,  and  was  then  united  only  by  a  bridge  with  the 
 mainland.  Here  Clement  received  devout  homage  from 
 Joanna,  her  husband,  the  barons,  knights,  and  also  ladies 
 of  the  court.  But  disturbance  broke  out  in  the  city  after 
 the  arrival  of  this  unpopular  guest — for  such  he  was  to  the 
 Neapolitans,  whose  religious  instinct,  naturally  strong,  in 
 this  case  guided  them  right,  and  determined  their  opposi- 
 tion to  a  pretender,  the  invalidity  of  whose  claims  they 
 could  understand.  The  popular  voice  declared  against  un- 
 dertaking war,  or  submitting  to  any  national  sacrifice  for 
 the  cause  of  an  Antipope  ;  and  Joanna  was  obliged  to 
 yield  for  the  sake  of  her  own  and  of  Clement's  safety.  She 
 dismissed  her  guest,  who  returned  to  Tondi,*  and  who,  soon 
 afterwards,  accompanied  by  the  Queen  and  by  the  Cardinals 
 of  his  party,  embarked  in  three  galleys  for  Marseilles, 
 whence  he  proceeded  to  Avignon,  henceforth  the  seat  of 
 the  Antipopes  during  a  schism  of  forty  years'  duration. 
 
 Urban,  after  taking  refuge  from  the  political  tempest  at 
 Tivoli,  returned  to  E-ome,  and  passed,  barefooted,  in  peni- 
 tential procession  through  the  streets  to  S.  Peter's. 
 
 Far  from  peaceful,  however,  was  his  life  at  Eome  during 
 the  rest  of  this  and  the  first  months  of  the  following  year. 
 At  one  crisis  of  danger  he  met  his  fierce  adversaries  with  a 
 commanding  dignity  which  evinced  the  worthier  elements  in 
 his  character,  and  reminds  of  the  conduct  of  Boniface  YIII. 
 before  his  persecutors  at  Anagni.  A  passionate  revolt 
 broke  out  among  the  people,  how  immediately  provoked 
 we  cannot  learn.  The  insurgents  entered  the  Vatican 
 palace  with   tumult  and  violence.     Urban  received  them 
 
 *  Collenuccio  states  that  the  Queen  and  Clement  embarked  from  the 
 castle  at  Naples  for  Marseilles,  without  separating  before  that  voyage  ; 
 but  earlier  writers  mention  the  Antipope 's  return  to  Fondi,  and  em- 
 barkation at  Gaeta. 
 
SACRED    ART    IX    ITALY.  75 
 
 seated  on  his  throne,  in  pontific  vestments,  the  tiiira  on 
 his  head,  the  crucifix  in  his  hand.  "  Whom  seek  ye  ?"  he 
 asked  of  the  crowd.  At  which  words,  answered  by  none, 
 they  shrank  back  awe- struck,  and  without  attempting 
 farther  outrage,  quitted  the  chamber  and  palace  at  once  ! 
 
 Soon  after  the  taking  of  the  S.  Angelo  castle,  during  the 
 siege  of  which  he  could  not  reside  at  the  Vatican,  Urban  pub- 
 lished a  crusade  against  the  Neapolitan  Queen,  denouncing 
 her  as  schismatic,  heretical,  unworthy  to  reign,  and  offering 
 her  crown  to  Charles,  Duke  of  Durazzo,  a  descendant  of 
 King  Robert,  and  nephew  of  the  Queen,  who,  being  childless, 
 had  recently  adopted  as  her  heir  Louis  of  Anjou,  brother 
 to  the  Prench  king,  Charles  Y.  Urban  laid  his  plans  ^-ith 
 fatal  success,  and  sowed  the  seeds  of  future  evil,  to  fructify 
 in  a  long  series  of  civil  wars,  invasions,  and  incalculable 
 sorrows  to  the  jSTeapolitan  kingdom.  The  demons  of  Dis- 
 cord and  Slaughter  may  be  said  to  have  obeyed  the  sum- 
 mons of  this  Pope.  The  conditions  he  dictated  for  the 
 acceptance  of  the  offered  crown  were, — that  it  was  to  be 
 held  as  a  dependency  of  the  Papacy,  and  that  the  Prince- 
 dom of  Capua  and  the  Duchy  of  Amalfi  were  to  be  con- 
 ferred on  his  nephew,  Prancesco  de  Prignano,  called 
 Butillo, — to  all  which  Charles  of  Durazzo  assented.  That 
 Prince  arrived  in  P-ome  from  Hungary,  where  he  had 
 received  Urban's  propositions,  in  November,  1380,*  and 
 was  received  with  all  possible  honours  ;  first  created  Gonfa- 
 loniere  (or  standard-bearer)  of  the  Church  and  Senator  of 
 Rome.  Pinally,  after  taking  the  oath  of  fealty  to  the  Holy 
 See  for  his  prospective  kingdom  under  the  same  conditions  as 
 did  Charles  of  Anjou  in  1265,  he  was  crowned  by  Urban's 
 hand  at  S.  Peter's  on  the  Feast  of  Pentecost,  2nd  June, 
 
 *  The  crown  had  been  first  offered  to  Louis,  King  of  Hungary,  now 
 an  aged  man,  the  cousin  of  Charles  of  Durazzo,  and  brother  to  the  nn- 
 tortunate  Prince  Andrea,  firbt  husband  of  Queen  Joanna. 
 
76  MEDIJiVAL    CHRISTIANITY   AND 
 
 1381.  Gliarlcs  III.  of  Jerusalem  and  Sicily,  as  he  was  now 
 styled,  had  need  of  money  for  the  invasion  of  his  new 
 states,  and  Urban  did  not  scruple  to  seize  or  pledge  the 
 sacred  ornaments  and  images  in  churches,  to  despoil  altars 
 of  their  sacramental  vessels,  their  gold  or  silver  crosses,  for 
 the  expenses  of  this  "  Crusade  ;"  about  80,000  gold  florins 
 being  thus  amassed  and  presented  to  Charles.*  More  than 
 the  usual  indulgences  were  promised  to  all  who  would  take 
 arms  in  this  war ;  and  it  was  this  spiritual  bounty  for 
 temporal  ends  which  suggested  to  Eroissart  the  observa- 
 tion that  "  military  men  do  not  live  upon  pardons,  but 
 hold  them  in  slight  esteem  till  the  hour  of  death."  Tithes 
 were  imposed  on  all  benefices  in  England  for  the  same 
 cause,  and  a  Bishop  of  Norwich  (Henry  Spencer)  was 
 appointed  leader  of  the  crusading  forces  from  that  country. 
 The  revenues  of  all  vacant  benefices  were  reserved  to  him- 
 self by  the  Pope,  who,  not  contented  with  this,  ordered 
 the  estates  and  property  of  churches  and  monasteries  in 
 E/ome  to  be  sold  to  citizens,  who  purchased  enough  to  yield 
 more  than  80,000  gold  florins  for  the  Pontific  treasury. 
 Shortly  afterwards  Urban  commissioned  two  Cardinals  to 
 pledge  or  alienate  the  moveable  and  immoveable  property 
 of  many  other  churches,  notwithstanding  the  opposition 
 made  by  Bishops  or  Chapters,  who  had  a  right  to  reclaim 
 against  such  proceedings.  Similar  means  were  used,  and 
 witli  the  same  unscrupulous  rapacity,  by  the  Antipope,  in 
 Ei'ance,  to  supply  funds  for  the  war  in  the  Anjou  cause. 
 "  The  cause  of  God  was  alleged  by  both  alike  (says  Mura- 
 
 *  "  Aureos  et  argcnteos  calices,  cruces,  et  alia  pretiosa  jocalia  Eccle- 
 siarum  et  monasteriorum  in  magno  numcro  et  valore  distrahendo  et 
 alienaiido,  necnon  mnltas  imagines  Sanctorum  etiam  argenteas  tunc 
 conflando  in  monetam  reduci  fecit,  et  pecunias  qus  exinde  pervenerunt 
 ipsi  regi  Carolo  pro  solvcndis  stipendiis  suo  exercitu  assignando." — 
 Theod.  de  Niem,  1.  I,  c.  xxii. 
 
SACREU    ART    IN    ITALY.  77 
 
 tori),  while  both  were  guided  by  the  same  counsellor, 
 Ambition." 
 
 Pope  Urban  pronounced  at  S.  Peter's  an  eulogium  on 
 the  king,  fastened  a  red  cross  on  his  breast,  and  placed 
 a  gilt  battle-axe  in  his  hand — to  confirm  by  symbolism 
 his  character  as  a  veritable  "  Crusader."  On  the  same 
 evening  (8th  June,  1381)  Charles  left  Eome  with  a 
 splendid  retinue  of  nobles,  knights,  pages,  and  about 
 300  lances ;  all  the  Cardinals  accompanying  him  to  the 
 Ostian  gate,  and  there  taking  leave,  while  they  actually 
 knelt  before  this  favourite  of  Fortune  and  the  Pope.  AVith 
 about  1500  horse,  and  a  much  gi'eater  number  of  foot 
 soldiery,  that  Prince  invaded  the  Neapolitan  States,  and 
 having  arrived  in  the  capital  on  the  17th  July,  besieged 
 the  Castel  Nuovo,  where  the  queen  had  taken  refuge,  un- 
 able to  maintain  more  than  a  brief  and  feeble  resistance. 
 Her  imprisonment  and  tragic  fate,  her  death  by  assassina- 
 tion (22nd  May,  1382),  are  well  known.  Urban's  vengeance 
 was  complete ! 
 
 Meantime  the  Antipope,  not  less  active  than  his  rival, 
 crowned  Louis  of  Anjou  at  Avignon,  conferred  on  him  also 
 the  office  of  Standard-bearer  of  the  Church,  and  furnished 
 for  the  expenses  of  the  counter-invasion  all  he  could  offer, 
 — a  great  deal  more  indeed — namely,  another  kingdom  to 
 comprise  the  principal  provinces  of  the  Pontific  States, 
 under  the  name  "Kingdom  of  Adria,"*  for  this  rival 
 claimant  of  the  disj^uted  sovereignty.  Louis  set  out  for 
 Southern  Italy  soon  afterwards.  On  his  approach,  L^rban, 
 fearing  for  the  safety  of  his  person  and  capital,  offered  the 
 same  indulgences  as  those  of  the  Crusade  to  all  who  would 
 bear  arms  in  his  defence  during  four  months.  But  the 
 danger    was    imaginary.     Louis    never    appeared    before 
 
 *  The  authenticity  of  the  Bull,  in  uhich  this  strange  oticr  is  made  by 
 Clement  to  Louis,  has  bten  (|uc'Stioncil. 
 
78  MEDIEVAL    CHEISTIANITT    AJfD 
 
 Eome's  walls,  pursuing  his  march  along  the  mountains 
 and  through  the  towns  nearer  to  the  Adriatic  coast.  Con- 
 trary to  the  advice  of  several  Cardinals,  Urban  determined 
 to  visit  that  kingdom,  now  ruled  by,  and  generally  sub- 
 jected to,  the  successful  claimant,  but  far  indeed  from  being 
 peaceful  or  well-governed.  Charles  met  his  guest  near 
 Aversa,  and,  alighting  from  his  horse,  acted  as  groom  to 
 the  Pontiff,  walking  beside  him  till  they  entered  that  town. 
 At  the  spot  where  the  meeting  took  place  some  delay 
 necessarily  occurred ;  many  peasants  crowded  around  the 
 Pope,  all  eager  to  kiss  his  foot,  but  before  they  did  so 
 prostrating  and  three  times  kissing  the  ground — so  like 
 what  the  superstitious  peasantry  of  those  parts  would  do 
 at  the  present  day,  that  the  anecdote  (see  Theodore  de 
 Niem)  is  worth  preserving.  It  soon  became  evident  that 
 no  cordial  friendship  existed  between  the  King  and  Pontiff. 
 At  Aversa  the  Pope,  after  being  first  lodged  in  the  epis- 
 copal palace,  was  led  thence  by  night,  almost  with  violence, 
 to  the  castle,  and  there  detained  three  days  like  a  state  pri- 
 soner. At  Naples  he  made  his  entry  together  with  the 
 king,  and  was  received  by  all  the  clergy  as  well  as  by  the 
 people,  eager  to  see  him  pass,  with  the  greatest  honour. 
 The  Castel  Nuovo,  the  royal  residence  of  the  Anjous,  was 
 his  lodging.  He  here  published  the  crusade  against  Louis, 
 who  had  led  his  forces  into  Apulia.  The  king  is  said  by 
 some  writers  to  have  renewed,  by  others  to  have  demurred 
 to  his  promise  of  constituting  an  independent  Duchy  in  his 
 own  States  for  the  benefit  of  the  Pope's  nephew.*  That 
 individual  soon  disgraced  himself  by  a  crime  against  the 
 person  of  a  professed  nun,  a  noble  lady,  whom  he  carried 
 
 *  "  The  author  of  the  Giornali  Napoletani  writes  that  the  King  pro- 
 mised anew,  and  confirmed  the  promise  ah-eady  made,  to  bestow  on  the 
 Pope's  nephew  the  principality  of  Capua,  the  Duchy  of  Amalfi,  Nocera, 
 Scafati,  and  other  towns." — Muratori,  Annali,  an.  1383. 
 
SACRED    AllT    IN    ITALY.  79 
 
 away  from  tlie  conveut  of  S.  Sulvatore,  and  detained  for 
 some  days  at  his  lodging — a  monstrous  sacrilege  against  the 
 Church,  and  especially  odious  in  the  eyes  of  the  devout 
 Neapolitans.      He  was    cited  before  the  tribunal  of   the 
 King,  and,  not  appearing,  condemned  to  capital  punishment. 
 His  uncle  excused  him  on  the  plea  of  his  youth — the  juve- 
 nile offender  being  in  his  fortieth  or  forty-first  year ;  and 
 Urban  contrived  so  efficiently  to  protect,  that  the  sentence 
 and  all  legal  proceedings  against  him  w^ere  nullified.     The 
 revenues  of  his  Duchy,  70,000  gold  florins  per  annum,  were 
 secured  to  Francesco   Prignano,    who,  for  a  short   time, 
 held  all  the  possessions  the  Pope  had  claimed  for  him,  but 
 lost  everything  after  Urban' s  death,  and  came  to  a  misera- 
 able  end,  perishing  with  all  his  family  by  shipwreck  on  a 
 voyage  to  Venice.     The  final  rupture  between  Charles  and 
 Urban  is  said  to  have  been  hastened  by  the  freedom  with 
 which  the  latter  (now  animated  by  good  intentions  indeed) 
 advised  the  former  to  lighten  the  burden  of  taxes  felt  dis- 
 tressfully by  his  subjects— to  which  Charles  replied  that  a 
 Pontiff  should  attend  to  ecclesiastical  affairs,  not  to  those 
 of  kings  or  their  ministers.     Urban,  treated  and  guarded 
 rather  as  a  prisoner  than  a  guest  in  the  great  castle,  ob- 
 tained at  last  the  liberty  to  reside  in  the  archiepiscopal 
 palace   instead.      The  semblance  of  a   reconciliation  was 
 brought  about  after  this  ;  and  on  his  next  visit  to  the  King 
 the   Pope  entered  the  royal  chambers  under  a  canopy  of 
 gold  tissue,  and  was  received  by  his  Majesty  with  prostra- 
 tion before  him  and  the  homage  of  kissing  his  foot.    Charles 
 promised  him  5000  gold  scudi  per  annum,  on  condition  of 
 his  abstaining  from  all  interference  in  the  administration 
 of  the  realm.    On  New  Tear's  Day,  1384,  Urban  celebrated 
 high  Mass  in  the  Naples  cathedral ;  blessed  the  standard  of 
 the  Crusade,  and  bestowed  it  upon  the  King,  as   Captain 
 General  of  the  Church;    after   this   excomunicating   the 
 
80  MEDIJIYAL    CHRISTIANITY    AND 
 
 Anjou  Duke  Louis.  Plenary  indulgence  was  again  pro- 
 mised to  all  combatants  in  the  cause  of  the  Durazzo  against 
 the  'Anjou  house.  After  Charles  had  marched  with  his 
 army  into  Apulia  for  this  war,  Urban  also  left  Naples,  and 
 went  to  Nocera,  one  of  the  towns  now  held  by  his  nephcAv. 
 He  was  here  apprised  by  the  Cardinal  Orsino  of  a  plot,  in 
 which  six  (Theodore  de  Niem  says  five)  Cardinals  and  the 
 Bishop  of  Aquila  were  said  to  be  accomplices,  for  seizing 
 the  Pope's  person  and  causing  him  to  be  arraigned  as  here- 
 tical ;  among  the  accused  being  the  Cardinal  Archbishops 
 of  Taranto  and  Corfu,  a  Eranciscan  Cardinal  who  had  for- 
 merly been  Archbishop  of  Grenoa,  and  the  Bishop  of  Lon- 
 don— "all  (says  Muratori)  among  the  most  learned  and 
 conspicuous  persons  of  the  Sacred  College."  They  were 
 arrested  and  thrown  into  prison,  loaded  with  chains,  the 
 night  before  the  attempt  was,  according  to  their  accusers^  to 
 have  been  carried  out.  In  the  castle  of  Nocera,  where  the 
 Pope  resided,  they  were  examined  by  the  "  question,"  and 
 every  such  torture  as  the  legalised  atrocity  of  the  time  could 
 apply  was  suffered  by  these  unfortunate  victims,  all  of 
 whom  declared  their  innocence,  except  the  Bishop  of 
 Aquila,  who  once  confessed,  but  retracted  so  soon  as  re- 
 lieved from  agony.  Theodore  de  Niem  was  one  of  those 
 charged  to  preside,  and  from  him  (an  eye-witness  on  seve- 
 ral occasions)  we  have  the  sickening  details  of  these  ghastly 
 scenes  in  the  castle,  besides  report  of  the  remorseless  persis- 
 tence of  the  Pope,  who  rejected  the  intercessions  of  the 
 King,  and  sternly  repulsed  his  own  attendants  when  they 
 ventured,  with  tears  and  entreaties,  to  appeal  on  behalf  of 
 the  unhappy  Cardinals.*  "Whilst  a  "Venetian  Cardinal  was 
 being  tortured,  Urban  walked  in  the  garden  overlooked  by 
 
 •  "Quanta  plura  dixi  (says  Theodore  of  his  own  vain  efforts  in  the 
 cause  of  mercy)  tanto  magis  ipse  irascebatur,  et  facta  est  facies  ejus 
 tandem  prac  iracundia  quasi  lampas  ardens." 
 
SACEED    ART    IN    ITALY.  81 
 
 the  window  of  the  room  to  which  the  captives  used  to  be  led  for 
 the  "question";  and  there  recited  his  breviary  in  a  loud  voice, 
 thus  to  remind  the  executioners  of  his  presence  and  stimu- 
 late them  to  their  task  !  Perhaps  the  worst  accusation  ever 
 brought  against  Urban  y  I.  was  that  wrung  by  anguish,  almost 
 without  intent,  certainly  without  power  to  injure  him,  from 
 one  of  his  victims,  the  Cardinal  de  Sangro,  who  owned  the 
 judgment  of  Grod  in  his  terrible  sufferings,  not  more,  he  said, 
 than  he  deserved  for  the  wrongs  he  had  inflicted  when  acting 
 as  Legate  in  that  kingdom,  sparing  neither  Archbishops, 
 Bishops,  Abbots,  nor  priests,  because  he  hoped  thus  to  please 
 his  master  !  *  No  proof  whatever  of  the  actual  guilt  of 
 these  Cardinals  is  on  record.  The  Pope,  seizing  the  pre- 
 text for  a  final  rupture  with  the  King,  now  imputed  to 
 Charles  III.  participation  in,  or  instigation  of,  the  supposed 
 plot.  He  solemnly  excommunicated  the  King  and  his  Queen 
 Margarita,  declared  that  they  had  forfeited  the  crown,  and 
 laid  Naples  under  interdict.  He  summoned  Charles  to  appear 
 before  his  tribunal,  to  which  his  Majesty  answered  that  he 
 would  come  in  arms.  The  Neapolitan  clergy  were  forbidden 
 to  observe  the  interdict,  and  penalties  were  threatened  to 
 those  who  should  pay  any  heed  to  it.  Presently  the  Grand 
 Constable  of  the  realm,  Alberigo  daBarbiano,  who  had  for- 
 merly served  the  Pope,  appeared  with  an  army  before 
 Nocera.  That  town  (or  probably  the  castle  alone)  was 
 besieged  from  the  beginning  of  February  till  about  tlio 
 middle  of  August,  1385,  during  which  period  the  Pope 
 daily  appeared  at  a  window,  and  with  sound  of  bell  and 
 burning  torch,  four  times  pronounced  anathema  and  curse 
 against  his  enemies,  throwing  down  the  torch  at  the  climac- 
 
 *  The  Neapolitan  and  Italian  clergy  had  been  persecuted  by  Urban's 
 agents  for  their  supposed  attachment  to  the  cause  of  the  Antipope  ;  tbe 
 Cardinal  de  Sangro  was  active  in  carrying  out  these  proceedings  against 
 them  by  destitution,  confiscation,  au'l  torture. 
 
 a 
 
82  MEDIiEYAL    CIIEISTIANITT    AND 
 
 teric  words.  The  Constable  answered  by  publishing  to  the 
 sound  of  trumpet  the  price,  10,000  gold  florins,  set  on 
 TJrban's  head,  and  offered  to  whomsoever  should  deliver 
 .him  up,  alive  or  otherwise.  Whilst  the  siege  lasted,  the 
 captive  Cardinals  (their  prison,  we  are  told,  was  a  dry  cis- 
 tern of  the  castle)  were  frequently  tortured,  but  persisted 
 in  protesting  their  innocence,  and  were  sent  back  to  suffer 
 cold,  hunger,  and  thirst,  besides  the  sharper  pangs  so  often 
 endured  by  them.  Theodore,  who  was  obliged  to  attend, 
 with  the  Pope's  nephew  and  other  assessors,  could  not 
 always  endure  the  scenes  in  the  torture-room,  and  sought 
 excuse  for  escaping.  On  the  5th  July,  an  effort  was 
 made  to  rescue  the  Pope.  Raimondello  Orsino,  arriving 
 with  troops,  attacked  the  besieging  army,  and  effected 
 entrance  with  his  soldiers  into  the  castle.  When  reco- 
 vered from  a  wound  received  in  the  encounter,  he  left, 
 after  10,000  gold  florins  had  been  paid  down  by  the  Pope 
 for  his  deliverance,  and  marching  with  his  forces  into  Cala- 
 bria, obtained  efficient  co-operation  from  the  Count  di 
 Sanseverino.  The  latter  soon  appeared  at  the  head  of 
 3000  horse  before  Nocera,  and  at  once  succeeded  in  his 
 gallant  intervention,  discomfited  the  assailants,  and  set  free 
 the  Pope,  who,  on  the  8th  August,  quitted  the  Nocera 
 castle,  escorted  by  his  valiant  protectors,  and  leading  with 
 him  in  bondage  the  accused  Cardinals.  Theodore  de 
 Niem  states,  what  we  may  reject  as  an  incredible  atrocity, 
 of  which  even  Urban  YI.  would  scarcely  have  been  capable  : 
 that,  because  the  Bishop  of  Aquila  was  too  much  enfeebled 
 by  suffering  to  keep  pace  on  horseback  with  the  rest, 
 Urban  ordered  the  guards  to  kill  him  on  the  spot,  and 
 leave   his  corpse  on  the  roadside !  *     The  travellers  pro- 
 
 *  No  other  historian  of  the  time  mentions  this  ;  and  the  secretary, 
 who  was  present  at  the  tortures,  does  not  speak  as  an  eye-witness  of 
 that  journey,  not  having  been  of  the  party. 
 
SACRED    ART    IN    ITALY.  83 
 
 cecded  by  moimtniu  paths  to  Beneveuto,  where  the  Poi>e 
 had  the  usual  honours  paid  to  him,  and  hedged  in  the 
 picturesque  castle  on  a  plateau  at  the  upper  end  of  that 
 city.  Thence  he  pursued  his  journey  to  Bari;  and  from 
 that  port,  or  from  some  point  of  the  coast  nearer  to  Trani, 
 sailed  with  his  attendants  and  prisoners  in  ten  galleys  pro- 
 vided (not  without  a  high  price  charged)  by  the  Genoese, 
 for  the  capital  of  that  Eepublic.  Landing  at  Messina, 
 Urban  there  published  once  more  the  anathemas  and  sen- 
 tence of  deposition  against  Charles  III,  At  Corneto  he 
 pledged  that  city,  and  made  its  inhabitants  hostages,  to  the 
 Genoese  for  the  payment  of  his  debts.  At  the  port  of 
 Pisa,  where  was  another  sojourn  on  this  voyage,  Pietro 
 Gambacorti,  lord  of  that  city,  came  to  do  honour  to  the 
 Pontiff,  and  at  the  same  time  to  intercede  for  his  prisoners. 
 The  Pope  ordered  them  to  be  brought  before  him :  squalid, 
 hirsute,  emaciated,  their  scanty  garments  hanging  loose 
 round  their  w'asted  persons,  they  came  to  hear  themselves 
 fiercely  reproached  for  their  crime ;  they  protested  their 
 innocence,  and  summoned  Urban  to  answer  before  the 
 judgment-seat  of  God  for  their  wrongs,  at  which  the  Pope 
 grew  furious,  commanded  them  to  be  taken  back  to  the 
 ships,  and  declared  to  Gambacorti  that  they  were  wretches 
 unworthy  of  compassion !  On  the  23rd  September  the 
 galleys  arrived  at  Genoa,  where  Urban  resided  during 
 the  rest  of  the  year  in  a  convent  of  the  Knights  of 
 I  S.  John.  "Whilst  here  he  felt  the  consequences  of  the 
 impression  made  by  his  cruelties.  Even  in  those  times  the 
 reputed  Vicar  of  Christ  could  not  so  far  defy  public  opinion 
 or  moral  feeling  as  to  drag  about  in  chains  the  tortured 
 captives, — who  followed  him  into  Genoa,  with  bare  heads 
 and  bare  feet,  riding  on  mean  animals — even  an  Urban  YI., 
 in  the  midst  of  external  honours  and  ecclesiastical  pomps, 
 jcould  not  display  this  spectacle  without  exciting  reproba- 
 '  G  2 
 
84  MEDIEVAL   CHEISTIANITT   AND 
 
 tion  to  be  embodied,  sooner  or  later,  in  avenging  deeds  or 
 iroieconcilable  animosities.  The  convent,  S.  Giovanni  di 
 Pre,  where  he  lodged,  was  assailed  by  an  angry  people,  and 
 though  they  were  repulsed,  the  Pope's  servants  fell  into 
 rude  hands.  Plans  for  the  rescue  of  the  prisoners  were 
 made  in  the  city,  and  it  was  even  believed  that  Urban's 
 life  might  be  taken  away  by  poison.  The  fate  of  the  Car- 
 dinals, one  of  whom,  Da  Cagorno,  had  been  the  revered 
 pastor  of  the  Grenoese  See,  was  only  accelerated.  They 
 mysteriously  disappeared  from  their  dungeon,  either 
 strangled,  their  bodies  being  destroyed  by  quicklime  in  a 
 pit  under  the  stables,  or  (as  Platina  states)  tied  up  in  sacks 
 and  thrown  into  the  sea.  Pive  were  the  victims  put  to 
 death  without  form  of  trial  at  G-enoa  ;  but  one,  the  English- 
 man, Adam  Eston,  styled  on  his  tomb  perpetual  administra- 
 tor of  the  diocese  of  London,  who  was  not  even  accused 
 of  more  than  cognisance  of  the  supposed  conspiracy,  was 
 spared,  on  the  intercession  of  his  sovereign,  Eichard  II. 
 Even  so  far  as  London  had  travelled  the  report  of  those 
 cruelties  which  incited  the  English  King  to  an  effort  for 
 the  rescue  of  a.  subject  from  the  "  unrelenting  fangs"  of 
 Urban  VI.  Cardinal  Eston,  degraded  from  his  rank,  and 
 utterly  impoverished,  was  able  to  leave  Italy,  but  still 
 under  durance,  and  guarded  by  a  Prench  cleric  of  the  pon- 
 tifical "  Camera."* 
 
 The  rumour  of  another  invasion  of  the  Neapolitan  States 
 by  the  young  Louis,  son  of  the  Anjou  Duke,  rival  of 
 Charles  III. — Louis  I.  having  died  of  his  wounds  in  Apulia 
 — alarmed  the  Pope  so  much  as  to  induce  him  to  quit 
 Genoa  in  the  December  of  this  year.     He  travelled  to 
 
 *  He  was  restored  to  honours  by  Boniface  IX.,  and  died  at  Rome 
 1397.  One  Cardinal,  who  was  at  Genoa  at  this  time,  deserted  Urban  on 
 account  of  these  atrocities,  and  publicly  bui-ned  the  red  hat,  received  from 
 him,  on  a  piazza  at  Pavia.  He  afterwards  received  another  from  the 
 Antipope. 
 
SACRED    ART    IN   ITALY.  85 
 
 Lucca,  and  there  remained,  till  the  following  September, 
 1387.  At  the  Christmas  celebrations  in  the  grand  old 
 cathedral,  he  introduced  a  usage  which  has  since  held  its 
 place  among  the  spectacular  pomps  of  the  Eoman  Church, 
 still  contributing  to  the  symbolism  and  significance  of  the 
 august  pontific  rites  at  the  Vatican  on  the  night  and  morn- 
 ing of  the  Nativity  :  the  blessing,  namely,  of  the  Sword 
 and  Cap  (^gladium  et  pileum,  or  ensis  et  galerus — italice, 
 stocco  e  herrettone) — destined  as  a  gift  to  some  prince,  or 
 valiant  captain,  distinguished  by  signal  services  to  the 
 Church  or  the  Holy  See.  The  intent  is  to  substitute  such 
 donations  for  the  more  ancient  practice  of  presenting  the 
 "  Standard  of  S.  Peter,"  embroidered  or  painted  with  the 
 image  of  that  Apostle  and  the  pontific  keys,  to  some  alike 
 meritorious  champion.  Urban  YI.  blessed  the  sword  and  cap, 
 now  for  the  first  time  so  used,  at  the  midnight  High  Mass, 
 and  at  once  bestowed  them  on  Eorteguerri,  Gonfaloniere 
 of  the  Lucchese  Republic,  who  had  served  as  Subdeacon, 
 chanting  the  Epistle,  at  that  same  rite.* 
 
 *  The  prayer  with  which  this  blessing  is  given,  holy  water  and  in- 
 cense being  used,  supplies  the  best  exposition  of  the  signifi<2ance  ascribed 
 to  the  objects — though  the  sword  only  is  here  contemplated:  "^Benedicere 
 digneris  quaesumus,  Domine  Jesu  Christi,  hunc  enseni  in  defensionem 
 S.  Romance  Ecclesiae,  et  Christianae  Eeipublicffi,  ordinatum  nostrse 
 benedictionis  officio  ad  vindictura  malefactorum,  laudem  vero  bonorum ; 
 ut  per  eum,  qui  te  inspirante  illo  accingitur,  vim  aequitatis  exereeas, 
 molemque  iniquitatis  potenter  evertas,  et  sanctara  Ecclesiam  tuam, 
 ejusque  fideles,  quos  ut  pretioso  tuo  sanguine  redimeres  hodie  in  terris 
 descendere  et  carnem  nostram  sumere  dignatus  es,  ab  omni  periculo 
 protegas  atque  defendas,  et  famulum  tuum,  qui  hoc  gladio  in  tuo  nomine 
 armatus  erit,  pietatis  tuae  firma  custodia  munias,  illaesumque  custodias; 
 Qui  vivis  et  regnas  cimi  Deo  Patre  in  unitate  Spiritus  Sancti  Dcus, 
 per  omnia  secula  seculorura."  Those  instances  of  the  bestowal  of  the 
 sword  and  cap,  which  fall  within  the  period  contemplated  in  this  volume, 
 serve  so  far  to  indicate  an  historic  bias  of  the  Papacy,  that  I  may 
 here  enumerate  them.    The  donation  was  made,  after  the  first  instance 
 
86  MEDIEVAL    CHRISTIANITY   AND 
 
 The  sword  and  cap  are  in  our  time  blessed  by  tlie  Pope 
 in  tlie  sacristy  of  the  Sistine  Chapel,  before  matins  on  that 
 sacred  night,  or  at  S.  Maria  Maggiore  when  his  Holiness 
 celebrates  the  midnight  mass  there ;  and  both  objects  are 
 
 above  mentioned,  by  John  XXIII.  to  the  Emperor  Sigismund  at  Con- 
 stance, dm-ing  the  sessions  of  the  Council  fatal  to  that  Pontiff,  in  1414  ; 
 by  Martin  V.  to  the  Dauphin,  son  of  Charles  VI.,  1419  ;  by  Eugenius 
 IV.,  at  Florence,  to  the  "  Signoria"  of  that  Eepublic,  through  the  hands 
 of  the  Gonfaloniere  Minerbetti,  1434  ;  by  Nicholas  V.  to  Albert  of 
 Austria,  brother  of  the  Emperor  Frederick  III.,  1456  ;  also  to  Ludovico 
 Bentivoglio,  Senator  of  Bologna,  through  means  of  the  Cardinal  Legate 
 Bessarion  ;  by  Calixtus  III.  to  Henry  IV.  of  Castile,  after  his  victories 
 over  the  Moors,  1457  ;  by  Pius  III.,  from  Mantua,  to  Frederick  III., 
 1459;  to  Albert,  Marquis  of  Brandenburg,  1460;  to  Louis  XL,  with 
 exhortations  to  join  the  Crusade  against  the  Turks,  1461  ;  to  Philip, 
 Duke  of  Burgundy,  1461  ;  and  to  Cristoforo  Moro,  Doge  of  Venice, 
 1464,  (the  principal,  if  not  sole  object  of  these  favours  being  the  promo- 
 tion of  the  cause  enthusiastically  embraced  by  that  energetic  Pope — the 
 delivery  of  Constantinople  from  Moslem  sway)  ;  by  Paul  II.  to  the 
 same  Emperor  Frederick,  at  Rome,  1468,  and  to  Matthias  Corvinus, 
 King  of  Hungary,  1471  ;  by  Sixtus  IV.,  to  Filiberto  I.,  Duke  of  Savoy, 
 1474  ;  to  Alfonso,  Duke  of  Calabria,  1477 ;  to  Edward  IV.  of  England, 
 1477  ;  by  Innocent  VIII.  to  Francis,  Prince  of  Aragon,  son  of  the  Nea- 
 politan king,  Ferdinand  L,  1484  ;  and  to  Giovan  Giacomo  Trivulzio, 
 the  Milanese  general  of  the  pontific  army,  1488  ;  by  Alexander  VI.  to 
 the  Landgrave  of  Hesse,  1492  ;  to  the  Prince,  afterwards  King  Ferdi- 
 nand 11.  of  Naples,  1493  ;  to  the  Archduke  Philip  of  Austria,  father  of 
 Charles  V.,  1497  ;  and  to  Louis  XII.  of  France,  1499.  The  instances 
 in  which  the  donation  has  been  made  to  Sovereigns  of  the  British  Isle, 
 besides  that  given  in  the  above  list,  were  the  following  :  by  Julius  II.  to 
 E[cnry  VII.,  1505  ;  by  Leo  X.  to  Henry  VIII.,  at  the  same  time  that 
 the  title  "  Defender  of  the  Faith  "  was  conferred  upon  him,  1515;  also  to 
 James  V.  of  Scotland,  1514  ;  by  Paul  III.  to  the  same  James  V.,  with 
 admonitions  to  protect  the  Catholic  faith  and  people  from  the  persecutions 
 of  Henry  VIIL,  1537;  by  Julius  III.  to  Philip  II.  of  Spain,  the  Consort 
 of  Mary  of  England,  at  the  same  time  that  the  symbol  of  the  Golden 
 Rose  was  sent  for  that  Queen,  through  Cardinal  Pole,  1555.  The  last 
 donation  was  by  Leo  XII.,  1825,  to  the  Duke  d'Angouleme,  soon  after 
 his  expedition  to  put  down  the  constitutional  party  in  Spain,  and  restore 
 
SACKED   ART    IN    ITALY.  87 
 
 supported  by  a  macc-bcarer,  at  the  e])istle  side  of  the  altar 
 cluriug  the  cusuiiig  rites,  as  is  the  ease  also  ou  the  next  morn- 
 ing, when  they  again  appear  in  the  superb  procession  before 
 and  after  the  Papal  High  Mass  at  S.  Peter's.  The  sword  is  a 
 huge  two-handed  weapon,  with  golden  pummel ;  the  cap 
 like  those  formerly  worn  by  Sovereign  Dnkes  (but  much 
 too  large  for  any  human  head),  of  crimson  velvet  and  car- 
 mine, adorned  with  pearls,  and  with  the  figure  of  a  dove  in 
 silver  filigree  on  the  front ;  this  broad- brimmed  head-piece 
 being  far  less  graceful  than  gorgeous.  Liturgic  writers 
 find  a  mystic  origin  for  the  observance  in  the  vision  of 
 Judas  Maccabeus,  when  he  beheld,  on  the  night  before  he 
 was  to  combat  against  jN^icanor,  Grovernor  of  Judea  under 
 King  Demetrius,  an  apparition  he  himself  describes — the 
 late  High  Priest  Onias  in  act  of  interceding  for  the  Israel- 
 ites, and  the  Prophet  Jeremiah,  who  presented  to  him  a 
 golden  sword,  with  words  of  inspiring  imjDort,* 
 
 Prom  Lucca  the  Pope  went  to  Perugia,  whose  citizens 
 were  now  loyally  disposed  towards  him,  notwithstanding 
 their  frequent  revolts  against  pontific  sway.     He  made  his 
 
 the  absolute  government  of  Ferdinand  VII.  For  this  complimentary 
 offering  the  Pope  blessed  the  sword  and  cap  a  second  time,  on  the  3rd 
 May,  and  sent  a  special  Ablegate  to  confer  them  on  the  Duke  at  Paris. 
 Since  then  these  objects  have  been  but  once  renewed. 
 
 *  '■'  And  this  was  his  vision  :  That  Onias.  who  had  been  high  priest, 
 a  virtuous  and  good  man,  reverend  in  conversation,  gentle  in  condition, 
 well  spoken  of,  and  exercised  from  a  child  in  all  points  of  virtue,  holding 
 up  his  hands,  prayed  for  the  whole  body  of  the  Jews.  This  done,  in 
 like  manner  there  appeared  a  man  with  grey  hairs,  and  exceeding 
 glorious,  who  was  of  a  wonderful  and  excellent  majesty.  Then  Onias 
 answered,  saying,  This  is  a  lover  of  the  brethren,  who  prayeth  much  for 
 the  people  and  for  the  holy  city,  to  wdt,  Jeremias  the  Prophet  of  God. 
 Whereupon  Jeremias,  holding  forth  his  right  hand,  gave  to  Judas  a 
 sword  of  gold,  and  in  giving  it  spake  thus:  Take  this  holy  sword,  a 
 gift  from  God,  with  the  which  thou  shalt  wound  the  adversaries." — 
 Maccabees  II.,  c.  XV.  12—16. 
 
88  MEDIAEVAL    CimiSTIANITT   AND 
 
 entry  accompanied  by  eleven  Cardinals,  and  an  escort  of 
 more  than  500  horse.  A  few  days  afterwards  he  pub- 
 lished, on  the  principal  piazza,  the  crusade  and  ban  of  the 
 Church,  with  the  usual  symbolism  of  burning  and  extin- 
 guished tapers,  against  Spoleto  and  Orvieto,  cities  at  this 
 time  in  revolt  against  his  government,  and  of  which  the 
 latter,  especially,  was  disturbed  by  internal  discords.  A 
 successful  intervention  for  the  pontific  cause  was  effected 
 in  those  districts  by  the  two  Orsini  and  the  same  Count  di 
 Sanseverino  who  had  rescued  Urban  at  Nocera.  The 
 environs  of  the  Lake  of  Bolsena  were  mercilessly  devas- 
 tated ;  harvests  destroyed,  herds  and  flocks  driven  away  by 
 the  troops  there  combating  for  the  Pope. 
 
 Charles  III  was  assassinated  (1386)  in  Hungary,  whither 
 he  had  gone  to  claim  the  crown  after  the  death  of  his 
 cousin,  King  Louis.   The  succession  of  his  son  Ladislaus,  a 
 child  ten  years  old,  to  the  Italian  kingdom  was  disputed  ; 
 and  his  widow,  nominally  Queen  Eegent,  was  obliged  to 
 fly  with  her  two  children  from  the  Castello  d'Uovo  to  the 
 fortress  of  Graeta.     Urban  boldly  put  forth  the  claim  that 
 the  Neapolitan  kingdom  had  devolved  on  the  Holy  See ; 
 and  formed  the  project  of  obtaining  it  by  conquest,  pro- 
 bably with  intent  of  bestowing  the  crown  deemed  vacant 
 on  his  nephew.     It  was  in  vain  that  the  widowed  Queen 
 sought  to  mollify  his  heart  by  releasing  Erancesco  Prignano 
 from  imprisonment,  and  sending  him  to  entreat  the  pontific 
 protection  for  her  children  and  herself,  or  at  least  to  allow 
 ecclesiastical  sepulture  to  the  remains  of  her  murdered 
 husband.     The  Pope,  without  either  army  or  money  suffi- 
 cient for  accomplishing  his  ambitious  project,  required  all 
 the  bishops  of  his  obedience  (namely,  those  who  did  not 
 recognise  the  Antipope)   to  enjoin  on  their   people   the 
 sacred  duty  of  co-operating  in  arms,  or  by  payment,  with 
 the  war  in  his  interest.     These  eff*orts  M^ere  unsuccessful  j 
 
SACEED   ART   IN^   ITALY.  89 
 
 but  Urban  had  means  to  hire  a  not  inconsiderable  force  in 
 Tuscany  and  among  the  disbanded  English  mercenaries, 
 who  offered  their  services   under  a   captain  of  the  same 
 country.     Escorted  by  these  troops  he  left  Perugia,  bent 
 upon  the  Neapolitan  invasion ;  but  had  not  travelled  more 
 than  ten  miles  when  he  fell  from  his  mule,  and  suffered 
 such  injuries,  being  of  unwieldy  corpulent  person,  as  dis- 
 abled him  from  riding  farther,  and  probably  hastened  his 
 death.     He  proceeded,  however,  in  a  vehicle  of  some  sort. 
 At  Narni  his  soldiers  began  to  manifest  discontent,  and  it 
 is  said  that  as  many  as  3000,  the  most  efficient  because 
 mounted  men,  there  deserted,  leaving  not  more  than  800  in 
 his  service  for  the  rest  of  the  disastrous  journey.     Urban 
 did  not  wish  to  repair  to  Eome,  but  to  reach  Eerentino  by 
 way  of  Tivoli,  at  which  town  he  was  waited  on  by  a  depu- 
 tation of  Eomans,  with  the  request  that  he  would  imme- 
 diately return  to  the  capital,  which  had  not  seen  him  for 
 about  five  years.     Disregarding  this  prayer,  he  proceeded 
 to  Eerentino,  where  the  remaining  troops,  whom  he  could 
 not   pay,   followed  the   example   of  their   comrades,  and 
 disbanded.     According  to  some  chroniclers,  however,  this 
 desertion  was  not  the  act  alike  of  all  those  mercenaries ;  a 
 certain  number  remained ;  but  as  the  Eomans  refused  to 
 admit  them  within  their  city,  the  Pope  sent  them  to  make 
 war  in  the  revolted  Orvieto  district.     Urban  was,  at  all 
 events,  obliged  to  abandon  his  projects  of  conquest,  and 
 return  to  Eome,  however  unwillingly.     He  is  said  to  have 
 been  warned   by  a  holy  hermit  to   take   this   step ;  and 
 another  legend  records  a  vision  of  S.  Peter,  in  form  like 
 the  bronze  statue  of  the  Apostle  in  his  great  basilica,  seen 
 hovering  in  air,  and  preceding  the  Pope  on  his  Eome- ward 
 journey — which  Urban  commanded  his  attendants  to  keep 
 secret,  as  they  did  till  the  marvel  was  made  public,  after 
 his  death,  by  his  confessor.     Earther  troubles  awaited  the 
 
90  MEDIJUYAL    CIIRISTIANITT   ATfD 
 
 Pope  after  liis  ingress,  amidst  customary  honours,  into 
 his  long-deserted  metropolis.  Disturbances  had  occurred 
 during  his  absence.  A  prefect  of  the  city,  named  Angelo, 
 had  been  murdered  by  the  populace  and  by  some  of  the 
 pontifical  soldiers,  not  at  Eome  but  at  Yiterbo ;  and 
 Theodore  di  Niem  tells  us  that  the  homicides  tore  him 
 to  pieces,  actually  made  sausages  of  his  flesh,  and  eat  it ! 
 The  Banderesi  and  Conservators  clung  to  their  special 
 privileges,  and  refused  to  recognise  as  Senator  a  Genoese 
 appointed  by  the  Pope,  for  which  he  excommunicated 
 them.  Those  offenders  presented  themselves  in  garb  of 
 penitence,  with  cords  round  their  necks,  to  supplicate 
 forgiveness.  They  were  absolved,  and  an  expedient,  some- 
 what singularly  adopted  to  pacify  the  discontented  citizens, 
 was  the  anticipation  of  the  Jubilee  Year,  according  to 
 decree  now  passed  by  Urban,  that  such  sacred  celebrations 
 should  be  thenceforth  held  every  thirty-third  year,  in 
 remembrance  of  the  age  of  the  Saviour  in  His  life  upon 
 earth.  On  the  18th  October,  1389,  Urban  YI.  died,  in  his 
 seventy-second  year,  and,  as  supposed  by  several  historians, 
 of  poison,  though  the  Cardinals  who  announced  the  event 
 in  letters  to  princes,  assign  natural  causes.  One  chronicler 
 of  the  time  denounces  him  as  "a  cruel,  scandalous,  and 
 very  bad  man  "  {vir  pessimus,  cf^udelis,  et  scandalosus)  ;  but 
 the  Plorentine  historian,  Ammirato,  undertakes  to  justify 
 him  on  the  ground  of  manifest  necessity  for  severe 
 measures  amidst  the  then  embarrassing  circumstances  of 
 the  Pontificate. 
 
 On  the  2nd  November  the  fourteen  Cardinals,  now  in 
 Rome,  elected  to  the  vacant  throne  Pietro  Tomacelli,  called 
 from  his  birth-place  the  Cardinal  of  Naples,  who  hence- 
 forth becomes  known  to  history  as  Boniface  IX.  (1389-1404). 
 On  the  9th  of  the  same  month  he  was  crowned,  according 
 to  antecedents,  on  a  loggia  of  woodwork,  gorgeous  with 
 
SACEED    AET    IN    ITALY.  91 
 
 draperies,  erected  ou  the  summit  of  tlie  stairs  before  S. 
 Peter's;  and  immediately  afterwards  the  whole  retinue  of 
 ecclesiastics  aud  other  diguitarles  present  rode  to  the 
 Lateran  for  the  ceremonial  installation  of  the  new  Pope  in 
 that  primordial  basilica,  from  which  he  returned  to  take  up 
 his  residence  in  the  Vatican  the  same  day.  Boniface  IX. 
 was  of  a  noble  but  impoverished  N'eapolitan  family,  had  been 
 respectable  in  his  private  life,  but  showed  incapacities  for 
 the  high  position  he  was  now  called  to,  which  are  curiously 
 particularized  by  the  Dutch  historian.  He  was  ignorant 
 of  the  usages  of  the  Curia,  unable  either  to  w^ite  in 
 suit-able  style  or  to  chant  at  the  altar  in  just  cadence  ;  and 
 his  indiscretion  in  signing  documents,  which  probably  he 
 did  not  understand,  led  to  strange  confusion*  At  the 
 ensuing  Christmas  he  opened  the  Jubilee  Tear  (1390), 
 conformably  to  the  Innovating  decree  of  Urban  YI.  ;  the 
 holy  epoch  commencing  at  the  Vespers  of  the  Nativity,  to 
 be  closed  on  the  same  occasion  in  the  year  subsequent. 
 The  times  were  unfavourable.  T^o  pilgrims  arrived  from 
 the  countries  where  Clement  was  recognised  as  Pope  ;  but 
 many  continued  to  travel  Eome-ward  throughout  the  year 
 (innumerabiles  feregrini  toto  isto  anno,  says  the  contempo- 
 rary above-quoted)  from  Grermany,  Hungary,  Bohemia, 
 Northern  Italy,  and  some  also  from  England.  Among 
 other  Italian  magnates  came  the  Marquis  Alberto  d'Este, 
 accompanied  by  400  knights,  besides  many  other  attendants, 
 all  in  penitential  garb,  with  black  banners  and  pennons 
 floatiag  from  black  lances.  At  a  distance  of  a  mile  from 
 the  city  they  were  met  by  five  Cardinals  and  the  Grand 
 Master  of  the  Knights  of  Jerusalem  ;  and  on  the  morrow 
 the  Marq  ais  and  his  principal  companions  dined  with  the 
 
 *  "  Scribendi  atque  canendi  imperitus — ignoravit  gravitatem  pontifi- 
 calis  officii,  et  adeo  supplicationcs  sibi  porrectas  indiscrete  signavit." — 
 Theod.  a  Niem. 
 
92  MEDIiEVAL   CHEISTIANITT   AND 
 
 Pope,  who  granted  all  the  graces  demanded  of  him  ;  con- 
 doned to  Alberto  the  arrears  of  census  claimed  by  the  Holy 
 See  for  Ferrara,  and  legitimated  his  natural  son,  who  suc- 
 ceeded him  as  Nicholas  III.  The  tribute  to  which  the  Esti 
 had  pledged  themselves  was  10,000  gold  florins  per  annum, 
 as  well  as  the  maintenance  of  one  hundred  mounted  men 
 for  the  service  of  the  Papacy,  at  whatever  period  such 
 military  aid  might  be  desired.  On  the  fourth  Sunday  of 
 Lent,  the  Pope  bestowed  the  Grolden  Eose,  blessed  by  him 
 in  the  rites  of  that  day,  on  the  Marquis,  and  granted  the 
 privilege  of  constituting  the  public  schools  of  Perrara  as  a 
 University  under  pontific  patronage.  This  pious  Marquis 
 Alberto,  who  had  succeeded  his  brother  Nicholas  II.  in 
 1388,  had,  soon  after  his  occupation  of  the  dependent 
 throne,  been  disturbed  by  a  conspiracy  in  which  his  nephew, 
 Obizzo,  was  compromised  ;  this  being  detected  and  baffled, 
 not  only  were  the  accomplices  severely  punished,  but  Obizzo 
 and  his  mother  with  him  were  beheaded  by  the  uncle's 
 order !* 
 
 Other  princes  sent  envoys  to  obtain  from  the  Pontiff  the 
 spiritual  benefits  w^ithout  the  pilgrimage  of  the  Holy  Tear. 
 Bichard  II.  of  England  and  John  I.  of  Portugal  were 
 expressly  privileged  to  secure  the  indulgence  on  condition 
 of  certain  pious  observances,  without  leaving  their  states. 
 The  inhabitants  of  certain  Grerman  cities  received  the 
 general  permission  to  substitute  devotional  visits  to 
 churches,  and  offerings  for  the  restoration  of  Eoman  ba- 
 silicas, as  means  for  securing  that  indulgence  in  its  pleni- 
 tude.    Copious  contributions  flowed  in ;  and  though  much 
 
 *  The  object  of  the  conspirators,  who  were  gentlemen  {Signori)  of 
 Florence  and  Padua,  was  to  assassinate  Alberto  and  raise  Obizzo,  called 
 Obizzone,  the  son  of  Aldobrandino  III.,  eldest  of  three  brothers  who 
 successively  ruled  at  Ferrara  to  the  place  of  that  uncle  who  visited  the 
 offence  so  remorselessly  on  his  near  relatives. 
 
SACKED   ABT   IN   ITALY.  93 
 
 was  applied  to  the  requisite  church-repairs,  it  is  stated  that 
 much  also  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  Pope  and  his  officials 
 for  other  uses ;  much  (as  we  shall  see)  went  to  defray  the 
 costs  of  the  war  carried  on  by  Ladislaus  against  the  Anjou 
 Louis.  This  Jubilee  Tear  is  marked  by  portentous  signs 
 of  corruption  in  the  Latin  Church,  and  of  a  decline  from 
 the  originally  exalted  character  of  the  Eoman  Pontificate. 
 Boniface  IX,,  not  content  with  the  regularly  supplied 
 off'erings,  sent  questors  over  different  countries  to  sell  the 
 indulgence  at  the  presumed  cost  of  the  journey  to  Rome, 
 a  transaction  inevitably  leading  to  such  abuses  as  were  the 
 actual  result.  In  some  kingdoms,  and  even  in  single  pro- 
 vinces, more  than  100,000  florins  were  extorted  by  these 
 emissaries,  who  thus  enriched  themselves,  were  able  to 
 travel  with  retinues  of  servants  and  horses,  and  were 
 accused  of  having  oftered  for  payment  not  only  the  canonical 
 indulgence,  but  absolute  remission  of  sins  without  the  con- 
 dition of  repentance  !*  Many  of  them  came  to  evil  end. 
 Some  were  driven  to  suicide  by  fear  of  the  popular  rage 
 against  them  ;  or,  being  unable  to  give  account  of  their 
 stewardship,  were  detained  long  in  prison  after  their  return 
 to  Eome.  Some  fell  into  diverse  heresies — never  (it  seems) 
 to  be  converted.! 
 
 *  "  Omnia  peccata,  etiam  sine  poenitentia  ipsis  confitentibns  relaxa- 
 verunt,  super  quibuslibet  irregularitatibus  dispensarunt  interventu 
 pecunite."— Theod.  a  Niem.  1.  I.  c.  68. 
 
 t  Chaucer,  living  at  this  time,  may  have  had  these  very  proceedings 
 in  his  mind  when  he  dehneated  with  such  humour  the  character  and 
 proceedings  of  the  *'  Pardoner "  in  his  Prologue  to  the  Cantcrbmy 
 Tales  :— 
 
 A  gentil  Pardoner, 
 That  streyt  Avas  comen  from  the  Court  of  Rome. 
 Of  his  craft  fro  Berwyk  unto  Ware 
 Ne  was  ther  such  another  pardoner. 
 
 Wei  cowde  he  rede  a  Icssoun  or  a  storyc, 
 
9^!  MEDIAEVAL    CURISTIANITT   AND 
 
 In  the  general  eagerness  to  obtain  this  indulgence  of  the 
 Jubilee  without  the  pilgrimage  originally  prescribed,  we 
 see  a  sign  and  consequence  of  declining  faith  in  that 
 localized  concentration  of  spiritual  benefits  hitherto  claimed, 
 and  with  such  extraordinary  success,  for  the  sole  city  of 
 Eiome  ! 
 
 Eor  about  seven  years  of  his  pontificate,  Boniface  IX. 
 stood  in  awe  of  certain  Cardinals,  whose  higher  sense  of 
 ecclesiastical  proprieties  M^ould  have  led  them  to  oppose  the 
 course  he  meditated  on  adopting,  and  to  which  his  worldly 
 spirit  inclined  him.  Simony  in  its  worst  form,  rapacious, 
 shameless,  ignoble  was  organized  by  this  Pope.  To  him  is 
 ascribed  the  final  development  and  perpetuation  of  "  An- 
 nates," which,  though  of  earlier  origin,  had  been  first  im- 
 posed as  a  heavy  tax  on  bishoprics  and  benefices  by  John 
 XXII.  All  the  European  nations  recognising  Boniface  as 
 legitimate  Pope  submitted  to  this  augmented  exaction, 
 except  England,  where,  however,  it  was  finally  agreed 
 that  "first-fruits"  should  be  paid  to  the  Apostolic  "  Camera" 
 in  Eolne  by  those  appointed  to  bishoprics,  though  not  for 
 other  church  preferments. 
 
 Edward  II.  of  England  obtained  from  Clement  Y.  the 
 tithes  of  all  church-property  in  his  states  for  two  years, 
 under  pretext  of  a  crusade  never  undertaken  by  that  king. 
 To  indemnify  themselves  for  this,  the  English  bishops  de- 
 manded the  revenues  of  all  the  benefices  left  vacant  in  their 
 respective  dioceses  during  one  year.  Their  request  (says 
 a  zealous  encomiast  of  the  Papacy)   "  redounded  to  their 
 
 But  altherbest  he  sang  an  offertorie  ; 
 Ful  wel  wist  he  when  that  song  was  songe, 
 He  moste  jjreche,  and  wel  affyle  his  tunge, 
 To  Wynne  silver,  as  he  right  wel  cowde  ; 
 Therefore  he  snng  ful  meriely  and  lowde. 
 
SACRED    ART    IN    ITALY.  05 
 
 disadvantage  ;  for  the  Pope  founded  npon  this  the  system 
 of  Annates"  (Moroni,  "Dizionario  di  Erudizione Storieo- 
 Eeclesiastico.")  John  XXII.  was  comparatively  moderate, 
 exacting  only  the  first-fruits  of  the  less  important  benefices 
 during  three  years.  But  it  was  the  sinister  distinction  of 
 Boniface  IX.  to  set  the  example  of  an  undisguised  avarice, 
 which  aimed  at  reducing  the  agency  of  the  Eoman  Curia 
 into  a  vast  mechanism  for  aggrandisement  at  the  expense 
 of  Latin  Christendom  !  The  last  degradation  of  the  high 
 ideal  of  the  supreme  Pontificate,  personified  and  vindicated, 
 for  the  glory  of  S.  Peter's  throne,  by  so  many  great  and 
 holy  men,  was  due  to  the  covetousness  of  this  Neapolitan 
 Pope.*  He  sent  his  emissaries  over  Italy  to  inquire  about 
 the  health  of  those  who  held  rich  livings ;  and  if  any  such 
 incumbents  were  found  to  be  sick  or  weak,  their  deaths 
 were  reported,  and  their  benefices  put  up  to  sale,  at  Eome. 
 The  Pope  himself  frequently  sold  the  same  living  two  or 
 three  times  ;  and  during  a  visitation  of  pestilence  (1399) 
 the  same  benefice  was  sometimes  sold  to  several  persons  in 
 the  course  of  one  week,  as  purchaser  after  purchaser  died 
 off".  To  the  last  bidder  used  to  be  granted  the  graces 
 styled  "preference"  {anteferre)  ;  but  this  was  superseded 
 by  the  higher  favours  designated  as  "  prerogative  of  pre- 
 ference*' {pmerogativa  antelationis) — price  of  the  former, 
 twenty-five ;  of  the  latter,  fifty  florins.  All  preferments 
 in  Eome  were  made  venal ;  and  if  the  Pope   could  not 
 
 •  "  At  once  to  indulge,  palliate,  and  establish  this  simony,  he  substi- 
 tuted as  a  permanent  tax  the  Annates,  or  First-fniits  of  every  bishopric 
 and  rich  abbey,  calculated  on  a  new  scale,  triple  that  in  which  they  stood 
 before  in  the  Papal  books.  This  was  to  be  paid  in  advance  by  the  candi- 
 dates for  promotion,  some  of  whom  never  got  possession  of  the  benefice. 
 Mansi  has  proved  against  Raynaldus,  that  15oniface,  if  not  the  inventor 
 of  the  Annates,  first  made  them  a  perpetual  burden."— Milmau,  "His- 
 tory of  Latin  Christianity. ''     B.  xiii. 
 
96  MEDIAEVAL   CHRISTIANITY   AND 
 
 obtain  ready  money,  he  did  not  refuse  payment  in  kind — 
 sheep,  oxen,  horses,  swine,  or  grain.  He  would  sign  no 
 supplication  for  whatever  object,  or  from  petitioners  how- 
 ever poor  (Cardinals  alone  excepted),  without  the  fee  of  a 
 gold  florin  for  each  individual  concerned,  or  named  therein. 
 Even  the  dying  were  not  left  at  peace  in  this  city,  when 
 anything  could  be  extorted  on  account  of  the  offices  they 
 had  held ;  their  money,  books,  clothes,  vessels  used  to  be 
 seized  by  the  bailiffs  of  the  Pope,  who  is  compared,  not  un- 
 justly, by  Theodore  de  Niem,  to  "  a  raven  gasping  for  its 
 prey !"  He  issued,  in  his  seventh  year,  a  regulation 
 obliging  such  bishops  and  abbots  as  could  not  pay  imme- 
 diately for  their  letters  of  induction,  to  resign  their  offices 
 till  the  debt  could  be  fully  discharged ;  and  thus  were  high 
 dignitaries  liable  to  be  for  a  time  degraded,  the  prelate  to 
 forfeit  his  mitre,  the  abbot  to  be  driven  from  his  monastery, 
 till  their  money  reached  that  absorbing  gulf,  the  pontific 
 treasury— irregularities  that  caused  great  scandal,  and  of- 
 fended the  conscience  of  the  faithful,  as  we  can  well  believe, 
 conformably  with  the  statements  of  the  writer  so  often 
 quoted  above,  who  tells  us  moreover  that  "  nothing,  how- 
 ever unjust  or  absurd,  but  could  be  obtained  for  money  at 
 the  Curia"  under  this  Pontificate.*  Friars  purchased  dis- 
 pensations to  quit  their  convents,  and  hold  livings  as  secular 
 priests,  or  sometimes  to  enter  less  suitable  careers,  as  sol- 
 diers in  the  pontific  army.  Eome  was  overrun  by  these 
 fugitives  from  the  cloister  ;  but  the  last  extreme  of  scandal 
 was  given  in  higher  places  of  the  Church,  when  persons  of 
 the  worst,  or  basest,  antecedents,  contrived  to  obtain  the 
 venal  mitres  procurable  at  the  centre  of  corruptions  ;  and 
 we  are  told  that  pantomime  actors,  bufi'oons,  frequenters  of 
 
 *  "  Nee  potuit  adeo  quid  injustum  aut  absurdum  postiilari,  quod  non 
 concederctur  intercedente  symoniaco  pacto." — Tlieod.  a  Niem.  L.  ir. 
 €.  12. 
 
SACRED    ART    I^     ITALY.  07 
 
 the  taverns,  etc.,  were  allowed  thus  to  degrade  the  epi.scopal 
 dignity  without  any  previously-exacted  penances  or  canon- 
 ical satisfaction.*  The  atmosphere  around  the  Papal 
 throne  became  what  such  influences  naturally  made  it. 
 The  "  Curiales"  learnt  the  trick  from  their  master :  all,  from 
 highest  to  lowest,  were  versed  in  the  ways  of  simony  and 
 usury,  which  it  became  a  fashion  to  deem  justifiable.  That 
 the  Pope  could  not  err  in  such  matters,  was  now  a  byword 
 among  these  courtiers  of  the  Vatican.  Even  the  sanctuary 
 was  profaned  by  the  dominant  spirit  of  worldliness  ;  and 
 while  prelates  were  celebrating  High  Mass  before  the 
 Pope,  his  Holiness  used  to  call  his  secretaries  around  his 
 throne  for  inquiring  on  the  subject  uppermoiJfc  in  his  mind, 
 the  receipts  into  his  coffers !  The  last  insult  against  the 
 majesty  of  Eitual  was  thus  exemplified  by  the  Head  of  the 
 Chui'ch !  An  anecdote  of  Boniftice's  death-bed  is  sufficiently 
 characteristic  to  be  credible  ;  being  asked  how  he  felt,  he 
 answered,  "  I  should  be  quite  well  if  I  had  money  !" 
 
 Another  means  by  which  the  revenues  of  the  Papacy  were 
 greatly  augmented,  was  the  bestowal,  or  conceding,  of 
 Vicariates,  for  annual  payment  of  tribute,  on  several  potent 
 families  who  had  already  obtained  almost  sovereign  sway  in 
 cities  of  the  nominally  Pontific  states.  Thus  were  the 
 Malatesti,  the  Este,  the  Ordelaffi,  the  Alidosi  and  Manfredi 
 families  recognised  as  reigning  Princes,  on  condition  of  the 
 census  by  whicb  tbey  in  their  turn  recognised  the  suze- 
 rainty of  the  Pope.  The  city  of  Aquila  voluntarily  gave 
 itself  to  the  Pontific  government  after  the  death  by  assassi- 
 nation of  E/inaldo  Orsino,  its  ruler.  SpOleto,  which  had 
 been  usurpingly  occupied  by  the  same  Orsino,  and  after  his 
 
 •  Scandals  that  might  seem  incredible,  but  for  the  distinct  statements 
 of  the  same  Theodore,  who  tells  us  that  there  were  among  these  bishops 
 ppointed  under  Boniface  IX.,  "  sciirrae,  histriones,  aut  discoli,"  and  goes 
 n  to  describe  their  antecedents. 
 
 H 
 
98  MEDIJEYAL    CHRISTIAT^ITT    AND 
 
 death  by  his  heirs,  was  recovered  for  Boniface  IX.,  though 
 its  castle  was  still  defended  for  the  Antipope  Clement. 
 Yiterbo  fell  (1392)  under  the  lawless  sway  of  Sciarra  di 
 Vico,  who  entered  with  armed  force,  massacred  two  hundred 
 citizens,  and  drove  away  the  rest  of  those  resisting  ;  but 
 that  capital  of  the  "  Patrimony"  province  was,  after  a  time, 
 resubjected  to  the  tiara.  The  Pope  bestowed  the  lordship 
 of  Orvieto  on  his  brother,  Giannello  Tomacelli,  who  was  at 
 first  well  received  there,  but  soon  compelled  to  give  place 
 to  the  Condottiere,  Biordo  di  Michelotti,  whom  the  citizens 
 invited  to  assume  military  and  civil  authority  over  them. 
 Another  of  the  Pope's  brothers,  Andrea,  appointed  by  him 
 Governor  of  fhe  Anconitan  Marches,  was  defeated  in  battle 
 and  made  prison^er  by  Gentili  de  Varano,  lord  of  Camerino. 
 After  paying  the  required  ransom,  Boniface  recognised  this 
 successful  antagonist  as  Yicar  of  the  Holy  See  over  a  re- 
 gion extending  from  the  eastern  limits  of  the  Spoleto 
 Duchy  to  the  Adriatic. 
 
 Perugia  was  at  this  time  distracted  by  civil  wars  ;  whilst 
 the  surrounding  territory  was  laid  waste,  the  city  had  to 
 endure  a  siege,  being  invested  by  an  irregular  army  of  mer- 
 cenaries and  returning  exiles,  led  by  Biordo  di  Michelotti. 
 The  magistrates,  after  all  other  efforts  had  failed,  applied 
 to  the  Pontiff  for  protection,  and  invited  him  to  reside 
 within  their  walls.  Boniface,  being  far  from  satisfied  with 
 his  circumstances  at  Rome,  and  greatly  irritated  against 
 the  too  powerful  Banderesi,  complied  with  this  request,  on 
 condition  that  all  the  fortresses  belonging  to  Perugia  should 
 be  given  up  to  him.  He  set  out  from  Rome  (17th  Octo- 
 ber, 1392)  with  twelve  Cardinals,  and  a  retinue  consisting 
 in  all  of  one  thousand  persons.  They  were  welcomed  with 
 splendid  festivities  at  Perugia,  and  lodged  in  the  palace  of 
 the  Podesta ;  the  Pope,  however,  being  subsequently  a 
 guest  at  the  great  Benedictine   monastery  of  S.   Pietro,' 
 
SACRED    ART    IN    ITALY.  99 
 
 which  he  caused  to  be  fortified.     For  a  time  his  efforts  to 
 reconcile  the  two  rival  factions,  headed  by  the  Beccarini 
 and  Raspanti  families,  were  successful :    but  tumult  and 
 party  strife  returned,  the  ever-recurring  evils  of  Italian 
 civic  society  in  these  ages.     In  the  summer  of  1393  a  scene 
 was  witnessed  by  the  Dutch  secretary,  whose  descriptiou  I 
 translate  from  his  ovm  words  :  "  At  the  beginning  of  Au- 
 gust, about  the  dinner  hour,  I  who  was  then  living  in  the 
 neighbourhood  of  Pope  Boniface's  palace,  saw  many  of  the 
 E-aspanti  suddenly  rush  into  the  piazza  before  that  resi- 
 dence, and  there  at  once  attack  and  cruelly  put  to  death 
 the  Beccarini  whom  they  encountered.     Perhaps  one  hun- 
 dred perished  on  that  day  ;  among  them  being  many  sol- 
 diers,   many  doctors  of  law,  and  other  eminent  citizens. 
 This  invasion  and  slaughter  lasted  some  days."  (Hist.  1.  ii. 
 c.  15.)     The  Pope  left  Perugia  by  night  for  Assisi,  and  re- 
 fused, when   urged    by  a  deputation,    to    return  thither. 
 Soon  afterwards  the  impatient  exiles,  about  500,  entered 
 Perugia  under  the  leadership  of  Biordo,  who  now  secured 
 the  local  sway,  making  himself  absolute  lord  of  that  city, 
 and  thence  extending  his   dominion  over  Spello,  Nocera, 
 Citta  di  Pieve,  Lodi,  Or\deto,  and  finally  over  Assisi  also, 
 after  the  Pope's  departure  from  thence.     Boniface,  after  a 
 time,  recognised  the  authority  of  this  adventurer,  with  the 
 usual  bestowal  of  a  vicariate  and  requirement  of  a  census 
 to  Rome.  Biordo  di  Michelotti  exercised  his  office  with  some 
 ability  and  prudence  during  about  four  years,  at  the  end  of 
 which  period  his  career  was  cut  short  by  a  violent  death. 
 The  abbot  of  the  S.  Pietro  monastery,  whom  he  had  trusted 
 as  a  friend,  hired   the    assassins,   and   accompanied   them 
 to  the  palace  of  this  now  dreaded  captain.     Biordo,  roused 
 from  his  sleep  by  knocking  at  his  door,  opened  so  soon  as 
 Ihe  heard  the  voice  of  the  abbot,  greeted  and  embraced  the 
 jtreacherous  friend,  who  had  come  to  have  him  put  to  death 
 
 ! 
 1 
 
100  MEDIiEYAL    CHRISTIANITY    AND 
 
 in  his  presence.  After  witnessing  that  deliberate  murder, 
 the  abbot  fled  to  the  Pope,  who  received  him  with  honours  ; 
 and  it  was  probably  this  very  compromising  conduct  on  the 
 part  of  Boniface,  which  led  to  the  dark  imputation  (never 
 perhaps  so  distinctly  brought  against  a  Eoman  Pontiff) 
 that  he  had  himself  ordered  the  assassination  of  Biordo.* 
 That  crime  was  avenged  by  the  victim's  brother,  Ceccolino 
 di  Michelotti,  who  put  to  death  certain  of  the  abbot's  re- 
 lations, burnt  down  several  houses  belonging  to  him,  and 
 sacked  his  wealthy  monastery.  Ceccolino  obtained  a  lord- 
 ship almost  like  that  of  his  brother  at  Perugia.  The  Pope 
 endeavoured  to  recover  that  city  by  violent  means,  and 
 gave  the  command  of  his  troops,  mustered  for  this  under- 
 taking, to  Ugolini  Trinci,  lord  of  Poligno.  Grian  Galeazzo 
 Visconti,  recently  created  Duke  of  Milan  by  act  of  Wen- 
 ceslaus,  the  Grerman  Emperor,  or  (more  properly  speaking) 
 King  of  the  Romans,  had  obtained  possession  of  Pisa,  and 
 now  aimed  at  extending  his  sceptre  not  only  over  Perugia, 
 but  also  over  Bologna,  a  city  he  greatly  desired  to  annex 
 to  his  increasing  territories.  The  Florentines,  alarmed  at 
 the  rapid  successes  of  the  Visconti,  sent  their  general, 
 Hawkwood,  with  a  corps  of  soldiery,  for  the  defence  of 
 Bologna,  whilst  the  Pope  laid  his  plans  for  the  re-subjec- 
 
 *  Theodore  de  Niem  brings  this  charge  circumstantially  against  the 
 Pope:  "Ad  alias(i.e.  other  expedients)  se  convertit,  per  quos  Biordum  dolo 
 interfici  procuraverat,  prout  statim  factum  fuit,"  &c.  Muratori,  treating 
 the  accusation  as  rumour  only,  neither  endorses  nor  refutes  it  :  "  In  this 
 year  (he  says)  Biordo  of  Perugia,  who  had  been  actual  lord  of  that  city, 
 was  killed  by  the  abbot  of  S.  Peter's  ;  and  it  was  believed  by  order  of 
 the  Pope.  But  the  Pope  did  not  by  this  means  recover  Perugia."  On 
 which  the  ecclesiastical  editor  of  the  Annali  (Catalan!,  Rome,  1787), 
 observes  in  a  note :  *'  Nothing  more  natural  than  that  such  a  report 
 should  be  spread  with  reference  to  the  death  inflicted  on  a  usurper  of 
 the  dominion  of  a  city  pertaining  to  the  Holy  See  !" 
 
SACKED    AET    IN    ITALY.  101 
 
 tion  of  Perugia.  But  that  Umbrian  city  anticipated  the 
 designs  of  the  Milanese  Duke,  and  liberated  itself  from 
 the  onset  of  the  Pontific  forces  by  voluntarily  submit- 
 ting to  Grian  G-aleazzo  in  the  year  1400.  The  Bolognese 
 gallantly  opposed  the  forces  of  Visconti,  and  two  inva- 
 sions of  their  territory  (1390)  resulted  in  failure  to  the 
 aggressors. 
 
 In  1394  was  published  a  Crusade  in  the  Neapolitan 
 States  for  the  cause  of  Ladislaus,  in  opposition  to  a  new 
 rival  claimant  of  the  crown,  Louis,  sou  of  the  Anjou  Duke 
 of  the  same  name,  who  had  fought  against  Charles  III.,  and 
 had  died  of  a  wound  in  1384.  Another  coronation  by  the 
 Antipope  Clement,  at  Avignon  (1389),  had  consecrated  the 
 title  of  .this  pretender  as  Louis  II.,  King  of  Jerusalem  and 
 Sicily.  Boniface  remitted,  in  favour  of  Ladislaus,  the  census 
 of  800,000  gold  florins  due  to  the  Holy  See  from  the  IS'ea- 
 politan  (then  called  the  Sicilian)  kingdom  ;  and  at  the  same 
 time  conceded  to  that  monarch  for  three  years  all  the 
 tithes  in  his  southern  states.  This  was  on  the  occasion 
 when  Ladislaus  was  crowned  as  king  of  Hungary,  by  a 
 Cardinal  deputed  by  the  Pope,  in  1403. 
 
 We  must  go  back  to  the  events  of  the  year  1392  in  order 
 fully  to  estimate  the  relations  between  that  king  and  the 
 Pontiff,  and  the  exceptional  favours  which  Boniface  IX.  did 
 not  hesitate  in  his  case  to  grant.  Ladislaus  had,  in  his 
 fourteenth  year,  been  wedded  at  G-aeta  to  Constance, 
 daughter  of  Manfredi  di  Chiaramonte,  one  of  the  wealthiest 
 Sicilian  nobles,  a  marriage  probably  arranged  by  his  mother, 
 Queen  Margaret,  for  the  sake  of  the  ample  dowry  of  the 
 bride,  much  wanted  by  the  young  king.  In  1392  Ladislaus 
 visited  E/ome,  bent  on  obtaining  two  favoui's  :  money  and 
 troops  for  the  war  against  Louis,  and  a  divorce  from  his 
 lawful  wife.  He  alleged  that  he  had  been  constrained  to 
 contract  marriage  when  under  age  and  not  fully  respousi- 
 
102  MEDIEVAL    CHRISTIANITY   AND 
 
 ble.  The  divorce,  as  well  as  tlie  subvention  for  the  war, 
 was  granted.  A  Cardinal  was  deputed  to  take  off  the  ring, 
 in  presence  of  the  Bishop  of  Graeta,  from  the  hand  of  the 
 unfortunate  Princess,  who,  deprived  of  all  royal  insignia, 
 had  to  retire  into  the  obscurity  of  private  life.  In  1394 
 the  king  gave  her  in  marriage  to  Andrea  da  Capua,  after- 
 wards Count  di  Altavilla ;  and  a  scene  occurred  at  this 
 wedding  which  excited  sympathy  for  the  sorrowful  bride. 
 At  G-aeta,  where  the  ceremony  took  place,  as  the  newly- 
 married  pair  were  riding  through  the  town,  Costanza, 
 weeping  bitterly,  told  her  second  husband  that  "  he  ought 
 to  deem  himself  the  most  fortunate  man  in  the  world,  since 
 he  had  the  Queen,  wife  of  Eang  Ladislaus,  for  his  love  and 
 concubine !  " — which  words,  we  read  in  the  Giornali  J^apoli- 
 tani,  caused  much  pity  and  displeasure  among  all, — namely, 
 the  people  who  heard  them.* 
 
 Most  true  it  is  that  the  Eoman  Pontiffs  have  repeatedly 
 braved  the  displeasure  of  the  greatest  potentates  by  main- 
 taining the  sanctity  of  the  marriage-tie,  and  sacrificed 
 every  worldly  consideration  to  the  duty  of  protecting  the 
 injured  wife,  or  denouncing  and  curbing  the  licentiousness 
 of  royal  adulterers.  But  history  cannot  pass  over  the 
 examples  of  an  opposite  course  pursued  to  their  discredit 
 
 *  The  chronicle,  in  quaint  Italian  (Neapolitan  dialect),  edited  by  Mu- 
 ratori,  and  extending  from  1266  to  1478,  gives  a  somewhat  different 
 account  of  this  transaction  from  that  which  Muratori  himself  accepts  as 
 authentic.  According  to  the  Oiornali,  Ladislaus  behaved  so  cruelly  to 
 his  wife  that  she  herself  desired  the  divorce,  or  at  least  a  legal  separa- 
 tion. The  king,  we  here  read,  turned  her  out  of  his  house  ;  obliged  her 
 to  live  in  poverty  with  her  governess  and  two  maid  servants  she  had 
 brought  with  her  from  Sicily.  "  She  determined  to  send  King  Ladis- 
 laus to  the  Pope  for  the  dispensation  to  separate  from  him;"  but  the 
 sequel  to  the  history  seems  irreconcilable  with  this  naive  statement. 
 The  same  writer  tells  of  Costanza's  persistence  in  styling  herself  the 
 wife  of  Ladislaus  long  after  her  divorce. 
 
SACRED   AET   IN   ITALY.  103 
 
 by  worldly-minded  Popes,  aud  displaying  the  fatal  con- 
 sequences of  alliance  with  the  great  of  earth,  the  cor- 
 rupting effects  of  temporal  power  over  sacerdotal  supre- 
 macy ! 
 
 Theodore  de  Niem  tells  us  that  Boniface,  whilst  resident 
 at  Assisi,  sold  the  entire  city  of  Eiga,  for  15,000  gold 
 florins,  to  the  Teutonic  Knights,  though  the  local  lordship  by 
 right  pertained  to  its  Archbishop,  who,  with  all  his  chapter, 
 protested  against  this  transaction.*  It  was  during  this 
 sojourn  at  Assisi  that  the  Pope  received  a  deputation  from 
 the  Eomans,  begging  him  to  return  to  his  metropolis,  which 
 had  not  seen  him  for  so  long  a  time.  He  seems  to  have 
 been  reluctant  to  trust  himself  among  those  citizens,  and 
 required  that  a  treaty  should  be  drawn  up  at  Eome  for  the 
 securing  of  his  own  and  the  pontific  interests  generally. 
 In  August,  1393,  the  terms  were  agreed  to  in  conference 
 on  the  Capitol ;  a  Cardinal  and  the  Abbot  of  S.  Paul's 
 representing  the  Pope  ;  the  Conservators,  the  Banderesi 
 and  Counsellors  acting  for  the  Eoman  people,  136  nota- 
 bilities, from  the  several  "  rioni,"  being  witnesses.  It  was 
 stipulated  that  the  Senator  should  be  appointed  by  the 
 Pope,  and  salaried  out  of  the  treasury  of  the  Camera ;  that 
 the  three  Conservators  should  exercise  senatorial  power 
 during  the  vacancy  of  that  office,  but  should  take  oath  of 
 fealty  to  the  Pope  ;  that  the  civic  authorities  should  have 
 
 *  In  the  Art  de  Verifier  les  Dates  we  read  a  different  statement :  that 
 the  cathedral  clergy  of  Riga  were  required  only  to  adhere  to  the  religious 
 rule  of  the  Teutonic  Knights,  and  to  depend  on  the  Grand  Master  of 
 Livonia  for  investiture  of  ecclesiastical  dignities  and  prebends.  That 
 citr,  founded  by  Albert,  third  Bishop  of  Livonia,  about  a.d.  1200,  was 
 subjected  after  a  long  siege  to  the  above  named  Knights  in  1330.  In 
 1366  it  was  so  far  restored  to  the  jurisdiction  of  its  Archbishops  that  the 
 Grand  Master  held  military  command  alone,  with  the  right  of  occu])ying 
 the  fortresses,  leaving  all  else  to  the  prelatic  authority. 
 
104  MEDIEVAL    CHRISTIANITY    AND 
 
 no  jurisdiction  over  ecclesiastics,  or  over  the  Pontific  Court 
 and  household ;  that  the  Pope,  the  Cardinals  and  religious 
 communities,  should  be  exempt  from  all  public  burdens 
 and  taxes,  &c.  Boniface  farther  required  that  a  solemn 
 embassy  should  be  sent  to  invite  him  to  return,  with  a 
 thousand  mounted  men  for  his  escort ;  and  that  10,000 
 florins  should  be  advanced  for  his  immediate  expenses.  All 
 was  granted  by  the  Eoman  magistrates  except  that  full 
 amount  of  the  subvention,  which  they  reduced  to  6000 
 florins.  In  September,  1393,  Boniface  re-entered  Eome 
 with  his  numerous  retinue.  His  sojourn  at  the  Vatican 
 was  soon  disturbed  by  conspiracies  of  threatening  aspect, 
 though  not  sufficiently  vigorous  to  shake  the  throne  of  that 
 temporal  power  which  was  now  entering  another  phase, 
 fortunate  for  the  Papacy. 
 
 The  Colonna  family,  whom  we  have  not  seen  for  some 
 years  on  the  political  stage  at  Eome,  still  held  their  strong 
 castle  at  Palestrina,  alternately  tendering  military  service 
 to  the  Eoman  magistrates  (as  during  the  absence  of  the 
 Pope  at  Perugia)  and  to  the  Plorentine  Kepublic,  in  whose 
 wars  in  the  Milanese  States  they  had  fought  with  200 
 lances  under  their  own  banner.  Boniface  had  accused 
 them  of  disaff'ection  or  treason  against  the  Church.  They 
 vindicated  themselves  in  a  public  manifesto.  The  three 
 brothers,  now  representing  this  powerful  family,  were  the 
 sons  of  Stefano,  who  (ob.  1360)  had  been  mainly  instru- 
 mental in  the  overthrow  of  Eieuzo's  government.  They 
 now  allied  themselves  with  Onorato  Graetani,  Count  of 
 Pondi,  the  hitherto  irreconcilable  foe  of  the  Pope  and  sup- 
 porter of  the  Antipope.  Graetani  was  suspected  of  carrying 
 on  intrigues  with  certain  Eoman  nobles  for  the  depression 
 of  the  power,  and  even  for  laying  snares  against  the  life,  of 
 Bonifixce.  A  revolt  was  attempted  in  the  July  of  1394,  but 
 without  any  success.     In  the  November  ensuing  it  broke 
 
SACEED  AET  IN  ITALY.  105 
 
 out  with  more  vigour  and  tremendous  impetus.*  The  in- 
 surgents attacked  the  Yatican ;  the  Pope's  life  was  in 
 danger.  Fortunately  a  potent  ally  was  at  hand — no  other 
 than  King  Ladislaus,  who  had  sailed  up  the  Tiber  with  his 
 gallies,  anxious  again  to  obtain  arms  and  money  from  the 
 Pope  for  the  war  against  his  rival,  Louis,  who  had  now 
 possession  of  Naples.  Ladislaus  interposed  in  time  to  pro- 
 tect the  Pontiff's  person  and  residence  ;  and  before  he  left, 
 which  was  within  a  few  days,  effected  a  seeming  reconcilia- 
 tion between  the  Vatican  and  its  subjects. 
 
 The  Pope  now  caused  the  Capitoline  palace,  left  in  ruin 
 since  the  time  of  Eienzo,  to  be  not  only  restored  but  forti- 
 fied. This  excited  murmurs ;  it  was  objected  that  that 
 classic  seat  of  municipal  government  in  Rome  should  be 
 appropriated  as  hitherto,  not  for  any  purposes  of  defence 
 or  attack.  At  these,  and  at  the  subsequently  undertaken 
 works  for  restoring  the  S.  Angelo  fortress,  many  poor 
 priests  laboured  like  common  journeymen,  carrying  stones 
 and  mortar,  hoping  thus  to  deserve  letters  of  "grace," 
 without  payment,  from  Boniface  ;  which  few  obtained — 
 "  Quod  pauci  eorum  consecuti  fuerunt^'  says  the  Dutch 
 Secretary. 
 
 Again,  in  1397,  were  the  tranquillity  and  safety  of  the 
 Pope  endangered ;  bub  this  time  the  conspirators  were 
 soon  discovered  and  punished.  Thirteen  citizens,  in  whose 
 houses  had  been  found  the  banners  of  Onorato  G-aetani,  as 
 well  as  those  of  the  Banderesi,  were  seized  and  put  to 
 death.  The  above-named  Count  and  the  Colonna  brothers, 
 after  this  last  attempt,  sought  peace  with  the  authorities 
 at  Rome.  G-aetani  promised  to  keep  truce  for  one  year  ,- 
 and  the  Colonnas,  to  whom  the  Chancellor  of  the  Roman 
 
 *  It  is  not  quite  clear  whether  two  revolts  or  only  one  occurred 
 at  Konie,  intended  with  such  incidents,  in  the  course  of  that  yciir. 
 
106  MEDIiEYAL   CHEISTIANITT   AKD 
 
 Churcli  was  sent  for  negotiation,  bound  themselves  to  sub- 
 mit to  the  Pontiff,  and  to  make  no  alliance  for  hostilities 
 against  the  Church  (i.e.  the  Papacy)  during  three  years — a 
 singular  testimony  to  the  temper  of  the  times  and  to  the 
 precarious  condition  of  the  Pontificate  !  Boniface,  weary, 
 as  we  may  suppose,  of  his  danger-beset  life  at  the  Vatican, 
 left  E-ome  soon  afterwards,  and  settled  first  at  Perugia, 
 subsequently  at  Assisi.  The  former  city  had  submitted  to 
 his  sovereignty  after  the  redoubted  Biordo  had  been  re- 
 cognised by  him  as  Vicar  of  the  Church.  Assisi  had  been 
 treacherously  entered  with  forces,  and  occupied  by  Biordo, 
 1394.  About  the  same  time  Narni  and  Todi  had  been 
 seized  by  Pandolfo  Malatesta ;  the  territories  of  Spoleto 
 and  Terni  were  laid  waste  by  the  same  leader.  In  1396 
 almost  the  whole  of  Umbria  and  the  Patrimony  (the  Viterbo 
 province)  were  lost  by  the  Pontificate. 
 
 Before  long,  however,  the  enfeebled  temporal  power  was 
 signally  revived  through  the  eflEbrts  of  a  Pope,  who,  what- 
 ever his  vices,  did  not  want  energy  or  courage.  Whilst  at 
 Perugia,  Boniface  won  over  to  his  interest  the  long-alienated 
 Ancona,  an  important  place  which  had  been  under  the  in- 
 fluence of  the  Anjou  party,  and  had  declared  for  the  Anti- 
 pope.  Bologna  also  was  ingratiated  by  the  large  conces- 
 sions Boniface  had  the  prudence  to  make,  all  indeed  that 
 could  be  claimed,  for  that  city's  privileges.  The  toM^ns  of  the 
 Marches  were  ready  to  acknowledge  his  sovereignty  so  soon 
 as  he  recognised  the  dominion  of  the  petty  Princes  who 
 already  exercised  lordship  within  their  walls,  and  who  did 
 not  refuse  tie  annual  tribute  exacted  for  its  ratification  by 
 pontific  authority.  Bertinoro  was  sold  by  the  Pope  to  the 
 formidable  Malatesta  for  22,000  gold  florins.  Viterbo  was 
 at  last  recovered  by  armed  force,  and  the  lawless  Sciarra  di 
 Vico  compelled  to  throw  himself  on  the  mercy  of  the  sove- 
 reign he   had  rebelled  against.       Orvieto,  Todi,  Nocera, 
 
SACRED   ART   IN   ITALY.  107 
 
 Spello,  Assisi  were  again  subject  to  the  tiara  when  Boniface 
 made  his  second  sojourn  in  Umbria.  Whilst  at  Assisi  the 
 Pope  was  urged  by  a  deputation  to  return  to  Eome.  The 
 Jubilee  year,  1400,  was  approaching.  His  presence  could 
 not  be  spared  in  the  ecclesiastical  metropolis.  He  would 
 not  comply  unless  under  his  own  conditions ;  the  Senator, 
 a  post  long  vacant,  should  be  appointed  by  himself;  the 
 Banderesi  should  be  deprived  of  power  ;  a  large  sum  should 
 be  paid  down  for  his  immediate  use.  To  aU  these  terms 
 the  Eoman  magistrates  consented  ;  and  Boniface  re-entered 
 the  Vatican  in  the  spring  of  1398.  Soon  after  his  arrival 
 he  nominated  as  Senator  Malasta  de'  Malatesti,  lord  of 
 Cesena ;  and  his  next  proceeding  was  solemnly  to  anathe- 
 matize the  Count  of  Fondi. 
 
 The  Kings  of  France,  England,  Aragon  and  Castile 
 exerted  themselves  to  put  a  stop  to  the  schism  which  had 
 so  long  scandalized  Europe,  and  to  secure  the  recognition 
 of  the  same  Pope  by  the  entire  Latin  Church.  The  Paris 
 University  proposed  three  methods  for  attaining  this  object : 
 that  both  claimants  should  abdicate  with  consent  of  the 
 Cardinals  on  each  side ;  that  a  compromise  should  be 
 accepted,  both  submitting  to  the  decision  of  arbiters 
 named  by  .themselves,  or  by  others  ;  that  a  Greneral  Council 
 should  be  convoked,  and  everything  left  to  its  supreme 
 decisions.  Charles  VI.  ordered  the  letters  of  the  Univer- 
 sity to  be  translated  into  Erench  and  published.  The 
 Cardinals  in  "  the  obedience"  (as  the  phrase  was)  of 
 Clement  VII.  at  Avignon,  agreed  to  accept  the  project, 
 and  communicated  their  common  resolution  to  that  Anti- 
 pope.  It  excited  such  rage  and  mortification  that  the  shock 
 proved  fatal  to  his  life.  He  died  of  apoplexy,  16th  Sep- 
 tember, 1394,  leaving  300,000  gold  ducats  in  his  coffers. 
 Unfortunately  for  the  interests  and  honour  of  the  Church, 
 the  same  Cardinals,  twelve  days  afterwards,  elected  a  sue- 
 
108  MEDIJaVAL    CHRISTIANITY   AND 
 
 cesser  to  perpetuate  the  schism, — Pedro  de  Luna,  a  native 
 of  Aragon,  who  took  the  name  of  Benedict  XIII.  In  the 
 conclave  all  pledged  themselves  by  oath  to  make  e very- 
 effort  for  restoring  unity  and  peace,  also  to  resign  the  Pon- 
 tificate, each  Cardinal  promising  for  himself,  in  case  that 
 step  should  best  promote  the  desirable  end.  In  1396  the 
 French  King  and  Prelates,  as  well  as  the  Parisian  Univer- 
 sity, abandoned  the  cause  of  the  Antipope ;  and  Charles 
 VI.  went  so  far  as  to  order  one  of  his  marshals  to  besiege 
 the  Pontific  palace  at  Avignon,  which  Benedict  had  fortified 
 and  provisioned.  During  the  whole  winter  of  1398  the 
 siege  was  sustained,  with  unyielding  courage,  by  the  daunt- 
 less old  man,  who  showed  his  determination  never  to  let 
 go  the  power,  or  semblance  of  power,  he  prized  more  than 
 anything  else.  Several  embassies  sent  to  Boniface,  with 
 proposals  for  compromise  or  concession,  failed  to  make  any 
 impression  on  him.  He  addressed  his  rival,  Clement,  as 
 a  "  son  of  Belial ;"  but  adopted  milder  terms  in  other  letters 
 conveyed  by  two  Carthusian  monks,  whom  the  Antipope 
 imprisoned.  The  proposal  of  a  Council  was  most  unaccept- 
 able to  Boniface.  "  Some  perverse  and  impious  men  (he 
 wrote),  trusting  in  the  arm  of  flesh  against  the  might  of 
 the  Lord,  confide  in  a  Council  for  the  suppression  of  the 
 schism.     O  fatal  and  damnable  impiety  !" 
 
 Before  the  end  of  this  century  Boniface  IX.  found  him- 
 self in  a  more  favourable  position,  with  regard  to  temporal- 
 ities, than  any  of  his  predecessors  had  yet  done.  The  in- 
 fluential Banderesi  were  suppressed ;  almost  all  the  muni- 
 cipal privileges  and  rights  of  the  Romans  were  absorbed 
 into  the  Pontific  attributes.  No  Pope  had  yet  exercised 
 the  sovereign  power  so  free  from  control  in  the  metropolis 
 and  in  the  "  Patrimony."*     As  for  more  distant  towns  and 
 
 *  "  Nee  fuit  ante  eum  quisquara  Romanorum  Pontificum  qui  talera 
 potestatem  tcmporalem  Roitijk  et  patrimonio  S.  Petri  exercuis&e  Icgi- 
 tur." — GoheUntcs,  p.  .316. 
 
SACEED  ART  IN  ITALY.  109 
 
 provinces,  tlie  lightly-imposed  burden  of  an  annual  census 
 in  return  for  independent  rights  of  office,  conceded  to 
 magistrates  or  magnates,  proved  an  efficacious  system  for 
 propping  up  the  fabric  of  Papal  Government,  essentially 
 feeble,  though  seemingly  prosperous  and  splendid. 
 
110  MEDIJEYAL   CHRISTIANITY   AND 
 
 CHAPTER  III. 
 
 THE    POURTEENTH    CENTURY  :    GENERAL    RETROSPECT. 
 
 The  political  history  of  Italy  is  not  the  subject  under- 
 taken in  this  volume ;  but  those  acts  of  governments  and 
 authorities  which  serve  to  display  the  relations  between  the 
 spiritual  and  temporal  power,  or  the  influence  exercised 
 by  the  Church  upon  rulers,  may  be  suitably  noticed  here. 
 As  the  progressive  movements  of  Art  enter  also  into  my 
 theme,  the  characteristics  of  the  institutions  under  which 
 art-schools  flourished  in  this  land  may  also  be  considered, 
 with  a  view  to  the  better  appreciating  of  the  phases  through 
 which  they  passed.  The  history  of  the  Latin  Church  has 
 its  centre  at  Eome  ;  that  of  Italian  Christianity,  a  subject 
 demanding  much  research  and  various  illustration,  is  what 
 I  desire  to  glance  at,  and  to  present,  though  but  as  a  sketch, 
 in  these  pages. 
 
 One  Italian  State,  whose  fortunes  are  intimately  allied 
 with  those  of  the  Papacy,  the  Neapolitan,  or,  as  it  was  ori- 
 ginally called,  Sicilian  Kingdom,  has  been  frequently  re- 
 ferred to  in  this  and  in  a  preceding  volume.  The  claims  of 
 the  Popes  to  a  suzerainty  over  that  kingdom  date  from  the 
 treaty  between  Innocent  II.  and  Euggero  II.,  drawn  up 
 at  Benevento,  1139,  by  which  the  former  recognized  the 
 sovereign  rights  of  the  latter,  and  the  Norman  prince  bound 
 himself  and  his  successors  to  an  annual  tribute  in  token  of 
 fidelity  and  gratitude  towards  the  Holy  See.  In  virtue  of 
 this  stipulation,  the  Pontiffs  were  long  considered,  what 
 
SACRED    ART    IN    ITALY.  Ill 
 
 thev  claimed  to  be,  lords  paramount  over  both  the  conti- 
 nental and  insular  States  ;  and  the  severance  of  Sicilv,  after 
 its  revolt  against  the  Anjou  government,  made  no  diiference 
 in  either  the  theory,  or  exercise,  of  spiritual  supremacy  at 
 Home.  The  tribute  of  the  chinea,  or  white  palfrey,  with  a 
 certain  sum  of  money,  continued  for  many  centuries  to  be 
 offered  by  an  embassy  of  the  Neapolitan  crown  to  his 
 Holiness  on  the  vigil  of  S.  Peter's  day,  till  it  was  for  the 
 first  time  withheld,  in  1788,  by  the  reforming  ministers  of 
 Perdinand  IT.,  on  which  occasion  Pius  YI.  made  the  pro- 
 test thenceforth  annually  renewed  against  this  failure  of 
 obligations  towards  the  supreme  Pontificate,  up  to  our 
 own  time,  when  at  last,  not  many  years  ago,  Pius  IX.  had 
 the  good  sense  to  leave  both  tribute  and  protest  in  oblivion.* 
 The  XIYth  century  was  tragically  eventful  in  the  Neapolitan 
 kingdom.  In  1343  the  beautiful  Joanna,  when  scarcely 
 sixteen  years  old,  succeeded  to  her  grandfather  Eobert, 
 called  "  the  Wise,"  she  being  already  married  to  her  cousin, 
 somewhat  younger  than  herself,  Andrea,  son  of  Canrobert, 
 King  of  Hungary — the  unfortunate  Prince  who  was  mur- 
 
 *  "  In  1 788  the  presentation  of  the  chinea  to  the  Pontific  throne, 
 which  used  annually  to  be  made  on  the  28th  June,  in  the  name  of  the 
 King  of  Naples,  did  not  take  place,  to  the  great  astonishment  of  the 
 Court  of  Rome  and  the  Roman  people.  The  suppression  of  such  homage 
 gave  occasion  to  a  discourse  by  the  Pope  in  the  basilica  of  S.  Peter,  after 
 the  first  Vespers  for  that  Apostle's  festival.  On  the  next  day  the  Trea- 
 surer-General read  in  public,  before  the  Pope,  the  Cardinals,  and  Court, 
 a  formal  protest,  which  the  Pontiff  declared  he  must  confirm  in  every 
 point.  The  King  of  Naples,  though  suppressing  the  oiFering  of  the 
 chinea,  had  sent  nevertheless  the  sum  of  7155  gold  scudi  ;  which  it  was 
 customary  to  present  at  the  same  time  to  the  Apostolic  Camera.  This 
 was  refused:  the  King  protested  against  the  refusal,  and  against  the 
 motive  which  had  incited  it ;  declaring  that  the  sum  annually  sent  in  his 
 name  was  an  offering  of  piety  and  devotion  towards  the  Apostles  SS. 
 Peter  and  Paul,  but  not  a  tribute." — Art.  de  Verifier  les  Dates. 
 
112  MEDIEVAL    CHRISTJANITT    AND 
 
 dered  at  the  threshold  of  the  Queen's  chamber  in  the  palace 
 at  Aversa,  on  the  night  of  the  20th  August,  1345  ;  a  crime 
 the  complicity  in  which  was  generally  imputed  to  Joanna, 
 who  took  no  steps  to  bring  the  guilty  to  justice.*  The 
 Pope  alone,  acting  as  suzerain  of  the  realm,  charged  the 
 Grrand  Justiciary  to  investigate ;  and  hence  the  punishment 
 of  several,  among  them  a  woman  who  was  the  confidant  of 
 the  Queen,  by  death  in  the  flames  after  dreadful  tortures. 
 "With  the  avowed  object  of  avenging  his  brother's  death, 
 King  Louis  of  Hungary  invaded  the  Neapolitan  States  in 
 1347.  Pope  Clement  VI.  endeavoured  to  induce  the  King 
 to  defer  the  cause  to  his  own  tribunal,  instead  of  invading 
 Joanna's  States  ;  and  at  Avignon,  where  the  Queen  pleaded 
 in  person  before  the  Consistory,  Clement,  in  concert  with 
 his  Cardinals,  declared  her  innocent.  The  Hungarian 
 Louis,  victorious  almost  without  striking  a  blow,  desired, 
 when  at  Aversa,  to  be  led  to  the  spot  of  his  brother's 
 murder ;  arriving  there,  amidst  the  nobles  of  the  realm  who 
 had  honourably  received  him,  he  sternly  reproached  Duke 
 Charles  of  Durazzo  with  the  guilt  of  that  crime,  commanded 
 him  to  be  instantly  put  to  death,  and  thrown  from  the  bal- 
 cony into  the  garden  below,  as  had  been  the  murdered 
 Andrea.  Joanna,  already  married  to  a  second  husband, 
 Prince  Louis  of  Taranto,  fled  before  the  invasion  to  her 
 States  in  Provence,  and  in  the  same  year  sold  Avignon  for 
 80,000  gold  florins  to  the  Pope.  Her  Italian  subjects  soon 
 desired  to  see  her  again  on  the  throne,  and  sent  envoys  to 
 hasten  her  return.  She  and  the  Prince  Louis  arrived  at 
 Naples  with  ten  Grenoese  galleys  (August,  1348),  and  were 
 
 *  Cesare  Cantu  concludes  that  Joanna,  if  she  did  not  consent  to  it,  at 
 least  offered  no  opposition  to  the  murder.  Sismoudi  pronounces  her 
 guilty.  Hallam  acquits  her  of  the  charge  of  dissolute  conduct,  and  has 
 strong  doubts  as  to  her  complicity  in  that  assassination. 
 
SACRED  ART  IN  ITALY.  113 
 
 received  with  pompous  honours  after  they  had  landed  near 
 the  Carmine  Castle.  The  Hungarian  king  had  remained 
 only  three  months  ;  but  had  left  a  force  of  12,000  to  main- 
 tain his  conquests,  and  a  garrison,  commanded  by  his 
 brother,  in  the  Castello  Nuovo  at  Naples.  That  strong 
 fortress  was  soon  surrendered  after  being  invested  by  sea 
 and  land,  and  30,000  florins  were  paid  down  by  the  foreign 
 commander.  The  Hungarians  still  occupied  the  immense 
 castle  built  by  Frederick  II.  at  Lucera,  which  had  been 
 besieged  by  Prince  Louis,  but  relieved  by  Conrad  Lupus,  a 
 Grerman  general  of  the  invading  army,  who  fought  his  way 
 into  that  stronghold,  and  repelled  the  assailants.*  A  battle 
 near  A  versa  proved  most  disastrous  to  the  Neapolitans, 
 many  of  whom,  among  the  highest  nobility  and  wealthiest 
 citizens,  were  made  prisoners.  Notwithstanding  these 
 advantages,  the  King  of  Hungary  soon  agreed  to  abandon 
 his  conquests,  and  accept  the  terms  of  a  treaty  proposed  by 
 a  Papal  Legate.  The  payment  of  120,000  ducats  to  the 
 German  officers  of  the  Hungarian  army  sufficed  to  free  the 
 States  from  those  invaders. 
 
 The  ruin  of  Joanna  was  brought  about  (as  we  have  seen) 
 through  the  hostile  intrigues  of  Urban  VI.,  provoked  by  her 
 adherence  to  the  cause  of  the  Autipope-  After  she  had 
 been  forced  to  surrender  the  Castello  Nuovo  to  heruephew 
 Charles  of  Durazzo,t  she  was  assassinated  by  his  order  in 
 the  Castle  of  Muro,  which  stands  amidst  wild  and  mourn- 
 ful scenery  above  the  town  of  that  name,  between  Naples 
 and  Melfi.  Charles  had  at  first  treated  her  respectfully 
 and  humanely ;  but  the  cruel  counsels  of  King  Louis  in- 
 
 •  Now  imposing  in  ruin,  that  castle  occupies  a  wide  plateau  near  the 
 city  of  Lucera. 
 
 t  Nephew  to  the  Duke  of  Durazzo,  who  was  put  to  deatli  by  Kin-; 
 Louis,  and  great-grandson  of  Charles  II.  of  Naples, 
 
 I 
 
114  MEDIEVAL   CHRISTIANITY   AND 
 
 duced  him  tlius  to  sacrifice  her,  1382.*  Charles  III.,  first  the 
 favourite  and  afterwards  the  excommunicated  foe  of  Urban 
 TV-,  was  himself  assassinated  (1386)  in  Hungary,  whither 
 he  had  gone  to  claim  the  throne,  three  years  after  Louis's 
 death,  and  in  which  country  he  had  been  actually  crowned 
 as  King,  though  Maria,  the  late  King's  daughter,  had  been 
 already  recognised  as  Queen.  The  treaelierous  murder  of 
 this  Prince,  who  for  a  short  time  united  the  Neapolitan 
 and  Hungarian  crowns,  was  contrived  by  the  mother  of 
 that  Queen.  Louis,  Duke  of  Anjou,  the  nominal  heir 
 to  Joanna,  endeavoured  to  make  good  his  right  of  suc- 
 cession by  armed  force.  After  a  crushing  defeat  of  his 
 army  near  Barletta,  he  fled,  wounded,  to  Bari,  and  died 
 (1.384)  either  from  loss  of  blood,  or  grief,  or  both  causes 
 combined,  at  Bisceglie,  a  pleasant  little  town  on  the  same 
 Adriatic  coast,  whither  he  had  been  carried  from  the 
 picturesque  old  castle,  still  conspicuous  at  Bari.  The  in- 
 heritance of  his  claims,  and  of  his  contest  with  more  fortu- 
 nate rivals,  passed  to  his  youthful  son,  who  was  crowned  by 
 the  Antipope  as  Louis  II.  of  Jerusalem  and  Sicily.  A 
 Crusade  published  against  the  latter  by  Urban  VI.  had  no 
 efi"ect ;  but  he  met  with  resistance  gallantly  maintained  by 
 Otho  of  Brunswick,  the  fourth  husband  of  Joanna,  and  by 
 the  Count  di  Sanseverino.  Naples  was  the  first  city  in  the 
 States  to  receive  Louis  II.  with  royal  honours ;  and  soon 
 after  his  arrival  there,  a  Parliament  was  held  in  the  church 
 of  S.  Chiara,  where  a  contingent  of  1000  armed  men  and 
 ten  galleys  were  voted  for  him  by  the  Barons.  The  widow 
 of  Charles  III.,  meantime,  asserted  the  rights  of  her  son 
 
 *  "  Charles  treated  her  at  first  with  honour,  but,  hearing  the  report 
 that  she  regarded  him  as  a  robber,  and  was  continually  soliciting  Louis 
 of  Anjou  to  arm  against  him,  he  caused  her  to  be  strangled,"  (Cesare 
 Cantu,  Storia  degli  Italiani.)  Giannone  does  not  hesitate  to  call  her 
 "  the  wisest  Queen  who  ever  sat  on  a  royal  throne  !"  Her  remains  were 
 brought  to  Naples  unhonoured,  and  obscurely  interred  at  S.  Chiara  with- 
 out a  stone  or  epitaph  to  record  her  fate. 
 
SACRED   AHT    IX   ITALY.  115 
 
 Ladislaus,  and  took  refuge  with  her  two  young  children  in 
 the  castle  of  G-aeta,  the  only  strong  place  in  the  kingdom 
 where  she  found  support.  Boniface  IX.  from  the  first  re- 
 cognised the  title  of  Ladislaus,  and  deputed  a  Cardinal, 
 Acciaiuolo,  to  crown  the  boy-king  at  Graeta,  1389.  The 
 struggle  between  the  sons  of  Charles  III.  and  Louis  I. 
 continued  till  the  year  1410. 
 
 AVe  may  now  consider  the  ecclesiastical  affairs  of  this 
 kingdom,  or  at  least,  of  its  capital.  The  See  of  Naples, 
 said  to  have  been  founded  by  S.  Peter,  a.d.  44,  obtained  its 
 first  Archbishop  (as  Ughelli  states)  from  Constantinople, 
 a  G-reek  named  Nicetas  being  appointed  to  that  rank  by 
 the  Byzantine  Patriarch,  a.d.  962.  According  to  Baronius 
 this  See  became  metropolitan  in  968  ;  and  some  writers 
 deny  that  it  was  ever  attached  to,  or  dependent  on,  the 
 Grreek  Church.  Griannone  (a  very  learned  writer)  states 
 positively  that  Naples  was  for  a  certain  time  an  archiepis- 
 copal,  though  not  metropolitan.  See,  under  the  Byzantine 
 Patriarchate.  Archbishops  without  suffragans,  and  v^-ith  the 
 mere  honorary  title  of  "  Metropolitans,"  were  at  one  time 
 numerous  in  this  kingdom — such  anomaly  in  the  Church 
 being  of  Grreek  origin.  In  chronologic  order  Capua  comes 
 first,  Bevenuto  next  among  Neapolitan  Archbishoprics  ; 
 and  the  Prelate  of  the  latter  See  was  among  all  the  most 
 distinguished  ;  he  wore  a  mitre  with  a  golden  diadem,  like 
 the  original  form  of  the  Papal  crown  ;  when  he  made  his 
 visitations  he  was  preceded  by  the  consecrated  Host,  borne 
 before  him  with  the  same  pomp  as  in  the  journeys  of  the 
 E-oman  Pontifi's  ;  and  he  used  a  leaden  seal  like  that  of  the 
 Papacy.  It  is  certain  that  the  Greek  rite,  whether  intro- 
 duced before  or  after  the  schism  of  Photius  in  the  IX. 
 century,  continued  long  prominent  in  public  worship  at  Na- 
 ples ;  and  tiU  the  XIII.  century  this  city  contained  six  paro- 
 *  chial  churches  for  Greeks,  the  clergy  of  which  used  on  cer- 
 
 I  2 
 
116  MEDIEVAL    CHEISTIANITT   AND 
 
 tain  higli  days  to  officiate  at  the  cathedral,  chanting  in  choir 
 ^nd  walking  in  processions  with  the  capitular  clergy, 
 each  of  the  two  bodies  singing  or  reciting  hymns  and 
 psalms  in  their  own  languages.  Pius  lY.  imposed  on  all 
 the  clergy  of  the  kingdom  the  duty  of  obedience  to  the 
 Latin  Episcopate  exclusively,  whilst  sanctioning  the  differ- 
 ence of  rites  (v.  Ughelli,  Italia  Sacra,  t.  YI.)  About  the 
 middle  of  the  XIY.  century,  this  metropolitan  See  was 
 occupied  by  Giovanni  Orsini,  an  able  prelate,  who  drew 
 up  sixty-four  "  constitutions,"  ratified  by  Pope  Clement 
 YI.,  for  the  reform  of  discipline,  &c.,  among  his  clergy ;  and 
 who  first  caused  all  the  usages,  ceremonies,  and  privileges 
 of  the  Neapolitan  Church  to  be  recorded  in  a  compila- 
 tion of  documents.  The  prelate  appointed  to  this  See  by 
 Urban  Y.  was  deposed  by  Urban  YI.  because  he  had  taken 
 the  part  of  the  Antipope ;  and  his  successor,  named  by  the 
 latter  Pope  Urban,  was  thrown  into  prison  under  Queen 
 Joanna.  After  he  had  been  reinstated,  under  another  go- 
 vernment, this  same  prelate's  title  was  disputed  by  a 
 nominee  of  the  Antipope  who  sat  at  Avignon  ;  and  thus  did 
 the  schism  in  the  Papacy  extend  its  evil  effects,  more  or 
 less,  over  the  general  conditions  of  the  hierarchic  body  in 
 the  Latin  world. 
 
 The  moral  aspects  of  Naples  are  depicted  in  dark  colours 
 by  the  writers  of  this  century.  Petrarch  describes  what 
 he  had  witnessed— public  amusements  as  cruel,  with  sacri- 
 fice of  human  life  as  wantonly  remorseless  as  those  of  the 
 gladiatorial  arena  in  Pagan  Eome,  were  exhibited  before  the 
 fair  young  Queen,  who,  with  her  still  younger  husband, 
 could  attend  and  take  pleasure  in  such  anti- christian 
 spectacles  !  The  great  Poet  seems  to  have  repaired  to  the 
 spot,  near  the  place  called  Carbonaria.  outside  the  city- 
 gates,  without  knowing  what  the  entertainment  was  to  be 
 which  attracted  thither  Joanna,  the  Prince  Andrea,  all  the 
 
SACEED  ART  IN  ITALY.  117 
 
 Neapolitan  army,  and  a  multitude  of  citizens.  Combatants 
 appeared  in  the  lists,  and  presently  a  handsome  young 
 man  (formosissiiniis  adolescens)  fell,  pierced  by  a  sword  with 
 his  death  wound ;  there  was  a  burst  of  applause  at  this 
 sight ;  but  the  indignant  Petrarch  rode  away  at  full  speed 
 rather  than  wait  for  the  rest ;  this  homicidal  display  being, 
 as  evident  from  his  report,  in  the  open  air.*  The  Swedish 
 Saint,  Brigida,  appealed  to  the  Archbishop  of  Naples 
 against  evils  she  had  found  prevailing  in  that  city :  the 
 purchase  of  Pagan  and  Moslem  slaves,  the  neglect  by  their 
 masters  to  have  those  slaves  converted,  or  to  have  them,  if 
 already  baptized,  instructed  in  the  faith ;  the  infamy  to 
 which  many  of  those  unfortunates  were  consigned,  being 
 sold,  or  exposed,  for  public  prostitution,  or  kept  for  such 
 purposes  in  the  houses  of  masters  who  traded  upon  their  dis- 
 honour ;  while  other  Neapolitan  owners  treated  their  slaves 
 with  such  cruelty  as  to  drive  them  to  despair  or  suicide. 
 Theodore  de  Niem  gives  a  description  on  the  whole  favour- 
 able of  the  brilliant  Parthenope,  dwelling  on  the  splendours 
 of  the  scene,  the  agreeable  aspect  and  sociable  habits  of  tlie 
 people,  the  luxurious  fertility  of  the  soil,  &c.  But  he  add*s 
 the  gloomiest  particulars  of  crime  and  outrage;  telling 
 that  at  night  thieves  and  bandits  went  about  the  streets  in 
 troops,  broke  into  houses  for  robbery  with  violence, 
 attacked  and  despoiled  passengers,  and,  not  contented  with 
 plunder,  slew  their  captives  or  threw  them  alive  into  wells, 
 besides  committing  other  horrid  crimes. t 
 
 At  the  close  of  this  century  a  sovereign  power  was  seated, 
 
 *  "  Tartarcnm  spectaculum  efFugi — spcctatorum  saevitiam  et  lusoruni 
 infamiam  identidem  accusans."     Famil.  Epist.  1.  v,  Ep.  6. 
 
 t  "  Multi  intrinsecus  raptores  et  fares,  qui  nocturno  tempore  jicr 
 turmas  congregati,  domorum  ostia  vi  frangunt,  et  bona  snrripiunt,  et 
 obviantes  eis  casu  capiunt  et  spoliant,  et  aliquando  interficiunt,  aut  vivos 
 ad  puteos  projiciunt,  et  alia  multa  Iiorrenda  committunt;  et  isti  Mal- 
 rasini  u  vulgaribus  nuncupantur."     Hist.  1.  II,  xxii. 
 
118  MEDIEVAL   CHRISTIANTT   AND 
 
 apparently  on  firm  foundations,  at  Milan,  with  prospects  tliat 
 flattered  the  highest  hopes  of  an  ambition  aiming  at  nothing 
 less  than  royal  dominion  over  all  Italy.  The  princedom  of 
 the  Yisconti  was  first  vested  in  the  person  of  an  Archbishop 
 of  that  see,  Ottone,  who  became  both  temporal  and 
 spiritual  lord  of  Milan  in  1277,  when  he  solemnly  took 
 possession  of  the  power  conferred  upon  him  after  he  had 
 defeated  the  adverse  faction  of  the  Delia  Torre  (or  Torriani) 
 family,  previously  dominant  here ;  the  Prelate  having 
 placed  himself  at  the  head  of  a  force  of  exiled  citizens, 
 and  gallantly  won  the  field  against  his  opponents.  He 
 was  succeeded  by  his  nephew  Matteo  Yisconti,  who  had 
 been  his  representative  in  temporal  government,  and  had 
 been  appointed  Yicar  of  the  Empire  in  Lombardy  by  the 
 Emperor  Wenceslaus.  G-aleazzo  Yisconti,the  son  of  Matteo, 
 who  succeeded  his  father  in  1322,  was  compelled  by 
 a  faction  to  quit  Milan,  but  soon  returned,  to  be  proclaimed 
 Captain  and  Lord  of  that  city.  A  warlike  Legate  deprived 
 him  of  the  city  of  Piacenza,  which  now  submitted  to  the 
 Pope ;  and  in  1323  Milan  was  besieged  by  an  army  sent 
 by  the  Legate  against  it,  but  repulsed  after  a  month  of 
 hostilities.  The  Emperor  Louis  bestowed  on  .G-aleazzo  the 
 Yicariate,  or  Signoria^  of  Milan,  Lodi,  Yercelli,  and  Pavia ; 
 but  soon  afterwards  this  Yisconti  fell  into  disgrace  with 
 Louis,  who  ordered  him  and  his  brothers,  Luchino  and 
 Griovanni,  to  be  thrown  into  a  dungeon  at  Monza.  Their 
 liberation  was  obtained,  after  long  confinement,  through 
 the  intercession  of  Castruccio  Castracane,  and  other  Ghi- 
 belline  magnates,  who  threatened  to  abandon  that  excom- 
 municated Emperor,  unless  the  Yisconti  were  set  free. 
 Azzone,  the  son  of  G-aleazzo,  obtained  from  that  Emperor 
 the  title  of  "  Yicar  of  the  Empire  at  Milan,"  by  payment 
 of  25,000  gold  florins,  and  from  his  own  subjects,  by 
 unanimous  votes,  the  perpetual  lordship  over  that  city,  in 
 
SACKED  ART  IN  ITALY.  119 
 
 whicli  election  the  Milanese  were  soon  imitated  by  Ber- 
 gamo, Piacenza, Cremona  and  Brescia.  About  the  same  time, 
 ambassadors  from  Pavia,  Yercelli,  and  Novara  bore  to  him 
 the  announcement  of  the  voluntary  submission  of  all  those 
 cities  ;  and  Parma  elected  him  as  its  lord  in  the  munici- 
 pal council.     His  uncle  Marco,  and  his  cousin  Lodrisio 
 conspired    against    this   most   prosperous     (hitherto)    of 
 the  Yisconti  house,  and   obtained   money   from  Maslino 
 della    Scala  to    carry  on   an   unnatural  war  against    Gra- 
 leazzo.     They  hired  the  G-erman  soldiery  left  by  Louis 
 at  Yicenza,  and  led  them  into  the  Lombardic  plains  to  de- 
 vastate and   despoil.     Milan  itself  was  threatened.     The 
 citizens  rose  in  a  mass,  seized  whatever  arms  were  at  hand, 
 and  led  by  Azzone  and  Luchino,  marched  against  the  half- 
 barbarous  foes,   whom   they  encountered   at    Parabiagio. 
 There  ensued  a  battle  (21st  February,  1339),  the  most  san- 
 guinary known  in  mediaeval  Italy  before  the  invasion  by 
 Charles  YIII.     Luchino  was  taken  prisoner  ;  the  Milanese 
 were  almost  defeated,  when  a  reserve  of  Savoyards  rushed 
 upon  the  Germans,  now  only  bent  on  plunder,  and  turned 
 the  tide  of  victory  against  them.     The  battle  of  Parabiagio 
 was  long  remembered  in  popular  tradition,  and  placed  on 
 a  par  with  those  of  Legnano  and  Alessandria.     It  was  said 
 that  S.  Ambrose  had  been  seen  in  air  on  a  phantom  steed, 
 chastising  the  invaders  with  a  scourge ;    and  hence  that 
 Saint  used  to  be  depicted,  also  represented  on  coins,  in 
 such  action.     A  mass  was  introduced  into  the  Ambrosian 
 liturgy  commemorative  of  this  victory,  and  ascribing  it  to 
 that  celestial  patron.* 
 
 *  The  "  Preface"  thus  alludes  to  the  event  with  thanksgiving  :  0  felix 
 victoria,  o  leata  victoria,  qitoinodo  fuisti  pro  Mcdiolanensihus  valde 
 bona,  magis  gratia  quam  virihics  acquisita.  Nam  qui  predum  pemi- 
 tiemque  minahantwr,  facti  sunt  mortui,  preda  victorias  triumphalis. 
 Et  ideo  cum  Angelis  et  Archangelis,  etc. 
 
120  MEDIAEVAL    CHEISTIANITY    AND 
 
 After  the  beneficent  domination  of  Azzone,  great  indeed 
 was  tlie  contrast  in  the  character  and  acts  of  his  uncle  and 
 successor,  Luchino  (1339),  against  whom  was  formed  the 
 conspiracy,  headed  by  Francesco  di  Posterla,  and  so  nearly 
 successful  that  he  could  only  save  himself  and  his  family 
 by  flight  to  Avignon.  After  his  return,  not  only  Posterla 
 and  his  accomplices,  but  his  innocent  wife  and  young  chil- 
 dren, also  perished  on  the  scaffold.*  Luchino  was  thence- 
 forth guarded  by  two  enormous  mastiffs,  trained  to  seize 
 and  throw  down,  to  worry  or  rend  every  person  who  gave 
 the  slightest  offence  or  umbrage  to  their  scarcely  less 
 savae^e  master.  There  is,  however,  a  brighter  side  in  the 
 character  and  doings  even  of  this  hated  Prince.  He  pro- 
 .  tected  the  poor,  and  dispensed  them  from  military  service. 
 During  a  famine  he  maintained  40,000  sufferers  by  his 
 daily  charities.  He  gave  facile  audience  to  all ;  appointed 
 a  Podesta  expressly  for  clearing  the  streets  of  robbers,  and 
 forbade  the  Vandalic  practice  of  demolishing  the  houses  of 
 those  struck  by  sentence  of  law  as  rebels.  He  raised  many 
 sumptuous  buildings  ;  wrote  (or  attempted)  verses,  and  won 
 the  too  liberally  bestowed  praises  of  Petrarch.    His  death  is 
 
 •  "  Two  or  three  infants,"  as  Cesare  Cantu  describes,  were  put  to 
 death  on  the  scafFold,  besides  the  virtuous  wife  of  Francesco,  Margarita 
 (of  the  Fieschi  family),  whom  Luchino  hated  because  she  had  refused  to 
 listen  to  his  licentious  passion— see  the  interesting,  but  painful  historic 
 romance,  "  Margherita  Posterla,"  by  Cantu.  The  Posterla  family  dis- 
 appear after  this  tragedy.  They  had  possessed  thirty-five  estates,  and 
 almost  the  whole  district  of  Milan  called  "  Quartiere  di  Porta  Ticinese." 
 On  a  certain  day  they  used  to  prepare  a  pageant,  which  passed  through 
 several  streets  to  the  cathedral :  a  wooden  horse,  drawn  by  porters,  and 
 filled  with  men,  who  issued  forth  when  this  enchanted  steed  was  made  to 
 open  its  flanks,  before  the  metropolitan  church,  to  which  these  envoys 
 bore  the  rich  ofierings  of  the  Posterla  family.  The  day's  entertainment 
 closed  with  good  cheer  provided  (or  all  the  numerous  clients  and  depen- 
 dents of  that  house  ;  a  plentiful  banquet  being  served  in  the  various 
 halls  and  courts  of  the  i)atron's  palace. 
 
SACRED    ART    IN    ITALY,  121 
 
 said  to  have  been  caused  by  poison  administered  by  his  wife, 
 whose  licentious  conduct  he  had  been  one  of  the  last  to 
 discover,  and  who  thus  anticipated  that  vengeance,  dire  and 
 sanguinary,  which  she  had  reason  to  apprehend.  Luchino 
 and  his  brother  Griovanni,  after  adhering  to  the  Emperor 
 Louis  for  a  time,  renounced  his  cause,  and  became  recon- 
 ciled to  the  Pope.  They  conjointly  promised  50,000  gold 
 florins  to  Benedict  XII.  as  indemnity  for  injuries  offered 
 to  Legates  and  Nuncios,  They  owned — remarkable  avowal 
 from  these  haughty  Princes  ! — that  they  held  their  States 
 in  dependence  on  the  Holy  See,  and  that  the  Pontiff  had  a 
 right  to  administer  the  Empire  during  the  vacancy  of  the 
 German  throne.  It  was  enjoined  on  them  as  penance,  to 
 found  two  chapels  for  daily  masses  by  two  salaried  priests, 
 and  on  the  festival  of  S.  Benedict  to  give  bread  to  12,000 
 poor  persons. 
 
 The  above-named  Giovanni,  an  illustrious  personage,  suc- 
 ceeded his  brother,  1349,  in  the  lordship  over  Milan,  and 
 again  united  the  temporal  with  the  spiritual — at  Novara 
 first,  where,  being  Bishop  of  that  See,  he  treacherously 
 usurped  the  civil  government,  1333,  and  finally  at  Milan, 
 of  which  he  became  Archbishop  in  1342.  His  dominion 
 was  submitted  to  with  good  will ;  and  many  other  cities, 
 either  from  policy  or  preference,  elected  him  as  their 
 lord.  This  Prelate- Prince  boldly  maintained  his  rights 
 against  the  Pope,  and  refused,  with  sword  and  crozier  in 
 his  hands  before  the  altar,  to  make  the  required  cession 
 of  either  power  represented  by  those  symbols.  *  He  was 
 the  friend  of  Petrarch ;  he  patronized  learning,  and  loved 
 literature.  Pour  professors  of  liberal  arts  and  sciences, 
 with  two  theologians,  were  commissioned  by  him  to  draw 
 up  a  comment  on  Dante.    After  his  death,  1354,  the  States 
 
 *  See  preceding  volume,  p.  513. 
 
122  MEDI^TAL   CHEISTIANITY   AND 
 
 were  divided  into  three  equal  portions  under  Ms  nephews, 
 Matteo,  Bernabo,  and  Galeazzo,  the  first  of  whom  died  in 
 1355,  leaving  the  two  others  to  rule  conjointly.  Milan  and 
 Genoa  were  the  capitals  possessed  alike  by  both.  Bologna 
 was  also  held  by  them  in  defiance  of  the  Pope,  who  had 
 ceded  it  to  the  Archbishop  Giovanni  for  tribute  during  the 
 limited  period  of  ten  years  ;*  and  Pavia,  after  being  twice 
 besieged,  was  compelled  by  famine  and  pestilence  to  sur- 
 render to  the  Yisconti.  That  city  became  the  portion  of 
 Galeazzo,  who  built  its  strong  fortress,  and  founded  here 
 the  University,  also  a  valuable  library,  he  being  influenced 
 for  the  bestowal  of  such  intellectual  benefits,  it  is  said,  by 
 Petrarch,  who  was  his  honoured  guest,  and  who  extols  the 
 magnificence  of  the  palace,  amidst  a  park  fifteen  miles  in 
 circuit,  built  by  him  at  the  same  city.  Yet  it  was  this 
 Galeazzo  who  invented  the  horrors  of  the  quaresima,  or 
 torture  of  forty  days,  as  punishment  for  those  suspected  of 
 treason  against  him  during  the  war  of  the  League,  1362-3  ; 
 the  victim  being  allowed  to  repose  every  other  day  after  a 
 day  of  agonies,  and  at  last  broken  on  the  wheel,  after  his 
 flesh  had  been  torn  by  hooks,  one  eye  plucked  out,  and 
 both  hands  and  both  feet  cut  off".  On  the  other  hand  we  see 
 in  this  tyrant  an  example  of  ascetic  devoteeism  and  open- 
 handed  alms-giving,  side  by  side  with  inhuman  atrocities— 
 one  of  those  contradictions  which  potent  Catholicism  could 
 force  from  the  most  cruel  or  inspire  the  most  hard-hearted  of 
 men  to  display,  as  it  were,  in  evidence  against  their  own 
 darker  nature.  Galeazzo  would  fast  during  a  third  part  of 
 the  year  ;  he  supported  ten  chapels,  and  annually  distributed 
 in  alms  2531  sequins,  212  bushels  of  grain  and  12  large 
 measures  of  wine. 
 
 Bernabo  Visconti  was  one  of  those  monsters  who  seem 
 
 *  In  1355  Bologna  was  seized,  and  detached  from  their  dominion,  by 
 Giovanni  Visconti  da  Oleggio. 
 
SACEED    ART    IN    ITALY.  123 
 
 raised  up  as  a  warning  against  the  evils  of  irresponsible 
 power,  and  the  withering  effects  of  despotism,  alike  on 
 those  who  exercise  and  those   who    sufter  it.      He    pro- 
 hibited all  citizens  to  go  out  at  night,  for  whatever  object, 
 under  pain  of  the  amputation  of  one  foot ;  ordered  that 
 whoever  named  a  Gruelf  or  Ghibelline,  should  have  his 
 tongue  cut  out ;  punished  with  death  by  torture  the  oifence 
 of  killing  any  animal  reserved  for  his  own  pleasures  of  the 
 chace  ;  and  created  a  court  of  justice  for  prosecuting  all  who 
 during  five  years  had  slain,  or  at  any  table  eaten  of,  a  wild 
 boar ;  the  offenders,  who  could  not  pay  an  exorbitant  fine, 
 to  be  strangled  by  the  executioner — which  death  more  than 
 a  hundred  suffered  for  this  fictitious  crime  under  Bernabo's 
 reign.     He  allowed  no  judge  to  receive  his  salary  till  he 
 had  sent  to  the  headsman's  block  at  least  one  victim  for 
 the  off"ence  of  killing  a  partridge.     Some  of  his  atrocities 
 are  too  sickening  to  be  narrated.     On  one  occasion  he  ob- 
 liged the  Podesta  to  tear  out  the  tongue  of  a  delinquent 
 with  his  own  hand.   Meeting  a  funeral,  and  hearing  that  the 
 priest  demurred  to  perform  the  ceremony  before  receiving 
 an  undue  fee,  he  ordered  that  priest  to  be  buried  alive  with 
 the  dead.    He  extorted  more  than  300,000  gold  florins  from 
 the  clergy  in  taxation   for  the  costs  of  the  war  against 
 Bologna.     Well  known    is  the  story  of  his  meetiug  the 
 Papal  Legate  on  a  bridge  over  the  Lambro,  and  offering  to 
 the  two  ecclesiastics   (that  Legate  and  a  companion),  who 
 were  charged  with  a  bull  of  excommunication  to  be  pub- 
 lished against  him,  their  choice  whether  to  eat  or  drink  ;  the 
 terrified  priests  choosing  the  former,  well  understanding 
 what  was  implied  in  the  latter  alternative  ;  and  on  this 
 Bernabo    compelled  them  to  eat  up  the  parchment  and 
 leaden  seals  of  the  Papal  document !     That  Legate,  who 
 brought  the  bull  of  Innocent  VL,  afterwards  became  Pope, 
 as  Urban  V.,  and  (as  one  may  infer)  did  not  forget  the 
 
124  MEDIEVAL    CHEISTIANITT   AND 
 
 tyrannies  or  dangerously  defiant  power  of  Bernabo 
 Visconti.  Another  Papal  emissary,  who  published  the  bull 
 of  a  Crusade  against  Eorli,  was  roasted  to  death  in  an  iron 
 vessel ;  and  two  friars,  who  had  the  Courage  to  reproach 
 Bernabo  for  this  atrocity,  were  burned  alive ;  as  were  also 
 certain  nuns,  together  with  a  Yicar-Greneral  who  had 
 refused  to  punish  them  at  the  tyrant's  bidding.  The  Arch- 
 bishop of  Milan  was  summoned  before  him  for  having 
 declined  to  ordain  a  monk  at  his  desire,  and  was  forced 
 to  kneel,  whilst  Bernabo  howled  into  his  ear :  "  Dost  thou 
 not  know,  wretch,  that  I  am  pope  and  emperor  and  lord  in 
 all  my  dominions,  and  that  God  Himself  could  do  nothing 
 here  contrary  to  my  will  ?  "  Yet,  with  another  of  the  con- 
 tradictions frequently  exemplified  in  these  times,  the 
 tyrant  of  Milan  could  be  devout  and  charitable  ;  fasted 
 strictly,  founded  churches,  monasteries,  and  benefices. 
 When  a  holy  Carmelite,  the  Beato  Pierre  Thomas  (who 
 became  Archbishop  of  Candia)  appeared  before  him  as 
 envoy  of  the  Pope,  together  with  ambassadors  from  the 
 Kings  of  France  and  Cyprus,  sent  to  propose  terms  of  peace, 
 the  eloquence  of  the  Carmelite  so  affected  him  that  he  said, 
 with  a  deep  sigh :  "  I  am  resolved  ;  I  desire  peace  with  the 
 Church,  and  will  henceforth  be  submissive  and  faithful  to 
 her  " — this,  after  the  other  spokesmen  had  failed  to  make 
 any  impression  on  him. 
 
 Gian  Galeazzo,  son  of  Galeazzo,  lord  of  Pavia,  suc- 
 ceeded to  the  dominions  of  his  father,  and  purchased  from 
 the  Emperor  Wenceslaus  the  title  of  Imperial  Vicar  in 
 Lombardy.  Bernabo  considered  him  a  harmless  devotee, 
 and  as  he  had  no  children,  formed  (according  to  some 
 historians)  a  design  against  his  life  for  the  sake  of  his 
 inheritance.  The  nephew  anticipated  the  uncle's  treachery. 
 Eeigning  the  intent  of  a  pious  pilgrimage  to  the  sacro 
 monte  of  Varese,   Galeazzo  requested  an  interview  with 
 
SACRED  ART  IN  ITALY.  125 
 
 Bcrnabo  on  his  route  to  that  sanctuary.  They  met  near 
 Milan,  and  the  nephew  had  no  sooner  embraced  his  uncle 
 than  he  ordered  him,  with  his  two  sons  and  the  others  of 
 his  suite,  to  be  arrested  and  led  to  the  castle  of  Trezzo, 
 rebuilt  with  great  strength  by  Bcrnabo  himself  A  prose- 
 cution, not  for  his  notorious  crimes,  but  for  sorcery  and 
 incantations  was  instituted  against  him  ;  and  this  tyrant 
 died  in  his  prison,  supposed  to  have  been  poisoned,  about 
 eight  months  afterwards,  1385.  "  With  great  devotion  and 
 many  tears,"  says  Corio,  the  historian  of  Milan,  "he 
 received  the  Divine  Sacraments,  continually  imploring  his 
 Creator  to  pardon  his  passed  sins,  and  incessantly  repeating, 
 till  his  soul  had  quitted  his  body,  the  words  (of  the  51st 
 Psalm)  '  Cor  meum  contritwn  et  humiliatum,  Deus  meus,  non 
 despicias!' ''  After  his  death,  in  his  sixty-sixth  year, 
 700,000  gold  florins  in  coin,  and  seven  cars  full  of  silver  in 
 ingots  and  vessels  were  found  in  his  treasury. 
 
 Grian  Graleazzo  now  became  sole  lord  of  the  Milanese 
 states.  The  most  illustrious  and  the  most  munificent  of 
 the  Yisconti  house  was  a  liberal  patron  of  arts  and  letters, 
 and  though  not  personally  warlike,  of  vast  ambition.  In 
 1395  he  obtained  from  the  Emperor  "Wenceslaus,  the  title 
 of  Duke  of  Milan,— not,  however,  without  payment, 
 — 100,000  florins,  for  such  imperial  favour ;  and  in  the 
 next  year  another  diploma  from  that  monarch  bestowed  on 
 him  the  sovereign  power  over  almost  all  the  Lombardic 
 cities  dependent  on  the  German  empire.  Forty-six  towns 
 were  subject  to  this  Yisconti,  who  purchased  Pisa,  1399, 
 from  its  former  lord,  Grherardo  di  Appiano,  now  contented 
 to  reserve  to  himself  Piombino  and  the  island  of  Elba. 
 Shortly  afterwards,  Perugia  voluntarily  accepted  the  sway 
 of  the  Yisconti,  rejecting  that  of  the  Pope  ;  and  still  more 
 fatal  to  the  Pontific  interests  was  the  loss  of  Bologna,  which 
 submitted  to  the  sovereign  Duke  after  he  had  won  a  vie- 
 
126  MEDIiEVAL    CHRTSTIANITT   AND 
 
 tory  over  the  allied  Florentines  and  Bolognese,  the  latter 
 led  by  Giovanni  Bentilvoglio,  who  was  put  to  death  by  his 
 own  soldiers  after  the  defeat. 
 
 Grian  Galeazzo  was  the  first  Italian  Prince  who 
 thoroughly  systematised  the  administration  of  his  States  ; 
 the  first  to  collect  public  documents  and  governmental  acts 
 in  archives.  He  founded  an  Academy  of  Fine  Arts,  and 
 another  library  attached  to  the  University  founded  by  his 
 father,  at  Pavia,  whither  he  invited  the  most  celebrated  men 
 of  the  time  to  teach  from  professors'  chairs.  The  other 
 University  at  Piacenza  was  renovated  by  him.  Among  his 
 numerous  public  works,  for  utilitarian  as  well  as  religious 
 and  intellectual  interests,  two  especially  claim  notice  in 
 these  pages,  and  were  both  of  pre-eminent  magnificence  : 
 the  glorious  Duomo  of  Milan,  and  the  Certosa  of  Pavia. 
 
 The  annals  of  the  great  archbishopric  of  Milan  during 
 this  century  display  the  gradual  consolidation  of  the  Papal 
 dominion  over  that  once  independent  see.  In  1308  the 
 Chapter  elected  a  Canon  of  their  metropolitan  church, 
 Grastone  Torriani,  to  the  vacant  throne ;  and  it  was  this 
 prelate  who,  after  being  imprisoned  by  his  relative,  Gruido 
 Torriani,  crowned  Henry  VII.  as  King  of  Italy  in  1311. 
 Pope  John  XXII.  transferred  Grastone  to  the  patriarchate 
 of  Aquileia,  and  the  Chapter  proceeded  to  elect  Griovanni 
 Yisconti,  reassuming  on  this  occasion  their  right  of  inde- 
 pendent election.  But  the  Pope  set  this  at  naught,  and  of 
 his  own  authority  nominated  another  priest,  a  minor 
 conventual,  as  Archbishop.  Matteo  Yisconti  opposed  this 
 election,  and  would  not  allow  Pra  Aicardo,  the  nominee  of 
 the  Pope,  to  enter  Milan ;  hence  the  aggravated  discords 
 between  the  Papal  and  Yisconti  courts,  during  which 
 John  XXII.  issued  (1322)  a  brief  for  the  reservation  to  the 
 Holy  See  of  all  the  archbishoprics  and  bishoprics  within 
 the  patriarchate   of  Aquileia,  the  provinces  of  Milan  and 
 
SACHED  AET  IN  ITALY.  127 
 
 Eavenna.  Matteo  died  before  the  reconciliation  with  the 
 Pontificate,  which  was  effected  in  the  time  of  Azzone  Yis- 
 conti,  1329.  Griovanni,  the  nominee  of  the  Chapter,  was 
 appointed,  not  Archbishop  of  Milan,  but  Bishop  of 
 No  vara  by  the  same  Pope  John.  Fra  Aicardo,  though  not 
 yet  able  to  take  possession  of  the  higher  dignity,  secured 
 the  administration  of  the  Milanese  archdiocese,  with  a 
 pension  of  1500  florins.  In  the  Pontificate  of  Benedict  XII. 
 complete  accord  was  established  between  the  Holy  See  and 
 the  Yisconti  house ;  and  Aicardo  was  allowed  to  make  his 
 solemn  ingress  into  Milan  as  recognised  Archbishop,  1339. 
 After  his  death,  in  the  same  year,  the  Chapter  again  elected 
 Griovanni  Yisconti,  but  the  Pope  again  refused  to  confirm 
 or  recognise  him.  This  state  of  antagonism  between  the 
 Papacy  and  the  Milanese  clergy  continued  till  1342,  when 
 Clement  YI.  of  his  own  authority,  while  ignoring  the  two 
 previous  elections,  declared  that  Prelate,  who  played  so 
 conspicuous  a  part  in  his  time,  to  be  the  legitimate  succes- 
 sor of  S.  Ambrose. 
 
 The  relations  between  Yenice  and  the  Papacy  during  this 
 period  afford  proofs  of  the  ascendancy  of  the  spiritual 
 power,  even  in  temporal  things,  and  while  its  seat  was 
 distant  from  the  Italian  shores.  In  this  page  of  Italian 
 history  we  also  see  the  still  vital,  however  enfeebled,  spirit 
 of  crusading  enterprise,  and  the  efforts  of  the  Pope  to 
 quicken  it  for  renewed  exertions.  The  taking  of  Ferrara 
 by  the  Yenetians  (1309)  has  been  mentioned  in  a  preceding 
 volume.  Folco  d'Este,  a  natural  son  of  the  late  Marquis 
 Azzone  (ob.  1308),  who  had  left  the  inheritance  to  him,  was 
 disturbed  in  his  government  by  his  two  uncles,  sole  legiti- 
 mate representatives  of  that  house.  Those  brothers  had 
 recourse  to  the  Papal  protection  for  the  furtherance  of  their 
 cause,  and  Clement  Y.  promised  to  befriend  them  on  condi- 
 tion of  their  recognising  the  immediate  dependence  of  Fer- 
 
128  MEDIiEYAL   CHRISTIANITY   AND 
 
 rara  on  the  Holy  See.  Polco  offered  the  cession  of  Ferrara 
 to  Yenice — his  expedient  for  safety.  The  Venetians  disre- 
 garded alike  the  rights  of  the  Estiand  the  claims  of  the  Pope. 
 After  two  successful  engagements  in  arms,  they  compelled 
 the  Eerrarese  to  sue  for  peace  and  to  receive  the  Podesta 
 appointed  by  the  Eepublic.  Clement  excommunicated  all 
 the  Venetians  with  tremendous  anathemas,  declaring  that 
 their  property  might  be  confiscated,  and  their  persons  re- 
 duced to  slavery  in  whatever  country  and  by  whomsoever, 
 by  all,  in  short,  who  could  so  act  against  them  !  Such  was 
 the  purport  of  the  bull  which  Muratori  considers  "  the  most 
 terrible  and  unjust  ever  heard  of."  A  crusade  was  pub- 
 lished against  Venice,  and  with  success.  A  formidable 
 army  was  soon  raised,  and  led  by  a  Cardinal  Legate  against 
 the  occupants  of  Eerrara,  who,  after  a  defeat  in  a  decisive 
 battle  fought  on  the  28th  of  August,  1307,  were  obliged  to 
 abandon  their  conquest.  Pope  Clement,  acting  as  lord 
 paramount,  bestowed  the  vicariate  of  Eerrara  on  King 
 Kobert  of  Naples,  regardless  of  all  engagements  made 
 with  Erancesco,  the  elder  of  the  brothers  representing  the 
 Este  house.  The  Venetian  general,  Giovanni  Soranzo, 
 who  had  commanded  the  Republican  forces  in  that  war, 
 was  elected  Doge,  1312.  In  his  time  the  '*  Signoria " 
 sought  absolution  and  reconciliation  with  the  Pope.  Not  till 
 the  January  of  1323  was  a  Venetian  envoy  admitted,  after 
 many  entreaties  and  humiliations,  to  receive  the  implored 
 forgiveness  from  John  XXII.  at  Avignon.  The  Eepublic 
 had  paid  100,000  gold  florins  into  the  Papal  treasury  ;  and 
 its  envoy  had  to  submit  to  degrading  ceremonies,  the  en- 
 durance of  which  seems  contrary  to  the  genius  of  Italian 
 Republicanism  even  at  this  age.  He  had  a  collar  put  round 
 his  neck,  with  a  cord  attached  to  it,  and  was  thus  led  (dog- 
 wise)  by  the  G-rand  Penitentiary,  who  held  one  end  of  this 
 
SACRED  ART  IX  ITALY.  129 
 
 cord,  into  the  Papal  presence,  hiiniblj  to  beg  for  the  par- 
 don which  Pope  John  at  last  deigned  to  grant.*  Soon 
 after  the  election  of  an  illustrious  Doge,  Andrea  Dandolo 
 (1343),  Venice,  yielding  to  the  solicitations  of  Clement  VI., 
 leagued  with  the  King  of  Cyprus  and  the  Knights  of 
 Hhodes  against  the  Turks,  and  in  the  November  of  that 
 year  a  fleet  of  those  allies  appeared  before  the  island  of 
 JSTegropont,  then  attacked  by  Turkish  galleys,  which  preci- 
 pitously retreated.  In  the  September  of  1344  the  united 
 fleets  of  Venice  and  the  Pope — for  at  this  period  the  Pon- 
 tificate had  naval  forces  at  its  disposal — sailed  for  Smyrna, 
 and,  on  the  28th  October,  that  city  was  victoriously  occu- 
 pied by  these  Italian  crusaders.  In  the  January  of  the 
 next  year,  Morbassan,  a  Turkish  general,  marched  by  land 
 to  attack  the  Christians  in  their  new  possession,  but  was 
 signally  defeated  in  a  sortie  from  the  gates.  The  allies, 
 however,  sustained  great  loss,  on  this  occasion,  before  the 
 walls  of  Smyrna  ;  for  while  they  were  bent  on  plundering 
 the  Turkish  camp,  Morbassan  returned  to  the  charge, 
 made  great  slaughter,  and  compelled  his  opponents  to 
 retreat,  with  disorder,  into  the  city.  Among  the  slain  were 
 the  Venetian  and  Pontific  generals,  and  the  Pope's  Legate, 
 whose  body  was  found  with  sword  and  helm  on  the  field. 
 In  the  year  following,  the  allies  were  obliged  to  make  peace 
 with  the  Turks,  and  abandon  Smyrna  to  their  power. 
 
 Again  was  a  crusade  against  the  Moslem  attempted  in 
 this  century,  but  with  most  disappointing  results  to  the 
 Christians.    In  1386,  Alexandria  was  taken  by  the  united 
 
 *  Considering  what  Venice  then  was,  we  might  quote  the  indignant 
 lines  of  Wordsworth,  refen-ing  to  the  humiliations  of  English  Kings  before 
 Papal  envoys  : — 
 
 "The  spears  that  line 
 Baronial  halls,  the  opprobrious  insult  feel, 
 And  angry  ocean  roars  a  vain  appeal  !  " 
 
130  MEDIiEYAL.  CIIKISTIATflTY   ATfD 
 
 forces  of  tKe  Venetians,  the  King  of  Cyprus,  and  the  Grand 
 Master  of  E-hodes.  Urban  YI.  had  induced  Venice,  whose 
 main  object  was  to  promote  commercial  interests  in  the 
 East,  to  join  this  ill-advised  enterprise.  The  Egyptian  fleet 
 was  burnt ;  but  after  Alexandria  had  been  held  by  the  con- 
 querors only  four  days,  they  deemed  it  prudent  to  retreat 
 before  the  arrival  of  the  Sultan,  who  was  approaching  with 
 a  large  armament.  "Without  securing  any  advantage  save 
 the  booty  with  which  they  were  laden,  these  "  crusaders  " 
 left  hatred  against  the  Christian  name  in  Egypt.  All  of 
 that  faith  in  Alexandria  were  imprisoned ;  their  mer- 
 chandise was  confiscated,  their  banks  were  broken  up  ;  and 
 Venice,  too  late  aware  of  the  imprudence  of  this  invasion, 
 contrived  to  persuade,  or  rather,  bribe  the  Sultan  into 
 regarding  her  Eepublic  as  an  unconcerned  party;  and  admit- 
 ting her  mediation  for  the  arrangement  of  a  treaty  with  the 
 King  of  Cyprus.  A  sign  of  the  times,  still  more  remark- 
 able than  this  inglorious  decline  of  crusading  heroism, 
 is  the  change  in  the  temper  of  the  Supreme  Pontiffs  them- 
 selves with  respect  to  such  nominally  religious  warfare. 
 "We  have  seen  John  XXII.  exert  himself  to  dissuade  the 
 kings  of  Erance  and  England,  Philip  V.  and  Edward  II., 
 from  the  fulfilment  of  vows  rashly  taken  for  enterprises 
 in  no  manner  imposed  by  the  duty  or  interests  of  either. 
 
 The  ecclesiastical  aff'airs  of  Venice  may  also  be  noticed 
 here.  The  primitive  See,  on  the  island  called  Olivolo, 
 changed  its  name  into  that  of  "  Castellanus,"  after  that 
 islet  itself,  with  the  cathedral  upon  it,  had  become  desig- 
 nated as  "  Castello,"  about  the  date  a.d.  1074.  Another 
 title  given  to  the  Bishop  of  this  See  was  "  Eivoaltensis,"  or 
 Bishop  of  Eialto ;  also  known  by  the  lugubrious  epithet, 
 "  Bishop  of  the  Dead,"  because  his  principal  revenue  was 
 derived  from  a  tithe  on  the  property  of  those  who  died 
 within  his  island-diocese.     It  was  a  Bishop  of  this  See, 
 
SACKED  ART  IN  ITALY.  131 
 
 named  Jacopo  Albertini,  -^ho,  with  other  mitred  assii^ants, 
 crowned  the  Bavarian  Louis  at  Milan,  1327,  and  took  part 
 at  Eome  both  in  the  ceremony  of  his  second  coronation,  and 
 in  the  futile  election  of  a  friar,  who  was  his  creature,  to  the 
 vain  honours  of  an  Antipope.  John  XXII.  excommuni- 
 cated and  degraded  that  offending  prelate,  the  sentence 
 against  whom  was  published  in  his  own  cathedral.  In 
 1329  Angelo  Delfino,  appointed  to  this  see  by  the  Pope, 
 carried  out  some  excellent  reforms,  and  obliged  the  bene- 
 ficed clergy  of  Venice  to  observe  the  duties  they  had 
 neglected — namely,  residence  on  their  cures,  and  attend- 
 ance at  office  in  their  churches.  After  the  dreadful  visita- 
 tion of  pestilence  in  1318-9,  the  question  of  the  "mor- 
 tuary tithes ",  originally  assigned  on  such  a  singular  system 
 to  the  episcopal  mensa  at  A^enice,  was  violently  agitated 
 bet^veen  the  State  and  the  Clergy,  who  made  themselves 
 extremely  unpopular  by  their  exorbitant  claims  after  such 
 a  crisis  of  public  calamity,  during  which  the  frequency  of 
 deaths  afforded  them  pretexts  for  exacting  sometimes  a 
 tithe  of  the  property  of  three  persons  in  the  same  family. 
 The  government  offered  them  compensation  in  the  amount 
 of  12,000  gold  ducats  for  all  retrospective  claims,  and  7000 
 gold  ducats  annually  for  the  future.  This  compromise  was 
 accepted  under  sanction  of  the  Pope  ;  but  a  few  months 
 afterwards  these  A'enetian  priests  bethought  themselves 
 that,  the  number  of  deaths  having  been  so  great  during  the 
 plague,  their  gains  ought  to  be  calculated  at  a  much  higher 
 amount.  "  Fishers  of  fish,  and  not  of  men,"  as  Mrs. 
 Browning  says,  the  shepherds  of  this  Israel  seemed  bent 
 on  despoiling  instead  of  feeding  their  flocks !  They 
 appealed  to  the  senate  and  to  the  Pope  :  the  compromise 
 was  eventually  annulled,  and  instead  of  twelve  thousand, 
 28,000  gold  ducats  were  voted  for  them,  with  full  recogni- 
 tion of  all   the  rights  they  claimed  for  the  future.     It  is 
 
 k2 
 
132  MEDIiEYAL    CHRISTIAI^ITY    A^B 
 
 satisfe,ctory  to  find  that  this  unworthy  litigation  was  at  last 
 terminated  by  the  act  of  an  estimable  prelate,  G-iovanni 
 Piacentini,  who  announced  (1377),  that  he  would  not 
 maintain  the  pretensions  of  his  worldly-minded  clergy,  but 
 would  leave  the  question  to  the  wisdom  of  government. 
 In  consequence,  the  "  Signoria "  assigned  5,500  ducats 
 per  annum  to  the  Venetian  Church,  to  be  divided  between 
 the  Bishop,  the  clergy,  the  poor,  and  the  expenses  of  church 
 repairs,  &c.  The  above-named  prelate,  unfortunately  for 
 himself,  sided  with  the  Antipope  against  Urban  YI,,  and 
 was  obliged  to  leave  Yenice,  though  he  continued  for  at 
 least  a  year  to  enjoy  the  revenues  of  the  mensa.  He  was 
 created  Cardinal  by  the  Antipope  Clement.  The  first  Car- 
 dinal seen  (or,  at  least,  resident)  at  Yenice,  was  Luigi 
 Donate,  one  of  the  five  assassinated  in  the  dungeon  of  S. 
 Giovanni  di  Pre,  at  Genoa,  by  Pope  Urban's  order.  A 
 remarkable  law  was  passed  at  Yenice  in  1347,  which,  citing 
 an  earlier  statute,  forbade  the  bequeathing  of  immovable 
 property  for  the  sufirage  of  souls  (i.e.  requiem  masses),  or 
 other  pious  works,  unless  for  a  period  limited  to  ten  years  ; 
 and  which  law  provided  that  thenceforth  no  bequests  should 
 be  made  for  the  founding  of  churches  or  monasteries 
 (already  superabundant),  save  with  consent  of  six  council- 
 lors, of  thirty-five  members,  and  three  chiefs  of  the 
 Quarantii,  and  three-fourths  of  the  Grand  Council. 
 
 Turning  to  the  Plorentine  Republic,  we  find  little  to 
 notice  in  the  ecclesiastical  sphere  amidst  the  stirring  events 
 and  rapidly  succeeding  vicissitudes  of  this  XIY.  century, 
 except  the  intrigues  by  which  the  Cardinal  Legate  of 
 Bologna  endeavoured  to  separate  Prato  from  Ploreuce, 
 and  induced  the  adventurer  Hawkwood,  with  his  dreaded 
 "  English  Company  "  of  mercenaries,  to  invade  its  territory, 
 and  attempt  the  occupation  of  that  town  ;  the  retaliation 
 of  the  Eepublic  by  instigating  revolt  in  the  Papal  States, 
 
SACRED  ART  IN  ITALY.  133 
 
 imposing  taxes  on  the  clergy,  and  selling  their  property, 
 and,  on  the  other  hand,  the  penalties  inflicted  by  Gregory 
 XI.  in  the  interdict,  1375,  which  was  not  withdrawn  till  1378, 
 on  condition  of  the  payment,  exacted  by  Urban  VI.,  of 
 250,000  florins  for  the  expenses  of  the  war  carried  on  by 
 the  Pontifie  troops  in  a  league  against  Florence.  After 
 being  for  a  time  submitted  to,  that  interdict  was  set  at 
 naught  by  the  Florentines  ;  and  the  local  clergy  were  com- 
 manded to  celebrate  masses  as  usual.  Similarly  dauntless 
 was  the  conduct  of  the  "  Signoria  "  in  defying  and  rendering 
 void  the  triple  interdict  published  against  Florence  by 
 a  Legate  sent  thither  by  Benedict  XI.,  in  1304.  When, 
 in  1306,  the  Cardinal- Legate,  Orsino,  was  driven  by  popular 
 revolt  with  bloodshed  from  Bologna,  and  intimated  to  the 
 Florentines  his  wish  to  visit  their  city  in  order  to  free  it 
 from  the  weight  of  ecclesiastical  censures,  he  was  answered 
 that  Florence  did  not  require  his  services,  and  that  he  need 
 not  trouble  himself  about  the  removal  of  the  interdict.* 
 The  bishops  (not  yet  archbishops)  of  this  See  obtained, 
 1364,  the  rank  of  princes  of  the  Holy  Eoman  Empire, 
 conferred  first  on  the  Bishop  Pietro  Corsiui  by  Charles 
 IV.  An  ancient  usage,  the  origin  of  which  is  referred  to 
 the  XL  century,  at  the  ceremonial  of  the  installation  of 
 every  new  prelate,  is  said  to  have  assumed  a  definite  form 
 about  1385 — the  symbolic  espousals  between  the  newly- 
 consecrated  pastor  and  the  Benedictine  abbess  of  S.  Piero 
 Maggiore.  After  the  Bishop  had  made  his  public  ingress 
 into  the  city,  received  by  the  chief  magistrates  and  all  the 
 clergy,  entering  with  a  long-drawn  procession,  and  himself 
 riding  on  a  mule  (or  palfrey)  under  a  canopy  supported 
 by  four  guardians,  or  custodi,  of  the  cathedral-church,  who 
 appeared   with  leafy   crowns   on  their  heads — he   passed 
 
 *  Other  ecclesiastical  afFairs  in  Florence,  during  this  century,  are 
 noticed  in  the  preceding  volume,  p.  552-4. 
 
134  MEDIAEVAL    CHRISTIANITY   AND 
 
 to  the  church  of  that  monastery.  On  his  arrival,  being  re- 
 ceived by  the  prior  and  other  priests  with  lights  and  in- 
 cense, and  having  first  prayed  before  the  altar,  he  was  led  to 
 an  ornamented  tribune,  or  raised  platform,  where  the  abbess 
 was  ready  with  all  her  nuns  to  welcome  him.  There  he 
 took  his  seat  on  a  richly- draped  throne,  the  abbess  sitting 
 opposite  to  him  on  a  throne  hung  with  green  velvet,  each 
 under  a  canopy  of  cloth- of-gold.  Presently  the  abbess 
 rose,  knelt  before  the  bishop,  who  caused  her  to  sit  at  his 
 right  hand,  and  placed  on  her  finger  a  gold  ring  set  with 
 three  gems,  a  diamond,  a  sapphire,  and  another  precious 
 stone — signifying  the  union  of  the  new  pastor  with  the 
 ^Florentine  Church — the  abbess's  hand  being  held  the  while 
 either  by  her  own  relations  or  by  the  oldest  man  in  the 
 parish.  The  Eeverend  Mother  then  returned  her  thanks, 
 warmly  recommended  the  Florentine  Church  and  her  own 
 monastery  to  the  new  pastor,  kissed  his  hand,  and  received 
 his  benediction.  All  her  nuns  next  went  up  to  the  throne 
 successively,  to  kiss  the  hand  and  be  blessed.  The  bishop 
 finally  gave  benediction  to  the  people  present,  granted  an 
 indulgence,  and  passed  to  a  hall  of  the  monastery,  where  he 
 dined  with  the  abbess,  the  other  guests  being  four  canons, 
 the  prior,  the  episcopal  chaplains,  and  the  cathedral- 
 guardians.  That  night  the  bishop  slept  under  the  same 
 roof,  and  the  next  morning  proceeded  first  to  the  cathedral, 
 thence  to  the  baptistery,  for  two  other  solemn  installations. 
 Arrived  at  his  palace,  he  received  the  present,  now  sent  by 
 the  Benedictine  abbess,  of  the  gorgeous  couch,  hung  with 
 costly  draperies,  on  which  he  had  passed  the  night.* 
 
 *  See  Richa,  "  Chiese  Florentine."  The  church  and  monastery  here 
 named  no  longer  exist.  That  olden  ceremony  gradually  vanished,  even 
 before  the  sacred  building  in  which  it  had  been  held.  First  were  abolished 
 the  banquet  and  the  usage  of  the  bishop's  lodging  for  the  night  under  the 
 same  roof  with  the  nuns  :  the  observances  in  the  church  being  alone 
 
SACRED    ART    IX    ITALY.  1^35 
 
 Up  to  the  year  13^:1  the  election  of  the  Bishops  of 
 Florence  was,  bj  immemorial  privilege,  the  free  act  of  the 
 canonical  chapter,  hitherto  undisturbed  in  such  exercise  of 
 their  rights.  The  tactics  through  which  this  appointment 
 was  usurped  (can  we  use  any  milder  term  ?)  by  the  Papacy, 
 are  thus  narrated  by  an  uncompromising  advocate  of  all 
 Popes  and  all  proceedings  of  the  Curia : — 
 
 "  The  election  of  their  own  bishop  was  the  immemorial 
 privilege  of  the  canons  of  the  cathedral  of  Plorence,  with 
 approbation  of  the  elect  dependent  on  the  Popes,  till  the 
 time  of  Clement  YI.  But  in  13J;1  the  canons,  having 
 elected  in  the  sacristy  of  their  cathedral  the  prior  Filippo 
 d'Antella  as  successor  to  the  Bishop  Silvestri,  nominated 
 afterwards  two  deputies  to  be  sent  to  Benedict  XII.  for  the 
 pontific  approval.  They  (the  deputies)  found  that  Pontiff 
 dead,  and  Clement  YI.  created  in  his  place,  w^ho  now  elected 
 by  bull  Era  Angelo  Acciaiuoli  to  the  bishopric  of  Florence, 
 declaring  the  election  of  Antella  null,  and  for  ever  taking 
 away  from  the  chapter  the  privilege  of  electing  their  own 
 pastor.  In  the  sequel  the  Florentine  Eepublic  began  the 
 practice  of  supplicating  the  Pope,  by  means  of  its  ambas- 
 sadors at  Eome,  to  appoint  persons  of  the  same  country 
 and  in  every  respect  worthy." — (Moroni,  Dizion.  di  Erudi- 
 zione  Eccles.  vol.  xxv.  p.  45-6.) 
 
 In  Sicily  we  find  the  Popes  still  persisting  in  traditionary 
 hostilities  against  the  freedom  and  dearly  purchased  rights 
 of  a  gallant  people,  still  endeavouring  to  force  that  people 
 into  subjection  to  a  hated  dynasty,  and  bring  back  the  days 
 of  the  Anjou  rule  over  the  island,  which  could  not  forget 
 
 retained.  After  a  time  these  also  fell  into  disuse,  and  were  finally 
 suppressed  by  Gregory  XIII.,  the  last  such  mystic  espousals  having  been 
 celebrated  between  the  Archbishop  Altoviti,  appointed  to  this  Sec  in 
 1548,  and  the  Abbess  Suor  Brigida  Albizi.  S.  Piero  Maggiorc  was 
 reduced  to  ruin  in  1783. 
 
136  MEDIEVAL    CUEISTIANITY   AND 
 
 all  it  liad  suffered  under,  or  all  it  had  done  to  liberate  itself 
 from,  that  yoke.  Boniface  VIII.  had  so  far  succeeded  in 
 such  policy,  injurious  indeed  to  the  higher  interests  of  the 
 Pontificate,  as  to  win  the  submission  implied  in  an  annual 
 tribute  of  15,000  gold  florins,  promised  by  the  brave  young 
 king  Ij^rederick  I.  (or  II.)  to  the  Holy  See,  after  the  treaty 
 with  the  Neapolitan  crown  by  which  it  was  stipulated  that 
 he  should  marry  a  daughter  of  Charles  II.,  and  retain  the 
 Sicilian  kingdom  for  life,  but  leave  it  after  his  death  to 
 the  Anjou  Charles,  and  his  descendants.  Twelve  years 
 afterwards  (1314),  Frederick  dropped  the  title  of  "  King  of 
 Trinacria,"  which  he  had  been  required  to  assume,  took 
 that  of  "  King  of  Sicily,"  and  recommenced  the  war  with 
 the  Neapolitans,  who  had  besieged  Trapani.  The  issues  of 
 that  war  were  favourable,  on  the  whole,  to  the  Sicilians ; 
 and  in  1321  Frederick  caused  his  youthful  son,  Peter,  to 
 be  crowned  at  Palermo.  In  that  year  John  XII.  laid  the 
 whole  island  under  an  interdict,  which  had,  indeed,  been 
 provoked  by  the  king,  who,  to  meet  the  expenses  of  war, 
 had  confiscated  the  property  of  the  Sicilian  Church.  Louis, 
 who  succeeded  at  the  age  of  four  years  to  his  father, 
 Peter  II.,  under  the  regency  of  his  uncle,  1342,  was  crowned 
 at  Palermo  by  a  Greek  bishop,  no  Sicilian  prelate  consent- 
 ing to  take  part  in  the  ceremonies  on  account  of  the  inter- 
 dict. After  the  death  of  King  Eobert  of  Naples,  the 
 Eegent  of  Sicily  and  the  Queen  Mother  deemed  the  oppor- 
 tunity had  come  for  seeking  reconciliation  with  the  Pope. 
 Their  envoys  w^ere  coldly  received  by  Clement  VI.,  who 
 declared  that  Sicily  could  only  hope  for  peace  through 
 submission  to  Queen  Joanna.  In  proof  of  his  displeasure 
 that  Pontiff"  reserved  to  himself,  by  bulls,  the  nomination 
 during  two  years  to  all  the  bishoprics,  abbacies,  and  other 
 benefices,  excepting  those  of  revenue  less  than  fifty  florins, 
 in  that  island.     We  need  not  comment  upon  this  strange 
 
SACRED  ART  IN  ITALY.  137 
 
 manifestation  of  poutific  indignation !  The  government  of 
 Naples  was  solicited  by  Clement  to  nudertake  another 
 invasion  of  Sicily,  and  complied.  But  after  an  army  had 
 disembarked  near  Messina,  and  devastated  the  environs,  the 
 approach  of  forces,  sent  by  the  Eegent,  compelled  the  in- 
 vaders to  an  iiiglorious  retreat.  When  adversity  came  to 
 Queen  Joanna,  and  her  states  also  were  invaded,  she  sought 
 the  mediation  of  the  Pope  to  obtain  peace  with  the  Sicilian 
 crown,  and  at  last  accepted  the  terms  of  a  treaty,  concluded 
 in  13i7  without  the  consent  of  Clement,  who,  however, 
 took  no  steps  to  oppose  it.  Louis  was  to  retain  the 
 crown  of  Sicily  undisturbed,  and  to  pay  annually,  on 
 S.  Peter's  day,  the  tribute  to  the  Holy  See  of  3000 
 gold  ounces,*  deducted  from  the  census  which  the 
 Neapolitan  sovereigns  paid  to  the  same  pontific  throne. 
 The  King  of  Sicily  was  bound,  in  case  of  attack  against  the 
 continental  kingdom,  to  supply  aid  with  fifteen  ships,  and 
 the  Queen  of  Naples  renounced  all  her  claims  on  that 
 island  as  w^ell  as  on  the  isles  adjacent.  Under  the  reign  of 
 Prederick  11.  (or  III.),  brother  and  successor  to  Louis, 
 Sicily  was  again  agitated  by  rival  claims  of  parties  divided 
 between  the  interests  of  the  Anjou  and  Aragonese  dynas- 
 ties. Messina  and  the  castle  of  Martagritone  were  ceded 
 to  Louis  of  Taranto,  the  husband  of  Joanna,  and  the 
 Queen  and  Prince  made  their  entry  into  that  city  as 
 sovereigns  (December  1356),  promising  to  prefer  Messina 
 as  future  capital  of  the  island-kingdom.  That  city,  how- 
 ever, was  retaken  for  the  young  king  Prederick,  principally 
 through  aid  of  the  powerful  Clermont  family  and  of  Artale 
 d'Alagone,  an  experienced  naval  officer,  who  expelled  the 
 Neapolitans  fi'om  the  town  and  citadel. 
 
 Previous  to  the  re-conquest   of  Messina  and  Palermo 
 
 *  15,000  "Old  florins. 
 
138  MEDIiEVAL    CHRISTIANITY  AND 
 
 (1365),  tlie  Neapolitans  had  been  completely  baffled  in  tlieir 
 attempt  to  terminate  the  war,  by  a  decisive  blow,  with  the 
 capture  of  Catania,  which  they  invested  by  sea  and  land. 
 Artale  d'Alagone  dispersed  their  fleet,  and  the  troops  com- 
 manded by  the  G-rand  Seneschal  at  once  raised  the  siege, 
 but  could  not  effect  a  retreat  without  being  pursued  by  the 
 garrison  and  resolute  citizens  of  Catania ;  more  than  two 
 thousand  of  the  Seneschal's  army  being  slain,  many  pri- 
 soners and  all  the  baggage  of  the  camp  remaining  in  the 
 hands  of  the  Sicilians.  The  other  cities  of  the  island,  after 
 the  taking  of  Messina,  returned  one  by  one  under  the 
 dominion  of  King  Frederick. 
 
 In  1372  both  the  Courts  of  Naples  and  Sicily  desired 
 peace.  Two  Pranciscan  friars  were  the  appointed  negotia- 
 tors, and  it  was  agreed  that  the  King  should  recognise  his 
 tenure  of  Sicily  as  a  fief  under  Queen  Joanna,  pledging 
 himself  to  an  annual  census,  15,000  gold  florins  ;  and  that 
 he  should  be  contented  with  the  title,  "  King  of  Trinacria,'* 
 leaving  to  the  Neapolitan  sovereign  that  of  King  of  Sicily. 
 This  was  fully  approved  by  Gregory  XI.  It  had  been 
 further  stipulated  that  Frederick  II.  should  repair  to  E-ome 
 and  do  homage  in  person  to  the  Pope.  His  objections  to 
 absenting  himself  from  his  states  were,  however,  admitted ; 
 the  journey  to  Pome  was  dispensed  with ;  and  after  the 
 treaty  had  been  ratified  by  the  Bishop  of  Sarlat  in  the 
 name  of  the  Pontiff,  Prederick  did  homage  to  the  Pope  for 
 his  kingdom  at  Messina  (1374)  in  the  hands  of  the  same 
 prelate.  On  the  same  day  he  wedded  a  niece  of  Prince  Louis 
 of  Taranto,  and  in  1375  was  crowned  by  the  Bishop  of 
 Sarlat  with  permission  of  the  Pope.* 
 
 •  Muratori,  Annali,  gives  different  date  for  the  death  of  Frederick  11. 
 and  succession  of  his  daughter  Maria,  as  a.d,  1372.  I  have  followed  the 
 Art  de  Verifier  les  Dates,  which  gives  for  those  events  the  year  1377  ; 
 for  the  death  of  Maria,  who  was  succeeded  by  her  husband  and  cousin- 
 german,  Martin  of  Aragon,  1402. 
 
SACRED    ART    IN    ITALY.  139 
 
 The  sense  of  sin  and  misery,  compunction  for  the  first 
 and  pity  for  the  second  of  those  uuirersal  ills,  may  be  said 
 to  have  predominated  throughout  the  Middle  Ages.  It 
 was  not  till  comparatively  modern  times  that  the  dignity 
 and  self-responsibility  of  Man  began  to  possess  his 
 thoughts.  In  the  last  year  of  this  century  the  feeling  of 
 profound  sorrow  for  sin  found  vent  in  a  movement  which 
 aroused  the  attention  of  the  Christian  world,  and  extended 
 over  almost  the  whole  of  western  Europe.  The  "  "White 
 Penitents  "  commenced  their  doleful  pilgrimage  from  land 
 to  land,  from  city  to  city,  joined  by  multitudes  of  both 
 sexes  and  all  classes,  clad  in  long  white  habits  wilh  hoods 
 covering  the  face  so  as  to  leave  the  eyes  only  visible  ;  the 
 women  distinguished  by  a  red  cross ;  all,  as  they  advanced, 
 reciting  or  singing  orisons  and  hymns,  the  Stabat  Mater, 
 the  Miserere-psalm,  &c.  According  to  some  writers,  this 
 movement  originated  in  Ireland;  thence  passed  to  Eng- 
 land ;  thence  through  Erance ,  crossing  Alps  and  Apennines, 
 and  spreading  wdth  mournful  enthusiasm  over  northern  and 
 central  Italy.  At  Grenoa  5000  arrived  in  such  guise, 
 and  were  led  by  the  aged  Archbishop,  himself  on  horseback, 
 to  visit  churches,  cemeteries,  shrines,  during  nine  days. 
 Erom  Lucca  3000  set  out,  notwithstanding  the  veto  of  the 
 magistrates,  for  Pistoja,  where  they  were  joined  by  4000 
 more,  and  thence  passed  on  through  Prato  to  Elorence. 
 There  the  devout  multitude  swelled  to  40,000;  and  as 
 many  as  20,000  were  led,  in  one  long-di'awn  procession,  by 
 the  Bishop  of  Eiesole  to  visit  the  holy  places.  At  Parma 
 the  pilgrims  on  foot  were  followed  by  forty  cars  contain- 
 ing the  infirm  and  feeble,  women  and  children.  Erom 
 thence  7000  set  out,  preceded  by  pious  confraternities 
 with  their  standards  and  led  by  the  bishop  of  that  diocese. 
 At  Venice  the  authorities  refused  to  admit  them ;  but  at 
 Eerrara  the  Marquis  d'Este  treated  them  with  honour. 
 
1-iO  MEDIiEVAL    CHIIISTIAIS^ITY    AND 
 
 Whatever  the  fanaticism  of  this  "  revival,"  it  i&  certain 
 that  the  fruits  of  good  works,  alms  to  the  poor,  reconcilia- 
 tion of  enemies,  restitution  of  what  had  been  unlawfully- 
 taken,  were  abundantly  borne  by  it.  Platina  gives  the 
 following  account  of  it,  received  from  his  father,  an  eye- 
 witness : — 
 
 "  The  year  before  the  jubilee,  there  came  from  the  Alps 
 into  Italy  a  certain  priest  with  a  great  company  of  men 
 after  him.  This  priest  went  about  clad  in  white,  and 
 showed  so  much  modesty  in  his  countenance  and  words 
 that  all  men  held  him  as  a  saint.  Having  reached  Italy, 
 he  soon  attracted  an  immense  number  of  men  and  women 
 by  this  new  superstitious  observance.  All,  without  dis- 
 tinction, whether  rustic  or  civil,  masters  or  servants,  vested 
 in  white,  followed  him  like  flocks  of  sheep  ;  and  wherever 
 they  came  to  pass  the  night  they  slept  on  the  bare  ground. 
 They  eat  together  publicly  in  the  cities,  where  the  people 
 vied  with  each  other  in  bringing  them  food,  as  if  ofl'ering 
 sacrifice.  The  priest  went  in  front  with  a  crucifix  in  his 
 hand,  which,  it  was  said,  frequently  shed  tears  for  the  sins 
 of  men ;  and  every  time  that  this  *'  (the  weeping  of  the 
 crucifix)  "  occurred,  all  cried  Misericordia  !  As  they  pro- 
 ceeded, pursuing  their  journey,  they  sang  the  praises  of 
 Our  Lady,  and  other  hymns  such  as  were  suitable  for  them ; 
 and  this  also  they  did  whenever  they  stopped  at  any  place. 
 That  priest  led  them  through  Lombardy,  Eomagna,  by  the 
 Marshes  and  through  Tuscany,  everywhere  gaining  such 
 repute  for  sanctity,  that  not  only  the  rude  and  credulous 
 populace,  but  princes  also,  and  the  Yisconti  in  the  cities 
 were  easily  persuaded  to  do  as  he  said  and  desired.*  At 
 Yiterbo,  arriving  with  the  great  multitude  after  him,  he 
 
 *  In  this  somewhat  obscure  passage,  the  "  Visconti "  might  be  under- 
 stood as  the  family  so  named,  or  as  different  magnates  of  the  rank  so 
 designated. 
 
SACRED    AUT    IX    ITALY.  141 
 
 stopt,  weary  of  tlie  journey,  before  going  on,  as  lie  said 
 they  ought,  to  Eome  for  pilgrimage  to  the  holy  places, 
 Boniface  IX.,  who  suspected  that  there  was  fraud  in  this, 
 and  that  the  priest  hoped  to  be  made  Pope  through  favour 
 of  the  people  who  followed  him,  and  by  means  of  this 
 superstition,  sent  soldiers  to  Yiterbo,  who  arrested  and 
 brought  him  to  the  Pope.  Some  write  that  the  priest  was 
 tortured,  and  confessed  his  deceptions,  and  that  for  this  he 
 was  punished  in  the  flames,  being  burnt  alive.  Others  say 
 no  fraud  whatever  was  found  in  this  poor  priest,  but  that 
 the  Pope  caused  such  report  to  be  circulated  in  order  to 
 suppress  the  other  report  that  he  had  ordered  him  to  be  put 
 to  death  out  of  envy."  *  Yictorelli  (annotator  of  Ciaconius) 
 states  plainly  that  the  unfortunate  priest  "  suffered  the 
 punishment  he  deserved,  being  burnt  in  the  fire." 
 
 Heresies,  or  what  were  condemned  as  such,  and  boldly 
 novel  speculations,  another  sign  of  agitation  and  excite- 
 ment in  the  public  mind,  rose  up,  a  plentiful  crop,  during 
 this    perturbed    century.     A    set    of  vagabond  and  idle 
 
 *  Compare  this  \^-ith  the  account  by  Corio  of  the  movemeut  in  Lom- 
 bardy  : — "  An  immense  number  of  persons,  of  all  classes,  high  and  low, 
 women,  youths,  and  maidens,  came  bare-footed,  and  covered  from  head 
 to  foot  with  white  sheets,  which  left  scarcely  more  than  the  forehead 
 visible.  All  the  inhabitants  of  the  towns  and  villages  assembled  around 
 them,  and  continued  for  eight  days  to  visit  three  churches  in  each  town, 
 causing  many  masses  to  be  celebrated  in  one  or  other  church.  Wherever 
 they  came  to  a  cross  on  the  wayside,  they  fell  prosti-ate,  crying  three 
 times  Misericordia  ! — chanting  also  the  Pater  Noster  and  Ave,  besides 
 other  canticles  composed  by  S.  Bernard.  The  people,  after  returning 
 to  their  native  places,  dispersed,  and  arriving  home,  exhorted  the  other 
 inhabitants  to  assume  the  same  habit— so  that  sometimes  1000,  some- 
 times 1500  assembled  in  one  place.  An  infinite  number  of  rcconciha- 
 tions  (infinite  concordie),  and  distributing  of  alms  occurred,  and  many 
 were  led  to  tnie  repentance."  Corio,  the  historian  of  ^Nlilan,  flourished 
 at  a  period  (1459-1519)  not  far  remote  from  the  events  he  thus 
 doecribes. 
 
142  MEDIEVAL    CHETSTIANITT    AND 
 
 friars,  whom  tlie  simple-minded  Pope  Celestine  V.  had 
 permitted  to  lead  the  life  of  independent  hermits,  with- 
 out following  a  rule  or  obeying  a  superior,  but  whom 
 Boniface  YIII.  had  wisely  disapproved  of,  formed  them- 
 selves into  communities  in  Sicily,  where  they  began  to  de- 
 claim against  the  Church  and  her  rulers.  A.  Franciscan  of 
 Bezier,  named  Jean  Olive,  who  had  joined  them,  proclaimed 
 the  Eoman  Church  to  be  the  mystic  Babylon  foretold  in 
 the  Apocalypse,  and  prophesiexi  her  ruin,  with  the  birth  of 
 another,  a  new  and  holier  Institution,  to  succeed  to  her 
 — this  Church  of  the  Future  being  destined  to  develop  into 
 glorious  life  under  the  celestial  auspices  of  S,  Francis.  A 
 book  produced  by  him  in  support  of  these  theories  and 
 dreamy  hopes  was  received  by  the  Franciscan  "  Fraticelli," 
 as  a  fifth  gospel.  Those  hermits  at  last  elected  a  Father 
 Oeneral,  and  proposed  even  to  raise  up  another  Antipope. 
 They  went  so  far  as  to  declare  that  all  the  Sacraments  of 
 the  Church  were  invalid,  because  administered  by  priests 
 without  true  jurisdiction  or  lawful  authority!  Similar 
 notions  were  maintained  by  a  sect  which  sprung  up  in  Gler- 
 many  favoured  by  the  Emperor  Louis,  and  who  eventually 
 merged  into  the  communities  of  Begards  and  Beguines, 
 condemned  by  the  Council  of  Yienne.  The  Lollards,  who 
 took  their  name  from  Walther  Lollard,  a  teacher  appearing 
 first  about  a.d.  1315,  rejected  all  the  Sacraments  as  well 
 as  ceremonies  of  Catholicism,  condemned  the  belief  in  the 
 intercession  of  saints,  and  admitted  the  indulgent  notion 
 that  even  the  devils  might  eventually  be  saved.  It 
 is  said  that  in  Austria  and  Bohemia  these  votaries 
 numbered  more  than  80,000.  In  the  time  of  G-regory 
 XI.  two  Franciscans  were  commanded  to  retract,  or 
 bury  in  silence,  under  pain  of  excommunication,  the 
 theory  they  had  advanced  that  the  Beal  Presence  might 
 be  withdrawn  from  the  holy  Eucharist  in  case  the  conse- 
 
SACEED  AET  IX  ITALY.  143 
 
 crated  species  sliould  fall  into  any  foul  place,  or  be  dcToured 
 by  a  brute.  The  Pope  deputed  a  cardinal  to  examine  this 
 doctrine — and  such  was  the  condemnatory  decision.  In 
 1357  Richard  Fitz  Ralph,  Chancellor  of  Oxford  and  Arch- 
 bishop of  Armagh,  travelled  to  Avignon  to  maintain  the 
 charges  brought  forward  in  his  writings  against  the  mendi- 
 cant friars,  whose  dependence  on  alms,  or  religious  mendi- 
 cancy, he  considered  to  be  founded  on  an  erroneous  prin- 
 ciple, neither  conformable  with  the  teaching  of  Christ  nor 
 with  the  true  sense  of  the  rule  of  S.  Francis.  He  complained 
 before  the  Pope  of  the  encroachments  of  those  friars  in  the 
 sphere  of  jurisdiction  proper  to  bishops  and  parish  priests. 
 In  northern  Italy  the  progress  of  the  Yaldese  sect, 
 which  at  this  period  began  to  extend  ramifications  from 
 the  subalpine  valleys,  alarmed  the  Church,  and  called 
 forth  denunciations  from  the  Popes.  The  name  of  these 
 mediaeval  Protestants  is  derived  (by  some  writers)  irom 
 Peter  Waldo  (or  Yaud)  of  Lyons,  who  began  in  the  XII. 
 century  to  teach  doctrines  that  were  condemned  by  the 
 Council  of  Yerona,  1184,  and  by  the  fourth  General  Council 
 of  Lateran,  1215.  Others  derive  the  name  from  "  vallee  "  or 
 "  A^audois  " — inhabitants  of  valleys.  In  1316  Clement  Y. 
 complained  of  the  progress  of  these  heretics  in  Italy,  and 
 principally  among  the  Alpine  regions,  where  they  held 
 public  assemblies  attended  by  numbers,  rebellious  against 
 the  authority  of  the  Church,  put  to  death  the  chief  priest 
 of  a  parish,  and  threatened  the  life  of  an  Inquisitor. 
 Gregory  XI.  published  a  brief  against  them,  and  ordered 
 the  burning  of  heretical  books,  which,  it  appears  from  that 
 document,  were  now  frequently  produced  in  the  vulgar 
 tongue.*  Rinaldi  {Annali  Ecdesiastici)  derives  the  Yaldese 
 sect  from  the  Albigenses  of  southern  Prance  ;  and  some 
 
 *  "  Ut  faciant  comburi  quosdam  libros  sennonum  ha?reticorurn,  pro 
 innjnri  parte  in  vulgari  scriptos." 
 
144  MEDTiEVAL    CHRTSTTANITY    AKD 
 
 writers  suppose  tliat,  after  the  exterminating  crusades 
 against  those  dissidents  (1209-30),  a  residue  of  them  fled 
 into  Aragon,  Savoy,  and  Piedmont.*  In  Spain  they  found 
 no  toleration.  Seeking  refuge,  about  the  middle  of  the 
 XIY.  century,  in  Calabria  and  Apulia,  they  were  sup- 
 pressed or  expelled  thence.  But  in  the  Alpine  valleys  of 
 western  Piedmont  they  found  home  and  shelter ;  there 
 majestic  Nature  might  be  expected  to  extend  over  them  her 
 mantle  of  protection  ;  and  there  eventually  they  developed 
 into  a  Church  in  communion  with  their  co-religionists  of 
 other  lands,  and  were  finally  recognised  by  the  State — not 
 indeed  till  after  many  persecutions  and  perfidious  violations 
 of  promises  and  guarantees  held  out  to  them,  from  time  to 
 time,  by  the  vacillating  Court  of  Turin. f 
 
 In  1385  a  jurisconsult,  named  Bartolini,  brought  out 
 at  Piacenza  a  series  of  questions,  or  theses,  as  to  the 
 duties  of  the  clergy  in  case  the  E-oman  Pontiff  should  prove 
 stubborn  against  the  counsels  of  the  Cardinals,  regardless 
 of  the  true  interests  of  the  Church,  and  therefore  unfit  to 
 govern ;  concluding  that,  in  such  case,  curators  might  be 
 appointed,  to  whose  advice  the  Pope  should  be  obliged  to 
 
 *  "  Then  followed  the  Waldensian  bands,  whom  Hate 
 In  vain  endeavours  to  exterminate, 
 Whom  Obloquy  pursues  with  hideous  bark  : 
 But  they  desist  not ; — and  the  sacred  fire, 
 Rekindled  thus,  from  dens  and  savage  woods 
 Moves,  handed  on  with  never-ceasing  care, 
 Through  courts,  through  camps,  o'er  limitary  floods  ; 
 Nor  lacks  this  sea-girt  Isle  a  timely  share 
 Of  the  new  flame,  not  suft'ered  to  expire." — WordsivortJi. 
 
 ■\  See  Milton's  Sonnet.  "  On  the  late  Massacre  in  Piedmont,  165.5." 
 ''  Avenge,  0  Lord,  Thy  slaughtered  saints,  whose  bones 
 Lie  scattered  on  the  Alpine  mountains  cold ; 
 Even  them  who  kept  the  truth  so  pure  of  old, 
 When  all  our  fathers  worshipped  stocks  and  stones, 
 Forget  not,"  &c. 
 
SACRED. ART  IN  ITALY.  145 
 
 couform  in  all  matters  of  ecclesiastical  administration,  &c. 
 This  evidently  alludes  to  the  situation  of  the  Papacy  under 
 Urban  YL,  and  the  evil  results  of  the  obstinate  temper 
 displayed  by  him. 
 
 Though  my  object  is  to  consider  the  state  of  Eeligion  and 
 Art  in  Italy  alone,  I  may  notice  coincidences  of  opinion 
 manifested  about  the  same  time  in  different  countries.  In 
 Grermany  were  raised  complaints  against  the  ambition, 
 avarice,  and  worldliness  of  Popes  and  Cardinals  ;  and  some 
 hazarded  the  assertion  that  the  Eoman  Church  had  for- 
 feited the  keys  of  S.  Peter  since  she  had  acquired  temporal 
 power,  for  which  a  Dominican  inquisitor,  named  Schadland, 
 condemned  many  to  death  at  the  stake,  as  he  himself 
 reports  (Dupin,  "  Auteurs  Ecclesiastiques  ").  In  13G8  an 
 Archbishop  of  Canterbury  deemed  it  necessary  to  denounce 
 forty  theses  which  had  been  maintained  by  different  persons 
 within  his  province — among  others,  that  the  Blessed  Virgin 
 and  other  saints  might  have  fallen  into  sin  ;  that  none  are 
 eternally  lost  for  original  sin  alone ;  that  even  demons  may 
 eventually,  through  mercy  and  repentance,  be  saved — the 
 frequent  appearance  of  which  benevolent  doctrine  is 
 remarkable.  Wickliffe  w^as  one  of  an  embassy  sent  by  Ed- 
 ward III,  to  negotiate  with  the  Pope  in  1376,  and  after  his 
 return  to  England  put  forth  his  most  boldly-defended  pro- 
 positions against^Papal  prerogatives,  &c.  A  council  at  Lon- 
 don condemned  twenty-four  of  those  propositions  in  1382. 
 
 A  feeling  of  sorrow  for  the  general  corruption  of  the 
 time — sorrow  profoundly  felt  and  indignant,  yet  softened 
 and  illumined  by  religious  hope — speaks  in  the  writings, 
 both  prose  and  verse,  of  Petrarch,  who  considers  that  no 
 historic  epoch  was  ever  so  darkened  by  criine  and  depravity 
 as  that  in  which  he  lived.*     He  invokes  the  Saviour  of  the 
 
 *  Quicquid  historicorum  labor,  quicquid  tragoediarum  gemitus  in 
 nostram  pertulit  notitiam,  minus  fuit  quam  quod  oculis  videmus.     Quod 
 
146.  MEDUSYAL   CHRISTIANITY   AND 
 
 world  to  interpose  for  the  rescue  of  lost  Humanity. 
 In  Ms  poems  he  mourns  over  the  intellectual  sloth 
 and  eclipse  of  mental  light  which  were  the  result  of 
 licentious  manners.*  In  the  Latin  letters  of  Coluccio 
 Salutati  f  the  conduct  of  the  Popes  is  as  severely  blamed 
 as  in  the  verse  of  Dante.  Salutati  protests  against  the 
 relentless  spirit  with  which  Gregory  XI.  prosecuted  war 
 against  the  Florentines  after  they  had  desired  reconcilia- 
 tion and  the  removal  of  the  interdict.  Addressing  the 
 magistrates  of  Eome  (21st  September,  1377),  he  brands 
 with  reprobation  the  anti-national  character  and  aims  of 
 Papal  policy  at  this  time,  and  arrives  at  the  conclusion,  so 
 often  expressed  by  later  writers,  that  the  temporal  power 
 of  the  Holy  See  and  the  expedients  adopted  for  its  support, 
 had  been  the  ruin  of  Italy.  J     He  deems  that  the  war  car- 
 
 apud  illos  cothurno  dignum  scelus  erat,  apud  nos  jam  veniale  peccatum 
 est.    Iratus  est  mundo  Deus,  nee  immerito ;  patientiam  potius  tantam 
 
 miror De  hinc  crebro  ad  Eum,  quem  indeliciiscrucifixum 
 
 habeo,  versus  mcesta  voce,  atque  oculis  humantibus  exclamo,  Jesu  bone, 
 et  nimiuiu  mansuete,  quid  hoc  est  ?  Exurge,  quare  obdormis  ?  Ex- 
 urge,  et  ne  repellas  in  finem  ;  quare  faciem  tuam  avertis  ?  Protector 
 noster  aspice.  Deus,  vide  quid  patiraur  et  unde— vide  et  vindica ! 
 (Epist.  sine  titulo,  V.,  VI.) 
 
 •  La  gola  e  '1  sonno,  e  1'  oziose  piume 
 
 Hanno  del  mondo  ogni  vertu  sbandita, 
 
 Ond'  6  dal  corso  suo  quasi  smarrita 
 
 Nostra  natura,  vinta  dal  costume,  &c. 
 See  also  the  celebrated  Canzone,  *'  Spirto  gentil,"  &c. 
 and  that  beginning — 
 
 Italia  mia,  benche  '1  parlar  sia  indamo. 
 
 t  Lived  from  1330  to  1406  ;  Chancellor  of  the  Florentine  Eepublic, 
 1375. 
 
 J  Benedict  XII.,  in  the  first  Consistory  held  by  him  (1334),  declared 
 that,  at  least  during  his  Pontificate,  neither  the  Roman  Church  nor  any 
 
SACRED    ART-  IN    ITALY.  147 
 
 ried  on  against  Christians  nnder  the  standard  of  the  Keys, 
 and  for  the  defence  of  the  temporal  interests  of  the  supremo 
 priesthood,  had  proved  the  greatest  of  all  scandals  to  the 
 Church.* 
 
 The  "  Mystery  Play,"  founded  on  sacred  subjects,  and 
 usually  performed  in  churches,  had  made  its  appearance  in 
 Italian  cities  at  least  as  early  as  the  XII.  century.  In 
 Eome  all  literature  was  at  the  lowest  ebb  during  the  epoch 
 here  in  question  ;  but  it  was  in  the  second  half  of  the  XI Y. 
 century  that  such  form  of  the  acted  Drama  was  introduced 
 here  also,  and  that  the  "  Passion  and  Eesurrection"  began 
 to  be  represented  on  a  stage  in  the  classical  arena  of  the 
 Colosseum,  every  Good  Priday.  The  most  ancient  of  the 
 pious  confraternities  in  this  city,  called  that  of  the  Gronfa- 
 lone  (or  Standard),  from  their  religious  symbol,  a  banner 
 with  a  blue  and  red  cross  upon  it,  and  which  had  origin  in 
 1264,  dedicated  its  cares  to  the  object  of  redeeming  Chris- 
 tians from  slavery.  By  this  sodality  was  introduced  the 
 "  Mystery"  performance  above-named.     On  the  evening  of 
 
 other  should  defend  its  rights  by  the  sword,  or  make  war  against  any  one; 
 
 and  this  he  decreed  {decrevit  et  statuit)  as  a  question  of  principle. 
 
 *  "  Videtis  dispositionem  summi  Pontificis,  qui  totis  conatibus, 
 I  omnique  modo  proeurat  desolationem  Italiie,  ipsamque  magis  vult 
 j  bellorum  turbine  conquassari,  quam  pacis,  et  concordiae  desideratissimo 
 I  munere  reformari;  et  pacem  ore  pra?dicans,  solum  bellicas  vastationes 
 '  animo  meditatur.  O  nefas,  nullis  temporibus  subticendum  !  Regis 
 !  pacifici  Vicarius,  coeli  Clavigcr,  Petrique  successor  ....  bellum 
 I  ardcntissime  contra  fideles,  et  devotos  Ecclesiffi  gerit,  nee  veretur  contra 
 I  Jesu  Christi  instituta  pacem  toties  petitam  humiliter,  in  duritia  mirabili, 
 j  denegare."  (Ep.  Ivii.)  See  also  his  very  raluable  letter  to  the  Marquis 
 I  of  Brandenburg  (Ep.  li.)  on  the  schism  of  the  Antipopes,  its  fatal  con- 
 I  sequences,  and  the  best  means  recommendable  for  suppressing  it.  He 
 i  advises  that  the  Cardinals  of  both  sides  should  meet  to  confer  together  ; 
 j  that,  with  their  consent,  and  in  obedience  to  their  injunctions,  both  Popes 
 
 should  abdicate,  and  another  be  elected  by  the  Cardinals.     This  writer's 
 
 st\le  is  dignified;  his  temper  serious  and  religious. 
 
 L    2 
 
148  MEDIiEYAL    CHEISTIANITY    AKD 
 
 that  solemn  day,  shortly  before  sunset,  they  went  in  pro- 
 cession, with  chant  of  litanies,  &c.,  to  the  ancient  amphi- 
 theatre ;  there  they  sung  hymns,  chanted  psalms,  and  gave 
 themselves  the  discipline,  or  scourging  ;  finally  entertained, 
 or  edified,  the  public  with  that  tragedy  on  the  most  awful  of 
 subjects  ;  the  brethren  themselves  acting  on  a  stage  fitted 
 up  at  the  platform- summit  of  a  chapel  within  one  of  the 
 arcades  on  the  southern  side.  As  developed  into  its  final 
 form,  this  Mystery  Play  was  in  rhyming  octaves  with  lyric 
 chorus,  probably  sung  to  instrumental  music.  That  sin- 
 gular celebration  on  Grood  Friday  was  kept  up,  and  no 
 doiibt  very  popular,  in  the  capital  of  the  Church  till  1540  ; 
 and  then  only  abolished,  it  is  said,  on  account  of  the  pro- 
 gress of  decay,  by  which  the  spot  appropriated  had  become 
 encumbered.  The  chapel  vanished  in  1815,  although  rebuilt 
 in  1622.*  At  last  arose  the  poetic  Drama,  distinct  from  the 
 "  Mysteries"  and  "  Moralities"  of  the  mediaeval  stage  ;  and 
 this  emancipation  from  the  immediate  control  of  the  all-in- 
 fluencing Church  nearly  coincides  with  the  period  when  art 
 also  began  to  withdraw  from  the  strictly  devotional  sphere. 
 The  first  historic  tragedies  supplied  by  an  Italian  pen  were 
 those  of  Albertino  Mussato,  a  native  of  Padua  (1260 — 1330), 
 who  was  the  author  of  various  Latin  prose  works,  also  his- 
 torical :  the  Historia  Augusta,  comprising  the  life  and  period 
 of  the  Emperor  Henry  YIL,  and  the  Historia  de  gestis 
 Italicorum,  besides  elegies  and  epistles.  He  composed  two 
 tragedies  in  Latin  verse  and  prose,  both  with  chorus,  and 
 intended  to  be  on  the  model  of  Seneca :  AcJiilleis,  in  which 
 the  chief  characters  are  Paris,  Helen,  and  Hecuba ;  and, 
 Eccerinis,  founded  on  the  history  of  the  ferocious  tyrant, 
 Ezzelino  Komano,  lord  of  Verona  and  Padua.     The  last- 
 
 *  Called  Sf.  Maria  de  MetriOy  but  prior  to  the  XIV.  century  known 
 bj  another  name  (v.  Von  Reumont,  GescMcTite  d.  Stadt  Rom.) 
 
SACKED  AET  IN  ITALY.  119 
 
 named,  by  far  the  most  powerful,  is  distinguished  by  ingenious 
 unravelling  of  the  tragic  plot,  some  contrast  of  character, 
 and  management  of  situations — though  remote  indeed  from 
 all  modern  standards  of  dramatic  excellence.    It  opens  with  a 
 scene  of  ghastly  confidences — not  limited  by  any  delicacy — 
 between  Adheleita,  the  Countess  di  Eomano,  and  her  two 
 sons,  Ezzelinus  and  Albericus,  the  import  of  her  disclosures 
 leading  them  to  exult  with  horrid  joy  on  learning  that  they 
 arc  the   offspring  of  a  being  greater  than  the  God  who 
 was  father  to  Eomulus  and  Eemus.      A  thrillingly  awful 
 soliloquy  is  reported,  not  declaimed,  in  a  dark  chamber  of 
 the  Romano  castle,  where  Ezzelinus  avows  his  denial  of 
 Christ,  his  hatred  of  the  Cross,  and  invokes  Lucifer,  his 
 father,  together  with  Proserpine,  the  Furies,  and  all  infer- 
 nal spirits,  to  fill  his  soul  with  wrath,  hatred,  and  remorse- 
 less obduracy,  that  he  may  become  a  scourge  to  mankind, 
 and  prove  the  worthy  son  of  his  demon- sire  : 
 "  Annue,  Satan  !  et  filium  talem  proba  !" 
 Contrast   and  eff'ect  of  situation  are  well  sustained  in 
 another  scene,  where  a  friar,  Lucas,  upbraids  the  tyrant  for 
 his  enormous  crimes,  endeavours  to  waken  the  fear  of  God's 
 wrath  in  his  hardened  soul,  and  to  touch  the  springs  of 
 repentance.      In  curious  conformity  -with  the  theological 
 piety  of  the  times,  Ezzelino  bafiles  all  these   good  eftbrts, 
 and   silences  the    courageous    admonitor  by  accepting  at 
 once  that    good  friar's  conclusions  ;  admitting  a  o^eligions 
 view  of  his  own  deserts  and  destinies,  and  declaring  himself 
 to  be  the  chosen  of  Heaven,  like  Saul,  Nebuchadnezzar, 
 Pharaoh,  and  jS'ero,  for  the  punishment  of  the  human  race  ! 
 How  could  any  father-confessor  deal  with  such  a  penitent  P 
 In  parts  of  this  grim  tragedy  the  author  lays  aside  the 
 dramatic,  interrupts  his  dialogue,  and  at  once  passes  from 
 the  scene  with  interlocutors  to  the  plain  narrative  in  blank 
 verse.     The  JchiUeis,  less  remarkable  than  the  other  piece, 
 
150  MEDIiEYAL   CHEISTIANITT   AND 
 
 concludes  with  a  profession  of  absolutely  fatalistic  princi- 
 ples, put  into  tlie  mouth  of  Helen's  lover  : 
 
 "  Non  ipse  Deus  mutare  potest 
 Quidquid  fatis  nectitur  altis." 
 ("  Not  even  Deity  can  alter   that  which  has  been  decreed  by  the 
 supreme  Fates.") 
 
 I  have  noticed  the  intellectual  sterility  in  the  Papal  me- 
 tropolis, where  Petrarch  found  only  one  person,  Gio- 
 vanni Colonna,  learned  in  regard  to  the  local  antiquities. 
 Almost  total  eclipse  may  be  predicated  as  the  state  of 
 literature  at  that  centre  duriug  this  period.  The  studies  of 
 Canon  and  Civil  Law  followed  the  Curia  to  Avignon.  Some 
 attention  was  paid  by  the  Prench  Pontiffs  there  to  the  in- 
 terests of  the  University  founded  by  Boniface  VIII.  at 
 Eome.  Clement  Y.  ordered  that  the  G-reek,  Hebrew,  Arabic, 
 and  Chaldee  languages  should  be  taught  at  Home,  Paris, 
 Oxford,  Salamanca,  and  Bologna.  John  XXII.  author- 
 ized his  Yicar  at  Bome  to  appoint  professors  and  doctors  at 
 that  University ;  and  in  presence"  of  the  same  Vicar  the 
 candidates  for  degrees  had  to  be  examined  by  members  of 
 the  faculty,  whose  science  they  had  pursued.  None  could 
 receive  the  doctor's  degree  at  that  Eoman  institution,  called 
 the  "  Sapienza,"  until  after  four  years'  study  of  Canon, 
 three  of  Civil  Law,  and  two  years,  one  at  Eome,  of  public 
 teaching  in  those  sciences.  The  Sapienza  University  had 
 become  totally  extinct  before  the  restoration  of  the  Holy 
 See  by  Gregory  XL,  as  proved  from  the  terms  of  the  bull 
 of  Eugenius  IV.  ordering  it  to  be  resuscitated,  1432 — 
 "  totally  suppressed,  owing  to  the  evil  of  the  times,  and  the 
 schism  in  the  Church" — as  that  Pontiff  says  of  it.  Even  in 
 the  class  of  literature  aiming  at  the  historic,  or  some- 
 thing more  than  the  mere  chronicle,  the  sole  work  produced 
 at  Eome  during  the  years  near  the  middle  of  this  century, 
 
SACEED  ART  IN  ITALY.  151 
 
 was  the  Life  of  Cola  di  Eienzo,  written  first  in  Latin,  and 
 translated  into  Italian — "  that  the  common  people  might 
 find  it  useful,"  bj  an  author  who  had  studied  at  Bologna, 
 and  who  intended  to  write  the  life  of  Dante  also.  He  was 
 engaged  on  his  extant  work  in  1358.  A  short  treatise,  "  Of 
 certain  remarkable  things  in  the  City  of  Eome,"  extant  in 
 MS.,  probably  dates  from  the  earlier  period  of  the  schism, 
 and  seems  to  aim  at  teaching  their  political  rights  to  the 
 citizens,  for  whose  benefit  the  author  laboured.* 
 
 In  a  provincial  town  of  the  Papal  States,  Foligno,  appeared 
 a  TVTiter  whose  poetic  works  won  him  distinction.  Federigo 
 Frezzi,  a  Dominican,  who  became  bishop  of  that  diocese, 
 and  died  at  Constance,  1416,  after  taking  part  in  the  dis- 
 cussions of  the  Council,  composed,  probably  between  1380 
 and  1400,  his  "  Quadriregio,"  or  the  '*  Four  Eealms,"  the 
 first  epic  poem  in  the  language  produced  since  the  "  Divina 
 Commedia."  This  now  almost  forgotten  work  went  through 
 six  editions  between  1481  and  1511 ;  the  first  having  been 
 printed  at  Perugia.  It  displays  the  increasing  tendency  to 
 ally  classical  with  Christian  imagery,  and  bring  the  thought 
 of  Paganism  into  harmony  with  that  of  Catholicism.  The 
 poet  is  privileged,  like  Dante,  to  visit  the  realms  of  the  in- 
 visible world ;  but,  instead  of  being  accompanied  by  a  Virgil 
 or  a  Beatrice,  is  at  the  outset  of  his  mysterious  journey  led 
 by  no  more  respectable  guide  than  tile  Pagan  Cupid  !  The 
 first  region  into  which  he  is  introduced  is  that  of  Diana,  his 
 first  experiences  of  spirit-life  being  thus  strangely  remote 
 from  all  that  is  believed  and  anticipated  by  the  orthodox 
 Chui'ch !  From  the  kingdom  of  Temperance  he  is  led  by 
 personified  Humility  to  the  paradise  of  Fortitude,  the 
 loveliest  spot  under  Heaven,  where  he  finds  a  singularly 
 
 ♦  Von  Reumont,  Geschichte,  v.  II.  ;  Gregorovius,  Stadt.  Rom  im 
 Mittelalter. 
 
152  MEDIiEVAL    CHEISTIANITT   A2^D 
 
 assorted  company,  Christians  and  Heathens,  mythological 
 and  historic  personages :  Mars  (a  great  giant),  Hector, 
 ^neas,  Eomulus,  Alexander,  Cato,  King  Arthur,  (^7  Be 
 Artus),  Charlemagne,  Grodfrey  de  Bouillon — herein  being 
 manifest  the  gradually  enlarged  indulgence  of  religious 
 thought,  which  refused  to  admit  the  absolutely  lost 
 state  of  Pagan  Heroes  in  the  invisible  life.  Next,  the 
 poet  proceeds  to  the  realms  of  Minerva  and  Venus ; 
 thence  to  that  of  Satan,  where  instead  of  finding  the  rea- 
 lities of  those  monstrous  imaginings  made  popular  by 
 mediseval  art,  he  sees  at  first  a  King  of  Terrors  transcend- 
 ently  beautiful,  though  of  formidably  colossal  proportions, 
 being  in  height  no  less  than  three  miles  !  The  illusion  is 
 dispelled  by  Minerva,  who  enables  him  to  behold  through 
 her  crystal  shield  the  real  semblance,  hidden  beneath  that 
 deceitful  mask — hideous  and  appalling,  a  giant  with  serpent 
 hair  and  scorpion-tail,  dragons  coiled  round  his  head  instead 
 of  the  three  crowns,  which  the  archfiend  seemed  to  wear. 
 The  spell  is  broken  ;  but  the  idea  of  the  possibility  of 
 beauty  being  assumed  by  the  Evil  One  is  singularly  opposed 
 to  earlier  notions.  Our  Poet  next  visits  the  Limbo  of 
 unbaptized  infants,  and  the  Elysian  Pields,  where  vir- 
 tuous Pagans  enjoy  an  immortality  of  negative  happi- 
 ness, or  at  least  a  sunshine  of  calm  content  —  though 
 actually  within  the  limits  of  the  infernal  region.  The  ter- 
 restrial Paradise  is  approached  under  the  guidance  of 
 Minerva ;  but  not  found  accessible,  for  its  gates  are  still 
 guarded  by  the  Angel  with  the  fiery  sword — and  this  idea 
 of  an  outside  view  of  that  Eden,  attainable  under  the 
 auspices  of  personified  "Wisdom  (the  goddess  of  antiquity), 
 is  in  marked  contrast  to  the  feeling  and  thought  of  earlier 
 Christian  times.  Here,  at  the  threshold  of  Paradise,  the 
 Poet  is  met  by  a  more  venerable  guide,  no  other  than  S. 
 Paul,  who  conducts  him  from  those  lower  regions,  the  mytho- 
 
SACRED    ART    IX    ITALY.  153 
 
 logical,  shadowy,  and  infernal,  to  the  true  Heaven  of  bliss 
 and  glory,  passing  successively  through  its-diftereut  spheres, 
 till  they  reach  the  highest  empyrean,  at  the  radiant  limit 
 of  which  Heaven  of  Heavens  the  Apostle  consigns  him  to 
 the  care  of  Angels,  who  guide  him  to  an  aerial  height 
 whence  a  distant  glimpse  of  the  beatific  vision  is  attained ; 
 and  here,  very  properly,  the  poem  ends  ;  the  privileged 
 wanderer  is  conducted  back  to  earth.  Various  allusions  to 
 the  public  characters,  the  manners  and  morals  of  the  age, 
 are  interspersed  over  these  pages.  On  entering  the  infer- 
 nal realm,  the  Poet  appeals  to  God  against  the  iniquities 
 and  vices  then  prevalent.  Led  before  the  throne  of  For- 
 tune, he  beholds  a  matron,  beautiful  and  richly  clad  as  seen 
 in  front,  but  bald,  unattractive,  and  in  weeds  of  widowhood 
 as  seen  from  behind.  She  is  turning  seven  wheels,  on  the 
 spokes  of  which  are  the  great  and  powerful  of  the  time, 
 human  beings  destined  to  prove  the  inevitable  gyrations : 
 Bernabo  Yisconti,  and  his  more  favoured  successor 
 G-aleazzo  ;  Cola  di  Eienzo,  Joanna  of  Naples,  and  the 
 Scaligeri  of  Yerona,  not  too  severely  designated  as  "  No- 
 velli  Caini" — new  Cains.  The  punishment  of  the  damned 
 is  described  conformably  with  gross  mediaeval  notions. 
 The  Temple  of  the  Church  is  beheld  in  its  resplendence : 
 built  up  with  the  glorified  bodies  of  saints,  whose  hair  is 
 of  gold,  their  cheeks  being  of  coral.*  On  the  walls  of 
 this  edifice  is  inscribed  the  Ajoostles'  Creed,  a  metrical 
 paraphrase  of  which  is  given  with  an  additional  clause  pro- 
 fessing belief  in  transubstantiation.  The  perfection  of  the 
 Christian  character  is  declared  to  consist  in  the  reference 
 of  all  to,  and  centering  of  all  in,  the  Supreme  Being,  "  from 
 
 *  jMai  Policleto  ne  musaico  arte, 
 Ne  anco  Giotto  fi  cotal  lavoro, 
 Qual  era  quel  di  quelle  membre  spartc — 
 Jiluicst  the  sole  allusion  to  art  or  artists  in  this  poem. 
 
154!  MEDIEVAL   CHEISTIANITT   AND 
 
 whom  sacred  Scripture  derives  authority."  The  terza 
 rima  of  this  poem  is  generally  vigorous,  and  flows  with 
 pleasing  cadence. 
 
 It  would  be  beyond  my  limits  even  to  glance  over  the 
 range  of  literary  activities,  so  luxuriantly  productive  and 
 vigorous,  in  the  Italy  of  this  age.  One  work  of  the  devo- 
 tional class,  a  standard  and  model  of  its  kind,  which  I  may 
 mention,  is  the  *'  Specchio  della  vera  Penitenza'* — Mirror 
 of  true  Repentance,  by  Jacopo  Passavanti.  Its  author  was 
 of  a  noble  Plorentine  family  ;  entered  the  Dominican  Order 
 at  the  age  of  thirteen ;  was  sent  by  his  superiors  to  study  at 
 Paris ;  taught  theology  at  Eome,  Pisa,  and  Siena ;  held  suc- 
 cessively the  office  of  prior  at  different  Dominican  convents  ; 
 was  appointed  diocesan  Yicar  by  the  Bishop  of  Florence  ; 
 and  died  in  that  city,  at  his  convent  of  S.  Maria  Novella, 
 aged  about  fifty-five,  1357.  His  "  Specchio"  is  indeed  a 
 "  mirror"  of  the  religious  feeling  of  his  time,  and  exercises 
 a  mysterious  fascination.  Beading  this  book,  we  seem  to 
 wander  through  moonlit  forests  or  the  dim  aisles  of  Gothic 
 cathedrals,  communing  with  the  sainted  dead,  and  also  with 
 the  lost  and  guilty — hearing  voices  of  solemn  consolation 
 or  awful  warning  from  the  "  undiscovered  country."  All 
 limits  between  the  visible  and  invisible  disappear  ;  the 
 intense  realities  of  immortal  life  cast  into  shade  the  tran- 
 sient things  of  the  material  and  present.  Among  the  many 
 stories  of  the  supernatural,  told  with  simplicity  which 
 enhances  their  effect,  in  these  pages,  is  one  that  may  be 
 here  translated : 
 
 "  It  is  read  that  at  Matiscona  (Macon),  there  lived  a  cer- 
 tain Count,  who  was  rebellious  in  pride  against  Grod,  and 
 pitiless  towards  his  neighbour;  and  being  in  high  estate 
 with  lordship  and  much  wealth,  strong  and  of  sound  body, 
 he  thought  not  of  death,  nor  remembered  that  the  things  of 
 this  world  would  ever  fail  him.     One  day,  whilst  he  sat  in 
 
SACEED  ART  IN  ITALY.  155 
 
 his  own  palace,  surrounded  by  many  cavaliers,  pages,  and 
 many  honourable  citizens  who  were  feasting  with  him  at 
 Easter,  there  suddenly  appeared  an  unknown  man  on  a  tall 
 steed,  who  entered  the  gates  of  the  palace  without  saying 
 a  word  to  any  one,  and  riding  up  to  where  the  Count  sat, 
 said  to  him,  '  Rise,  and  follow  me !'  He,  terrified  and 
 trembling,  got  up,  and  followed  that  stranger,  to  whom  none 
 had  dared  to  speak.  When  they  came  to  the  gate  of  the 
 palace,  that  rider  commanded  the  Count  to  mount  a  horse, 
 which  there  stood  ready,  saddled  and  bridled  ;  and  taking 
 the  reins,  and  drawing  him  after  his  own  horse,  galloped 
 away  at  speed,  leading  the  Count  through  the  air,  all  in  the 
 city  beholding,  whilst  he  (the  Count)  shrieked,  and  cried 
 out  mournfully,  '  Help  me,  good  people !'  And  thus  be- 
 wailing and  crying  out,  he  vanished  from  the  sight  of  men, 
 and  went  to  take  his  place  for  ever  and  ever  with  the 
 demons  in  Hell."  More  consoling  is  the  story  of  the  stu- 
 dent at  Paris,  who  desired  to  confess  his  sins,  but  was  so 
 overcome  with  shame  and  horror  that  he  could  not  speak  : 
 his  father-confessor  bade  him  write  out  the  dread  catalogue  ; 
 having  done  this,  he  tried  to  read  it  in  the  confessional,  but 
 neither  could  he  utter  that  list.  The  father,  who  was  Prior 
 of  S.  A^ictor,  took  the  writing  from  him,  "  and  reading  of 
 those  great  and  shameful  sins,  not  knowing  of  himself  what 
 penance  he  ought  to  impose,  demanded  permission  from 
 the  student  to  speak  about  them  with  his  Abbot,  who  was 
 a  learned  man.  This  was  gi'anted ;  he  gave  the  paper  on 
 which  were  written  all  those  siqs  to  the  Abbot,  but  he, 
 when  opening  it,  found  blank  paper  on  which  was  nothing 
 written.  And  the  Abbot  said  to  the  Prior,  '  What  am  I  to 
 read  ?  for  as  to  this  paper  which  you  have  given  me,  there  is 
 not  one  letter  traced  upon  it.'  The  Prior,  seeing  that  it 
 was  really  so,  answered,  '  Of  a  truth,  father,  the  sins  of  the 
 student  were  all  written,  and  I  did  read  them,  on  this  paper ; 
 
156  MEDIiEYAL    CHEISTIAKITT   AND 
 
 but  in  what  I  now  behold  it  is  evident  that  the  merciful 
 G-od  has  pleased  to  make  manifest  the  virtue  of  contrition, 
 and  how  He  has  accepted  that  of  this  young  man,  remitting 
 to  him  all  his  sins.'  " 
 
 Boccaccio's  Latin  work,  Be  Casihus  Tirorum  illustr. — on 
 the  fate  of  illustrious  persons,  shows  the  tendency,  prevalent 
 at  this  time,  to  dwell  for  moral  or  religious  edification  on 
 extraordinary  examples  of  calamity,  or  startling  reverses  of 
 fortune,  and  those  chastisements  of  guilt  which  thoughtful 
 minds  regarded  as  signal  proofs  of  a  Providence  on  earth. 
 His  narration  of  the  tragic  fate  of  the  Templars  may  be 
 deemed  historic  and  trustworthy,  because  set  down  from 
 the  report  of  his  father,  who  had  been  an  eye-witness  to 
 those  scenes  of  horror  at  Paris. 
 
 Boccaccio's  famous  story  of  the  conversion  of  the  Jew 
 at  Eome,  in  spite  of  all  the  evil  realities  he  finds  there, 
 contains  not  only  malicious  sarcasm  and  severe  protest 
 against  corruption,  but  also  the  testimony  to  the  manifesta- 
 tion of  a  Providence  in  the  Church  :  "  I  have  seen  (says  this 
 singular  proselyte)  that  at  Eome  there  is  no  piety,  no  devo- 
 tion, no  good  work  practised  among  the  priestly  class  ;  that 
 avarice,  gluttony,  fraud,  envy,  profligacy,  and  things  if  pos- 
 sible still  worse,  were  all  in  favour  there  ;  and  that  this 
 place  is  rather  the  workshop  of  the  Devil  than  the  temple 
 of  God.  It  seemed  to  me  that  the  sovereign  Pastor  and 
 those  who  surround  him  were  doing  all  they  could  to  destroy 
 Christianity.  Yet  I  saw  that,  notwithstanding  all  this, 
 Christianity  is  prosperous  and  increasing ;  that  it  is  daily 
 rising  and  developing.  I  have  therefore  concluded  that 
 your  religion  is  true,  seeing  that  the  Court  of  Eome  and 
 the  Cardinals  are  unable  to  destroy  it ;  and  I  have  been 
 brought  to  the  conviction  that,  instead  of  those  men  who 
 ought  to  be  its  chief  support,  but  in  reality  are  authors  of  the 
 greatest  injury  thereto,  it  must  be  the  Holy  Spirit  Himself, 
 
SACEEB   ART    ITT    ITALY.  157 
 
 the  very  hand  of  Grod  which  maiutains  Christianity.  Let  us 
 go  therefore  to  the  church,  and  there,  according  to  the  usage 
 of  your  holy  faith,  let  me  be  baptized  as  soon  as  possible." 
 Among  curiosities  of  literature  belonging  to  this  period  is 
 one  that  might  be  deemed  blasphemous  but  for  the  internal 
 evidences  of  grave  good  fiiith  and  orthodox  intent,  among 
 the  legal  writings  of  Bartolo,  a  celebrated  jurisconsult,  who 
 reports,  as  an  event  of  the  law  courts,  a  trial  in  which  Satan 
 appears  before  the  Saviour  of  the  world  as  accuser  of  the 
 Human  race,  and  demanding  his  right  to  rule  over  and  dis- 
 pose of  all  mortal  beings  ;  but  is  finally  defeated  by  the 
 subtle  arguments  and  moving  appeals  of  the  Virgin  Mary  ! 
 The  date  of  this  procedure  is  Good  Friday,  1311.  After 
 listening  to  plaintiff  and  defendant,  the  Saviour  commands 
 Gabriel  to  sound  his  golden  trumpet  and  cite  both  Mary, 
 "  the  Advocate  of  the  Human  Eace,"  and  Satan,  "  the  Pro- 
 curator of  Iniquity,"  to  hear  judgment  on  the  ensuing 
 Easter  Sunday.  On  that  festival  they  appear  before  the 
 Divine  throne,  and  the  Judge,  after  long  preamble,  declares 
 that  He  absolves  mankind,  rejects  the  plea  of  the  Demon 
 Procurator,  and  condemns  him  to  eternal  penalties.  The 
 minutes  of  the  trial  are  drawn  up  by  "  John  the  Evangelist, 
 notary  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  and  secretary  of  the 
 Curia."  Finally,  all  the  angels  render  thanks  and  praise 
 to  the  blessed  Mother,  invoking  her  with  the  anthem,  Salve 
 Regina,  Mater  misericordi(E!  vita,  dulcedo,  et  spes  nostra, 
 salve  !  *     In  these  times  of  popular  credulity  the  voice  of 
 
 *  Tractatus  qumstionis  ventitatce  coram  Domino  nostro  J.  C.  inter 
 Virginem  Mariam  ex  una  parte,  et  Diabolem  ex  altra  parte.  The 
 theological  idea  pervading  this  curious  composition  ascribes  an  absolute 
 celestial  queenliood  to  Mary,  who  makes  her  appearance  before  the 
 throne  escorted  by  a  multitude  of  Angels,  singing  with  loud  voices  : 
 Ave  Regina  coelorum !  Its  author  was  a  native  of  Sassoferrato,  born  in 
 1313,  became  professor  of  law  at  Padua,  and  obtained  from  the  Emperor 
 
158  MEDI^YAL   CHRISTIATTITY    A^B 
 
 the  pulpit  was  sometimes  raised  to  condemn  the  supersti- 
 tious reliance  on  things  external  and  material.  An 
 energetic  friar,  Griordano  di  Rivalta,  whose  preaching  at 
 Florence,  in  1309,  drew  crowds  to  the  Dominican  church  of 
 S.  Maria  Novella,  reminded  his  hearers  that  pilgrimages 
 were  of  no  avail,  and  even  mischievous,  unless  accompanied 
 by  the  practice  of  a  virtuous  life.  "  Such  roaming  about," 
 he  said,  "  I  deem  of  no  use,  and  should  recommend  to  few 
 persons — to  those  few,  but  seldom ;  for  on  those  journeys 
 men  fall  into  sin  and  are  exposed  to  many  perils.  Diverse 
 scandals  occur,  and  patience  fails.  People  often  qiiarrel, 
 and  are  angered  against  each  other,  or  with  the  host  at  the 
 inns ;  and  sometimes  homicides,  frauds,  immoralities  are 
 committed — the  last  very  often ;  and  thus  do  they  (the 
 pilgrims)  fall  into  mortal  sin."  *  Almost  all  evils  that  ever 
 desolated  the  Church,  or  discredited  the  ecclesiastical  order, 
 rose  to  a  climax  in  this  century.  In  many  places  the 
 clergy  were  addicted  to  drunkenness ;  wine-shops  and 
 gambling- tables  were  set  up  in  the  sacred  buildings,  or  on 
 their  premises ;  the  sacraments,  pardons,  dispensations, 
 were  publicly  sold.  The  spirit  of  the  world  had  crept  into 
 the  cloister.  Nuns  went  about  in  public,  to  the  peril  of 
 their  reputation  if  not  of  their  virtue.  At  Monte  Cassino 
 the  monks  retained  and  enjoyed  private  fortunes ;  or, 
 securing  rich  benefices  from  their  Abbot,  deserted  their 
 Benedictine  retreat  to  live,  like  the  secular  clergy,  on  the 
 revenues  of  such  lucrative  posts. 
 
 Charles  IV.  various  privileges  for  the  nascent  University  of  Pisa.  His 
 extant  works  fill  a  folio  volume,  and  comprise,  besides  judicial  orations, 
 treatises  on  the  Guelphs  and  Ghibellines,  on  the  Kepublic  and 
 Tyranny. 
 
 *  "  Fanno  micidio  ed  inganni  e  fornicazioni  ;  e  di  questo  si  fa  assai,  e 
 caggiono  in  peccato  mortale."— Cantu,  Storia  degli  Italiani,  v.  ii. 
 
SACEED    AET   IN    ITALY.  J^Q 
 
 Benedict* XII. /laudably  bent  on  eradicating  abuses, 
 offered  to  the  Cardinals  at  Avignon  an  aggregate  income 
 of  100,000  gold  florins,  and  also  one  half  of  the  revenues  of 
 the  Papal  States,  on  condition  of  their  renouncing  plurali- 
 ties for  ever.  They  refused,  preferring  to  hold  flist  the 
 emoluments  which  were  the  fruit  of  that  system  so  often 
 reprobated. 
 
 The  prosecutions  against  sorcery  were  now  rising  into 
 portentous  prominence,  with  aggravated  severities.  In  an 
 evil  hour  for  humanity.  Pope  John  XXII.  put  forth  a  bull 
 (1322)  commanding  that  all  who  meddled  with  the  black 
 art  should  be  punished  as  heretics,  though  not  with  con- 
 fiscation of  property.  The  above-named  jurist,  Bartolo, 
 decided,  about  the  year  1350,  that  death  by  fire  was  the 
 suitable  punishment  for  such  off'enders.  "  This,"  says  the 
 author  of  the  "  Pope  and  the  Council,"  "  inaugurated  the 
 regular  burning  of  witches."  In  that  fatal  document,  so 
 fraught  with  tragic  results  to  suff'ering  and  feeble  beings, 
 the  Pope  laments  that,  "  many  persons,  to  our  great  afflic- 
 tion, desert  the  light  of  truth,  and,  being  Christians  only  in 
 name,  are  so  far  enveloped  in  the  mists  of  error  as  to  make 
 alliance  with  Death  and  compact  with  Hell ;  adoring  and 
 offering  sacrifice  to  demons,  manufacturing  images,  rings, 
 1  vials,  mirrors,  and  other  objects  in  which  to  confine,  or  cir- 
 cumscribe. Devils  ;  demanding  and  obtaining  answers  from 
 such,  imploring  from  them  the  gratification  of  their 
 depraved  desires,  and  in  return  for  infamous  favours, 
 offering  to  them  (the  Demons)  infamous  servitude.  Oh, 
 grief  to  narrate!  This  pestilence  is  spreading  beyond 
 limits,  and  infecting  all  the  flock  of  Christ !  "  In  1363,  a 
 native  of  Piedmont  was  fined  forty  florins  for  having  caused 
 a  shower  of  hail  by  incantations  from  a  conjuring  book ! 
 In  13S6,  two  inhabitants  of  an  Italian  valley  had  to  pay 
 one  hundred  and  twenty  gold  solidi  for  merely  confiding  in 
 
160  MEDIEVAL    CHRISTIANITY    AT^D 
 
 a  cliarin  to  cure  their  flocks  of  disease.  This  onset  against 
 imaginary  evils  had  already  commenced  in  distant  countries. 
 In  1330,  a  Council  at  Lambeth  ordered  that  sorcerers, 
 perjured  persons,  and  incendiarists  should  be  publicly  ex- 
 communicated four  times  every  year  in  the  English 
 churches.  The  only  complete  emancipation  of  mind  from  the 
 follies  of  belief  in  vs^itchcraffc,  and  the  only  efficient  suppres- 
 sion of  the  dreadful  cruelties  inflicted  on  those  accused  of 
 it,  were  secured  by  the  slowly-attained  conviction  that  such 
 a  crime  is  impossible.* 
 
 The  belief  in  astrology  was  kept  alive  not  only  through 
 ignorance  and  imposture,  but  by  erudite  speculation 
 and  academic  pedantry—  evidently  favoured  by  deep-rooted 
 tendencies  or  propensities  of  the  imaginative  cast.  Cecco 
 d'Ascoli  professed  that  science  publicly  at  Bologna ;  but 
 was  finally  burnt  at  the  stake  in  Florence  (1327)  for  pro- 
 positions savouring  of  heresy,  e.  g.  that  there  existed  in  the 
 upper  spheres  generations  of  malignant  spirits,  who  could 
 be  constrained  to  perform  marvellous  things  through  irre- 
 sistible spells ;  that  men  might  be  born  under  such  constel- 
 lations as  would  compel  them  to  commit  sin,  &c.  Whilst 
 Petrarch  was  reciting  in  the  cathedral  of  Milan  an  in- 
 augural oration  for  the  nephews  and  successors  of  the 
 Prince  Archbishop,  Griovanni  Visconti,  the  court-astronomer 
 interrupted  that  speech,  because  he  had  calculated  that 
 the  moment  of  the  most  benign  conjunction  of  the  planets 
 had  just  arrived.  The  very  first  sentence  in  the  "De- 
 camerone"  implies,  and  seems  to  justify,  astrologic  theories. 
 The  still  popular  superstitions  of  darker  character,  the 
 notion  of  the  direct  interference  of  evil  spirits  through  the 
 
 *  See  Lecky's  "  History  of  Rationalism  "  for  a  masterly  treatment  of 
 this  subject — the  growth,  results,  and  gradual  decline  of  the  belief  in 
 sorcery. 
 
SACRED   ART    IX    ITALY.  161 
 
 phenomena  of  nature,  and  their  share  in  the  pnnislunent  ol' 
 man  by  such  agency,  is  illustrated  in  the  IblKnviug  ^vild 
 legend  reported,  with  apparent  faith,  by  Villani  (Storir. 
 Fiorenfine,  c.  33),  after  mentioning  an  extraordinary  and 
 disastrous  inundation  of  the  Arno: — "  The  night  in  which  the 
 said  deluge  commenced,  a  holy  recluse,  whilst  at  prayer  in  his 
 solitary  hermitage  above  the  abbey  of  Yallombrosa,  heard 
 a  terrible  tumult,  and  beheld  the  visible  forms  of  demons 
 in  the  semblance  of  a  troop  of  armed  knights,  who  galloped 
 furiously  along.  Hearing  and  seeing  this,  the  hermit  made 
 the  holy  sign  of  the  cross,  went  to  the  little  door  of  his  cell, 
 and  then  saw  that  the  multitude  of  horsemen  were  dreadful 
 and  black  in  visage  ;  and  conjuring  one  of  them  in  the 
 name  of  Grod  to  tell  him  what  this  portent  signified,  was 
 answered  :  We  are  going  to  submerge  the  city  of  Florence  on 
 account  of  its  sins,  if  God  ivill  permit  us  so  to  do.  And  this 
 I,  who  write,  had  from  the  Abbot  of  Yallombrosa,  a  religious 
 man  worthy  to  be  trusted,  who  learnt  it  by  inquiry  from 
 the  said  hermit." 
 
 It  is  well  to  turn  from  the  darker  to  the  brighter  aspects, 
 and  to  consider  those  evidences  of  noble  life  and  vital 
 energies  in  which  the  spn'it  of  Catholicism  asserted  its 
 divine  origin,  proclaiming  its  mission  to  sanctify,  its  power 
 to  strengthen  and  console.  That  plant,  destined  for  per- 
 petual growth,  ceased  not  to  bear  fruit  wherever  its 
 majestic  branches  cast  their  refreshing  shade.  The  prin- 
 ciples and  passions  of  the  world,  and  the  weakness  of 
 humanity  are  found,  it  is  true,  there  as  elsewhere.  .  We 
 discover  no  sign  of  infallibility,  no  inerrable  body  or  in- 
 dividual, but  heart-consoling  proofs  are  before  us  of  an 
 indefectible  loyalty  to  the  essential  and  universal  in  the 
 truths  and  morals  of  Christian  origin.  The  abuse  of  excom- 
 munications was  checked  by  the  prohibition  to  pass  any 
 such  sentences  where  pecuniary  interests  alone   were  cou- 
 
 M 
 
162  MEDIiEVAL   OHEISTIATflTT   AN"D 
 
 cerned.  Tlie  evils  which  had  invaded  the  cloister  were 
 provided  against  by  the  requirement  of  the  age  of  fifteen 
 for  monastic  profession,  and  of  a  novitiate  of  at  least  a 
 year  before  the  final  vows  ;  also  by  the  prohibition  to  exact 
 any  payment  from  the  novice  or  postulant.  The  same 
 immunities  claimed  for  the  clergy  and  their  property  were 
 extended  to  the  most  miserable  among  sufferers  from 
 disease,  the  lepers  in  the  lazar-house.  The  power  of  the 
 Church  to  subdue  the  proud  and  humiliate  aristocratic 
 sinners,  for  the  benefit  of  their  guilt-stained  souls,  is  strik- 
 ingly exemplified  in  the  penance  imposed  by  the  Pope 
 (1339)  on  Alberto  and  Mastino  della  Scala  for  the  murder 
 of  their  cousin,  the  Bishop  of  Verona,  whose  blood  both 
 brothers  were  accused  of  being  alike  responsible  for  shed- 
 ding. Eight  days  after  the  absolution  bestowed  by  the  Pope's 
 representative,  the  brothers  were  to  walk  bare-headed,  and 
 clad  in  nothing  but  their  shirts,  each  holding  a  wax  taper 
 weighing  six  pounds,  from  the  city  gate  to  the  cathedral,  a 
 hundred  other  tapers  of  like  weight  being  borne  before 
 them ;  in  the  cathedral  they  were  to  attend  High  Mass, 
 and  afterwards  beg  pardon  of  all  the  Canons.  In  the 
 course  of  the  following  six  months  they  were  to  present 
 to  that  cathedral  a  silver  image,  weight  30  marcs,  of  the 
 Blessed  Virgin,  and  ten  silver  lamps,  each  three  marcs  in 
 weight.  In  the  course  of  the  year  they  were  to  found  in 
 the  same  church  six  chaplaincies,  each  endowed  with 
 twenty  gold  florins  per  annum.  On  the  anniversary  of  the 
 day  that  murder  was  committed  each  brother  was  to  feed 
 and  clothe  twenty  poor  persons.  If  a  general  crusade 
 should  be  undertaken  during  their  lifetime,  they  were  to 
 send  twenty  mounted  warriors  to  Palestine,  and  maintain 
 them  there  for  one  year.  If  they  should  not  live  to 
 see  such  w^ars  for  the  rescue  of  the  Holy  Land,  they  were 
 
SACRED  ART  IX  ITALY.  1G3 
 
 to  charge  their  heirs  to  fulfil  that  obligation  when  the  said 
 crusade  should  occur.* 
 
 In  public  worship  the  increasing  regards  for  the  Virgin 
 Mother  appear  in  the  regulations  of  Gregory  XI.,  that  a 
 vigil  with  fasting  should  precede  the  festival  of  her  nati- 
 vity. The  Invention  (/.  e.  discovery)  and  Exaltation  of 
 the  Cross  were  celebrated  with  increased  solemnity  by 
 that  Pope's  order.  Urban  YI.  instituted  a  festival  of  the 
 "  Visitation  "  of  the  Madonna ;  decreed  that  the  Corpus 
 Domini  festival  should  be  celebrated,  notwithstanding  in- 
 terdicts, in  all  countries,  and  accorded  a  hundred  days'  in- 
 dulgence to  all  who  accompanied  the  Viaticum  from  the 
 church  to  the  house  of  the  sick  communicant  and  back 
 
 The  Eitual  of  the  Latin  Church  has  been  no  more  dis- 
 tinguished by  immutability  than  her  doctrines  and  dis- 
 cipline. A  grand  expression  of  the  devotional  feeling 
 deeply  rooted  in  the  human  heart,  those  majestic  rites 
 were  the  growth  of  ages,  the  product  of  enthusiasm,  senti- 
 ment, and  art.    If  the  Keformation  could  have  been  accom- 
 
 I  plished  without  any  change  in  that  fair  and  stately  fabric 
 of  external  worship,  save  the  excision  of  unbecoming 
 adjuncts  or    superstitious    and   puerile   superfluities,   the 
 
 !  results  would  perhaps  have  been  happier  for  the  religious 
 
 Eohrbacher,   "Ecclesiastical    History." — Muratori  (^AnnoXi)   nar- 
 rates the  circumstances  of  the  murder  so  as  to  represent  Mastino  alone  as 
 the  immediate  author  of  it,  not  mentioning  even  the  presence  of  Alberto. 
 "Such  was  the  furious  spu'it  of  Mastino  at  this  time,"  (namely,  in  1338, 
 after  many  disasters  to  his  political  interests),  "  that  whilst  he  was  riding 
 through  Verona  on  the  27th  April,  with  Azzo  da  Coreggio,  cliancing  to 
 .eet  Bartolomeo  della  Scala,  Bishop  of  that  city,  and  urged  by  mere 
 icion  that  he  had  been  conspiring  against  him,  as  the  Bishop  of 
 ricenza  had  actually  done,  he  (Mastino)  drew  his  sword,  and  with  liis 
 iwn  hand  slew  him.    For  this  crime  Benedict  XII.  proceeded  against 
 lim  with  the  most  rigorous  censures." 
 
 M   2 
 
IG'i  MEDIEVAL    CHRISTIANITY   AND 
 
 interests  and  concord  of  Christendom.  In  some  respects, 
 however,  this  worship,  beautiful  and  deeply  significant  as 
 it  still  is,  has  degenerated  from  its  own  highest  standard. 
 E-eviewing  it,  as  shown  by  liturgical  writers  to  have  once 
 been,  we  perceive  a  gradual  departure  from  the  patriarchal 
 dignity  and  venerable  graciousness  which  characterized  it 
 of  old.  On  the  one  hand,  it  is  a  development,  unlike  in- 
 deed, yet  still  true  to,  the  norma  of  the  primitive  Church  ; 
 on  the  other,  an  offspring  and  expression  of  the  temporal 
 power  and  grandeur  of  the  Holy  See.  Influences  whose 
 eff'ect  is  to  unspiritualize,  have  not  exalted  but  degraded  ; 
 and  the  introduction  of  the  pomp  and  etiquette  of  the 
 Papal  Court  into  the  sanctuary,  is  the  profanation  of  Catholic 
 worship.  No  religious  ceremonies  can  have  their  desirable 
 effect  on  the  mind,  unless  they  correspond  to  a  sense  of 
 the  infinite  and  celestial ;  failing  in  this,  they  are  but  a 
 mask  for  earthly  vanities.* 
 
 The  manner  in  which  the  Eoman  Pontiffs  presented 
 themselves  to  their  people  in  former  times  was  more 
 paternal  and  familiar,  therefore  more  apostolic,  than  the 
 ostentatious  reserve  and  environment  of  half-military,  half- 
 prelatic  state  into  which  they  have  since  withdrawn.  We 
 cannot  suppose  the  Papal  High  Mass  in  the  XIV.  century 
 to  have  been,  as  at  the  present  day,  the  least  devotional, 
 with  respect  to  the  comportment  of  those  attending — 
 we  cannot  say  worshipping — among  all  great  ecclesiastical 
 celebrations  at  Eome. 
 
 *  "  II  n'est  pas  vrai  (says  Madame  de  Stael)  que  la  religion  protestante 
 soit  depourvue  de  poesie,  parceque  les  pratiques  du  culte  y  out  nioins 
 d'eclat  que  dans  la  religion  cathoiique.  Des  ceremonies  plus  ou  moins 
 bien  executees,  selon  la  richesse  des  villes  et  la  magnificence  des 
 edifices,  ne  sauraient  etre  la  cause  principale  de  I'impression  que  produit 
 le  service  divin  ;  ce  sont  ses  rapports  avec  nos  sentiments  interieurs  qui  i 
 nous  emeuvent,  rapports  qui  peuvent  exister  dans  la  simplicite  comma  j 
 dans  la  pompe." 
 
SACRED  AHT  IN  ITALY.  1G5 
 
 "WTiat,  we  may  ask,  were  formerly  the  observances  of 
 the  season  pre-eminent  for  ritual  splendour  and  attractions 
 at  this  centre  ?   The  Holy  Week  and  Easter  were,  in  many 
 particulars,  very  different  from  the  present  norma  of  their 
 celebration  in  S.  Peter's  and  the  Sistine  chapel.     On  Palm 
 Sunday  the  Pope  himself  sung  the  High  Mass,  instead  of 
 merely  "  assisting,"  as  he  does  now  ;  and  in  the  palm-bear- 
 ing procession  he  was  not  carried  on  a  portative  throne, 
 but  walked  under  a  canopy,  supported  by  four  noblemen, 
 to  a  window  or  arch  of  the  portico,  from  which  he  threw 
 down  the  blessed  palms,  or  olive  branches,  among  the  people. 
 On  Holy  Thursday  he  washed  the   feet   of  twelve   sub- 
 deacons,   and   gave   to   each   two   solidi.     If,   however,  a 
 Patriarch  had  to  officiate  instead  of  the  Pope,  that  dignitary 
 would  wash  the  feet  of  twelve  veritably  poor  men  in  the 
 appointed  chapel.     The  Pontiff  himself  preached,  among 
 his  other  duties,  on  that  Thursday  ;  and  besides  the  blessing 
 of  the  sacramental  oils,  a  singular  observance  took  place  at 
 the  Lateran,  manifesting  the  intent  to  appropriate  some- 
 thing of  the  ancient  Jewish  together  with  the  Christian 
 ritual.     During  the   sermon  certain  Cardinal  Deacons  re- 
 moved the  mensa  and  front  of  the  high  altar,  so  as  to  allow 
 ingress  into  an  ancient  sanctuary,  where  was  deposited  a 
 glass  vessel  containing  a  small  golden  vase,  the  latter  con- 
 taining  a  precious    gem,   within   which   was    set   a   relic 
 believed   to   be   the   real  Blood  of  the  E-edeemer.     This 
 cimpoUa  was  taken   from   its  place  and   exhibited  to  the 
 people  by  the  Pope,  who,  on  this  sole  occasion  annually, 
 entered  into  the  thrice-sacred  penetralia,  there  completed 
 the  ceremonies  of  the  Mass,  and  incensed  the  Eucharistic 
 species — "  according  (says  one  writer)  to  the  rite  of  the 
 Ancient  Testament,  which  permitted  to  the  Pligh   Priest 
 alone,  and  but  once  a  year,  the  ingress  into   the  Sancta 
 Sanctorum."      The    affecting    and    impressive    usage    of 
 
166  MEDIEVAL    CHRISTIANITY   AND 
 
 publicly  reconciling  penitents  to  the  Cliurcli,  after  long 
 penances  publicly  performed,  on  this  day,  was  kept  up  at 
 least  during  the  first  half  of  this  century.     Three  (in  some 
 churches  four,  in  others  five)  masses  were  performed  by 
 the   same  celebrant,  the  first  adapted   to  the   occasion   of 
 reconciling  those  who  had  not  been  allowed  even  to  attend 
 sacred  rites,  but  been  required  to  do  penance  outside  of 
 the  church,  since  the  previous  Ash  "Wednesday.    They  now 
 made  their  appearance  clad  in  sackcloth,  bare-footed,  their 
 heads  strewn  with  ashes  ;  a  deacon  presented  them  to  the 
 Pope  ;  an  archdeacon  prayed  him  to  accept  and  obtain  for 
 them,  through  his  prayers,  restitution  to  the  Divine  favour. 
 (Bedintegra  in  eis,  apostolice  Fontifex,  quicq^uid,  Diaholo 
 suade7ite,  corrwptiim  est,  et  orationum  tuarum  patrocinantihus 
 meritis per  divined  reconciliationis  gratiamfac  hominem proxi- 
 mumBeo,  Sfc.)  At  the  gates  of  the  church  the  Pontiff  absolved 
 them  with  various  prayers  and  antiphons  ;  all  the  bells 
 were  rung  for  the  last  time  till  the  ensuing  Saturday  ;  and 
 the  penitents  thenceforth  took  their  place  among  worship- 
 pers, admitted  to  the  same  spiritual  privileges.    (Maringola, 
 Anticiuit^  Christian.   Institutiones ;   and  the  Or^o  of  Gae- 
 tani  in  Mabillon.)     On  that  Thursday  in  Holy  "Week  the 
 Pontiff  gave  largess,  in  the  chapel  of  S.  Sylvester  at  the 
 Lateran,   to  the    Cardinals  and    Prelates,  who,    kneeling 
 before  him,  severally  received  a  sum  of  money  in  the  mitre 
 held  in  the  hand,  the  money  being  first  presented  to  the 
 Pope  by  a  chamberlain  in  a  silver  spoon.     After  this,  his 
 Holiness   entertained   the    Cardinals    and   any  sovereign 
 Prince  who  might  be  in  Eome,  at  a  grand  banquet,  he  him- 
 self being  seated  at  a  table  higher  than  the  rest,  with  large 
 vessels  of  silver  and  gold  before  him.     The  first  noblemen 
 present  in  the  Curia  served  the  Pope  to  the  first  dish,  and 
 afterwards  served  the  Cardinals  alike,  acting  as  carvers, 
 waiters,  cupbearers,  during  the  whole  time  of  this  banquet, 
 
SACKED    Airr    IN    ITALY.  1G7 
 
 at  which  the  ecclesiastical  dignitaries  sat  in  their  sacred  vest- 
 ments, and  with  mitres  on  ;  the  Pope  sat  vested  in  crimson 
 (niantum  ruheum.)     If  a  King  were  present,  he  served  the 
 Pope  to  the  first  dish,  before  taking  his  seat  at  table  between 
 the  two  senior  Cardinal  Deacons.    All  the  Court  Chaplains 
 were  entertained  splendidly  that  day  by  the  Chief  Cham- 
 berlain.    No  woman,  not  even  an  Empress  or  Qneen,  could 
 dine  with  the  Pope.     On  the  Friday,  Saturday,  and  Easter 
 Sunday,  the  Papal  benediction  was  twice  given  to  the  as- 
 sembled people  from  a  w^indow  or  loggia.     On  the  first  of 
 those  days,  Grood  Friday,  the  procession  with  lights  and 
 incense,  in  which  the  Pontifi"  walked  to  the   illuminated 
 shrine,  where  the  Host  had  been  reserved  since  the  previous 
 day,  was  developed  into  the  form  in  which  it  has  been  since 
 retained,  after  the  ceremony  of  the  Adoration  of  the  Cross, 
 in  this  century,  and  by  John  XXII,  ;  though  the  origin  of 
 that  usage, —  the  reservation  of  the  holy  Eucharist  in  one 
 kind  for  the  "  Mass  of  the  Presanctified,"  in  which  there  i» 
 no  consecration,  on  Grood  Friday, — is  known  to  be  far  more 
 ancient.*     On  Holy  Saturday  the  Pope  frequently  ordained 
 the  candidates  for  major  and  minor  Orders,  or  consecrated 
 new  Cardinals,  instead  of  leaving  those  long  offices,  as  at 
 present,  to  the  Cardinal  Yicar.f  On  Easter  Sunday,  he  rode 
 
 *  It  is  mentioned  in  the  Sacramentary  of  S.  Gregory,  though  without 
 the  accompanying  solemnities  later  introduced  ;  as  is  also  that  pathetic 
 observance  called  the  Adoration  of  the  Cross.  In  ancient  times  the  Pope 
 and  all  the  Clergy  walked  bare-footed,  and  reciting  the  seven  penitential 
 psalms,  to  the  S.  Croce  basilica  on  this  day ;  and  multitudes  of  pious 
 people  used  to  visit  the  principal  churches,  walking  through  Rome's 
 streets  bare-footed.  The  communion,  now  withheld,  used  to  be  given  to 
 all  who  desired  on  that  most  solemn  anniversary,  which  is  no  longer 
 even  honoured  by  the  suspense  of  orduiary  business  in  Rome — kept  as  a 
 day  of  devotion,  but  not  of  prece^^i. 
 
 t  The  striking  of  the  new  fire  from  flint  on  this  day  and  the  blessing 
 of  tliat  element  afterwards,  used  to  take  place  every  day  in  several 
 churches  ;  in  others,  every  Saturday.     The  beautiful  formulii  for  the 
 
168  MEDIJ^VAL    CnillSTIANITT    AND 
 
 in  procession,  vested  pontifically,  and  wearing  the  tiara, 
 to  S.  Maria  Maggiore,  and  on  the  way  was  met  by  a  cleric 
 (the  Scriniarius,  which  we  may  translate,  "  Master  of  the 
 [Rolls "),  who,  after  asking;for  his  blessing,  informed  his  Holi- 
 ness that  on  the  Saturday  previous  so  many  persons,  males 
 and  females,  had  been  baptized  at  S.  Maria  Maggiore — the 
 Pope  answering,  "  Deo  gratias."  Approaching  the  high 
 altar  of  the  basilica  with  processional  pomp,  in  which  his 
 Holiness  walked  under  a  canopy,  he  received  a  reed  with  a 
 lighted  taper  at  the  end,  and  set  fire  to  fiax  placed  on  the 
 capitals  of  certain  columns  in  the  chancel — probably  an  in- 
 tended memento  of  the  transitoriness  of  all  earthly  state 
 and  splendours,  like  the  similar  usage  still  kept  up  at  the 
 Papal  Coronation  with  the  thrice-chanted  formula,  "  Sic 
 transit  gloria  mundi."  At  the  Pontific  rites,  on  this  supreme 
 festival,  all  of  whatever  degree,  clerics  and  laics,  high  and 
 low,  rich  and  poor,  might  receive  communion,  and  in  both 
 kinds,  from  the  hands  of  the  Pope,  assisted  by  a  Cardinal 
 Deacon.*  The  butlers  of  the  Papal  palace  were  ordered  to 
 supply  three  or  four  quarts  of  the  choicest  wine  (vioii  puri 
 et  optimi)  for  this  general  Communion,  without  the  mutila- 
 tion of  that  holiest  of  Sacraments  by  which  the  Koman 
 
 Messing  of  the  Paschal  candle  has  been  attributed  to  Pope  Zosimus 
 (417-418),  by  some  writers  to  still  earlier  orig:in.  Martene  [Be  Antiq. 
 Ecclesia  Disciplina)  considers  that,  in  all  probability,  S.  Augustine  com- 
 posed the  Exultet — that  formula  of  benediction  which,  though  not  in 
 metre,  has  characteristics  of  the  noblest  poetry. 
 
 *  "  Omnis  homo  cujuscumque  conditionis  et  status  existat,  qui  sit  vere 
 confessus  et  vere  poenitus  corde  contritus,  plebani  vel  alterius  majoris — 
 hodie  potest  recipere  Corpus  Christi  de  manibus  Papge. — Diaconus  re- 
 manet  in  altare  tenendo  cum  manu  sinistra  calicem  et  cum  manu  dextra 
 tistulum,  cum  qua  dat  ad  bibendum  omnibus  qui  communicaverint  de 
 manu  Papse  de  Christi  Sauguine,  dicendo  cuilibet,  Sangtiis  Domini 
 nostri  Jesu  Christi,  ^c."  (P.Amelius,  Ordo  Roman.)  It  appears  from 
 this  that  the  consecrated  Host  was  given  by  the  Pope,  the  sacramental 
 wine  by  the  assistant  Cardinal  Deacon,  to  all  communicants — probably 
 to  save  fatigue  to  his  Holiness, 
 
SACRED    ART    IN    ITALY.  IHO 
 
 Church  has  since  so  compromised  herself  in  the  eyes  of 
 myriads  of  Christians.  Finally,  the  Pontiff  passed  with  a 
 splendid  procession  to  the  portico  or  loggia  for  the  benedic- 
 tion,— described  with  full  details,  though  nothing  is  said  by 
 writers  of  this  period  about  the  portative  throne  or  JlahcUa 
 — those  fans  of  ostrich  feathers  with  peacocks'  eyes,  the 
 use  of  which  for  the  natural  purpose  of  chasing  flies  from 
 the  chalice,  and  cooling  the  air  around  the  altar,  was  dis- 
 continued, it  seems,  in  this  century.*  On  Easter  Sunday 
 the  Clerics  of  "  Camera,"  the  Penitentiaries  of  the  Vatican, 
 and  even  the  Acolytes,  all  dined  with  the  Pope.  Hospitali- 
 ties on  a  smaller  scale  were  offered  before  the  vespers  of 
 that  sacred  day.  All  who  had  eminent  places  in  the  sanc- 
 tuary went  from  S.  Peter's  to  the  neighbouring  church  of 
 >S'.  Andrea  ad  Cntcem  (no  longer  extant),  where,  after  sing- 
 ing certain  antiphons,  they  were  invited  by  a  lay  ofiicial  to 
 an  adjacent  chamber,  and  there  helped  three  times  to  wine 
 of  three  different  kinds — the  first  G-reek,  the  second  called 
 pacfisis,  the  third  procoma  or  procovia.  (Galletti,  Del  Pri- 
 micerio  della  Santa  Sede.)  Other  manifestations  of  the 
 bountiful  spirit  of  the  mediaeval  Church  were  interwoven 
 wdth  the  complicated  rites  of  the  installation  of  new  Popes 
 at  the  Lateran.  His  Holiness  was  seated  successively  on 
 two  antique  porphyry  chairs,  and  girt  -with  a  zone  of  red 
 silk,  from  which  hung  a  purple  silk  purse,  containing  musk 
 and  twelve  precious  stones  cut  like  seals  (cam  sigiUis.) 
 Three  times  he  threw  silver  coins  (denarii)  among  the 
 people,  reciting  the  text  :  Dispersif^  dedit  pauperihus ; 
 juatitia  ejus  manet  in  sceculum  sceculi. 
 
 *  "  L'usiige  du /abeZZwj/i  subsiste  encore  obex  les  Grecs  et  les  Aniie- 
 niens  ;  il  a  disparu  de  I'Eglise  Romaine  des  le  quatorzieme  sioclo, 
 c'cst-a-dire  depuis  Tepoque  de  la  supprcssiou  de  bx  coiimiunion  sous  les 
 <lcux  especes,  et  n'a  ete  conserve  que  par  le  souverain  ])ontii'e  qui  fait 
 porter  devant  lui  deux  grands  eventails  en  plumes  de  paon  dans  ks 
 soleuuites." — Martigny,  Diction,  des  Antiq.  ChrUiennes. 
 
170  MEDLEY AL    CnRISTIANITT    AND 
 
 Turning  now  to  the  penitential  season — and  penances 
 were  in  tliese  times  a  reality,  in  which  pontiffs  and  paupers 
 alike  performed  their  part — we  shall  see  the  successor  of 
 S.  Peter  walking  barefooted  on  Ash  Wednesday  from  S. 
 Anastasia  (below  the  north-west  angle  of  the  Palatine), 
 where  he  had  received  and  given  the  ashes  strewn  on  the 
 head,  first  to  S.  Maria  in  Cosmedin,  under  the  Aventine, 
 and  thence  to  S.  Sabina  on  the  steep  summit  of  that  mount, 
 at  both  which  churches  the  "  Stations"  were  held  (as  they 
 are  still)  on  the  first  day  of  Lent.  On  the  fourth  Sunday 
 of  that  fasting-season,  the  Pope  blessed  in  the  sacristy  of 
 his  chapel  the  Grolden  Eose  (a  usage  still  kept  up)  ;  and, 
 carrying  that  symbol  in  his  hand,  rode  from  the  Lateran 
 Palace  to  S.  Croce,  where  he  celebrated  mass  and  preached, 
 still  holding  the  precious  Eose  in  his  hand,  and  usually 
 descanting  on  its  mystic  significance  in  his  sermon.* 
 Eeturning  on  horseback  to  his  palace,  he  immediately 
 bestowed  the  Eose  either  on  the  noblest  person  present  or 
 on  any  other  individual  as  he  might  please  ;  first  saying  a 
 few  words  on  the  religious  value  of  the  symbol,  and  after 
 its  bestowal  receiving  homage  from  the  favoured  person, 
 who  knelt  and  kissed  his  foot — as  even  royalty  would  be 
 required  to  do  after  being  honoured  by  that  gift  of  the 
 Eose  (osculatur  pedem  Papce,  dato  etiam  quod  esset  rex) . 
 
 Most  curious  among  the  observances  of  Holy  Thursday 
 was  one  which  has  been  expunged  from  the  rubrics  for  that 
 day  :  the  public  and  general  excommunication  of  heretics 
 and  heinous  offenders — the  processus,  as  it  was  called,  which 
 took  place  three  times  in  the  year — namely,  in  the  Holy 
 Week,  on  Ascension  Day,  and  on  the  Peast  of  the  Dedica- 
 
 *  Precious,  according  to  liturgical  writers,  for  three  properties, — 
 "  Quae  habet  colorem  gaudiosum,  odorem  confortativum,  aspectum  Iseti- 
 ficum."  For  the  origin  of  the  Golden  Rose  and  its  symbolism,  see  pre- 
 ceding Tolume,  p.  130. 
 
SACEED  AET  IN  ITALY.  l7l 
 
 cation  of  S.  Peter's.  The  Pope,  all  the  Cardinals  and 
 Prelates,  assembled  in  S.  Peter's  or  the  Lateran,  where 
 His  Holiness,  in  crimson  vestments,  and  wearing  a  mitre 
 studded  with  pearls,  ascended  a  platform,  and  after  receiv- 
 ing homage,  as  usual,  from  all  those  dignitaries,  said  some 
 words  in  the  vulgar  tongue  (in  viilgari)  on  the  subject  of 
 the  anathemas  about  to  be  passed.  The  processus  was  read 
 aloud  in  Latin  by  a  Chaplain  ;  afterwards  was  translated, 
 either  in  its  totality  or  substance,  by  a  Cardinal  Deacon  in 
 white  vestments,  and  with  mitred  head.  The  Pope  usually 
 preached,  after  this,  from  a  pulpit,  where  a  Bishop  and  two 
 Deacons  attended  him,  and  in  this  longer  discourse  declared 
 that  he  approved  and  ratified  those  anathemas.  At  the 
 end  of  his  sermon  he  threw  down  several  burning  torches 
 to  be  extinguished  on  the  pavement ;  the  Cardinals  each 
 threw  down  a  single  torch ;  all  this  passing  in  silence,  to 
 which  succeeded  a  discordant  peal  of  bells  rung  without 
 harmony  or  order.  The  ministering  Deacon  then  took  off 
 his  mitre  and  chanted  the  "  confiteor  ;"  the  Pope  again 
 addressed  the  people  in  a  few  words,  setting  forth  the 
 clemency  of  the  Church  to  the  obedient  and  her  just 
 severity  to  the  incredulous  and  obdurate,  after  which  he 
 closed  the  rites  with  his  benediction  and  the  granting  of 
 an  indulgence.  The  common  processus,  never  omitted,  was 
 launched  against  heretics,  pirates,  the  forgers  of  bulls, 
 those  who  held  forbidden  traffic  with  Saracens,  rulers  who 
 imposed  new  taxes,  and  those  who  impeded  travellers  on 
 their  way  to  Eome.  The  famous  bull,  In  Coena  Domini, 
 was  produced,  to  be  read  on  this  Thursday,  as  dra^vn  up  in 
 its  broader  outlines  and  general  bearings,  by  Grregory  XI., 
 1372  ;  afterwards  renewed  by  Gregory  XII.,  IJ^ll,  and 
 amplified  by  Pius  Y.,  1568.  It  was  finally  suppressed  by 
 Clement  XIV.,  not  long  after  its  publication  had  been 
 prohibited  (1708)  in  Prance,  Spain,  the  Neapolitan  States, 
 
172  MEDIAEVAL    CHEISTIANITY    AND 
 
 and  Parma,  in  consequence  of  the  dissensions  between 
 those  Grovernments  and  that  Pope's  predecessor,  Clement 
 XIII. 
 
 The  association  of  charities  with  devotions  is  one  of 
 the  general  characteristics  of  the  Eoman  Church,  and 
 among  the  best  results  that  spring  from  her  ritualistic 
 practice.  After  the  E-equiem  High  Mass  annually  cele- 
 brated by  the  Pope  for  the  souls  of  his  predecessors  and  of 
 all  Cardinals,  he  used  to  feed  two  hundred  poor  persons, 
 and  each  Cardinal  to  extend  the  same  charity  to  twenty - 
 five  paupers.  Alexander  TV.  ordered  that,  after  the  death 
 of  the  Pope,  each  Cardinal  should  celebrate  a  Kequiem 
 Mass,  and  feed  fifty  poor  persons  ;  that  after  the  death  of 
 every  Cardinal,  the  Pope,  and  all  others  of  the  sacred 
 college,  should  perform  the  same  rites  for  the  departed 
 soul ;  the  Pontiff  feed  two  hundred,  the  Cardinals  each 
 twenty-five  paupers.  Oblations,  of  various  kinds,  were 
 still  off*ered  at  the  altar,  or  at  the  Papal  throne,  during 
 this  century ;  and  those  gifts  brought  by  pious  persons  on 
 festivals  were  a  perquisite  of  the  Chaplains  of  "  Camera," 
 excepting  the  bread  and  wine  so  offered,  which  pertained 
 to  the  acolytes. 
 
 Not  only  the  hospitalities  of  the  table,  but  the  edifica- 
 tions of  the  pulpit,  have  been,  the  latter  to  great  extent, 
 the  former  totally,  dropped  by  the  modern  practice  of  the 
 Curia — except,  indeed,  the  symbolic  banquet  to  the  thirteen 
 deacons,  who  are  waited  on  by  the  Pope  on  Holy  Thursday. 
 Popes  used  to  preach  on  several  occasions  in  old  times ; 
 Cardinals  very  often  in  the  Papal  and  the  popular  presence. 
 G-radually  that  task  was  assigned  to  abbots  and  prelates 
 rather  than  to  others  still  higher ;  but  the  sermon  before 
 the  Pontiff",  his  Court,  and  the  assembled  people,  seems  to 
 have  been  at  least  tenfold  more  frequent  in  the  XIV. 
 than  it  is  in  the  XIX.  century.     Alike  has  the  disinte- 
 
SACRED  ART  IN  ITALY.  173 
 
 grating  process  been  manifest  in  the  range  of  other  religious 
 duties  discharged  by  the  crowned  High  Priests.  For  one 
 High  Mass  celebrated  by  them  in  modern  times,  there  were 
 about  twelve  occasions  when  they  so  officiated  in  public 
 formerly.  They  familiarly  showed  themselves  as  fathers 
 and  chief  pastors  among  their  people,  without  being  re- 
 quired to  undergo  those  fatigues  of  cumbrous  ceremonial, 
 on  account  of  which,  and  in  consideration  for  infirmities  or 
 old  age,  it  has  been  deemed  necessary,  to  limit  such  public 
 solemnities  at  the  altar  to  but  three  Papal  High  Masses  in 
 the  year!*  The  Avignon  exile,  among  its  other  sinister 
 consequences,  led  to  the  withdrawal  of  pontific  rites  and 
 Papal  personality  into  the  narrow  limits  of  palace-chapels, 
 instead  of  the  stately  basilica  or  cathedral.  The  castellated 
 palace  at  Avignon,  commenced  by  Benedict  XII.,  and 
 finished  by  Urban  V.,  was  the  first  scene  of  those  restricted 
 celebrations  before  court-circles  ;  and  Urban  Y.,  during  his 
 sojourn  of  three  years  in  Italy,  is  supposed  to  have  been 
 the  first  Pope  to  introduce  at  Eome  the  "  Cappella  Papale" 
 at  the  Vatican,  instead  of  the  ceremonial  on  a  grander 
 scale  and  in  a  more  spacious  arena.f 
 
 Apart  from  the  solemnities  of  the  sanctuary,  there  were 
 the  genial  and  pleasant  festivities  of  popular  origin  and 
 observance,  common  to  every  old  city  and  almost  every 
 village  of  this  land,  in  which  the  religious  sentiment  also 
 expressed  itself,  and  the  happy  facility  with  which  Catho- 
 licism unites  and  harmonises  devotion  -wdth  innocent 
 amusement,  was  most  picturesquely  displayed.     At  Milan, 
 
 *  For  the  ritual  of  the  XIV.  century,  see  the  Ordx)  Romanus  com- 
 piled by  Cardinal  Jacopo  Gaetani,  nephew  to  Boniface  VIII.  ;  and 
 another  Ordo  ascribed  to  Peter  Amelius,  the  Bishop  of  Senigallia, 
 whose  Latin  poem  on  the  journey  of  Gregory  XI.  is  above  referred  to  ; 
 both  edited  by  Mabillon,  Museum  Italicum. 
 
 t  Moroni,  Dizionario,  v.  iii.,  "  Orif4ine  dellc  Cappcllc  Papali." 
 
1^4  MEDIEVAL    CnRISTIAl!nTY    AND 
 
 all  the  dependant  comuni^  were  required  to  send  their 
 representatives,  with  the  local  standard,  on  the  festival  of 
 the  birth  of  Mary  (8th  September)  ;  and  on  the  festival  of 
 S.  Ambrose  (7th  December)  was  presented  at  the  altar  of 
 that  Saint,  in  his  venerable  basilica,  an  enormous  offering 
 of  flowers,  herbs,  ripe  grapes,  and  vine-branches,  all  in 
 wax-work.  The  statutes  of  Modena  prescribed  that  on 
 the  festival  of  S.  G-eminiano  one  member  of  every  family 
 in  the  State  should  repair  to  that  city  with  a  wax-torch  for 
 off'ering,  and  remain  there  till  the  next  morning ;  and  that 
 every  comune  governed  by  its  own  magistrates  should  send 
 its  banner,  followed  by  the  men  of  the  town  or  village,  for 
 the  same  anniversary,  to  the  capital.  At  Eerrara,  every 
 subject  of  the  State  with  a  fortune  above  one  hundred  lire 
 was  required  to  offer  a  wax  taper  on  the  morning  of  the 
 vigil  of  S.  Greorge's  day.  At  Monte  Catino,  near  Pistoja, 
 the  church-bells  were  rung  by  the  women  during  the  whole 
 of  S.  Mark's  day,  in  commemoration  of  the  recovery  of 
 the  civic  liberties  on  the  same  festival,  whilst  the  clergy 
 went  in  procession,  chanting  litanies,  to  the  parish-church 
 of  Nievole,  in  the  valley  below  that  little  town  high  on  the 
 romantic  Apennines.  In  the  same  town  prevailed  the 
 usage  of  blessing  the  flesh  of  lambs  and  baskets  fall  of 
 bread,  by  the  celebrating  priest,  on  the  morning  of  Easter, 
 and  of  generously  distributing  those  viands  to  all  who 
 desired  a  share  in  them  during  the  same  sacred  day.f  The 
 splendid  and  various  celebrations  and  amusements  for  S. 
 John's  day  at  Elorence  are  well  known,  having  been  main- 
 tained, at  least  in  many  of  their  attractive  forms,  till  our 
 own  time,  nor  finally  suppressed  till  after  the  fall  of  the 
 
 *  "  Commonwealth"  is,  I  believe,  the  best  rendering  of  this  term,  as 
 adopted  by  Mr.  Trollope  in  his  admirable  and  most  interesting  History 
 of  Florence. 
 
 t  Cantu,  Storia  degli  Italiani,  c.  cxxiii. 
 
SACREB  AET  IN  ITALY.  175 
 
 grand-ducal  government.*  S.  Peter  at  Eomc,  S.  Januarius 
 at  Naples,  S.  Eosalia  at  Palermo,  are  still  honoured  with 
 almost  undiminished  splendours  of  olden  usage.  The  gay 
 and  gorgeous  festivities  of  Venice,  associated  with,  even  if 
 not  emanating  from,  religious  observances,  were  kept  up  in 
 all  their  genial  and  glowing  liveliness  till  the  fall  of  that 
 Kepublic.  During  the  last  century,  at  least,  those  brilliant 
 scenes  used  to  be  enacted  according  to  ancient  precedents 
 in  the  fair  Adriatic  city.  On  Ascension  Day,  the  Doge, 
 with  all  the  pomp  and  attendance  of  his  office,  threw  the 
 ring,  for  the  espousals  of  the  sea,  from  the  gilded  bucentaur 
 into  the  waters  off  the  Lido ;  and  on  the  same  day  went 
 with  the  whole  personnel  of  State  for  the  magnificent  cele- 
 brations, to  the  church  of  S.  Sebastian.  A  fair  in  the  S. 
 Mark's  piazza,  continued  for  fifteen  days  after  that  festival, 
 was  made  the  occasion  of  a  second  Carnival  with  the  mas- 
 querading gaieties  of  a  pleasure-loving  people.  For  the 
 picture  of  Venice,  its  public  and  private  life  in  the  XVIII. 
 century,  the  writings  of  Grasparo  Grozzi  (1713-86)  supply 
 all  we  can  desire. 
 
 In  worship  and  ritual  we  learn  the  sentiment  of  Catho- 
 licism ;  in  the  lives  of  saints,  the  eftects  of  its  teaching. 
 The  purifying  and  consoling  influences  of  an  all-dominant 
 religion  are  apparent  in  many  passages  of  Italian  Hagio- 
 graphy ;  but  in  some  instances  we  perceive  the  signs  of 
 perverted  notions  and  misguided  piety — 
 
 Pain,  mixed  with  pity,  in  our  bosoms  rise — 
 
 as  we  consider  some  of  these  extraordinary  histories  of 
 individual  life. 
 
 Conspicuous  in  ecclesiastical  and  political  history  is  the 
 young  girl,  daughter  of  a  dyer  at  Siena,  and  without  any 
 
 *  These  I  have  described  in  a  former  volume— "  Catholic  Italy," 
 V.  11. 
 
176  MEDliEVAL    CHRISTIANITY    AKD 
 
 education  but  what  slie  gave  herself,  who  died  at  E-ome  in 
 her  thirty-third  year,  1380,  and  was  canonized  by  Pius  II., 
 1461.  Pervid  devotion,  the  spirit  of  self-sacrifice,  strength 
 of  will,  and  the  sense  of  a  mystic  vocation  exalted  her  into 
 a  veritable  hero  of  the  Church.  Yet,  with  all  that  excites 
 love  and  reverence  in  her  character,  there  is  not,  I  believe, 
 any  written  life  of  a  virtuous  or  superior  person  so  painful 
 to  read  as  that  of  S.  Catherine  of  Siena.  To  assume  that 
 self-inflicted  and  arbitrary  suffering  is  the  best  means  of 
 effecting  the  elevation  of  our  being  and  promoting  the  soul's 
 alliance  with  the  Infinite,  is  to  distort  the  ideal  of  religious 
 vocation;  and  it  is  injurious  to  the  majesty  of  Grod  to 
 suppose  that  He  desires  from  us  any  service  which  does 
 not  conduce  to  our  own  perfectionment.  A  morbid  ex- 
 aggeration of  the  ascetic  theory  characterises  the  whole 
 life  of  this  saint ;  and  it  is  difficult  to  sever  the  credible 
 reality  from  the  mists  of  colouring  legend  by  which  most 
 passages  of  her  history  are  surrounded.  We  possess  a  very 
 curious  memoir  of  her  by  her  father  confessor,  Padre 
 Raimondo  da  Capua,  a  learned  Dominican.  Many  parti- 
 culars in  his  pages  lead  us  to  suppose  that  she  was  epilep- 
 tic, or  under  continual  hallucinations,  believing  as  realities 
 things  that  were  the  off'spring  of  imagination,  and  intending 
 to  observe  mortifications  beyond  all  human  endurance. 
 We  are  told  that  she  had  frequent  and  intimate  conversa- 
 tions with  Christ  in  person,  and  that,  on  one  of  those 
 mysterious  visits,  He  accepted  her,  from  the  Virgin  Mother, 
 as  His  spouse,  in  presence  of  Mary,  S.  John  the  Evangelist, 
 S.  Paul,  S.  Dominick,  and  King  David,  who  played  upon 
 his  harp  to  celebrate  the  event ;  that,  while  in  extasy  after 
 communion,  at  Pisa,  she  beheld  the  Saviour  on  the  cross, 
 and  received  (like  S.  Francis)  the  stigmas  inflicted  on  her 
 person  by  rays  of  light  from  the  Crucified,  but  which 
 mysterious  wounds  remained,  like  the  jewelled  ring  given 
 
SACRED    ART    IN    ITALY.  177 
 
 to  her  by  the  Divine  spouse,  invisible  to  all  save  herself!* 
 We  are  told  that  she  abstained  from  all  food,  except  the 
 holy  Eucharist,  during  several  years,  after  for  some  years 
 living  on  raw  herbs  alone,  and  had  so  completely  van- 
 quished sleep  that  half-an-hour  of  that  refreshment  sufficed 
 for  her  during  two  days  and  nights  ;  that  she  wore  an  iron 
 chain  round  her  body,  which  actually  forced  its  way  into 
 her  tortured  flesh,  causing  continual  and  exhausting  per- 
 spirations, nor  ever  removed  till  she  lay  on  her  deathbed  ; 
 also  that  she  used  to  scourge  herself  till  the  blood  flowed 
 down  to  her  feet  three  times  every  day,  each  time  for  an 
 hour  and  a  half;  the  first  of  those  penances  Sot  her  own 
 sins,  the  second  for  all  the  living,  the  third  for  souls  in 
 purgatory.f  The  theological  idea  implied  in  this,  the 
 saint's  own  theory  as  to  the  efficaciousness  of  her  penances, 
 need  not  be  criticized  here.  Does  it  promise  the  fruit  of 
 Christian  humility  ?  In  early  childhood  she  made  a  tow 
 of  celibacy,  after  having  beheld,  as  she  thought,  a  vision  of 
 Christ  in  glory  amidst  apostles  and  angels  hovering  over 
 
 *  Cesare  Cantu,  hesitating  between  belief  and  rational  doubt,  says  : 
 "  Christ  in  a  vision  offered  to  her  the  choice  between  a  crown  of  gold 
 and  a  crown  of  thorns  ;  and  because  she  took  the  latter  and  pressed  it 
 down  upon  her  head,  desiring  to  resemble  Him,  He  gave  her  His  own 
 side  to  suck.  On  another  occasion  He  exchanged  her  heart  with  His  own. 
 Such  and  other  marvels  are  narrated  to  us  by  her  'confessor,  Raimondo 
 di  Capua,  who  long  doubted  whether  these  were  not  hallucinations  of 
 devout  fantasy,  till  the  time  when  he  saw  the  youthful  countenance  of 
 Catherine  transform  itself  into  that  of  the  Redeemer  Himself  !" — Storia 
 degli  Italiani,  c.  cxvii. 
 
 t  The  Bull  of  canonization  adopts  statements  somewhat  less  incredi- 
 ble :  that  she  once  abstained  from  all  food  (except  the  sacramental) 
 between  Ash  Wednesday  and  Ascension  Day  ;  and  during  eight  years 
 lived  upon  the  juice  of  herbs,  taken  in  small  quantities  daily  ;  that  she 
 slept  rarely  more  than  two  in  the  twenty-four  hours,  Sec.  Pius  11.  pays 
 her  this  tribute  of  respect,  eloquent  in  its  brief  simplicity,  that  "  no  one 
 ever  approached  her  without  coming  wiser  and  better  from  her  presence" 
 
178  MEDIEVAL    CHRISTIANITY    AND 
 
 the  Dominican  church  at  Siena.*  Instead  of  quietly 
 attending  to  home  duties,  she  would  rush  into  the  street 
 whenever  she  saw  a  Dominican  friar  pass,  and  kiss  tlio 
 ground  trod  by  his  footsteps.  In  her  eighteenth  year  she 
 joined  the  Order  of  Dominican  Tertiaries,  called  "  Sisters 
 of  Penitence,"  but  still  continued  under  her  parents'  roof, 
 as  those  sisters  were  not  bound  by  perpetual  vows,  nor 
 strictly  cloistered.  Hence  does  S.  Catherine  always  appear 
 in  art  as  a  Dominican  nun.  Por  three  years  after  taking 
 that  step  she  never  spoke  except  to  confess.  She  scrupled 
 not  to  deceive  her  mother  when  that  good  woman  endea- 
 voured to  check  her  suicidal  austerities.  She  undertook 
 to  do  all  the  work  of  the  meanest  servant ;  but  fell  into 
 extasies  when  her  duty  was  to  attend  to  the  kitchen,  and 
 thus  left  the  dinner  to  spoil.  How  refreshing  to  turn  to 
 the  opposite  view  of  Christian  duties,  uttered  by  a  poet  who 
 was  no  superficial  theologian  : 
 
 "  The  trivial  round,  the  common  task 
 Will  furnish  all  we  ought  to  ask : 
 Room  to  deny  ourselves ;  a  road 
 To  bring  us  daily  nearer  God  !" 
 
 Yet,  on  the  other  hand,  there  were  energies  of  good  and 
 an  enthusiasm  of  self-devotedness  that  form  the  glory  and 
 beauty  of  Catherine's  life.  Her  attendance  at  the  sick 
 bed  and  in  hospitals  was  unwearied ;  her  gentle  eloquence 
 was  exerted  for  the  conversion  of  the  most  obdurate  sin- 
 
 *  The  vision  was  nothing  but  the  reflection  of  such  pictures  as  were 
 common  in  this  century  :  "  Christ  seated  on  an  imperial  throne,  pontifi- 
 cally  vested,  and  with  the  (Papal)  tiara  on  His  head. — He  graciously 
 smiled,  and  blessed  her  with  the  sign  of  the  cross  " — precisely  the  cos- 
 tume and  attitude  of  many  such  representations.  Raimondo  tells  us 
 that  she  saw  this  when  six  years  old,  and  made  the  vow  of  perpetual 
 virginity  in  her  seventh  year  ! 
 
SACRED    AET    IX    ITA'-V.  I7i) 
 
 nera.  Two  malefactors,  sentenced  tu  dreadful  death  on  the 
 scaftbld,  were  led  by  her  to  heart-felt  repentance.  The  Pope 
 at  Avignon,  hearing  of  her  extraordinary  influences,  ap- 
 pointed three  Dominicans  expressly  to  act  as  confessors,  at 
 Siena,  to  those  whom  she  had  led  iutu  ilie  ways  of  piety  and 
 virtue.  The  most  interesting  event  in  her  life  is  her  mission 
 to  the  Papal  Court,  and  her  appearance  at  Avignon  as 
 accredited  ambassadress  of  the  Florentine  E-epublic — she  a 
 woman  who  had  not  learnt  to  read  or  write  till  about  her 
 twenty-fifth  year  !  The  Florentine  magistrates  invited  her 
 from  Siena,  and  received  her  in  their  city  as  a  public  bene- 
 factress. They  desired  to  send  her  to  the  Papal  Court  for 
 the  object  of  pacifying  G-regory  XI.,  after  the  interdict  had 
 been  fulminated  by  him  against  their  state  ;  and  it  seems 
 that  these  grave  officials  confided  for  a  time  in  enthusiasm 
 and  piety,  as  more  efficient  for  acting  on  the  spirit  of 
 the  age,  than  diplomatic  sagacity  or  Italian  astuteness. 
 She  undertook  the  mission  with  fearless  simplicity ;  and 
 arrived  at  Avignon  in  June,  1376,  preceded  by  her 
 father  confessor,  who  acted  as  interpreter,  rendering  her 
 Italian  into  Latin,  in  Consistory  and  before  the  Pope. 
 G-regory  XI.  treated  her  with  much  honour  ;  consigned 
 her  to  the  hospitable  care  of  his  sister,  a  noble  lady,  and 
 listened  to  her  with  the  greatest  attention.  "  That  thou 
 mayest  clearly  see  (he  said)  how  much  I  desire  peace,  I 
 will  confide  it  solely  to  thy  hands,  so  that  thou  seest  the 
 honour  of  the  Church  is  committed  to  thee."  The  Floren- 
 tines did  not  keep  their  promise  by  sending  envoys  to 
 ratify  all  that  Catherine  had  proposed  or  counselled.  The 
 representatives  whom  they  did  depute  arrived  at  Avignon 
 without  any  mandate,  as  they  declared,  to  listen  to,  or  be 
 guided  by,  Catherine.  Her  mission  w^as  a  failure  in  its 
 political  character  ;  not  so  with  respect  to  another  ol>ject 
 she  had  still  more  at  heart — the  restoration   of  the  Pou- 
 
 JJ  2 
 
180  MEDIEVAL    CHRISTTANTT    AKD 
 
 tificate  to  Eome.  Froissart  says,  "Nothing  so  mucli 
 moved  Urban,"  (a  mistake  for  Gregory  XI.)  "  to  settle  in 
 Eome,  as  tlie  arguments  of  S.  Catherine."  Her  letters  to 
 the  Pope  bear  on  the  same  topic,  and  fearlessly  appeal  to 
 his  conscience  against  that  ])rolonged  desertion  of  their 
 See  by  the  chief  Pastors.  From  Avignon  she  returned  to 
 Florence,  where  she  found  another  party  and  other  views? 
 unfavourable  to  peace  with  the  Pontiff,  prevalent  in  that 
 centre  of  political  vicissitudes.  Her  life  was  in  danger ;  for 
 all  those  who  counselled  the  now  unpopular  peace  had  been 
 banished.  The  people  threatened  to  burn  the  house  where 
 she  lodged.  After  she  had  been  driven  to  seek  refuge  else- 
 where, they  came  with  swords  and  clubs  to  kill  her.  She 
 presented  herself,  kneeling  calmly  before  them,  and  said  to 
 an  assassin  who  advanced  from  the  throng  to  strike  her : 
 "  I  am  Catherine.  Do  what  the  Lord  may  permit  you ;  but 
 in  the  name  of  the  Omnipotent  I  command  you  to  do  no 
 harm  to  these  with  me.  I  am  ready  to  suffer  for  Christ  and 
 His  Church.  Should  I  fly  after  finding  what  I  have  most 
 of  all  desired  ?  I  offer  myself  a  victim  to  my  eternal 
 Spouse!"  The  assassin  shrunk  back  abashed  and  awe-struck; 
 the  crowd  dispersed  without  doing  injury  to  Catherine. 
 Her  further  stay  at  Florence  was  dangerous,  but  she  would 
 not  leave  till  the  peace  had  been  brought  about.  She  finally 
 settled  at  Eome  on  the  invitation  of  Gregory  XI.,  after  his 
 arrival.  There  she  found  herself  during  the  troubles  that 
 ensued  after  the  election  of  Urban  VI.  Her  biographer 
 tells  us  that  Urban  was  induced  by  her  advice  to  go  bare- 
 footed in  procession  to  S.  Peter's,  after  the  faction  of  the 
 Antipope  had  been  so  far  suppressed  as  to  leave  that  basi- 
 lica under  legal  power ;  also,  that  the  castle  of  S.  Angelo  was 
 recovered  for  Urban  VI.,  and  the  schismatic  defendants, 
 who  held  it  for  Clement  VII.,  defeated  and  slain  on  the  day 
 of  Catherine's  death  -  which  victory  he  seems  to  ascribe  to 
 
SACRED  ART  IN  ITALY.  181 
 
 her  prayers.  S.  Catherine  has  left  364  extant  letters  ;  three 
 addressed  to  G-regory  XI.,  nine  to  Urban  VI.,  others  to 
 Joanna  of  Naples,  Charles  V.  of  France,  Cardinals,  prelates, 
 monks,  laymen.  Her  other  extant  writings  consist  of  four 
 treatises  (in  old  editions,  divided  into  six)  on  Discretion, 
 Prayer,  Divine  Providence,  Obedience — all  dictated,  we  are 
 told,  while  she  was  in  ecstasy,  and  generally  in  the  form  of 
 dialogue  between  the  Deity  and  the  Saint.  These  throw 
 some  light  on  ecclesiastical  manners,  and  still  more  on 
 abuses.  It  is  incredible  that  such  infamies  as  we  here  read 
 of  could  have  occurred  to  a  mind  of  stainless  purity,  unless 
 glaringly  and  frequently  forced  on  its  attention.  There  is 
 not,  that  I  am  aware,  any  document  of  accusations  so  crush- 
 ing, any  picture  of  the  corruptions  of  the  Church  at  this 
 time  so  appalling,  as  the  testimony  thus  supplied  by  a  gentle 
 and  pure-minded  young  woman. — (See  her  Life  and  Works, 
 edited  by  Girolamo  Gigli,  Siena,  1707.)  Shortly  before 
 her  last  illness,  she  thought  she  saw,  whilst  praying  at  S. 
 Peter's,  the  bark  of  the  Church  placed  entirely  upon  her 
 shoulders,  and  crushing  her  to  earth  with  its  mysterious 
 weight ;  hence  she  had  the  presentiment  that  she  was  to  die 
 for  the  Church  (pro  Ecclesia  mori  deheref)  ;  but  this  vision 
 illustrates  nothing  so  much  as  her  own  morbidly-exalted 
 idea  of  her  sacred  vocation. 
 
 Another  woman  of  fervent  piety  and  great  energies,  who 
 contributed  by  her  influence  to  the  restoration  of  the 
 Papal  residence  at  Eome,  was  Brigida  (1302-'73)  the 
 Swedish  saint,  daughter  of  a  prince  of  royal  blood  and  de- 
 scendant of  the  (xothic  Kings,  who,  after  she  had  become  a 
 widow,  and  had  founded  a  monastery  for  nuns  in  Sweden, 
 travelled  to  Eome,  where,  arriving  in  J  346,  she  passed  fifteen 
 years.  From  the  period  of  hor  widowhood,  she  had  devoted 
 herself  entirely  to  religious  practices  and  charities,  renounc- 
 ing all  the  advantages  of  wealth  and  station.     From  Eome 
 
182  MEDIEVAL    CIIRISTIANITT    AND 
 
 she  made  a  pilgrimage  to  Palestine  ;  thence  returned  to  the 
 same  city,  where  she  died,  and  was  buried  at  S.  Lorenzo  in 
 Panisperna,  a  church  of  the  Clarisse  nuns.  Her  remains 
 were  afterwards  transferred  to  her  monastery,  Wartzsten, 
 in  Sweden,  by  the  care  of  her  pious  daughter,  Catherine, 
 who  had  joined  her  in  Eome.  Her  extant  "  Eevelations" 
 were  written  by  order  of  her  confessor,  a  Prior  who  accom- 
 panied her  to  Jerusalem,  and  who,  together  with  a  Doctor 
 of  Theology,  translated  them  into  Latin,  in  eight  books.  The 
 Bishop  of  Jaen,  a  friend  of  Brigida,  who  himself  had  some 
 share  in  the  compiling  of  this  work,  was  commissioned  by 
 the  Pope  to  examine  her  writings  ;  as  was  also,  in  the  next 
 century,  the  famous  Cardinal  Torquemada,  who  was  deputed 
 to  this  task  by  the  Council  of  Basle,  and  pronounced  the 
 "  Eevelations"  to  be  genuine.  These  writings,  for  which 
 such  high  authority  is  claimed,  and  which  are  fully  approved 
 by  Benedict  XIV.  in  his  "  De  Canonizatione"  (1. 11,  c.  xxxii), 
 maintain  the  doctrine  of  the  Immaculate  Conception,  and 
 the  fact  of  the  bodily  Assumption  of  the  Blessed  Virgin. 
 The  reflections  on  the  depraved  state  of  Eome,  and  the 
 Saint's  denunciations  on  that  subject,  exposed  her  to  the 
 popular  fury  during  her  residence  there.  She  was  called  a 
 witch  and  an  impostor,  threatened  with  death  in  the  flames, 
 insulted  and  mocked  at  when  she  went  abroad.  Her 
 daughter  Catherine,  who  was  also  the  widow  of  a  Swedish 
 nobleman,  and  accompanied  her  mother  to  Palestine,  be- 
 came a  nun,  and  finally  abbess,  in  the  monastery  to  which 
 she  had  borne  that  parent's  remains.  She  too  was  canonized 
 (ob.  1381).  Among  the  visions  believed  to  have  been 
 vouchsafed  from  Divine  sources  to  Brigida  was  one  she 
 thus  narrated,  desiring  it  should  be  made  known  to  Gre- 
 gory XI.  through  the  Count  di  Nola,  whom  that  Pope  had 
 sent  to  consult  her  : — She  beheld  the  Saviour  on  a  radiant 
 throne,  amidst  a  multitude  of  saints  and  angels,  and  at 
 
SACRED  ART  JN    ITALY.  183 
 
 the  foot  of  the  throne,  but  distant,  one  vested  as  a  bishop, 
 to  whom  tlie  Lord  of  lords  thus  spoke — "  Listen,  Pope 
 Grregory  XL,  to  the  words  I  utter.  Why  dost  thou  so  hate 
 me  ?  Why  is  thy  audacity  so  great,  and  thy  presumption 
 against  me  so  insupportable  ?  Why  does  thy  worldly  court 
 ruin  my  court  which  is  in  Heaven  ?  Thou,  in  thy  pride, 
 despoilest  me  of  my  flocks ;  thou  dost  rob,  extort,  and 
 unjustly  seize  the  property  of  the  Church,  which  by  right 
 is  mine,  to  bestow  it  upon  thy  temporal  favourites.  Thou 
 also  takest  unjustly  to  thyself  the  portion  of  the  poor,  to 
 distribute  it  shamelessly  among  thy  friends,  who  are  already 
 rich.  Why  dost  thou  permit  such  pride,  such  insatiable 
 cupidity  and  execrable  luxury  to  prevail  at  thy  court,  as 
 well  as  the  foulest  abyss  of  detestable  simony  ?  Almost 
 all  who  go  to  thy  court  are  sent,  through  thy  means,  to  the 
 Gehenna  of  fire,  because  thou  considerest  not  what  belongs 
 to  this  my  court,  though  thou  art  prelate  and  pastor  of  all 
 my  sheep.  All  this  is  thy  fault,  because  thou  dost  not 
 deliberate  or  discern  what  should  be  done  and  corrected 
 for  the  spiritual  good  of  all.  Although  I  might  justly 
 condemn,  I  warn  thee  in  mercy ;  and  for  the  welfare  of 
 thy  soul  admonish  thee  to  hasten  to  Kome,  thy  proper 
 place,  so  soon  as  thou  shalt  be  able.  Delay  no  longer,  but 
 go  thither !" 
 
 The  canonization  of  S.  Brigida,  1391,  was  the  first  cele- 
 brated (by  Boniface  IX.)  in  the  chapel  of  the  Vatican  palace, 
 which  for  this  occasion  was  decorated  with  myrtle-boughs 
 and  draperies,  and  illuminated  by  86  wax-torches.  The 
 Pope,  the  Cardinals,  prelates,  and  Roman  nobles,  passed  in 
 procession  along  the  principal  chapel  to  another,  returning 
 in  the  same  order.  Among  the  observances  was  the  offer- 
 ing at  the  Papal  throne  of  not  merely  wax-tapers,  birds  in 
 gilt  cages,  barrels  of  wine  and  loaves  of  bread,  the  dona- 
 tions  of  mystic   meaning   still   made  at  such  solemoities. 
 
184  MF DISTAL    CHRISTIANITY    AND 
 
 but,  conformably  with  the  scale  of  ecclesiastical  hospitalities 
 at  this  time,  a  heifer,  24  capons,  24  doves,  and  24  fowls, 
 also  a  golden  pitcher  of  the  value  of  10  ducats. 
 
 Another  beatified  person,  Pietro  Petronio,  a  Carthusian 
 monk,  of  Siena  (ob.  1361),  had  also  "  Eevelations,"  in  which 
 he  believed  that  the  realities  of  the  invisible,  Heaven,  Hell, 
 and  Purgatory,  had  been  displayed  to  him.  Nothing  that 
 he  wrote  is,  I  believe,  extant ;  but  his  example  is  noticeable 
 from  its  association  with  the  history  of  Boccaccio's  career, 
 and  the  change  wrought  in  him  "  who  formed  the  Tuscan's 
 Syren  tongue,"  through  his  posthumous  influence.  He 
 (the  Beato  Pietro)  claimed  a  preternatural  knowledge  of 
 the  inner  life  of  souls  ;  and  communications  were  made  by 
 his  desire,  after  his  death,  to  Boccaccio,  through  another 
 Carthusian  monk,  which  convinced  the  great  writer  that 
 the  holy  man  had  known  the  secrets  of  his  soul,  and  which 
 wrought  that  efi'ect,  resulting  in  change  of  life  and  corres- 
 pondent amelioration  in  the  tone  of  his  writings,  such  as 
 called  for  the  congratulations  of  Petrarch,  but  also  his 
 well-argued  remonstrances  against  the  excess  of  unreason- 
 ing zeal,  and  the  unwise  purpose  of  abandoning  literature 
 because  literary  talents  had  been  misused.* 
 
 The  Beato  Griovanni  Colombini  (ob.  1367)  had  been  a 
 wealthy  merchant  of  Siena,  and  held  high  office  among 
 the  magistrates  of  that  city.  The  account  of  his  conver- 
 sion from  a  worldly  to  a  religious  life  is  interesting.  One 
 day  he  came  home  impatient  for  his  dinner,  and  scolded 
 his  wife  because  it  was  not  ready.  She  begged  him  to  be 
 patient  and  serene,  handing  to  him  a  book  which  she  advised 
 him  to  read  whilst  she  ordered  things  in  the  kitchen.  He 
 threw  down  the  book  in  a  passion,  but  soon  became  molli- 
 
 *  See  the  letter,  a  model  for  good  advice  to  literary  men,  1.  I,  ep.  v. 
 Se^iili ;  and  the  Sonnets  :  "Amor  piangeva,  ed  io  con  lui  talvolta,"  &c. 
 *'  riu  di  me  iicla  nou  si  vcdc  a  terra,"  &c. 
 
SACRED  ART  IN  ITALT.  185 
 
 fied,  found  tliat  second  thoughts  were  best,  and  began  to  read 
 the  "  Lives  of  Saints,"  his  good  wife's  favourite  study.  The 
 life  of  S.  Mary  of  Egypt,  that  great  sinner  who  became 
 a  model  of  eremite  penance  in  the  desert,  so  impressed  him 
 that  he  did  not  want  to  lay  aside  the  book  when  dinner  at 
 last  came.*  Thenceforth  he  showed  himself  a  changed  man, 
 gave  most  of  his  fortune  to  the  poor,  dedicated  himself  to 
 the  care  of  the  sick  and  pilgrims,  collected  followers  who 
 practised  the  same  degree  of  self-denying  charities ;  and 
 finally  went  so  far  as  to  divest  himself  of  all  he  possessed, 
 leading  thenceforth  a  life  of  actual  mendicancy.  There  is 
 a  legend  of  his  having  brought  home  a  leper,  and  laid  him 
 on  his  wife's  bed,  out  of  which  it  was  found,  next  morning, 
 that  the  miserable  sufferer  had  vanished,  —  and  all  were 
 convinced  that  Christ  Himself  had  appeared  thus  to  test  His 
 servant's  charity  !  The  pious  mendicant  was  banished  from 
 Siena  as  a  nu4sance,  but  soon  recalled  by  the  magistrates 
 to  resume  his  course  of  devoted  care  for  the  sick  and  other 
 laborious  duties.  On  the  arrival  of  Urban  Y.  at  Corneto, 
 Giovanni  and  sixty  of  his  followers  went  to  pay  homage  to 
 that  Pope,  and  obtain  his  approval  of  the  religious  order 
 they  wished  to  constitute.  They  presented  themselves 
 before  Urban,  all  with  garlands  of  olive  leaves  on  their 
 heads,  and  followed  him  from  Corneto  to  Yiterbo,  where 
 the  Pope  stayed  before  proceeding  to  Eome.  He  approved 
 of  the  new  fraternity,  and  the  brethren  adopted  the  rules 
 of  S.  Augustine  under  the  patronage  of  S.  Jerome,  their  cos- 
 tume being  a  white  habit  and  cowl,  with  a  chestnut-coloured 
 mantle.  They  were  first  called,  perhaps  from  popular 
 rather  than  from  their  own  choice,  "  Jesuati,"  because  they 
 
 •  This  scene,  which  might  happen  any  day  in  an  Italian  iott/rgeois 
 family,  provided  that  a  pious  woman  were  the  mistress,  is  vividly  dc- 
 scribod  in  the  life  of  the  Beato,  written  about  a  century  later  by  Fea 
 Belcari. 
 
186  MEDIiEYAL   CHBISTIANITT    ATN'D 
 
 had  the  Holy  Name  constantly  on  their  lips.  For  about 
 two  centuries  the  members  of  this  Order  were  occupied 
 principally  in  their  pharmacies,  distributing  medicines 
 gratuitous  to  the  poor,  or  in  hospitals,  nursing  the  sick. 
 It  was  not  till  1606  that  they  were  authorized,  through  act 
 of  Paul  y.,  to  receive  ordination  ;  and  from  that  time  they 
 began  to  be  called  Apostolic  Clerics.  In  the  course  of 
 that  century  their  credit  declined,  their  observance  proved 
 lax ;  and  at  last,  in  1668,  Clement  IX.  yielded  to  the 
 solicitations  of  Venice,  and  suppressed  an  institution  no 
 longer  true  to  its  high  calling.  Its  confiscated  property 
 was  used  for  the  necessities  of  a  war  against  the  Turks  in 
 Candia. 
 
 Other  holy  men  and  women,  of  whose  private  life  very 
 little  is  known,  flourished  during  this  period  ;  and  several 
 illustrious  Saints  appeared  in  Italy  in  the  XIV. — though  it 
 is  rather  to  the  XV.  century  that  their  careers  belong. 
 One,  who  met  with  a  violent  death  in  the  middle  of  this 
 century,  was  the  Patriarch  of  Aquileja  (born  1280)  known 
 as  the  Beato  Bertrando — a  model  of  devotedness  to  epis- 
 copal duties,  like  those  venerable  prelates  who  illumine 
 the  history  of  the  primitive  Church.  He  is  said  to  have 
 taken  S.  Thomas  a  Becket  as  his  model — and  his  fate  proved 
 similar  to  that  of  the  English  Prelate.  He  daily  fed  and 
 waited  on  twelve  poor  men  ;  and  in  time  of  famine  daily 
 maintained  2000,  thus  rescued  from  starving.  Travelling 
 through  his  patriarchate,  to  discharge  ecclesiastical  duties 
 in  the  several  churches,  during  Lent,  he  would  journey  all 
 day  and  all  night  for  the  sake  of  arriving  in  time  to  recon- 
 cile public  penitents  on  the  days  appointed — a  circumstance 
 which  illustrates  the  history  and  character  of  Eitual  during 
 this  age.  That  virtuous  Pastor  was  calumniated,  persecuted, 
 attacked,  and  at  last  murdered  by  some  soldiers  serving 
 the  Count  di  Goritz,  in  Friuli,  on  his  return  from  Padua, 
 1350.  (Eohrbacher,  "  Ecclesiastical  History.") 
 
SACHtD  ART  IN  ITALY.  187 
 
 CHAPTEE  IV. 
 
 Monuments  of  the  XIV.  Centubt. 
 
 ROME. 
 
 In  the  Lateran  Basilica,  that  primordial  cathedral  of 
 Home,  styled  "  the  Mother  and  Head  of  all  the  churches  on 
 earth,"  and  which,  in  olden  times,  had  the  distinction  of 
 being  ever  open,  day  and  night — one  cannot  call  to  mind 
 the  high  memories  of  the  scene — the  acts  and  legends  of 
 Constantino  and  S.  Sylvester,  the  five  QCcumenical  Councils, 
 the  solemn  installations  of  S.  Peter's  successors — without  a 
 sense  of  indignation  at  the  modern  disguise  of  frigid  magni- 
 ficence and  meaningless  architecture  by  which  sacred  anti- 
 quity is  here  concealed..  It  is  now  alike  difficult  to  discern 
 any  vestige,  save  in  the  superb  canopy  over  the  high  altar, 
 the  semicircular  aisle  behind  the  tribune,  and  the  mosaics 
 on  the  apsidal  vault,  either  of  the  church  of  Constantino, 
 rebuilt  in  the  X.  century,  or  of  that  twice  restored  after 
 destructive  fires  in  the  XIV.  But  in  one  of  the  modernized 
 aisles  is  fortunately  preserved  a  relic  of  art,  from  among  the 
 many  lost,  one  with  which  we  might  suitably  begin  our 
 study  of  the  Christian  monuments  belonging  to  the  period 
 here  considered,  in  Kome  : — the  portrait,  namely,  by  Griotto, 
 of  Boniface  VIII.  in  act  of  blessing  the  people  whilst  a 
 young  cleric  reads  the  bull  of  the  Jubilee  appointed  for  the 
 year  1300 ;  the  site  represented  being  either  a  loggia,  used 
 for  the  Papal  benediction,  above  the  portico  added  to  the 
 Lateran  buildings  by  the  same  Pope,  or,  as  Padre  Tosti  in- 
 fers (see  his  valuable  work  on  the  "  Life  and  Times"  of  Boui- 
 faee  VIII.),  the  interior  of  S.  Peter's,  on  the  occasion  when, 
 after  preachhig   to    a   great  congregation,  that  energetic 
 
188  MEDIJ37AL    CHUISTIA^ITY    AND 
 
 Pontiff  caused  the  bull  to  be  read  from  the  richly  draped 
 ambon,  whence  he  had  delivered  his  sermon.  I  have  already- 
 noticed  this  picture,  the  only  one  preserved  from  the  several 
 frescoes  with  which  the  same  artist  adorned  that  Gothic 
 portico ;  but  I  am  induced  again  to  mention  it  here.*  A  note 
 of  preparation,  a  signal  for  the  opening  of  the  historic 
 drama,  in  which  the  Papacy  and  other  European  powers 
 acted  their  part,  whether  friendly  or  hostile  towards  each 
 other,  during  this  eventful  age,  all  this  seems  implied  in 
 O-iotto's  portrait  of  the  Pope,  so  cruelly  persecuted  by 
 Philip  le  Pel,  so  sternly  denounced  by  Dante  ! 
 
 After  considering  the  perpetual  troubles  and  general 
 demoralization  of  Pome  in  the  XIY .  century,  we  cannot  be 
 surprised  to  find  that  little  was  accomplished  here  in  the 
 walks  of  art  and  public  monuments.  The  creative  power 
 which  works  in  those  spheres  requires  a  pure  and  serene 
 atmosphere — though  able  indeed  to  assert  itself  amidst  the 
 most  untoward  circumstances.  Elsewhere  in  Italy  were 
 founded,  or  rising  to  completeness,  during  this  period,  the 
 most  majestic  temples  of  worship,  or  other  stately  edifices 
 for  civic  use  :  the  Cathedrals  of  Florence,  Milan,  Siena, 
 Orvieto,  S.  Petronio  at  Bologna,  the  Certosa  at  Pavia.  But 
 in  the  ecclesiastical  metropolis  little  remains  to  attest  ener- 
 gies or  inspirations  during  the  time  that  French  Popes  sat 
 at  Avignon,  or  their  Italian  successors.  Urban  and  Boni- 
 face, exercised  an  uneasy  sway  at  this  centre. 
 
 *  Vide  preceding  Vol.  p.  533. — The  picture  was  placed  in  the  cloisters 
 after  the  destruction  of  the  loggia,  and  finally  removed  to  the  aisle  where 
 we  now  see  it,  by  order  of  the  Gaetani  family,  in  1786.  It  is  sup- 
 posed to  have  suffered  by  retouching,  if  not  alteration.  The  German 
 critics  regard  the  two  attendants  on  the  Pope  as  Cardinals — for  which 
 <lignity  they  seem  too  young.  The  background,  now  painted  blue,  must 
 have  been  entirely  changed,  if  the  locality  be  a  church-interior,  and  not 
 the  loggia  exterior  to  the  Lateran. 
 
SACRED  ART  IN  ITALY.  189 
 
 There  is  a  scene  that  suggests  meditation  on  the  great 
 lessons  of  Christian  and  Ecclesiastical  History  :  the  so-called 
 Grotte  Vaticane^  or  crypt  of  S.  Peter's,  where  we  tread  the 
 pavement  of  the  ancient  church,  and  are  surrounded  by 
 almost  all  the  relics,  still  extant,  of  ages  anterior  to  the 
 XVI.  century,  within  the  walls  of  this  great  basilica.  For 
 the  festival  of  SS.  Peter  and  Paul,  these  subterranean  aisles 
 are  opened  to  the  public,  and  illuminated ;  and  when  we 
 traverse  them  by  dim  taper-light  in  silence  interrupted  at 
 intervals  by  the  exulting  strains  of  solemn  vespers  from  the 
 choir  of  the  gorgeous  modern  church  above — sounds  that 
 descend  with  subdued  effect  into  these  monumental  retreats 
 — the  contrasted  objects  and  memories,  here  present  to  eye 
 and  mind,  acquire  an  absorbing  interest.  The  bright  and 
 dark  aspects  of  the  great  historic  Pontificate  are  here  en- 
 graved in  the  records  of  the  Dead.  We  are  reminded  of  all 
 the  exaggerations  of  sacerdotal  claims  and  abuses  of  spiritual 
 power  ;  but  also  of  the  evidences  to  a  high  vocation  for  the 
 benefit  of  mankind  and  for  the  promoting  of  Christian 
 civilization,  manifest  in  the  lives  and  acts,  in  the  personal 
 sanctity  and  heroic  exertions  of  so  many  among  the  crowned 
 successors  of  S.  Peter. 
 
 The  objects  in  this  crypt  of  date  within  the  first  half  of 
 the  XIY.  century,  have  been  elsewhere  noticed.*     The 
 
 *  The  monument  of  Boniface  VIII.,  ascribed  to  Arnolfo  del  Cambio, 
 formerly  adorned  with  a  mosaic  of  the  Virgin  and  Child,  and  the  Pope 
 kneeling  before  them,  thus  presented  by  SS.  Feter  and  Paul  ;  the  half- 
 length  statues  of  Boniface  VIII.  and  Benedict  XII.,  the  former  by 
 Andrea  Pisano,  the  laL.er  (originally  painted  red)  by  Paolo  di  Siena ;  the 
 mosaic  of  an  angel,  ascribed  to  Giotto  ;  the  panel  pictures  of  SS.  Peter 
 and  Paul,  over  the  shrine  or  "  confessional  "  under  the  high  altar, — 
 school  of  Giotto;  the  Madonna,  called  "  della  boccie,'  by  Simone  di 
 Martino,  an  altar-piece  so  designated  from  the  legend  that,  whilst  it 
 hung  in  the  portico  of  the  ancient  church,  it  was  accidentally  struck  by 
 a  ball  some  youths  were  plaving  with,  and  shed  blood,  which  flowed  in 
 
190  MEDIAEVAL    CnmSTIANITT    AND 
 
 first  among  the  Papal  monuments  here  seen,  which  enters 
 within  my  present  limits,  is  that  of  Urban  VI.,  a  sar- 
 cophagus with  recumbent  effigy  and  a  small  relief  of  S. 
 Peter  bestowing  the  keys  on  the  kneeling  Pope  ;  the  life- 
 size  effigy  wearing  the  tiara  of  a  single  diadem,  the  figure 
 in  relief  having  the  triple  crown,  which  also  appears,  over 
 the  PontiiF's  device  and  motto,  on  the  basement  of  the  flank- 
 ing columns.  Seeing  that  the  statue  is  somewhat  longer 
 than  the  urn  on  w^hich  it  lies,  and  that  its  countenance  has 
 no  likeness  to  that  of  the  smaller  figure,  critics  infer  that 
 the  former  does  not  belong  to  this  tomb,  and  that  the  latter 
 alone  is  the  genuine  portrait  of  the  hard-souled  Urban, 
 who  (as  Eiinaldi  states)  was  first  interred  under  the  chapel 
 of  S.  Andrew,  afterwards  removed  to  a  more  stately  tomb 
 in  S.  Peter's.  That  monument  was  mutilated  on  occasion 
 of  its  removal  during  the  works  for  the  new  building  in 
 the  XYI.  century,  and  thus  lost  its  Grothie  ornamentations, 
 lions  and  twisted  colonnettes,  which  now  stand  behind  a 
 seated  statue  of  S.  Peter  in  another  part  of  this  crypt. 
 Curiously  compounded  of  the  classical  and  mediaeval  is 
 that  same  sculpture ;  the  figure  of  the  apostle,  which 
 resembles  the  Koman  consular  statues,  being  antique,  the 
 head  of  the  XIII.  century,  the  hands  more  modern.  Its 
 original  place  was  in  the  portico  of  the  ancient  church. 
 With  the  mosaics  of  John  VII.  and  those  from  the  tomb 
 of  Otho  II.  it  serves  to  connect  the  present  and  the  past 
 in   this    subterranean   sanctuary.*      In   all  the   funereal 
 
 five  drops  from  the  pictured  face  on  certain  slabs  of  marble,  still  pre- 
 served and  said  to  bear  traces  of  that  miraculous  bleeding  ! — "  Mediaeval 
 Christianity,  &c.,"  v.  535  ;  Barbier  de  Montault,  "  Les  Sf)uterrains  de 
 S.  Pierre." 
 
 *  The  mosaics  now  before  us  are  but  a  fragment  of  those,  eleven 
 subjects  in  all,  ordered  by  John  VII.,  a.d.  706  ;  another  remnant  of  the 
 series  being  now  in  the  sacristy  of  S.  Maria  in  Cosmedin.  Those  formerly 
 
SACRED    ART    IN    ITALY.  191 
 
 sculptures  here  before  us  we  see  the  same  general  treat- 
 ineut,  most  suitable  indeed  to  the  solemnity  of  the  tomb  : 
 the  deceased  being  represented  in  a  recumbent  effigy,  as  in 
 profound  repose  which  partakes  both  of  death  and  sleep, 
 with  a  few  sculptured  accessories,  sacred  groups  or  symbols, 
 subordinate  to  the  principal  figure.  A  monument  to  a 
 Polish  bishop,  Maffiolus,  (ob.  139(3),  is  a  good  example  of 
 this  style.  That  of  the  Cardinal  Francesco  Tebaldeschi,  one  of 
 those  of  the  sacred  coUege  who  proved  faithful  to  Urban 
 VI.,  is  the  latest  monument,  of  date  \Nathin  this  century,  in 
 any  Eoman  church.  Nothing  could  be  worse  than  the 
 arrangement,  or  rather  the  peUmell  confusion,  in  which  the 
 monuments  and  art-relics  of  the  ancient  church  are  thrown 
 together  in  this  crypt.  One  curious  record,  kept  here  as 
 documentary  accusation  against  those  who  built  the  new 
 S.  Peter's,  is  a  tablet  with  its  epigraph,  informing  us  that, 
 in  1543,  Niccolo  Acciaiolo  rescued  a  picture  of  the  Madonna 
 by  Griotto  from  being  thrown  away  among  the  rubbish  of 
 the  demolished  buildings — instinctu  liietatis — ex  hujus 
 templi  ruiiiis  disjectum!* 
 
 above  the  tomb  of  Otho  11.  (ob.  983)  are  now  set  into  a  wall  distinct 
 from  the  imperial  sarcophagus,  which  still  remains  in  another  part  of 
 this  crypt.  We  may  form  some  faint  idea,  from  a  copy  painted  on  these 
 walls,  of  the  mosaic  placed  by  Innocent  III.  on  the  apse  of  the  ancient 
 S.  Peter's  with  that  Pope's  portrait  introduced  in  a  sacred  group  com- 
 prising the  Saviour  in  benediction,  SS.  Peter  and  Paul,  the  Church 
 personified  as  a  crowned  matron,  and  the  Lamb  of  God. 
 
 *  The  celebrated  mosaic  of  the  "  Navicella,"  or  Christ  walking  the 
 waters  in  the  tempest,  from  Giotto's  design,  now  in  the  atrium  of  S. 
 Peter's,  does  not  enter  into  my  present  limits,  having  been  ordered  by 
 Cardinal  Stefaneschi,  nephew  to  Boniface  VIII.,  in  1298.  I  may  add 
 to  the  notice  of  it  previously  supplied,  that  it  has  been  so  frequently 
 retouched,  as  well  as  moved  from  place  to  place,  that  it  can  scarcely  be 
 deemed  the  composition  of  Giotto  in  its  present  state  ;  and  Lanzi  con- 
 siders that,  altered  as  it  is,  it  can  no  longer  be  classed  among  his  genuine 
 
192  MEDTiEYAL    CHRTSTTANITT    AffD 
 
 On  the  night  of  the  5th  May,  1308,  the  Lateran  basilica 
 was  almost  destroyed  by  fire.  The  restoration,  ordered  by 
 Clement  Y.,  was  carried  out  with  zeal  and  munificence  ; 
 large  sums  were  sent  from  Avignon  and  other  cities  ;  and 
 in  Eome  persons  of  every  class  gave  their  labours  gratui- 
 tously, not  indeed  without  the  reward  of  Papal  indulgences 
 for  the  meritorious  task.  Another  conflagration  in  1360 
 proved  almost  equally  fatal.  The  entire  roofing  fell  in,  and 
 overthrew  the  granite  columns  between  the  nave  and  aisles, 
 but  the  smaller  verde  antico  columns  of  those  four  aisles  were 
 saved.  The  patriarchimn  (Papal  palace)  was  also  reduced 
 to  ruins  ;  and  in  this  state,  roofless  and  desolate,  did  Rome's 
 primordial  basilica  remain,  as  seen  by  Petrarch,  for  about 
 four  years.  Urban  V.  ordered  in  1364  the  second  restora- 
 tion, which  was  commenced  before  that  Pope's  arrival  in 
 Rome,  and  with  intent  of  preserving  the  ancient  architec- 
 tonic forms,  though  the  style  of  that  century  naturally 
 prevailed  at  last.  An  architect  of  Siena,  G-iovanni  di 
 Stefano,  was  general  director  of  the  works.  Of  his  design 
 is  the  splendid  Grothic  canopy  with  a  tabernacle  for  relics, 
 which  rises  above  the  high  altar.  In  this  tabernacle,  com- 
 pleted 1369,  did  Urba,n  Y.  with  his  own  hands  deposit  the 
 skulls  of  SS.  Peter  and  Paul,  transferred  by  him  with 
 much  pomp,  and  a  procession  attended  by  all  the  Eoman 
 
 works.  The  four  Prophets  who  appear  in  air  above  the  tempest-tossed 
 bark,  and  the  fisherman  with  rod  and  line,  in  the  foreground,  are  entirely 
 modern.  The  head  of  a  mitred  bishop  just  emerging  from  the  waves, 
 near  the  principal  figure,  is  an  absurd  addition  by  some  unknown  hand. 
 Giotto's  work  may  be  better  appreciated  from  the  coloured  cartoon  in 
 the  principal  Capuchin  Church  at  Rome,  executed  before  the  original 
 was  for  the  last  time  retouched  and  altered  in  the  XVII.  century.  The 
 nobly  conceived  figure  of  the  Saviour  is,  fortunately,  preserved  with  its 
 grand  characteristics  ;  and  the  Demons  blowing  the  tempest  out  of  long 
 trumpets  are,  at  all  events,  of  Giotto's  imagining. 
 
SACRED    ART    IN    ITALY.  193 
 
 clergy,  from  the  "  Sancta  Sauctorum "  chapel  iu  the 
 adjacent  palace.  Those  relics  were  set  in  protomes  (hali- 
 leugrth  statues)  of  the  two  Apostles  in  silver,  with  gilt  lieads 
 and  figures  adorned  with  enamel  and  gems  of  the  value  of 
 1200  marks,  among  the  precious  decorations  being  seen  two 
 lilies  of  peatls  presented  by  Charles  V.  of  France.*  Forty- 
 one  lamps  burnt  perpetually  before  these  relics,  and  the 
 entire  value  of  the  jewelled  settings  was  estimated  as 
 50,000  scudi.  Near  the  angles  of  the  canopy  stood  the  four 
 magnificent  columns  of  gilt  bronze  fluted,  which  now  flank 
 the  altar  of  the  Holy  Sacrament. t  The  reliquaries  disap- 
 peared during  the  occupation  of  Rome  by  the  French  in 
 the  last  years  of  the  last  century  ;  but  were  soon  replaced 
 by  others  of  almost  equal  value,  the  oftering  of  the  Duchess 
 di  Villa  Hermosa,  a  pious  Italian  lady ;  and  in  1801?  the 
 Apostles'  skulls— I  need  not  stop  to  consider  the  proofs  of 
 their  authenticity — were  restored  to  their  tabernacle,  in 
 their  new  settings,  by  Pius  Yll.  The  high  altar  and  its 
 superb  canopy  alone  remain,  in  the  actual  church,  to 
 remind  us  of  the  virtuous  Urban  Y.,  of  Petrarch's  eloquent 
 
 *  The  silver  statues  were  wrought  by  a  goldsmith  named  Giovanni 
 Bartoli.  of  Siena. — See  Agincourt,  Sculptures,  plate  xxxvii.  Under  the 
 bust  of  S.  Paul  were  the  lines  : — 
 
 Cedit  Apostolicus  Princeps,  tibi  Paule,  vocaris 
 Nam  dextrae  natus,  vas,  tuba  clara  Dei. 
 
 In  that  Apostle's  hands  were  held  a  sword  and  an  open  book.  S.  Peter 
 wore  the  triple  crown,  held  the  keys  in  one  hand,  and  raised  the  other  to 
 bless. 
 
 t  According  to  one  tradition,  these  were  brought  to  Rome  by  Titus 
 among  the  spoils  from  the  Temple  of  Jerusalem  ;  according  to  another, 
 they  were  brought  from  that  city  by  the  Empress  Helena,  and  arc  tilled 
 with  earth  from  the  Holy  Land.  The  columns  and  the  sacred  vessels 
 from  the  Temi)le  arc  mentioned  in  an  inscription  with  Gothic  letters 
 of  mosaic,  placed  in  the  Lateran  by  Nicholas  IV.,  and  still  seen  here  , 
 informing  us  that  all  tiiosc  relics  are  preserved  iu  this  basilica. 
 
 O 
 
194  MEDIEVAL    CHEISTIANITT    A'NB 
 
 appeals  to  him,  and  of  the  temporary  restoration  of  the  Pon- 
 tificate to  Eome  through  his  means.     Rising  almost  to  the 
 coffered  ceiling  of  the  transepts,  that  lofty  structure,  with 
 its  rich  Grothic  details,  seems  strangely  out  of  keeping  with 
 the  modern  architecture  around.     The  profuse  gilding  was 
 added  probably  in  a  restoration  ordered  for  the  Jubilee 
 year  1650 ;  and  the  whole  was  again  restored  by  Pius  IX., 
 1851.    Along  the  arcade-tracery  of  the  lowest  storey  we  see, 
 among  various  armorial  shields,  those  of  Urban  Y.,  of  the 
 Erench   King  Charles   Y.,   and  of  the  arch-priest  of  this 
 basilica  who  became  Pope  as  Grregory  XI.     Above  the 
 supporting  granite  columns  are  several  statuettes  of  saints 
 under  Grothic  canopies  ;  on  the  triangular  tympana,  at  each 
 side,  is  a  half-length  relief  of  the  Saviour  ;  which  sculptures, 
 as  well  as  the  reliefs  of  SS.  Peter  and  Paul  on  the  altar- 
 front,  are  of  inferior  style,  the  forms   stunted,  and  heads 
 feeble.     Along  the  upper  storey  are  twelve  panel-pictures 
 by  Berna  di  Siena,  an  artist   who   cannot   be  appreciated 
 from  his  works  here  before  us,  all  which  have  been  re- 
 touched.*    Their  subjects  are,  the  Crucifixion,  with  four 
 Apostles  ;  Christ  feeding  His  flock  with  ears  of   corn   (a 
 mystic  and  original  conception),  and  the  four  Doctors  of 
 the  Latin  Church ;    the  Annunciation  and  Coronation  of 
 the   Blessed   Yirgin,   with   SS.  Catherine  of  Egypt,  and 
 Anthony  the  Hermit ;   the  Madonna  and  Child  attended 
 by  angels  and  a  kneeling  prelate   (probably  the  Cardinal 
 Archpriest,  who  became  Pope  Grregory  XL),  with  SS.  John 
 the  Evangelist   and   Stephen,  SS.  John  the  Baptist  and 
 Laurence.     The  Coronation  is  treated  according  to  earlier 
 devotional  art- traditions,  the  Divine  Son,  not  the  Eternal 
 Eather,  being  in  act  of  crowning  the  glorified  Mother ; 
 
 *  This  Sienese  artist  died  about  1381 — see  his  life  by  Vasari,  who 
 does  not  even  mention  his  paintings  here.  No  Koman  artist  is  known  to 
 have  been  engaged  in  the  restorations  of  the  ancient  Lateran. 
 
SACRED  AET  IN  ITALY.  195 
 
 while  in  the  Annunciation-picture  we  recognise  ideas  of 
 later  origin,  the  Father,  with  attributes  of  old  age,  being 
 represented  hov^ering  above  the  group  of  Mary  and  the 
 Angel.  Other  remuants  of  the  ancient  Laterau  are  pre- 
 served ;  and  it  may  please  the  imagination,  though  not  the 
 eye,  to  know  (as  we  are  assured  is  the  fact),  that  much 
 even  of  the  buildings  of  the  X.  century  is  extant,  im- 
 mured in  modern  masonry,  as  are  no  doubt  the  columns  of 
 the  XIY.  century,  set  within  the  heavy  pilasters  of  the 
 present  church.  The  small  columns,  twenty-four  of  verde 
 antico  (or  rather  verde  mlscMo),  from  the  ruined  aisles, 
 now  flank  the  niches  w^here  colossal  statues  of  the  Apostles 
 were  placed  by  Clement  XI. ;  and  as  the  shafts  are  not  more 
 than  eleven  feet  high,  we  must  infer  that  those  aisles  of 
 the  ancient  church  were  comparatively  low,  under  roofing 
 that  sloped  from  the  attics  of  the  nave.  The  earliest  sculp- 
 tures still  seen  here  are  :  the  monument  of  Cardinal  Eiccardo 
 Annibaldeschi,  who  died  at  Lyons  during  the  sessions  of  the 
 Greneral  Council,  127^;  that  of  a  Milanese  Count,  Gus- 
 tiano,  also  Cardinal,  ob.  1289  ;  the  kneeling  statue  of  a 
 Pope,  probably  Nicholas  TV-,  rude  and  almost  grotesque 
 in  character,  now  in  the  semicircular  corridor,  sole  remnant 
 preserved  entire  of  the  X.  century  buildings,  behind  the 
 tribune;  and  the  monument  to  Cardinal  Gherardo  Blancus, 
 ob.  1302,  with  efiigy  incised  on  the  flat  surface,  now  placed 
 vertically  near  the  entrance  to  the  southern  aisle.  The 
 grandly-characterized  mosaics  of  the  apse  (1290)  I  have 
 elsewhere  described.  In  the  beautiful  but  neglected  cloisters 
 (XIII.  century)  are  deposited  several  architectural  and 
 sculptured  relics  of  the  earlier,  and  also  of  the  XV.  century 
 church :  the  ruinous  episcopal  throne  and  Paschal  cande- 
 labrum, Gothic  tympana  with  wheel  windows,  one  bearing 
 the  name  of  a  member  of  the  well-known  Cosmati  family, 
 M(jr.  Dcodatus  fecit  hoc  op.     Here,  too,  are  other  objects  of 
 
 o2 
 
196  MEDl.i:YAL    CTHETSTIANITT    ATfD 
 
 imaginary  importance  :  a  porphyry  slab  between  two  half- 
 columns,  said  to  be  the  stone  on  which  the  soldiers  cast 
 lots  for  the  garments  of  Christ ;  a  species  of  sedicula,  with 
 marble  columns,  said  to  be  the  measure  of  His  stature ;  a 
 marble  puteal  between  granite  columns,  said  to  be  the 
 well  where  He  conversed  with  the  Samaritan  woman — but 
 evidently,  from  the  crosses  and  other  relief  ornaments 
 upon  it,  of  Christian  mediaeval  origin. 
 
 Urban  V.  was  active  and  munificent  in  the  restoring  and 
 embellishing  of  churches.  The  Ostian  basilica,  which  he 
 found  roofless,  alike  with  the  Lateran,  was  repaired  by  his 
 order  ;  and  many  other  Boman  churches,  deprived  of  the 
 requisites  for  worship  during  the  desolate,  and  to  Eome 
 most  disastrous  period  of  the  "  Avignon  Exile,"  were  sup- 
 plied by  him  with  sacramental  vessels,  office-books,  orna- 
 ments, &c.  He  recovered  from  the  Franciscan  basilica  of 
 Assisi  many  sacred  treasures,  vessels  and  relics,  deposited 
 there  for  safety  by  Boniface  YIII. 
 
 His  successor,  Gregory  XI.,  did  more  for  the  advantage 
 of  Rome  and  the  Italian  Church,  but  is  less  known  through 
 monumental  records  save  those  of  modern  origin :  the  con- 
 ventional wall-painting  by  Yasari,  representing  his  arrival  in 
 this  city,  among  the  other  pictured  fasti  of  the  Papacy  on 
 the  walls  of  the  Sala  Regia  at  the  Vatican,  and  the  monu- 
 ment to  this  Pope,  with  indiflerent  sculptures  by  Olivieri, 
 raised  in  1584,  by  order  of  the  Senate,  over  his  tomb  at 
 S.  Maria  Nuova  near  the  Porum.  The  only  building  we 
 can  associate  with  the  memory  of  his  eventful  pontificate 
 is  the  lofty  Campanile  with  a  spire — a  rare  object  in  Rome 
 — which  finely  groups  with  the  twin  cupolas  of  S.  Maria 
 Maggiore,  though  somewhat  injured  by  modern  repairs.  In 
 1372  he  ordered  a  French  Abbot  to  send  to  Rome  a  com- 
 petent architect  for  the  rebuilding  of  the  now  ruinous 
 tower  of  that  basilica;  and  in  the  January  of  the  next 
 
SACRED  ART  IN  ITALY.  197 
 
 year,  authorized  his  Yicar  in  this  city  to  obtain  from  his 
 Nuncio  3000  gold  florins  for  this  and  other  public  works 
 at  Rome.  The  spire  which  surmounts  the  S.  Maria  Ma^^- 
 giore  campanile  bears  the  date  137(3 — anterior  therefore 
 to  the  triumphal  ingress  of  Gregory  XI.  in  the  January  of 
 the  next  year.  It  serves  to  remind  us,  however,  of  that 
 event,  so  fraught  Avith  consequences  to  ecclesiastical  and 
 political  interest ;  and  now  also  of  another,  different  in- 
 deed in  its  results  as  affecting  the  temporal  power  of  the 
 Pope— for  it  was  from  that  conspicuous  spire  that  the 
 white  flag  announced  the  surrender  of  Eome  to  a  be- 
 sieging army  on  the  morning  of  the  20th  September,  1870. 
 A  marble  portal  in  Grothic  style,  with  lions  guarding  the 
 entrance,  was  erected  by  Gregory  XI.  before  the  Lateran. 
 It  has  disappeared ;  but  the  marble  lions  are  still  extant, 
 and  now  beside  the  fountain  on  the  Piazza  de'  Termini,  near 
 the  ruins  of  the  Baths  of  Diocletian.  The  sculptures  of 
 the  XIY.  century  in  Eoman  churches  but  feebly  represent 
 the  power  and  luxuriance  of  Italian  art  at  that  period. 
 At  S.  Maria  in  Trastevere,  a  grand  old  basilica,  notwith- 
 standing all  the  alterations  of  modern  date,  we  see  two 
 examples  among  the  best  of  the  art-works  produced  here 
 within  this  epoch  ;  the  sculptured  chapel  and  tomb  which 
 perpetuate  the  memory  of  a  Prench  Cardinal  of  royal 
 blood,  Philip  d'  Alengon.*     The  chapel,   dedicated  by  him 
 
 *  Philip  d'Alen9on  was  Archbishop  of  Rouen  when  he  incurred  the 
 displeasure  of  the  French  Kin^^,  his  cousin,  and  in  conse({uence  left 
 France.  He  was  well  received  at  Kome  by  Urban  VI.,  who  made  hini 
 Cardinal  Bishop  of  Sabina,  and  also  })estowed  on  him  in  commenda  the 
 Patriarchate  of  Aquileja.  The  Princes  of  Friuli  and  the  citizens  of 
 Udine  opposed  that  latter  appointment,  not  desiring  that  so  high  an 
 office  should  sink  into  a  mere  endowment  for  an  absent  Cardinal.  A 
 war  of  six  years  duration,  which  Urban  VI.  had  the  good  sense  to  dis- 
 approve, was  carried  on,  but  fruitlessly,  for  the  claimant  to  the  Putii- 
 archatc,  by  Charles  VI.  (now  reconciled  to  his  cousin),  and  by  Francesco 
 
198  MEDIEVAL    CHEISTIAN'ITT    AND 
 
 to  the  apostles  Pliilip  and  James,  formerly  stood  isolated, 
 but  is  now  placed  against  the  wall  of  a  transept,  with 
 detriment,  probably,  to  its  effect.  It  is  elaborately  archi- 
 tectonic, with  rich  but  heavy  Grothic  details,  columns, 
 acute-arched  canopy,  numerous  statuettes,  and  a  relief 
 of  the  Assumption  of  the  Virgin  with  five  figures  repre- 
 sented as  spectators  of  the  event,  among  whom  one,  who  is 
 kneeling,  may  be  intended  for  AleuQon,  another  for  S, 
 Philip,  while  a  King  and  a  mitred  prelate  may  be  recog- 
 nised as  S.  Louis  and  S.  Denis,  the  Protectors  of  Prance. 
 A  picture  above  the  altar,  more  modern  than  the  sculptures, 
 but  also  mediaeval,  of  the  crucifixion  of  that  Apostle,  with 
 the  figure  of  the  Cardinal  in  the  foreground,  is  now  so 
 blackened  by  time  as  to  be  scarcely  discernible.  Near  this 
 chapel  stands  the  monument  of  Alen9on,  which  has  no 
 Grothic  details,  and  cannot  be  ascribed  to  the  same  artist ; 
 some  critics  (Nibby,  Boma  Antica  e  Moderna)  assuming  it 
 to  be  a  work  of  Paolo  Eomano,  and  of  date  within  the  XV. 
 century.  It  bears  a  recumbent  efiigy  of  the  deceased,  and 
 a  relief  of  the  funeral  of  the  Virgin,  in  which  is  mystically 
 introduced  the  figure  of  the  Saviour  receiving  the  soul,  as 
 an  infant,  into  His  arms ;  the  Apostles  standing  around 
 the  bier,  together  with  Angels  who  hold  large  tapers  and 
 a  censer.  The  quaint  epitaph  informs  us,  in  the  last  two 
 lines,  why  such  subject  was  chosen  for  the  sculptures  on 
 this  tomb — namely,  because  Alengon  died  (1397)  on  the 
 day  of  the  "  transit "  of  Mary  : 
 
 Carrara;  lord  of  Padua,  who  assisted  Alengon  in  arms.  At  last,  as  that 
 Cardinal  deserted  Urban  to  espouse  the  cause  of  the  Antipope,  he  was 
 deprived  by  the  former  both  of  his  episcopal  rank  and  of  the  Cardinal's 
 hat.  Boniface  IX.  restored  him  to  all  he  had  lost,  and  made  him  Cardinal 
 Bishop  of  Ostia.  He  died  at  Rome,  and,  it  is  said,  in  esteem  for  sanctity: 
 }i  vita  excessit  Romoe  magnce  sanctitatis  opinione  ('Ciaconius,  Vitce  et 
 Jiegesto3  Pontif.  E.S.R.E.  Cardinalium.) 
 
SACEED  AET  IN  ITALY.  199 
 
 Anno  milleno  cum  C  quater,  sed  abde  I.  tcv, 
 Occubuit  qua  luce  Dei  pia  Virgoque  mater. 
 In  another  Transtiberine  churcli,  S.  Cecilia,  where  the 
 festival  of  that  Saint  attracts  so  much  by  beautiful  music 
 and  splendour,  stands  a  monument  interesting  to  the  Eng- 
 lish visitor,  that  of  Cardinal  Adam  Eston,  administrator  of 
 the  diocese  of  London,  and  one  of  the  victims  of  the  fierce 
 suspicion  of  Urban  VI.,  from  whose  implacable  wrath  he 
 was,  however,  rescued  by  the  intercession  of  his  king, 
 Richard  II.*  On  a  sarcophagus  adorned  with  spiral  colon- 
 nettes,  foliate  crosses  and  armorial  shields,  lies  the  effigy,  in 
 treatment  somewhat  hard,  and  in  outlines  heavy,  but  with 
 countenance  marked  by  a  grave  individuality  that  gives  the 
 idea  of  portrait  truthfulness.  Another  monument  to  a  con- 
 spicuous Cardinal,  at  Aracoeli  on  the  Capitol,  is  so  singular 
 that,  though  of  date  external  to  my  present  limits,  I  may 
 mention  it  here — that,  namely,  of  Cardinal  Matteo  d'Acqua- 
 sparta  (ob.  1302)  at  the  end  of  a  transept  in  the  principal 
 Franciscan  church.  It  has  a  recumbent  effigy  on  a  lofty 
 basement  adorned  with  mosaic  (now  lost),  a  high  Gothic 
 canopy,  and  a  wall-painting  of  the  A^irgin  and  Child  with 
 two  Saints,  one  of  whom  (S.  Erancis  ?)  presents  the  kneel- 
 
 *  "  Adam  Anglo,  tt.  (titnli)  S.  Ceciliae,  Presbyter,  Episcopatus  Lon- 
 dinensis  perpetuo  administraiori,  integritate,  doctrina  et  religione  praes- 
 tante," — so  runs  his  epitaph.  He  was  a  Benedictine  and  professor  of 
 Theology  at  Oxford  ;  also  taught  Greek  and  Hebrew,  of  which 
 languages  he  was  thoroughly  master.  Ciaconius  gives  a  list  of  22 
 works  produced  by  him,  some  serving  for  the  study  of  Hebrew,  and 
 one  written  in  Greek.  He  also  composed  the  Office  for  the  Visitation 
 of  the  Blessed  Virgin,  a  festival  instituted  by  Urban  VI.,  as  intercession 
 for  the  Divine  protection  against  the  schism  of  the  Antipapacy. 
 "Almost  all  English  authors  (says  Ciaconius)  who  have  mentioned 
 Adam,  report  that  Urban,  when  near  the  hour  of  death,  attested 
 his  innocence,  and  felt  violent  remorse  for  the  wrong  done  to  him." 
 He  was  rt  stored  to  all  his  honours  by  Boniface  IX.  and  died  at  Konic^ 
 absent  from  the  See  where  he  was  not,  apparently,  a  frcciuent  resident. 
 
200  MEDi.^VAL  chrtstia:n'itt  and 
 
 irig  Cardinal ;  but  not  a  word,  by  way  of  epitaph,  tells  ns 
 the  history  of  the  deceased.  This  Cardinal,  a  Franciscan 
 and  Father- Greneral  of  that  Order,  1287,  was  sent  on 
 various  legations  by  Boniface  YIII.,  and  finally  to  Florence 
 with  the  mission  of  reconciling  the  violent  Bianchi  and  Neri 
 factions.  He  totally  failed  in  this,  was  threatened  with 
 death  by  seditious  conspirators,  and  fulminated  against 
 Florence  the  excommunication,  with  the  interdict,  before 
 his  departure.  Dante  (Faradiso,  Canto  XII.)  puts  into  the 
 mouth  of  8.  Bonaventura  the  following  allusion  to  him: — 
 
 Ma  non  fiada  Casal,  ne  d'Aquasparta, 
 La  onde  vegnon  tali  alia  Scrittura, 
 Ch'  uno  la  fugge,  e  I'altro  la  coarta — 
 
 meaning  that  the  truly  ^ood  Franciscans  could  not  be  like 
 those  from  Casale  (an  ancient  city  of  Piedmont),  and 
 Acquasparta  (in  the  diocese  of  Todi),  of  whom  one  evaded 
 the  rigour  of  S.  Francis's  rule,  and  the  other  (Cardinal 
 Matteo)  exceeded  it  by  his  severities.  Leandro  Alberti 
 (Descrizioiie d'lfalia),  coWiTiiiend&,}iowe\er,  another  aspect 
 of  Matteo' s  character,  styling  him  as  "  iiomo  letter ato,  come 
 dai  commentarii  da  luifatti  sopra  le  sentenze  (i.  e.  of  Peter 
 Lombardus)  conoscere  si  puo." 
 
 In  Mosaic,  this  period  was  more  productive  at  Eome  than 
 in  other  forms  of  art,  and  what  remains  is  distinguished  by 
 a  better  character  than  are  other  contemporary  works  here 
 extant.  The  mosaics  from  Cavallini's  designs  have  beauty 
 and  vigour  of  conception.  Before  particularizing  them,  I 
 may  notice  another  specimen  of  this  art,  as  to  which  little  is 
 known  :  the  remnant,  namely,  of  a  great  composition  on  the 
 apse  of  S.  Crisogono,  representing  the  Virgin  and  Child  on 
 a  gorgeous  throne,  with  S.  James  the  elder  and  S.  Chryso- 
 gonus  attired  as  a  youthful  warrior  of  antiquity,  that  saint 
 having  been  a  B-oman  patrician,  who  suftered  martyrdom 
 under  Diocletian,  a.d.  30e3.     In  1128,  his  church,  first  men- 
 
SACRED  AET  IN  ITALY.  201 
 
 tioned  in  the  acts  of  a  Council  held  by  Pope  Symmacluis, 
 A.D.  499,  was  rebuilt  by  the   Cardinal  Titular,  De  Crema  ; 
 but  the  mutilated  mosaic  now  seen  there  cannot  be  of  so 
 early  a  date,  for  it  displays  the  influences  of  the  Giotto 
 school,  and  a  freedom  far  from  attained  in  the  XII.  century. 
 The  only  Koman  artist  of  the  period  here  in  question  who 
 has  left  an  enduring  reputation,  was  Pietro  Cavallini,  de- 
 ceased about  130-4.  and  at  the  age  of  eighty-five  according 
 to  Vasari.    That  biographer  speaks  highly  both  of  his  moral 
 and  artistic  qualities,  his  habitual  piety  and  charities,  at- 
 tested as  is  his  industry  by  the  tradition  which  assures  us 
 that  he  left  1300  finished  pictures.     He  was  the  pupil  of 
 Giotto,  and  assisted  him  in  the  great  mosaic  of  the  "  Xavi- 
 cella."     Several  Eomau  churches — Aracoeli,   S.  Cecilia,  S. 
 Maria  in  Trastevere,  &c. — were  adorned  by  his  pencil;  but 
 few  of  his  paintings  on  their  walls  have  been  preserved.  For 
 S.  Paul's  basilica,  he  designed  the  mosaics   of  the  facade, 
 ordered  by  the  Abbot  in  the  time  of  John  XXII.  and  saved 
 from  the  fire  in  1823,  but  subsequently  moved  into  the  tran- 
 septs. Yasari  ascribes  to  him,  and  highly  commends,the  wall- 
 paintings  round  the  ancient  chapter-house  of  the  S.  Paul's 
 monastery,  also  left  uninjured  by  the  fire,  but  so  retouched 
 that,  as  we  now  see  them,  little   can  be  considered  the 
 artist's  original  work : —  subjects,the  Crucifixion  with  several 
 figures  and  angels  mourning  around  the  cross,  the  twelve 
 Apostles  with  scrolls,  and  other  saints  ranged  in  formal 
 rows,  as  in  old  mosaics  ;  the  four  Evangelic  emblems  above. 
 The  type  of  the  Crucified  is  almost  feminine,  and  the  feet 
 are  fastened  by  two  nails,  conformably  to  the  older  treat- 
 ment.    Yasari  says  that  the  artist,  "  engaged  on  certain 
 works  in  fresco  in  the  chapter-house  of  the  first  cloister 
 (at  S.  Paul's),  so  much  exerted  himself  therein,  that  he 
 obtained  from  persons  of  good  judgment  the  repute  of  a 
 most  excellent  master  ;  and  was  therefore  so  much  favoured 
 
202  MEDIEVAL    CHEISTIANITY    AND 
 
 hj  the  prelates  that  they  secured  to  him  the  order  for  (23amt- 
 iug)  the  facade  of  S.  Peter's,  on  the  inner  side  between  the 
 windows."  In  the  S.  Paolo  basilica  is  a  life-size  wooden 
 Crucifix  ascribed  to  him,  the  same  before  which  S.  Brigida 
 and  S.  Franeesca  E-omana  used  to  pray,  and  which  is  said  to 
 have  bowed  its  head,  or  spoken,  in  answer  to  the  prayers  of 
 the  latter.*  In  the  above-named  Transtiberine  church  of 
 S.  Maria,  is  a  fine  series  of  mosaics  on  the  apse  designed  by 
 Cavallini,  besides  the  portrait  of  the  donator,  Bertoldo 
 Stefaneschi,  in  a  violet  mantle,  on  his  knees  before  the 
 Virgin  and  Child,  with  SS.  Peter  and  Paul  standing  near, 
 the  former  apostle  presenting  him  to  the  sacred  group, 
 whose  figures  are  placed  within  a  medallion.f  The  mosaic 
 series  on  the  ancient  apse,  beneath  the  larger  composition 
 in  the  same  form  of  art  (XII.  century),  which  occupies  the 
 vault  above,  illustrates  the  history  of  Mary — her  birth,  the 
 Annunciation,  the  Nativity,  the  Adoration  by  the  Magi,  the 
 Presentation  in  the  Temple,  the  transit,  or  rather  funeral, 
 in  which  last  scene  the  Saviour  appears  in  an  elliptic  nim- 
 bus, between  two  bright-winged  angels,  receiving  the 
 soul,  in  form  of  a  new-born  infant — the  same  mystic  idea  as 
 is  embodied  in  the  relief  on  the  tomb  of  Cardinal  Alengon, 
 
 *  A  statue  by  Carlo  Maderno  of  that  saintly  matron,  on  her  knees, 
 commemorates  her  devotions  in  the  chapel  where  that  crucifix  hangs 
 over  the  altar. 
 
 ■f  The  date  1290  has  been  assigned  to  these  mosaics,  or  to  the  order 
 for  their  execution  by  the  artist.  But,  according  to  Vasari,  Cavallini 
 would  then  have  been  only  eleven  years  old.  Stefaneschi  was  major- 
 domo  to  Nicholas  IV.,  who  died  in  1292  ;  but  he  may  have  survived  that 
 Pope  for  many  years  before  he  commissioned  the  works  at  this  church. 
 Under  the  mosaic  of  his  presentation  to  the  Virgin  and  Child  is  the 
 name  Bertold.  Films  Pet.  with  the  metrical  lines  : — 
 
 Virgo  Deum  complexa  sinu  servando  pudorem 
 Virginum,  matris  fuiidans  per  saicula  nomen, 
 Kespice  compunctos  animos  miserata  tuorom. 
 
SACEED  AET  IN  ITALY.  203 
 
 Lut  with  more  imagination  and  gi'ace  by  Cavallini.  Tlic 
 architecture  accessorially  introduced  in  this  series,  is  semi- 
 Gothic.  The  type  of  Mary's  figure  is  distinguished  by 
 matron-dignity,  without  that  queenly  gi^andeur  given  to  her 
 by  later  art,  as  also  in  the  great  mosaics  of  the  XII.  century 
 before  us  on  this  apsidal  vault,  where  she  is  seated  on  the 
 same  throne  with  the  Divine  Son.  Of  the  many  wall-paint- 
 ings by  Cavallini  in  this  church,  only  two  remain,  now 
 placed  in  the  portico,  and,  I  am  sorry  to  see,  for  at  least  the 
 second  time  retouched  during  the  recent  works  of  restora- 
 tion and  embellishment  carried  out,  with  much  expense 
 and  splendour,  at  this  Trasteverine  basilica.  Both  those 
 pictures  represent  the  Annunciation  ;  and  in  one  instance 
 the  Divine  Infant  appears  with  a  cross  in  His  hand,  and 
 preceded  by  the  Dove  descending  from  the  bosom  of  the 
 visible  Almighty  Father  towards  the  person  of  Mary.  An 
 accessorial  figure,  in  the  other  picture  of  the  same  subject, 
 stands  crowned  as  a  King,  holding  a  sword  and  banner  with 
 a  cross.  This  is  described  in  the  "  Beschreibung  der  Stadt 
 Eom,"  as  "  a  bishop  seated  near  Mary  with  a  banner  in 
 his  hand,  probably  representing  (Pope)  S.  Calixtus  as 
 founder  of  this  church" — from  which  particulars  we  must 
 infer  that  the  figure  has  been  totally  changed  since  the 
 German  savans  compiled  their  admirable  work  on  Eome. 
 Other  figures  of  devotees  are  introduced  in  both  pictures.  All 
 Cavallini's  paintings  at  Ara  Coeli  have  disappeared,  as  have 
 also  those  by  Giottino  in  the  same  church  on  the  Capitol.* 
 
 *  In  the  apse,  Cavallini  painted  the  well-known  subject  of  the  vision 
 of  the  Virgin  and  Child  displayed  and  interpreted  to  Augustus  by  the 
 Tiburtine  Sibyl  on  the  site,  according  to  legend,  of  this  church.  A 
 picture  of  S.  Louis  (of  Anjou  ?)  on  a  pilaster  of  the  choir,  by  the  same 
 hand,  was  extant  till  the  XVI.  century.  On  one  of  the  columns  of  the 
 nave  is  still  seen  a  large  figure  of  a  Saint,  that  might  be  referred  to  tlie 
 XIV.  This  great  Franciscan  church,  though  modernized,  still  retains  a 
 grand  and  olden  character. 
 
204<  MEDIEVAL    CHEISTIANITT   AND 
 
 The  only  valuable  collection  of  mediaeval  paintings  in  any- 
 public  gallery  at  Eome,  is  that  which  fills  the  glazed  cabinets 
 of  a  hall  of  the  Vatican  library,  and  was  finally  completed,  as 
 we  see  it,  in  1837.  Of  all  art  collections  in  this  city,  it  is  the 
 worst  arranged,  and  the  most  inconveniently  exhibited ; 
 the  visitor  being  habitually  sacrificed  to  the  whims  or  in- 
 dolence of  the  custodi,  so  that  one  may  frequent  this 
 gallery  ever  so  often  without  ever  thoroughly  seeing  its 
 contents.  Among  them  are  twenty-five  panel-pictures  of 
 dates  within  the  Xl.V.  century,  mostly  of  the  Elorentine 
 and  Sienese  schools.  In  the  first  cabinet :  the  Betrayal  of 
 Christ,  the  E-aising  of  Lazarus,  the  Crucifixion  with  the 
 Eternal  Father  enthroned  above  the  cross,  and  in  act  of 
 showing  the  Son  to  those  Saints  who  have  most  meditated 
 upon  His  Passion.  The  legend  of  S.  Stephen,  and  of  the 
 translation  of  his  relics  to  Eome,  is  united  with  that  of 
 less  known  Saints,  and  of  the  Nicodemus  mentioned  in 
 the  Grospeis ;  and  the  last  picture  of  this  series  (2ud 
 cabinet)  shows  us  the  faithful  praying  at  the  tomb  where 
 SS.  Stephen  and  Laurence  repose  together  at  the  S.  Lorenzo 
 basilica.  We  must  refer  to  the  "  Legenda  Aurea  "  for 
 the  explanation  of  one  mystical  subject  here  treated :  S. 
 Oamaliel  (we  there  read)  appeared  to  the  priest  S.  Lucian, 
 touched  him  with  a  golden  wand,  and  showed  to  him  three 
 vases' of  gold  with  one  of  silver.  "  One  of  the  gold  vases 
 was  filled  with  red  roses  ;  the  two  others  with  white  roses  ; 
 the  silver  vase  was  full  of  saftron.  And  Gamaliel  said,  These 
 vases  are  our  tombs,  and  these  flowers  are  our  relics.  The 
 vase  of  red  roses  indicates  Stephen,  the  only  one  of  us 
 who  has  merited  the  crown  of  martyrdom.  The  two  full  of 
 white  roses  indicate  Nicodemus  and  myself,  who  have  per- 
 severed in  sincerity  of  heart  and  in  the  worship  of  Christ 
 Jesus.  The  vase  of  silver  filled  with  saftron  is  the  emblem 
 of  my  son  Abibas,  who  ever  preserved  his  virginal  purity, 
 
SACRED    ART   IN    ITALY.  205 
 
 and  quitted  tliis  world  without  stain."  The  life  of  S.  John 
 the  Evangelist  is  represented  in  three  pictures  :  one  of  his 
 assumption,  received  into  Paradise  by  the  Saviour  —  a 
 legend  perhaps  quite  as  popular  at  one  period  as  that 
 which,  in  defiance  of  history,  ascribed  the  same  preter- 
 natural privilege  to  Mary.  A  series,  illustrating  the 
 Passion,  comprises  the  figure  of  the  Deity  in  benediction, 
 and  the  Evangelists  with  the  heads  of  their  mystic  emblems, 
 three  of  them  having  consequently  the  animal  blended  with 
 the  human  form.  A  triptych  (7th  cabinet)  of  the 
 Madonna  and  Child,  S.  Michael  and  the  Dragon,  S.  Ursula 
 with  palm  and  banner,  bears  the  inscribed  name  and  date, 
 AJegritus  Nutii  me  pinxit  A.  MCCOLXV.  The  Assump- 
 tion of  the  Virgin  (referred  to  the  latter  years  of  this 
 century)  is  an  early  example  of  the  treatment  of  that 
 favourite  subject,  in  which  the  Saviour  is  introduced,  with 
 four  crimson  wings,  descending  from  Heaven  and  raising 
 from  the  tomb,  by  the  hand,  His  Mother  about  to  be  glori- 
 fied ;  S.  Thomas,  among  the  other  Apostles;  holding  the 
 girdle  received  as  pledge  of  her  ascent. 
 
 One  might  desire  to  see  some  record  of  that  extra- 
 ordinary woman,  S.  Catherine  of  Siena,  in  this  city  where 
 her  influence  was  beneficially  exerted,  and  where  the 
 Papal  residence  was  restored  through  means  to  which  her 
 eloquence  and  sanctity  contributed.  Her  remains  lie  at 
 the  chief  Dominican  church,  S.  Maria  sopra  Minervaj 
 under  the  high  altar,  where  is  a  recumbent  coloured  statue 
 of  her,  visible  by  the  light  of  ever-burning  lamps  through 
 the  arcades  at  that  Gothic  altar's  front  In  a  hall  entered 
 from  the  sacristy  stands,  isolated,  the  chamber  in  which 
 she  died,  which  was  tranferrcd  in  fofo,  1637,  by  order  of 
 a  Cardinal  Barberini,  from  the  not-distant  house  where  she 
 resided  during  her  stay  in  Eome.  More  interesting  would 
 it  be  if  this  chamber,  instead  of  being  metamorphosed  into 
 
206  MEDlJEYAIu    CHRISTIANITY    AND 
 
 a  splendid  chapel  of  XYII.  century  style,  were  preserved 
 in  tlie  rude  simplicity  which  we  may  believe  must  have 
 surrounded  its  saintly  inmate  when  living  and  dying,  1380, 
 within  its  walls.  The  body  of  S.  Catherine  received  extra- 
 ordinary honours  when  S.  Maria  sopra  Minerva  was 
 reopened,  4th  August,  1855,  after  a  restoration  to  the 
 original  Grothic  type  carried  out  with  much  splendour,  and 
 commenced  in  1848,  but  long  suspended  owing  to  political 
 troubles.  The  new  high  altar  having  been  consecrated, 
 and  the  first  Mass  celebrated  on  it  by  His  Holiness  the 
 Pope,  those  relics  were  transferred  from  the  chapel  of  the 
 Bosary  and  borne  through  the  streets  in  a  silver  urn  on 
 a  bier  hung  with  crimson  velvet,  supported  by  four  bishops, 
 under  a  canopy  garlanded  with  flowers,  all  the  Hegular 
 Clergy,  collegiate  chapters,  theological  students,  and  ladies 
 in  white,  the  sisterhood  of  Dominican  Tertiaries,  walking  in 
 the  long  procession — pomps  that  aflectingly  contrast  with 
 the  lowly  station  and  austere  life  of  Her  for  whose  honour 
 they  were  intended ! 
 
 I  have  elsewhere  noticed  the  wall-paintings,  probably 
 late  works  of  the  XIY.  century,  on  the  ancient  apse  of 
 another  Dominican  church,  S,  Sisto  on  the  Appian  Way ; 
 their  subjects  from  the  Grospel,  with  figures  of  S.  Paul,  S. 
 John  Baptist,  S.  Dominic,  &c.  They  had  been  long  forgot- 
 ten and  out  of  sight,  till  discovered  and  made  visible  in 
 works  ordered  by  the  estimable  Pather  Prior  (Mullooly)  of 
 S.  Clemente,  to  which  Dominican  convent  S.  Sisto,  whose 
 cloisters  have  long  been  deserted  on  account  of  malaria, 
 belongs. 
 
 The  broad  staircase  of  124  steps  which  leads  up  to  the 
 fagade  of  Aracoeli,  and  which  used  to  be  ascended  by  the 
 devout  on  their  knees,  is  a  record  of  that  terrible  visita- 
 tion of  plague  in  1348,  which,  while  raging  at  Plorence, 
 suggested  to  Boccaccio  the  descriptive  passages  and  local 
 
SACKED    ART    IN    ITALY.  207 
 
 features  introduced  in  a  never-to-be-forgotten  work  of  fic- 
 tion. That  staircase  was  built  in  the  same  year  with  marble 
 from  the  temple  of  Quirinus,  and  at  a  cost  defrayed  by 
 offerings  to  the  shrine  of  the  Madonna,  after  her  picture 
 ascribed  to  S.  Luke,  and  still  over  the  high  altar  of  this 
 church,  had  been  carried  in  procession  during  the  extraordi- 
 nary devotions  ordered  for  prayer  to  deliver  Rome  from 
 the  common  calamity.  A  contemporary  inscription  in  Gothic 
 letters,  near  the  chief  door  of  the  church,  tells  us  that  this 
 staircase  was  commenced  25th  October,  13Ji8,  by  the  "  Ma- 
 gister"  Lorenzo  Simeone  Andreozzi.  In  the  same  year  '48, 
 was  rebuilt  the  Lateran  hospital,  one  marble  gate  of  which, 
 with  reliefs  of  the  head  of  the  Saviour  between  candelabra 
 and  the  Lamb  with  a  banner,  remains  to  remind  us,  both  by 
 its  sculptured  ornaments  and  epigraph,  of  that  date. 
 
 One  regrets  not  to  be  able  to  associate  the  memory  of 
 Cola  di  Hienzo  with  any  edifice  still  erect  on  the  site  of  his 
 installation,  his  official  residence,  and  his  tragic  death.  The 
 fortifications  raised  by  Boniface  IX.,  1394,  when  he  restored 
 the  Capitoline  palace  desolated  by  fire  on  the  last  day  of 
 the  Tribune's  life,  still  in  part  remain,  and  are  conspicuous 
 on  the  eastern  side,  with  that  Pontiff's  armorial  shield  in 
 different  places  :  but  the  actual  palace  is,  for  the  rest,  mo- 
 dern, and  utterly  without  architectural  dignity,  except  in 
 those  stupendous  structures  of  the  Tabularium,  sole  monu- 
 ment of  Eepublican  Eome  in  sight  from  the  Forum,  above 
 which  the  later  buildings  rise.  Some  years  after  Boniface's 
 restorations,  it  was  stipulated  in  a  Convention  between 
 Innocent  VIII.  and  the  Eoman  people,  that  the  buildings 
 should  be  reduced  to  the  uses  and  character,  not  of  a  castle 
 but  a  tribunal  of  justice  ;*  and  other  works,  instituted  for 
 this  object  early  in  the  XV.  century,  were  completed  under 
 
 *  '■  Capitolinm  reducatur  et  reduci  debeat  ad   formam  palatii  et  loci 
 communis  judicii." 
 
208  MEDIiEVAL    CHRISTIANITT  AND 
 
 the  pontificate  of  Martin  V.  The  staircase,  like  an  inclin- 
 ing plane,  by  which  we  ascend  from  the  northern  side,  was 
 made  from  a  design  by  Buonarotti  in  the  time  of  Paul  III. 
 for  the  occasion  of  the  state  ingress  of  Charles  Y.,  1536  ; 
 and  the  two  Egyptian  lions  of  black  granite,  which  flank 
 that  ascent,  were  not  placed  where  we  see  them  till  later  in 
 the  same  century,  1560.  The  colossal  statues  of  Castor  and 
 Pollux,  with  their  steeds,  the  sculptured  trophies  misnamed 
 "  trofei  di  Mario"  (after  Marius),  the  statues  of  the  two 
 Constantines,  and  the  far  more  celebrated  equestrian 
 bronze  of  Marcus  Aurelius,  all  found  their  way  to  their  pre- 
 sent places  on  the  Capitoline  summit  in  comparatively 
 modern  times.  The  dusky  towers  of  Boniface  IX.  with  their 
 plain  cornice-work  of  marble  brackets,  common  to  mediaeval 
 Italian  architecture,  still  conspicuous  on  the  east,  and  trace- 
 able on  the  western  side,  alone  remind  us  of  that  Capitoline 
 palace,  which  was  the  scene  of  a  great  and  brilliant,  but 
 tragically  frustrated  effort  to  revive  the  genius  and  powers 
 of  Republican  Eome. 
 
 Though  I  propose  to  limit  myself  to  the  monuments  and 
 art  which  are  of  Christian  origin,  it  seems  not  altogether 
 foreign  to  my  theme  to  refer  to  the  relics  of  the  Eeligion 
 and  Civilization  that  have  passed  away,  while  E-ome,  her 
 antiquities  and  public  works,  are  dwelt  upon  in  these  pages  ; 
 and  the  manner  in  which  the  proceedings  of  the  Papacy,  or 
 the  social  conditions  produced  under  its  immediate  influ- 
 ence affected  the  fate,  accelerating  or  arresting  the  decay, 
 of  those  local  monuments,  pertains  to  the  collateral  walks 
 of  the  History  I  am  considering.  A  terrible  earthquake, 
 felt  at  Eome  on  the  10th  September,  1349,  is  described  in 
 impressive  language  by  Petrarch, ^^  and  mentioned  by  all 
 
 *  Ecce  Roma  ipsa  insolito  tremore  concussa  est,  tarn  gravitcr,  ut  ab 
 eadem  urbe  condita  supra  duo  aniiorum  millia  tale  nihil  accident.     Ceci- 
 
SACRED  AET  IN  ITALT.  200 
 
 writers  on  Homau  antiquity  as  having  greatly  injured  some 
 of  tlie  most  memorable  among  classic  ruins  at  this  centre. 
 It  also  overthrew  the  columns  of  the  portico,  and  damaged 
 ■  the  campanile  of  the  Ostian  basilica ;  it  commenced  the  work 
 of  ruin,  completed  by  the  fire,  at  the  Lateran,  and  destroyed 
 the  upper  part  of  the  Conti  fortress  built  for  his  relations 
 by  Innocent  III.,  and  now  represented  only  by  a  huge 
 truncate  tower  in  grim  decay.  The  immense  arcades  of  the 
 Constantinian  basilica,  between  the  Eorum  and  the  Colos- 
 seum, were  shattered,  though  they  could  hardly  have  been 
 destroyed,  by  those  shocks  of  nature. 
 
 In  this  century  the  Circus  Maximus,  after  being  for  a 
 time  held  by  the  Frangipani  family,  was  abandoned  and 
 left  to  sink  into  decay,  its  material  being  appropriated  like 
 the  stones  of  a  common  quarry  by  the  baronial  or  other 
 families.  The  theatre  of  Pompey,  fortified  about  the  end 
 of  the  XI.  century  by  the  Pierleoni  family,  and  inherited 
 from  them  by  the  Savelli,  was  now  the  principal  residence  of 
 the  latter  ;  and  their  buildings,  as  in  the  masonry  filling  the 
 ancient  arcades,  may  be  recognised  on  the  dusky  exterior. 
 The  Orsini  built  a  castle  among  the  ruins  of  the  theatre  of 
 Pompey,  where  Petrarch  saw  in  his  time  but  one  arch  still 
 erect !  And  I  am  sorry  to  add  that  the  entire  aggregate 
 of  splendid  edifices  founded  by  Pompey, — temples,  theatre, 
 portico,  and  that  curia  where  "  great  Caesar  fell"  beneath 
 the 
 
 .     .     .    dread  statue  yet  existent,  in 
 
 The  austercst  form  of  naked  majest}-, — 
 
 dit  redificiorum  veterum  neglecta  civibus  stupenda  percgrinis  moles.  Tiir- 
 ris  ilia  toto  orbe  vmica,  qure  Comitum  dicebatur,  iiigentibus  rimis  laxata 
 dissiluit.  Denique  ut  irae  coelcstis  argumcnta  non  desint  multorum  species 
 templorum  atque  in  primis  Paolo  Apostolo  dicatae  cedis  bona  pars  biimi 
 collapsa,  et  Lateranensis  ecclcsire  dcjectus  apex  jubilan  ardorcm  gclido 
 horrore  contristant.  Cum  Pctro  mitius  est  actum,  &c. — (1.  x,  Eput.  II-) 
 
 P 
 
210  MEDIiEYAL   CIIRISTIAKITY   AND 
 
 are  now  alike  reduced  not   only  to  ruin,  but,  in  obscure 
 decay,  buried  underground  and  invisible ! 
 
 It  is  with  a  feeling  of  melancbofy  tbat  we  conclude  our 
 studies  of  the  period  liere  considered  at  Eome  ;  for  the 
 foot-prints  left  by  its  life  betray  retrogression  rather  than 
 progress  at  this  supreme  centre.  More  encouraging  signs, 
 and  worthier  fruits  of  civilization  and  energies  will  meet 
 us,  however,  elsewhere ;  and  the  extended  knowledge  of 
 Italian  monuments  will  correct  the  impression  received  at 
 a  city  where  the  classically  antique  was  continually  exposed 
 to  vicissitudes  which  deepen  the  gloom  of  the  social 
 picture.  Still  increasing  proofs  of  unthinking  neglect, 
 and  more  inexcusable  examples  of  wanton  injury  or  delibe- 
 rate spoliation  meet  us  as  we  descend  the  historic  stream  : 
 and  so  long  as  the  attention  is  fixed  upon  the  Capital  of 
 the  Seven  Hills  a  mournful  sentiment  is  awakened  by  much 
 that  strikes  the  eye  and  mind  here.  Yet  on  those  Hills 
 we  perceive  also  the  working  of  a  spirit  which,  though 
 antagonistic  to  the  magnificent  Past,  has  yet  a  certain 
 stamp  of  nobleness ;  for  its  aim  was  to  appropriate  and 
 consecrate  the  relics  of  Heathenism,  that  all  might  be 
 subservient  to  the  triumphs  of  the  Cross.  Of  this  we 
 have  the  most  significant  example  in  the  obelisks  sur- 
 mounted by  that  sign  of  Eedemption,  the  most  striking 
 expression  in  the  lines  inscribed  by  Sixtus  Y.  beneath  one 
 of  those  restored  emblems  of  mysterious  Egypt,  on  the 
 basement,  namely,  of  the  obelisk  before  the  Yatican : 
 Christus  vincit.  Christus  regnat.  Christus  imperat.  Christus 
 ah  omni  7nalo  plehcm  suam  defendat.  Ecce  Crux  Domini, 
 Fugite  partes  adversce.     Vicit  Leo  de  Trihii  Juda. 
 
 Naples  and  Soutkern  Italx. 
 
 From  Eome  we  may  turn  to  Naples.  The  first  Bishop  of 
 that  see  is  said  to  have  been  Asprenus,  who  was  converted 
 
SACRED  ART  IX  ITALY.  211 
 
 and  consecrated  by  S.  Peter  ;  but  the  first  permanent  cathe- 
 dral is  ascribed  to  Constantine.  In  the  house  of  a  matron 
 named  Candida,  said  to  have  been  a  convert  of  the  Apostle 
 at  the  same  time  as  S.  Aspreuus,  that  primitive  pastor  is 
 supposed  to  have  consecrated  the  first  oratory  for  Neapoli- 
 tan Christians,  and  which  is  still  seen,  being  now  a  crypt, 
 narrow,  dark,  and  vaulted,  below  the  Franciscan  church  of 
 S.  Piefro  ad  Ai'am.  Under  its  altar  lies  the  body  of  S. 
 Candida,  and  on  one  side  is  the  mouth  of  a  deep  well,  whose 
 waters  are  believed  to  possess  preternaturally  healing 
 virtues.  From  this  crypt  opens  a  small  chamber  said  to 
 pertain  to  the  same  house  of  the  Christian  matron,  and 
 evidently  antique,  as  its  construction  shows.  Modern  paint- 
 ings and  ornaments  have  made  the  oratory  look  as  modern 
 as  possible ;  and  in  this  (supposed)  earliest  sanctuary  of 
 the  true  worship  at  Naples  we  are  greeted  by  examples  of 
 the  characteristically  bad  Neapolitan  taste.  In  the  basilica 
 of  S.  Eestituta,  which  adjoins  the  actual  cathedi'al,  is  a 
 mosaic  of  the  Madonna,  with  jewelled  crown  and  cruciform 
 sceptre,  the  Child,  who  is  blessing,  on  her  knees,  and  beside 
 her  two  saints,  Januarius  with  the  model  of  a  church,  and 
 Eestituta  with  an  open  book  in  her  hand — an  art-work  re- 
 stored in  the  XIY.  century,  and  said  to  have  been  placed 
 by  S.  Aspreuus  in  that  primitive  chapel  founded  by  him  ; 
 but  we  may  conclude  it  to  be  a  copy,  probably  from  an 
 original  painting,  not  a  mosaic,  of  less  early  date.  Conform- 
 ably with  the  legend,  this  is  still  called  the  "  Madonna  del 
 Principio ;"  and  the  high  antiquity  claimed  for  Madonna- 
 worship  at  Naples,  is  amusingly  attested  by  the  name  given 
 to  three  places  (narrow  streets,  &c.)  in  that  city — "  Di 
 Maria  ante  sa^cula."  The  Constantinian  basilica,  or  first 
 cathedral,  was  renewed  (or  rebuilt)  by  S.  Scvcrus,  bishop 
 of  Naples,  a.d.  367;  and  again  by  S.  Stephen,  bisliop,  a.u. 
 49S  ;  after  which,  thougli  dedicated  to  the  Saviour,  it  be- 
 
212  MEDIAEVAL   CHRISTIANITY   AND 
 
 came    commonly    called    "  Stepliauia."     A    bishop   Jolin 
 (536-556)  restored  its  apse  after  a  fire;  and  the  whole  church 
 is  said  to  have  been  rebuilt,  after  another  more  disastroiis 
 conflagration,  in  790.     The  same  bishop  John  built  a  church, 
 8.  Lorenzo,  entirely  of  marble.     His  predecessor,  S.  Pom- 
 ponius,  built  another,  as  desired  by  the  Virgin  in  a  dream, 
 and  dedicated  to  her  as  S.  Maria  Major,  on  the  spot  which 
 had  been  haunted  by  a  demon  in  the  form  of  a  swine  ;  the 
 remedy  of   course   proving   efficacious,   the    purified  spot 
 being   thenceforth    delivered   from  the    obnoxious    fiend. 
 Hence  the   annual  usage  of  throwing  down   a  pig  from 
 the  tower  of  the  cathedral,  but  which  some  sensible  prelate 
 of  this  See  had  abolished  before  the  time  of  Ughelli, — see  his 
 *'  Italia  Sacra,"  t.  iv.,  where  is  mentioned  a  monument  of 
 the  legend  and  practice  in  the  form  of  sculptured  swine  on 
 one  side  of  the  same  cathedral  tower.     Many  particulars 
 lead  us  to  infer  that,  in  early  ages,  wealth  and  splendour 
 pertained  to  the  clergy  and  characterized  the  worship  of 
 Naples.     "We  read  of  an  altar,  its  canopy  and  the  support- 
 ing columns  all  plated  with  silver,  in  the  church  of  S.  John 
 Baptist,  built  in  the  YI.  century  ;  of  golden  and  jewelled 
 sacramental  vessels,  and  altar-fronts  encrusted  with  gold 
 and  gems,  presented  to  the  cathedral  and  other  churches 
 by  the  Bishop  Stephen,  who,  having  been  Duke  and  Consul 
 of  Naples,  was  raised  to  the  See  by  popular  election,  a.d. 
 764.     The  front  of  th^  church  of  S.  Peter,  built  by  him, 
 was  adorned  with  j)ain tings  of  the  first  six  General  Councils, 
 Paschal,  his  immediate  successor,  who  had  also  been  a  lay- 
 man up  to  the  time  of  his  election  (alike  popular),  followed 
 his  example  in  munificence.     The  first  sovereign  who  em- 
 bellished  the  city  with  public  works,  and  who  built  the 
 church   of    S.   Augustin,   was    "William    U.    styled  "  the 
 Good,"  1166-1 1S9. 
 Naples,  says  Ughelli,  might  well    be  called  "  Mariana 
 
SACRED  ART  IN  ITALY.  213 
 
 Civltas,"  seeing  that  she  liad  no  fewer  than  120  churches 
 dedicated  to  the  Blessed  Virgin,  besides  200  others  at  tlie 
 time  that  author  wrote.  The  number  of  patron  saints, 
 elected  from  age  to  age^,  was  then  (1G59)  upwards  of  twenty- 
 five  ;*  the  number  of  monasteries  and  convents  for  men,  one 
 liundred  ;  for  women,  twenty-eight,  besides  twenty-one  pico 
 domus,  religious  and  charitable  retreats  for  that  sex ;  the 
 jnous  confraternities  being  upwards  of  a  hundred. f 
 
 Neapolitan  art  has  had  comparatively  little  influence  or 
 repute  in  modern  times.  The  difterent  phases  through 
 which  it  has  passed  may,  however,  be  followed  with  in- 
 terest ;  for  they  convey  a  moral  meaning  in  their  proof  of 
 the  deteriorating  eftects  to  the  character  of  art  from  such 
 forms  and  principles  of  government  as  have  prevailed  in 
 this  kingdom.  The  sumptuous,  the  elaborate,  the  splendid 
 are  preferred  to  noble  simplicity  and  chastened  dignity. 
 Even  the  solemnity  of  Death  is  disturbed  by  the  glare  of 
 Courts  ;  and  palace  pomps,  with  trains  of  obsequious  cour- 
 tiers, still  attend  the  royal  personages  in  effigy  over  the 
 tomb.  In  one  instance  even  a  prince  who  never  reigned, 
 Duke  Charles  of  Calabria,  son  of  King  Eobert,  is  attended, 
 in  the  relief  on  his  sarcophagus,  by  satellites  who  all  kneel 
 to  him !  The  characteristic  composition  of  the  funereal 
 monuments  at  Naples  (and  almost  all  art- works  here,  of  the 
 Xiy.  century,  belong  to  that  class)  may  be  described  in 
 
 *  S.  Thomas  Aquinas,  elected  (so  to  say)  in  the  XVII.  century  ; 
 and  hiter,  SS.  Andrea  di  AveUino,  Dominic,  Francesco  di  Paohi,  Gae- 
 tano,  Francis  Xavier,  &c. 
 
 t  "  In  Naples  the  rehgious  establishments  for  both  sexes,  which  in 
 1786  amounted  to  two  hundred,  are  now  (1848)  reduced  to  thirty-eight 
 convents  of  monks,  and  twenty-two  monasteries  of  nuns,  besides  several 
 conservatories." — Moroni,  Dizionario,  Ai'ticlc  "Napoli." 
 
 Sixty-six  monastic  and  other  communities  in  this  city  have  been  sup, 
 pressed  since  the  recent  change  of  government. 
 
214  MEDTJi^VAL  OHEISTIANITY   AIS^D 
 
 few  words  :  the  elevation  is  of  three,  sometimes  four 
 stories  ;  the  effigy  of  the  deceased  lies  on  a  sarcophagus  sup- 
 ported by  statuettes  of  personified  Virtues ;  at  the  fondo 
 above,  and  often  on  the  sarcophagus- front  are  relievi  of 
 saints,  scriptural  subjects,  or  others  (such  as  I  have  alluded 
 to)  referring  to  the  deceased,  his  actions  or  honours  ;  above 
 rises  a  marble  canopy  with  acute  or  round-arched  apex  ; 
 and  sometimes  we  see  angels  drawing  aside  curtains,  as 
 if  to  display  the  dead  on  the  funeral  couch.  In  not  a 
 few  instances  the  effigy  is  in  low  relief,  and  placed  ver- 
 tically against  the  wall ;  sometimes  we  see  two  effigies,  one 
 a  statue,  one  a  relief  so  placed,  of  the  same  person.  Such 
 disposal  of  sculptured  figures,  seemingly  intended  for  the 
 horizontal  position,  is  unpleasing.  Colour  and  gilding  are 
 profusely  used,  though  now  generally  faded;  and  this 
 preference  for  gorgeous  decoration  increases,  with  advanc- 
 ing time,  to  the  detriment  of  purity  in  JXeapolitan  monu- 
 mental art — which  does  not  fail,  however,  to  be  historically 
 important,  and  in  many  examples  imposing,  even  beautiful. 
 The  Hohenstaufen  dynasty,  from  the  Emperor  Henry 
 YI.,  crowned  at  Palermo  a.d.  3191,  to  Manfred,  the  last 
 there  crowned  as  King  of  Sicily  in  1258,  and  slain  at 
 Benevento  in  1266,  left  more  traces  of  their  sway,  in  the 
 artistic  and  monumental  range,  in  their  insular  than  their 
 continental  states.  But  a  rich  efflorescence  of  genius  and 
 a  generosity  of  royal  encouragement  light  up  the  troubled 
 vicissitudes  of  this  kingdom  under  the  Anjou  Princes,  whose 
 power  crushed  out  and  succeeded  to  the  Hohenstaufen. 
 Charles  I.  (12G6-'85)  and  Charles  II.  (1285-1309)  founded 
 churches  and  loved  splendours.  Bobert  and  his  Queen, 
 Sancia  of  Aragon,  were  impelled  by  piety  to  do  much  for 
 the  increasing  and  adorning  of  sacred  edifices  ;  and  that 
 King,  by  the  advice  of  Boccaccio,  summoned  Giotto  to 
 Naples  expressly  for  the  task  of  painting  the  walls  of  S. 
 
SACRED   ART   IN  ITALY.  215 
 
 Cliiara,  a  church  with  a  convent  for  Franciscan  nuns, 
 consecrated  with  great  pomp,  1340,  and  chosen  as  the 
 place  of  royal  sepulture. 
 
 Collenuccio  gives  a  long  list  of  the  churches  founded  by 
 that  King,  and  in  many  instances  by  the  desire  of  his  Queen, 
 not  only  at  Naples,  but  in  Provence,  and  one  at  Jerusalem. 
 
 Till  the  time  of  Eobert,  styled  "  The  Wise"  (1309-43), 
 the  Anjou  rulers  won  little  affection  or  loyalty  from  their 
 Italian  subjects.  The  grandson  of  Charles  I.,  w^as  pious, 
 munificent,  and,  for  his  time,  learned,  being  the  friend  and 
 enthusiastic  admirer  of  Petrarch.  To  the  Anjou  princes, 
 who  reigned  between  the  latter  years  of  the  XIII.  and 
 middle  of  the  next  century,  is  due  the  introduction  of  the 
 Erench  Grothic  architecture,  and  of  much  that  tended  to 
 refine  taste  and  promote  artistic  movement  at  Naples. 
 Churches  which  still  rank  conspicuous  were  founded  by 
 them  ;  and  their  monuments  are  still  the  most  interesting 
 objects  within  those  sacred  buildings.  I  may  particularise 
 the  cathedral,  commenced  from  the  designs  of  the  first 
 Masuccio,  under  Charles  I.,  in  1272  ;  S.  Lorenzo,  founded 
 by  the  same  king  to  commemorate  his  victory  over  Manfred 
 at  Benevento,  1266 ;  S.  Domenico,  founded  by  Charles  II., 
 12S5,  and  designed  by  the  same  Masuccio  ;  also  S.  Chiara, 
 the  church  of  royal  sepulture,  founded  by  King  Eobert, 
 1310,  with  the  architecture  of  the  second  Masuccio.  The 
 long  reign  of  the  beautiful  and  unfortunate  Joanna  I., 
 (1343-82),  and  the  short  one  of  her  successor,  who  caused 
 her  to  be  assassinated,  Charles  of  Durazzo — himself  cut  off 
 by  violent  death,  13S6 — left  little  in  the  artistic  or  monu- 
 mental range  except  the  Grothic  church  of  S.  Giovanni 
 Carbonaro,  the  "  Incoronata,"  or  capella  regis^  of  Kiug 
 Kobert,  amplified  into  a  church  to  commemorate  the  second 
 marriage  of  Joanna  (?)  within  its  walls ;  and  also  several 
 sculptured  tombs  of  royal  personages.     The  stormy  period 
 
216  MEDIiEVAL   CHRISTIANITT   AIN^D 
 
 of  King  Ladislaus  (1386-1414),  is  brouglit  to  mind  only  by 
 the  anomalous  and  complex,  but  magnificent,  monument 
 raised  to  bim  in  the  above-named  S.  Griovanni  (a  church 
 which  he  restored  or  rebuilt  in  1400),  by  his  sister  and 
 successor,  Joanna  II.  Besides  this  masterpiece  of  its 
 artist,  Andrea  Ciccione,  there  is  little  else  to  remind  us  of 
 that  licentious  queen  except  some  exam.ples  of  the  florid 
 Grothic,  carried  to  its  richest  development  at  Naples  in  the 
 Xy.  century :  for  instance,  the  portal  of  a  small  church 
 adjoining  a  larger  one,  both  dedicated  to  S.  John,  the  work 
 of  the  architect  Antonio  Baboccio,  1415  ;  the  same  who 
 designed  the  superb  portal  of  the  "  Duomo  "  for  the  facade 
 renewed  in  1407.  A  tragic  record  of  Joanna's  reign  is  the 
 monument  at  S.  Griovanni  Carbonaro  of  her  long-potent 
 favourite,  the  Grand  Seneschal  Sergianni  Caracciolo, 
 who  was  assassinated  1432  ;  another  work  by  Ciccione,  who 
 represents  the  Seneschal  standing  erect  with  a  dagger  in 
 his  hand. 
 
 Alfonso  of  Aragon,  the  successor  of  Joanna  II.,  completed 
 the  sternly  picturesque  Castel  Nuovo,  begun  by  Charles  I. 
 in  1283.  After  his  death  (1458)  was  raised  to  his  memory 
 (1470)  the  triumphal  arch  unsuitably  wedged  in  between 
 two  huge  towers  of  that  fortress  ;  and,  though  as  ill-placed 
 as  possible,  a  striking  example  of  the  Eenaissance  architec- 
 ture and  sculpture  of  that  century.  After  the  overthrow 
 of  the  Aragonese  dynasty  in  the  person  of  the  ill-used 
 Frederick  II.  (1501)  came  the  period  of  the  Spanish  Vice- 
 roys, marked,  in  the  monumental  sphere,  by  the  worst  pos- 
 sible taste  and  almost  every  outrage  against  just  principles 
 of  art.  The  Aragonese  period  had  been  illustrated  by  the 
 brightest  stars  of  the  Neapolitan  school :  in  sculpture, 
 Andrea  Ciccione  and  Griovanni  Merliano  da  Nola  (1478- 
 1559)  ;  in  painting,  Agnolo  Pranco  (ob.  1445),  Nicola  del 
 J'iore  (1444),  and  Antonio  Solario,  called  Jo  Zingaro  (1455). 
 
SACEED  AUT  in  ITALY.  217 
 
 Even  under  the  Spanish  government,  contemporaneous 
 energies  in  tliis  local  school  were  attested  by  ilie  finest 
 works  of  the  sculptor  known  as  "  Giovanni  da  Nola,"  also 
 by  the  paintings  of  Andrea  Sabbatini,  a  pupil  of  Eaffaello, 
 and  only  to  be  appreciated  at  Naples  ;  and  in  the  XYII. 
 century  by  those  of  Corenzio,  Eibera,  Stanzione  (called  the 
 Gruido  of  this  city),  and  Salvator  Eosa.  The  vandalism  of 
 Spanish  officials,  dealing  with  mediaeval  art-monuments, 
 was  on  a  par  with  the  frightful  vulgarity  of  the  works  they 
 ordered.  One  of  them  caused  the  frescoes  by  Giotto  in  S. 
 Chiara — Scriptural  subjects,  and  several  from  the  -Apo- 
 calypse, treated,  it  is  said,  according  to  suggestions  of 
 Dante -to  be  covered  with  whitewash,  because  they  made 
 that  church-interior  look  gloomy !  A  faded  group  of  the 
 Pieta,  and  a  Madonna  head,  over  an  altar,  alone  remain 
 visible  on  those  walls ;  and  it  would  be  well  if  means  were 
 taken  to  rescue  the  other  paintings,  still  probably  extant, 
 however  damaged,  of  the  same  valuable  series.  In  the 
 same  church  the  splendid  monument  of  King  Eobert, 
 designed,  while  he  yet  lived,  by  Masuccio  II.,  but  not 
 finished  till  1350,  is  almost  concealed  behind  the  barocco 
 ornaments  of  a  high  altar  set  up  in  the  last  century ;  and 
 it  is  only  by  ascending  a  scaffold  that  one  can  obtain  any 
 idea  of  the  character  or  elaboration  of  that  extraordinary 
 work.  In  a  hall  once  belonging  to  the  S.  Chiara  convent, 
 but  now  used  as  a  furniture  shop,  is  an  admirable  fresco, 
 ascribed  to  Giotto,  of  the  Saviour  in  glory  amidst  saints, 
 with  another  saintly  group  below,  and  baskets  of  loaves  in 
 the  foregi'ound — probably  a  mystic  representation  of  the 
 almsgiving  of  the  Franciscan  Order  (to  whom  this  convent 
 still  belongs),  as  pre-figured  by  the  miracle  of  loaves  and 
 fishes.  Messrs.  Crowe  and  Cavalcaselle  were,  I  believe, 
 the  first  writers  to  make  known  the  existence  of  this  long- 
 forgotten  picture.     In  order  to  see  it,  I  had  to  chmb  up  a 
 
218  MEDIEVAL    CIimSTIANITT    AND 
 
 ladder  to  a  rickety  scaffold,  after  tlie  good  man  of  the  shop 
 had  swept  away  ever  so  much  piled-up  furniture  for  my  bene- 
 fit. S.  Lorenzo,  built  from  the  Grothic  designs  of  Maglione, 
 a  pupil  of  Nicola  Pisano,  has  been  wretchedly  modernised. 
 Its  finest  feature  still  preserved,  and  one  rarely  seen  in 
 Italian  church-architecture,  is  a  chevet  consisting  of  seven 
 chapels  concentrically  disposed  beyond  the  tribune,  five  of 
 which  are  cut  off"  by  partition- walls,  left  almost  ruinous,  and 
 so  dark  that  their  contents  can  scarcely  be  seen,  while  one 
 is  encumbered  with  the  mutilated  statues  of  warriors, 
 thrown  on  the  floor  from  their  outraged  tombs  !  I  cannot 
 say  much  for  another  modernisation,  intended  to  be  in  har- 
 mony with  the  original  Grothic,  at  S.  Domenico,  a  church  of 
 imposing  aspect,  and  most  rich  in  monumental  sculptures 
 of  the  XIV.  and  XV.  centuries.  It  was  re- decorated,  in 
 almost  every  part,  1850-3,  with  a  profusion  of  colour  and 
 gilding  detrimental  to  the  severe  majesty  of  the  prevailing 
 style. 
 
 There  are  few  remains  of  primitive  Christian  art  at 
 Naples;  none  at  present  in  satisfactory  conditions.  The 
 circular  baptistry  adjoining  S.  Restituta  (a  separate  basilica, 
 entered  from  the  cathedral,  but  much  more  ancient  than 
 that  Anjou  edifice)  has  a  dome  covered  with  mosaics,  feebly 
 restored  in  painting ;  some  figures  of  saints  in  white  robes, 
 off'eriug  crowns,  remind  of  the  Eoman  and  Bavenna  mosaic 
 works  ;  others  being  apparently  much  later — perhaps  XII. 
 century.  All  are  faded  ;  and  the  building,  no  longer  used, 
 is  left  in  woeful  disorder  and  squalor.  An  inscrij^tion  under 
 its  dome  informs  us  that  this  baptistery  M^as  founded  by 
 Constantino,  a.d.  343,  and  consecrated  by  S.  Sylvester. 
 That  emperor  died  a.d  337  !  It  is  possible  that  its  origin 
 may  have  been  coeval  with  that  of  the  ancient  Neapolitan 
 "  Duomo,"  called  from  its  founder  Sfepliania. 
 
 The  catacombs  of  San  Genuaro  have  not  been  explored 
 
SACRED  ART  IN  ITALY.  210 
 
 to  tlieir  full  extent,  uor  for  many  years  worked  with  a  view 
 to  discovery.  They  are  said  to  have  been  re-opened  in  tlic 
 XI.  century  (?),  after  being  long  forgotten,  and  are  entered 
 from  an  oratory  in  which  the  body  of  S.  Januarius  was  Laid 
 in  the  III.  century.  That  primitive  chapel,  excavated  in 
 the  volcanic  tufa,  retains  its  ancient  altar  (hidden  within  a 
 modern  one),  as  well  as  the  saint's  episcopal  chair,  also  cut 
 out  of  the  solid  tufa.  There  are  three  stories  of  corridors ; 
 the  lowest  being  filled  with  soil  and  with  bones  of  victims 
 of  the  plague  which  visited  Naples  1G56.  On  the  highest 
 story  we  enter  a  spacious  church,  with  pilasters  and  flattened 
 roof,  all  alike  excavated.  Few  paintings  are  seen  in  any 
 part  of  the  hypogeum  to  which  the  visitor  is  guided  :  the 
 most  remarkable  being  a  figure  of  the  Saviour  blessing  (of 
 youthful  aspect,  but  not  like  the  earliest  type),  the  Ma- 
 donna, a  veiled  matron,  on  the  archivolt  above,  and  the 
 heads  alone  of  SS.  Peter  and  Paul,  whose  figures  are  lost. 
 After  reading  published  reports  of  these  catacombs,  one 
 is  disappointed  with  their  realities ;'  and  I  could  recognise 
 no  indication  of  antiquity  higher  than  the  7th  or  8th  cen- 
 tury. The  inscriptions,  which  are  all  Christian,  have  been 
 placed  in  the  epigraphic  collection  at  the  National  Mu- 
 seum. 
 
 Jn  the  compartment  of  early  Christian  art  at  that  Mu- 
 seum, are  three  frescoes  from  these  catacombs,  supposed  of 
 dates  withm  the  VI.  century,  and  apparently  belonging  to 
 a  large  composition,  of  the  sacred  Agape,  or  banquet  united 
 with  sacramental  rites. 
 
 The  suppression  of  monasteries  has  led  to  the  closing  or 
 secularising  of  several  churches  at  Naples,  and  to  the  trans- 
 fer of  art- works  from  their  walls  to  that  great  Museum,  where 
 they  can  be  seen  to  more  advantage.  S.  Martino,  the  gorgeous 
 Carthusian  church  on  the  height  of  S.  Elmo,  is  placed 
 on  the  footing  of  a  public  museum,  and  no  longer  appro- 
 
220  MEDIEVAL    CHEISTIAT^ITT   AND 
 
 priated  for  any  religious  uses.  Neither  Mass  nor  Vespers 
 send  their  incense  any  more  from  its  marble  altars  and  splen- 
 didly inlaid  chapels.  A  soldier  conducts  visitors  over  the 
 sacred  premises ;  and  the  few  monks,  still  allowed  to  inhabit 
 here,  are  banished  to  a  retreat  where  they  celebrate  their  wor- 
 ship in  a  private  oratory.  The  great  monastery  of  S.  Seve- 
 riuo,  suppressed  by  the  French  in  1797,  and  after  the  resto- 
 ration inhabited,  for  some  years  anterior  to  1860,  by  only 
 eight  or  nine  Benedictine  monks — the  principal  part  being 
 then  occupied  as  a  marine  college — is  now  converted  into 
 the  Archivio  of  the  State,  a  well  classified  collection  open 
 to  students  for  three  hours  daily.  Not  one,  indeed,  of  the 
 340  churches  and  chapels  in  Na^oles  has,  that  I  am  aware, 
 recently  suffered  through  any  alteration  to  be  regretted 
 from  the  aesthetic,  if  from  the  devotional,  point  of  view. 
 Many  altar-pieces,  &c.  have  been  removed,  but  to  be  placed 
 where  they  are  much  better  seen,  in  the  National  Museum 
 — as  the  finely  truthful  picture  of  S.  Jerome  in  his  Study, 
 by  Yan  Eyck,  painted  for  the  monks  of  S.  Lorenzo  ;  the 
 beautiful  group  by  Lo  Zingaro,  comprising  his  own  portrait 
 and  that  of  the  fair  wife,  to  win  whom  he  abandoned  the 
 trade  of  a  tinker  for  the  nobler  career  in  which  he  excelled ; 
 a  triptych  by  Luca  Cranach  (from  S.  Martino)  of  the  Ado- 
 ration of  the  Magi,  comprising  in  its  group  portraits  of 
 Charles  II.,  Eobert  the  Wise,  and  his  only  sou,  Charles 
 Duke  of  Calabria ;  also  a  very  curious  altar-piece  presented 
 by  Joanna  II.  to  S.  Giovanni  Carbonaro  (removed  from 
 that  church),  with  numerous  figures  in  alabaster  alto-re- 
 lievo, divided  into  seven  compartments,  illustrating  the 
 Passion  and  Kesurrection — many  details  gilt  and  some 
 coloured ;  the  general  design  clumsy,  some  parts  grotesque, 
 but  the  whole  most  valuable  as  a  specimen  of  the  phase  of 
 local  art  early  in  the  XV.  century.  From  the  cloisters  of 
 S.  Lorenzo  has  been  removed  (where  to  be  re-erected,  I  am 
 
SACKED    ART    IN   ITALY.  221 
 
 not  certain)  the  monument  to  the  Admiral  Lndovioo  Akle- 
 moresco  (ob.  1414),  by  Antonio  Baboccio,  an  elaborate  but 
 over-crowded  work,  well  exemplifying  the  imaginative 
 powers  and  style  of  that  sculptor  and  architect. 
 
 Neapolitan  Art  had  its  birth  almost  contemporaneously 
 with  that  of  central  Italy,  which  so  far  surpassed  it.  At 
 the  origin,  it  was,  like  the  Tuscan  and  Sienese,  earnestly 
 religious,  though  less  mystic  and  refined.  The  deterio- 
 ration in  its  devotional  character,  which  we  perceive  as 
 centuries  pass  by,  may  proceed  from  moral  causes,  the  in- 
 quiry into  which  leads  us  far  along  other  walks,  the  range 
 of  social  and  ecclesiastical  interests  or  influences.  Observ- 
 ing the  signs  of  superstition  and  vulgarized  taste  in  Nea- 
 politan churches,  we  are  not  surprised  to  find  that  high 
 art  has  withered  in  such  an  atmosphere  ;  and  it  is  not  un- 
 natural that  the  nobler  presentment  of  sacred  subjects 
 should  be  disregarded  where  the  popular  feeling  demands, 
 and  priestly  authorities  permit,  the  profaning  of  the  sanc- 
 tuary by  such  painted  dolls  as  would  be  scarcely  admis- 
 sible in  a  wax-work  sliow  at  a  village  fair.  In  one  much 
 frequented  church  at  Naples,  S,  Maria  della  Sanifa,  I  have 
 counted  fourteen  of  these  tawdry  idols  set  up  in  glass  cases, 
 and  surrounded  with  an  accumulation  of  the  usual  ugly 
 ex-votoes  hung  to  walls  and  pilasters.  The  last  degree  of 
 abuse  involves  the  preference  for  what  is  low  and  trivial ; 
 and  it  is  remarkable  that  the  potent  Church  which  has 
 systematically  adopted,  and  indeed  worthily  inspired,  the 
 agencies  of  Art,  should  on  one  hand  have  become  responsi- 
 ble for  its  ruin  ! 
 
 Tommaso  degli  Stefani  (1230-1310),  a  contemporary  of 
 Cimabue,  is  considered  the  founder  of  the  local  school  at 
 Naples  ;  though  national  writers  assert  that  the  earliest 
 art  here  known  maintained  its  light  burning  even  through 
 darkest  ages.     They  adduce,  in  proof,  several  archaic  Ma- 
 
222  MEDIiEYAL   CnHISTIANITT   AKD 
 
 donna-pictures  still  venerated  in  cliurches,  and  attributable 
 to  masters  who  flourished  before  the  XIII.  century.  The 
 above-named  Stefani  was  much  employed  by  Charles  II, 
 also  by  the  principal  families  in  this  capital ;  and  one  writer 
 tells  a  story  in  his  honour  similar  to  that  of  Cimabue's 
 Madonna,  and  its  triumphant  transfer  from  his  studio  to 
 S.  Maria  Novella  at  Morence — whence  the  name  given  to  a 
 street,  '^  Borgo  Allegri."  His  best  extant  work  is  the  fresco 
 series,  much  faded,  illustrating  the  Passion,  in  the  Minu- 
 toli  chapel  at  the  cathedral.  The  most  eminent  pupil  of 
 Stefani  was  Filippo  Tesauro  (1260-1320),  whose  most 
 admired  paintings  illustrated  the  life  of  S.  Nicholas  on  the 
 walls  of  the  S.  Eestituta  basilica, — mentioned  by  Lanzi  as 
 the  artist's  sole  extant  work  in  that  writer's  time,  though  a 
 Virgin  and  Child  with  four  Saints,  now  in  the  National 
 Museum,  is  commonly  attributed  to  him.  "When  Griotto 
 was  invited  to  Naples  by  King  Eobert  (about  ]  325),  Maestro 
 Simone  (ob.  1346),  became  his  friend  and  assistant  in  the 
 works  here  undertaken  by  the  Tuscan  artist ;  and  Simone 
 imitated  both  him  and  Tesauro  so  well  as  to  be  considered 
 by  some  the  pupil  of  the  former,  by  others  that  of  the 
 latter.  After  Giotto's  departure  from  Naples,  Simone  rose 
 into  higher  repute,  being  frequently  engaged  to  adorn 
 churches  by  King  liobert  or  his  Queen.  His  earliest  extant 
 work  is  believed  to  be  the  Madonna  and  Child  in  the  chapel 
 of  S.  Thomas  Aquinas  at  S.  Domenico  Maggiore.  Gennaro 
 di  Cola  (1320-'70),  studied  under  Maestro  Simone,  and  is 
 supposed  to  have  executed  the  frescoes  representing  events 
 in  the  life  of  Joanna  I.  on  the  walls  of  a  chapel  at  the  In- 
 corouata  church,  which  she  founded ;  paintings  which  are 
 now  almost  invisible,  though  others  on  the  vault,  scenes 
 from  the  life  of  the  Madonna,  are  better  preserved. 
 Maestro  Stefanone  (1320-'90)  was  another  pupil  of  the  same 
 Simone,  and  in  style  much  resembled  his  fellow- student 
 
SACRED    AIIT    IN    ITALY.  223 
 
 Gcnnaro.  Both  were  frequently  engaged  together,  as  in 
 the  paintings  illustrative  of  the  life  of  the  Anjou  saint 
 Louis,  bishop  of  Toulouse,  begun  by  Stefanone,  and  finished 
 by  the  joint  labours  of  the  two  maestri,  at  S.  Lorenzo.* 
 Simone's  son,  Francesco,  was  also  among  his  pupils ;  and  to 
 him  Lanzi  attributes  the  Madonna  in  chiaroscuro,  which  he 
 calls  "  lodatissima,"  at  S.  Chiara,  among  the  few  wall-paint- 
 ings there  saved  from  the  whitewash  preferred  to  art-adorn- 
 ments by  the  Spanish  officials.  Francesco  had  a  scholar, 
 ^Nicola  Antonio,  or  Colantonio  del  Piore  (1350-144^),  who 
 surpassed  him,  and  is  said  to  have  painted  in  oils  so 
 early  as  1371 ;  but  little  is  known  of  him  through  any  ex- 
 tant works,  and  one  writer  Di  Dominici  ("  Yite  de'  Pittori, 
 Scultori,  e  Architetti  jN'apolitani"j  doubts  whether  certain 
 paintings  ascribed  to  him  may  not  be  the  works  of  Maestro 
 Simone — thus  tacitly  confessing  that  Neapolitan  painting 
 had  made  but  slight  progress  in  the  course  of  about  a  cen- 
 tury. The  fact,  however,  of  the  well  directed  abilities  and 
 merited  fame  of  Del  Fiore  is  not  doubted.  The  greatest 
 master  of  this  school,  up  to  his  time,  was  Antonio  Solario, 
 called  "  Lo  Ziugaro  "  (1382-1455).  I  have  mentioned  the 
 romantic  story  of  his  love  for  Colantonio's  daughter,  and 
 his  abandoning  his  first  trade  of  itinerant  tinker  to  study 
 art  and  win  its  laurels,  for  the  ulterior  object  of  winning 
 the  fair  bride,  who  made  him  happy  in  married  life.  The 
 dates  in  his  career  determine  his  place  among  the  masters 
 of  the  XY.  rather  than  the  previous  century.  One  is 
 fully  convinced  of  his  rapid  advance  beyond  competitors 
 when  one  looks  at  the  large  picture  removed  from  S.  An- 
 tonio Abbate  (a  now-closed  church)  to  the  Museum ;  but, 
 
 *  Lanzi  observes,  "  the  superior  talent,  resolution,  and  boldness  of 
 touch,  giving  a  vivacity  to  his  figures,"  in  Stefunouc,  whom  he  sets 
 much  higher  than  Gennaro  di  Cola. 
 
224  MEDIiEYAL   CHllISTIANITT   AND 
 
 seeing  that,  among  the  other  portraits  there  introduced, 
 the  Blessed  Virgin  on  her  throne  is  the  likeness  of  Queen 
 Joanna  II.,  such  departure  from  the  high  ideal,  therein 
 betrayed,  is  ominous  for  the  future  of  sacred  art  at  Naples- 
 Architecture  and  sculpture  rose  almost  simultaneously, 
 and  in  some  instances  through  the  energies  of  the  same  in- 
 dividual genius,  at  Naples.  The  first  celebrated  sculptor 
 here  engaged,  was  a  contemporary  of  the  earliest  known 
 painter  of  this  local  school.  Masuccio,  the  first  of  that 
 name,  (1230-1306)  built  S.  Griovanni  Maggiore  (reduced  to 
 its  present  form  in  1685)  and  S.  Domenico  Maggiore,  which 
 still  possesses  grandeur,  notwithstanding  its  modern  orna- 
 mentation ;  also  finished  what  Griovanni  Pisano  had  begun, 
 the  church  of  S.  Maria  la  Nuova,  and  the  castle  for  royal 
 residence  called  "  Nuova," — the  great  Pisan  artist  having 
 been  invited  to  Naples  by  Charles  I.  and  begun  the  impos- 
 ing towers  of  that  royal  castle,  1283.  Masuccio  had  studied 
 in  liome,  and  there  made  his  first  attempts  as  a  sculptor  of 
 relievi,  imitated  from  the  antique,  before  being  engaged  on 
 any  public  building  at  Naples,  whither  he  returned  soon 
 after  the  throne  had  been  mounted  by  the  Anjou  Charles  I. 
 Griovanni  Pisano,'  before  leaving  Naples,  assigned  to  him  the 
 completing  of  his  own  tasks ;  and  the  king  was  so  much 
 impressed  by  Masuccio's  work,  that  he  commissioned  him 
 to  build  the  new  cathedral,  himself  choosing  one  out  of  seve- 
 ral designs  prepared.  Pietro  degli  Stefani,  a  sculptor  who 
 had  been  engaged  together  with  Masuccio  in  exercising  his 
 art  for  the  new  cathedral,  and  some  of  whose  designs — as  a 
 Crucifixion  with  the  Virgin  and  St.  John — were  executed 
 by  Masuccio  himself  for  their  place  in  that  church,  had  a 
 son  known  as  Masuccio  the  second  (1291-1388),  from  the 
 artist  who  was  his  godfather,  and  became  his  master.  He 
 also  studied  at  Eome,  and  returned  to  Naples,  1318,  when 
 requested   by  King  Eobert    to   complete   the   church   of 
 
3ACEED  AET  IN  ITALY.  225 
 
 S.   Chiara,  begun  by  a  foreign  artist,  with  whose  perform-. 
 ance-  the  Neapolitan  was  so  little  pleased,  that  he  almost 
 swept  it  away,  raising  his  own  architecture  on  the  site. 
 The  campanile  which  he  built  beside  this  church,  is  pro- 
 nounced by  Milizia  ("  Yite  degli  Architetti ")  to  be  his 
 most  admirable  performance  ;  it  was  designed  with  the  five 
 classic  orders,  but  had  only  been  carried  up  to  the  third  (or 
 second)  when  the  building  was  interrupted,  probably  on 
 account  of  the  death  of  King  Eobert,  nor  has  it  ever  been 
 finished  as  the  architect  proposed.     The  now  admired  and 
 successful  Masuccio  built  also  the  monastery  of  S.  Chiara, 
 and  another  with  its  church,  S.  Croce,  of  the  Doric  order 
 (so  soon  did  he  emancipate  himself  from  the  Gothic)  by 
 desire  of  the  pious  Queen  Sancia,  who  there  took  the  veil 
 and  spent  the  last  years  of  her  life  as  a  Franciscan  nun, 
 after  becoming  a  widow.     The  same  artist  executed  many 
 of  the  noblest  monuments   in  Neapolitan  churches,  and 
 built  the  original  Certosa  (S.  Martino),  S.  Giovanni  a  Car- 
 lonara,  and  S.  Angela  a  Nilo,  his  last  work,  finished  just 
 before  his  death.     He  also  completed  S.  Lorenzo,  begun  by 
 the  first  Masuccio,  and  the  S.  Elmo  Castle,  entirely  his  own 
 work,  though  as  it  now  stands  scarcely  in  any  part  more 
 ancient  than  the  XVI.  century  ; — S.  Martino,  that  forms 
 so  conspicuous  an  object  near  it,  being  a  restoration  of  still 
 later  date.      Andrea   Ciccione,   a  scholar   of  the    second 
 Masuccio,  united  like  him  the  genius  and  practice  of  sculp- 
 ture and  architecture  ;  but  as  he  lived  till  1455,  his  career 
 belongs  rather  to  a  later  period  than  to  that  here  consi- 
 dered.    The  (rothic  style  seems  to  have  been  gradually  set 
 aside  in  the  latter  years  of  the  XIV.  century ;  and  the 
 Koman  studies  of  the  two  Masuccios  may  have  created  a 
 predilection  for  the  classicism  which  the  second  embodied  in 
 some  of  his  latest  undertaken  buildings.     Could  we  evoke 
 before  the  mind'.s  eye  the  Naples  of  this  century,  untouched 
 
 4» 
 
226  MEDIiEVAL   CHEISTIANITT   AND 
 
 by  the  hands  of  modern  restorers,  uninjured  by  the  tastes 
 prevailing  under  Spanish  and  Bourbonic  sway,  we  should, 
 I  believe,  behold  a  spectacle  far  more  ennobled  than  is  the 
 actual  city,  by  the  grandeur  and  opulence  of  Art  under  Ca- 
 tholic influences — undegraded  by  superstition  and  triviality. 
 I  may  ask  the  reader  to  accompany  me  to  those  churches 
 only  at  Naples,  where  the  dead  repose  beneath  such  monu- 
 ments as  throw  solemnity  even  over  the  ecclesiastical  archi- 
 tecture, disfigured  or  vulgarized  by  the  most  tasteless  deco- 
 ration, most  conspicuous  in  this  city.  A  splendid  porch  of 
 florid  Grothic  arrests  attention  before  we  enter  the  cathe- 
 dral (episcopio,  as  it  is  here  called)  ;  but  there  could  be  no 
 example  of  wider  departure  from  the  character  or  sentiment 
 _  of  the  pointed  style,  though  the  acute  arch  be  still  retained, 
 than  the  interior  of  this  church,  modernized,  as  we  see  it, 
 first  in  1788,  and  finally  in  1837.  Its  adornments,  its 
 pomps,  and  its  worship,  are  stamped  with  characteristics  of 
 modern  Italian  Catholicism.  Among  objects  of  XIV.  cen- 
 tury Art  still  recognisable,  though  not  unaltered,  are  the 
 architectural  details  of  a  few  lateral  chapels,  and  some 
 monuments,  especially  that  of  Innocent  TV.,  who  died  at 
 .Naples,  1254 ;  this  memorial  having  been  erected,  according 
 to  some  writers,  soon  after  that  date,  first  in  S.  Eestituta, 
 afterwards  removed  from  that  contiguous  church  to  the 
 new  cathedral  of  the  Anjou  Kings,  1313;  and  finally  to  its 
 present  place,  after  being  damaged  by  earthquake,  1446 ; 
 or  else,  as  other  writers  state,  erected  in  1313,  and  from 
 designs  of  the  artist,  Pietro  Stefano,  no  longer  living  at 
 that  later  date.*    In  the   Grothic   chapel  of  the  Minutoli 
 
 *  The  epitaph  gives  this  Pope  the  praise  due  to  more  virtues  than 
 History  can  fully  credit  him  for ;  and  winds  up  with  an  indecorous  insult 
 to  the  heroic  and  high-minded,  however  erring  Prince,  Frederick  II.,  so 
 often  excommunicated  by  Innocent  IV. : 
 
 Mcenia  direxit,  rite  sibi  credita  rexit, 
 
 Stravit  inimicum  Christi,  colubrem  Frcdericum. 
 
SACEED  AET  IN  ITALY.  227 
 
 family,  wc  sec  the  frescoes  by  Tommaso,  brother  to  the 
 same  Pietro,  illustrating  the  scenes  of  the  Passion,  now 
 much  injured  by  time  or  damp.  In  the  nave,  we  must  stop 
 to  admire  the  marble  canopy  of  the  archiepiscopal  throne, 
 graceful  in  design,  majestic  in  effect,  with  torse  columns 
 supporting  the  Grothic  arches — altogether,  a  work  scarcely 
 surpassed,  if  equalled,  by  any  architectural  example  of  its 
 class  in  Italian  churches.  We  must  regret  the  destruction 
 of  the  fresco-series  commenced  by  Maestro  Simone,  and 
 finished  by  Gennaro  di  Cola,  illustrating  the  life  of  the 
 Anjou  Saint,  Louis  bishop  of  Toulouse,  brother  to  King 
 Eobert,  in  a  chapel  where  those  paintings  were  undertaken 
 by  the  King's  order,  and  completed  by  order  of  Joanna; 
 Louis  having  been  canonized  sixteen  years  after  his  death, 
 during  his  royal  brother's  lifetime. 
 
 Nothing  could  more  glaringly  make  manifest  the  depraved 
 taste  for  ecclesiastical  decoration  at  Naples  than  the 
 manner  in  which  the  building  of  Masuccio  has  been  sacri- 
 ficed, and  sacred  antiquity  travestied  by  modern  ornament 
 at  S.  Chiara,  disguised,  as  w^e  see  it,  to  please  the  Clarisse 
 nuns,  and  at  the  cost  of  200,000  ducats,  in  1752.  The 
 memory  of  the  devout  and  learned  King  Eobert,  of  his 
 pious  Queen,  and  of  the  sojourn  of  Petrarch  and  Boccaccio 
 on  the  Parthenopeian  shores,  still  haunts  the  sacred  build- 
 ing, where  so  much  has  been  done  to  efface  the  vestiges  and 
 character  of  that  epoch.  On  each  side  of  the  majestic,  but 
 unfinished,  campanile,  is  a  Grothic  epigraph  in  Latin  verse. 
 
 Near  this  tomb  is  a  plain  pavement-slab,  to  the  murdered  Andrea, 
 whose  body  was  brought  from  Aversa,  and  interred  here  at  the  expense 
 of  a  canon  of  this  cathedral  ;  and  a  more  modern  epitaph,  placed  by 
 the  Archbishop  Pignatelli,  in  1733,  thus  severely  imputes  to  Joanna  I. 
 the  guilt  of  more  than  complicity  in  the  young  King's  death  :  Andrea 
 Caroli  Marti  PoMnonicB  Regis  F.  Neaipolitanor.  Regi,  Joanna;  Uxoris 
 dolo  et  Icfjueo  necato. 
 
 Q  2 
 
228  MEDIEVAL    CHRISTIAIJITT    AND 
 
 supplying  comment  to  tlie  annals  of  this  church,  founded 
 1310,  and  finished  1328:  one  inscription  recording  its 
 foundation,  by  Eobert  and  Sancia ;  another,  the  ample  in- 
 dulgences attached  to  this  church  by  John  XXII ;  another, 
 the  consecration  (1340),  by  ten  bishops  and  archbishops; 
 another,  the  illustrious  persons  present  at  that  rite.* 
 Among  other  historic  proceedings  enacted  within  this 
 church,  is  one  that  well  displays  the  fierce  antagonism  be- 
 tween Pope  and  Antipope,  while  S.  Peter's  throne  was  dis- 
 puted by  the  rival  claims  of  Urban  YI.  and  Clement  YII. 
 The  Cardinal  Legate,  De  Sangro,  obliged  two  other  Cardi- 
 nals, the  bishop  of  Teate,  and  a  Benedictine  Abbot,  in 
 presence  of  the  King  and  barons  assembled  within  these 
 walls,  to  solemnly  renounce  the  cause  of  Clement,  declare 
 Urban  to  be  sole  legitimate  occupant  of  the  Papal  chair,  and 
 with  their  hands  burn  the  red  hats,  the  episcopal  pallium, 
 and  abbatial  cowl  they  had  respectively  received  from 
 Clement,  whilst  recognizing  him  as  Pope.  "We  have  seen 
 how  that  Cardinal  Legate  was  rewarded  with  torture  and 
 strangulation  in  a  dungeon  by  his  tiara-crowned  master  ! 
 Entering  S.  Chiara,  we  obtain  an  imperfect  view,  behind  a 
 barocco  high  altar,  of  the  monument  of  King  Robert — one 
 of  the  most  lofty  and  imposing,  though  not  most  beautiful 
 among  mediaeval  tombs  in  Italy.  After  the  architect  and 
 sculptor,  Masuccio  the  second,  had  executed  for  this  church 
 the  monument  of  the  King's  only  son,  Charles  Duke  of 
 Calabria,  the  bereaved  father  was  so  much  pleased  with  the 
 artist's  work  that  he  ordered  him  to  prepare  a  model  for  his, 
 
 *  Rex  et  Regina  stant  hie  multis  societi ; 
 Ungariifi  Regis  generosa  stirpe  creatus, 
 Conspicit  Andreas,  Calabrorum  Dux  veneratus  ; 
 Dux  pia,  Dux  magna,  Cansors  liuicq.  Joanna, 
 Neptis  Regalis  ;  sociat  soror  et  ipsa  Maria,  &c. — 
 
 in  which  Latinity  the  use  of  "  dux,"  as  feminine^  is  noticeable. 
 
SACEED   ART   IN   ITAT.T.  229 
 
 the  King's  own  tomb,  with  design  similar  to  the  architec- 
 tonic altar  of  the  Minutoli  chapel,  by  the  first  Masuccio,in 
 the  cathedral.  When  the  model  was  shown  to  Eobert,  he 
 only  objected  that  it  was  too  splendid  for  a  humble-minded 
 Christian  Prince,  as  this  Anjou  monarch  unquestionably 
 was.  His  grand-daughter  Joanna,  having  succeeded  to 
 him,  was  not  a  woman  to  be  swayed  by  such  modest  scruples; 
 and  Masuccio's  design  was  consequently  carried  out :  rising 
 in  four  story s,  with  a  profusion  of  statues  and  reliefs, 
 gilding  in  many  parts,  and  also  (probably)  colour,  though 
 this  has  faded :  numerous  allegoric  figures  of  Virtues  sup- 
 port or  flank  the  architectonic  masses,  ten  such  statuettes 
 standing  under  Gothic  canopies  along  pilasters  ;  the  King 
 is  shown  to  us  in  four  portrait  sculptures — at  the  highest 
 story,  seated  and  crowned,  in  royal  state ;  in  a  relievo,  with 
 his  Queen  and  five  other  persons  (relatives  ?)  mourning  ;  in 
 a  smaller  relievo,  as  presented  by  patron  Saints  to  the  Virgin 
 and  Child  ;  again,  in  a  statue  in  the  round,  recumbent  as  in 
 death,  with  crown  and  sceptre,  but  in  the  humble  garb  of  a 
 Pranciscan,  which  he  assumed,  making  the  regular  profes- 
 sion of  a  friar  of  S.  Prancis,  before  the  Pather  General  of 
 that  Order,  eighteen  days  before  his  death,  at  the  Castello 
 Nuovo.  On  the  tympanum  of  the  canopy  is  a  relief  of  the 
 Saviour  with  angels.  The  epitaph,  expressive  in  brevity — 
 Cernite  Bolertum  regem  virtute  refertum — is  attributed  to 
 Petrarch. 
 
 Near  this  monument,  in  a  dimly-lighted  transept,  stands 
 the  other,  the  first  wrought  for  this  church  by  the  same 
 artist — to  Charles  the  Illustrious,  Duke  of  Calabria,  who 
 died  at  the  age  of  thirty  (1328),  and  is  represented  in  a 
 recumbent  statue  under  a  Gothic  canopy,  vdih.  a  relief  of 
 the  Virgin  and  Child,  and  two  female  Saints,  columns  rest- 
 ing on  couchant  lions,  and  statuettes  of  Justice,  Portitude, 
 Clemency,  Prudence ;  another  relievo  on  the  sarcophagus 
 
230  MEDIiEYAL   CHRISTIANITT   AND 
 
 showing  us  the  Duke  enthroned  with  barons  on  one  side, 
 ministers  on  the  other,  all  those  in  front  kneeling  to  him, 
 and  the  symbols  of  a  wolf  and  a  lamb,  drinking  from  the 
 same  vessel,  at  the  feet  of  Charles,  who  supports  his  sceptre 
 on  that  vessel — to  signify  (v.  CoUenuccio,  "  Compendio  di 
 Storia  Napolitana")  the  peace  and  justice  enjoyed  under  the 
 sway  of  this  Prince,  while  he  held  the  reins  of  government 
 as  Vicar  during  his  father's  absence.*  King  Hobert  founded 
 a  chapel  at  Jerusalem  expressly  for  the  celebration  of 
 masses  on  behalf  of  the  soul  of  his  prematurely  lost  son  and 
 heir. 
 
 Among  other  royal  monuments  here  are  those  of  Mary 
 de  Valois,  wife  of  the  same  Duke  Charles  ;t  of  Mary,  his 
 second  daughter  (ob.  1366),  Duchess  of  Durazzo  by  her 
 
 •  In  this  epitaph  he  is  styled  :  Justitice  prcBcdpuus  Zelator  et  cultor,  ac 
 BeipubliccB  strenuus  Defensor ;  and  said  to  have  died,  catholic^  receptis 
 sacrosanctcB  Ecclesice  omnibus  Sacramentis. 
 
 f  The  coarse  ferocity  of  the  manners  of  the  time  may  he  inferred  from 
 the  story  (v.  CoUenuccio)  of  this  lady's  second  marriage  and  widowhood. 
 Count  del  Balzo  d'Avellino  was  determined  to  obtain  her  hand  for  his 
 eldest  son,  and  whilst  the  Duchess  was  residing  in  the  Castel  dell'  Uovo, 
 visited  her  there  with  his  two  sons  and  many  armed  retainers,  under 
 pretext  of  taking  leave  before  his  departure  for  Provence.  There  and 
 then  did  he  force  her  to  wed  his  son  Robei't — and  what  took  place  at  his 
 bidding,  in  his  presence,  immediately  afterwards,  cannot  be  narrated. 
 The  Count  then  compelled  the  Duchess  to  leave  the  castle,  and  embark 
 with  him  and  his  party  for  France.  At  Gaeta,  where  his  galley  was 
 delayed  in  the  harbour,  King  Louis,  the  second  husband  of  Joanna,  in- 
 formed of  what  had  passed,  came  on  board,  severely  reproached  Del 
 Balzo  for  his  political  treacheries,  as  well  as  for  his  treatment  of  the 
 Queen's  sister,  ordered  him  to  be  put  to  death,  and  sent  back  the  injured 
 lady,  with  the  two  sons  of  the  Count,  both  prisoners,  to  Naples.  Two 
 years  afterwards  (1352)  the  nominal  wife  entered  the  chamber  where 
 Robert  del  Balzo  was  confined  in  the  Castel  Nuovo,  and,  after  violently 
 upbraiding  him,  ordered  her  attendants  to  assassinate  him  in  her  pre- 
 sence, and  throw  his  body  into  the  sea.  The  corpse  fell  on  the  strand 
 under  the  castle  walls,  where  it  was  left  for  some  time  before  being  at 
 
SACEED    ART    IN   ITALY.  231 
 
 first  marriage  with  the  Duke  Charles,  put  to  death  by  the 
 King  of  Hungary  for  supposed  complicity  in  the  murder 
 of  Audrea,  and  by  her  third  marriage  with  Philip  of 
 Tarauto,  titular  Empress  of  Constantinople,  that  shadowy 
 title  to  the  Greek  empire  having  been  first  assumed  in  the 
 Anjou  family  by  Philip,  Prince  of  Achaia  and  Taranto, 
 son  of  Charles  II.,  in  virtue  of  his  marriage  with  a  daughter 
 of  Charles  de  Yalois,  who  himself  derived  it  from  his  wife, 
 Catherine  de  Courtenai,  daughter  of  the  last  titular  Emperor 
 of  the  Latin  line  once  ruling  in  the  East.*  On  another 
 monument,  to  Agnes  and  Clementine,  daughters  of  the 
 Duchess  Mary  of  Durazzo,  the  elder  is  also  styled  Empress 
 of  Constantinople,  in  virtue  of  her  second  marriage  with 
 
 last  interred.  Joanna  and  Louis,  who  were  residing  at  the  castle,  but 
 absent  on  that  day,  were  supposed  to  have  consented  to  the  deed,  though 
 they  affected  displeasure  against  the  Duchess  who  had  thus  avenged 
 herself.  In  her  epitaph  this  lady  is  styled,  Illustris  Do^nina  Maria  de 
 Francia,  Imperatrix  ConstantviwpoUtoAia,  Ducissa  Duracii. 
 
 *  This  is  the  monument  erroneously  supposed  to  be  that  of  Joanna  I., 
 whose  body,  we  are  tlistinctly  told,  was  entombed,  after  being  left  for 
 three  days  above  ground,  at  S.  Chiara,  without  honours,  either  funeral 
 or  sepulchral.  Celano  ("  Notizie  del  Bello,  delV  Antico  e  del  curioso 
 della  Citta  di  NapoU,"  1692)  rejects  as  apocryphal  the  epitaph  said  to 
 have  been  placed  on  her  reputed  tomb,  one  part  by  permission  of  her 
 successor,  Charles  III.,  but  the  rest  added  later,  as  follows  : 
 
 Incly ta  Parthenopes  jacet  hie  Regina  Joanna 
 
 Prima,  prius  felix,  mox  miseranda  nimis, 
 
 Quem  Carolo  genitam,  multavit  Carolus  alter, 
 
 Qua  morte  ilia  vinmi  sustulit  ante  suum. 
 De  Dominici  admits  this  as  authentic,  but  owns  that  before  his  time  it 
 had  been  erased  ;  and,  in  fact,  no  epitaph  is  now  seen  on  the  monmneut  in 
 question.  The  other  writer,  Celano,  states  that  the  body  of  Joanna  was 
 privately  removed  from  S.  Chiara  to  the  town  of  S.  Angelo  on  Monte 
 Gargano,  and  there  laid  in  the  church  of  S.  Francesco,  founded  by  that 
 queen,  where  it  was  honoured  by  a  monument  with  her  etfigy,  and  the 
 sole  inscription,  R.  J.  I  can  find  no  Dotice  of  such  a  monument  as  still 
 extant. 
 
232  MEDIAEVAL   CHRISTIANITY    AND 
 
 Giacomo  del  Balzo,  Prince  of  Taranto.  The  recumbent 
 effigies  on  these  tombs,  with  exception  of  that  of  the 
 Duchess  Mary,  are  stiff  and  heavy  in  character ;  the 
 draperies  like  mummy- swathings.  Among  the  relievi  (very 
 unequal)  of  sacred  subjects  accessorially  introduced,  the 
 Madonna  and  Child  with  saints  are  most  frequently  seen ;  in 
 rarer  instances  the  Crucifixion,  and  the  Dead  Christ  with 
 mourners.*  Among  other  noticeable  monuments  in  this 
 church,  and  of  the  same  century,  are  two  in  a  lateral 
 chapel,  erected  to  a  knight  and  lady  of  the  Baucia  family, 
 who  both  died  1370,  and  are  represented  as  well  by  recum- 
 bent effigies  as  in  relievi,  and  surrounded  by  their  friends 
 or  relatives — the  lady  with  a  lapdog  on  her  knees,  the 
 knight  with  a  falcon  on  his  wrist.  This  expresses  the 
 antique  feeling,  which  looks  backwards  rather  than  for- 
 wards in  selecting  the  imagery  on  the  tomb.  The  large 
 convent  adjoining  S.  Chiara  was  built  by  Masuccio  for  both 
 nuns  and  friars  of  the  Franciscan  Order,  here  inhabiting 
 distinct  premises,  after  the  sisterhood  in  Queen  Sancia's 
 convent  of  S.  Croce  had  become  too  numerous  for  that 
 building  to  accommodate  them.  In  the  refectory  of  the 
 friars  is  a  large  fresco,  attributed  to  Maestro  Simone,  now 
 faded  and  sombre  in  colouring :  the  Saviour  on  a  rich  gothic 
 throne,  attended  by  the  Blessed  Virgin  and  S.  John  the 
 Evangelist,  with  SS.  TVancis,  Anthony,  Louis  of  Toulouse, 
 who  present  to  Him  King  Eobert,  his  Queen,  his  son  Duke 
 
 *  I  have  given  the  hitherto-received  theory  as  to  the  artists  of  the 
 S.  Chiara  monuments  ;  but  an  authority  to  be  deferred  to,  Mr.  Perkins, 
 pointing  out  six  distinct  styles  in  the  Angevine  tombs  here,  assumes  that 
 the  second  Masuccio  vras  not  engaged  on  any  of  them,  and  attributes  the 
 monument  of  King  Kobert  to  two  Florentine  sculptors,  known  to  us 
 only  as  Sancio  and  Giovanni.  De  Dominici  gives  the  fullest  particulars 
 respecting  King  Robert's  monument,  as  a  work  of  the  second  Masuccio; 
 so  also  respecting  that  of  Duke  Charles. 
 
SACKED  AET  IN  ITALY.  233 
 
 Clicirles,  and  tlie  wife  of  the  latter,  Mary  dc  Valois.  Tlic 
 nuns  at  S.  Cliiara  once  numbered  300  ;  and  though  not  no 
 many  when  Celano  wrote  his  "  Notizie,"  continued  to 
 average  about  200,  -^vdthout  counting  the  friars,  their  imme- 
 diate neighbours.  "VVlien  I  visited  the  place  in  the  summer 
 of  18/0,  three  communities  of  Clarisse  nuns,  in  all  150,  and 
 a  few  Franciscan  friars  were  located  here,  through  the 
 toleration  extended  to  those  preferring  the  cloistral  life 
 now  abolished  according  to  the  letter  of  the  law.  The 
 chill,  dim-lit,  refectory,  where  I  found  a  frugal  supper 
 served  for  the  friars,  and  where  one  of  them  conversed 
 with  me  in  a  melancholy  tone,  seemed  to  indicate  the 
 change  since  the  time  of  the  good  King  Eobert. 
 
 S.  Domenico  Maggiore  adjoins  the  convent  where  S.  Thomas 
 Aquinas  resided  when  (1272)  he  taught  in  the  University 
 then  established  within  these  walls,  receiving  as  salary  from 
 Charles  I.  of  Anjou,  one  ounce  of  gold  (about  20  shillings) 
 monthly — but  where  not  a  single  Dominican  friar  now  re- 
 mains.* This  church,  still  more  than  S.  Chiara,  is  a  museum 
 of  mediaeval  monuments,  and  also  rich  in  later  art,  for  here 
 are  several  w^orks  by  the  greatest  of  Neapolitan  sculptors, 
 Giovanni  Merliano,  called,  from  his  birthplace,  Giovanni  da 
 Nola,  1478-1559.  The  prevailing  features  in  the  monu- 
 ments of  the  Xiy.  century  here  seen,  are  such  as  distin- 
 guish almost  all  the  funereal  art  of  this  school  and  period : 
 the  architectonic  details  usually  Gothic  ;  the  deceased 
 appearing  in  repose  between  the  states  of  sleep  and  death  ; 
 sometimes  angels  drawing  aside  curtains  under  the  over- 
 shadowing canopy ;  the  portrait  statue,  laid  on  the  sarco- 
 
 *  The  church  was  originally  dedicated  to  S.  Mary  Magdalene,  and 
 founded  by  Charles  II.  in  fulfilment  of  a  vow  made  during  his  long  cap 
 tivity  in  Aragon  ;  that  Prince  having  fallen  into  the  power  of  the 
 Spaniards  during  the  war  caused  by  the  massacre  of  the  Sicilian  Vespers. 
 S.  Domenico  has  passed  through  many  changes  since. 
 
234  MEDIAEVAL    CHEISTIANITY   AND 
 
 pliagus,  being  at  times  superseded,  or  accompanied,  by 
 another  effigy  in  low  relief,  placed  perpendicular,  with  un- 
 pleasing  effect,  against  the  wall  or  other  surface.  Such  is  the 
 treatment  in  the  otherwise  fine  monuments  of  Archbishop 
 Brancaccio  (ob.  1341),  and  of  Joanna  Brancaccio  (1358), 
 whose  effigy  is  crowned  and  robed  like  a  queen ;  also  in  that 
 of  two  Counts  di  Aquino  (1342, 1357), both  thus  represented 
 in  relief  figures  perpendicularly  placed.  That  of  Griovanni 
 d' Aquino  (ob.  1345),  is  a  work  of  the  second  Masuccio,  and 
 surmounted  by  wall-paintings  from  the  pencil  of  Maestro 
 Simoue — the  Virgin  and  Child  with  SS.  John  Baptist  and 
 Anthony  the  Abbot ;  above,  in  lunettes,  the  Deity  and 
 Virgin  Annunciate,  placed  too  high  to  be  well  seen.  In  a 
 transept,  is  the  monument,  (or  rather  sculptured  memorial) 
 of  Bertrando  del  Balzo,  by  the  same  Masuccio,  representing 
 the  deceased  with  other  persons,  who  all  kneel  to  him  (!) ; 
 and  in  the  other  transept,  alike  ill-placed,  a  similar  memo- 
 rial to  the  younger  sons  of  Charles  II.,  Philip  Prince  of 
 Taranto  (ob.  1332),  and  Griovanni  Duke  of  Durazzo  (ob. 
 1335),  both  here  distinguished  by  being  seated  among  several 
 standing  figures.  Other  noticeable  tombs  of  this  period 
 have  been  transferred  from  different  parts  of  the  church  to 
 a  passage  once  included  in  the  main  building,  but  now  cut 
 off  from  it,  and  communicating  between  a  transept  and  a 
 side  entrance.  In  the  splendid  chapel  of  the  "  Crocifisso" 
 (rather  indeed  a  separate  church,  entered  from  the  nave  of 
 S.  Domenico),  we  see  the  Crucifix  which  is  said  to  have 
 spoken  to  S.  Thomas  Aquinas,  whilst  he  was  engaged  on  his 
 famous  work,  the  Summa  TheologicB — the  picture  (for  such 
 it  is,  and  by  Tommaso  di  Stefano)  having  sent  forth  a  voice 
 which  said  :  "  Sene  scripsisti  de  me,  Thoma  ;  quam  ergo  mer- 
 cedem  recipies .'"'  to  which  the  '  Angelic  Doctor'  replied, 
 *'  Non  aliam  nisi  te  P*  This  specimen  of  early  art  is  now 
 too  much  blackened  by  time,  and  concealed  by  gilt  halos  on 
 
SACEED    AET    IN    ITALY.  235 
 
 the  three  heads — Mary  aud  S.  John  being  seen  beside  the 
 Cross — for  criticism  to  be  attempted.  In  the  chapel  of 
 S.  Thomas  Aquinas,  entered  from  that  of  the  Crocifisso,  ia 
 a  Madonna  and  Child  by  Maestro  Simone,  of  graceful  and 
 pleasing  character,  notwithstanding  much  quaintness  ;  and 
 in  another  of  these  side  chapels,  the  same  artist's  earliest 
 extant  picture,  the  "  Madonna  della  Kosa,"  with  the  Child 
 taking  milk  at  her  breast ;  the  Mother  of  that  mild,  delicate 
 aud  youthful  type,  which  becomes  traditionary  in  the  later 
 treatment — opposed  to  the  earlier — of  this  subject. 
 
 The  architecture  of  the  two  Masuccios  has  been  as  much 
 defaced  at  S.  Lorenzo  as  elsewhere  ;  and  the  studious  elimi- 
 nating of  the  earlier  style  from  this  modernized  church,  may 
 be  taken  as  the  measure  of  distance  between  the  mediaeval 
 and  modern  Catholicism  of  Naples.  It  is  only  in  the 
 neglected  and  almost  ruinous  chapels  behind  the  tribune 
 that  we  can  picture  to  ourselves  the  true  character  of  the 
 olden  edifice.*  And  here,  in  dim-lit  obscurity,  we  see  some 
 monuments  well  worthy  of  better  fate :  the  most  lament- 
 ably mutilated  and  badly -lighted,  that  of  the  Duke  Charles 
 of  Durazzo,  put  to  death  (1348)  for  the  murder  of  Andrea, 
 by  order  of  King  Louis  of  Hungary ;  this,  and  the  memorial 
 to  the  infant  daughter  of  the  same  Duke,  w^hich  stands  near, 
 being  attributed  to  the  second  Masuccio.  In  another  chapel 
 are  two  better  preserved  monuments — one  to  Eobert  Count 
 d'Artois  and  his  wife,  Joanna  of  Durazzo,  Countess  d'Eu, 
 
 *  Celano  tells  us  that  this  most  memorable  portion  of  the  church  was 
 in  the  same  condition  in  1692,  as  at  present  :  the  chapels  converted 
 into  lumber-rooms  by  the  Franciscan  friars,  "  the  monuments  neglected 
 and  almost  ruinous."  That  writer  mentions  the  numerous  classic  columns 
 of  Greek  marble  in  different  parts  of  this  building,  which  were  supposed 
 to  be  remnants  of  the  ancient  municipal  palace  on  the  site  of  S.  Lorenzo, 
 demolished  to  give  place  for  this  church,  and  (as  suspected)  with  intent, 
 on  the  part  of  the  first  Anjou  King,  to  suppress  the  liberties  and  forms 
 of  civic  government,  which  had  its  official  centre  in  that  palace. 
 
236  MEDIEVAL   CHEISTIAJTITY   AND 
 
 wio  both  died  of  poison  on  the  same  day,  1387 — victims,  as 
 believed,  of  political  jealousy,  excited  by  their  ambition  to 
 ascend  the  royal  throne  ;  another,  to  Catherine  of  Austria, 
 (ob.  1323),  first  wife  of  the  Duke  Charles,  whose  tomb  is 
 at  S.  Chiara.  The  latter,  the  Duchess  Catherine's  monu- 
 ment, was  the  first  work  of  its  class  executed  by  the  same 
 Masuccio,  and  greatly  admired  at  the  time :  the  recumbent 
 statue  lies  under  a  canopy,  on  the  tympanum  of  which  is  a 
 relievo  of  Christ  in  the  tomb  and  the  two  Maries  ;  the  sup- 
 porting pilasiers  rest  on  couchant  lions  ;  the  architectural 
 design  being  Grothic. 
 
 Another  art- work  of  the  XIY.  century  in  this  church,  is 
 a  picture  by  Maestro  Simone  of  the  coronation  of  King 
 Eobert  by  his  brother,  the  ca,nonized  Louis.  The  King 
 himself  ordered  this  memorial  of  the  event ;  and  we  here 
 see,  no  doubt  in  authentic  portraiture,  S.  Louis  seated,  in 
 full  pontificals,  with  a  splendid  crozier  in  one  hand,  and 
 Eobert,  on  much  smaller  scale,  kneeling  before  him  while 
 he,  the  saint,  places  the  crown  on  his  head  without  bend- 
 ing towards,  or  apparently  paying  any  attention  to,  him. 
 S.  Louis  was  a  Franciscan  before  becoming  a  bishop ;  and 
 this  subordinating,  in  art-presentment,  of  the  king  to  the 
 mendicant  friar,  serves  to  illustrate  the  religious  feeling  of 
 the  times.*  Not  one  of  that  religious  order  is  now  left  in 
 their  former  home  at  the  S.  Lorenzo  convent,  from  the 
 cloisters  of  which  we  enter  a  chapter-house,  still  preserved, 
 in  the  olden  and  beautiful  style  of  mediaeval  building. 
 
 A  large  showy  church,  in  the  most  gorgeous  modern 
 
 *  De  Dominici  mentions  another  picture  in  this  church  by  the  same 
 Maestro,  of  S.  Anthony  of  Padua,  deemed  marvellous,  and  "  to  this  day 
 held  in  great  veneration  by  the  faithful."  The  new  authorities  desired 
 to  remove  the  altar-piece  of  the  Coronation,  but  found  it  to  be  legal 
 property  attached  to  S.  Lorenzo,  and  had  consequently  to  satisfy  them- 
 selves with  a  copy  from  Simonc's  original. 
 
SACEED  AET  IN  ITALY.  237 
 
 Italian  style,  built,  as  we  see  it,  in  1G20,  represents  that  of 
 the  Franciscan  convent  founded  by  Queen  Mary,  daughter 
 of  Stephen,  King  of  Hungary,  wife  of  Charles  II.,  and 
 mother  to  King  Kobert,  who  herself  retired  to  this  sanc- 
 tuary and  died  within  its  walls,  1323.  The  nuns,  forty  at 
 the  time  of  their  recent  dispersal,  were  all  of  noble  birth  ; 
 not  one  of  them  remains  in  the  immense  buildings,  now 
 appropriated  partly  as  a  Criminal  Court,  partly  as  prisons. 
 Eemembering  late  revelations  of  the  interior  life  of  a 
 Neapolitan  monastery  for  women,  I  looked  without  regret 
 on  such  an  example  of  the  fatal  blow  to  the  system  at  this 
 retreat  of  aristocratic  devotions.*  The  foundress  of  S. 
 Maria  Donna  Begina  is  brought  before  our  minds  by  one  of 
 the  most  beautiful  monuments  of  the  period,  executed  by 
 Masuccio  the  second,  in  the  same  year  as  that  of  the 
 Austrian  Duchess  Catherine.  It  stands  in  the  Comuni- 
 chino,  a  hall  for  the  communion  of  the  nuns,  with  a  grating 
 that  opens  on  the  church,  near  the  high  altar — accessible, 
 since  the  suppression,  to  all  visitors.  The  pointed  style  is 
 here  appropriately  treated;  under  a  gothic  canopy  lies  a 
 beautiful  statue  of  the  Queen ;  a  relief  of  SS.  Peter  and 
 Paul  occupies  the  recess  above  ;  the  Virgin  and  Child  with 
 two  saints  are  represented  at  the  summit  of  the  canopy ; 
 other  relievi  adorn  the  sarcophagus,  and  angels,  -with 
 symbols  of  virtues,  support  the  whole.  There  is  a  chas- 
 tened solemnity,  a  dignified  repose,  truly  admirable  in  this 
 art-work.f 
 
 Abandoned  to  cold  neglect,  sombre,  damp,  and  disfigured 
 by  wretched  modern  ornaments,  stands  the  church  origi- 
 nally dedicated  to  the  "  Corona  di  Cristo,"  subsequently 
 
 *  The  "Misteri  del  Chiostro  Napolitano,"  by  the  Signora  Canic- 
 ciolo. 
 
 t  Mr.  Perkins  attributes  it  to  Tino  da  Camaino,  a  pupil  of  Giovanni 
 Pi.sano,  and  one  of  the  sculptors  much  engaged  at  Naples.  He  fiourishcd 
 1315-36. 
 
288  MEDIEVAL   CHEISTIAN^ITT   AND 
 
 called  S.  Maria  Incorooiata,  and  now  known  as  simply 
 Ulncoronata.  Historic  memories  and  the  splendours  of 
 art  should  have  secured  better  usage  for  this  doubly  con- 
 secrated building,  founded  by  Joanna  I.,  either  to  comme- 
 morate her  second  marriage  with  Louis  of  Taranto,  or  (as 
 seems  more  probable)  her  coronation  (1351)  together  with 
 that  Prince,  performed  by  a  Papal  Legate  on  a  stage 
 erected  against  the  palace  formerly  on  this  site,  which 
 building  the  Queen  converted  into  a  church.  Such  the 
 actual  edifice  does  not  seem  to  be,  having  nothing  ecclesi- 
 astical on  the  exterior ;  in  the  interior,  nothing  of  the 
 original  Grothic,  except  the  ribbed  vaulting,  the  apse,  and 
 a  chapel  at  one  end.  The  monks  of  a  great  religious  order 
 were  mainly  responsible  for  the  damage  here  sufiered ;  and 
 by  the  end  of  the  XVII.  century  the  wall-paintings,  here 
 numerous  and  most  precious,  were  almost  ruined  through 
 the  Yandalic  attempt  to  scrape  ofi"  all  the  ultramarine  blue, 
 as  well  as  through  damp,  "  which  (says  Celano)  had  pene- 
 trated the  walls,  the  monks  having  taken  no  pains  to  keep 
 them  dry."  The  building  was  at  that  time  utilized  by  the 
 Carthusian  monks  (its  then  owners)  as  a  monastic  hospice 
 and  residence  for  chaplains  in  the  upper  part,  as  a  wine- 
 cellar  in  the  lower  ;  and  a  deep  foss  cut  between  the  outer 
 walls  and  the  street,  by  way  of  protection  to  the  building, 
 was  used  as  a  timber  yard,  where  that  article  was  sold  for 
 the  Carthusian  proprietors.  It  is  supposed  that  the  original 
 edifice  was  a  tribunal  of  justice,  or  court  house,  into  which 
 was  incorporated  the  ancient  capella  regis,  where  the  royal 
 marriage  had  been  celebrated,  when  the  building  was  con- 
 verted into  a  church.  According  to  some  writers,  however, 
 the  whole  was  built  from  the  foundations,  excepting  only 
 that  chapel,  by  the  Queen's  orders;  and  Collenuccio  states, 
 perhaps  more  credibly,  that  the  original  edifice  was  a 
 ])alace  built  by  Charles  II.,  on  the  site  of  the  ancient 
 
SACEED  AUT  IN  ITALY,  239 
 
 Court-house,  and  which  had  become  the  property  of  the 
 Princes  of  Taranto  before  the  marriage  of  Louis  with  the 
 Queen.  In  commemoration  of  that  event  an  annual  fete 
 was  appointed,  which  used  to  be  celebrated  with  jousts,  &c., 
 in  the  street  before  the  "  Incoronata "  church.  Joanna 
 also  founded  and  amply  endowed  a  hospice  contiguous  to 
 the  new  church,  for  the  above-named  monks  of  S.  Martino. 
 It  is  certain  that  the  capella  regis  was  adorned  with  paint- 
 ings by  Griotto,  who  could  not,  however  (as  Neapolitan 
 writers  ignorantly  state),  have  represented  on  those  walls 
 the  nuptials  of  Joanna,  which  took  place  eleven  years  after 
 his  death,  namely,  134:6.  Celano  says,  that  in  his  time  a 
 few  remains  of  frescoes,  which  he  attributes  to  Giotto, 
 were  seen  here — some  figures  on  the  vault,  and  certain 
 heads,  among  them  a  portrait  of  Joanna,  near  the  chapel 
 of  the  "  Crocifisso."  "We  must  ascend  an  organ-loft  to  see 
 the  much  damaged  frescoes  on  a  vault,  which  are  ascribed 
 to  pupils  of  Giotto,  and  may  be  supposed  to  comprise  some 
 portions  of  that  great  artist's  work,  if  this  be  indeed  the 
 chapel  older  than  the  time  of  that  Queen's  reign.  Criti- 
 cism, however,  both  from  Italian  and  English  writers,  now 
 decides  against  the  opinion  which  formerly  gave  these 
 paintings  to  Giotto,  whose  style  they  remind  us  of,  and 
 whose  reputation  would  not  be  prejudiced  by  them.  The 
 Seven  Sacraments  are  the  principal  subjects  here  treated. 
 Matrimony  is  the  historic  scene  of  the  nuptials  of  Joanna 
 and  Louis  ;  the  brilliant  group  of  courtiers  in  attendance, 
 and  the  handsome  figure  of  the  bridegroom  well  preserved, 
 that  of  the  bride  unfortunately  effaced  in  the  upper  part. 
 In  Holy  Orders  we  see  the  consecration  of  the  saintly 
 Louis,  King  Eobert's  brother,  by  Boniface  YIII.  In  Ex- 
 treme Unction,  the  death-bed  (as  supposed)  of  Louis  of 
 Taranto.  In  Pen<ance,  the  act  of  confessing  under  a 
 portico,  the  penitent  kneeling  before  the  priest,  as  is  the 
 
240  MEDTiEVAL    CnRTSTIA-tTITT    AT^D 
 
 custom  to  this  day,  at  least  with  males  at  confession,  in 
 Naples ;  other  penitents,  in  the  dark  costume  of  some 
 pious  fraternity,  submitting  to  the  scourge.  Corresponding 
 to  the  picture  of  the  Communion  (one  of  those  least  in- 
 jured) is  the  institution  of  the  Holy  Eucharist;  the  Saviour 
 standing  among  the  Apostles,  and  of  larger  scale  than  are 
 their  figures.  The  Triumph  of  Eeligion,  an  allegory,  in 
 which  King  Eobert  and  his  son,  the  Duke  of  Calabria,  are 
 introduced,  clad  in  purple  robes,  and  holding  banners,  is 
 one  of  the  subjects  least  intelligible  in  the  present  state  of 
 that  picture.  Altogether,  this  series,  though  so  little 
 spared  by  time,  and  so  much  injured  through  neglect, 
 forms  an  interesting  illustration  of  manners,  costumes,  and 
 ceremonies  in  the  XIY.  century.  In  the  Grothic  chapel  at 
 the  opposite  end  of  this  church,  are  frescoes  by  Grennaro 
 di  Cola,  said  to  represent  scenes  from  the  life  of  Queen 
 Joanna,  her  marriage  (the  subject  represented  on  the  vault) 
 and  the  homage  paid  to  her  by  the  Carthusians  for  the 
 bestowal  of  the  hospice  here  founded  and  endowed  by  her. 
 These  I  could  not  recognize,  nor  indeed  any  other  intelli- 
 gible grouping  in  the  now  deplorable  decay  of  Grennaro's 
 works ;  but  in  the  spaces  beside  the  entrance  to  this 
 chapel,  S.  Martin  dividing  his  cloak  with  the  beggar,  and 
 S.  Greorge  subduing  the  Dragon,  by  the  same  artist,  are 
 still  discernible.  So  also  are  the  scenes  from  the  life  of  the 
 Virgin,  on  the  vault ;  as  well  as  a  Madonna  and  Child 
 under  the  organ-loft,  alike  ascribed  to  Gennaro  di  Cola. 
 In  the  sacristy  is  a  Crucifixion  by  Maestro  Simone,  who 
 painted  on  the  wall  behind  the  high  altar  of  this  church 
 the  Dead  Christ,  several  saints  and  angels,  with  the  instru- 
 ments of  the  Passion— now  totally  perished. 
 
 Other  works  of  the  early  Neapolitan  school  are  scattered 
 over  difierent  churches,  and  deserving  of  notice.  By  the 
 first  Masuccio,  the  monument  of  Jacopo  di  Costanzo  (ob. 
 
SACRED  ART  IN  ITALY.  241 
 
 123  i)   in   the    cathedral,  and  a  wooden   Crucifix   in   the 
 Caraeciolo   chapel   at   the   same   church.      By   Pietro   di 
 Stefano :    tliree   wooden   Crucifixes,  one  in  S.  Eestituta, 
 another  in  S.  Grregorio  Armeno,  and  another  in  the  Car- 
 mine church — this  last  having,  it  is  believed,  bowed  its 
 head  to  avoid  being  struck  by  a  cannon  ball  when  jN'aples 
 was  besieged  by  Alfonso  of  Aragon,  1436.     By  Tommaso 
 di   Stefano :  SS.  Andrew  and  Michael  in  the  sacristy  of 
 S.  Anc/elo  a  NiJo,  and  another  picture  of  S.  Michael  the 
 Archangel  —  attributed,  however,  to  Marco  da  Siena  by 
 some  w^'itcrs— over  the  high  altar   of  that  church.     By 
 Colantonio  del  Fiore :    a  lunette  fresco  (now  imperfectly 
 seen  under  glass),  over   the   outer  door  of  the  same  vS. 
 Angelo,   representing   the  founder.    Cardinal   Brancaccio, 
 kneeling  before   the  Virgin    and  Child,  with  his  patron 
 saints,    Michael   and   another.      In   the    S8.   Annunziata, 
 founded  by  ^ueen  Sancia,  1343,  was  formerly  a  Madonna 
 picture  by  Pietro  di  Stefano  over  the  high  altar ;  but  that 
 church  was  burnt  down,  1757,  before  the  present  edifice, 
 modern  in  style  and  splendour,  arose  in  its  place,  1782. 
 We  must  regret  the  disappearance  of  another  church  and 
 convent  founded  by   the  same  pious  Queen,  and  of  her 
 monument  with  it — S.  Croce,  where  Sancia  used  occasion- 
 ally to  retire  from  the  pomps  of  the  Court,  and  pass  a  season 
 in  meditation  and  prayer  with  the  Clarisse  nuns,  and  where 
 she  herself  took  the  veil  with  vows  after  she  had  become  a 
 widow.     The  architecture,  by  the  second  Masuccio,  was 
 Doric — another  example  of  the  early  abandonment  of  the 
 mediaeval  style  at  Naples. 
 
 Other  historic  monuments  of  this  and  of  a  somewhat 
 later  period — the  beginning  of  the  XY.  century — are  to  be 
 seen,  and  well  preserved,  in  the  church  of  a  famous  and 
 still  frequented  place  of  pilgrimage,  Monte  Yergine,  on  an 
 Apennine  height,  amidst  grandly  romantic  scenery,  near 
 
242  MEDIEVAL   CHEISTIANITT    AND 
 
 Avellino   in   the  province   of    Principato    Ulteriore.     A 
 classical  and,  at  the  same  time,  romantic  origin  for  that 
 name   is    assigned,  without   reference   to   the   intelligible 
 intent  of  honouring  the  Virgin  Mother.     The  mountain 
 was  anciently  called  "  mons  sacra,"  on  account  of  a  temple 
 of  Cybele  which  stood  on  it,  and  attracted  the  thronging 
 devotees  of  heathen  superstition ;  and  that  name  was  sub- 
 sequently changed  to  "  Yirgilianus,"  because  Virgil  once 
 resided  at  the  temple,  in  order  to  consult  at  leisure  the 
 oracle  from  which  he  hoped  for  inspirations  !     The  impres- 
 sion made  by  the  famous  "  Pollio  "  may  have  given  rise  to 
 this  legend  of  the  great  poet.    The  sanctuary  was  founded, 
 A.D.  1119,  by  Guglielmo,  a  nobleman  of   Vercelli,   who, 
 in  returning  from  a  pilgrimage  to   Compostella,  intended 
 to  set  out  from  southern  Italy  for  Palestine,  but,  after 
 spending   some   time   with   a   holy   man,    S.   Griovanni   di 
 Matera,  in  Apulia,  was  induced  to  establish#  himself  as  a 
 liermit  on  this  mountain,  because  convinced  that  he  had 
 Jiere  beheld  the  Saviour  of  the  world  in  a  vision,  and  been 
 commanded  by  Him  to  build  a  church,  and  found  a  com- 
 'munity  of  Coenobites  on  the  spot.     A  few  humble  cells 
 arose,  to  be  in  time  superseded  by  a  spacious  monastery ; 
 and  numeix)us  followers  placed  themselves  under  the  direc- 
 tion  of  the   pilgrim    from  Vercelli,  who    died,  1142,  in 
 another  ©f  the  several  cloisters  founded  by  him  in  difterent 
 parts  of  Italy  and  Sicily.     Under  the  government  of  his 
 third  successor  in  the  headship  of  the  new  order,  the  Beato 
 Boberto,  the  Benedictine  rule  was  adopted  by  these  monks, 
 with   approval   of   Alexander   III.,   who   canonized   their 
 founder.     The  church  of  Monte  Vergine  was  rebuilt  on 
 larger  scale  by  the  Beato  Eoberto,  about  1180,  and  conse- 
 crated by  Lucius  III.     How  many  other  restorations  have 
 been  carried  out  here,  may  be  conjectured  from  the  present 
 modem  stvie  of  aTnchitccture.     One  of  the  Madoniia  pic- 
 
SACRED    AIM"    IN    ITALY.  21.3 
 
 turcs,  ascribed  to  S.  Lube,  and  said  by  tradition  lo  have 
 been  brought  from  Constantinople  by  Baldwin  II.,  the  last 
 Latin  emperor  of  tlie  East,  when  lie  fled  before  the  vic- 
 torious entry  of  Michael  Palseologus  into  the  Greek 
 capital,  12G1 — but  which  picture  was,  more  probably,  ex- 
 ecuted by  order  of  Frederick  IL,  about  1220 — having  been 
 bestowed  on  this  sanctuary,  proved  a  source  of  great  attrac- 
 tions to  the  devout.*  Hence  the  pilgrimage  at  Pentecost 
 to  Monte  Vergine,  still  joined  in  by  multitudes  of  different, 
 but  especially  the  low^er,  classes  from  Xaples  and  other 
 cities  far  and  near.  The  abbots  of  this  monastery  obtained 
 episcopal  powers  and  privileges ;  but  for  some  years  sub- 
 sequently to  lI;I-0  their  oifice  was  "in  commenda,"  i.  r., 
 held  by  dignitaries  not  bound  to  residence,  or  necessarily 
 belonging  to  any  religious  order. 
 
 A  Cardinal  of  royal  blood,  Griovanni,  son  of  Ferdinand  I., 
 the  Aragonese  King  of  Naples,  and  one  of  the  titulars  who 
 held  this  abbacy  on  such  terms,  discovered  under  the  higli 
 altar  of  the  monastic  church,  11^80,  the  body  of  S.  Januarius, 
 transferred  hither  from  Benevento,  in  1156  ;  and  that  Car- 
 dinal's successor  in  the  abbacy,  Cardinal  Caraffa,  obtained 
 permission  from  Alexander  VI.  to  remove  those  revered 
 relics  (1497)  to  the  cathedral  of  Naples,  since  which  pro- 
 ceeding the  "  miracle"  of  the  Liquefaction  has  triennially 
 excited  the  impatience,  the  tumults,  and  the  raptures  of 
 devout  believers  in  it. 
 
 *  The  figure,  not  belonging  to  the  head  of  this  picture,  is  said  to  hare 
 been  painted  by  Montano  d'Arczzo,  by  order  of  Prince  Philip  d'Anjou, 
 son  of  Charles  II.  According  to  ]\Ioroni  (Dizionario)  it  was  bestowed 
 on  the  monks  by  Catherine  de  Valois,  a  descendant  of  Baldwin  11.  and 
 wife  of  the  same  Prince  Philip.  It  is  a  colossal  and  very  ugly  Madonna, 
 compared  with  which  Cimabue's,  at  Florence,  is  loveliness  itself  ;  this 
 of  Monte  Vergine  being  half  concealed  by  appended  oniaments  and 
 heavy  crowns,  three  on  the  mother's,  one  on  tlie  child's  head — barbarous 
 art  disfigured  bv  superstition  I 
 
 R  2 
 
244  MEDIiEYAL    CHBISTIAIfITT    AND 
 
 The  situation  of  Monte  Yergine  on  a  wide  plateau  shel- 
 tered by  precipices  and  dark  pine-groves,  overlooking  the 
 rocky  descent  that  plunges  into  the  solemn  depths  of  an 
 Apennine  glen,  is  in  the  highest  degree  picturesque.  The 
 extensive  buildings,  seen  from  without,  are  only  remarkable 
 for  a  quaint  and  massive  simplicity  that  seems  to  promise 
 both  the  prosperities  and  enduring  life  of  an  olden  institu- 
 tion. Passing  through  a  ponderous  gateway  under  a  pointed 
 arch,  we  enter  a  long  corridor  with  Gothic  vaulting,  and 
 thus  reach  the  church  through  a  portal  in  the  same  style ; 
 but  the  Gothic  (in  which  probably  the  whole  was  originally 
 built)  has  been  banished  from  the  interior — a  large,  mo- 
 dernized temple  with  showy  ornaments  according  to  the 
 usual  examples  of  taste  and  type  in  these  southern  pro- 
 vinces. Some  fine  mediasval  tombs  alone  remind  us  of  the 
 far-distant  Past,  and  of  the  Arts  which  added  lustre  to  those 
 times.  Among  these  is  the  monument  of  Louis  of  Taranto, 
 crowned  after  his  marriage  with  Joanna,  and  deceased  at  the 
 age  of  forty -two,  1362  ;  also  that  of  his  mother  Catherine  de 
 Valois,  titular  Empress  of  Constantinople — both  which  me- 
 morials were  unfortunately  damaged  by  earthquake,  and 
 subsequently  restored,  with  more  or  less  deterioration  from 
 their  original  character.  Interesting  also  is  the  monument  of 
 Caterina  Pilingiera,  Countess  of  Avellino,  wife  of  the  Grand 
 Seneschal  Caracciola  who  was  assassinated,  1432 — with 
 recumbent  effigy  in  nun-like  dress,  angels  drawing  aside 
 curtains,  a  relievo  of  Christ  in  the  tomb,  four  statuettes  of 
 Virtues  as  supporters,  and  a  Gothic  canopy,  at  the  summit 
 of  which  are  statuettes  of  the  Virgin  and  Child  with  two 
 Saints — the  sculptures,  severally  considered,  inferior,  but 
 the  composition  fine,  the  effect  impressive.  Near  this  are 
 two  other  good  monuments  with  low  relief  efiBgies  of  armed 
 knights,  each  bearing  the  name,  Berteradus  Vicecomes,  and 
 one  with  epitaph  dated  1335.     In  a  chapel  of  a  transept  is 
 
SACRED  AET  IN  ITALY.  245 
 
 a  nameless  monument,  without  a  line  engraved,  or  other 
 sculpture  placed  upon  it,  except  the  statue  of  a  lady,  with 
 her  feet  resting  on  a  little  dog — her  countenance,  in  that 
 affecting  repose  of  dreamless  slumber  usually  represented 
 in  such  funereal  sculptures  of  former  time,  one  of  the  most 
 beautiful  and  exquisitely  finished  I  have  ever  seen  in  a 
 medisBval  art- work  of  this  class.  Here,  too,  are  the  monu- 
 ments of  the  Prince  Griovanni  of  Morea,  a  son  of  Charles  II., 
 among  the  benefactors  of  this  monastery,  and  of  Bartolom- 
 meo  da  Capua,  a  learned  man,  held  in  high  esteem  by  that 
 King,  and  his  successor,  Eobert.  The  Prince  of  Morea  is  said 
 to  have  presented  the  majestic  altar  canopy  of  white  marble 
 in  different  storeys,  with  columns  diminishing  towards 
 the  summit,  those  of  the  lowest  storey  hexagonal,  inlaid  with 
 rich  intarsio,  and  resting  on  lions  ;  this  having  formerly 
 stood  over  the  high  altar,  with  marble  ambones  in  similar 
 style,  for  the  Gospel  and  Epistle,  placed  laterally  to  it.  The 
 ambones  have  disappeared ;  and  the  canopy  has  been  re- 
 moved to  a  chapel  at  the  end  of  the  right  aisle. 
 
 About  thirty  of  the  community  of  white-robed  Benedic- 
 tines inhabited  the  Monte  Yergine  cloisters  at  the  time  of 
 the  recent  suppression.  Since  the  law  against  monastic 
 societies  has  been  enforced,  only  two  monks  have  been 
 resident  continuously  on  these  premises,  which  seem  capable 
 of  accommodating  at  least  two  hundred ;  and  those  two  soli- 
 tary guardians  remain  here  but  twenty-four  hours,  succes- 
 sively taking  their  turns  for  this  duty,  and  ascending  to  the 
 sanctuary  from  another  establishment  of  the  Order,  a  large 
 octagonal  building  of  the  last  century,  called  "  Loreto," 
 w  here  five  Benedictines  of  the  Monte  Yergine  congregation 
 still  reside  together  with  their  mitred  abbot.  The  "  Loreto" 
 establishment  contains  a  most  valuable  collection  of  codes, 
 comprising  18,000  parchments,  many  diplomas,  deeds,  gifts, 
 privileges,  &c.  conferred  on  the  Order,  300  Papal  bulls,  and 
 
24G  MEDIEVAL  CllKISTIANITX   AND 
 
 200  MSS.  relating  to  medisBval  Italian  history.  These  truly 
 precious  Archives  are  now  consigned  to  the  care  of  the 
 monks  as  a  recognized  branch  of  the  Archivio  Generate  at 
 Naples. 
 
 The  pilgrimage  to  Monte  Yergine,  at  Pentecost,  affords 
 one  of  the  best  occasions  for  studying  the  varieties  of  phy- 
 siognomy and  peasant-costume  in  southern  Italy.  I  ascended 
 the  mountain,  starting  before  sunrise  on  that  day  (1870) 
 fi-om  the  wild  little  town  of  Marcogliano  at  the  base.  The 
 path  is  steep  and  difficult,  a  rocky  zigzag,  the  whole  way  ; 
 and  the  sun  had  risen  long  before  I  came  in  sight  of  the 
 sacred  buildings.  One  procession  of  pilgrims  was  ascend- 
 ing, another  (betimes  at  their  devotions)  descending ;  and 
 this  meeting  of  two  streams,  amidst  so  much  excitement  and 
 eagerness,  increased  fatigue  by  the  obstacles  opposed  to 
 l^rogress.  Notwithstanding  such  difficulties,  almost  the 
 whole  multitude,  men  and  women,  were  on  foot,  perhaps 
 one  out  of  a  hundred  riding,  and  several,  even  respectably 
 dressed  people,  walking  bare-footed.  A  Neapolitan  lady 
 and  gentleman,  whose  acquaintance  I  made  on  the  way,  told 
 me  that  they  were  performing  the  pilgrimage  on  foot  because 
 the  lady  had  made  a  vow  thus  to  visit  Monte  Yergine.  All 
 returning  from  the  sanctuary  bore  with  them  some  devout 
 trophy  or  memorial ;  little  coloured  prints  from  the  Greek 
 Madonna  hung  to  branches  of  trees,  boughs  of  a  fir  tree, 
 common  on  these  mountains,  called  i'  Alhero  della  Madonna 
 (the  Madonna's  tree),  rosaries  of  hazel-nuts  worn  as  neck- 
 laces or  watch-chains  ;  many  eagerly  possess  themselves  of 
 chips  of  rocks  from  a  cavern,  on  the  ascent,  called  Sedia 
 deJla  Madonna,  where  is  a  recess  in  which  the  Blessed 
 A^irgin  is  said  to  have  appeared — or  (as  is  not  improbable) 
 the  ancient  picture  of  her,  now  in  the  church,  to  have  been 
 originally  placed.  Here  an  obliging  peasant  bestowed  upon 
 me,  unsolicited,  a  piece  of  that  sacred  rock,  knocked  off  by 
 
SACEED  ART  IX  ITALY.  217 
 
 Ills  strong  liauds.  All>  high  and  low,  pressed  forward  to 
 2nake  their  offerings,  either  tapers  or  ready  money,  before 
 the  famous  image  of  Mary,  near  whose  altar  a  priest  sat 
 at  a  table  as  Eeceiver  General.  My  Neapolitan  acquaint- 
 ance told  me  he  had  seen  between  500  and  600  francs 
 offered  during  the  few  minutes  he  had  stood  beside  that 
 table,  and  that  the  average  annual  receipts  here  might  be 
 estimated  as  30,000  francs.*  IS'eapolitans  of  the  artisan- 
 class  will  lay  by  their  savings  weekly  for  this  pilgrimage ; 
 and  when  the  time  arrives,  club  together  in  parties  of  four- 
 teen or  fifteen,  hiring  vehicles,  and  incurring  the  accumula- 
 tive expense  of  30  or  40  ducats  on  a  journey  which  may  last 
 five  or  six  days  ;  as  they  sometimes  visit  another  sanctuary, 
 the  "  Madonna  dell' Arco"  (at  the  foot  of  Vesuvius),  and 
 Portici, usually  winding  up  with  ?ifesta  at  Nola,  which  begins 
 on  the  evening  of  Wliit  Sunday,  before  the  return  to  Xaples. 
 Constitutional  government  had  been  established  in  these 
 States,  the  ancient  Church  had  been  open  to  attack,  and  all 
 religious  Orders  placed  under  ban.  Protestantism  had 
 declared  itself  through  an  Italian  medium  from  the  pulpit 
 and  the  press,  theological  doctrines  had  been  impugned  and 
 theological  dissent  allowed  free  utterance,  for  about  ten 
 years  before  I  saw  the  pilgrimage  to  Monte  Yergine  ;  and 
 yet  such  the  proof  of  the  firm  hold  retained  by  Catholicism, 
 
 *  In  the  XVI.  century,  the  offerings  at  Pentecost  alone  used  to  amount 
 to  500  scudi,  or  more — all  spent,  we  are  assured,  in  the  repairs  and  deco- 
 rations of  the  sanctuary.  It  is  forbidden  either  to  partake  of,  or  bring, 
 any  species  of  animal  food  within  the  sacred  premises,  and  in  a  radius  of 
 about  500  paces  around.  We  are  told  that  the  infringement  of  this  pro- 
 hibition has  drawn  down  repeated  and  terrible  chastisements,  maladies, 
 natural  phenomena,  &c.  In  1611,  the  foresteria  of  the  monastery  was 
 burnt  down  when  full  of  pilgrims,  and  more  than  400  lives  were  lost 
 — this  believed  to  be  the  manifest  wrath  of  Heaven,  lx;causc  certain. 
 Neapolitans  had  eaten  meat  within  those  walls  I 
 
248  MEDIEVAL    CHEISTIATS^ITY   AND 
 
 and  tlie  fascinations  to  the  popular  mind  of  a  system  tliat 
 appeals  to  imagination  and  wonderfully  contrives  to  blend 
 pleasure  with  devotion,  afforded  by  the  still  unchanged, 
 picturesque,  at  once  impressive  and  amusing  realities  of 
 thia  pre-eminently  attractive  observance  in  the  year  I  wit- 
 nessed it.* 
 
 *  See  Tommaso  Costo,  "  Istoria  dell'  Origine  del  sagratissimo  luogo  di 
 Montevergine,"  (Venice,  1591),  one  of  the  most  curious  documents  foi- 
 the  history  of  (Christian)  superstition  and  image- worship  that  I  am 
 acquainted  with. 
 
SACRED  AKT  IN  ITALY.  219 
 
 CHAPTER  V. 
 
 Monuments  of  the  XIV.  Cextuet — continued. 
 FLOKENCE  AXD  CENTRAL  ITALY. 
 
 MoEE  striking  proof  could  scarcely  be  afforded  by  mate- 
 rial and  outward  things  of  the  superior  effects  resulting 
 from  free  as  compared  with  those  from  despotic  institutions, 
 than  that  presented  by  the  contrasted  monuments  and  art 
 of  E/ome  and  Florence  in  the  middle  ages.  The  Tuscan 
 city  was  agitated  throughout  almost  the  whole  of  the  period 
 here  considered  by  civic  or  foreign  strife,  political  vicissi- 
 tudes, struggles  of  faction;  yet  a  principle  of  liberty,  a  dig- 
 nity of  independence  are  continually  manifest  in  the  annals 
 of  tlie  small  State,  which  ceased  not  to  make  good  its  title  to 
 a  high  position  among  the  powers  that  have  mfluenced  the 
 civilized  world.  Rome  taught  respect  for  consecrated  au- 
 thority ;  Florence,  respect  for  the  rights  of  humanity.  The 
 territories  of  the  latter  were  increasing  throughout  the 
 XIV.  century  with  a  rapidity  which  announced  a  vigorous 
 life,  a  high  destination.  She  now  acquired  dominion  by  con- 
 quest, concession  or  purchase,  over  Pistoja,  Prato,  Arezzo, 
 Lucca,  Colle,  S.  Gimignano,  Bibbiena,  S.  Miniato. 
 
 At  this  period  her  revenues,  320,000  gold  florins  per 
 annum,  exceeded  those  of  the  Kings  of  Naples,  Sicily,  and 
 Aragon.*    The  city,  divided  into  fifty-seven  parishes,  con- 
 
 *  The  ducat  and  the  florin,  the  former  named  from  tlic  Dukes  of 
 MiUin,  the  latter  from  the  Kepublic  of  Florence,  were  the  first  j^old  pieces 
 used  in  Italvj  perhaps  in  the  Latin  world,   after  the  fall  of  the  ancient 
 
250  MEDIAEVAL    CHRISTIANITY   AND 
 
 tallied  110  cliurclies  (those  in  tlie  suburbs  included)  among 
 which  five  belonged  to  monks,  twenty -two  to  friars,  twenty- 
 four  to  nuns.*     The  "  Umiliati"  friars,  first  settled  here  in 
 12:^9,  brought  to  perfection  the  cloth  manufacture,  which 
 produced  annually  an   amount  valued  as   1,200,000  gold 
 fiorins,  and  provided  work  for  more  than  30,000  persons. 
 In  1312  Elorence  was  beleaguered  by  the  Emperor  Henry 
 Yll.jwho  could  neither  enter  her  gates  nor  obtain  a  single 
 success  daring  the  month  he  remained  with  his  army  en- 
 camped in  the  plain  of  S.  Salvi  (beyond  the  Porta  S.  Croce), 
 laying  waste  the  environs  with  inglorious  vindictiveness. 
 In  1313  the  Slgnoria  (or  civic  government)  was  given  by 
 free  act  of  the  citizens  to  King  Eobert  of  Naples,  to  be 
 held  during  five  years ;  and  in  1325  alike  bestowed  on  the 
 Duke  of  Calabria,  that  monarch's  son.     In  1315  the  Flo- 
 rentines and  their  (xuelfic  allies  suffered  a  crushing  defeat 
 in  contest  with  forces  commanded  by  Uguccione  della  Fag- 
 giuola,   CajDtain    of  the  Pisans    (the  (xhibelline-  rivals  of 
 Florence)   at  Montecatini,  where  the  loss  was  3000  slain 
 and  1500  made  prisoners  on  the  Guelfic  side.    In  1325,  Cas- 
 truccio  Castracane,  lord  of  Lucca,  ravaged  the  environs  of 
 Florence,  after  occupying  Pistoja  and  Prato ;  "  sparing  nei- 
 ther churches  nor  monasteries,  and  causing  destruction  to  a 
 vast  quantity  of  noble  works  of  painting,  which  had  begun 
 to  flourish   marvellously  in  those  days  " — so  far  Ammirato 
 (1.  vi.),  who  adds  that  "  the  territory  around  Florence  was  at 
 this  time  profusely  adorned  wdth  such  w^orks."    In  1343,  the 
 insolent  tyranny  of  a  foreign  master,  Walter  de  Brienne, 
 titular  Duke  of  Athens,  whom  the  Florentines  had  first 
 
 Empire.     Gibbon  concludes  tbej^  may  be  compared  in  weight  and  value 
 to  one  third  of  the  English  guinea. 
 
 *  The  cloisters  of  the  first  class  were  occupied  by  80  ;  of  the  second 
 by  several  hundreds  not  exactly  numbered  ;  of  the  third,  by  500  in  this 
 century  — sec  Villaui. 
 
SACRED  ART  IX  ITALY.  251 
 
 elected  "  Captain  and  Conservator  of  the  people,"  and 
 finally  appointed  "  Signore  "  of  their  city  for  life  (8th  Sep- 
 tember, 13-i2),  led  to  the  revolt  which  compelled  him  to 
 abdicate  on  S.  Anne's  day,  2Gth  Jnly,  and  soon  afterwards 
 to  fly,  with  safety  guaranteed  for  his  worthless  life.  It  is 
 to  be  noted  that  this  tyrant  of  a  few  months  attempted  to 
 win  the  popular  favour  by  flatteries  and  vanities,  pomps, 
 spectacles,  novelties  in  dress,  licensed  profligacy  in  manners. 
 The  revolt  of  the  "  Ciompi,"*  1378,  w^as  the  most  terrible 
 outbreak  of  popular  violence  and  outrage  which  Tlorence 
 had  yet  suffered.  It  had  beeu  provoked  by  abuses  of 
 power  on  the  part  of  the  Captains  in  the  Guelfic  interest, 
 called  "  Capitani  di  Parte  Gruelfo."  The  sacking  of 
 palaces,  the  burning  of  houses  and  convents,  the  seizure  by 
 the  mob  of  the  communal  palace  {Palazzo  della  Signoria)^ 
 ensued.  The  magistrates  were  forced  to  resign,  and  in  the 
 result  was  adopted  a  new  form  of  government.  Michele  di 
 Lando,  a  wool-comber,  was  elected  Gonfaloniere  of  the 
 People,"  but  deposed  and  unjustly  exiled  in  1382.  Two 
 Arti  (or  guilds)  were  added  to  the  twenty- one  already  ex- 
 isting ;  and  it  was  decreed  that  thenceforth  the  nine  chief 
 magistrates  called  "  Priori,"  should  be  appointed  four  from 
 the  major,  and  five  from  the  minor  Ai^ti.  Previously,  and 
 soon  after  the  deposition  of  AYalter  de  Brienne,  the  govern- 
 ment had  been  reformed  on  those  essentially  democratic 
 principles  which  had  long  their  highest  expression  and 
 fullest  accomplishment  at  Florence  ;  the  nobles  were  com- 
 pelled to  retire  from  office  (September  13-13),  the  supreme 
 authority  was  vested  in  twelve  Priors,  sixteen  Gonfalo- 
 nieri  of  Companies,  and  a  Gonfaloniere  of  Justice,  assisted 
 by  a  council  of  seventy-live  for  each  of  the  quarters  (S. 
 
 *  Used  in  the  sense  butli  of  carder,  or  wool  comber,  and  mean  fellow, 
 one  of  the  niol',  &e. 
 
2o2  MEDIiEYAL    CHRISTIANITY   AND 
 
 Spirito,  S.  Piero  Scheraggio,  S.  Maria  Novella,  and  S. 
 G-iovanni),  into  which  tlie  city  was  now  divided — each  of 
 those  quarters  having  nine  standards  with  their  respective 
 emblems — hence  the  picturesquely  varied  heraldry  of  the 
 "  Etrurian  Athens,"  so  conspicuous  to  this  day  among  the 
 ornaments  of  her  embattled  palaces.  The  noble  motto 
 "  Libertas,"  on  one  of  the  escutcheons  painted  under  the 
 battlements  of  the  grand  old  palace  of  the  Signoria,  was 
 granted  by  the  States  to  the  "  Otto  di  Gruerra,"  a  magis- 
 tracy created  in  1376,  soon  after  the  city  had  been  placed 
 under  interdict  by  G-regory  XI.  in  consequence  of  the 
 league  with  Bernabo  Yisconti  of  Milan  against  the  Pontific 
 Government.  It  was  on  this  occasion  that  the  clergy 
 were  commanded  to  reopen  the  churches,  and  celebrate 
 masses  notwithstanding  the  Paj^al  anathemas.  In  1348 
 Elorence  was  visited  by  the  tremendous  natural  calamity 
 of  that  plague  which,  in  the  same  year,  desolated  all 
 other  Tuscan,  and  almost  all  other  Italian  cities  ;  the  mor- 
 tality here  being  at  the  average  of  600  per  diem  ;  and  after 
 this  pestilence  had  raged  from  March  to  September,  the 
 population  was  diminished  by  three-fifths.  In  consequence 
 of  the  decreased  number  of  sculptors  and  architects,  among 
 whom  had  been  many  victims,  the  magistrates  wisely  or- 
 dered that  thenceforth  maestri  of  other  states  and  cities 
 should  enjoy  the  same  privileges  as  natives  in  the  exercise 
 of  the  Eine  Arts.  A  fraternity  of  painters,  placed  under  the 
 protection  of  S.  Luke,  was  founded  here  in  1350 ;  they  met 
 for  devotions  in  their  oratory,  and  pledged  themselves  to 
 mutual  assistance  and  support.  Thus  in  an  age  of  con- 
 tinual strife,  did  Art  supply  a  principle  and  bond  of  union.* 
 In  1353  were  ordered  paintings  and  other  embellishments 
 
 *  See  Ranalli,  "  Storia  dellc  Belle  Arti  in  Italia,"  an  interesting  and 
 spirited  work.    . 
 
SACRED    AET    TN    IT ALT.  253 
 
 in  the  stern  old  palace  of  the  Podesta,  built  about  1250, 
 and  now  known  as  the  ''  Pretorio."  In  1360  were  re- 
 sumed, after  long  suspense,  the  works  of  the  glorious 
 "  Duomo,"  which  was  vaulted  over  about  four  years  after- 
 wards. In  1396  the  magistrates  ordered  monuments  to 
 Dante,  Petrarch,  Accursio,  and  Boccaccio,  to  be  erected  in 
 that  cathedral — and  had  their  decree  been  faithfully  obeyed, 
 England's  poet  would  not  have  needed  to  ask  at  S. 
 Croce : — 
 
 "  —  Where  repose  the  all  Etruscan  three, 
 
 Dante,  and  Petrarch,  and,  scarce  less  than  they. 
 
 The  Bard  of  prose,  creative  spirit,  he 
 
 Of  the  hundred  talcs  of  love?" 
 
 The  subsequent  history  of  Florence's  cathedral  falls  within 
 a  later  period.  In  1376  was  erected  the  beautiful  Loggia, 
 long  misnamed  "  De'  Lanzi,"  from  the  myrmidons  of  des- 
 potism, Lauzknechts,  German  or  Swiss  troops,  hired  by 
 Cosimo  I.  who  chanced  to  have  a  guard  house  near  it. 
 The  project  had  been  mooted  so  early  as  1356,  but  the 
 buildings  were  not  actually  undertaken  till  1376,  eight 
 years  after  the  death  of  Orcagna,  long  supposed  to  have 
 been  the  architect.  It  is  shewn  clearly  (v.  Milanesi's 
 Kotes  to  Yasari)  that  Andrea  di  Cione  could  not  have  pre- 
 pared designs  for  this  edifice,  the  locality  for  which  had 
 not  been  chosen,  nor  the  houses  to  be  destroyed  on  the 
 site  yet  purchased,  till  just  before  the  commencement  of 
 the  works.  Modern  research  has  proved  that  the  real 
 architects  were  another  Cione,  ^dth  the  baptismal  name  of 
 Benci,  not  of  the  Orcagna  (Andrea's)  family,  and  Simone 
 Talenti,  two  esteemed  artists  who  had  been  much  en- 
 gaged both  by  the  magistrates  and  by  the  "  Opera  "  (Board 
 of  Works)  of  the  cathedral ;  Benci,  who  had  been  associated 
 with  Fioravanti  in  the  building  of  Or  Sa)i  Michele,  being 
 at  this  time  capo-maestro  (chief  architect)  to  the  "  Opera." 
 
254j  MEDTiEVAL    CURISTIANITT    AND 
 
 In  that  noLle  Loggia  we  see  an  early  example  of  tlie  re- 
 turn to  the  classical  type,  with  the  round  instead  of  the 
 acute  arch,  after  the  comparatively  long  prevalence  of  the 
 so-called  Grothic  in  central  Italy.  The  piazza,  of  which  that 
 portico  forms  the  glory  and  the  grace,  was  enlarged  to  its 
 present  dimensions,  as  requisite  for  the  full  assemblage  of 
 the  popular  comitia,  in  1356  ;  and  the  palace  of  the  Sig- 
 noria  (now  "  Palazzo  Yecchio  "),  was  first  isolated  as  we 
 see  it  by  order  of  the  Duke  of  Athens,  who  resided  there 
 after  he  had  been  appointed  perpetual  dictator,  and  there 
 suffered  the  last  humiliation  of  his  evil  career  in  that 
 abused  office. 
 
 I  may  glance  at  the  history  of  Art  in  Florence  duriug 
 the  second  half  of  the  XIV.  century. 
 
 Yasari  mentions  by  name,  but  without  giving  any  parti- 
 culars as  to  their  works  or  career,  fourteen  painters  who 
 flourished  at  Florence  in  this  century,  and  all  of  whom 
 held  certain  posts  in  the  municipal  government.  Lanzi 
 tells  us  that  he  had  ascertained  the  existence  of  about  a 
 hundred  Florentine  artists  belonging  to  this  period,  but  of 
 whom  he  could  obtain  no  other  information  than  names, 
 dates, professions  (whether  painters  or  sculptors), and  places 
 of  interment.  Among  painters,  those  still  to  be  appre- 
 ciated through  their  extant  works  were  worthy  of  the 
 school  of  Griotto,  though  new  ideas  and  a  new  class  of  sub- 
 jects appear  in  the  creations  of  the  age  immediately  follow- 
 ing after  that  master's  death.  Stefano,  a  grandson  of  Giotto 
 by  one  of  his  daughters  (1301-50),  is  said  to  have  far  sur- 
 passed bis  illustrious  ancestor ;  but  his  works  in  Florence, 
 E-ome  and  elsewhere,  have  all  perished  (v.  Lanzi),  except  a 
 Madonna  in  the  Campo  Santo  at  Pisa,  of  graud  style, 
 though  now  injured  by  retouching.  Tommaso,  known  as 
 Griottino  ( 1324-08  ?)  is  said  by  some  writers  to  have  been 
 .i}\e  grandson,  by  others,  tlic  groat-grandson  of  Giotto,  and 
 
SACRED    ART    IN'    ITALY.  255 
 
 son  of  tlic  above-named  Stefano.  Tlie  liigliosl  ]>raiso  is 
 bestoAved  on  liim  by  those  better  qualified  to  appreciate  him, 
 than  are  we  of  the  present  day,  when  but  few  of  his  un- 
 doubtedly authentic  works  remain  to  attest  his  genius, 
 which  was,  beyond  question,  great.  Rosini  designates  as 
 his  extant  master-piece  the  A^ision  of  the  Madonna  to  S. 
 Bernard,  now  in  the  Belle  Arti  Academy.  His  frescoes 
 illustrating  the  legend  of  Constantine  and  Pope  S.  Sylvester, 
 at  S.  Croce,  are  masterly  in  expression  and  dramatic  effect ; 
 and  in  the  Art-History  by  Crowe  and  Cavalcaselle  his  "  De- 
 position from  the  Cross,"  now  in  the  Uffizi,  is  eulogized  as 
 surpassing  all  paintings  of  the  same  period,  and  indeed  all 
 those  of  the  XI Y.  century.  Taddeo  Gaddi  (born  1300, 
 living  in  1352)  was  the  most  intimate,  the  favoured,  and 
 perhaps  most  admired  among  Giotto's  pupils.  The  frescoes 
 in  the  chapel  dcffU  Spagnuoli  at  S.  Maria  Xovella  are  no 
 longer  (as  formerly)  attributed  to  him ;  but  we  may  appre- 
 ciate him  from  those  at  S.  Croce,  where,  both  in  the  church 
 and  convent,*  remain,  well  preserved,  several  paintings  that 
 display  his  skill  and  imagination.  The  most  admired  pupils 
 of  Taddeo  were  Giovanni  di  Milano  (floiirishing  1365 — 
 other  dates  uncertain),  who  certainly  surpassed  his  master, 
 and  Jacopo  Landiui,  called  "  del  Casentino"  (ob.  1380), 
 who  painted  several  frescoes  at  Or  San  Michele,  among 
 others  the  majestic  Evangelists  on  the  blue  ground  of  the 
 vault,  lately  rescued  from  whitewash.!  When  Taddeo 
 Gaddi  was  on  his  deathbed,  he  recommended  to  those  two 
 distinguished  pupils  his  youthful  sons,  both  of  whom  had 
 studied  painting  under  their  father — Giovanni,  early  de- 
 ceased, and  Angiolo,  who  died  at  the  age  of  sixty-three, 
 13 9G.     The  latter  was  contented  to  imitate  the  manner  of 
 
 •  Vide  "  McdiiEval  Christianity,"  &c.  p.  585. 
 t  Vide  ?ame  volnnic,  ]).  551. 
 
256  MEDI^iEVAL    CHRISTIANITY   AND 
 
 Giotto  and  of  his  father,  and  did  not  promote  any  higher 
 development   of  the   Florentine  school,  though  he  main- 
 tained its  just  traditions.     He  spent  much  time  at  Venice, 
 and  is  said  to  have  been  influential  in  forming  the  style  of 
 an  artist  there  studying,  Stefano  da  Yerona,  as  well  as  that 
 of  his  fellow- citizen  at  Florence,  Cennino  Cennini,  much 
 praised  by  Yasari   for   his  colouring,  who  lived  till  1437. 
 Antonio  Yeneziano   (1310-84)  was,  according  to  Yasari,  a 
 native  of  Yenice,  but  according  to  others,  a  Florentine,  and 
 the  pupil   of  Angiolo  Graddi — his    surname   having  been 
 given  to   him  because  he    resided  long  at  Yenice,  being 
 there  engaged  in  the  Ducal  palace.     To  him  are  now  attri- 
 buted the  frescoes  (formerly  given  to  Taddeo  Gaddi)  on  the 
 vault  of  the   Spagnuoli  chapel   above   mentioned :  Christ 
 walking  the  waters  and  met  by  S.  Peter,  the  Resurrection, 
 the  Ascension,  and  the  Descent  of  the  Holy  Spirit ;  which, 
 if  not  beautiful,  are  interesting  and  characteristic  of  the 
 ideas  prevalent  in  the  art-schools  of  the  time.     Gherardo 
 Stamina  (or  Starna,  1354-1408  ?)  was  probably  a  pupil  of 
 Antonio  Yeneziano,  and  is  said  to   have  been  greatly  im- 
 proved, in  manners  and  temper,  if  not  in  art,  by  long  sojourn 
 in  Spain.     Lanzi  calls  him  "  a  master  of  the  gay  style," — 
 gay,  we  may  conclude,  in  the  sense  of  vivacity  or  brilliancy. 
 His  many  wall-paintings  extant,  as  those  lately  discovered 
 in  a  chapel  at  S.  Croce,  assert  for  him  a  prominent  place. 
 Highest  of  all  are  the  honours  due  to  the  name  of  Clone ; 
 and  among  members  of  that  family  who  left  enduring  repu- 
 tation, one  must  be  reverentially  classed  with  the  greatest 
 of  the  great,  wherever  Italian  art   is   known,  and   by  all 
 capable  of  appreciating  exalted  Genius.     Four  brothers  of 
 this  family  (not  that  of  the  architect  Benci,  who  bore  the 
 same   name,)  were  dedicated  to    different  artistic  walks : 
 Leonardo,  known  as  Nardo  (ob.  1365),  and  also  Jacopo,  to 
 painting ;  Matteo,  to  some  lower  walk  of  sculpture ;  and 
 
SACRED  ART  IN  ITALY.  257 
 
 Androa,  to  painting,  sculpture,  and  architecture  tocjetlier  ^ 
 in  all  of  wliioh  liis  success  was  resplendent.  Erom  his  addi- 
 tional name  of  Arcaguolo,  he  became  known  by  the  abridg- 
 ment Orcagua  (or  Orgagna.)  He  studied  under  Andrea 
 Pisano  ;  but  his  first  recorded  works  were  not  in  that  great 
 master's  art.  His  progress  in  painting  led  to  his  engage- 
 ment with  his  brother  for  adorning  the  tribune  of  S.  Maria 
 ^^ovella  with  frescoes  illustrating  the  life  of  the  Blessed 
 Virgin  ;  a  series  which  soon  perished  through  damp  pene- 
 trating the  broken  roof.  "When  Ghirlandajo  painted  similar 
 subjects,  the  history  of  Mary  and  S.  John  the  Baptist,  on 
 the  same  walls,  he  is  said  to  have  availed  himself  of  much  in 
 the  lost  compositions  by  Andrea  and  Nardo  di  Clone — "  ^l 
 servi  assai  (says  Vasari)  clelV  invenzioni  die  v'erano  dclV 
 Orgagna."  The  brothers  were  soon  afterwards  occupied  in 
 the  Strozzi  chapel  of  the  same  church,  where  they  painted 
 the  Last  Judgment,  Paradise,  and  Hell, — for  the  last  sub- 
 ject taking  suggestions  from  Dante,  of  whose  poem  we  are 
 told  that  Andrea  was  "  studiosissimo."  A  panel-picture  in 
 distemper,  over  the  altar  there,  has  an  inscription  with  the 
 name  "  Andreas  Cionis  de  Florentia,"  and  the  date  1357. 
 A^asari,  after  a  long  eulogistic  description  of  the  frescoes  in 
 the  Pisan  Campo  Santo,  which  he  attributes  to  Andrea,  but 
 which  the  best  critics  now  inelme  to  believe  were  painted 
 by  Pietro  Lorenzetti,  tells  us  that  the  son  of  Clone  painted 
 a  series  similar  in  subjects  and  equal  in  merit — the  Last 
 Judgment  and  the  Triumph  of  Death — at  S.  Croce.  Those 
 paintings  were  spoilt  by  retouching,  in  1530,  and  have  since 
 that  date  totally  perished.  After  Andrea  had  applied  him- 
 self to  architecture,  the  first  work  undoubtedly  attributable 
 to  him,  and  in  which  he  exercised  his  magnificent  powers 
 as  sculptor  and  architect  at  once,  is  the  celebrated  taber- 
 nacle at  Or  San  Jlichcle,  on  which  tlie  date  1359  is  read 
 after  his  name.     A'asari  mentions   his  talents,  or  at  least 
 
 s 
 
258  MEDIiEVAL   CnmSTIANITT   AND 
 
 taste,  for  poetry  also  :  that  "  lie  delighted  in  his  old  age  to 
 write  verses  and  other  poems"— which,  however,  time  has 
 not  spared.  He  did  not  live  till  the  date  given  by  that 
 biographer,  1389,  but  till  about  1368,  in  which  year  it  is 
 certain  that  he  was  prevented  by  his  last  illness  from  finish- 
 ing a  panel  picture  undertaken  for  the  Consuls  of  a  Gruild. 
 The  best  known  scholars  of  Orcagna  were  Bernardo  Nello 
 and  Griovanni  Palcone,  both  of  Pisa,  Tommaso  di  Marco,  a 
 Florentine,  and,  most  distinguished  for  powers  well  attested 
 by  his  known  works,  Francesco  Traini,  another  Pisan. 
 
 Entering  that  singular  church,  with  exterior  so  little  like 
 a  mediaeval  church,  though  indeed  beautiful  and  magnifi- 
 cent with  the  splendours  of  art —  Or  San  MicJiele  (a  name 
 abridged  from  "  orte,"  garden,  of  S.  Michael),  we  cannot  at 
 first  distinguish  in  the  dim  light  that  streams  through  the 
 tinted  glass  of  tracery-laden  windows,  the  exquisite  sculp- 
 tures or  delicately  ornate  architecture  of  the  marvellous 
 tabernacle  whose  dome  and  pinnacles  almost  touch  the 
 vaulted  roof — that  most  celebrated  work  of  Orcagna, 
 finished  in  1359,  and  serving  to  enshrine  a  much  revered 
 Madonna  picture  over  an  ever-illumined  altar.  The  artist 
 was  allowed  to  plan  and  execute  his  work  without  restric- 
 tion of  any  kind,  after  he  had  presented  several  designs  for 
 the  choice  finally  made  by  appointed  judges.  It  is  said 
 that  96,000  gold  florins  were  spent  on  this  tabernacle,  and 
 (as  seems  probable)  on  the  whole  undertaking  by  which  the 
 building  was  reduced  to  its  present  condition ;  that  amount 
 having  been  supplied  in  offerings  at  the  shrine  of  this  Ma- 
 donna, during  the  visitation  of  plague,  1348.*    Andrea 
 
 '  *  In  the  first  edition  of  Vasari's  Lives,  the  amount  spent  on  the  taber- 
 nacle is  stated  as  86,000,  gold  florins.  It  seems  probable  that  the 
 larger  sum,  96,000  florins  (equal  to  about  300,000  francs),  suflBced  for 
 the  costs  of  the  entire  undertaking,  by  which  the  market-place,  the 
 luggia  and  magazine,  which  was  built  over  the  arcades,  1284-1290,  were 
 
SACRED  ART  IX  ITALY.  259 
 
 engaged  his  brother  Xardo  to  assist  him  iu  the  relief 
 ?;ilptiires,*  and  also  several  artists  of  intaglio  for  the  ela- 
 Dorate  ornato  details.  After  the  several  pieces  had  been 
 finished,  the  whole  was  erected,  the  parts  being  fastened 
 together  with  metal  clamps  so  compactly  that  the  beautiful 
 work,  architecture  and  sculptures  combined,  appears  as  if 
 wrought  out  of  a  single  block  of  white  marble — fairest 
 amone:  offerinsrs  of  G-enius  to  record  the  tender  devotion,  the 
 faith  and  fervour  of  pious  feeling  directed  towards  the  Queen 
 of  Heaven  and  Mother  of  Mercies.  Ko  such  complete  illus-- 
 tration  of  the  historic  and  legendary  life  of  Mary  had  yet 
 been  produced  by  plastic  art.  On  octagonal  panels  are  repre- 
 sented, in  delicate  yet  vigorous  relief,  her  birth,  her  presenta- 
 tion as  a  child  to  the  high  priest,  who  receives  her  on  the  steps 
 of  the  Temple  ;  her  Espousals,  with  the  since  oft-repeated 
 episode  of  the  disappointed  suitors  breaking  their  wands, 
 
 converted  into  a  church.  This  ancient  building  was  destroyed  by  fire 
 in  1304.  The  new  one  was  commenced  in  1337,  all  the  magistrates  of 
 Florence  being  present  at  the  layiiig  of  the  first  stone.  Sundry  taxes 
 were  imposed  for  defraying  the  costs,  and  it  was  decreed  that  each  "  arte  " 
 should  have  its  assigned  pilaster,  and  cause  to  be  painted  thereon  the 
 effigy  of  its  patron  saint.  Taddeo  Gaddi  is  said  to  have  been  the  first 
 architect,  but  did  not  live  to  see  the  building  completed.  The  closing 
 of  tlic  arcades  was  not  projected  apparently  till  1348,  when  the  sodality 
 of  S.  Michele  had  become  enriched  by  pious  bequests  during  the  visitation 
 of  plague.  After  the  death  of  Gaddi,  the  architects  engaged  Avere  Benci 
 di  Cione  and  Neri  di  Fioravanti,  till  1372,  after  which  date  the  works 
 were  suspended  till  1378  ;  finally  resumed  under  the  architect  Simone 
 di  Talenti.  The  paintings  on  the  vault,  recently  discovered,  were  com- 
 menced in  1350  by  Jacopo  Landini,  by  whom  arc  also  many  of  the  jiic- 
 turcs  of  saints  on  the  interior  pilasters. 
 
 *  "  Attese  con  il  suo  fratello  a  condurre  tutte  le  figin-e  dell'  opera," 
 says  Vasari  ;  who  makes  repeatedly  the  mistake  of  describing  Nardo  di 
 Cione  as  a  sculptor.  As  the  latter  is  known  to  have  been  a  painter, 
 we  must  suppose  that  his  sole  assistance  was  limited  to  some  share  in 
 the  designs  for  the  relievi  sculptured  liy  his  brother. 
 
 s  2 
 
2G0  MEDIiEVAL   CIIRISTIAI^^ITT   AKD 
 
 while  that  of  Joseph  is  miraculously  blossoming  ;  the  An- 
 nunciation, the  Angel  kneeling  before  the  destined  Mother 
 of  the  incarnate  God ;  the  Nativity  ;  the  Adoration  of  the 
 Magi ;  and  the  announcement  of  her  proximate  death  made 
 to  the  bereaved,  but  ever  serene,  Mother,  by  an  Angel  who 
 bears  a  palm-branch,  which  (according  to  the  poetic  legend) 
 was  left  by  the  celestial  visitant,  to  be  laid  on  the  bier  of 
 Mary,  and  finally  carried  to  the  grave  whence  her  glorified 
 body  was  to  be  raised  together  mth  her  stainless  soul.  At 
 the  rear  of  the  tabernacle  are  the  most  complicated  and 
 largest  sculptures ;  the  transit  or  funeral,  and  the  heavenly 
 coronation  of  the  Virgin.  Around  the  bier  on  which  her 
 body  lies  in  the  touching  dignity  of  sanctified  death,  are 
 assembled  the  mourning  Apostles,  among  whom  appears 
 the  Saviour  Himself,  blessing  with  one  hand  that  lifeless 
 mould  of  the  unspotted  soul,  which,  in  form  of  a  new-born 
 infant,  He  clasps  at  the  same  time  to  His  Almighty 
 bosom.  Among  accessorial  figures  are  a  deacon  with  a 
 censer,  and  a  portrait  of  the  artist,  as  an  apostle,  "  old  as 
 lie  then  was,  with  shaven  beard,  a  hood  muffled  round  his 
 head,  and  with  visage  flat  and  full " — (v.  Yasari) ;  also  a 
 man,  evidently  a  portrait,  with  a  broad-brimmed  hat  or 
 helmet,  like  that  worn  in  Byzantine  costume.  Above  this 
 solemn  scene  is  the  Assumption  of  Mary,  who  rises  within 
 an  elliptical  nimbus,  borne  by  floating  angels,  while  she 
 lets  down  her  girdle  to  S.  Thomas,  represented  below, 
 kneeling,  with  well-expressed  eagerness,  to  receive  that 
 pledge  of  the  supernatural  and  invisible  event  he  had  cha- 
 racterisitically  doubted.  The  countenance  of  Mary,  far 
 from  expressing  exultation  or  rapture,  is  grave,  even  sad, 
 in  its  matronly  aspect.  Besides  these  we  see  other  smaller 
 reliefs,  on  hexagonal  panels,  of  Faith  with  the  chalice  and 
 paten,  Hope  extending  her  eager  arms  towards  a  crown  that 
 hangs  in  view,  and  Charity  giving  suck  to  an  infant,  and 
 
SACRED   AIIT    IX    ITALY.  261 
 
 hokliug  a  fliinic  iu  her  right  haud,  with  a  crown  on  lier 
 head.  On  smaller  hexagons  are  half-length  figures  of 
 other  personified  virtues,  Prudence,  Humility,  Chastity, 
 Docility  ;  also  several  Prophets ;  and  along  the  cornices, 
 statuettes  of  other  prophets  and  apostles,  each  with  a 
 scroll.  On  each  side  of  the  marble  framework,  within  which 
 the  holy  picture  is  kept  under  a  veil  only  removed  for  de- 
 votional regards,  are  relief  figures  of  Angels,  who  either 
 play  on  musical  instruments,  or  scatter  flowers  in  exulting 
 homage  to  the  "  Kegina  Angelorum  ;"  divinely  graceful 
 and  brightly  joyous  creatures,  like  a  living  sunshine  from 
 Paradise.  Below  the  large  composition  of  the  Transit  is 
 the  epigraph :  Andreas  Cionis  Fictor  Florentimis  Oraforli 
 Arcliimafjistcr  JExtitit  Hujiis^  mccclix. — corroborative  of 
 Vasari's  statement  that  this  great  artist  used  to  qualify 
 himself  as  a  painter  on  his  sculptui'ed,  as  a  sculptor  on  his 
 pictorial  works.  ^ 
 
 In  a  poem  by  Sacchetti,  "  On  the  Tabernacle  of  Or  Sau 
 Michele,"  the  work  of  Andrea  is  thus  eulogized  after  an 
 invocation  to  the  Virgin : — 
 
 Ajutami  ancor  per  quell'  ostacolo 
 
 Cli'  io  ho  fatto  son  tredice  aimi  al  tabernacoloj 
 
 Che  passa  di  bellezza,  s'io  ben  rccolo, 
 
 Tutti  gli  altri  che  son  dentro  del  secolo. 
 
 Con  grandissimafede  ogni  tua  storia 
 
 S'e'  fatta  la'  per  dimostrar  la  gloria, 
 
 Li  miracoli  tuoi,  Sac* 
 
 *  According  to  admitted  dates  in  the  legend  here  so  nobly  illustrated, 
 the  Blessed  Virgin  was  consigned  to  the  care  of  the  High  Priest,  to  be 
 educated  in  the  Temple  (thus  converted  by  imagination  into  a  convent,  or 
 at  least  supplied  with  such  an  adjunct)  at  the  age  of  three;  she  there 
 passed  eleven  years,  and  was  espoused  to  Joseph  at  the  age  of 
 fourteen  ;  she  received  the  announcement  from  the  angel  four  months 
 sul)sequeutly ;  and  gave  birth  to  Christ  at  the  age  of  fifteen.  Benedict 
 XI n.  condudes  that  she  died  in  her  sevenly-second  year  ;  but  as  to  the 
 duration  of  her  life,  theologians  have  widely  diUercd.J 
 
262  MEDIAEVAL    CIIEISTIA?>^ITY    AIS'D 
 
 The  Madonna  picture  enshrined  in  this  tabernacle  has 
 been  the  subject,  and  is  indeed  worthy,  of  much  critical  in- 
 vestigation— see  a  learned  article  by  Signor  Milanesi  in  the 
 Nuova  Antologia,  September  1870.      The  primitive  picture 
 on  a  pilaster  of  the  market-place,  which  the  popular  notion 
 assumed  to  be  miraculous,  though  Dominican  and  Francis- 
 can friars  are  said  to  have  agreed  to  the  contrary,  must  have 
 perished,  together  with   the  loggia,  in  llio  fire  kindled  by 
 the  ferocious  Neri  degli  Abati,  prior  of  S.  Piero  IScheraggio, 
 which,  beginning  at  a  house  near  this  spot,  destroyed  1700 
 palaces,  towers   and   houses,  1304).     The  second  Madonna, 
 which  replaced  the  lost  one,  when  the  loggia  was  restored 
 in  1308,  is  supposed  to  have  been  painted  by  Ugolino  da 
 tSieua,  and  is  represented  in  a  miniature  on  a  code  contain- 
 ing the  register  of  prices  at  the  corn -market,  now  in  the 
 Laurentian  library.     The  third,  which  that  miniature  does 
 not  resemble,  is  the  actual  picture,  by  Bernardo  Daddi,  an 
 artist  long  almost  forgotten,  and  only  two  other  works  by 
 whom  can  be  identified  in  Florence — one  in  the  Ognissanti 
 convent,  another  (a  Virgin  and  Child  with  Saints,  his  name, 
 and  the  date  1332)  at  the  Accademia.     In  few  art-works  of 
 the  XIV.  century  do  we  see  an  ideal  of  the  blessed  Mother's 
 form  so  distinguished  by  serious  sweetness  and  gentle,  yet 
 matronly  loveliness  as  in  this  picture,  which  is  uncovered 
 every  Saturday  evening  for  devotions  in  her  honour.     The 
 scale   is  colossal.      The  features  of  Mary  have  a  mature 
 character,  combined  with  delicate  regularity  ;  the  costume 
 of  both  Mother  and  Child  is  simj)le,  but  the  effect  somewhat 
 spoiled  by  gilt  halos  and  ex-voto  offerings.   The  Child  is  not 
 seated,  but  supported  in  the  Mother's  arms,  and  holds  a 
 bulfinch  in  His  hand.    At  each  side  are  four  adoring  angels  ; 
 their  beautifully  earnest  and  youthful  faces  seen  in  profile  ; 
 the  two  in  front  with  diadems  in  their  fair  hair. 
 
 Aguolo  Graddi  became  the  head  of  a  school  of  painting. 
 
SACRED    ART    IN    ITALY.  2G3 
 
 wliicli  was  surpassed  by  the  Clone  family  and  their  pupils. 
 The  most  remarkable  work  by  Agnolo  at  Florence  is  the 
 fresco  series  in  the  choir  of  S.  Croce,  illustrating  the  legend 
 of  the  True  Cross.  And  the  choice  of  such  a  subject  re- 
 minds us  that  we  have  now  to  consider  a  new  phase  in  the 
 productiveness  of  art.  Previously  the  biblical  and  evan- 
 gelical sufficed  for  the  entire  range  of  artistic  creation  ; 
 next  appeared  the  hagiographic  class,  the  lives  of  saints  or 
 legends  founded  on  known  facts ;  finally,  the  more  imagi- 
 native class,  sometimes  in  defiance  of  history,  and  not  even 
 connected,  or  only  incidentally  linked,  with  the  careers  of 
 persons  known  to  have  existed — as  exemplified  in  this  pic- 
 torial poem  on  the  True  Cross,  where  the  story  of  that  relic 
 is  linked  with  a  chain  of  romantic  incident  beyond  the 
 grasp  of  historic  inquiry  ;  also  in  another  theme  illustrated 
 by  the  same  painter,  the  "  Sacra  Cintura,"  or  girdle  of  the 
 Blessed  Virgin. 
 
 The  legend  of  the  Cross  is  as  follows — the  chief  source, 
 from  which  I  only  attempt  to  draw  the  briefest  abstract, 
 being  the  "  Legenda  Aurea  "  of  Jacopo  de  Yoragine  : — 
 Adam,  one  day,  weary  of  his  labour  in  the  fields,  bade  his 
 son  Seth  go  to  the  garden  of  Eden,  the  path  to  which  he 
 might  find  by  the  footsteps,  where  grass  had  never  grown, 
 left  by  his  unhappy  parents  when  they  journeyed  as  exiles 
 from  that  blissful  home  ;  and  there,  as  his  father  enjoined 
 on  him,  to  beg  of  the  Angel  who  guarded  the  tree  of  life  to 
 grant  some  of  the  oil  of  mercy  promised  by  God  when  He 
 thrust  out  the  guilty  pair  from  Paradise.  Seth  did  as  he 
 was  desired,  and  found  the  pathway  ;  but  the  Angel  an- 
 swered that  the  healing  oil  could  only  be  granted  after 
 5500  years  had  passed  since  the  expulsion.  Instead  there- 
 of, however,  he  gave  Seth  three  seeds,  believed  to  be  those 
 of  the  tree  whose  fruit  Adam  and  Eve  had  disobedicully 
 eaten,  and  bade  him  place  them  under  the  tongue  of  his 
 
2G^  MEDIJ2VAL    CIIllISTlANITr    AND 
 
 lather  after  liis  death,  which  should  happen  on  the  third 
 day  subsequent  to  his  son's  return.  ISo  did  it  come  to 
 pass  ;  Adam  died  that  day,  and  was  buried  in  the  valley  of 
 Hebron,  with  the  three  seeds  under  his  tongue.  Out  of 
 his  tomb  presently  sprung  three  saplings,  which  soon  united 
 into  one  goodly  tree — symbolical  of  the  Three  Persons  in 
 One  God.  This  tree  was  found  by  Moses ;  it  was  this 
 which  turned  the  bitter  waters  of  Marah  sweet ;  and  it  was 
 with  a  wand  from  this  that  Moses  struck  the  rock  for  the 
 second  time.  The  tree  was  again  found  by  David,  who 
 brought  it  to  Jerusalem,  planted  it  in  his  garden,  and  built 
 a  wall  around  it.  There  it  flourished,  till  ISolomon  ordered 
 it  to  be  cut  down  for  making  one  of  the  beams  of  the 
 Temple ;  but  the  workmen,  in  spite  of  all  efforts,  could  not 
 make  it  fit  into  its  destined  place,  and  it  was  therefore 
 thrown  aside,  and  thenceforth  left  long  neglected.  A  woman, 
 Sibylla  by  name  (the  Hebrew  Church  ?),  chanced  to  sit  upon 
 it ;  suddenly  her  clothes  took  fire,  and  she  rose  up,  and 
 23rophesied  that  that  tree  would  prove  fatal  to  the  Jewish 
 nation.  Those  who  heard  her  threw  the  tree  into  a  stream ; 
 but  the  wood  rose  to  the  surface  and  formed  a  natural 
 bridge.  The  Queen  of  Sheba,  when  she  came  to  visit 
 Solomon,  was  about  to  cross  this  bridge,  when  a  vision  of 
 its  future  destination  appeared  to  her,  and,  thus  enlightened, 
 she  told  Solomon  that  on  that  wood  One  should  hang,  the 
 destined  Saviour  of  Adam  and  all  his  posterity.  And  the  wise 
 king  took  the  tree  (or  rather  beam),  covered  it  with  gold 
 and  silver,  and  placed  it  over  the  gate  of  the  Temple,  where 
 it  remained  till  the  wicked  king  Abijah,  son  of  Eehoboam, 
 stript  off  the  precious  metals,  and,  to  conceal  his  thefts, 
 ordered  the  beam  to  be  buried  in  earth.  Many  years  after- 
 wards, all  these  events  being  forgotten,  a  well  was  dug  over 
 the  spot  where  that  object  lay,  and  the  waters  were  found  to 
 have  healing  virtues :  it  wiia  the  pool  of  Bethesda  which 
 
SACIIED    AIIT    IN    ITALY.  2().J 
 
 liad  tills  mysterious  origin.  When  the  time  came  lor  the 
 Lord  of  Life  to  sutler  death,  the  wood  arose  to  the  surface 
 of  that  pool,  aud  the  Jews,  seeing  that  it  was  fit  for  their 
 purpose,  took  it  and  fashioned  from  it  the  cross.  In  the 
 time  of  Constantine,  that  Emperor's  mother  made  a  pil- 
 grimage to  Jerusalem,  expressly  for  obtaining  the  True 
 Cross  and  other  relics  of  the  Passion.  A  council  of  wise 
 Jews,  whom  she  assembled  in  her  palace  for  obtaining  the 
 intelligence  she  sought,  endeavoured  to  thwart  her;  but 
 she  found  the  three  crosses  at  last,  and  also  the  nails,  under 
 the  temple  built  by  Hadrian  to  Venus,  in  mockery  of  the 
 Christians,  on  Mount  Calvary.  Judas,  the  son  of  a  pro- 
 phet, whom  the  wise  men  had  designated  as  able  to  inform 
 the  Empress,  at  first  refused,  but  at  last  led  her  to  this  site, 
 after  he  had  for  six  days  been  left  in  a  dry  well  to  suffer 
 starvation  by  Helena's  order.  The  three  crosses  were  all 
 al'ke  ;  that  of  Christ  was  discovered  when,  as  suggested  by 
 the  Bishop  Macarius  of  Jerusalem,  the  body  of  a  man,  whose 
 funeral  procession  chanced  to  pass,  was  laid  on  all  succes- 
 sively, and  became  reanimated  so  soon  as  it  touched  the 
 holy  tree.  Helena  divided  the  relic  into  halves  ;  one  half 
 she  left  at  Jerusalem  ;  the  other  she  brought  to  Constanti- 
 nople for  her  imperial  son,  who  subdivided  it,  placed  part 
 in  the  hand  of  a  statue  of  himself,  and  sent  the  rest  to 
 Rome,  where  a  church,  >S'.  Croce  in  Girusalemine,  was 
 built  expressly  for  depositing  it  In  the  year  G14  Chosroes, 
 King  of  Persia,  invaded  Palestine,  conquered  all  its  pro- 
 vinces, and  carried  away  that  precious  relic  from  Jerusalem. 
 The  Emperor  Heraclius  vindicated  the  honour  of  the  Chris- 
 tian cause,  reconquered  Palestine,  and  invaded  Persia,  soon 
 after  which  Chosroes  w^as  deposed  and  put  to  death  by  his 
 own  son ;  but  the  legend  m.akes  him  die  by  the  hand  of 
 Heraclius,  after  the  two  monarchs  had  fought  in  single  com- 
 bat ;  and  because  the  defeated  Perr:ian  refused  to  be  bap 
 
266  MEDIiEVAL    CHRISTIANITY    AND 
 
 tized,  the  Greek  cut  off  his  head.  Heraclius  brought  back 
 the  cross  to  Jerusalem  ;  he  approached  in  royal  state,  on 
 horseback,  amidst  attendants,  but  found  the  entrance  barred 
 to  him,  the  gates  preternaturally  built  up.  In  his  dilemma 
 an  angel  appeared,  and  reminded  him  that  not  thus  had  the 
 King  of  Heaven  entered  the  gates  of  that  city.  Then  the 
 Emperor  shed  tears,  took  off  his  crown,  bared  his  feet,  and 
 laid  aside  all  his  robes,  even  to  his  shirt.  The  passage  now- 
 opened  before  him ;  and  thus  did  he  restore  that  holiest 
 relic,  placing  it  over  an  altar.  Gaddi's  frescoes  on  this  sub- 
 ject have  been  sadly  damaged,  and  are  in  many  parts 
 almost  invisible.  The  scene  of  the  Emperor's  progress  with 
 the  recovered  cross  to  Jerusalem,  and  that  where  the 
 patients  are  gathered  round  the  pool  of  Bethesda,  may  be 
 signalized  among  the  series.* 
 
 Another  of  those  art- works  which  may  be  called  monu- 
 mental, and  which  indicate  moral  phases  in  the  history  of 
 mind,  is  the  series  of  frescoes  by  the  Cione  brothers  ;  the 
 Last  Judgment,  Paradise  and  Hell,  in  the  Strozzi  chapel  at 
 S.  Maria  Novella.  The  ideal  of  the  Eedeemer's  aspect,  here 
 before  us,  is  noble  and  beautiful ;  the  arrangement  of 
 groups,  those,  namely,  of  the  blessed,  is  hierarchic ;  the  tor- 
 tures of  the  lost  are  purely  physical ;  and  these  hideous 
 details,  as  well  as  the  triple-headed  monster,  devouring  a 
 victim  with  each  of  his  leonine  mouths — the  Satan  in  the 
 centre  of  his  infernal  realm, — display  the  manifest  influences 
 of  Dante.  The  last  exaggeration  of  the  worship  of  Mary 
 is  manifested  in  the  honours  assigned  to  her  in  the  "  Para- 
 diso,"  where  she  is  seated  beside  the  Saviour  as,  to  all 
 appearance.  His  equal,  alike  exalted  above  the  choirs  of 
 Angels,    Prophets,  Apostles ;   but  in   the   Judgment,  her 
 
 •  As  particularized  by  Mrs.  Jameson,  who  gives  an  interesting  ab- 
 stract of  this  legend.  Sec  also  the  work  commenced  by  her,  and  com- 
 pleted by  Lady  Eastlake,  "  History  of  our  Lord  in  Art." 
 
SACRED    ART    IX    ITALY.  2G7 
 
 place  is  more  appropriately  chosen,  far  below  the  Almighty 
 and  ISon,  and  kneeling  in  the  act  of  intercession  for  sinful 
 humanity.  The  angels  are  most  graceful,  and  even  the 
 sorrow  of  the  women,  among  the  lost  ones,  preserves  calm- 
 ness. Later  art  prefers  nudity  for  the  persons  of  those 
 rising  to  judgment  on  the  last  day  ;  but  here  we  see  earthly 
 distinctions  indicated  in  the  costumes  and  insignia  of  the 
 reanimated  dead — externals  that  serve  to  imply  a  certain 
 proportion  between  their  reward  or  punishment,  and  the 
 discharge  or  neglect  of  the  duties  and  responsibilities 
 proper  to  their  several  stations  in  life.  The  altar-piece  in 
 this  chapel  by  Andrea  di  Clone  (1357)  is  a  fine  example  of 
 his  manner  :  Clirist,  enthroned  among  saints,  is  giving  the 
 keys  to  S.  Peter,  and  a  book  to  S.  Dominick.  On  the  pre- 
 della  is  the  legend  of  the  contest  between  S.  Michael  and 
 the  Demons  for  the  soul  of  the  Emperor  Henry  II.,  whose 
 deeds  are  weighed  in  a  pair  of  scales  by  the  Archangel,  and 
 who  is  at  last  saved  by  the  interposition  of  S.  Laurence,  to 
 whose  churches  he  had  been  liberal.*  Among  accessorial 
 w\ill -paintings  here,  the  Saints  and  Doctors,  especially  the 
 S.  Dominick,  on  pilasters,  are  finely  individualized.  An- 
 other note-worthy  picture  by  Orcagna  is  the  S.  Zanobi 
 blessing,  with  SS.  Eugenius  and  Crescentius,  and  two 
 miracles  of  the  sainted  bishop  on  the  predella,  now  hung 
 against  a  pilaster  in  the  cathedral. 
 
 S.  Croce  is  a  veritable  sacred  museum  both  of  earlier  and 
 later  Catholic  art.  The  most  valuable  ancient  frescoes  in 
 the  lateral  chapels  are  of  dates  anterior  to  the  period  here 
 
 *  A  more  complete  illustration  of  this  curious  legend —the  moral  of 
 which  sets  forth  the  extremely  easy  conditions  of  eternal  salvation 
 ollered  to  devout  royalty — is  seen  in  the  quaint  wall-paintings  of  the 
 XIII.  century,  all  retouched  a  few  years  ago,  in  the  atrium  of  thcKonian 
 basilica,  S.  Lorenzo  beyond  the  walls  ;  dc^^tribcd  in  the  volume  to  which 
 the  prcicnt  is  a  sequel,  p.  429. 
 
268  MEDT-15VAL    CURISTIA^'ITY    AND 
 
 considered.  We  may  enter  the  Einucciui  chapel  from  the 
 great  sacristy  (itself  like  an  art-adorned  and  stately  church), 
 to  observe  the  complicated  composition  formerly  attributed 
 to  Taddeo  Graddi,  but  now  to  Griovanni  di  Milano,  illustrat- 
 ing the  lives  and  legends  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  and  Mary 
 Magdalen.  Many  of  these  frescoes  are  admirable,  dramatic, 
 truthful ;  and  I  might  particularize  the  meeting  between 
 the  Virgin's  parents  before  her  birth,  the  Eaising  of  Laza- 
 rus (though  somewhat  fantastic) ,  and  the  scene  on  the  deso- 
 late island,  where  the  pious  Prince  of  Marseilles,  converted 
 by  Mary  Magdalen  and  Martha,  finds  the  wife  whom  he 
 mourned  as  dead,  and  the  infant  he  had  left  with  her  in 
 despair,  still  living,  on  his  voyage  back  from  Palestine — the 
 pilgrimage  on  which  the  Prince's  wife  had  born  her  child, 
 and  died,  or  seemed  to  die  at  sea,  though  both  were  destined 
 to  survive,  for  the  husband  and  father's  consolation,  through 
 the  powerful  intercession  of  the  sister  Saints.*  Not  long 
 ago  were  rescued  from  whitewash  the  frescoes  attributed  to 
 Stamina  in  the  chapel  of  the  Holy  Sacrament,  also  at 
 S.  Croce, — lamentably  damaged  ;  the  few  that  can  still  be 
 discerned  (at  least  in  the  state  in  which  I  saw  them)  being 
 the  four  Evangelists  and  four  Doctors  on  the  vault,  and  on 
 
 *  The  legend  of  Magdalen,  Martha,  and  Lazarus,  describes  their 
 voyage  to  Marseilles  in  a  bark  guided  by  invisible  hands,  and  into  which 
 the  persecuting  Jews  had  put  them,  intending  their  destruction;  their 
 preaching  and  the  conversions  they  wrought  at  Marseilles;  the  pilgrim- 
 age of  the  Prince  who,  after  embracing  the  faith,  desired  to  know  S. 
 Peter,  and  to  visit  the  holy  places  in  Jerusalem;  the  rescue  of  his  wife,  and 
 of  the  child  abandoned  by  liim,with  its  dead  mother,  on  the  island,  because 
 deprived  of  sustenance  by  that  mother's  death  at  sea  ;  the  final  conver- 
 sion of  the  entire  province  of  Marseilles,  and  the  retirement  of  Mary  to 
 a  desert  where  she  passed  thirty  years  in  austerities  and  extasies,  daily 
 visited  by  angels,  and  daily  raised  by  them  from  earth  so  far  heavenward 
 as  to  hear  the  songs  of  the  blessed  in  Paradise,  (v.  II  Lihro  di  Lazero,  e 
 Martha  e  Magdalcna,  XV.  century.) 
 
SACRED  ART  IN  ITALY.  209 
 
 t)ie  walls  the  Baptism  of  Christ,  the  vision  of  the  woman 
 and  child  saved  from  the  dragon  in  the  Apocalypse  :  and, 
 from  the  legend  of  S.  Xicholas,  the  resnscitation  of  the  three 
 children  who  had  been  killed  and  pickled,  to  be  served  np 
 as  food,  by  the  wicked  host  of  an  inn  where  the  holy 
 bishop  arrived  in  time  to  save  them.  The  talent  of  Gerini 
 (an  able  artist  of  this  period)  may  be  estimated  from  two 
 wall  paintings  of  the  Crucifixion  in  the  sacristies  of  S.  Croce 
 and  the  Ognissanti  church  ;  that  in  the  latter  place,  where 
 two  monks  stand  beside  the  cross,  together  with  Mary  and 
 S.  John,  and  Angels  are  collecting  the  blood  iii  chalices, 
 the  Divine  Victim  being  apparently  dead,  a  powerful  and 
 pathetic  presentment  of  the  subject.  From  the  sacristy  of 
 the  Carmine  church  we  enter  a  chapel  surrounded  by  fres- 
 coes long  hidden  under  whitewash,  representing  the  legend 
 of  S.  Cecilia  in  several  scenes,  and  attributed  to  Spinello 
 Spinelli  of  Arezzo  (1308-liOO),  by  no  means  among  his 
 best  works,  if  indeed  by  his  hand ;  and  far  surpassed  by 
 other  wall  paintings,  undoubtedly  of  this  master:  the  life 
 and  legend  of  S.  Benedict  in  the  sacristy  of  S.  Miniato— a 
 series  curiously  illustrative  of  media}val  ideas  as  well  as  of 
 the  idealized  biography  of  that  great  Saint.  The  notion  of 
 the  continual  intervention  of  fiends,  to  thwart  or  counteract 
 the  purposes  and  influences  of  holy  men,  is,  we  may  say, 
 the  key-note  to  the  whole  conception  of  the  theme  here 
 undertaken. 
 
 The  genius  of  sculpture  at  this  period,  in  the  Tuscan 
 School,  is  indeed  luminously  asserted  by  Andrea  di  Cioue  ; 
 but  besides  his  above-mentioned  works,  there  are  compara- 
 tively few  at  Florence,  of  date  between  1350  and  1400,  that 
 can  vie  with  the  magnificent  performances  of  this  school 
 earlier  in  the  same  century.  Exception  must  be  made  in 
 favour  of  the  group  of  tlie  Virgin  and  Child,  with  two 
 angels,  finished  in  13G1  by  Alberto  di  Arnoldo,  one  of  the 
 
270  MEDT^YAL    CnETSTIAXITT    AT^D 
 
 architects  of  the  Duomo.  This  is  now  visible  from  tlie  street, 
 over  the  altar  of  the  Gothic  chapel  in  the  Bigallo  hospi- 
 tal ;  a  majestic  ideal  of  Mary,  who  is  not  only  regal,  but 
 almost  severe  in  the  dignity  here  distinguishing  her. 
 Another  sculpture  of  superior  merit  is  the  series  of  relievi 
 round  the  hexagonal  font  in  the  baptistery,  representing 
 six  administrations  of  the  sacrament,  attributed  to  Andrea 
 Pisano,  but  which  must  be  by  a  later  artist,  if  the  date  here 
 inscribed,  1370,  refer  to  the  sculptures,  and  not  to  the  time 
 when  this  beautiful  font  was  presented  by  the  Consols  of 
 one  of  the  "Arti."*  Grandeur  and  suitable  expression 
 distinguish  the  colossal  relievi  of  six  personified  Virtues,  all 
 seated,  on  the  attic  of  the  Loggia,  still  called  (though 
 erroneously)  after  Orcagna :  they  are  supplied  with  large 
 solemn  wings ;  Fortitude  holds  a  club  and  shield ;  Hope 
 has  her  arms  raised  towards  a  crown  ;  Paith  holds  the 
 cross  and  chalice  ;  Charity  (as  on  Orcagna' s  tabernacle) 
 holds  a  flame  whilst  she  gives  suck  to  an  infant ;  the  others 
 have  their  usual  emblems.  The  designs  for  all  these  figures 
 were  made  by  Angiolo  Gaddi  in  1382.  The  Faith,  Hope, 
 and  Charity,  were  executed  by  Jacopo  di  Piero ;  the  For- 
 titude and  Temperance  by  Giovanni  Fetti ;  the  Justice  is 
 the  work  of  Giovanni  d'Ambrogio.  In  the  cathedral  is  a 
 statue,  sculptured  about  1384,  by  Niccolo  Lamberti,  known 
 as  Niccolo  di  Piero,  of  Arezzo,  who  lived  till  rather  late  in 
 the  next  century — the  S.  Mark,  namely,  one  of  the  four 
 Evangelists  originally  placed  near  the  chief  entrance  on 
 the  facade,  but  now  in  four  chapels  lateral  to  the  ti-ibune, 
 so  dimly  lighted  that  none  of  these  statues  can  be  seen  in  a 
 manner  satisfactory.    By  the  same  Aretine  artist  is  a  group 
 
 *  Explained  by  the  epigraphs  below  the  several  subjects  :  Sacerdos 
 haptizat  pueros ;  Christus  haijtizat  Apostolos ;  Christus  baptizat  Jo- 
 hannem  ;  Johannes  haptizat  Christum ;  Johannes  haptizat  po^ouhmx ; 
 Sylvester  haptizat  Constantinum. 
 
SACRET)    ATIT    IX    ITALY.  271 
 
 of  statuette  size,  the  Annunciation,  over  the  pinnacle  of 
 one  of  the  canopies,  now  occupied  by  noble  sculptures, 
 exterior  to  Or  San  Micbele.  It  is  difficult  to  coincide 
 with  Vasari  in  his  exalted  praises  of  this  work  by  K'iccolo 
 Lamberti. 
 
 In  the  Carmine  church  we  are  reminded  of  one  of  those 
 holy  men  who  vindicate  the  honour  of  Italian  Catholicism, 
 and  who  cannot  be  forgotten  in  the  ecclesiastical  history  of 
 this  period  at  Florence.  A  splendid  chapel  in  that  church 
 is  adorned  with  reliefs  by  Foggini,  admirable  for  spirited 
 design  and  finish,  though  with  the  usual  faults  of  the  seven- 
 teenth century  school,  the  subjects  taken  from  the  life  of  a 
 sainted  Bishop  :  his  first  mass,  his  ascent  to  heaven,  his 
 appearance,  hovering  above  the  battle-field,  to  secure  victory 
 to  the  Florentines  in  war  with  the  Milanese.  Andrea  Cor- 
 sini  (1302-1373)  of  patrician  birth,  entered  the  Carmelite 
 order  in  early  life,  completed  his  studies  at  Avignon,  and 
 was  elected  Bishop  of  Fiesole,  1360.  In  that  office  he  set 
 an  example  of  self-devoting  zeal  and  ascetic  piety.  His 
 impressive  eloquence  as  a  preacher,  obtained  for  him  the 
 title  of  "the  second  Apostle  of  his  native  place."  Sent  as 
 Legate  to  Bologna  by  Urban  Y.,  at  a  time  when  that  city 
 was  agitated  by  a  faction  in  the  interest  of  the  Yisconti, 
 he  was  persecuted,  insulted,  imprisoned,  but  at  last  suc- 
 ceeded in  reconciling  antagonists,  and  inducing  them  to 
 make  peace,  after  he  had  assembled  them  in  a  church.* 
 Long  after  his  death,  the  magistrates  had  recourse  to  his 
 prayers  when  the  state  was  invaded  (1440)  by  Nicolo  Pic- 
 cinino  at  the  head  of  the  troops  of  Filippo  Maria  Yisconti. 
 It  was  said,  while  the  panic  or  excitement  of  war  was  at  its 
 height  in  Florence,  that  a  noble  youth  of  this  city  twice 
 saw  the  holy  Bishop  issue  from  his  tomb  in  the  Carmine, 
 
 •  Prczzolini,  "  Storia  Religiosa  del  Popolo  Fiorentino." 
 
272  MEBT.ETAL   CnRT«TTl^'ITY    A^D 
 
 and  glide  into  the  nave  to  pray  before  a  eiaicifix  liung  to  a 
 jnlai^ter;  that  on  the  second  occasion  the  phantom  had  spoken 
 to  the  awe-struck  youth,  enjoining  on  him  to  assure  the 
 local  authorities  that  the  Grod  of  Hosts,  who  had  delivered 
 Israel  from  Pharaoh,  would  not  fail  at  this  emergency  to 
 protect  a  people  faithful  to  Him  as  were  the  truly  Catholic 
 Florentines  (who^  we  must  remember,  were  then  of  the 
 Guelfic  party,  and  in  strict  alliance  with  the  Pope),  and 
 would  cause  the  invader  to  be  discomfited ;  that  they  (the 
 riorentines)  should  join  battle  on  S.  Peter's  day  following, 
 certain  of  victory  through  the  intercession  of  celestial 
 patrons.  The  battle  of  Anghiari  was  fought  on  the  29th 
 June,  144*0,  and  the  Milanese  under  Piccinino  were  totally 
 routed  by  the  Tuscan  forces  commanded  by  Michelotto 
 Attendolo.  Solemn  thanksgivings  were  offered  in  the  Car- 
 mine, Pope  Eugenius  IV.  (then  resident  in  Morence)  and 
 all  the  magistrates  attending  ;  and  during  these  ceremonies 
 the  body  of  Andrea  Corsini — not  yet  canonized — lay  ex- 
 posed on  a  rich  catafalque  in  the  nave.* 
 
 In  the  immediate  environs  of  the  late  Italian  capital,  we 
 find  much  that  tells  of  the  genius  of  the  XIV.  century.  A 
 few  miles  from  the  gates,  on  the  northern  side,  stands  the 
 picturesque  Certosa,  which,  on  the  isolated  height  of  Mon- 
 taguto,  amidst  the  fertile  valley  watered  by  the  Emo,  looks 
 like  a  neat  village  clustering  around  its  mother  church,  and 
 sheltered  by  the  lofty  walls  of  a  Grothic  palace.  It  was 
 founded,  1341,  by  Niceolo  Acciajusli,  a  Elorentine  patrician, 
 who  obtained  high  office  in  the  Neapolitan  kingdom,  and  was 
 Seneschal  to  Queen  Joanna.  The  architecture  of  this  build- 
 ing is  generally  attributed  to  Orcagna,  though  A-^asari  de- 
 scribes it  as  designed  by  different  masters,  the  contempo- 
 
 *  Richa,  "  Chicse  FioTentine.''  It  was  in  1G29  that  Bishop  Corsini. 
 was  canonized  bv  Urban  Ylll. 
 
S.VORED    ART    IX    ITALY.  273 
 
 Ulrica  of  Andrea  Cione.  No  architect  is  namotl  in  llic  letters 
 of  the  Seuesehal  to  his  brother  Jacopo,  referring  to  this  foun- 
 dation (v.  Gayet,  "  Carteggio  inedito,"  &c.)  Kicci  observes 
 ("  Storia  deir  Architettura  ")  that  the  building  has  "  passed 
 through  so  many  and  such  different  phases  since  the  period 
 of  its  construction,  that  it  is  impossible  to  distinguish  in  it 
 any  clear  traces  of  its  ancient  character."  The  Seneschal 
 founded  also  on  these  premises  a  college  where  fifty  stu- 
 dents were  to  be  maintained,  and  to  be  instructed  in  Theo- 
 logy, Philosophy,  Canon  Law,  by  three  professors  of  the 
 monastic  Order  ;  but,  whatever  the  obstacles,  this  excel- 
 lent institution,  though  endowed  and  supplied  with  a  library, 
 was  never  brought  into  activity,  and  the  buildings  remain 
 an  unfinished  pile  of  semi-Grothic  architecture,  majestic  in 
 premature  decay,  though  long  appropriated  to  vulgar  uses. 
 Two  chapels  arose,  adjoining  and  opening  on  the  original 
 buildings,  in  1388  and  1391 ;  and  in  1394  the  whole  edifice 
 was  consecrated,  under  dedication  to  S.  Laurence,  by  the 
 Florentine  bishop.  Soon  afterwards  another  chapel,  in 
 form  of  a  Greek  cross,  and  like  a  distinct  church,  was 
 founded  by  Cardinal  Acciajuoli,  Yice-Chancellor  of  Rome, 
 and  for  a  time  Eegent  of  Xaples  during  the  minority  of 
 Ladislaus.  No  fewer  than  112  artists  were  engaged  on 
 these  premises  during  five  successive  centuries ;  but  the 
 sanctuary,  once  so  richly  endowed  with  wealth,  artistic  and 
 other,  has  been  several  times  despoiled.  In  1799,  silver 
 ornaments,  images,  &c.  of  the  weight  of  580lbs.  wei-e  re- 
 moved from  the  Chapel  of  Kelics  to  be  melted  down  in  the 
 Florentine  mint ;  and  in  180S,  as  many  as  508  pictures, 
 besides  other  art-works,  were  carried  away  from  this  for- 
 lorn Certosa.  At  the  time  of  the  suppression  tuider  French 
 sway,  this  establishment  possessed  eighty-three  farms  and 
 estates,  valued  by  the  commissioners  sent  Uy  investigate  at 
 4^000,000  francs.     The  bounteous  stream  of  monastic  clia^ 
 
274  MEDIAEVAL   CHRISTIANITY   AND 
 
 rities  was  commensurate  to  those  ample  means.  The  poor 
 were  daily  relieved  at  these  gates  ;  and  every  year  a  hun- 
 dred of  those  in  need  were  clothed  out  of  a  fund  at  the 
 disposal  of  the  monks.  When  the  recent  law  against 
 monasteries  was  enforced,  these  monks  held  not  more  than 
 five  farms,  besides  the  grounds  amidst  which  their  build- 
 ings stood,  and  were  a  community  of  about  thirty  persons. 
 Among  the  paintings  still  left  in  the  Certosa,  one  of  the 
 most  beautiful  is  also  one  of  the  earliest :  the  Holy  Trinity, 
 a  panel-picture  ascribed  to  Griotto  (but  perhaps  of  a  more 
 advanced  school),  conceived  as  that  subject  often  is  in  the 
 XIV  and  XV  centuries :  the  Father  and  Son  of  the  same 
 age  and  almost  identical  in  type  ;  the  First  Person  sup- 
 porting the  Second,  who  is  seen  on  the  cross ;  the  Dove 
 hovering  between  them.  In  a  spacious  crypt  is  the  monu- 
 ment of  Acciajouli,  attributed  to  Orcagna,  and  certainly 
 worthy  of  that  great  artist.  The  Seneschal  died  at  Naples, 
 aged  fifty-six,  1366.  His  effigy,  full  armed,  and  with  coun- 
 tenance finely  individual,  is  laid  on  a  lofty  couch  under  a 
 rich  marble  canopy  :  the  effect  enhanced  by  its  partial  con- 
 cealment behind  the  colonnettes  of  a  graceful  arcade  car- 
 ried along  the  summit  of  the  sarcophagus.  In  the  epitaph 
 occurs  the  singular  phrase,  "  liber^  Olympum  mente  petit  ;'^ 
 and  under  a  sculptured  escutcheon,  the  motto,  "  Contempsit 
 omnia  ille  que  mortem  prius^*     On  the  pavement  near  are 
 
 *  The  life  of  Niccolo  Acciajuoli,  in  Latin,  by  Matteo  Palmieri,  is 
 edited  by  Muratori,  Rerum  Ital.  Script.  T.  xiii.  It  presents  a  model  of 
 the  haughty  virtues,  the  munificent  piety,  and  impetuous  but  devout 
 spirit  of  the  age  ;  and  one  looks  with  interest  on  his  sculptured  form  and 
 finely  expressive  head,  when  remembering  the  acts  of  his  career.  He 
 was  instrumental  in  bringing  about  the  marriage  of  Queen  Joanna  with 
 Louis  of  Taranto,  Acciajuoli  having  been  guardian  to  the  widowed  Prin- 
 cess of  Taranto's  children.  He  proved  one  of  the  most  valiant  partisans 
 of  the  Queen  in  defending  the  Anjou  dynasty  against  the  hostilities  of 
 the  King  of  Hungary.     He  founded  churches  and  monasteries  in  various 
 
SACRED    AET    IN    ITALY,  1:/'J 
 
 the  horizontal  tombs  with  low-relief  eflBgies,  remarkable 
 for  costume,*  of  the  father,  of  the  son,  and  the  sister  of  the 
 Seneschal,  the  first  having  been  vicar  of  King  Robert  at 
 Prato ;  the  third,  Lassa,  married  to  one  of  the  Buondcl- 
 monte  family  ;  the  second,  Lorenzo,  a  young  man  who  died 
 before  his  father,  and  was  interred  here  with  such  pomp, 
 that  the  funeral  convoy,  rites,  &c.  involved  a  cost  (v.  Vil- 
 la ri)  of  5000  gold  florins. 
 
 The.  foresteria  of  this  monastery  afl'orded  hospitality  to 
 two  exiled  Popes  in  like  misfortune,  and  alike  the  victims 
 of  French  invasion  :  to  Pius  YI.  during  ten  months  (1798- 
 1799)  and  to  Pius  YII.  for  a  single  night  (1809);  see  the 
 aff'ecting  narrative  of  the  latter  Pontiff's  trials  by  Cardinal 
 Pacca. 
 
 A  few  miles  from  the  Certosa,  high  among  the  cultured 
 hills,  we  reach  the  village  of  L'Impruneta,  with  a  large 
 church  famous  among  sanctuaries  of  the  Madonna,  because 
 containing  a  revered  picture  which  used,  at  great  emergen- 
 cies, to  be  brought  with  much  processional  pomp  into 
 Plorence.     This  hangs  over  an  altar  of  silver  covered  with 
 
 lands,  one  monastery  for  twelve  inmates  in  Greece ;  ordered  the  celebra- 
 tion of  annual  rites  and  "immense  largess  of  alms  "  for  the  souls  of  his 
 father  and  mother ;  made  provision  for  having  one  hundred  poor  per- 
 sons annually  clothed  ;  bestowed  on  the  Certosa  of  his  foundation  sacer- 
 dotal vestments  of  silk  and  gold,  sacramental  vessels  of  solid  gold  and 
 silver,  also  altar  pallia  adorned  with  needlework  and  gold,  pearls  and 
 gems.  During  his  last  illness  he  engaged  priests  to  say  thirty  masses  for 
 his  benefit  every  day,  and  ordered  twelve  poor  to  be  daily  fed,  besides 
 the  alms  of  a  silver  coin  for  each.  In  his  testament  he  provided  that  a 
 hundred  masses  should  be  celebrated  for  his  soul  daily  during  the  first 
 year  after  his  death,  with  a  per^Detual  alms-giving  in  prescribed  amount. 
 Requiescat  in  pace  ! 
 
 *  The  splendours  of  toilet  iu  which  the  pious  Seneschal  indulged,  are 
 described  by  Palmieri,  "Diebus  vero  festis  ct  in  soleninitatibus  ac  ponipis 
 publicis  vestcm  induebat  sericam,  duplicc  pluma,  auroquc  iiitcxtani,  ct 
 coloribus  interdum  variis  ct  bis  linctam." 
 
 rr    o 
 
276  MEt)lJEVAL   CHllISTIAlS'ITY   AIs^B 
 
 felievi,  tlie  costly  offering  of  some  Medici  Grand  Duke.* 
 Neither  tliat  Madonna  nor  her  altar  need  be  noticed  here  ; 
 and  we  may  pass  at  once  into  the  presence  of  a  much  more 
 precious  art-work,  originally  placed  over  the  high  altar  of 
 this  church,  but  now  unsuitably  banished  to  the  sacristy : 
 a  panel  picture,  in  a  splendid  Gothic  frame,  divided  into 
 twenty-eight  compartments  and  three  storys,  with  sur- 
 mounting pinnacles ;  in  the  centre  the  Virgin  and  Child  i 
 with  adoring  angels ;  laterally,  the  twelve  Apostles ;  in  the 
 upper  part,  the  life  of  Mary  from  her  birth  to  her  as- 
 sumption ;  on  the  chief  pinnacle,  her  coronation  ;  and  on 
 the  predella,  the  legend  of  Joachim  and  Anna  ;  numerous 
 miniature  figures  of  saints  filling  the  subordinate  spaces* 
 A  devotional  inscription  at  the  basement  gives  the  date 
 1374,  but  no  artist's  name.  That  of  Giovanni  di  Milano  is 
 conjectured,  the  evidences  of  style  and  execution  being  the 
 •sole  foundation  on  which  to  build  in  this  case  ;  and  the 
 opulence  of  imagination,  the  feeling  and  power  manifest  ir 
 this  elaborate  picture,  entitle  it  to  rank  high  among  mastery 
 pieces  of  the  period  indicated. f  It  may  class  with  OrcaJ 
 gna's  tabernacle  as  proof  of  the  complete  acceptance  ancf 
 eminent  popularity  of  the  legendary,  as  well  as  historic 
 traditions  respecting  the  Virgin  Mother. 
 
 The  Cathedral  of  Prato,  which  was  rebuilt  and  enlarges 
 
 *  "To  this  Mother  of  God  (says  Segni,  v.  i.  1,  1.)  our  city  (Florencf 
 has  never  publicly  applied  in  vain,  at  whatever  extremity  of  distres 
 It  is  no  slight  or  vain  thing  I  am  here  affirming  ;  for  in  time  of  drougl 
 she  has  ever  sent  rain  ;  in  periods  of  flood  she  has  brought  back  fir 
 weather  for  us  ;  from  pestilence  she  has  withdrawn  the  poison  ;  and  fi 
 e^-^ry  most  grievous  ill  she  has  found  the  appropriate  remedy." 
 
 ■f  Messrs.  Crowe  and  Cavalcaselle  assign  this  picture  to  the  school 
 Niccolo  and  Lorenzo  Gerini,  father  and  son,  paintings  by  the  latter 
 whom  we  have  seen  at  Florence.  The  date  seemed  to  me  clear ;  U 
 those  able  writers  and  critics  report  it  as  doubtful,  giving  the  end  of  t 
 inscription  thus  :  Amio  Domini  millesimo,  coclxx  ...  v. 
 
SACRED  AET  IN  ITALY.  277 
 
 from  the  designs  of  Giovanni  Pisano,  1312-135G,  coutaius  a 
 beautiful  chapel  built  to  receive  the  most  famous  relic  in 
 this  church,  the  sacm  cingolo,  or  sacra  cintiira^  supposed  to 
 be  the  girdle  of  the  Madonna,  the  same  which  she  bestowed, 
 before  ascending  to  heaven,  on  the  incredulous  S.  Thomas. 
 According  to  the  legend,  this  object  passed  into  the  hands 
 of  a  Greek  priest,  who  gave  it  as  sole  dowry  to  his  daughter 
 on  her  marriage  with  a  merchant  of  Prato — then,  as  now, 
 an  industrious  little  town — about  a.d.  1141.  That  mer- 
 chant, whose  name  was  Michele  di  Dagomari,  after  he  had 
 finished  his  commercial  expedition  in  the  East,  brought  the 
 relic  with  his  bride  to  his  native  place.  Every  night  he 
 used  to  place  the  holy  girdle  in  a  coffer  under  his  bed ;  but 
 sadly  was  his  rest  disturbed  by  this  proximity,  for,  invari- 
 ably as  he  made  such  arrangement,  he  found  himself  re- 
 moved from  his  bed  and  laid  on  the  floor  by  invisible  (of 
 course  angelic)  hands !  On  his  death-bed  he  bequeathed 
 the  relic  to  a  parish-priest  of  Prato,  on  condition  that  it 
 should  ever  be  kept  in  that  city.  It  was  carried  with  due 
 honours  to  the  cathedral,  and  there,  after  a  sacrilegious 
 attempt  to  steal  it,  was  enshrined,  1395,  in  a  splendid 
 cbapel  built  to  receive  this  treasure.*  About  1365-1367, 
 the  legend  of  the  girdle,  and  scenes  from  the  history  of  the 
 Blessed  Virgin  and  her  parents  were  painted  on  the  walls 
 of  this  church,  the  former  (if  not  all)  by  Agnolo  Gaddi. 
 In  this  instance,  as  in  the  illustration  by  the  same  master 
 of  the  legend  of  the  True  Cross,  we  see  exemplified  the 
 widening  range  gradually  opened  for  Art  by  devout  imagi- 
 
 •  "  In  process  of  time,  this  illustrious  relic  having  been  carried  to  Con- 
 stantinople, the  office  of  the  Cintura  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  began  to  he 
 celebrated  in  the  Greek  calendar  on  the  2lst  August,  and  its  translation 
 on  the  2nd  July.  S.  Augustine,  and  his  mother,  S.  Monica,  were  most 
 devout  towards  it  (the  girdle)  ;  and  on  that  account  were  instituted,  in 
 the  churches  of  Augustinian  Religion?,  the  Congregations  of  the  Girdle.'' 
 —(Moroni,  '•  Dizionario,"  ai'ticle  Cintura.) 
 
278  MEDIEVAL    CHRISTIANITY    AND 
 
 nation  tlirough  the  admission  of  subjects  neither  associated 
 with  biography  nor  resting  on  any  historical  basis.  The 
 series  illustrating  the  legend  of  the  Girdle,  comprises  the 
 marriage  of  the  merchant,  and  the  transfer  of  that  sacred 
 object  to  his  hands  by  his  father-in-law  ;  the  arrival  of  the 
 happy  pair  at  Prato,  which  (with  amusing  artistic  license) 
 is  here  converted  into  a  sea-port  town ;  the  angels  re- 
 moving the  merchant  from  his  bed ;  Michele's  death,  and 
 the  procession  of  the  relic  to  the  cathedral.  The  scenes 
 from  the  life  of  Mary  comprise  the  meeting  of  Joachim  and 
 Anna  before  her  birth,  that  event  itself,  the  Virgin's  recep- 
 tion by  the  High  Priest  in  the  Temple,  her  Espousals, 
 Assumption,  and  Coronation,  with  the  episode  of  the 
 bestowal  of  the  Grirdle  on  S.  Thomas ;  also,  by  the  same 
 artist,  the  Saviour  blessing,  in  a  lunette ;  the  twelve  Apostles 
 on  a  vault,  the  four  Doctors  and  four  Evangelists.  It  is 
 not  certain  that  all  these  paintings  are  by  Agnolo  Graddi ; 
 and  modern  critics  refer  the  principal  scenes  from  the  legend 
 of  Mary  to  Gherardo  Stamina;  the  continuation  of  the 
 series  on  these  walls,  including  two  storie  of  S.  Stephen — 
 his  appearance  before  the  Sanhedrim  and  his  martyrdom— to 
 Antonio  Vite  ;  the  allegoric  figures  of  Virtue,  on  the  vault, 
 to  the  same  artist,  who  probably  lived  till  about  1428. 
 "Whatever  be  the  authorship,  the  scenes  from  the  legend 
 of  Joachim  and  Anna,  and  several  of  those  forming  a  sequel, 
 are  fine  compositions,  in  the  style  of  the  later  Giottesque 
 school  ;  those  attributable  to  Antonio  Vite  being  inferior.* 
 All  are  surpassed  by  the  other  frescoes  in  the  choir  of  this 
 cathedral,  the  work  of  Eilippo  Lippi,  which  belong  to  a 
 later  period. 
 
 •  "  Of  all  these  frescoes,  three,  namely,  the  marriage  of  the  Virgin, 
 the  stoning  of  Stephen,  and  the  wail  over  his  body,  the  whole  of  the 
 painted  frames  and  medallions,  are  by  a  rude  painter,  of  the  rise  of  the 
 15th  century."— Crowe  and  Cavalcaselle, "  History  of  Painting  in  Italy," 
 Yol.  1,  chai).  xxiii. 
 
SACRED  AET  IN  ITALY.  270 
 
 The  Prato  Duomo  is  of  some  importance  in  the  history 
 of  Italian  architecture  ;  its  campanile,  built  by  Niccolo  di 
 Cecco,  is  imposing  ;  its  facade  is  of  an  earlier  Tuscan  style 
 than  the  date,  1356,  might  lead  one  to  expect.  The  de- 
 signs of  G-iovanni  Pisauo  were  strictly  carried  out,  though 
 he  did  not  live  to  see  this  edifice  completed. 
 
 The  sacra  cintola  is  still  exhibited  on  solemn  occasions 
 by  the  Bishop  of  Pistoja  and  Prato  from  a  beautiful  sculp- 
 tured pulpit,  the  work  of  Donatello,  at  an  angle  of  the 
 fiicade  of  this  cathedral.  How  learned  and  pious  eccle- 
 siastics, the  mitred  pastors  and  doctors  of  the  Church,  can 
 give  their  sanction  to  the  belief  and  devotion  directed 
 towards  such  objects,  it  is  indeed  difficult  to  explain,  or 
 account  for  charitably.  One  enlightened  Prelate,  Scipione 
 de'  Ricci,  bishop  of  the  united  dioceses  above  named,  had 
 intelligence  to  perceive  and  courage  to  oppose  the  rankling 
 evil.  But  his  attempts  to  repress  superstitious  practices 
 and  bring  about  a  disciplinary  reform  within  his  ecclesias- 
 tical sphere,  were  premature,  unsupported  by  popular  feel- 
 ing, opposed  by  ignorance,  reprobated  by  high  authorities, 
 and  therefore  transitory.  The  mere  report  that  he  intended 
 to  remove  the  relic  in  question  with  its  altar,  gave  rise  to 
 a  tumult  (1787),  which  assumed  formidable  aspects,  and 
 called  for  the  intervention  of  troops  from  Florence.  The 
 *'  Pratesi"  populace  rose,  furious  and  fanatical,  armed  with 
 hatchets  and  clubs  ;  took  possession  of,  and  guarded  for  a 
 whole  night,  the  shrine  of  their  Palladium,  burnt  the  epis- 
 copal throne  and  escutcheon,  also  the  registers  and  devo- 
 tional books  published  with  their  bishop's  sanction,  and 
 disinterred  certain  spurious  relics  which  he  had  -wisely 
 ordered  to  be  buried.  In  the  event,  all  the  reforming  mea 
 sures  of  Eicci  were  condemned  by  Eome,  and  totally  can- 
 celled. The  loss  of  his  mitre,  and  retirement  into  obscurity 
 were  the  rewards  assigned  to  the  virtuous  Prelate  who  had 
 
2SD  MEDIEVAL   CHRISTIANITY    ANB 
 
 attempted  more  tlian  his  age  was  ready  to  appreciate,  or 
 his  people  to  understand.* 
 
 The  medisBval  sculptures  and  fine  old  churches  which  may 
 induce  us  to  linger  in  one  of  the  pleasantest  among  the  less 
 frequented  Italian  cities,  Pistoja,  pertain   mostly  to   the 
 13th  and  earlier  years   of  the   next   century.     What  falls 
 within  the  limits  of  my  present  theme  is  less  interesting  — 
 for  i  istance,  an  archaic  and   clumsy  statue   of  S.  Paul 
 ( L350)  on  the  front  of  the  church  dedicated  to  that  Apostle  ; 
 and  in  the  chapter-house  of  S.  Francesco,  a  series  of  frescoes 
 begun  by  Puccio  Capanna  and  finished  by  Antonio  Yite, 
 the  Pistojan  artist  of  the  latter  half  of  this  century,  whose 
 works  we  have  seen  at  Prato.     To  this  same  Antonio  are 
 attributed  some  of  the  paintings  at   S.  Antonio  Abate,  a 
 church  uow  desecrated  and  reduced  to  a  private  house,  on 
 the  Piazza  S.  Dominico,  where  the  Saviour  in  glory,  the 
 creation  of  Adam  and  Eve,  scenes  from  the  Evangelic  his- 
 tory, and  from  the  legend  of  S.  Anthony,  are  feeble  works, 
 probably  by  difterent  hands,  and  of  about  the  same  period. 
 I  have  elsewhere  noticed  the  magnificent  specimen  of  metal- 
 lurgy— the   altar   and  tabernacle  of  S.  James,  entirely  of 
 silver  and  adorned  with  a  multitude  of  relievi  and  statuettes 
 — which,  forming  the  special  treasure  of  the  cathedral,  was 
 begun  by  Jacopo  Ognabene,  a  Pistojan  goldsmith,  in  1316, 
 and    finished   through    the    labours   of  several  renowned 
 sculptors,  Lorenzo  Grhiberti,  BrunelleschijDpnatello,  in  the 
 
 *  A  Synod  convoked  by  Bishop  Ricci  at  Pistoja,  1786,  passed  decrees 
 and  enunciated  principles  which  called  down  severe  reproach  from  the 
 Vatican.  Pius  VI.  in  1794,  condemned  five  of  the  synodal  propositions 
 as  heretical,  seventy  others  as  schismatical,  scandalous,  dangerous.  Yet 
 that  Pontiff  was,  undoubtedly,  a  man  of  cultivated  mind  and  pure  life, 
 with  good  intentions.    The  fate  reserved  for  those 
 
 "  Who  wage  contention  with  their  time's  decay — " 
 is  exemplined,  with  a  mournful  lesson,  in  the  histoiy  of  Scipione  de' 
 Kicci. 
 
SACRED  ART  IN  ITALY.  281 
 
 XV  century.*  The  Communal  Palace  of  this  city,  founded 
 1291,  and  developed  into  its  present  form  1395,  is  a  charac- 
 teristic example  of  the  mediseval  civic  architecture  of  Italy, 
 and  one  of  many  buildings  that  seem  like  types  of  the 
 haughty  defiant  temper  of  those  municipal  governments 
 whose  annals  present  the  romantic  aspect  of  Italian  history. 
 In  one  of  its  vast  halls  we  see  the  chiselled  and  beautifully 
 inlaid  fronts  of  the  ancient  ambones  of  the  cathedral,  which 
 were  found,  some  years  ago,  buried  below  the  modern 
 pavement  of  that  church.  The  "  Pretorio,"  formerly  palace 
 of  the  Podesta  (1366-1377),  opposite  to  the  other  official 
 palace,  is  alike  characterized  by  gloomy  grandeur,  its  cor- 
 tile  with  each  of  the  four  sides  occupied  by  a  single  arch- 
 way of  a  ponderous  portico,  the  walls  above  which  are 
 covered  with  the  painted  heraldic  shields  of  Praetors  and 
 Podestas. 
 
 The  town  of  S.  Gemignano,  conspicuous  for  its  lofty 
 mediaeval  towers,  visible  long  before  we  approach  its  walls, 
 is  like  an  abstract  of  the  Italian  Middle  Ages,  scarcely 
 breathed  upon  by  the  spirit  of  innovation  or  improvement. 
 It  once  contained,  with  a  population  of  only  about  2000, 
 no  fewer  than  thirty-six  churches,  several  of  which  now  stand 
 in  ruins,  and  twenty-two  convents,  all  now  suppressed 
 except  those  of  certain  nuns  and  one  of  Capuchin  friars. 
 Its  high  dusky  towers  were  formerly  twenty-five,  but  are 
 now  reduced  to  thirteen  in  number.     By  moonlight  its 
 
 ♦  I  have  purposely  omitted  all  reference  to  another  work  of  the  same 
 class,  the  silver  dossale  (rercdos)  of  S.  John  the  Baptist,  which  is  placed 
 over  the  altar  of  the  Florence  Baptisteiy  for  that  Saint's  festival — because 
 this  superb  piece  of  metallurgy,  though  commenced  in  1366,  was  not 
 finished  till  1480,  and,  alike  with  the  Pistojan  shrine,  by  the  united 
 labours  of  almost  all  the  sculptors  most  distinguished  in  the  intermediate 
 ]ieriod.  Such  works  are  generally  appropriated  in  the  Italian  Church  to 
 the  lionours  of  Saints  revered  as  local  Patrons. 
 
282  MEDIJEVAL   CnRISTIANITT   AIs^D 
 
 quaint  narrow  streets  crossed  by  ponderous  arcKes,  and 
 massive  buildings  of  dark  brickwork  have  an  effect  abso- 
 lutely awe-striking.     In  the  large  collegiate  cliurcli  we  see 
 the  most  important  paintings  by  Berna  di  Siena,  who  is  little 
 known  out  of  Tuscany,  and  whose  labours  in  this  church 
 were  interupted  by  his  death,  1380,  caused  by  a  fall  from 
 the  scaffold  where  he  was  at  work  ;  after  which  event  the 
 series,  twenty  pictures  in  all,  was  finished  by  his  scholar 
 Giovanni  d'Asciano.  A  vigorous  treatment,  but  no  highly  re- 
 fined or  profound  feeling,  distinguishes  these  pictures,  which 
 illustrate  the  principal  events  of  the  New  Testament  down 
 to  the  Crucifixion — this  last  left  incomplete  owing  to  Berna's 
 death.      On  the  opposite  wall  is  a  corresponding   series 
 of  Old  Testament  subjects,  by  Bartolo  Fredi,  a  Siennese 
 (born  about  1330,  died  1410),  who  executed  these  frescoes  in 
 1356.*    In  the  scenes  of  the  Creation  the  Deity  is  repre- 
 sented as  Grod  the  Son,  conformably  with  the  more  spiritual 
 as   well    as  orthodox,  conception    generally  admitted  by 
 earlier,  but  unfortunately  forgotten  by  later  Art.      The 
 first  of  these  subjects,  which  may  be  described  as  the  evoking 
 of  order  out  of  chaos,  is  most  curiously  treated :  the  Creator, 
 attired  in   long  robes   and   holding  a  sceptre,  is  seated, 
 tranquilly  omnipotent,  before  an  immense  blue  disk  divided 
 into  many  concentric  circles,  within  which  are  the  heavenly 
 bodies,  the  starry  firmament,  and  in  the  centre  of  which 
 is  the  earth,  a  chaotic  uninhabitable  globe,  compared  to 
 which  all  other  orbs,  suns  and  systems,  are  diminutive  and 
 subordinate.      A    much   greater    artist,   Taddeo    Bartoli, 
 erroneously  supposed  to  have  been  the  son  of  Fredi,  painted 
 on  these  walls  a  "  Paradise"  and  "  Inferno,"  much  damaged, 
 
 *  Vasari  gives  the  inscription  with  his  name  and  that  date,  formerly 
 here,  but  now  absent.  There  are  twenty-four  pieces  in  this  scries,  but 
 the  last  is  almost  effaced  :  the  last  visible  being  a  scene  from  the  story 
 of  Job.     These  frescoes  -were  restored,  1745,  by  a  Florentine  artist. 
 
SACRED   ART    IN   ITALY.  283 
 
 the  latter  picture,  in  which  Lucifer  occupies  the  upper  space, 
 being  one  of  those  hideously  offensive  embodiments  of  the 
 mcdiieval  notion  respecting  eternal  punishment  which  calls 
 forth  just  reproof  from  the  learned  historian  of  this  town, 
 Canon  Pecori,  who  is  indignant  at  the  indecencies  here 
 admitted.*  One  cannot  doubt  that  the  familiar  exhibition  of 
 such  horrors  of  torture  and  demoniac  monstrosity  had  the 
 effect  of  hardening  the  heart,  and  may  have  added  to  the 
 ranks  of  the  reprobate  rather  than  to  those  of  the  blessed. 
 The  fiercest  persecutions  against  heresy,  and  the  most  cruel 
 modes  of  inflicting  pain  and  death  in  judicial  procedure 
 were  practised  at  the  time  such  representations  prevailed 
 among  art  subjects  and  on  church  walls.  Other  paintings 
 by  Taddeo  Bartoli,  figures  of  Prophets  and  Apostles,  are  in 
 the  collegiate  church  ;  also  in  the  great  hall  of  the  Palazzo 
 Pubblico,  in  this  town,  S.  Geminianus  blessing  with  a  model 
 of  the  same  town  in  his  hand,  and  four  storie  from  his  life 
 on  lateral  panels.f  At  S.  Agostino  are  some  frescoes  by 
 Bartolo  Tredi,  lately  rescued  from  whitewash  :  the  Birth 
 and  Transit  of  the  Virgin,  with  the  usual  introduction  of 
 
 *  The  inscription  beneath ,'r7iacZeits  Bartoli  de  Senis  pinxit  Mc  capelld 
 has  a  date  which  has  been  read  1393,  but  seems  doubtful.  This  artist, 
 the  first  representative  of  the  school  which  flourished  at  Siena  in  the  latter 
 years  of  the  XIV  and  earlier  of  the  next  century,  was  born  about 
 1362,  at  that  city,  being  the  son  of  Bartolo  di  Mino,  a  barber;  and  died 
 1422, 
 
 t  S.  Geminianus  was  bishop  of  Modena,  about  a.d.  450,  and  is  Patron 
 Saint  of  that  city.  The  Tuscan  town  is  said  to  have  been  called  after 
 him  in  consequence  of  its  delivery  from  Attila  by  a  radiant  vision  of  the 
 holy  Prelate  above  one  of  its  gates,  at  sight  of  which  the  fierce  con- 
 ({ueror  and  his  Huns  retreated  in  dismay;  or  else  to  have  been  so  named, 
 when  placed  under  that  Saint's  protection,  by  Narses  after  a  relic  of 
 Geminianus  had  been  brought  hither  from  Modena.  The  original  name 
 was  Sylvia,  from  the  founder  Sylvius,  a  Roman  patrician  who  was  con- 
 cerned in  the  conspiracy  of  Catiline. — Pecori,  "  Storia  di  S.  Gimiguauo." 
 
284  medij:val  chrtstianitt  and 
 
 the  Saviour  receiving  the  Soul  in  form  of  an  infant.  The 
 only  sculpture  of  this  period  at  S.  Gimignano  is  a  relief  of 
 the  Baptism  of  Christ,  angels  attending  and  a  hand  issuing 
 from  clouds,  to  indicate  the  presence  of  the  Father,  on  the 
 font  of  the  collegiate  church — the  sole  known  vvrork  by  its 
 artist,  Giovanni  Cecchi  of  Siena,  dated  1379. 
 
 Ever  since  the  revival  of  sculpture  in  the  XIII  century 
 at  Pisa,  that  city  continued  to  be  a  centre  of  attractions, 
 though  no  native  school  of  celebrity  in  painting  appeared 
 there.  Artists  were  engaged  to  adorn  the  Campo  Santo  so 
 early  as  the  year  1299  ;  and  we  read  of  one  Nuccerus  who 
 painted  a  Madonna  and  Child  over  one  of  the  gates  of  that 
 cemetery  in  1301.  But  the  record-books  mention  no  other 
 pictorial  works  within  its  walls  till  1370,  when  six  artists 
 were  engaged  here,  one  a  Pisan  named  Pietro  di  Cecco, 
 several  altar-pieces  by  whom  are  extant.  The  majestic  and 
 graceful  architecture  of  the  Campo  Santo  accords  with  the 
 dedication  and  memories  of  the  spot.  Here  we  feel  at  once 
 the  spells  of  genius  and  the  solemnity  of  hallowed  ground 
 — fit  home  of  the  illustrious  dead — 
 
 Dot*  e  silenzio  e  tenebre 
 La  gloria  che  passo.* 
 
 He  who  has  lingered  alone  and  by  twilight  under  these  lofty 
 arcades,  when  the  paintings  on  the  storied  walls  become 
 like  dim-seen  phantoms  hovering  around  the  sculptured 
 tombs,  will  not  forget  the  impressions  of  the  hour  and 
 scene. 
 
 Many  errors  respecting  the  origin  of  the  frescoes  on  these 
 walls  have  been  corrected  by  recent  research.  The  subjects 
 from  the  Genesis,  and  the  Crucifixion,  Eesurrection  and 
 Ascension,  formerly  ascribed  to  Buffalmacco,  are  now  attri- 
 buted to  a  comparatively  obscure   painter  and  mosaist  of 
 
 *  Manzoui,  "  Cinque  Maggio." 
 
SACRED  AET  IN  ITAtt.  285 
 
 Orvieto,  Pietro  di  Puccio,  employed  here  in  1390.  The 
 subjects  from  the  history  of  Job  (much  damaged),  which 
 lall  critics  used  to  assign  to  Griotto,  are  shown  from  entries 
 ill  the  register  to  be  by  Francesco  da  Volterra,  commenced 
 in  1371  by  that  long  almost  forgotten  artis^t  who  is  first 
 mentioned  under  date  1346,  when  ho  executed  an  altar- 
 piece  for  the  Duomo.  The  much  faded  but  still  very  inter- 
 esting storie  of  the  Beato  Kanieri  are  now  known  to  be 
 by  Andrea  of  Florence,  who  commenced  this  series  in  1377, 
 and  Antonio  Veneziano,  w^ho  completed  it  in  1386  ;  another 
 artist,  Bernabo  da  Modena,  having  been  employed  to  con- 
 tinue the  unfinished  work  in  1380.  Priority  of  date  may 
 be  assigned,  among  all  the  frescoes  here,  to  the  highly 
 curious  illustration  of  eremite  life,  (a  complete  pictorial 
 chapter  of  primitive  Church  History)  by  the  Lot-en zetti 
 brothers  of  Siena,  the  best  known  of  whom,  Pietro,  lived 
 from  1311  to  1355.  To  the  same  artists  are  now  attributed 
 on  good  grounds  the  celebrated  paintings  of  the  Triumph 
 of  Death,  Eesurrection,  Inferno,  and  Last  Judgment,  un- 
 besitatingly  given  by  Vasari  to  Orcagna*  and  his  brother 
 — an  error  repeated  by  numerous  writers  and  critics  up  to 
 recent  time.  In  the  personification  of  Death  as  a  spectral 
 old  woman  with  long  bat-wings,  and  claws  for  nails,  we 
 recognise  the   idea  of  Petrarch.f     In  the  colossal  Satan, 
 
 *  "  All  these  paintings  Avhich  Vasari  attributes  to  Orcagna,  but  of 
 "which  Ghiberti  says  nothing  in  his  notice  of  that  artist,  are  with  better 
 reason  assigned   by  modern  critics   to  other  masters,  seeing  that  they 
 exhibit  the  Siennese  rather  than  the  Florentine  style.     It  is  therefore 
 concluded  that  they  should  be  attributed  to  Pietro  Lorenzetti,  who 
 painted   the  contiguous  picture  of  the  Anchorites,  and  to  his  brother 
 Arabrogio." — (Gaetano  Milanesi,  Annotations  to  Vasari.) 
 f  Vidi  un  insegna  oscura  e  trista, 
 Ed  una  donna  involta  in  veste  ncgra 
 Con  uu  iuror  qual  io  non  so  se  niai 
 Al  tempo  dc'  giganti  fosse  in  Flegra. 
 
 "  Trionfo  della  Morte.'* 
 
286  .     MEDIJEVAL    CnUTSTIANITT    AND 
 
 whose  body  is  a  fiery  furnace  for  consuming  souls,  and  in 
 the  demons  armed  with  bill-hooks,  we  perceive  the  influ- 
 ences of  Dante.*  The  Hell  is  a  rocky  abyss  divided  into 
 four  circles,  all  of  which,  except  the  highest  part,  was  re- 
 touched in  1379 ;  and  the  whole  composition,  Eosini  tells 
 us,  was  restored  in  1530.  The  episode  of  the  hunting 
 party  coming  in  sight  of  three  open  tombs  where  lie  the 
 bodies  of  as  many  kings  in  different  stages  of  decay,  is  said 
 to  have  been  suggested  by  a  popular  legend ;  and  the  more 
 prominent  figures,  three  princes  on  horseback,  are  supposed 
 portraits  of  the  Emperors  Frederick  I.  and  Louis  the 
 Bavarian,  and  Ugoccione  della  Faggiuola,  lord  of  Pisa  and 
 Lucca.  In  the  neighbouring  group  of  a  gay  party  seated 
 under  a  grove,  and  whiling  away  the  time  with  music  and 
 converse,  the  cavalier  with  a  falcon  on  his  wrist,  is  said  to 
 be  a  portrait  of  Castruccio  Castracani,  lord,  and  finally 
 Duke  of  Lucca,  1327.  The  spectre  Death  is  about  to  strike 
 down  her  victims  among  the  votaries  of  pleasure,  whilst  she 
 turns  away  from  many  poor  wretches,  the  old,  the  sick  and 
 miserable,  who  in  vain  invoke  her  for  release  from  burden- 
 some existeuce.t    The  aged  hermit,  who  has  led  the  hunt- 
 
 •  What  that  influence  became  before  the  end  of  the  same  century  in 
 which  the  poet  was  proscribed  and  outlawed  by  his  fellow-citizens,  is 
 apparent.  In  1373  was  founded  at  Florence  a  cathedra  for  the  explana- 
 tion and  commentary  of  the  Divina  Commedia  in  the  church  of  S.  Stefano; 
 the  new  professorship  being  first  given  to  Boccaccio,  after  him  to  Filippo 
 Villani  and  Francesco  Filelfo.  Bologna  was  the  first  city  to  follow  this 
 example  by  founding  a  Dantesque  lectureship  in  1375  ;  and  Benvenuto 
 da  Imola  there  began  the  course  of  public  comments  on  the  Poem  more 
 multiplied  in  MS.  during  this  century  than  any  other  work. 
 
 t  The  doleful  and  unanswered  prayer  of  the  latter  is  expressed  in 
 the  lines  here  read  . — 
 
 Da  che  prosperitade  ci  ha  lasciati, 
 O  Morte,  mcdiciua  di  ogni  pena, 
 Dch  vieni  a  dare  a  noi  I'ultima  cena. 
 This  quaint  usage  of  explaining  the   moral  of  a  picture,  or  the  senti- 
 
SACEED  AUT  in  ITALY.  287 
 
 ing  party  to  the  spot  where  the  ghaxtlj  spectacle  awaits 
 them,  is  Macarius  of  Egypt,  a  patriot  of  the  anchorite  life 
 ill  the  IV  century,  301-391.  In  the  background  are  other 
 hermits  pursuing  the  even  tenor  of  their  pious  existence 
 among  deserts  and  mountains  ;  and  on  the  loftiest  height  is 
 seen  a  terrific  vision,  revealed  to  their  spiritualized  gaze,  of 
 the  souls  of  wicked  men  hurled  by  demons  into  a  volcano.* 
 The  obvious  moral  of  this  picture  is  :  the  superiority  of  the 
 contemplative  over  the  active  life,  and  the  wisdom  of  those 
 who  prepare  for  death  in  religious  solitude,  contrasted  with 
 the  folly  and  perils  of  the  career  of  those  absorbed  in 
 pleasure  or  worldly  solicitude  ;  a  lesson  still  insisted  on  by 
 the  Catholic  Church,  and  no  doubt  resting  on  a  principle 
 profoundly  true,  however  misapplied  or  exaggerated  in 
 practice  by  enthusiasm. f  There  is  much  originality  and 
 awe-inspiring  grandeur,  much  also  that  betraya  supersti- 
 tious tendencies  and  innovations  in  the  picture  of  the  Last 
 Judgment.  The  Saviour  and  His  earthly  Mother  are  seated 
 beside  each  other  on  a  rainbow,  each  within  an  elliptical 
 nimbus,  and  though  His  action  is  that  of  wrathful  command, 
 hers  that  of  lovely  deference  to  Him,  each  appear  aWke  to 
 participate  in  Divine  honours,  and  to  be  engaged  in  the 
 dread  task  of  judging  a  guilty  world. — He  as  the  Supreme 
 Arbiter,  she  as  the  celestial  Assessor  !     There  could  be  no 
 
 ments  of  those  represented,  by  inscriptions  on  the  same  surface,  was 
 especially  practised,  and  perhaps  rendered  popular,  by  BufFalmacco. 
 
 *  Conformably  with  the  notion  long  prevalent  that  the  craters  of 
 volcanoes  were  ingresses  of  Hell,  and  that  holy  men  had  frcquentlv  seen 
 souls  precipitated,  immediately  after  death,  into  those  fiery  abysses, 
 (v.  Maury, "  La  Magic  et  I'Astrologie.") 
 
 t  Chorea  casta  Virginum, 
 Et  quos  eremus  incolas 
 Transmisit  astris  Ccelitum 
 Locate  nos  in  sedibus. 
 
 Hymn  for  All  Saints'  Day. 
 
288  MEDIEVAL    CHRISTIANITY    ANtJ 
 
 more  conspicuous  example  than  this  of  the  daring  supersti" 
 tion  which,  interpolating  the  revealed  doctrine,  elevates  a 
 mortal  woman  to  a  rank  of  implied  parity  with  the  Second 
 Person  of  the  Godhead  !  In  earlier  art  Mary  has  no  place 
 whatever  in  this  tremendous  scene.*  Singularly  fine  is  the 
 group  of  Archangels  in  the  centre  of  the  composition  :  the 
 Michael  in  shining  armour,  erect,  calm  and  powerful,  holds 
 forth  two  scrolls  inscribed  with  the  words  of  welcome  and 
 repulse  from  the  Eternal  Judge  :  "  Come,  ye  blessed  of  my 
 Father — Depart  from  me,  ye  accursed."  On  each  side  are 
 subordinate  angels  poised  in  air  and  blowing  trumpets,  with 
 action  that  indicates  the  thrilling  force  of  the  death- 
 awakening  sound  ;  below  is  the  Archangel  ^Raphael,  one  of 
 the  Seven  continually  before  the  throne  of  God,  but  now 
 cowering  down  and  partially  hiding  his  face  with  one  hand, 
 as  unable  to  endure  what  is  prepared  for  man — his  sympa- 
 thies with  suffering  Humanity  thus  pathetically  expressed 
 at  the  awful  climax.  The  other  angels  engaged  in  assign- 
 ing their  several  posts  to  those  rising  from  the  tombs,  are 
 grand  and  graceful  warriors,  with  princely  dignity  discharg- 
 ing a  task  that  excites  no  human  emotion  in  their  passion- 
 less souls.  The  angels  bearing  the  instruments  of  the 
 Passion,  who  hover  on  the  highest  plane  of  the  picture, 
 present  perhaps  the  earliest  example  of  such  a  group,  after- 
 wards almost  obligatory,  and  almost  invariably  introduced, 
 ill  the  illustration  of  this  scene.  It  conforms  with  the  specu- 
 lations of  S.  Thomis  Aquinas— that  Christ  the  Judge  shall 
 not  only  display  the  marks  of  His  wounds,  but  the  signs  and 
 
 *  Even  in  this  century  the  religious  sentiment  revolted  against  such 
 undue  exaltation  of  Mary  ;  and  her  place  in  the  Judgment  scene  became 
 consequently  lower,  though  still  honoured  and  conspicuous,  usually  on  a 
 level  with  the  Apostles,  and  opposite  to  S.  John  the  Baptist.  I  know 
 of  no  instance  in  which  the  deification  of  the  Virgin  Mother  is  carried 
 so  far  by  art  as  in  this  picture  at  the  Pisan  Campo  Santo. 
 
SACRED  ART  TN  ITALY.  289 
 
 pro(^fs  of  ITis  most  reproachful  {eccprohnlisfiimn')  death.  In 
 the  antieipaliou  of  the  last  day,  the  use  of  the  trumpet  as  a 
 material  means  of  awakening  the  dead,  and  the  ministry  of 
 an«j;els  for  collecting  and  preparing  the  scattered  dust 
 about  to  be  revivified,  are  also  among  the  ideas  supported 
 bv  that  great  theologian,  and  admitted  by  Art  in  strict  ac- 
 
 inar 
 
 * 
 
 ceptance  of  his  teach 
 
 The  Last  Judgment  became  popular,  and  was  prescribed 
 by  the  Church  to  artists  after  the  general  expectation  of 
 the  end  of  the  world,  as  a  catastrophe  predestined  for  the 
 10th  century,  had  been  refuted  by  the  event.  It  had  been 
 believed  that  a  thousand  years  was  the  term  fixed  by  Divine 
 decree  for  the  new  dispensation  under  the  Gospel,  and  for 
 the  struggle  between  revealed  Light  and  heathen  Darkness  ; 
 after  which,  in  the  year  1000,  was  to  begin  the  reign  of 
 Christ  on  earth.  This  illusion  having  been  dispelled,  it  was 
 natural  that  a  reaction  of  indifferentism  or  scepticism 
 should  ensue ;  most  natural  that  the  Church  should  call  iu 
 every  suitable  aid  for  reminding  that  the  indefinably  distant 
 was  not  the  less  certain,  the  impalpable  not  the  less  real. 
 13ut  Art  may  be  said  to  have  made  its  greatest  failure  and 
 most  betrayed  its  weakness  by  the  attempt  to  grapple  with 
 the  sublimity  of  such  a  theme.  In  almost  every  instance, 
 the  Christ  in  Judgment,  whether  painter  or  sculptor  pre- 
 sent His  form  to  us,  is  an  embodiment  utterly  uuwoi-thy, 
 and  opposed  to  every  high  ideal  founded  on  His  own  gracious 
 promises  and  awful  prophecies.     He  is   kingly,  wrathful, 
 
 •  "  Tuba  erit  aliquod  signum  corporale  datum  a  Cbristo  ad  nostrani 
 resurrectioncm,  quod  potest  esse  multiplex,  et  habebit  eflicaciam  iiistru- 
 mentalem  a  Cbristo  ad  resuscitandum,  ex  hoc  quod  proferitur  a  Deo. — 
 Deus  ....  utitei  miuisterio  Angelorum,  v.  g.  ut  coUigant  et  pr:tparent 
 cineres,  licet  Dens  immediate  sine  ministerio  Angelorum  uuiet  auimam 
 corpori,  et  glorificabit." — Bnx>x>leriient.  Sumubce  D.  Thomie  :  Ixxvi. 
 2,  3. 
 
 U 
 
290  MEDIiEYAL   CmiTSTIANITT   AXD 
 
 and  severely  resolved,  or  mournful  at  the  moment  of  sen- 
 tencing the  guilty ;  alike  removed  from  divine  impartiality 
 and  compassion.  He  is  metamorphosed  into  an  earthly 
 potentate,  crowned  and  mighty  among  men,  but  infinitely 
 "below  the  eternal  and  serene  majesty  of  God. 
 
 A  fourth  subject,  the  Paradise,  is  said  to  have  been  de- 
 signed by  the  artist  of  the  paintings  long  attributed  to 
 Orcagna,  in  order  to  complete  the  series  illustrative  of  the 
 "  Quatuor  Novissima,"  or  "  Four  Last  Things," — Death, 
 Judgment,  Heaven  and  Hell — habitually  proposed  to  the 
 meditations  of  the  faithful. 
 
 Tlie  legend  of  the  Beato  Eanieri,  Patron  Saint  of  Pisa, 
 though  never  canonized  by  the  Church,  is  so  vague  that  one 
 might  question  his  very  existence  but  for  the  ascertained 
 fact  that  the  body  of  a  Pisan  citizen  of  that  name,  and  of 
 the  patrician  family,  Degli  Scaccieri,  who  died  in  1161,  was 
 laid  with  much  honour  in  the  Duomo,  and  that  the  popular 
 voice  raised  him  to  the  place,  still  assigned  to  the  Beato,  of 
 celestial  Protector  to  his  native  city.*  The  events  of  his 
 traditional  life  are  best  declared  by  simply  stating  the  sub- 
 jects in  the  series  of  frescoes  here  illustrating  it.  A  gay 
 youth,  among  gay  companions  of  both  sexes,  he  sees  a  holy 
 man,  the  Beato  Alberto  Leccapecore,  passing  by  and  fol- 
 lowed by  an  admiring  throng  ;  a  woman  says  to  him :  "  Be- 
 hold the  Angel  of  the  Lord,  who  passes  this  way  !  "Why  do 
 not  you  follow  him  like  the  rest  ?"  Ranieri  does  follow  as 
 far  as  the  gate  of  a  convent,  S.  Yito,  where  Alberto  dwelt : 
 there  he  kneels,  struck  with  repentance,  before  the  holy 
 monk,  whom  he  entreats  to  pray  for  the  guidance  of  his 
 erring  soul  into  the  right  path.  "  If  thou,  Eanieri  (answered 
 
 *  In  the  1 7th  century,  Vittoria  della  Rovere,  consort  of  the  Grand  Duke 
 Ferdinand  II.,  and  her  niece  the  Electress  Palatine,  caused  the  body  of 
 the  B.  Ranieri  to  be  clad  in  a  pilgrim's  habit  of  gold  tissue,  and  the  head 
 adorned  with  a  precious  diadem. — Morrona,  "Pisa  Illustrata." 
 
SACRED  AET  IX  ITALY.  291 
 
 Alberto)  shouldst  Rorvo  God  as  thou  hast  sorvod  the  world, 
 l)k'sscd  wouldst  thou  be!"  On  this  the  Holy  Spirit,  in 
 form  of  a  dove,  visible  perhaps  to  the  beatified  gaze  alone, 
 descended  amidst  radiance  and  rested  on  Eanieri's  head  ; 
 the  Pilgrim  is  on  his  voyage  to  the  Holy  Land,  and  the 
 sailors,  at  his  bidding,  throw  their  freight  into  the  sea,  on 
 account  of  the  bad  odour  perceived  in  it — probably  because 
 the  merchandise  thus  rejected  had  been  acquired  by  evil 
 means  ;  the  Saviour  appears  on  the  land  to  which  the  Pisan 
 vessel  is  sailing ;  Ranieri,  in  Palestine,  distributes  alms  and 
 assumes  the  habit  of  a  pilgrim  ;  he  makes  vows  before  the 
 Blessed  Virgin,  herself  visible  on  a  throne  surrounded  by 
 angels,  with  the  crescent  moon  at  her  feet,  and  a  star  on 
 her  right  shoulder — emblems  of  her  Immaculate  Concep- 
 tion ;  various  temptations,  to  which  Eanieri  is  exposed  by 
 the  Demon,  who  appears  in  hideous  form,  and  throws  a 
 stone  at  him  whilst  he  is  praying ;  Eanieri  is  favoured  on 
 Mount  Tabor  with  a  vision  of  the  Saviour  between  Moses 
 and  Elias,  as  at  the  Transfiguration  ;  Eanieri,  probably  after 
 his  return  from  Palestine,  asks  for  admission  at  the  gate  of 
 a  monastery,  and  distributes  miraculous  alms.  The  above 
 are  the  siorie  erroneously  attributed  by  Yasari  to  Simone  di 
 Martino  ;  but  in  reality  works  of  Andrea  di  Firenze.  The 
 subsequent  scenes  from  the  same  life  are  by  Antonio  Yene- 
 ziano — much  injured,  and  in  many  parts  effaced,  but  still 
 justifying  a  high  opinion  of  that  artist :  Eanieri  sails  from 
 Joppa  for  his  return  to  Pisa ;  having  landed  at  Messina,  he 
 works  a  miracle  by  separating  water  from  the  wine  served 
 by  a  dishonest  innkeeper,  and  shows  the  discomfited  host  a 
 devil,  in  form  of  a  winged  tiger  cat,  seated  on  the  cask  of 
 the  liquor  so  basely  adulterated !  The  Canons  of  Pisa 
 entertain  Eanieri  at  a  banquet — the  architecture  of  that 
 city  being  represented,  with  some  attempt  at  ])erspective,  in 
 the  background  ;  the   death   of  the   ]]cnt(^,  whose   soul  is 
 
292  MEDIiEYAL   CHRISTIANTTT   AND 
 
 seen  borne  by  angels  to  Heaven ;  his  funeral  procession, 
 and  the  solemn  exposure  of  his  body  in  the  Duomo  ;  miracles 
 wrought  by  him  after  death — the  healing  from  various  dis- 
 eases, one  among  those  cured  being  an  Archbishop  of  Pisa, 
 and  the  rescue  of  a  ship  from  a  tempest.  The  almost 
 unknown  Pilgrim  becomes  an  almost  omnipotent  Protec- 
 tor !* 
 
 Among  the  frescoes  on  these  walls,  one  attributed  to 
 Pietro  di  Puccio,  an  "inferior  artist,  mystically  sets  forth 
 the  origin  of  the  universe  and  its  dependence  upon  the 
 Almighty  Creator.  A  colossal  figure  of  Deity,  with  the 
 aspect  proper  to  the  Second  Person,  supports  an  immense 
 disk  containing  numerous  concentric  circles,  with  figures, 
 emblems,  inscriptions  :  first  in  order,  the  nine  Angelic  Hie- 
 rarchies; next,  the  three  Heavens — the  first  (empyreal) 
 without  sign  or  symbol,  the  second  (crystalline)  with  the 
 signs  of  the  Zodiac,  the  third  (the  firmament)  with  the 
 starry  host ;  internal  to  these,  a  succession  of  other  circles 
 enclosing  at  the  centre  a  miniature  view  of  the  three  known 
 continents.  At  the  angles  below  are  the  two  illustrious 
 Doctors,  severally  representatives  of  the  theological  mind 
 of  ages,  S.  Augustine  and  S.  Thomas  Aquinas.f    Next  are 
 
 •  Rosini  ("  Storia  della  Pittura  Italiana")  praises  the  funeral-scene  as 
 the  "  most  noble,  simple  and  beautiful"  among  all  these  pictures.  The 
 architecture  is  carefully  studied  from  the  Pisan  buildings;  the  foremost 
 church  being  S.  Vito  (destroyed  about  the  time  of  the  artist's  engage- 
 ment here)  ;  the  next,  the  cathedral  with  the  front  removed  so  as  to 
 show  the  interior. 
 
 f  Not  easily  legible  is  the  sonnet,  probably  by  the  artist,  underneath 
 this  picture,  and  beginning  : — 
 
 Voi  che  avvisate  questa  dipintura — 
 the  last  lines  expressing  the  meaning  and  moral  of  the  composition 
 thus  : — 
 
 Levate  gU  acchi  del  vostro  intelletto 
 
 Considerando  quanto  e'  ordinato 
 
SACRED   AUT    IN   ITALY.  293 
 
 the  subjects  from  tlie  Genesis  :  the  Creation  of  Eve,  the  Fall 
 and  Expulsion,  &c.  About  1391,  Spinello  Aretino  painted 
 the  series  illustrating  the  lives  of  S.  Ephesus  and  S.  Potitus, 
 martyrs  who  suffered  the  same  death,  though  not  at  the 
 same  time,  near  Cagliari.  The  body  of  Ephesus,  decapi- 
 tated A.D.  303,  was  secretly  interred  by  the  Christians  near 
 the  spot  where  that  of  Potitus  had  been  laid  several  years 
 previously,  and  both  were  eventually  transported  from 
 Sardinia  to  Pisa.  The  subjects  of  the  paintings  are  as  fol- 
 lows :  Ephesus  presented  by  his  mother  at  Antioch  to 
 Diocletian,  who  admits  the  youth  into  his  service,  and  pro- 
 motes him  to  military  rank ;  Ephesus  about  to  march  on  an 
 expedition  against  the  Christians  in  Sardinia,  when  the 
 Saviour  appears  to  him,  and  commands  him  not  to  per- 
 secute those  in  whom  He  Himself  suffers ;  S.  Michael 
 appearing  to  him,  as  he  is  about  to  alight  from  his  horse, 
 and  giving  him  a  banner  with  the  cross  of  Pisa  to  do  battle 
 on  the  side  of  the  Christians  against  the  Heathens ;  Ephesus 
 cited  before  the  Praetor  of  Sardinia,  and  condemned  to  suffer 
 in  a  fiery  furnace,  from  which  he  escapes  unhurt,  while  the 
 executioners  are  burnt  to  death  ;  the  martyr  finally  meets 
 death  by  the  axe.  The  pictures  of  the  story  of  S.  Potitus 
 have  perished,  except  the  decapitation  and  the  transfer  of 
 that  saint's  body  from  Sardinia  to  Italy. 
 
 The  most  beautiful  among  all  the  paintings  here,  those  by 
 Benozzo  Gozzoli,  do  not  enter  into  the  limits  of  my  present 
 theme.     In  those  works  we  perceive  progress  not  in  power 
 
 Lo  mondo  universale,  e  con  afFetto 
 
 Lodate  Lui,  che  1'  ha  si  ben  creato, 
 
 Pensate  di  passare  a  tal  diletto 
 
 Tra  gli  Angeli,  dov'  e'  ciascun  Beato. 
 
 Per  questo  modo  si  vede  la  gloria, 
 
 Lo  basso,  e  il  mezzo,  e  1'  alto  in  qucsta  storia. 
 
 Sec  Da  Murrona  for  the  whole  of  this  sonnet. 
 
294  MEDIJ]]VAL   CHEISTIANITY   AND 
 
 and  knowledge  alone,  but  in  ideas  and  conceptions.  "Wliat  is 
 left  to  us  of  earlier  art  in  the  Campo  Santo  affords  evidence 
 of  the  sway  of  the  ascetic  religious  feeling  during  a  later 
 phase  of  the  dominion  long  exclusively  exercised  by  the 
 Church  over  artistic-creations.  Subsequently  the  spell 
 begins  to  be  feebler;  other  influences  intervene,  other 
 thoughts  and  imaginings  assert  their  right  to  find  utterance. 
 In  the  Dominican  church,  S.  Caterina,  a  fine  example  of 
 Pisan  architecture  completed  1352,  is  a  picture  by  Eran- 
 cesco  Traini,  the  Grlorification  of  S.  Thomas  Aquinas,  which 
 forms  not  only  a  record  of  that  great  theologian's  supreme 
 distinction ;  but  also  of  the  mind  and  tendencies  of  me- 
 diaeval Catholicism.  We  see  a  similar  apotheosis  of  the 
 "  Angelic  Doctor"  in  the  Spagnuoli  chapel  at  Florence,  and 
 in  the  principal  Dominican  church  at  Rome.  That  from 
 Traini's  pencil  stands  midway  in  date  between  the  two,  and 
 is  the  most  finely  conceived  of  all.  On  the  highest  plane 
 of  this  picture  is  the  Saviour  in  glory  ;  from  His  lips  issue 
 rays  that  illumine  the  four  Evangelists,  Moses  and  S.  Paul ; 
 from  them  passing  to  S.  Thomas,  who  is  seated  wdth  five 
 volumes,  his  writings,  on  his  knees,  and  the  holy  Scriptures 
 in  his  hand,  open  at  the  text :  Veritatem  meditabitur  gidtur 
 meum,  et  labia  mea  detestahuntur  iniquitatem.  Prom  the 
 Saint's  writings  the  rays  proceed  first  to  Plato  and  Aris- 
 totle, who  off*er  their  respective  works,  the  "  Tim8eus"and 
 the  "  Ethics  ;"  from  thence  to  several  theologians,  cardinals 
 and  monks,  one  of  this  group  being,  by  alteration  of  the 
 head,  converted  into  a  portrait  of  Urban  VI.  The  figure  of 
 S.  Thomas  is  severely  dignified.  The  Grreek  Philosophers 
 are  like  Oriental  Prophets,  with  nothing  classical  in  cos- 
 tume or  type.  The  moral  of  this  highly  significant  picture 
 seems  to  be— that  all  ancient  theological  science,  and  indeed 
 all  true  Philosophy  were  concentrated  in  the  author  of  the 
 "  Summa,"  and   from  his  intellect   communicated  to  the 
 
SACRED  AKT  IN  ITALY.  295 
 
 greatest  doctors  who  came  after  liirn,  with  the  retrospective 
 accord  evcu  of  those  profound  minds  not  illuminated  by 
 direct  Revelation.*  Near  this  picture  is  the  pulpit  in  which 
 S.  Thomas  used  to  preach  when  resident  in  the  S.  Cate- 
 rina  convent.  Another  remarkable  altar-piece  by  Traini, 
 formerly  in  this  church,  S.  Dominick  with  six  lateral  storie 
 of  his  life,  has  been  removed  and  divided :  the  central  panel, 
 S.  Bominick  (of  benign  and  noble  aspect)  and  the  Saviour 
 blessing  in  a  pinnacle  above,  being  now  in  the  Accademia  ; 
 the  six  lateral  panels,  in  the  Seminary  of  Pisa.  Near  the 
 principal  entrance  to  S.  Caterina  stands  the  imposing, 
 though  feebly  executed,  monument  of  an  Archbishop, 
 Simone  Salteretti  (ob.  1352),  with  canopy,  relievi  and 
 statues,  well  representing  the  style,  but  not  the  higher 
 abilities,  of  the  period. 
 
 At  the  convent  of  >S^.  Francesco^  we  enter  the  Sardi  and 
 Campigli  chapel,  communicating  with  what  was  once  the 
 sacristry,  but  is  now  the  sole  place  of  worshix)  left  to  the 
 
 *  Thomas,  son  of  the  Count  d'Aquino  and  Sora,  was  born,  1226,  at  the 
 town  from  which  his  house  took  the  former  title,  Aquino  in  the  Terra  di 
 Lavoro  :  he  received  his  first  education  at  Monte  Cassino;  afterwards 
 studied  at  the  University  of  Naples,  and  completed  his  course  at  Paris. 
 He  entered  the  Dominican  Order  at  the  age  of  seventeen ;  and  died  at  the 
 Cistercian  abbey  of  Fossanova,  in  the  Terracina  diocese,  1274,  being  de- 
 tained there  by  illness  on  his  way  to  Lyons  for  the  General  Council  con- 
 voked by  Gregory  X.  During  somewhat  more  than  a  year  before  his 
 death,  he  never  desired  either  to  speak  or  write  on  theological  themes,  and 
 renounced  all  studies  in  order  to  dedicate  himself  to  the  thought  of  the 
 Invisible  and  Infinite— such  the  moral  attitude  of  this  greatest  theo- 
 logical thinker  of  the  Middle  Ages  when  on  the  threshold  of  Eternity.  He 
 refused  all  ecclesiastical  honours,  among  others  the  arcbbisbopric  of 
 Naples  offered  to  him  by  several  Popes.  He  was  canonized  by  John 
 XXII.  1313  ;  declared  a  Doctor  of  the  Church  by  Pius  V.,  1567.  His 
 appropriate  emblems  are — a  star  on  the  breast,  a  dove  at  the  ear,  or  on 
 one  shoulder,  raya  cmauatiug  from  a  book  iu  his  hand,  the  sacred  Host 
 and  chalice. 
 
20Q  MEDIiEVAL   CHEISTIA^ITT   AND 
 
 few  lingering  friars  of  a  suppressed  Order.  Tliis  chapel  was 
 founded,  1395,  by  a  lady  of  the  Sardi  family,  the  wife  of 
 Andrea  da'  Campigli,  and  was  adorned  in  1397  by  the  pencil 
 of  Taddeo  Bartoli,  as  the  extant  lines  on  a  pilaster  inform 
 us.  Though  much  damaged,  the  paintings  evince  power, 
 imagination,  and  refined  feeling.  They  represent  the  last 
 scenes  in  the  life,  or  rather  legend,  of  the  Blessed  Virgin, 
 ending  with  her  funeral  and  assumption  ;  also,  (apart  from 
 that  series)  the  annunciation.  One  among  these  pictures  is 
 especially  interesting  and  impressive,  also  a  new  subject 
 admitted  within  the  cycle  of  the  legendary  art  that  refers  to 
 Mary.  Under  a  portico  of  light  and  graceful  architec- 
 ture, the  Mother,  in  nun-like  dress,  is  seated  amidst  the 
 twelve  Apostles,  some  of  whom  stand,  others  sit  on  a  low 
 form,  the  other  Maries  of  the  New  Testament  standing  on 
 one  side ;  S.  John,  the  youngest  Apostle,  with  expression  of 
 reverential  tenderness,  approaching  the  Virgin,  who  takes 
 both  his  hands  in  hers.  At  the  extremity  of  the  group 
 another  person,  of  Apostolic  type,  seems  just  entering,  with 
 one  knee  bent,  at  the  threshold  of  the  portico,  and  a  vener- 
 able figure,  of  similar  aspect,  descends  from  above,  in  finely 
 poised  action,  floating  through  air  towards  the  place  where 
 the  Mother  sits ;  above  are  two  other  persons,  alike 
 descending  in  slow  flight  towards  that  sacred  group,  so 
 earnestly  absorbed  by  a  prevailing  interest  that  only  three 
 pf  the  Apostles  seem  conscious  of  this  mysterious  apparition. 
 There  are  two  subjects  which  might  suit  this  beautifully 
 imagined  picture  :  the  valedictory  reception  of  the  Twelve 
 by  Mary,  before  they  disperse  for  their  several  missions  to 
 evangelize ;  or  (and  this  seems  to  me  more  probably  in- 
 tended) the  last  farewell  of  all  the  Apostles  and  that 
 Blessed  One  after  the  Augel  had  given  waruiug  of  her  proxi- 
 mate death — with  which  scene,  an  jiftecting  amplification  of 
 the  legend,  the  presence  of  those  mysterious  beings*,  who 
 
SACRED  AUT  in  ITALY.  297 
 
 return  from  tlic  iuvisiblc  to  the  visible  world,  would  accord 
 — if  we  suppose  the  flying  figures  to  be  Prophets,  or  other 
 departed  Saints,  allowed  to  reappear  on  earth  in  order  to 
 welcome  the  summoned  One  to  the  spirit  land.  A  solemn 
 and  subdued  sentiment  pervades  this  picture ;  and  we  feel 
 that  His  promise,  who  said :  "  Peace  I  leave  with  you  ;  my 
 I)eace  I  give  unto  you,"  is  assuredly  theirs,  the  divinely  pri- 
 vileged company  here  before  us.  In  the  transit  of  Mary 
 is  the  usual  introduction  of  the  Saviour  with  the  Soul  in 
 form  of  an  infant ;  beautiful  angels  with  tapers  terminating 
 the  group  at  each  side.  At  the  funeral  of  Mary  all  the 
 Apostles  are  present,  a  rocky  landscape  forming  the  back- 
 ground ;  this,  and  the  contiguous  picture  of  the  Assump- 
 tion, being  lamentably  injured.  On  other  parts  of  the 
 chapel  walls  are  finely  treated  figures  of  S.  John  the  Baptist, 
 S.  Andrew,  and  the  Virgin  Saints,  Agnes,  Catherine,  Clara, 
 Apollonia,  Lucia  ;  on  the  vaults,  the  Four  Doctors  and  as 
 many  Prophets. 
 
 The  ancient  church  of  S.  Francesco  is  now  used  as  a 
 magazine  and  hayloft  for  a  cavalry-regiment ;  and  we  can 
 no  longer  discern  the  frescoes  attributed  to  Taddeo  Graddi 
 on  the  choir-vault.  In  the  chapter-house,  however  (called 
 "  capitolo  di  S.  Bonaventura")  remain  the  wall-paintings 
 by  ^^iccolo  di  Pietro,  otherwise  known  as  Piero  Gerini, 
 and  father  of  Lorenzo  Gerini — his  largest  and  most  import- 
 ant work,  dated,  in  an  extant  inscription,  1392.*  These 
 represent  the  cycle  of  the  Passion  from  the  Lord's  Supper 
 to  the  Ascension,  including  the  betrayal,  or  the  bribery  of 
 Judas ;  near  the   entrance,  S.  John  Baptist  and  S.  Lau- 
 
 *  The  original  mutilated,  but  thus  restored  by  Lasinio  :  Nicolaus 
 Tctri  de  Florentia  depinsit  an.  D.  MCCCLXXXXII.  It  was  the  same 
 Liisinio  who  retouched  these  frescoes,  formerly  more  or  less  iujured,  in 
 1824. 
 
298  MEDTiEVAL   CHEISTIATiflTT   AND 
 
 rence.  In  the  Last  Supper  the  artist  has  unfortunately 
 imitated  his  model,  Giotto,  by  making  S.  John  fast  asleep, 
 as  he  leans  over  the  table  beside  the  Divine  Master.  In 
 the  Crucifixion,  largest  of  these  pictures,  the  two  thieves 
 are  seen  on  their  crosses,  with  the  episode  (which  hardly 
 appears  before  this  century)  of  the  angels  and  demons 
 receiving  the  souls  of  the  penitent  and  impenitent.  In  the 
 Besurrection  the  Saviour,  calmly  majestic,  with  a  red-cross 
 banner  in  the  left  hand  and  raising  the  other  hand  to 
 bless,  steps  out  of  an  open  sarcophagus — an  unhistorical, 
 but  henceforth  commonly  admitted  detail.*  The  Deposi- 
 tion and  the  "  Noli  me  tangere"  are  treated  with  some 
 power.  In  the  Ascension,  a  crown  and  sceptre  are  given 
 to  the  heavenward-rising  Lord,  as  symbols  of  His  divine 
 royalty.  The  countenance  of  the  Christ  is  sombre  and 
 sullen,  except  in  the  last,  and  also  in  the  Resurrection  pic- 
 ture where  the  artist  rises  to  the  height  of  his  subject. 
 Altogether,  this  series  is  valuable  as  presenting  the  hence- 
 forth traditionary  and  prescribed  treatment  of  the  principal 
 scenes  in  the  Gospel  History. 
 
 At  Cortona  we  see,  in  the  church  of  S.  Dominico,  a  pic- 
 ture deemed  the  most  important  work  by  Lorenzo  Gerini 
 — a  richly  framed  "  ancona," — with  predella,  comprising 
 several  subjects,  the  Madonna  with  four  Saints,  her  corona- 
 tion and  assumption ;  the  Crucifixion  above ;  this  altar- 
 piece  having  been  removed  from  S.  Marco  at  Florence,  in 
 1438,  and  presented  by  Cosimo  and  Lorenzo  de'  Medici  to 
 
 *  Manifestly  unhistoric  is  the  circumstance,  represented  by  countless 
 artists  in  this  scene,  of  the  sleep  of  the  soldiers  around  the  tomb.  They 
 should  be  all  watching  ;  for  it  was  the  falsehood  insinuated  by  the  Jews 
 whence  sprung  the  report  that  the  sacred  body  had  been  stolen  away  by 
 night,  whilst  those  guards  slept.  By  emerging  from  the  tomb  amidst  the 
 'watcUfid  soldiery,  the  Divine  Being  more  manifestly  asserts  His  glorious 
 powers,  and  Art  obtains  a  field  for  nobler  eiforts. 
 
sached  aut  tx  italt.  209 
 
 the  Dominicans  of  Cortona,"  for  the  benefit  of  their  own 
 and  tlieir  forefathers'  souls."* 
 
 A  rezzo,  though  deprived  of  many  art-treasures  formerly 
 witliiu  its  walls,  still  contains  valuable  examples  of  its  local 
 school ;  and  a  gallery,  formed  not  long  ago,  in  one  of  the 
 suppressed  monasteries,  "  La  Badia,"  now  affords  oppor- 
 tunities for  estimating  the  capacities,  and  observing  the 
 several  phases,  of  Aretine  Art.  Spinello  Spinelli  and  his 
 son,  Parri,  cannot  be  appreciated  till  wx  have  seen  their 
 works  in  their  native  city.  Among  memorable  paintings 
 by  the  former  is  one  in  a  recess  on  the  front  of  the  SS. 
 Triuita  church :  the  Eternal  Father  supporting  the  Son, 
 who  appears  as  dead,  on  the  Cross  ;  the  Dove  issuing  from 
 the  bosom  of  the  First  to  the  head  of  the  Second  Person  ; 
 both  Father  and  Son  of  essentially  the  same  type,  in  cha- 
 racter benignly  noble,  without  any  attempt  at  indicating 
 the  distinctions  of  human  relationship,  such  as  later  Art  has 
 but  too  boldly  introduced, thereby  embodying  an  idea,  which, 
 opposed  to  every  spiritual  conception  of  the  Triune  Deity, 
 is  in  fact  nothing  else  than  Tritheism.  Other  noticeable 
 works  by  Spinelli  are  a  Crucifixion  and  Apostles  at  S. 
 JDo/iienicOf  and  an  Annunciation  on  the  outside  oiL'Annun' 
 zlata,  both  churches  at  Arezzo.  That  artist's  famous  pic- 
 ture of  the  Defeat  of  the  Rebel  Angels  has,  unfortunately, 
 all  but  perished  with  the  church,  S.  ^wye^o,  which  it  adorned. 
 A  house,  let  out  in  miserable  lodgings,  amidst  gardens  on 
 the  outskirts  of  the  city,  now  occupies  the  site,  and  includes 
 part  of  the  walls,  of  that  church.  Here  I  saw,  in  a  room 
 used  as  the  workshop  of  a  poor  artisan,  some  vestiges  of 
 figures  mostly  cut  in  two  by  the  flooring  of  the  room  above  ; 
 
 *  The  painter's  name,  Laurentius  Nicholaus,  is  inscribed,  and  followed 
 liy  the  rcc(  rd  :  "  Chosimo  e  Lorenzo  di  Medici  da  Fircnze  afio  data 
 chuesta  pictura  frati  di  Sco  Doniinicho  de  Osservauza  da  Churtuna  pel 
 I'auiiua  luro  c  di  luro  passati,  MCCCCXXXX.'' 
 
300  MEDIJEVAL   CHRISTIAI^^ITY   AND 
 
 and  one  of  the  lodgers  told  me  that  other  fragments,  figures 
 of  diavoli,  had  been  removed  from  these  walls,  and  sold  to 
 some  stranger.  The  vicinity  of  S.  Angelo  was  called,  "  Con- 
 trada  dei  Diavoli,"  from  the  lost  picture,  in  which  Demons 
 were  so  conspicuous,  and  in  which  was  introduced  that 
 figure  of  Satan,  said  (v.  Yasari)  to  have  haunted  the  artist 
 till  the  horrors  of  his  own  conception  caused,  or  accelerated, 
 liis  death.  I  ascertained  the  existence  of  some  other  rem- 
 nants of  this  work  in  the  warehouse  of  a  furniture-maker  ; 
 and,  visiting  that  place,  saw  a  fragmentary  group  of  Angels 
 and  Demons  combating ;  the  former  in  plate-armour  and 
 wielding  swords ;  the  latter,  nondescript  monsters  with  bat- 
 wings  and  eagle's  talons — the  whole  composition  confused 
 and  bewildering. 
 
 Berna  di  Siena  was  engaged  much  at  Arezzo  in  1369,  and 
 executed  several  frescoes  in  the  cathedral,  of  which  but 
 one  remains :  a  Crucifixion  under  a  Gothic  canopy ;  beside 
 the  cross  Mary,  S.  John,  S.  Francis,  and  the  Archangel 
 Michael ;  kneeling  below,  the  donator,  in  complete  armour, 
 Gruccione  Tarlati,  one  of  a  powerful  family  for  a  time  supreme 
 at  Arezzo.  This  struck  me  as  the  finest  of  that  Sienese 
 artist's  extant  works.  Among  the  paintings  by  him  which 
 have  perished,  was  one,  at  S.  Agostino,  on  a  subject  afford- 
 ing testimony  to  the  increasing  belief  in  demoniac  agencies 
 and  the  growth  of  a  Mythology  for  which  the  Christian  reli- 
 gion is  not  responsible— the  story,  namely,  of  a  youth,  one 
 Marino,  who  sold  his  immortal  soul  to  the  Devil  for  base 
 lucre,  but  was  ultimately  saved  by  the  intervention  of  S. 
 James  the  Apostle,  though  the  Demon,  "  hideous  to  a 
 miracle,"  displayed  a  written  agreement  to  make  good  his 
 claim  when  the  poor  guilty  soul  threw  itself  on  the  Apostle's 
 power  and  mercy  in  the  other  world.  The  same  story  was 
 illustrated  by  Berna  in  a  picture  at  S.  Spirito,  Florence, 
 destroyed  by  the  burning  of  that  church  in  14*70. 
 
SACRED  ART  IN  ITALY.  301 
 
 Such  sculptures  as  we  sec  at  Arezzo  of  earlier  period 
 than  that  to  which  I  now  refer,  throw  into  shade  the  pro- 
 ductions of  the  same  art  within  the  latter  half  of  this  cen- 
 tury. There  are,  however,  good  qualities  in  the  works  of 
 the  Xiccolo  Aretino  (orXiccolo  di  Piero),  some  statues  by 
 whom  are  seen  at  Florence.  His  finest  sculptures  at  his 
 native  place  are  on  the  fayade  of  the  "  Misericordia,"  or 
 "  Fraternita,"  the  former  hospital  and  offices  of  a  pious 
 sodality,  which  building  now  contains  a  museum  and  public 
 library.  That  Institution,  dedicated  to  charities,  became 
 enriched  by  bequests  during  the  visitation  of  plague  ;  and 
 in  1383  applied  its  wealth  to  the  purpose  of  constructing  a 
 new  facade,  in  florid  Grothic  style,  for  its  official  residence, 
 Kiccolo  was  engaged  to  adorn  this  building,  now  one  of  the 
 most  conspicuous  and  observable  at  Arezzo.  Above  the 
 portal,  he  represented  a  large  relievo,  the  Madonna  del 
 Soccorso,  attended  by  angels  who  hold  back  her  long  mantle 
 so  as  to  display  the  many  citizens,  figures  of  smaller  scale, 
 kneeling  at  her  feet — a  favourite  popular  aspect  of  the 
 Virgin  Mother  in  Aretine  Art.*  Below,  and  laterally  to 
 this  principal  group,  are  the  local  Patrons,  St.  Laurentinus 
 and  Preguntinus  ;  also  statues  of  S.  Gregory  the  G-reat,  and 
 S.  Donatus,  principal  Protector  and  Martyr-bishop  of  this 
 city,  who  sufiered  a.d.  361.   By  the  same  Niccolo  is  a  terra- 
 
 *  It  became  alike  popular  eventually  in  other  Italian  schools  and  loca- 
 lities. In  her  character  of  supreme  Protecti-ess  to  cities  and  states,  the 
 Virgin  Mother,  tlius  presented  in  painting  or  sculpture,  bears  silent 
 witness  to  the  deepening  religious  feeling  which  turned  to  Her  as  the 
 centre  of  a  devotional  system.  Mystic  Theology  had  so  far  banished  the 
 Christ,  Creator  and  Judge,  to  dim  and  awful  distance  that  He,  the  still 
 recognized  Mediator  of  Salvation,  became  almost  forgotten  in  popular 
 regards,  or  rather  the  oltject  of  fear  than  of  faith  -vvorking  through  love  ; 
 whilst  Mary  was  the  tenderly  reverenced  and  universally  trusted  ]\Iedia- 
 trix  of  Intercession — the  '-Vita,  dulccdo,  et  spcs  nostra,"'  as  Kumau 
 Catholic  devotions  still  address  her. 
 
303  MEDI.T.VAL   CIiniSTTANITT   AND 
 
 cotta  relief— a  work  of  his  early  youth,  the  Virgin  and 
 Child,  Angels,  and  the  two  last  named  Saints,  over  a  lateral 
 door  of  the  cathedral.  Also,  another  of  his  early  works, 
 S.  Mark  seated,  with  his  emblem  the  winged  ox,  in  an 
 arched  recess  on  the  fagade  of  that  church — the  last  sadly 
 mutilated,  but  still  distinguished  by  dignity  of  forms.  Other 
 less  important  sculptures  of  this  School  and  period  are : 
 some  small  relievi  of  the  history  of  the  companion-martyrs, 
 Laurentinus  and  Preguntinus  over  the  door  of  a  chapel 
 dedicated  to  the  former ;  and  around  the  doorway  of  the 
 Anmmziata,  relievi  of  Christ  and  the  four  Evangelists,  each 
 Mdth  the  head  of  his  emblem,  three  having  consequently  the 
 animal  combined  with  the  human  form — an  unpleasing 
 anomaly  not  often  admitted  in  Art,  though  in  one  instance 
 so  late  as  the  XV.  century — in  a  picture  by  Fra  Angelico, 
 now  at  the  Florence  Accademia. 
 
 In  this  century  Arezzo  attained  the  apex  of  the  prosperity, 
 and  also  suffered  the  severest  visitations  known  to  its  me- 
 diaeval experiences.  The  famous  bishop.  Guide  Tarlati  di 
 Pietramala,  whose  stately  tomb  we  admire  in  the  cathedral, 
 founded  the  dominion  of  that  family,  and  having  made  him- 
 self lord  of  Arezzo,  secured  various  material  benefits,  forti- 
 fied and  embellished  the  city  during  the  time  he  held  power. 
 After  his  death,  in  1328,  dissensions  and  factious  struggles 
 ensued.  In  1380  this  city  was  delivered  up  by  two  families, 
 the  E-ostoli  and  Albergotti,  to  Charles  of  Durazzo,  then  on 
 his  way,  with  an  Hungarian  army,  to  the  invasion  of  the 
 Neapolitan  States.  In  1384,  the  Tarlati  and  other  exiled 
 Grhibellines  conspired  to  withdraw  the  city  from  the  domi- 
 nion of  the  Durazzo  prince,  now  King  of  Naples  ;  and  in  the 
 September  of  1381,  Arezzo  was  taken  by  escalade  and  given 
 up  to  pillage  by  the  Sieur  de  Coney,  Captain  of  the  troops  of 
 the  Anjou  Louis,  who  disputed  the  Neapolitan  crown  with 
 Charles  III.     The  Florentines,  jealous  of  this  occupation 
 
SACRED    ATIT    IN    ITALY.  3013 
 
 by  forciii^iiorR,  sent  an  army  to  besiege  the  French,  wlio 
 were  still  opposed  by  the  troops  of  the  King,  in  the  castle 
 of  this  city  ;  and  Coucy  had  recourse  to  the  expedient  of 
 selling  Arezzo  to  the  Florentines  for  50,000  gold  florins, 
 after  having  already  promised  it  for  20,000  to  Siena.  On 
 the  20th  IS'ovember,  1384,  the  city,  and  a  few  days  after- 
 wards the  fortress,  passed  under  the  dominion  of  the 
 Ecpublic  now  most  potent  among  Tuscan  states. 
 
 At  Siena  the  art-activities  of  the  period  here  in  question 
 were  less  important  than  in  the  earlier  half  of  the  cen- 
 tury, though  the  works  for  the  rebuilding  of  the  beautiful 
 cathedral  were  still  in  progress.  A  moral  degeneration 
 seems  to  have  prevailed  in  the  Art  circles  of  Siena  at  this 
 period,  though  one  star  of  luminous  distinction  arose  with 
 Taddeo  Bartoli,  whose  works  here  seen  date  subsequently 
 to  1400.  Towards  the  close  of  the  XIYth  century  several 
 Siennese  painters  were  involved  in  democratic  movements 
 or  factious  strife  ;  some  were  guilty  of  political  crimes. 
 One,  named  Galgano,  presided  at  the  execution  of  nineteen 
 persons  unjustly  put  to  death,  and  was  several  times  elected 
 Captain  of  the  People.  This  truculent  artist  received  pay- 
 ment in  1384  for  twenty-six  standards,  painted  (we  may 
 conclude)  with  political  emblems  or  allegories  ;  but  not  one 
 sacred  subject  is  know^n  to  have  been  attempted  by  his 
 hand.  The  most  remarkable  paintings  of  this  period,  though 
 not  by  a  native  master,  to  be  seen  at  Siena,  are  in  a  hall, 
 "Salade'  Priori,"  of  the  "  Palazzo  Comunale"  (or  2mbbUco) , 
 where  Spinello  Aretino,  assisted  by  Martino  de  Siena, 
 executed  (1380-1400)  the  "  frescoes"  illustrating  the  ^^.s-M 
 of  Pope  Alexander  III.  (1159-81),  especially  the  contest 
 between  that  energetic  Pontiff  and  the  Emperor  Frede- 
 rick I.,  the  most  formidable  but  finally  sclf-submitling 
 adversary  of  the  Holy  See.  As  that  Pope  (Rolando  Paiidi- 
 nelli)  was  of  Siennese  birth,  and  a  man  of  great  qualities, 
 
301  MEDT.^VAL  CnmSTIANTTT    AND 
 
 who  sustained  his  trials  and  discharged  his  duties  with  un^ 
 failing  constancy  and  nobleness,  the  desire  on  the  part  of 
 his  fellow-citizens  to  perpetuate  and  honour  his  memorv 
 among  themselves,  is  indeed  to  their  credit.  The  eventful 
 history  is  here  delineated  with  much  dramatic  power,  how- 
 ever quaint,  and  in  some  details  incorrect,  may  be  the 
 presentment  of  the  subject  in  these  historical  pictures. 
 Among  the  scenes  remarkable  for  able  treatment  are  the 
 coronations  of  the  Pope  and  of  the  Antipope  raised  up  by 
 Frederick ;  the  homage  paid  by  "  Barbarossa"  to  that  crea- 
 ture of  his  own  making — the  Antipope,  represented  as  a 
 white-vested  monk,  evidently  perplexed  and  alarmed  at 
 finding  himself  brought  from  his  quiet  cell  for  unenviable 
 and  dangerous  honours  ;  the  siege  of  Eome  by  Frederick 
 with  his  German  army,  and  the  escape  of  Alexander, 
 disguised  as  a  monk,  from  the  beleaguered  walls  ;  the  sub- 
 mission of  the  Emperor  to  the  Pope  at  Venice — in  which 
 subject  is  perpetuated  the  long-received  tradition,  incorrect 
 and  discordant  with  the  known  character  of  Alexander  III, 
 that  the  Pontiff  actually  trampled  on  the  neck  of  the  pros- 
 trate potentate  before  he  would  give  him  absolution  :  Bar- 
 barossa is  here  lying  at  full  length  on  his  back,  though  still 
 wearing  his  crown  and  imperial  robes,  whilst,  with  absurdly 
 unnatural  action,  the  enthroned  Pope  places  one  foot  on 
 his  shoulder !  Lastly,  may  be  noticed  the  scene  of  the 
 Council  at  Venice,  where  the  reconciled  antagonists  are 
 seated  amicably  beside  each  other.  Such  a  work  announces  a 
 new  tendency  of  Art.  The  argument,  though  ecclesiastical, 
 is  neither  scriptural  nor  religious  ;  and  this  early  example 
 of  painting  which  attempts  the  epic  delineation  of  an 
 entire  career,  independent  of  the  inspirations  of  Theology 
 and  dictates  of  the  Church,  indicates  the  desire  to  infringe 
 limits  long  scrupulously  observed,  to  escape  from  trammels 
 long  piously  submitted  to. 
 
SACKED  AET  IN  ITALY.  803 
 
 Anofher  new  form  in  the  Art  now  active  at  Siena,  is  tlio 
 <5elebrated  intarsio  and  "  commesso"  work  on  the  pavement 
 of  the  Duomo,  long  erroneously  supposed  to  have  been 
 begun  by  Duccio,  but  in  its  oldest  portions  not  dating  before 
 1309,  the  year  when  it  is  first  mentioned  in  the  record 
 books.  Duccio  died  in  1339.  The  intarsio  work  here 
 before  us,  in  the  nave  of  the  church,  was  not  begun  till 
 1372  ;  the  Wheel  of  Portune,  and  the  figures  of  Temperance 
 and  Prudence,  were  finished  about  1380 :  and  the  other 
 compositions,  scriptural  and  allegorical,  on  this  unique 
 pavement,  were  executed  during  the  XY.  and  earlier  years 
 of  the  XYI.  century.  In  the  public  library  of  Siena  are 
 preserved  the  letters  of  a  certain  Lombardelli,  written  in 
 1588  to  the  archiepiscopal  Yicar  of  this  diocese,  complain- 
 ing very  seriously  of  things  seen  in  this  pavement,  as  well 
 as  of  popular  practices  kept  up  around  the  Duomo,  which 
 scandalized  that  respectable  gentleman :  e.(j.  the  vases  in- 
 scribed mel  and  fel  in  the  intarsio  at  the  summit  of  the 
 outer  stairs ;  the  rosary  in  the  hand  of  the  Pharisee  at 
 prayer,  in  the  design  illustrating  the  well-known  parable  ; 
 the  figures  of  Socrates  and  Crates  throwing  his  treasures 
 into  the  sea ;  those  of  Fortune  and  the  Seven  Ages — all 
 alike  profane  to  orthodox  eyes. 
 
 The  deeply  religious  feeling  and  spiritual  tendencies  of 
 the  Umbrian  School  had  scarcely  given  signs  of  life  in 
 such  works  as  had  been  produced  before  the  period  here 
 considered,  nor  did  such  signs  appear  before  the  end  of  this 
 century.  We  must  return  to  the  pleasant  regions,  where 
 loveliness  and  grandeur  unite  in  the  scenery  of  the  valleys 
 watered  by  the  Tiber,  the  Nar,  and  the  Yelino,  in  order  to 
 appreciate  the  high  merits  of  the  local  Art  in  its  maturer 
 existence.  Eut  even  at  its  dim  and  feebly  flowing  source, 
 the  stream  destined  to  expand  so  magnificently  may  detain 
 the  pilgrim  step,  and  command  reverential  interest.      We 
 
 X 
 
306  MEDIiEYAL    CHRISTIAXITY   AND 
 
 may  begin  our  study  of  the  Art  in  question,  in  its  earliest 
 and  comparatively  obscure  efforts,  at  "  Perugia  Turrena," 
 whicli,  in  the  middle  of  this  century,  was  not  only  an  inde- 
 pendent city,  but  the  seat  of  a  republican  government, 
 extending  its  sway  over  many  towns  of  mediaeval  impor- 
 tance, Spoleto,  Eoligno,  Assisi,  Grubbio,  Citta  di  Castello, 
 &c.  About  1366  was  built  the  new  cincture  of  walls, 
 which,  after  being  enlarged  by  the  formidable  Braccio 
 Fortebracci,  lord  of  Perugia  in  the  next  century,  measured 
 five  miles  in  circuit ;  and  the  stately  city  made  good  her 
 claim  to  the  title  of  "  the  towered"  by  forty-two  battle- 
 mented  structures,  conspicuous  in  the  aspect  she  presented 
 on  her  commanding  height — but  of  which  only  three  re- 
 main at  this  day  in  their  original  altitude,  though  efforts 
 were  made  in  the  XV.  century  to  preserve  them  from  ruin, 
 even  by  penal  enactments.*  It  was  the  usage  to  defend 
 the  ingress  to  the  narrow  streets,  still  so  picturesquely 
 irregular  and  medisBval-looking,  by  massive  chains,  the 
 hooks  for  fastening  which  are  seen  at  this  day  in  many- 
 places  ;  and  when  all  these  barriers  were  removed,  in  1590, 
 it  was  found  that  the  total  value  of  the  iron  so  used,  might 
 be  estimated  at  10,000  gold  scudi. 
 
 The  earliest  paintings,  with  ascertainable  date,  at  Perugia 
 are  a  large  Crucifixion  in  the  Pinacotheca,  and  a  Madonna 
 and  Child  in  a  chapel  occupying  a  part  of  the  portico  of 
 the  ancient  Podesta  Palace.  Margaritone  di  Arezzo,  the 
 artist  of  the  former  picture,  has  left  the  date,  1272,t  on 
 this  grim  and  ghastly  composition,  in  which,  besides  the 
 Crucified,  are  introduced  the  figures  of  the  Deity  blessing, 
 the  Virgin  between  two  angels ;  the  Magdalen,  S.  John, 
 and  S.  Prancis  kneeling  below  the  cross.     The  Madonna 
 
 *  Sixtus  IV.  prohibited  the  demolition  of  the  towers  of  Perugia 
 under  penalty  of  50  ducats. 
 
 t  Anno  Domini  MCCLXXII.  T.P.R.  Gregorii  PP.X. 
 
SACRED  AUT  TX  ITALY.  307 
 
 picture  is  one  of  those  called  "Macsta,"  and,  in  this  instance, 
 *'  Macsta  delle  Volte,"  from  the  circumstance  of  its  being 
 painted  under  the  vault  of  a  portico  before  the  Podesta's 
 Palace,  which  was  reduced  to  ruin  by  two  fires  (1329-1531), 
 though  that  sacred  picture,  together  with  a  remnant  of  the 
 portico  itself,  is  still  extant ;  the  Madonna,  said  to  have 
 been  painted  by  order  of  the  Magistrates  in  1297,  being  now 
 enclosed  within  a  chapel,  and  provided  with  an  altar.  In 
 this  instance  we  see  the  earlier  adopted  type  of  the  Virgin 
 Mother's  aspect,  neither  youthful  nor  distinguished  by 
 loveliness,  but  of  a  certain  severe  and  matron  dignity. 
 Both  Mother  and  Child  are  richly  dressed,  the  former  in 
 robes  of  embroidered  gold  tissue.  The  attendant  angels 
 are  modern.  Other  art-works  at  Perugia  of  the  period  here 
 in  question,  may  be  briefly  enumerated.  In  the  singular 
 church  of  S.  Angela^  long  supposed  to  be  a  Pagan  temple, 
 but  now  recognised  by  antiquaries  as  a  building  originally 
 destined  for  Christian  worship,*  probably  of  the  V.  or 
 VI.  century,  we  see  some  rudely  executed  frescoes :  three 
 female  saints,  one  the  Veronica,  with  her  miraculously 
 impressed  handkerchief,  the  head  upon  which  is  colossal ; 
 also  over  the  high  altar,  a  Madonna  with  angels.  At  ;S'. 
 Morenzo,  a  church  founded  in  the  VIII.  century, but  for  the 
 most  part  rebuilt,  1491-1515,  are  some  remnants  of  wall- 
 paintings — the  Saviour  in  an  elliptic  nimbus,  amidst  angels 
 and  several  saints,  the  heads  alone  of  several  figures  rescued 
 
 *  It  is  still  referred  to  a  heathen  origin,  and  conjectured  to  have  been 
 a  temple  of  Vesta,  in  the  useful  "  Guida  di  Perugia,"  by  Count  Battista 
 Rossi  Scotti,  published  in  1867.  That  writer  mentions  the  tradition  that 
 eight  Barons,  companions  in  arms  of  the  renowned  Orlando,  who  died 
 and  were  buried  at  Penigia,  raised  this  church  in  the  form  of  the  tent 
 of  that  doughty  champion,  and  dedicated  it  to  S.  ^Michael.  Their  graves, 
 we  may  infer,  should  be  sought  for  within  these  walls  ;  but  the  church 
 has  suffered  much  from  modern  alteration. 
 
 X  2 
 
308  MEDIJ3VAL   CTIEISTIANITT   AND 
 
 from  whitewash — on  tlie  vaiilfc  of  what  once  formed  a  tran- 
 sept, but  is  now  cut  off  from  the  modernized  and  dimi- 
 nished church.  At  S.  Ajata,  a  church  of  good  architectural 
 features  in  the  pointed  style,  recent  repairs  have  brought 
 to  light  several  frescoes  which  probably  occupied  the  entire 
 surface  of  the  walls— figures  of  Saints  standing  under 
 Grothic  arches,  divided  by  columns,  alike  belonging  to  the 
 painted  decoration — some  evidently  of  very  early,  others 
 of  a  later  phase  in  Umbrian  Art ;  a  S.  Agatha,  distin- 
 guished by  the  beauty  of  the  head,  referrible  to  some 
 period  in  the  XY.  century ;  while  an  earlier  school  is 
 recognised  in  a  fantastic  representation  of  the  Holy 
 Trinity  with  three  heads,  or  rather  three  faces,  two  in 
 profile,  to  a  single  head  and  body  —  the  aspect  stern, 
 the  features  strongly  marked.  Such  offensive  concep- 
 tions of  this  mysterious  subject,  now  forbidden  by  au- 
 thoritative decree  from  Eome,  are  seen  in  two  other 
 examples  at  Perugia,  both  probably  of  date  within  the 
 XIV,  or  first  years  of  the  next  century.  One  is  in  the  now 
 desecrated  church  of  >S'.  Crispino,  attached  to  a  hospital 
 also  suppressed,  and  on  the  walls  of  which  are,  besides  that 
 monstrous  representation  of  the  Triune  Deity,  a  Cruci- 
 fixion, Christ  standing  in  the  tomb,  and  a  Madonna 
 crowned  by  angels.  The  other  is  in  the  crypt  below  the 
 oratory  of  the  Confraternita  di  S  Agostino  :  the  Deity 
 being  here  depicted  with  three  faces  and  a  single  head,  in  the 
 act  of  blessing,  and  holding  a  book  open  at  the  text,  in 
 Grothic  letters :  Ego  sum  Via,  Veritas  et  Vita*  At  a 
 short  distance  beyond  one  of  the  gates  of  Perugia,  the 
 castellated  Fo7'ta  S.  Angela,  stands  the  small  church  of  a 
 long  suppressed  monastery,    S.    Matteo,    now    open    for 
 
 *  A  similar  picture,  with  such  presentment  of  the  subject,  of  dates 
 early  in  the  XV.  century,  is  in  the  rural  church  of  B.  Cristoforo,  near 
 Passignano  on  the  Lake  of  Thrasymene, 
 
SACRED   ART   IN   ITALY*.  800 
 
 worsliip  but  one  day  in  the  year,  S.  Matthew's  fet>tival ;  and 
 liere,  on  the  walls  of  an  interior  not  without  good  features 
 of  the  least  ornate  Q-othic,  are   some  frescoes  that  may 
 be  classed  among  the  primitive  attempts  of  the  local  school, 
 but  recently  rescued  from  whitewash :  one,  a  group  too 
 much  damaged   for   the  determining  of  its  subject,  with 
 the   date    inscribed    1348 ;    the   subjects  recognisable,  S. 
 Matthew,  S.  Michael  subduing  the  Demon,  S.   Sylvester 
 charming  the  Dragon,  S.  Galgano  on  horseback ;  and,  behind 
 the  altar,  Christ  blessing,  S.  Bartholomew,  S.  Francis,  and 
 the  Madonna  and  Child — the  latter  reminding  one,  though 
 not  pleasingly,  of  Cimabue.    Among  pictures  of  early  date 
 removed  from  suppressed  convents  to  the  Pinacotheca  now 
 an  important  and  most  interesting  centre  for  the  study  of 
 the  Umbrian  School,  are  several  frescoes  detached  from  the 
 walls  of  S.    Giuliana,  representing    the    horrid    tortures 
 endured  by  that  virgin  martyr,  and  also  (of  more  advanced 
 art)  an  uncommon  subject,  which  might  be  described  as 
 Christ  receiving  His  earthly  Mother  into  beatitude,  no6 
 crowning  or  admitting  her  to  like  honours  wdth  His  own, 
 but  apparently  holding  high  converse  wdth  her,  both  being 
 seated  upon  clouds  opposite  to  each  other,  while  the  two 
 SS.  John,  the  Baptist  and  Apostle,  are  seen  on  earth,  each 
 with  a  book,  below  that  celestial  vision.     May  not  this  be 
 an  incipient  conception  of  what  was  finally  developed  into 
 the  formal  and  triumphant  coronation  of  the  Virgin  by  the 
 Divine  Son,  subsequently  by  the  Eternal  Father,  and  (the 
 latest  phase)  by  both  Persons  of  the  Grodhead  conjointly  ? 
 
 I  can  only  mention  the  supposable  existence  of  mediaeval 
 paintings  on  the  now  whitew^ashed  w^alls  of  another  monastic 
 church,  about  a  mile  from  Perugia,  S.  l^cvignatej  built  (or 
 rebuilt)  by  the  Templars  in  the  year  1300,  and,  after  the 
 extinction  of  that  order,  possessed  by  the  Knights  of  S. 
 John,  who  handed  it   over,  1321,  to  a  Pcrugiau  merdiant 
 
310  MEDIEVAL  CHEISTIANITT  AND 
 
 and  his  wife,  by  whom  it  was  finally  conceded  to  a  com» 
 munity  of  nuns.  It  is  now  held,  and  bestowed  in  commen- 
 dam,  as  a  simple  benefice,  by  the  Apostolic  Camera  of 
 Eome ;  but  is  rarely  opened  for  public  worship.  Its  old 
 tower  is  truncated ;  its  lancet  windows  and  a  side  portal 
 with  clustering  columns  are  walled  up ;  its  interior,  a 
 single  nave  without  colonnades,  under  a  high-hung  vault,  is 
 badly  modernized ;  but  there  is  still  an  imposing  eff'ect,  a 
 picturesqueness  of  desolation  in  this  long  silent  church. 
 Its  architecture  in  dusky  stone  work  is  a  noticeable 
 example  of  the  Italian  Gothic  in  its  utmost  simplicity  and 
 sternly  massive  character.  The  deserted,  though  still 
 habitable,  monastery,  with  large  vaulted  rooms,  now  in  part 
 used  as  a  granary,  and  commanding  beautiful  views  from 
 the  windows,  seems  a  mournful  memorial  of  what  such 
 institutions  once  were  in  contrast  to  what  they  have  now 
 become — fallen  and  impoverished,  or  abandoned  and  dis- 
 owned !* 
 
 The  earliest  Christian  sculptures  at  Perugia  are  some 
 curiously  archaic  relievi  round  the  portal  of  S.  Costanzo,  an 
 extramural  church  on  the  site  where  the  martyred  bishoj)  of 
 this  see,  Constans,  was  decapitated  a.d.  165,  Here  we  see, 
 in  rudest  execution, the  Saviour  as  a  youth,  seated  on  a  rain- 
 bow, the  Pour  Evangelic  Emblems,  and  a  more  pleasingly 
 treated  ornato,  with  birds  and  fantastic  animals  amidst 
 foliage.  A  transition  of  several  centuries  brings  us  to  the 
 sculptures,  not  without  dignity  and  character,  around  the 
 chief  portals  of  the  majestic  Palazzo  Comunale,  whose 
 Gothic  architecture,  much  marred  in  the  time  of  the  Pon- 
 tific  Delegates  resident  here,  has  lately  been  restored  with 
 
 *  S.  Bevignate  was  a  hermit,  "vvho  is  said  to  have  inhabited  a  solitary 
 cell  on  this  site  about  the  middle  of  the  13th  century,  and  was  canonized,, 
 at  the  request  of  the  Ferugian  magistrates,  1277.  His  body  lies  in  a 
 narrow  dark  crypt  below  the  high  altar  of  this  church. 
 
SACRED   ATIT   IN   ITALY.  311 
 
 intelligence.  To  the  latter  half  of  this  century  may  be 
 referred  the  statues  on  the  tympanum  of  its  round-arched 
 doorway,  SS.  Lawrence,  Herculanus,  and  Louis  of  Anjou« 
 three  patron  saints  of  Perugia ;  also  the  relievi  of  allegoric 
 subjects  on  the  flanking  pilasters.  Humility  and  Pride, 
 Magnanimity  and  Avarice,  Fertility  and  Abundance,  &C' 
 This  strikingly  picturesque  palace  is  supposed  to  have  been 
 built  from  the  designs  of  a  Benedictine  monk,  Pra  Bevig- 
 nate,  who  held  the  office  of  public  architect  in  this  city. 
 The  buildings  are  first  mentioned  under  date  129G  ;  they 
 w^ere  finished  so  far  as  to  be  habitable  and  occupied  bv 
 official  persons,  in  1353,  though  not  completed  in  all  parts 
 till  1429. 
 
 At  Assisi  the  historic  fact  manifest  on  all  sides,  is  the 
 rapidly  attained  ascendancy  of  the  Mendicant  Orders  through 
 the  force  of  their  protest,  backed  by  the  example  of  en- 
 thusiastic self-denial,  against  the  luxury  and  worldliness 
 which  had  invaded  the  higher  regions  of  the  Church,  the 
 prelatic  palaces  and  magnificent  monasteries,  long  before 
 S.  Praucis  and  S.  Dominick  appeared  on  their  mission  of 
 renovating,  denouncing,  and  purifying.  A  remarkable  cir- 
 cumstance in  the  records  of  the  great  basilica  above  the 
 tomb  of  S.  Prancis,  is  the  almost  unprecedented  rapidity 
 with  which  both  the  upper  and  lower  church  were  built 
 (1228-1232),  thanks  to  the  zealous  exertions  of  Pra  Elia, 
 the  first  Pather  General  of  the  Order  after  the  death  of  the 
 saintly  founder,  and  also  to  the  liberal  contributions  of 
 benefactors,  among  whom  one  of  the  most  munificent  was 
 the  Emperor  Prederick  II.*  It  was  in  gratitude  to  that 
 potentate  that  the  imperial  eagle  was  placed,  where  it  is 
 
 ♦  Jacopo,  or  Lapo,  who  has  been  called  a  German,  but  may  have  been 
 (as  Cicognaro  supposes)  an  Italian  of  one  of  the  northern  provinces,  was 
 sent  by  the  Emperor,  at  the  instance  of  Fra  Elia,  to  design  and  superin- 
 tend the  buildin<'s. 
 
312  MEDIiEVAL   CHRISTIAI^ITT   Al^B 
 
 still  conspicuous,  among  tlie  symbolic  sculptures  of  tlie 
 principal  facade.  Not,  however,  till  the  later  half  of  the 
 XIV.  century  did  this  venerable  church  attain  its  matured 
 beauty  through  the  wealth  of  artistic  adornment,  which, 
 though  commenced  by  Cimabue  and  his  immediate  pupils, 
 received  its  most  numerous  additions  from  the  school  of 
 Griotto,  flourishing  between  1850  and  1400.  I  have  else- 
 where noticed  the  different  theories  as  to  the  authorship  of 
 the  frescoes  in  the  upper  church  ;  and  the  works  of  Griotto 
 do  not  fall  within  the  limits  of  my  present  theme.  I  may 
 now  more  particularly  dwell  on  the  works  of  a  great  artist, 
 far  less  generally  known,  and  represented  by  few  extant 
 creations  of  his  genius,  Tommaso  di  Stefano,  called  Griottino, 
 who  was  born  in  1324,  and  certainly  living  in  1368.  In 
 his  paintings  we  see  the  emancipation  of  Art  from  cum- 
 brous tradition  and  gloomy  asceticism.  The  wall-pictures 
 ascribed  to  him  (though  not,  indeed,  without  dissentient 
 voices)  in  the  lower  church  at  Assisi,  are  :  the  Coronation 
 of  the  Blessed  Virgin,  within  an  arched  recess  at  the  left 
 of  the  nave  ;  and,  on  the  archivolt  above  this,  subjects  from 
 the  life  of  S.  Stanislaus,  a  Polish  bishop,  who  was  canonized 
 in  this  church  by  Innocent  IV.,  1253.*  In  the  Magdalene 
 chapel,  founded  about  1330  by  a  bishop  of  Assisi,  are 
 frescoes  illustrating  the  history  of  Mary  and  Martha,  which 
 Vasari  attributes  to  Buifalmacco  ;  other  critics  (with  much 
 more  apparent  correctness)  to  Griottino.  "Worthy  of  that 
 artist,  and  certainly  maintaining  the  reputation  founded  on 
 his  known  works,  are  such  pictures,  in  this  interesting 
 
 *  In  an  official  report  drawn  up  by  a  committee  appointed  to  inspect 
 this  basilica  and  its  contents,  in  January  1863,  these  frescoes  are  attributed 
 to  Taddeo  Gaddi.  They  arc  not  comprised  in  the  works  assignable  to 
 Giottino,  according  to  other  critics,  whose  sentence  is  authoritative  ;  but 
 are  given  to  that  artist  in  the  "  Guida  "  published  at  this  city,  1869, 
 
SACRED   ART   IN   ITALY.  313 
 
 series,  as  the  Raising  of  Lazarus,  the  "  Noli  me  tangcrc," 
 and  the  larger  groups  of  the  bishop  Pantani  (founder  of 
 tliis  chapel)  kneeling  before  S.  Euiinus  (the  first  bishop  of 
 Assisi,  martyred  a.d.  238),  and  of  S.  Eufinus  himself  kneeling 
 before  Mary  Magdalene.  Here  we  see  also  the  legendary 
 class  of  subjects  :  the  converted  Prince  of  Marseilles,  and  his 
 wife  and  child  rescued  from  death  on  the  desolate  island.* 
 In  the  former  chapter-house  of  the  convent,  a  Crucifixion 
 with  numerous  figures  may,  I  believe,  be  assigned  without 
 doubt  to  Giottino,t  and  seems  to  me  the  noblest  illustra- 
 tion of  the  subject  hitherto  produced  by  mediaeval  art — an 
 example  of  the  idealizing  treatment,  which,  while  it  softens 
 the  tragic  horror,  brings  into  relief  the  solemn  significance 
 and  mighty  religious  results  of  the  event  depicted.  Angels 
 are  floating  round  the  cross  :  at  its  foot  are  kneelinjr 
 S.  Francis  and  S.  Clara ;  beside  it  stand,  together  wdth 
 the  apostles  SS.  Peter,  Paul,  and  John,  the  Blessed  Virgin, 
 and  two  other  favourite  representatives  of  the  Franciscan 
 Order,  S.  Anthony  of  Padua  and  S.  Louis  of  Anjou. 
 Another  example  of  this  ideal  treatment  of  the  Crucifixion, 
 giving  to  the  event  the  character  rather  of  a  tragic  triumph 
 than  a  sacrifice,  and  with  complicated  grouping  that  implies 
 the  adoring  acquiescence  of  nations  in  the  worship  and 
 faith  of  the  Divine  Victim,  is  before  us  in  the  great  picture? 
 the  masterpiece  of  Pietro  Cavallini,  in  the  south  transept 
 of  the  lower  church,  ordered,  1342,  by  Walter  de  Brienne, 
 Duke  of  Athens  and  Tyrant  of  Florence,  whose  portrait  is 
 here  introduced  as  a  warrior  on  a  white  steed,  with  a  gilt 
 halo  (certainly  not  the  intended  emblem  of  sanctity),  his 
 
 *  The  report  of  the  Commissioners  considers  these  paintings  as  "pro- 
 bably" by  Taddeo  Gaddi.  They  seemed  to  me  far  beyond  that  master's 
 capabilities. 
 
 t  It  is  so  in  the  report  of  the  Committee. 
 
814  MEDI^TAL    CHRISTIANITT    AND 
 
 handsome  face  seen  in  profile,  and  devoutly  ui:)turned 
 towards  the  Crucified.  To  Giottino  are  given,  on  good 
 authority,  the  illustrations  of  the  life  of  S.  Nicholas,  and 
 twelve  figures  of  saints  in  the  chapel  of  the  Holy  Sacra- 
 ment ;  among  the  subjects  from  the  former  saint's  history, 
 his  intervention  to  save  the  lives  of  three  citizens  of  Myra 
 condemned  to  death  by  the  axe,  and  his  appearance  in  a 
 vision  to  the  Emperor,  attesting  their  innocence.  Some 
 critics  attribute  to  Taddeo  Gaddi  several  paintings  on  New 
 Testament  subjects  in  the  north  transept ;  they  seem  of 
 more  advanced  art,  and  characterized  by  more  poetic  deli- 
 cacy than  that  master's  works  display.  Particularly 
 beautiful,  and  full  of  refined  feeling,  are  the  Visitation,  the 
 Christ  disputing  in  the  Temple,  the  Adoration  of  the  Magi; 
 and,  above  all,  distinguished  by  quiet  grace  and  tender 
 sentiment,  a  picture  of  an  uncommon  subject,  Mary  and 
 Joseph  leading  away  the  Divine  Child  from  the  Temple 
 after  the  so  called  "  dispute"  with  the  doctors. 
 
 An  historically  interesting  picture  is  seen  in  the  chapel 
 of  S.  Catherine,  founded  by  the  famous  Cardinal  Albornoz 
 — that  warlike  Legate  and  able  politician  (a  portrait,  as  we 
 may  suppose)  kneeling  before  a  sainted  Pope,  believed  to 
 be  S.  Clement ;  the  walls  being  adorned  with  frescoes  by 
 the  same  artist.  Pace  di  Paenza,  on  the  legendary  life  of 
 the  Virgin  Martyr  of  Alexandria,  besides  other  accessorial 
 figures  of  saints. 
 
 The  church  of  S.  Cliiara,  which  ranks  also  as  a  basilica, 
 and  is  remarkable  for  imposing  effect  with  simplicity  of 
 de!:5ign,  also  for  the  magnificent  wheel- window,  like  a  glori- 
 ous star  on  its  front,  was  completed  between  1257-1260  by 
 Pilippo  da  Campello,  who  succeeded  Lapo  as  architect  of 
 the  Pranciscan  Basilica.  Among  the  finest  extant  works 
 of  Giottino  are  the  frescoes  on  the  vault  above  its  high 
 altar :  eight  Virgin  Saints   standing  in   pairs,  two  under 
 
SACRED  AUT  in  ITALY.  315 
 
 eacli  of  tlic  four  arclics  of  a  painted  portico  or  loggia ;  the 
 Saviour,  seen  as  if  lioveriug  in  air  above  each  group,  and 
 angels,  of  smaller  scale  than  those  sainted  Heroines,  kneel- 
 ing beside  them.  This  composition  not  only  illustrates  the 
 memory  of  the  gentle  Saints  themselves,  but  the  glorifica- 
 tion of  woman  through  the  teaching  and  practice  of  tlie 
 Catholic  Church.  It  is  an  early  example  of  the  class  of 
 paintings,  subsequently  so  much  more  common  and  popular, 
 in  which  sainted  females  appear  not  in  any  historical 
 action  or  association,  but  in  an  abstract  character  sur- 
 rounded by  a  celestial  atmosphere — not  merely  as  exam- 
 ples, but  as  patronesses  and  powers.  The  other  frescoes 
 by  the  same  artist,  in  a  transept  of  this  church,  are  almost 
 lost.  The  only  subjects  now  intelligible,  in  a  series  cover- 
 ing large  surfaces,  are :  the  translation  of  the  body  of  S. 
 Clara  (12G0)  from  her  convent,  S.  Damiano,  where  she 
 died,  to  this  church,  and  the  consecration  of  the  basilica 
 (formerly  dedicated  to  S.  Greorge  but  now  to  S.  Clara)  by 
 Pope  Clement  IV.  12G5.  The  other  much  damaged  paint- 
 ings, which  it  is  vain  to  attempt  to  appreciate,  are 
 described  by  Eio  as  a  miracle  of  S.  Clara,  the  resuscita- 
 tion, namely,  of  a  dead  infant,  with  a  group  of  women 
 around,  and  the  same  Saint  ascending  to  Heaven.  That 
 last  the  artist  was  obliged  to  leave  unfinished,  owing  to  his 
 enfeebled  health.  In  one  of  the  lateral  chapels  we  see  a 
 life-size  portrait  of  S.  Clara,  with  eight  small  storie  from 
 her  life,  ascribed  to  Cimabue,  but  apparently  either  re- 
 painted or  by  a  later  artist ;  though  indeed  so  full  of 
 character  accordant  with  what  we  know  of  this  energetic 
 woman,  that  we  may  regard  it  as  at  least  a  traditionary  like- 
 ness. The  body  of  that  Saint,  who  died,  aged  fifty-nine, 
 1253,  was  found  under  the  high  altar  of  this  church  in  the 
 September  of  1850  ;  and  may  now  be  seen,  through  a 
 grated   window,  laid  in  a  rich  shrine  within  a  chamber 
 
816  MEDIiEYAL   CHRISTIANITY   AND 
 
 accessible  only  to  tlie  nuns.*  At  the  same  time  we  obtain 
 an  unsatisfactory  glimpse  of  some  frescoes,  said  to  be  of 
 the  XIV.  century,  on  the  walls  of  the  sacred  penetralia. 
 
 The  Crucifix  which  spohe  to  S.  Francis,  from  the  old 
 church  of  >S^.  Damiano,  hangs  in  the  same  chamber.  Among 
 other  frescoes  which  may  be  referred  to  the  century  here 
 in  question,  is  one  representing  that  miraculous  incident — 
 the  Crucifix  commanding  S.  Francis  to  repair  His  Church 
 (the  Institution,  not  the  particular  building,  as  the  Saint  at 
 first  understood) — in  the  same  dim  and  primitive-lookiDg 
 church,  ;S',  Damiano,  on  the  hill-side  below  Assisi.  In  the 
 Benedictine  church  of  S.  Fietro,  v/hich  has  good  features 
 of  the  earlier  Italian  Gothic,  and  a  fine  fa(^ade  of  date  1268, 
 some  faded  fragments  of  the  fresco-painting  by  which,  we 
 may  suppose,  its  walls  were  once  covered,  may  be  of  about 
 the  same  period  as  the  afore-named  picture.  Undoubtedly 
 the  oldest  paintings  at  Assisi  are  those  (but  a  slight  rem- 
 nant) in  the  crypt  of  the  cathedral— the  m-ost  ancient 
 place  of  Christian  worship  here,  and  long  anterior  to  the 
 original  Duomo  built  by  the  Bishop  Ugone  between  1036- 
 
 *  Soon  after  this  discovery  of  this  revered  relic  was  commenced  the 
 construction  of  a  splendid  "  confessional,"  or  crypt,  underneath  the 
 high  altar,  and  surrounding  the  rocky  bed  in  which  the  Saint's  body 
 was  originally  laid,  and  where  it  is  to  be  eventually  replaced.  The  local 
 circumstances,  and  the  mode  of  enclosing  the  saintly  tomb  within  a 
 chapel  over  whose  altar  the  body  reposes,  are  the  counterpart  of  what  is 
 seen  in  the  gorgeous  modern  chapel  forming  the  third  and  lowermost 
 story  of  the  Franciscan  basilica.  But  the  design  adopted  at  S.  Chiara 
 is  different— highly  ornate  Italian  Gothic  with  profuse  incrustation  in 
 marbles  and  scagliuola.  When  1  last  visited  Assisi  in  the  summer  of 
 1869, 1  found  that  these  works  for  the  crypt-chapel  had  been  long  in  sus- 
 pense, owing  to  want  of  funds.  At  an  early  stage  of  this  undertaking 
 a  collection,  speedily  set  on  foot,  soon  produced  4,800  Roman  scudi,  of 
 which  600  were  contributed  by  the  Pope.  Of  two  architectural  designs 
 prepared,  that  by  a  Canon  of  Assisi  named  Morichclli,  was  preferred  by 
 the  Roman  Academy  of  S.  Luke. 
 
SACRED  ART  IN  ITALY.  317 
 
 1059  ; — also  those,  a  Madonna  and  Child,  alone  left  in  the 
 crypt  of  S.  Maria  Maggiore,  a  church  of  the  XII.  century, 
 wliich  for  a  time  ranked  as  this  city's  cathedral. 
 
 Since  the  suppression  of  monasteries,  twelve  friars 
 (priests  and  lay-brothers)  have  been  allowed  to  reside  in 
 the  immense  convent  attached  to  the  Franciscan  basilica, 
 as  officiating  clergy  for  the  church  and  guardians  of  the 
 premises.  For  the  maintenance  of  this  famous  sanctuary 
 a  revenue  of  12,000  francs  per  annum  is  assigned  :  and  in 
 the  August  of  'GO  was  promised  an  additional  subvention 
 of  20,000  francs  for  repairs.  The  Commissioners,  in  'G3, 
 judiciously  recommended  the  removal  of  all  the  wretched 
 modern  adjuncts  and  tinsel  adornments,  tawdry  gilt  wood- 
 work and  barocco  altar-mountings,  by  w^hich  the  friars  had 
 contrived  to  conceal  in  part  several  inestimably  precious 
 paintings — as,  for  instance,  the  Crucifixion  by  Cavallini — 
 and  to  deti-act  almost  as  much  as  possible  from  the 
 solemnity  of  architectural  effects.  The  silent  convent,  its 
 long  corridors  and  countless  unfurnished  cells,  now  present 
 a  melancholy  scene.  Its  library  is  but  a  -^Teck,  though  still 
 containing  a  collection  of  some  value  ;  and  of  the  illumi- 
 nated choir-books,  a  once  precious  and  numerous  set,  the 
 two  alone  left  have  been  furtively  deprived  of  all,  except 
 one,  of  the  miniatures  adorning  them ! — the  painted  borders 
 still,  however,  remaining  to  enhance  our  regret  for  what  is 
 lost.  It  is  projected  to  unite  all  the  monastic  libraries  of 
 this  province  in  one  great  collection  on  these  premises — 
 nor  could  a  more  appropriate  locality  be  chosen.  Such. a 
 new  consecration  would  well  instal  the  genius  of  Science 
 and  Learning  in  the  former  retreat  of  Piety. 
 
 Few  tourists  make  any  sojourn  at  Foligno,  a  quiet  city 
 in  the  midst  of  a  beautiful  and  fertile  valley,  on  the  heights 
 around  which  stand  so  many  other  towns  whose  names 
 have  become  classical  in  art-history.      There  is  a  charm  in 
 
318  MEDIiETAL    CnRTSTIANTTT    A?fD 
 
 the  landscape  around,  and  a  quaint  picturesqueness  in  the 
 level  city,  with  its  numerous  church-towers  and  decayed 
 fortifications — a  harmony  in  the  spirit  of  the  scene — which 
 will  be  remembered  with  pleasure  by  those  who  have 
 stayed  long  enough  for  any  distinct  recollections  of  Foligno. 
 Erom  an  early  mediaeval  period  this  city,  the  "  Fulginium," 
 mentioned  as  a  Eoman  municipium  by  Cicero  {Fro  Lucio 
 Vareno)^  maintained  republican  principles  and  forms  of 
 government;  but  in  1305  the  Trinci  family,  descended 
 from  Hildebrand,  who  was  Duke  of  Spoleto  in  the  eighth 
 century,  obtained  the  lordship  over  their  native  city,  which 
 they  continued  to  rule  over,  assuming  the  title  of  "  Yicars 
 of  the  Pope,"  for  one  hundred  and  thirty-four  years.  The 
 last  representative  of  that  house  in  its  ^w«s^- sovereign 
 capacity,  Corrado  Trinci,  brought  down  upon  himself  by 
 intolerable  abuse  of  power  a  shock,  through  popular  revolt, 
 that  weakened  the  foundations  of  his  sway ;  and  in  his 
 person  the  Trinci  dynasty  (if  so  it  may  be  called)  was 
 finally  overthrown,  deprived  for  ever  of  the  lordship  of 
 Foligno,  by  the  Papal  Legate  of  martial  renown.  Cardinal 
 Giovanni  Yitelleschi.  From  that  time  forth  the  city  and 
 territory  remained  under  the  immediate  dominion  of  the 
 Holy  See ;  though  many  municipal  privileges  and  an  almost 
 independent  magistracy  were  among  benefits  still  enjoyed 
 here  under  pontific  government. 
 
 The  See  of  Foligno  is  said  to  have  been  founded  by 
 S.  Chryspolitus,  a  disciple  of  S.  Peter,  a.d.  58,  and  the  first 
 Christian  oratory  here  is  believed  to  be  still  extant,  com- 
 prised within  the  buildings  of  a  very  ancient  church, 
 S.  Maria  infra  PortaSt  which  originally  ranked  as  the 
 cathedral.  S.  Felicianus,  a  bishop  who  was  elected  to  this 
 See  by  the  free  suffrages  of  the  clergy  and  people,  a.d.  197, 
 and  who  suffered  martyrdom  at  the  age  of  ninety-two, 
 under  the  Emperor  Decius,  a.d.  251,  is  said  to  have  conse- 
 
SACRED  ART  IN  ITALY.  319 
 
 crated  for  Christian  worship  a  temple  of  Pallas,  which, 
 after  this  city  had  been  devastated  by  the  Longobard 
 invaders  in  the  eighth  century,  was  rebuilt  on  larger  scale, 
 subsequently  restored  and  embellished  in  the  XII.  and 
 XIII.  centuries,  and  finally  reduced  to  its  present  form 
 from  the  designs  of  Yanvitelli,  with  a  cupola  of  somewhat 
 earlier  date — the  third  raised  in  Italy,  and  attributed, 
 though  not  beyond  doubt,  to  Bramante.  The  fac;ade  still 
 retains  its  original  architecture,  as  erected  in  1201  by  the 
 bishop  Anselmo  Atti ;  its  fine  wheel  window  has  been 
 destroyed,  to  give  place  to  a  useless  and  unornamental 
 loggia;  but  the  curiously  archaic  sculptures  around  the 
 portal,  the  signs  of  the  zodiac,  the  four  Evangelic  Emblems, 
 and  relief  busts  of  saints,  attest  the  character  of  that  art 
 in  what  may  be  called  its  medisDval  infancy.  A  crypt, 
 divided  into  two  aisles  by  massive  columns  under  a  depressed 
 vaulting,  is,  no  doubt,  the  most  ancient  part  of  this  note- 
 worthy cathedral.  In  the  tower  we  may  visit  a  small  dark 
 chamber  which  was  the  retreat,  during  several  years,  of  the 
 Beato  Pietro  Crisci,  a  saint  of  this  city  (1243-1323),  who 
 early  appears  in  Umbrian  art,  known  by  his  eremite  cos- 
 tume with  bare  arms  and  feet,  and  sometimes  represented 
 in  prayer  whilst  gazing  undazzled  on  the  sun,  according  to 
 the  legend  of  his  being  favoured  with  a  vision  of  the  Saviour 
 in  the  disk  of  the  luminous  orb,  which  he  was  preter- 
 naturally  enabled  thus  to  contemplate  ;  an  apparent  remi- 
 niscence of  the  Apollo  and  Mithraic  worship,  blent  with 
 the  Catholic  mysticism  of  the  middle  ages.  In  that  gloomy 
 cell  of  the  cathedral-tower  are  a  few  faded  frescoes :  the 
 Crucifixion,  the  Agony  in  the  Garden,  and,  in  a  recess 
 where  the  holy  man  used  to  sleep  on  a  bed  of  stone,  a 
 Madonna  and  Child — little  noticeable  save  for  the  suppos- 
 able  date,  which  may  be  referred  to  some  year  not  long  after 
 the  recluse's  death. 
 
320  MEDIiEVAL   CHRISTIANITY   A^D 
 
 The  primitive  cliapel  at  >S'.  Maria  infra  Porta  is  said 
 to  have  been  originally  a  temple  of  Diana,  consecrated 
 A.D.  58  as  a  Christian  oratory,  in  which  S.  Peter  and 
 S.  Paul  celebrated  mass  while  they  were  guests  at  Poligno, 
 on  a  progress  through  Umbria.*  The  wall  behind  the 
 altar  of  this  chapel  has  been  covered  with  paintings,  of 
 which  the  sole  portion  left  entire  is  a  colossal  half-length 
 of  Christ  blessing  between  SS.  Peter  and  Paul,  who  each 
 hold  books  with  jewelled  binding,  and  two  of  the  Evangelic 
 Emblems, — the  style  of  these  paintings,  and  especially  the 
 severe  character,  as  well  as  sallow  complexion,  of  the 
 Saviour's  head,  reminding  of  the  mosaics  in  Roman  basilicas, 
 and  consequently  of  an  antiquity  much  higher  than  the 
 period  I  am  now  considering.  In  a  recess  on  one  side  of 
 this  chapel,  where  was  formerly  placed  the  stone  said  to 
 have  served  the  Apostles  as  an  altar,  is  a  Madonna  and 
 Child,  probably  about  as  ancient  as  the  other  pictures ; 
 and  in  the  recess  of  a  deeply  splayed  window,  an  Ecce 
 Homo,  with  a  six-winged  Seraph  beside  the  Divine  Victim 
 — of  somewhat  later  art.  The  entire  walls  and  pilasters 
 of  this  church  have  been  covered  with  frescoes,  now  in  the 
 plurality  concealed  under  whitewash,  though  many  are  still 
 visible — some  to  be  recognized  as  inferior  works  of  the 
 XIY.  century ;  others  as  later,  and  by  masters  of  evident 
 
 *  The  Apostles  were  entertained,  it  is  believed,  by  a  family  still  repre- 
 sented, and  now  bearing  the  name  of  Villa,  at  a  small  town  in  this 
 neighbourhood.  It  is  moreover  believed  to  this  day,  and  not  exclusively 
 by  the  less  educated  citizens  of  Foligno,  as  I  understand,  that,  in  grati- 
 tude for  the  hospitalities  received,  those  Apostles  conferred  on  the  same 
 family  the  hereditary  gift  of  healing  from  the  malady  of  sciatica  by  a 
 touch,  which  miraculous  power  is  still  occasionally  manifested,  with  in- 
 fallible effects,  by  members  of  that  otherwise  obscure  house  ! — v.  "  La 
 Rosa  dell'  Umbria,"  an  interesting  volume  for  local  intelligence,  and 
 something  more  than  the  mere  guide-book,  by  Giuseppe  Bragazzi, 
 Foligno,  1864. 
 
SACRED  ART  IN  ITALY.  321 
 
 power.  I  sliall  have  occasion  again  to  notice  this  memor- 
 able church,  which  contains  so  many  art-works  of  different 
 degrees  of  merit,  and  ranging  apparently  over  several 
 centuries. 
 
 The  newly  formed  collection  of  pictures  from  suppressed 
 convents  in  the  "Betlemme,"  a  desecrated  church  of 
 Foligno,  should  be  visited  in  order  to  acquaint  oneself  with 
 the  phases  of  the  Umbrian  School  here  represented.  Some 
 display  the  infancy,  others  the  matured  life  of  this  local 
 Art.  To  the  earlier  period  belong  the  colossal  figures  of 
 the  four  Evangelists,  each  with  his  mystic  emblem,  and 
 seated  before  a  clumsy  table  ;  a  colossal  Madonna  of  severe 
 and  forbidding  aspect,  and  a  picture  (not  without  solemnity) 
 of  the  Holy  Trinity,  the  Father  and  Son  with  the  same 
 traditional  types,  the  Second  Person  hanging  to  the  cross, 
 which  the  First  Person  supports,  while  the  Dove  issues 
 from  His  bosom  towards  the  head  of  the  Crucified  ;  two 
 adoring  Seraphs  and  Saints  standing  beside  the  elliptic 
 nimbus  which  surrounds  the  Almighty  Three.  Such  con- 
 ception of  the  subject  begins  first  to  appear,  and  seems  to 
 have  become  eminently  popular,  in  the  second  half  of  the 
 XIV.  century  ;  and  in  later  ages  every  encouragement  was 
 given  to  this  species  of  anthropomorphism,  which  degrades 
 the  ideal  and  leads  astray  the  imagination  directed  towards 
 the  Infinite.* 
 
 By  special  privilege,  and  with  a  written  order  from  the 
 "  Priore  dei  Canonici"  of  the  cathedral,  I  was  enabled  to 
 visit  the  interior  of  a  once  celebrated  monastery  of  nuns 
 at   Foligno,    S.  Anna,  founded  by  the    Beata    Angelina, 
 
 *  The  feeling  of  the  early  Church  was  adverse  to  such  representations, 
 and  authoritative  voices  anticipatively  condemned  them.  S.  John 
 Damascene  determines  that  the  form  of  Deity  should  never  be  intro- 
 duced by  Art  save  under  the  recognisable  aspect  of  the  Incarnate  Son  : 
 Dei,  qui  est  incorporeus,  invisihilis — imago  nulla  fieri  potest. 
 
 Y 
 
822  MEDIEVAL   CHRISTIAT^ITT   AKD 
 
 Countess  di  Marciano,  a  patrician  lady  of  tliis  city,  in  the 
 XIV.  century ;  for  the  church  of  which  Eaffaele  painted 
 the  exquisite  altar  piece  now  in  the  Yatican,  and  known  as 
 the  Madonna  di  Foligno.  Since  the  suppression,  this 
 cloister  has  been  inhabited  by  all  the  nuns  in  Foligno,  still 
 allowed,  by  merciful  exemption  from  the  law,  to  remain  in 
 the  religious  state  they  prefer ;  and  two  communities 
 under  different  rules,  Augustinian  and  Pranciscan,  in  all 
 about  sixty  persons,  were  inmates  of  these  premises  at  the 
 time  I  visited  them ;  the  two  sisterhoods  meeting  only  in 
 choir  and  in  the  refectory,  otherwise  living  apart,  and  ob- 
 serving their  respective  rules  under  different  superiors. 
 We  were  received,  (my  companion  being  the  gentleman 
 who  h;id  kindly  obtained  for  me  the  requisite  permission,) 
 by  the  Mother  Superior  of  the  Clarisse  Nuns,  a  venerable 
 lady  of  mild  and  dignified  manners,  who,  attended  by 
 another  elderly  sister,  accompanied  us  over  every  part  of 
 the  premises  where  any  art-works  are  seen,  and  showed 
 anxiety  to  make  our  visit  as  satisfactory  as  possible.  This 
 establishment  is  enriched  by  artists  of  the  Umbrian  School, 
 paintings  by  many  of  whom,  and  of  the  best  period,  adorn 
 the  walls  of  oratories,  corridors  and  refectory.  The  nuns 
 could  not  give  positive  information  as  to  the  authorship  of 
 these  paintings,  some  of  which  seemed  attributable,  if  not 
 to  the  actual  pencils  at  least  to  the  immediate  pupils  of 
 Pinturicchio  and  Lo  Spagna.  Pour  large  frescoes  in  the 
 refectory  are  vaguely  attributed  to  Mezastris,  but  are  not 
 characterized  by  all  the  refinement  and  power  of  that 
 master — though  reminding  of  his  manner.  Evidently  of  a 
 period  within  the  limits  of  my  present  subject,  are  some 
 frescoes  in  a  dark  vaulted  chapel,  or  crypt,  far  below  the 
 level  of  the  other  buildings,  where  the  Beata  Angelina 
 used  to  spend  long  hours  in  prayer  and  to  pass  nights 
 sleeping  on  the  stone  floor,  in  a  recess,  near  a  small  altar. 
 
SACKED  ART  IN  ITALY.  323 
 
 111  this  grave-like  oratory  we  see  paintings  of  some  value, 
 only  visible  by  taper  light,  and  more  impressive  amidst 
 such  mysterious  gloom :  a  Madonna,  perhaps  an  early 
 Byzantine  work,  disfigured  by  modern  bedizenmcnts ;  a 
 Crucifixion  with  the  usual  grouping  round  the  Cross,  and 
 angels  collecting  the  sacred  blood,  which  altar  piece  seems 
 worthy  of  some  artist  distinguished  among  those  who  were 
 immediate  followers  of  Griotto  ;  and  another  picture  whose 
 subject  the  nuns  could  not  explain,  but  which  I  conjectured 
 to  be  the  Virgin  in  her  childhood,  nourished  by  Angels 
 whilst  she  dwelt  under  care  of  the  High  Priest  in  the 
 Temple.  A  young  girl  is  kneeling  before  an  altar ;  above 
 appears  a  hand,  emerging  from  clouds  to  bless  her,  and  an 
 Angel  is  descending  towards  her,  with  a  vase  and  some 
 object,  wrapt  in  a  cloth,  held  in  his  hands. 
 
 AYe  shall  have  to  resume  our  wanderings  in  Umbria,  and 
 shall  find  much  more  to  observe  in  its  old  towns  and 
 picturesque  villages  when  the  genius  of  the  XV.  century 
 becomes  the  object  of  our  studies.  Before  quitting  this 
 region  for  the  present,  we  may  notice  other  paintings  of 
 the  school,  and  some  perhaps  by  the  earliest  followers  of 
 Giotto,  scattered  over  venerable  churches  in  towns,  or  on 
 solitary  spots,  scarcely  known  to  the  tourist  world.  At 
 Trevi,  we  find  in  the  Gothic  church  of  >S'.  Francesco, 
 a  multitude  of  wall-paintings,  Madonnas  and  Saints,  some 
 of  the  rudest,  others  of  superior  character.  And  in  an 
 abandoned  (though  not  desecrated)  church,  in  the  valley 
 below  that  mountainous  town,  S.  Maria  di  Pietra  Sossa,  a 
 still  more  curiously  overcrowded  and  unsystematic  series  of 
 frescoes,  covering  both  the  inner  walls  and  those  sheltered 
 by  a  portico  on  the  outside  ;  the  Madonna  and  Child  being 
 repeated  in  at  least  twenty  instances ;  some  of  these  quaint 
 pictures  having  inscriptions  with  dates  in  the  XV.  century, 
 others  (to  judge  from  style)  being  at  least  a  century  older ; 
 
 1-2 
 
324  MEDIEVAL    CHEISTIANITT   AT^D 
 
 all  SO  disposed  without  attempt  at  unity  or  coherence,  as  to 
 remind  us  of  the  impulsive,  unthinking  devotion  which 
 heaps  up  its  votive  offerings  in  defiance  of  taste  and  regard- 
 less of  effect.  At  Montefalco,  far  seen  on  its  mountain 
 summit  above  the  valley  of  Foligno— and  a  little  town 
 most  rich  in  the  art  of  the  XV.  century — we  have  at 
 present  to  notice  only  the  artistic  contents  of  a  single  church, 
 S.  Francesco,  where  (passing  over  its  most  precious  pictures 
 by  Bennozzo  Grozzoli  in  the  choir)  we  have  to  observe, 
 among  a  multitude  of  other  wall-paintings,  those  which 
 display  the  character  of  the  later  Giottesque  school,  a 
 Crucifixion  with  SS.  Francis  and  Clara,  and  four  scenes 
 from  the  life  of  S.  Anthony.  At  Spoleto  are  seen  a  few 
 indifferent  paintings  of  this  period  in  *S'.  Dominico,  and  in 
 the  now  desecrated  Madonna  della  SfcUa.  Near  the 
 strikingly  picturesque  little  town  of  Spello  we  may  vi'sit  the 
 ruinous  and  roofless  church  of  the  SS.  Trinita,  on  whose  walls 
 are  several  Madonnas,  and  two  Crucifixions,  which  we  may 
 hesitate  to  refer  either  to  so  early  a  date  as  the  XIV.,  or 
 to  any  other  within  the  XV.  century.  And  similar  doubts 
 may  be  felt  as  to  the  wall-paintings,  intelligible  though 
 much  damaged,  in  the  deserted  church  of  ;S^.  Claudio,  a 
 still  beautiful  building  on  the  high  road  below  that  town. 
 At  Terni,  the  church  of  >S'.  Francesco,  attached  to  a  convent 
 formerly  the  seat  of  the  Inquisition,  but  now  a  college  for 
 the  education  and  maintenance  of  about  forty  boys,  contains 
 a  Grothic  chapel  whose  walls  are  covered  with  curious  and 
 interesting  frescoes,  the  Last  Judgment,  Hell,  and  Purga- 
 tory, conceived  in  a  manner  that  announces  the  Dantesque 
 influence,  and  with  date,  but  no  name  of  artist,  in  the 
 inscription :  Haec  est  cajjella  heredu  di  Giovanni  di  Fara- 
 disi  di  Interane  (Interamna)  f(ecit)  A.D.  JSLCCCL. 
 Critics  assign  these  paintings  to  some  otherwise  unknown 
 imitator  of  Griotto.     It  is  observable  that,  amidst  the  com- 
 
SACBED    ART    IN    ITALY.  325 
 
 plicated  grouping  of  the  Judgment,  S.  Francis,  not  the 
 Blessed  Virgin,  is  the  most  conspicuous  of  subordinate 
 figures.  A  tablet  set  into  the  wall  near  the  entrance  of 
 this  chapel,  informs  us  that  through  the  fault  and  ignorance 
 of  the  frati  this  most  noteworthy  part  of  the  mediaeval 
 building  had  been  long  shut  up  and  neglected,  but  that  it 
 was  at  last  re-opened  and  restored  under  the  government 
 of  Victor  Emannuel,  in  1861.  As  I  have  observed,  the 
 first  efforts  of  the  local  school  in  Umbria  bear  little  promise 
 of  a  future  that  proved  so  nobly  inspired,  and  magnificently 
 productive.  The  few  sculptures  of  about  the  same  period 
 as  the  other  art  above  noticed,  are  characterized  by  rather 
 more  vigour  and  unartificial  dignity.  Besides  the  statues 
 and  relievi  on  the  front  of  the  public  palace  at  Perugia, 
 we  have  to  notice  a  sculptured  pulpit  in  the  upper  church  of 
 the  Franciscan  sanctuary  at  Assisi — statuette-reliefs  of 
 SS.  Francis,  Anthony  of  Padua,  and  Louis  of  Anjou,  pro- 
 jecting from  the  orator's  tribune;  also  at  Citta  di  Castello 
 the  bassi  relievi  round  the  lateral  door  of  the  cathedral : 
 Mercy  and  Humanity,  dignified  figures,  holding  the  stems 
 of  vine  trees  amidst  whose  interlacing  branches  are  smaller 
 reliefs  of  scriptural  and  allegoric  subjects.  In  the  provinces 
 subject  to  the  Papal  tiara  the  conditions  of  Art  were  inferior 
 indeed  compared  with  those  manifest,  in  this  same  epoch, 
 at  other  Italian  centres.  And  this  phenomenon  of 
 characteristic  sterility,  while  it  may  be  explained  by  the 
 disastrous  circumstances  in  which  those  provinces  were  left 
 during  the  absence  of  the  Pontific  sovereigns,  bears  testi- 
 mony to  the  weakness,  the  incapacity,  and  backwardness  of 
 that  government. 
 
 Note  to  page  268. 
 Having  been  able  to  revisit  Florence  since  writing  the  above.  I  can 
 now  more  fully  describe  the  frescoes  in  the  chapel  of  the  Holy  Sacrament  at 
 
326  MEDI-aEVAL   CHRISTIANITY   AND 
 
 S.  Croce,  brought  to  light  through  works  initiated  about  two  years  ago, 
 and  by  the  Franciscan  friars  themselves,  six  of  whose  once  large 
 community  are  left  in  this  convent.  The  paintings  in  question  are  by 
 Stamina  and  Agnolo  Gaddi  ;  the  leading  subjects,  from  the  lives  of  the 
 two  SS.  John,  one  of  the  visions  of  the  Apocalypse  being  introduced  in 
 the  scenes  from  the  Evangelist's  history  ;  also,  various  miracles  of  S. 
 Nicholas,  Bishop  of  Myra,  though  more  generally  known  as  the  Saint  of 
 Bari,  where  his  remains  repose.  On  the  flat  pilasters  are  several 
 Franciscan  Saints  ;  on  the  vault,  the  four  Doctors  and  Evangelists,  all 
 entirely  repainted.  The  high  altar  of  this  church  has  been  renewed  in 
 style  accordant  with  the  original  architecture,  and  a  rich  Gothic  altar- 
 piece  placed  above  it,  made  up  of  different  panel  pictures,  attributed  in 
 part  to  Taddeo  Gaddi,  which  had  been  dispci-sed  and  divided  between 
 the  S.  Croce  convent  and  the  UtHzi  gallery,  till  thus  judiciously 
 appropriated. 
 
SACRED    ART    !>'    ITALY.  327 
 
 CHArTEK  VI. 
 
 KOKTIIEHN  ITALY.— VENICE. 
 
 Among  all  Italian  cities  Yenice  is  the  one  which  makes 
 the  deepest  impression  at  a  first  glance.  She  seems  built 
 in  poetry,  whilst  others  arc  the  prose  of  construction.  A 
 glow  of  the  Eomantic,  a  light  and  colouring  all  her  own 
 invest  this  unique  metropolis,  whose  highways  are  the  ever- 
 lasting sea.  Though  there  are  gay  and  brilliant  centres, 
 the  prevailing  local  aspect  has  a  melancholy  fascination, 
 which  is  both  historic  and  picturesque.  We  know  little 
 of  this  wondrous  city,  unless  our  experiences  have  extended 
 far  beyond  the  S.  Mark's  piazza,  the  "  Eiva"  and  the  Grand 
 Canal ;  unless  we  have  made  the  voyage  through  the  mazy 
 labyrinth  of  watery  ways,  where  the  silence  is  only  broken 
 by  the  plash  of  oars,  or  the  shrill  cries  of  the  gondolieri, 
 where  the  depth  of  shadow  is  but  fitfully  dispelled  by  sun- 
 light or  moonbeam.  In  these  obscure  regions  signs  of  decay 
 and  faded  magnificence  meet  the  eye  on  all  sides ;  vast 
 gloomy  palaces,  whose  sculptured  windows  seem  to  have 
 been  shuttered  for  years,  and  their  thresholds  to  have  been 
 only  approached  by  the  weltering  wave  since  the  aristo- 
 cratic owners  passed  away  ;  abodes  of  poverty  succeeding 
 to  those  of  wealth  ;  the  tokens  of  a  strange  contrast  between 
 the  Past  and  Present  are  around  us.  In  the  architecture 
 here  so  singularly  varied,  we  may  trace  the  stages  of  tran- 
 sition from  the  noblest  dignity  of  the  Medireval  to  the  most 
 tasteless  pomp  of  the  Kenaissance  ;  yet,  notwithstanding 
 all  these  oppositions,  there  is  a  certain  grave  harmony  in 
 the  general  effect.  "We  are  reminded  by  the  Oriental 
 features  so  conspicuous,  and  with  details  exquisitely  beau- 
 
328  MEDIJEYAL    CHRISTIANITY    AND 
 
 tifiil,  of  tlie  conquest  of  Constantinople  by  the  tliirteentli 
 century  Crusaders,  the  "  blind  old  Dandolo,"  and  the  Latin 
 Empire  of  the  East.  Amidst  islands  occupied  only  by 
 dwellings  of  the  humbler  sort,  clustering  round  old  churches 
 with  liigb  square  towers,  we  think  of  the  primitive  settle- 
 ments founded  by  those  fugitives  from  Aquileja,  Altinum, 
 and  Padua,  who  here  sought  refuge  from  barbaric  invaders  in 
 the  fifth  century.  Amidst  contrasts  of  splendour  and  decay, 
 are  found  sea-girt  solitudes  where  those  who  are  w^eary  of 
 the  world,  who  would  "  seek  a  refuge  from  their  hopes 
 betrayed,"  might  abandon  themselves  to  an  almost  eremite 
 isolation  amidst  the  lagoons  of  Venice. 
 
 Tliis  city,  the  external  and  material,  had  scarcely  begun 
 to  assume  its  present  aspects  before  the  XY.  century — 
 excepting  indeed  in  one  class  of  public  buildings,  the  sacred 
 and  ecclesiastical.  In  the  latter,  the  beautiful  though 
 often  anomalous  characteristics  so  strongly  marked  at  the 
 present  day,  and  which  render  the  Media) val  churches  of 
 Venice  so  interesting,  were  not  earlier  developed  than 
 during  the  XV.  and  the  previous  century.  Even  the 
 S.  Mark's  basilica  did  not  till  within  the  latter  period — 
 the  century  here  considered — receive  the  varied  incrusta- 
 tion of  marbles  and  sculptures  on  its  facade,  or  its  crown- 
 ing decoration  of  pinnacles,  canopies  and  statues  along  the 
 summit,  or  the  gracefully  sculptured  borders  round  the 
 ogive  arches  surmounting  the  semi-circular  archivolts  of 
 the  upper  story — all  which  adjuncts  are  wanting  in  the 
 earliest  authentic  picture  of  this  marvellous  church,  the 
 mosaic,  namely,  over  the  first  of  the  five  portals,  on  the  left, 
 representing  the  arrival  of  the  procession  with  S.  Mark's 
 body,  for  the  enshrining  of  those  precious  relics  in  the 
 rebuilt  church  of  the  XI.  century.*     None  of  the  stately 
 
 *  The  date  of  this  mosaic  is  uncertain,  but  the  introduction  of  the 
 four  bronze  horses,  in  their  actual  place  on  the  fa(;ade,  shows  that  it 
 
SACRED    AET    IJf   ITALY.  320 
 
 edifices  around  the  piazza  which  expands  into  a  scene  of 
 pre  eminently  picturesque  magnificence  before  this  cathe- 
 dral, existed  prior  to  the  latter  years  of  the  XV.  century  ; 
 nor  was  that  great  area  paved  till  1260,  though  already 
 the  chosen  scene  for  tourneys,  pomps,  and  all  most  attrac- 
 tive spectacles.  At  the  period  here  in  question,  Venice 
 contained  about  a  hundred  churches,  ninety  of  which  are 
 said  to  have  been  older  than  the  renewed  S.  Mark's  ;  but 
 among  the  palaces  now  noticeable  for  their  Oriental, 
 Mediaeval,  or  Eenaissance  architecture,  only  three  had 
 origin  in  the  XIV.  century ;  five  being  of  the  XII.  ;  and 
 thirteen  were  built  in  the  XV.  century.*  To  that  latter 
 period,  and  in  no  past  (as  seems  well  established  by  local 
 writers)  must  be  ascribed,  all  that  is  most  ancient,  imposing 
 and  characteristic  in  the  Ducal  Palace  as  it  now  stands. 
 
 The  period  of  nascent  activity  in  Art,  which  I  have  to 
 consider,  was  one  of  stern  trials  and  disasters,  but  also 
 great  successes,  to  the  Adriatic  Republic ;  Andrea  Dandolo, 
 Doge  at  the  opening  of  this  half-century,  the  historian 
 
 cannot  be  anterior  to  1205,  when  those  famous  bronzes  were  brought 
 from  Constantinople.  Trustworthy  writers  assume  that  it  represents  the 
 church  as  it  appeared  at  the  beginning  of  the  XIV.  century  ;  and  the 
 comparative  correctness  of  drawing  seems  scarcely  referrible  to  an 
 earlier  time.  We  have  another  representation,  alike  authentic,  and  the 
 first  which  shows  us  S.  Mark's  almost  as  it  now  stands  :  the  picture  by 
 Gentile  Bellini,  dated  1496,  and  now  at  the  Accademia,  of  a  procession 
 with  the  relic  of  the  True  Cross  ;  the  cathedi-al  being  there  seen  in  its 
 present  form,  with  the  sole  difference  that  only  one  of  the  mosaics  now 
 on  its  front  is  introduced—  that  alluded  to,  which  shows  us  the  more 
 ancient  simplicity  of  its  architecture. 
 
 *  Salvatico, "  Architettura  e  Scultura  di  Venezia." — That  many  other 
 residences  as  old  as  the  XIV.  century  still  stand,  and  in  habitable  condi- 
 tion, in  Venice,  is  not  to  be  questioned — among  these,  the  house  on  the 
 Riva  dei  Schiavoni,  anciently  the  Palazzo  Molin,  which  was  presented 
 by  the  Republic  to  Petrarch,  1363,  and  has  never  been  modernized, 
 though  the  ground  floor  now  serves  for  shops. 
 
830  MEDIiEVAL   CHEISTIANITT   AND 
 
 of  his  country  and  tlie  friend  of  Petrarch,  ordered  the  firi^t 
 compilation  of  Venetian  laws,  a  Digest  in  eighty-four 
 chapters,  which  were  translated  into  the  local  dialect  soon 
 after  the  Latin  edition  had  been  completed.  Almost 
 immediately  after  the  inauspicious  election  of  the  next 
 Doge,  Marino  Ealiero  (or  Marin  Ealier),  the  Venetian 
 fleet  was  destroyed  (1354)  by  the  Genoese  ;  under  the 
 dukedom  of  Griovanni  Delfino,  the  Eepublic  lost  Dalmatia 
 and  Croatia,  ceded  (1858)  to  King  Louis  of  Hungary. 
 Whilst  Andrea  Contarini  sat  on  the  ducal  throne  (1367-8L), 
 Hungary,  Naples,  Grenoa,  Verona,  and  Padua  were  leagued 
 against  Venice.  A  signal  victory  over  the  Genoese  at  sea 
 was  won  by  Vittore  Pisani,  near  Porto  d'Anzio,  1378  ;  but 
 in  the  next  year  reverses  came  ;  the  fleet  under  the  sauie 
 heroic  leader  was  almost  totally  destroyed  near  Pola  ; 
 Venice  was  blockaded  by  sea,  and  her  states  were  invaded 
 by  land.  Chioggia,  the  key  to  the  lagoons,  was  besieged, 
 taken  and  garrisoned  by  the  Genoese,  1379.  The  very 
 existence  of  the  Eepublic  and  her  sea-girt  capital  was 
 imperilled ;  and  some  suggested  a  transfer  of  the  seat  of 
 government  to  Candia.  But  heroic  eff'orts  were  made ; 
 great  sacrifices  from  citizens  of  every  class  were  volun- 
 teered. Thrilling  words,  addressed  to  the  people  within 
 the  walls  of  S.  Mark's,  were  answered  by  the  declaration 
 of  the  unanimous  resolve  to  resist  to  the  last  and  at  what- 
 ever disadvantage.  There  is  no  episode  in  Italian  History 
 more  striking  or  inspiring  than  this  crisis  to  Venetian 
 destinies,  and  the  victorious  courage  with  which  it  was 
 sustained.  The  result  showed  that  the  cause  of  a  nationality 
 need  never  be  despaired  of  when  virtue  and  magnanimity 
 abound  in  the  breasts  of  those  who  defend  their  hearths 
 and  altars.*     The  Genoese  were  expelled  from  Chioggia, 
 
 *  No  more  thrilling  description  of  a  great  political  crisis  can  be 
 found,  I  believe,  in  any  modern  historian,  than  that  by  Romanin,  (Storia 
 
SACRED    AUT    IN    ITALY.  3;U 
 
 "but  the  Eepiiblic  had  to  accept  (1380)  disadvantageous 
 conditions  of  peace.  Venice,  however,  had  vitality  suffi- 
 cient to  recover  her  high  position.  Under  the  dukedom  of 
 Antonio  Yenier  (1382-lJ^OO)  she  acquired,  or  rather  re- 
 covered, Corfu,  and  obtained  possession  of  Durazzo,  Argos, 
 Scutari,  Napoli  in  Eoumania  ;  and  during  the  first  year  of 
 the  opening  century,  1400,  Verona,  Vicenza,  E-ovigo, 
 Belluno,  Peltre,  and  her  long  formidable  opponent,  Padua, 
 wrested  from  the  extinct  dynasty  of  the  Da  Carrara  princes, 
 became  subject  to  Venice.  I  do  not  undertake  to  write  a 
 history  of  this  Republic  ;  but  may  observe  the  coincidence 
 of  dates  between  these  efforts  of  a  progressive  political  life 
 and  the  growth  of  monumental  art,  the  contributions  to  the 
 magnificence  of  a  great  city,  and  to  the  majestic  beauty 
 of  her  temples — the  developments  of  genius.  S.  Mark's 
 attained  its  present  character,  and  may  be  supposed  to  have 
 presented  its  memorable  facade,  as  it  now  rises  in  Oriental 
 pomp  before  us,  by  the  year  1344.  The  renewal  of  the 
 Ducal  Palace  was  first  proposed  by  the  Senate  in  1301,  and 
 commenced  1309 ;  the  hall  of  the  Major  Council  being 
 finished  conformably  to  decree  passed  in  1340.  The  two 
 churches  ranking  next  to  S.  Mark's  in  grandeur  and  historic 
 importance,  were  both  progressing  in  this  century,  both 
 having  been  founded  in  the  century  previous.  SS. 
 Giovanni  a  Paolo,  commenced  by  the  Dominicans  pro- 
 bably before  the  year  1246,  though  not  consecrated  till 
 1430,  was  more  rapidly  carried  forward  to  architectural 
 completeness  after  the  Major  Council  had,  in  1390,  assigned 
 the  subsidy  of  10,000  ducats  out  of  a  fund  bequeathed  for 
 
 documentata  di  Venezia)  of  the  scenes  that  took  place  at  Venice  after 
 the  fall  of  Chioggia,  the  liberation  of  the  unjustly  imprisoned  Vittore 
 Pisano,  the  aggregate  eftbrts  and  high-hearted  enthusiasm  by  which 
 the  rulers  and  citizens  proved  themselves  equal  to  the  demands  of  an 
 overwhelming  danger,  an  extreme  emergency. — See  1.  VIII.,  c.  v.  of 
 that  Venetian  writer's  History. 
 
332  MEDIEVAL  CHEISTIANITX   AND 
 
 charitable  purposes,  to  these  works.  >S'.  Maria  Gloriosa,  or 
 the  "Frari"  church,  fouuded  1250  by  the  Friars  Minor 
 of  S.  Francis,  who  had  become  settled  in  Venice,  at  a  small 
 abbey  conceded  to  them  by  the  Benedictines,  twenty -three 
 years  previously,  was  not  consecrated  till  1492  ;  but  the 
 dates  on  its  monuments  allow  us  to  regard  it  as  a  building 
 of  the  Xiy .  as  well  as  the  succeeding  century. 
 
 The  spirit  with  which  Venice  accepted  the  teaching  and 
 submitted  to  the  authority  of  Eome,  forms  one  of  the  most 
 interesting  subjects  for  investigation  in  her  annals.  She 
 solved  in  practice  the  problem  of  a  well-balanced  accord 
 between  mediseval  Catholicism  and  a  haughtily  maintained 
 political  independence.  She  cherished  orthodoxy,  and 
 embodied  the  religious  sentiment  in  forms  so  superb  that 
 we  may  suppose  the  Catholic  worship  and  fetes  to  have 
 been,  during  these  ages,  more  imposing  at  Venice  than  any- 
 where on  this  side  of  the  Alps.  She  defied  Papal  anathemas, 
 yet  recognised  and  stipendiaried  the  Inquisitors  against 
 Heresy.  In  an  estimate  for  ordinary  expenses  of  Grovern- 
 ment,  at  this  time,  we  find  the  amount  of  6G00  lire  per 
 month,  drawn  from  the  public  revenues ;  and  among  the 
 charges  to  which  this  was  applied,  a  distribution  of  alms  at 
 Christmas  and  Easter,  and  a  tribute  to  the  Patriarch  of 
 Aquileja  ;  also  a  subvention  stipulated  for  the  Inquisitors. 
 In  the  treaty  of  peace  after  the  war  of  1379,  the  Republic 
 pledges  herself  to  co-operate  with  the  G-enoese  at  Con- 
 stantinople for  reconciling  the  Emperor  Calojanni  with  his 
 rebellious  son  Andronicus,  and  if  the  Grreek  autocrat  should 
 persist  in  refusing  adhesion  to  the  Catholic  Church,  to  unite 
 in  the  effort  of  co7npelling  him  to  accept  the  sole  orthodox 
 system  and  authority — "  quod  ipsorum  viribus  et  potentia 
 mediante,  ad  fidem  Catholicam  Deo  propitio  convertatur." 
 The  clergy  were  always  honoured  and  respectfully  treated 
 at  Venice,  but  ever  kept  under  the  strictest  vigilance,  and 
 
SACRED    ART    IN    ITALY.  333 
 
 amenable  to  the  common  law  in  all  that  ccmccrned  things 
 temporal.*  Though  originally  admitted  to  all  employments, 
 and  frequently  entrusted  with  important  embassies,  they 
 were,  in  the  course  of  time,  excluded  from  every  office  under 
 Government,  and  from  all  counsels  in  which  there  was 
 reason  to  dread  the  consequences  of  their  influence  at  home 
 or  relations  abroad.  Yet  on  the  other  hand  was  manifested 
 the  desire  to  unite  the  sanctities  of  worship  with  the 
 triumphs  of  patriotism  and  the  memories  of  political  suc- 
 cess on  every  possible  occasion.  Two  annual  festivities 
 were  apj^ointed  in  this  century  for  commemorating  the 
 rescue  of  the  State  from  dangers  through  treason.  On  S. 
 Titus'  day,  15th  June,  the  Doge  and  magistrates  attended 
 solemn  rites  at  the  church  of  that  Saint  in  thanksgiving 
 for  the  deliverance  of  the  body  politic  from  a  conspiracy 
 which  broke  out  with  armed  violence  in  1310 — that,  namely, 
 headed  by  Bajamonte  Tiepolo  and  Marco  Querini,  against 
 the  government  of  the  Doge  G-radenigo,  and  which  led  to 
 the  precautionary  institution  of  a  powerful  body  in  the 
 State,  the  Council  of  Ten,  originally  appointed  for  only 
 two  months,  but,  after  being  prorogued  from  one  bi-mistral 
 period  to  another,  constituted  first  for  five,  next  for  ten 
 years,  and  finally  rendered  permanent,  though  each  member 
 
 *  Significant  was  the  absence  of  ecclesiastical  co-operation  at  the 
 coronation  of  the  Doge.  At  the  summit  of  the  grand  staircase  in  the 
 court  of  the  palace,  the  Ducal  cap  was  placed  on  his  head  by  the  Junior 
 Counsellor  with  the  formula,  Acdx'e  Coronain  ducalem  Ditcatus  Vene- 
 tiarum.  Symbolism  is,  in  this  instance,  an  index  to  the  growth  of 
 power  and  prosperity.  The  original  cap  bestowed  as  the  badge  of  the 
 Venetian  sovereignty  was  of  red  velvet,  and  in  form  somewhat  like  the 
 Papal  tiara.  What  its  shape  eventually  became  we  know  from  Titian's 
 portraits  ;  and  we  are  told  it  was  in  l:i49  that  a  golden  circlet  was  first 
 added  to  it  ;  that  in  1361  the  Doge  Lorenzi  Celsi  adoraed  its  front  with 
 a  golden  and  jewelled  cross;  and  in  1473  a  head-iiicce  entirely  of  gold 
 was  first  assumed  by  the  Doge  Niccolo  Marccllo. 
 
334  MEDI^iVAL    CnmSTIANITY   AND 
 
 Jhad  to  retire  after  two  years.  On  S.  Isidore's  day,  16th 
 April,  the  Doge  and  "  Signoria"  attended  High  Mass  and  a 
 procession  at  S.  Mark's  in  commemoration  of  the  frustrat- 
 ing of  that  strangest  conspiracy  in  which  the  chief  criminal 
 was  he  who  wore  the  ducal  crown,  Marino  Ealiero.  The  fete 
 of  the  "  Maries,"  or  the  "  Brides  of  Yenice,"  held  on  the  2nd 
 February  at  >S'.  Maria  Formosa,  was  among  all  the  most 
 costly  ;  and  certain  contrade  (civic  wards)  were  every  year 
 chosen  by  lot  to  defray  its  expenses.  In  1361  the  two  con- 
 trade  to  which  the  lot  had  fallen  were  required  to  contri- 
 bute respectively  190,010  and  103,060  lire  for  these  costs 
 of  festivity.*  One  would  not  suppose  that  the  excesses  of 
 superstition  could  have  found  a  favourable  atmosphere 
 here ;  yet  one  annual  celebration  had  origin  in  a  legend, 
 immortalized  by  the  pencil,  and  of  character  so  wildly 
 fantastic  as  to  convince  us  that  Venice  was  in  no  way 
 exempt  from  the  leaven  of  credulity  or  medisoval  mysticism. 
 On  the  15th  Tebruary,  1340,  this  city  was  visited  by  a 
 tremendous  inundation  of  the  sea,  whose  waters  rose  higher 
 by  three  cubits  than  had  ever  been  known  before.     In  the 
 
 *  The  popular  festivities  on  this  occasion,  which  lasted  eight  days, 
 Regenerated  into  such  a  species  of  saturnalia  that,  soon  after  the  great 
 war  above  mentioned,  they  were  suppressed  (1379);  but  the  religious 
 observances  long  remained.  The  Doge  failed  not  to  visit  the  appointed 
 church  on  the  2nd  February,  and  received  from  the  parish,  through  the 
 hands  of  its  rector,  two  hats  of  gilt  straw,  two  flasks  of  Malvasia  wine, 
 and  two  oranges.  It  was  the  valour  of  the  artisans  of  that  district  which 
 mainly  conduced  to  the  rescue  of  the  young  brides  carried  away  by 
 pirates,  a.d.  994.  The  gallant  volunteers  asked  of  the  Doge,  as  sole  recom- 
 pense, that  he  should  annually  visit  their  church  on  that  day.  "  What 
 if  it  should  rain  ?"  asked  Pietro  Candiano,  who  then  wore  the  ducal 
 cap.  "  We  will  give  you  hats  to  cover  your  head,"  was  the  answer. 
 "What  if  we  should  be  thirsty?"  *' We  will  give  you  something  to 
 drink,"  was  the  promise  of  the  honest  artisans,  officially  fulfilled  in  those 
 prescribed  offerings  on  the  2nd  of  every  February. 
 
SACRED  ART  IN  ITALY.  335 
 
 dark  stormy  night  a  poor  fisliermau,  who  was  seekiug  refuge 
 for  himself  and  his  boat  near  the  S.  Mark  piazzetta^  was 
 accosted  by  a  dignified  stranger,  who  promised  good  fare 
 for  being  rowed  to  the  opposite  island,  S.  Giorgio  Mar/rjiore, 
 where  now  stands  the  great  Benedictine  church  so  named. 
 The  fisherman  reluctantly  complied.  Having  landed  his 
 passenger  on  that  island,  another  stranger  there  appeared, 
 and  desired  to  be  rowed  to  S.  Nicolo,  on  the  Lido,  a  much 
 longer  voyage  across  the  lagoon  eastward ;  arrived  there, 
 they  found  another  stranger,  of  venerable  aspect,  who 
 desired  to  be  rowed  back  to  the  city,  and  to  the  landing- 
 place  nearest  S.  Mark's.  The  fisherman  complied,  being 
 impressed  with  something  more  than  common  in  the  appear- 
 ance and  manner  of  each  of  these  three  strangers.  When 
 the  third  had  landed  near  S.  Mark's,  he  gave  to  the  poor 
 man  a  gold  ring,  desiring  him  to  present  this  to  the  Doge, 
 and  tell  him  that  the  Patron  Saints  of  Venice — S.  Mark,  S. 
 Nicholas,  and  S.  Greorge — had  interposed  to  save  the  city 
 from  destruction,  and  had  submerged  a  ship  manned  by 
 Demons,  which  was  sailing,  tempest-tossed,  across  the 
 Adriatic,  bringing  ruin  to  Venice.  The  fisherman  of  course 
 told  his  story,  and  presented  the  ring,  which  was  found  to 
 be  the  identical  one  recently  stolen  from  the  treasury  in  S. 
 Mark's  basilica.  Eor  a  long  time  an  annual  solemnity  was 
 held,  commemorative  of  this  vision,  or  divine  interposition, 
 which  met  with  general  and   unquestioning  belief.*    As 
 
 *  Paris  Bordone's  picture  of  the  Doge,  amidst  the  Senate  and  magis- 
 trates, receiving  the  ring  from  the  fisherman  (now  in  the  Accademia),  is 
 beyond  all  praise.  Giorgione's  picture  (in  the  same  gallery)  of  the 
 voyage  of  the  three  Saints  represents  them  all  in  the  fisherman's  bark 
 together,  and  in  sight  of  the  Demon  galley  -which  approaches,  with  all 
 sails  set,  amidst  storm  and  darkness  ;  this  being  apparently  founded 
 on  a  version  of  the  story  somewhat  difterent  from  the  above.  San- 
 sovino,  Venezia  descritta,  narrates  this  legend  briefly,  but  with  bond 
 
336  MEDIiEVAL    CHRISTIANITY    AND 
 
 undoubting  a  belief,  still  attested  by  the  legend  in  tbe  book 
 held  by  the  symbolic  lion, — JBax  tihi  Marce,  Evangelista 
 meus, — seems  to  have  been  accorded  to  the  legend  of  the 
 appearance  of  the  living  S.  Mark,  and  his  encounter 
 with  an  angel,  who  saluted  him  in  those  words,  on  the  island 
 where  now  stands  the  church  of  S.  Francesco  della  Vigna^ 
 and  where  the  Apostle  is  said  to  have  landed,  taking  refuge 
 from  tempest,  on  his  voyage  returning  from  Aquileja. 
 
 Worthier  fruits  of  Christian  civilization  were  borne  by 
 Venice,  even  earlier  than  the  age  here  referred  to.  By  this 
 time  the  city  possessed  hospitals  and  asylums  for  orphans 
 and  destitute  children,  for  female  paupers  and  penitents, 
 for  foundlings,  and  invalid  sailors.  No  where  were  charitable 
 institutions  better  provided  for  at  this  period ;  no  where 
 were  the  evils  of  professional  mendicancy  more  efficiently 
 checked  ;  the  really  indigent  being  sent  out  of  the  city  to 
 establishments  on  distant  islands,  where  food  and  shelter  at 
 least  could  be  secured.  Most  humanely  was  it  provided 
 that  a  special  magistracy  should  be  charged  with  the 
 protection  of  children  of  both  sexes  employed  in  factories. 
 Besides  other  protection,  by  armed  force,  of  public  safety  in 
 canals  and  streets,  there  was  a  local  police,  unique,  I 
 believe,  and  without  parallel  in  any  other  capital  of 
 mediaeval  Europe,  and  the  appointment  of  which  affords 
 signal  proof  of  regard  for  justice  ;  this  body  being  charged 
 to  act  as  guides  to  strangers  and  pilgrims,  and  to  direct 
 them  to  the  places  where  lodging  might  be  had,  or  neces- 
 saries purchased,  at  reasonable  price.  The  artisan  classes 
 were  enrolled  here,  as  at  Florence  and  elsewhere,  in  "  Arti ;" 
 but  the  admission  of  strangers  into  those  sodalities  was 
 
 fide  acceptance  of  its  historic  correctness :  "  At  this  time  (he  says) 
 occurred  the  famous  miracle  of  S.  Mark,  S.  George,  and  S.  Nicholas, 
 who  saved  the  city  from  a  terrific  and  horrid  disaster  threatening  its 
 ruin  by  inundation." 
 
SACBED  ART  IN  ITALY.  337 
 
 facilitated,  and  the  advantages  offered  induced  many  to 
 seek  the  privilege.  Even  slaves  could  be  admitted  into 
 these  guilds,  for  that  unhappy  class  were  treated  better  at 
 Venice,  as  local  historians  show,  than  in  most  other  States 
 where  the  iniquitous  traffic  in  human  beings  was  tolerated. 
 
 On  the  whole,  we  may  fairly  admit  the  evidence  abun- 
 dantly adduced  by  native  writers,  in  support  of  the 
 assertion  that  civilization  was  more  advanced,  and  justice 
 more  impartially  administered,  the  general  welfare  more 
 efficiently  guaranteed  by  wise  laws,  and  beneficent  institu- 
 tions at  Venice  than  in  most  other  European,  than  in  any 
 other  Italian  capitals,  during  the  Middle  Ages. 
 
 Amidst  such  circumstances  and  from  such  antecedents 
 we  might  expect  a  munificent  encouragement  of  Art,  and 
 the  desire  to  see  its  splendours  developed,  especially  when 
 applicable  to  sacred  and  public,  or  political,  purposes.  Nor 
 shall  we  find  ourselves  mistaken  in  anticipating  as  much 
 at  Venice.  At  this  early  period,  however,  the  artistic 
 genius  was  but  at  the  dawn  of  its  day  in  the  ocean  city. 
 In  painting  appears  scarcely  any  indication  of  the  qualities 
 for  which  the  local  school  became  eventually  distinguished. 
 The  origin  of  Venetian  art  is  referred  to  Byzantine  sources  ; 
 and  the  first  models,  for  the  painter  at  least,  were  supplied 
 in  the  mosaics  of  the  eleventh  century,  at  S.  Mark's,  mostly 
 by  G-reek  artists  invited  by  the  Doge  Selvo,  about  1070, 
 to  adorn  that  temple  of  the  Patron  Saint.  Later  introduced 
 G-reek  art- works,  paintings,  statues,  reliefs,  imported  from 
 Constantinople  after  the  conquest  in  1204,  continued  to 
 maintain  the  traditions  and  taste  naturally  determined  by 
 such  examples  in  a  city  not  yet  possessing  a  school  of  her 
 own.  The  prevailing  Oriental  influence  was  first  checked, 
 or  counteracted,  by  G-entile  da  Eabriano  in  the  earlier 
 years  of  the  XV.  century ;  a  pupil  of  that  gifted  master, 
 Jacopo  Bellini,  transmitting  to  his  sons.  Gentile  (1421-1501) 
 
338  MEDIiEVAL    CHRISTIAN  ITT    AND 
 
 and  Griovanni  (1426-1516),  the  knowledge  whicli  availed 
 them  in  the  pursuit  of  their  father's  art,  and  in  carrying  it 
 to  such  excellence  as  shed  a  glory  round  their  family 
 name. 
 
 There  is  not  much  to  interest  deeply  in  the  pictorial 
 art  produced  here  before  the  close  of  this  century  ;  and  as 
 my  object  is  to  dwell  rather  on  ideas  and  tendencies  than 
 on  the  particular  qualities  of  masters  or  schools,  I  need  but 
 cursorily  notice  the  extant  paintings  of  this  comparatively 
 early  period.  The  ablest  Venetian  painter  of  this  time 
 was  Semitecolo,  who  lived  till  1400 ;  and  whose  earliest 
 extant  work  is  a  Coronation  of  the  Virgin  (date  1351)  at 
 the  Accademia ;  his  latest,  and  perhaps  best,  an  altar-piece 
 (1369),  now  in  the  library  of  the  chapter-house  of  the 
 Canons  at  Padua.  A  Gothic  ancona,  in  many  compart- 
 ments, at  the  Accademia,  has  the  inscription  under  the 
 central  panel,  Stefan  Plehanus  8anct(B  Agnetisj  with  the 
 date  1380,  the  subject  here  represented  being  like  the 
 above-named— the  Saviour  placing  the  crown  on  Mary's 
 head.  In  the  other  compartments  are  scenes  from-the  life 
 of  Christ,  and  four  from  that  of  S.  Francis,  all  by  Semite- 
 colo. That  artist  has  treated  some  of  these  subjects  with 
 more  historic  correctness  than  later  and  superior  masters 
 did  after  him.  In  the  Baptism  scene  he  represents  the 
 Saviour  standing  up  to  His  breast  in  the  river,  whilst  S. 
 John  pours  water  over  His  head.  In  the  Last  Supper  the 
 beloved  Disciple  is  not  asJee/p,  though  leaning  on  the  bosom 
 of  the  Divine  Master.  In  the  Eesurrection  the  soldiers 
 are,  with  a  usual  error,  represented  as  sleeping  beside  the 
 tomb.  Other  pictures  in  the  same  gallery,  with  the  names 
 of  Lorenzo  Veneziano,  Prancesco  Bissolo,  Jacopo  da 
 Valesa,  dated  within  the  XIV.  century,  have  little  to 
 claim  attention.  In  the  Civic  Museum  at  the  Correr 
 Palace  is  another  collection,  comprising  pictures  of  the 
 
SACRED    AllT    IN    ITALY.  339 
 
 least  developed  as  well  as  of  the  highest  pliase.  What 
 pertains  to  the  earlier  Venetian  school,  among  these,  seems 
 only  valuable  in  a  relative  way  and  in  historic  association. 
 One  of  the  earliest  paintings  at  Venice  with  ascertainable 
 date  is  in  the  sacristy  of  the  gorgeous  modern  church,  S. 
 Maria  della  Salute,  and  represents  the  Doge  Francesco 
 Dandolo  (1328-39),  with  his  consort,  presented  to  the 
 Virgin  and  Child  by  their  Patron  Saints.  At  the  rear  of 
 the  high  altar  of  S.  Mark's  hangs  a  panel  picture,  with 
 two  orders  of  distinct  subjects, — Christ  standing  in  the 
 tomb,  the  Virgin,  SS.  Peter,  Mark,  Luke,  Nicholas,  Theo- 
 dore ;  and  below,  the  history  of  the  transfer  of  S.  Mark's 
 body  from  Alexandria  to  Venice,  inscribed  with  the  names 
 of  "  Magister  Paulus"  and  his  sons  Luca  and  G-iovanni, 
 also  the  date  1345  ;  but  as  this  picture  has  been  entirely 
 repainted,  the  composition  alone,  in  its  actual  state, 
 belongs  to  the  mediaeval  period.  A  chapel  at  S.  Mark's 
 was  founded,  1350,  by  the  Doge  Andrea  Dandolo,  and 
 completed  1355,  under  his  successor  Griovanni  G-radenigo, 
 for  enshrining  the  body  of  S.  Isidore,  brought  from  Scio  to 
 Venice  in  1125.  The  mosaics,  which  cover  the  vault  and 
 two  lunettes  underneath  it,  at  the  opposite  ends  of  this 
 chapel,  announce  the  first  stage  of  emancipation  from 
 ancient  trammels,  and  a  return  to  classical  traditions,  with 
 a  certain  degree  of  truthfulness.  They  represent  the  mar- 
 tyrdom of  the  Saint  through  various  tortures  till  he  is 
 finally  beheaded ;  the  subduing  by  the  sign  of  the  Cross  of  a 
 Demon,  a  black  winged  monster,  who  stands  discomfited 
 before  the  Saint ;  the  Baptism  of  a  Princess  ;  the  arrival  of 
 the  Doge  Domenico  Michiel  at  Scio ;  the  discovery  of  the 
 body  of  the  Saint,  and  its  removal  from  a  stately  tomb  on 
 that  island  ;  the  shipment  and  transport  of  those  relics  to 
 Venice ;  on  the  two  lunettes,  the  Saviour  between  Saints, 
 the  Apostle  Mark,  Isidore,  and  others.     The  slirinc  of  S. 
 
 z  2 
 
340  MEDIiEVAL    CniMSTIAKITT   AND 
 
 Isidore,  over  the  altar  of  this  chapel,  is  a  noticeable  work 
 of  its  period,  (about  1350),  not  approaching  the  high  merits 
 of  contemporary  Tuscan  sculpture,  but  impressive  and  well 
 conceived :  the  effigy  of  the  Saint,  in  secular  costume,  is 
 laid  on  a  sarcophagus,  above  which  stands  an  Angel  with 
 a  censer,  and  on  the  front  are  statuette-relievi  of  SS.  Mark, 
 Isidore,  and  John  the  Baptist ;  also  two  small  historic 
 relieviof  the  Saint's  martyrdom — he  is  dragged  at  the  tail  of 
 a  horse,  on  which  rides  an  executioner,  and  decapitated, — the 
 subjects  of  compositions  among  the  mosaics ;  the  shrine 
 being  surmounted  by  a  deeply  recessed  arch,  adorned  with 
 reliefs  of  foliate  ornato,  and  animals  combating,  in  mediaeval 
 style ;  two  other  statuettes  of  Virtues  are  placed  external 
 to  this  arched  recess.  The  dim  light,  here  admitted,  adds 
 solemnity  to  this  saintly  shrine.  Some  of  the  mosaics  in 
 the  Baptistery  of  S.  Mark's,  though  not  all,  nor  indeed  the 
 plurality  among  those  on  its  vaulted  roof,  are  of  about  the 
 same  date,  having  been  ordered  by  the  same  Doge  Dandolo, 
 who  spent  large  sums  on  this  chapel,  in  which  he  desired  to 
 be  interred.  In  their  aggregate,  the  mosaics  of  this  cathe- 
 dral display  the  whole  history  of  that  art,  applied  to  reli- 
 gious purposes,  from  the  XL  to  the  XVIII.  century  ;  and 
 the  contrasts  here  before  us  between  the  mystical  and 
 conventional,  the  ascetic  and  the  boldly  imaginative  treat- 
 ment, are  most  curious. 
 
 Continuing  to  consider  the  Sculpture  of  this  period,  we 
 find  that  Art  more  developed  and  attended  with  more 
 promise  than  is  the  case  with  contemporary  painting  at 
 Venice.  The  finest  statuary  of  date  within  this  epoch  is 
 at  S.  Mark's.  On  the  architrave  of  a  marble  screen,  or 
 rood-loft,  dividing  the  tribune  from  the  nave,  and  at  each 
 side  of  a  metallic  Crucifix  are  seven  statues,  the  Apostles, 
 to  whose  company  of  twelve  S.  Paul  adds  the  thirteenth, 
 with  the  Virgin  Mother  ;  the  names  of  the  artists,  Pietro 
 
SACRED    AET    IX    ITALY.  3J:1 
 
 Paolo  and  Jacobello,  surnamed  Dalle  Mascgnc,  being 
 inscribed  with  the  date  1394.*  Dignity  and  intellectual 
 character  distinguish  these  figures ;  the  heads  have  well- 
 marked  individuality ;  that  of  S.  Paul  is  finely  philoso- 
 phical ;  the  Madonna,  unlike  conventional  conceptions  of 
 this  subject,  is  self-possessed,  self-reliant,  though  sorrow- 
 ing ;  the  S.  John,  opposite  to  her  on  the  other  side  of  the 
 cross,  overcome  by  grief.  The  figure  of  the  Crucified,  and 
 the  Evangelic  emblems  at  the  extremities,  of  the  metal 
 cross,  are  of  silver  ;  the  artist's  name,  with  the  date  1394, 
 being  also  preserved. f  Little  is  known  of  the  Masegne 
 brothers,  except  the  fact  that  they  were  pupils  of  Agostino 
 and  Agnolo  da  Siena,  and  that  Jacobello  had  a  son  named 
 Paolo,  who  followed  the  calling  and  imitated  the  style  of  his 
 father  at  Venice.  Similarly  placed  statues  on  the  archi- 
 traves of  two  other  marble  screens  before  chapels,  lateral 
 to  the  tribune  of  S.  Mark's,  may  be  attributed  to  the  same 
 brothers,  for  they  are  alike  distinguished  by  dignified  forms 
 and  expression.  At  the  centre  of  each  architrave  is  a 
 Madonna  and  Child,  and  beside  this  group  are,  on  the 
 screen  before  the  chapel  of  S.  Clement,  SS.  Christina, 
 Clara,  Catherine  of  Alexandria,  and  Agnes  ;  on  that  before 
 the  chapel  of  S.  Peter,  SS.  Mary  Magdalene,  Cecilia, 
 Helena,  and  Margaret ;  an  inscription  below  the  latter 
 sculptures  containing  the  name  of  the  Doge,  Antonio 
 Yenier,  and  the  date  1397.  Other  sculptures  in  this  cathe- 
 dral show  the  Pisan  influence,  as  well  as  a  felicitous  power 
 to  appropriate  the  refinement  and  feeling  which  distinguish 
 that  School.  In  a  chapel  ofi*  the  left  aisle  we  see  a  sculp- 
 tured altar-piece,  pre-eminently  beautiful :  the  Virgin  and 
 
 *  MCCCXCIIII.  hoc  opus  crectum  fuit  tempore  excels!  Domini 
 Antonii  Yenerii  Dei  gratia  Ducis  Venetianim. — Jacobcllus  et  Pctrus 
 Paulus  Fratrcs  de  Venetis  fecerunt  hoc  opus. 
 
 •f-  Jacobus  Magistri  Marci  Bcnuto  dc  Venetiis  fecit. 
 
34)2  MEDIiEVAL    CHRISTIAI^ITY   AND 
 
 Child,  each  wearing  a  gilt  crown,  and  two  Apostles,  nnder 
 acute-arched  canopies  with  florid  ornato  ;  the  serene  love- 
 liness and  calm  dignity  of  the  Mother,  as  also  her  action  of 
 clasping  the  Infant  to  her  bosom,  yet  at  the  same  time 
 allowing  His  figure  to  be  fully  seen, — she  being  conscious 
 of  the  devotional  regards  directed  towards  Him — alike 
 remind  us  of  the  great  Tuscan  masters.  The  chapel  was 
 founded  in  1430 ;  but  some  critics  conclude  (with  Cicog- 
 nara)  that  these  sculptures  are  of  earlier  date,  and  prior  to 
 the  opening  of  that  century.  We  may  infer  that  the  Madonna 
 statue  here  before  us  became  a  favourite  type  at  Venice, 
 for  we  see  in  this  city  two  almost  exact  copies  of  it  in  sculp- 
 tures not  probably  of  a  much  later  origin — one  against 
 the  wall  of  the  south  transept  at  S.  Mark's,  the  other  on 
 the  monument  of  the  Doge  Antonio  A^enier  (ob.  1400)  at 
 SiS.  Giovanni  e  Paolo.  As  was  natural,  under  such  political 
 institutions,  and  with  such  public  spirit  as  prevailed  here, 
 monumental  sculpture  was  first  to  obtain  imposing  promi- 
 nence at  Venice.  The  desire  to  enhance  the  honours  of  the 
 illustrious  dead  and  to  add  to  the  splendour  of  the  temple 
 by  the  beauty  or  pomp  of  their  sculptured  records,  proved 
 eventually,  as  is  but  too  apparent,  detrimental  to  the  higher 
 and  purer  qualities,  and  almost  eliminated  the  spiritual 
 element  from  this  class  of  Art-works  at  Venice.  Becoming 
 more  and  more  political,  less  and  less  religious,  these  monu- 
 ments at  last  sink  into  the  depths  of  bad  taste,  or  (as  we 
 might  also  say)  rise  to  the  height  of  egotistic  vanity  and 
 florid  ostentation.  A  severer  feeling  and  style  prevailed  in 
 the  XLV.  century;  and  among  examples  of  such  higher 
 qualities,  I  may  mention  the  monument  of  the  Doge  i\ndi'ea 
 Daudolo,  above  referred  to,  in  the  S.  Mark's  Baptistery : 
 the  conception  superior  to  the  execution ;  angels  drawing 
 aside  curtains  to  display  the  efligy  laid  on  a  funeral  couch 
 (the   accessory   first   introduced   by  the   Tuscan  school) ; 
 
SACEED  ART  IN   ITALY.  343 
 
 statuettes  of  saints,  small  relievi  on  the  sareophagna-front,* 
 and  a  horizontal  canopy  above.  A  good  example  of  the 
 utmost  simplicity  of  treatment  is  the  horizontal  tomb  (now 
 set  upright)  at  S.  Giorgio  Maggiore^  ofa  bishop  of  Castello, 
 the  ancient  title  of  the  Venetian  See,  who  died  1381,  and 
 is  here  represented  in  monastic  costume,  with  gaze  fixed  on 
 a  book,  the  mitre  and  crozier  beside  him  as  symbols.  Other 
 monuments  of  the  earlier  and  archaic  class,  some  with  rude 
 reliefs  of  sacred  subjects,  others  with  the  effigy  merely 
 incised,  are  in  the  museum  (now  but  a  remnant  of  its  former 
 contents)  in  the  Patriarchal  Seminary. 
 
 The  two  great  churches  built  for  Dominicans  and  Fran- 
 ciscans, SS.  Giovanni  e  Paolo  and  S.  Maria  Gloriosa,  or  the 
 Frari,  are  noble  examples  of  the  Mediaeval  style,  here 
 apprehended  and  carried  out  with  a  harmony  not  often 
 attained  in  Italian  architecture.  An  expansive  and  aerial 
 majesty  distinguish  both  buildings;  and  though  the  monu- 
 ments in  them  are  somewhat  over-crowded,  whilst  presenting 
 the  utmost  possible  contrasts  of  style,  there  is  much  to  fasci- 
 nate and  impress  in  such  a  concenti'ation  of  historic  memo- 
 ries here  pervading  the  sacred  precincts.  It  seems  the 
 sublime  accord  of  the  spirit  of  Patriotism  with  the  spirit  of 
 Piety ;  and  we  tread  these  majestic  aisles  wdth  renewed 
 reverence  for  the  vocation  and  nobly  accomplished  destiny  of 
 the  Adriatic  Queen,  so  potent  in  mediaeval  Europe.  SS. 
 Giovanni  e  Paolo,  especially,  is  the  Westminster  Abbey  and 
 Santa  Croce  of  Venice,  containing  forty-six  monuments  to 
 the  illustrious,  or  at  least  conspicuous,  of  ages  passed. 
 Among  such  works  admirable  for  the  higher  artistic  cha- 
 racter, I  may  mention  the  monument,  near  the  high  altar,  to 
 the  Doge  Michiel  Morosini,  who  died  of  the  plague,  1382, 
 
 •  Reliefs  of  S.  John  in  the  cauldron  of  boiling  oil,  and  the  cnicifixion  of 
 S.  Andrew.  The  epitaph  written  by  Petrarch  has  not  been  engraved  on 
 this  tomb. 
 
344  MEDIEVAL    CHRISTIANITY    AKD 
 
 but  a  few  months  after  his  election  :  a  Gothic  canopy,  with 
 a  statuette  of  the  Archangel  Michael  at  the  apex,  and  a 
 picture  of  the  Crucifixion  on  ihefondo  beneath,  overshadows 
 the  funeral  couch,  on  which  lies  the  effigy  with  finely 
 marked  countenance  seen  in  distinct  profile  ;  statuettes ,  of 
 Saints  and  Virtues  filling  three  orders  of  niches  on  the 
 facettes  of  pilasters  at  each  side,  and  two  other  Saints 
 keeping  watch,  as  it  were,  beside  the  dead.  Opposite,  in 
 the  same  tribune,  stands  the  contrasted,  but  also  impressive 
 monument  of  the  Doge  Marco  Cornaro  (ob.  1368),  with  the 
 effigy  on  an  inclining  plane  so  as  to  be  brought  better  into 
 view ;  no  canopy,  but  statues  of  the  Virgin  and  Child  with 
 four  Apostles  in  acute-arched  niches,  at  higher  level,  forming 
 another  order  in  the  composition.  Over  a  door  in  a 
 transept  is  the  high  placed  monument  of  the  Doge  Antonio 
 Veniero  (ob.  1400),  the  effigy,  reclining  on  the  tomb, 
 scarcely  visible ;  though  we  distinctly  see  the  accessorial 
 sculptures,  statuettes  of  Saints  on  the  sarcophagus  front,  the 
 Virgin  and  Child  with  two  Apostles  above  the  image  of  the 
 dead.  Near  this  stands  the  monument  to  the  wife  and 
 daughter  of  the  same  Doge,  without  any  effigy,  but  a  relief 
 of  the  Virgin  and  Child  and  two  Apostles  under  a  richly 
 moulded  acute-arched  canopy  which  surmounts  the  modest 
 tomb — its  character  different,  and  with  more  of  the  early 
 mediaeval  feeling  than  the  memorial  of  the  husband  and 
 father.  That  ducal  monument,  is,  as  its  style  announces, 
 a  work  of  the  school  founded  by  the  Masegne  brothers. 
 All  the  above-noticed  are  examples  of  the  higher  and 
 religious  conception  in  monumental  art ;  of  an  ideal  so 
 carried  out  as  to  remind  us  less  of  the  state  or  station 
 than  of  the  virtues  of  the  deceased,  less  of  the  mortal  than 
 the  immortal  life. 
 
 Our  studies  of  the  Art  of  this  period  at  Venice  would  be 
 incomplete  indeed  if  failing  to  comprise  any  notice  of  two 
 
SACRED  ART  IN  ITALY.  315 
 
 most  interesting  <and  original  series  of  compositions  :  the 
 sculptured  archivolts,  at  least  the  two  outer  ones,  over  the 
 chief  portal  of  S.  Mark's,  and  the  capitals  of  the  ground 
 floor  arcade  along  two  sides  of  the  Ducal  Palace.  The 
 arguments  and  evidence  adduced  by  recent  writers  convince 
 me  that  both  those  series  must  be  referred  to  the  XV. 
 century,  and  are,  as  those  writers  infer,  by  the  same  artist, 
 or  from  designs  by  the  same  hand.  It  seems  clearly 
 established  that  the  facade  of  that  basilica  was  finished,  in 
 its  present  richly  ornate  and  oriental  character,  during  the 
 first  half  of  the  XIV.  century,  to  which  period  belong, 
 apparently,  the  fantastic  and  almost  grotesque  reliefs — 
 groups  of  little  men,  animals  and  birds,  combating  amidst 
 foliate  ornato,  along  the  inner  archivolt  immediately  above 
 the  chief  enti'ance.  But  the  relievi  on  the  two  outer  and 
 ampler  arches  are  far  superior  both  as  to  conception  and 
 finish ;  their  subjects,  the  Saviour  blessing,  half-figures 
 of  Prophets  amidst  luxuriant  foliage,  and  the  Divine  Lamb 
 surrounded  by  thirteen  illustrations  of  artisan  labours,  with 
 one  other  figure  of  the  mystical  class.*  Selvatico,  one  of  the 
 most  learned  writers  on  Venetian  art  and  monuments,  con- 
 cludes (I  believe  justly)  that  these  very  original  sculptures 
 must  be  given  to  the  same  hand  as  the  storied  capitals  of  the 
 palace.  The  latter  have  long  been  attributed,  and  are  still  so 
 in  popular  report,  to  Eilippo  Calendario,  an  accomplice  in 
 the  Faliero  conspiracy,  who,  with  others  found  guilty,  was 
 
 *  The  last,  the  lowest  on  the  left  hand,  represents  a  man  in  long  vest- 
 ments, seated,  leaning  on  cinitches,  and  with  a  comical  look  of  mortification 
 putting  one  finger  into  his  mouth.  The  satirical  is,  no  doubt,  intended  in 
 this  curious  subject.  It  would  be  pleasant  to  admit  the  notion  (perhaps 
 too  far-fetched)  of  the  historian  Zanotto  [Storia  della  Ee^mhhlica  di 
 Venezia)  respecting  a  purpose  to  imply  the  reprobation  of,  and  contempt 
 for,  the  vain  science  of  Astrology,  proscribed  by  the  sago  magistrates 
 who  directed  the  ai'tist's  iuveutivencss  in  this  instance  I 
 
34i6  MEDIEVAL    CHRISTIANITY   AND 
 
 hanged  from  a  window  of  this  palace  the  night  before  that 
 treasonable  plot  was  to  have  been  carried  to  effect.  The 
 ancient  residence  for  the  head  of  the  Venetian  State  was 
 built  by  the  Doge,  Agnello  Participazio,  about  a.d.  900. 
 It  was  injured,  but  not  (as  often  said)  totally  destroyed  by 
 the  fire  kindled  in  the  revolt  against  the  hated  Doge,  Can- 
 diano  lY,  who  lost  his  life  amidst  the  fierce  onset,  a.d.  976  ; 
 and  the  original  church  of  IS.  Mark  was  at  the  same  time, 
 if  not  destroyed,  reduced  to  ruin.  Pietro  Orseolo  II,  elected 
 Doge  in  991,  did  much  to  repair  the  Ducal  palace,  and  the 
 Emperor  Otho  III,  a  guest  here  towards  the  end  of  that 
 century,  is  recorded  to  have  praised  the  beauty  or  splendour 
 of  the  edifice.  As  I  have  stated,  a  more  systematic  reno- 
 vation was  proposed  in  1301  and  commenced  in  1309 ;  the 
 directing  architect  being  Pietro  Baseggio,  who  died  before 
 the  year  1354,  and  entrusted  the  execution  of  his  plans  to 
 his  successor  in  the  same  post,  Pilippo  Calendario,  con- 
 nected with  him  by  marriage.  Por  a  time  all  the  works 
 were  directed  by  the  latter  ;  and  Cicognara  attributes  to  him 
 those  memorable  sculptures  on  the  capitals  which  announce 
 a  new  tendency  and  a  newly-opened  field  for  this  art. 
 They  illustrate,  with  singular  ingenuity  and  fantasy,  the 
 themes  of  Science,  the  schools  of  Philosophy,  the  labours 
 and  ordinary  life  of  man,  religious  ideas  and  political  prin- 
 ciples. I  believe  that  Calendario's  claims  to  the  credit 
 of  originating  them  must  be  absolutely  set  aside.  Ten 
 years  after  his  tragic  death,  the  Doge,  Marco  Cornaro, 
 ordered  the  interior  of  this  building  to  be  adorned  with 
 portraits  of  all  who  had  filled  the  Ducal  throne,  and  with 
 illustrations  of  two  lives  historically  interwoven  together,  as 
 is  well  known,  those  of  Alexander  III.  and  the  Emperor 
 Erederick  I. 
 
 It  is  assumed  that  the  Ducal  Palace  of  the  XIY .  century 
 no  longer  exists  ;  that  no  part  of  the  actual  building  dates 
 
SACEED    AET    I?f    ITALY.  347 
 
 earlier  than  1124.  In  that  year  it  was  ordered  by  deli- 
 beration of  the  Senate  that  the  ancient  facades  of  thia 
 residence,  the  yet  extant  palace  of  the  tenth  century, 
 should,  seeing  their  then  dilapidated  condition,  be  taken 
 down  and  rebuilt.  During  the  long  reign  of  the  unhappy 
 Trancesco  Foscari  (1423-'57),the  works  of  the  new  palace 
 continued  ;  the  project  having  been  first  made  by  the  pre- 
 decessor of  that  Doge,  Tommaso  Mocenigo,  who  braved  the 
 law  rigorously  prohibiting,  under  penalty  of  a  fine  of  1000 
 ducats,  the  mere  proposal  for  such  an  undertaking.  Mo- 
 cenigo counselled  the  desirable  works,  paid  the  fine,  and 
 on  the  27th  September,  1422,  was  passed  the  decree  for  the 
 rebuilding  of  the  palace.  It  is  possible  that  parts  of  the 
 interior  of  the  older  edifice  may  have  been  preserved  ;  but 
 such  must  have  perished,  the  whole  structure,  except  the 
 outer  walls,  having  been  destroyed  by  conflagrations.* 
 Eventually  this  historic  palace  was  reduced  to  its  present 
 form  and  plan,  with  respect  at  least  to  the  renewed  interior, 
 on  the  suggestion  and  from  the  designs  of  Antonio  da 
 Ponte,  almost  the  only  one  of  a  board  of  fifteen  architects, 
 constituted  for  the  emergency,  who  counselled  the  preser- 
 vation of  all  that  remained,  without  change  of  a  single  detail 
 m  this  nobly  characteristic  building.  The  sculptures  on 
 the  afore-mentioned  capitals  are  now  attributed  by  the  more 
 learned  critics  to  Bartolomeo  and  Pantaleone  Bon  ;  and  as 
 to  Filippo  Calendario,  it  is  agreed  that  though  his  appoint- 
 ment as  director  of  the  works  at  this  palace  after  the  death 
 of  Baseggio  pre-supposes  high  repute  in  his  capacity  of 
 
 *  Sansovino  tells  us  that,  in  1477, "  a  great -part  of  the  Ducal  Palace 
 ■svas  consumed  in  one  night."  In  1574  three  of  the  halls  of  state  were 
 destroyed  by  fire,  as  was  that  of  the  Grand  Council,  with  that  "dello 
 Scrutinio,"  in  which  were  designated  the  forty -one  electors  of  ihe  Doge 
 iu  1577. 
 
348  MEDIAEVAL   CHRISTIANITY   AND 
 
 architect,*  no  extant  performance  either  in  that  art  or  in 
 sculpture  can  be  attributed  to  him. 
 
 Other  sculptures  of  the  XIY.  century,  scattered  over 
 Venice,  may  assist  us  in  forming  an  estimate  of  the  earlier 
 art  at  this  centre,  and  bringing  before  the  mind's  eye  the 
 picture,  somewhat  rugged  and  sombre  compared  with 
 present  realities,  of  this  city  at  the  period  in  question.  We 
 have  to  remember  that  the  Venice  of  that  time  had  no 
 Eialto  (as  it  now  stands),  or  Bridge  of  Sighs  ;  and  that  the 
 Ducal  Palace  in  which  Marino  Ealiero  was  beheaded  eight 
 months  after  he  had  been  elected  Doge,  no  longer  exists. 
 The  chronology  of  public  works  shows  us  that  the  progress 
 in  splendour  and  embellishment  of  every  description  was 
 wonderfully  rapid  in  this  "  glorious  City  of  the  Sea,"  and 
 that  the  XV.  century  was  the  golden  age  as  well  of  her 
 artistic  beauty  as  her  political  power. 
 
 Among  monuments  of  earlier  date,  besides  those  above 
 mentioned,  are  two  in  the  Frari  church  distinguished  by 
 the  severe  simplicity  so  far  departed  from  in  later  ages ; 
 one,  that  of  a  Grerman  Knight,  named  Arnold  (ob.  1300), 
 presenting  the  earliest  example  here  seen  of  the  recumbent 
 effigy  on  the  tomb.  Next  in  date  is  another  similarly 
 treated,  in  the  same  chapel  of  that  church,  to  Duccio  degli 
 Albert!  (ob.  1336),!PlorentineAmbassador  to  thisEepublic, 
 whose  effigy  in  armour  lies  under  a  Gothic  canopy  sculp- 
 tured with  the  symbolism  of  the  Holy  Lamb  and  the  Lily 
 of  the  Tuscan  State.  A  Madonna  statue,  on  a  pinnacle  of 
 the  facade  of  the  Prari  church,  is  ascribed  by  Cicognara  to 
 Niccolo  Pisano  ;  but  by  later  critics  to  the  Masegne  brothers. 
 Less  intrinsically  valuable,  but  curious,  is  a  relief  of  the 
 Virgin  and  Child  with  angels,  an  early  example  of  aifected 
 
 *  An  old  Venetian  chronicler  describes  him  as  "an  architect  who  was 
 a  man  most  astute,  and  who  was  much  in  favour  with  the  Signoria  — 
 
 molto  hen  voggiudo  (voluto)  dalla  Signoria." 
 
SACRED  ART  IN  ITALY.  319 
 
 mannerism,  and  originally  painted  all  over  in  brightest 
 tints,  the  hair  being  gilt,  in  the  recently  restored  church  of 
 S.  Maria  delV  Orto.  This  is  the  work  of  the  sculptor 
 Giovanni  de  Sanctis,  whose  monument,  a  horizontal  tomb- 
 stone with  an  effigy  in  the  lowest  relief,  (ob.  1390),  is  in  the 
 sacristy  of  the  same  church.* 
 
 Perhaps  there  is  no  parallel  instance  of  important  and 
 really  beneficial  results  secured  through  possession  of  a 
 revered  relic  to  such  a  degree  as  Venetian  annals  attest. 
 The  shrine  where  the  body  of  S.  Mark  was  laid  in  the  year 
 831,  became  to  national  feeling  as  it  were  the  Palladium  and 
 Oracle  of  the  Eepublic,  which  so  bravely  strove  for  and 
 gallantly  maintained  her  high  position.  The  watchword 
 "  Viva  San  Marco  !*'  was  not  one  of  fanaticism,  nor  sub- 
 servient to  superstitious  purposes  ;  it  was  the  war-cry  of  the 
 patriot  and  the  stimulus  to  heroic  eifort.  Such  records  of 
 the  popular  devotion  towards  the  Saint  as  here  meet  the 
 eye,  especially  in  the  countless  texts  inscribed  on  the  gilt 
 walls  and  domes  of  his  basilica,  seem  to  indicate  little  less 
 than  the  attribution  of  Divine  honours  to  him  ;  but  it  is  a 
 
 *  Scarcely  above  the  barbaric  are  the  relievi  near  the  entrance  to 
 the  Belle  Arti  Academy  (formerly  the  convent  of  Xa  Carita)  :  the  Virpn 
 enthroned,  with  the  Child,  who  is  receiving  homage  from  kneeling 
 devotees  (dated  1345) ;  also  S.  Leonardo  and  S.  Christopher,  1377.  On 
 the  now  solitary  island  between  Mm-ano  and  Torcello,  called  Mazzorbo, 
 which  once  had  many  cloisters  and  five  parish  churches,  stands  a  single 
 dilapidated  church  over  the  entrance  to  which  is  a  relief,  veiy  archaic, 
 and  far  from  beautiful,  of  the  espousals  of  S.  Catherine,  the  earliest  ex- 
 ample of  that  mystic  subject  in  Art  that  I  have  seen,  this  being  dated,  in 
 a  Gothic  inscription,  1368  ;  the  Christ,  seated  on  a  throne  and  holding 
 a  book  with  the  words  "  Ego  sum  lux  mundi''  on  the  open  page,  places 
 a  ring  on  the  hand  of  S.  Catherine,  who,  crowned  and  in  rich  array, 
 kneels  before  Him,  together  with  two  other  tiny  figures,  one  of  whom 
 holds  a  crozier  ;  two  little  angels  floating  above.  Two  episcopal 
 monuments  in  the  grand  old  cathedral  of  Torcello  are  noticeable;  the 
 eftigy  on  one  in  low  relief,  that  on  the  other,  merely  incised. 
 
350  MEDIEVAL    CnRISTIAT!fITY   Al^D 
 
 distiuction  of  mediseval  Catholicism  that  even  the  misappre- 
 hension of  its  doctrines,  and  the  errors  of  enthusiastic  zeal 
 in  the  interpreting  of  its  principles,  proved  sometimes  pro- 
 ductive rather  of  good  than  evil.* 
 
 PADUA. 
 
 At  Padua,  as  at  Asisi,  a  great  sanctuary  containing  the 
 shrine  of  a  pre-eminently  popular  Saint,  formed  an  attrac- 
 tion to  genius  as  well  as  piety,  and  became  a  focus  of  wealth 
 unappreciable.  The  period  during  which  mediaeval  Art 
 produced  its  noblest  works  here,  coincides  with  that  of  the 
 dominion  of  the  Da  Carrara  family,  who,  though  their 
 reigns  were  troubled,  and  in  some  instances  their  reputation 
 stained  by  darkest  crimes,  did  much  to  promote  intellectual 
 interests. 
 
 In  1818  the  Eepublican  government  was  suppressed  at 
 this  city,  when  Giacomo  da  Carrara,  after  being  led  from 
 the  Senate-house  and  presented  to  the  people  by  his 
 partisans,  was  accepted  with  acclamations  as  lord  of  Padua 
 
 *  The  history  of  the  transport  of  the  body  of  S.  Mark  from  Alexandria 
 to  Venice  is  narrated  in  the  Chronicle  by  Andrea  Dandolo  with  all  due 
 acceptance  of  the  miraculous;  and  that  writer  mentions  the  appearance 
 of  the  Angel  to  the  living  Apostle  whilst  he  was  sailing  across  the 
 lagoons  on  his  way  from  Aquileja,  where  he  had  founded  a  church  and 
 bishopric,  back  to  Rome  ;  the  Angel  pointing  out  to  him  the  destined 
 site  of  Venice,  prophesying  the  brilliant  future  of  that  city,  and  also  the 
 fact  that  the  Apostle  should  have  his  last  resting  place  here  in  a 
 supremely  honoured  shriue.  Over  the  ancient  mosaic  of  the  arrival  of 
 the  sacred  body  at  the  cathedral  (above  alluded  to),  on  that  church's 
 front,  is  an  inscription  thus  given  by  Selvatico  : 
 
 Collocat  hunc  dignis  plcbs  laudibus,  et  colit  hymnis, 
 Ut  Veneto  servet,  terraque  marique  gubernet. 
 But  which,  as  it  now  stands,  has  the  second  line  unintelligibly  altered 
 thus  : 
 
 Ut  Venetos  semper  sepit  e(t)ab  hostc  suos. 
 
SACEED    AllT    IN    ITALY.  351 
 
 and  its  state.  His  successor  Marsilio,  beset  by  domestic 
 treason,  liis  power  and  person  being  threatened  by  his  own. 
 uncle,  handed  over  this  state  to  Can  Grande  deUa  Scala, 
 lord  of  Verona.  After  the  death  of  that  more  powerful 
 Prince  (1328),  Padua  was  besieged  by  the  Venetians  and 
 Plorentines  in  league  against  the  Scaligeri ;  and  when 
 Marsilio,  instead  of  resisting,  voluntarily  admitted  the  be- 
 sieging force,  he  was  rewarded  by  those  allies,  with  the  recog- 
 nition of  a  power  less  conditional  than  he  had  yet  exercised 
 over  his  native  city.  Novello  da  Carrara,  on  whose  behalf 
 his  father,  Francesco,  had  abdicated,  1388,  found  himself 
 without  an  army,  without  finances  or  trustworthy  coun- 
 sellors, and  consigned  Padua  to  the  most  unscrupulously 
 ambitious  of  Italian  Princes,  Gian  Galazzo  Visconti,  who 
 in  return  sent  both  the  Da  Carraras,  father  and  son,  to 
 prisons  in  Lombardy.  The  escape  of  Novello,  and  his 
 perilous  wanderings  over  far- distant  lands — the  Italian 
 states,  Avignon,  Bavaria,  Croatia, — in  hope  of  obtaining  aid 
 to  recover  his  heritage,  and  his  entry  by  night  into  Padua, 
 passing  along  the  dried  bed  of  the  Brenta  wdth  a  small  com- 
 pany of  mounted  troops  (June,  1390) — all  this  forms  one  of 
 the  most  romantic  episodes  even  in  the  strangely  eventful 
 annals  of  mediaeval  Italy.  The  friend  and  patron  of  Petrarch 
 conspicuous  in  this  Carrara  dynasty,  Giacomo  II.  (1345-50), 
 obtained  the  princedom  by  the  sacrifice  of  his  predecessor's 
 life,  and  was  himself  cut  off"  by  assassination  from  the  hand 
 of  a  relative,  the  illegitimate  son  of  Giacomo  I.  It  has 
 been  said  of  him  that  "  never  was  authority  better  exercised 
 after  being  purchased  by  crimes."  Together  wath  the  latter 
 Prince  may  be  classed  among  benefactors  of  science  and 
 literature,  his  successor  Prancesco,  who  secured  to  himself 
 undivided  sway  by  the  treacherous  imprisonment  of  his 
 colleague  and  uncle  (1355).  He  obtained  from  the  Pope 
 the    privilege    for  the    Paduan    University    of  conferring 
 
352  MEDIAEVAL    CHRTSTIANTTT    AKD 
 
 degrees  in  Theology,  and  founded  the  first  college  in  this 
 city  for  the  gratuitous  education  and  maintenance  of  a 
 certain  number  of  students ;  several  other  establishments 
 similar  to  which,  for  poor  students  from  different  Italian 
 cities  and  from  Cyprus,  were  opened  in  Padua  during  this 
 century.  Eash  hostilities  against  Venice,  often  treacher- 
 ously pursued  and  promoted  by  evil  means,  proved  fatal  to 
 the  Da  Carrara  family  as  well  as  to  the  independence  of  their 
 State;  and  the  last  representatives  of  that  house,  an  unhappy 
 father  with  his  two  sons,  suffered  violent  deaths,  victims  of 
 remorseless  policy,  in  Venetian  dungeons,  a.d.  1406.* 
 
 The  Basilica  of  S.  Anthony — that  magnificent  example  of 
 the  transitionary  style,  between  Byzantine  and  Grothic — is 
 said  by  Vasari,  and  by  many  who  have  followed  him,  to 
 have  been  designed  by  Nicolo  Pisano  ;  but  no  contemporary 
 or  early  writers  mention  this.  What  is  certain  is,  that  the 
 foundations  were  laid  in  1237  ;  the  works  fairly  commenced 
 in  1259 ;  and  they  are  said  to  have  been  finished,  at  least 
 in  the  principal  structure,  1307 ;  but  the  central  cupola  was 
 not  added  until  1424,  and  the  whole  edifice  arose,  developed 
 into  its  majestic  completeness,  as  at  this  day  before  us,  in 
 1475.  The  body  of  S.  Anthony  was  laid  in  its  splendid 
 shrine  within  these  walls,  1350,  by  a  Prench  Cardinal, 
 Legate  in  Lombardy.  The  church  itself  may  be  regarded 
 as  a  vast  mausoleum  to  that  eminently  popular  saint ;  and 
 when  we  see  all  these  honours  rendered  to  a  self-mortified 
 
 *  The  last  representatives,  namely,  of  the  Da  Carrara  family  in  their 
 capacity  as  independent  Princes  were  those  put  to  death  by  strangulation 
 in  different  prisons,  the  father,  Francesco  II.,  on  the  17th  September, 
 and  the  sons,  Francesco  III.  and  Jacopo,  two  days  afterwards.  Francesco 
 II.  had  two  other  sons,  who  found  refuge  at  Florence,  where  one  died  a 
 natural  death  in  1407;  and  the  other,  having  unfortunately  ventured  to 
 revisit  Padua  for  some  private  affairs,  was  seized  at  a  villa  in  the 
 neighbourhood,  conducted  to  Venice,  and  put  to  death  by  decapitation, 
 1435.— Muratori,  Annali,  MCCCCV. 
 
SACRED    ATIT    IN   ITALY,  353 
 
 mendicant  friar,  we  are  reminded  of  the  power  that  has 
 gone  forth  from  the  teaching  of  the  Crucified  Lord,  to 
 reverse  the  maxims  of  worldly  wisdom,  and  frustrate  the 
 combinations  of  worldly  prudence — "  putting  down  the 
 miL:^lity  from  their  scats,  and  exalting  them  of  low  degree  !"* 
 There  is  a  chapel  in  this  basilica  (for  so  the  church  ranks) 
 adorned  with  paintings,  the  value  of  which,  as  attesting 
 the  luminous  progress  of  art,  can  scarcely  be  over-estimated. 
 It  was  founded,  137G,  by  Bonifazio  de  Lupi,  Marquis  di 
 Soragna,  and  originally  dedicated  to  S.  James  the  Apostle, 
 but  subsequently  to  S.  Felix,  whose  body  was  laid  here 
 about  the  year  1501.  The  frescoes  round  its  walls  illustrate 
 the  principal  events  in  the  Grospel,  and  the  entire  legend  of 
 S.  James  ;  the  former  series  by  Jacopo  Avanzi  of  Bologna  ; 
 the  latter  by  Altichieri  (or  Aldighiero)  da  Zevio,  of  the 
 Terona  province  ;  these  two  having  been  assisted  by  a 
 Paduan  artist,  Jacopo  Davanzo.f  All  the  paintings  here 
 before  us  were  more  or  less  injured  by  retouching  in  1773. 
 The  Crucifixion,  the  largest,  fills  three  compartments,  the 
 group  of  women  on  one  side,  the  soldiers  casting  lots  (a 
 highly  dramatic  scene,)  on  the  other;  the  Victim  on  the 
 cross  being  dead.  The  episode  of  the  fainting  of  the 
 Mother,  and  consequent  attention  paid  to  her  by  the  other 
 women,   is   a  novelty,    now    introduced,   and  henceforth 
 
 *  This  Saint  (1195-1231,)  born  at  Lisbon,  has  become  *'  S.  Anthony 
 of  Padua"  through  popular  assent  alone.  His  usual  emblem  is  a  flaming'- 
 heart,  to  signify  the  ardour  of  his  charity. 
 
 t  Strange  how  little  is  known  of  the  lives  of  two  artists  whose  works 
 assert  a  rank  alike  eminent  for  both!  Jacopo  Avanzi  was  born  13.50,  and 
 was  the  cousin  of  Simone  called  "  dalli  Crocifissi,"  from  his  predilection 
 for  the  Crucifixion  among  subjects  ;  with  that  relative  Avanzi  was 
 collaborer  in  the  frescoes  at  the  Mezzarata  chapel  near  Bologna. 
 Altichieri  was  engaged  much  at  Padua,  but  is  only  otherwise  known  as 
 a  follower  of  the  Giotto  School  in  the  latter  years  of  this  century— Ijis 
 designation  "  Da  Zevio,"  derived  from  his  birthplace. 
 
 2  A 
 
35 i  MEDIieVAL  CHRISTIANITY    AND 
 
 generally  admitted  in  art,  against  which  I  must  protest,  as 
 unhistoric,  unsuitable,  derogatory  to  the  moral  effect  of  this 
 scene.  No  word  in  the  sacred  narrative  justifies  the  belief 
 that  Mary  so  gave  way  to  her  feelings  at  the  dread  cata- 
 strophe ;  and  the  early  devotion  of  the  Church  contem- 
 plates her  as  standing, — "  Stabat  mater  dolorosa,"  &c., 
 beside  the  Cross  till  the  last  moment  of  awful  agony,  till 
 the  Divine  body  had  been  lowered  for  entombment.  The 
 little  we  know  as  to  the  personal  character  or  conduct  of 
 this  holy  woman  assures  us  that  hers  were  the  ornaments 
 of  a  meek  and  quiet  spirit ;  that  she  was  never  elated  by 
 her  glorious  privileges,  and  never  succumbed  under  the 
 burden  of  profound,  but  not  unforeseen,  sorrows.  The 
 artists  who  imagine  her  swooning  in  the  Crucifixion  scene, 
 impute  physical  and  moral  weakness  to  her  :  and  the  group 
 of  a  more  or  less  interesting  lady  with  her  anxious  hand- 
 maids, claiming  all  attention  for  her  at  such  a  moment,  is  a 
 piece  of  vulgar  sentimentality.  The  other  pictures  of  New 
 Testament  subjects  in  this  chapel  need  no  explanation. 
 Those  from  the  legend  of  S.  James  present,  I  believe,  the 
 first  appearance  of  that  romantic  story  in  art ;  and  the 
 paintings  themselves  may  be  best  understood  through 
 acquaintance  with  the  narrative  in  all  its  details. 
 
 S.  James  while  preaching  in  the  Temple  of  Jerusalem 
 (here  converted  into  a  splendid  church  of  Italo-Grothic 
 style,)  is  opposed  by  a  magician,  who  stands  up  amidst  the 
 congregation  to  resist  him.  This  magician  (named  Anas- 
 tasius)  is  supposed  (though  such  episode  is  not  here  por- 
 trayed,) to  have  been  carried  away  by  Demons,  but  at  the 
 behest  of  the  Apostle  is  brought  back,  riding  on  a  dragon, 
 to  earth.  Converted  by  the  miracles  or  arguments  of  the 
 Apostle,  he  at  last  burns  some  magical  books  in  his  presence. 
 Next  ensues  the  martyrdom  of  S.  James  j  he  is  brought 
 before  a  judge,  or  praetor,  and  condemned  to  death ;  on  his 
 
SACRED  ART  IN  ITALY.  355 
 
 way  to  execution,  one  of  the  headsmen  is  converted,  falls  at 
 his  feet,  declaring  himself  a  Christian,  and  is  immediately 
 condemned  to  suffer  the  same  death  by  the  axe.  Two 
 magicians,  both  alike  converted  by  the  same  power,  here 
 appear  on  the  scene,  and  co-operate  in  the  transport  of  the 
 Apostle's  body  to  a  distant  land  ;  they  place  it  in  a  shij), 
 w^hich  is  steered  by  an  Angel  to  the  coast  of  Spain.  On 
 landing  there  the  pious  voyagers  request  permission  of  a 
 noble  lady  named  Lupa,  to  have  it  interred  within  the 
 walls  of  the  castle  of  which  she  is  owmer.  Next  is  seen  an 
 episode  in  the  story  of  those  converted  magicians,  who 
 are  accused  as  Christians,  and  condemned  to  suffer  by 
 drowning  in  a  river,  but  are  eventually  rescued  by  an  Angel 
 after  being  thrown  into  the  deep  waters.  The  Spanish  lady 
 desires  the  body  of  S.  James  to  be  placed  on  a  car,  and 
 drawn  by  oxen  whithersoever  they  choose  to  go ;  the 
 animals  stop  before  a  splendid  building  (Italian-Gothic,) 
 which  proves  to  be  the  castle  of  Lupa,  and  w^hich  she  now 
 concedes  as  a  resting  place  for  those  sacred  relics,  and 
 allows  to  be  consecrated  for  Christian  worship.  The 
 posthumous  miracles  of  S.  James  come  next  in  the  series : 
 he  appears  in  a  vision  of  the  night  to  Kaniero,  King  of 
 Oviedo,  promising  him  victory  over  the  Moors  in  Spain  ; 
 the  King,  enthroned  in  state,  announces  this  to  his  courtiers; 
 a  battle  ensues,  and  w^hilst  the  Christians  are  besieging  the 
 Moslems  in  a  city,  S.  James  is  seen  floating  in  air  above 
 the  walls,  w^hile  the  King,  who  is  commanding  the  attack, 
 kneels  in  gratitude  for  the  divine  aid  guaranteed  by  that 
 vision.  The  various  acts  of  this  legendary  drama  are 
 represented  with  vigour  and  animation.  In  the  finely 
 characterized  aspect  of  the  Apostle  we  see  the  intent  to 
 indicate  his  human  relationship  with  the  Saviour.  In  the 
 same  chapel  is  the  tomb  of  its  founder  with  a  picture  of 
 the  Eesurrection  above  it,  and  near  it,  another  fresco  bj 
 
 2  a2 
 
356  MEDI^TAL    CnJRISTIATfITT   AiND 
 
 the  same  hand,  of  the  Marquis  Bonifazio  in  armour,  kneel- 
 ing before  the  Virgin  and  Child. 
 
 A  dim-lit  chapel,  preceded  by  a  vestibule  or  atrium, 
 where  a  number  of  trivial  votive  offerings  announce  some 
 favourite  shrine  of  popular  devotion,  introduces  us  to  a 
 new  Saint,  and  to  a  painter  yet  new  in  the  biographies  of 
 medisBval  artists ;  this  oratory  having  been  founded  by  a 
 noble  family,  1382,  dedicated  to  the  Beato  Luca  Belludi, 
 and  adorned  with  frescoes  by  Griusto  di  Griovanni  Menabrea,* 
 the  subjects  from  the  lives  of  two  Apostles  SS.  Philip  and 
 James  {not  the  James  above  mentioned,)  and  from  that  of 
 the  Pranciscan  "  Beato"  himself, — among  which  latter 
 scenes  is  one  historically  interesting :  S.  Anthony  appearing 
 after  death  to  Luca  Belludi,  and  announcing  the  certain 
 liberation  of  Padua  from  the  siege  by  the  ferocious  Eccelino 
 da  E-omano,  whose  encampment  before  the  walls  is  re- 
 presented. In  the  Crucifixion  of  S.  James  are  introduced 
 portraits  of  the  founder  of  this  chapel,  Bernardo  de'  Conti 
 and  his  sons. 
 
 The  genius  of  Avanzi  and  Altichieri  may  be  estimated  not 
 only  from  their  works  in  this  basilica,  but  from  others  in 
 the  adjacent  chapel  of  S.  Greorge,  founded  for  family 
 sepulture,  1377,  by  the  Marquis  Eaimondino  de'  Lupi,  and 
 after  his  death  adorned  by  the  pencils  of  those  artists,  here 
 engaged  by  E/aimondino's  brother,  the  Marquis  Bonifazio. 
 The  building  and  its  contents  have  suffered  from  every 
 possible  maltreatment  by  Prench  soldiery  ;  used  as  a  prison 
 it  was  deprived  of  all  its  Grothic  ornamentation,  and  of  ten 
 gilt  statues  of  the  De'  Lupi  family  once  within  its  walls,  f 
 
 *  Little  is  known  of  this  artist,  but  that  he  was  a  Florentine,  and 
 flourished  in  the  XIV.  century.  Ticozzi  does  not  even  mention  him; 
 and  I  can  only  refer  to  the  ever  satisfactory  reports  of  Messrs.  Crowe 
 and  Cavalcaselle. 
 
 i  See  the  well  compiled  and  interesting  "  Guida  de  Padova,"  published 
 
SACRED  AET  IN  ITALY.  357 
 
 Being  dedicated  to  S.  George,  the  legend  of  that  Saint 
 forms  the  principal  subject  of  tlie  paintings  on  its  walls, 
 besides  which  are  various  storie  from  the  lives  of  S.  Cathe- 
 rine of  Alexandria,  and  S.  Lucy;  over  the  altar,  the 
 Crucifixion  and  the  Coronation  of  Mary;  at  the  opposite 
 end,  scenes  from  the  New  Testament ;  and  on  the  vault, 
 the  four  Evangelists  and  four  Doctors.  An  old  writer, 
 Michele  Savonarola  {Be  Laudibus  Fatavii,  144G,)  attributes 
 all  these  paintings  to  Altichiori.  A^asari,  and  later  critics 
 assign  to  that  artist  the  lower  of  the  two  orders  into  which 
 the  series  is  divided  ;  the  upper,  to  Jacopo  Avanzi.  The 
 legend  of  S.  George  here  makes  its  first  appearance,  with 
 all  its  romantic  incidents  and  colouring,  in  the  artistic 
 sphere.  Its  narration  serves  to  explain  the  paintings  be- 
 fore us. 
 
 George  of  Cappadocia,  a  Christian  soldier  in  the  army 
 of  Diocletian,  chanced  to  arrive  at  Silena,  a  city  of  Libya, 
 at  a  moment  of  tragical  crisis.  A  lake  near  that  city  had 
 been  long  infested  by  a  terrific  dragon  which  put  to  iiight 
 the  armed  bands  sent  to  attack  it,  and  when  urged  by 
 hunger  to  ajiproach  the  walls,  sprea4  mortal  pestilence 
 among  the  inhabitants  by  its  poisonous  breath.  For  some 
 time  the  daily  ofi'ering  of  two  sheep  had  sulficed  for  the 
 appetite  of  the  voracious  monster  and  for  the  protection  of 
 the  city ;  but  flocks  being  scarce  in  those  parts,  the  supply 
 soon  began  to  fail,  and  it  was  enacted  by  law  that  a  human 
 victim,  chosen  by  lot  among  the  citizens,  should  thence- 
 forth be  daily  off"ered,  together  with  a  sheep,  to  the  dragon. 
 It  chanced  that  the  lot  fell  to  the  Eliug's  daughter  and  only 
 
 there  on  occasion  of  the  Congress  of  Italian  savans  in  tiiat  city,  1842.  In 
 the  winter  of  1870-71  the  roof  of  the  S.  Giorgio  chapel  was  crushed  in 
 by  the  weight  of  snow  fallen  upon  it  ;  and  in  the  summer  following  I 
 found  the  paintings  partly  concealed  by  the  scaffolds  put  up  for  the  work 
 of  reiiair. 
 
358  MEDIEVAL   CHRISTIANITY   AND 
 
 child.  The  unhappy  father  offered  all  his  gold  and  silver, 
 half  his  kingdom,  to  save  her  life ;  but  all  in  vain ;  the 
 people  threatened  to  burn  his  palace  and  its  inmates  with 
 it  unless  he  complied  with  the  law  passed  by  himself.  The 
 utmost  that  could  be  obtained,  was  a  respite  of  eight  days, 
 after  which  the  palace  was  surrounded  by  a  furious  crowd 
 demanding  the  victim,  and  crying  out  that  all  the  citizens 
 would  be  destroyed  by  the  breath  of  the  dragon  whilst  the 
 king's  daughter  was  kept  safe.  Clad  in  regal  robes,  the 
 princess,  after  receiving  her  father's  last  blessing,  was 
 led  to  the  shores  of  the  lake,  and  all  the  people  followed 
 to  see  what  would  become  of  her.  The  lugubrious  pro- 
 cession was  met  by  S.  George  on  his  steed.  He  asked  the 
 weeping  princess  the  cause  of  her  sorrow,  and  when  in- 
 formed, after  she  had  first  warned  him  to  fly  for  his  life, 
 addressed  her  with  promises  that  seemed  vain  :  "  JFear  not ! 
 in  the  name  of  Christ  I  will  aid  thee."  Now  the  dragon 
 put  forth  its  hideous  head  from  the  water,  and  was  ad- 
 vancing to  seize  its  prey.  S.  Greorge,  armed  with  the  cross 
 and  his  good  lance,  rode  towards  it,  attacked  and  wounded 
 it ;  then  desired  the  princess  to  cast  her  girdle  round  its 
 neck,  which  having  done,  she  led  the  monster  after 
 her,  tame  as  a  household-dog,  into  the  city.  The 
 people  fled  at  the  sight,  but  S.  George  reassured  them  :  "  Be 
 not  afraid  (he  said)  ;  for  this  hath  the  Lord  sent  me, 
 that  I  should  deliver  you  from  the  ferocity  of  the  dragon. 
 But  do  ye  now  be  converted;  believe  in  Christ,  and 
 be  all  baptized,  and  I  will  slay  the  dragon  at  once." 
 The  King,  Queen  and  Princess  with  all  the  people,  20,000 
 besides  women  and  children,  were  forthwith  ba^^tized  ;  and 
 S.  George  slew  the  dragon,  whose  carcase  was  dragged  out 
 of  the  gates  by  four  pairs  of  oxen.  And  the  King  built  a 
 church,  and  dedicated  it  to  the  Virgin  Mary  and  S.  George ; 
 and  from  its  altar  gushed  a  miraculous  fountain   whose 
 
SACKED  AET  IN  ITALY.  359 
 
 waters  cured  all  diseases.  Hitherto  this  story  seems  the 
 counterpart  of  that  of  Perseus  and  Andromeda,  but  the 
 clement  of  love  is  wanting,  eliminated  by  the  austerer 
 feeling  dominant  in  the  Christian  mythology.  S.  George 
 takes  leave  of  the  King  and  Princess  like  a  devout 
 Catholic,  and  in  his  parting  words  recommends  regard  for 
 the  clergy,  constant  attendance  at  religious  offices,  and 
 charity  towards  the  poor.  The  next  stage  brings  us  to  the 
 martyrdom  of  this  pious  Champion.  Whilst  the  last  of  the 
 Pagan  persecutions  was  raging,  he  rushed  before  a  Praetor, 
 Decennius  (called  also  "  King"  in  the  legend),  declared  that 
 the  gods  of  the  Gentiles  were  demons,  that  there  was  only 
 one  Creator  and  Supreme  Lord.  He  was  tortured  by 
 having  his  flesh  torn  with  hooks  and  burnt  with  torches  ; 
 but  Christ  appeared  to  him  in  the  night,  and  all  his  pangs 
 were  assuaged  and  forgotten.  The  Prsetor  summoned  a 
 famous  magician,  and  desired  him  to  defeat  the  mysterious 
 powers  of  the  Christian,  which  the  magician  promised  to 
 do  at  the  price  of  his  own  life,  should  he  fail.  "When  S. 
 George  was  brought  again  before  the  tribunal,  he  was  made 
 to  drink  poisoned  wine,  mixed  by  that  magician ;  he  did  so 
 without  being  harmed,  and  the  sorcerer  fell  down  at  his 
 feet,  penitent,  and  declaring  himself  a  Christian,  for  which 
 he  was  immediately  sentenced  to  death.  Next  day,  S. 
 George  was  condemned  to  suffer  at  the  wheel ;  but  the 
 instrument,  set  round  with  two-edged  swords,  broke  when 
 he  was  bound  to  it,  and  the  executioners,  struck  by  the  frag- 
 ments, fell  to  the  ground.  At  last  the  Praetor  tried  per- 
 suasion, and  S.  George,  (sarcastically,  it  seems)  promised  to 
 comply  with  what  might  reasonably  be  desired  of  him.  The 
 Prnetor  thought  that  he  intended  to  sacrifice  to  the  gods, 
 and  summoned  all  the  citizens  to  see  this  obstinate  Chris- 
 tian render  such  worship  to  their  deities  in  the  chief  temple. 
 In  presence  of  a  great  multitude  there  assembled,  S.  George 
 
360  MEDI-ffiYAL   CHETSTIANITT   AND 
 
 prayed  tliat  tlie  temple  and  its  idols  might  be  destroyed ; 
 and  fire  came  down  and  consumed  alike  the  building,  the 
 idols  and  their  priests  ;  and  the  earth  opened  to  swallow  up 
 the  ashes  left.  The  Praetor's  wife  now  interceded  for  the 
 invincible  Saint,  and  her  husband  ordered  her  to  be  sus- 
 pended by  the  hair  and  scourged;  she  desired  baptism, but 
 S.  George  assured  her  that  the  baptism  of  blood  would  be 
 accepted  by  Heaven  ;  and  so  she  died  under  the  lash  of  the 
 executioner.  It  was  now  the  Saint's  time  to  receive  his 
 heavenly  reward.  He  was  beheaded  about  the  year  287  ; 
 and  the  Praetor  Decennius,  on  returning  to  his  palace  after 
 witnessing  that  death,  was  destroyed,  together  with  his 
 wicked  ministers,  by  fire  from  Heaven.* 
 
 The  paintings  illustrating  the  legend  of  S.  Catherine  are 
 almost  lost  in  this  series  at  the  S.  Giorgio  chapel.     Those 
 
 *  The  martyr's  prayer  and  the  efficacy  promised  for  it,  in  his  last 
 moments,  afford  proof  of  the  fully  established  worship  of  Saints  before 
 this  legend  had  origin— at  least  in  its  present  form  :  "  Oravit  autem  ad 
 Dominum,  ut  quicunqne  ejus  inploraret  auxilium  petitionis  su^  conse- 
 qneretur  effectura  ;  divina  autem  vox  ad  eum  venit,  quod  sic  fieret  ut 
 oravit." 
 
 At  a  meeting  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Literature,  in  November,  1853, 
 was  read  a  paper  on  the  history  of  S.  George  the  Martyr,  calhng  atten- 
 tion to  the  many  errors  long  prevalent  concerning  him,  and  citing  an 
 inscription,  apparently  of  the  date  a.d.  346,  in  an  ancient  church  dedi- 
 cated to  him  in  Syria.  The  writer  showed  that  confusion  had  arisen  even 
 in  early  ages  between  S.  George  of  Syria,  the  true  Saint,  and  George  of 
 Cappadocia,  who  was  murdered  at  Alexandria,  a.d.  361,  but  had  no 
 claims  to  canonization.  The  Syrian  Martyr  suffered  under  Diocletian, 
 A.D.  287.  Whatever  the  difference  between  the  merits, and  fate  of  the 
 two,  one  S.  George  was,  ages  ago,  chosen  as  Patron  Saint  of  Genoa  ;  and 
 it  was  in  gratitude  to  that  Republic  for  the  assistance,  i.  e.  transports, 
 and  the  free  use  of  their  port,  offered  to  Richard  I.  of  England  in  the 
 third  Crusade,  1190,  that  Coeur-de-Lion  placed  his  kingdom  under  the 
 same  Protector,  and  adopted  the  Red  Cross  of  Genoa  for  the  device  of 
 the  English  fleet. 
 
SACEED  AET  IN  ITALY.  3G1 
 
 of  the  martyrdom  of  S.  Lucy  arc  better  preserved  :  we  see 
 the  several  acts  of  her  sufteriugs  ;  she  is  dragged  by  oxen, 
 exposed  to  the  flames,  deprived  of  her  eyes :  and  finally 
 laid  in  death  on  a  bier,  surrounded  by  mourners— the  loca- 
 lity, a  large  church  of  Italian  Gothic  style  ;  and  this  is  per- 
 haps the  finest  work  in  the  series,  the  greater  part,  if  not 
 all,  of  which  is  attributed  to  Altichieri.  An  ex-voto  picture 
 in  this  chapel  represents  the  males  of  the  De'  Lupi  family, 
 all  in  complete  armour,  and  kneeling  in  a  formal  row  at  the 
 front  of  the  scene,  their  respective  Patron  Saints  standing 
 behind  them;  also  the  Marquis  Bonifazio  presented  by 
 S.  George  to  the  Virgin  and  Child. 
 
 The  Baptistery  of  Padua,  founded  in  the  XIII.  century,  is 
 one  of  the  later  Italian  examples  of  such  an  edifice  standing 
 apart  near  its  cathedral — the  arrangement,  no  doubt,  pre- 
 ferable for  the  administration  of  the  rite  during  the  long- 
 retained  use  of  baptism  by  immersion — its  ancient  and 
 legitimate  form.  About  1378  this  building  was  adorned,  both 
 inside  and  outside,  with  fresco-paintings  ordered  by  Pina 
 Buzzacarina,  wife  of  Francisco  I.  da  Carrara.  Those  that 
 cover  the  walls  and  dome  in  the  interior  are  attributed 
 to  Giusto  di  Pirenze.  The  compositions  present  the  entire 
 cycle  of  subjects  from  the  Old  and  New  Testament — the 
 Epic  of  revealed  Eeligion — in  what  we  may  regard  as  the 
 now  accepted  and  permanent  form,  which  satisfied  mediaeval 
 feeling  till  the  time  for  a  moral  and  religious  change  arrived. 
 In  the  acts  of  Creation,  the  Deity  has  the  aspect  and  type 
 of  the  Second  Person,  as  God  the  Son;  on  the  dome  is  a 
 "  Paradise,"  or  beatific  vision  of  the  Supreme  Being  sur- 
 rounded by  choirs  of  Angels,  and  companies  of  innumerable 
 spirits  in  glory.  Among  the  New  Testament  subjects 
 but  one  is  of  legendary  nature^ — the  presentation  of  Mary 
 as  a  child  in  the  Temple.  In  the  tribune  are  some  scenes 
 from  the  Apocalypse ;  and  in  one  compartment  are  portraits 
 
362  MEDIEVAL   CHEISTIANITT   AND 
 
 of  Fiua  and  several  members  of  the  Da  Carrara  family, 
 among  whom  is  admitted  Petrarch,  kneeling  before  the 
 Virgin  and  Child.* 
 
 Beginning  with  the  master-pieces  of  Giotto  in  the  Arena 
 chapel,  we  find  a  richly  varied  and  impressive  representation 
 of  fourteenth  century  art  at  Padua.  We  should  not  omit 
 seeing  the  majestic  tombs  of  the  Da  Carrara  princes  in  the 
 "  Eremitani"  church  :  sculptured  monuments  in  which  the 
 pointed  style  is  combined  with  that  predilection  for  redund- 
 ant magnificence  which  we  observe  at  Venice — though  no 
 angels  drawing  aside  curtains  are  here  seen,  nor  columns 
 to  support  either  sarcophagus  or  canopy  ;  and  the  statuettes 
 are  ranged,  with  heavy  effect,  along  the  front  of  the  funeral 
 couch.  Most  observable  is  the  monument  of  TJbertino,  third 
 lord  of  Padua  (ob.  1345),  who  conferred  benefits  on  this 
 city  and  University,  restored  the  fortifying  walls,  promoted 
 manufactures,  but  was  abandoned  to  vices  which  shortened 
 his  life.  The  frescoes  round  the  walls  of  the  tribune  of 
 this  old  church  are  attributed  to  Gruariento,  an  artist  with 
 whom  we  have  not  yet  become  acquainted,  native  either  of 
 Padua  or  Verona,  and  supposed  to  have  been  the  immediate 
 pupil  of  Giotto  whilst  that  great  master  was  engaged  in  the 
 former  city.  It  is  known  that  commissions  from  the  Venetian 
 Senate  gave  employment  to  Guariento  in  1361,  and  that  he 
 was  still  at  work  in  1365.t  The  principal  subjects  in  the  series 
 before  us  are  from  the  life  of  S.  Augustine,  a  Saint  whom 
 we  have  already  seen  take  his  place  in  art  among  the  Pour 
 
 *Itis  only  on  the  credit  of  an  inscription  in  this  building  that  the 
 frescoes  are  assigned  to  Giusto.  Good  critics  suppose  them  to  be  by 
 Giovanni  and  Antonio  da  Padova.  The  paintings  on  the  exterior  were, 
 probably,  by  Altichieri;  but  not  a  trace  is  left  of  them. 
 
 f  These  frescoes  were  not  attributed  to  Guariento  till  some  two 
 centuries  after  his  death,  and  for  the  first  time  by  an  Italian  critic,  who 
 wrote  A. D.  1530 — v.  Ticozzi, ' "  Dtstonan'o  degli  Architetti,  Scidtori!^  e 
 FittorV 
 
SACEED  AET  IN  ITALY,  3G3 
 
 Doctors  of  tlic  Latin  Church,  and  in  one  of  the  earliest 
 examples  at  Assisi,  but  the  complete  illustration  of  whose 
 life  is  yet  new — destined  henceforth  to  a  prominence  and 
 celebrity  that  furnish  the  measure  of  his  increasing  in- 
 fluence in  ecclesiastical  spheres.  These  frescoes  in  the 
 Eremitani  church  are  much  injured  by  re-painting  (1589)  ; 
 they  still  deserve,  however,  the  praises  bestowed  upon  them 
 for  invention,  vivacity,  and  treatment  of  draperies.  Other 
 frescoes,  under  the  Grothic  canopy  of  a  tomb  here  seen 
 (XIV.  century) — the  Annunciation  and  Coronation,  with 
 two  warriors  presented  by  their  Patron  Saints  to  the  Virgin, 
 remind  us  of  Griotto,  and  may  be  attributable  to  Altichieri.* 
 In  the  porch  of  the  desecrated  church  of  S.  Michele,  are 
 some  frescoes  of  the  same  school,  scriptural  subjects, 
 among  which  is  the  Adoration  cf  the  Magi,  with  supposed 
 portraits  of  members  of  the  Da  Carrara  family  among  the 
 attendants  on  the  three  Kings.  Padua  deserves  a  pro- 
 longed sojouni  for  the  study  of  the  genius  of  the  period 
 here  in  question.  An  old-world  picturesqueness  and  sombre 
 dignity  predispose  to  reverential  consideration  of  the  Past 
 in  this  historic  city. 
 
 MILAN  AND  THE  LOMBARDIC  CITIES. 
 
 'We  have  seen  how  Grian  G-aleazzo  Viscouti  obtained  the 
 sovereignty  over  the  Milanese  State  by  conduct  at  once 
 treacherous  and  violent,  the  deposition,  namely,  and  arrest 
 of  his  uncle  and  father-in-law,  Bernabo,  who  died  in  prison 
 seven  months  afterwards,  1385.  In  1395  the  Emperor 
 "Wenceslaus  bestowed  on  the  successful  usurper  the  title  of 
 Duke  ;  and  almost  the  whole  of  what  had  formed  the  ancient 
 kingdom  of  Italy,  comprising  twenty-three  cities,  (Galeazzo 
 being  now  in  fact  master  of  twelve  other  cities  besides,) 
 
 *  See  Crowe  and  Cavalcaselle. 
 
364!  MEDIiEYAL    CnRISTIAiN-ITT   AKD 
 
 became  subjected  to  tbis  fortunate  scion  of  tbe  Yisconti 
 bouse.  On  tbe  very  day  of  bis  triumpbal  entry  into  Milan 
 after  tbe  capture  of  bis  uncle  and  cousins,  wbo  bad  met 
 bim,  unsuspicious  of  evil,  near  tbe  walls,  be  was  recognised  as 
 lord  of  tbat  city  and  state  by  decree  of  tbe  Grand  Council. 
 His  investiture  witb  tbe  rank  of  Duke,  according  to  im- 
 perial diploma,  took  place  at  tbe  basilica  of  S.Ambrose, 
 attended  by  an  immense  multitude  from  far  and  near,  and 
 witb  sucb  fetes  and  spectacles  as  were  rare  even  in  tbis 
 demonstrative  and  pomp  loving  age.  Corio  {anno  1391) 
 gives  tbe  bill  of  fare  of  tbe  stupendous  banquet  wbicb  fol- 
 lowed, after  tbe  official  and  devotional  proceedings,  on  tbis 
 occasion.*  Tbe  grasping  ambition  and  unscrupulous  policy 
 of  tbe  new  Duke,  sole  Italian  ruler  now  affecting  sucb  title, 
 migbt  bave  made  Grian  Graleazzo  formidable  to  neigbbouring 
 powers  ;  but  bis  temper  was  not  cruel,  bis  reign  was  not  dis- 
 graced by  tbe  wanton  atrocities  wbicb  bad  made  Bernabo, 
 and  otbers  of  tbe  same  bouse  bateful  or  terrible ;  and  advant- 
 ages to  public  interests  migbt  be  expected  from  a  Prince 
 wbo  loved  splendour,  was  eager  to  attacb  bis  name  to  monu- 
 mental works,  and  particularly  empbatic  in  bis  professions 
 of  piety.  But  Gian  Galeazzo,  cut  oif  by  deatb  in  bis  forty- 
 nintb  year,  (1403,)  wbilst  bent  on  tbe  attainment  of  tbe 
 bigbest  prize,  notbing  less  tban  tbe  sovereignty  of  all  Italy, 
 bad  scarcely  time  to  fulfil  even  bis  implied  promises  or  see 
 any  of  bis  great  works  completed.  It  is  questioned  wbetber 
 bis  leading  object,  in  tbe  founding  of  a  new  Catbedral,  were 
 tbe  fulfilment  of  a  vow,  tbe  accomplisbment  of  a  stroke  of 
 *  The  panegyric  pronounced  by  the  Bishop  of  Novara  on  the  piazza 
 before  S.  Ambrogio,  is  extant,  and  a  curious  specimen  of  what  was 
 deemed  eloquence  at  the  time.  Summing  up  the  virtues  of  the  Duke, 
 this  mitred  orator,  who  was  no  other  than  Peter  Philargos,  afterwards 
 Pope  as  Alexander  V.,  passes  into  rhyming  rhapsodies.  "Celebris 
 potentia  validi  vigoris, — nobilis  prosapia  fulgidi  decoris,— hilaris  de- 
 mentia placidi  datoris"  &c,     (Verri,  "  Storia  di  Milano.") 
 
SACHED  AUT  IN  ITALY.  3G5 
 
 policy,  or  the  encouraging  of  art  ap])lle(l  to  the  honour  of 
 religion.*  Probably  all  these  purposes  combined,  together 
 with  some  impulse  of  remorse,  in  inducing  him  to  an  act 
 which  satisfied  at  once  his  piety  and  ambition.  On  tlic 
 23rd  May,  1385,  he  laid  the  first  stone  of  the  new  cathedral 
 of  Milan  on  the  site  of  the  ancient  basilica  mentioned  by 
 S.  Ambrose  as  inter  muraria  nova,  also  known  as  the 
 Winter-basilica  and  S.  Maria  Major.  It  was  not  till  13SG 
 that  the  works  for  this  celebrated  edifice  were  fairly  com- 
 menced. Eeport  ascribed  the  original  design  to  the  Duke 
 Yisconti  himself.  The  architect  who  has  generally  been 
 allowed  credit  for  prominent  rank  and  authorship  in  the 
 great  undertaking,  is  Heinrich  Ahrler  of  Grmiinden,  said 
 to  have  been  chief  director  of  the  buildings  from  1388  to 
 1399,  in  association  with  other  architects  from  Paris, 
 JS"ormandy,  Preiburg,  Ulm,  and  Bruges.  Eicci,  however 
 {Storia  delV  Architettura)  shows  that  Ahrler  was  not 
 invited  to  assume  the  post  of  master  architect  at  Milan  till 
 1391,  and  that  he  stayed  in  this  city  not  more  than  seven 
 months. t  A  board  of  maestri,  eighteen  being  Italians  and 
 four  foreigners,  was  constituted  to  take  into  consideration 
 the  criticisms  and  suggestions  of  Ahrler  ;  their  discussions 
 resulted  in  the  general  approval  of  a  plan  and  norma  to  be 
 carried  out,  and  which  it  is  believed  were  actually  adopted 
 in  determining  the  leading  features  and  proportions.  At 
 the  request  of  Gian  Graleazzo,  Pope  Boniface  IX.,  who  had 
 published  the  Jubilee  for  1390,  conceded  the  same  indul- 
 gences as  those  obtainable  at  Eome,  without  the  journey 
 thither,  to  all  of  the  A^isconti's  subjects  who  would  contri- 
 
 *  He  is  said  to  have  made  a  vow  to  the  Virgin,  ten  rears  previonslv, 
 to  raise  this  temple  to  her  honour  in  case  of  the  success  of  the  amljitious 
 schemes  long  harboured,  and  accomplished  as  we  have  seen. 
 
 f  Marco  Frisone  da  Campione  is  supposed  by  some  to  have  been  the 
 very  first  architect  engaged  for  this  building. 
 
366  MEDIEVAL    CnmSTIANITT     ATfD 
 
 loute  one- third  the  expense  of  that  pilgrimage  towards 
 the  costs  of  this  sacred  building  and  to  the  Papal  treasury — - 
 two-thirds  of  that  fraction  for  the  new  church,  the  remain- 
 ing third  for  His  Holiness  !  Corio  (anno  1391)  states  that 
 the  Papal  bull  did  not  require  the  usual  conditions  of 
 penitence  and  confession  for  this  indulgence  ;  he  is  mistaken, 
 as  the  extant  document  shows.  But  Yerri  supposes  that 
 this  strange  error  was  actually  in  popular  currency  at  the 
 time,  and  encouraged  among  the  ignorant  in  order  to  secure 
 their  money-offerings  at  whatever  risk  to  their  morals ! 
 The  German  architect  above  named  left  Milan,  as  Eicci 
 tells  us,  "  little  satisfied  with  the  votes  of  his  colleagues." 
 The  extant  records  of  the  church  date  from  1387  ;  they 
 comprise  the  names  of  fifty-two  architects,  and  their 
 assistants,  all  engaged  on  the  works  in  the  last  years  of  this 
 century.  The  great  East  window,  with  tracery  approach- 
 ing to  the  flamboyant,  was  finished  in  1391  from  the 
 designs  of  Nicholas  Bonaventure,  mentioned  as  a  Parisian, 
 The  whole  of  the  East  end,  as  it  still  stands,  is  probably  the 
 most  ancient  portion,  and  consequently  stamped  with  the 
 characteristics  and  taste  of  the  artists  originally  engaged 
 here — an  index  to  the  ideal  aim  of  those  who  commenced 
 this  church,  and  our  guide  in  drawing  inferences  as  to 
 what  was  projected  for  the  whole  structure.  The  main  body, 
 or  at  least  the  shell  of  the  building,  was  completed,  a.d.  1400, 
 when  it  was  determined  to  adorn  the  exterior  with  sculp- 
 tures ;  and  either  at  that  time,  or  not  long  afterwards,  the 
 amazing  number  of  4500  statues,  besides  reliefs,  was  deter- 
 mined in  this  magnificent  project  for  the  glorifying  of  the 
 temple  and  the  consecrating  of  Art.  In  the  same  year  was 
 ordered  and  undertaken  the  colouring  of  the  windows  ;  and 
 the  best  masters  then  known  in  Italy  were  engaged  in  pre- 
 paring the  glass-paintings,  from  1400  to  1409.  The  history 
 of  such  a  church  belongs,  of  course,  not  to  one  but  succes- 
 
SACRED  ART  IN  ITALY.  3G7 
 
 sive  ages.  TVc  cannot  suppose  the  Milan  Duomo  to  have 
 presented  within  fifteen  years  after  the  laying  of  the  first 
 stone  anything  more  than  an  intimation,  however  noble 
 even  at  that  early  stage,  of  the  grandeur  and  beauty  to  be 
 attained.  In  the  interior  little,  except  the  architectonic, 
 exists  to  remind  us  of  the  XIY.  century,  except  certain 
 relievi,  scriptural  subjects,  and  Christ  between  the  Virgin 
 and  S.  John,  some  from  the  designs  of  an  artist  better 
 known  through  his  paintings  at  Florence,  Giovanni  di 
 Milano,  who  returned  to  his  native  city,  probably  invited  by 
 the  A^isconti,  in  1370.  The  works  in  this  Duomo  have  been 
 continuing  almost  without  interruption  ;  and  it  is  said  that 
 the  scaffolds,  for  the  labourers  engaged,  have  never  been 
 absent  either  from  the  interior  or  exterior.  Surely,  we  may 
 class  among  genuine  benefits  conferred  by  rulers  the  origi- 
 nating of  such  temples,  destined  to  send  down  the  stream 
 of  time  an  influence  acting  on  that  which  is  disinterested, 
 generous  and  pure  in  man's  nature ;  to  supply  demand  for 
 the  exertions  of  genius  and  offerings  of  piety  ;  to  embody  a 
 thought  of  the  Infinite  in  forms  suited  to  affect  almost  every 
 not  absolutely  callous  nature.  We  see  also,  in  this  illus- 
 trious example,  the  manner  in  which  the  Italian  mind  finally 
 accepted,  whilst  modifying,  the  Northern  style ;  assimilat- 
 ing it  to  the  spirit  of  another  nationality  and  genius ;  not 
 merely  imitating,  but  recreating  ;  retaining  the  many  fea- 
 tures that  were  characteristic,  but  eliciting  from  them  a 
 different  expression,  and  giving  predominance  to  the  beau- 
 tiful over  all  other  elements. 
 
 Gian  Galeazzo  Visconti  had  been  lord  of  Pavia  before  he 
 attained  the  sovereignty  of  Milan,  and  seemed  mindful  of 
 the  honours  and  interests  of  the  former  city,  which  w^as  the 
 seat  of  his  more  limited. princedom.  The  Pavia  University 
 owed  its  distinction  mainly  to  him,  and  on  account  of  the 
 privileges  he  conferred  upon  it,  he  was  regarded  as  its  second 
 
368  MEDIiEVAL    CHRISTIANITY   AlsD 
 
 founder.  Desiring  to  connect  his  name  with  one  of  the 
 most  magnificent  monasteries  on  earth — whether  still  urged 
 by  remorse  for  the  past,  who  shall  say  ?  seeing  how  many 
 pious  foundations  of  these  times  had  their  origin  in  the 
 impulses  of  guilt-laden  conscience — the  prosperous  Duke 
 of  Milan  laid  the  first  stone  of  a  Carthusian  church  (Cer- 
 tosa)  on  the  8th  September,  1396,  many  Prelates,  Carthu- 
 sian Priors,  and  a  multitude  of  all  degrees  attending.  The 
 site  chosen  was  within  a  park  twenty  miles  in  circuit,  and 
 surrounded  by  walls,  formerly  reserved  for  the  pleasures  of 
 the  chace  by  Gian  Galeazzo's  father.  Who  was  the  original 
 .architect  has  been  questioned  ;  some  supposing  Jacopo  da 
 Campion© ;  others,  Heinrich  Ahrler ;  but  I  believe  the  evi- 
 dence recently  brought  forward  from  archives  is  quite  con- 
 clusive—that it  was  Bernardo  of  "Venice,  engineer  to  the 
 Duke  of  Milan,  who  prepared  the  first  designs,  and  who, 
 from  July  to  September,  1396,  received  ten  florins  monthly 
 for  his  labours  here.*  The  works  were  carried  on  with  such 
 rapidity  that,  after  two  years,  a  community  of  twenty-five 
 Carthusians  were  able  to  establish  themselves  in  the  cloister, 
 and  in  the  third  year  the  first  Mass  was  celebrated  in  the 
 splendid  church.  The  history  of  this  magnificent  Certosa 
 belongs  still  less  than  does  that  of  the  Milan  Duomo  to  the 
 century  here  considered  ;  its  sumptuous  facade,  covered 
 with  statuary  and  medallions,  was  not  even  commenced  till 
 1473  ;  and  the  greater  number  of  the  sculptures  adorning  it 
 were  executed  between  1492-1499.  The  Duke  left  large 
 sums  for  the  furtherance  of  the  works  after  his  premature 
 death,  and  desired  to  be  interred  within  these  walls.  A 
 stately  mausoleum  in  his  honour  was  ordered  by  the  monks, 
 and  designed  by  Pellegrini  in  1490 ;  but  not  completed,  by 
 
 *  The  same  Bernardo  ''  da  Venezia"  was  frequently  consnlted  at 
 Milan  by  the  "  Opera"  (board  of  works)  for  the  Duomo,  between  1391 
 and  1400. — v.  *' Archivio  Storico  Italiano,  dispens.  II,  1869." 
 
SACRED    ART    IN    ITALY.  l^GO 
 
 the  labours  of  several  sculptors,  till  1562.  That  princely 
 monument  is,  however,  a  mere  cenotaph,  containing  no  relics 
 of  the  illustrious  dead.  Gian  Galeazzo's  funeral  was  solem- 
 nized with  the  utmost  pomp  at  the  Milan  cathedral,  and 
 his  body  was  laid  in  some  provisional  resting  place  till  a 
 suitable  tomb  could  be  prepared.  Its  place  was  forgotten 
 long  before  the  stately  mausoleum  had  been  finished ;  and 
 the  remains  of  the  most  powerful  Yisconti,  who  had  the 
 regal  crown  of  Italy  almost  within  his  grasp,  lie  mingled 
 with  obscurer  dust  in  a  tomb  not  even  known  !  The  various 
 ages  to  which  the  structure  belongs  may  be  traced  in  the 
 discrepancies  of  style  in  this  superb  church.  Still  more 
 than  in  the  Milanese  example  do  we  see  here  the  predomi- 
 nance of  Italian  over  northern  feeling,  whilst  features  of 
 transalpine  origin  are  retained.  The  tendency  to  return  to 
 Eoman  classicism  is  obvious  ;  yet  the  general  efiect  of  the 
 Certosa  has  aerial  grandeur  and  majestic  grace  ;  the  whole 
 expands  in  luminous  vastness ;  and  w^e  might  say  that  this 
 church  exemplifies  the  self- developing  principle  in  sacred 
 architecture,  which  cannot  be  frozen  to  immutability,  but 
 advances  with  the  life  of  nations.  In  this  respect  is  such 
 architecture  a  symbol  of  the  elastic  capabilities  and  moral 
 Catholicity  of  the  Christian  Eeligion  itself— essentially  the 
 same  whether  its  worship  be  held  within  the  bare  walls  of 
 the  humblest  Protestant  chapel,  amidst  the  Oriental  gloom 
 of  the  Venetian  S.  Mark's,  the  spiritualized  sublimity  of 
 northern  minsters,  or  the  brilliant  pomps  of  the  Papal 
 basilica. 
 
 In  a  lateral  chapel  of  the  large  and  imposing  (though 
 unfinished)  cathedral  of  Pavia,  stands  one  of  the  most  beau- 
 tiful works  of  fourteenth-century  Art,  the  shrine  of  S. 
 Augustine,  which  not  only  bears  evidence  to  the  genius  of 
 the  age,  but  to  the  ascendancy  of  that  great  Saint  among 
 the  influencing  minds  that  have  determined,  and  stamped 
 
 2  B 
 
370  MEDIEVAL    CHRISTIANITY    AND 
 
 their  own  cliaracter  on  the  decisions  of  Theology.*  This 
 shrine  has  been  ascribed  to  Agostino  and  Agnolo  da  Siena  ; 
 but  is  proved  not  to  have  been  commenced  till  after  the 
 decease  of  those  sculptors — namely,  in  1362,  and  to  be  the 
 work  of  Bonino  da  Campione,  who  executed  the  monu- 
 ments of  Cansignorio  at  Verona  and  Azzo  Yisconti  at 
 Milan.  It  originally  stood  in  the  sacristy  of  >S^.  Pietro  in 
 del  d'Oro,  and  is  supposed  to  have  been  finished  by  1380, 
 or  not  till  several  years  subsequently,  either  after  or 
 before  the  date  1400,  as  one  circumstance  might  lead  us  to 
 infer.  The  monks,  Augustinian  Hermits,  who  served  that 
 church,  had  already  spent  4000  gold  florins  upon  the  shrine 
 before  tlie  year  1394,  when  they  requested  aid  from  Gian 
 G-aleazzo  Yisconti,  who,  in  his  last  will,  enjoined  upon  his 
 heirs  to  provide  for  the  completing  of  this  work,  with  the 
 same  marble  and   in  the  same  style   of  ornamentation. f 
 
 *  Aurelius  Augustinus  was  born  at  Tagaste,  in  Numidia,  a.d.  354. 
 In  his  youth  he  imbibed  the  notions  of  the  Manichsean  heretics,  and  his 
 baptism,  which  he  had  wished  to  receive  during  a  dangerous  illness,  was 
 indefinitely  delayed.  Whilst  engaged  in  teaching  rhetoric  at  Milan,  he 
 was  so  influenced  by  the  eloquence  and  arguments  of  S.  Ambrose  as  to 
 be  led  to  abandon  his  heretic  principles,  and  enter  the  orthodox  commu- 
 nion. On  the  vigil  of  Easter,  387,  he  was  baptized  by  that  great  Prelate 
 of  the  Milanese  church  ;  and  soon  afterwards  returned  to  Africa,  desir- 
 ing to  dedicate  himself  to  a  life  of  piety  and  seclusion.  From  that  retire- 
 ment he  was  called  by  Valerius,  bishop  of  Hippo,  to  be  ordained  priest, 
 and  engaged  in  preaching  at  that  city.  By  the  Bishop's  desire,  Augus- 
 tine became  his  coadjutor  in  the  administration  of  that  See,  and  eventually 
 succeeded  to  Valerius  in  the  bishopric.  He  established  in  his  own  house 
 a  kind  of  monastic  society  for  ecclesiastics.  His  labours  and  self-devoting 
 zeal  in  the  fulfilment  of  pastoral  duties  seem  to  present  the  personified 
 ideal  of  the  episcopal  character  in  its  truly  apostolic  aspect  and  noblest 
 dignity.  It  is  inferred,  seeing  the  immense  number  of  his  sermons,  that 
 he  must  have  long  persisted  in  the  habit  of  preaching  every  day.  For 
 thirty-five  years  he  continued  in  this  unwearied  devotedness  to  his  sacred 
 tasks,  and  died  at  his  post,  28tli  August,  430. 
 I  Galcazzo  Visconti  died  in  September,  1402. 
 
SACEED    ART    IN    ITALY.  371 
 
 About  1501  some  restoration  of  it  was  ordered  by  the 
 monks,  and  certain  heads  of  the  statuettes  were  then  re- 
 newed. The  earliest  mention  of  it  (as  far  as  I  am  aware) 
 by  any  known  writer,  is  found  in  the  "  Descrizione  d'ltalia" 
 (written  soon  after  1550)  by  Leandro  Alberti,  who  simply 
 notices  it  as  "  that  artistically  wrought  sepulchre  of  marble, 
 in  which  are  to  be  laid  the  bones  of  S.  Augustine,  but  which 
 is  not  yet  finished."  The  earliest  notice  of  it  that  can  be 
 called  historic,  is  in  a  MS.  at  the  public  library  of  Pa\da, 
 drawTi  up,  1578,  by  the  Prior  of  the  Augustinian  Hermits, 
 its  original  owners.  The  intention  to  place  the  revered 
 relics  of  Augustine  in  this  splendid  tomb  is  said  to  have 
 been  abandoned  owing  to  a  vision,  in  which  that  Saint 
 appeared  to  certain  aged  monks  of  the  community  at  the 
 S.  Pietro  cloisters,  desiring  them  to  leave  his  relics  un- 
 disturbed where  they  then  lay.  The  body  was  removed 
 from  Hippo,  the  African  See  of  the  great  Prelate,  during 
 the  Arian  persecution,  under  the  Vandal  king,  Thrasimond, 
 about  the  end  of  the  fifth  century ;  and  the  Catholic  bishops 
 of  Africa  brought  it  to  Sardinia,  whither  they  fled  for  refuge. 
 In  that  island  the  body  remained  till  the  YIII.  century, 
 when,  Sardinia  being  invaded  by  the  Saracens,  and  these 
 relics  exposed  again  to  profanation,  the  Longobardic  king 
 Luitprand,  bought  them  from  the  Sardinian  Clergy  at  a 
 high  price,  for  transfer  to  Pavia,  capital  of  his  Italian  king- 
 dom. The  place  of  interment  at  S.  Pietro  in  del  d  Oro  had 
 been  long  forgotten.  During  some  works  of  repair,  in  1695, 
 was  accidentally  discovered,  in  the  crypt  of  that  church,  a 
 marble  sarcophagus  with  the  name  Augustinus  inscribed  on 
 the  outside  ;  within  this  a  wooden  case,  and  inside  the  latter 
 a  silver  coff'er  containing  bones  and  ashes.  After  this  dis- 
 covery the  shrine  was  erected,  and,  I  believe,  the  relics 
 laid  within  it,  over  an  altar  in  the  tribune  of  the  church,  and 
 for  which  the  monks  spent  10,000  Eoman  scudi.     In  1773, 
 
 2  B  2 
 
372  MEDTJEVAL    CHEISTIAFITY    AND 
 
 the  Augustinians  left  the  cloister  of  S.  Pietro,  and  carried 
 the  relics  with  them,  leaving  the  shrine  neglected  and  broken 
 up;  in  which  state  it  remained  for  thirteen  years,  till 
 transferred  to  another  church  now  occupied  by  the  same 
 monks  at  Pavia.  In  1799,  their  Eremite  Order  was  sup- 
 pressed, and  the  relics,  together  with  the  shrine,  were  placed 
 in  the  cathedral  of  that  city.  A  year  afterwards,  the 
 administrators  of  the  church  j)roperty  proposed  to  sell  the 
 scattered  sculptures  of  the  shrine  to  different  merchants 
 or  other  speculators ;  but  the  capitular  clergy  exerted 
 themselves  laudably  and  successfully  to  prevent  such  Van- 
 dalism. In  1823  a  worthy  Bishop  of  Pavia,  Mgr.  Tosi, 
 determined  to  have  the  sacred  relics  exposed  to  veneration, 
 and  laid  in  the  shrine  destined  for  them.  He  desired  to 
 have  that  sculptured  tomb  erected  in  a  transept,  which 
 had  yet  to  be  added  to  the  buildings  of  the  cathedral ;  but, 
 as  the  large  sum  requisite  for  such  works  could  not  be 
 supplied,  the  Bishop  at  last  satisfied  himself  with  the 
 more  facile  task  of  erecting  a  new  chapel  to  contain  the 
 enshrined  relics.  On  the  2Sth  of  August,  1832,  the  silver 
 coffer,  after  being  opened  and  inspected  by  the  Bishop, 
 was  placed  on  the  high  altar  of  the  cathedral ;  and,  after 
 solemn  pontifical  rites,  carried  in  procession  through  the 
 city,  with  great  rejoicings  kept  up  for  three  days.  The 
 relics  were  finally  deposited  in  a  recess  within  the  altar 
 of  the  new  chapel,  where  the  silver  coff'er,  closed  by  three 
 keys,  still  remains  under  the  sculptured  shrine  that  rises 
 majestically  above  the  modest  mensa.  Unlike  the  splendid 
 tombs  of  S.  Dominick  at  Bologna  and  S.  Donatus  at 
 Arezzo,  in  which  the  rich  Gothic  architecture  first  attracts 
 the  eye,  the  shrine  of  S.  Augustine  exemplifies  the  sub- 
 ordinating of  the  architectonic  to  the  sculptural  art. 
 More  remarkable  than  the  beauty  of  detail  and  execution, 
 is  the  wealth  of  conceptions  and  imaginative  personifica- 
 
SACRED  ART  IX  ITALY.  373 
 
 tion  of  attributes  here  accumulated  appropriately  to 
 houour  the  greatest  theological  writer  among  the  four  who 
 rank  as  "  Doctors"  of  the  Latin  Church,  There  are  alto- 
 gether 95  statuettes,  50  bas-reliefs,  and  420  heads  on  the 
 structure  before  us.  On  the  lowest  of  the  four  storeys  are 
 relief  statuettes  of  the  Apostles  (dignified  and  well  cha- 
 racterized), each  holding  a  scroll,  on  which  is  his  name, 
 with  a  sentence  of  the  Creed  ascribed  to  him ;  thus, 
 S.  Peter,  first  of  the  company,  has  his  scroll  inscribed : 
 S.  Fetrus  dixit,  Credo  in  unum  Deum.  In  niches,  alterna- 
 ting with  these  reliefs,  are  statuettes  of  Virtues,  theolo- 
 gical and  cardinal ;  and  on  the  narrower  sides,  SS.  Stephen 
 and  Lawrence  added  to  the  company  of  Apostles.  The 
 symbolism  and  emblems  are,  in  some  instances,  both 
 novel  and  appropriate.  Paith  has  her  cross  and  chalice  5 
 Charity  supports  two  infants,  and  holds  a  heart  in  her 
 right  hand ;  Orthodoxy  holds  by  a  chain  a  tamed  monster 
 with  a  human  head ;  Peligion  (or  Piety),  a  lovely  maiden, 
 with  long  flowing  hair,  stands  amidst  rocks,  with  a  scroll 
 and  a  palm  in  her  hands  ;  Fortitude  holds  a  disc,  on  which 
 are  represented  the  sea,  seven  castles  on  a  rock,  and  the 
 four  winds  ;  Poverty  holds  an  olive  branch  and  two  tablets  ; 
 Chastity  has  roses  and  tulips,  also  a  little  animal  (a  rab- 
 bit ?)  in  her  hands  ;  Obedience,  a  severe  matron,  with  one 
 finger  on  her  lips,  holds  a  yoke  and  a  book.  On  the  second 
 storey  lies  the  life-size  effigy  of  the  Saint,  pontifically  vested, 
 a  book  laid  open  on  his  breast ;  six  young  deacons,  or 
 rather  (as  their  costume  implies)  monastic  novices,  lifting 
 up  the  border  of  the  pall  thrown  round  the  venerable 
 figure,  which  is  seen  but  partially  through  arcades  and 
 colonnettes  ;  the  head  finely  characteristic  and  intellectual. 
 As  if  mourning  around  the  bier,  stand  the  other  three  of 
 the  Latin  Doctors,  with  S.  Simplicianus,  in  monastic  garb, 
 
374  MEDIEVAL    CHRISTIANITY   AND 
 
 filling  the  place  of  the  fourth.*  On  consoles  are  numerous 
 seated  statuettes  of  Popes,  bishops,  monks,  and  martyrs ; 
 among  the  latter  class,  the  four  sculptors  who  suffered 
 voluntarily  under  Diocletian  rather  than  fabricate  images 
 for  idolatrous  worship  ;  two  among  these  seated  figures 
 being  probably  intended  to  personify  liberal  arts.  On  the 
 canopy  are  other  statuettes  and  relievi ;  the  Deity  blessing, 
 the  Archangel  Eaphael  leading  Tobias,  S.  Michael  with 
 sword  and  scales,  in  which  he  is  weighing  souls,  S.  John 
 the  Baptist,  the  Blessed  Virgin,  the  Magdalene  and  S. 
 Catherine.  On  the  third  storey  are  relievi  of  the  principal 
 events  in  the  Saint's  life  :  we  see  him  preaching ;  and 
 again,  with  a  book  on  his  knees,  seated  outside  the  cell  of 
 the  learned  Simplicianus ;  receiving  a  book  (the  writings 
 of  S.  Paul)  from  an  angel ;  assuming  at  Milan  the  habit  of 
 a  catechumen ;  received  into  the  Catholic  communion  by 
 S.  Ambrose,  his  mother  S.  Monica  and  S.  Simplicianus 
 being  present;  the  funeral  of  S.  Monica,  whose  body  is 
 borne  on  a  bier  by  monks,  her  son  following  ;t  the  insti- 
 tuting of  the  Augustinian  Order,  the  founder  seated,  with  a 
 long  scroll,  amidst  many  disciples  ;  the  conversion  of  a 
 heretic  by  the  arguments  of  the  Saint ;  the  Saint  in  act  of 
 teaching  before  an  audience,  between  two  cities,  one  desig- 
 nated by  the  familiar  letters  S.P.Q.E.  as  Eome;  the  body 
 of  Augustine  transported  from  Sardinia  to  Pavia  ;  its 
 arrival  at  that  city,  with  a  procession,  in  which  walks 
 King  Luitprand;    the  reception  of   those  relics  at  the 
 
 *  A  saint  who  contributed  to  the  conversion  of  Augustine  from 
 Manichsean  errors,  and  who  succeeded  to  S.  Ambrose,  a.d.  397,  in  the 
 Milanese  See. 
 
 f  See  his  affecting  account  of  his  intercourse  with  that  pious  mother 
 during  her  last  days  at  Ostia,  and  of  her  death  and  funeral,  in  the  "  Con- 
 fessions," c.  X,  XI,  XII. 
 
SACKED   AET    IN    ITALY.  375 
 
 churcli  of  S.  Pietro  in  del  d'Oro.     lu  interstices  between 
 these  relievi    are   seated   statuettes,    Augustinian    saints, 
 vested  as  prelates  or  monks.     Along  the  summit  of  the 
 shrine   are  pyramidal  canopies  with  other  relievi  of  the 
 miracles  ascribed  to  S.  Augustine  :  he  liberates  a  prisoner, 
 who   (in  the  next  compartment)  returns  to  his  home  ;  he 
 casts  out  a  devil ;  he  prays  before  an  altar  for  the  suppres- 
 sion of  heresy ;  he  displays  an  open  book  (his  own  writ- 
 ings?)  to  a  heresiarch,  whose  feet   betray  the  diabolic 
 character ;  he  refutes  two  opponents,  alike  recognised  by 
 their  more  than  suspicious  feet  (the  three  heresiarchs  being 
 probably  Manes,  Arius,  and  Donatus)  ;  the   death  of  the 
 Saint ;  his  posthumous  miracles,   the  healing  of  diseased 
 and  maimed  persons.     Lastly,  we  see  a  church,  with  a 
 multitude    assembled    outside,    allusive   probably   to   the 
 canonization  and  supreme  popularity  of  the  great  Saint. 
 Between  these  relievi  are  statuettes  of  angels,  representa- 
 tives of  the  whole  celestial  hierarchy,  each  with  his  appro- 
 priate symbol — e.g.  a  chained  dragon  ;  the  model  of  a  city  ; 
 a  sceptre  and  globe ;  a  disc  displaying  the  image  of  the 
 Saviour.     The  sculptor  of  this  shrine  was  the  artist  of  the 
 most  splendid  among  a  well  known  group  of  monuments 
 at  Yerona.     The  Delia  Scala  family,  who  held  the  sove- 
 reignty over  that  city  and   many  dependencies   for   one 
 hundred  and  fourteen  years,  were  the  first  among  Italian 
 princes,  who,  without  fiefs  or  hereditary  states,   aspired  to 
 extensive  dominion.     They  first  appear  on  the  historic  page 
 on  occasion   of   Mastino    Delia    Scala  being   elected  as 
 Podesta  of  Yerona,  1268,  a  few  years  after  the  overthrow 
 and  death  of  the  tyrant  Eccelino  da  Eomano.*     The  Em- 
 
 *  First  mentioTied,  however,  are  two  brothers  of  tliat  house,  who,  in 
 1257,  were  beheaded  by  Eccelino's  order. 
 
376  MEDIEVAL    CHEISTIANITT   AND 
 
 peror  Henry  YII.  invested  this  family  with  the  lordship  of 
 their  native  city,  and  they,  thenceforth,  bore  the  titles  of 
 Captains  of  the  People,  Imperial  Vicars,  and  "  JProcura- 
 torir 
 
 They  were  originally  considered  the  leaders  of  the  G-hi- 
 helline  party,  opposed  to  Eobert  of  Naples  and  to  the 
 Papal  interests ;  notwithstanding  which  Mastino  11.,  the 
 same  who,  with  his  own  hand,  slew  the  Bishop  of  Verona, 
 his  cousin,  1339,*  and  was  excommunicated  for  that  crime 
 by  the  Pope,  received  from  Benedict  XII.,  after  due  per- 
 formance of  the  severe  penances  imposed  by  His  Holiness, 
 the  title  of  Pontific  Vicar,  under  condition  of  paying 
 tribute,  5000  gold  florins  per  annum,  to  the  Papacy.  The 
 sovereignty  of  this  house,  after  laying  its  foundations  in 
 justice  and  wisdom,  perished  through  guilt  and  feebleness. 
 
 Cansignorio,  the  most  magnificent  in  outward  pomp,  the 
 most  culpable  in  domestic  life,  among  all  of  his  race,  con- 
 trived, by  the  murder  of  his  brother,  to  secure  the  succes- 
 sion to  his  two  illegitimate  sons,  both  young  children.  The 
 elder  of  these,  Antonio,  when  but  twenty  years  old,  imitated 
 his  father's  guilt  by  assassinating  his  brother  ;  but  did  not 
 long  enjoy  the  sole  dominion  obtained  by  that  crime. 
 Grian  Galeazzo  Visconti,  whose  star  was  now  in  the  as- 
 cendant, compelled  him  to  renounce  his  power,  and  to 
 quit  Verona ;  before  leaving  which  city  for  the  last  time, 
 he  made  formal  abdication  of  the  "  Signoria,"  in  presence 
 of  imperial  commissaries.  Verona  became  subject  to  the 
 Duke  of  Milan ;  and  thus  ended,  1387,  the  historic  career 
 and  dominion  of  the  Delia  Scala  family. 
 
 The  monuments  of  this  family  are  placed,  not  within 
 sacred  walls,  but  in  an  enclosed  court,  external  to  a  small 
 church,  ^.  Maria  Vantim,  founded  in  the  XII.  century. 
 
 *  V.  supr.  p.  162. 
 
SACRED   ART    IN    ITALY.  377 
 
 Such  location  is  remarkable  :  it  exhibits  the  withdraw iue: 
 of  mouumental  art  from  ecclesiastical  associations.  The 
 sculptured  tomb  here  becomes  rather  apolitical  than  a  reli- 
 gious record  of  the  dead.  That  of  Mastino,  the  first  Scala 
 raised  to  power  by  popular  votation,  is  a  plain  sarcophagus 
 with  no  other  ornament  than  a  sculptured  cross ;  though 
 formerly  covered  by  a  canopy,  no  longer  in  its  place.  An- 
 other family,  named  .Nogarola,  made  use,  as  their  arms  and 
 inscription  show,  of  the  Podesta's  tomb  ;  and  the  epitaph 
 recording  the  death  of  Mastino,  by  assassination,  1277,  is 
 now  in  the  sacristy  of  the  adjacent  church.* 
 
 Over  the  entrance  to  that  church  is  the  monument  to 
 Can  Francesco,  surnamed  the  Grr eat— noblest,  and  yet  most 
 simple  in  character  among  the  Scaligeri  tombs  distinguished 
 for  artistic  adornments.  Francesco,  called  Cangrande,  was 
 associated  in  authority  with  his  brother  Alboino,  and  both 
 were  created  Imperial  Yicars  at  Yerona  by  Henry  YII. 
 He,  the  former,  held  the  most  magnificent  court  in  Italy, 
 encouraged  art  and  letters,  was  the  hospitable  patron  of 
 strangers  and  exiles — the  friend  and  protector  of  Dante. f 
 He  died,  aged  38,  at  Treviso,  1329,  and  his  epitaph  justly 
 states  in  his  praise  : — Scaligeram  qui  laude  domum  sitper 
 astra  tulisset.  On  his  tomb  are  two  effigies  of  Cangrande  : 
 one,  in  peaceful  garb,  laid  on  a  sarcophagus,  adorned  with 
 
 *  He  was  slain  to  avenge  the  honour  of  a  young  lady,  by  one  of  the 
 Scaramelli  house,  under  an  archway,  since  that  event  called  "  Volto 
 Barbaro,"  near  this  spot. 
 
 t  The  Poet's  sojourn  at  this  Prince's  court,  is  thus  foretold  to  him  by 
 Cacciaguida,  in  the  17th  Canto  of  the  "Paradiso  :" 
 
 "  Lo  primo  tuo  rifugio,  e'l  primo  ostello 
 Sara  la  cortesia  del  gran  Lombardo, 
 Che'  n,  su  la  Scala  porta  il  santo  ucccllo  ; 
 
 Ch'  aura'  in  te  si  benigno  riguardo 
 Che  del  fare  e  del  cliiedcr  fra  voi  due 
 Pia  prima  quel  chc  tra  gli  altri  o  piu  tardo,  &c." 
 
378  MEDIEVAL    ClIEISTIANITY    AND 
 
 sacred  subjects  in  relief — Christ  in  the  tomb,  and  the 
 Annunciation.  Above  the  pyramidal  canopy  is  the  other 
 effigy — the  Lord  of  Yerona  as  in  life,  full  armed  and 
 mounted  on  a  caparisoned  steed,  the  visor  down  over  his 
 face,  his  plume  and  mantle  floating  in  the  wind ;  the  cha- 
 racter and  action  of  this  figure  admirable.  It  impresses 
 like  a  phantom  of  the  heroic  dead — a  shadowy  chieftain  of 
 some  chivalric  and  romantic  age. 
 
 Much  more  sumptuous  is  the  monument  to  Mastino  II., 
 who  died  1351 — this  being  the  only  known  work  of  its 
 sculptor,  Perino,  a  Milanese.  Mastino  II.  extended  his 
 sway  over  Treviso,  Yicenza,  Brescia,  Parma,  Beggio  and 
 Lucca,  and  became  the  head  of  the  Gruelphic  league  against 
 the  Yisconti.  Unfortunate  in  his  enterprises,  he  saw  much 
 of  his  power  and  dominion  vanish  :  Padua  restored  to  the 
 Carraresi,  Brescia  to  the  Yisconti,  &c.  He  also  held  a  splen- 
 did and  hospitable  court ;  and  a  historian  of  the  time  saw 
 him  surrounded  by  twenty- three  princes,  all  dispossessed  of 
 their  estates,  and  recipients  of  his  bounties.  His  political 
 misfortunes  had  embittered  his  spirit  before  he  stained  his 
 hands  with  blood  by  the  sacrilegious  murder,  above  men- 
 tioned, of  the  prelate,  his  relative.  His  monument  is  in 
 two  storeys :  the  effigy  lies  under  a  canopy,  and  four  angels 
 seem  to  keep  watch  over  the  dead  ;  on  the  sarcophagus  is 
 a  relief  of  Christ  in  the  tomb,  and  two  other  figures,  pro- 
 bably Mastino  and  a  guardian  saint  presenting  him.  The 
 only  personified  Yirtue  is  fortitude.  On  the  pyramidal 
 canopy  is  an  equestrian  portrait  statue — here,  as  in  other 
 instances,  the  Prince  being  represented  both  in  life  and 
 death — another  of  the  novelties  in  monumental  art  at 
 Yerona.  The  monument  of  Cansignorio,  the  ninth  of  his 
 house  who  ruled  over  Yerona,  bears  the  inscription  under 
 six  Latin  verses  around  the  frieze  :  Hoc  opus  fecit  et  sculp- 
 dt  Boninus  de  Campigliono  Mediolmiensis  Diocesis,  together 
 
SACRED    ART    IN    ITALY.  379 
 
 with  the  date  of  the  Prince's  death,  October  19th,  1375.* 
 Tliis  superb  structure  of  white  marble,  in  four  storeys, 
 presents  a  blending  of  the  classical  and  Grothic,  simplicity 
 in  general  outlines,  with  extreme  redundancy  of  detail.  In 
 tabernacles  supported  by  columns,  on  the  first  storey,  are 
 six  warrior  Saints,  Quirinus,  Valentine,  Martin,  George, 
 Sigismund  and  Louis. f  Under  pinnacles  on  the  second 
 storey  are  statuettes  (well  conceived  and  dignified)  of  Pru- 
 dence, Charity,  Hope,  Portitude.  On  the  sarcophagus  are 
 relievi  of  subjects  from  the  Gospels,  easily  recognised  (in 
 the  Temptation,  the  Devil,  a  grotesque  monster,  ofiers 
 stones  to  be  changed  into  bread)  ;  also  the  Coronation  of 
 the  Virgin,  and  Cansignorio  presented  by  saints  to  the 
 blessed  Mother  ;  on  the  highest  storey,  reliefs  (on  smaller 
 scale)  of  Apostles.  On  the  summit  is  the  portrait  statue. 
 Cansignorio  ordered  this  monument,  executed  in  his  life- 
 time, at  a  cost  of  10,000  gold  florins.  The  implied  flattery 
 in  its  sculptures — in  the  personified  virtues  and  scriptural 
 
 *  Campiglione,  or  Campione,  is  a  village  on  the  lake  of  Lugano,  for- 
 merly a  possession  of  the  ^lilanese  archbishops.  From  this  obscure 
 spot  went  forth  a  band  of  sculptors,  both  in  the  13th  and  14th  centuries, 
 who  made  their  names  and  works  known  in  various  Italian  cities;  some 
 of  whom  co-operated  in  the  building  of  the  cathedral  of  Modena;  others 
 through  their  counsels  and  labours  assisted  in  the  works  for  that  of 
 Milan. 
 
 t  Louis  and  Sigismund  were  kings  (of  France  and  Burgundy)  as  well 
 as  warrior  saints.  Quirinus  was  one  of  four  officers  in  the  Roman  army, 
 under  Maxentius,  who  suffered  torture  and  decapitation,  about  a.d.  309, 
 for  their  iaith.  Valentine  is  erroneously  classed  among  warrior  Saints  ; 
 he  was  a  Roman  priest,  beheaded  on  the  Flamiiiian  Way,  a.d.  270, 
 or,  according  to  other  report,  306.  A  church  was  dedicated  to  him 
 near  the  Milvian  bridge,  and  the  present  Porta  del  Popoh  was  once 
 called  after  him.  That  church  is  said  to  have  been  rebuilt  by  Pope 
 Julius  I.  A.D.  337,  but  no  longer  exists,  unless  some  ruins,  in  a  villa 
 near  that  gate  of  Rome,  may  be  referred  to  such  origin. 
 
380  MEDIAEVAL    CHRISTIANITY   AND 
 
 scenes,  as  well  as  the  epitaph— seems  ominous  for  the  future 
 destinies  and  bias  of  art,  when  we  remember  the  character 
 and  crimes  of  this  Prince.* 
 
 Art  may  have  flourished  under  munificent  autocrats  ; 
 but  we  have  here  one  of  the  many  examples  proving  that 
 its  healthful  atmosphere  is  found  under  the  protection  of 
 liberty. 
 
 One  other  of  these  tombs,  deserving  notice,  is  that  of 
 Giovanni  (ob.  1350),  a  member  of  the  Scala  family  who 
 never  held  power,  and  is  here  represented  in  an  evidently 
 truthful  effigy  :  the  expressive  head,  with  long  curly  beard, 
 turned  towards  the  spectator,  on  a  sarcophagus  adorned 
 with  statuettes  under  an  acute-arched  canopy.  His  epi- 
 taph ascribes  to  him  qualities  we  might  infer  from  his 
 countenance  : — 
 
 Mente  manuque  potens,  simul  aptus  ad  arma  togamque, 
 Robur  militige  consiliumque  domi. 
 
 The  other  monuments  here  before  us  are  plain  marble 
 urns,  distinguished  only  by  the  Delia  Scala  arms,  except 
 that  of  Alberto  (ob.  1301),  who  is  represented  in  a  rude 
 relief,  kneeling  before  the  Virgin  and  Child.  On  that  of 
 Alboino    (ob.   1311),   the  eagle  of  the  Grhibelline  party, 
 
 *  Cansignorio  lived  only  to  the  age  of  35,  yet  burdened  his  conscience 
 with  two  deliberate  fratricides.  He  murdered  his  brother  and  prede- 
 cessor in  power,  Cangrande  II.  1359,  who  had  a  troublous  reign  of  eight 
 years,  and  who  built  the  Castel  Vecchio  and  the  stately  bridge  comprised 
 within  its  bastions  over  the  Adige,  both  edifices  still  picturesquely  con- 
 spicuous at  Verona.  Not  long  before  his  death,  Cansignorio  ordered 
 another  brother,  Alboino,  whom  he  had  imprisoned  in  the  castle  of 
 Peschiera,  to  be  executed,  thus  securing  the  succession  to  his  own  illegi- 
 timate children.     His  epitaph  sets  forth,  after  two  introductory  lines  : 
 
 Hie  ego  sum,  geminae  qui  gentis  sceptra  tenebam, 
 
 Justitiaque  meos  mixta  pietate  regebam. 
 
 Inclyta  cui  virtus,  cui  pax  tranquilla,  fidesque 
 
 Inconcussa,  dabunt  famam  per  ssecla,  diesque. 
 
SACRED  ART  IN  ITALY.  3Sl 
 
 (Dante's  santo  itccelJo)  is  sculptured  over  the  ladder — the 
 arme  parlante  of  this  family. 
 
 Some  interesting  creations  of  the  genius  of  the  XIY.  and 
 XV.  centuries  are  seen  at  the  ancient,  which  stands  high 
 above  the  modern  Bergamo,  in  a  beautiful  mountain-region 
 mediate  between  the  loftier  Alps  and  the  fertile  plains  of 
 Lombard  J.  This  city,  fair  and  stately  on  its  eminence 
 amidst  the  hills  and  valleys  that  form  as  it  were  a  gateway 
 to  the  sublime  palace  of  Nature,  passed  successively  under 
 Ostrogothic  and  Longobardic  sway,  after  first  yielding  to 
 the  shock  of  a  siege  by  Attila,  and  was  reconquered  for  the 
 Greek  Empire  in  the  VI.  century.  Por  some  time  sub- 
 sequently, it  was  governed  by  almost  independent  Dukes, 
 and,  after  the  conquests  of  Charlemagne,  by  Counts,  the 
 vassals  of  the  Erankish  Emperors.  In  the  IX.  century, 
 Arnulph,  king  of  Germany,  Emperor  from  896,  transferred 
 the  local  dominion  to  the  Bisbops  of  this  See,  who  thence- 
 forth ranked  as  Counts  of  Bergamo  even  after  they  bad  lost 
 all  temporalities.*  Erom  the  time  of  Otho  I.  it  appears 
 that  this  city  enjoyed  a  degree  of  independence  and  auto- 
 nomic government,  compatible  with  the  claims  of  its  mitred 
 rulers,  till  it  passed  again,  through  voluntary  act  of  the  in- 
 habitants,under  the  immediate  sway  of  the  German  Emperor. 
 In  1331,  Louis  the  Bavarian  was  recognized  as  sovereign, 
 and  his  authority  established  here  through  means  of  the 
 Imperial  Vicar,  John,  King  of  Bohemia,  empowered  to 
 represent  him  in  Lombardy,  many  of  whose  cities  were 
 subjected  to  the  German  potentate  by  that  King's  conquests 
 or  influences. t     lu  later  years  of  the  same  century,  the  chief 
 
 *  A  learned  historic  notice  of  this  phice,  beginning  from  the  dim 
 twilight  of  its  origin,  is  supplied  iu  the  "  Descrizionc  di  tutta  Italia," 
 by  Leandro  Alberti. 
 
 t  John  of  Luxemburg,  son  of  the  Emperor  Henry  VII.  obtained  the 
 crown  of  Bohemia  through  his  marriage  with  Elizabeth,  the  only  child  of 
 
382  MEDIiEVAL    CIimSTIANITY    AND 
 
 families  of  Bergamo,  the  Colleoui  and  Suardi,  alternately 
 obtained  masterdom  (the  "  Signoria")  over  their  fellow- 
 citizens.  To  this  state  of  things  succeeded  the  dominion  of 
 the  Yisconti,  now  the  most  powerful  princes  in  northern 
 Italy.  At  last,  in  1428,  the  Bergamesque  territory  was 
 annexed  to  the  Venetian  States  by  the  free  act  of  its  inhabit- 
 ants, wearied  of  the  vicissitudes  and  strifes  of  factions. 
 Shortly  before  this  change,  one  of  the  Suardi  family,  finding 
 himself  unable  to  maintain  his  own  credit  or  the  indepen- 
 dence of  this  small  state,  sold  Bergamo  for  3000  gold  ducats 
 to  Pandolfo  Malatesta ;  but  soon  afterwards,  in  1419,  the 
 victories  of  Carmagnola,  then  commander  of  the  Milanese 
 forces,  subjected  both  Bergamo  and  Brescia  to  the  Duke 
 Eilippo  Maria  Yisconti.  A  hero  of  mediaeval  renown,  and 
 said  to  have  been  contemporaneous  with  Charlemagne, 
 Lupus,  Duke  of  Bergamo,  makes  his  appearance  in  local 
 art  as  personified  ideal  of  wise  and  vigorous  rule — the  King 
 Arthur  of  this  State. 
 
 The  most  important  church  here  is  not  the  cathedral, 
 but  S.  Maria  Maggiore,  finished  in  its  main  buildings  about 
 1173  ;  the  date  1137  being  seen  on  the  archivolt  of  a 
 beautiful  porch  at  the  southern  side.  Above  that  member 
 rises  one  of  the  later  adjuncts  to  this  architecture,  a  Gothic 
 tabernacle,  lofty,  rich  and  graceful,  with  a  seated  statue  of 
 Christ  at  the  centre,  two  female  figures  at  the  sides,  and  a 
 statue  of  the  Deity  on  the  highest  pinnacle.  This  tabernacle 
 and  its  sculptures,  as  well  as  a  series  of  statuettes,  the 
 Saviour,  the  Apostles  and  Prophets  along  a  frieze  round 
 three  sides  of  the  projecting  porch,  are  by  Giovanni  da 
 Campello,  and  of  date  13G0.  To  the  same  artist,  whose 
 works  entitle  him  to  rank  high  in  two  walks  alike  pursued 
 with  power  here   manifest,  are  attributed  the  porch  and 
 
 Venceslaus  IV.  He  was  slain  in  the  battle  of  Crecy,  after  gallantly  taking 
 part  in  the  action,  though  at  the  time  totally  blind. 
 
SACRED    ART    IX    ITALY.  383 
 
 sculptures  on  the  fagade  of  this  church,  date  about  1353. 
 The  round  and  acute  arch  are  here  united,  the  structure  is 
 in  three  storeys,  on  the  second  of  which  is  the  equestrian 
 statue  of  Lupus  in  complete  aruiour,  with  two  Saints  beside 
 him,  under  cusped  arches ;  on  the  third  storey,  a  Madonna 
 with  two  other  Saints  ;  another  statue,  indistinctly  seen, 
 being  on  the  apex  of  the  canopy  surmounting  this  con- 
 spicuous porch.* 
 
 An  octagonal  Baptistery,  which  stands  isolated  in  the 
 cloisters  of  the  cathedi'al,  is  a  memorable  example  of  the 
 transition  style,  Eomano-classic  and  Grothic,  overladen  with 
 marble  decorations. 
 
 This  small  but  splendid  building  was  placed  originally 
 within  the  walls  of  S,  Maria  Maggiore,  at  one  end  of  an 
 aisle,  but  has  been  twice  transferred  to  different  localities, 
 taken  to  pieces  and  rebuilt.  A  few  years  ago  it  was  com- 
 pletely restored  with  the  ancient  materials,  some  modern 
 sculptures  on  the  exterior,  and  a  good  deal  of  gilding  in  the 
 interior.  It  is  not  well  seen,  externally  at  least,  within 
 the  narrow  area  of  a  court ;  and  is  entered,  from  one  side 
 of  the  quadrangular  buildings,  through  a  vestibule,  in 
 w^iich  we  see  a  tablet  giving  the  date  of  the  founding  of 
 this  Baptistry,  1340.  The  outside  is  encrusted  with  white, 
 red,  and  black  marble  ;  statuettes  of  Virtues  are  at  the 
 angles  of  the  eight  sides ;  other  sculptures  (modern  and  of 
 marble,  substituted  for  mediaeval  bronzes)  are  on  the  cupola  ; 
 a  corridor  of  elaborately  chiselled  ornato,  in  white  marble, 
 is  carried  round  the  summit ;  the  windows  are  not  divided, 
 but  almost  hidden  and  masked,  by  colonnettes,  eight  to  each. 
 The  interior  is  rich  in  statuary,  reliefs,  ornato  and  gilding  ; 
 and  in  most  (if  not  all)  of  the  sculptures  here  seen  may 
 
 *  An  engraving  of  this  porch,  with  the  assigned  date  1360,  is  given 
 in  Hope's  "History  of  Architecture."  The  equestrian  statue  seemed  to 
 me  more  archaic  than  the  others. 
 
384  MEDIJEVAL    CHRISTIANITY    AND 
 
 be  recognized  fourteenth  century  art.  Eound  the  upper 
 walls  are  relievi  of  the  principal  subjects  from  the  Grospel, 
 treated  according  to  then  established  canons ;  the  Cruci- 
 fixion, with  the  episodes  of  the  two  thieves  and  the  angel 
 and  demon  receiving  their  souls,  the  Mother  fainting  amidst 
 the  other  women,  the  soldiers  casting  lots  for  the  garments. 
 Below  these  reliefs  are  the  seven  Sacraments  personified  (a 
 novel  conception),  and  all  as  females,  except  Baptism, 
 whose  representative  is  S.  John  holding  a  vase,  and  a  gilt 
 relief,  on  a  disk,  of  the  Divine  Lamb.  Penance  holds  a 
 prostrate  demon  by  a  chain.  Though  somewhat  heavy  in 
 design,  these  sacramental  figures  are  not  without  grace, 
 and  the  female  countenances  have  a  serious  sweetness. 
 
 The  gilding  of  details,  on  vestments,  &c.,  is  profuse  ;  and 
 the  marble  mantle  of  the  Baptist  is,  with  questionable 
 taste,  converted  into  a  robe  of  gold.  Medallions  of  the 
 Apostles,  with  sentences  from  the  Creed  on  scrolls,  seem 
 among  the  later  (perhaps  fifteenth  century)  sculptures 
 placed  here.  Altogether,  this  building  and  its  contents 
 are,  though  very  interesting,  too  like  a  casket  of  jewels  ; 
 an  example  of  the  redundant  magnificence  of  a  style 
 passing  into  the  phase  of  decadence  before  giving  place  to 
 another  founded  on  opposite  principles.  Striking,  and  in 
 their  way  beautiful  examples  of  this  tendency,  carried  to 
 the  extreme  of  decorative  pomp  in  renaissance  sculpture, 
 are  before  us  in  the  chapel  and  monuments  of  the  CoUeoni 
 family  at  Bergamo,  which  we  shall  have  to  consider  when 
 the  fifteenth  century  becomes  the  field  for  our  studies. 
 
 The  cathedral  of  Como  and  the  basilica  of  Monza  should 
 not  be  omitted  in  any  review  of  Lombardic  architecture. 
 The  former,  founded  a.d.  1013,  was.  rebuilt  from  designs 
 by  Spazi,  one  of  the  many  architects  engaged  at  Milan, 
 whose  works  were  commenced  here  in  1396 ;  the  richly 
 ornamented  fayade,  Lombardo^  Gothic,  was  not  begun  till 
 
SACRED    ART    IN    ITALY.  3S5 
 
 1460 ;  and  this  church  pertains  rather  to  the  latter  tiiaii 
 the  previous  century.  The  Monza  basilica  was  rebuilt 
 after  its  predecessor,  founded  by  the  pious  Queen  Theodc- 
 linda,  had  stood  unaltered  for  about  600  years,  by  Matteo 
 Visconti,  styled  "  the  G-reat,"  Lord  of  Milan  and  Imperial 
 Vicar  in  Loinbardy  (1295-1322)  ;  and  for  the  costs  of  this 
 undertaking  the  oblations  of  the  people  were  not  wanting ; 
 but  the  works  remained  long  in  suspense  till  the  actual 
 facade  was  raised,  1389,  by  the  now  celebrated  Matteo  di 
 Campione.  It  has  been  called  (by  O.  Knight)  "  a  curious 
 specimen  of  the  cabinet  style,"  being  fretted  over  with 
 profuse  decorations,  panels  of  coloured  marble,  tracery, 
 statuary,  arcade  cornices  and  canopies  ;  the  walls  of 
 black  and  white  marble  in  bands,  an  introduction  (unusual 
 in  Lombardy)  of  Tuscan  peculiarities.  Such  a  building 
 attests  the  Italian  tendency  to  overlay  the  forms  of  the 
 Pointed  Style  with  splendid  ornamentation,  effectively 
 combined,  but  not  accordant,  with  the  characteristic  fea- 
 tures of  that  northern  architecture.  There  are  details  in 
 the  interior  of  this  church — the  sculptured  capitals  witli 
 grotesque  figures — which  seem  older  than  the  XlVth, 
 and  are  perhaps  of  the  Xlth  century.  Fortunately  there 
 stiU  remains  enough,  among  the  highly  curious  relics  here 
 preserved,  to  remind  us  of  Theodelinda  and  also  of  the 
 great  and  good  S.  Gregory  I.  The  Iron  Crown  was  re- 
 stored to  its  shrine  in  this  basilica  after  being  carried  away 
 by  the  Austrians,  1859  ;  its  restitution  being  stipulated  and 
 agreed  to  after  the  peace  in  1866. 
 
 BOLOGNA. 
 
 Among  Italian  cities  whose  aspect  bears  most  strikingly 
 the  impress  of  its  historic  past,  Bologna  is  conspicuous. 
 At  the  base  of  the  Apennines,  where  the  lower  declivities 
 
 2  c 
 
386  MEDIAEVAL    CHRISTIANITY    AND 
 
 of  the  forest-clothed  chain  gently  subside,  amidst  fair  val- 
 leys and  rock-crowned  or  cultivated  slopes,  into  the  wide 
 plain  bounded  westward   by  the  Adriatic   and   the  pine 
 forest  of  Eavenna,  the  situation  of  this  grand  old  city  adds 
 to  the   attractiveness   of    its  memories,  monuments,   and 
 romantic  physiognomy.     We  recognise  here  the  tokens  of 
 vigorous  popular  life,  the  influences  reflected  from  Catholic 
 piety    combined  with  those   of    patriotic  principle,    the 
 genius  of  Italian  art,  together  with  the  haughty  spirit  of 
 municipal    independence.       Majestic   churches,   mediaeval 
 embattled  towers  of  stupendous  height,  and  a  long  per- 
 spective of  shadowy  porticoes — all  the  objects  around  us 
 excite  interest  as  to  the  history  of  a  place  so  richly  en- 
 dowed with  elements  of  the  picturesque,  so  nobly  marked 
 by  characteristics  of  power  and  vitality.     Bologna,  in  its 
 rank  among  political   and  intellectual   centres,   demands 
 study  and  observation  from  those  who  would  appreciate  its 
 importance.     I  have  had  occasion  to  glance  at  some  pas- 
 sages  of  its  eventful   annals   in  the   later   middle   ages. 
 According  to  legend,  Christianity  was  introduced  here  by 
 the  immediate  disciple  of  S.  Peter  and  Apostle  of  Eavenna, 
 S.  Apollinaris ;  but  nothing  is  known  on  any  sure  basis  of 
 the  Bolognese  Church  prior  to  a.d.  270,  when  it  was  occu- 
 pied by  a  prelate,  S.  Zama,  consecrated  for  his  office  by 
 Pope  Dionysius.     S.  Petronius,  chief  patron  saint  of  this 
 city,  was  appointed  to  the  bishopric  by  Celestine  I.,  about 
 A.D.  430.     A  G-reek  by  birth,  he  had  been  sent  to  Eome 
 by  the  Emperor  Theodosius  II.  to  apprise  that  Pope  of  the 
 convocation  of  a  General  Council  at  Ephesus.     He  found 
 Bologna  in  desolation  and  misery  after  being  twice  cap- 
 tured and  pillaged  by  Alaric ;  and  during  fifteen  years  that 
 this  holy  man  held  the  bishopric,  he  exerted  himself  for 
 good  in  various  ways ;  rebuilt  the  fortifying  walls,  founded 
 churches,  improved  the  social  conditions.     We  must  reject 
 
SACRED    AIIT    IX    ITALY.  387 
 
 the  tradition  of  his  obtaining  from  Theodosius  11.  faculties 
 for  the  establishment  of  a  University.  The  earliest  docu- 
 ment throwing  light  on  the  origin  of  the  famous  schools  of 
 Bologna  is  a  diploma,  conferring  privileges  on  stranger 
 students  here,  from  the  Emperor  Frederick  I.  Canon  and 
 Civil  Law  alone  were  originally  taught  at  these  schools  ; 
 afterwards,  liberal  arts  and  medicine  ;  later  still,  Theology, 
 a  faculty  introduced  here  by  Pope  Innocent  VI.  Public 
 examinations  took  place,  w4th  much  pomp,  in  the  cathe- 
 dral ;  and  the  Eector  of  the  University  had  precedence,  on 
 ceremonial  occasions,  of  bishops  and  archbishops,  the  dio- 
 cesan of  this  see  alone  excepted.  In  1260  we  find  10,000 
 students  at  Bologna ;  in  1384,  nineteen  professors  of  juris- 
 prudence giving  lectures  here.  "  Bononia  docet"  became 
 a  European  byword.*  This  city  was  comprised  in  the 
 donations  of  Pepin  to  the  Pope  ;  but  ages  passed  before  it 
 became  subject  to  the  immediate  sway  of  the  tiara.  After 
 the  transfer  of  the  Western  Empire  from  a  Prankish  to  a 
 German  dynasty,  Bologna  imitated  other  Italian  free 
 towns,  acquired  practical  independence,  and  adopted  forms 
 of  republican  government ;  though  the  power  of  the  G-er- 
 man  Emperors  was  theoretically  acknowledged,  and  that 
 of  the  Popes,  from  time  to  time,  submitted  to  with  loyal 
 deference.  In  the  XIII.  century  the  Guelph  and  Ghi- 
 belline  factions  carried  on  the  same  conflicts,  and  drew 
 dovni  similar  misfortunes  on  their  fellow-citizens  here  as 
 elsewhere,  being  represented  by  two  powerful  families,  the 
 Lambertazzi  and  Geremei.      The  affecting  story   of  the 
 
 •  Cantu,  "Storia  degli  Italiani,"  cap.  xc;  see  also  Tiraboschi,  t.  vi., 
 who  traces  the  vicissitudes  of  this  University  from  age  to  age.  In  the 
 XIV.  century  it  declined;  but  rose  again  to  its  former  credit  and  pros- 
 perity before  1400,  continuing  at  that  height  during  the  earlier  years  of 
 the  XV.  centur}'.  A  tradition  long  accepted  is  that  of  its  origin 
 through  means  of  the  famous  jurisconsult,  Irnerius,  about  1098. 
 
388  MEDIEVAL    CnmSTIANITT    AND 
 
 loves  of  Bonifacio  G-eremei  and  Imelda  Lambertazzi  is  well- 
 known  ;  its  tragic  close  in  the  assassination  of  the  lover  by 
 Imelda's  relations  (1273),  kindled  anew  the  flames  of  civil 
 war  ;  those  two  families  having  been  at  deadly  strife,  at  the 
 head  of  factions  in  partisanship  under  their  names,  from  the 
 year  1258.  The  Greremei  (Guelphs)  eventually  obtained 
 the  upper  hand ;  and  the  Lambertazzi  (Ghibellines),  alto- 
 gether 12,000  citizens  classed  with  that  party,  were  driven 
 into- exile.  In  1275  a  battle  was  fought  about  two  miles 
 from  Bologna,  the  Gruelphic  party  bringing  a  formidable 
 host  into  the  field  ;  for  Parma,  Modena,  Eeggio,  and  Fer- 
 rara  had  joined  their  forces  with  the  Bolognese.  The 
 exiles,  aided  by  the  citizens  of  Eaenza,  where  they  had  found 
 refuge,  obtained  a  signal  victory  over  the  Gruelphic  allies. 
 More  than  3300  Bolognese  were  left  on  the  field ;  and 
 4000,  who  gallantly  defended  the  Carroccio  at  the  crisis  of 
 the  battle,  were  all  made  prisoners. 
 
 This  disaster  materially  injured  the  position  of  Bologna. 
 Together  with  Imola  and  other  neighbouring  towns,  her 
 citizens  at  last  resolved  to  renounce  their  allegiance  to  the 
 German  Emperor  and  submit  to  the  sovereignty  of  the 
 Pope — an  act  indicating  at  least  the  firm  expectation  of 
 better  government  and  more  peaceful  civic  life  under  the 
 tiara.  The  Bolognese  addressed  their  professions  of  loyalty 
 to  Pope  Nicholas  III.,  1278.  In  the  next  year  took  place 
 a  solemn  scene  of  reconciliation,  with  religious  sanctions, 
 for  ratifying  the  peace  brought  about  through  the  laud- 
 able eflbrts  of  the  Legate,  Cardinal  Latino,  nephew  of  that 
 Pontiff",  who  had  sent  him  to  Bologna  on  a  righteous  mis- 
 sion, seconded  by  the  exertions,  in  the  same  good  cause,  of 
 Bertoldo  Orsino,  Count  of  Eomagna,  the  Pope's  brother. 
 On  the  4th  of  August  the  leaders  of  the  Lambertazzi  and 
 Geremei  factions  assembled  with  a  multitude  of  citizens  on 
 the  principal  piazza ;  there,  after  an  impressive  discourse 
 
SACKED  ART  IN  ITALY.  389 
 
 from  the  Legate,  who  took  his  place  on  a  decorated  tri- 
 bune, fifty  representatives  of  each  party  swore  peace  on 
 the  G-ospels,  and  embraced  each  other  in  the  name  and  on 
 behalf  of  all  their  followers.  This  triumph  of  the  Christian 
 principle,  quickened  and  embodied  in  action  through  the 
 salutary  power  of  the  Church,  did  not,  unfortunately,  bear 
 the  enduring  fruit  promised.  In  the  December  of  the 
 same  year  tumults  and  bloodshed  again  occurred  at  Bo- 
 logna ;  the  Lambertazzi  were  the  first  to  ofiend,  attacking 
 and  putting  to  death  those  of  the  opposite  side  who  fell  into 
 their  hands ;  the  Greremei  mustered  their  forces,  repelled 
 the  assailants,  and  finally  drove  the  entire  aggregate  of 
 that  Ghibelline  party  out  of  the  city-gates.  The  exiles 
 again  repaired  to  Faenza,  while  the  usual  barbaric  reprisals 
 were  enacted  at  Bologna :  the  houses  and  castles  of  the 
 vanquished  were  first  pillaged,  then  totally  demolished. 
 Two  French  Popes,  John  XXII.  and  Benedict  XTT.  thought 
 of  transferring  the  Curia  from  Avignon  to  Bologna.*  The 
 former  sent  his  Legate,  Cardinal  Pouget,  to  take  possession 
 and  govern  this  city  in  his  name.  Not  without  stipulation 
 for  municipal  rights  and  immunities  was  that  representative 
 received,  though  indeed  with  pomp  and  festivity  on  his  state 
 ingress,  1327.  His  rule  became  most  unpopular,  owing  to 
 his  extortions  and  the  perpetual  wars  with  other  Italian 
 States  in.  which  he  involved  these  citizens,  though  the  Bolog- 
 nese  interest  was  in  no  way  concerned  in,  or  promoted 
 through,  such  contests.  In  1334,  this  Cardinal  began  the 
 building  of  an  immense  castle  with  many  towers,  contiguous 
 
 •  Alluded  to  by  Petrarch  in  his  Sonnet  "  To  the  Signori  of  Italy, 
 urging  them  to  take  part  in  the  Crusade  of  Pope  John  XXII." 
 
 E  '1  Vicario  di  Cristo,  con  la  soma 
 Delle  chiavi  e  del  manto,  al  nido  toma ; 
 Si  che,  s'altro  accidente  nol  distorna, 
 Vedra  Bologna,  e  poi  la  nobil  Roma. 
 
390  MEDIAEVAL   CHRISTIANITY   AND 
 
 to  one  of  the  gates.  "While  his  troops  were  absent,  called 
 away  to  resist  an  invasion  of  the  territory  by  the  Marquis 
 d'Este,  the  people  took  the  opportunity  of  revolt ;  rose  with 
 the  cry  of  "  Death  to  the  traitors  ;'*  slew  all  the  French 
 who  fell  into  their  hands,  released  the  prisoners  in  jails, 
 and  besieged  the  Legate  in  his  new  castle.  The  Este  sent 
 troops  for  his  rescue ;  the  Erench  soldiery  returned  to 
 execute  vengeance ;  but  the  most  efficient  intervention  was 
 that  of  Florence,  which  deputed  ambassadors,  who  came,  with 
 strong  armed  escort,  to  bring  the  Bolognese  to  honourable 
 terms  with  the  Cardinal.  His  person  and  property  were 
 secured,  and  he  was  enabled  to  leave,  with  all  his  moveable 
 wealth  and  attendants,  under  Florentine  protection ;  though 
 not  exempt  from  the  execrations  of  the  people  on  his  way 
 to  Florence,  where  he  took  up  his  abode.  The  siege  of  his 
 castle  was  not  abandoned ;  it  was  taken  by  storm  and  totally 
 demolished  about  a  month  after  his  departure.  Benedict 
 XII.,  more  pacific  in  policy  and  unworldly  in  motives  than 
 his  predecessor,  would  probably  have  efiected  the  removal 
 of  the  Papal  residence  to  Bologna,  but  for  the  now  ascend- 
 ant power  of  the  Pepoli  among  their  feUow-citizens.  A 
 struggle  for  mastery  had  been  carried  on  between  Taddeo 
 de*  Pepoli  and  the  head  of  the  Gozzadini  house  ;  the  usual 
 scenes  of  tumult,  street-conflicts  and  bloodshed  occurred. 
 At  last  the  Grozzadini  and  their  partisans  were  driven  into 
 exile  ;  the  soldiery  and  populace  raised  the  cry :  "  Viva 
 Messer  Taddeo  de'  Pepoli !"  and  that  nobleman  was  elected 
 by  acclamation  Captain  of  the  People  and  "Signer"  of 
 Bologna,  1337.  About  three  years  afterwards,  Benedict 
 XII.  accepted  a  transaction  rather  than  lose  Bologna,  and 
 conferred  upon  Pepoli  the  rank  of  Pontific  Vicar,  with  the 
 obligation  of  tribute,  8000  gold  florins  per  annum,  to  the 
 Holy  See.  After  the  death  of  Taddeo,  1347,  the  lordship 
 of  this  city  was  bestowed  by  popular  act  on  his  sons,  Grio- 
 
SACEED  ART  IN  ITALY.  391 
 
 vanni  and  Giacopo,  without  opposition  from  the  reigning 
 Pope,  Clement  VI.  It  was  the  elder  of  those  brothers  who, 
 after  being  treacherously  arrested  by  the  Count  of  Romagna, 
 Duraforte  (a  relative  of  that  Pope,  charged  with  the  task  of 
 resubjecting  to  the  tiara  its  lost  towns  and  provinces), handed 
 over  Bologna  and  its  territory  to  the  Lord  of  Milan.  Re- 
 leased from  captivity  on  the  promise  of  a  payment  far 
 beyond  his  means,  80,000  gold  florins,  as  ransom,  Giovanni 
 de'Pepoli  went  to  Milan,  and  transacted  with  the  Archbishop 
 Visconti  the  sale  of  Bologna  for  200,000  florins.  A  form 
 of  popular  election  was  passed  through  (1350)  in  order  that 
 the  mitred  Lombardic  Prince,  now  so  potent,  might  seem  at 
 least  to  be  freely  chosen  by  his  new  subjects  as  their  sove- 
 reign ;  but  this  proceeding,  managed  through  the  influence 
 of  the  Pepoli,  was  regarded  with  general  displeasure  and 
 indignation  by  respectable  citizens.  (Muratori,  Annali, 
 MCCCL.) 
 
 rive  years  afterwards,  Giovanni  da  Oleggio,  an  illegiti- 
 mate member  of  the  Yisconti  family  deputed  to  govern 
 Bologna  in  their  interest,  usurped  the  dominion,  and  caused 
 himself  to  be  proclaimed  either  Protector  or  ''  Signore,"  in 
 defiance  of  Matteo  Yisconti,  now  ruler  of  Milan.  Bernabo, 
 successor  to  the  latter,  thought  it  best  to  come  to  terms 
 instead  of  pursuing  the  war  begun  by  Matteo  for  recovering 
 Bologna,  and  recognized  Da  Oleggio  as  lord  of  that  city 
 during  his  lifetime.  After  the  general  subjection  of  the 
 Pontific  States  had  been  commenced,  with  successfully 
 exerted  abilities,  by  the  Legate  Albornoz,  Da  Oleggio 
 entered  into  treaty  for  ceding  Bologna  to  that  famous  Car- 
 dinal. He  fled  by  night  from  the  blockaded  city  he  found 
 himself  unable  to  defend,  and  where  his  sway  had  become 
 generally  hateful,  because  avaricious  and  unjust.  Bologna 
 was  now  occupied  for  the  Pope  by  Pietro  da  Farnese, 
 captain  of  the  Legatine  forces.    Bernabo  Yisconti,  refusing 
 
392  MEDIEVAL  CHRISTIANITY    AND 
 
 to  admit  the  Papal  claims,  undertook  to  recover  what  his 
 house  had  lost,  and  sent  troops  to  desolate  the  environs, 
 subjecting  the  people  of  the  Bolognese  district  to  misery  and 
 outrage.  The  Pope,  however,  maintained  his  rights  over 
 this  city  and  province  till  1376,  when,  during  a  general 
 revolt  against  the  tiara  in  Eomagna  and  Umbria,  the  resi- 
 dent Legate  was  driven  away  from  Bologna,  his  palace 
 besieged  and  property  confiscated.  Popular  government  was 
 restored,  and  hailed  with  popular  rejoicing,  after  this — but 
 for  short  duration.  In  1377,  the  Bolognese  again  submitted 
 to  the  Pontific  sovereignty,  after  stipulating  the  right  of 
 autonomic  government  for  five  years,  on  condition  of  an 
 annual  tribute  of  10,000  gold  florins. 
 
 One  might  expect  characteristic  and  superior  art-produc- 
 tions from  the  genius  of  this  prominent  city.  But  no  school 
 of  high  attainment  arose  at  Bologna  before  the  end  of  the 
 epoch  here  considered.*  Three  native  painters,  of  theXIII. 
 century,  are  mentioned  by  name.  In  the  sacristy  of  the 
 Servite  church,  we  see  a  stern-looking  enthroned  Madonna 
 with  angels,  presented  by  Taddeo  Pepoli  in  1345.  Between 
 1320-45,  flourished  one  Yitale,  called  "  delle  Madonne," 
 from  his  numerous  pictures  of  the  Blessed  Virgin,  one  of 
 which  (date  1320)  is  in  the  Belle  Arti  Academy.  His 
 pupil,  Lippo  Dalmasio,  was  engaged  in  the  latter  years  of 
 the  XIY.  and  earlier  of  the  next  century ;  and  pictures  by 
 him  are  to  be  seen  in  the  above-named  sacristy,  at  S.  Bomi- 
 nico,  and  in  the  Ercolani  collection  at  Bologna.  His  con- 
 temporary, Simone,  acquired  the  epithet,  "  dei  Crocifissi," 
 from  his  preference  for  that  subject,  to  which  and  to  one 
 
 *  Giotto,  and  (as  Vasari  states),  his  pupils,  Puccio  Capanna  and  Pace 
 da  Faenza,  were  engaged  at  Bologna  during  this  century.  A  Madonna 
 with  Archangels  and  Saints  by  Giotto  was  in  the  church  of  8.  Antonio 
 in  Lanzi's  time.  That  altar-piece  is  now  divided;  the  central  part  at  the 
 Brera  Gallery  (Milan),  the  wings  in  the  Bologna  Academy. 
 
SACRED    AET    IN    ITALY.  393 
 
 otlier,  the  Coronation  of  Mary,  he  almost  exclusively  con- 
 lined  himself.  One  of  his  colossal  Crucifixions,  with  name 
 and  date,  Symon  fecit  hoc  opus,  1370,  is  in  a  chapel  at  SS. 
 Agostino  e  Criacomo,  and  certainly  displays  advance  beyond 
 the  ghastly  and  repulsive  treatment  of  this  subject  by  Mar- 
 garitone.  The  sufierer  appears  dead  ;  at  the  apex  is  the 
 Deity  blessing ;  Mary,  S.  John,  and  two  other  women  stand 
 at  the  extremities  of  the  cross.  In  two  of  the  seven  ancient 
 churches  known  by  the  common  name  of  S.  Stefano  (though 
 each  has  a  separate  dedication),  we  see  pictures  by  the  same 
 Simone :  in  the  SS.  Trinitd  (one  among  those  seven)  the 
 Blessed  Virgin  and  S.  Ursula ;  in  another,  SS.  Fietro  e 
 Paolo,  another  Crucifixion  similarly  conceived  and  treated 
 with  that  at  S.  Giacomo  ;  but  instead  of  the  two  Maries  at 
 the  foot  of  the  cross,  he  introduces,  in  this  instance,  the 
 Magdalen  and  a  monk  holding  a  cross  as  his  symbol.  Under- 
 neath is  the  ascetic  inscription :  Afficcus  lingno  pte  svffero 
 pehas.  Symon  fecit  hoc  opus.  Memento  Q.  Pulvis  es  et 
 pulve  reuteris.     Age  penitecia  et  vives  in  Eternum. 
 
 Jacobo  degli  Avanzi  flourished  about  the  end  of  this  cen- 
 tury. His  abilities  may  be  estimated  from  several  extant 
 works,  e.  g.  two  Crucifixions,  one  associated  with  a  corona- 
 tion of  the  Virgin  and  other  subjects,  at  the  Academy  ;  also 
 an  Annunciation  on  the  wall  above  a  staircase  in  that  part 
 of  the  ancient  Podesta  Palace  now  used  as  the  "  Archivio 
 Notarile."  In  the  last-named  picture,  neither  pleasing  in 
 composition  nor  efi'ective  in  colouring,  the  Deity  (of  type 
 like  the  Son,  rather  than  the  Father)  is  introduced  above 
 the  principal  group  ;  and  beside  the  angel,  a  kneeling 
 donator.  Below  is  the  signature  Jacopus  Paulif;  and 
 the  same  inscription  is  read  beneath  a  larger  work,  an 
 ancona  with  rich  Gothic  frame,  in  the  same  chapel  at  SS. 
 Agostino  e  Giacomo,vfheTe  hangs  the  Crucifixion  by  Simone ; 
 this  altar-piece  by  Avanzi  comprising  five  orders  of  saintly 
 
394  MEDIiEVAL   CHRISTIANITY   AND 
 
 figures,  full-lengtlis  and  busts,  besides  a  Crucifixion  and 
 coronation  of  Mary.  A  chapel  known  as  the  Mezzarata, 
 though  dedicated  to  S.  Apollonia,  in  the  villa  of  the  Min- 
 ghetti  family,  about  two  miles  beyond  the  walls  of  Eologna, 
 is  adorned  with  three  orders  of  ancient  frescoes,  about  half 
 of  these  being  lost,  notwithstanding  a  restoration  in  1578. 
 The  remnants  of  this  series,  carefully  preserved,  were  rescued 
 from  whitewash  by  Signor  Marco  Minghetti,  1838.  They 
 are  attributed  to  Simone,  Vitale,  Avanzi,  and  others ;  the 
 oldest  being  (as  Lanzi  shews)  the  Nativity  by  Vitale.  Some 
 subjects  from  the  book  of  Daniel,  in  the  lowermost  order, 
 bore  the  signature,  no  longer  legible,  Laurentius  /^— that, 
 namely,  of  Lorenzo,  an  artist  said  to  have  worked  here  in 
 1360. 
 
 Vasari  states  that  the  series  was  finished  in  1404.  Many 
 subjects,  in  the  present  damaged  state  of  these  frescoes, 
 are  unintelligible,  though  we  can  recognise  the  Nativity, 
 the  Adoration  of  the  Magi,  the  Circumcision,  the  Banquet 
 of  Herodias,  at  which  the  head  of  the  Baptist  is  presented; 
 and  the  Pool  of  Bethesda,  under  which  last  is  Avanzi's 
 usual  signature,  Jacopus  fecit.  Nothing  here  reminds  us 
 of  the  dignity  or  power,  or  dramatic  grouping  of  Giotto  ; 
 these  paintings  are  curiosities,  valuable  only  in  a  relative 
 sense,  and  as  connected  with  the  history  of  Art.*  Prom 
 one  point  of  view  they  are  indeed  interesting. 
 
 *  Messrs.  Crowe  and  Cavalcaselle  decide,  contrary  to  Lanzi  and  other 
 wiiters  on  Art,  that  the  Jacopo  engaged  at  Mezzarata  cannot  be  iden- 
 tified with  the  painter  of  that  name,  whose  works  are  seen  in  the  S. 
 Felice  and  S.  Giorgio  chapels  at  Padua.  In  no  one  quality  or  charac- 
 teristic do  we  recognise,  among  the  faded  frescoes  in  the  Bolognese 
 Chapel,  analogies  with  the  imaginative  power  and  beauty  of  form  dis- 
 tinguishing the  illustrated  legends  of  S.  James,  S.  George,  and  other 
 saints  on  the  walls  of  the  Paduan  basilica  and  of  the  oratory  adjacent  to 
 it. 
 
SACEED    ART    IX    ITALY.  395 
 
 In  1388  was  determined  the  undertaking  of  a  work 
 which  reflects  the  highest  honour  on  Bologna  in  the  artistic 
 and  also  in  the  religious  sphere :  the  building  of  a  church 
 dedicated  to  S.  Petronius,  destined  to  be  one  of  the 
 largest,  and  assuredly  (had  the  original  design  been  carried 
 out)  one  of  the  noblest  in  Italy.  Antonio  Vincenzi,  a 
 native  of  this  city,  and  one  of  the  sixteen  magistrates 
 called  Biformatori,  was  commissioned  to  prepare  the  de- 
 sign, subject  to  the  supervision  and  judgment  of  another 
 architect,  a  learned  monk,  Andrea  Manfredi,  G-eneral  of 
 the  Servite  Order.  It  appears,  however,  that  the  latter 
 had  only  to  give  counsels,  and  that  the  authorship  of  the 
 design  finally  chosen  must,  in  strict  sense,  be  attributed  to 
 Vincenzi.  In  1390  the  latter  was  required  to  prepare,  in 
 stone  and  mortar,  an  exact  model  of  the  projected  church, 
 40  feet  long  and  30  broad  ;  and  this,  the  trial  of  his  skill 
 which  satisfied  judges,  was  built  up  in  the  court  of  the 
 Pepoli  palace.*  In  that  year  the  works  were  commenced ; 
 and,  in  1392,  were  so  far  advanced  that  mass  could  be 
 celebrated  in  a  lateral  chapel,  where  we  now  see  fresco 
 paintings  of  the  Faradiso  and  Inferno,  attributed  (but 
 erroneously)  to  Buffalmacco. 
 
 In  1400  was  commenced  the  marble  incrustation  of  the 
 exterior.  Many  houses,  and  subsequently  (with  sanction 
 from  Pope  Martin  Y.)  no  fewer  than  eight  churches  were 
 taken  down  to  afi'ord  space  for  the  vast  basilica.  A  tax 
 towards  the  costs  was  imposed  on  all  the  families  who, 
 flying  from  civil  wars  in  other  Italian  states,  had  sought 
 
 *  It  was  broken  to  pieces  in  1406,  when  a  copy  in  wood  and  paste- 
 board was  made  instead  ;  but  neither  is  that  second-hand  model  now 
 extant.  Forty  designs  by  artists  who  competed  at  different  periods  for 
 the  completion  of  this  church,  are  seen  in  the  halls  of  the  "  Kevcrcnda 
 Fabbrica,"  adjacent  to  the  buildings.  That  by  Terribilia  was  linally 
 chosen  bv  the  civic  Senate  in  1580. 
 
396  MEDIiETAL   CHRISTIANITY   AND 
 
 the  citizenship  of  Bologna ;  and  by  snch  means  was  raised, 
 from  one  hundred  and  ten  families,  the  amount  of  22,177 
 Bolognese  lire.  The  works  were  continued,  with  longer  or 
 shorter  intervals  of  suspense,  till  1647,  when  it  was  found 
 necessary  to  abandon  the  magnificent  original  project,  and 
 leave  the  buildings  in  their  then  unfinished  state.  An  ab- 
 rupt termination  to  the  nave  and  aisles,  without  the  pro- 
 jected choir,  apse,  or  transepts,  was  formed  at  once,  and  a 
 sacristy  with  other  buildings  raised  round  the  east  end.  As 
 it  stands,  S.  Petronio  is  merely  the  body  of  a  Latin  cross 
 proposed  as  the  form  of  the  entire  edifice.*  Only  the  lower 
 story  of  the  facade  is  finished,  and  adorned  with  sculptures 
 according  to  the  plan  so  far  carried  out. 
 
 In  the  latter  art  the  only  works  to  be  noticed  here  (as 
 within  the  date  to  which  I  am  now  limited)  are  the  sculp- 
 tures along  the  basement,  by  Bonafuti,  a  Venetian,  namely, 
 half-length  relievi,  in  quatrefoil  recesses,  of  Prophets,  SS. 
 Peter,  Dominick,  Francis  and  Petronius  (the  latter  with  a 
 model  of  the  city  in  his  hand) ;  bold  and  effective,  the  heads 
 distinguished  by  a  severe  dignity.  The  effect  of  the  in- 
 terior of  this  church  is  marred  by  the  unsuitable  termina- 
 tion of  the  aisles  with  doorways  instead  of  chapels,  and  by 
 a  wretched  theatrical  painting  on  the  end  wall  beyond  the 
 high  altar.  Tet  there  is  still  a  grandeur,  a  blending  of 
 power  and  grace,  in  this  unfinished  architecture.  The 
 great  piers  (like  those  of  the  Florence  Duomo)  are  con- 
 
 *  Actual  dimensions:  length  360,  width  147  feet.  Projected  dimen- 
 sions, reported  variously  as  608  feet  in  length,  436  in  the  width  of  tran- 
 septs, and  400  feet  as  height  of  the  lantern  of  an  octogonal  cupola 
 which  would  have  vied  with  that  of  the  Florence  Duomo.  By  Ricci 
 given  in  palms:  570  length,  370  width  of  transepts,  400  for  the  height, 
 and  130  for  the  span  of  the  cupola;  these  last  being  the  admeasurements 
 published  in  1653.  The  actual  vaulting,  from  the  designs  of  Terribilia, 
 was  finished  two  ccntujries  later  than  the  commencement  of  the  building. 
 
SACRED    AET    IN    ITALY.  :}97 
 
 nected  by  pilasters  with  the  springing  of  the  vault.  Late- 
 ral chapels  with  gothic  arches,  and  two  of  which  correspond 
 to  each  bay  of  the  vaulting,  finely  break  the  long  lines  of 
 perspective  in  the  aisles.  The  lancet  windows  of  these 
 chapels,  and  three  orders  of  round  windows,  disposed  over 
 the  space  provided  above  the  aisles  and  along  the  attics^ 
 contribute  to  the  admirable  variety  of  outlines  and  orna- 
 ment. 
 
 Some  suppose  (v.  Eicci)  that  lateral  chapels  (here  a  suit- 
 able, though  in  many  other  instances  a  disfiguring  adjunct) 
 had  their  origin  in  a  principle  of  exclusiveness  or  aristo- 
 cratic feeling ;  the  divisions,  namely,  into  classes,  marked 
 by  privilege  of  rank  or  party,  and  each  with  its  elect  Patron 
 Saint,  consequently  its  desired  separation  in  worship.  It 
 is  the  Italian  Gothic  of  the  XIV.  century,  in  a  nobly 
 organised  whole,  that  is  before  us  at  S.  Petronio  ;  lumi- 
 nous and  majestically  spacious,  in  effect  utterly  unlike  the 
 dim  solemnity  of  northern  minsters  is  this,  as  are  other 
 mediaeval  Italian  churches.  Nor  are  these  characteristics 
 of  the  southern  architecture  to  be  condemned  :  they  natu- 
 rally sprung  from  the  appropriation  of  the  sacred  building, 
 which  was  not  merely  itself  the  expression  of  religious 
 sentiment,  but,  in  many  instances,  required  to  be  the  arena 
 of  assemblages  political  and  popular,  or  academic,  and  also 
 destined  as  the  hall  of  exhibition  for  supreme  masterpieces 
 of  art.  Such  appropriation  and  its  consequences  to  the 
 character  of  the  building  itself,  form  a  note- worthy  evi- 
 dence of  the  all-pervading  power  and  action  of  Catholicism 
 in  the  middle  ages. 
 
 Other  fine  examples  of  the  architecture  of  this  period, 
 at  Bologna,  are  the  church  and  portico  of  the  Servitcs,  >S'. 
 Maria  de'  Servi,  both  designed,  and  m  each  instance  the 
 works  superintended  by  the  General  of  that  order,  the 
 above-named  Era  Andrea  Manfredi.     In  this  church  (13S3) 
 
398  MEDIEVAL    CHRISTIANITY    AND 
 
 the  acute  arch  prevails,  and  a  happy  union  of  the  majestic 
 with  the  graceful  distinguishes  its  interior.  The  portico 
 (begun  1392)  is  about  the  most  admirable  in  this  city  of 
 porticoes,  ^ar  excellence^  where  almost  every  street  is  lined 
 with  such  structures,  in  some  instances  majestic  or  beauti- 
 ful, in  almost  all  picturesque.  The  stately  arcade  of  the 
 Servite  building  consists  of  29  arches,  resting  on  30  light 
 columns  of  white  and  red  marble.  Such  an  accessory 
 predisposes  to  reverence  for  the  sacred  fane,  even  before 
 we  enter  it. 
 
 Another  monastic  architect  commenced,  in  1339,  the 
 Certosa  (extramural),  finished  1350.  The  adjacent  clois- 
 ters, of  great  extent,  to  which  others  were  added  in  more 
 modern  time,  are  now  used  as  a  public  cemetery.  Though 
 not  large,  this  church's  interior  has  a  religious  solemnity, 
 and  the  rich  ornamentation  is  harmonious.  The  impres- 
 sions received  from  both  the  temple  and  the  cloisters,  are 
 such  as  we  desire  to  carry  away  from  a  spot  so  consecrated, 
 such  as  accord  with  the  feelings  — "  the  melancholy  fear, 
 subdued  by  faith" — most  suitably  cherished,  and  allowed 
 their  ascendant  action,  in  the  sanctuary  of  the  dead. 
 
 Turning  to  monuments  of  another  class  at  Bologna — 
 medisBval  sculpture — we  naturally  think  first  of  the  cele- 
 brated shrine  of  S.  Dominick,  which  nobly  attests  the 
 revival  of  that  art  by  the  Pisan  school,  and  represents  its 
 progress  from  the  earlier  years  of  the  XITI.  century  down 
 to  the  time  of  Michel  Angiolo.  That  marvellous  tomb  of 
 the  saintly  Pounder,  in  the  principal  church  of  his  Order, 
 does  not,  however,  present  any  addition  made  to  its  exqui- 
 site adornments  within  the  period  here  in  question.  The 
 only  work  of  fourteenth  century  sculpture  at  Bologna 
 entitled  to  rank  high  (besides  the  above-mentioned  on  the 
 S.  Petronio  fagade),  is  a  marble  ancona  over  the  high  altar 
 of  8.  Francesco,  a  church  of  the  more  severe  and  simple 
 
SACRED  ART  IX  ITALY.  399 
 
 Gothic  style,  built  either  between  1236-45  or  1227-51 ;  long 
 used  as  an  inland  "  dogana  ;"  finally  restored  with  much 
 polychrome  decoration,  and  reopened  for  worship  about 
 twenty  years  ago.  Vasari  made  the  mistake  of  attributing 
 this  sculptured  altar-piece  to  the  Siennese  Agostino  and 
 Agnolo,  and  to  the  date  1329.  It  is  now  proved  to  be  a 
 work,  -^NTought,  or  commenced,  in  1388,  by  the  Venetians 
 Jacobello  and  Pietro  Paolo,  known  as  the  Masegne  brothers. 
 The  architectonic  design  is  Grothic,  rich  and  graceful, 
 crowned  by  aerial  pinnacles.  The  principal  sculptures, 
 besides  a  multitude  of  statuettes  and  delicately  finished 
 reliefs,  represent  the  Deity  enthroned,  and  the  Coronation 
 of  Mary  by  the  hand  of  Christ — a  fine  treatment  of  that 
 now  pre-eminently  popular  subject. 
 
 Before  completing  this  review  of  the  religious  History 
 and  Art  of  fifty  years  within  certain  limits,  I  may  notice  a 
 few  facts  generally  manifested,  or  pertaining  to  the  theme 
 before  me  : — 
 
 The  introduction  in  sacred  architecture  within  the  Pied- 
 montese  provinces  of  influences  from  mediaeval  France, 
 as  apparent  in  the  principal  churches  at  Aosta,  Chieri, 
 Moncalieri ;  the  failing  of  that  influence,  and  prevalence  of 
 the  Lombardic  in  the  same  provinces  farther  from  the  fron- 
 tier, as  at  Asti,  and  in  the  church  of  S.  Maria  di  Eenversa, 
 near  Eivoli ;  in  the  Milanese  States,  the  new  variation  of 
 the  Italo- Gothic  at  Monza  and  Como  ;  and  the  appearance 
 of  a  tendency  aiming  at  more  repose  and  simplicity  than 
 are  found  in  the  northern  type,  exemplified  in  a  majestic 
 church  of  this  period,  the  Carmine  at  Pavia,  as  to  which 
 Schnaase  justly  observes  that  it  displays  the  attempt  to 
 modify  that  type  by  a  return  to  the  earlier  mediaeval  forms. 
 
 At  the  close  of  this  century,  we  find  almost  all  the 
 legendary  subjects  admitted  to  the  prominence  and  sanc- 
 tioned place  they  long  continued  through  later  ages  to  occupy 
 
400  MEDIEVAL   CHRISTIANITY   AND 
 
 iu  juxtaposition  with  the  historic  and  scriptural ;  also,  alike 
 permanently  set  in  their  artistic  rank,  the  episodes  super- 
 added to  the  Gospel  narrative,  and  in  some  instances  con- 
 tradictory to  the  clear,  even  the  more  impressive  meaning 
 of  the  sacred  text.* 
 
 I  have  had  to  notice  the  Yandalic  practice  of  demolition, 
 of  destroying  houses  or  castles,  as  part  of  the  penalty 
 inflicted  on  traitors  or  proscribed  exiles.  The  Yisconti,  in 
 their  government  at  Milan,  had  the  good  sense  to  abolish 
 this,  ordering  that  the  residences  of  such  persons  should  be 
 preserved  as  public  property ;  and  this  while  a  law  was 
 newly  brought  into  force  at  Modena,  that  homicides  also 
 should  be  so  punished — their  houses  razed  to  the  ground. 
 
 An  incident  curiously  displaying  the  ideas  and  supersti- 
 tions associated  with  Art,  occurred  in  1357  at  Siena.  That 
 city  was  first  supplied  with  water  from  the  Eonte  Graja,  in 
 1343,  long  before  the  fountain  on  the  picturesque  Piazza 
 del  Campo  acquired  renown  through  the  sculptures  of 
 Giacomo  della  Querela.  The  sole  statue  adorning  it  pre- 
 viously was  an  antique  attributed  to  Lysippus,  a  Yenus 
 reported  of  as  most  beautiful,  which  had  been  disinterred 
 
 *  See  the  ably  annotated  and  valuable  work,  "  Apocryphal  Gospels 
 and  Documents  relating  to  the  History  of  Christ,"  translated  by  B. 
 Harris  Cowper ;  for  the  whole  of  the  Marian  Legend,  excepting  the 
 later-imagined  bodily  assumption,  see  the  "  Gospel  of  the  Nativity  of 
 Mary,  probably  (observes  Mr.  Cowper)  drawn  up  by  a  Latin  writer 
 late  in  the  fifth  century,  or  within  a  hundred  years  after  ;"  for  the 
 Descent  into  Hades,  apparition  to  the  Patriarchs,  discomfiture  of  the 
 Demons,  &c.  in  that  invisible  world,  the"  Gospel  of  Nicodemus,"  written 
 probably  between  320  and  376,  the  Greek  text  of  the  earliest  version  of 
 the  story,  called  also  "  Acts  of  Pilate,"  avowedly  not  before  the  time  of 
 Valentinian  (364-375)  ;  for  the  Legend  of  Veronica  and  her  miracu- 
 lously impressed  handkerchief,  see  the  "  Death  of  Pilate,"  apparently  a 
 mediaeval  Latin  production,  and  the  "  Revenging  of  the  Saviour,"  the 
 most  absurdly  incredible  of  these  fictions,  and  m  the  original  of  most 
 barbarous  Latinity. 
 
SACRED  ART  TX  ITALY.  401 
 
 near  Siena  before  the  constructing  of  the  fountain.  Duriug 
 many  years  in  tliis  century,  the  city  was  torn  and  rent  by 
 civil  wars.  At  last  one  of  the  magistrates  forming  the 
 "  Council  of  Twelve"  declared  to  his  colleagues  his  con- 
 viction that  all  these  calamities  were  owing  to  such  profane 
 setting-up  of  a  Heathen  idol  as  had  desecrated  the  Fonte 
 Gaja ;  he  advised  that  the  Venus  should  not  only  be  cast 
 down,  but  broken  into  pieces,  and  the  fragments  buried 
 within  the  Florentine  territory,  thus  to  transfer  the  curse 
 and  misfortunes  long  suffered  by  Siena  to  her  formidable 
 neighbours !  This  was  actually  done — the  wortliy  magis- 
 trates probably  not  suspecting  how  strictly  Pagan  was  the 
 feeling  by  which  they  were  animated  !* 
 
 •  V.  Perkins,  "  Tuscan  Sculptors.'' 
 
 2   D 
 
402  MEDIEVAL    CITEISTIAIS-ITT    AND 
 
 CHEOIN-OLOGT    OF    MONUMENTS. 
 (1350-1400.) 
 
 Rome. — Lateral!  Basilica  restored  after  fire  ;  Grothic 
 tabernacle,  Tvitli  paintings  by  Berna  da  Siena,  over  high 
 altar,  1369,  works  ordered  by  Urban  Y.,  1364  ;*  S.  Peter's, 
 monuments  in  crypt  of  Urban  YI.,  Cardinal  Tebaldeschi, 
 Bishop  Maffiolus,  &c. ;  S.  Maria  Maggiore,  campanile 
 rebuilt  1372,  sj)ire  added  1376  ;  S.  Maria  in  Trastevere, 
 chapel  of  SS.  Philip  and  James,  and  monument  of  Cardinal 
 Alen^on  (ob.  1397)  ;  S.  Cecilia,  monument  of  Cardinal 
 Adam  Eston  (ob.  1398)  ;  S.  Crisogono,  mosaics  in  apse 
 (date  uncertain)  ;  Christian  Museum  of  Yatican,  twenty- 
 five  panel  pictures  of  Elorentine  and  Siennese  schools  ; 
 Capitoline  palace,  restored  and  fortified  about  1395. 
 
 Florence. — Cathedral,  works  recommenced  1360,  vaulting 
 raised  1364,  monument  of  Pietro  da  Earuese,  1362  ;  statue 
 of  S.  Mark  by  Niccolo  Lamberti,  1384  ;  picture  by  Or- 
 cagna  (against  pilaster)  of  S.  Zanobius,  Patron  Saint,  with 
 SS.  Crescentius  and  Eugenius,  Charity  and  Humility ;  oc- 
 tagon of  cupola  and  chapel  of  east  end  commenced  1367  ; 
 S.  Maria  Novella,  finished  1357,  paintings  by  Orcagna  in 
 Strozzi  chapisl,  altar-piece  1357  ;  Or  San  Michele,  building 
 continued,  with  Orcagna  as  architect,  1355,  tabernacle  by 
 
 *  The  silver  busts  of  SS.  Peter  and  Paul  by  the  Siennese  goldsmith, 
 Giovanni  Bartoli,  placed  in  this  tabernacle  by  Urban  V.,  are  said  to  have 
 disappeared,  as  well  as  the  jewels  adorning  them,  during  the  French 
 occupation  of  Kome  in  the  last  century.  It  is  probable  that  the  jewels 
 alone  were  lost,  and  that  the  busts  we  see,  almost  half-length  figures 
 indeed,  are  no  other  than  those  works  of  the  XIV.  century,  studded 
 with  new  gems,  and  restored  to  their  place  in  1804. 
 
SACEED   ART   IN   ITALY.  403 
 
 the  same  artist,  1359,  Madonna  picture,  enshrined  in  it,  by- 
 Bernardo  Daddi;  S.  Trinita  enlarged,  1382 — campanile, 
 1390  ;  S.  Croce,  frescoes  in  choir  (legend  of  the  True 
 Cross)  by  Agnolo  Gaddi — in  chapel  of  Holy  Sacrament  by 
 A.  G-addi  and  Stamina — in  Einuccini  chapel,  by  Giovanni 
 da  Milano — in  Medici  (or  ?  noviziato)  chapel,  Gothic  altar- 
 piece,  four  saints  and  four  emblems  by  Orcagna,  1363  ;  S. 
 Giovanni  Gualberto,  and  four  subjects  from  his  life,  with 
 the  Saviour  blessing — Virgin  and  Child,  with  Saints,  1365  ; 
 sacristy  of  S.  Croce,  Crucifixion  with  Saints  and  Angels, 
 picture  of  uncertain  authorship,  Christ  bearing  the  Cross, 
 Eesurrection  and  Ascension  by  Niccolo  Gerini;  Carmine, 
 frescoes  (legend  of  S.  Cecilia)  in  chapel  near  sacristy,  at- 
 tributed to  Spinello ;  frescoes  in  cloisters  by  Giovanni  da 
 Milano  ;  chapel  of  Bigallo  Hospital,  Madonna  and  Angels, 
 statues  by  Alberto  d'Arnoldo,  1359  ;  Loggia  di  Orcagna 
 (or  de'  Lanzi)  begun  1376,  reliefs  of  Virtues  along  summit, 
 1390 ;  Silver  altar  of  S.  John,  for  Baptistery,  commenced 
 1366  ;  S.  Miniato  (exti'amural),  frescoes  in  sacristy  by 
 Spinello,  ordered  by  General  of  Olivetan  Order,  1377  ; 
 Certosa  (Val  d'Emo),  sepulchral  chapel  of  Acciajuoli  fa- 
 mily, 1355 — monument  of  Xiccolo  Acciajuoli,  1365,  and 
 horizontal  tombs  near  it  of  his  father,  his  sister,  and  his 
 son  ;  Impruneta,  in  collegiate  chui'ch  of  village  altar-piece, 
 or  ancona,  1374. 
 
 Naples. — Cathedral,  Gothic  details  in  chapels  and  ca- 
 nopy of  episcopal  throne ;  S.  Chiara,  monument  of  King 
 Eobert,  fijiished  1350 — monuments  of  Mary  de  Valois, 
 Duchess  of  Calabria,  of  the  Duchess  of  Durazzo,  136(5,  of  her 
 two  daughters,  and  of  the  Baucia  family,  1370  ;  S.  Dominico 
 Maggiore,  monuments  of  the  Count  d' Aquino,  1357,  of 
 Joanna  Brancacci,  1358,  of  Bertrando  del  Balzo,  and 
 others,  dated  within  this  century  ;  S.  Lorenzo,  monuments 
 
 2  D  2 
 
40J^  MEDIiEVAL    CHETSTIANITY    AND 
 
 of  the  Count  d'Artois  and  his  wife  Joanna  di  Durazzo, 
 1387;  S.  Maria  Incoronata,  founded  1351  (?),  frescoes  of 
 the  Seven  Sacraments  on  vault,  and  scenes  from  the  life  of 
 the  Patriarch  Joseph  (much  damaged)  on  lunettes*— in 
 chapel  of  Crucifix,  vestiges  of  frescoes  by  Gennaro  di  Cola ; 
 S.  Angelo  in  Nilo  (or  in  Lido),  founded  1380. 
 
 Venice. — S.  Mark's  Cathedral,  reliefs  on  archivolts  of 
 central  door,  pinnacles  and  Gothic  ornamentation  of  fa- 
 cade —chapel  of  S.  Isidore,  mosaics,  and  sculptured  shrine 
 of  that  Saint,  1350-55 — fourteen  statues  and  Crucifix  on 
 roodloft,  139-1 — statues  on  architraves  of  chapels  lateral  to 
 choir,  1397— statuettes  (date  uncertain)  in  chapel  of  "  Ma- 
 donna de'  Mascoli" — monument  of  Doge  Andrea  Dandolo 
 (ob.  1351)  in  Baptistery ;  SS.  Giovanni  a  Paolo,  monu- 
 ments of  Doges  Michiel  Morosini,  Marco  Cornaro,  and 
 Antonio  Yeniero,  of  the  wife  and  daughter  of  the  last ;  S. 
 Maria  Gloriosa  (Frari  church).  Madonna  statue  on  pin- 
 nacle of  fagade,  monuments  of  diff'erent  dates  in  this  cen- 
 tury ;  S.  Maria  dell'  Orto,  founded  about  1350,  restored 
 1399  (originally  dedicated  to  S.  Christofer)  • —  relief  of 
 Yirgin  and  Child,  with  Angels,  by  Giovanni  de  Sanctis,  and 
 tomb  of  that  artist  (ob.  1392)  in  sacristy  ;  S.  Giorgio  Mag- 
 giore,  monument  of  Bishop  of  Castello,  1381 ;  Convent  of 
 La  Carita  (now  Accademia  di  Belle  Arti),  reliefs  beside 
 portal,  Virgin  and  Child,  1345,  SS.  Leonard  and  Christofer, 
 1377 ;  Gallery  of  Academy,  paintings  by  Semitecolo  and 
 others  ;  Ducal  Palace,  new  buildings  commenced  and  con- 
 tinued   up   to    1355— sculptures   on   capitals   of  arcade, 
 
 *  Formerly  attributed  to  Giotto,  and  described  by  able  critics  as  "  but 
 a  development  of  the  Giottesque  manner  by  a  painter  of  the  middle  of 
 the  XIV.  century,  who  sought  to  carry  out  the  master's  grand  maxims 
 without  his  genius  and  energy."    (Crowe  and  Cavalcaselle.) 
 
SACRED  ART  IX  ITALY.  405 
 
 ground-floor?*  ;  Mazzorbo  Island,  relief  over  church-door, 
 136S ;  Torcello,  two  horizontal  monuments  of  Bishops  in 
 cathedral. 
 
 Milan. —  Cathedral,  founded  1385,  works  commenced 
 1386 — east  end  completed  1391 — sculptures  over  doors  of 
 sacristies  by  Giovanni  and  Perino  de'  Grassif — monument 
 with  expressive  effigy  and  the  Four  Emblems  in  relief,  of 
 
 •  I  have  noticed  (v.  supra,  p.  346)  the  difficulty  of  determining  any- 
 exact  date  for  those  memorable  reliefs,  so  fraught  with  moral  and  reli- 
 gious meanings.  Deferring  with  the  highest  respect  to  such  an  au- 
 thority as  Ruskin,  I  must  own  that  the  proofs  adduced  by  Sclvatico 
 lead  me  to  conclude  for  a  later  origin  than  the  former  admits.  Schnaase 
 ("  Kunstgeschichte")  supposes  that  those  capitals  nearest  to  the  S.  ^lark 
 piazza  are  of  the  XV.  century,  the  rest  earlier,  though  of  date  subse- 
 quent to  the  death  of  Calendario  (1355),  to  Avhom  they  were  long  at- 
 tributed ;  and  the  same  critic  infers  that  the  leading  idea,  the  general 
 conception  of  the  whole  series,  must  pertain  to  the  latter  years  of  the 
 XIV.  century.  Whatever  the  date  of  their  execution,  the  insight,  reli- 
 gious sentiment,  and  standing-point  from  which  life  and  duty  seem  to  be 
 here  regarded,  announce  in  these  finely  conceived  sculptures  the  genius 
 and  spirit  of  the  XIV.,  possibly  kept  alive  and  animating  art-productions 
 in  the  XV.  century. 
 
 f  These,  the  most  noticeable  sculptures  of  date  within  the  XIV. 
 century  in  the  Duomo,  adorn  Gothic  pediments  over  two  doors,  at  oppo- 
 site sides,  near  the  choir.  Over  one  door  are  reliefs  of  the  Annunciation, 
 Salutation,  Adoration  of  Magi,  Flight  into  Egypt,  Massacre  of  Inno- 
 cents ;  on  the  tympanum,  the  Virgin  of  Mercy,  with  devotees  around 
 her,  and  the  Virgin  and  Child  with  two  kneeling  Apostles,  the  Entomb- 
 ment, relief  statuettes  as  suppbrters  ;  and  on  the  lintels  of  the  door, 
 heads  of  Prophets.  Over  the  other  door  are  reliefs  of  Christ,  the  Virgin 
 and  S.  John  the  Baptist,  the  latter  presenting  his  severed  head  ;  under 
 an  acute  arched  canopy,  the  Deity  enthroned  amidst  Angels  and  Saints; 
 and  in  quatrefoil  niches,  ten  small  heads  of  Prophets.  These  works  are 
 distinguished  by  imaginative  power  and  beauty  of  finish.  The  first- 
 named  of  the  two  artists  is  better  known  as  Giovanni  da  ^lilano,  a  painter, 
 and  especially  through  his  pictures  extant  in  Tuscan  and  Unibrian 
 churches. 
 
408  MEDIAEVAL   CHEISTIANITT   AND 
 
 Ifonza. — Basilica  of  S.  John — rebuilt,  faQade  1889— 
 marble  pulpit  with  statuettes  and  reliefs  by  the  same  artist, 
 Matteo  di  Campione,  who  designed  that  facade  ;  S.  Maria 
 in  Istrada  (rich  Grothic  ornamentation  in  terra  cotta),  1357. 
 
 JPiacenza. — S.  Antonino  completed,  with  acute  arches, 
 1350  ;  Palazzo  Pubblico,  begun  1281.* 
 
 Mirandola. — In  S.  Francesco,  monument  of  Prendiparte 
 Pico,  a  warrior,  by  Paolo,  son  of  Jacobello  Masegne. 
 
 Treviso. — S.  Mccolo  completed  by  Dominican  architects, 
 1352. 
 
 BivolL — S.  Antonio  di  Henversa  (extramural)  Italian 
 Gothic,  founded  in  the  XII.  century  for  the  Knights' 
 Hospitallers,  rebuilt. 
 
 Chieri. — Cathedral  founded,  Piedmontese  Gothic,  finished 
 about  1405. 
 
 Biella. — Baptistery. 
 
 Ferrara. — On  facade  of  cathedral,  statue  of  Alberto  d'Este 
 iu  pilgrim-garb,  1393 ;  in  S.  Andrea  frescoes  by  Cristoforo 
 of  Bologna. 
 
 Bologna. — S.  Petronio  founded,  1390— reliefs  on  base- 
 ment of  fa9ade  (Prophets  and  Saints)  by  Bonafuti,  1393  ; 
 S.  Prancesco,  sculptured  ancona,  1388 ;  S.  Maria  de'  Servi, 
 
 heavenly  Queen,  The  worship  of  the  Virgin  is  manifested  in  its  exti-eme 
 extent  and  most  glaring  light  at  this  long  favourite  sanctuary. 
 
 *  One  of  the  noblest  of  such  municipal  palaces  in  Italy.  All  the 
 clergy,  the  guilds  and  other  bodies  of  citizens  contributed  to  the  costs  ; 
 not  more  than  one-fourth  was  finished  in  the  XIII,  century  ;  the  rest, 
 from  a  different  design,  about  a  hundred  years  later.  The  acute  and 
 round  arch,  with  richest  terra  cotta  ornamentation,  are  here  seen  ;  and 
 the  whole  upper  story  rests  on  Gothic  arcades  of  bold  and  well-marked 
 character.  Never  shall  I  forget  the  first  impression  from  a  view  by 
 twilight  of  this  superb  edifice. 
 
SACEED  ART  IN  ITALY.  400 
 
 1383 — portico  before  it,  1392  ;  paiutiugs  by  Siinonc  do' 
 Crocifissi  at  SS.  Agostino  e  Giacomo  (or  S.  Giacoino  Mag- 
 giore)  and  S.  Stefauo,  others  by  Jacopo  Paoli,  at  the  former 
 church  ;  by  different  artists  of  this  period  at  the  Mczzarata 
 chapel ;  Certosa  (extramural)  completed,  1350 — outer  cinc- 
 ture of  walls,  1367. 
 
 Pisa. — Campo  Santo,  wall-paintings,  history  of  Job,  1371, 
 of  S.  Eanieri,  1386,  of  SS.  Ephesus  and  Potitus,  1392  — 
 subjects  from  Genesis,  and  Coronation  of  the  Virgin,  1390-1 
 — Triumph  of  Deafli,  Eesurrection  and  Judgment  (date 
 uncertain,  but  prior  to  1355)  ;*  S.  Caterina,  completed  1352 
 — Apotheosis  of  S.  Thomas  Aquinas,  in  the  nave,  by  Traini 
 —  monument  of  Archbishop  Salterelli  (ob.  1352)  ;  S. 
 Francesco,  in  Sardi  chapel  paintings  of  the  last  scenes  in 
 the  life  of  Mary,  and  figures  of  Saints  by  Taddeo  Bartoli, 
 1397  ;  in  chapter-house,  the  Passion,  Ascension,  &c.  painted 
 by  Piero  Gerini,  1392 ;  Accademia,  several  paintings  of  this 
 period  ;  Certosa  (about  five  miles  from  city),  founded  1367. 
 
 Siena. — Cathedral,  intarsio  of  pavement  commenced 
 1372  ;  in  Palazzo  Pubblico  frescoes  of  history  of  Alexander 
 III.  and  Prederick  I.  13S0-1400 ;  tribune  of  S.  Dominico, 
 finished  1361. 
 
 San  Gemignano. — Pieve  (collegiate  church),  paintings  of 
 Biblical  history.  Genesis.  &c.  by  Bartolo  Fredi,  1356,  of 
 the  Passion,  &c.  by  Bema  da  Siena,  1380,  and  Giovanni 
 d'Asciano  ;  sculptured  font,  1379. 
 
 JPistoja. — Cathedral — silver  altar  and  tabernacle  of  S. 
 
 *  In  that  year  died  Pictro  the  younger  of  the  Lorcnzctti  brotlicrs, 
 (called  by  Vusari "  Laiirati"),  to  whom  these  pictures  arc  now  attributed ; 
 and  by  the  ^anic  Pietro  was  painted  the  fresco  illubtratiug  Ereiuiie 
 Life,  also  on  these  walls.. 
 
408  MEDIiEVAL   CHEISTIAN^ITT    AND 
 
 Ifonza. — Basilica  of  S.  John — rebuilt,  fa(?ade  1889— 
 marble  pulpit  with  statuettes  and  reliefs  by  the  same  artist, 
 Matteo  di  Campione,  who  designed  that  fagade  ;  S.  Maria 
 in  Istrada  (rich  Grothic  ornamentation  in  terra  cotta),  1357. 
 
 Piacenza. — S.  Antonino  completed,  with  acute  arches, 
 1350  ;  Palazzo  Pubblico,  begun  1281.* 
 
 Mirmidola. — In  S.  Francesco,  monument  of  Prendiparte 
 Pico,  a  warrior,  by  Paolo,  son  of  Jacobello  Masegne. 
 
 Treviso. — S.  Niccolo  completed  by  Dominican  architects, 
 1352. 
 
 Bivoli. — S.  Antonio  di  Eenversa  (extramural)  Italian 
 Gothic,  founded  in  the  XII.  century  for  the  KJiights' 
 Hospitallers,  rebuilt. 
 
 CJiieri. — Cathedral  founded,  Piedmontese  Gothic,  finished 
 about  1405. 
 
 Biella. — Baptistery. 
 
 Ferrara. — On  facade  of  cathedral,  statue  of  Alberto  d'Este 
 in  pilgrim-garb,  1393 ;  in  S.  Andrea  frescoes  by  Cristoforo 
 of  Bologna. 
 
 Bologna. — S.  Petronio  founded,  1390— reliefs  on  base- 
 ment of  fa9ade  (Prophets  and  Saints)  by  Bonafuti,  1393  ; 
 S.  Prancesco,  sculptured  ancona,  1388 ;  S.  Maria  de'  Servi, 
 
 heavenly  Queen.  The  worship  of  the  Virgin  is  manifested  in  its  exti'eme 
 extent  and  most  glaring  light  at  this  long  favom'ite  sanctuary. 
 
 *  One  of  the  noblest  of  such  municipal  palaces  in  Italy.  All  the 
 clergy,  the  guilds  and  other  bodies  of  citizens  contributed  to  the  costs  ; 
 not  more  than  one-fourth  was  finished  in  the  XIII.  century  ;  the  rest, 
 from  a  different  design,  about  a  hundred  years  later.  The  acute  and 
 round  arch,  with  richest  terra  cotta  ornamentation,  are  here  seen  ;  and 
 the  whole  upper  story  rests  on  Gothic  arcades  of  bold  and  well-marked 
 character.  Never  shall  I  forget  the  first  impression  from  a  view  by 
 twilight  of  this  superb  edifice. 
 
SACEED  AET  IN  ITALY.  409 
 
 1383— portico  before  it,  1392  ;  paiutiugs  by  Simonc  de' 
 Crocifissi  at  SS.  Agostino  e  Giacomo  (or  S.  Giacomo  Mag- 
 giore)  and  S.  Stefano,  others  by  Jacopo  Paoli,  at  the  former 
 church ;  by  different  artists  of  this  period  at  the  Mezzarata 
 chapel ;  Certosa  (extramural)  completed,  1350 — outer  cinc- 
 ture of  walls,  1367. 
 
 Fisa. — Campo  Santo,  wall-paintings,  history  of  Job,  1371, 
 of  S.Eanieri,  1386,  of  SS.  Ephesus  and  Potitus,  1392— 
 subjects  from  Genesis,  and  Coronation  of  the  Virgin,  1390-1 
 — Triumph  of  Deafli,  Eesurrection  and  Judgment  (date 
 uncertain,  but  prior  to  1355)  ;*  S.  Caterina,  completed  1352 
 — Apotheosis  of  S.  Thomas  Aquinas,  in  the  nave,  by  Traini 
 —  monument  of  Archbishop  Salterelli  (ob.  1352)  ;  S. 
 Francesco,  in  Sardi  chapel  paintings  of  the  last  scenes  in 
 the  life  of  Mary,  and  figures  of  Saints  by  Taddeo  Bartoli, 
 1397  ;  in  chapter-house,  the  Passion,  Ascension,  &c.  painted 
 by  Piero  Gerini,  1392 ;  Accademia,  several  paintings  of  this 
 period  ;  Certosa  (about  five  miles  from  city),  founded  1367. 
 
 Siena. — Cathedral,  intarsio  of  pavement  commenced 
 1372  ;  in  Palazzo  Pubblico  frescoes  of  history  of  Alexander 
 III.  and  Frederick  I.  13S0-U00 ;  tribune  of  S.  Dominico, 
 finished  1361. 
 
 San  Gemignano. — Pieve  (collegiate  chiirch),  paintings  of 
 Biblical  history,  Genesis.  &c.  by  Bartolo  Fredi,  1356,  of 
 the  Passion,  &c.  by  Bema  da  Siena,  1380,  and  Giovanni 
 d'Asciano  ;  sculptured  font,  1379. 
 
 JPistoja. — Cathedral — silver  altar  and  tabernacle  of  S. 
 
 *  In  that  year  died  Pietro  the  younger  of  the  Lorcnzctti  brotliers, 
 (called  by  Vusari "  Laiirati"),  to  whom  these  pictures  arc  now  attributed; 
 and  by  the  same  Pietro  was  painted  the  fresco  illubti-atiug  Eremite 
 Lite,  albo  on  these  walls. 
 
410  MEDIEVAL   CHRISTIANITY  AND 
 
 James,  commenced  1357,  contiuued  by  different  artists,* 
 1366,  1386,  1390  ;  in  S.  Antonio  (now  desecrated)  and 
 Piazza  S.  Domenico,  frescoes,  Christ  in  Grlory  and  Paradiso, 
 by  Giovanni  Cristiani ;  Palazzo  Pubblico,  enlarged  1395. 
 
 Frato. — Cathedral, fagade  1356 — wall-paintings  in  chapel 
 of  the  "  Sacra  Cintura,"  about  1365  ;t  S.  Prancesco,  in 
 chapter-house  frescoes  by  Niccolo  di  Piero  G-erini,  legend 
 of  S.  Mathew,  Crucifixion  with  Saints  (half-destroyed), 
 scenes  from  life  of  S.  Anthony  the  Abbot  (the  best,  and  least 
 injured,  that  of  the  Saint  distributing  his  fortune  to  the 
 poor),  and  over  entrance,  SS.  John  Baptist,  Bartholomew, 
 Prancis,  Clara  and  Catherine,  under  which  is  inscribed: 
 JViccholo  di  Fiero  Gierini  Dipintore  Fiorentino  jpinse  qid  con 
 suo  color 6.% 
 
 •  Left  wing  of  altar  by  Maestro  Piero  ;  right  wing,  by  Leonardo  di 
 Ser  Giovanni ;  four  statuettes  and  Annunciation  by  Pietro  d'Arrigo,  a 
 German. 
 
 f  Agnolo  Gaddi's  frescoes  of  the  legend  of  this  Relic, the  "holy 
 Girdle,"  which  was  enshrined  in  its  splendid  chapel  1395:  the  marriage 
 of  the  Pratese  Merchant  in  the  East ;  S.  Thomas,  in  propria  persona^ 
 consigns  the  Girdle  to  the  bridegroom  as  dowry  of  the  bride;  the  voyage 
 of  the  married  pair  ;  the  arrival  at  Prato,  here  represented  as  a  sea-port; 
 the  merchant  landing  with  the  Relic  hidden  in  a  basket  of  reeds  ;  the 
 merchant  removed  from  his  bed  and  laid  on  the  floor  by  Angels,  the  ReHc 
 being  placed  under  his  pillow  ;  the  merchant,  on  his  death-bed,  consigns 
 the  Relic  to  the  "  Proposto"  of  the  cathedral,  who  kneels  to  receive  it  ; 
 procession  of  the  Relic  to  the  cathedral.  Another  series  by  the  same 
 artist,  on  these  walls,  comprise  the  Birth,  Espousals,  Transit,  and  As- 
 sumption of  the  Virgin,  who,  in  this  last  picture,  lets  down  the  precious 
 girdle  to  S.  Thomas — this  picture  in  great  part  lost,  sacrificed  to  a 
 modern  window  and  wooden  shrine.  Another  series  illustrates,  with 
 much  ability  and  effect,  the  legend  of  Joachim  and  Anna  ;  on  the  vault, 
 the  Evangelists  and  Four  Doctors. 
 
 J  The  legend  of  S.  Matthew,  as  here  treated,  is  a  novelty  in  art;  and 
 its  passages  are  explained  by  rude  Latin  verses  under  each  picture.  The 
 Apostle  induces  Iphigenia,  a  Princess,  to  dedicate  herself  to  Heavcx  by 
 
SACRED  AET  IN  ITALY.  411 
 
 Arezzo. — Cathedral,  on  facade  statue  of  S.  Matthew,  and 
 over  side-door  relief  of  Madonna,  Angels  and  Saints,  by 
 Niccolo  Lamberti  ;  fa9ade  of  "  Misericordia"  (now  public 
 library,  &e.)  with  reliefs,  Madonna  and  Patron  Saints,  by 
 the  same  sculptor,  1383.  Crucifixion  by  Berna  da  Siena, 
 in  cathedral ;  paintings  by  Spinello  Spinelli  on  fronts  of  SS. 
 Triuita  and  L'Annunziata  ;  other  paintings  of  this  period  in 
 gallery  of  Badia. 
 
 Cortona. — S.  Domenico,  altar-piece  by  Lorenzo  Gerini. 
 
 Fietrasanta. — Pieve,  completed  about  1350. 
 
 Suvareto  (Tuscan  Maremma). — S.  Francesco,  and  tomb  of 
 Franciscan  General  who  founded  church — architecture  and 
 sculpture,  the  sole  extant  works  of  Moccio  da  Siena,  1357. 
 
 Fermo. — Cathedral,  monument  to  Giovanni  Yisconti  da 
 Oleggio  (ob.  1366)  by  Tura  da  Imola. 
 
 Orvieto. — Works  of  cathedral  continued  by  architect 
 Giovanni  di  Stefano,  1373. 
 
 Ferugia. — Wall-paintings  (mostly  damaged)  at  S.  Fio- 
 
 religious  vows  ;  her  uncle,  Hymacus,  who  has  just  ascended  the  throne 
 wishes  to  wed  her ;  the  Apostle  supports  her  in  resisting  his  suit,  and  the 
 enraged  King  sends  his  satellites  to  murder  S.  Matthew  while  he  is  cele- 
 brating at  the  altar.  In  this  last  scene,  the  Mass  of  the  Apostle  is,  both  as 
 to  costume  and  sacred  ornaments,  images,  &c.  like  that  of  a  modern 
 Italian  priest !    Underneath  are  the  verses  : 
 
 Dum  missam  celebras,  ac  Epygenie  mentem 
 Virginis  egregie  firmas  herere  Deo, 
 Perfidia  Presulis  Himaci  necaris  inique 
 Martirium  passus,  nunc  pro  cuntis  ora. 
 
 These  much  damaged  pictures  have  lately  been  cleaned  and  restored, 
 without  any  repainting,  through  the  care  of  the  Franciscan  friars  still 
 left  in  the  convent  here— see  a  critical  notice,  "  La  Cappella  de'  MigUo- 
 rati,"  by  Signor  Cesare  Guasti,  Prato,  1871. 
 
412  MEDTiEYAL   CHRISTIANITY   AND 
 
 renzo,  S.  Angelo,  S.  Agata  (frescoes  here  of  different 
 periods),  iu  crypt  of  oratory  of  S.  Agostino,  at  the  extra- 
 mural S.  Matteo,  and  the  desecrated  chapel  of  S.  Crispino  ; 
 in  Pinacotheca,  paintings  of  this  period,  mostly  from  sup- 
 pressed convents ;  over  and  beside  portal  of  Palazzo  Pub- 
 blico,  statues  of  Saints  and  allegoric  subjects  in  relief. 
 
 Assisi. — Pranciscan  Basilica,  in  lower  church  frescoes  by 
 Giottino — in  north  transept,  nine  (New  Testament  sub- 
 jects) attributed  to  Taddeo  Graddi,  but  probably  by  Griovanni 
 da  Milano  ;  frescoes  in  south  transept  by  Puccio  Capanna  ; 
 in  chapel  of  S.  Catherine,  by  Pace  da  Paenza  ;  sculptured 
 pulpit  in  upper  church ;  in  chapter-house.  Crucifixion  by 
 Griottino ;  S.  Chiara,  frescoes  by  Griottino  on  vault  of  tribune 
 and  in  transept. 
 
 Foligno. — Wall-paintings  of  this  period  at  ^S'.  Maria  infra 
 Portas  (where  are  earlier  and  later  frescoes  also),  in  crypt 
 below  S.  Anna  convent,  and  in  the  cell  of  the  B.  Pietro 
 Crisci  in  the  cathedral  tower ;  many  others  in  the  collection 
 formed  at  the  "  Betlemme,"  a  suppressed  church. 
 
 Spello. — Eemnants  of  wall-painting  in  the  extramural  S. 
 Claudio  and  SS.  Trinita,  a  ruined  church. 
 
 Trevi. — Wall-paintings  (of  different  dates)  in  S.  Fran- 
 cesco ;  several  Madonnas,  of  this  and  following  century,  at 
 >S^.  Mario  Pietra  Bossa,  in  the  valley  below  this  town. 
 
 Montefalco. — S.  Prancesco,  paintings  of  later  Griottesque 
 school,  and  others  of  various  dates. 
 
 Spoleto. — Kemnants  of  wall-painting  at  S.  Domenico  and 
 the  Madonna  della  Stella,  a  desecrated  convent. 
 
 Citta  di  Castello. — Cathedral, around  lateral  door  (Grothic 
 style)  reliefs  of  Mercy,  Humanity,  and  scriptural  subjects 
 on  smaller  scale. 
 
SACRED  ART  IN  ITALY.  113 
 
 Terni. — S.  Francisco,  wall-paintings  in  chapel,  1350. 
 
 Salerno. —  Cathedral,  monument  of  an  archbishop,  1382 
 — effigies  of  Prelates  in  outer  portico.* 
 
 Monte  Vergine. — In  church  of  monastery  :  monuments  of 
 Louis  of  Taranto  (ob.  1362),  and  of  his  mother  Catherine 
 de  Yalois,  of  Prince  John  (ob.  1335),  son  of  Charles  II.,  and 
 anonymous  monument  of  a  lady  with  recumbent  effigy 
 (v.  supr.  p.  24;5). 
 
 Sanseverino. — Monuments  of  Tomaso  da  Sanseverino, 
 High  Constable  of  Xaples  in  1353,  and  of  the  Princes  of 
 Salerno  in  village  church. 
 
 Modena. — In  cathedral,  Gothic  ancona,  the  Crucifixion, 
 the  Coronation  of  the  Virgin,  &c.,  painted  by  Serafino  de' 
 Serafini,  1385 ;  near  choir  of  this  church,  wall-paintings, 
 the  Deity ,t  the  Annunciation,  the  Madonna  and  S.  Peter. 
 
 Cagli  (between  Urbino  and  Gubbio). — In  S.  Prancesco 
 miracles  of  S.  Antony,  painted  about  the  end  of  this  cen- 
 tury— discovered,  184:2.  J 
 
 Barletta. — S.  Maria  Maggiore  (founded  in  XII.  cen- 
 tury), east  end  and  apse  completed. 
 
 Biletto. — Cathedral  commenced  1392. 
 
 Galatina  (Peninsula  of  Otranto). — S.  Caterina,  church 
 and   monastery   founded   1355   by   Eaimondo    del   Balzo, 
 
 *  The  finest  sculptured  monument  here  belongs  to  a  period  removed 
 by  a  few  years  from  my  present  limits— that  of  Queen  Margaret  of  Anjou 
 (ob.  1412),  wife  of  Charles  III.,  and  mother  of  King  Ladislaus., 
 
 t  The  Father,  colossal,  holds  the  Son,  au  infant,  in  His  hand;  the 
 Son  holds  a  globe  and  blesses.  Near  these  paintings  are  the  archaic, 
 but  highly  characteristic,  reliefs  of  the  Last  Supper  aud  the  scenes  of 
 the  Passion  by  Anselmo  da  Campione. 
 
 .j:  Erroneously  ascribed  to  Guido  Palmerucci. 
 
414  MEDIJEVAL   CHRISTIANITY   AND 
 
 Prince  of  Taranto,  lord  of  this  town,  on  his  return  from 
 the  Holy  Land ;  the  aisles  added  later ;  the  older  parts 
 (except  facade)  French  Gothic ;  tombs  of  the  Del  Balzo 
 family.* 
 
 Falermo. — S.  Maria  della  Catena,  atrium  (round-arched) 
 about  1392. 
 
 J}^ote  to  article  "  Florence'^  in  Chronology  of  Monuments. 
 
 The  frescoes  in  the  Cappella  degli  Spagnuoli,  (cloisters 
 of  S.  Maria  Novella),  attributed  by  Vasari  to  Taddeo 
 Oaddi  and  Simone  di  Martino,  are  now  known  to  be  by 
 other  artists,  of  the  latter  half  of  this  century  ;  those  on  the 
 walls  probably  by  Andrea  di  Firenze  ;  those  on  the  vault, 
 or  at  least  the  greater  part  of  them,  by  Antonio  Veneziano. 
 The  west  wall  is  occupied  by  the  picture  described  else- 
 where in  this  work  (Vol.  I.  p.  591),  which  may  be  called 
 the  Apotheosis  of  S.  Thomas  Aquinas,  who  is  seated  among 
 the  highest  saints ;  the  personified  Virtues  and  Sciences, 
 with  those  excelling  therein,  seated  below.  On  the  east  wall 
 is  the  Church  Militant  and  Triumphant,  a  complicated  pic- 
 ture, strikingly  illustrative  of  the  ideas  of  the  time  in  the 
 religious  and  ecclesiastical  order.  This  is  in  two  distinct 
 compartments  :  on  the  lower  plain  is  the  material  church 
 represented  by  Florence  Cathedral,  as  designed  by  Arnolfo- 
 in  front  of  it  are  seated  on  thrones  a  Pope  (Benedict  XI  ?), 
 an  Emperor,  a  King,  another  Prince,  and  a  Cardinal  (sup- 
 posed the  portrait  of  Niccolo  da  Prato,  Legate  at  Flo- 
 
 *  See,  for  an  account  of  this  church,  Schnaase  '*  Kunstgeschichte." 
 
SACRED   ART    IN    ITALY.  415 
 
 reuce)  ;  near  these  are  other  persons,  a  numerons  group, 
 among  whom  are  said  to  be  introduced  portraits  of  Cimabuc, 
 Arnolfo,  Petrarch  and  Laura,  Boccaccio  and  Fiammetta ; 
 others  are  listening  to  the  exhortations  of  a  prelate  ;  far- 
 ther on  one  side,  is  seen  an  allegory  of  the  vocation  of  the 
 Dominican  Order  ;  their  saintly  Founder  is  directing  seve- 
 ral wliite  and  black  dogs  {Domini  canes)  to  do  their  duty 
 by  driving  off  wolves  (heretics)  from  a  flock  of  sheep — the 
 faithful ;  above  are  groups  dancing  and  playing  on  instru- 
 ments, allegoric  perhaps  of  innocent  pleasure  sanctioned 
 by  the  Church ;  apart  is  seen  S.  Dominick  confessing  a 
 penitent ;  and  again,  the  same  Saint  pointing  out  the  en- 
 trance to  Paradise,  at  the  visible  gate  of  which  stands  S. 
 Peter,  recei\dng  the  faithful  who  are  allowed  to  pass  in ; 
 beyond  are  seen  the  Joys  of  the  Beatified  ;  Christ  enthroned 
 amidst  Angels,  and  the  Yirgin  Mother  near,  the  emblems 
 of  the  Evangelists  and  the  Cross  above.  On  the  side  of 
 the  altar  are  :  the  procession  to  Calvary,  the  Saviour  bear- 
 ing the  cross,  women,  soldiers,  and  a  multitude  following  ; 
 the  Crucifixion,  the  Thieves  expiring  on  their  crosses,  "u^hile 
 an  Angel  and  a  Demon  receive  their  souls.  Angels  bewail- 
 ing over  the  Divine  victim,  and  the  Mother  fainting — as 
 to  which  last  episode  (already  noticed  as  objectionable),  it 
 is  worthy  of  mention  that  Benedict  XIY.  states  the  fact  of 
 an  order  having  been  once  given  by  the  Master  of  the 
 Sacred  Palace  (the  chief  Censor)  at  Eome,  for  the  destruc- 
 tion of  all  Crucifixion  pictures  introducing  it.  On  the 
 same  side  is  the  Descent  into  Hades — Christ  entering 
 across  the  fallen  gates,  beneath  which  the  monstrous  Lucifer 
 lies  crushed.  The  paintings  on  the  opposite  wall,  from  the 
 life  and  miracles  of  S.  Dominick,  are  almost  efiaced.  Those 
 on  the  vault  represent  the  Eesurrection  and  apparition  to 
 Mary  Magdalen,  the  Ascension,  the  Descent  of  the  Holy 
 
416  MEDIAEVAL    CHRISTIANITY   AKD 
 
 Spirit  (quaintly  treated,  with  prominence  given  to  the 
 figure  of  the  Virgin),  and  Christ  walking  the  waters,  with 
 S.  Peter  rescued  from  sinking, — which  reminds  of  Giotto's 
 Navicella,  and  is  distinguished  by  more  imaginative  power 
 than  the  others  in  this  series. 
 
 1 
 
SACRED    AllT    TN    TT.VLV.  ]  1 
 
 CHAPTER  \ll. 
 
 TUE   FiFTEENTU    CeNTUET — 1400   TO    1447. 
 
 Few  arc  the  epoelis  so  marked  by  vicissitudes  important 
 to  great  interests,  or  so  distinguished  by  moral  and  intel- 
 lectual movement  as  that  we  have  now  to  consider.  The 
 study  of  its  annals  may  confirm  our  couvictiou  that  the 
 progress  of  the  Human  Eace  is  the  event  and  dominant 
 fact  of  all  History.  At  the  opening  of  this  period  we  find 
 Western  Europe  more  or  less  agitated  by,  or  at  least  in- 
 terested in,  proceedings  the  theatre  of  which  was  an 
 ecclesiastical  Court  either  at  Eome  or  Avignon ;  Latin 
 Christendom  divided  by  that  schism  in  the  Papacy  whicli 
 lasted  thirty-seven  years,  and  which  from  1378  to  1409 
 continued  to  break  up  the  Latin  Church  into  two,  from 
 1409  to  1415  into  three  "  obediences"  to  one  or  other  of 
 the  rival  Popes.  The  spectacle  of  worldly-minded  old 
 men,  each  claiming  to  be  sole  Yicar  of  Christ  on  earth, 
 denouncing  and  cursing  each  other,  professing  readiness  to 
 sacrifice  everything  for  the  sake  of  peace  and  unity,  while 
 evidently  preferring  the  sweets  of  power  to  all  other  in- 
 terests, had  its  natural  effect  on  thinking  minds.  Lidig- 
 nation  and  earnest  feeling  gave  rise  to  the  demand  insisted 
 on  by  famous  universities,  re-echoed  from  the  retreats  of 
 piety  and  meditation,  that  the  whole  Church  should  be 
 reformed  in  her  head  and  members.  The  desire  for  sucli 
 radical  improvement,  the  claims  for  an  independent  action 
 of  the  entire  Clergy,  as  well  as  Prelates  and  Abbots,  in 
 
 2  E 
 
418  MEDIiEVAL    CHRISTIANITY    AKD 
 
 the  sphere  of  spiritual  tilings,  were  ostensibly  admitted 
 but  practically  eluded.  The  efforts  vigorously  made  for  a 
 cause  alike  sacred  and  rational,  failed  to  secure  results 
 commensurate  with  the  elevation  of  the  objects  and  theories 
 fervently  cherished  and  eloquently  maintained.  "What 
 ensued  after  the  great  Councils  held  in  the  first  half  of 
 this  century,  shows  the  imptossibility  of  accomplishing  re- 
 ligious reforms,  for  which  the  public  mind  is  not  mature, 
 and  which  the  Hierarchic  Body  is  not  disposed  to  adopt  or 
 promote. 
 
 Among  the  Popes  of  this  period  we  find  liberal  and  en- 
 lightened benefactors  of  learning  and  literature ;  some  also 
 who  may  rank  among  the  best  and  wisest  sovereigns  in 
 Europe.  The  influence  of  progressive  ideas  could  not  be 
 resisted.  Eugcnius  IV.,  when  prayed  to  absolve  an  enter- 
 prising traveller,  Niccolo  Conti,  who  had  passed  twenty- 
 five  years  in  the  East,  from  the  sin  of  denying  the  faith  in 
 order  to  save  his  life,  did  not  refuse,  but  imposed  as  con- 
 dition to  this  bountiful  use  of  the  spiritual  keys  that  the 
 j)enitent  should  narrate  his  travels  with  strict  correctness 
 to  Poggio  Bracciolini,  so  that  the  literary  talents  of  the 
 latter  might  produce  some  instructive  work  founded  on 
 that  tale  of  foreign  experiences.  Martin  Y.  granted 
 plenary  indulgence  to  all  travellers  (the  orthodox,  of  course, 
 alone  implied)  who  might  perish  in  the  long  and  dangerous 
 journeys  to  oriental  lands,  which  were  promoted  and  un- 
 dertaken with  at  least  the  avowed  object  of  redeeming 
 souls  by  baptism  and  civilizing  nations  through  the  Gospel. 
 Even  before  this  period,  the  spiritual  censures  against  in- 
 tercourse between  Christians  and  Moslems  had  been  re- 
 laxed. Urban  VI.  gave  faculties  to  a  Cardinal  Archbishop 
 of  Grenoa  to  absolve  Genoese,  Milanese,  and  Piacentine 
 merchants  from  the  previously  imposed  penalties  for  ex- 
 porting goods  to  Egypt ;  and  at  the  same  time  empowered 
 
SACRED    AUT    IN    ITALY.  -Ill) 
 
 that  Cardinal  to  great  dispensations  for  exporting  mer- 
 eliaudise  to  the  amount  of  8000  florins'  value  into  the 
 states  of  the  Sultan  of  Babylon.  The  opposition  to  Papal 
 government  from  its  immediate  subjects  now  becomes  a 
 sign  of  the  times,  increasing  in  frequency  and  in  meuacinij; 
 significance.  Formerly  hostilities  had  come  from  abroad, 
 from  Princes  recalcitrant  against  the  authority  or  aggres- 
 sive against  the  rights  of  the  Church.  The  danger  now 
 lurks  nearer  to  the  A^aticau  and  the  Lateran,  in  the  gloomy 
 tow^ers  of  the  feudal  lord,  in  the  narrow  streets  of  Eomc, 
 and  in  the  humble  workshops  of  Eoman  artisans.  Eevolt, 
 the  flight  of  the  insulted  Pontifl",  his  return  after  more  or 
 less  prolonged  exile,  after  being  regretted  in  absence  and 
 implored  to  forgive,  to  accept  the  guarantees  of  loyal  sub- 
 mission for  the  future,  are  now  familiar  episodes. 
 
 Thus  was  the  storm  again  and  again  allayed  ;  and  if 
 more  serious  evils  to  the  pontific  throne  were  warded  off", 
 it  was  generally  through  means  most  creditable  to  those 
 who  sat  thereon — by  wisdom  and  clemency,  by  personal 
 qualities  that  won  esteem.  The  frequent  recurrence  of  such 
 shocks,  however,  proved  the  inexorable,  if  slumbering,  force 
 of  the  volcano  under  the  surface — the  gradually  intensify- 
 ing sense  of  irreconcilability  between  two  essentially  op- 
 posed offices,  between  the  tiara  and  the  sceptre,  the  crucifix 
 and  the  sword. 
 
 The  Jubilee  of  a.d.  1400  brought  multitudes  to  Eome, 
 notwithstanding  the  other  celebration,  ten  years  pre- 
 viously, ordered  by  Boniface  IX.,  sole  Pontiff"  who  ever 
 presided  over  two  such  recurrent  **IToly  Years"  in  this 
 metropolis.*     The  pilgrims,   regardless   of   the    conflict- 
 
 *  Contrary  to  antecedents,  no  bull  was  published  fortius  Jubilee;  the 
 Pope  merely  intimated  the  bestowal  of  the  same  indulgences  on  j)!!- 
 grims  to  Rome  as  in  other  such  years.  lie  allowed  like  benefits  to  lie 
 obtained  in  the  city  of  Prague,  at  the  request  of  the  King  of  Bi^hcmia; 
 
 2  li  2 
 
420  MEDIEVAL    CHEISTIANITT   AND 
 
 ing  clalme  of  an  antipope,  and  also  of  a  pestilence  now 
 raging  in  different  countries,  flocked  in  immense  numbers 
 to  that  centre,  especially  from  France,  wliose  king,  Charles 
 yi.,  had  renounced  the  cause  of  Benedict  XIII.,  formerly 
 protected  by  him,  and  still  at  Avignon.  The  dangers  of 
 the  journey  to  E-ome  were,  it  seems,  greatest  in  the  im- 
 mediate environs  of  that  city ;  for  the  Count  Gaetano  of 
 Fondi,  at  war  with  the  Pope,  sent  his  retainers  to  scour 
 the  Campagna  and  despoil  the  unfortunate  travellers  who 
 fell  into  their  hands.  The  grave  accusation  is  brought 
 against  Boniface  IX.  of  failing  to  provide  for  the  safety  of 
 the  pilgrims,  many  of  whom  died  of  the  pestilence  which 
 broke  out  with  great  fury,  during  this  year,  in  Kome. 
 Other  disasters  threw  gloom  over  the  "  Anno  Santo"  within 
 the  city's  walls.  In  January  occurred  an  incident  which 
 displays  the  temper  and  social  conditions  of  the  time.  The 
 city  was  entered,  late  at  night,  by  a  thousand  armed  men, 
 mounted  and  on  foot,  with  cries  of  viva  for  the  people,  and 
 "  death  to  the  tyrant  Pope  Boniface  IX. !" — the  invaders 
 being  of  the  Colonna  faction,  and  the  plot  contrived  by 
 that  turbulent  family  at  their  castle  of  Palestrina. 
 
 The  Capitol  was  reached  without  opposition  ;  but  an  at- 
 tempt to  storm  the  recently  restored  palace  was  fruitless. 
 The  assailants  found  themselves  in  perilous  predicament, 
 for  none  of  the  citizens  in  league  with  the  "  Colonnesi" 
 stirred  at  the  moment  for  action  ;  and  on  their  assistance 
 it  seems  that  reliance  had  been  placed  for  success  in  this 
 desperate  attempt.  When  morning  dp^wned  no  alternative 
 was  left  to  the  aggressors  but  flight.  Many  were  seized 
 by  the  pontific  soldiers,  and  hanged  without  form  of  trial : 
 thirty-one  being  thus  doomed  to  instant  death.  Theodore  de 
 
 and  thus  was  the  ideal  importance  of  the  Roman  pilgrimage  weakened 
 by  the  act  of  the  Pontificate  itself. 
 
SACEED  ART  IN  ITALY.  421 
 
 NIcm  mentions  the  liorrid  circumstance  that  a  poor  youtli, 
 one  of  the  prisoners,  was  spared  on  condition  of  his  acting 
 as  hangman  to  all  the  rest,  and  thus  being  obliged  to  inflict 
 death  in  public  on  his  own  father  and  biH)ther ;  this  excit- 
 ing pity  and  indignation.  The  Pope  not  only  anathema- 
 tized the  Colonnas  and  all  their  partisans,  but  sent  troops, 
 2000  enrolled  citizens,  to  devastate  their  lands.  Palestrina 
 and  Zagarola  were  laid  under  interdict.  Before  this  year 
 had  passed,  Perugia,  Spoleto,  Assisi,  and  Nocera  were  lost 
 to  the  pontific  states,  and  became  subject  to  the  powerful 
 lord  of  Milan.  Perugia,  however,  was  recovered  for  the 
 tiara  by  Ladislaus  of  Naples,  now  the  friend  and  protector 
 of  Boniface  IX.  The  deposition  of  the  worthless  and 
 vicious  Emperor  Wenceslaus,  son  of  Charles  IV.,  and  the 
 election  of  his  successor  afforded  opportunity  for  a  notice- 
 able recognition  of  that  office  of  supreme  umpire  often 
 nobly  exercised  by  the  Popes,  and  still  theoretically  as- 
 signed to  them  by  all  TVestern  Europe.  Boniface  IX. 
 received  the  complaints  which  the  Princes  and  Electors 
 addressed  to  him  against  the  Emperor,  before  they  pro- 
 ceeded to  extreme  measures.*  AYenceslaus  was  admo- 
 nished, but  in  vain,  by  the  Pontiff;  and  before  the  Electors 
 took  the  step  which  left  the  imperial  throne  vacant,  they 
 sought  sanction  from  the  same  authority. 
 
 *  One  of  the  charges  against  Wenceslaus  was  that  he  had  derogated 
 from  the  imperial  rights  over  Italy,  by  conferring  the  Dukedom  of 
 ]Milan  on  Gian  Galoazzo.  In  the  eyes  of  the  Pope  he  was  culpable  for 
 having  made  no  effort  to  suppress  the  schism  ;  still  more  as  the  sacrile- 
 gious murderer  of  S.  John  Kepomuck  (or  Ncpomuccne),  confessor  to 
 the  Empress,  and  whom  he  ordered  to  be  drowned  in  the  Moldau(13S:3), 
 because  the  holy  man  refused  to  betray  the  secrets  of  the  Confessional. 
 Wenceslaus,  who  still  retained  the  kingdom  of  Bohemia,  was  succeeded 
 by  Kobcrt,  Count  Palatine  and  Duke  of  Bavaria,  elected  King  of  the 
 Komans  in  1400. 
 
422  medi.i<:tal  cheistiai^ity  a^b 
 
 In  1404  deputies  from  the  Antipope  were  admitted 
 to  make  some  propositions  in  Consistory.*  Their  inso- 
 lence excited  such  indignation  that  the  death  of  Boni- 
 face, who  was  already  suffering  from  complicated  diseases, 
 is  said  to  have  been  hastened  by  the  shock  to  his  temper. 
 He  did  not  leave  a  much  honoured  memory ;  and  Muratori's 
 sentence  is  not  unjust,  that  "  he  rather  destroyed  than 
 built  up."  The  wealth  he  had  accumulated  (by  what  means 
 we  have  seen),  enabled  him  to  maintain  a  considerable 
 army,  and  recover  several  cities  lost  to  the  pontific  states. f 
 He  conferred  benefits  on  the  university  of  Bologna,  by 
 founding  new  cathedrae  for  Civil  Law  and  Physics.  In 
 that  city  he  appointed  a  Jubilee,  kept  up  with  festivities 
 for  three  days,  with  the  object  of  promoting  the  works  for 
 the  splendid  basilica  of  ^.  Petronio.  The  building  of  the 
 Milan  cathedral  was  in  a  similar  manner  forwarded  by 
 him. 
 
 So  soon  as  the  Pope's  death  became  known,  tumults  and 
 conflicts  broke  out;  the  usual  factions,  headed  by  Colonnas 
 and  Savelli  on  the  Ghibelline  (anti-papal)  side,  by  an 
 Orsini  on  the  other,  resumed  their  hereditary  strife ;  and 
 for  three  days  the  streets  were  a  theatre  of  civil  war.  The 
 Capitol  was  attacked ;  the  senatorial  palace  on  that  hill 
 was  gallantly  defended  by  the  Senator,  but  the  assailants 
 took  possession  of  the  church  and  convent  of  Ara  Coeli. 
 The  deputies  of  the  Antipope,  who  attempted  to  fly,  were 
 seized  and  imprisoned  in  the  S.  Angelo  fortress,  but  set 
 
 ''■'  Not,  as  reported,  to  propose  a  mutual  concession  of  the  Papacy,  but 
 merely  a  meeting  between  the  two  claimants. — v.  Muratori,  Annali. 
 
 f  The  chronicler  Gobelinus  depicts  in  dark  colours  the  effects  of  the 
 simony  and  venality  notorious  in  the  Curia  durinji^  this  pontificate: — 
 "  Auctoritas  et  reverentia  Papalis  ex  factis  ejus  (Bonifacii)  plurimum 
 viluit  apud  omnes.  .  .  ,  Clerusque  quotidie  magis  et  magis  eisdem 
 laicis  vcrgit  in  contemptum.'' — vi.  c.  87. 
 
SACRED  AET  IN  ITALY.  423 
 
 free  on  paymcut  of  5000  gold  florins,  tliat  tlicy  might  con- 
 fer with  tlic  Cardinals  respecting  the  election. 
 
 At  the  opening  of  the  conclave  all  the  Cardinals  pledged 
 themselves  solemnly  to  abdicate,  if  the  interests  of  the 
 Church  should  so  require  of  the  future  Pope.  After 
 five  days  they  elected  Cosmo  de'  Migliorati,  who,  before 
 being  one  of  their  college,  had  been  appointed  to  the  sees 
 of  E-avenna  and  Bologna,*  and  had  acted  as  papal  "  col- 
 lector "  in  England.  Innocent  A"II.  (the  name  he  took) 
 experienced  during  a  short  pontificate  (l^Oi-O)  how  great 
 were  the  perils  now  besetting  S.  Peter's  throne — not  indeed 
 through  his  o^Yn  fault,  for  he  was  a  just  as  well  as  learned 
 man,  of  pacific  temper  and  the  purest  intentions.  Even 
 before  his  coronation  Eome  was  entered  by  Ladislaus,  who 
 marched  hither  at  the  head  of  troops,  with  the  pretext  of 
 protecting  the  new  Pope,  born  his  subject  (a  native  of 
 Sulmona),  from  violence  or  insult,  but  in  reality,  as  the 
 event  showed,  to  forward  his  own  ambitious  designs.  The 
 King  spent  the  first  night  in  the  Lateran  palace,  and  the 
 next  day  was  received  by  the  Pope,  with  honours,  at  the 
 Vatican.  He  remained  in  Eome  fifteen  days ;  and  during 
 this  interval  there  was  drawn  up  a  treaty,  one  of  the  most 
 remarkable  documents  in  the  history  of  the  Pontificate, 
 for  it  imports  a  partial  abdication  of  the  temporal  power. 
 It  was  concluded  only  ten  days  after  Innocent  had  been 
 raised  to  the  throne,  ratified  by  six  Cardinals  and  four 
 citizens  of  the  higher  class,  in  a  chapel  at  the  Vatican  : 
 The  Pope  w^as  to  appoint  the  Senator,  with  the  same  attri- 
 butions as  formerly ;  the  pontific  Court,  the  aggregate 
 Clergy,  and  cases   of  leze-majesty,  were  to  be  exempted 
 
 *  Troubles  and  hostilities  against  the  elerpy,  so  prev.alent  during  this 
 period  of  schism,  had  prevented  him  i'rora  taking  possession  of  either  of 
 those  archbishoprics. 
 
424l  MEDIiEVAL    CIimSTIANITY   AND 
 
 from  that  officer's  jurisdiction  ;  six  assessors  (  Giibernatores 
 Camera),  succeeding  to  the  place  of  the  "  Eiformatori," 
 and  holding  office  for  two  months,  were  to  administer  the 
 civic  finances,  levy  taxes,  pay  salaries,  &c.  After  the  first 
 half-year,  three  other  magistrates  were  to  be  aggregated 
 to  the  giibernatores,  their  nomination  to  proceed  both  from 
 the  Pope  and  the  King.  Ecclesiastical  affairs  were  to  be 
 exempt  from  all  secular  control ;  and  if  questions  should 
 arise  as  to  the  limits  between  the  ecclesiastical  and  civil, 
 the  umpire  was  to  be  King  Ladislaus.  The  Leonine  City 
 was  to  be  left  under  the  Pope's  exclusive  jurisdiction ;  and, 
 as  well  as  the  defensible  posts  in  that  quarter,  the  Milvian 
 bridge  to  be  guarded  by  pontific  soldiers.  No  Boman 
 barons,  or  "  signori "  of  the  neighbourhood  with  armed 
 retainers,  could  be  employed  in  the  public  service.  The 
 Capitoline  palace  was  to  be  reduced  to  a  communal  resi" 
 deuce,  as  seat  of  the  civic  authorities,  and  court  of  justice. 
 That  palace,  on  the  first  day  the  treaty  came  into  force, 
 was  consigned  to  a  representative  of  the  King,  who  intro^ 
 duced  the  several  magistrates.  Before  Ladislaus  left,  the 
 Pope  constituted  him  Eector  (or  Governor)  of  the  Cam- 
 pagna  and  Maritime  Latium  for  three  years;  and  that 
 territory  continued  in  fact  subject  to  the  Neapolitan 
 crown  for  about  thirteen  years,  till  the  time,  namely,  of 
 Martin  V. 
 
 In  his  first  year  Innocent  VII.  took  a  step,  the  sequel  to 
 which  forms  one  of  the  leading  events  of  this  century :  he 
 announced  the  convocation  of  a  General  Council,  to  be 
 opened  at  Home  the  1st  November,  1405.  Many  requests 
 from  different  quarters  had  convinced  him  of  the  necessity 
 of  thus  providing  for  the  endangered  interests  of  the 
 Church. 
 
 The  Antipope  imitated  him  some  time  afterwards.  The 
 King  of  Naples  continued  to  support  the  party  disaffected 
 
SACKED   AllT    IN    ITALY.  425 
 
 against  the  Pope  in  Eome.  His  troops  again  appeared  in 
 the  neighbourhood,  and  encamped  on  the  fields  near  the  IS. 
 Angelo  castle.  The  Eomans  of  the  anti-papal  party  joined 
 them,  and  co-operated  in  an  attempt,  not  successful,  to 
 seize  the  posts  at  the  Milvian  bridge.*  Several  skirmishes 
 ensued,  but  without  decisive  results.  A  deputation  of  lead- 
 ing citizens  went  to  the  Vatican,  for  the  Pope  was  disposed 
 to  listen  to  terms ;  but  when  they  requested  the  surrender  of 
 the  Capitol  and  of  that  bridge  to  the  representatives  of  the 
 people,  Innocent  refused.  As  these  citizens  were  returning 
 from  the  palace,  they  were  seized,  except  some  who  fled, 
 and  brought  before  Ludovico  de'  Migliorati,  the  nephew 
 of  the  Pope  and  commander  of  his  forces,  who  was  then 
 lodging  together  with  a  condoUiere  near  the  S.  Spirito 
 hospital.  Ludovico  upbraided  them  violently,  and  when 
 they  attempted  to  justify  themselves  drew  his  sword  and 
 wounded  one  of  them  in  the  face ;  then  ordered  the  soldiers 
 beside  him  to  kill  them  on  the  spot.  Thus  were  eleven 
 citizens  murdered  in  presence  of  this  ferocious  man,  who 
 ordered  their  bodies  to  be  thrown  out  of  a  window  into 
 the  street.  After  the  horrid  spectacle  had  been  seen,  and 
 the  crime  made  known  in  the  city,  a  revolt  of  most  menacing 
 'aspect  broke  out.  The  Pope,  the  Cardinals,  and  most  of 
 the  Vatican  officials  fled  on  the  same  day  (6th  August, 
 1405),  passed  the  night  at  a  village  twelve  miles  distant, 
 and  thence  travelled  to  Viterbo  ;  being  exposed  to  such 
 suftering  from  heat,  thirst  and  fatigue  that  some  of  the 
 more  old  and  feeble  fell  down  dead  on  the  wayside,  and 
 
 *  This  bridge  must  then  have  been  partly  of  wood,  as  Infessura  tells 
 us  it  was  burnt  on  occasion  of  that  attack.  It  must  have  been  restored 
 before  1408,  when  a  writer  of  the  day  mentions  it  as  serving  for  transit. 
 It  is  still  fortified  by  towers,  as  in  the  Middle  Anes;  and  its  last  vitissi- 
 lude  was  to  be  blown  up  during  the  siege  of  Komc  in  1849,  not  by  i'rent-h 
 but  Roman  orders. 
 
426  MEDIAEVAL    CHRISTIANITY    AND 
 
 others  were  struck  with  fever  before  they  reached  their 
 restiug  phice.* 
 
 Eome  was  now  left  without  regular  government,  and 
 in  the  power  of  an  irritated  anti-papal  faction.  Acts  of 
 violence  and  bloodshed  took  place.  Those  courtiers  and 
 adherents  of  the  Pope  who  had  not  escaped,  were  put  to 
 death ;  the  Vatican  was  twice  pillaged,  first  by  the  rabble, 
 next  by  Giovanni  Colonna  ;  books  and  documents,  bulls  and 
 diplomas  were  torn  to  pieces  or  carried  away.f     On  the 
 
 *  These  scenes  are  graphically  described  by  an  illustrious  eye-witness, 
 Leonardo  Bruni  (1370-1444),  who  had  been  lately  appointed  to  a  secre- 
 taryship by  the  Pope.  In  a  letter  to  Coluccio  Salutati  he  tells  what  he 
 saw  between  the  S.  Angelo  bridge  and  the  Vatican  on  that  6th  October. 
 "  When  I  heard  the  tumult,  I  hastened  back  to  rejoin  my  friends;  but 
 having  made  my  way  through  the  streets  and  reached  the  bridge  of 
 Hadrian,  I  suddenly  came  upon  a  strong  body  of  armed  men,  who  were 
 guarding  it.  All  around  were  arrays  of  weapons,  I  had  just  time  to 
 turn  my  horse  and  pass  into  a  side  street,  where  I  alighted,  changed  my 
 dress,  and  mingled  unknown  among  the  crowd,  thus  contriving  lo  pass 
 through  the  guards.  Scarcely  had  I  left  their  ranks  when  I  saw  the 
 servant,  who  had  stayed  behind  with  my  horse,  seized  by  some  soldiers, 
 the  animal,  and  even  his  clothes,  taken  away  from  him.  After  1  had 
 reached  my  companions  the  spectacle  of  the  murdered  men  presented 
 itself,  and  filled  me  with  horror,  for  many  of  them  had  been  known  to 
 me:  they  lay  in  the  middle  of  the  street,  covered  with  blood  and  gaping 
 wounds ;  I  looked  at  them  and  shuddered.  I  then  went  to  the  palace  of 
 the  Pope,  who  was  in  the  greatest  affliction  ;  utterly  ignorant  of  what 
 was  to  take  place,  a  peaceful  and  benignant  man  as  he  is,  far  as  possible 
 from  thoughts  of  bloodshed  and  murder.  He  sorrowfully  bewailed  him- 
 self and  his  fate  ;  his  upturned  glance  seemed  to  call  God  to  witness  his 
 innocence.  Distress  almost  deprived  him  of  power  to  decide  what  to  do 
 or  whither  to  go ;  and  those  around  him  were  of  different  opinions.  At 
 last  prevailed  the  advice  of  those  who  urged  a  speedy  flight.  We  pre- 
 pared as  well  as  the  short  notice  allowed,  and  started  on  our  journey; 
 first  a  troop  of  horse,  next  the  luggage,"  &c. 
 
 t  "  Multos  librorum  papalium  dcportaverunt,  et  litteras  bullatas  et 
 aliqua  registra  supplicaticnum  et  litcrarum  papalium  laniavcriint;  et  do 
 
SACRED    ALT    IN    ITALY.  -127 
 
 20th  of  the  same  mouth,  3000  Ncapolitnii  soklicrs,  led  by 
 tlie  Couut  di  Troja,  entered  the  porticoes  of  St.  Peter's. 
 Their  King  soon  followed,  and  took  up  his  lodging  in  the 
 Vatican.  His  purposes  being  now  manifest,  the  Eomans 
 showed  that,  however  dissatisfied  with  Papal,  they  had  no 
 desire  to  exchange  it  for  Neapolitan  rule.  The  King's 
 troops  were  plundered  as  they  passed  with  their  pack- 
 horses  along  the  right  bank  of  the  Tiber  to  the  Leonine 
 City;  the  S.  Angelo  bridge  was  barricaded  with  earth- 
 works, and  the  Neapolitans  could  not  cross  to  make  them- 
 selves masters  of  the  river's  left  bank.  Ladislaus  held  the 
 S.  Angelo  castle,  while  the  anti-papal  party  occupied  the 
 Capitol.  The  municipal  palace  on  that  hill  was  the  strategic 
 point  most  hotly  contested.  It  was  at  last  transferred  to 
 thepontific  authorities  through  means  of  Paolo  Orsini,  who 
 attacked  and  occupied  it  by  force.  The  S.  Mark  tower  near 
 it  was  demolished.  A  new  magistracy  was  created,  and  the 
 Senator  appointed  by  the  Pope  returned  to  resume  his 
 office.  Soon  after  this  the  Neapolitans  were  defeated  in 
 the  Neronian  fields,  near  the  Milvian  bridge ;  this  proved 
 decisive  ;  the  invaders  withdrew  ;  the  Colonna  and  Savelli 
 leaders  left  Eome;  and  the  city,  all  but  the  S.  Angelo 
 castle,  was  regained  for  the  Pontificate. 
 
 A  Eoman  deputation  waited  on  the  Pope  at  Yiterbo, 
 with  the  keys  of  their  city,  which  they  laid  at  his  feet, 
 praying  him  to  return.  He  re-entered  Rome,  received 
 with  rejoicings,  I3th  March,  1406,  and  presently  denounced 
 Ladislaus  as  the  enemy  of  the  Church,  &c.,  declaring  him 
 deprived  of  his  kingdom.  The  S.  Angelo  castle,  held  by 
 his  garrison,  was  besieged.  At  this  emergency  Ladislaus 
 deemed  it  wise  to  submit,  and  accept  the  terms  ofiered  by 
 
 thcsaurcria  papali  ultra  L  voluniina  librorum  cxportavcrunt." — TLcotl. 
 de  Isietn,  II.  c.  36 
 
428  MEJDIJ^VAL    CnRISTTANITT    AND 
 
 the  Pope.  He  ordered  his  troops  to  consign  the  castle  to 
 pontific  officers,  and  after  this  peace  prevailed  in  the  city 
 during  the  brief  remaining  period  of  Innocent  YII/s  life. 
 
 The  Antipope,  after  being  besieged  by  the  Erench  troops 
 in  his  fortress-palace  at  Avignon,  and  saving  himself  by 
 flight,  took  refuge  at  Nice,  and  thence  went  to  Genoa,  a 
 city  now,  through  voluntary  cession,  subject  to  Erance. 
 There  the  governor  received  him  as  legitimate  pontiff — 
 again  recognised  as  such  by  Charles  YI.,  who  had  already 
 changed  his  mind  in  favour  of  Benedict  XIII.  A  pesti- 
 lence, breaking  out  at  Grenoa,  induced  the  latter  to  settle 
 first  at  Savona,  afterwards  at  Monaco  and  Marseilles.  He 
 endeavoured  hard  to  persuade  the  world  that  he  was  ready 
 to  abdicate  so  soon  as  his  rival  should  do  alike. 
 
 The  mild  and  peaceful  Innocent  VII.  exerted  himself  to 
 reconcile  Guelph  and  Ghibelline  opponents  ;  and  used  to 
 say,  after  yielding  one  point  after  another  to  the  demands 
 of  the  Eomans :  "  I  have  conceded  all  you  have  sought 
 from  me ;  and  nothing  else  remains  for  you  to  ask,  unless 
 you  desire  to  deprive  me  of  the  pontific  mantle  I  wear !" 
 The  struggle  for  independent  municipal  government  in  his 
 time  is  almost  the  counterpart  (at  least  as  to  ulterior  aims) 
 of  that  which  agitated  Eome  in  the  time  of  his  predecessor 
 and  namesake.  Innocent  II.,  1143.  The  citizens  did  not, 
 in  either  instance,  desire  the  overthrow  of  the  pontific 
 throne,  but  the  free  administration  of  secular  affairs  under 
 that  authority.  Leonardo  Bruni  thus  describes  the  general 
 conditions  of  Rome  as  he  found  them : — "  The  Boman  people 
 have  carried  to  excess  the  exercise  of  their  lately  acquired 
 liberties.  The  Colonnas  and  Savelli  are  most  powerful 
 among  the  nobles  ;  the  Orsini  are  in  decline,  because 
 suspected  by  the  people,  and  supposed  to  favour  the  Pon- 
 tiff. The  Curia  is  filled  and  wealthy ;  the  Cardinals  are 
 numerous,  and  maintain  great  dignity.     The  Pope  lives 
 
SACRED    ATIT    IN    ITALY.  429 
 
 at  the  Vatican,  desiring  leisure  {cupidm  ofii),  and  eon- 
 tented  with  the  present  state  of  things,  provided  he  may 
 be  allowed  to  enjoy  it.  But  such  the  perverse  spirit  of 
 certain  influential  persons  among  the  citizens,  that  tran- 
 quillity is  not  to  be  obtained.  AV^e  are  continually  under 
 arms  here  ;  and  it  is  difficult  to  recollect  oneself  sufficiently 
 for  writing.  The  capriciousness  and  perversity  of  this 
 people  have  risen  to  such  a  point  that  one  cannot  find  a 
 peaceful  spot."* 
 
 The  thirteen  Cardinals  now  in  Eome,  elected  (30th  No- 
 vember, 1406)  the  new  Pope,  Angelo  Corrario,  a  Venetian 
 and  bishop  of  Castello  (ancient  title  of  the  Venetian  See), 
 who  took  the  name  of  Gregory  XII.  His  first  step  was  to 
 renew  the  solemn  engagement  made  in  the  conclave  by 
 himself  and  all  the  Cardinals,  to  abdicate  if  requisite  for 
 the  peace  of  the  Church ;  and  the  Antipope  was  informed 
 by  his  letters  of  that  intention.  An  interview  between 
 the  two  was  proposed,  at  Savona.  It  soon  became  evident 
 that  neither  Gregory  nor  his  rival  were  sincere  ;  and  that 
 an  octogenarian  (such  the  age  of  the  former)  loved  power, 
 or  its  semblance,  more  than  anything  else.  Yet  this  Pon- 
 tiff's position  at  Home  was  far  from  agreeable  or  secure. 
 His  poverty  obliged  him  to  pawn  his  tiara  for  6000  gold 
 florins  to  a  Florentine  merchant,  and  to  sell  many  books 
 out  of  the  library  of  the  Holy  See,  for  500  gold  florins,  to 
 the  Cardinal  Archbishop  of  Kaples.  On  the  night  of  the 
 17th  June,  Eome  was  entered  with  violence  through  a 
 breach  (probably  caused  by  ruin)  in  the  walls,  between  the 
 Porta  Maggiore  and  the  Tiburtine  or  S.  Lorenzo  gate. 
 An  armed  company,  whose  leaders  were  the  two  Colonna 
 brothers,  an  Orsini,  a  Savelli,  and  one  of  the  ]S"ormanni 
 
 •  Rcrum  Italicarum  Historia,  and  Epistles ;  all  but  the  last  sentence 
 of  this  extract  being  from  the  former  work,  and  in  the  past,  which 
 I  translate  into  the  present  tense — that  used  in  the  letters. 
 
430  MEDIEVAL    CnniSTTANlTT   AND 
 
 family,  thus  forced  their  way  as  far  as  the  now  solitary 
 church  of  S.  Bibiana,  but  a  short  distance  from  Porta 
 Maggiore,  where  they  waited  till  daybreak.  This  attempt 
 proved  fruitless  as  desperate.  None  of  the  citizens  rose 
 (as,  no  doubt,  expected)  to  take  part  in  revolt  or  combat. 
 The  Pope  retired  to  the  S.  Angelo  castle ;  and  presently 
 Paolo  Orsini  led  his  soldiers  from  the  Campagna,  where 
 they  were  then  on  duty,  to  resist  the  aggressors.  Several 
 were  made  prisoners,  among  others  the  two  Colonnas,  both 
 released  on. payment  of  ransom,  and  Galeotto  Normanni, 
 w^ho  was  beheaded  at  the  base  of  the  Capitol  by  order  of 
 the  Senator.  As  to  the  Pope  and  Antipope,  their  oft- 
 repeated  and  never-fulfilled  promises,  proposals  of  compro- 
 mise, and  treaties  without  effect,  form  an  episode  both 
 scandalous  and  contemptible,  only  deserving  the  notice  of 
 History  on  account  of  the  opposition  excited,  the  intellec- 
 tual repugnance  aroused  against  them,  and  the  ecclesiastical 
 efforts  which  sought  to  eradicate,  not  the  schism  alone,  but 
 other  abuses  with  it.  Illustrious  teachers  in  the  world  of 
 thought  and  theological  science  appeared  as  champions  of 
 the  honour  and  purity  of  the  Latin  Church,  and  of  the  pri- 
 maeval rights  inherent  in  her  prelacy :  Pierre  d'Ailly, 
 Bishop  of  Cambrai,  and  in  1411  Cardinal ;  Jean  Charlier, 
 called  G-erson,  successor  to  D'Ailly  as  Chancellor  of  the 
 Paris  University,  (ob.  1429)  ;  JNicholas  Clemangis  (ob. 
 1440)  ;  Nicholas  Cusa,  Cardinal  in  1448  ;  and  Zabarella, 
 professor  of  Canon  Law  at  Padua,  Archbishop  of  Florence, 
 afterwards  Cardinal  (1339-1417).  The  opinion  of  such 
 men  on  the  then  condition  of  Western  Christendom,  and 
 the  remedies  suitable  for  the  baleful  disease,  pertains  to 
 History.* 
 
 *  "In  consequence  of  clerical  avarice,  simony,  and  the  greed  and  lust 
 of  power  in  the  Popes,  the  authority  of  Bishops  and  inferior  ecclesiastics 
 
SACBED    ART    TN    ITALY.  431 
 
 Gregory  niul  Bcucdict  both  became  itinerant,  seeking 
 protection  or  Hying  from  danger,  and  thus  mutually  dis- 
 crediting their  cause.  Meantime  the  ever  restless  Ladis- 
 laus  seized  the  opportunity  of  obtaining  his  cherished 
 object,  the  conquest  of  Rome.  AYitli  a  large  army  ho 
 marched  by  way  of  Yellctri  to  Ostia ;  there  his  fleet  cast 
 anchor  at  the  same  time,  and  this  ancient  seaport  was  soon 
 taken.  On  the  16th  April,  1408,  he  sailed  with  his  forces 
 up  the  Tiber,  landed  at  S.  Paul's,  threw  a  bridge  of  boats 
 across  the  river  near  that  basilica,  and  w^as  soon  before  the 
 walls  of  Eome.  The  city  was  without  adequate  means  of 
 defence,  governed  by  a  Cardinal,  the  Yicar  of  Grrcgory  XII., 
 
 is  completely  set  aside,  so  that  they  seem  like  mere  pictures  in  the 
 Church,  and  are  well-nigh  superfluous." — Gerson,  Opera  (ed.  Du[)in)  II. 
 p.  I.  174.  The  same  writer  maintains  that  the  Church  is  iufa]Iil)le,  but 
 not  the  Pope ;  that  the  Church  can  put  limits  to  the  powers  of  the  Pope, 
 but  the  Pope  cannot  limit  those  of  the  Church ;  that  the  Church  has 
 not  the  right  to  chastise  with  corporeal  punishments,  unless  conceded  to 
 her  by  Princes,  &c.  Zabarella  laments  that  the  Church  "  had  become 
 brutal,  a  severe  prison-house,  where  only  dungeon-air  could  be  breathed 
 — full  of  hypocrisy  and  false  pretence."  "  If  we  consider  (he  says)  the 
 calamities  and  evils  that  now  overwhelm  the  Church,  we  shall  be  con- 
 vinced that  they  have  been  caused  by  the  cessation  of  Councils.  For- 
 merly it  was  the  usage  to  decide  all  difficult  affiiirs  in  those  Councils, 
 which  took  place  frequently.  But  from  the  time  that  certain  Popes 
 began  to  govern  the  Church  rather  as  temporal  princes  than  successors 
 of  the  Apostles,  there  has  been  no  care  to  convoke  such  august  assem- 
 blies. The  flatterers  desirous  to  please  the  Popes  have  persuaded  theui 
 for  a  long  time,  and  still  do  so,  that  they  are  at  liberty  to  do  whatever 
 they  please,  without  even  excluding  things  unlawful.  This  has  been 
 the  origin  of  infinite  abuses.  The  Pope  has  possessed  himself  of  all  the 
 rights  of  subordinate  churches,  and  in  consequence  their  Bishops  have 
 been  counted  for  nothing.  It  is  necessary  to  modify  the  honours  paid 
 to  the  Pope,  and  no  longer  carry  them  to  such  excess  as  to  let  it  api>ear 
 tliat  as  much  is  rendered  to  him  as  to  God  Himself." 
 
 Treatise  on  the  Schism. 
 
432  MEDIiEVAL    CKRISTIANITT    AND 
 
 but  without  a  Senator,  that  post  being  vacant.  Terms  of 
 surrender  were  stipulated  between  the  Count  di  Troja,  the 
 royal  representative,  and  Paolo  Orsini  on  the  pontific  side. 
 The  Cardinal  Governor  fled.  The  King  entered  amidst 
 popular  rejoicings  and  pomps,  25th  April ;  he  passed  first 
 to  the  Capitol,  under  a  canopy  of  cloth  of  gold  borne  by 
 eight  Eoman  barons.  During  two  months  he  exercised 
 sovereign  powers,  coined  money,  appointed  a  Senator  and 
 other  magistrates,  and  raised  his  marble  escutcheon  on  the 
 Capitoline  palace.  His  thoughts  were  directed  to  an  im- 
 perial crown ;  and  having  that  highest  prize  in  view,  he 
 contented  himself  with  the  title,  "  Illuminator  Urbis,"  to 
 signify  his  supremacy  over  Eome.  Here  he  remained  till 
 the  23rd  (or  28th)  of  June,  and  then  left,  deputing  the 
 Count  di  Troja  to  act  as  his  Lieutenant. 
 
 In  1409,  Grregory  XII.  opened  a  council  at  Udine  ;  but 
 so  small  the  number  of  prelates  who  attended,  that  he  had 
 soon  to  prorogue,  in  fact  to  dissolve  it.  From  Udine  he 
 fled  in  the  disguise  of  a  merchant,  and  on  foot,  with  two 
 servants,  to  Gaeta,  a  retreat  desired,  at  the  cost  of  that  long 
 perilous  journey,  for  the  sake  of  the  protection  now  afibrded 
 him  by  Ladislaus,  but  only  for  an  interval  before  that  king 
 recognised  another  Pope.  After  this,  Gregory  became 
 again  a  fugitive,  and  found  refuge  at  E,imini,  there  pro- 
 tected by  Malatesta.  "While  he  was  at  Lucca,  before  the 
 abortive  council,  all  the  Cardinals  hitherto  faithful  to  him 
 deserted  this  Pontifl" ;  and  the  two  last  to  quit  issued  a 
 protest  to  a  better-informed  Pope,  with  appeal  to  a  General 
 Council.  Universities  were  consulted,  and  agreed,  after 
 deliberation,  in  deciding  for  the  right  of  the  Sacred 
 College  to  provide  for  the  welfare  of  the  Church  by  con- 
 voking such  an  assembly  on  its  own  responsibility.  Thir- 
 teen Cardinals,  formerly  of  the  two  obediences,  met  at 
 Livorno,  and  concerted  together  as  to  the  requisite  line  of 
 
SACKED  ART  IN  ITALY.  433 
 
 action.  At  last  a  Council,  by  some  accepted  as  frcumenical, 
 met  at  Pisa.  Inaugurated  in  the  cathedral  on  tlie  25tli 
 March,  1409,  it  was  attended  by  24  Cardinals,  3  Patriarchs, 
 180  Bishops  and  Archbishops,  300  Abbots  and  Procurators 
 of  Abbots,  280  Theologic  Professors,  the  Deputies  of  Chap- 
 ters and  Universities,  and  the  Ambassadors  of  several 
 Sovereigns.*  On  the  first  day  after.  High  Mass  and  a 
 procession,  two  Archbishops,  two  Bishops,  and  two  Car- 
 dinal Deacons,  with  certain  theologians  and  votaries,  went 
 to  the  chief  portal,  and  cited  Angelo  Corrario  and  Pedro 
 de  Luna  to  appear,  then  reported  their  absence,  on  which 
 the  Council  ordered  in  the  name  of  the  Church  Universal 
 that  the  schism  should  be  suppressed.  Appointed  officials 
 accused  the  two  contendants  for  the  Papacy,  requiring  that 
 both  should  be  declared  contumacious,  &c.  After  these 
 formalities  had  been  repeated  a  second  time,  and  after  an 
 adjournment  for  some  days,  the  Council  proceeded  to  con- 
 demn G-regory  and  Benedict  for  schism  and  contumacy — 
 also  as  heretical,  perjured  through  violation  of  their  oaths, 
 degraded  from  all  dignities,  and  ipso  facto  separated  from 
 the  Church ;  all  the  faithful  being  now  prohibited  under 
 pain  of  excommunication  from  recognising  and  favouring 
 
 *  According  to  Cesare  Cantu,  there  were  present  24  Cardinals, 
 4  Patriarchs,  80  Bishops,  26  Archbishops,  86  Abbots,  202  Procurators 
 of  monasteries,  300  Doctors  of  Iheology  and  Canon  Law,  and  the 
 Deputies  of  more  than  one  hundred  Chapters,  as  well  as  of  13  Universi- 
 ties. The  statistics  above  are  from  Ciaconius.  In  the  "  Art  de  Verifier 
 les  Dates,"  they  are  given  differently:  22  Cardinals,  4  Patriarchs,  12 
 Archbishops,  several  Procurators  of  absent  Archbishops,  80  Bishops, 
 and  102  Procurators  of  Bishops,  87  Abbots,  and  202  Procurators  of 
 Abbots,  41  Priors,  the  4  Generals  of  the  Mendicant  Orders,  the  Grand 
 ^Master  and  16  Knights  Commcndatoi-s  of  Rhodes,  the  deputies  of  at 
 least  13  Universities,  and  of  more  than  200  Chapters,  more  than  300 
 Doctors  in  Theology  and  Canon  Law,  the  Ambassadors  of  several  Kings 
 and  of  other  great  Princes. 
 
434<  MEDI.ETAL    CHRISTIANITY    AND 
 
 tliem.  A  French  theologian  read  a  long  discourse  main- 
 taining that  the  Church  was  superior  to  the  Pope  ;  and  an 
 Italian  Prelate  reported  that  such  was  the  opinion  of  103 
 Doctors  of  the  Bologna  University.  During  the  sessions 
 a  solemn  comedy  was  enacted  in  another  church  at  Pisa, 
 where  certain  clerics  of  the  party  of  Benedict  went  through 
 the  formula  of  citing  all  the  Cardinals  who  had  deserted 
 him,  and  were  then  in  that  city,  to  return  to  him  by  a  given 
 day,  under  the  usual  penalties  for  disobedience.  It  is 
 needless  to  add  that  this  availed  nothing.  iVlike  was 
 disregarded  the  protest  of  the  Emperor  Robert,  whose 
 ambassadors  appealed  to  another  General  Council,  declaring 
 that  of  Pisa  illegitimate  because  not  convoked  by  himself. 
 On  the  15th  June,  the  Cardinals  went  into  conclave,  and 
 on  the  26th,  elected  to  the  theoretically  vacant  throne, 
 Peter  Philargos,  said  to  be  a  native  of  Candia,  Cardinal 
 Archbishop  of  Milan,  and  Legate  in  Lombardy,  who  now 
 became  Pope  as  Alexander  Y. 
 
 The  parties  and  claims  of  Gregory  XII.  and  Benedict 
 XIII.  were  not  annihilated  by  this  procedure.  The  Coun- 
 cil had  over-rated  its  strength  in  imagining  that  its  decree 
 would  at  once  suppress  the  schism;  and  instead  of  two,  the 
 Christian  world  now  beheld,  for  the  first  time,  three  Popes, 
 all  maintaining  their  pretensions  and  "  obediences,"  alike 
 denouncing  and  reprobating  each  other  ! 
 
 Yet  a  great  historic  momentum  cannot  be  denied  to  the 
 august  assemblage  at  Pisa.  It  pronounced  the  emancipa- 
 tion of  the  Latin  Catholic  Church  from  the  spiritual  des- 
 potism arrogated  by  a  siugle  Prelate  ;  it  put  in  its  protest 
 that  the  true  character  of  the  Christian  Hierarchy  was  not 
 the  absolute  monarchic,  nor  its  constitution  subjected,  like 
 Judaism,  to  the  unlimited  control  of  a  "  Pontifex  Maximus." 
 
 Alexander  Y.  was  crowned  in  front  of  the  Pisan  Duomo, 
 ^the  first  time  that  majestic  temple  looked  down  on  rites 
 
SACRED    ART    IN    ITALY,  [3.') 
 
 SO  imposing.  A  singular  example  of  the  accessibility  of  the 
 high  places  in  the  Church  to  learning  and  merit,  the  new- 
 Pope  had  owed  his  rescue  from  want  and  ignorance  to  an 
 Italian  Franciscan,  who  had  found  him  in  his  Greek  island, 
 a  friendless  boy  and  literally  a  beggar  dependent  on  alms.* 
 After  confirming  all  the  acts  of  the  Ccuncil,  his  first  step 
 was  to  anathemize  Ladislaus,  and  declare  his  forfeiture  of 
 the  Neapolitan  crown.  A  claimant,  for  some  time  lost 
 sight  of,  Louis,  Duke  of  Anjou  (the  same  who  was  crowned 
 by  the  Antipope  Clement,  in  1389,  as  King  of  Jerusalem 
 and  the  Two  Sicilies),  now  re-appears  on  the  historic  scene. 
 Embarking  at  Marseilles  with  troops  and  many  galleys,  he 
 arrived  at  Pisa,  and  there  received  investiture  of  his  king- 
 dom from  the  Pope,  who  also  appointed  him  "  Gronfaloniere" 
 of  the  Church.  The  Florentine  Eepublic,  alike  dreading 
 the  encroachments  of  Ladislaus,  entered  into  league  with 
 the  Pontificate  against  him  ;  and  the  double  object  was 
 undertaken  by  these  allies  of  rescuing  Eome  from  that 
 king's  usurpation,  and  depriving  him  of  his  throne  for  the 
 benefit  of  another  dynasty.  Cardinal  Baldassare  Cossa, 
 legate  at  Bologna,  supposed  to  have  been  the  influencing 
 mind  at  the  Council  of  Pisa,  and  to  have  indeed  directed  the 
 choice  of  the  Conclave  to  Philargos,  rather  than  secure  the 
 Papacy  (as  it  was  believed  he  might  have  done)  for  himself, 
 had  the  credit  of  devising  this  policy  and  bringing  about 
 the  league.  That  warlike,  restless  Cardinal,  with  forces 
 under  his  command,  himself  took  part  in  the  enterprise, 
 and  together  with  the  Florentine  general,  at  the  head  of 
 
 *  He  had  studied  at  Oxford  and  Paris,  and  taught  in  the  latter  uni- 
 versity. Gian  Galeazzo  Visconti,  impressed  by  his  character  and  con- 
 verse, secured  to  him  successively  the  sees  of  Vicenza  and  Novara, 
 before  raising  him  to  the  higher  metropolitan  rank;  and  whilst  Lombardy 
 was  in  a  troubled  state  after  the  death  of  that  duke,  Boniface  IX.  api>ointe<i 
 him  Legate. 
 
 2  F  2 
 
436  MEDIiEYAL    CHRISTIANITY    AND 
 
 2000  lances  and  1500  foot,  joined  Louis  on  his  march  by- 
 way of  Orvieto  and  Viterbo  to  Eome.  Their  arrival  was 
 anticipated  by  the  Neapolitans  ;  an  army,  mustered  by  the 
 Count  di  Troya  at  Perugia,  reaching  the  ancient  capital 
 before  them.  The  whole  of  the  city  on  the  Tiber's  left 
 bant,  and  the  Transtiberine  suburb  were  occupied  by  the 
 forces  of  the  Colonnesi  in  the  interest  of  the  Neapolitan 
 King  ;  but  the  Leonine  City  was  well  defended  from  the 
 S.  Angelo  Castle,  held  by  a  garrison  for  the  Sacred  Col- 
 lege. On  the  1st  of  October,  1406,  the  army  of  the  League 
 appeared  at  the  gates,  and  entered  the  Leonine  City  with- 
 out resistance,  as  the  chatelain  of  the  fortress  had  declared 
 himself  for  Alexander  Y.  After  a  few  encounters  between 
 the  opponents,  without  serious  results,  the  leaders  of  the 
 league  determined  to  attack  Eome  on  the  eastern  or 
 northern  side,  and  withdrew  first  to  Monte  Eotondo,  leaving 
 the  Borgo  quarter  alone  occupied  by  Paolo  Orsini  for  the 
 Pope.  Their  project  was  abandoned  owing  to  the  failure 
 of  co-operation,  relied  upon  from  those  favourable  to  their 
 cause,  within  the  city.  Instead  of  besieging  Eome,  the 
 Duke  of  Anjou  and  the  Legate  separated,  and  withdrew 
 their  troops  in  different  directions.  The  Florentine  forces 
 alone  remained,  encamped  at  a  few  miles'  distance  from  the 
 walls.  On  the  30th  December  a  battle  was  fought  on  ground 
 now  comprised  within  the  Transtiberine  fortifications,  but 
 at  that  time  for  the  most  part  an  exposed  suburb,  the 
 present  Borgo  and  Trastevere  regions.  The  Neapolitans 
 and  the  troops  under  Paolo  Orsini  here  combated  with 
 much  bloodshed,  and  the  former  were  totally  routed  ;  their 
 defeat  and  flight  v/ere  no  sooner  known  than  the  citizens 
 rose  with  vivas  for  the  "  Church  and  People."  A  multi- 
 tude assembled  that  night  in  the  Campo  de'  Piori ;  and 
 before  daybreak  the  Transtiberine  suburb  and  the  bridges 
 were  guarded  by  the  soldiers  of  Paolo  Orsini,  who  pro- 
 
SA-ClltD    ART    IN    ITALY.  437 
 
 claimed  the  sovereignty  of  the  Pope.*  A  few  days  after- 
 wards the  Florentine  forces  were  allowed  to  enter  paci- 
 fically, according  to  accepted  terms,  and  marched  into 
 Rome  under  the  banner  of  the  lily.  The  whole  city  was  re- 
 subjected  to  the  Pontiff,  except  two  gates,  the  Tiburtine 
 and  the  Porta  Maggiore,  which  had  been  developed  into 
 strong  fortresses  with  moats  and  drawbridges  added  to  the 
 Honorian  walls.  These,  in  gloomy  isolation,  were  defended 
 by  IS'eapolitan  garrisons  against  attack  and  bombardment 
 for  a  whole  month,  till  capitulation  was  their  only  resource. 
 Miserable  indeed  was  the  condition  of  Eome  after  these 
 struggles.  The  Leonine  City  was  encumbered  with  ruins  ; 
 the  woodwork  of  houses  and  the  pavement  of  streets  had 
 been  torn  up  to  make  barricades  ;  the  belfry  towers  of 
 S.  Peter's  and  S.  Spirito  were  shattered  by  assault,  and 
 beset  with  machines  for  bombarding.  Sacred  offices  in  that 
 basilica  were  almost  suspended ;  and  the  Canons  met  in 
 chapter  at  a  distant  church,  S.  Tommaso  in  Formis,  on 
 the  Ca?lian  hill.  Alexander  V.  never  saw  Kome  in  his 
 capacity  as  her  sovereign.  Guided  in  all  things  by  the 
 ambitious   Cardinal  Cossa,  he  left  Pisa,   established  him- 
 
 *  The  actual  Borgo  was  comprised  partly  (not  entirely)  within  the 
 walls  of  the  Leonine  City.  The  Trastevere  was  then  an  unprotected 
 suburb,  excepting  a  district  south  of  the  Vatican,  enclosed  within  tlie 
 Honorian  walls,  which  here  described  almost  a  triangle,  with  the  Tiber 
 at  its  base  and  the  Porta  S.  Pancrazio  at  its  apex.  It  is  not  easy  to 
 detennine  whether  the  battle  in  question  was  throughout  its  action 
 external  to  the  fortifying  walls.  The  Campo  dc'  Fiori,  now  a  busy  piazza, 
 but  far  from  all  gayer  centres,  near  the  sites  of  the  theatre  and  curia 
 of  Pompey,  owes  its  name  to  a  meadow  where  horses  and  cattle  used  to 
 graze,  till  about  the  middle  of  the  XV.  century,  on  ground  now  occupied 
 by  old-fashioned  houses  and  stalls  for  petty  traffic.  As  is  well  known, 
 the  walls  of  the  Leonine  City  are  now  reduced  to  picturesque  ruin,  and 
 the  Trastevere  and  Vatican  encircled  by  fortifications  in  no  parr  more 
 ancient  than  the  pontiticate  of  Pius  IV. 
 
438  MEDIiEVAL    CHEISTIANITY    A'SD 
 
 self  at  Bologna,  and  died  there  on  the  3rd  May,  1410. 
 He  used  to  say  to  those  of  his  intimacy  :  "  I  have  been  a 
 wealthy  Archbishop,  a  poor  Cardinal,  and  now  am  a  mendi- 
 cant Pope."  The  merits  and  capacities  which  had  raised 
 him  successively  to  so  many  high  posts,  did  not  suffice  for 
 the  difficult  position  in  which  he  found  himself  at  the  sum- 
 mit of  the  ecclesiastical  scale.  With  good  intentions,  h© 
 effected  no  reform ;  and  his  very  benevolence  led  him  to 
 exercises  of  his  office  that  were  abusive  and  confirmatory  of 
 abuses.* 
 
 On  the  17th  May  the  sixteen  Cardinals  at  Bologna,  hold- 
 ing conclave  in  the  old  Podesta  palace,  which  had  been  the 
 prison  of  King  Henzius,  elected  to  the  Papacy  the  above- 
 mentioned  Baldassare  Cossa,  of  a  noble  Neapolitan  house, 
 who  took  the  name  of  John  XXIII.;  and  who,  not  being  in 
 priest's  orders,  was  ordained  and  consecrated  as  bishop  in 
 S.  Petronio  before  his  coronation.  The  dark  accusations 
 brought  against  him — almost  every  crime  that  man  could 
 commit,  including  the  poisoning  of  his  virtuous  predecessor 
 — cannot  be  proved,  nor  finally  accepted  by  History,  though 
 many  of  those  charges  certainly  were  admitted  by  an 
 CEcumenical  Council.  The  raising  up  of  such  a  man,  the 
 very  personification  of  that  worldliness  which  had  long  dis- 
 graced the  Papal  throne  and  the  higher  prelacy,  at  the  very 
 crisis  when  the  religious  sense  of  Christendom  most 
 urgently  demanded  the  regeneration  of  a  spiritual  supre- 
 macy so  deeply  fallen  below  the  ideal  of  its  vocation — this 
 seems  truly  a  step  of  momentous  fatality,  or,  we   might 
 
 *  "  In  ejus  Papatu  nihil  penitus  reformavit,  et  omnibus  studuit  com- 
 placere.  Tam  prodigus  fuit  in  concedendis  gratiis  beneficialibus  quam 
 nullara  novit  differentiam  inter  personas  quibus  ilia  fecit.  Quanj  ob 
 rem  ipsa  Curia  in  tam  brevi  tempore  in  magnam  confusionem  et  in- 
 fomiam,  ejusdem  Alexandri  Papae  causantc  siniplicitate,  devenit."— 
 Thcod.  de  I<iem,  De  Schismate,  c.  li. 
 
SA.C11ED   ART    IN    ITALY.  439 
 
 rather  say,  guided  by  the  retributive  Power  which  makes 
 evil  its  own  punishment.  Heavy  was  the  responsibility 
 taken  upon  themselves  by  those  Cardinal  Electors  at 
 Bologna!  John  XXIII.  had  indeed  talents  and  great 
 energies,  which  he  had  exerted  in  resubjecting  several  cities 
 of  Eomagna,  especially  those  wrested  from  the  dominion  of 
 the  Church  by  the  Duke  of  Milan.  Leonardo  Bruni,  who 
 knew  him  well,  says  that  in  temporal  things  he  was  great — 
 in  spiritual  of  no  account,  and  utterly  inept.*  Platina 
 mentions  the  report  that  "  this  election  was  brought 
 about  with  violence ;  for  Baldassare,  being  Legate  at 
 Bologna,  had  troops  under  his  command  in  the  city  and 
 district  in  order  to  obtain  the  Papacy  by  force,  should 
 other  means  have  failed."  Other  writers  state  that  Gregory 
 XII.  not  only  deprived  him  of  the  Cardinalate,  but  ex- 
 cluded him  from  the  communion  of  the  faithful  for  havino- 
 
 o 
 
 usurped  the  bishopric  of  Bologna  and  subjected  that  city 
 to  his  tyranny.  In  April,  1411,  the  new  Pope  arrived  at 
 Rome  with  eight  Cardinals  ;  Louis  of  Anjou,  claimant  of  the 
 Neapolitan  crown,  accompanying  them.  On  S.  George's  day 
 he  blessed  the  banners  of  the  Church  and  of  the  Anjou  Duke, 
 whom,  together  with  Paolo  Orsini,  he  appointed  to  the  com- 
 mand of  the  Pontific  army.  Characteristic  of  John  XXIII. 
 is  an  episode,  the  date  of  which  was  the  next  recurring  S. 
 Mark's  day  at  Rome.  He  concerted  with  the  Florentines  to 
 allow  their  emissaries,  for  a  considerable  bribe,  to  seize  and 
 carry  away  the  skull  of  S.  John  the  Baptist,  special  treasure 
 of  the  church  called  S.  Sylvestro  in  capite,  which,  with  other 
 relics,  was  to  be  carried  in  the  procession  to  S.  Peter's  on 
 that  festival.  But  the  plot  transpired;  the  Caporioni 
 magistrates,  the  Colonnas,  and  the  Xuns  of  S.  Silvestro, 
 
 *  "  In  temporalibus  quidem  magnus,  in  spiritualibus  nullus  omnino  et 
 ineptus." 
 
440  MEDIiEVAL   CURISTIANITY   AND 
 
 who  walked  in  the  procession,  took  means  to  guard  that 
 sacred  head  as  it  passed  through  the  streets ;  the  Pope  and 
 the  Florentines  were  baffled.*  A  Council  convoked  by 
 Alexander  V.,  was  opened  at  Eome  by  his  successor,  about 
 the  end  of  the  year  1412,  and  dissolved  in  June,  1413.  It 
 scarcely  occupies  a  single  historic  page,  and  the  sole  docu- 
 mentary record  of  its  existence  is  a  Bull  against  the 
 followers  of  "Wycliffe.  The  attendance  of  bishops  was 
 scanty ;  for  John  is  said  to  have  taken  perfidious  measures, 
 in  concert  with  Ladislaus,  to  obstruct  their  progress  to 
 Eome,  not  desiring  any  such  reforms  as  an  efficient  Council 
 might  have  decreed.  Clemangis  gives  the  anecdote,  that  at 
 the  first  session,  the  Pope  had  no  sooner  taken  his  seat 
 than  a  large  owl  flew  in,  perched  opposite,  and  fixed  its 
 eyes  full  upon  him,  which  caused  laughter  among  the 
 prelates,  but  so  disconcerted  his  Holiness  that  he  interrupted 
 the  proceedings  ;  this  occurring  a  second  time,  the  poor 
 owl  was  beaten  to  death.  The  King  of  Naples  had  been 
 anathematized  and  formally  deposed  by  John  XXIII.,  but 
 as  he  feigned  submission,  was  received  back  into  favour. 
 How  hollow  were  the  professions  of  Ladislaus,  it  soon  be- 
 came evident.     He  invaded  and  seized  many  towns  in  the 
 
 *  Moroni  (^Dizionario,  article  "  Chiese  di  Roma,")  tries  to  save  the 
 credit  of  the  Pontiff  in  this  transaction.  "  As  it  appeared  to  Pope  John 
 XXIII.  (he  says)  that  it  (the  head)  was  exposed  to  the  danger  of  being 
 stolen  by  the  Florentines,  in  1411,  this  relic  was  no  longer  carried  in  the 
 procession,  conformably  with  the  advice  of  the  Colonnesi,  benefactors  of 
 the  church  where  it  is  still  most  carefully  preserved."  The  skull  is  said 
 to  have  been  brought  to  Rome  from  Edessa.  In  1283  Martin  IV.  en- 
 shrined it  in  a  silver  tabernacle  set  with  gems,  on  one  of  which,  an 
 emerald,  were  chiselled  scenes  from  the  life  of  the  Baptist.  Boniface 
 VIII.  placed  a  precious  tiara  on  that  tabernacle  ;  and,  when  the  city  was 
 sacked  in  1527,  the  nuns  of  S.  Silvestro  saved  the  relic  from  profanation 
 by  transferring  the  tiara  to  another  head— either  skull  or  bust— in  their 
 ehurch. 
 
SACRED  ART  IX  ITALY.  441 
 
 Auconitan  Marches  ;  and  in  June,  1413,  the  intelligence 
 reached  Eome  that  Neapolitan  troops  were  approaching 
 the  city,  whilst  a  fleet  was  sailing  towards  Ostia.  The 
 Pope  entrusted  the  defence  to  the  magistrates  and  people, 
 enjoining  on  them  to  fear  neither  Ladislaus  nor  any  other 
 foe.  "  I  am  ready,"  he  said,  "  to  die  for  the  Church  and 
 for  Eome."  The  people,  assembled  in  the  Capitol,  declared 
 their  unanimous  resolve  to  defend  the  Pontiff  and  the 
 Church.  The  next  night  fifteen  hundred  Neapolitan  sol- 
 diers, led  by  a  Condottiere^  entered  Eome  through  the  Myalls 
 near  the  S.  Croce  basilica ;  and  the  next  morning  the 
 invaders  were  masters  of  the  whole  city,  the  S.  Angelo 
 castle  alone  excepted.  The  Pope,  Cardinals,  and  courtiers 
 fled  to  Viterbo  ;  on  their  way  thither  some  were  robbed  and 
 murdered  by  the  marauding  soldiery ;  one  Cardinal  was 
 seized  and  imprisoned.  Ladislaus  entered  Eome  on  the 
 8th  of  June,  lodged  at  the  Lateran  palace,  and  commenced 
 the  siege  of  the  castle,  which  capitulated  on  the  23rd 
 October.  All  the  towns  in  the  Pontific  States  north- 
 eastward, as  far  as  the  Tuscan  frontier,  submitted  to  that 
 King.  The  Pope  meantime  resided  at  Siena  and  Florence, 
 though  for  three  months  he  was  not  allowed  to  enter 
 the  latter  city  (its  authorities  fearing  to  provoke  Ladis- 
 laus), but  inhabited  a  suburban  villa  of  the  Bishop.  Li 
 the  course  of  conferences  held  at  Florence,  he  was 
 advised,  and  adopted  the  resolution,  to  secure  protection 
 against  Ladislaus  from  the  Emperor  Sigismund,*  who  alone 
 could  efficiently  support  him ;  and  also  to  ingratiate 
 Sigismund  by  a  step,  which  would,  it  was  argued,  be  the 
 best  proof  of  the  rectitude  of  his  intentions,  the  convoking 
 
 *  The  son  of  Charles  IV.  and  brother  of  the  deposed  Wenceslaus,  had 
 been  elected  to  the  imperial  throne  in  1410,  having  been  King  of  Hun- 
 gary since  1386.  Sigismund  was  crowned  at  Aix-la-Chapelle  a  few  days 
 bclbre  his  ai-rival  at  Constance  for  the  General  Council. 
 
442  MEDIJ3VAL    CHRISTIANITY   AND 
 
 of  a  General  Council.  The  Pope  sent  two  Cardinal 
 Legates  to  propose  this ;  and  it  was  agreed  between  the 
 Emperor  and  the  Legates  that  Constance,  an  Imperial 
 city,  should  be  the  site  preferred,  an  arrangement  which 
 grieved  and  alarmed  Pope  John.  He  met  Sigismund  at 
 Lodi,  and  endeavoured  to  induce  him  to  fix  on  another 
 city,  but  in  vain.  Prom  Lodi  were  issued  the  summons 
 to  all  concerned,  to  attend  the  Council  of  Constance.  The 
 Pope  and  Emperor  travelled  together  to  Cremona,  of 
 which  Gabrino  Eondolo,  a  successful  adventurer,  was  then 
 lord.  It  is  said  that  this  petty  despot,  before  suffering  the 
 death  to  which  he  was  condemned  (with  little  show  of 
 justice)  on  the  scaffold  at  Milan  (1425)  for  revolt  against 
 the  Duke  Visconti,  declared  that  there  w^as  but  one  thing 
 of  which  he  repented, — that,  when  accompanying  Sigismund 
 and  John  XXIII.  to  the  summit  of  the  wonderfully  lofty 
 and  majestic  tower  which  rises  above  graceful  arcades 
 beside  the  Cremona  Cathedral,  he  had  not  thrown  both 
 those  illustrious  visitors  from  the  parapet,  by  which  act 
 he  might  have  made  his  name  notorious  for  all  ages ! 
 
 The  sixteenth  (Ecumenical  Council  was  opened  at  Con- 
 stance on  the  5th  November,  1414,  and  sat  during  three 
 years  and  six  months.  The  Pope  arrived  on  the  28th 
 October,  with  nine  Cardinals  and  a  numerous  retinue, 
 about  600  persons  in  all.  Though  received  with  due 
 honours,  he  came  full  of  forebodings,  and  when  first  in  sight 
 of  the  city,  as  he  rode  down  a  mountain,  is  reported  to 
 have  said  :  "  Behold  the  pitfall  for  catching  foxes  !  "  The 
 day  after  his  entry  the  magistrates  waited  on  him  with 
 presents — several  barrels  of  wine,  Ehenish,  Provencal, 
 Italian,  a  measure  of  grain,  and  a  goblet  of  silver  gilt. 
 The  history  of  this  famous  Council  is  beyond  the  geo- 
 graphic limits  of  the  subject  undertaken  in  these  pages ; 
 but  seeing  its  importance  to  the  range  of  moral  interests 
 
SACRED    ART    IN    ITALY.  113 
 
 here  considered,  I  may  briefly  notice  its  leading  acts  and 
 circumstances.  It  was  attended  by  29  Cardinals  (all 
 Italians,  except  5  French  and  1  Portuguese),  4  Patri- 
 archs (of  Constantinople,  Antioch,  Grrado,  and  Aquileja), 
 about  183  Bishops,  1134  Abbots,  250  Doctors,  and  125  Pro- 
 vosts and  other  ecclesiastical  superiors  ;  altogether,  accord- 
 ing to  some  writers,  18,000  prelates  and  other  ecclesiastics, 
 and  8000  laymen ;  the  total  number  of  strangers  in  the 
 city  during  the  sessions  being  ordinarily  50,000,  and  at 
 times  100,000.  No  disturbances  occurred ;  all  were  well 
 lodged  and  fed,  without  rise  in  the  current  prices.  The 
 city  provided  30,000  beds  ;  and  about  the  same  number  was 
 that  of  the  horses  stabled  within  its  walls  during  the  whole 
 time.  A  gorgeously  attended  Archbishop  of  Mayence 
 arrived  with  600  horses  in  his  train ;  and  on  account  of 
 scarcity  of  straw  or  fodder,  it  was  ordered  that  not  more  than 
 20  such  animals  should  be  kept  for  the  Pope,  10  for  each 
 Cardinal,  5  for  each  Bishop,  4  for  each  Abbot,  and  10  also 
 for  Princes.  Never  had  so  momentous,  nor  perhaps  so 
 brilliant  a  drama  been  enacted  in  any  subordinate  city, 
 scarcely  in  any  capital,  during  mediaeval  periods.  Not  alone 
 the  power  and  grandeur,  the  learning,  wisdom,  and  sanctity 
 of  the  age  were  represented  at  Constance,  but  comedians, 
 buffoons,  mountebanks,  the  least  respectable  adventurers 
 of  both  sexes  (according  to  some  writers  346  comedians  and 
 jesters)  were  drawn  in  by  the  absorbing  stream  which  flowed 
 from  all  Europe  towards  that  city,  founded  by  the  father 
 of  the  first  Christian  Emperor  on  its  romantic  lake.* 
 
 At  the  beginning  of  the  deliberations,  it  was  determined 
 that  votes  should  be  taken  by  nations,  the  five,  namely, 
 which  were  fully  represented  in  the  Council :  Italian, Erench, 
 German,  Spanish,  English;  and  this  system,  contrary  to 
 the  antecedents  of  such  assemblies,  gave  a  great  blow  to 
 
 *  According  to  tradition,  Constantius  Cblorus  was  founder  of  this 
 city,  called  after  him. 
 
414  MEDIAEVAL    CHRISTIA>^ITY   AND 
 
 the  cause  of  Pope  John,  who  had  relied  on  the  support  of 
 an  Italian  majority.  One  Cardinal  (D' A  illy)  proposed  that 
 in  matters  not  concerning  faith,  Princes  and  their  Ambassa- 
 dors should  vote ;  another,  that  all  parish-priests  should  have 
 the  same  privilege  without  restriction.  At  other  Councils, 
 at  least  in  the  later  ages  of  Christianity,  none  below  the 
 rank  of  Bishop  or  Abbot  had  been  allowed  suffrages ;  but 
 at  Pisa,  in  1409,  Professors  and  Doctors  of  Theology  voted 
 (v.  Milman,  b.  VI.).  At  Constance  each  nation  elected 
 deputies,  under  a  President  renewed  every  month,  who 
 assembled  severally  in  the  intervals  between  the  general 
 meetings  of  all  the  deputies ;  and  after  agreement  on 
 any  articles  discussed,  the  aggregate  of  nations,  through 
 their  deputies,  submitted  their  decisions  in  signed  and 
 sealed  documents  to  the  whole  Council  at  the  public 
 session.  In  the  interval  between  the  first  and  second  of 
 those  sessions,  was  presented  to  the  general  assembly  of 
 nations  an  anonymous  document  containing  fifty-five  (or, 
 as  some  writers  state,  seventy)  articles  of  accusation 
 against  John  XXIII.,  and,  in  consequence,  certain  deputies 
 were  sent  to  recommend  to  him  the  inevitable  step  of 
 abdication.*  This  he  promised  under  condition  that  his 
 rivals,  Gregory  and  Benedict,  should  do  alike.  At  the 
 ensuing  public  session.  Pope  John,  after  celebrating  in  the 
 cathedral  the  Mass  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  read  aloud  the  act 
 of  abdication,  and  quitting  his  throne,  knelt  before  the 
 altar,  pronouncing,  with  hands  clasped  on  his  breast,  the 
 words  spondeo,  voveo,  etjuro  Deo.  This  had  a  great  effect 
 on  the  august  assembly.  After  the  rites,  the  Emperor 
 Sigismund  laid  aside  his  crown,  knelt,  and  kissed  the  feet  of 
 
 *  The  serious  nature  of  the  charges  against  him  is  more  than  implied 
 in  the  words  of  Theodore  de  Niem  :  "  Quidem  (ut  praesumitur)  Itahcus 
 multos  articulos  valde  famosos  et  omnia  peccata  mortalia  ....  con- 
 tinentes  contra  enndem  Balthasarcm  in  eodem  concilio  exhibuit  in 
 scriptis,  tamen  secrete." 
 
SACRED  ART  IN  ITALY.  445 
 
 tlie  Popo,  thanking  him  fervently  for  his  generous  act  of 
 self-sacrifice ;  as  did  also  the  Patriarch  of  Antioch,  with 
 the  same  homage,  in  the  name  of  the  Council. 
 
 The  above-mentioned  Emperor,  son  of  Charles  lY.  and 
 brother  of  the  deposed  Wenceslaus,  had  arrived  in  Constance 
 on  the  Christmas-eve  previous  ;  received  from  the  Pope 
 the  sword  and  cap  blessed  on  that  occasion,  and  officiated 
 as  Deacon  at  the  Midnight  Mass,  holding  the  sacred  sword 
 in  his  hand  while  he  chanted  the  Gospel  of  the  third  nocturn 
 in  the  Matins  :  "  Exiif  eclictum  de  Cocsare  Augustoy 
 
 John  XXIII.  might  now  have  retired  from  the  historic 
 scene  with  dignity.  He  ruined  his  credit  and  his  interests 
 (so  far  as  anything  was  to  be  hoped  for  his  future)  by  a 
 flight  from  Constance  to  Schaftliausen,  there  to  place 
 himself  under  the  protection  of  Frederick,  Duke  of  Austria, 
 whose  favour  he  had  wearily  secured  by  a  promised  bribe 
 of  6000  florins  per  annum.  The  Duke  gave  a  tourney,  with 
 much  pomp,  to  distract  the  attention  of  the  citizens,  whilst 
 the  Pope  made  his  escape  in  the  disguise  of  a  merchant,  or 
 of  a  groom.  Sigismund  insisted  that  this  event  should  not 
 in  any  way  afl'ect  the  Council,  or  cause  any  suspense  of 
 its  labours  for  restoring  peace  and  unity  to  the  Church. 
 
 In  the  fourth  session  it  was  decreed  that  the  Fathers 
 and  Theologians,  "being  legitimately  assembled  in  the  name 
 of  the  Holy  Spirit,  forming  a  Greneral  Council  which  re- 
 presents the  Catholic  Church  Militant,  has  received  im- 
 mediately from  Jesus  Christ  a  power  to  which  all,  of 
 whatever  age  and  condition,  even  the  Pope,  must  yield 
 obedience  in  what  pertains  to  faith,  to  the  extirpation  of 
 the  present  schism,  and  the  reform  of  the  Church  in  her 
 head  and  in  her  members."  It  was  also  defined  that  the  Popo 
 had  neither  the  right  to  convoke,  nor,  without  the  general 
 ecclesiastical  consent,  to  dissolve  an  (Ecumenical  Council ; 
 and  D'Ailly  and  Gerson  undertook  to  justify  these  principles 
 
446  MEDIiEVAL    CHRISTIA'NITT    AXD 
 
 iu  writing,  before  the  close  of  the  sessions  at  Constance. 
 Between  the  9th  and  10th  public  sessions,  witnesses  were 
 admitted  to  make  deposition  against  Pope  John  ;  and  their 
 evidence  was  repeated  in  fifty  several  charges  (the  more 
 scandalous  being  omitted)  to  the  full  Council.  That  Pope 
 was  thrice  cited  to  appear ;  and,  after  this  formality,  was 
 solemnly  condemned  for  scandalizing  the  Church  by  im- 
 moral conduct,  disedifying  life,  systematic  simony,  &c.  The 
 Duke  of  Austria  was  required  to  give  him  up  to  the  power  of 
 the  Council,  as  he  did,  consenting  to  become  the  jailor  instead 
 of  the  protector  of  the  fugitive.  After  being  confined  at  Frei- 
 burg in  the  Breisgau,  the  deposed  Pope  was  conducted  with 
 an  armed  escort  to  a  fortified  village  near  Constance,  where, 
 whilst  he  lodged  in  a  hostelry,  a  deputation  of  bishops 
 and  doctors  came  to  intimate  to  him  the  offences  of  which 
 he  was  accused,  and  the  act  of  his  deposition.  The  pontific 
 ring  and  seal  were  taken  from  his  hands,  and  his  attendants 
 were  commanded  to  leave  him.  He  became  a  prisoner  for 
 some  time  in  the  fort  of  Eatolfzel,  guarded  by  300  Hun- 
 garian soldiers  ;  afterwards  in  the  picturesque  castle  of 
 Heidelberg.  Thus,  for  the  first  time,  was  a  Pope  not  only 
 deposed  but  treated  as  a  criminal  by  those  who  had  acknow- 
 ledged the  legitimacy  of  his  title. 
 
 G-regory  XII.  voluntarily  abdicated,  through  a  noble 
 representative.  Carlo  Malatesta,  Lord  of  Eimini,  who 
 appeared  for  him  at  the  Council,  whilst  he  himself  was  an 
 honoured  guest  at  that  city.  "When  informed  of  this  event 
 at  E/imini,  the  ex- Pope,  for  the  last  time,  convoked  the 
 Cardinals  faithful  to  him,  took  his  seat  in  pontific  vestments, 
 the  tiara  on  his  head,  laid  aside  those  insignia,  and  declared 
 that  he  would  never  again  assume  them.  The  Council  re- 
 warded him  for  his  submission ;  and,  as  Cardinal  Angelo 
 Corrario,  he  was  thenceforth  constituted  Dean  of  the  Sacred 
 College  and  Perpetual  Legate  in  the  Anconitan  Marches. 
 
SACKED    ART    IN    ITALY.  447 
 
 The  Spanish  Autipopc,  after  being  thrice  cited  to  appear 
 before  the  Conncil,  was  decLared  contumacious,  perjured, 
 and  schismatic  ;  finally  deposed  by  sentence  passed  in  July, 
 IJ^IT.  All  efforts  for  inducing  the  so-called  Benedict  XIII. 
 to  resign,  proved  fruitless ;  and  it  was  in  vain  that  the 
 Emperor  himself  travelled  to  Aragon  for  conference  with 
 him  and  with  the  King  of  that  country.  The  old  man,  at 
 last  abandoned  by  his  royal  protectors  in  Spain,  as  elsewhere, 
 kept  up  the  dreary  comedy  of  a  pretended  Popedom  and 
 imitative  Curia  at  a  solitary  castle — Peniscola— on  the 
 Aragonese  coast,  till  the  last  moment  of  his  life.* 
 
 In  the  eighth  session  the  Council  condemned  forty-five 
 propositions  extracted  from  the  writings  of  Wyclifte,  two 
 hundred  of  whose  works  had  previously  been  burnt  by  the 
 Archbishop  of  Prague.  In  another  session  was  passed 
 the  decree  prohibiting  Communion  in  both  kinds,  under 
 penalty  of  excommimication  to  priests  who  should  so  ad- 
 minister that  sacrament.  The  practice  had  never  hitherto 
 been  condemned,  though  gradually  falling  into  general  fnot 
 total)  disuse. t     The  trial  and  condemnation  of  John  Hus 
 
 *  He  died,  1424,  in  his  90th  year,  and  the  30th  year  of  his  pretended 
 pontificate.  From  such  duration  S.  Antoninus  seems  to  draw  an 
 additional  inference  against  the  legitimacy  of  his  claims — a  proof  that 
 the  phrase  non  videhis  annos  Petri  was  current  in  the  XV.  century, 
 when  that  Saint  wrote.  It  has  been  refuted  in  the  sole  instance  of  Pius 
 IX.  among  all  pontificates  of  undisputed  title. 
 
 t  Communion  in  one  kind  had  been  gradually  admitted,  but  fi'e- 
 quently,  and  by  highest  authority,  condemned  in  earlier  times.  A.D. 
 445,  Pope  Leo  I.  commanded  the  faithful  to  receive  the  holy  Eucharist 
 in  both  kinds;  Gelasius  I.  (A.D.  492)  renewed  this  injunction.  In  the 
 Council  of  Clermont,  1095,  Urban  II.  decreed  that  none  should  com- 
 nninieate  without  receiving  both  kinds.  There  is  no  doubt,  however, 
 that  from  a  primitive  period,  and  till  the  VI.  century,  the  hemiits 
 of  the  desert  were  allowed,  as  indeed  their  isolation  rendered  neces- 
 sary, to  communicate  without  the  chalice  ;  and  the  almost  primitive 
 practice  of  domiciliary   Communion  necessitated  the  same  restriction  ; 
 
448  MEDIAEVAL    CHRISTIANITY    AND 
 
 induces  us  to  glance  at  the  antecedents  of  that  reformer, 
 and  the  circumstances  which  led  to  his  ruin. 
 
 John  XXIII.  had  published  an  indulgence,  with  the  usual 
 sanctions  and  appeals,  for  the  support  of  a  war  to  defend 
 himself  against  the  formidable  King  Ladislaus.  When 
 such  use  of  the  spiritual  keys  for  the  temporal  interests 
 of  the  Pope  was  proclaimed,  and  the  indulgence  sold, 
 with  insolent  exaggerations  of  its  efficacy,  by  the  Pontific 
 agents  in  Bohemia,  Hus  publicly  reprobated  the  practice, 
 and  exposed  the  absurdity  of  thus  applying  spiritual  powers 
 for  temporal  objects.  His  disciple,  Jerome  of  Prague, 
 publicly  burnt  the  Papal  Bull  (14 II)  under  the  gallows 
 in  that  city.  The  vendors  were  insulted  and  outraged; 
 the  magistrates  of  Prague  interfered ;  tumult  ensued ;  and 
 lives  were  lost  in  the  streets  ;  the  bodies  of  those  slain  were 
 honoured,  by  the  party  favourable  to  Hus,  like  the  relics 
 of  martyrs.  The  people  took  the  part  of  the  Beformers ;  the 
 feeble  King  Wenceslaus  protected  him ;  the  Queen  Sophia 
 
 the  consecrated  bread  alone  being  taken  from  the  altar,  retamed, 
 and  consumed  in  private.  After  the  first  Crusade  communion  in 
 one  kind  became  frequent  in  the  West,  as  it  had  been  much  earlier 
 in  the  Church  of  Jerusalem.  In  the  XIII.  century  the  twofold  com- 
 munion became  generally  restricted  to  pi'iests,  and  denied  to  the  laity. 
 In  the  next  century,  Clement  VI.  conceded  it  as  a  privilege  to  the  King 
 of  France,  Philip  VI.,  and  his  Queen,  also  to  the  Dukes  of  Burgundy 
 and  Normandy,  and  to  all  the  Monks  of  Cluny  on  the  day  of  the  opening 
 of  their  general  chapter.  The  act,  presenting  so  signal  an  example 
 of  bold  departure  from  the  original  standard,  and  modifying  of  the  evan- 
 gelic law  of  Christianity,  was  formalized  at  Constance  in  the  following 
 terms:— "Licet  inprimitivaEcclesiahujusmodi  Sacramentum  reciperetur 
 sub  utraque  specie,  postea  a  conficicntibus  sub  utraque  specie  et  laicis 
 tantummodo  sub  specie  panis  suscipiatur,  cum  firmissimi  credendum 
 sit,  et  nullatenus  dubitandum  integrum  Christi  corpus  et  sanguineum 
 tam  sub  specie  panis,  quam  sub  specie  vini  veraciter  contineri,  unde  cum 
 hujusmodi  consuetude  ab  Ecclesia  et  a  Sanctis  patribus  rationaliter 
 introducta  et  diutissime  observata  est,  habenda  est  pro  lege,"  &c. 
 
SACRED    ART    IN    II'VLV.  440 
 
 had  already  appointed  him  her  confessor.  Alexander  A'. 
 cited  him  to  Eome  to  answer  the  charges  against  him. 
 John  XXIII.  repeated  that  summons ;  but  in  vain,  and 
 those  who  went  to  Eome  in  his  stead  were  imprisoned  by 
 that  Pope's  order.  After  the  opposition  to  the  sale  of  the 
 indulgences,  and  the  burning  of  the  Papal  bull,  Hus  was 
 anathematized,  and  Prague  laid  under  interdict,  for  so  long 
 as  he  should  remain  within  its  walls.  The  citizens  opposed, 
 the  King  himself  forbade,  his  departure  for  Eome.  After 
 appealing  from  the  Pope  to  a  General  Council,  he  quitted 
 Prague  and  went  to  his  native  place,  Hussinecz.  The  Arch- 
 bishop of  Prague,  who  had  undertaken  to  prosecute  him, 
 or,  at  least,  put  down  his  doctrines,  accepted  a  profession 
 of  faith  made  by  Hus  in  his  presence,  and  assured  the  Pope 
 that  there  was  no  heresy  lingering  in  his  archdiocese.  The 
 Council  of  Constance  invited  Hus  to  attend  its  sessions, 
 and  he  promptly  complied ;  the  King  of  Bohemia  placing 
 him  under  the  protection  of  three  nobles  of  that  country, 
 and  the  Emperor  Sigismund  providing  him  with  a  safe- con- 
 duct, which,  however,  was  nothing  more  than  a  passport 
 available  for  his  journey.*  Soon  after  his  arrival  at  Con- 
 stance (4th  November,  lili)  he  was  heard  in  his  own 
 justification  by  certain  Cardinals,  and,  after  that  audience, 
 imprisoned  by  the  Pope's  order.  He  refused  to  recant,  and 
 at  the  last  hearing  of  his  cause  (6th  July,  1415)  was  con- 
 denmed  to  death.  The  Council  gave  him  over  to  the  secular 
 arm ;  the  Emperor  consigned  him  to  the  Elector  Palatine  ; 
 and  on  that  day  he  suffered  in  the  flames.  Led  to  the  place 
 of  execution  by  800  horsemen,  and  followed  by  the  whole 
 multitude  of  citizens,  he  was  detained  before  the  Bishop's 
 
 •  The  fact  of  even  such  a  document  having  been  granted  to  him  is 
 questionable — v.  Rohrbacher  and  Cesare  Cantu,  who  quote  his  own 
 words  :  "  Vcniomcs  sine  salvo  conductu."  Hist.  Eccles.  xxi ;  Storia 
 dcgli  Italiani,  cap.  cxvii. 
 
450  MEDIJ5YAL   CnRTSTIANITT   AXD 
 
 palace  to  see  the  burning  of  liis  own  books.  Addressing 
 the  people  in  German,  he  declared  that  his  adversaries  had 
 been  unable  to  convince  him  of  any  error.  On  the  1st 
 June,  1416,  his  disciple,  Jerome  of  Prague,  who  had  first 
 retracted  after  .six  months'  imprisonment  at  Constance 
 (11th  September,  1415)  and  nobly  revoked  that  step,  re- 
 proaching himself  for  it  as  the  greatest  sin  he  had  to 
 repent  of,  endured  the  same  death  by  sentence  of  the 
 Council  (26th  May  previous).  The  ashes  of  both  these 
 victims  were  thrown  into  the  Ehine  ;  and  at  these  execu- 
 tions was  first  used  the  horrid  mockery,  afterwards  common 
 at  the  extreme  punishment  of  heretics — paper  mitres, 
 painted  with  figures  of  devils,  on  the  heads  of  those  con- 
 demned to  the  stake.  Poggio  Bracciolini,  who  was  present 
 at  the  trial  of  Jerome,  describes  his  conduct,  and  cites  his 
 defence  as  a  display  of  power  and  eloquence  almost  un- 
 rivalled in  any  known  instance. 
 
 At  last  the  Council  commenced  the  urgently  demanded 
 task  of  reform  ;  and  the  articles  to  this  effect  were  dis- 
 cussed in  the  39th  session.  It  was  decreed  that  another 
 G-erieral  Council  should  be  held  five  years  after  the  present, 
 another  seven  years  after  the  dissolving  of  that  second 
 assembly,  and  that  thenceforth  such  Councils  should  be  con- 
 voked by  the  Popes,  at  whatever  places  they  pleased,  with 
 the  consent  of  the  fathers,  every  ten  years ;  the  Popes 
 being  allowed  to  abridge,  but  not  to  prolong,  the  intervals. 
 
 During  the  discussions,  the  deputies  of  the  nations 
 decided,  after  seven  days'  deliberation,  that  annates  should 
 be  abolished  for  the  past,  present,  and  future.  John  XXIII. 
 had  enacted  the  payment  of  them,  in  some  instances,  several 
 times  in  the  same  year  from  benefices  which  happened  to 
 be  more  than  once  vacant  during  twelve  months.  The 
 sums  obtained  by  the  Popes  under  this  title  of  annates, 
 were  now  calculated,  and  declared  to  be  exorbitant,  and 
 
sached  art  in  italt.  451 
 
 intolerable.  From  France  alone  the  average  had  been 
 697,750  livres  per  annum  ;  and  it  was  shown  that  European 
 nations,  taxed  at  the  same  rate,  would  have  paid  nearly 
 seven  million  livres  per  annum  to  the  E-oman  Pontiffs.* 
 Added  to  this  was  the  yearly  revenue  of  between  60,000 
 and  80,000  livres  received  by  the  Pope  and  Cardinals  from 
 France.  The  abuses  and  rapacity  carried  on  under  the  in- 
 auspicious pontificate  of  John  XXIII.,  induced  the  Floren- 
 tine Eeputlic  to  deprive  the  Holy  See  of  the  collation  of 
 benefices  in  its  States  during  five  years.  It  was  decided  at 
 Constance  that  the  Pope,  as  well  as  other  bishops,  had 
 sufficient  means  -without  any  extraordinary  supplies  ;  that 
 other  Churches  might  grant  contributions  to  the  Eoman  for 
 particular  emergencies,  but  not  as  a  perpetual  imposition, 
 or  payment  legally  due. 
 
 Eighteen  articles  of  reform  were  proposed,  and  it  was 
 enjoined  that  the  future  Popes  should  adopt  and  carry  out 
 the  intentions  of  the  Council,  embodied  in  those  articles. 
 The  Germans  and  English  desired  the  reformation  of  the 
 Church  to  be  not  only  discussed  but  accomplished  hefore 
 the  election  of  the  new  Pope ;  the  Cardinals,  and  with 
 them  the  Italians  and  French,  desired  it  after  that  step. 
 The  English  were  eventually  gained  over  to  the  side  of  the 
 Italians  ;  and  some  of  the  German  prelates  are  said  to 
 have  been  won  by  bribery  to  what  may  be  called  the  Latin 
 party  at  the  Council  (v.  Milman,  "  Latin  Christianity.") 
 In  November,  1417,  regulations  were  drawn  up  for  the 
 election  to  the  Supreme  See,  which  had  been  vacant  for 
 two   years   and   five    months.      It   was   ordered   that   six 
 
 *  The  right  of  the  Roman  See  to  appoint  to  all  benefices  was  unknown 
 till  the  XII.  century.  Innocent  III.  first  asserted  it  for  the  Papacy  in 
 full  plenitude  ;  and  hence  arose  the  complicated  system  of  reserves,  pro- 
 visions, dispensations,  annates,  pluralities. — v.  Milman,  "Latin  Chris- 
 tianity," b.  vi. 
 
 2  o  2 
 
452  MEDIEVAL   CHEISTIANITT   AND 
 
 deputies  (prelates  and  other  ecclesiastics)  for  each  nation' 
 should  enter  conclave  together  with  the  Cardinals.;  that 
 one-third  of  the  votes  of  the  thirty  deputies,  and  (as 
 usual)  two-thirds  of  those  of  the  Sacred  College  should  be 
 requisite  for  a  full  majority.  The  manners  of  the  day  are 
 curiously  illustrated  by  one  decree  passed  on  this  occasion, 
 prohibiting,  under  severe  penalties,  the  pillage  of  the  resi- 
 dence, and  despoiling  of  the  property  of  the  newly-elect 
 Pontiff— a  barbarism  common  in  Eome,and  sometimes  prac- 
 tised against  not  only  the  house  and  chattels  of  the  Elect,but 
 also  those  of  all  the  Cardinals  in  conclave !  Twenty-three 
 Cardinals,  with  their  thirty  colleagues  now  met  in  the  mu- 
 nicipal palace  of  Constance,  and  on  the  11th  November, 
 1417,  was  elected  Ottone  Colonna,  a  Cardinal  Deacon,  then 
 in  his  forty-ninth  year,  who  took  the  name  of  Martin  Y. 
 His  antecedents  had  been  not  only  respectable  but  admir- 
 able ;  and  in  every  stage  of  ecclesiastical  preferment  he  had 
 given  the  example  of  moderation,  amiable  temper,  and 
 blameless  life.  On  the  evening  of  the  same  day  he 
 was,  after  a  grand  procession,  solemnly  installed  in  the 
 cathedral. 
 
 Almost  the  first  act  of  the  new  Pope  was  the  publication 
 of  a  Bull  against  the  Hussites,  requiring  that  all  suspected 
 of  favouring  them  should  swear  to  accept  the  decrees  of 
 Greneral  Councils,  especially  those  passed  at  Constance. 
 All  that  had  been  recently  decreed  concerning  faith  and 
 morals  was  at  the  same  time  sanctioned ;  but  in  this  pro- 
 ceeding Martin  Y.  did  not  pledge  himself  to  the  decision  of 
 the  superiority  of  Councils  over  Popes.  It  is  urged  in  his 
 justification  that,  while  accepting  all  the  Acts  styled  "  Con- 
 ciliar,"  he  intended  to  include  those  emanating  from  one 
 or  other  of  the  five  nations  without  being  voted  for  by  all 
 in  the  Council.  It  is  owned  by  impartial  historians  that 
 he  to  some  degree  promoted,  however  far  from  carrying 
 
SACRED    ART    IN   ITALY.  453 
 
 out,  or  cordially  adopting,  the  principles  of  that  great  re- 
 form imagined  by  fervent  spirits,  advocated  by  the  elo- 
 quence of  the  most  learned  theologians,  and  demanded  by 
 the  moral  feeling  of  the  age.  He  modified  the  exceptional 
 powers  of  the  Holy  See,  and  offensive  privileges  of  the 
 Homau  Curia.  Though  retaining,  he  limited  the  system 
 of  reserves,  expectatives,  dispensations  ;  reduced  the  annates 
 to  a  reasonable  tax  on  newly-appointed  bishops  ;  abolished 
 reserves  and  commendams  in  the  case  of  bishoprics  and 
 abbacies  ;  prohibited  the  alienation  of  Church  property ; 
 ordered  that  prelates  and  abbots  should  forfeit  a  year's 
 revenue  if  absent  during  six  months,  and  should  lose  their 
 sees  and  benefices  if  non-resident  for  two  years.  Most  em- 
 phatically did  Martin  Y.  prohibit  the  appeal  from  Popes  to 
 General  Councils.  He  appointed  a  Commission  of  six  Car- 
 dinals, together  with  certain  deputies  of  nations,  for  the 
 important  task  of  deciding  on  those  measures  requisite  for 
 a  more  thorough  reform ;  but  nothing  was  efficiently 
 accomplished  by  the  Commissioners,  W'ho  never  arrived  at 
 agreement  on  any  leading  points.  The  Pope  presided  at 
 the  last  four  sessions  of  the  Council ;  convoked  the  next 
 assemblage  at  Pavia ;  and  after  reading  a  discourse  to  the 
 fathers  at  the  45th  session,  dissolved  this  memorable  Coun- 
 cilj  which  had  sat  at  Constance  during  three  years  and  six 
 months.  At  the  close  a  Cardinal  pronounced  the  valedictory 
 words,  Domini,  ite  in  pace. 
 
 It  is  generally  agreed  that  Martin  Y.  did  not  correspond 
 to  all  that  had  been  expected  from  him  for  the  true  interests 
 of  the  Church ;  that  he  cautiously  evaded  the  full  discharge 
 of  his  promises  ;  and  that  the  great  purpose,  for  which  the 
 Council  had  been  convoked,  was  in  the  main  defeated. 
 Hefele  observes  justly  [Concilien  Geschichte,  b.  vii.)  that 
 "the  liberal  party  at  Constance  wished  to  restore  the  system 
 of  the  Church  from  an   absolute  monarchy,  which  it  had 
 
454  MEDI^TAL   CHRISTIANITY   AND 
 
 become,  to  a  constitutional  monarchy,  in  wliicli  the  chief 
 authority  should  lie,  not  with  the  Pope,  but  with  the 
 assembled  episcopate.'*  Writers  judging  from  the  most 
 different  points  of  view  are  accordant  in  this,— that  the 
 eventful  Council  was  a  failure.*  It  might  be  likened  to  a 
 magician  who  raises  a  spirit,  too  strong  for  the  daring 
 mortal,  invested  with  such  dangerous  powers,  himself  to 
 cope  with :  the  mightier  one  overwhelms  the  subordinate 
 agent ;  and  the  master  of  the  spell  becomes  the  servant  of 
 the  mysterious  being  evoked.  But  if  the  efforts  of  intellect 
 aiming  at  a  high  ideal  were  vain,  if  the  reforming  attempt 
 of  the  mind  of  this  age  was  frustrated,  such  utterances  as 
 had  been  heard  at  Constance  were  not  wasted  like  sand 
 thrown  to  the  winds,  but  destined  to  germinate  in  the  fer- 
 tile soil  of  a  Christianity  ^flourishing  under  brighter  skies 
 in  more  healthful  atmosphere. 
 
 The  triumphal  progress  of  Martin  Y.  through  northern 
 Italy  to  Eome  made  manifest  the  reconciled  feeling  towards 
 the  Papacy,  thanks  to  the  estimable  character  of  the  man 
 now  on  its  throne,  as  well  as  the  general  joy  now  felt  for 
 the  extinction  of  a  scandalous  schism.     The  Pope  left  Con- 
 
 •  "Martin  found  means  to  postpone  from  day  to  day  the  reforms  de- 
 manded, wasting  time  in  devices  and  secondary  concessions,  protesting 
 against  the  appeals  from  Popes  to  Councils,  and  reconfirming  many 
 abuses."  (Cesare  Cantu,  Storia  Degli  Italiani,  cap.  cxvii.)  "  Martin  V., 
 before  being  elected,  had  pledged  himself  by  oath,  as  had  done  all  the 
 Sacred  College,  to  make  exertions  in  the  Council  for  the  reform  of  the 
 Church  in  her  head  and  in  her  members  ;  a  promise  he  was  induced 
 to  renew,  but  the  fulfilment  of  which  he  had  always  care  to  evade." 
 (Art  de  Verifier  les  Dates.)  "  The  Council  gave  its  sanction  to  the  whole 
 dominant  creed  of  Christendom,  and  the  complete  indefeasible  hierarchic 
 system, — declared  war  against  all  who  should  revolt,  not  only  from  the 
 doctrines  but  the  discipline  of  the  Church.  The  slightest  emancipation 
 from  the  rule  of  this  sacerdotal  order  entered  not  into  the  thoughts, 
 hardly  the  apprehension, of  the  fathers  at  Constance." — Milman, "  Latin 
 Christianity,"  b.  \i. 
 
SACRED    ART    IN    ITALY.  455 
 
 stance  (IGth  May,  1418)  with  a  gorgeous  cavalcade  of  about 
 40,000  i)ersons,  who  accompanied  him  to  Grottleben,  where 
 he  embarked  on  the  Ehine  for  Schaffhausen.  "With  the 
 tiara  on  his  head,  and  pontifically  vested,  he  rode  on  a 
 white  palfrey  under  a  canopy  supported  by  four  Counts  of 
 the  Empire,  the  Emperor  Sigismund  and  the  Elector  of 
 Brandenburg  holding  the  reins,  four  Princes  lifting  up  the 
 rich  trappings  of  his  horse,  the  Dukes  of  Austria  and 
 Bavaria  following.  In  the  rear  were  led  twelve  other 
 horses  with  scarlet  housings  ;  after  the  Cardinals  came  a 
 priest  on  a  white  palfrey,  carrying  the  Sacred  Host  under 
 a  baldacchino,  surrounded  by  torch-bearers ;  the  Clergy 
 and  Magistrates  of  the  city,  all  with  torches,  next  in  order ; 
 a  multitude  of  nobles  and  ecclesiastics  bringing  up  the  rear. 
 At  Milan  the  Pope  was  received  with  much  honour  by  the 
 Duke  Eilippo  Maria  Visconti;  here  he  consecrated  the 
 high  altar  of  the  cathedral,  and  in  memory  of  that  event, 
 a  statue  was  erected  to  him  in  the  same  glorious  temple. 
 At  Elorence  the  reception  was  still  more  magnificent.  Out- 
 side the  Porta  S.  Croce  the  Pope  was  met  at  the  monastery 
 of  S.  Salvi,  where  he  had  passed  the  night,  by  the  chief 
 citizens  and  the  magistrates  of  the  Guelphic  party ;  thus 
 escorted,  he  made  his  entry  on  a  white  horse  with  red  silk 
 housings,  the  Host  being  borne  before  him  amidst  blazing 
 tapers,  the  clergy  in  procession  carrying  relics,  the  magis- 
 trates and  magnates  following  in  splendid  costumes,  all  with 
 laurel  wreaths  on  their  heads  and  olive  branches  in  their 
 hands. 
 
 Eepairing  first  to  the  cathedral,  the  whole  procession 
 walked  for  some  distance  along  an  elevated  stage  of  wood- 
 w^ork  hung  with  silk,  up  to  the  church  doors.  Martin  V. 
 was  lodged  in  apartments  prepared  expressly  for  him  at  the 
 great  Dominican  convent  of  S.  Maria  Novella.  During  his 
 stay   he  consecrated  the  high  altar  of  that  church,  and 
 
456  MEDIEVAL    CHRISTIANITY    AND 
 
 erected  the  Plorentine  See,  hitherto  only  a  Bishopric,  to 
 metropolitan  rank.  Having  blessed  the  Golden  Eose  on  the 
 appointed  Sunday  in  Lent,  he  bestowed  that  graceful  gift 
 on  the  Kepublic  through  the  person  of  its  Gonfaloniere. 
 Another  arrival  which  made  a  sensation  among  the  citizens 
 was  that  of  the  ex-Pope,  who  had  obtained  his  freedom  at 
 the  price  of  30,000  ducats,  advanced  for  him  by  Griovanni 
 de  Medici,  the  father  of  Cosmo,  to  the  Emperor ;  and  now 
 came,  submissive  and  in  lowly  guise,  to  throw  himself  at 
 the  feet  of  his  fortunate  successor.  Many  were  moved 
 to  tears  at  this  spectacle  of  vicissitudes  in  the  "  strange 
 eventful  history  "  of  a  man  whose  misfortunes  threw  a  veil 
 over  his  errors.  Martin  received  him  in  the  midst  of  the 
 Cardinals  with  great  benignity,  bestowed  on  him  the  red 
 hat  anew,  and  appointed  him  Dean  of  the  Sacred  College, 
 with  the  privilege  of  occupying  an  elevated  seat,  next  to 
 his  throne,  in  the  Consistory  and  at  ceremonies.  Baldassare 
 Cossa  did  not  live  long  to  enjoy  these  honours.  He  died 
 at  Florence,  22nd  November,  1419,  and  was  buried  in  the 
 Baptistery  after  funereal  pomps,  kept  up  for  nine  days, 
 in  the  cathedral,  as  at  the  obsequies  of  a  legitimate  Pope. 
 During  the  stay  of  Martin  V.  at  Plorence,  several  cities, 
 lost  to  the  Pontific  States  during  the  wars  and  troubles  of 
 preceding  years,  were  recovered ;  Civitavecchia,  Orvieto, 
 and  Terni  being  now  re- subjected  to  the  tiara ;  but 
 Perugia,  Assisi,  Todi,  the  Duchy  of  Spoleto,  and  a  great 
 part  of  the  Yiterbo  province,  were  still  left  under  the  sway 
 of  the  victorious  captain  Braccio  da  Montone,  who  defied 
 excommunications,  haughtily  disregarding  the  interdict 
 under  which  were  laid  all  the  districts  governed  by  him. 
 The  Greek  empire  was  now  tottering  on  the  verge  of 
 ruin,  and  its  Autocrats  adopted  the  miserable  expedient  of 
 offering  to  sacrifice  their  own  and  their  people's  faith,  so 
 far  as  submission  to  Eomc  and  acceptance  of  all  the  dis- 
 
SACRED  ART  IN  ITALY.  457 
 
 piitcd  doctriiics  in  wliich  the  two  Cliiirches  were  at  issue 
 iuvolved  such  sacrifice,  on  condition  of  receiving  material 
 aid  from  the  Popes,  and,  through  their  influence,  from  other 
 Princes.  Ambassadors  from  the  Emperor,  Manuel  Palaeo- 
 lagus,  brought  letters  from  both  that  Sovereign  and  the 
 Patriarch,  proposing  a  Greneral  Council  for  the  re-union  of 
 the  East  and  West,  to  be  convoked  by  the  Emperor  himself 
 at  Constantinople.  Martin  received  the  envoys  with  much 
 honour,  and,  together  with  his  answer,  sent  rich  gifts  to 
 Manuel;  also  another  singularly-imagined  token  of  good 
 will— a  bevy  of  high-born  young  ladies,  to  be  given  in 
 marriage  to  Greek  nobles !  A  cardinal  was  appointed 
 Legate  to  the  eastern  capital,  where,  for  thirty  years,  no 
 Papal  representative  had  been  seen  ;  but  before  sending  so 
 dignified  a  personage,  the  Pope  confided  to  a  humbler  agent 
 — a  Franciscan  Doctor  of  Theology — the  mission  of  ascer- 
 taining the  real  temper  of  the  Greek  Court  and  Clergy,  and 
 arranging  the  time  and  place  for  the  Council,  which  he 
 consented  should  be  held  in  the  East.  He  also  published 
 indulgences  for  those  European  princes  who  should  co- 
 operate in  the  defence  of  the  hexamila,  the  wall  raised  to  pro- 
 tect the  Peloponnesus  against  invaders,  but  which  bulwark 
 was  soon  afterwards  destroyed  by  the  Turks.  In  a  second 
 letter,  replying  to  the  Pope's  missive,  Manuel  announced 
 that  he  was  ready  to  enter  the  communion  of  the  Eoman 
 Church,  almost  without  conditions,  and  to  comply  w^ith  all 
 the  decrees  of  the  future  Council,  provided  they  should 
 accord  in  principle  with  those  of  the  first  seven  (Ecumeni- 
 cal Councils  ;  that  at  present  it  was  impossible  to  hold  such 
 an  assemblage  at  Constantinople;  but  even  amidst  the 
 perils  and  troubles  of  the  times,  he  would  consent  to  its 
 being  convoked  there,  if  the  Pope  would  oblige  all  Christian 
 Princes,  under  penalty  of  excommunication,  to  declare  war 
 against  the  Moslems  for  the  cause  of  the  declining  empire ! 
 
458  MEDIEVAL    CHRISTIANITY   AND 
 
 All  this  resulted  as  might  have  been  foreseen,  and  as  is 
 well-known. 
 
 Martin  Y.  arrived  in  Eome  the  28th  September,  1420, 
 and  made  his  state  ingress  the  next  day  after  passing  a 
 night  at  the  monastery  of  S.  Maria  del  Popolo,  close  to  the 
 riaminian  gate.  E-ejoicings,  illuminations,  &c.,  were  kept 
 up  for  several  days  and  nights,  and  after  dark  riders  went 
 about  the  streets,  brandishing  torches,  with  shouts  of  viva 
 for  "  Papa  Martino,"  The  city  had  not  been  at  peace 
 during  the  long  vacancy  of  the  Pontific  throne.  Indepen- 
 dent civic  government  was  established  after  the  departure 
 of  John  XXIII.,  but  soon  afterwards  suppressed  by  a 
 Legate  sent  on  the  mission  of  installing  a  Senator 
 nominated  by  the  absent  Pope.  Two  leaders  of  the  popular 
 party,  considered  as  in  revolt,  were  beheaded  as  traitors. 
 The  S.  Angelo  castle  had  been  long  held  by  a  Neapolitan 
 garrison  for  the  Queen  Joanna  II.,  who  had  succeeded  to 
 her  brother  Ladislaus.  Braccio  di  Montone  had  at- 
 tempted to  take  that  fortress,  himself  commanding  the 
 siege ;  but  Sforza,  a  Captain  in  the  Queen's  service,  marched 
 with  troops  from  Naples,  raised  the  siege,  and  compelled 
 Braccio  to  retreat.  Before  the  Pope's  arrival  the  castle 
 had  been  consigned  to  his  officers.  So  also  Ostia  and 
 Civitavecchia,  alike  held  for  the  Queen,  but  which  she  had 
 promised  to  surrender  to  the  lawful  sovereign.  The 
 desolate  state  of  Bome  at  this  time  is  described  by  con- 
 temporary writers  :  almost  reduced  to  ruin  by  pestilence, 
 famine,  fire,  and  sedition.  Platina  (in  the  same  century) 
 draws  the  gloomy  picture  with  details  :  "  the  city  so 
 completely  ruinous  that  it  had  no  longer  the  aspect  of  a 
 habitable  town,  but  rather  of  a  desert ;  on  every  side 
 buildings  seen  falling  into  decay  ;  the  streets  and  lanes 
 deserted,  without  passengers  and  covered  with  mud ;  an 
 extreme  penury  of  all  things  needful ;  no  sign  of  social  life, 
 
SACRED  ART  IN  ITALY.  459 
 
 or  of  any  civilization."  The  Pope  applied  himself  earnestly 
 to  the  work  of  restoration,  both  moral  and  material.  He 
 created  a  commission  of  Cardinals  and  Bishops  for  visiting 
 all  the  churches  in  Eome,  and  assigned  a  fund  for  such 
 repairs  as  were  requisite.  He  bestowed  precious  sacra- 
 mental vessels  and  priestly  vestments  for  the  altars.  The 
 portico  of  S.  Peter's  was  rebuilt ;  and  among  public  works 
 of  secular  character  was  the  rebuilding  of  the  Colonna 
 Palace,  which  Martin  V.  thenceforth  inhabited,  preferring 
 it  to  the  Vatican.  The  Cardinals  followed  the  example, 
 and  emulated  each  other  in  repairing,  or  rebuilding,  the 
 churches  from  which  they  took  their  titles.  Platina 
 eulogises  the  energetic  Pope  for  his  zeal,  not  only  in 
 adorning  and  improving  the  city,  but  in  "  reforming  the 
 corrupt  state  of  morals  then  prevailing ;"  and  this  writer 
 assures  us  that  Martin  Y.  was  not  merely  called  the 
 Supreme  Pontiff,  but  also,  and  deservedly,  the  "  father  of  his 
 country."  The  laudable  intention  to  carry  out,  at  least  to 
 some  degree,  the  projects  and  desires  announced  at  Con- 
 stance, is  most  apparent  in  the  edict  passed  by  him  for 
 regulating  the  life  and  conduct  of  the  Cardinals.  It 
 enjoined  on  all  members  of  the  Sacred  College  not  to 
 assume  the  protectorate  of  kings,  princes,  or  other  secular 
 personages  ;  not  to  receive  payment  for  the  protection  of 
 Eeligious  Orders ;  not  to  let  themselves  be  accompanied 
 by  more  than  twenty  domestics  on  horseback,  and  those  to 
 be  clerics,  excepting  the  secular  servants  accustomed  to 
 attend  them ;  to  procure  the  repair  of  their  titular 
 churches  according  to  the  best  of  their  means,  and  see  to 
 the  suitable  and  edifying  administration  of  those  churches  ;* 
 
 •  Procurent  reparation  em  Ecclesiarum  suorum  Titulonim  jiixta  posse 
 suum,  in  iisqne  Divinum  cultum  per  Religiosos  devotos,  ac  honcstos 
 Clcricos  pcrflci,  ac  augeri  fuciunt,  nc  sanctorum  loca,  in  quibus  ipsi 
 
460  MEDIEVAL    CHEISTIANITT   AND 
 
 to  provide  a  sufficient  number  of  Monks  and  Canons  for 
 Divine  Worship  in  churches  and  monasteries  recom- 
 mended to  their  care  ;  and  to  preserve  in  prosperous  state 
 the  buildings,  possessions,  and  privileges  of  those  establish- 
 ments. Other  edicts  ordered  the  diminution  of  taxes  and 
 fees,  as  affecting  the  poorer  classes,  in  the  procedure  of  the 
 Curia,  the  Chancery,  and  the  legal  profession  generally. 
 No  word  was  so  frequently  in  the  mouth  of  Martin  Y.  as 
 justice ;  and  his  favourite  citation,  in  briefs  addressed  to 
 the  judges  of  different  towns,  was  the  text,  "  Diligite 
 justitiam,  omnes  qui  judicatis  terram."  He  conferred 
 benefits  and  privileges  on  many  public  schools  and  univer- 
 sities, especially  the  institutions  of  the  latter  class  at 
 E/ome,  Perugia,  Pavia,  and  Siena.  Yet  this  Pontiff,  other- 
 wise animated  by  such  pure  intentions,  gave  way  to  the 
 weakness  of  family  pride  and  partiality,  setting  an  early 
 example  of  the  nepotism  carried  to  such  abusive  extent  by 
 his  successors.  He  obtained  for  one  of  his  brothers  the 
 Dukedom  of  Amalfl  and  the  Princedom  of  Salerno  ;  for 
 another,  the  Margravate  of  Alba  ;  the  Colonnas,  whilst 
 he  sat  on  the  throne,  became  lords  of  Marino,  Prascati, 
 E-occa  di  Papa,  Ardea,  Soriano,  Nettuno,  Palliano, — in 
 short,  the  greatest  part  of  Latium,  together  with  those 
 picturesque  towns  now  so  often  visited  by  tourists  from 
 Eome.  A  formidable  usurper  of  the  Pontific  provinces,  and 
 representative  of  feudal  antagonism  against  the  Papacy, 
 Braccio  di  Montone,  was  removed  by  death  in  1424.  He 
 had  for  thirteen  months  been  encamped  before  Aquila, 
 whose  citizens  resisted  even  when  pressed  by  famine.  The 
 Pope  and  the  Queen  of  Naples  united  their  forces  against 
 that  common  foe ;  a  Colonna  commanding  the  Pontific,  a 
 
 commode  residere  nequeunt,  per  negligentiam  desertas  remaneant.— -y. 
 Ciaconius. 
 
SACRED  ART  IN  ITALY.  161 
 
 Sforza  the  Neapolitan  troops.  A  battle  before  the  walls, 
 joined  by  the  besieged  in  a  vigorous  sortie,  resulted  in  the 
 defeat  of  Braccio,  who  was  taken  prisoner,  wounded,  though 
 not,  it  seems,  mortally  ;  but  he  refused  surgical  aid,  never 
 spoke  again,  and  died  the  next  day.  His  body  was  brought 
 to  Eome,  and  buried  without  Christian  rites  outside  the 
 Tiburtine  gate.  Peace  and  security  were  at  last  restored 
 to  the  Pontific  states,  and  to  that  hitherto  troubled  and 
 danger-beset  region — the  Eoman  Campagna.  Several 
 aristocratic  robbers,  who  used  to  descend  from  their  fast- 
 nesses, and  steal  sheep  or  cattle,  or  more  seriously  molest 
 travellers  on  the  few  highways,  were  attacked  and  dis- 
 lodged ;  the  castles  of  some  were  destroyed;  others,  among 
 them  the  lord  of  Monte  Eotondo,*  were  brought  prisoners 
 to  Eome  and  beheaded. 
 
 Conformably  with  the  engagements  made  at  Constance, 
 the  Pope  sent  his  Legates,  an  Archbishop,  an  Abbot,  and 
 the  Father- Greneral  of  the  Dominicaus,  to  open  the  Council 
 at  Pavia,  22nd  June,  1423.  The  sessions  did  not  begin 
 till  two  months  later,  and  closed  on  the  26th  February  in 
 the  following  year.  The  attendance  was  scanty  ;  and  a 
 visitation  of  pestilence  soon  induced  the  transfer  to  Siena, 
 where  the  number  of  prelates  became  more  considerable. 
 
 *  That  picturesque  little  town,  with  a  huge  baronial  palace,  whose 
 tower  is  far-seen  across  the  Campagna,  has  acquired  recent  historic 
 fame,  after  being  besieged  and  occupied  bj  Garibaldi  with  his  volun- 
 teers, a  few  days  before  the  battle  of  Mentana,  fought  in  the  valley 
 between  Monte  Kotondo  and  the  village  so  named. 
 
 It  is  said  by  a  chronicler  of  the  time  that,  under  the  pontificate  of 
 Martin  V.,  any  one  might  have  travelled  with  gold  in  his  hand,  fearless 
 of  danger,  to  the  distance  of  200  miles  round  Kome  ;  that  it  might  be 
 believed  the  age  of  Augustus  had  returned,  "  ut  Octaviani  Principia 
 tempora  venisse  crederes." — Gregorovius,  Geschichte  d.  Staclt  Rom. 
 vii.  c.  1. 
 
462  MEDTiEYAL    CnTlISTIANITT    AND 
 
 Alfonso,  King  of  Aragon,  embittered  against  Martin  Y. 
 because  be  bad  supported  tbe  claims  of  tbe  Anjou  Louis  to 
 tbe  ^Neapolitan  crown,  sent  emissaries  with  tbe  evil  object 
 of  reviving  tbe  scbism  and  again  bringing  forward  tbe 
 almost  forgotten  Antipope,  Pedro  de  Luna.  Martin  V., 
 naturally  alarmed  at  tbis,  hastened  to  dissolve  tbe  Council, 
 and  tbe  prelates  were  ordered  to  return  to  tbeir  dioceses. 
 Tbe  plurality  of  tbem  complained  loudly  tbat  tbe  Pope 
 bad  prevented  tbe  desired  accomplishment  of  Church 
 Eeform.  Tbe  Legates  answered  that  the  Council  was  only 
 prorogued,  and  tbat  tbe  requisite  reform  should  be  pro- 
 moted by  those  w^ho  bad  presided  over  it  (namely,  them- 
 selves), in  concert  with  tbe  deputies  of  nations.  It  was 
 determined  that  another  Council,  tbe  continuance  of  that 
 of  Siena,  should  be  held  at  Basle,  after  the  lapse  of  seven 
 years.  The  assemblage  dispersed  without  effecting  ought 
 of  importance,  or  even  discussing  the  desired  reforms  ; 
 only  passing  decrees  against  the  heresies  condemned  at 
 Constance,  and  against  all  persons  who  should  give  any 
 support  to  the  followers  of  "Wycliffe  or  Hus.  Tbis  frus- 
 tration of  an  undertaking,  looked  for  as  the  renewal  of  the 
 efforts  made  at  Constance  to  realize  the  exalted  ideal  of 
 a  regenerate  Church,  directs  our  attention  to  tbe  darker 
 aspect  of  the  Eoman  Pontificate  in  tbe  XY.  century,  to 
 its  short-sighted  and  fatal  policy  of  promoting  its  imme- 
 diate and  narrow  interests  at  the  sacrifice  of  the  ulterior, 
 tbe  nobler,  and  truly  Catholic  interest.  Martin  Y.  is 
 accused  of  causing  the  Council  to  be  adjourned  before  it 
 bad  occupied  itself  with  tbe  reform  of  the  Church,  lest 
 tbat  assembly  should  make  regulations  contrary  to  tbe 
 privileges  of  tbe  E-oman  Curia.  A  few  months  before  the 
 Pope's  death,  was  found  one  morning,  on  an  outer  wall  of 
 the  Yatican,  a  document  threatening  him  and  all  Cardinals 
 with  deposition  and  the  severities  due  to  heretics  if  they 
 
SACRED  ART  IN  ITALY.  4G3 
 
 should  fail  to  promote  the  assemblies  of  the  Church  in 
 General  Councils. 
 
 Martin  V.  died  of  apoplexy  in  the  Colonna  Palace,  2l8t 
 February,  1431.  "We  are  informed  of  particulars  curiously 
 illustrating  the  moral  and  religious  conditions  of  Eome  in 
 his  time.  An  unfortunate,  perhaps  innocent,  woman  was 
 publicly  burnt  as  a  witch  and  a  poisoner.  A  less  odious 
 auto  da  fe  took  place  on  the  Capitol,  by  advice  and  through 
 the  act  of  S.  Bernardino  of  Siena,  whose  preaching  had 
 been  attended  with  salutary  effects  in  this  city  as  else- 
 where— the  conversion  of  Jews,  the  reconciling  of  foes,  &c. 
 Anticipating  the  similar  crusade  against  vanities  by  Sa- 
 vonarola, he  induced  his  hearers  to  consign  heaps  of 
 profane  things,  gaming  tables,  obscene  songs,  implements 
 used  for  incantation,  {brevia,  sortes),  false  hair,  used  by 
 women,  it  is  said,  for  superstitious  purposes  (r),  that  a 
 general  bonfire  might  be  made  thereof — trophy  of  the 
 Saint's  eloquence  and  of  his  hearers'  repentance,  at  least 
 for  the  time  being. 
 
 A  compilation  from  more  than  a  hundred  inedited  letters, 
 written  by  ambassadors  or  procurators  of  the  Teutonic 
 Order  at  E,ome  during  this  pontificate,  displays  the  world- 
 liness  of  the  "  Curia,"  and  the  total  failure,  in  that  sphere 
 at  least,  of  the  reforms  demanded  at  Constance.*  The 
 representatives  of  that  once  wealthy  and  powerful  Order 
 at  the  Papal  Court  lived  in  splendour,  and  were  in  con- 
 stant intercourse  with  the  Cardinals,  one  of  whom  was 
 their  chosen  Protector,  and  as  such  had  to  be  propitiated 
 by  frequent  and  costly  gifts,  plate,  jewellery,  horses,  &c. 
 "  He  who  gives  most  there  (at  Rome),  is  most  in  credit,"t 
 
 *  Stimmen  aus  Rom,  i'lber  dem  pd^pstlichen  Hof  im  XV.  Jahrhundert, 
 in  Voigt,  Histor.  Taschenhuch,  1833. 
 
 t  "  Wer  (la  melir  giebt,  der  hat  mehr  Kccht." 
 
46i  MEDIEVAL    CHEISTIANITY    AND 
 
 says  one  of  these  letters.  The  Pope  received  every  year 
 an  offering  of  400  ducats  from  the  Knights.  On  one 
 occasion  he  said  thrice  to  their  envoy,  "  Come  to  me  alone, 
 without  your  Cardinal" — an  intimation  understood,  and 
 responded  to  with  a  handsome  present.  Martin  V.  claimed 
 the  right  of  appointing  the  Grrand  Master  of  the  Order  ; 
 and  was  jealous  of  presentations  to  benefices,  within  their 
 gift,  in  Prussia  or  Livonia ;  he  wanted  (says  one  writer) 
 "  to  have  either  those  benefices  or  their  worth  in  money." 
 A  list  of  Christmas-boxes  to  the  Pope,  the  Cardinals,  and 
 the  servants  of  the  Vatican,  includes  great  variety  of  items  : 
 to  the  holy  father,  a  piece  of  blue  velvet,  worth  88  ducats, 
 and  a  gold  goblet  worth  64  ducats  ;  to  his  chamberlains, 
 13  silver  spoons,  at  the  total  value  of  117  ducats  ;  to  his 
 chief  groom,  a  horse  worth  30  ducats,  and  3  ducats  as  fee ; 
 to  the  Sacred  College,  confectionary  at  the  price  of  70 
 ducats.  The  Pope  had  so  subdued  the  Cardinals  (we  are 
 told)  that  "  they  never  spoke  save  in  accordance  with  his 
 sentiments ;  and  whilst  they  spake  with  him,  alternately 
 blushed  and  turned  pale."* 
 
 The  history  of  the  next  pontificate  might  convince  us, 
 if  other  proof  were  wanting,  that  no  effectual  improve- 
 ment, ecclesiastical  or  political,  had  been  wrought  in  the 
 character  and  action  of  the  Papacy  through  the  decrees 
 or  protestations  of  Councils,  The  Conclave,  consisting  of 
 but  thirteen  Cardinals,  met  in  the  Dominican  Convent  still 
 commonly  called  "  La  Minerva,"  the  piazza  before  which 
 was  barricaded  during  their  sessions.     On  the  second  day, 
 
 *  Similar  and  even  more  severe  testimony  against  the  venality  of  the 
 Roman  Curia,  in  this  century,  is  borne  by  one  who  lived  to  become  Pope 
 as  Pius  II.  :  *'  Nihil  est  quod  absque  argento  Romana  Curia  dedit  : 
 Nam  et  ipsae  manus  impositiones  et  Spiritus  Sanctus  dona  venduntur. 
 Nee  peccatorum  venia  nisi  nummatis  impenditur."— JEneas  S.  Picco- 
 lomini,  Hist.  Europ. 
 
SACRED  ART  IN  ITALY.  4G5 
 
 8rd  March,  1131,  tlicy  elected  from  their  own  body  n 
 A'ciictian,  Grabriele  Coiidulmero,  who  took  the  name  of 
 Eu genius  lY.  His  antecedents  had  been  not  merely  re- 
 spectable but  sanctified.  After  the  death  of  his  parents, 
 who  were  of  the  patrician  class,  he  dispensed  in  charities 
 all  they  had  left  him,  40,000  ducats,  and  entered  the  Order 
 of  Celestine  Canons  in  his  native  city.  Gregory  XII.,  who 
 was  his  uncle,  made  him  pontific  treasurer,  and  soon  after- 
 wards, when  his  age  was  only  twenty-four,  bishop  of  Siena. 
 Not  much  more  than  a  month  had  passed  after  his  election 
 before  Rome  and  its  environs  were  plunged  in  the  miseries 
 of  civil  war.  The  Pope  was  led  to  suspect  that  the 
 nephews  of  Martin  V. — Cardinal  Prospero  Colonna,  An- 
 tonio Prince  of  Salerno  and  Palestrina,  and  Odoardo  Count 
 di  Celano — had  seized  the  large  treasure  left  by  their 
 uncle,  and  intended  by  him  for  defraying  the  expenses  of 
 the  G-reeks  invited  to  the  recently  convoked  Council.* 
 
 As  first  st€p  towards  the  overthrow  of  that  powerful 
 family,  Eugenius  ordered  the  arrest  of  the  late  Pope's  Vice- 
 Chancellor  by  Stefano  Colonna,  commander  of  his  troops, 
 who  was  not  (it  seems)  involved  in  the  same  suspicions  with 
 the  rest  of  his  house.  He  was  charged  to  bring  the  Yice- 
 Chancellor  to  the  Vatican  without  violence  or  insult ;  but 
 instead  of  obeying  this  part  of  his  orders,  Stefano  led  both 
 that  accused  person,  and  the  bishop  of  Trieste,  who  had  been 
 chamberlain  to  the  late  Pope,  in  ignominious  plight,  like 
 common  prisoners,  through  the  streets.  Eugenius  was 
 highly  displeased ;  he  upbraided  and  threatened  Stefano  for 
 this  offensive  proceeding.  The  latter,  deeming  himself  in 
 danger,  fled  to  the  strongest  castle  of  his  relatives,  at  Pales- 
 trina, and  there  induced  the  Prince  Colonna  to  enter  into 
 
 *  Also  (v.  Raynal(lus)  for  carrying  on  the  war  to  protect  the  Greek 
 Empire  against  the  Turks. 
 
466  MEDIEVAL   CHRISTIANITY   AND 
 
 a  conspiracy,  the  rumoured  object  of  which  was  to  dethrone 
 Eugenius  IV.,  and  either  put  him  to  death  or  drive  him 
 into  exile.  The  Colonnas  and  their  armed  retainers  seized 
 the  Appian  gate  (Porta  S.  Sebastiano)  on  the  23rd  April ; 
 and  on  the  next  day  entered  the  city.  Combat  ensued  on 
 the  piazzas  Colonna  and  S.  Marco  ;  many  were  slain,  many 
 made  prisoners  on  both  sides  ;  the  citizens  took  part  with 
 the  Pontiff's  troops  against  the  unpopular  family;  the 
 Colonnas  were  worsted  ;  but  did  not  quit  without  securing 
 much  prey  in  cattle  and  horses, — particularly  the  former, 
 the  numerous  herds,  now  kept  by  proprietors  within  the 
 city,  being  mentioned  by  Infessura.*  The  attack  was  a  signal 
 for  a  general  outbreak  of  fury  against  the  Colonnas ;  their 
 palaces,  even  that  where  Martin  V.  had  spent  his  last  days, 
 and  the  houses  of  other  persons  in  the  service  of  that  Pope, 
 were  pillaged.  After  the  invaders  had  withdrawn  from  the 
 streets,  they  still  continued  to  hold  the  towered  Appian 
 gateway  for  several  days,  and  the  fighting  was  from  time  to 
 time  renewed.  None  could  venture  beyond  the  walls  with- 
 out being  robbed  and  molested.  In  the  meantime  all  usual 
 occupations  were  suspended  ;  the  streets  were  barricaded ; 
 the  citizens  went  about  in  arms.f  On  the  .Slst  May  the 
 Porta  S.  Sebastiano  was  taken  from  Stefano  Colonna ;  but 
 the  leader  who  now  seized  it  was  also  an  enemy  of  the  Pope, 
 as  appears  from  the  order  given,  a  few  days  afterwards,  by 
 Eugenius  IV.,  that  his  house  in  the  city  should  be  destroyed. 
 Infessura  states  that  the  Pope  was  poisoned  by  one  of  his 
 servants  through  the  machinations  of  the  Colonnas,  and 
 that  one  of  his  sides  became  paralyzed  when  the  poison  took 
 
 *  "  Perche  in  Roma  vi  era  di  molto  bestiame,"  says  Infessura — from 
 which  fact  we  may  infer  how  little  of  the  area  within  the  walls  was  occu- 
 pied by  the  habitations  of  the  city. 
 
 t  "  Lo  popolo  di  Roma  stava  sospeso,  e  non  faceva  niente  ;  es  fu  tebar- 
 rato  tutta  Roma,  e  givano  i  Romani  tutti  armati."— Dmrt/  of  Infessura. 
 
SACEED    ART    IN    ITALY.  4(57 
 
 effect.  For  this  revolt  and  conspiracy  more  than  two  hun- 
 dred persons  suffered  death,  either  on  the  scaffokl  or  t]irou«,'h 
 hardships  endured  in  prison.  So  inauspiciously  began  the 
 sacerdotal  reign  of  a  pious  and  austere  monk  ! 
 
 A  brief  interval  of  tranquillity  ensued  during  an  imperial 
 visit  for  one  of  those  coronations  still  deemed  requisite  for 
 the  full  sanction,  through  consecrating  rites  at  S.  Peter's, 
 of  the  title  conferred  on  the  Grerman  potentates.  Sigis- 
 mund,  after  receiving  the  iron  crown  at  Milan,  arrived 
 in  Eome  on  the  21st  May,  1433,  and  on  the  last  day  of 
 that  month  was  crowned  by  the  Pope  at  the  basilica  with 
 all  accustomed  pomp.  He  had  entered  the  city,  near 
 the  S.  Angelo  castle,  riding  on  a  white  horse,  under  a 
 canopy  of  cloth-of-gold,  and  in  this  state  passed  to  the 
 front  of  S.  Peter's,  where  the  Pope  and  Cardinals  were 
 waiting  to  receive  him  on  the  outer  staircase.  The  two 
 sovereigns  left  that  church  together,  after  the  corona- 
 tion ;  and  the  Eomans  were  struck  by  seeing  an  Emperor, 
 with  the  golden  diadem  on  his  head,  hold  the  stirrup  for 
 the  Pope  to  mount,  and  lead  his  palfrey  for  a  few  paces 
 on  the  way  to  the  S.  Angelo  bridge,  where  Sigismund  con- 
 ferred knighthood  on  a  multitude  of  eager  claimants. 
 The  Emperor  proceeded  to  the  Lateran  church,  there 
 received  a  benediction  and  kissed  the  high  altar ;  dined 
 at  the  convent  of  the  SS.  Quattro  Coronatl,  between  the 
 Lateran  and  the  Forum,  and  returned  in  the  evening  to 
 his  lodgings  at  the  canonical  residence  near  S.  Peter's. 
 He  confirmed  the  Constitutions  of  other  Emperors  in  all 
 things  touching  the  privileges  of  the  Roman  Church  and  the 
 Clergy ;  and  the  "  golden  ball"  of  Sigismund  bore  the 
 legend  "  Eoma  caput  mundi." 
 
 More  serious  dangers,  a  more  tremendous  onset  than 
 the  attack  of  rebels  led  by  the  Colonnas,  now  threaten od 
 the  safety  of  the   Pontific  throne.     Niceolo  Fortobracci*;, 
 
 2  H  2 
 
468  MEDIiEVAL    CnmSTIAinTY   AND 
 
 nephew  of  Braccio  di  Montone,  had  entered  the  service  of 
 the  Pope,  and  reduced  some  rebellious  towns  to  his  dominion ; 
 but  was  alienated  by  the  unwise  refusal  of  Eugenius  lY.  to 
 settle  arrears  of  payment  due  to  him,  now  withheld  on  the 
 pretext  that  this  mercenary  captain  had  been  sufficiently 
 recompensed  by  the  booty  seized  at  the  towns  he  had  sub- 
 jected, Vico,Vitrella,  and  Civitavecchia.  Urged  by  the  Duke 
 Yisconti,  the  disappointed  Condottiere  appeared  in  arms 
 against  his  former  employer  ;  marched  rapidly  through 
 Sabina  ;  took  the  Milvian  bridge,  and  on  the  same  day  the 
 bridges  over  the  Anio  (the  Salarian  and  Noomentan)  within 
 a  few  miles  of  Eome ;  his  soldiery  made  prey  close  to  the 
 Maminian  gate,  seizing  those  at  work  in  the  fields  or  vine- 
 yards, driving  away  cattle,  &c.  These  ravages  lasted  (as 
 Infessura  tells  us)  for  nine  months.*  Eortebraccio  marched 
 to  Subiaco,  and  occupied  the  "Benedictine  abbey  with  his 
 troops  ;  thence  to  Tivoli,  which  he  held  and  defended  from 
 the  October  of  1433  till  the  June  of  1434,  thence  directiug 
 a  prolonged  siege  against  Eome,  whilst  proudly  styling 
 himself  the  "Executor  of  the  holy  Council" — namely,  that 
 of  Basle,  whose  sessions  had  commenced.  The  Pope  left 
 the  Vatican  to  take  refuge  in  the  S.  Angelo  castle ;  after- 
 wards, in  the  palace  adjoining  >S'.  Lorenzo  in  Damaso.  He 
 summoned  to  his  aid  the  famous  Prelate-warrior,  Griovanni 
 Yitelleschi.  Erancesco  Sforza,  now  in  the  service  of  the 
 Yisconti,  and  the  chosen  husband  of  the  Duke  of  Milan's 
 daughter,  asked  leave  to  pass  with  his  troops  through  the 
 Anconitan  Marches  ;  and,  once  there,  threw  off  the  mask  of 
 amity  towards  the  Papal  government.  Ancona,  in  that 
 province,  and  other  cities  in  Umbria  received  him  with 
 acclamations — so  ready  were  their  inhabitants  for  revolt 
 against  the  tiara !     Sforza  marched  on  Eome ;  which  was 
 
 *  "  Durd  questa  tenebra   (the   Diarist  picturesquely  describes)  nove 
 mesi." 
 
SACEED  AET  TS   ITALY.  469 
 
 now  beset  by  two  »irmies,  under  the  two  ConJottlcri,  who 
 fought  and  made  prey  on  both  sides  of  the  Tiber.  Soon 
 appeared  a  third  leader,  Piccinino,  who  joined  his  troops  to 
 those  of  Sforza  on  the  desohated  Campagna.  Fortebraccio 
 obtained  victory  over  the  Papal  troops,  led  by  Yitelleschi, 
 near  Genazzano — the  romantic  little  town  now  famous  for 
 its  shrine  of  the  Madonna,  much  frequented  by  pilgrims, 
 among  the  mountains  near  Palestrina.  The  fortune  of 
 battle  was  favourable  to  the  Pontific  cause  in  another  en- 
 gagement at  Mentana,  after  Fortebraccio  had  gallantly 
 repulsed  the  troops  sent  to  drive  him  from  Monte  Kotondo. 
 This  warfare,  so  long  raging  almost  within  sight  from 
 Rome's  walls,  had  such  effect  on  the  popular  mind  that  a 
 conspiracy  was  formed  against  the  Pope,  now  considered 
 mainly  responsible  for  the  evil.  It  was  in  vain  that  Euge- 
 nius  IV.  recognised  the  Basle  Council,  and  revoked  the 
 three  bulls  he  had  passed  against  it  in  the  December  of 
 1433.  Urged  by  the  sense  of  danger,  he  appointed  Sforza 
 Gonfaloniere  of  the  Church  and  his  Yicar  in  the  Anconitan 
 Marches.  That  leader,  like  Fortebraccio,  had  affected  to 
 act  under  authority  of  the  Council  while  making  war  against 
 the  Pope,  but  now  became  the  devoted  ally  of  Eugenius, 
 and,  after  withdrawing  from  the  Campagna,  sent  his  brother 
 Leo  to  fight  for  the  Papal  cause.  Eilippo  Maria  Yisconti, 
 his  former  employer,  styled  himself  "  Yicar  of  the  Council  in 
 Italy."  That  assembly  at  Basle,  opened  and  presided  over 
 by  a  distinguished  and  saintly  Cardinal,  Giuliano  Cesarini, 
 had  been  sanctioned  from  the  first  by  the  Pope,  who, 
 alarmed  by  its  attack  against  his  own  prerogatives,  resisted 
 till  the  crisis  of  danger  induced  his  acquiescence.  Eemark- 
 able  are  the  indications  of  a  dominant  idea :  that  the  Basle 
 Council  represented  and  expressed  tlie  desires  of  the  Italian 
 people  and  true  interests  of  the  Church  ;  the  Roman  pon- 
 tificate asserted  its  own  limited  iuterests,  tlie    privileges 
 
470  MEDIiETAL   CHEISTIAKITT   AND 
 
 find  aggrandizement  of  the  Curia  !    The  disaffected  Eomans 
 determined  to  seize  the  Pope  in  the  name  of  the  Council, 
 and  compel  him  to  comply  with  all  they  demanded.     On 
 the  29th  May,  1434,  the  people  rose  in  revolt  to  the  cries, 
 Fopolo — Liberia  !    The  Capitoline  palace  was  stormed ;  the 
 Senator  surrendered  after  being  wounded  in  the  attempt  to 
 resist.     Eepublican  government  was  proclaimed ;  the  chief 
 authority  conferred  on  seven  magistrates,  like  the  "  Bande- 
 resi"  of  former  times,  but  with  the   title  of  "  Guberna- 
 tores,"  These  magistrates  went  to  the  Pope,  who  had  taken 
 up  his  residence  near  the  basilica  of  S.  Maria  in  Traste- 
 mre ;  required  him  to  abdicate,  to  consign  the  S.  Angelo 
 castle  and  Ostia  to  them,  and  also  to  give  up  his  nephew  as 
 their  hostage.     He  answered  only  to  refuse.     On  the  4th 
 June,  at  noonday,  Eugenius  effected  his  escape  from  the 
 Transtiberine  quarter  and  from  Eome,  with  a  Benedictine 
 monk,  both  in  the  garb  of  monks  of  that  order.     The  fugi- 
 tives embarked  on  the  Tiber  in  a  skiff ;  they  were  pursued 
 by  the  people,  who,  running  along  the  river  side,  others 
 following  in  a  boat,   hurled   darts,  spears,  and  stones  at 
 imminent  peril  to  the  life  of  the  Pope,  had  he  not  been 
 sheltered  as  he  lay  covered  up  at  the  oarsman's  feet.  They 
 reached  Ostia  unobserved,  and  there  passed  the  night  in  a 
 trireme  supplied  by  a  pirate  from  Ischia,  so  disreputable  a 
 personage  being  engaged,  and  doing  his  duty  well,  for  the 
 rescue  of  the  Head  of  the  Church.     On  the  12th  June  the 
 voyagers  reached  the  port  of  Pisa ;  and  on  the  23rd  Euge- 
 nius IV.  found  himself  surrounded  by  honours  and  in  full 
 enjoyment  of  liberty  at  Elorence. 
 
 The  Seventeenth  (Ecumenical  Council,  convoked  by  Mar- 
 tin v.,  was  opened  at  Basle,  23rd  July,  1431,  though  its 
 regular  sessions  did  not  commence  till  the  14tli  December 
 following.  Its  main  objects  were,  as  formally  declared,  the 
 reunion  of  Eastern   and  Western    Christendom,   and  the 
 
SAC BED   ART    IN    ITALY.  471 
 
 reform  of  the  Church  in  her  head  and  members — this  last 
 declaration  implying  the  avowal  that  the  efforts  made  at 
 Constance  had  proved  a  failure.  It  is  urged  that  the  Fathers 
 at  this  new  Council  had  no  precise  ideas  of  what  they  ought 
 to  undertake,  or  practically  carry  out ;  that  they  wanted 
 alike  such  definite  views  as  to  their  own  powers  and  the 
 restrictions  legally  to  be  imposed  on  the  Papacy,  whose 
 absolutism  they  desired  to  limit ;  that  they  attacked  abuses, 
 but  did  not  propose  efficient  remedies.*  At  an  early  stage 
 of  their  proceedings,  they  listened  to  counsels,  offered 
 through  his  envoy  by  the  German  Emperor,  for  the  aboli- 
 tion of  ecclesiastical  celibacy ;  and  one  Cardinal  went  so  far 
 as  to  ad\dse  that  the  liberty  of  marriage  should  be  restored 
 {restitm)  to  priests  and  deacons ;  but  this  suggestion  led 
 to  nothing ;  postponed  to  a  future  day,  the  subject  was  at 
 last  dropped.  Eugenius  lY.  twice  endeavoured  to  dissolve 
 the  Council ;  but  the  Eathers  held  to  their  rights,  insisting 
 on  the  now  frequently  admitted  (though  not  indeed  unop- 
 posed) doctrine  of  the  superiority  of  (Ecumenical  Councils 
 over  Popes. 
 
 Eugenius,  finding  himself  (as  we  have  seen)  surrounded 
 by  dangers  which  threatened  his  temporal,  as  the  proceed- 
 ings at  Basle  threatened  his  spiritual  sovereignty,  approved 
 of  the  Council,  and  sent  his  Legates  to  preside  together 
 ^-ith  Cardinal  Cesarini.  The  former  were  first  required  by 
 oath  to  observe  all  the  decrees  of  this  as  well  as  of  other 
 General  Councils,  and  especially  that  of  Constance  ;  and  it 
 was  stipulated  that  those  representatives  of  the  Pope 
 should  have  no  coactive  jurisdiction,  and  should  comply 
 with  all  the  regulations  already  made  at  Basle ;  also  that 
 the  acts  of  the  Council  should  be  passed  and  published  in 
 its  own  name  alone.     In  subsequent  sessions  was  confirmed 
 
 *  Cantu,  Storia  degli  Italiani,  c.  cxvii. 
 
472  MEDI^YAL   CHEISTIANITY   AND 
 
 the  decree  of  Constance  regarding  the  superiority  of  Coun- 
 cils over  all  other  powers,  and  all  persons,  in  the  Church. 
 Certain  measures  of  reform  were  voted  ;  among  others,  the 
 total  abolition  of  annates,  the  annulling  of  all  "  expecta- 
 tive  graces,"  mandates,  reserves,  hitherto  such  a  source  of 
 revenue  to  the  Eoman  Church.  The  opposition  of  the 
 Legates  was  baffled.  A  profession  of  faith  was  drawn  up, 
 to  be  subscribed  by  every  Pope  on  the  day  of  his  election. 
 It  was  declared  that  the  new  Pope  ought  solemnly  to  pledge 
 himself  to  the  frequent  convocation  of  Councils ;  that  the 
 number  of  Cardinals  should  not  exceed  twenty-four,  chosen 
 from  all  Christian  nations.  In  the  30th  session,  Commu- 
 nion in  both  kinds  was  conceded,  with  certain  restrictions, 
 conformably  to  the  demand  of  the  Bohemians  ;  but  only  to 
 that  people  and  to  the  Moravians,  under  the  condition  that 
 priests,  before  so  administering  the  sacramental  species, 
 should  admonish  the  people  that  Christ's  Body  was  truly 
 and  completely  present  in  each  kind,  under  the  forms  of 
 bread  and  wine  alike, — suh  qualihet  specie  est  integer  et  totus 
 Christus.  Other  decrees  of  the  Council  display  that  spirit 
 of  intelligent  beneficence  which  so  often  shines  forth  in  the 
 Church,  even  amidst  the  darkest  social  circumstances.  It 
 was  defined  that  excommunicated  persons  need  not  be 
 avoided,  or  refused  ordinary  services  by  others ;  that  inter- 
 dicts should  be  observed  only  when  publicly  proclaimed  and 
 rendered  notorious  ;  that  at  Universities  at  least  two  pro- 
 fessors of  Greek,  Hebrew,  Chaldee  and  Arabic  should  be 
 appointed.  The  Fathers  forbade  dramatic  representations 
 (the  Mysteries  still  popular),  and  also  profane  music,  in 
 churches ;  they  exhorted  bishops  to  depute  preachers  for 
 addressing  the  Jews,  and  (with  less  commendable  zeal) 
 ordered  all  of  that  nationality  to  wear  a  particular  garb, 
 and,  where  possible,  to  be  restricted  to  separate  quarters  in 
 Cbi'i Lilian  cities. 
 
SACRED   ABT   IN   ITALY.  473 
 
 After  the  terms  of  union  with  the  Greeks  had  been  dis- 
 cussed another  Council  was  convoked,  and  with  sanction 
 from  the  Pontiff,  for  effecting  such  object.  Eugenius  scut 
 his  Legates  to  Constantinople  with  galleys  to  bring  the 
 Greek  Emperor,  the  Patriarch,  and  other  chief  prelates  to 
 Italy.  The  Council  also  sent  galleys  and  invitations  in  its 
 own  name  to  the  Byzantine  Church  and  Court ;  but  the 
 pontific  vessels  arrived  first  in  the  harbour  of  the  eastern 
 capital.  After  some  hesitation,  John  Palaeologus*  decided 
 to  prefer  the  hospitalities  of  the  Pope.  Embarking  on  the 
 27th  November,  1437,  he  reached  Venice  on  the  8th  Feb- 
 ruary, and  there  spent  fifteen  days  before  his  departure  for 
 Eerrara.  The  squadron  of  nine  galleys,  which  brought  him 
 and  his  suite  to  Italy,  had  been  equipped  at  Venice  and  in 
 Candia;  and  the  Autocrat  of  the  East  came  with  the 
 Byzantine  Patriarch  Joseph,  the  Primate  of  Eussia,  twenty 
 bishops,  the  five  dignitaries  called  *'  Cross-bearers  of  S. 
 Sophia,"  certain  monks  and  "philosophers,"  and  the  deputies 
 ("  genuine  or  fictitious,"  as  Gibbon  sarcastically  says)  of 
 the  Patriarchs  of  Antioch,  Jerusalem,  and  Alexandria ;  also 
 a  select  band  of  singers,  and  a  supply  of  precious  vessels 
 from  the  altars  of  the  Byzantine  cathedral.  The  Emperor's 
 brother  Demetrius,  and  several  nobles  accompanied  him. 
 Their  reception  at  Venice  brought  into  relief  the  tradi- 
 tionary regards  for  the  ancient  Empire,  even  at  the  last 
 stage  of  its  decline.  Seated  on  a  high  throne  at  the  poop 
 of  his  galley,  Palaeologus,  before  landing,  received  the 
 liomage  of  the  Doge  and  Senators  ;  and  was  then  escorted 
 in  the  bucentaur  up  the  grand  canal,  with  a  procession  of 
 gondolas,  steered  by  men  clad  in  silk  and  gold,  while  the 
 
 *  This  Emperor  succeeded  to  his  father  Manuel  in  1425  ;  reigned  till 
 1448;  and  left  the  fatal  inlieritance  of  a  crown  with  a  ruined  state 
 to  his  brother,  Constantine  XII.,  the  Iburth  sou  of  Manuel,  and  last  of  the 
 Bvzantinc  Caesars. 
 
474  MEDIJEVAL    CHRISTIANITY    AND 
 
 air  resounded  to  joyous  music,  and  the  Homan  eagles  were 
 blended,  amidst  emblems  and  pageantry,  with  the  lion  of 
 S.  Mark. 
 
 The  Basle  Council  and  the  Pope  were  now  in  open 
 hostility.  The  Fathers  cited  Eugenius  to  appear  before  them 
 under  penalty  of  severest  canonical  censures.  For  disobey- 
 ing them  they  condemned  him  as  contumacious,  rejected 
 his  bull  for  convoking  a  Council  at  Ferarra,  declared  his 
 last  creation  of  Cardinals  null  and  void  ;  and  in  the  34th 
 session  (25th  June,  1439),  went  so  far  as  to  pronounce  the 
 deposition  of  Eugenius  IV.  On  this  the  Legates  and  the 
 Cardinal  Cesarini  quitted  Basle,  obeying  the  summons  to 
 Ferrara.  One  Cardinal  only,  the  Archbishop  of  Aries,  re- 
 mained, and  thenceforth  presided  at  the  sessions.  From 
 the  23rd  session  to  the  last,  no  Spanish,  and  only  two 
 Italian  bishops  took  part,  though  theological  doctors  of 
 both  those  countries  still  kept  their  places.  The  Cardinal, 
 now  presiding,  made  a  memorable  protest  against  Papal 
 absolution  implied  in  the  question :  "  What  at  this  day 
 are  bishops  but  a  set  of  shadows  ?  "What  have  they  left  to 
 them  but  a  staff  and  mitre  ?  Can  they  be  called  shepherds, 
 whilst  without  sheep,  and  unable  to  do  anything  for  those 
 placed  under  them  ?  "  *  On  the  5th  of  November,  thirty- 
 three  electors  appointed  by  the  Council,  the  above-named 
 Archbishop  being  the  only  Cardinal  among  them,  went  into 
 conclave,  and  elected  to  the  Papal  throne,  now  deemed 
 vacant,  Amadeus,  the  abdicated  Duke  of  Savoy,  who  took 
 the  name  of  Felix  V.  After  the  45th  session  (May,  1443) 
 the  Fathers  dispersed,  having  first  announced  that  the 
 Council  was  not  dissolved,  but  prorogued,  and  transferred 
 either  to  Lyons  or  Lausanne.     European  Sovereigns  were 
 
 *  Cited  in  Pusey's  "  Eirenicon."  Raynaldus  can  only  state  that  some  of 
 the  prelates  at  Basle,  together  with  the  Cardinal  Cesarini,  obeyed  the 
 Toi^c  by  quitting  that  city  and  repairing  to  Ferrara, 
 
SACRED   ART    IN    ITALY.  475 
 
 divided  as  to  the  claims  and  procedure  of  this  Council 
 and  its  contest  with  Eugenius  IV.  Charles  VII.  of  France 
 forbade  the  bishops  of  his  kingdom  to  appear  at  Eerrara. 
 The  Emperor  Sigismund  having  died  during  the  session 
 (1437),  the  German  Electors  decided  to  recognize  both 
 the  Pope  and  the  Council,  but  not  to  accept  any  act  of 
 mutual  hostility  between  those  contending  parties.  They 
 sent  deputies,  as  did  also  the  Duke  of  Milan,  to  recom- 
 mend postponement  of  the  extreme  measures  against 
 Eugenius.  Felix  V.  was  recognised  as  Pope  by  the  Sove- 
 reigns of  Aragon  and  Hungary,  and  by  the  universities 
 of  Paris,  Cracow,  and  Gerniany,  which  learned  bodies 
 proved  themselves  true  to  their  avowed  doctrine  of  the 
 superiority  of  Ecumenical  Councils.  The  other  Princes 
 acted  differently ;  and  even  the  Duke  of  Milan,  who  had 
 married  a  daughter  of  Amadeus,  refused  to  own  his  father- 
 in-law  as  Pope. 
 
 Amadeus  VIII.,  called  "  the  Pacific,"  succeeded  to  his 
 father,  when  a  child  of  but  eight  years,  1391.  After  assum- 
 ing the  reins  of  government  as  Count  of  Savoy,  he  acquired 
 the  city  and  pro\dnce  of  Geneva  by  cession  from  the  last 
 Count,  Otho  de  Villars  ;  and  in  1417  became  first  Duke  of 
 Savoy,  through  diploma  conceded  by  the  Emperor  Sigis- 
 mund, who  solemnly  invested  Amadeus  with  his  duchy,  at 
 Chambery,  in  the  same  year.  In  1418  the  Sovereign  Duke 
 became  Count  of  Piedmont,  through  succession  to  Count 
 Louis  of  Savoy,  deceased  without  issue,  and  soon  afterwards 
 acquired  the  lordship  of  Nice,  Villafranca,  and  the  adjacent 
 sea-coast,  ceded  to  him  by  Yolande  of  Aragon,  Duchess  of 
 Anjou,  mother  and  guardian  to  Louis  III.,  titular  King  of 
 Naples.  The  city  and  province  of  Vercelli  were  annexed 
 to  his  States  through  a  treaty  of  peace  with  Filippo  Maria 
 Visconti,  concluded  under  the  influence  of  Martin  V.,  after 
 a   threatened   war,    and   the  invasion  of  the  Milanese  by 
 
476  MEDIJSVAL    CHRISTIANITY   AND 
 
 Amadeus  at  tlio  head  of  14,000  men.  Being  left  a 
 widower,  weary  of  the  world,  or  of  the  cares  of  State, 
 this  Duke  abdicated  in  1434,  and  retired  to  the  priorate 
 of  Eipaille,  founded  by  himself,  near  the  lake  of  Greneva. 
 Here  his  first  step  (so  far  as  known)  was  to  convoke  the 
 nobles  of  his  dominions,  institute  the  chivalrous  Order  of 
 the  Annunciation  (or  that  of  S.  Maurice,  according  to  some 
 writers) ,  and  create  his  son,  Louis,  Prince  of  Piedmont  and 
 Lieutenant- Greneral  of  the  Savoy  Dukedom.  He  then  retired 
 to  a  more  solitary  retreat,  a  hermitage  built  by  himself  for 
 his  use,  near  a  cloister  of  the  Augustinian  Eremites  in  the 
 same  neighbourhood,  under  the  spiritual  direction  of  which 
 fathers  he  desired  to  place  himself  and  his  companions. 
 Here  six  of  the  newly-created  "  Knights  of  the  Annuncia- 
 tion" (or  of  S.  Maurice),  all  widowers  and  past  their 
 sixtieth  year,  were  his  companions.  The  aristocratic  re- 
 cluses allowed  their  beards  to  grow,  and  wore  long 
 white  vestments  of  fine  cloth,  a  scarlet  cap,  a  gold  cincture 
 round  the  waist,  and  a  gold  cross  hung  from  the  neck.  The 
 life  they  led  in  that  romantic  region  was  not  one  of  ascetic 
 observance  or  remorsefully  imposed  penances  ;  but  rather 
 that  of  contemplative  Christian  philosophers,  seeking  the 
 peace  which  the  world  denies  to   so   many.*     It  might  be 
 
 *  Piccolomini,  who  visited  him  in  this  retreat,  thought  the  life  he  and 
 his  companions  were  leading:  "  Magis  vokiptuosam  quam  poeniten- 
 tialem."  Another  eye-witness,  Cardinal  Nicolo  Albergati,  was  more 
 favourably  impressed  by  this  example  of  eremite  calm  preferred  to  the 
 royal  state  :    "  Spectaculo  digna  res  :    Princeps  saeculi  potentissimus, 
 
 Gallis,  atque  Italis  metuendus, nunc  sex  tantum  Eremitis  praece- 
 
 dentibus,  et  paucis  sequentibus  sacerdotis  in  veste  vili  et  abjecta  Legatura 
 Apostolicum  excepit.  Crucem  aurcam  Ereraitse  in  pictore  gestarunt : 
 id  tantum  nobilitatis  signum  retinuere,  cetera  contemptum  seculi  prae- 
 seferebant.  Venere  in  amplexum  Cardinalis,  et  Amadeus,  ac  multa  se 
 invicem  charitate  sunt  deosculati :  nee  satis  Cardinalis  aut  admirari,  aut 
 collaudare  Principem  poterat." — See  Oldoinus,  who  mentions  the  sus- 
 picion of  some  that  the  Papal  tiara  was  the  prize  in  view,  with  the  hope 
 
SACKED    ART    TX    ITALY.  477 
 
 considered  an  expression  of  the  comparatively  modern 
 instinct  in  the  Church,  adopting  a  more  hnman  and  lacile 
 standard  of  Christian  duty  than  that  severely  maintained 
 by  the  ascetics  of  old  time.  When  twenty-five  deputies, 
 one  a  Cardinal,  arrived  at  Eipaille  with  the  extraordinary 
 intelligence  from  Basle,  the  ex-Duke  hesitated  long,  and 
 finally,  not  without  many  tears,  accepted  the  proffered 
 tiara.  He  first  received  homage  as  Pope  in  the  church  of 
 Eipaille ;  thence  proceeding  to  Basle,  was  ordained  priest, 
 consecrated  as  bishop,  and  crowned  by  the  Cardinal  of 
 Aries,  24th  July,  1440.  The  dubious  pontificate  secured 
 to  him,  it  seems,  neither  outward  nor  inward  tranquillity. 
 He  transferred  his  residence  from  one  city  to  another — 
 Basle,  Lausanne,  and  Geneva.  After  maintaining  an  un- 
 equal and  x:>rofitless  struggle  with  two  Popes  for  nine  years, 
 the  Hermit  Duke  had  the  good  sense  to  abdicate,  1449, 
 and  again  withdrew  to  his  happier  solitude,  though  now 
 invested,  through  the  generosity  of  Nicholas  V.,  w^ith  the 
 rank  of  Cardinal  Bishop,  Dean  of  the  Sacred  College,  per- 
 petual Legate  and  Vicar  of  the  Holy  See  in  Savoy  and 
 Piedmont,  in  the  territories  of  Lausanne,  Basle,  Augsburo- 
 and  Constance.  He  died,  in  esteem  for  sanctity,  at  Geneva, 
 145L* 
 
 The  Council  of  Perrara  opened  under  the  presidency  of 
 Cardinal  Albergati,  on  the  10th  January,  1438.  At  the 
 second  session  the  Pope  presided,  and  solemnly  excommu- 
 nicated the  fathers  at  Basle. 
 
 of  which  Amadeus  had  been  filled  from  the  time  of  his  abdication— a 
 scarcely  admissible  calumny. 
 
 *  "  Profiting  well  by  the  clemency  of  Nicholas  V.,  after  his  abdica- 
 tion he  returned  to  the  solitude  of  Ripaille,  where  he  gave  himself  entirely 
 to  contemplation,  and,  according  to  what  is  reported,  no  more  even 
 remembered  the  Pontificate.  He  died  a  pious  death,  in  much  repute 
 for  sanctity,  either  in  January.  1450.  or  in  1451— according  to  some,  in 
 1452." — Moroni.  Dizioimrio,  article  Antipo.i>a  xxxix. 
 
478  MEDI.ETAL    CnRISTIANITY    AND 
 
 The  anathematizing  bull  was  read  from  a  pulpit  by  the 
 Bishop  of  Forli,  after  the  solemn  Mass  by  which  the  pro- 
 ceedings were  placed  under  heavenly  direction.  In  the 
 whole  history  of  spiritual  despotism,  it  would  be  difficult  to 
 find  a  more  monstrous  abuse  of  sacerdotal  power,  or  more 
 outrageous  violation  of  charity  in  the  name  and  for  the  inte- 
 rests of  faith.  All  the  members  and  adherents  of  the  Basle 
 Council  were  degraded  from  their  ranks  and  offices,  whether 
 lay  or  ecclesiastical,  and  deprived  of  their  benefices  if  of 
 the  latter  class.  The  magistrates  of  that  city  were  com- 
 manded to  expel  the  prelates  and  other  participants  in  the 
 Council  within  thirty  days,  unless  the  latter  should  depart  of 
 their  own  accord ;  in  case  of  disobedience,  all  the  authori- 
 ties and  public  officers  of  Basle  were  to  be  excommunicated, 
 and  their  city  laid  under  interdict.  Travellers  were  for- 
 bidden to  enter  that  city  ;  merchants  were  forbidden  to 
 supply  its  inhabitants  with  any  articles  of  commerce  or 
 necessities  of  life.  If,  after  the  disobedience  of  the  magis- 
 trates beyond  thirty  days,  merchants  also  should  disregard 
 the  Papal  mandate,  the  latter  might  be  despoiled  of  their 
 commodities  by  any  of  the  faithful,  who  were  permitted  to 
 appropriate  such  confiscated  wares,  seeing  (his  Holiness 
 adds)  that  it  is  said  in  Scripture :  *'  The  righteous  have 
 despoiled  the  ungodly."  A  clause  setting  forth  the  benignity 
 of  the  Church  assures  those  who  should  repent,  and  retract 
 within  thirty  days,  of  pardon  and  exemption  from  censures.* 
 
 *  "  Nullus  post  dictum  terminum  ad  dictam  civitatem  Basileensem 
 accedat,  sed  ipsis  {i.  e.,  the  inhabitants)  denegat  mercimonia,  et  cuncta 
 
 ad  usum  hominum  necessaria. Mercatores  sub  eadem  excoramuni- 
 
 cationis  poena  inde  omnino  discedant. Si  vero  htec  nostra  mandata 
 
 contempseriut.  elapso  dicto  termino,  Basileensibus  in  conturaaciis  per- 
 sistentibus,  aliqua  forsan  portare  prsesumcntes,  cum  scriptum  sit,  Justi 
 tulerunt  spolia  impiorum,  possent  tales  hujusce  modi  a  quibuscumque 
 Christi  fidelibus  impune  spoliari,  bonaque  ipsa  prius  capicntium  dominio 
 cedant." — In  Raynald,  anno  1J38. 
 
SACRED    ATIT    IN    ITALY.  470 
 
 Tlie  interdict  was  prospectively  laid  upon  all  cities  whose 
 hospitality  or  support  should  be  offered  to  the  offending 
 prelates.  From  the  9th  April  the  sessions  at  Florence  were 
 attended  by  the  Greek  Emperor,  the  Patriarch,  and  Byzan- 
 tine prelates  ;  but  the  representation  of  the  Latin  Church 
 was  far  from  considerable  :  only  5  archbishops,  18  bishops, 
 and  10  abbots  ;  the  Duke  of  Burgundy  being  the  only 
 western  sovereign  who  appeared.  John  Palajologus  made 
 his  entry  into  Ferrara  on  a  black  horse,  a  white  steed, 
 with  gold-embroidered  eagles  on  its  trappings,  being  led 
 before  him,  and  a  canopy  borne  over  his  head  by  kinsmen 
 of  Duke  Niccolo  d'Este.  The  Pope  met  him  at  the  door  of 
 his  apartment ;  "  refused  his  proffered  genuflexion"  (says 
 Gibbon),  and  after  a  paternal  embrace,  conducted  him  to  a 
 seat  on  his  left  hand.  The  Patriarch,  w^ho  arrived  later,  would 
 not  even  disembark  until  the  ceremonial  of  his  reception  had 
 been  stipulated :  the  Primate  of  the  "West  was  to  salute  the 
 Primate  of  the  East  with  the  ki&s  of  peace  and  union ;  the 
 Greek  ecclesiastics  were  to  be  exempted  from  the  homage 
 of  kissing  the  foot.*  After  the  16th  session,  a  bull  was 
 published  for  transferring  the  Council  to  Florence,  10th 
 January,  1439,  on  account  of  the  plague  which  had  broken 
 out  at  Ferrara.     Eugenius  lY.  set  out  for  the  former  city, 
 
 *  An  eye-witness  thus  describes  this  famous  meeting  :  "  The  Greek 
 Emperor  entered  Ferrara  with  a  numerous  suite  on  horseback.  All  the 
 Cardinals  then  at  Ferrara  went  to  meet  him  outside  the  city,  accompanied 
 by  a  large  body  of  prelates.  The  Emperor  was  conducted  under  a  golden 
 canopy  to  the  Apostolic  palace,  and  rode  on  horseback  up  to  the  Pope's 
 chamber,  along  a  way  made  in  that  palace,  in  ancient  time,  by  the  Mar- 
 quises of  Ferrara."  (Cardinal  di  S.  Croce,  in  Kaynaldus,  an.  1438.) 
 The  Byzantine  historian  Phrantzes  says  :  "  When  the  Pope  heard  that 
 the  Emperor  had  reached  the  gate,  he  rose  up,  and  took  a  walk ;  and  as 
 he  was  walking  up  and  down,  the  Emperor  accidentally  came  upon  him. 
 and  when  he  would  have  fallen  on  his  knees,  the  Pope  would  not 
 permit  him." 
 
480  MEDIiEVAL    CnRISTIANITT    A^"T) 
 
 the  sacred  Host  being  borne  before  liiin  under  a  canopy 
 surrounded  by  attendants  with  torches. 
 
 The  eighteenth  CEcumeuical  Council,  a  continuation  of  the 
 one  at  Perrara,  opened  at  Florence  on  the  26th  February, 
 1439.*  A  contemporary  and  witness  describes  the  imposing 
 scene  in  the  glorious  Duomo,  where  the  Pope  presided,  the 
 Byzantine  Emperor  was  enthroned  opposite  to  him,  and 
 140  bishops  of  the  Latin  and  Grreek  communions  attended. 
 After  a  majestic  procession,  and  High  Mass  celebrated  by 
 his  Holiness,  Eugenius  took  his  seat,  pontifically  vested,  on 
 the  Grospel  side  of  the  high  altar,  the  Cardinals  and  Latin 
 Prelates  in  copes  and  mitres  being  seated  near  him  ;  on  the 
 Epistle  side  sat  the  Greek  Autocrat,  in  long  vestments  of 
 richest  silk  brocade,  with  the  small  pointed  cap  of  Greek 
 costume,  and  a  precious  gem  at  its  apex — "a  very  beautiful 
 man  (says  the  same  writer),  with  beard  according  to  the 
 Greek  fashion."t  The  silk  vestments  of  the  Oriental 
 clergy  seemed  to  the  Florentines  more  dignified  than  those 
 of  the  Western  prelates.  In  the  group  around  Palseologus 
 there  were  many  nobles,  all  superbly  clad,  who  had  accom- 
 panied him  on  his  journey.  The  Gospel  and  the  Epistle 
 were  chanted  as  at  the  Papal  High  Mass  in  Pome.  In  the 
 private  sessions  at  the  {S.  Maria  Novella  convent,  where 
 Eugenius  TV.  resided,  were  discussed  the  points  of  differ- 
 ence between  the  two  Churches.  At  last  was  drawn  up 
 the  celebrated  Decree  of  Union.  After  the  Emperor  had 
 signed  it,  the  Greek  prelates  repaired  to  the  papal  apart- 
 ments to  sign  on  a  day  fixed,  all  except  the  Archbishop  of 
 Ephesus,  who  openly  resisted,  the  Archbishop  of  Stauro- 
 
 *  Some  writers  reckon  this  as  the  Sixteenth  General  Council,  and  a 
 continuation  of  that  of  Basle,  which  ceased  to  be  legitimate  after  the 
 departure  of  the  Legates. 
 
 t  "Era  uno  beUisimo  uomo  colla  barba  al  modo  Greco."  —  Ves- 
 pasiano  da  Bisticci,  Vita  di  Eugenio  IV. 
 
SACRED  ABT  IN  ITALY.  4S1 
 
 polls,  who  had  secretly  left  Florence,  aiul  tlie  Archbishop 
 of  lieraclea,  who  was  preveutcd  by  illness,  but  signed, 
 without  hesitation,  on  his  sick-bed.  The  venerable 
 Patriarch  of  Constantinople  had  died  during  the  sessions, 
 and  the  Patriarch  of  Alexandria  was  represented  by  the 
 invalid  Archbishop.  The  Vicars  of  the  Patriarchs  of  An- 
 tioch  and  Jerusalem,  who  had  attended  the  Council,  signed 
 for  those  dignitaries.  All  the  Latin  prelates  affixed  their 
 signatures  after  the  G-reeks,  and  lastly  the  Pope,  who  care- 
 fully examined  the  Greek  signatures.  On  the  6th  of  July 
 the  decree  was  published,  first  in  Latin  by  Cardinal 
 Cesarini,  next  in  Grreek  by  Archbishop  (afterwards  Car- 
 dinal) Bessarion.  After  each  perusal  it  was  asked  if  all 
 present  approved  ?  Assent  having  been  signified,  all  the 
 prelates  embraced  each  other,  and  High  Mass  was  celebrated 
 by  the  Pope  ;  the  Te  Deum  chanted  in  Grreek. 
 
 The  Decree  of  Union  defines,  that  the  Holy  Spirit  eter- 
 nally proceeds  from  the  Father  as  from  one  principle  and 
 through  one  spiration  ;*  that  in  the  Eucharistic  Sacra- 
 ment the  Body  of  Christ  is  consecrated  and  present  alike  in 
 unleavened  as  in  leavened  bread ;  that  the  souls  of  the  truly 
 penitent,  who  have  died  in  grace  before  bearing  such  worthy 
 fruits  of  repentance  as  can  expiate  their  sins,  are  purified 
 by  the  pains  of  Purgatory,  which  may  be  alleviated  by  the 
 suffrages  of  the  faithful ;  that  the  holy  Apostolic  See  of  the 
 E-oman  Pontiff"  possesses  the  primacy  over  the  entire  Church 
 and  Christian  world. f    "When  the  Emperor  and  the  Greek 
 
 •  Hsec  fidei  Veritas  ab  omnibus  crcdatur  et  suscipiatur quod 
 
 Spiritus  Sanctus  ex  Patres  et  Filio  seternaliter  est,  et  essentiam  suam 
 suumque  esse  subsistenshabet  ex  Patre  et  Filio,  etex  utroque  seternaliter 
 tanquam  ab  uno  principio  et  una  spiratione  procedit. 
 
 f  Definimus  Sanctam  Apostolicam  Sedem  et  Romannm  rontificem 
 in  universum  orbem  tenere  Primatum,  et  ipsutu  Pontificem  Romaniun 
 successorum  esse  B.  Petii  Principis  Apostolorum,  ct  veruni  Christi 
 Vicariura,  totiusque  Ecclcsiaj  caput,  et  omnium  Christianorum  patrcm  ct 
 
 2  I 
 
482  medi.i;yal  christianitt  axd 
 
 clergy  were  about  to  leave  Florence,  the  Pope  required  them 
 to  sign  five  other  copies  of  the  Decree  destined  for  the 
 Princes  faithful  to  the  cause  of  the  legitimate  Head  of  the 
 Church.*  The  Grreeks  refused  to  sign  till  they  had  received 
 the  arrears  of  the  payment  promised  by  Eugenius  for  their 
 maintenance  at  Plorence  and  their  journey  homeward. 
 Syropulos  asserts  that  this  refusal  was  dictated  by  the  Em- 
 peror ;  but  that  Palaeologus  at  last  required  them  to  sign 
 four  copies,  with  which  the  Pope  now  declared  himself 
 satisfied.f  All  left  Florence  in  August,  the  Emperor  and 
 his  attendants  last ;  and  the  outstanding  debts  were  settled 
 immediately  before  the  embarkation  of  the  prelates. ;J: 
 During  the  sessions  Palaeologus  treated  with  the  Pope  for 
 
 doctorem  existere,  et  ipsi  a  B.  Petro  pascendi,  regendi,  et  gubernandi 
 uuiversalcm  Ecclesiam  a  Domino  Nostro  Jesu  Christo  plenam  potestatem 
 traditam  esse. — After  this  it  is  defined  that  the  Patriarchate  of  Constan- 
 tinople ranks  next  to  the  Roman  Pontificate ;  the  Patriarchate  of  Alexan- 
 dria, third  ;  that  of  Antioch,  fourth  ;  that  of  Jerusalem,  fifth — with  the 
 clause,  "  Salvis  privilegiis  omnibus  et  juribus  eorum,"  i.e.,  of  the  five 
 eastern  Patriarchs. 
 
 *  Syropulos,  "  Vera  Historia  Unionis  non  veri," — the  writer  being  one 
 of  the  "  cross-bearers  "  of  S.  Sophia,  who  came  to  Florence. 
 
 +  Vespasiano  states  that  Cardinal  Cesarini  consigned  all  the  originals 
 of  the  Decree,  in  a  velvet  covered  coffer  set  with  silver,  to  the  "  Signo- 
 ria"  of  Florence,  to  be  by  them  preserved  ad  perpetuam  rei  memoriam. 
 Yet,  according  to  Gibbon,  "  None  of  the  original  Acts  of  Union  can  at 
 present  be  produced:  of  the  ten  MSS.  that  are  preserved  (five  at  Rome, 
 the  remainder  at  Florence,  Bologna,  Venice,  Paris,  and  London),  nine 
 have  been  examined  by  an  accurate  critic,  M.  de  Berquigny,  who  con- 
 demns them  for  the  variety  of  imperfections  of  the  Greek  signatures. 
 Yet  several  of  these  may  be  considered  as  authentic  copies,  which  were 
 signed  at  Florence  before  the  final  separation  of  the  Pope  and  Emperor." 
 The  Despot  Demetrius  sternly  refused  to  sign,  and  was  rewarded  by 
 popularity  in  his  native  country. 
 
 :j:  The  Pope  ordered  the  profits  of  an  indulgence,  published  in  the 
 States  of  the  Duke  of  Burgundy,  to  be  applied  for  the  succour  of  the 
 Greeks. — v.  Raynaldus,  an.  1439. 
 
SACRED  ART  IX  ITALY.  IS3 
 
 "Uios^c  j)olItieal  interests,  wliicli,  obviously,  had  Lx'cn  para- 
 mount in  tlie  Diinds  of  the  laic,  however  influential,  or  other- 
 wise, over  the  ecclesiastical  party  from  Constantino])le. 
 Eugcnius  undertook  to  defray  the  costs  of  the  journey  for 
 the  Emperor  as  well  as  the  clergy  ;  for  three  years  to  main- 
 t;iiin  300  soldiers  and  two  galleys  for  the  defence  of  the 
 ]3yzantine  Empire  (or  rather  for  its  capital  alone) ;  and 
 whenever  the  Emperor  should  desire,  to  supply  twenty 
 galleys  for  six  months,  or  ten  for  a  year  ;  moreover,  to 
 urge  all  Western  Princes  to  send  troops,  at  emergencies,  for 
 defending  the  imperilled  city  and  State. 
 
 It  is  well  known  what  utter  failure  was  the  result  of 
 this  attempted  reunion  between  the  two  Churches.  After 
 the  Emperor  and  prelates  had  returned  to  Constantinople, 
 the  rest  of  the  Grreek  clergy  refused  to  communic<ate  with 
 those  who  had  signed  the  Decree.  The  name  of  John 
 Pala?oiogus  w^as  struck  off  the  sacred  diptychs  ;  he  ought 
 no  longer  to  be  prayed  for  according  to  the  charity  of  f.ina- 
 ticism !  The  new  Patriarch  was  speedily,  because  favourable 
 to  the  union,  denounced  as  schismatic  ;  all  his  efforts  for 
 peace  were  vain ;  neither  the  unyielding  clergy  nor  the 
 frivolous  people  would  hold  communion  with  him  ;  several 
 w^ho  had  given  their  signatures  at  Florence  finally  retracted. 
 The  Emperor  John  died  without  seeing  any  accomplishment 
 of  the  union  so  solemnly  accepted  and  proclaimed.  His 
 successor  held  a  Council  at  S.  Sophia,  in  which  the  Patriarch 
 was  deposed,  and  the  acts  of  the  Florence  assembly  were 
 rejected.  Soon  afterwards  all  the  prelates  who  had  signed 
 the  Decree  gave  in  their  retractation.  The  Grreek  Empire, 
 involved  in  theologic  contests,  hastened  to  and  prepared  its 
 ruin.*  In  the  sessions  held  after  the  departure  of  the  Greeks, 
 
 *  '-  The  Despot  Demetrius  raised  the  standard  of  Greek  orthodoxy  in 
 direct  rebellion  against  his  brother.     It  was  openly  said  lliat  they  (the 
 
484  MEDIEVAL   CHEISTIANITT   AND 
 
 the  Fathers  at  Basle  and  all  their  adherents  were  again 
 denounced  as  heretical  and  schismatic.  A  decree  was  passed, 
 the  Pojoe  speaking  in  his  own  name  alone,  for  the  reunion 
 of  the  Armenian  with  the  Latin  Church.*  The  Anti-pope 
 and  all  his  party  were  condemned  as  guilty  of  leze-majesty, 
 as  well  as  heresy  and  schism  ;  but  forgiveness  was  promised 
 by  Eugenius  to  those  who  should  retract  within  fifty  days. 
 In  the  last  session  (26th  April,  1442)  was  proclaimed  the 
 transfer  of  the  Council  to  Kome.  During  his  stay  in 
 Florence  the  Pope  consecrated  the  cathedral  with  much 
 picturesque  pomp  and  popular  rejoicing,  vividly  described 
 by  the  biographer  and  eye-witness  Vespasiano.  The  same 
 writer,  and  another  contemporary,  S.  Antoninus,  mention 
 the  exertions  made  by  Eugenius  for  the  reform  of  religious 
 Orders,  and  for  the  general  advantage  of  the  Church  in 
 Tuscany ;  also  giving  account  of  the  deplorable  abuses  dis- 
 covered by  him  in  Florentine  cloisters.  The  zealous  Pontiff 
 found  it  necessary  to  suppress  several  communities  of  nuns, 
 whose  life  was  most  scandalous  ;  and  the  sisterhood  in  some 
 
 signers  of  the  decree)  '  Judas-like,  had  received  money,  and  sold  the 
 Lord.'  Tiie  churches  where  they  officiated,  not  merely  in  the  metro- 
 polis, but  in  the  villages  around,  were  deserted  by  their  flocks.  Even  in 
 Russia,  the  Cardinal  Isidore  was  met  by  the  same  contemptuous,  in- 
 flexible resistance."  (Milman,  Book  XIII.,  c.  xiv.)  The  latter.  Arch- 
 bishop of  Kiow,  was  made  Cardinal,  together  with  the  learned  Bassarion 
 and  fifteen  others,  by  Eugenius  IV.  at  Florence.  Isidore  lived  to  witness 
 the  siege  and  capture  of  Constantinople,  to  escape,  after  most  perilous 
 adventures,  from  the  Turks,  to  vote  at  the  elections  of  three  Popes,  and 
 finally  died  at  Rome  as  titular  Patriarch  of  the  Greek  metropolis. 
 
 *  The  arrival  at  Florence  of  a  person  pretending  to  be  a  chief  abbot 
 of  the  Ethiopian  Clmrch,  and  bearer  of  letters  from  "  Prester  John," 
 whom  he  represented  as  about  to  visit  Italy,  is  rejected  by  some  histo- 
 rians (v.  Dupin)  as  a  pseudo-mission,  unauthorized,  and  without 
 enduring  effect.  A  deputy  from  the  Patriarch  of  Armenia  ari'ived  with 
 credentials  from  that  dignitary,  in  whose  name  he  accepted  a  formula  of 
 Catholic  faith  presented  in  one  of  the  public  sessions. 
 
SACRED    AllT    IN    ITALY.  485 
 
 instances  were  distributed  over  other  convents,  where 
 they  could  be  kept  under  control.  "We  have,  however,  the 
 testimony  of  the  saintly  Archbishop  Antoninus,  as  to 
 the  edifying  example  set  by  the  nuns  of  the  Murate  con- 
 vent (on  the  site  now  occupied  by  the  great  prisons), 
 where  a  community  of  more  than  a  hundred  maintained 
 themselves  by  their  labour,  and  could  afford,  out  of  their 
 earnings,  to  dispense  much  in  alms  ;  they  kept  up  con- 
 tinual psalmody  in  their  church,  and  were  veritable 
 models  of  strict  observance  (S.  Anton.,  Chronic,  anno 
 1J.35).  Several  monasteries,  which  could  not  be  reduced 
 under  wholesome  restraint,  were  suppressed;  those  not 
 incorrigible,  reformed  and  preserved.*  The  Sylvestrine 
 monks  at  S.  Marco  were  among  the  reprobate  ;  and  to  that 
 convent  the  Pope  transferred  the  Dominicans  from  another 
 cloister,  at  the  request  of  Cosmo  de'  Medici,  who  (say^^ 
 Tespasiano)  promised  his  Holiness  to  spend  10,000  ducats 
 on  the  restoration  of  the  S.  Marco  church  and  convent,  and 
 actually  went  to  the  expense  of  40,000  on  those  works,  after 
 which  that  renowned  Dominican  church  was  consecrated  by 
 Eugenius.  The  Florentine  "  Badia"  (Benedictine)  was 
 also  reformed  ;  and  the  Pope  abolished  the  perpetual  tenure 
 of  the  abbacy,  substituting  the  system  of  annual  election 
 to  that  office.  A  similar  reform  was  effected  at  S.  Salvi,  the 
 Yallombrosan  monastery  now  desecrated  and  forlorn,  but 
 still  known  to  tourists  through  Andrea  del  Sarto's  beau- 
 tiful fresco  of  the  Last  Supper  in  its  refectory.  Another 
 extramural  abbey,  Settimo,  once  inhabited  by  forty  to  fifty 
 monks  of  the  Cistercian  reform  of  S.  Bernard,  but  now  con- 
 taining only  two  brethren,  and  deprived  of  almost  all  its 
 lands  and  farms,  which  had  been  sold  by  an  unworthy 
 abbot,  was  consigned  by  the  Pope  to  the  cares  of  an  estim- 
 
 *  "  Piu  nnonisteri  ch'  erano  per  la  terra  in  varii  luoghi,  chc  non  si 
 potcvano  riduccrc,  gli  disfece — Dove  pote  riducerli  a  vivcr  bene,  lo 
 fcce." — Vespasiano,  Eugcnio  IV. 
 
486  MEDIiEYAL   CHEISTIANITT   A^B 
 
 able  Cardinal,  Domenico  Caprauica,  wlio  recovered  tlie  lost 
 pro^^erties  and  revenues,  invited  Benedictine  monks  from 
 the  "  Badia"  to  establish  themselves  here,  and  assume  the 
 Cistercian  habit,  so  that  before  long  a  community  of  more 
 than  forty  brethren  brought  back  life  and  influence  to  that 
 decayed  cloister.  Eugenius  wished  to  suppress  all  the  con- 
 ventual friars  {i.e.  those  living  on  their  own  property), and 
 reduce  them  to  the  faithful  observance  of  the  rules  pre- 
 scribed by  S.  Dominick  and  S.  Francis.  This  reform  was 
 carried  out  at  Alvernia,  at  Aracoeli  in  Eome,  and  generally 
 throughout  the  Eoman  States.  Whatever  maybe  thought  of 
 the  acts  of  Eugenius  IV.  as  Supreme  Pontiff  or  as  temporal 
 Euler,his  private  life  presents  a  venerable  example  of  austere 
 virtues,  self-denial,  studious  pursuits,  and  most  generous 
 liberality  in  disposing  of  this  world's  goods.  He  personified 
 that  excellence  which  the  Catholic  Eeligion  is  eminently 
 suited  to  produce,  the  fruit  of  ecclesiastical  education 
 matured  by  inspiring  principles  of  habitual  obedience  and 
 concentrated  self-command.  The  report  by  Yespasiano  of 
 the  impression  made  by  him,  and  the  popular  feeling  mani- 
 fested towards  him  at  Florence,  is  truly  affecting.  Not 
 only  a  tribute  to  the  virtues  of  the  man,  but  to  the  sanctity 
 of  the  Pontificate  did  the  pious  Elorentines  render  to  that 
 Pope  when  he  appeared  in  public— these  citizens,  no  doubt, 
 being  the  organs  of  utterance  for  a  sentiment  still  deeply 
 rooted  in  the  Italian  mind  One  scene  is  described  by  that 
 writer  with  a  graphic  simplicity  only  to  be  appreciated  in 
 his  quaint  original  words  :  "  I  recollect  that  several  times 
 the  Pope  was  with  the  Cardinals  on  a  balcony  near  the 
 portal  of  the  cloister  of  S.  Maria  Novella ;  and  the  piazza 
 of  S.  Maria  Novella  was  full,  not  only  it,  but  all  the  ways 
 leading  to  it  being  crowded ;  and  so  great  was  the  devotion 
 of  the  people  who  came  that  all  remained  stupifiedin  behold- 
 ing him  (Eugenius)  ;  and  not  a  single  person  was  heard  to 
 
SACRED  AET  IX  ITALY.  4S7 
 
 speak,  but  all  turned  towards  the  Pontiff.  And  when  he 
 began,  according  to  the  custom  of  the  Pontiffs,  with  these 
 words,  Adjutorium  nostrum  in  nomine  Domini,  one  heard  how 
 the  piazza  was  full  of  weeping  and  lamenting,  many  calling 
 upon  God  for  mercy,  through  the  great  devotion  the  people 
 felt  on  seeing  his  Holiness  ;  for  not  only  did  it  appear  to 
 them  that  they  saw  the  Yicar  of  Christ  on  earth,  but  His 
 Divinity. — Truly  at  this  time,  he  (the  Pope)  appeared  to  be 
 the  One  he  represented." 
 
 On  the  28th  September,  1143,  Eugenius  lY.  re-entered 
 Home  after  an  absence  of  more  than  nine  years.  He  was 
 received  with  rejoicings  ;  and  after  passing  the  night  at  the 
 monastery  close  to  the  Flaminian  gate,  rode  to  S.  Peter's 
 through  streets  hung  with  rich  draperies ;  hearing  a  cry 
 raised  from  the  crowd,  complaining  of  a  new  tax  on  wine, 
 he  commanded  silence,  and  instantly  abolished  that  imposi- 
 tion. JNIany  had  been  the  vicissitudes,  and  deeply  depressed 
 the  conditions  of  the  city  during  his  absence.  For  some  time 
 after  the  Pope's  flight,  the  S.  Angelo  castle  was  held  by  his 
 troops,  and  after  being  attacked,  kept  up  a  vigorous  bom- 
 bardment, spreading  havoc  and  death  around  its  sullen 
 walls.  The  people  invited  Fortebraccio  from  his  camp,  and 
 he  entered  the  city  (1131)  with  some  show  of  military 
 triumph.  But  in  the  meantime  Vitelleschi  was  recruiting 
 his  forces  after  defeat ;  and  Sforza,  led  by  the  natural  con- 
 dotticre  instmct,  was  changing  sides,  finding  it  better  to 
 fight  for  the  Pope  than  against  him  in  a  profitless  league. 
 In  the  October  of  that  year,  Vitelleschi,  Sforza,  the  Orsini 
 and  pontific  commissaries  arrived  with  a  sufiicicnt  army  for 
 their  purposes  ;  entered  the  Eorgo  quarters  near  S.  Peter's, 
 and  the  next  day  were  masters  of  the  Transtiberinc 
 suburb  as  well  as  the  Leonine  City.  The  cry  "  La  Chiesa !  * 
 was  raised  in  the  streets.  Combat  ensued ;  Vitelleschi 
 stormed  the  Capitol  whilst  the  Chatclain  of  S.  Angelo  made 
 
4S8  MEDIEVAL   CHEISTIA:EnTT    ATfD 
 
 a  vigorous  sortie ;  the  seven  "  Gubernatores"  fled,  unable 
 to  defend  themselves  in  the  Capitoline  palace  lately  rebuilt ; 
 the  Eepublic  was  overthrown,  and  Papal  authority  restored, 
 after  scarcely  nine  months  of  that  adverse  government. 
 
 Vitelleschi  now  applied  himself  to  exterminate  with  fire 
 and  sword  the  marauding  soldiery  who  were  devastating 
 and  pursuing  their  brigand  courses  over  the  Campagna  and 
 Sabina  ;  also  to  put  down  the  hardly  less  lawless  violence 
 of  the  baronial  leaders.  Palestrina  was  destroyed,  not  even 
 the  cathedral  being  spared ;  and  the  work  of  demolition  was 
 continued  for  a  whole  month  by  order  of  this  Prelate- 
 Caj)tain.*  The  Colonna  castle,  on  its  rocky  height  above 
 that  town,  was  left  standing  till  the  next  year  (M38),  when, 
 Lorenzo  Colonna  having  ventured  to  return,  that  strong- 
 hold of  his  family  was  also  destroyed.  The  prettily-situated 
 Zagarolo,  in  the  valley  below  Palestrina,  shared  the  same  fate. 
 The  Savelli  castle  near  Albano  was  razed  to  the  ground.f 
 The  Prefect,  Del  Yico,  was  besieged  at  Yetralla,  and  after 
 the  taking  of  that  fortress,  sent  to  the  castle  of  Soriano  to 
 suifer  death.  "With  him  became  extinct  that  family,  of 
 German  origin,  which  had  held  the  hereditary  office  of  Pre- 
 fect of  E/ome  since  the  XII.  century  ;  and  subsequently 
 the  prefecture  was  bestowed  by  the  Popes  at  pleasure,  with 
 much  limitation  of  its  former  attributes.  The  moral  con- 
 ditions and  police  of  Home  were,  at  this  time,  the  worst 
 
 *  The  church-bells  were  taken  to  Corneto  ;  the  marbles  of  the  cathe- 
 dral doors  to  the  same  town,  for  adorning  the  magnificent  palace  of  the 
 Vitelleschi  family,  still  extant,  and  now  serving  as  the  principal  hotel  of 
 Corneto. 
 
 t  Mentioned  in  the  XI.  century,  and  rebuilt  about  the  end  of  the 
 XII.  by  the  nephews  of  Honorius  III.,  this  castle  was  again  restored 
 by  Pius  II,  but  finally  deserted,  owing  to  want  of  water,  in  1640.  Its 
 ruins,  on  a  woody  knoll,  form  a  picturesque  object  seen  from  the  road  to 
 Albano. 
 
SACKED   ART    IN   ITALY.  4S9 
 
 possible ;  robbery,  murder,  and  sanguinary  vengeance 
 stalked  abroad,  the  unchecked  demons  of  a  corrupt  people 
 and  feeble  state !  The  churches,  even  principal  basilicas, 
 were  so  often  robbed  that  the  Pope  issued  a  bull  (1436) 
 against  such  sacrilege.  At  the  Lateran  the  silver  busts, 
 containing  the  supposed  skulls  of  S.  Peter  and  Paul,  were 
 deprived  of  their  most  precious  jewels  by  two  beneficed 
 clergymen  of  that  chapter,  who,  as  well  as  a  canon,  con- 
 victed only  of  the  oftence  of  receiving  some  of  those  stolen 
 gems,  sufiered  a  horrible  death  ;  brought  from  their  prison 
 to  the  Campodi  Mori,  with  paper  mitres  on  their  head,  the 
 canon  seated  on  a  mule,  the  other  two  dragged  at  the  tails 
 of  horses,  the  former  was  hanged  to  a  tree  before  the 
 Lateran  basilica,  the  two  latter  were  burnt  alive  after  their 
 right  hands  had  been  cut  off ;  and  this  ghastly  scene  was 
 commemorated  in  a  picture  painted  on  a  wall  either  of  the 
 church  or  the  adjacent  palace.*  The  robbery  had  been 
 twice  perpetrated,  at  Easter  and  on  the  festival  of  the  two 
 Apostles.  Those  jewels,  soon  recovered,  were  brought  back 
 to  the  Lateran  by  the  Senator  with  all  the  magistrates  in 
 procession  ;  there,  at  the  high  altar,  that  chief  officer  read 
 the  excommunication  threatened  by  Urban  Y.,  who  had 
 deposited  the  jewelled  busts  in  their  shrine,  against  all  sacri- 
 legious des  pollers. 
 
 After  his  successful  onset  against  petty  despots,  and  bri- 
 gand-soldiery on  the  Campagna,Yitelleschi  entered  E/Ome  in 
 triumph,  received  with  pomp,  and  from  the  arch  of  Grallienus 
 (near  S.  Maria  Maggiore)  was  attended  by  the  magistrates 
 with  olive  branches  in  their  hands,  a  canopy  borne  over  his 
 head  as  he  rode  through  the  streets  by  torchlight,  to  the 
 palace  of  S.  Lorenzo  in  Damaso.  The  people  shouted  rivaa 
 for  "  the  Patriarch,  the  father  of  the  city  !  "     On  the  same 
 
 *  As  Infessura,  not  very  clearly,  reports:  "painted  on  tlic  side  where 
 one  enters  the  church  of  tS.  Giovanni,  on  the  ri^^ht,  hi^^h  up.'' 
 
490  MEDI.EYAL    CnRISTIANITT   AXD 
 
 night  a  deputation  waited  on  him,  and  presented  a  goblet 
 full  of  gold  pieces.  The  obsequious  Senate  and  magistrates, 
 in  a  civic  assembly  on  the  Capitol,  voted  the  erection  of  an 
 equestrian  statue  to  his  honour,  with  the  epigraph  :  Joanni 
 Vitellesclio^  JPatriarclicd  Alexandrhw^  tertio  a  Bomulo  JRo- 
 onancB  Urlis  JParenti — to  be  placed  on  tiic  Capitol,  where, 
 however,  no  such  sculptured  monument  was  ever  seen. 
 This  mitred  warrior  commanded  4000  horse  and  2000  foot 
 soldiery  ;  had  his  garrisons  at  Corueto,  Ostia,  Civitavecchia. 
 Most  characteristic  of  the  blending  of  opposite  oiBces  and  dig- 
 nities in  his  person,  and  of  the  natural  fruit  of  such  anomaly, 
 was  one  of  the  rewards  he  promised  to  his  soldiers  :  an  indul- 
 gence of  a  hundred  days  for  every  olive-tree  cut  down  on  land 
 they  were  devastating  !  But  his  career  was  drawing  towards 
 a  tragic  close.  He  was  accused  to  the  Pope  of  intent  to  sub- 
 ject to  his  own  power  the  cities  he  had  reconquered  for  the 
 tiara ;  of  holding  secret  treaties  with  Piccinnino,  the  captain 
 of  Duke  Yisconti's  forces,  etc.  Cardinal  Scarampo,  an  ambi- 
 tious and  intriguing  man,  counselled  Eugenius  to  have  him 
 put  under  arrest.  One  day  when  Yitelleschi  was  passing 
 by  the  S.  Angelo  castle  at  the  head  of  his  troops,  about  to 
 march  into  Tuscany,  he  was  treacherously  seized  by  the 
 Chatelain,  Eido,  who  pretended  to  enter  into  friendly  dis- 
 course with  him  at  the  augle  between  the  gate  of  that 
 fortress  and  the  bridge.  Pinding  himself  surrounded  and 
 made  a  prisoner  inside  the  iron  gate  now  closed  behind 
 him,  he  valiantly  resisted  till  wounded  in  the  neck  and 
 right  arm.  He  died  in  the  castle,  a  few  days  afterwards 
 (1440),  either  of  wounds,  or  (as  suspected)  of  poison;  and 
 the  remains  of  this  once  great  and  dreaded  leader,  Car- 
 dinal Patriarch  and  Chief  Commander  of  the  pontific 
 armies,  were  insultingly  exposed,  naked  and  unhonoured, 
 in  the  church  of  S.  Maria  sopra  Minervo,  for  an  interval 
 before  his  relalives  were  allowed  to  remove  Ihcm  to  Corueto. 
 
SACRED  AET  IX  ITALY.  401 
 
 His  career  is  a  striking  example  of  the  strange  confusion, 
 which  higliest  ecclesiastical  authorities  are  responsible  for, 
 between  things  sacred  and  profane.  When  pontific  hands 
 bestowed  the  mitre  and  the  command  of  troops,  the  sword 
 and  the  crozier,  npon  the  same  individual,  what  standard  of 
 ecclesiastical  duties  could  be  kept  up,  or  cons^istently 
 adopted  and  maintained  ?  Eugcnius  IV.  made  Yitclleschi 
 "  Captain- Greneral  of  the  Holy  Church,"  and,  in  the  same 
 year.  Bishop  of  two  Sees,  Macerata  and  Eecanati ;  in  the 
 next  year.  Archbishop  of  Elorence  and  titular  Patriarch  of 
 Alexandria ;  two  years  afterwards  he  raised  him  to  the  cardi- 
 nalate ;  and  during  that  Pope's  absence  from  Home,  Cardinal 
 A^itelleschi  was  appointed  Governor  and  Yice-Chancellor. 
 At  different  periods  he  had  been  Legate  to  several  Italian 
 states  and  cities ;  and  was  once  sent  with  forces  into  the 
 IS'eapoiitan  kingdom  to  support  Ee'ne  d'Anjou  in  his  struggle 
 against  Alphonso  of  Arragon  for  the  crown.  Apologists^ 
 who  own  that  "  he  wielded  more  frequently  the  sword  than 
 the  crozier,  and  seldom  resided  in  his  dioceses,"  have  made 
 good  his  claim  to  praise  for  well  employed  energies.  Excellent 
 regulations  were  passed  by  him  to  promote  the  welfare  of  his 
 flocks,  who  seldom  saw  their  warlike  pastor,  and  to  secure 
 the  good  conduct  of  the  clergy  subject  to  him  in  his  dio- 
 ceses, Corneto  was  erected  into  a  bishopric  by  his  counsel ; 
 and  out  of  regard  for  him  the  Eoman  Senate  bestowed 
 their  own  citizenship  on  all  the  inhabitants  of  that  town. 
 This  Cardinal's  nephew,  who  was  Bishop  of  Corneto  at  the 
 time  of  his  death,  fled  on  hearing  of  his  uncle's  tragic  fate  ; 
 was  deprived  of  his  See,  made  Cardinal  by  the  Antipope, 
 and  finally  restored  to  his  bishopric  by  Nicholas  V. 
 Eugenius,  in  a  brief  to  the  "  Cornetani,"  represented  their 
 illustrious  townsman's  captivity  and  death  as  the  conse- 
 quences of  an  accident  in  a  quarrel  between  him  and  the 
 Chatelain  ;  but    it  is  certain    tluit  tlie    Pope  liberally  re- 
 
492  MEDIJEYAL    CHRIS TIAIN'ITT    A>"D 
 
 warded  Eido  for  lils  base  services.  Cardinal  ScaramjDo 
 succeeded  to  the  offices  and  honours  of  the  unfortunate 
 A'^itelleschi. 
 
 Contemporary  writers  describe  the  ruinous  desolation  of 
 Eome — symbolic  of  its  moral  decline — at  this  period,  and 
 during  the  nine  years'  exile  of  the  Pope,  ^neas  Piccolo- 
 mini  observes  that  the  city,  deprived  of  the  government  of 
 its  pontiffs,  appeared  more  like  a  vast  and  deserted  cavern 
 than  a  metropolis.*  Another  writer  found  it  like  a  village 
 of  cowherds  rather  than  a  civilized  city  ;  its  inhabitants 
 being  dressed,  as  we  may  suppose  were  peasants  on  the  Cam- 
 pagua  at  this  time,  in  coarse  cloaks  (capperoni)  and  long 
 boots  ;  where  once  had  been  shops  and  stalls,  sheep  and 
 cattle  now  wandered  about ;  and  one  sign  of  improved 
 circumstances  was  that,  after  the  return  of  Eugenius  IV., 
 the  impoverished  people  put  on  better  clothes.f  Poggio 
 saw  the  Capitoline  hill  covered  with  vineyards,  and  of  all 
 its  monumental  grandeur  nothing  left  save  the  massive 
 time-defying  ruins  of  the  Tabularium,  the  great  vaulted 
 corridor  of  which  was  then  utilized  as  a  salt  magazine.  Plavio 
 Biondo  mentions  the  practice,  then  common,  of  burning  the 
 travertine  and  marble,  torn  from  classic  ruins,  in  limekilns. 
 Ambrogio  Traversari  (visiting  this  city  in  1432)  says  :  "  One 
 cannot  walk  in  any  direction  without  having  to  observe 
 some  work  of  antique  art,  either  lying  on  the  ground  or 
 set  into  some  wall  like  a  useless  old  stone,  Pragments  of 
 marble  or  porphyry  columns  are  seen  strewn  on  the  earth  ; 
 and  many  such,  still  preserved  erect,  serve  to  support  the 
 most  miserable  sort  of  porches." 
 
 In  14  il  arrived  visitors  who  made  a  sensation,  and 
 whose  appearance  in  Home  is  commemorated  among  the 
 
 *  "Romam  sine  pontificiscura  noii  tarn  urbcm  quam  vastam  ac  desertam 
 speluncam,  etc." 
 
 •f  '•  Si  livestirono  c  rassettarouo  la  mnggior  parte."     Vcspasiano. 
 
SACRED    AllT    IN    ITALY.  493 
 
 reliefs  on  the  bronze  doors  of  S.  Peter's  :  an  Egyptian 
 abbot,  named  Antony,  with  about  twelve  Ethiopian  monks, 
 that  superior  representing  himself  to  be  in  the  confidence 
 of  the  Emperor  of  Ethiopia.  They  were  received  at  the 
 gates  by  the  Senator,  the  Governor  and  other  magistrates ; 
 were  lodged  in  the  palace  of  S.  Lorenzo  in  Damaso,  and 
 escorted  by  officials  to  see  the  principal  churches  and  expo- 
 sitions of  relics.  The  object  of  their  mission  is  but  vaguely 
 indicated  ;  though  Ciaconius  brings  it  into  connection  with 
 that  of  the  "  orators"  from  Armenia  and  Ethiopia,  who 
 appeared  at  Elorence  during  the  Council,  professing  their 
 readiness  to  submit  to  the  decisions  of  that  assembly  and 
 to  the  authority  of  the  Pope  ;  requesting  also  to  be  sup- 
 plied, as  they  promptly  were,  with  a  norma  for  doctrine 
 and  discipline  in  the  true  Church,  to  which  they  desired  to 
 pertain.  Gibbon,  admitting  the  fact  of  their  mission, 
 questions  their  credentials,  and  doubts  the  reality  of  the 
 nominal  reunion  between  the  Churches.* 
 
 "While  Felix  Y.,  neglected  and  scarcely  formidable,  was 
 keeping  up  the  semblance  of  a  pontific  court  at  Lausanne, 
 the  German  Empire  still  continued  neutral,  as  ever  since 
 the  Council  of  Basle  had  commenced.  Anonymous  writings 
 
 *  "  The  deputies  of  the  Armenians,  !Maronites,  Jacobites  of  Syria 
 and  Egypt  successively  kissed  the  foot  of  Eugenius  IV.,  and  announced 
 the  obedience  and  orthodoxy  of  the  East."  These  Oriental  embassies, 
 (he  infers)  were  unknown  in  the  comitries  they  presumed  to  represent. 
 "  So  nugatory,  or  rather  so  fabulous  (he  adds),  were  these  reunions  of 
 the  Nestorians  and  Jacobites,  that  I  have  turned  over,  without  success, 
 the  Bibliotheca  Orientalis  of  Assemanus,  a  faithful  slave  of  the  Vatican." 
 {^Decline  and  Fall,  c.  LXVI.)  A  contemporary,  Vespasiano,  assumes  that 
 this  mission  had  its  practical  importance,  so  at  least  his  own  simple 
 words  imply: — "  Letti  i  privilegi  de' Greci,  e  autenticati  c  confcnnati 
 in  pubblico  di  volonta  delle  parti,  si  Icssero  poi  quegli  degli  Armeni  c 
 Jacobiti  ed  Etiopi'' — that  is,  at  the  Florence  Council. 
 
19 i  MEDI.ETAL    CHRTSTIANITT    AND 
 
 were  circulated  calling  ou  the  nation  to  cast  off  an  inglo- 
 rious neutrality,  and  espouse  the  cause  of  religious  freedom 
 by  acknowledging  that  Council.  Eugenius  lY.  arbitrarily 
 deposed  the  Archbishops  of  Cologne  and  Treves,  and 
 intrusted  other  ecclesiastics,  not  even  G-ermans,  with  those 
 princely  sees.  Six  of  the  Electors  entered  into  a  league, 
 and  threatened  that  if  the  Pope  did  not  annul  his  bull  of 
 deposition  against  the  Archbishops,  and  submit  to  the 
 decrees  of  Constance,  they  would  cast  off  the  neutrality, 
 acknowledge  the  Council  of  Basle  and  Eelix  Y.  as  legiti- 
 mately raised  to  the  pontificate.  The  Emperor,  ruled  by 
 his  secretary,  the  eloquent  ^neas  Sylvius,  whom  Eugenius 
 had  recently  appointed  his  own  secretary  also,  sent  tidings 
 of  this  league  to  Rome,  and  intrusted  to  the  same  accom- 
 plished agent  the  task  of  persuading  the  Pope  to  grant 
 restitution  to  the  two  Archbishops,  ^neas  succeeded  in 
 his  difficult  mission  ;  the  deposed  prelates  were  restored  ; 
 the  Emperor  and  several  of  the  German  Princes  forswore 
 the  neutrality  and  submitted  to  Eugenius.  A  concordat 
 was  drawn  up  (1447)  between  Erederick  III.  and  the  Le- 
 gate, Cardinal  Carvajal,  and  accepted  the  same  year  by  a 
 Diet,  importing— That  canonical  election  should  be  restored 
 to  the  capitular  clergy ;  that  the  Pope  should  no  more  grant 
 provisions  or  expectatives  in  the  Empire,  but  should  nomi- 
 nate to  Grerman  benefices  left  vacant  through  the  transla- 
 tion of  incumbents  or  the  annulling  by  the  Holy  See  of 
 previous  nominations ;  that  he  should  appoint  to  canoni- 
 cates,  alternately  with  the  Chapters,  for  six  months  ;  that  a 
 tax,  payable  by  the  recipients  of  benefices  within  two 
 years,  should  be  substituted  for  the  abolished  annates.  To 
 Erederick  III.  is  imputed  the  responsibility  of  having  sold 
 to  Eome  the  cause  of  reform  in  the  German  Church  for 
 the  sum  of  200,000  florins,  coupled  with  the  promise  of  an 
 
SACRED  ART  IX  ITALY.  405 
 
 imperial  coronation,  and  certain  conccsjiions  of  ccclesias- 
 tical  favours  in  his  hereditary  states.* 
 
 ^?i!neas  Sylvius  was  the  bearer  to  Eome  of  the  intelli- 
 gence that  the  Diet  at  Frankfort  had  accepted  the  terms 
 olfored  by  the  Pope,  and  that  the  Emperor  was  satisfied 
 with  his  concessions.  The  Concordat  was  celebrated  in  the 
 former  city,  like  a  victory,  with  rejoicings  and  illuminations. 
 Eugenius  just  lived  long  enough  to  issue  the  apostolic 
 bulls,  and  reward  the  services  of  ^neas  Sylvius  with  a 
 bishopric.  Eourteen  days  afterwards  he  breathed  his  last, 
 23rd  February,  1417. 
 
 The  last  days  and  words  of  this  Pontiff  have  a  touching 
 solemnity,  as  reported  by  contemporaries  and  by  one  who 
 saw  him  on  his  death-bed.f  Eugenius  asserted  that  in  his 
 youth,  whilst  he  dwelt  in  his  quiet  monastery  at  Venice, 
 the  supreme  pontificate,  its  peculiar  trials  in  his  case,  its 
 duration,  and  consequently  the  term  of  his  life,  had  been 
 prophesied  to  him  by  a  mysterious  hermit,  whom  he  saw 
 but  once.  His  death  was  calm  and  holy  ;  but  one  utter- 
 ance, at  that  moment  when  illusions  fade  before  the 
 closing  eyes,  expressed  a  profound  feeling  of  self-reproach 
 at  the  retrospect  of  his  career  since  highest  honours  had 
 accumulated  on  his  head: — "O  Gabriel  (he  exclaimed), 
 how  much  better  had  it  been  for  thy  soul's  salvation  if 
 thou  hadst  never  been  either  Pope  or  Cardinal,  but  left  to 
 die  a  simple  monk  !"J 
 
 *  Gregorovius,  B.  XIII.  c.  1.  The  anonymous  author  of  "  Janus" 
 says,  in  this  reference  :  *'  Damit  war  in  Deutschland  die  Sache  des  Con- 
 cils  uud  der  Kirchenreformation  verloren,  und  sank  die  Deutsche  Kirche 
 Schritt  f  ijr  Schritt  in  die  friihere  Knechtschaft  zuriick."  Yet  assuredly 
 the  points  conceded  in  the  Concordat  had  their  importance,  participating 
 of  the  nature  of  disciplinary  reform. 
 
 t  The  same  Piccolomini,  named  JEneas. 
 
 J  "  0  GabricIIo,  (^uanto  sarcbbe   suto  mcglio  per  la  sahitc  dell'  aniraa 
 
496  MEDIAEVAL    CIIRISTIAI^ITT   A^^D 
 
 Eugenius  IV.,  notwithstanding  many  virtues,  had  not 
 elevation  of  mind  to  perceive  that  the  true  interests  of  the 
 Papacy  were  identical  with  those  of  the  Church ;  and  that 
 acquiescence  in  demands  advanced  by  the  wise,  the 
 thoughtful  and  learned,  for  temperate  reform,  would  have 
 strengthened  instead  of  weakening  the  throne  he  filled. 
 He  strove  for  the  interests  of  the  Eoman  Curia,  and  for 
 his  own  prerogatives  and  claims  understood  in  that  exagge- 
 rated sense  which  the  intellect  and  religious  feeling  of  the 
 age  were  beginning  to  dispute,  or  openly  deny,  to  the 
 Eoman  See.  He  left  to  his  successors  a  sad  inheritance — 
 a  confirmed  antagonism  between  the  Papal  power  and  the 
 Apostolic  institutions  of  primitive  Christianity.  "  Had  he 
 made  a  better  use  of  his  talents,"  it  is  observed  by  an 
 ecclesiastical  historian,  "he  might  have  restored  to  the 
 Church  a  part  at  least  of  her  pristine  splendour."  {ArL 
 de  Vtrifier  les  Dates.) 
 
 tua,  die  tu  non  fussi  niai  suto  ne  pajia  ne  cardinale,  ma  fiissiti  morto 
 nella  tua  rcligione." — Ves2)asiano. 
 
SACKED    ART    IN    ITALY.  jl); 
 
 CHAPTER   Ylir. 
 
 THE  FIFTEENTH  CENTUKY,  1447  TO  i:,00. 
 
 DuRixa  the  conclave,  wliich  met  in  the  Dominican 
 convent  of  "  La  Minerva,"  after  the  death  of  Eugenius  lY., 
 Alfonso  of  Aragon,  who  had  obtained  the  jS'eapolitan  crown 
 in  1443,  appeared  at  the  head  of  troops  on  the  Campagua, 
 and  took  up  his  quarters  at  Tivoli.  His  presence  there 
 contributed  to  protect  the  pontific  cause  during  the  inter- 
 regnum, wliilst  an  effort  was  made  by  Stefano  Porcaro,  a 
 citizen  of  the  higher  class  and  of  cultivated  mind,  to  rouse 
 the  people  to  revolt.  Now,  he  argued,  was  the  favourable 
 moment,  the  throne  being  vacant,  to  claim  their  rights  and 
 emancipate  themselves  from  the  sacerdotal  sway  which  it 
 was  disgraceful  to  endure.  Thus  did  this  bold  demagogue 
 address  a  multitude  assembled  in  the  church  of  Aracoeli  on 
 the  Capitol ;  but  his  appeals  were  fruitless ;  the  spirit  and 
 efforts  of  E,ienzo  could  not  be  revived,  and  the  prelate  who 
 governed  Rome  during  the  seclusion  of  the  Cardinals  had 
 strength  to  put  down  the  abortive  revolution  which  failed 
 before  passing  into  the  phase  of  incipient  action.  On  the 
 6th  March,  1447,  issued  forth  from  the  Minerva  convent 
 a  procession  escorting  the  new  Pope,  with  customary  pomps, 
 to  S.  Peter's ;  and  the  Romans  now  saw,  mounted  on  a 
 white  palfrey,  the  little,  feeble,  insignificant-looking  man, 
 whom  seventeen  Cardinals  had  elected  to  the  Papal  throne, 
 and  who  took  the  name  of  Nicholas  Y. 
 
 Tomaso  da  Sarzana,  the  son  of  a  surgeon  in  a  Tuscan 
 village,  had  studied  at  Bologna,  and  began  his  career  as  n 
 
 2    K 
 
498  MEDI,12YAL    CHRISTIJLNITT    AND 
 
 private  tutor  at  Florence.   Winning  his  way  through  merits 
 and  learning  to  the  various  high  offices  of  the  Church,  he 
 became,   in    the   course   of  eighteen   months,   Bishop   of 
 Bologna,  Cardinal,  and  Sovereign  Pontiff.     He  had  accom- 
 panied his  patron.  Cardinal  Albergati,on  several  important 
 missions  to  Trance,  England,   and  Burgundy ;  had  been 
 subsequently  sent  by  Eugenius  IV.  into  countries  where  he 
 represented  the  Holy  See  without  dependence  on  another. 
 In  him  the  world  had   soon  to  recognise  one  of  the  most 
 learned  and  beneficent   of  Popes.     At  a  time  when  the 
 ardent  desire  for  knowledge  prevailed  throughout  Italy, 
 and  an  eager  interest  in  classical  literature  was  increasing, 
 when  novel  and  bold  ideas  were  obtaining  ground,  when  the 
 deference  towards  the  Church  and  the  Papacy  was  declin- 
 ing, and  many  old  things  were  passing  away  from  mind  or 
 belief,  this  Pontiff  became  the  chief  instrument  for  unlock- 
 ing to  the  European  intellect,  thus  already  stimulated,  the 
 treasures  of  Antiquity,  its  Philosophy,  its  History,  and  its 
 Thought ;   he  re-asserted  for  the  Papacy  an  intellectual 
 headship,  and  a  character  in  which  it  worthily  sustained 
 the  higher  character  and  vocation  of  the  Latin  Church. 
 He  was  the  founder  of  the  Vatican  Library,  a  nucleus  of 
 which,  the  remnant   of  the  more   ancient  Papal   library 
 brought  back  from  Avignon,  had  been  left  at   the  now 
 deserted  Lateran,  but  was  transferred  by  Nicholas  to  the 
 more  modern  palace,  where  in  the  course  of  his  pontificate 
 of  eight  years,  that  collection  swelled  to  the  number  of 
 5000  volumes.     He  sent  missionaries  over  distant  countries 
 to  search  among  the  remnants   of  Byzantine  libraries,  or 
 the  obscurest   monasteries  of  Germany   and   Britain  for 
 the   dusty  MSS.,  which  were  to  him  the  most  prized  of 
 earthly  treasures.     He  caused  to  be  made  known,  either  in 
 the  originals  or  through  Latin  translation,  the  most  valu- 
 able works  of  Plato  and  Aristotle,  and  all  the  discoverable 
 
SACRED    ART    IN    ITALY.  499 
 
 writings  of  Tluicydides,  Herodotus,  Xeiiophon,  Polybius, 
 Diodorus,  Appian,  Theophrastus,  Philo,  Ptolemy.  The 
 patristic  Greek  Literature  was  not  forgotten  ;  and  transla- 
 tors of  the  works  of  Chrysostom,  Cyril,  Eusebius  were 
 liberally  rewarded.  Gianozzo  Manetti,  invited  to  Uome 
 from  Florence,  was  made  pontific  Secretary,  with  a  double 
 salary  for  his  services,  while  employed  in  literary  under- 
 takings, in  translating  and  composing.  To  Lorenzo  Yalle 
 was  assigned  the  task  of  translating  Herodotus  and  Thucy- 
 dides  ;  to  Poggio,  that  of  rendering  Xenophon  and  Dio- 
 dorus into  Latin.  The  Pope  promised  10,000  gold  florins  to 
 Francesco  Pilelfo  for  a  poetic  version  of  Homer  (never, 
 unfortunately,  finished),  after  first  giving  that  writer  a 
 purse  of  500  ducats,  on  hearing  him  read  his  once  famous 
 Satires.  One  emissary  brought  from  Germany  the  long 
 lost "  Germania"  of  Tacitus,  and  the  "  De  Viris  illustribus" 
 of  Suetonius.  Classic  MSS.  were  the  tribute  of  the  world 
 to  this  crowned  Mecaenas,  of  whom  Gibbon  says  that  in  him 
 "  the  character  of  the  man  prevailed  over  the  interest  of 
 the  Pope  ;"  that  "  the  fame  of  Nicholas  V.  has  not  been 
 adequate  to  his  deserts."  He  habitually  kept  1000 
 scribes  engaged  in  copying  the  ancient  codes  thus  carefully 
 acquired,  and  100  learned  writers  to  translate  into  Latin 
 from  those  that  were  in  Greek.  The  literary  men,  monks 
 and  savants,  driven  from  the  Eastern  Empire  by  Moslem 
 invasion,  found  refuge  and  encouragement  in  Eome. 
 Throughout  his  pontificate,  Nicholas  Y.  was  not  only  a 
 patron  of  the  learned,  but  munificent  in  the  undertaking 
 of  public  works  ;  he  used  to  say  that  there  were  two  objects 
 for  which  he  desired  to  spend  money  :  books  and  buildings. 
 In  his  relations  with  Princes,  his  aims  and  policy  were 
 always  pacific  ;  hence  the  gradually  restored  amity  between 
 European  governments  and  the  Holy  See ;  and  hence  the 
 abandonment  of  the  cause  of  the  last  among  Antipopes,  the 
 
 2  k2 
 
500  MEEIJDTAL   CHRISTIANITY   AND 
 
 Duke  of  Savoy,  called  Felix  V.,  who  had  the  wisdom  to 
 renounce  his  ill-supported  claims  (1449),  and  owed  to  the 
 magnanimity  of  Nicholas  not  only  forgiveness,  but  the 
 highest  ecclesiastical  honours  that  could  be  bestowed. 
 Eejoicings  and  illuminations  celebrated  this  event  at  E-ome. 
 It  appeared,  says  Yespasiano,  in  his  life  of  Nicholas  Y., 
 "  that  such  a  Pontiff  had  been  sent  by  Divine  mercy  to 
 restore  peace  to  Italy,  after  the  wars  and  evils  of  so  many 
 years."  It  was  his  hope  "  that  he  should  never  have  to 
 use  any  other  arms  than  that  which  Christ  had  given  him 
 for  his  defence — the  Cross  ;  that  was  the  weapon  he  wished 
 to  wield  throughout  his  pontificate.''* 
 
 The  jubilee  of  1450  is  said  to  have  attracted  more  pil- 
 grims to  Eome  than  any  other  celebration  of  the  "holy 
 year  ;"  but  it  was  concluded  by  tragic  disasters.  One  day 
 when  a  multitude  were  returning  from  S.  Peter's,  after  the 
 exposition  of  the  "  Yolto  Santo,"  some  triflng  obstacle  on 
 the  S.  Angelo  bridge  caused  a  panic  and  general  arrest 
 of  the  moving  throng;  numbers  were  thrown  over  the 
 parapet  into  the  river ;  many  were  suiFocated  in  the  pres- 
 sure ;  altogether,  200  perished,  and  136  were  buried  with 
 the  solemn  funeral,  ordered  by  the  Pope,  at  the  adjacent 
 church  of  S.  Celso,  while  eighteen  carts  bore  the  rest  of  the 
 dead  to  a  public  cemetery.  To  provide  against  such 
 dangers  for  the  future,  many  houses,  which  encumbered 
 the  narrow  ways  leading  to  the  bridge,  were  thrown  down ; 
 
 *  "  He  had  not  only  knowledge  of  the  modern,  but  of  all  ancient  men 
 of  learning  {dottori),  as  well  Greek  as  Latin ;  and  there  were  few 
 writers  in  the  Greek  and  Latin  languages  whose  works  he  had  not  seen  ; 
 and  he  had  the  Bible  entirely  by  heart  {tutta  a  mente),  and  always  could 
 quote  from  it  appropriately.  His  intellect  seemed  divine;  and  divine 
 was  his  memory  of  all  things."  Vespasiano  da  Bisticci,  in  his  quaint 
 fifteenth-century  Italian,  thus  eulogizes  the  estimable  Pope,  whose 
 character  he  could  bear  witness  to  from  personal  acquaintance. 
 
SACRED    iRT    IN    ITALY.  501 
 
 and  two  cliapck  were  erected  at  the  entrance  to  it  from  the 
 left  bank  of  the  river  for  joint  commemoration  of  those  who 
 lost  their  lives  on  that  fatal  day. 
 
 Neither  this  disaster,  nor  the  plague  which  had  been 
 raging  in  Italy,  and  had  reached  Rome,  in  1449,  caused  any 
 interruption  to  the  sacred  observances.  JN^icholas  V.  set 
 the  example  of  piety  and  zeal ;  and  the  spectacle  of  this 
 learned  Pope  daily  visiting  the  churches  of  the  "  Stations" 
 with  all  hivS  Cardinals,  walking  barefooted  in  the  proces- 
 sions led  by  him,  and  going  through  all  the  devotions 
 prescribed  to  the  pilgrims,  might  have  seemed  a  symbol  or 
 embodiment  of  the  alliance  between  faith  and  intellect, 
 between  ancient  Catholicism  and  a  world  now  rapidly  sub- 
 mitting to  the  influences  whicb  were  transforming  it. 
 
 The  Pope  took  measures  to  provide  for  the  welfare  of 
 the  pilgrims  by  prescribing  an  average  of  prices  in  the 
 provision  markets  ;  he  procured  from  different  countries 
 seventy  ship-loads  of  corn  for  the  Eoman  mills  ;  and  sup- 
 plied not  only  physical  comforts  but  regulations  of  police 
 for  checking  the  audacious  brigandage  on  the  Campagna. 
 
 In  the  records  of  ceremonial  the  coronation  of  a  German 
 Emperor  at  Rome,  after  the  imperial  progress  undertaken 
 expressly  to  receive  the  diadem  from  Papal  hands  at 
 S.  Peter's,  is  memorable  as  being  the  last  such  occurrence, 
 the  last  instance  of  acknowledgment  by  the  German  Empire 
 of  the  traditionary  rights  of  the  Papacy  to  set  its  seal 
 and  sanction  on  the  choice  of  the  Teutonic  Electors.  In 
 March,  1452,  Erederick  III.,  and  his  bride  Eleonora  of 
 Portugal,  made  their  ingress  into  this  city  with  much 
 pomp  by  the  Porta  di  Castello.  On  the  next  day,  the 
 Pope  blessed  the  nuptials  of  this  Emperor  and  the  Portu- 
 guese Princess  ;  and  eight  days  afterwards  took  place  the 
 coronation,  at  which  were  used  the  crown,  sceptre,  sword. 
 
^02  MEDIEVAL    CnRlSTIANITT    AND 
 
 and  golden  globe,  brought  from  Nuremburg,  and  said  to  be 
 the  identical  objects  used  at  the  coronation  of  Charlemagne. 
 At  the  nuptials  Nicholas  placed  another  crown  on  the 
 Emperor's  head,  that  of  the  Italian  kingdom  ;  but  a  silver 
 diadem,  brought  also  from  Nuremburg,  supplied  the  place  of 
 that  iron  crown  which  could  only  be  obtained  at  Milan. 
 After  the  final  ceremony,  the  imperial  cavalcade  passed,  as 
 usual,  to  the  Lateran,  the  young  Empress  (aged  sixteen) 
 carrying  in  her  hand  the  Golden  Kose,  presented  to  her  by 
 the  Pope  :  and  at  the  S.  Angelo  bridge  the  Emperor  had  to 
 go  through  the  weary  task  of  bestowing  knighthood  on  2G5 
 claimants.  Nicholas  V.  had  been  alarmed,  apprehending 
 some  encroachment  on  his  prerogatives,  when  the  arrival  of 
 Erederick  was  announced.  In  the  interval,  he  caused  the 
 ^.  Angelo  castle  to  be  repaired,  and  the  Capitoline  Palace 
 fortified  ;  took  into  his  pay  1000  soldiers,  and  invited  the 
 barons  to  quit  their  strongholds  on  the  Campagna,  and  sup- 
 port him  by  their  presence  during  the  imperial  visit.  On  his 
 way  to  Eome,  Erederick  III.  encountered  personal  danger 
 at  Viterbo,  through  the  rude  eagerness  of  the  populace  to 
 avail  themselves  of  the  ancient  privileges  of  seizing  the 
 horse  ridden  by  and  the  canopy  carried  above  a  sovereign 
 on  his  entry  into  Italian  cities.  They  tore  down  with  hooks 
 the  canopy  borne  over  his  imperial  head,  and  attempted  to 
 draw  his  horse  from  under  him  before  he  stopt  to  alight. 
 Eortunately  his  German  majesty  was  strong  enough  to 
 defend  himself,  and  manfully  belaboured  the  assailants 
 with  blows  which  sufficed  to  repel  them.  The  strangers 
 were  not  disturbed,  nor  the  cause  of  disturbance,  at  Eome. 
 Erederick  returned  thither  on  his  way  from  Naples,  and 
 spent  fifteen  days  at  the  Vatican  as  the  guest  of  the  Pope ; 
 on  which  occasion,  we  are  told,  all  the  civic  officers,  from 
 highest  to  lowest,  wxre  provided  with  new  garments,  at 
 
SACKED    ART    IX    ITALY.  riOS 
 
 least  as  much  as  three  and  a  half  yards  of  red  cloth  for  each, 
 at  the  expense  of  His  Holiness  !  * 
 
 In  the  January  of  1453,  Stefano  Porcaro  made  the 
 second  attempt  against  pontific  rule,  which  proved  fatal  to 
 himself  and  his  accomplices.  The  revival  of  classic  literature, 
 and  the  new  ideas,  the  republican  and  Platonic  theories 
 thus  germinating  in  awakened  minds,  may  probably  have 
 stimulated  antipathy  against  sacerdotal  power,  notwith- 
 standing the  blameless  and  respectable  character  of  the 
 individual  now  worthily  representing  it  at  the  Vatican. 
 Porcaro  had  been  mildly  dealt  with  after  his  first  attempt ; 
 banished  to  Bologna,  he  had  been  detained  not  as  a  prisoner 
 but  under  the  obligation  of  showing  himself  every  day  to 
 the  governor  of  that  city,  and  never  venturing  into  Eome. 
 
 *  Maximilian,  the  son  and  successor  (1493)  of  Frederick  III.,  set  out 
 at  the  beginning  of  the  year  15u8  for  a  journey  to  obtain  the  same 
 coronation  at  Rome,  but  oppositions  oiFered  by  Venice  induced  him  to 
 return  beyond  the  Alps  and  abandon  the  intent  of  receiving  a  crown 
 from  Papal  hands.  By  circular  letters  he  required  all  the  states  of  the 
 Empire  to  give  him  the  title  of  Roman  Emperor  Elect,  subsequently 
 assumed  by  all  his  successors  in  ascending  the  throne,  and  approved  of, 
 in  the  case  of  Maximilian,  by  Julius  II.  Scarcely  could  the  most 
 indulgent  among  Popes  have  acquiesced  in  the  other  title  strangely 
 assumed  by  jSIaximilian,  of  "  Pontifex  Maximus,"  the  German,  thus 
 imitating  the  Roman  and  Pagan  (a  few  also  of  the  early  Christian) 
 Emperors.  When  Charles  V.  desired  the  crowns  of  the  German 
 Empire  and  Italy,  a  Pope,  Clement  VII.,  had  to  travel  to  Bologna  for 
 performance  of  the  ceremonies,  1530,  instead  of  receiving  the  imperial 
 applicant  at  Rome.  Ferdinand,  the  brother  and  successor  in  Empire 
 (1556)  of  Charles  V.,  was  denounced  by  Paul  IV.,  and  prohibited  to 
 assume  the  imperial  titles,  because  neither  at  his  election  nor  at  the 
 abdication  of  Charles  had  the  Pontiff  in  any  manner  intervened. 
 Ferdinand  protested  against  this  act  of  the  Pope;  and  thenceforth  the 
 German  potentates  ceased  to  ajjjily  for  any  sanction  from  the  Holy  i>ce. 
 Thus  did  the  indispensable  coronation  and  ratification  j'ass  away  amorg 
 things  '•  silently  gone  out  of  mind!" 
 
501  MEDIEVAL    CITRISTIANITY    AKD 
 
 He  contrived  to  escape,  and  returned,  invited  by  his  friends, 
 to  renew  the  struggle.  The  co-operation  of  400  exiles  was 
 reckoned  upon  for  the  success  of  a  revolt  in  which  it  was 
 proposed  to  throw  fire  into  the  Vatican  stables,  and  during 
 the  panic  ensuing  to  seize  the  persons  of  the  Pope  and  Car- 
 dinals, and  occupy  the  S.  Angelo  fortress.  It  was  said 
 that  Stefano  had  provided  himself  with  a  gold  chain  for  the 
 captive  Pontiff;  and  the  conspirators  expected  to  find  at 
 least  a  million  gold  florins  in  the  Papal  treasury,  the 
 palaces  of  the  Cardinals  and  banks  of  the  money-changers. 
 The  Epiphany  was  the  day  fixed ;  but  by  the  vigil  of  that 
 festival  the  whole  plot  had  been  discovered.  On  that 
 evening,  the  Senators,  accompanied  by  many  soldiers,  sur- 
 prised Stefano,  with  the  other  conspirators,  at  the  Porcaro 
 Palace,  where  300  armed  men  were  found  concealed.  The 
 ringleader  escaped  to  the  house  of  his  sister,  but  was 
 soon  seized  in  his  hiding  place,  a  chest,  in  which  he  lay  for 
 a  time  ;  he  suffered  death  by  hanging  from  the  battle- 
 ments of  S.  Angelo.  Platina  and  other  historians  state 
 that  three  of  his  accomplices  were  executed  in  the  same 
 manner  on  the  Capitol ;  but  Vespasiano  da  Bisticci  declares, 
 with  eulogies  on  the  clemency  of  the  Pope,  that  the  lives  of 
 all  the  other  conspirators  were  spared.* 
 
 Every  day  at  noon  the  church-bells  throughout  Italy 
 invite  to  the  prayer  of  the  "  Angelus,"  or  Ave  Maria,  a  devo- 
 tion added  to  the  morning  and  evening  observance,  with  the 
 same  formula,  by  Callixtus  III.,  successor  to  Nicholas  V., 
 for  enjoining  on  the  faithful  to  invoke  the  Divine  protection 
 against  Moslem  conquest,  the  progress  of  w^hich,  threaten. 
 
 *  The  house  of  the  rorcaro  family  still  stands,  though  modernized. 
 A  collection  of  antique  epigraphs  within  its  walls,  formed  by  Stefano 
 and  others  of  his  race,  was  presented  by  Prince  Doria,  heir  of  the 
 property  after  the  extinction  of  that  family,  to  the  Pope,  and  placed  in 
 the  Vatican,  where  we  !?till  see  it  in  the  "gallcria  lapidaria."' 
 
SACRED  ART  IN  ITALY.  505 
 
 ing  to  raise  the  Crescent  above  tlie  Cross  from  the  Holy 
 Sepulchre  to  the  shrine  of  S.  Peter  at  Home,  caused 
 terror  to  all  Christendom  in  this  century.  Perhaps  few, 
 amidst  the  din  and  distractions  of  city -life,  pass  in  thought 
 along  the  historic  chain  of  memories  and  tragedies  linked 
 with  the  sound  of  that  holy  bell.  A  catastrophe,  which  is 
 believed  to  have  eventually  promoted  rather  than  checked 
 the  progress  of  culture  and  civilization  in  western  Europe, 
 occurred  on  the  29th  May,  1458,  when  the  Greek  Empire 
 was  overthrown,  through  the  capture  of  Constantinople  by 
 IMohammed  II.  This  event  had  been  almost  prophesied  of  by 
 Nicholas  V.  Two  years  previously  the  last  unfortunate 
 sovereign  of  the  Palaeologus  dynasty  had  renewed,  through 
 envoys  sent  to  Rome,  the  oft-repeated,  and  now  trans- 
 parently hollow  oifers  of  the  submission  of  the  Grreeks  to 
 the  Papal  supremacy,  and  of  reunion  between  the  two 
 divided  Churches,  as  inducement  and  price,  or  condition  at 
 least,  for  that  material  succour  vainly  relied  upon  for  the 
 rescue  of  the  falling  Empire. 
 
 The  only  Princes  who  had  conscientiously  and  with  con- 
 sistent earnestness  endeavoured  to  avert  that  ruin,  foreseen 
 its  approach,  and  anticipated  its  results  of  danger  to  west- 
 ern  Christendom,  were  the  Eoman  Pontiffs.  The  last  effort 
 made  from  the  Vatican  was  through  the  mission  of  a  Greek 
 Cardinal,  Isidore,  Archbishop  of  Kioff,  sent  as  legate  with 
 the  answer  of  Nicholas  Y.  to  the  letters  of  the  last  Greek 
 Emperor  :  it  was  necessary  (the  Pope  observed)  to  see 
 whether  the  fig-tree,  hitherto  cultivated  in  vain,  could  yet 
 produce  fruit ;  forthree  yearsthat  stricken  tree  might  be  left, 
 but  if  it  still  proved  barren  at  the  end  of  that  time,  it  must 
 be  torn  up  by  the  roots.  The  legate  found  the  Emperor, 
 the  clergy,  and  chief  nobles  of  Constantinople  apparently 
 eager  to  promote  that  object  so  much  desired  by  the  Pope 
 and  the  Latin  Church.     The  Decree  of  Union,  drawn  up 
 
50G  MEDIJiVAL    CHIIISTIANITT    AND 
 
 at  the  Council  of  Florence,  was  again  accepted  and  solemnly 
 ratified,  but  with  the  proviso,  that  after  it  had  pleased  God 
 to  restore  peace  to  the  Empire,  and  rescue  the  imperilled 
 capital,  that  document  should  be  maturely  examined,  and 
 emended,  as  deemed  advisable,  by  competent  persons.  But 
 ceremonies  and  public  professions  were  no  signs  of  moral 
 realities  in  this  case.  Fanaticism  and  the  hereditary  force 
 of  the  odium  theologicum  prevailed  at  the  Eastern  metro- 
 polis ;  and  the  Cardinal  Isidore  had  to  listen  not  only  to  a 
 chorus  of  anathemas  from  monks  in  their  cloisters,  but  to 
 the  rude  tumult  of  the  low  populace,  amidst  the  orgies  of 
 the  tavern,  cursing  over  their  wine  cups  the  E-oman  Pontiff 
 who  had  endeavoured  to  protect  their  sovereign  and  state, 
 and  especially  denouncing,  in  scorn  and  hatred,  the  azimitest 
 namely,  those  guilty  of  the  horrible  sacrilege  of  communi- 
 cating in  the  Holy  Eucharist  on  unleavened  bread  ! 
 
 The  self- devoting  heroism  of  the  doomed  Emperor,  who 
 has  been  well  apostrophized  as  the  "last  and  noblest 
 Constantino,"  excites  the  profoundest  pity  and  admiration  ; 
 and  the  sublimity  of  his  hopeless  struggle  redeems  the 
 honour  of  an  imperial  line  otherwise  so  fatally  perverse 
 and  misguided.*  But  the  history  of  the  Grreek  Empire's 
 decline  and  fall  reminds  us  of  the  mysterious  legend  asso- 
 ciated with  the  catastrophe  of  Jerusalem, — how,  shortly 
 
 *  But  thou,  that  on  thy  ramparts  proudly  dying, 
 As  a  crowned  leader  in  such  hours  should  die, 
 Upon  thy  pyre  of  shivered  spears  art  lying 
 With  the  heavens  o'er  thee  for  a  canopy, 
 And  banners  for  thy  shroud  !     No  tear,  no  sigh 
 Shall  mingle  with  thy  dirge  ;  for  thou  art  now 
 Beyond  vicissitude  !     Lo  !  reared  on  high, 
 The  Crescent  blazes  while  the  Cross  must  bow  ; 
 But  where  no  cluinge  can  reach,  there,  Constantino,  art  thou  ! 
 
 The  Last  Constaniinc. 
 
SACRED  AET  IN  ITALY.  507 
 
 before  the  capture  by  the  Eoman  armies,  angels  spread 
 their  wings  to  abandon  the  temple  of  the  ancient  Covenant, 
 and  were  heard  to  exclaim,  amidst  the  silence  of  night, 
 "Let  us  depart  hence  I"  The  intelligence  of  the  fall  of 
 Constantinople  overclouded  the  few  remaining  years,  and 
 perhaps  shortened  the  life  of  Nicholas  V.,  who,  it  is  said, 
 was  never  again  seen  to  laugh  after  hearing  of  that  great 
 disaster.  His  contemporary  and  biographer  gives  an 
 affecting  account  of  his  last  days  and  private  sorrows.  He 
 had  invited  two  Carthusian  monks,  one  from  the  Certosa 
 near  Florence,  the  other  being  Prior  of  the  monastery  near 
 Pisa,  to  attend  him,  and  give  him  the  benefit  of  their  good 
 counsels  ;  and  so  much  was  he  impressed  by  their  sanctity 
 and  converse  that  he  desired  these  holy  men  to  remain  at 
 the  Vatican,  lodged  in  an  apartment  communicating  with 
 his  own.  In  one  of  their  frequent  colloquies,  he  asked 
 these  Carthusians  whether  there  could  be  found  on  earth  a 
 more  unhappy  man  than  he — the  Sovereign  of  the  Church  ? 
 adding  that,  among  the  other  afflictions  of  his  lot,  was 
 this,  his  particular  misfortune,  that  none  who  crossed  the 
 threshold  of  his  chamber  ever  told  him  the  truth,  that  no 
 one  ever  uttered  to  him  his  real  thoughts  on  things  that 
 were  known ;  and  that  he  (the  Pope  himself)  was  conse- 
 quently in  such  perturbation  of  spirit,  that,  if  it  could 
 comport  with  his  duties,  he  would  willingly  renounce  the 
 pontificate,  to  become  once  more  plain  "  Maestro  Tomaso 
 da  Sarzana,"  returning  to  the  life  in  which  he  had  enjoyed 
 more  happiness  during  a  single  day  than  in  a  whole  year  on 
 the  Papal  throne ;  "  and  he  complained  to  them  (the 
 monks)  infinitely,  almost  shedding  tears  while  he  spoke 
 thus  with  them."* 
 
 *  "  Dolsesi  con  loro  infinitameute,  iiifino  (|uasi  clie  uc  vcuivano  Ic 
 lairrimc.'' — Bi::ticci,  -'^Nicola  V.,  Papa." 
 
508  MEDIEVAL    CHRISTIANITY    AND 
 
 Alfonso  Borgia,  Cardinal  Arclibisliop  of  Valencia,  was 
 elected  Pope  (8tli  April,  1455),  at  the  age  of  seventy- eight, 
 and  took  the  name  of  Callixtus  III.  His  pontificate  of 
 three  years  is  signalized  by  the  first  appearance  on  the 
 historic  scene  of  a  Spanish  family  notorious  for  ambition, 
 by  the  renewed  eff'ort  to  raise  the  Paj)acy  to  a  rank  among 
 belligerent  powers,  and  by  the  more  worthy  enterprise  of 
 a  Crusade,  supported  by  all  the  influence  and  means  of  the 
 tiara,  against  the  Turks.  The  establishment  of  the  Moslem 
 power  at  Constantinople  gave  rise  to  a  new  idea  in  the 
 Christian  mind,  substituted  for  the  long-cherished  project 
 of  recovering  the  Holy  Sepulchre  :  the  paramount  duty  of 
 rescuing  the  lost  Empire  from  infidel  invaders.  The 
 Spanish  Pope  had,  and  it  seems  long  before  his  election, 
 recorded  a  vow  to  dedicate  all  his  efibrts  to  that  cause. 
 Platina  gives  the  very  words  from  his  memorandum-book, 
 and  tells  us  how  much  astonishment  was  excited  when  it 
 became  known  that,  long  before  obtaining  the  tiara, 
 Cardinal  Borgia  had  confidently  styled  himself  Pontiff*  in 
 his  private  record,  though  already  a  decrepid  old  man.  In 
 his  earlier  career,  before  being  either  bishop  or  cardinal, 
 he  had  rendered  good  service  to  the  Church  by  counselling, 
 and  mainly  contributing  to  induce,  the  abdication  of  a 
 phantasm  antipope,  raised  up  by  two  Cardinals,  the  solitary 
 adherents  to  the  last  hour  of  the  obstinate  nonogenarian 
 Pedro  de  Luna,  at  the  lone  castle  of  Peniscola  on  the  Ara- 
 gonese  coast.  This  creature  of  a  shadowy  conclave  was  a 
 canon  of  Barcelona,  named  Egidius  Munoz,  who  now  called 
 himself  Clement  VIII. ,  but  renounced  his  pretended  Pope- 
 dom (1429),  after  four  years,  and  rendered  homage  to 
 Martin  v.,  through  a  Cardinal  Legate,  as  did  at  the  same 
 time,  three  pseudo- Cardinals.*  Martin  V.  generously 
 rewarded  Munoz  with  the  bishopric  of  Majorca. 
 
 *  The  Lcgute  who  received  hoiiiugc   lor  the  Pope  on  this  occasion, 
 
SACRED  AHT  TN  ITALY.  509 
 
 One  of  Callixtus  lll.'s  first  proceediDga  was  to  pcnd 
 eloquent  preachers  through  different  countries  to  prochiim, 
 and  rouse  up  nations  to  unite  in  the  Crusade.  For  pro- 
 moting this  object,  he  emptied  the  treasury,  in  which 
 Nicholas  y.  left  200,000  ducats  ;  pawned  the  jewels  of  the 
 tiara,  sold  church  property,  and  even  remoA'ed  the  silver 
 bindings  from  books  collected  by  his  learned  predecessor 
 in  the  Vatican  library.  Through  such  efibrts  he  was  able 
 to  create  a  pontific  fleet — a  phenomenon  long  unseen, — 
 consisting  of  sixteen  triremes,  the  command  of  which  was 
 entrusted  to  Cardinal  Scarampo,  Archbishop  of  Florence 
 and  Patriarch  of  Aquileja.*  This  fleet  sailed  from  Ostia  for 
 the  jJEgean  sea,  certain  islands  in  which  were  taken ; 
 and  during  three  years  pontific  soldiery  continued  at  inter- 
 vals to  descend  from  those  Eoman  ships  on  the  coast  of 
 Asia  IMinor  with  more  or  less  damage  to  the  Moslem 
 inhabitants.  Alfonso  of  Naples  and  the  Duke  of  Burgundy 
 "  took  the  Cross"  for  this  holy  war  ;  but  neither  risked  his 
 own  person  nor  co-operated  in  any  efficient  manner. 
 
 Amidst  these  enterprises  and  the  increasing  alarms 
 which  had  urged  to  such  efforts,  the  religious  agency  em- 
 ployed to  act  on  the  popular  mind,  and  avowedly  to  appease 
 the  invisible  powers,  was  characteristic  of  the  spirit  now 
 dominant  at  Eome,  An  image  of  the  Virgin  was  carried 
 through  the  streets  in  grand  procession,  under  a  canopy 
 
 was  Cardinal  de  Foix,  the  same  who  now  recovered,  and  restored  to 
 Home,  many  precious  vestments  and  revered  relics,  among  others,  the 
 mitre  said  to  have  been  given  by  Constantine  to  S.  Sylvester ,  and 
 also  a  number  of  pontific  registers,  which  had  been  carried  away  from 
 Avignon  to  Spain  by  the  Antipope  calling  himself  Benedict  XIII. 
 
 y,  Moroni,  Dizionario,  article  Antipapa  XXXVII. 
 *  The  same  Cardinal  had  been  deputed  to  the  command  of  an  army 
 sent  against  the  Turks  into  Hungary.     Ciaconius,  noticing  the  qualities 
 which   recommended  him   to  high    ecclesiastical    preferment,    naively 
 observes,  "  eu  tcmpestate  Romse  plus  arma  quam  toga  valerent.'' 
 
510  MEDIiEYAL    CHRTSTIANITT   AND 
 
 amidst  blazing  tapers.  A  blazing  comet  terrified  tlie 
 ignorant  and  suggested  tlie  usual  forebodings  of  ill ;  the 
 Pope  appointed  solemn  prayers  during  seven  dajs  for 
 averting  the  wrath  of  Heaven,  and  (as  Ciaconius  says)  "  in 
 case  any  calamity  were  impending  over  mankind,  to  avert 
 it  totally,  directing  it  against  the  Turks,  the  enemies  of  the 
 Christian  name,"  It  is  needless  to  comment  on  the  reli- 
 gious idea  expressing  itself  thus  ! 
 
 JS'ow  occurred  the  first  great  success  for  the  Christian  in 
 conflict  with  the  Moslem  cause,  the  first  decided  check  to 
 the  victorious  arms  of  Mohammed  II.  That  Sultan  laid 
 siege  to  Belgrade  in  the  July  of  1456 ;  the  Vaivod  John 
 Huniades  hastened  to  succour  by  land  and  by  water ;  his 
 fleet  obtained  advantage  over  that  of  the  Turks  on  the 
 Danube ;  his  host  attacked  the  assailants  under  the  walls 
 and  raised  the  siege,  defying  the  thunder  of  300  cannons, 
 and  leaving  40,000  Moslems  dead  or  wounded  on  the  field 
 before  Belgrade,  22nd  July.  In  the  September  following, 
 Huniades  died,  and  the  whole  of  Servia  was  eventually 
 subjected  to  the  invaders  so  gallantly  repulsed.  The  hete- 
 rogeneous army  which  achieved  that  brillant  victory  (a 
 great  blow,  assuredly,  to  the  Turkish  power  in  Europe), 
 might  have  been  compared  to  some  of  the  crusading  bands 
 of  the  XIII.  century,  and  its  ranks  were  animated,  one 
 might  say  inspired,  by  a  leader  who  seemed  another  Peter 
 the  Hermit, — an  enthusiast  whose  appearance  demands 
 attention,  whose  successes  were  among  the  marvels  of  the 
 historic  stage. 
 
 Giovanni  di  Capistrano,  a  native  of  the  province  of 
 Aquila,  had  followed  the  legal  profession  and  been  pro- 
 moted to  the  office  of  Judge  in  the  grand  court  of  the 
 Vicaria  at  Naples.  He  renounced  that  career  in  disgust 
 when  required  by  King  Ladislaus  to  acquiesce  (as  basely 
 did  the  other  judges)  in  the  iniquitous  sentence  of  death 
 
SACRED  ART  IN  ITALY.  511 
 
 against  not  only  a  powerful  baron,  the  culprit  legally  con- 
 demned, but  also,  at  tbe  King's  capricious  desire,  agaiu^t 
 his  innocent  first-born  son.  Giovanni  abandoned  fortune 
 and  prospects  to  become  a  Franciscan  friar.*  Several  im- 
 portant negotiations  were  intrusted  to  him  by  Eugenius 
 IV.  and  Nicholas  V.  After  the  most  alarming  encroach- 
 ments of  Turkish  invasion,  he  was  associated  with  S.  Ber- 
 nardino of  Siena  in  the  mission  of  preaching  and  pro- 
 moting the  holy  war.  In  Hungary,  Bohemia,  and  several 
 German  provinces,  as  far  as  Vienna,  the  voice  of  Giovanni 
 di  Capistrano  was  listened  to  with  wrapt  attention,  and  he 
 obtained  repute  not  only  as  a  converter  of  sinners,  but  a 
 worker  of  stupendous  miracles.  Moved  by  his  words, 
 multitudes  brought  cards,  dice,  and  other  frivolous  things 
 to  be  burnt  in  his  presence,  as  tokens  of  the  abnegation  of 
 folly  or  vice  to  which  his  eloquence  had  induced  them. 
 This  Franciscan  missionary  succeeded  in  mustering  for  the 
 desired  Crusade  a  host,  not  of  nobles  or  mail-clad  knights 
 like  the  red-cross  champions  led  by  Godfrey  and  Tancred, 
 but  of  the  common  people,  mendicant  friars,  students,  and 
 peasants  armed  with  clubs,  slings,  &c.  Such  the  hetero- 
 geneous force,  in  want  of  an  experienced  leader  for  the 
 
 *  The  circumstances  which  led  to  the  conversion  of  Giovanni  da 
 Capistrano  are  narrated  differently  by  some  writers,  who  state  that  he 
 was  led  to  abandon  a  secular  life  through  his  meditations  during  an  impri- 
 sonment unjustly  suffered  by  him  at  Perugia,  being  there  suspected  of 
 favouring  the  cause  of  the  Neapolitan  king,  at  war  with  that  city.  He 
 was  associated,  on  his  missions  for  the  Crusade  in  Germany  and  Hun- 
 gaiy,  not  only  with  S.  Bernardino  of  Siena,  but  also  with  S.  Giacomo 
 della  Marca,  another  Franciscan  renowned  for  eloquence  and  for  reputed 
 miracles,  whose  figure  becomes  familiar  in  the  art  of  a  period  not  much 
 later  than  that  in  which  he  lived.  Giovanni  died  at  a  convent  near 
 Sirmich  (Sirmium),  aged  71,  in  1456,  and  was  canonized  by  Benedict 
 XIII.  1724.  Giacomo  closed  his  days  at  the  age  of  90  at  a  convent 
 near  Naples,  1479,  and  was  canonized  by  the  same  Pope,  1726. 
 
512  MEDIiEYAL    CHRISTIANITT   AND 
 
 practical  matters  of  warfare,  wliicli  tlie  lieroic  Huniades 
 undertook  to  command  and  to  discipline  ;  and  by  such 
 an  army — not  indeed  without  otlier  elements,  the  Hunga- 
 rian and  pontific  contingents, — was  the  great  Sultan  de- 
 feated before  Belgrade.  Cardinal  Scarampo  was  also  on 
 the  field  of  that  victory.  The  Pope,  desiring  to  perpetuate 
 the  memory  of  the  event,  appointed  a  festival  not  on  the 
 real  but  the  conventionally  observed  day  of  its  commemo- 
 ration, the  6th  August,  thenceforth  celebrated  not  only  by 
 the  E-oman  Catholic  but  by  other  Churches  as  the  Feast 
 of  the  Transfiguration,  the  office  for  which  was  composed 
 by  Callixtus  himself. 
 
 Though  a  pious,  charitable,  and  generally  estimable  man, 
 this  Pontifi"  carried  the  weakness  of  nepotism  and  national 
 partiality  to  scandalous  excess — preparing  the  way  for  the 
 evil  that  was  to  come  after  him.  Having  given  the  Cardi- 
 nal's hat  to  one  of  his  nephews,  he  created  another  Duke 
 of  Spoleto  and  Prefect  of  Eome,  reviving  for  his  honour 
 in  the  latter  capacity  the  olden  ceremonial  of  coronation 
 with  "  a  silver  diadem."*  But  Borgian  ambition  was  not 
 satisfied  with  this.  An  Italian  kingdom  was  the  aim  of  the 
 octogenarian  Pope  for  his  favourite  nephew.  The  Arago- 
 nese  King  of  Naples,  Alfonso,  had  died,  leaving  his  throne 
 to  an  illegitimate  son ;    and  Callixtus  decreed  that  that 
 
 *  Don  Pedro  Luis  de  Mila  was  only  twenty-three  years  old  wlien 
 made  Gonfaloniere  of  the  Church  and  Prefect  of  Kome.  The  bestowal 
 of  the  silver  fillet  was  a  usage  of  the  time  of  Otho  III.  The  Pope's 
 other  nephew,  made  Cardinal  at  the  age  of  twenty-two,  bore  the  name 
 of  Len(jol,  which  his  uncle  changed  into  that  of  Borgia.  A  chronicler 
 describes  the  lawless  state  of  Rome  at  this  time  and  the  ubiquitous 
 presence  of  the  unpopular  Spaniards  :  "  Tutto  quel  tempo  che  regno 
 (Callisto)  mai  fu  veduto  lo  piu  tristo  governo  di  rubarie— ogni  di  homi- 
 cidii  et  questioni  per  Roma,  ne  si  vedevano  se  non  Catalan!." — Paolo 
 di  Ponte,  anno  1458. 
 
SACRED  ART  IN  ITALY.  513 
 
 kingdom,  being  legally  his  own,  liad  devolved  as  a  fi,ef  to  the 
 Holy  See.  He  tried  to  induce  the  Duke  of  Milan  to  join 
 him  in  the  attempt  to  despoil  Ferdinand,  the  now  recog- 
 nized King  of  the  Neapolitan  States,  promising  to  Fran- 
 cesco Sforza  a  share  in  the  prey ;  but  that  Duke  was  too 
 prudent  to  commit  himself.  Callixtus  nmde  preparations 
 for  war  ;  so  did  Ferdinand.  Death  soon  cut  short  tlie  pro- 
 jects and  schemes  of  pontific  ambition ;  and  Callixtus  III. 
 left  115,000  gold  ducats  from  his  economies  for  promoting 
 the  more  justifiable  war  against  the  Turks. 
 
 His  successor  was  a  truly  representative  man,  one  of 
 those  in  whom  we  see  reflected  the  spirit  .of  an  age.  ^ncas 
 Sylvius  Piccolomini,  of  a  noble  but  impoverished  Siennese 
 family,  had  been  renowned  for  learning  and  eloquence,  for 
 the  successes  of  a  brilliant  and  adventurous  career,  and  for 
 numerous  writings,  the  latter  so  versatile  as  to  include  a 
 love  story,  unique  among  literary  contributions  of  that 
 class  from  such  an  exalted  sphere  of  authorship.  Among 
 all  ever  raised  to  the  Papal  throne  he  seems  the  most 
 genial  character,  the  one  w  ith  whom  personal  acquaintance 
 would  have  been  most  agreeable  ;  and  he  is  the  only  Pope 
 who  has  given  us,  in  the  record  of  his  own  times,  the  image 
 of  his  mind,  together  with  biographic  details  referring  to 
 the  period  both  before  and  after  liis  elevation  to  highest 
 rank.  In  his  numerous  journeys,  for  discharge  of  impor- 
 tant missions,  he  had  seen  regions  as  far  north  as  Scotland 
 and  Norway  ;  had  been  assailed  and  despoiled  by  robbers, 
 thrown  into  prison,  and  about  twenty  times  in  imminent 
 danger-  During  a  war  between  Florence  and  Siena,  he 
 had  to  leave  the  latter  city  with  a  provision  of  six  ducats, 
 all  his  father  could  give  him,  and  on  this  he  lived  till 
 appointed  secretary  to  a  Cardinal*      "Whilst  holding  the 
 
 *  Domenico  Capvanica,  a  learnetl  and  virtuous  man,  ^vho  built  the 
 
 2   L 
 
514  MEDIEVAL   CHRISTIANITY    AND 
 
 same  office  under  another  Cardinal,  Albergati,  the  saintly- 
 Bishop  of  Bologna,  he  was  sent  by  the  latter  to  Scotland, 
 on  the  mission  of  bringing  about  peace  between  the  King 
 of  that  country,  James  II.,  and  Henry  VL  of  England. 
 The  Antipope  Felix  also  engaged  him  as  secretary ;  but 
 when  the  cause  of  that  pretender  was  waning,  the  Emperor 
 Frederick  appointed  ^neas  Sylvius  his  envoy  to  oifer  sub- 
 mission and  amity  to  Eugenius  IV.  That  Pope's  death 
 occurred  soon  after  the  ambassador's  arrival  at  Home  ;  and 
 Nicholas  Y.  was  so  favourably  impressed  by  his  talents 
 and  character,  that  he  made  him  apostolic  secretary.  Bishop 
 of  Trieste,  and  in  1450  Archbishop  of  Siena.  Having  been 
 raised  to  the  cardinalate  by  Callixtus  III.,  Piccolomini  was 
 elected  Pope  at  the  age  of  fifty -three,  27th  August,  1458, 
 and  took  the  name  of  Pius  II. 
 
 It  is  interesting  to  learn  from  his  own  words  the  impres- 
 sion made  on  his  discursive  mind  by  such  contemporary 
 events  as  the  Councils  of  Basle  and  Florence,  and  the  fall 
 of  the  Greek  Empire  ;  the  "Wars  of  the  Eoses,  the  struggle 
 between  France  and  England,  and  the  heroic  episode  of 
 the  Maid  of  Orleans.  "While  acting  as  secretary  to  the 
 Cardinal  Capranica,  at  Basle,  he  had  espoused  and  defended 
 with  his  pen  the  boldest  tenets  concerning  the  powers  of 
 (Ecumenical  Councils,  and  their  superiority  over  Popes; 
 but  all  these  opinions  he  condemned  and  retracted— first, 
 as  Bishop  of  Trieste,  and,  finally,  with  more  emphatic 
 disavowal,  in  a  Papal  bull.  The  writings  of  ^neas  Sylvius 
 embrace  the  interval  from  1405  to  1463.  His  "  Com- 
 mentaries" were  dictated  by  him  in  his  later  years,  and 
 after  he  had  become  Pope ;  but  this  work  was,  unfortu- 
 nately, polished  up,  and  even  altered — not  without  omis- 
 
 Capranica  palace,  and  endowed  it  as  a  college  for  ecclesiastical  students, 
 at  Rome. 
 
SACRED    ART    IN    ITALY.  GIT) 
 
 sions — by  hia  favourite  amanuensis,  and  finally  published 
 under  the  name  of  Gobelinus,  a  priest  of  Bonn.  It  refers 
 to  the  real  author's  career  in  earlier  and  later  life  ;  in 
 many  passages  it  is  full  of  interest  to  the  archaeologist,  for 
 the  writer  describes  with  enthusiasm  and  intelligence  his 
 visits  to  ancient  cities  and  classical  sites.  His  feeling  for 
 the  beautiful  and  romantic  in  nature  is  quite  accordant 
 with  modern  inspirations,  and  might  remind  us  of  the 
 tourist  literature  of  our  own  times.  It  is  justly  said  of 
 this  illustrious  author  that,  "  in  him  first  appeared  the  sign 
 of  a  transitionary  age."*  His  historical  works  belong  to  the 
 period  of  his  pontificate  ;  and  his  "  Europa"  is  only  a  sketch 
 of  an  undertaking  never  completed. 
 
 One  aim  and  interest  occupied  the  thoughts  of  this 
 eminent  man  on  the  pontific  throne  :  the  Crusade  against 
 the  Turks,  and  the  recovery  of  Constantinople.  Though 
 feeble  and  broken  down  by  fatigues  and  maladies,  he  left 
 Ecme  in  the  depth  of  winter  to  attend  a  congress  of 
 princes  and  ambassadors,  convoked  by  himself,  at  Mantua, 
 for  the  furtherance  of  this  great  object.  A  celebrated 
 German  cardinal,  Cusa,  was  appointed  to  act  as  his  Legate 
 at  Eome  during  his  absence;  six  other  cardinals  were 
 chosen  to  accompany  the  Pope  ;  and,  after  spending  a  night 
 at  the  palace  contiguous  to  S.  Maria  Maggiore,  Pius  11. 
 having  first  blessed  the  people,  and  taken  leave  of  them 
 with  tears,  set  out  on  his  journey,  5th  January,  1459. 
 Travelling  by  way  of  Siena,  Morence,  Bologna,  Ferrara, 
 he  reached  Mantua  on  the  27th  May,  received  with  all 
 possible  honours  and  pomps  by  the  Marquis  Louis 
 Gronzaga  III.  AVe  have  the  Pope's  own  description  of 
 this  ingress ;  and,  in  the  long  stately  procession  of  digni- 
 
 *  In  eo  primum  apparuit — seculi  mutati  signum."  Paolo  Cortese, 
 De  Cardinalatu.  See  also  a  just  estimate  and  analysis  of  Piccolomini's 
 writings  by  Gregorovius. 
 
 2  L  2 
 
51G  MEDIiEVAL   CnmSTIANITT   AND 
 
 taries  and  officials,  the  holy  Eucharist  was  borne  in  a 
 golden  shrine  on  a  white  palfrey,  under  a  silken  baldacchino, 
 surrounded  by  torches.  On  the  1st  of  June,  after  a  solemn 
 Mass  before  all  the  assembled  dignitaries  in  the  Cathedral, 
 the  Pope  pronounced  an  eloquent  discourse,  insisting  on 
 the  supreme  importance  of  the  Crusade,  complaining  of 
 the  coldness  of  European  princes  in  their  response  to  his 
 repeals,  and  declaring  his  purpose  to  remain  at  Mantua 
 ■i  ill  apprised  of  the  intentions  of  all  those  potentates,  and 
 enabled  to  form  a  league  with  them  for  the  welfare  of 
 Christendom.  The  Congress  was  not  opened  till  September. 
 At  the  first  session,  Erancesco  Eilelfo  spoke  with  the  ability 
 which  distinguished  him  in  the  name  of  the  Duke  of 
 Milan;  and,  at  the  end,  the  Pope  pronounced  a  speech 
 of  three  hours'  duration,  only  interrupted  by  his  tears,  and 
 attended  with  thrilling  effect  on  his  audience.  *  His 
 counsels  were  accepted  with  approval  by  all  the  ambassa- 
 dors present.  Eew  were  the  reigning  princes  seen  at 
 these  sessions,  though  all  the  others  sent  their  representa- 
 tives. A  multitude  of  fugitive  G-reeks  attended,  and 
 deputies  from  the  Morea  depicted  the  atrocities  committed 
 by  the  Turks,  the  miseries  of  those  enslaved  under  their 
 dominion.  The  honour  of  commanding  the  Crusade  was 
 offered  to,  and  accepted  by,  the  Duke  of  Burgundy.  It  was 
 expected  that  an  army  of  30,000  foot,  and  10,000  horse 
 could  be  raised  in  Germany  ;  the  maintenance  of  this  force 
 to  be  at  the  charge  of  Erance,  Spain,  and  Italy.  Venice 
 promised  to  supply  mariners  and  naval  captains.  The 
 Pope  taxed  his  own  treasury  to  the  amount  of  100,000 
 
 *  Female  eloquence  also  exerted  itself,  and  to  an  admiring  audience,! 
 at  this  assembly.      The  crusading  enterprise  was  recommended  \vith| 
 oratorio  skill   by  two  illustrious  ladies,  Ippolita  Sforza,  daughter  of 
 Francesco,  Duke  of  Milan,  and  wife  of  Alfonso  11.,  of  Naples,  and  Isott 
 Nogarola,  whom  Cantu  describes  as  "  filosofessa,  teologante,  letterata.*1 
 
SACRED    ART    IX    ITALY.  517 
 
 florins,  and  the  other  Italian  powers  promised  their  contri- 
 butions in  the  amounts  respectively  of  100,000  florins  from 
 A^enice ;  80,000  from  the  King  of  Naples ;  70,000  from  the 
 Duke  of  Milan ;  50,000  from  Florence ;  20,000  from  the 
 Duke  of  Modena ;  10,000  from  the  Duke  of  Mantua  ; 
 15,000  from  Siena  ;  8,000  from  Lucca ;  5,000  from  the 
 Duke  of  Monferrato.  The  crafty  Louis  XI.  had  received 
 from  the  Pope  the  consecrated  sword  and  cap  sent  to 
 inspire  him  with  zeal  for  the  holy  war,  but  he  did  nothing  to 
 promote  it ;  he  even  compelled  Philip,  Duke  of  Burgundy, 
 to  break  his  solemn  promise  of  personal  co-operation. 
 Soon  after  the  opening  of  the  Congress,  Sigismund,  Duke 
 of  Austria,  and  Albert,  Marquis  of  Brandenburg,  arrived  at 
 Mantua.  In  the  second  session,  the  Pope  decreed  that,  for 
 the  maintenance  of  the  promised  army,  should  be  imposed 
 on  the  clergy  a  contribution  of  one-tenth,  on  the  laity  one- 
 thirtieth,  and  on  the  Jews  one-twentieth.  This  all  the 
 Italian  States  agreed  to,  the  Yeaetian  and  Florentine 
 excepted.  The  French  ambassadors  being  asked  to 
 promise  assistance  from  their  government,  required  as 
 condition  that  a  pontific  Legate  should  be  deputed  to 
 make  peace  between  France  and  England,  at  the  same 
 time  complaining  against  the  investiture  given  by  the  Pope 
 to  Ferdinand  of  Aragon,  instead  of  to  Eene  d'Anjou,  who 
 claimed  the  Neapolitan  kingdom.  Pius  II.,  prevented  by 
 infirmities  from  immediately  answering,  justified  himself  a 
 few  days  afterwards  in  a  speech  of  three  hours'  length. 
 The  ambassadors  of  the  Emperor  requested  that  a  Legate 
 should  be  sent  with  the  army  raised  in  the  German  States, 
 and  the  Cardinal  Bessarion  was  appointed  to  that  office. 
 On  the  15th  January,  1460,  the  Pope  published  a  bull, 
 announcing  to  the  world  the  resolutions  of  the  Congress, 
 ordering  public  prayers  for  the  Crusade,  and  conceding 
 indulgences,  with  remission    of    sins,  to  all  who    should 
 
518  MEDIiEVAL   CHRISTIANITY   AND 
 
 co-operate  either  in  person,  or  through  other  means. 
 Before  the  dissolution  of  the  Congress,  he  published  a 
 constitution  against  appeals  from  the  Pope  to  Greneral 
 Councils.  Towards  the  end  of  January  the  Congress  was 
 closed,  and  Pius  set  out  for  Siena. 
 
 Ecclesiastical  writers  and  the  Pope's  own  pages  give 
 ample  space  to  the  history  of  the  consignment  and  recep- 
 tion at  Eome  of  the  head  of  S.  Andrew,  a  sacred  treasure 
 ceded  to  Pius  11.  by  Thomas,  Despot  of  Morea,  and  nephew 
 to  Constantino  XII.  That  Grreek  prince  had  brought  the 
 relic  with  him  from  Patras,  where  the  Apostle  is  supposed 
 to  have  suffered  martyrdom  ;  and  in  1462  he  sailed  from 
 Corfu  to  Ancona,  after  consenting  to  the  Pope's  request 
 that  S.  Andrew's  head  should  be  placed  beside  the  body  of 
 the  apostolic  brother  in  Eome's  great  basilica.  Other 
 European  princes  had  offered  large  sums  to  Thomas 
 Palaeologus  for  this  relic,  but  he  would  listen  only  to  the 
 propositions  of  the  Pope,  who  liberally  rewarded  him ;  for 
 the  despoiled  despot  found  a  home  and  honourable  main- 
 tenance till  his  death  under  the  shadow  of  the  Vatican. 
 Pius  11.  assigned  to  him  a  residence  near  the  S.  Spirito  hos- 
 pital, and  a  revenue  of  500  scudi  per  month— 300  contri- 
 buted by  the  Pontiff,  the  rest  by  the  cardinals.  The 
 famous  relic  was  consigned  to  a  cardinal  sent  as  Legate 
 a  latere  to  Ancona,  and  thence  brought  with  religious 
 honours  to  Narni,  where  it  lay  for  a  time  in  the  castle. 
 Erom  Narni  it  was  brought  to  Eome  by  three  cardinals, 
 one  being  the  learned  Grreek,  Bessarion.  On  Palm  Sunday, 
 1462,  it  was  deposited  in  the  tower  guarding  the  Milvian 
 Bridge.  There  the  Pope  arrived  with  all  the  cardinals  and 
 prelates  the  next  day.  Pius  II.  with  his  own  hands  ex- 
 posed the  head  to  the  people,  an  immense  multitude, 
 from  an  elevated  stage  near  that  bridge,  whilst  all  the  high 
 djo-nitaries  of  the  Roman  Church  stood  around  him.    With 
 
SACRED   ART    IN    ITALY.  519 
 
 his  own  hands  did  Pius  II.  carry  the  silver  urn  containing 
 that  relic  to  the  Flaminian  Gate,  passing  through  ranks  of 
 torch-bearers — 30,000  lights,  we  are  told — the  whole  way 
 back  to  the  city  ;  and,  after  remaining  for  the  night  at 
 the  Convent  of  S.  Maria  del  Popolo,  the  relic  being  depo- 
 sited in  that  church,  the  Pope  took  part  the  next  day  in, 
 perhaps,  the  most  splendid  of  devotional  pomps  ever 
 beheld  even  in  Eome.  Such  the  honours  with  which  the 
 head  of  S.  Andrew  was  carried  to  S.  Peter's  by  Pius  IT., 
 and  finally  enshrined  above  an  altar  in  a  chapel  of  the 
 ancient  church  where  that  Pontiff  and  his  nephew, 
 Pius  III.,  had  sepulture,  till  the  remains  and  monuments 
 of  both  were  transferred  to  the  church  of  the  Theatines, 
 S.  Andrea  della  Yalle.  Never  was  the  reverence  for 
 relics,  or  the  notion  of  their  importance  as  guarantees  of 
 the  favour  of  Heaven,  and  of  the  localized  presence  of 
 Divine  influences,  more  strikingly  expressed  than  in  the 
 superb  pageantry  of  this  occasion,  ordered,  and  vividly 
 narrated  for  our  benefit  by  one  of  the  most  learned  and  in- 
 tellectual among  Popes.  Very  different  was  another,  a 
 lugubrious  ceremony  ordered  by  Pius  II.,  and  curiously 
 illustrating  the  temper  and  traditions  of  the  Eoman  Court 
 at  this  time.  Sigismund  Malatesta,  lord  of  Rimini,  who 
 had  incurred  the  highest  displeasure  as  well  of  Cal- 
 lixtus  III.  as  of  his  successor,  and  had  made  war  against 
 Perdinand  of  Naples  on  behalf  of  the  Anjou  pretender, 
 was  denounced  before  Pius  in  the  consistory  as  stained 
 wdth  almost  all  imaginable  crimes,  deserving  of  the  punish- 
 ment due  to  heresy  and  leze-majesty,  and  of  the  death  of  a 
 felon.  A  strange  auto  da  fe  w^as  exhibited  on  those  stairs 
 before  S.  Peter's  which  Pius  II.  had  restored  and  adorned 
 with  statues  of  the  two  chief  apostles  ;  there,  on  the  highest 
 landing-place,  was  erected  a  pyre  of  combustible  material, 
 and   on   the  summit  of  this  lay  an  effigy  of  Sigismund,  a 
 
520  aiEDI^^VAL    CHRISTIANITY   AND 
 
 perfect  likeness,  we  are  told,  with  a  label  issuing  from  the 
 mouth,  inscribed  :  Sigismundus  liic  ego  sum  Malatesta,Jilius 
 Pandidplii^rex proditorumjDeo  atqiie  hominihusinfestics,  sacri 
 censiora  senatus  igni  damnatus.  While  eager  spectators 
 gazed,  with  what  feelings  we  know  not,  on  this  scene,  fire 
 was  applied,  and  combustibles  and  effigy  sank  into  ashes. 
 The  Pope  attacked  Malatesta  both  with  the  temporal  and 
 spiritual  sword.  During  two  years  his  States  were  invaded 
 by  pontific  troops,  under  Tederieo,  Count  of  Urbino, 
 with  a  Cardinal  Legate  in  the  camp  ;  the  'City  of  Eimini 
 resisted  too  firmly  to  be  captured,  and,  after  peace  con- 
 cluded in  1463  between  the  Aragonese  and  Anjou  parties, 
 at  Naples,  Sigismund  was  allowed  to  retain,  as  vassal  of 
 the  Papacy,  the  vicariate  of  E-imini,  with  a  few  miles  of  en- 
 virons, on  condition  of  ceding  all  the  other  towns  occupied 
 during  the  war  by  the  pontific  forces. 
 
 Not  long  afterwards  the  Court  and  citizens  of  Eome, 
 and,  indeed,  all  European  nations  were  amazed  by  the 
 announcement  that  Pius  11. ,  sinking  under  premature  old 
 age,  and  scarcely  able  to  travel,  had  resolved  himself  to 
 head  the  Crusade,  and  embark  with  the  army  at  Ancona  for 
 the  eastern  campaign  ;  not  intending  himself  to  a^^pear  in 
 the  combat,  but  to  pray,  like  Moses  on  Iloreb,  with  the 
 holy  Eucharist  before  his  eyes,  for  Christian  victories  over 
 the  infidel.*  "  Perhaps,"  he  said,  "  when  they  shall  see  their 
 father,  the  Eoman  Pontiif  and  Yicar  of  Christ,  aged  and 
 infirm  as  he  is,  setting  out  for  the  holy  war,  they  will  be 
 ashamed  to  remain  at  home,  and  will  embrace  with  courage 
 
 *  He  embarked  near  the  Milvian  Bridge,  and  made  the  voyage  up  the 
 river  as  far  as  Fiano,  the  ancient  Flavianum,  now  a  poor  village ;  thence  he 
 visited  the  monastery  high  on  Mount  Soracte;  again  pursued  the  voyage 
 to  a  point  near  Otricoli,  a  miserable  little  town  on  an  eminence  ;  and 
 thence  went  by  land  to  Narni,  passing  by  Spoleto,  Assisi,  Fabriano  and 
 Lureto  to  Ancona. 
 
SACRED  ART  IN  ITALY.  521 
 
 the  defence  of  our  holy  religion."  In  June,  14Gi,  he  left 
 Rome,  embarking  for  the  first  stage  of  the  journey  on  th(T 
 Tiber,  and  for  the  rest  carried  in  a  litter  through  the 
 Sabiua,  the  Umbrian  and  Anconitan  provinces,  and  thus 
 reaching  the  seaport  on  the  Adriatic  after  a  month  spent 
 in  the  progi'ess.  Not  one  vessel  had  reached  the  harbour, 
 two  pontific  galleys  excepted,  when  the  Pope  arrived, 
 though  on  the  journey  he  had  met  numerous  bands  of  sol- 
 diery from  the  German  States,  Prance  and  Spain,  marching 
 under  the  banner  of  the  Crusade.  *  After  some  days  were 
 seen  the  sails  of  the  Venetian  squadron,  consisting  of  only 
 eleven  triremes,  in  which  the  Doge,  Cristoforo  Moro,  came 
 ■with  the  naval  forces  promised  by  that  Eepublic  ;  but  the 
 active  brain  and  ardent  mind  which  had  planned,  and,  up  to 
 this  stage,  organized  the  Crusade,  were  now  overshadowed 
 by  the  mists  of  death.  Pius  II.  could  not  even  receive  the 
 Doge ;  and  two  days  after  the  Venetian  ships  had  cast 
 anchor  he  expired  (15th  August,  1464),  his  last  moments 
 being  placid  and  edifying.  It  was  probably  the  general 
 reverence  and  interest  excited  by  his  life  which  led  to  the 
 report  that  a  Camaldulese  hermit,  the  Beato  Pietro  Cor- 
 nelio,  at  his  vigils  in  a  monastery  among  the  Tuscan 
 Apennines,  had  seen  the  soul  of  Pius  II.  ascending,  accom- 
 panied by  choirs  of  angels  heavenward,  on  the  same  niglit, 
 and  at  the  very  hour  of  that  tranquil  death  in  the  Episcopal 
 Palace  at  Ancona.  This  self-devoting  Pontiff  misunder- 
 stood the  spirit  of  his  age  ;  he  could  not  revive  the  glories 
 or  heroism  of  the  mediaeval  Crusades  ;  but  we  must  revere 
 his  memory,  and  acknowledge  that  in  his  case  the  poet's 
 words  are  true,  that — 
 
 A  noble  end  is  as  a  noble  deed — 
 
 *  "  In  itinere  magnam  vim  hominum — venientum  ad  helium  Turcis 
 indicium,  ofFendit  :  quorum  magnam  partem  absolutam  a  pcccatis. 
 Gcrmanorum  potissimum,  in  patriam  remisit,  quod  minus  idoiici  btilo 
 iicrcndoesscnt.'' — Ciaconius. 
 
522  MEDIEVAL    CHRISTIANITY    AND 
 
 through  the  whole  history  of  the  persistent  efforts  and 
 generous  sacrifices  of  ^neas  Sylvius  Piccolomini. 
 
 Platina  gives  a  selection  from  the  apothegms,  "  useful," 
 he  thinks,  "  for  the  guidance  of  human  life,"  written  or 
 uttered  by  Pius  II.  Not  all  of  these  are  above  the  average 
 of  wise  maxims ;  but  a  few,  his  opinions  on  the  scientific 
 tendencies,  or  ecclesiastical  characteristics  of  his  time,  are 
 noteworthy,  e.g.,  "  Those  who  are  occupied  with  measuring 
 the  heavens  and  the  earth  show  themselves  more  audacious 
 than  truthful— Literature  ought  to  be  for  the  people  in 
 place  of  silver ;  for  the  nobility  in  place  of  gold ;  and  for 
 princes  in  place  of  gems — As  all  rivers  flow  into  the  sea,  so 
 do  all  vices  meet  in  the  courts  of  the  great — The  king  who 
 does  not  render  justice  to  his  people,  is  unworthy  to  receive 
 the  revenues  of  his  kingdom ;  and  so  alike  is  he  (the 
 priest)  who  does  not  take  part  in  the  spiritual  cure  or  sacra- 
 mental rites  of  his  church,  unworthy  to  obtain  the  re- 
 venues of  his  benefice — The  vagabond  monk  is  a  servant  of 
 the  Devil — With  great  reason  were  the  clergy  formerly  for- 
 bidden to  take  wives ;  and  there  is  still  greater  reason  now 
 for  permitting  them  to  marry."  In  the  extensive  corres- 
 pondence of  this  Pontiff,  his  letters  to  Mohammed  II.,  as 
 well  as  the  Sultan's  answers,  should  be  remembered. 
 
 During  one  of  this  Pope's  many  journeys  and  absences 
 from  Eome,  occurred  an  episode  of  outrage  and  crime, 
 showing  what  evils  prevailed  and  how  feebly  the  social 
 safety  was  protected  in  that  oft- distracted  city.  Two  des- 
 perate young  men,  Tiburzio  and  Yaleriano,  brothers,  took 
 advantage  of  the  notorious  weakness  of  magisterial  autho- 
 rities, and  collected  a  band  of  adventurers  like  them- 
 selves, or  still  worse  malefactors  trained  in  guilt ;  for  some 
 time  every  species  of  outrage,  rapine,  incendiarism,  insult 
 to  women,  and  murder  of  wives  and  maidens  who  resisted, 
 took  place  with  complete  impunity.     The  citizens  waited 
 
SACRED   ART   IN   ITALY.  523 
 
 to  see  what  would  be  done  by  the  Senator  and  Governor ; 
 and  those  functionaries  remained  inert,  the  latter  quitting 
 his  official  residence  to  take  refuge  in  the  Vatican.  A 
 leader,  called  by  the  rest  of  the  gang  "  Innamorato,"  was 
 at  last  arrested  by  the  soldiers  of  the  magistracy  ;  he  was 
 nearly  rescued,  and  a  servant  of  the  Senator  seized  in  the 
 scuffle  on  that  occasion.  The  conspirators  (they  now 
 assumed  more  formidable  character  and  plans)  fortified 
 themselves  in  the  Pantheon,  there  holding  out  for  several 
 days,  being  supplied  with  food  by  the  inhabitants  of  the 
 neighbourhood,  who  hoped  thus  to  exempt  themselves  from 
 pillage.  The  authorities  at  last  condescended  so  far  as  to 
 come  to  terms,  and  consented  to  give  up  "  Innamorato  "  in 
 exchange  for  Caro,  the  Senator's  servant !  The  city  was 
 again  exposed  to  the  same  horrors  and  licentiousness.  The 
 conspirators  disarmed  and  put  to  flight  the  few  soldiers 
 organised  for  resistance  by  the  Senator ;  they  presently  took 
 possession  of  a  tower  near  S.  Lorenzo  i?i  Lucina,  and  soon 
 afterwards  of  a  more  aristocratic  residence,  the  recently 
 built  Capranica  palace.  Antonio,  the  Pope's  nephew, 
 hearing  of  their  occupation  of  the  old  tower,  left  the  Vati- 
 can with  some  mounted  foreign  soldiery  and  entered  the 
 city  by  the  Flaminian  gate,  avoiding  the  S.  Angelo 
 bridge  ;  but  he  did  not  deem  it  safe  to  advance  so  far  as  the 
 palazzo  Capranica,  around  which  the  streets  were  narrow, 
 and  the  disposition  of  the  people  could  not  be  relied  on — 
 still  less,  considering  that  Antonio  led  foreign  troops. 
 Tiburzio  became,  in  place  of  "  Innamorato,"  absolute  lord 
 and  captain  of  the  conspirators.  The  Capranica  palace  was 
 long  a  den  of  thieves  in  the  worst  possible  sense,  where 
 every  species  of  crime  was  plotted,  days  were  spent  in 
 riotous  feasting  and  gambling,  and  nights  in  deeds  of  vio- 
 lence by  those  issuing  after  dark  from  its  walls.*  At  last 
 *  *'  Illic  consilia  dc  rapinits,  de  patrandis  adulttriis  cai'ic'bimt ;  con- 
 
524i  MEDIEVAL    CIIRISTIANITT    AND 
 
 the  Eoman  nobles,  indignant  at  the  inertness  of  their  magis- 
 trates, went  in  a  body  to  that  stronghold  of  iniquity,  and 
 requested  Tiburzio  to  leave  the  city,  representing  to  him  the 
 danger  to  himself  and  his  followers  should  stronger  forces 
 be  brought  to  bear  against  them,  should  the  Pope  return 
 and  restore  order  by  means  at  his  disposal.  Tiburzio 
 yielded,  and  made  his  exit  like  a  great  prince  on  a  state 
 progress,  riding  through  the  streets  between  one  of  the 
 chief  magistrates  and  an  Apostolic  Protonotary.  But  the 
 evil  was  not  efficiently  put  down  by  this  feeble  expedient. 
 Nine  of  the  gang,  soon  afterwards,  entered  the  extramural 
 S.  Agnes  monastery,  then  occupied  by  nuns,  in  the  night, 
 and  there  committed  every  species  of  outrage,  robbery,  and 
 sacrilege.  The  Pope,  informed  of  this  last  crime,  deter- 
 mined to  return  to  Eome,  and  sent  notice  that  he  might  be 
 expected  within  twenty  days  ;  an  intelligence  publicly  cele- 
 brated with  rejoicing.  Soon  after  the  Pontific  ingress  it 
 was  ascertained  that  Valeriano  and  six  other  conspirators 
 had  returned,  and  were  lying  in  concealment  within  the 
 city.  They  were  tracked  out,  but  saved  themselves  by 
 flight,  one  alone  excepted.  Tiburzio,  now  at  Palombara,  a 
 small  town  in  the  Sabina,  hearing  of  this  and  also  of  the 
 capture,  erroneously  reported,  of  his  brother,  concerted 
 the  desperate  plot,  in  which  he  was  assisted  by  the  Savelli 
 at  Palombara,  of  entering  Eome  with  a  band  of  armed 
 robbers,  rousing  the  citizens  to  revolt,  and  overthrowing 
 the  established  government.  The  invaders,  thus  mustered 
 for  the  frantic  attempt,  entered  the  city  by  night  through  a 
 breach  in  the  ruinous  walls  near  the  Thermae  of  Diocletian, 
 where  the  high  ground  of  the  Viminal  and  Esquiline  hills 
 was  then,  no  doubt,  almost  uninhabited,  as  it  has  continued 
 
 viviaque  simul  aj:;itahant,  nodes  latrociniis,  dies  ludis  dantes." — Com- 
 ment, rii  rapK  II.,  1.  iv. 
 
SACRED  ART  IN  ITALY.  525 
 
 till  a  very  recent  date.*  Passing  through  the  streets  in  the 
 early  morning,  they  endeavoured  to  stimulate  the  people 
 by  the  usual  watchwords,  or  appeals,  to  urge  them  to  cast 
 off  the  yoke  of  priestly  sway  and  regain  the  sacred  rights 
 of  Eoman  citizens.  None  responded,  and  the  attempt 
 utterly  failed.  At  a  last  emergency  the  invaders  made 
 their  way  to  a  point  near  the  centre  of  the  city,  S.  Eusta- 
 chio,  and  entered  a  building  near  that  church  described  as 
 answering  to  the  purposes  of  a  custom-house,t  where  they 
 seized  a  young  man,  known  to  be  of  Siena,  and  therefore 
 likely  to  be  I'ansomed  at  a  handsome  amount — such  w^e 
 may  suppose  the  inference — by  the  Pope,  who  was  also  a 
 Siennese.  Panic  now  prevailed;  report  exaggerated  reali- 
 ties ;  and  it  was  rumoured  that  formidable  bands  of  conspi- 
 rators were  within  the  city,  or  approaching.  The  Pope 
 hearing  of  all  these  things,  maintained  perfect  presence  of 
 mind,  and  ordered  two  Cardinals  to  ride  through  the 
 streets,  and  call  on  the  citizens  to  arm  against  the  brigand- 
 invaders.  Those  orders  were  anticipated  by  the  Senator, 
 the  Major-domo  of  the  Vatican,  and  other  leading  persons, 
 who  arrayed  themselves  for  attack,  and  soon  scared  away 
 Tiburzio  and  his  followers.  The  whole  gang  fled  and  lay 
 concealed  for  a  time  in  a  canneto,  one  of  those  beds  of  tall, 
 densely  growing  reeds  which  form  a  feature  of  the  Cam- 
 pagna  and  oft'er  convenient  hiding-places ;  thence  they 
 were  soon  dragged  out  by  the  feet  and  brought  into  Eome> 
 exposed  to  the  derision  and  rage  of  the  people  as  they 
 passed.  Tiburzio  made  a  full  confession  before  the  torture 
 had  been  applied  to  him,  and  his  disclosures  showed  how 
 much  co-operation  had  been  relied  upon,  how  desperate  the 
 
 *  In  the  "  Commentaries"  it  is  stated  that  the  band  led  by  Tibiu-zio 
 numbered  only  about  fourteen  (?) 
 
 t  "  Prope  domus  adsunt,  in  quis  merces  deponuntur,  et  vectigal  exi- 
 iritur."— Comment.  1.  v. 
 
526  MEDIEVAL   CHRISTIANITY   AND 
 
 projects  of  the  conspirators,  even  against  tlie  life  of  the 
 Pope.  They  had  been  assured,  he  said,  by  diviners,  that 
 in  that  same  year  sacerdotal  government  would  come  to  an 
 end.  The  leader  and  seven  others  were  hanged  ;  but 
 Pius  II.  had  the  humanity  to  forbid  the  infliction  of  death 
 with  prolonged  agonies,  which  the  Senator  desired,  at 
 Tiburzio's  execution. 
 
 That  "  Pragmatic  Sanction"  which  Bossuet  considered 
 the  foundation  of  sound  discipline  in  the  Galilean  Church, 
 was  suppressed  by  a  stroke  of  policy  for  which  Pius  II. 
 highly  congratulates  himself  in  his  writings.  In  1438, 
 during  the  discussions  between  Eugenius  IV.  and  the 
 Council  of  Basle,  that  charter  of  Grallican  privileges  was 
 drawn  up  by  an  assembly  of  French  prelates  at  Bourges, 
 and  in  the  following  year  registered  by  a  parliament.  The 
 document  was  founded  upon  certain  articles  relating  to 
 ecclesiastical  reform  approved  by  the  Council,  and  sent  by 
 the  fathers  from  Basle  to  the  French  King,  Charles  YII. 
 Conformably  to  its  terms,  the  freedom  of  election  to  bishop- 
 rics and  benefices  was  restored ;  annates,  reserves,  expec- 
 tatives,  &c.  were  abolished.  But  soon  after  the  accession 
 of  Louis  XI.  (1461),  that  king  yielded  to  the  persuasions 
 of  Pius  II.,  backed  by  the  subtle  arguments  of  the  Bishop 
 of  Arras,  and  consented  to  revoke  the  Sanction.  The  same 
 prelate  was  sent  to  Eome  with  the  original  document,  now 
 to  be  consigned  to  the  Pope  and  cancelled.  A  Cardinal's 
 hat  was  the  bishop's  reward;  the  sword  consecrated  at 
 Christmas,  in  a  sheath  adorned  with  gold  and  gems,  was  the 
 token  of  pontific  gratitude  to  the  king.  But  the  triumph 
 of  the  Pope  was  incomplete ;  for  when  Louis  found  that  he 
 had  been  deceived  by  the  bishop,  his  envoy,  who  affected 
 to  have  forgotten  to  secure  the  Pope's  support  for  Eene 
 d'Anjou  in  his  struggle  to  obtain  the  Neapolitan  crown, 
 and  also  to  demand  the  appointment  of  a  Legate  in  the 
 
SACEED  AET  IN  ITALY.  527 
 
 French  kingdom,  he  refused  to  permit  tlie  act  of  revoca- 
 tion to  be  registered  or  officially  ratified.  The  ecclesias- 
 tical affairs  of  France  remained  almost  in  the  same  state  as 
 before  this  transaction. 
 
 The  twenty  Cardinals  now  in  Rome  met  in  the  new  build- 
 ings of  the  Vatican,  commenced  by  Nicholas  V- ,  and  held 
 their  votation  in  the  small  chapel  of  S.  Lorenzo.  On  the 
 31st  August,  1464,  the  conclave  terminated  with  the  election 
 of  a  Venetian,  Pietro  Barbo,  nephew  of  Eugenius  IV.  by 
 the  mother's  side  ;  who  took  the  name  of  Paul  II.  A 
 *'  constitution,"  binding  upon  the  new  Pope,  was  drawn  up 
 in  this  conclave,  each  member  of  the  sacred  college  pledg- 
 ing himself  by  oath  to  observe  it — its  import  being :  That 
 the  Elect,  raised  to  the  Holy  See,  should  prosecute  the 
 war  against  the  Turks  by  all  means  at  the  disposal  of  the 
 Papacy,  and  should  apply  to  the  costs  of  that  war  the 
 entire  profits  of  the  alum  mines  lately  discovered  at  La 
 Tolfa,  among  the  mountains  above  the  coast  near  Civita 
 Vecchia  and  Corneto  ;  that  the  manners,  &c.  of  the  Curia 
 were  to  be  reformed,  and  reduced  to  the  standard  of  ancient 
 discipline;  that  a  General  Council  was  to  be  convoked 
 within  three  years  in  order  to  secure  the  co-operation  of 
 European  powers  for  the  defence  of  religion,  and  for  remedy 
 of  the  evils  afflicting  the  Church ;  that  the  number  of  Car- 
 dinals was  never  to  exceed  twenty-four,  and  none  should 
 be  raised  to  that  dignity  before  completing  the  30th  year 
 of  age,  nor  unless  having  previously  professed  either  canon 
 or  civil  law,  or  sacred  literature ;  that  no  bishop  or  abbot 
 could  be  deposed  by  the  Pope  at  the  request  of  any  sove- 
 reign save  on  legal  grounds,  and  with  the  right  of  a  hearing 
 for  the  accused ;  that  the  command  of  the  pontifical  army 
 was  never  to  be  given  to  any  relative  of  the  Pope,*  &c. 
 
 *  Lapses  Curialium  mores  ad  Sanctaa  Romanae  Ecclesise  Patrum  dis- 
 ci plinam  restringeret,  etc.   etc.      Concilium   gencrale    Christianorum 
 
528  MEDIiEVAL    CHRISTIANITY   AND 
 
 Before  the  proclamation  of  Paul  II.,  those  constitutions 
 were  formally  presented  to  him  by  the  Cardinals.  He  imme- 
 diately took  a  pen,  subscribed,  and  vowed  to  observe  them 
 — servaturumque  se  eas  juravit,  ac  vovif,  says  Ciaconius. 
 
 It  soon  became  suffici-entiy  evident  that  it  was  the  inten- 
 tion of  the  new  Pope  to  break  that  vow  and  violate  those 
 engagements.  He  laid  another  set  of  articles,  essen- 
 tially different  from  those  drawn  up  in  conclave,  before  the 
 several  members  of  the  college,  and  required  them  to  sign, 
 which,  with  more  or  less  of  reluctance  and  protest,  the 
 Cardinals  eventually  did,  all  except  one,  the  aged  Spanish 
 Cardinal,  Carvajal,  who  had  the  dignity  and  firmness  to 
 refuse.  An  authentic  account  of  this  perfidious  proceed- 
 in  2:,  and  of  the  manner  in  which  Paul  II.  overcame  re- 
 distance  and  silenced  the  most  grave  objections,  is  before 
 us  in  a  reproachful  letter  addressed  to  him  by  one  of 
 those  who  yielded,  Cardinal  Jacopo  Amanato,  Bishop  of 
 Pavia.* 
 
 The  promise  to  promote  the  war  against  the  Moslem, 
 iienceforth  the  main  object  of  Papal  policy,  was  not  for- 
 gotten by  this  Pontiff,  otherwise  so  regardless  of  his  oaths. 
 He  exerted  himself  to  bring  about  peace  between  European 
 princes,  as  ^preparatory  to  a  league  for  that  desired  "  Cru- 
 
 intra  triennium  cogeret,  in  quo  et  Principes  sseculi  ad  tuendam  religio- 
 nis  causam  accenderentur,  segrseque  partes  Eccleske  communi  medica- 
 mento  sanitatem  reciperenti 
 
 *  "  Vovisti  Cardinalis,  vovisti  et  Pontifex  servaturum  te  leges,  quae 
 in  Conclavi  sunt  editce  ad  salutem  publicam  utiles:  votis  tui  duobus  in 
 lihellis  chirographum  extat:  dixisti  cum  scriberes,  etiam  sine  voto  ser- 
 vaturum te  eas  fuisse  ....  Sperabamus  respiraturam  Ecclesiam, 
 futurum  Pontificatum  qualem  a  Petro  non  vidimus.  Quid  nunc  dicara? 
 aut  quid  potius  non  dicam?  commutasti  tu  eas  in  leges  inanes,  mille 
 effugiis  plenas,  quibus  in  banc  sententiam  proefari  nos  cogis,  quia 
 priores  bontB  non  erant  ....  0  bone  Jesu,  quae  praecipitatio  hsiec 
 est?  et  quas  intcmperies  mentis?" — Ciaconius,  Additio  August.  Oldoini. 
 
SACRED    ATIT    TX    ITALY.  529 
 
 sade;"  but  liad  little  success.  France,  Spain,  Englaiul, 
 Germany,  were  absorbed  by  other  interests,  or  engaged  in 
 other  contests.  The  island  of  Negropont  was  attacked  by 
 the  Turks ;  and  soon  came  intelligence  that  almost  the 
 whole  of  Epirus  had  been  subjected  to  the  Sultan. 
 Extraordinary  devotions  were  ordered  at  Kome  ;  the  most 
 famous  images  and  relics  were  carried  abont  in  procession  ; 
 the  Pope  himself  carried  the  "  Volto  Santo"  through  the 
 streets  ;  the  picture  of  the  Virgin  ascribed  to  S.  Luke  (still 
 at  S.  Maria  del  Popolo),  the  head  of  S.  Andrew,  and  that 
 of  S.  John  the  Baptist  were  removed  from  their  shrines  to 
 be  displayed  in  these  penitential  processions  appointed  for 
 the  emergency  of  danger  to  all  Christendom.  Another 
 Madonna  picture,  painted  on  a  wall  near  the  south  side  of 
 the  Tarpeian  rock,  was  said  to  be  working  miracles— a  usual 
 notion  begot  by  popular  credulity  during  times  of  excite- 
 ment or  panic  ;  that  thaumaturgic  image  was  removed,  and 
 a  church  built  at  the  expense  of  the  citizens  to  receive  it — 
 S.  Maria  delJa  ConsoJazione,  consecrated  1471 — where  it 
 still  hangs  over  the  high  altar.  More  lugubrious  solemni- 
 ties ensued.  In  the  July  of  1167  eight  heretics,  with 
 paper  mitres  on  their  heads,  were  exposed  on  a  stage  on 
 the  summit  of  the  Capitol,  and  thence  led  into  the  church 
 of  Aracoeli,  where  the  Pope's  vicar  and  five  other  prelates 
 preached  to  them  ;  those  who  were  converted  by  this  over- 
 whelming eloquence  were  again  led  to  the  Capitol,  clad  \\\ 
 black  linen  vestments,  with  white  crosses  before  and  behind, 
 to  be  publicly  reconciled.  Paul  II.  had  a  passion  for  pomp, 
 and  a  more  laudable  taste  for  public  works,  for  magnifi- 
 cence in  building,  etc.,  attested  to  this  day  by  the  noble 
 (though  unfinished)  palace  founded  by  him  before  he 
 became  Pope,  and  his  favourite  residence  subsequently, 
 the  Palazzo  dl  Venezia,  as  that  castellated  edifice  is  now 
 cailed.     lie  ordered  a  tiara,  the  most  splendid  and  costly 
 
530  MEDIEVAL    CHRISTIANITY    AND 
 
 yet  worn  on  any  pontific  head  ;  and  we  are  told  that  the 
 use  of  that  symbol  of  sovereignty  had  for  some  time  been 
 almost  discontinued.*  Platina  accuses  him  of  inordinate 
 vanity,  and  of  painting  his  face  whenever  he  had  to  appear 
 at  ceremonies.  To  his  fondness  for  shows  and  amusements 
 the  E/omans  owe  the  development  of  Carnival-races,  and 
 their  localization  in  the  Corso,  where  this  pleasure-loving 
 Pope  could  enjoy  them  from  the  windows  of  his  palace.  As 
 re-ordered  by  him,  the  competitors  in  those  races  for  the 
 pallium,  given  as  prize  each  day,  were  not  only  horses, 
 asses,  buffaloes,  but  old  men,  boys,  and  unfortunate  Jews. 
 Still  more  exciting,  and,  indeed,  superior  to  the  more 
 modern  follies  of  the  Eoman  Carnival,  was  the  pageant 
 display  in  which  mythologic  and  historic  groups  passed  in 
 gorgeous  cars  through  the  street:  gods  and  goddesses, 
 Diana,  Cupid,  Bacchus,  Cleopatra  and  Augustus,  etc.;  con- 
 suls, senators,  and  magistrates,  and  the  soldiers  of  ancient 
 E-ome  in  battle-array,  represented  by  160  masquerading 
 youths.  Besides  the  adornment  of  his  own  handsome 
 person,  Paul  II.  added  to  the  insignia  of  the  Cardinals  the 
 scarlet  herretta,  and  all  that  was  wanting  to  the  fulness  of 
 their  costume  in  that  imperial  colour — the  sacra  porpora. 
 He  permitted  them  to  use  the  damask  mitre,  and  to 
 go  abroad  with  scarlet  trappings  on  their  horses. 
 His  love  of  festal  shows  was  gratified  by  the  arrival  in 
 Eome  of  the  Emperor  Frederick,  bent  on  the  fulfilment  of 
 a  vow  by  pious  pilgrimage  ;  and  for  the  fetes  on  this  occa- 
 sion the  Pope  spent  18,000  gold  florins.  The  Marquis  of 
 Ferrara,  Borso  d'Este,  who  came  with  a  splendid  retinue  : 
 many  noblemen,  hundreds  of  guards,  a  hundred  grooms, 
 and  150  mules  caparisoned  with  velvet  and  embroidered 
 cloth.  This  accomplished  prince,  one  of  the  distinguished 
 patrons  of  art  and  letters  in  the  Italy  of  his  time,  was 
 
 *  Not  that  the  tiara  had  disappeared  from  the  crown  jewels  of  the 
 Papacy  ;  but  the  occasions  for  assuming  it  were  rare. 
 
SACRED  ART  IN  ITALY.  531 
 
 invested  by  the  Pope  with  the  title  of  Duke  on  Easter 
 Day,  in  S.  Peter's  Church.  He  died  tlie  same  year,  1471. 
 Whilst  the  magnificence  of  ceremonial  and  worship  was 
 carried  to  its  greatest  height,  and  liome  was  assuming  a 
 new  aspect  through  public  works  and  improvements  under 
 Paul  II.,  another  event  of  immense,  though  in  this  city,  as 
 it  seems,  long  unrecognized  importance,  signalized  the  ponti- 
 ficate now  before  our  consideration:  the  first  appearance 
 in  Italy,  and  establishment  in  this  capital,  of  the  printing 
 press.  Two  German  typographers,  Schweinheim  and  Pau- 
 nartz,  settled  here  with  their  apparatus,  either  in  14G1  or 
 1465 ;  but  met  with  so  little  encouragement  that  they  re- 
 moved (probably  invited  by  the  Benedictine  monks)  to 
 Subiaco,  where  they  found  support  and  hospitality  at  the 
 abbey  of  S.  Scolastica,  some  of  whose  inmates  were  also 
 Germans.  In  that  celebrated  cloister  they  printed  the 
 first  book  produced  from  a  press  south  of  the  Alps — a 
 work  by  the  now  forgotten  grammarian  of  the  4th  cen- 
 tury, ^lius  Donatus,  and  the  Institutes  of  Lactantius, 
 1465.  Two  years  afterwards  they  returned  to  Eome, 
 where  they  were  allowed  to  set  up  their  types  in  the  palace 
 of  Pietro  de'  Massimi ;  and  here  appeared  the  first  volume 
 from  a  Boman  press,  the  "  Pamiliar  Epistles  '*  of  Cicero.* 
 
 *  The  first  edition  has  the  address  in  domo  Petri  de  Maximis.  Tlie 
 "  Palazzino  Massimi,"  as  the  building  is  now  called,  still  stands  contifruous 
 to  the  larger  palace  of  Prince  Massimi,  built  by  Baldassare  Peruzzi. 
 
 Tiraboschi  supplies  the  chronology  of  the  printing  press  in  Italy  as 
 successively  introduced  in  the  principal,  and  also  in  some  minor  cities 
 during  this  century:  next  to  Eome  on  tbe  list  comes  Venice,  where  a 
 press  was  set  up  in  1469;  next  Foligno,  1470 — Naples,  Pavia,  Bologna, 
 Florence,  Ferrara,  Trevigi,  1471 — Padua,  iSFantua,  1472 — Turin,  Genoa, 
 Modena,  and  Vicenza,  1474 — Cagli  and  Udine,  1476— Palermo,  Peru- 
 gia, Bergamo,  1477— Urbino,  1481— Pisa,  1482— Siena,  l484~Rimini, 
 1486— Forli,  1495,  Visiting  Subiaco  in  the  spring  of  1871, 1  begged  to 
 have' a  sight  of  the  Lactantius,  long  displayed  among  the  treasmes  of 
 S.  Scolastica,  but  was  sorry  to  learn   from  tlie  lord   Abbot  that   this 
 
532  MEDTiEVAL   CnRISTIANITT   AND 
 
 Another  eollabourer,  who  had  joined  them  at  S.  Scolastica, 
 Uh'ich  Hahn,  established  a  separate  office  in  this  city. 
 Little  else  is  l^nown  of  these  enterprising  men  except  that 
 they  fell  into  extreme  poverty,  much  to  the  discredit  of 
 those  who  might  have  assisted  them,  and  a  fact  which 
 betrays  the  low  state  of  literary  culture  in  the  Papal 
 metropolis  at  this  time.  After  the  death  of  Schweinheim, 
 in  1476,  nothing  is  heard  more  of  his  companion ;  but  we 
 read  of  another  German  typographer,  named  Lauer,  who 
 established  a  press  in  this  city  at  S.  Eusebio,  then  a  monas- 
 tery of  Celestine  monks,  who  protected  him — now  a  con- 
 vent of  Jesuits.  Something  like  the  splendours  and  largesses 
 of  the  Caesars  was  revived  by  Paul  II.  At  the  great  church- 
 festivals  he  caused  all  the  prisons  to  be  thrown  open,  and 
 all  except  murderers  and  the  worst  malefactors  released 
 from  their  bonds.  He  gave  banquets  in  the  open  air 
 before  the  S.  Mark's  basilica  (or,  more  probably,  in  the 
 wider  space  before  the  contiguous  palace,  his  residence), 
 entertaining  most  sumptuously  the  magistrates,  all  those 
 in  office,  and  a  multitude  of  other  citizens,  the  humblest 
 populace  being  allowed  to  carry  away  the  residues  of  fish, 
 fowl,  and  flesh  from  the  well  spread  tables ;  after  which, 
 his  Holiness  amused  himself  by  scattering  silver  coins  from 
 a  window,  and  seeing  the  scramble  to  obtain  them.  His 
 charities  were  more  laudably  exercised,  and  though  he  is 
 accused  of  amassing  wealth  by  simoniac  means — the  sale 
 of  bishoprics,  &c.,  (see  Platina) — it  is  also  shown  that  the 
 bounties  of  the  Vatican  now  flowed  in  a  copious  stream  ; 
 that  necessitous  prelates,  decayed  families,  widows  and 
 orphans  were  constantly  relieved  by  the  Pope.  To  the 
 famous  Scanderbeg,  Prince  of  Albania,  he  gave  300  gold  flo- 
 
 princeps  edition  was  no  longer  in  the  monastery;  nor  could  I  ascertain 
 more  as  to  its  fate,  but  only  conjecture  its  removal,  since  the  change  of 
 government,  to  the  Vatican. 
 
SACRED  ART    IN  ITALY.  533 
 
 rins  oil  his  arrival  iu  Kome,  aiid,  soon  afterwards,  the  nobler 
 gift  of  the  sword  aud  cap  consecrated  at  Christmas.  On  the 
 orphan  daughters  of  Thomas,  Despot  of  Morea,  and  brother 
 to  the  last  Constantine,  he  settled  a  pension  in  the  amount 
 of  200  gold  florins  per  month,  and  their  education  was  pro- 
 vided for  through  his  care.  It  was  consistent  with  the  tem- 
 per of  such  a  Pontift'  to  maintain  the  highest  theories  and 
 claims  of  the  prerogatives  and  powers  of  the  Holy  See.  A 
 king  of  Bohemia,  George  Podiebrad,  accused  of  heresy,  was 
 publicly  excommunicated  and  declared  to  have  forfeited 
 his  crown  by  sentence  twice  pronounced,  once  after  the 
 rites  of  Christmas,  at  S.  Peter's,  by  the  Pope's  own  lips. 
 An  invader  was  invited  to  occupy  the  Bohemian  states, 
 and  hence  ensued  many  years  of  warfare  between  the 
 anathematized  king  and  Matthias  Corvinus,  monarch  of 
 Hungary,  w^ho  was  proclaimed  King  of  Bohemia  in  1469.* 
 
 *  George  Podiebrad,  elected  1458,  demanded  from  Pius  II.  the  con- 
 firmation of  his  title,  and  the  ratifying  of  the  compact  made  with 
 Bohemia  by  the  Basle  Council,  and  in  virtue  of  which  communion  in 
 both  kinds  was  conceded  to  that  nation.  Pius  positively  refused  such 
 sacramental  privilege,  aud  eluded  the  rest  of  the  demand.  Irri- 
 tated at  this,  the  King,  with  the  assent  and  support  of  the  Arch- 
 bishop of  Prague,  maintained  the  validity  of  the  compact,  and  thence- 
 forth began  to  persecute  the  Catholics  among  his  subjects,  identifying 
 himself  in  fact  with  the  Hussites  and  "Calixtine"  party.  Pius  II. 
 anathematized  him,  1463;  and  the  act  of  Paul  II.  was  but  a  continuance 
 of  the  same  spiritual  hostilities  with  exercise  of  the  deposing  power 
 affected  by  the  Holy  See,  Podiebrad  died  (1471),  amidst  the  contests 
 and  tumults  after  the  invasion  of  his  states  and  recognition  of  the  clainjs 
 of  a  rival  to  his  throne.  The  successor  he  had  named,  Ladislaus,  son  of 
 Casimir  IV.  of  Poland,  was  finally  obliged  to  share  his  title  witli 
 Matthias,  and  cede  to  the  latter,  (1478),  the  provinces  of  Lusatia, 
 Moravia,  and  Silesia,  which  had  been  incorporated  with  the  Boliemian 
 kingdom.  They  were,  however,  re-acquired  by  him  after  the  death  of 
 the  King  of  Hungary  without  heirs,  and  according  to  the  convention 
 between  theie  two  competitors,  in  1400. 
 
534  MEDIAEVAL    CHRISTIANITY    AND 
 
 Paul  ir,,  himself  an  imperfectly  educated  man,  and  not 
 originally  brought  up  for  the  ecclesiastical  career,  con- 
 ceived suspicious  against  the  savans  who  surrounded  him  ; 
 suppressed  the  college  of  pontifical  "  Abbreviatori,"  crea- 
 ted by  Pius  II.,  and  whose  members  were  learned  men. 
 The  academy  founded  by  Pomponio  Leto,  at  his  own  house 
 on  the  Quirinal  hill,  met  with  the  same  treatment.  In  the 
 Carnival  of  1468,  twenty  academicians  were  arrested  by 
 the  Pope's  orders,  and  Platina,  the  historian,  was  dragged 
 from  the  table  of  Cardinal  Gonzaga  to  prison.  Pomponio 
 Leto  came  from  Naples,  voluntarily  he  tells  us,  to 
 answer  the  charges  against  him,  and  being  imprisoned, 
 drew  up  a  defence,  in  which  he  declares  that  he  had  always 
 revered  and  spoke  respectfully  of  Paul  II.*  He  was  soon 
 released  ;  but  the  less  fortunate  Platina  remained  long  in 
 prison,  altogether  sixteen  months.  This  is  the  first  in- 
 stance of  antagonism  between  the  Papacy  and  the  genius 
 of  the  Eenaissance  now  accused  of  reviving  Pagan  philo- 
 sophy and  Platonic  theories  to  the  prejudice  of  Chris- 
 tianity.    The  above-named  historian   of  the  Popes,  who 
 
 *  The  Academy  was  restored  by  sanction  of  Sixtus  IV.,  its  members 
 liaving  been  declared  free  from  all  taint  of  heresy  by  a  committee  of 
 theologians.  Pomponio  Leto,  on  his  first  re-appearance  in  his  cathedra 
 after  his  imprisonment,  was  hailed  with  triumphant  welcome.  The 
 Emperor  Frederick  III.  granted  privileges  to  the  Academy  by  a  diploma 
 which  was  read  with  rejoicing  on  occasion  of  the  first  celebration  by  the 
 learned  academicians  of  the  anniversary  of  Rome,  21st  April,  1483— a 
 historic  fete  still  kei)t  up,  celebrated  i)i  different  ways,  both  under  the 
 Papal  and  under  the  recently  established  constitutional  government  in 
 this  city.  That  academic  body,  which  comprised  many  distinguished 
 members,  as  Bembo,  Sadoleto,  Vida,  Paolo  Giovio,  ended  its  career 
 at  the  fatal  catastrophe  of  the  siege  and  sack  of  Rome,  1527.  Pom- 
 ponio Leto  died  1498,  and  had  the  honours  of  a  grand  funeral,  at 
 tended  by  forty  bishops  and  several  ambassadors,  at  Aracoeli  ou  tin 
 Capitol, 
 
SACRED    ART    IN    ITAIA'.  535 
 
 was  one  of  the  Abbreviators  deprived  of  oflice,  gives  a 
 vivid  account  of  his  sufferings,  and  reveals  to  us  the  hor- 
 rors of  a  Roman  dungeon,  and  the  more  dreadful  secrets 
 of  the  torture-room,  with  unintentional  but  crushing  accu- 
 sation against  the  judicial  procedure  inEome  at  this  time.* 
 He  had  imprudently  written  to  the  Pope,  protesting 
 against  the  arbitrary  deprivation  of  the  Abbreviators,  and 
 threatening  to  appeal  to  European  princes,  who  might 
 convoke  a  Council,  and  call  his  Holiness  to  account  for 
 his  injustice.  This  naturally  provoked  implacable  wrath,  and 
 arrest  and  torture  were  the  consequences  to  the  audacious 
 Platina.  After  his  first  imprisonment,  being  released  at 
 the  request  of  Cardinal  Gonzaga,  he  was  forbidden  to  quit 
 Rome,  and  some  time  afterwards  was  again  arrested  under 
 suspicion  of  complicity  in  a  plot  against  Paul  II.,  the  reality 
 of  which  was  never  proved.  After  ten  months  imprison- 
 ment he  and  his  fellow-captives  were  visited  by  the  Pontiff, 
 
 •  "  On  the  first  and  second  day  many  were  tortured,  and  among  them 
 the  greater  number  fainted  from  agony.  So  tenibly  did  the  vaults  of- 
 the  castle  (S.  Angelo)  resound  and  re-echo  to  the  cries  of  the  miserable 
 young  men,  that  one  might  have  supposed  this  fortress  to  be  converted 
 into  the  bull  of  Phalaris.  The  executioners  became  tired  before  being 
 satiated  with  their  task,  for  on  that  day  about  twenty  were  tortured  by 
 them.  I  also  was  summoned  with  the  rest  to  my  punishment.  They 
 prepare  the  cord,  strip  me  of  my  clothes,  lacerate,  and  frequently  hoist 
 me,  lifting  and  lowering  me  like  a  thief  or  highway  assassin."  Platina 
 describes  the  sufferings  from  the  cord,  and  expresses  his  indignation  at 
 seeing  a  prelate,  the  vice-chancellor,  sent  by  the  Pope  to  preside  over 
 these  atrocities,  interrogate  the.  agonized  victims,  and,  as  he  reports, 
 conduct  himself  with  the  most  unfeeling  levity.  This  was  after  Pla- 
 tina's  second  arrest,  when  accustd  of  a  conspiracy  against  Paul  II.  On 
 his  first  arrest  he  was  (he  tells  us)  "  bound  with  the  heaviest  irons,  and 
 left  in  the  midst  of  winter,  without  fire,  in  a  lofty  tower,  exposed  to  all 
 the  winds  during  four  months."  Some  of  his  companions,  he  tells  us, 
 were  thrown  into  a  subterranean  dungeon. 
 
536  MEDIEVAL    CHRISTIANITY    AND 
 
 who  violently  upbraided  them,  accused  them  of  denying 
 or  doubting  the  immortality  of  the  soul,  but  more  especially 
 vented  his  wrath  against  Platiua,  accusing  him  of  con- 
 spiracy, heresy,  ingratitude,  &c.  Curious  is  the  historian's 
 report  of  this  dialogue  in  the  prison — the  antagonism 
 between  narrow-souled  orthodoxy  in  power  and  self-eman- 
 cipated intelligence  in  disgrace.  But  a  feeling  profoundly 
 sorrowful  is  awakened  when  we  contrast  the  Papacy,  per- 
 sonified by  Paul  II.,  with  the  Papacy  amid  the  light  shed 
 around  it  by  sanctity  and  charities  from  such  men  as 
 S.  G-regory  or  S.  Leo  I.  Platina  and  his  fellow  prisoners 
 were  not  released  till  long  after  this  pontific  visit,  which 
 did  not  come  to  them  with  pardon  or  mercy.  They  had  to 
 complete  an  entire  year  in  captivity  ;  at  last  being  trans- 
 ferred to  the  Vatican,  they  were  confined  for  twenty  days 
 to  their  apartments  in  that  palace ;  subsequently  allowed 
 the  range  of  its  ample  premises,  till,  at  the  intercession  of 
 the  cardinals,  all  were  left  at  large.* 
 
 The  conclave  elected  with  unanimous  votes,  twelve  days 
 after  the  death  of  Paul  II.  (9th  August,  1471),  a  Francis- 
 can Cardinal  and  father-general  of  that  Order,  named 
 Francesco  della  Eovere,  fifty-seven  years  of  age,  who  hence- 
 forth becomes  known  as  Sixtus  IV.  With  his  pontificate 
 may  be  said  to  open,  though  not  indeed  unanticipated  by 
 the  acts  and  characters  of  some  of  his  predecessors,  that 
 phase  of  the  Papacy,  continued  during  the  next  eighty 
 years,  w^hen  the  main  objects  proposed  to  themselves  by  the 
 occupants  of  its  throne  were  the  consolidation  of  temporal 
 power,  political  aggrandisement,  or  (still  less  justifiable) 
 
 *  The  valuable  work  of  Platina  closes  with  the  biography  of 
 Paul  II,  to  whom  he  may  have  been  unjust,  as  other  historians  consider; 
 yet  even  in  writing  about  the  sovereign  through  whose  capricious  sus- 
 picions he  had  suffered  so  cruelly,  he  bears  testimony  to  merits  and  to 
 the  brighter  side  of  that  Pope's  character, 
 
SACRED    AUT    IN    ITAIA'.  537 
 
 the  promotiou  of  the  houours,  wealth,  and  glories  of  a  swingle 
 house,  the  fortunate  nephews  or  illegitimate  children  of 
 the  reigning  Pope.  Thus  did  the  Roman  See  lose  more 
 and  more  of  its  pristine  lustre,  recede  further  and  further 
 from  the  apostolic  norma,  and  desert  the  standard  of  its 
 high  vocation  to  a  degi'ee  almost  unparalleled  in  the  annals 
 of  other  Christian  bishoprics.  Sixtus  IV.  is  one  of  those 
 mainly  responsible  for  subjecting  a  once  truly  venerable 
 and  truly  sanctified  dominion  to  this  fatally  unspi ritual- 
 izing process.  Almost  his  first  act  betrayed  that  nepo- 
 tism, the  consequences  of  which  proved  the  great  scandal 
 of  his  career  as  Pope.  He  gave  the  Cardinal's  hat  to  two 
 young  men  his  nephews,  Giuliano  della  Eovere  (who  lived 
 to  be  his  successor  as  Julius  II.),  and  Pietro  Eiavio  (per- 
 haps his  own  son),  who,  raised  suddenly  from  an  obscure 
 Pranciscan  convent,  became  by  rapid  strides  Archbishop  of 
 Florence,  titular  Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  Legate  for 
 all  Italy,  as  well  as  Cardinal,  and  in  the  course  of  two 
 years  held  seven  bishoprics  besides  his  other  more  brilliant 
 promotions  !  Por  the  brother  of  this  young  man,  Grirol- 
 amo,  was  obtained  the  lordship  of  Imola  and  Forli,  pur- 
 chased at  the  price  of  40,000  gold  ducats  from  a  ruler 
 expelled  by  popular  violence,  Taddeo  Manfredi.  Another 
 fortunate  nephew,  Leonardo  della  Eovere,  was  appointed 
 Prefect  of  Eome,  and  ultimately  obtained  the  hand  of  a 
 natural  daughter  of  Perrante  (or  Ferdinand),  the  Ara- 
 gonese  King  of  Naples,  on  occasion  of  which  union  the 
 Pope  exempted  the  Neapolitan  crown  from  the  obligation 
 of  annual  census  to  the  Holy  See,  though  still  requiring 
 the  "  chinea,"  or  white  palfrey,  to  be  presented,  as  formerly, 
 on  S.  Peter's  day  in  the  Apostle's  basilica ;  and  imposing 
 the  condition  of  that  king's  assistance  in  the  war  against 
 the  Turks. 
 
538  MEDIiEVAL    CHRISTIANITY    AND 
 
 Other  European  princes  soon  felt  the  error  they  had 
 committed  in  leaving  the  G-reek  Empire  to  fall  under  the 
 sway  of  the  Sultan.  Sixtus  IV.  had  nothing  of  the  high- 
 souled  enthusiasm  of  Pius  II ;  but  he  exerted  himself  and 
 expended  large  sums  for  the  furtherance  of  the  "  Crusades." 
 He  deputed  Cardinal  Legates,  Eodriguez  Borgia  in  Spain, 
 Bessarion  in  Erance,  Barbo  in  the  German  and  Hunga- 
 rian states,  to  incite  rulers  to  coalesce  in  the  first  step 
 requisite,  a  league  for  that  common  cause.  A  fleet  was 
 equipped ;  the  Pope  himself  supplying  as  many  gaUeys  as 
 he  possibly  could ;  the  Venetians  fifty,  the  Neapolitan  king 
 fourteen  such  vessels  ;*  and  in  two  diff'erent  enterprises, 
 the  expenditure  from  the  pontific  treasury  was  100,000 
 and  75,000  ducats !  On  the  festival  of  Corpus  Christi, 
 1472,  the  Pope  went  with  many  prelates  and  courtiers  to 
 S.  Paul's,  near  which  basilica  his  ships  were  moored  on  the 
 Tiber  ;  solemnly  blessed  the  fleet,  the  command  of  which  he 
 had  given  to  a  Cardinal  Legate,  Carafla,  bestowed  on  its 
 crew  a  hundred  standards,  and  granted  plenary  indulgence 
 to  all  who  should  join  this  Crusade.  The  fleet  of  the  allies 
 caused  some  damage,  but  nothing  that  did  permanent 
 injury  to  the  Turkish  power,  in  Asia  Minor.  They  attacked 
 and  set  fire  to  Smyrna,  making  many  prisoners  among  its 
 citizens.  They  besieged  Salatia,  or  Adalia,  now  a  commer- 
 cial town  of  some  importance,  on  the  southern  coast  of  what 
 was  once  Pamphilia,  and  carried  away  from  its  port  the 
 chains  which,  brought  to  Eome,  were  hung  up  as  trophies 
 at  S.  Peter's.  Cardinal  Carafla  had  the  honours  of  a 
 public  triumph  on  his  return  to  that  city,  where  he  made 
 his  entry  with  twelve  camels  bearing  the  spoils  on  their 
 backs,  and  twenty-five  Turkish  captives. 
 
 *  Muraiori  says  that  the  pontific  galleys  were  thirty-four  in  number, 
 ranvinio  makes  them  fourteen  ;  other  writers,  twenty-nine. 
 
SACRED  AET  IN  ITALY.  539 
 
 Cardinal  Giuliano  dellaRovere,  in  the  double  capacity  of 
 Legate  and  general,  suppressed  by  armed  force  certain 
 tumults,  a  Guclph  and  Ghibelline  struggle,  in  the  Umbrian 
 city  of  Todi ;  and  after  this  first  apprenticeship  and  achieve- 
 ment in  the  military  career,  for  which  he  showed  decided 
 predeliction  even  when  seated  on  the  Papal  throne,  led  his 
 forces  to  Citta  di  Castello,  at  that  time  (1474)  under  the 
 domination  of  the  Yitelli,  the  chief  family  of  the  place. 
 Federico  di  Montefeltro,  lately  invested  by  the  Pope  with 
 the  rank  of  Duke  (formerly  Count)  of  Urbino,  joined  this 
 expedition,  and  took  the  command,  under  the  Legate,  of 
 the  pontific  troops.  After  a  siege  of  three  months,  JN'icolo 
 Yitelli  surrendered,  and  that  fortified  city  on  the  Tiber 
 was  given  up  to  the  Legate,  who  took  possession  in  the 
 name  of  the  Pope.  Some  time  afterwards  Yitelli  returned, 
 found  support  among  the  citizens,  again  assumed  the  lord- 
 ship of  Citta  di  Castello,  and  demolished  the  castle  built  by 
 order  of  Sixtus  lY.  Lorenzo  de'  Medici  assisted  the  Yitelli 
 family  in  their  resistance,  and  supplied  them  with  means 
 for  maintaining  that  independent  power  which  was  almost 
 sovereignty.  Hence  the  origin  of  the  enmity  and  indigna- 
 tion of  the  Pope  against  the  Medici.  The  ambitious  designs 
 of  Sixtus  lY.  centred  in  his  favourite  nephew,  Count 
 Girolamo,  for  whom  it  was  his  darling  object  to  obtain  an 
 Italian  princedom.  He  entered  into  alliance  with  a  Flo- 
 rentine faction  opposed  to  the  ascendancy  of  the  Medici ; 
 and  the  consj)iracy  of  the  Pazzi,  aiming  at  the  overthrow 
 of  that  wealthy  and  hitherto  w^ell-deserving  family  by  the 
 removal — if  necessary  through  assassination — of  the  two 
 brothers  Lorenzo  and  Giuliano,  was  confided  to,  sanctioned 
 and  in  part  directed  by  the  Pope,  who,  however,  had  the 
 decency  to  withhold  his  formal  assent  from  all  projects  of 
 murderous  import.  Count  Girolamo  hated  Lorenzo  de' 
 Medici  for   having  oppo.'^ed  his  elevation   to  the  lordship 
 
540  MEDIJEVAL    CHRISTIANITY    AND 
 
 of  Imola  ;  and  the  fondness  of  the  Pope  for  his  nephew  pre- 
 disposed him  for  that  complicity  in  a  crime  which  has 
 deeply  compromised  the  reputation  of  Sixtus  IV.  Fran- 
 cesco and  Jacopo  de'  Pazzi,  Girolamo  della  Rovere,  and 
 Francesco  Salviati,  Archbishop  of  Pisa,  were  the  principal 
 leaders  who  concerted  their  plans  in  Eome,  and  with  full 
 cognisance  of  the  Pope.*  The  day  chosen  was  Easter  Sun- 
 day, 26th  April,  1478;  the  place  (the  Medici  villa  at 
 Fiesole  having  been  proposed,  but  found  unsuitable)  the 
 cathedral  of  Florence,  and  the  moment  for  the  murderous 
 deed,  that  of  the  communion  at  High  Mass.  The  Pope 
 sent  2000  soldiers  with  a  captain  in  his  service  to  be  ready 
 at  the  Florentine  frontier  for  support  of  the  conspirators 
 at  whatever  emergency  ;  he  also  desired  his  grand-nephew. 
 Cardinal  Raffaello  Eiario,  to  repair  to  Florence  from  Pisa, 
 directing  him  to  conform  to  the  counsels  of  the  Archbishop 
 
 *  The  foreknowledge  and  approval  of  the  conspiracy  by  Sixtus  IV., 
 albeit  with  reserve  of  all  express  sanction  for  the  murder,  is  set  in  the 
 clearest  light  by  a  document  wliich  has  been  cited,  strange  to  say,  in  the 
 Pope's  justification — the  confession,  namely,  of  Giambattista  da  Monte- 
 secco,  a  condottiere  in  the  pontific  service,  who  was  urged  to  take 
 part  with  other  hired  assassins,  but  refused.  This  witness  repeats  the 
 discourse  held  at  the  Vatican  between  the  Pope,  Count  Girolamo,  the 
 Archbishop  Salviati,  and  himself.  Keporting  his  own  words,  "  Holy 
 Pather  (he  said)  these  things  cannot  be  done  without  the  death  of 
 Lorenzo  and  of  Giuliano,  and  perhaps  of  others  also.  His  Holiness 
 answered  him  :  I  do  not  desire  the  death  of  any  one  on  any  account  ; 
 nor  is  it  our  office  to  consent  to  the  death  of  any  one  ;  and  though  Lo- 
 renzo be  a  villain,  and  has  behaved  ill  towards  us,  I  by  no  means  deeire 
 his  death,  but  only  the  change  of  the  government  {mutazione  dello 
 stato).  And  the  Count  answered:  'All  that  can  be  done  shall  be 
 done,  in  order  to  prevent  this  from  happening,  but  should  it  happen, 
 your  Holiness  will  assuredly  pardon  those  who  have  committed  it  (la 
 Vostra  Santitd  x'^cifdonard  bene  a  chi'lfesse).^  The  Pope  replied  to 
 the  Count  :  'Thou  art  a  fool  (tu  sia  U7ia  hestia).  I  tell  thee  that  I 
 desire  not  the  death  of  any  one,  but  only  the  change  of  government.' " 
 
SACRED  ART  IX  ITALY.  541 
 
 Salvlatl.*  Tlie  young  Cardinal  was  "  assisting  "  in  state  at 
 the  mass,  celebrated  by  a  canon,  on  the  morning  appointed. 
 How  the  conspiracy  was  thwarted,  and  the  life  of  Giuliano 
 de'  Medici  alone  sacrificed  by  sacrilegious  murder,  one  of 
 the  assassins  being  a  priest,  in  the  holy  place,  is  well- 
 known.  The  power  of  the  Medici  was  only  strengthened, 
 and  Lorenzo  rose  higher  than  ever  in  popularity  and 
 influence  after  his  rescue  from  this  danger.f  Almost  im- 
 mediately after  the  terrific  scene  in  the  cathedral,  the 
 Archbishop  Salviati,  Jacopo  and  Francesco  de'  Pazzi,  and 
 Jacopo  Poggio,  son  of  the  celebrated  writer,  were  hanged 
 from  the  balcony  of  the  Palazzo  della  Signoria,  now  called 
 "  Palazzo  Yecchio."  Cardinal  Eiario,  who,  in  his  terror  at 
 the  popular  fury  which  threatened  his  life,  clung  to  the 
 high  altar  amidst  the  tumultuous  agitation  of  multitudes, 
 was  rescued  through  the  protection  of  Lorenzo,  who  be- 
 lieved him  innocent,  and  after  being  detained  for  a  short 
 time  under  a  strong  guard,  was  allowed  to  leave  in  safety. 
 At  the  intelligence  of  these  events  the  Pope  was  most  in- 
 dignant. He  formed  a  league  with  the  King  of  Naples 
 against  the  Florentine  Republic.  He  took  the  pretext  of 
 the  extra-legal  execution  of  an  Archbishop  and  captivity  of 
 a  Cardinal,  to  fulminate  anathemas  against  Lorenzo  de* 
 Medici  and  the  Florentine  magistrates,  and  lay  their  city 
 under  interdict.  In  the  July  of  that  year  a  synod  of 
 Tuscan  prelates   and   theologians,   presided   over   by   the 
 
 *  This  Cardinal,  only  eighteen  years  old  at  the  time,  became  cele- 
 brated as  the  founder  and  owner  of  the  vast  majestic  palace,  raised  with 
 Bramante's  architecture  in  Rome,  since  known  as  the  Cancelleria.  He 
 seems  to  have  had  no  share  in  the  Pazzi  conspiracy,  nor  even  been 
 informed  of  what  was  to  take  place  that  day.  The  impression  of  terror 
 was  such,  after  the  scene  in  the  Florence  Duorao.  that  he  is  said  to  have 
 been  pale  in  the  face  for  the  rest  of  his  life. 
 
 t  A  bronze  medal  was  struck  with  a  design  by  Pallaiuolo,  represent- 
 ing the  murder  of  one  and  escape  of  the  other  brother,  with  the  legend  : 
 Salus  pnhlica,  ludus  puhlicus. 
 
542  MEDT^YAL    CHRISTIANITY    AND 
 
 Bishop  of  Arezzo,  accused  the  Pope  of  having  instigated 
 the  murderous  conspiracy,  rejected  his  excommunications, 
 and  launched  a  similar  sentence  against  him  on  their  own 
 authority. 
 
 Lami  {Lezioni  di  Antichitd,  Toscane)  says  of  this  me- 
 morable proceeding  :  "  If  inquiry  were  made  at  the  present 
 time  in  Elorence  for  any  one  who  had  seen  a  printed  copy 
 of  the  counter-excommunication  {Contra  scommunica  del 
 Clero  Fiorentino  fulminata  contra  il  Summo  JPontefice 
 Sisto  IV.),  surprise  would  be  excited,  and  belief  would  be 
 expressed  that  no  such  document  can  be  in  existence.  The 
 fact,  however,  is  most  true ;  and  there  is  at  this  day  a  copy 
 of  it  extant  in  a  certain  library  at  Florence."* 
 
 Both  Sixtus  and  Ferdinand  availed  themselves  of  the 
 sanction  of  the  interdict  to  confiscate  the  money  and  pos- 
 sessions of  such  unfortunate  Florentines  as  were  then 
 residing  either  at  Eome  or  in  the  Neapolitan  States.  An 
 embassy  sent  to  appease  the  enraged  Pontiff,  had  no  suc- 
 cess. Other  Florentine  envoys,  charged  to  secure  the 
 alliance  of  Venice  and  Milan  for  the  war  now  threatening 
 that  republic,  protested  against  "  the  imperious  temper  and 
 injustice  of  the  Pope  ;"  declared  that  "  he  had  ill-exercised 
 the  pontific  sovereignty  which  he  had  acquired  by  bad  means ; 
 had  sent  persons  raised  by  him  to  high  episcopal  rank,  in 
 company  with  traitors  and  parricides,  to  commit  treason 
 in  the  temple  of  Grod,  and  in  the  midst  of  the  divine  offices' 
 (Machiavelli,  '*  History  of  Florence").  The  Pontific  and 
 Neapolitan  forces  invaded  the  States  of  the  Republic  on 
 the  side  of  the  Val  di  Chiana.  Louis  XI.,  the  Regency  of 
 Milan,  the  Venetians,  the  Duke  of  Ferrara  and  the  Mala- 
 testa  of  Eimini  declared  for  Florence  against  the  Pope  and 
 
 *  The  learned  antiquarian  does  not  say  in  which  Hbrary.  That  sen- 
 tence of  the  bishops' was  printed  for  distribution  throughout  Christen- 
 dom.   V.  Trollope,  "  Commonwealth  of  Florence." 
 
SACRED    AFiT   IN    ITALY.  543 
 
 King  Ferdinand.  The  riorcntines  obtained  a  victory  on 
 the  shores  of  the  Thrasjmene  lake,  but  were  defeated  near 
 Poggibonsi  by  the  forces  under  the  Duke  of  Calabria. 
 Lorenzo  de'  Medici  of  his  owti  accord  set  out  for  Naples  to 
 propose  terms  of  peace  to  Ferdinand ;  and  his  eloquence 
 had  such  effect  that  the  war  was  brought  to  a  close,  and 
 the  king  concluded  a  league  with  Florence  against  his  other 
 enemies. 
 
 "We  must  go  back  to  a  period  earlier  than  these  events 
 to  notice  the  "  Holy  Year,"  1475,  celebrated  by  Sixtus  lY., 
 and  henceforth,  if  not  sooner,  called  the  "  Jubilee  "  in 
 common  parlance.  Paul  II.  had  altered  by  bull  (1470)  the 
 prescriptions  of  his  predecessors  respecting  this  observ- 
 ance, and  decreed  that,  in  consideration  of  the  shortness 
 of  human  life,  and  in  order  that  each  generation  might  have 
 the  chance  of  benefiting  by  the  spiritual  treasures  of  the 
 Church  bestowed  in  their  plenitude  at  such  sacred  seasons, 
 the  Holy  Year  should  thenceforth  be  celebrated  not  once 
 or  twice  only,  but  four  times  in  each  century,  and  con- 
 sequently every  twenty-fifth  year  should  be  one  of  Jubilee. 
 Sixtus  lY.,  magnificent  and  enterprising  in  public  works, 
 ordered  on  this  occasion  many  restorations  of  buildings, 
 churches,  and  hospitals  in  Eome,  especially  with  a  view  to 
 the  reception  and  entertainment  of  pilgrims.  A  bridge 
 over  the  Tiber  was  now  restored,  and  called  after  his  name, 
 "  Ponte  Sisto."  Eoyal  personages  came  among  the  pil- 
 grims:  King  Ferdinand  of  Naples,  attended  by  many 
 barons  and  lords,  T\dth  domestics  bringing  ever  so  many 
 falcons  for  the  chace  in  the  Campagna  ;  and  Catherine, 
 Queen  of  Bosnia,  who  died  at  Eome,  1488,  and  whose 
 monument  we  see  in  the  Aracoeli  church ;  she,  on  her 
 journey  hither  for  the  Jubilee,  being  attended  by  forty 
 knights.  The  arrival  of  the  King  of  Sweden  is  reported  by 
 some  writers,  but  uncertainly.      The  devotional  visit  of 
 
544  MEDI.TIYAL   CHRTSTIANITY   AND 
 
 Christian  I.  of  Denmark  is  assigned  by  Ciaconius  to  the 
 date  1473,  not  to  the  Jubilee  year,  when  other  writers 
 suppose  that  he  undertook  that  pilgrimage.  But  the 
 aggregate  of  devout  visitors  was  comparatively  low ; 
 the  pilgrimage  was  impeded  by  political  troubles,  by 
 wars  in  France,  Germany,  Spain,  Poland  and  Hungary  ; 
 and  the  dangers  of  the  highways,  beset  by  brigands  and 
 marauders,  were  known  enough  to  be  dreaded.  On  this 
 account  the  Pope  deemed  it  prudent  to  make  another  inno- 
 vation by  extending  the  Jubilee  to  Bologna,  with  the  same 
 privileges  and  indulgences,  four  churches  in  that  city  being 
 raised  to  parity  with  the  four  patriarchal  basilicas  of  Eome; 
 the  Bolognese  Jubilee  to  last  from  the  12th  May  till  the  end 
 of  the  year.  The  material  improvements  of  Eome,  commenced 
 by  Paul  II,  and  continued  by  Sixtus  IV.,  were  promoted 
 through  the  advice  given  by  the  Neapolitan  King  to  the 
 latter  in  this  year.  Ferdinand  observed  the  gloomy  condi- 
 tion of  the  streets,  shut  in  by  projecting  porticoes  and  over- 
 shadowed by  the  balconies  of  fortress-like  houses,  or  huge 
 castles.  He  pointed  out  to  the  Pope  the  strategic  objec- 
 tions ;  the  difficulty  of  sending  troops  through  this  incon- 
 venient city,  where  their  movements  could  not  be  free,  and 
 the  ill-affected  people  might  hurl  stones,  &c.,  upon  them 
 from  above — the  soldiery  thus  exposed,  the  citizens  pro- 
 tected. Sixtus  took  the  hint ;  porticoes  and  balconies 
 (porticali  e  mignani,  says  Infessura,)  were  removed,  and  the 
 necessity  for  paving  the  streets,  for  the  first  time,  with 
 brick,  was  alleged  as  the  real — it  might  well  have  been  one 
 — object  for  which  this  demolition  was  preparatory. 
 
 In  1480,  Italy,  and  regions  beyond  the  Alps  not  less 
 than  Italy,  felt  the  terror  of  the  shock  caused  by  the 
 hostile  descent  of  Moslems  on  the  southern  coast  of  this 
 peninsula.  An  invasion,  led  by  the  Grand  A^izier,  over- 
 whelmed the  town  of  Otranto,  for  which  the  most  dread- 
 
SACRED  ART  IN  ITALY.  545 
 
 ful  fate  sva^  rci^erve*!  :  12,000  iiiliabitants,  among  whom  was 
 the  Bishop,  with  all  tlie  clergy  and  friars,  were  inasHacred, 
 and  10,000  carried  aw^ay  into  slavery.  The  Pope  thought  of 
 flight — of  taking  refuge  beyond  the  Alps  ;  he  adopted  a 
 course  more  conformable  with  his  duties  ;  urged  the  Chris- 
 tian princes  to  unite  against  the  common  enemy,  and 
 sent  ships  to  join  a  Neapolitan  expedition  for  the  rescue 
 of  Otranto.  In  the  next  year  that  desolated  city  was 
 recovered,  the  Turks  being  expelled,  with  loss  of  all  their 
 artillery,  by  the  Duke  of  Calabria.  The  news  of  this 
 event  had  been  preceded  in  Rome  by  that  of  another,  which 
 excited  still  more  joy,  expressed  through  public  solemni- 
 ties— the  death  of  Mohammed  II.,  at  Constantinople,  5th 
 of  May,  reported  at  Eome  on  the  28th  of  that  month, 
 1481.  Thanksgiving  celebrations  were  kept  up  for  three 
 days ;  the  Pope  and  all  the  Cardinals  took  part  in  a 
 long  procession  between  the  Vatican  and  the  S.  Angelo 
 bridge. 
 
 Soon  after  the  disaster  of  Otranto,  Sixtus  showed  himself 
 ready  to  re-admit  to  favour  the  offending  Plorentiues,  and 
 relieve  them  from  the  interdict.  Twelve  citizens,  sent  to 
 negotiate  peace  and  reconciliation  witli  the  Church,  ap- 
 peared in  the  atrium  of  S.  Peter's  on  the  first  Sunday  of 
 Advent,  and  waited  on  their  knees  till  the  Pope  should 
 arrive.  He  absolved  them,  and  through  them  the  city 
 and  state  of  Florence,  wdth  the  ceremony  of  touching  their 
 heads  with  a  long  wand,  after  which  they  heard  mass,  and 
 received  restitution  of  the  territories  and  castles  taken 
 from  the  Eepublic  in  the  war.  The  Pope  now  made 
 alliance  with  the  Florentines  and  King  Ferdinand  against 
 the  Venetians,  who  were  besieging  Ferraia. 
 
 We  read  much  of  the  scandals,  the  vanities  and  worldli- 
 uess  of  the  Curia  during  this  pontificate.  Sixtus  lA".  gave 
 the  Archbishopric  of  Saragossa  in  perpetual  comvinida  to 
 
 2  X 
 
546  MEDIiEVAL   CnRISTIANITT   AND 
 
 a  child  six  years  old,  the  natural  son  of  King  Ferdinand  of 
 Aragon.  All  the  ofnces  of  the  Papal  court  and  govern- 
 ment were  purchasable,  and  sold  at  fixed  tariff"  as  publicly 
 advertised.  That  Pope  set  the  example  of  creating  new 
 charges  expressly  for  the  purpose  of  selling  them  to  the 
 highest  bidders  ;  and  rendered  venal  those  appointments 
 which  had  hitherto  been  preserved  from  such  degrada- 
 tion. Onofrio  Panvinio  observes  of  this  corrupt  system 
 that  "in  this  manner  the  liberty  of  the  Eoman  Court  was 
 placed,  as  it  were,  in  fetters,  since  the  diligence  of  labo- 
 rious and  vigilant  minds  no  longer  availed,  and  there  were 
 no  means  of  obtaining,  save  by  payment  of  money,  any  of 
 those  offices  which  used  to  be  given  gratuitously  to  learned 
 and  estimable  persons."  For  the  first  time  a  body-guard 
 was  attached  to  the  Papal  service,  and  provided  with 
 quarters  at  the  Vatican  ;  and  in  defiance  of  prejudices  not 
 unnatural  at  this  period  of  crusading  enterprise  among 
 Christians,  a  novel  nomenclature  was  introduced  among 
 the  pontific  troops ;  Janissaries,  Stradiots,  Mamelukes  ranked 
 with  the  other  soldiers  in  arms  for  the  Supreme  Pontiff. 
 'The  "  college,"  as  it  was  called,  of  a  hundred  janissaries, 
 was  created  at  once  for  100,000  ducats,  paid  into  the 
 palace  treasury  by  its  members.  Even  before  this  time, 
 and  in  1470,  the  number  of  venal  posts  in  the  Curia,  was 
 650,  rendering  a  profit  of  100,000  ducats.  Sixtus  IV. 
 made  all  the  other  offices  venal,  and  developed  to  such  an 
 extent  that  he  has  been  considered  almost  the  originator  of 
 this  system.*  He  imposed  new  taxes,  increased  those  of 
 earlier  origin,  monopolized  corn,  and  obliged  the  Eomau 
 
 *  "  Tutto  vende  questo  Papa,  che  fu  considerato  quasi  I'inventore 
 di  questo  sistema — Fu  quasi  vcrtiginoso  il  furore  col  quale  la  corte 
 romana  precipitossi  in  questa  prima  specie  di  debito  pubblico." — Gale- 
 otti,  Sovranita  e  Governo  Teivporale  dei  Foupi,  II.  §  IV. 
 
SACRED  ART  TN  ITALY.  547 
 
 bakers  to  use  grain  of  such  inferior  quality,  imported  from 
 the  Neapolitan  provinces,  that,  as  lufessura  tells  us,  i1 
 caused  disease  among  the  people.  lie  frequently  required 
 tithes  for  his  own  benefit  from  the  bishops  in  general.* 
 In  1487,  the  Princes  of  the  German  Empire  opposed  the 
 exacting  of  a  tenth,  never  yet  heard  of,  which  he  de- 
 manded from  those  states. 
 
 Rarely  had  the  social  conditions  of  E-ome  been  more 
 deplorable,  the  lawlessness  of  the  aristocracy  more  fero- 
 cious, the  defenceless  citizens  more  exposed  to  miseries 
 than  under  this  pontificate.  The  Vandalic  jiractice  of 
 demolishing  houses  or  castles  in  punishment  of  their 
 off'endiug  ow^ners,  w^as  carried  out  systematically  by  the 
 Pope's  orders.  In  one  day  he  caused  two  residences 
 of  the  Santa  Croce  family  to  be  thus  destroyed,  because 
 they  had  attacked  the  palace  of  the  Delia  Valle  family, 
 with  w^hom  they  were  at  mortal  feud,  provoked  by  the 
 murder  of  Prospero  Santa  Croce,  who  was  slain  with  a 
 knife,  as  he  sat  at  supper  in  his  own  house,  by  Francesco 
 della  Yalle,  his  brother-in-law.  The  Pope  leagued 
 with  the  Orsini  against  the  Colonnas,  whom  he  was 
 bent  on  ruining.  That  still  powerful  family  were  lords 
 of  Marino,  Palliano,  other  fortified  places  near  Rome, 
 and  the  district  of  Tagliacozzo,  once  a  fief  of  the  Orsini. 
 After  Sixtus  had  been  for  two  months  the  guest  of  Vir- 
 ginio  Orsini  at  the  castle  of  Bracciauo,  he  began  his 
 deliberate  onset  against  the  rival  house.  One  of  the 
 Colonnas,  Antonio,  he  deprived  of  the  prefecture  of  Rome, 
 to  bestow  that  high  office  on  his  own  nephew,  Leonardo 
 della  Revere.  Another,  Lorenzo  Colonna,  one  of  the 
 Apostolic  Protonotaries,  and    therefore  of  prelatic  rank, 
 
 *  Sec  the  article  "  Sisto  IV."  in  Moroni,  Dizionario ;  that  uncom- 
 promising champion  of  the  Popes  avowing  that  Sixtus  "  non  senza 
 critica  csigettc  moUc  dccimc  tUi'  prelati." 
 
 11  N   2 
 
518  MEDIEVAL    CHRISTIANITY    AND 
 
 was  required  to  give  up  the  county  of  Alvi  to  Yirgiuio 
 Orsini  on  payment  of  14,000  ducats,  for  which  sum  it  had 
 been  obtained  by  the  Icing  of  Naples,  who  bestowed  it  on 
 the  Colonnas.  The  Protonotary,  suspecting  evil  designs 
 against  his  person  and  his  family,  fortified  himself  in  their 
 residence  on  the  Quirinal  hill,  where  many  of  his  relatives 
 and  armed  retainers  joined  him.  The  Pope  ordered  the 
 Orsini  to  enter  that  palace  by  force,  and  at  the  same  time 
 sent  certain  magistrates  to  persuade  Lorenzo  Colonna  to 
 submit,  and  confide  in  the  clemency  with  which  he  would 
 be  received  at  the  Vatican.  He  was  ready  to  comply,  but 
 prevented  by  his  relations,  who  twice  forced  him  to  return 
 when  he  had  set  out  for  the  Papal  palace.  The  pontific 
 troops  united  with  the  retainers  of  the  Orsini  to  attack 
 the  Colonna  palace  ;  a  regular  siege  ensued,  with  slaughter 
 on  both  sides,  and  kept  up  for  several  hours.  The  Orsini 
 at  last  entered,  found  the  Protonotary  wounded,  and  com- 
 manded him  to  follow  them.  Instead  of  meeting  with 
 clemency,  he  was  imprisoned  in  the  S.  Angelo  castle, 
 repeatedly  tortured,  and  after  a  month,  beheaded,  his 
 poor  lacerated  body  being  one  mass  of  wounds.  In 
 the  tumult  of  that  day  so  auspicious  for  the  Orsini,  one 
 of  the  Savelli,  a  partizan  of  the  Colonnas,  was  slain  in 
 a  street  by  an  Orsini  for  refusing  to  cry  viva,  for  the 
 rival  house. 
 
 The  Conservators  held  council  in  the  Capitol,  and  sent 
 to  entreat  the  Pope  to  put  a  stop  to  civil  warfare,  and  to 
 make  peace  with  the  Colonnas.  The  Cardinals  also  met  in 
 consistory,  and  begged  that  the  blazing  palace  of  thatj 
 family,  which  was  still  on  fire,  whilst  the  populace  were] 
 despoiling  it  of  everything  valuable,  should  be  rescue( 
 from  destruction,  and  no  further  acts  of  vengeance  allowed. 
 Sixtus  feigned  compliance,  but  a  few  hours  afterwards] 
 sent  an  officer  to   revive  the  fire,   and  to  destroy  othei 
 
SACEED  ART  IN  ITALY.  510 
 
 houses  besides  that  of  the  Colonnas,  giving  the  people 
 license  to  sack  and  despoil.  In  the  general  pillage  of 
 houses  belonging  to  the  Colonnas,  on  the  Quirinal  and 
 elsewhere,  Pompouio  Leto  lost  his  precious  library. 
 These  dreadful  times  are  described  by  Infessura,  an 
 eye-witness,  whose  narrative,  though  quaint  and  confused, 
 is  distinguished  by  the  colouring  of  reality.  Contrast  was 
 supplied  by  the  unparalleled  splendours,  extravagance  and 
 entertainments  of  the  Pope's  nephews,  particularly  those 
 raised  by  him  to  the  cardinalate,  as  Pietro  Eiario,  perhaps 
 the  most  luxurious  cardinal  who  ever  lived.  During  the 
 two  years  that  he  survived  after  receiving  the  scarlet 
 hat  he  spent  200,000,  some  writers  say  300,000  gold 
 ducats  on  banquets  and  the  pleasures  of  the  table  alone, 
 keeping  a  court  of  about  500  persons,  among  whom 
 bishops,  theologians,  poets,  orators,  were  proud  to  be 
 admitted.  On  his  death,  in  his  29th  year,  this  ecclesias- 
 tical prince  left  300  lbs.  weight  of  wrought  silver,  valued  at 
 300,000  scudi,  but  also  debts  to  the  amount  of  62,000  gold 
 ducats.  His  entertainments  were  marvellous,  surpassing 
 all  yet  beheld  in  Christian  Eome.  For  a  single  banquet 
 he  expended  20,000  florins.  On  one  S.  Peter's  Day,  he 
 gave  a  pageant  representing  the  tribute  paid  by  the 
 ancient  world  to  this  city  in  her  days  of  imperial  supremacy  ; 
 seventy  mules  appeared,  covered  with  rich  trappings,  in 
 the  processional  pomp.  In  another  series  of  fetes  he 
 ordered  performances  in  dramatic  style,  more  characteristic 
 of  the  spirit  of  the  age,  and  pertaining  to  the  class  of 
 sacred  mysteries :  the  Adoration  of  the  Magi,  the  Eesur- 
 rection,  the  Descent  into  Hades. 
 
 In  implacable  hostility  against  the  Colonnas,  the  Pope 
 ordered  two  of  their  strongest  places,  Marino  and  Palliano, 
 to  be  besieged.  On  the  vigil  of  S.  John's  Day,  he  solemnly 
 blessed  the  artillery  and  bomb-shells  prepared  expressly  for 
 
550  MEDIEVAL   CHKISTIANITT   AND 
 
 the  attack  on  Marino,  that  now  quiet  and  picturesque  little 
 town,  in  sight  from  Eomc,  on  the  Alban  hills.  The  de- 
 fendants did  not  attempt  long  resistance  ;  ceding  the  town 
 to  the  Pope,  they  retired  to  their  more  secure  castle,  Kocca 
 di  Papa,  the  highest  situated  on  the  same  mountain.  The 
 immediate  motive  for  this  cession,  was  the  hope  on  the 
 part  of  the  owner,  Pabrizio  Colonna,  to  save  his  brother, 
 the  unfortunate  Protonotary,  whose  fate  has  been  men- 
 tioned, and  who  was  still  living  a  prisoner.  The  execution 
 of  the  latter  took  place  five  days  afterwards,  when  his 
 mangled  body  was  brought  to  the  SS.  Apostoli  Church 
 for  burial ;  his  mother,  who  received  it  in  the  midst  of  the 
 weeping  women  and  friends  of  that  family,  observed  the 
 scars  left  by  the  rack,  and  lifted  up  the  severed  head, 
 exclaiming: — "  Questa  e  la  testa  del  mio  figlio,  e  la  fede 
 di  Papa  Sisto ! "  Next  was  undertaken  the  siege  of 
 Palliano,  but  the  three  Colonna  brothers  defended  that 
 town  gallantly  and  successfully ;  the  pontific  troops 
 suffered  from  frequent  sallies,  and  at  length  Count  Giro- 
 lamo,  who  commanded  the  assailants,  wrote  to  the  Pope 
 that  it  would  be  vain  to  continue— the  siege  must  be  raised. 
 This  so  mortified  Sixtus  that  his  health  was  affected, 
 and  soon  afterwards  another  shock  had  consequences 
 more  fatal  to  him.  After  a  long  war  between  Venice  and 
 Genoa  on  one  side,  the  King  of  Naples,  the  Dukes  of  Milan 
 and  Eerrara  on  the  other,  peace  was  finally  made  through  the 
 counsel,  and  with  the  interposition,  of  Ludovico  Sforza,  the 
 Milanese  Duke's  uncle.  This  was  concluded  without  any 
 reference  to  the  Pope,  and  contrary  to  his  wishes.  The 
 iutelligence  so  enraged  him,  that  passion  brought  on,  or 
 aggravated,  the  malady  which  proved  mortal.  He  died, 
 13lh  August,  1481,  "leaving  Italy  at  peace"  (says 
 Machiavelli),  "after,  during  his  lifetime,  he  had  con- 
 tinually caused    it    to    be  at  war."     lufessura    t^ignalizes 
 
SACBED   ART    IN    ITALY.  551 
 
 the  day  of  his  death  as  one  fortunate  for  E-ome  aud  for 
 Christendom.* 
 
 Yet  Sixtus  IV.  had  qualities  which  enter  into  aud 
 produce  the  typical  character  of  a  great  sovereign : 
 talents,  energies,  learning,  courage,  munificence.  The  im- 
 mutability of  the  religious  principle  (whatever  the  develop- 
 ments of  dogma),  and  the  consistent  pursuit  of  religious 
 interests,  with  steadfastness  to  one  supreme  cause  amidst 
 all  vicissitudes,  present  a  most  impressive  feature  in 
 the  history  of  the  Papacy,  and  explain  the  maintenance 
 for  the  Koman  Church  of  its  extremely  high  place  among 
 agencies  of  Christian  civilization.  As  was  the  case  with 
 other  Popes  whose  personal  example  was  disedifying, 
 Sixtus  proved  firmly  devoted  to  the  interests  of  the  clergy, 
 and  of  the  orthodoxy  they  were  pledged  to.  He  was  a  bene- 
 factor to  religious  orders  and  to  charitable  institutions, 
 a  liberal  Mecsenas  to  artists  and  literary  men.  He  re- 
 built and  enlarged  the  hospital  of  S.  Spirito,  with  a 
 spacious  compartment  for  foundling  infants.  Pollowing 
 out  the  intentions  of  ISTicholas  V.,  he  raised  a  new  library 
 at  the  Vatican,  and  endo^^ed  it  with  100  gold  ducats  per 
 annum,  appointing  Platina  chief  librarian,  and  securing 
 the  services  of  Latin,  Grreek  and  Hebrew  writers,  and 
 "  correttori  " — correctors.  The  secret  archivio  of  the  Vati- 
 can may  be  said  to  have  been  founded  by  Sixtus  ;  originally 
 filling  only  four  wooden  cofi*ers,  and  three  bookcases,  this 
 collection  was  afterwards  transferred  to  the  S.  Angelo 
 castle,  where  it  remained  till  near  the  close  of  the  last 
 century  (Marini,  Memorie  istor.  d.  Arcliivi  di  S.  Sedc.) 
 One  of  this  Pope's  excellent  laws,  though  beyond  his  power 
 
 *  In  quo  felicissimo  die  Deus  ipse  omnipotens  ostcndit  potcntiam 
 suam  super  terrain,  libcravitque  populum  suum  de  manu  talis  viri,  cui 
 nullus  regendi  Populi  Christiani  amor,  nulla  caritatis  ed  dilectionis 
 afFectio,  sed  solum  voluptas  inhoncsta,  avaritia,  pompa,  seu  vana  gloria 
 semper  et  continue  pr;ccipuc  viguit,  et  in  considcratione  fuit. 
 
552  MEDIEVAL    CnillSTIA-NIXr    AND 
 
 to  enforce  permanently,  required  the  proprietors-  of  the 
 Campagna  to  cultivate  at  least  one- third  of  their  lands  ;  in 
 case  of  their  neglect  to  do  which,  any  one  else,  with  license 
 from  an  appointed  board,  might  break  up  and  sow  with 
 grain  those  untilled  fields,  with  obligation  to  hand  over  to 
 the  proprietors  a  fixed  share  of  the  produce.  The  cycle  of 
 sacred  solemnities  was  added  to,  and  new  festivals  were 
 introduced  by  him  in  honour  of  S.  Joseph,  S.  Anne, 
 S.  Erancis,  the  Immaculate  Conception,  and  the  Presenta- 
 tion of  the  Blessed  Virgin.  With  respect  to  the  contro- 
 versy on  the  immunity  of  the  Mother  from  original  sin, 
 Sixtus  prohibited  all  further  discussion  on  it  between  the 
 Dominicans  and  Franciscans,  who  had  agitated  it  from 
 opposite  points  of  view  ;  also  decreeing  that  either  opinion 
 might  be  held  without  heresy.  Perhaps  he  could  not  have 
 foreseen,  nor  would  have  approved,  the  extreme  conse- 
 quences of  another  step  taken  by  him :  the  institution  by 
 bull,  1478,  of  the  Inquisition  in  Spain,  granted  at  the 
 demand  of  the  co-reigning  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  with 
 prescriptions  placing  that  tribunal  under  the  authority  of 
 the  crown,  and  in  dependence  on  the  Spanish  bishops. 
 
 The  impression  made  on  contemporaries  by  this  ponti- 
 ficate w^as  unfavourable  ;  it  is  evident  that  Sixtus  IV.  con- 
 tributed to  dispel  the  last  illusions  of  childlike  veneration 
 for  the  Papacy,  and  to  hasten  the  catastrophes  most  in- 
 jurious to  its  interests.     A   Latin  poem,  "  De   Calamita- 
 tibus  Temporum,"  referring  to  these  times,  observes  of  the 
 notorious  venality  now  practised  by  the  Church  and  Curia  : 
 .     .     .     .     Venalia  nobis 
 Templa,  sacerdotes,  altaria,  sacra,  corone, 
 Ignes,  tura,  preces,  coelum  est  venale,  Deusque. 
 
 And  Machiavelli  comments  on  the  policy  of  this  Pope  in 
 terms  not  distinctly  condemnatory,  though  capable  of 
 being  interpreted  as  such  in  the  highest  possible  degree 
 Sixtus  IV.,  he  says,  was  "  the  first  who  began  to  show  how 
 
 ] 
 
SACBED    ART    IN    ITALY.  553 
 
 much  could  be  accomplished  by  a  Pontiff,  aud  how  many 
 things,  hitherto  called  wrong,  might  be  hidden  under  the 
 mantle  of  pontific  authority." 
 
 The  anarchic  state  of  Kome  during  the  interregnum  w^as 
 a  result  and  proof  of  hatred  against  the  family  and  person 
 of  that  Pope,  and  of  the  utter  feebleness  of  ecclesiastical 
 authorities  here  at  such  periodically  recurring  crises.  Of 
 the  twenty-five  cardinals  in  this  city,  only  eleven  attended 
 the  funeral.  The  people,  enraged  at  the  avarice,  mono- 
 polies, and  luxuries  of  the  Delia  E-overe  and  Eiario  families, 
 attacked  and  despoiled  the  palace  of  Count  Girolamo 
 (near  S.  Apollinare),  whilst  one  band  of  rioters  went  to 
 the  well-stocked  farm  of  his  Countess,  Caterina  Sforza,  at 
 Cast  el  Giubileo  on  the  site  of  the  historic  Pidene,  drove 
 away  all  the  cattle,  flocks  and  poultry,  seized  the  provi- 
 sions and  drank  the  good  wine.  The  corn-magazines  and 
 banks  of  exchange  were  plundered,  the  streets  were  barri- 
 caded ;  several  of  the  cardinals,  particularly  the  Pope's 
 nephew^s  and  the  Borgia,  fortified  themselves  in  their  palaces. 
 Girolamo  and  Virginio  Eiario,  hearing  of  their  uncle's 
 death,  left  the  camp  before  Palliano,  but  were  forbidden 
 to  approach  Borne  within  a  certain  distance  by  envoys 
 whom  the  Cardinals  sent  to  meet  them.  The  Countess 
 Caterina,  however,  contrived  to  reach  the  S.  Angelo  Castle, 
 lield  by  a  garrison  for  her  husband,  and  bravely  maintained 
 herself  there  on  his  behalf.  The  Colonnas  also  returned, 
 with  soldiers  and  artillery,  like  independent  princes,  and 
 because  they  had  been  the  enemies  and  victims  of  JSixtus, 
 w^ere  received  by  the  people  w^ith  rejoicing.  Two  days 
 after  the  Pope's  death,  the  magistrates  endeavoured  to 
 enforce  law,  placed  guards  at  the  gates  and  bridges, 
 tlu'eatened  capital  punishment  for  outrage  and  robbery. 
 A  civic  council,  held  on  the  Capitol,  addressed  the  Cardinals, 
 requesting  them  to  disarm  their  servants  and  hasten  in 
 
554  MEDIJ3VAL   CHRISTIANITY   AND 
 
 accordance  to  elect  to  the  vacant  tlirone.  Before  tliey 
 went  into  conclave,  tliey  took  steps  to  restore  order, 
 obtained  the  S.  Angelo  and  other  castles  belonging  to  the 
 Holy  See,  and  now  held  for  Count  Girolamo,  from  his 
 courageous  lady  on  payment  of  only  4000  ducats ;  also 
 stipulated  that  the  Orsini  and  Colonnas  alike  should  leave 
 the  city  and  absent  themselves  for  a  month. 
 
 In  the  conclave,  the  purchase  of  votes  was  undisguised ; 
 palaces,  offices,  castles,  legations  were  offered.  AVe  read 
 in  the  admirable  work  by  Prof.  Villari,  "  Life  and  Times 
 of  Savonarola,"  that  the  terms,  or  rather  donations  received 
 by  each  cardinal,  for  due  support  in  this  votation,  were 
 matter  of  common  talk  at  the  time  in  Elorence.  Infessura, 
 who  gives  the  particulars  most  fully,  admits,  however,  that 
 there  were  some  who  contradicted  the  reports  of  such  cor- 
 ruption, and  affirmed  that  the  election  was  accomplished 
 by  just  means.  On  the  29th  of  August  it  was  completed, 
 and  the  new  Pope,  Griambattista  Cibo,  of  a  noble  Genoese 
 house,  whose  remote  origin  was  Greek,  took  the  name  of 
 Innocent  YIII.  Though  this  Pope's  character  was  pacific 
 and  benevolent,  the  venality  of  public  offices,  the  impunity 
 of  crime,  the  recognised  system  of  transacting  with  crimi- 
 nals who  could  pay  for  exemption  from  law,  and  the  feeble- 
 ness of  authority  contributed  to  render  his  pontificate 
 scandalous  and  disastrous.  It  is  an  anecdote,  that  when 
 some  one  ventured  to  remonstrate  at  the  Vatican  against 
 the  practice  of  allowing  ofi"enders  to  pay  off  the  penalties 
 deserved  by  them,  some  clerical  courtier  answered  with 
 unction :  ''  God  desireth  not  the  death  of  a  sinner,  but 
 rather  that  he  should  turn  from  his  wickedness,  and — 
 pay  !  "  Por  the  first  time  were  given  fetes  at  the  Vatican 
 in  which  the  children,  a  son  and  daughter,  of  the  Pope  took 
 coDspicuous  parts ;  and  brilliant  ladies  sat  at  banquets  with 
 his  Holiness  on  occasion  of  weddings  in  his  own  well- 
 
SACRED    AIlT    IN    ITALY.  OOO 
 
 enriched  lamily.*  During  the  latter  years  of  his  short 
 pontificate,  Innocent,  whose  intentions  were  good,  exerted 
 liiniself  to  improve  the  social  conditions,  to  give  force  to 
 Law,  and  efficiently  protect  the  Eoman  citizens  against 
 malefactors  so  long  left  unpunished  Two  brothers  of  the 
 Del  Bufixlo  family,  who  had  been  in  the  habit  of  giving 
 refuge  to,  and  thus  withdrawing  from  justice,  every  class  of 
 criminals  in  their  palace,  were  arrested  and  put  to  death. 
 Two  of  the  pontific  secretaries,  patricians  b^  birth,  were 
 hanged  for  forgery,  and  their  bodies  burnt  under  the  gal- 
 lows. Two  other  persons  were  put  to  death  in  the  same 
 manner  for  no  other  offence  than  calumniating  the  l*ope, 
 though  their  families  offered  all  they  possessed,  being  in 
 affluence,  and  16,000  gold  ducats  at  once,  to  save  them. 
 The  venality  of  the  Curia  was  in  no  way  checked;  rather 
 did  Innocent  YIII.  follow  the  worst  example  set  by  his 
 predecessor.  In  one  day  he  appointed  thirty-two 
 "  Plumbatores  Bullarum,"  —  sealers  of  bulls— and  sold 
 those  posts  for  2G,000  gold  ducats ;  he  also  amplified 
 the  college  of  "  Apostolic  Scribes,"  adding  twenty-six  new 
 secretaries,  who  in  the  aggregate  purchased  their  offices 
 for  55,000  ducats.  He  desired  popularity  ;  gave  public 
 audiences,  listened  patiently  to  complaints,  &c.,  and 
 aimed  at  peace,  desiring  to  bring  about  the  accord 
 between    princes    requisite   for   the     Crusade,    the    fur- 
 
 *  As  Cardinal  Cibo  he  had  recognised  the  many  children  born,  it  is 
 said,  before  he  had  received  priest's  orders.  Egidius  of  Vitcrbo  {Hist. 
 XX.  Scccul.)  observes,  with  severe  comment, — "  Primus  rontilicura  filios 
 filiasque  palam  ostentavit,  primus  eorum  apertas  fecit  nuptias,  primus 
 dumesticos  hymenaeos  cclcbravit." 
 
 A  very  caustic  Latin  epigram  represents  Innocent  VIII.  as  the  father 
 of  eight  sons  and  eight  daughters.  Though  he  was  not  older  tliau 
 rifty-two  at  the  time  of  his  election,  only  two  of  his  family  were  then 
 living  ;  and  some  writers  state  that  they  were  born  of  lawful  wedlock, 
 contracted  in  his  youth  with  a  noble  Neapolitan  lady. 
 
556  MEDIEVAL   CHEISTIANITT   AND 
 
 therance  of  which  was  with  him  a  paramount  object. 
 Yet  an  invasion  of  his  States,  followed  by  a  long  series  of 
 evils,  was  drawn  down  by  the  policy  of  this  Pontiff.  King 
 Perdinand  of  Naples  had,  as  we  have  seen,  been  dispensed 
 by  Sixtus  from  the  obligation  of  the  annual  census,  28,000 
 ducats,  to  Eome,  though  he  still  continued  to  present  the 
 white  palfry.  Innocent  would  not  confirm  the  concessions 
 of  his  predecessor,  and  demanded  the  tribute  in  money. 
 "War  was  the  consequence.  The  Pope  supported  the  claims 
 of  a  pretender  to  the  Neapolitan  crown,  Eene  of  Lorraine, 
 grandson  to  the  titular  King,  Eene  d'Anjou,  by  his  daughter 
 Tolande.  The  Duke  of  Calabria  invaded  the  Campagna 
 with  an  army  which  carried  on  a  desultory  warfare  on  both 
 sides  of  the  Tiber.  The  pontific  troops  were  commanded 
 by  a  captain  of  some  renowoi,  Eoberto  Sanseverino,  for- 
 merly in  the  Venetian  service,  who  was  made  "  Gonfa- 
 loniere "  of  the  Church,  receiving  the  sacred  standard 
 from  the  Pope's  hand  with  a  species  of  coronation,  for 
 we  are  told  that  after  the  ceremony  he  appeared  in  the 
 streets  clad  in  a  mantle  of  gold  brocade  and  wearing  a 
 diadem  set  with  pearls.  The  Colonnas  fought  for  the 
 Pope,  the  Orsini  for  the  King ;  and  the  latter  fortified 
 themselves  on  the  still  castellated  Nomentan  bridge  over 
 the  Anio,  whence  they  were  not  expelled  till  the  third 
 month  after  Sanseverino  had  begun  to  attack  them.  The 
 miserable  state  of  Eome  during  this  war  is  minutely  de- 
 scribed from  day  to  day  in  a  diary  by  an  anonymous  writer, 
 edited  by  Muratori.*  "We  there  read  of  outrages,  assassi- 
 nations, religious  ceremonies,  factious  combats  between 
 rival  families,  all  jotted  down  in  the  same  dry  style  and 
 tone.  During  an  illness  of  the  Pope  the  feud  between  the 
 Colonnas  and  Orsini  revived  with    the   utmost  violence. 
 
 *  '*  II  Notario  cli  paiitiporto,"  in  Ecr.  Ital.  Script,  t.  iii.,  p.  11 
 
SACRED  ART  IN  ITALY.  o57 
 
 The  head  of  the  latter  house  rode  into  the  city  and 
 through  the  Traustiberine  quarter  with  barbaric  trium]ih, 
 followed  by  300  horse  and  4-00  foot  soldiery,  his  armed 
 retainers  ;  he  proceeded  to  despoil  the  property  of  the 
 Orsiui,  and  from  one  of  their  estates  drove  away  500 
 head  of  cattle  and  made  113  labouring  men  his  prisoners. 
 Devotions,  stimulated  by  popular  panic  and  disaster,  took 
 the  form  of  a  fetish  Madonna- worship.  Between  the  2nd 
 and  14;th  of  August  (vigil  of  the  Assumption),  sixteen  pro- 
 cessions carried  from  church  to  church, from  rione  to  rione, 
 the  image  of  Mary  enshrined  at  S.  Agostino,  which  on  the 
 20th  was  escorted  from  S.  Peter's  to  the  Pantheon  by  all 
 the  Roman  clergy  and  pious  confraternities  with  torches  in 
 their  hands,  followed  by  all  the  magistrates  and,  of  course, 
 a  multitude  of  people.  Cardinal  Orsini  gave  up  Monte 
 Eotondo,  of  which  his  relatives  were  lords,  to  the  Pope ; 
 and  the  neighbouring  town  of  Montana  was  taken  from 
 them  by  force.  After  the  war  had  been  kept  up  for  some 
 time,  King  Ferdinand  made  terms  of  peace,  promising  to 
 pay  the  tribute  ;  but  as  he  failed  to  do  so,  hostilities  again 
 commenced,  and  the  Pope  at  last  took  extreme  steps 
 against  him.  He  excommunicated  that  king,  and  soon 
 afterwards  (1489)  declared  him  to  have  forfeited  his  crown, 
 to  be  theoretically  deposed.  It  would  be  impossible  to 
 represent  too  darkly  the  fatal  effects  on  the  future  of  Italy 
 from  another  proceeding,  which  was  sequel  to  this  step  on 
 the  part  of  Innocent  YIII.  He  invited  the  young  king  of 
 Prance,  Charles  YIII.,  to  invade  the  jN'eapolitan  states  and 
 seize  the  crown,  promising  him  300,000  gold  florins  for  the 
 costs  of  that  enterprise,  and  GOOO  troops  under  command 
 of  the  Duke  of  Lorraine.  Charles  at  once  consented,  ac- 
 cepting the  offers.  The  revolt  of  the  Barons  against  the 
 oppressive  rule  of  Perdiuand  brought  on  dangers  which 
 perhaps  inclined  him  to  submit  to  the  Pope  ;  and  he  wa.s 
 
558  MEDT.EYAL    CnRTSTIANITT    AND 
 
 glad  to  receive  the  absolution  accorded  to  him  and  his  son, 
 when  the  young  Prince  of  Capua,  Ferdinand's  grandson, 
 was  sent  to  Eome  (1492)  on  a  mission  of  reconciliation. 
 Ferdinand  the  Catholic,  king  of  Spain,  interposed  to  bring 
 about  this  peace. 
 
 The  favourable  terms  secured  to  the  Pope  through  the 
 first  negotiation  with  the  Neapolitan  king  were,  in  the  prin- 
 cipal articles — that  the  Barons  who  had  declared  for  the 
 Pope  against  their  unpopular  sovereign  should  pay  tribute 
 to  his  Holiness,  and  remain,  if  they  desired,  in  immediate 
 dependence  on  the  Church  ;  that  the  Abbey  of  Monte 
 Casino,  its  lands  and  castles,  should  be  disposed  of  by  the 
 Pope ;  that  all  bishoprics  and  benefices  in  the  kingdom 
 should  be  conferred  by  him  ;  that  the  city  of  Aquila,  which 
 had  revolted  against  Ferdinand  and  voluntarily  placed 
 itself  under  the  Holy  See,  should  be  left  at  liberty  to 
 choose  its  sovereign,  whether  pontific  or  regal ;  that  the 
 Duke  Eene,  with  a  French  army,  might  pass  through  the 
 Papal  on  their  way  to  the  Neapolitan  States,  and  the  Pope 
 might  supply  them  with  victuals  on  such  a  hostile  march  ; 
 that  Yirgiuio  Orsini  should  ask  pardon  of  the  Pope  on 
 his  knees,  with  bare  head  and  feet,  and  a  halter  round  his 
 neck ;  the  Cardinal  and  other  members  of  that  house  to 
 submit  to  whatever  punishment  his  Holiness  might  inflict 
 for  their  rebellion. 
 
 The  Prince  of  Capua  was  entertained  at  the  Vatican  with 
 much  honour.  When  he  left  Eome  the  Neapolitan  attend- 
 ants, who  came  with  him,  carried  away  from  that  palace  all 
 they  could  steal,  the  hangings  of  the  rooms  and  linen  for 
 daily  use,  besides  other  moveables.  The  Pope  had  sent 
 those  servants  their  food,  and  what  they  could  spare  they 
 sold  to  the  people  in  the  Borgo  quarter.  Infessura,  who 
 supplies  these  curious  particulars  of  Neapolitan  morality, 
 mentions  the  supper  given  to  the  young  Prince  by  Cardinal 
 
SACRED    ART    IN    ITALY.  550 
 
 Ascanio  Sforza,  with  a  degree  of  splendour  aud  sumpiuous- 
 ness  which  that  diarist  attempts  not  to  describe,  coiivinccd 
 that  report  thereof  would  seem  ridiculous  and  incredible. 
 
 The  failure  of  all  Pope  Innocent's  efforts  to  bring  about 
 the  Crusade,  forma  one  among  many  proofs  of  the  impossi- 
 bility of  reviving  the  Pa-st,  aud  of  the  opposition  against 
 such  enterprises  from  the  feeling  and  reason  of  the  time. 
 European  powers  were  now  intent  on  other  warfare — some 
 on  hostilities  against  the  pontific  throne,  which  lost  many 
 of  its  towns  and  districts  about  this  period ;  Eieti  being 
 occupied  by  the  Neapolitans ;  Perugia,  Poligno,  Todi  sub- 
 mitting to  local  lords,  the  paramount  aristocracy.  With 
 courage  and  self-devotedness,  the  Pope  made  a  last  attempt ; 
 he  invited  all  the  Christian  sovereigns  to  send  ambassa- 
 dors for  conferring  wdth  him  on  the  holy  war  ;  and  himself 
 promised  to  accompany  the  eastern  campaign,  as  did  Pius 
 II.,  provided  that  the  King  of  Prance,  the  King  of  Spain  or 
 that  of  England  would  take  the  command.  Even  this 
 proved  fruitless.  Instead  of  being  able  to  disturb  the 
 Turkish  Empire,  Innocent  VIII.  found  himself,  througli 
 strange  and  unforeseen  circumstances,  led  into  alliance  with 
 the  Sultan,  and  actually  the  recipient  of  a  pension  from  his 
 bounty !  In  1489  arrived  in  Eome  a  stranger  who  excited 
 much  curiosity,  Zizim  (or  Zem),  the  brother  of  Bajazet  II., 
 with  whom  he  had  disputed  the  throne,  he  himself  having 
 been  proclaimed  sovereign  at  Prusa  soon  after  the  death  of 
 Mohammed  11. ,  their  father.  Defeated  in  battle,  Zizim  had 
 fled  to  Ehodes,  and  put  himself  under  the  protection  of 
 the  Knights  of  Jerusalem,  there  settled.  He  was  thence 
 sent  to  Prance,  and  placed  in  a  cloister  of  that  Order  in 
 honourable  captivity.  The  G-rand  Master,  Pierre  Dau- 
 busson,  agreed  to  consign  him  to  the  Pope,  with  the  con- 
 sent of  the  French  king ;  and  Daubusson  was  made  Cardi- 
 nal in  reward.     Zizim  entered  Rome  in  state,  accompanied 
 
SGO  medieval    CHRISTIANITY    AND 
 
 by  the  Pope's  son,  Francesco  Cibo,  and  several  courtiers  of 
 the  Vatican.  Introduced  in  consistory,  he  would  not  pay 
 any  homage,  as  directed,  to  the  enthroned  Pontiff,  but 
 walked  straight  up  to  him,  made  a  slight  inclination,  and 
 kissed  his  right  shoulder.  The  other  Moslems  who  came 
 with  him  did  as  required,  knelt,  and  kissed  the  foot.  Pre- 
 sently arrived  envoys  from  the  Sultan  of  Egypt  with  mag- 
 nificent offers  to  the  Pope  for  the  consignment  of  the 
 captive  prince,  as  that  Sultan,  now  at  war  with  the  Turkish 
 sovereign,  wished  to  place  him  at  the  head  of  an  army  for 
 invading  the  states  of  the  prince's  brother.  He  promised 
 to  restore  Jerusalem  to  the  Christians  if  the  Pope  would 
 gratify  him.  This  Innocent  refused  to  do,  doubting  per- 
 haps the  one  Sultan's  means  for  despoiling  the  other. 
 Bajazet,  informed  of  his  brother's  arrival,  renewed  to  the 
 Pope  the  promise  already  made  by  him  to  the  French  king: 
 an  annual  pension  of  40,000  gold  ducats  for  the  custody  of 
 Zizim.  The  latter  was  lodged  at  the  Vatican  under  a 
 strong  guard,  but  not  as  a  prisoner,  and  a  French  Cardinal 
 was  appointed  to  watch  over  and  entertain  him.  The  envoy 
 from  Constantinople  charged  to  make  the  first  disburse- 
 ment of  the  annuity,  brought  gifts  of  Oriental  treasures 
 for  the  Pope,  and  also  an  offering  more  precious  than  gold 
 and  gems  in  the  eyes  of  the  Catholic  Hierarch  :  that  holy 
 lance  which  (as  believed)  had  pierced  the  side  of  the  Cru- 
 cified Lord,  had  been  removed  from  Jerusalem  to  Constan- 
 tinople by  S.  Helena,  and  been  re-discovered,  after  long 
 oblivion,  at  Antioch  in  1098,  buried  under  a  church,  and 
 brought  to  light  at  the  moment  when  its  re-appearance 
 cheered  and  inspired  to  victory  the  Crusaders  in  the 
 defence  of  that  city  against  a  Turkish  siege.  This  relic 
 was  first  consigned  at  Ancona  to  two  prelates  sent  thither 
 for  receiving  it ;  next  to  two  Cardinals,  created  Legates 
 a  latere  for  the  occasion,  at  Narni ;  and  lastly  to  the  Pope 
 
SACEED  ART  IN  ITALY.  5C1 
 
 himself,  wlio  wont  to  meet  it  in  grand  procession,  with  all 
 the  other  Cardinals,  at  a  certain  distance  beyond  the  Pla- 
 minian  gate.  After  being  exhibited  to  the  people  at 
 8.  Peter's,  and  after  the  benediction  given  with  it  by  pontilic 
 hands,  it  was  finally  placed  in  a  marble  tabernacle  over  an 
 altar  raised  in  that  church  by  Innocent  YIII. 
 
 If  the  reasoning  and  instructed  mind  could  require 
 historic  arguments  against  such  a  doctrine  as  the  personal 
 infallibility  of  the  Pope,  a  value  as  evidence  may  be  recog- 
 nised in  the  only  other  act  of  Innocent  within  the  range  of 
 ecclesiastical  things  which  need  be  noticed  here.  In  liSI* 
 he  issued  his  famous  bull  against  witchcraft  and  sorcery, 
 attended  in  Grermany  with  the  effect  of  introducing  under 
 high  sanction  a  regular  system  of  prosecution  for  such 
 mysterious  crimes  ;  and  about  five  years  afterwards  was 
 published  at  Cologne  the  "  Malleus  Maleficarum,"  an 
 authorised  code  of  procedure  for  such  cases,  drawn  up,  in 
 625  pages,  by  the  three  Inquisitors  appointed  by  the  Pope 
 for  the  Grerman  states.  Alexander  VI.  and  Leo  X.  issued 
 bulls  of  similar  import.  One  writer  on  this  subject,  Horst, 
 calls  the  bull  of  1484,  "  a  truly  unique  decree  in  its  place 
 in  History,  and  with  which,  however  many  follies  the  human 
 mind  had  brought  forth  already,  scarcely  any  other  docu- 
 ment can  be  confronted  as  either  so  absurd  or  so  horror- 
 striking." 
 
 Disorder  and  crime  prevailed  in  Home  during  the  last 
 illness  of  Innocent  YIII. ;  and  Infessura  tells  us  that  from 
 the  first  day  of  that  illness  till  the  day  of  his  successor's 
 coronation  (little  more  than  a  month's  interval)  two  hundred 
 and  twenty  assassinations  were  committed  in  or  near  this 
 city.*  Prom  this  diarist  we  have  the  anecdote,  sugges- 
 tive of  grave  imputations  of  simony  against  the  cardinals, 
 
 *  Infessura  does  not  specify  further,  but  seems  to  refer  to  what  was 
 passing  within  the  city  gates. 
 
 O 
 
562  MEDI^l^VAL    CHEISTIANITY   AND 
 
 that,  shortly  before  the  conclave,  four  mules  laden  with 
 silver  were  driven  from  the  palace  of  Cardinal  Borgia  to 
 that  of  Cardinal  Ascanio  Sforza,  son  of  the  Duke  of  Milan. 
 Among  the  twenty- seven  Cardinals  who  entered  conclave, 
 twenty-three  voted  for  Eodriguez  Borgia,  Vice-chancellor 
 and  Dean  of  the  sacred  college,  then  sixty-one  years  old, 
 who  took  the  name  of  Alexander  YI.,  11th  August,  1492. 
 It  is  certain  that  Sforza,  who  received  the  succession  to  the 
 vice-chancellorship  together  with  the  splendid  palace  built 
 by  Borgia  for  his  residence,  was  mainly  instrumental  in 
 directing  the  votation  in  his  favour ;  and  historians  observe, 
 as  something  portentous,  the  fact  that  all  the  Cardinals 
 most  active  on  behalf  of  the  successful  candidate  in  this 
 instance,  sooner  or  later  came  to  grief* 
 
 Such  odium  has  surrounded  the  memory  of  this  Pontiff 
 that  the  name  conferred  on  him  in  lieu  of  his  father's  by 
 his  uncle,  Callixtus  III.,  has  passed  into  a  byword  of  in- 
 famy. Yet,  as  is  usually  the  case  when  tradition  seizes 
 hold  of  an  individual  to  personify  in  him  the  qualities 
 especially  exposed  to  hatred  or  contempt,  the  accumulative 
 charges  against  Alexander  YI.  have  gone  beyond  the  truth  ; 
 and  the  historian  who  calmly  weighs  evidence  will  be  led 
 to  admit  that,  but  for  a  worldly  spirit,  and  an  ambition 
 which  aimed  at  the  aggrandisement  of  his  own  family  above 
 all  things  and  by  whatever  means,  this  Pope  might  have 
 left  an  honoured  memory.  He  had  some  good  qualities, 
 some  elements  even  of  greatness  of  character.  Yet  it  is 
 observed  of  his  election,  and  by  ecclesiastical  writers,  that 
 
 *  Raynaklus  admits  the  notorious  simony  of  this  election,  and  the 
 discredit  thence  reflecting  on  the  cardinals,  reproached  because  "  nee 
 virum  delegisse  castimonia,  sed  stupris  insignem."  Jacobus  de  Volterra, 
 mentioning  the  immense  wealth,  bears  testimony  also  to  the  talents  of 
 the  elected  Cardinal  :  "  vir  est  ingenii  ad  (inw('un([ue  versatilis,  et 
 aninii  matrni." 
 
SACRED  AUT  IN  ITALY.  5Go 
 
 never  was  any  Ruch  proceeding  "  more  opposietl  to  llie  spirit 
 and  discipline  of  the  Church ;  for  so  infamous  had  this  man 
 been  through  his  well-known  conduct,  that  the  choice  of 
 the  Cardinals  excited  astonishment  and  indignation"  (Art 
 de  Verifier  Ics  Dates) .  Yet  it  does  not  appear  that  such 
 feeling  prevailed  at  the  time  in  Eome.  The  new  Pope  was 
 greeted  with  jubilant  acclamations.  Nothing  had  yet  been 
 seen  equal  to  the  splendour  of  his  coronation  at  S.  Peter's 
 and  installation  at  the  Lateran ;  and  the  verses  inscribed  on 
 triumphal  arches  erected  for  his  pompous  progress  to  the 
 latter  church,  bestow  eulogies  which,  read  from  the  modern 
 point  of  view  as  to  his  deserts,  might  be  taken  in  the  sense 
 of  bitterest  irony.  One  of  these  is  curious  both  for  the 
 degree  of  adulation,  and  for  the  Paganish  taste  it  ex- 
 presses : — 
 
 Caesare  magna  fuit,  nunc  Eoma  est  maxima  :  Sixtus 
 Rcgnat  Alexander  ;  ille  vir,  iste  Deus  ! 
 
 And  another  has  still  more  of  the  renaissance  stamp  in  its 
 strange  compliment  to  a  reputed  Yicar  of  Christ : — 
 
 Scit  venisse  suum  patria  grata  Jovem  !* 
 
 The  genius  of  satire  in  Rome  found  vent  indeed  in 
 other  strains,  telling  a  different  tale  of  this  Pontiff  after 
 his  subjects  had  known  for  a  few  years  what  it  was  to  be 
 governed  by  such  a  god  upon  earth  : — 
 
 Vendit  Alexander  claves,  altaria,  Christum, 
 Emerat  ille  prius,  vendere  jure  potest. 
 
 *  These  fetes  are  described  by  an  eye-witness,  Peter  Delphinus,  in  a 
 letter  -\M:ittcn  from  Rome  to  an  abbot,  and  quoted  by  Raynaldus.  He 
 tells  us  that  the  Pope  fainted  away,  overcome  by  the  fatigues  of  the 
 progress,  during  the  ceremony  at  the  Lateran  ;  and  observes,  what  struck 
 him  as  sinister,  the  extraordinary  mustering  of  troops  at  this  time  in 
 Kome  :  "  Quid  ei  (Papas)  profuerint  tot  armatorum  acies  per  urbem 
 totam  ad  custodiam  ejus  disposita  ?" 
 
 o  2 
 
564  MEDIiEYAL   CnHTSTIAlNITT   AKD 
 
 De  vitio  in  vitium,  de  flamma  crescit  in  ignem, 
 Roma  sub  Hispano  deperit  imperio. 
 Sextus  Tarquinius,  Sextus  Nero,  Sextus  et  iste  ; 
 Semper  sub  Sextis  perdita  Roma  fuit.* 
 
 Like  the  Nero  with  whom  his  name  is  here  associated, 
 Alexander  began  well :  perceiving  the  evils  of  the  social 
 state  in  this  city,  he  appointed  four  new  judges  of  the 
 criminal  courts,  created  a  Commission  for  periodically 
 visiting  prisons,  and  made  himself  accessible  to  all  his  sub- 
 jects, listening  to  whatever  complaints  and  petitions  at  a 
 public  audience  once  a  week.  The  2)eople,  at  least  in  the 
 lowest  class,  seem  to  have  been  tolerably  contented  under 
 his  sway.  Law  was  more  rigorously  enforced,  though  in 
 application,  conformably  with  the  notions  and  practices  of 
 the  time,  somewhat  barbaric.  We  read  of  the  punishment 
 of  a  soldier  who,  enraged  at  his  losses  in  gambling,  had 
 struck  with  his  weapon  a  crucifix  on  the  outer  wall  of  a 
 church ;  both  his  hands  were  cut  off,  and  nailed  to  the  same 
 wall,  before  he  suffered  death  by  hanging.  The  practice  of 
 demolishing  the  houses  of  offenders  was  sytematically  kept 
 up,  and  by  direct  orders  from  the  Pope. 
 
 An  Archbishop  of  Cosenza,  one  of  the  pontific  secre- 
 taries, was  accused  of  forging  briefs,  and  thereby  granting 
 favours  in  his  master's  name,  which  were  unsuitable.  He 
 was  tried  by  a  commission,  degraded  from  all  ecclesiastical 
 offices,  and  condemned  to  imprisonment  for  life.  Burkhard 
 gives  a  ghastly  picture  of  the  old  man  in  his  dungeon, 
 never  visited  by  light  of  day,  at  the  S.  Angelo  fortress 
 his  dress  that  of  a  vulgar  convict,  his  sole  diet  bread  and 
 water,  though  he  was  provided,  through  special  indulgence, 
 with  a  Bible  (the  Old  Testament  ?),  the  Epistles  of  S.  Paul, 
 
 *  Attributed  to  Sannazaro,  and,  if  correctly  so,  the  utterance  of  a ! 
 stranger  not  among  the  Pope's  subjects.  That  Neapolitan  poet  calum- 
 niated both  Alexander  and  his  daughter. 
 
SACBED    AllT    IN    ITALY.  5G5 
 
 and  liis  Breviary ;  also  with  oil  to  keej)  a  lamp  burning. 
 The  Pope  sent  some  prelates  to  visit  him,  who,  feigning 
 friendship,  assured  him  that  if  he  confessed  all  of  which 
 he  was  accused,  he  should  be  restored  to  all  and  more  than 
 the  honours  he  had  enjoyed.  He  did  thus  confess,  but  to 
 find  himself  deceived,  never  more  either  seeing  those  visitors, 
 or  hearing  of  Papal  clemency  towards  him.  The  unhapjiy 
 man  died  soon  afterwards,  declaring  that  he  had  sinned 
 against  Grod,  but  never  against  the  Poj^e. 
 
 In  his  relations  with  European  princes,  Alexander  en- 
 deavoured to  maintain  peace,  and  counselled  them  to  direct 
 their  arms  against  the  Turks,  not  for  other  warfare.  He 
 had  five  children — the  licentiousness  of  his  private  life 
 being  nothing  unusual  or  unpardonable  in  the  eyes  of  the 
 world  at  this  time,  when  a  rich  and  aristocratic  prelate  was 
 concerned ;  and  the  mother  of  that  family,  a  Roman  woman 
 named  Yanozza,  twice  married  to  citizens  of  the  middle 
 class,  seems  to  have  long  retained  influence  over  her  tiara- 
 crowned  lover.*  For  his  eldest  son,  Giovanni,  he  obtained 
 the  Duchy  of  Gandia  in  Spain,  and  finally  that  of  Bene- 
 vento  ;  and  this  dismemberment  of  the  pontific  States  for 
 the  benefit  of  the  Pope's  illegitimate  offspring,  only  one  of 
 the  Cardinals,  Piccolomini,had  the  courage  to  protest  against. 
 On  another  son,  the  famous  Cesare  Borgia,  Alexander 
 bestowed  the  Cardinal's  hat  (1J;93),  after  giving  him  first  a 
 bishopric,  Pampeluna,  and  next  an  archbishopric,  Valencia ; 
 and  for  six  years  this  man,  stained  with  every  crime,  and 
 addicted  to  notorious  vice,  as  the  historic  page  displays 
 him,  held  the  rank  of  Cardinal  Deacon,  taking  his  place  in 
 the  august  assemblages  of  the  sacred  college.  In  1497  he 
 was  appointed  Legate  a  latere  to  crown  Frederick  II.,  the 
 Aragonese  King  of  Xaples,  and  performed  that  ceremony 
 
 *  She  survived  him,  and  at  last  scru]>led  not  to  assume  the  name  of 
 Bortria.     Uuc  of  their  buns  seems  to  have  died  in  infancy 
 
5G3  MEDI.T2VAL    CIiraSTIANITY    A^^D 
 
 at  Capua,  wliere  he  made  his  entry  with  great  magnificence. 
 In  his  ecclesiastical  capacity  he  enjoyed  revenues  from 
 benefices  amounting  to  35,000  gold  florins  per  annum.  He 
 at  last  renounced  a  career  hateful  to  him,  and  dedicated 
 liimself  to  that  more  congenial  one,  the  military,  for  which 
 he  had  talents.  The  Cardinal  of  Valencia  (as  he  was  called) 
 became  Duke  Valentino. 
 
 His  younger  brother,  Jofre,  was  betrothed  to  an  illegiti- 
 mate daughter  of  Alfonso  II.  of  Naples,  when  the  bridegroom 
 was  only  thirteen.  The  beautiful  and  much  calumniated 
 Lucrezia  was  w^edded  to  four  husbands,  and  by  her  fourth 
 marriage  with  Alfonso  d'Este  became  reigning  Duchess  of 
 Terrara.  The  Pope  had  no  scruple  in  dissolving  both  her 
 first  marriage  with  an  untitled  Spanish  gentleman,  con- 
 tracted before  Alexander's  election ;  and  the  second  alike, 
 her  marriage,  namely,  with  Giovanni  Sforza,  lord  of  Pesaro. 
 Lucrezia' s  third  husband,  Alfonso  Duke  di  Biseglia,  an 
 illegitimate  son  of  the  Neapolitan  King,  was  assassinated 
 by  Cesare  on  the  threshold  of  St.  Peter's.*  There  is  reason 
 to  believe  that  after  her  union  with  the  Este  (1502), 
 Lucrezia,  whatever  her  conduct  amidst  the  evil  atmosphere 
 surrounding  her  earlier  life,  merited  and  enjoyed  esteem 
 and  affection.f     That  unswerving  maintenance  of  the  mar- 
 
 ♦  He  was  stabbed  one  night  on  the  stairs  before  that  church  ;  but  sur- 
 vived for  some  time,  nursed  by  his  wife,  who  seems  to  have  been  truly 
 devoted  to  him.  Whilst  the  unfortunate  man  was  recovering  from  his 
 wounds,  Cesare  caused  him  to  be  strangled  in  his  presence.  The  palace 
 which  was  the  residence  of  Lucrezia,  with  her  second  and  third  husbands, 
 is  now  degraded  to  serve  as  a  granary,  and  stands,  in  gloomy  desolation^ 
 behind  the  Vatican  colonnades,  near  the  buildings  of  the  Inquisition, 
 
 f  Nardi,  a  contemporary,  says  :  "  The  Signora  Lucrezia,  whom  in 
 aftei-  time  many  regarded  as  of  most  praiseworthy  life,  had  had  three 
 former  husbands,  the  first  a  gentleman  of  the  Neapolitan  kingdom  while 
 &ho  was  not  yet  marriageable,  nor  her  father  yet  raised  to  the  pontificate, 
 which  marriage  he  dissolved  after  attaining  that  rank,  in  order  to  bestow 
 
SACRED   ART    IN   ITALY.  rjG7 
 
 riagc  tie  by  wliicli  the  Holy  See  liad  so  often  rendered 
 service  to  morality,  aud  checked  licentiousness  on  thrones, 
 was  utterly  set  at  nought  by  Alexander. 
 
 He  sent  Cesare  into  France  on  a  mission  to  the  Court 
 of  Louis  XII.  (1498)  for  friendly  overtures,  and  charged 
 with  a  bull  of  divorce  granted  to  that  King  against  his 
 devoted  wife,  Joanna,  daughter  of  Louis  XL,  his  union  with 
 whom  had  been,  as  Louis  pleaded,  compulsory  and  distasteful 
 to  him  from  the  first.  The  ostentatious  luxury  of  the  age 
 was  displayed  in  the  progress  on  this  occasion  ;  and  Cesare 
 was  charged  at  once  with  the  Papal  bull,  and  the  red  hat  for 
 the  King's  favourite,  D'Amboise,  Archbishop  of  Eouen, — 
 the  illustrious  envoy  having  before  this  renounced  the  Cardi- 
 ualate.  Nobles  and  courtiers  of  the  A'atican  rode  in  the 
 grand  cavalcade ;  the  horses  of  the  patricians  being  shod  with 
 silver,  that  of  the  Pope's  son  with  gold,  and  the  dj-ess  of  the 
 rider  himself  all  glittering  with  jewels  ;  200,000  ducats  were 
 among  the  effects  which  formed  the  lading  of  some  hundreds 
 of  mules.  Louis  XII.  bestowed  upon  Cesare  Borgia,  toge- 
 ther with  the  hand  of  Charlotte  d'Albret,  sister  to  King 
 John  of  ISTavarre,  a  company  of  100  men  at  arms,  an  income 
 of  20,000  livres,  and  the  promise  of  a  fief  in  the  Milanese 
 State  after  its  expected  conquest. 
 
 Still  more  offensive  than  the  divorces  granted  for  political 
 motives  is  the  laxity  with  which  the  dispensing  power  was 
 now  used,  in  permitting  exceptional  marriages,  by  Alex- 
 ander. In  1496  he  sanctioned  the  union  of  Ferdinand  II. 
 of  Naples  with  his  own  aunt,  sister  to  Alfonso  IL,  "  a  mar- 
 riage," says  Muratori,  "  beheld  not  without  astonishment, 
 and  with  still  more  of  reprobation  by  sensible  persons." 
 
 her  on  the  lord  of  Pesaro."  Lucrezia  died  1520,  leaving  three  sons  by 
 her  fourth  husband,  and  the  last  pei'iod  of  her  life  was  dedicated  to  piety 
 and  charities.  Sec  Koscoc's  spirited  defence  of  her,  "  Life  of  Louis  X.," 
 aud  the  carefully  compiled  biography  by  Mr.  William  Gilbert. 
 
568  MEDTiEVAL    CHRISTIANITY    AND 
 
 Truly  may  it  be  said  that  the  Papacy  now  appears  like  a 
 mighty  magician  bent  on  disenchanting  the  nations  hitherto 
 fascinated  and  over-mastered  by  his  spells  ! 
 
 But  we  hare  to  consider  the  great  events  of  previous 
 years.  In  1494  the  conduct  of  Ludovico  Sforza,  called 
 "  II  Moro,"  uncle  to  the  young  Gian  Galeazzo,  Duke  of 
 Milan,  gave  much  dissatisfaction  to  the  Neapolitan  court. 
 Ludovico  unjustly  held  all  the  rights  of  sovereignty,  to 
 the  prejudice  of  his  nephew,  who  was  married  to  a  daugh- 
 ter of  the  Duke  of  Calabria.  The  wife  interceded  for  her 
 husband  with  her  father  and  grandfather,  but  to  no  pur- 
 pose. Remonstrances  from  King  Perdinand  II.  were  dis- 
 regarded by  Ludovico.  Fearing,  however,  the  resentment 
 of  the  Neapolitan  king,  and  other  consequences  of  his  own 
 injustice,  he  adopted  a  policy  eventually  ruinous  to  himself ; 
 he  urged  Charles  YIII.  of  Erance,  an  ambitious  and  ill- 
 counselled  young  King,  then  in  his  twenty-fourth  year,  to 
 make  good  his  claims  on  the  Neapolitan  crown,  and  invade 
 Italy.*  Alexander  YI.  is  said  to  have  at  first  encouraged 
 the  project  of  that  invasion,  which  he  afterwards  vainly 
 attempted  to  dissuade  from,  through  a  mission  confided  to  a 
 Cardinal  Legate.f    The  Cardinal  della  Eovere,  a  fugitive 
 
 •  Eene  "  the  Good,"  Duke  of  Anjou  and  Count  of  Provence,  titular 
 King  of  Sicily  as  adoptive  son  of  Joanna  11.,  left  by  testament  the 
 Neapolitan  kingdom  and  Provence  to  Charles  VII.,  his  nephew,  and  to 
 Louis  XI.  the  Duchy  of  Anjou,  thenceforth  united  to  the  states  of  the 
 French  crown.  Charles  left  to  his  son  all  the  pretensions,  together  with 
 the  states  so  acquired. 
 
 t  Guicciardini  states  the  participation  of  Alexander  in  counselling  the 
 enterprise.  Rohrbacher  mentions  researches  which  have  brought  out 
 evidence  vindicating  the  Pope  from  this  charge,  and  showing  that  he 
 had  sought  an  alliance  between  Milan,  Naples,  and  himself,  which,  if 
 formed,  might  have  prevented  the  invasion.  I  believe  that  one  of  the 
 calumnies  to  which  that  Pope  has  been  exposed^  may  be  refuted  in  this 
 instance. 
 
SACRED  ART  IN  ITALY.  5G9 
 
 from  Rome  on  account  of  the  enmity  between  liiiii  and  tlic 
 Pope,  was  by  the  side  of  Charlc:?  urging  him  to  llie  war. 
 That  King  obtained  large  sums  from  Italian  bankern,  at 
 immense  usury,  for  his  expedition  against  their  country, 
 —from  Milan,  50,000;  from  Genoa,  100,000  ducats.  In 
 the  Jime  of  1494!  the  Pope  and  Alfonso  IT.,  who  had  just 
 succeeded  to  his  father  Perdinand  at  Naples,  met  at  the 
 little  town  of  Vicovaro  near  Tivoli — an  interview  the  cere- 
 monial of  which  is  fully  described  by  the  diarist  Burkhard, 
 without  any  particulars  as  to  its  political  import.*  At  the 
 beginning  of  the  next  September,  Charles  VIII.  crossed  the 
 Alps  with  an  army  whose  numbers  are  variously  reported — 
 at  the  lowest  as  25,000  horse  and  15,000  foot,  at  the  highest 
 as  98,000  in  all ;  according  to  some  writers,  C0,000.t  A 
 Prench  fleet  of  450  sail  advanced  towards  the  Italian  coast. 
 It  would  have  been  easy  to  defend  the  Alpine  pass  by  which 
 the  invaders  entered  Piedmont ;  but  that  State  was  now 
 governed  by  a  Eegent-duchess  for  her  infant  son.  Carlo 
 Amadeo  ;  and  so  far  from  resisting,  the  governors  of  all  the 
 tow^ns  were  ordered  to  receive  Charles  with  honours.  A 
 species  of  dramatic  pageantry  representing  the  deeds  of 
 Charlemagne,  was  displayed  for  his  amusement  at  Turin  ; 
 and  the  Duchess  lent  him  her  own  jewels,  which  he  pawned 
 for  12,000  ducats  ;  she  also  bestowed  the  steed  he  rode  on 
 throughout  his  campaign.  Asti,  W'here  the  King  next  made 
 sojoiu'n,  was  already  subject  to  his  cousin,  the  Duke  of 
 Orleans,  w^ho  had  inherited  it  from  his  grandmother,  Yalen- 
 tina  Yisconti. 
 
 *  He  tells  us  that  several  Cardinals  conducted  the  Kinc:  to  the  castle, 
 where  the  Pope  lodged  ;  that  Alfonso  went  through  the  usual  homage  ; 
 aficr  which  Alexander  led  him  into  the  recess  of  a  window,  and  they 
 conversed  together  "for  about  the  eighth  part  of  an  hour." 
 
 t  Muratori  (Annali)  admits  a  much  lower  amount.  Guicciardini 
 reports  17,(iO(),  including  the  King's  guard  of  200  nobler. 
 
570  MEDIAEVAL    CHRISTIANITY   AND 
 
 Tlie  massacres  perpetrated  by  the  Erencli  in  certain 
 towns  of  E-omagna,  where  they  encountered  and  defeated 
 a  Neapolitan  force,  were,  says  Gnicciardini,  "  acts  yet 
 unknown,  and  exciting  the  greatest  terror  in  Italy,  where 
 for  a  long  time  war  had  been  rather  a  splendid  spectacle 
 than  a  reality  manifested  in  its  perilous  and  sanguinary 
 character."  The  Neapolitans,  led  by  Alfonso's  brother, 
 Don  Ferdinand,  were  also  defeated  by  land  and  at  sea 
 before  Eapallo,  a  small  port  on  a  gulf  south-east  of  Genoa. 
 At  Pisa  the  citizens  took  the  opportunity  of  Charles's 
 presence  and  assumed  friendship  to  cast  off  the  yoke  of 
 Florence,  which  they  abhorred ;  the  shield  of  that  city  was 
 torn  down,  the  symbolic  lion  ("  marzocco  ")  gave  place  to 
 the  statue  of  the  French  ]dng.  Declarations  of  hatred 
 against  Florentine  sway,  made  to  Charles  by  young  Pisan 
 ladies  at  a  state  ball  given  for  his  entertainment,  strangely 
 exhibit  the  intense  municipal  enmities  prevailing  in  Italy.* 
 At  Pavia  the  King  was  received  with  all  honours  by 
 Ludovico  Sforza,  and  visited  in  the  castle  the  unfortunate 
 Gian  Galeazzo,  now  at  the  point  of  death,  and  supposed  to 
 be  the  victim  of  poison  given  him  by  his  usurping  imcle. 
 Ludovico  was  present  at  that  interview,  when  Isabella,  the 
 duchess,  threw  herself  at  Charles's  feet,  imploring  his 
 protection  for  her  husband  and  child,  and  his  generosity 
 towards  her  relatives  at  Naples.  She  obtained  nothing 
 save  fair  words  in  return.  Two  days  after  the  French  had 
 left  Pavia,  Gian  Galeazzo  died,  and  Ludovico  was  instantly 
 proclaimed  Duke  of  Milan,  he  having  already  procured 
 for  money,  40,000  gold  florins,  a  diploma  of  sovereignty 
 
 *  "  Ululantcs  sc  male  passim  ubi({nc  va^antcs,  siii  corporis  qujEstiim 
 tnrpiter  facere,  quam  hoiieste  in  Florcalinorum  vivcrc  tyrannide.'' — 
 Sl'rcnali,  CJironlclc. 
 
SACRED  ART  IN  ITALY.  571 
 
 from  llie  German  Emperor.     The  ingress  of  the  rreucli 
 into  other  Italiiin  cities  left  enduring  traces. 
 
 Shortly  before  Charles  VIII.  entered  Florence  the  power 
 of  the  Medici  was  overthrown.  Piero,  the  son  of  Lorenzo 
 de'  Medici,  had  taken  it  tipon  himself,  unanthorised,  to 
 parley  with  Charles  in  his  camp  before  Sarzana,  and  pro- 
 mise to  deliver  up  five  principal  cities,  including  Pisa  and 
 Livorno.  On  his  return  to  Florence,  the  doors  of  the 
 government  palace  were  shut  against  Piero  ;  his  family 
 were  placed  under  ban  as  rebels ;  their  splendid  mansion 
 was  sacked  by  the  populace ;  they  fled  to  Bologna,  the 
 young  Cardinal  Giovanni  (afterwards  Leo  X.),  following 
 his  brother  in  the  disguise  of  a  Franciscan  friar.  The 
 F'rench  entered  Florence  in  imposing  array,  17th  November, 
 119i.  The  King's  exorbitant  demands,  requiring  absolute 
 dominion  over  and  submission  from  the  city,  the  restoration 
 of  the  Medici,  and  the  payment  of  200,000  ducats,  were 
 rejected.  The  treaty  drawn  up  by  his  ministers,  insulting 
 to  the  honour  of  the  independent  Eepublic,  was  cancelled 
 by  the  famous  act  of  Pier  Capponi,  one  of  the  deputies 
 sent  by  the  "  iSignoria"  to  confer  with  him  as  to  admissible 
 terms,  who,  on  the  threat  that  French  trumpets  should 
 be  sounded  for  combat  in  the  city,  tore  that  document 
 before  the  king's  eyes,  with  the  words  which  have  become 
 classic  :  "  Voi  suonorete  le  vostre  trombe,  e  uoi  suoneremo 
 le  nostre  campane"  (You  may  sound  your  trumpets, 
 and  we  will  ring  our  bells) — namely,  as  signal  for  armed 
 resistance.*  Charles  at  last  agreed  with  the  haughty 
 patriots,  and  reduced  his  pretensions.  Pisa  and  Livorno 
 were  to  be  delivered  to  him  with  their  fortresses,  and 
 restored  gratuitously  after  his  Neapolitan  campaign.     The 
 
 '*=  Pier  Capponi  appears  in  act  of  tcarin.cr  the  treaty  anionfr  the 
 statues  of  Floicaline  and  Tavean  worthies   umler  the  poriieoes  of  the 
 
 umzi. 
 
572  MEDIEVAL    CHRISTIANITY    AND 
 
 sum  of  120,000  ducats  was  to  be  paid  to  him  in  three 
 advancements.  This  treaty  was  solemnly  proclaimed,  and 
 sworn  to  by  the  King  and  the  magistrates  during  religious 
 rites  at  the  cathedral.  Charles  left  Elorence  with  his  army, 
 and  accompanied  by  two  ambassadors  of  that  JRepublic,  the 
 next  day,  28th  November. 
 
 The  Pope  now  endeavoured  to  avert  the  tempest,  or  at 
 least  turn  aside  the  onward  march  of  invasion  from  Eome. 
 He  sent  an  embassy  to  the  Sultan,  desiring  his  support 
 against  the  Erench,  and  representing  to  him  the  danger  to 
 his  own  throne,  the  probability  that  Charles  would  raise  up 
 the  captive  Zizim  in  his  place.  Burkhard  gives  a  letter 
 from  Bajazet  to  Alexander  (considered  of  doubtful  authen- 
 ticity) ,  in  which  the  former  requests  the  latter  to  consign 
 the  dead  body  of  Zizim,  offering  30,000  gold  florins  for  the 
 compliance,  which  he  intimates  full  expectations  of  obtain- 
 ing. Alexander,  devout  in  his  fears,  sent  his  own  effigy 
 in  wax,  life-size,  to  be  suspended  as  an  ex-voto  before  the 
 Madonna  in  the  Annunziata  church  at  Florence,  where  it 
 was  solemnly  welcomed,  and  accompanied  with  sound  of 
 trumpets  to  the  sanctuary  of  the  "  Servi  di  Maria."*  The 
 Colonnas  and  Savelli  now  entered  into  the  service  of 
 Charles  VIII.,  and  encamped  with  such  forces  as  they  could 
 muster,  4600  men,  near  Erascati,  while  Jj'abrizio  Colonna 
 occupied  Ostia,  and  raised  on  its  battlements  the  banners 
 of  the  French  king  and  of  the  Delia  Eovere — the  Ostian 
 castle  having  been  built  by  the  Cardinal  of  that  house,  who 
 was  bishop  of  the  see,  for  his  own  residence ;  and  here  had 
 the  dauntless  Cardinal  Griuliano  for  some  time  defied  the 
 power  of  Alexander  YI.  That  Pontiff,  full  of  suspicions, 
 and  not  disposed  to  spare  those  of  the  sacred  college  who 
 
 *  It  was  long  the  usage  to  hang  up  such  ex-voto  images  both  at  the 
 Annunziata  and  S.  Croce.  Olduinus  had  seen  that  eihgy  of  Alexander 
 in  it>5  place,  and  describes  it  as  a  faithlul  portrait. 
 
SACRED  ART  IN  ITALY.  573 
 
 offended  liim,  summoned  the  Cardinals*  Colonna,  Sforza, 
 and  three  others  to  the  Vatican,  and  there  detained  thoni 
 under  guard ;  the  next  day  sending  the  two  above-named, 
 for  severer  durance,  to  S.  Angelo.  Colonna,  however,  was 
 soon  liberated,  and  charged  with  a  mission  to  the  Frencli 
 king.  At  this  juncture  the  Pope  changed  liis  tactics,  and 
 made  the  attempt  to  induce  Charles  not  only  to  turn  aside 
 from  Eome  on  his  march,  but  forego  the  projected  invasion 
 and  direct  his  arms  instead,  wdth  nobler  purpose,  against  the 
 common  enemy,  the  Turks ;  promising  the  co-operation  of 
 other  European  princes  for  such  a  crusade.  To  this  Charles 
 paid  no  attention,  though  the  purpose  of  an  ulterior  enter- 
 prise for  the  conquest  of  Constantinople  had  been  pro- 
 fessed by  him,  and  in  the  January  of  1494;  the  Pope  had 
 formally  bestowed  on  him  the  title  of  Emperor  of  tliat 
 capital. 
 
 An  effort  to  rouse  the  Eoman  citizens  to  activity  in  de- 
 fence of  the  pontificate  was  fruitless ;  in  vain  were  they 
 supplied  with  arms  by  the  Pope's  order,  and  alike  vain 
 was  the  appeal  to  the  German  residents  in  this  city  ;  a  few 
 artisans  of  that  nationality  met  at  the  hospice  near  their 
 church,  and  declared  that  they  would  obey  only  the 
 "  Caporioni,"  regionary  magistrates — manifestations  of  the 
 cine  temper  which  certainly  afford  no  proof  of  loyalty. 
 The  last  envoy  sent  to  Charles  was  the  Cardinal  Giovanni 
 Borgia,  the  Pope's  nephew,  who  found  that  king  at  Brac- 
 ciano,  the  guest  of  the  Orsini  at  their  castle  on  the  beau- 
 tiful lake  ;  and  the  only  object  now  in  view  was  to  stipu- 
 late terms  for  the  French  ingress  into  Rome  with  gua- 
 rantees for  the  pontific  honour  and  authority.  The  terror 
 of  the  Pope  now  betrayed  the  perturbation  of  his  con- 
 science, and  his  apprehension  of  dangers  to  himself,  more 
 serious  in  his  eyes  than  any  which  threatened  Eome.  lie 
 ordered  the  treasury  of  the  Papal  chapel  to  be  deposited 
 
57 4i  MEDIEVAL   CHRISTIANITY   AND 
 
 in  the  fortress,  his  table  service,  furniture,  and  even  bed 
 to  be  packed  up,  his  horses  kept  ready  for  flight  in  the 
 stables.  Certain  influential  Cardinals,  and  the  ambassadors 
 from  Spain  and  Venice  prevailed  on  him  to  remain  at  his 
 post. 
 
 A  Neapolitan  force,  led  by  the  Duke  of  Calabria, 
 marched  into  Eome,  and  remained  till  Charles  insisted 
 upon  their  dismissal.  Alexander,  thus  obliged  to  deprive 
 himself  of  his  protectors,  obtained  from  the  king  a  safe- 
 conduct  for  the  Duke  Perdinand  through  the  pontific 
 states,  which  the  latter  haughtily  refused  to  avail  himself 
 of. 
 
 On  the  last  day  of  the  year  1494,  the  Neapolitans  and 
 their  leaders  marched  out  of  Eome  by  the  Appian  gate, 
 whilst  the  French  entered  by  the  Flaminian,  or  Porta  del 
 Popolo.  Six  hours  elapsed  before  the  whole  invading 
 army  had  made  its  ingress.  At  7  p.m.  arrived  the  King  in 
 complete  armour,  with  lance  in  rest,  the  Cardinals  Delia 
 Eovere  and  Ascanio  Sforza  riding  beside  him,  the  Cardinals 
 Colonna  and  Savelli  following ;  the  flower  of  the  Prench 
 noblesse  accompanied  that  army,  reported  by  some  chro- 
 niclers as  between  30  and  40,000.  Long  after  dark  did 
 the  people  continue  to  gaze  on  the  imposing  spectacle, 
 unlike  any  military  pageant  yet  beheld  in  Eome  ;  torches 
 lit  up  the  scene  ;  and  enormous  cars,  laden  with  artillery, 
 such  as  never  yet  had  been  seen  in  Italian  warfare,  drawn 
 by  horses  instead  of  oxen  (formerly  used  for  such  purpose) 
 went  clattering  along  the  pavement  of  the  narrow  streets. 
 Nothing,  says  Paolo  Giovio,  so  much  astonished  the  Eomans 
 as  the  French  cannons,  140  of  large  calibre,  and  1200 
 smaller  pieces,  at  this  memorable  ingress;  and  as  they 
 passed,  the  unthinking  crowd,  delighted  at  a  show  what- 
 ever it  might  portend,  raised  the  cries,  Francla, — Colonna^ 
 — Vincoli !    by  tliat  last   designating  the   Cardinal    della 
 
SACRED  AUT  IN  ITALY.  575 
 
 Eovere,  who  took  his  title  from  the  S.  Pietro  in  A^incoli 
 church. 
 
 The  King  took  up  his  lodging  in  the  S.  Marco  (now 
 Yenetiau)  palace,  beneath  whose  castellated  walls  the 
 artillery  was  drawn  up,  whilst  troops  bivouacked  on  piazzas. 
 The  Pope  took  refuge  in  the  S.  Angelo  castle,  accompanied 
 by  only  two  or  three  Cardinals.*  French  cannons  were 
 twice  pointed  against  the  old  fortress,  and  withdrawn  with- 
 out firing ;  but  it  was  noticed  as  a  sign  of  Divine  wrath 
 against  a  simonical  Pontiff,  that  a  portion  of  the  building 
 fell,  yielding  to  natural  decay,  during  his  residence  there. 
 The  other  Cardinals  waited  on  the  King,  who  held  his 
 Court  with  customary  state  ;  and  now  began  that  opposi- 
 tion which  Alexander  had  probably  foreseen.  Certain 
 Cardinals  ad^'ised  Charles  to  convoke  a  G-eneral  Council 
 for  the  deposition  of  Alexander  YI,  whose  election  had 
 been  simonical  and  personal  example  scandalous. f  But 
 that  king  had  neither  the  thought  nor  wish  to  assume  the 
 part  of  a  Eeformer  or  restorer  of  discipline  in  the  Church. 
 
 *  Guicciardini  says  that  the  Pope  reth-ed  into  the  castle  on  the  entry 
 of  the  French;  others,  that  he  did  not  do  so  till  the  6th  January.  As 
 for  the  accommodation  with  which  the  King  had  to  content  himself  in 
 Rome,  it  is  thus  described  :  "  Le  palais  de  S.  ^larc,  ou  logea  le  Roi, 
 etait  tenu  fort  salement,  les  chambres  remplies  de  paille,  qui  Ton  no 
 nettoya  pas.  lis  attachaient  les  chandelles  aux  portes  des  chambres,  ct 
 aux  cheminees — omnia  lidbebantur  ad  instar  atahuli  porconcm."  — 
 Burkhard,  edited  by  Leibnitz,  1697. 
 
 f  It  is  to  be  regretted  that  we  have  such  scanty  details  of  this  re- 
 markable coalition.  Guicciardini  mentions  it  but  vaguely,  giving  the 
 names  of  three  Cardinals,  "  Vincoli,  Ascanio,  Colonna,  and  many 
 others."  Some  writers  add  also  Perauld,  a  French  Cardinal  ;  and  Ray- 
 naldns  states  that  the  leaders  were  the  two  above-named,  Delia 
 Rovcre,  Sforza,  and  Perauld,  called  "  Gurccnsis  "  from  his  bishopric. 
 Tlie  latter  accused  the  Pope  of  entering  into  culpable  alliance  with  the 
 Sultan,  but  the  main  charges  were  simony  and  innnorality. 
 
576  MEDIiEYAL   CnEISTIlSTITT   ATfD 
 
 One  of  his  ministers,  Brissonet,  hoped  for  the  red  hat,  and 
 probably  influenced  him  for  the  interest  of  the  Pontiff. 
 Partial  disturbances  now  occurred ;  the  mansions  of  some 
 rich  prelates  were  broken  into  and  pillaged  by  Prench 
 soldiery,  and  assassinations,  the  usual  result  of  Eoman 
 quarrels,  began  to  cut  oflT  lives  from  the  ranks  of  the  armed 
 foreigners.  On  the  13th  January  several  civic  quarters 
 ("mezza  Eoma,"  says  one  chronicler)  were  sacked;  and 
 two  days  later  the  Pope  yielded,  accepting  all  the  terms  he 
 had  first  refused,  as  dictated  by  the  King.  He  promised 
 to  consign  to  the  Prench  till  after  the  conquest  of  Naples 
 either  three  or  four  of  his  cities  ;  to  restore  Ostia  to  Car- 
 dinal della  Eovere,  grant  amnesty  to  all  those  of  the 
 sacred  college  who  had  opposed  him,  and  consign  Zizim  for 
 six  months  to  the  Prench,  receiving  from  the  King  in  return 
 20,000  ducats ;  also  to  depute  Cesare  as  Cardinal  Legate 
 to  accompany  the  invaders  to  Naples.*  The  bestowal  of 
 the  Neapolitan  crown  was  comprised  in  these  terms  (v. 
 Guicciardini,  and  also  Burkhard) ;  but  it  is  certain  that 
 such  concession  was  never  actually  made.  The  Pontifl"  and 
 King  now  met,  for  the  first  time,  in  a  garden  communicat- 
 ing with  the  corridor  (rebuilt  by  Alexander)  between  the 
 castle  and  the  Vatican.  His  Holiness  refused  the  proffered 
 genuflexions  and  kiss  of  the  foot.  Both  repaired  together 
 to  the  palace,  where,  in  an  impromptu  consistory,  the  Pojje 
 at  once  bestowed  the  cardinalate  on  Brissonet,  bishop  of 
 
 *  Cesare  contrived  to  escape  in  disguise  from  the  French  camp  when 
 they  had  marched  no  further  than  Velletri.  The  unfortunate  Zizim, 
 led  away  according  to  compact,  and  bargained  for  like  a  slave,  died  at 
 Capua,  as  supposed  of  poison  given  to  him  before  he  left  Rome. 
 Bajazet  rejoiced  to  receive  his  brother's  corpse,  consigned  at  his  request. 
 His  last  advancement  of  40,000  ducats  for  Zizim' s  maintenance  had 
 jiever  reached  the  Pope,  being  seized  by  the  brother  of  Cardinal  delhi 
 Rovere  at  Sioigallia. 
 
3ACRED    ART    IN    ITALY.  ..>/ / 
 
 S.  Malo,  at  Charles's  request.*  Next  day  tlie  King  ap- 
 peared at  a  public  consistory ;  went  through  the  usual 
 homage,  kissiug  the  poutific  hand  and  foot ;  took  his  seat 
 among  the  Cardinals,  and  respectfully  proffered  three 
 requests,  the  most  important  being  for  the  investiture  of 
 the  Neapolitan  kingdom,  to  which  tlie  Pope  replied  that 
 he  must  consult  with  the  sacred  college  on  so  serious  an 
 interest.  On  the  morrow  Charles  attended  the  Papal  High 
 Mass  at  S.  Peter's,  and  presented  the  oblations,  serving  as 
 acolyte  at  the  altar.  During  his  stay  in  Eome  he  acted 
 like  a  devout  pilgrim,  visiting  basilicas,  revering  the  prin- 
 cipal relics;  and  founded  a  church,  the  Trinita  de'  Monti, 
 on  the  Pincian  hill.  On  the  28th  January,  after  again 
 attending  mass  celebrated  by  the  Pope  at  S.  Marco,  close 
 to  the  palace  where  he  lodged,  and  dining  with  his  Holiness, 
 Charles  quitted  Eome  at  the  head  of  his  army  for  the 
 facile  conquest  of  Naples. 
 
 In  that  city  religious  influences  were  felt  amidst  the 
 general  excitement,  fear  on  one  side,  sanguine  hope  on 
 the  other.  As  Savonarola  had  prophesied  at  Florence,  so 
 did  S.  Prancesco  di  Paola  raise  his  voice  at  this  crisis  an- 
 nouncing evil  to  come ;  and  because  he  had  foreseen  the 
 taking  of  Constantinople  and  the  Turkish  descent  on 
 Otranto,  this  Saint  had  the  credit  for  prophetic  powers 
 among  the  people.  Tow^ns,  castles,  villages,  received  the 
 French  with  gladness,  and  the  inhabitants  sent  the  keys  of 
 their  gates  to  Charles  while  he  was  yet  far  off.  Meantime 
 Alfonso  11. ,  agonized  by  remorse  and  terror,  imagined  him- 
 
 *  Burkhard  gives  an  amusingly  minute  description  of  the  interview, 
 which  must  have  presented  a  curious  study  for  the  physiognomist.  The 
 chamberlain  was  shocked  at  the  non-formalities  of  the  consistory,  so 
 hastily  summoned  ;  and  all  the  process  of  the  vesting  of  the  new 
 Cardinal  is  recorded.  An  epigraph,  placed  near  the  spot  of  the  meeting, 
 remained  long  to  remind  of  that  event,  and  a  painting  in  the  castle 
 {which  has  disappeared)  served  for  the  same  purpose. 
 
 2  p 
 
578  MEDIEVAL    CHRISTIANITY    AND 
 
 self  haunted  by  tlie  shade  of  his  angry  father,  and  heard 
 the  cry  of  "  Francia  "  continually  ringing  in  his  ears.  He 
 abdicated  (23rd  January)  in  favour  of  his  son  Ferdinand, 
 and  carrying  with  him  300,000  ducats,  embarked  for  Sicily, 
 where  he  entered  a  cloister  of  Olivetan  monks  at  Mazara, 
 and  died  in  that  retreat  a  few  months  afterwards. 
 
 During  the  occupation  of  city  after  city,  and  after  effect- 
 ing the  conquest  of  the  Neapolitan  States  without  striking 
 a  blow — the  defenceless  Ferdinand  II.  having  fled  to  Isehia 
 — the  French  behaved  with  unbridled  licentiousness,  per- 
 mitting themselves  every  species  of  excess.  The  revenues 
 of  institutions  and  schools,  the  funds  belonging  to  indus- 
 trial and  other  establishments,  were  absorbed  for  their  pay. 
 Thus  was  the  Eoman  University  deprived  of  its  endow- 
 ments; and  the  schools  and  printing  presses  of  Aldo 
 Manuzio  were  dispersed.  In  the  splendid  palace  of  the 
 Medice  at  Florence,  these  foreigners  laid  hands  on  all  they 
 could  carry  away,  and  the  precious  artistic  objects  collected 
 by  the  magnificent  Lorenzo  became  their  spoils.  Whilst 
 at  Eome,  Charles,  like  the  Grerman  emperors  during  their 
 sojourn  here,  took  upon  himself  all  the  rights,  and  exer- 
 cised the  functions  of  a  sovereign  in  his  own  capital; 
 coined  money  with  the  title  of  Emperor  to  his  effigy,  pro- 
 nounced judicial  sentences,  his  ministers  inflicting  such 
 punishments  as  amputation,  scourging,  and  death  by  the 
 gallows.  Guicciardini  dwells  on  the  incalculable  evils,  the 
 long  succession  of  troubles  extending  over  a  far-distant 
 future,  which  this  invasion  brought  upon  Italy :  "  mutations 
 of  government,  subversion  of  kingdoms,  desolation  of 
 districts,  massacre  in  cities,  most  cruel  slaughters ;  also 
 new  customs  and  manners,  novel  and  sanguinary  modes  of 
 warfare,  and  diseases  hitherto  unknown."  The  invader's 
 presence  on  this  side  of  the  Alps  was  regretted,  and  its 
 further  consequences  were  dreaded  by  foreign  as  well  as 
 
SACRED    ART    IN    ITALY.  571) 
 
 Italian  sovercigus.  Tlie  Spanish  king  desired  either  Id 
 restore  his  relatives  to  the  Neapolitan  throne,  or  already 
 laid  his  plans  for  betraying  their  cause,  and  subjecting 
 Naples  to  his  crown. 
 
 A  league  was  formed  against  the  French  by  the  Pope, 
 the  Emperor  Maximilau,  Ferdinand  of  Spain,  the  Duke  of 
 Milan  and  the  Venetian  Republic ;  and  these  allies  soon 
 brought  40,000  men  into  the  field.  This  intelligence 
 alarmed  Charles  amidst  the  pleasures  to  which  he  was 
 abandoning  himself  at  Naples.  He  left  a  Viceroy  and 
 garrisons  in  the  conquered  state,  and  two  months  after  his 
 arrival  quitted  for  his  march  towards  the  Alps,  On  his 
 return  to  Eome,  the  Pope  withdrew  to  Orvieto,  thence  to 
 Perugia.  The  King  restored  the  pontific  cities  received 
 in  pledge.  During  his  second  sojourn,  of  only  two  days, 
 in  Eome,  he  is  said  to  have  ordered  all  Spaniards  found 
 here  at  the  time,  to  be  put  to  death;  and  their  pro- 
 perty confiscated ;  but  this  seems  inconsistent  with  the 
 King's  known  character,  and  is  not  mentioned  by  all 
 writers  of  authority  as  to  these  events.  On  his  further 
 progress  he  avoided  Florence,  conforming  in  this,  as 
 believed,  to  the  counsels  of  Savonarola,  sent  to  meet  him  at 
 Poggibonsi.  "When  descending  from  the  Apennines  on 
 the  plains  of  Lombardy,  the  French  encountered  the  army 
 of  the  league,  commanded  by  the  Marquis  of  Mantua,  and 
 suffered  the  defeat  (battle  of  Fornovo,  6th  July,  1495), 
 which  proved  almost  equally  disastrous  to  both,  and  was 
 claimed  on  both  sides  as  victory.  It  is  asserted  (Mura- 
 tori,  AnnaU),thsit  more  Italians  than  French  were  left  dead 
 or  wounded  on  that  field  ;  but  immense  booty,  the  spoils  of 
 southern  palaces,  convents,  and  probably  churches  also, 
 passed  into  the  hands  of  the  Italians,  who  could  not  pre- 
 vent the  orderly  retreat  of  their  foes,  nor  the  safe  exit  of 
 Charles  from  the  country  where  his  presence  had  brous^ht 
 
 2  i>  2 
 
580  MEDIiEVAL    CHIlISTlAtfITT    AND 
 
 SO  mucli  disaster  and  left  such  evil  traces.  Accounts  of 
 that  battle  differ  strangely  ;  some  making  it  last  for  nine, 
 others  for  two  hours  ;  one  stating  that  all  was  over  after 
 about  one  hour  of  hot  conflict !  The  Duke  of  Milan 
 erected  a  chapel  on  the  spot;  the  Gonzaga  of  Mantua 
 founded  a  church,  S.  Maria  della  Vittoria,  in  his  city  ;  and 
 with  the  same  intent  of  pious  thanksgiving,  processions 
 were  organized  at  Florence  and  Venice. 
 
 Ferdinand  II.,  who  had  been  betrayed  and  deserted  by 
 his  own  army  and  generals  when  he  attempted  to  defend 
 the  pass  of  S.  Grermano  against  the  invaders,  now  re- 
 turned from  Ischia  to  Naples,  received  like  a  conqueror, 
 and  entered  on  a  war  of  two  years  duration  to  liberate  his 
 states  from  the  French  occupation,  and  expel  the  forces 
 of  the  Viceroy  deputed  by  Charles.  Through  the  aid  of 
 Consalvo  di  Cordova,  the  "  G-reat  Captain,"  he  was  finally 
 successful ;  and  the  last  remaining  French  garrison  capi- 
 tulated after  the  Viceroy  Montpensier's  death,  soon  after 
 which  Ferdinand  also  died,  1496.  His  successor,  Frederick 
 III.,  was  the  victim  of  the  coalition  for  dividing  the  Neapo- 
 litan kingdom,  as  effected  in  1501  between  Ferdinand  of 
 Spain  and  Louis  XII. 
 
 The  latter,  succeeding  to  his  cousin  Charles  VIII.  (1498) 
 on  the  throne  of  France,  at  once  assumed  the  titles  of  King 
 of  the  Two  Sicilies  and  Duke  of  Milan,  claiming  the  latter 
 state  by  right  of  inheritance  from  his  grandmother  Valen- 
 tina.  Duchess  of  Orleans,  sister  of  two  reigning  Visconti, 
 both  of  whom  died  without  issue.  The  Pope  entered  into 
 a  league  with  Louis,  with  Ferdinand,  Venice  and  Florence, 
 in  the  ulterior  object  of  promoting  the  project  of  those 
 two  kings  to  overthrow  the  jAragonese  dynasty  at  Naples, 
 and  divide  that  kingdom  between  them — execralile,  ac 
 ItalicB  funestum  foedus,  as  even   an  ecclesiastical  writer 
 
SACKED    AET    IX    ITALY.  5S1 
 
 (Ciaconius)  scruples  not  to  call  this  compact.*  It  stipu- 
 lated also  the  anuexation  of  Milan  to  the  French  states, 
 the  consignment  of  Cremona  to  the  Venetians,  and  the 
 recognising  of  Cesare  Borgia  as  Duke  of  Eomagna.  The 
 subjection  of  the  baronial  families  who  had  held  many 
 cities  of  the  pontific  states  under  their  sway,  was  com- 
 pletely accomplished  under  Alexander  YI.,  and  mainly 
 through  the  military  successes  of  Cesare,  assisted  by  the 
 French.  The  nephews  of  Sixtus  IV.  lost  Imola  and  Forli, 
 though  the  latter  city  was  gallantly  defended  by  Caterina 
 Sforza,  widow  of  Grirolamo  Eiario  ;  the  Sforzas  themselves 
 lost  Pesaro  ;  the  Malatestas  were  driven  from  Eimini ;  the 
 last  of  the  Manfredi,  the  beloved  and  unfortunate  young 
 Astorre,  was  besieged  at  Faenza,  treacherously  made 
 prisoner  after  he  had  capitulated,  and  mysteriously  put  to 
 death  in  the  S.  Angelo  fortress. f  Cesare,  now  Duke  of 
 Komagna  and  "  Gronfaloniere"  of  the  Church,  enjoyed  the 
 honours  of  a  superb  triumph  when  he  re-entered  Eome 
 after  a  victorious  campaign,  amidst  the  devout  observances 
 of  the   Jubilee  year,   1500. 
 
 On  a  Sunday  in  Lent,  the  G-olden  Eose  was  blessed  as  usual 
 by  the  Pope.  After  High  Mass,  celebrated  by  a  Cardinal  at 
 S.  Peter's,  the  vexillum  also  was  blessed  by  the  Pope  with 
 holy  water  and  incense,  and  given  to  Cesare,  who,  kneeling, 
 made  his  profession  of  devotedness  and  fidelity  ;  next  was 
 
 *  "  Fuit  mihi  a  veridica  persona  relatum  sanctissinium  Doniinum 
 Nostntm  in  ultimo  consistorio  secret©  pronuiiciasse  Fredericum  de  Ar- 
 rogonia,  Regem  Neapolitanum,  regno  Neapolitano  privatum,  et  Rcgem 
 Franciae  de  eodcm  regno,  et  Regem  Hispaniarum  de  Ducatu  Calabri-a 
 investisse." — Burlchard. 
 
 t  He  was  probably  precipitated,  alive  or  dead,  down  one  of  the  dark 
 abysses  called  trohocchetti,  which  used  to  be  shown  by  torchlight  in  that 
 castle,  "  by  many  a  foul  and  midnight  murder  fed,"  but  which  (for  what 
 reason  I  know  not)  are  now  kept  out  of  sight. 
 
582  MEDIEVAL    CHRISTIANITY    AND 
 
 bestowed  on  him  the  mystic  Eose,  with  the  usual  very  beau- 
 tiful prayer  of  consecration  ;  and,  finally,  the  cap  of  the  Gou- 
 faloniere  was  placed  on  Cesare's  head  by  his  father.  The 
 "  volto  santo"  was  exposed  at  the  end  of  the  long  ceremonies 
 on  this  day.  As  to  ceremonies  in  general,  the  dislike  of 
 Alexander  to  loss  of  time  in  such  matters,  is  curiously 
 apparent  in  Burkhard's  narrative.  Being  subject  to  syn- 
 cope, he  used  to  feign  such  fits  ("  finxit  syncopare")  when 
 the  ritual  fatigued  him,  thus  finding  pretext  for  ordering 
 it  to  be  abridged.  Eirmer  foundations  were  laid  for  the 
 temporal  j^ower  than  had  ever  yet  been  secured ;  but  it 
 was  mainly  the  aggrandisement  of  his  own  family,  which 
 was  the  object  of  Alexander's  desires.  If  it  has  been,  not 
 without  reason,  objected  against  some  pontifi*s  that  they 
 had  no  scruples  in  postponing  the  interests  of  Italy  to 
 those  of  the  tiara,  the  charge  to  be  brought  against  Alex- 
 ander is  that  he,  engrossed  by  ambitious  projects  for  his 
 children,  postponed  the  interests  of  the  tiara  to  those  of 
 the  Borgia  house.  Thus  did  the  endowment  with  the  long 
 maintained  temporal  power  lead  the  Papacy,  as  represented 
 by  this  man,  into  such  a  course  as  the  deliberate  spoliation 
 of  its  own  dominions,  and  sacrifice  of  the  inheritance  to 
 be  transmitted  with  its  throne,  for  the  benefit  of  a  single 
 family  !  Even  the  ordinary  decencies  and  discipline  of  the 
 Vatican  w^ere  now  disregarded.  Alexander,  bent  on  the 
 ruin  of  the  Graetani  family  and  confiscation  of  their  estates 
 and  wealth  for  his  children,  quitted  Eome  to  direct  in 
 person  the  siege  of  their  fortress  at  Sermoneta,  and  de- 
 puted the  fair  Lucrezia  to  act  in  his  absence  as  his  Vicar, 
 — presiding  in  the  pontific  apartments,  giving  audiences, 
 opening  letters,  &c.  with  a  Cardinal  by  her  side  as  her 
 subordinate  counsellor !  Contrast  this  with  the  almost 
 monastic  routine  and  proprieties  of  the  Vatican  at  the 
 present  day  !     Comedies  of  Plautus,  masquerades,  dramatic 
 
SACKED  AET  IN  ITALY.  583 
 
 pageants,  bauquets,  at  which  fair  ladies  (not  always  the 
 most  estimable)  sat  beside  the  Pope,  among  cardinals  and 
 prelates,  were  among  the  more  innocent  recreations  which 
 Alexander  delighted  in,  though  at  the  same  time  notable 
 for  his  temperance  and  most  assiduous  application  to  busi- 
 ness. These  things  are  only  entitled  to  historic  notice, 
 seeing  the  impression  made  through  the  unavoidable 
 notoriety  to  which  such  Vatican  amenities  were  exposed. 
 Much  more  scandalous  orgies  described  in  some  editions 
 of  Burkhard,  as  now  polluting  the  Papal  palace,  are 
 incredible.  Had  they  taken  place,  would  the  decorous 
 chamberlain  have  mentioned  them  ? 
 
 After  the  occupation  of  Sermoneta  by  the  pontific  troops, 
 Lucrezia  purchased  that  town,  ostensibly  from  the  Camera 
 Apostolica,  for  80,000  ducats.  She  thus  became  titular 
 duchess,  and  was  also  appointed  by  her  father  to  the 
 government,  as  Eegent,  of  Spoleto.  The  head  of  the 
 G-aetani  family  was  decoyed  to  Eome,  imprisoned  in  the  S. 
 Angelo  castle,  declared  guilty  of  treason  by  a  venal  tribu- 
 nal, and  sentenced  to  the  forfeiture  of  all  his  possessions. 
 He  made  formal  protest  against  this,  and  soon  afterwards 
 (1500)  died  in  the  fortress,  still  a  captive,  and  probably  a 
 victim  of  poison.*  His  nephew,  Niccolo,  was  assassinated 
 near  Sermoneta  by  the  myrmidons  of  Cesare. 
 
 The  first  check  to  the  prosperity  of  the  Borgia  house 
 came  from  the  powerful  Orsini  family,  whose  possessions 
 Alexander  coveted  for  his  children,  while  at  the  same  time 
 bent  on  punishing  them  for  their  temerity  in  taking  part 
 with  the  French,  contrary  to  his  express  commands.  But 
 the  Orsini,  assisted  by  A-^itelli,  lord  of  Citta  di  Castello, 
 were  able  to  repulse  the  pontific  troops,  besieging  their 
 
 *  The  protest  of  Giacomo  Gaetani,  still  in  the  archives  of  that  fixniiiy, 
 is  criven  by  Grejrorovius. 
 
584  MEDIEVAL    CHEISTIANITT   AND 
 
 castle  of  Bracciano,  and  also  to  obtain  a  signal  victory  near 
 ISoriano  over  those  forces  commanded  by  the  Duke  of 
 Urbino,  Guidobaldo  di  Montefeltro,  and  by  Giovanni 
 Borgia.  The  Duke  was  made  prisoner,  Giovanni  wounded  ; 
 and  a  Cardinal  Legate  fled  from  that  field  with  such  haste 
 and  terror  that  his  death  was  the  consequence.  The  Pope 
 now  came  to  terms  with  the  Orsini,  restored  the  towns 
 and  castles  taken  from  them,  but  not  without  receiving  in 
 return  50,000  florins.  In  this  episode  we  see  how  com- 
 pletely the  position  of  independent  powers  was  that  still 
 held  by  the  great  baronial  families  in  the  pontific  states. 
 To  meet  the  demands  for  civil  war  and  the  endowments 
 of  his  children,  Alexander  (following  the  example  of  his 
 predecessors)  created  venal  ofiices,  and  sold  for  761  scudi 
 (or  gold  florins)  each  of  the  eighty  posts  in  a  new  "  college" 
 of  Secretaries  of  Briefs.*  About  this  time  the  castle  of 
 Ostia  was  seized  by  Consalvo  of  Cordova,  who  duly  con- 
 signed it  to  the  Pope  ;  and  in  that  lone  fortress  on  the 
 unhealthy  sea-coast  took  place  an  interview  between  his 
 Holiness  and  the  Great  Captain,  who  had  the  boldness  to 
 reproach  the  Pontiff"  for  his  disedifying  life  and  the  abuses 
 of  the  Curia.  A  cruel  blow  fell  on  Alexander  YI.  in  1497, 
 and  for  a  time  awakened  the  better  instincts  of  his  nature, 
 affliction  leading  him,  in  anguish,  to  avow  his  dereliction 
 from  the  high  standard  of  his  supreme  office  and  duties. 
 His  son  Giovanni,  Duke  of  Gandia,  had  been  invested,  as 
 we  have  seen,  with  the  Duchy  of  Benevuto,  to  which  were 
 added  Terracina  and  Pontecorvo  as  countships ;  and  only 
 one  of  the  Cardinals  protested  in  consistory  against  this 
 deliberate  dismemberment  of  the  Papal  states  for  Borgian 
 interests.     Shortly  before   the    day  for  the  departure  of 
 
 •  Julius  II.  added  one  hundred  more  to  the  btmie  eollege,  selling  each 
 post  for  the  same  price. 
 
SACRED   AET    IN    ITALY.  oSo 
 
 Giovauui  to  visit  his  new  Duchy,  he  and  his  brother  Cesare 
 (still  a  Cardinal)  were  riding  back  to  the  Vatican  after  a 
 supper  with  their  mother  in  a  vineyard  near  8.  Pietro  in 
 Vincoli.  Near  the  palace  of  the  Chancery  (now  Sforza 
 Cesarini),  Giovanni  took  leave  of  Cesare,  rode  off  with  a 
 single  attendant,  a  mysterious  masked  man,  and  never 
 more  was  the  young  Duke  seen  alive  after  that  night,  lith 
 June.  His  disappearance  excited  no  alarm  at  first,  his 
 habits  being  well  known ;  but  on  the  evening  of  the  day 
 afterwards  his  father  became  anxious ;  ordered  every 
 search  to  be  made,  and  the  Tiber  to  be  dragged  by  300 
 fishermen.  The  body  of  Giovanni  pierced  with  nine  wounds, 
 the  hands  tied,  a  purse  of  ducats  still  in  its  place,  was  soon 
 found,  drifted  far  down  the  stream.  A  charcoal  seller,  who 
 had  been  passing  the  night  of  the  14th  June  in  a  boat  on 
 the  river,  at  the  small  port  of  "  Eipetta,"  within  the  city, 
 deposed  to  having  seen  a  corpse  brought  to  the  Tiber  bank, 
 laid  across  a  horse,  and  thrown  into  the  water  by  some 
 men  who  had  taken  sundry  precautions  to  avoid  notice. 
 When  asked  why  he  had  not  sooner  reported  this,  the 
 witness  answered  that  in  his  time  he  had  seen  a  hundred 
 corpses  thrown  iuto  the  river  by  night,  yet  never  had  any 
 care  been  taken  about  such  occurrences.  Suspicion  soon 
 pointed  out  the  murderer  of  Giovanni  Borgia — no  other 
 than  his  brother  Cesare.  The  Pope,  wounded  through  the 
 aft'ections  for  which  he  had  sacrificed  so  much,  and  proba- 
 bly soon  led  to  suspect  the  author  of  the  heinous  crime 
 which  darkened  his  house,  shut  himself  up  in  his  chamber 
 for  three  days  without  speaking,  and  long  refusing  food. 
 Burkhard  says  from  the  Wednesday  evening  to  the  Satur- 
 day he  thus  starved  himself,  and  never  slept  for  twcntv- 
 four  hours.  After  the  first  burst  of  grief  he  seemed  a  new 
 man,  bent  on  atoning  for  the  past,  and  on  applying  all  his 
 energies  (which  were  great)  to  the  uprooting  of  evils,  the 
 
586  MEDIJ3VAL    CHRISTIANITY    AND 
 
 purifying  of  the  atmosphere  around  him.  He  even  thought 
 of  abdicating,  and  announced  this  intention  to  the  King  of 
 Spain,  who  dissuaded  him.  In  consistory  he  declared  his 
 resolve  to  promote  a  general  reform  of  the  Curia  and  of 
 discipline ;  appointed  a  commission  of  six  Cardinals  to 
 deliberate  and  propose  the  measures  suitable  for  that 
 worthy  object.  No  more  dignities  or  benefices  were  to  be 
 sold ;  the  Cardinal kS  were  to  content  themselves  with  a 
 single  bishopric  each,  and  6000  florins'  revenue.  But  the 
 cares  and  ambitions  of  this  world  soon  choked  the  good 
 seed  in  the  stony  soil  of  that  mind.  The  salutary  measures 
 proposed  by  the  commissioners  were  met  by  objections 
 on  the  ground  of  privilege,  prerogatives,  ragion  di  stato, 
 &c.  So  ended  the  repentance  and  virtuous  intentions  of 
 Alexander  YI.  !* 
 
 It  is  mentioned  that  the  ghost  of  his  murdered  son  was 
 heard  wailing  through  the  vast  chambers  of  the  Vatican  on 
 the  winter  nights  of  that  same  year.f 
 
 *  One  of  the  Cardinals  commissioned  for  the  reforming  measures  was 
 the  Piccolomini  who  succeeded  to  Alexander  VI.  Raynaldus  gives  an 
 eloquent  letter  from  Peter  Delphinus,  addressed  to  that  Cardinal,  and 
 urging  on  him  the  consideration  of  the  high  importance  of  the  task  now 
 before  him.  "  Editae  sunt  ab  iis  (Cardinalibus)  pluris  sanctissimae  sanc- 
 tiones,  quae  perductae  ad  exitum  non  fuerunt,  an.  1497."  Thus,  once  more, 
 during  the  XV.  century,  did  the  Papacy  thAvart  and  prevent  the  reform 
 of  the  Church  as  projected  and  approved  by  her  own  representatives  ! 
 
 f  Sanuto,  1.  1,  623 — see  also  Gregorovius:  "The  people  believed  in 
 these  phantoms,  and  it  was  said  that  Demoniac  Powers  dominated  in 
 the  vicinity  of  the  Pope."  The  belief  in  the  supernatural,  to  a  degree 
 and  with  direction  not  common  in  the  Italian  mind,  seems  to  have  pre- 
 vailed at  this  time,  fostered  perhaps  by  the  tragic  events  and  horror- 
 striking  crimes  so  frequently  darkening  the  moral  horizon  and  historic 
 scene.  It  was  reported  at  Naples,  shortly  before  the  arrival  of  the 
 French,  that  the  ghost  of  King  Ferdinand  had  appeared  on  three  suc- 
 cessive nights  to  the  court-surgeon,  and  commanded  him,  first  mildly, 
 then  with  sternness,  to  tell  Alfonso  II.,  from  his  father,  that  it  was  vain 
 
SACKED  ART  IN  ITALY.  587 
 
 TIic  coalition  of  Cardinals  at  the  time  of  the  French 
 King's  stay  in  Eome,  was  not  the  only  antagonism  which 
 aimed  at  the  extreme  object  of  causing  Alexander  YI.  to 
 be  dejwsed  from  the  Papal  throne.  More  severe  denun- 
 ciations were  heard  in  Florence  ;  and  the  voice  of  Savona- 
 rola was  the  organ  through  which  the  conscience  of  the 
 Church,  the  religious  sense  of  the  people,  spoke  in  repro- 
 bation of  one  who  was  considered  to  dishonour  the  sacred 
 throne  he  occupied.  That  celebrated  Dominican  preacher 
 wrote  letters  to  potentates,  the  ^^riucipal  kings  of  Europe, 
 urging  them  to  convoke  an  (Ecumenical  Council  for  effect- 
 ing the  desired  reforms,  and  especially  for  the  deposition 
 of  Alexander,  whom  the  eloquent  writer  denounced  as 
 neither  true  and  legitimate  Pontiff  nor  even  a  Christian.* 
 One  of  those  letters  was  seized,  through  contrivance  of 
 Ludovico  Sforza,  from  the  courier,  who  was  waylaid  and 
 robbed  on  his  journey  to  France  ;  and  the  Duke  of  Milan, 
 eager  to  ingratiate  himself  with  the  Pope,  immediately 
 sent  it  to  him.  Can  we  be  surprised  that  such  a  man  as 
 E-odriguez  Borgia  should  have  determined  on  the  ruin  of 
 the  audacious  Dominican  who  had  so  conspired  against 
 him  ?  The  deposition  of  an  unworthy  Pope  was  believed 
 to  be  fully  within  the  competency  of  General  Councils ; 
 
 to  resist  the  invader,  for  their  dynasty,  the  Aragonese,  was  doomed,  and 
 their  race  destined  to  be  soon  extinct.  (Guicciardini,  1.  1.)  The  Duke 
 of  Gandia,  who  lived  only  24  years,  was  the  ancestor  of  the  present 
 Borgia  family,  illustrated  by  some  eminent  men  in  the  Spanish  and 
 Italian  branches,  as  Francis  Borgia,  a  canonized  8aint  and  third  General 
 of  the  Jesuits  after  S.  Ignatius. 
 
 •  Two  of  these  letters,  but  in  Italian,  not  the  original  Latin,  are 
 given  by  Mansi  in  the  Appendix  to  Ealuze,  2Iiscell.  t.  I.  Savonarola 
 goes  so  far  as  to  accuse  the  Pope  of  atheism ;  but  the  trustworthy 
 account  of  his  death  by  Burkhard  does  not  justify  or  confirm  this  im- 
 putation. Externally  at  least  Alexander  complied  with  all  the  require- 
 ments of  the  Church  at  the  lust  sta-'c  of  mortal  cxistenrc. 
 
588  MEDIEVAL    CHRISTIANITY   AND 
 
 nor  had  the  arguments  heard  at  Constance  and  Basle  been 
 forgotten ;  but  it  may  be  doubted  whether  any  such  assem- 
 blage would  have  dethroned  Alexander. 
 
 In  the  Museum  of  the  Propaganda  College  we  see  a 
 memorable  record  of  this  pontificate  :  a  map  of  the  New 
 World,  prepared  soon  after  the  return  of  Columbus  from 
 his  second  voyage  (1498),  and  with  the  line  of  demarcation 
 drawn  by  the  Pope's  own  hand,  for  dividing  all  the  terri- 
 tories yet  discovered,  and  to  be  discovered,  between  Spain 
 and  Portugal.  A  far-extending  sea-coast,  the  shores  of 
 both  American  continents,  and  the  isthmus  between  them 
 are  marked,  and  distinctly  enough,  on  this  parchment, 
 however  defective  the  geographic  details.  Spain  has  the 
 lion's  share — in  fact,  all  the  land  from  one  hundred  miles 
 west  of  Cape  Yerd  and  the  Azores.  This  last  among 
 acts  of  the  Papacy  in  its  character  as  supreme  Arbiter  over 
 Christian  nations  and  rulers,  might  have  raised  Alexander's 
 soul  above  the  meshes  of  tortuous  policy  and  struggles  for 
 family  aggrandisement.  There  is  some  proof  that,  for  a 
 time,  it  did  so  ;  the  language  of  the  bull  addressed  by  him 
 (4th  May,  1493)  to  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  shows  that  he 
 could  rise  to  the  moral  height  of  the  occasion,  could  feel 
 the  solemnity  of  obligations  now  resting  upon  him.  In 
 making  concession  to  the  Spanish  Sovereigns  of  all  islands 
 and  continents,  discovered  by  their  envoys  or  captains 
 within  certain  limits,  he  lays  down  the  conditions  that  "  in 
 virtue  of  holy  obedience,  and  according  to  the  promises 
 you  have  made  to  us,  and  which  we  doubt  not  your  inten- 
 tion of  fulfilling,  you  will  take  good  care  to  send  learned, 
 experienced,  and  virtuous  men  to  those  continents  and 
 islands,  in  order  that  the  nations  may  be  instructed  in  the 
 Catholic  faith  and  in  sound  morality." 
 
 There  are  those  who  describe  the  conditions  of  Eome  as 
 ameliorated  under  the  energetic  sway  of  Alexander ;  but 
 
SACRED    ART    IN    ITALY.  589 
 
 others  draw  a  picture  in  very  dark  colours.  "  Never  (says 
 Eaphael  Volaterranus,  Vitae  quatuor  Summ.  Fontif.)  had 
 the  audacity  of  gladiators  (hired  soldiery)  been  greater  in 
 this  city,  nor  the  freedom  of  the  people  less.  The  city 
 swarmed  with  spies ;  the  slightest  expression  of  displeasure 
 (or  anger)  was  punished  with  death.  Moreover,  Eome 
 was  now  filled  with  robbers,  so  that  no  sti'eet  was  safe  at 
 night.  The  asylum  of  nations,  the  fortress  of  all  people, 
 as  this  city  had  ever  been,  now  became  a  slaughter-house  ; 
 and  all  this  Alexander  permitted  out  of  affection  for  his 
 children."  Yet  the  same  writer  elsewhere  testifies  to  the 
 tranquillity  of  E-ome  at  this  time  :  "  Nullum  in  urbe 
 tumultum,  nulla  sensimus  arma !" 
 
 Fallen  indeed  were  the  credit  and  dignity  of  the  Holy 
 See  when  Catholic  Kings  could  send  embassies  to  its 
 capital,  expressly  to  admonish  the  Pope  of  the  duty  of 
 attending  to  ecclesiastical  interests,  of  correcting  the  enor- 
 mous abuses,  and  putting  a  stop  to  the  flagrant  vices  pre- 
 vailing among  Christians,  and  especially  around  his  own 
 sacerdotal  throne  ;  complaining,  as  crowned  monitors  now 
 did,  of  the  disgraceful  trafiic  in  sacred  things,  and  the  noto- 
 rious fact  that  the  chief  See,  the  source  of  spiritual  autho- 
 rities in  the  Church,  set  the  worst  example,  had  become 
 the  centre  of  the  greatest  scandals  in  Christendom  !* 
 
 Yet  many  acts  of  this  pontificate  in  the  range  of  eccle- 
 
 *  Embassy  from  Emanuel  of  Portugal,  called  the  Great,  to  Alexander 
 VI.  :  "  Misit  ad  Alexandrum  legatos,  qui  cum  admonerent,  ut  rebus 
 Ecclesiaj  prospiceret,  nam  mores  esse  profligates,  pietatis  studium  res- 
 tinctum,  flagitiorum  licentiam  solutam,  res  sanctissimas  pretio  indignis- 
 simis  addici.  In  ea  urbe,  quse  fuerat  pietatis  et  sanctimonioe  domi- 
 cilium,  officinam  impudentiae  atque  sceleris  institui,  ecclesiamque 
 Romanam  insigni  infamia  flagrare,  remque  esse  in  extremum  pene  dis- 
 
 crimen  adductam  ;  proinde  sc  ilium  orare  et  obsecrare ut  iret 
 
 obviam  sceleri,  resecaret  libidinem,  coerceret  avaritiam,  mores(iue  laxos 
 disciplind  severiorc  dcvinciret,"  &c. — Raynaldus,  amxo  1498. 
 
590  MEDIAEVAL    CHRISTIANITY    AND 
 
 siastlcal  affairs  are  pronounced  commendable.  Alexander 
 confirmed  some  recently  founded,  and  highly  useful  reli- 
 gious Orders :  that  of  Minims,  whose  originator  was  S. 
 Francesco  di  Paola ;  that  of  S.  Mary  Magdalene  for 
 female  penitents,  instituted  at  Paris  by  a  Franciscan,  Jean 
 Tisseraud,  and  that  of  Nuns  of  the  Annunciation,  founded 
 by  the  divorced  Queen  of  Louis  XTI.,  who  bore  her  trials 
 with  saintly  fortitude,  herself  entered  the  convent  of  her 
 sisterhood,  and  died  there  after  about  a  year  (1505) — 
 canonized  as  S.  Joanna  of  Yalois,  1738,  Alexander  had 
 the  wisdom  to  grant  the  abolition  of  celibacy,  seeing  that 
 it  had  led  to  no  good  consequences,  on  behalf  of  the  military 
 Orders  in  Portugal,  To  the  King  of  Spain  he  granted  the 
 rank  and  revenues  of  G-rand  Master  to  three  such  Orders, 
 the  Knights  of  S.  James,  Calatrava,  and  Alcantara,  The 
 title  "  Catholic"  was  conferred  by  him  (1496)  on  Ferdinand 
 and  his  successors  for  ever,  having  been  first  bestowed  on 
 that  King,  but  only  in  loersonam,  by  Innocent  VIII.,  after 
 the  conquest  of  Granada,  Alexander  permitted  the  Bishop 
 of  Wilna  and  the  Lithuanian  Clergy  to  use  arms,  other- 
 wise unlawful,  for  defending  their  country  against  the 
 Tartars,  He  made  some  efforts  to  check  the  abuse  of 
 indulgences,  and  passed  decrees  against  magic  and  witch- 
 craft, &c.*  He  did  not  institute  the  ecclesiastical  censor- 
 ship, but  was  the  first  to  apply  it  to  printed  books,  pro- 
 hibiting the  publication  of  any  works  not  provided  with 
 the  attestation  of  the  respective  bishops  that  their  contents 
 were  in  no  way  contrary  to  faith  or  morals.  Prosecutions 
 for  heresy  were  severe  during  this  pontificate.  A  Spanish 
 bishop,    Pedro   de  Aranda,  who   held  high  office  at   the 
 
 *  Enormities  mentioned  by  Moroni,  with  commendation  of  tlie  Pope's 
 endeavours  to  check  them,  as  "  at  this  time  gaining  ground,  and  princi- 
 pally in  Germany  and  Bohemia."— Di^tonarto,  article  Alessandvo  VI. 
 
SACRED    ART    IN    ITALY.  591 
 
 Vatican,  was  condemned  to  imprisonment  for  life  in  the  S. 
 Angelo  castle,  and  degraded  from  all  ecclesiastical  rank, 
 for  teaching,  or  believing,  various  false  doctrines  ;  denying 
 the  Holy  Trinity,  the  existence  of  a  Heaven  and  Hell,  and 
 maintaining  that  indulgences  were  a  human  invention  for 
 base  lucre,  therefore  null  and  void,  &c. 
 
 The  holy  bell,  which  invites  to  the  prayer  of  the 
 "  Angelus "  at  noon,  and  for  the  original  intention  of 
 reminding  the  faithful  to  invoke  Heaven's  aid  against 
 Turkish  invasion,  was  first  introduced  (as  we  have  seen) 
 by  Callixtus  III.  The  practice  had  fallen  into  neglect  for 
 some  years,  till  it  was  revived  by  that  Pope's  nephew  and 
 successor ;  and  since  the  19th  August,  1500,  it  has  never 
 ceased.  Strange  that  a  universal  observance  of  Catholic 
 piety  should  be  linked  with  the  memory  of  a  Pope  long 
 considered  a  disgrace  and  dishonour  to  the  Church  ! 
 
 An  important  place  is  assignable  in  History  to  this 
 pontificate.  It  seems  the  intensified  expression  of  the 
 subordinating  of  the  spiritual  to  the  temporal,  and  the 
 extreme  consequence  of  that  endowment  with  a  civil 
 princedom,  which  so  many  thoughtful  writers  have  agreed 
 with  Dante  in  deeming  the  chief  cause  of  deterioration  ta 
 the  Papacy. 
 
 Daring  this  century  the  Supreme  Pontificate  went 
 through,  and  rose  superior  to,  many  shocks,  recovered 
 credit  after  deep  degi-adation.  It  sustained  in  some  signal 
 instances  that  grandeur  of  character  and  Tocation  which 
 cannot  be  denied  to  it,  its  nobler  aspects  being  considered, 
 by  any  unprejudiced  mind  well  acquainted  with  its  eventful 
 historic  career,  its  various  phases,  and  astonishing  acti- 
 vities. During  long  ages  it  preserved  its  ascendancy  over 
 the  life  and  institutions  of  the  more  civilized  world,  and 
 caused  that  life,  those  institutions  to  be  penetrated  by  the 
 Christian  influence  ;  thus  contributing  to  the  fulfilment  of 
 
592  MEDIAEVAL   CHRISTIANITY   AND 
 
 the  sublime  purposes  and  heavenly  office  proper  to  that 
 Religion. 
 
 When,  however,  we  remember  the  earnest  efforts  made 
 during  the  period  whose  History  is  slightly  sketched  in 
 these  pages,  for  the  object  of  effectuating  reforms  based 
 on  ancient  doctrine,  with  loyal  adherence  to  the  ancient 
 Hierarchy ;  and,  on  the  other  hand,  the  antagonistic  posi- 
 tion assumed  by  the  Eoman  See  towards  that  movement 
 and  its  leaders — we  are  constrained  to  own  that  at  those 
 critical  epochs  while  famous  Councils  of  the  Church  were 
 seated  at  Constance,  Basle,  Plorence,  the  Popes  proved  the 
 greatest  impediment  against  the  accomplishment  of  that 
 high  ideal  of  Catholicism  which  the  intellect  of  the  XV. 
 century  conceived  and  desired  to  realize.  Yet  even  this 
 charge,  however  it  may  be  substantiated,  does  not  cancel 
 the  debt  of  Christian  Civilization  to  the  Holy  See. 
 
SACRED  ART  IN  ITALY.  593 
 
 CHAPTER  IX. 
 Monuments  of  the  Fifteenth  Century. 
 ROME. 
 
 Interesting  indeed  is  it  to  trace  in  art- creations  the 
 progress  of  religious  ideas,  or  any  such  movements  as  have 
 their  sphere  within  the  inner  world.  Subordinating  our 
 studies  of  arts  and  monuments  to  the  study  of  that  which 
 possesses  more  deep  and  enduring  importance,  to  the  esti- 
 mate of  Humanity  itself,  we  shall  find  ever  new  sources  of 
 instruction  and  pleasure  in  our  wanderings  through  historic 
 cities  or  memory-haunted  lands. 
 
 The  metropolis  of  the  Church  produced  no  great  school 
 properly  her  own,  and  few  artists  whose  names  have  escaped 
 oblivion  in  this  century.  Only  two  sculptors  of  Eoman 
 birth,  Paulo  E-omano  and  Gian  Cristoforo,  are  remembered 
 among  competitors  in  their  walk  during  this  period.  In 
 architecture  we  see  a  remarkable  change,  alien  to  that 
 ancient  basilica-type  the  massive  simplicity  of  which  sup- 
 plied a  groundwork  for  superadded  splendour,  serving  to 
 link  together  the  earlier  and  later  ages  of  Christianity. 
 The  leading  features  of  those  Roman  churches  which 
 exemplify  the  first  appearance  of  the  Italian  renaissance  in 
 this  city,  are  the  following :  externally,  fac;ades  divided  by 
 flat  pilasters  with  cornice  along  the  entire  sky-lino,  trian- 
 gular or  pyramidal  summits,  sculptured  ornaments  in  low 
 
 2q 
 
594}  MEDIJ3VAL    CnEISTIANITT    AND 
 
 relief  round  doorways,  and  sometimes  a  sacred  group  in  such 
 relievo  over  the  chief  entrance,  windows  numerous  and 
 round-arched ;  in  the  interior,  nave  and  aisles  divided  by- 
 quadrate  pilasters  (or  rather  piers),  with  half-columns 
 leaning  against  those  structures,  semicircular  arches,  and 
 instead  of  the  paneled  wooden  ceiling,  a  grained  vaulting ; 
 the  orders  imitated  in  capitals  and  cornices,  classic  or 
 approaching  the  classical  type. 
 
 Noteworthy  examples  of  this  style,  and  of  the  period 
 here  in  question,  are  the  following :  >S'.  Maria  del  JPopolOj 
 rebuilt  1477,  by  Sixtus  TV.  from  designs  by  the  Elorentine 
 architect  Baccio  Pontelli,  who  was  engaged  for  almost  all 
 the  public  buildings  in  Eome  by  that  Pontiff — this  church 
 being  now  to  a  great  degree  altered  and,  one  may  say, 
 masqueraded  by  the  florid  fantasies  of  Bernini ;  S.  Maria 
 della  Pace,  founded  about  the  same  time  and  designed  by 
 the  same  architect,  its  name  allusive  to  the  peace  between 
 long  belligerent  powers  which  Sixtus  lY.  desired  to  com- 
 memorate, whilst  at  the  same  time  fulfilling  a  vow  made  to 
 the  Madonna,  by  the  erection  of  this  church — the  present 
 faQade  of  the  17th  century,  designed  by  Pietro  da  Cortona  ;* 
 S.  Aqostino,  founded  1479,  finished  1484,  by  a  munificent 
 Prench  Cardinal,  Estouteville,  this  principal  church  of  the 
 Augustinians  being  the  first  seen  in  this  city  vdth.  the  dis- 
 tinguishing feature,  afterwards  so  grandly  developed,  of  the 
 cupola,  henceforth  substituted  for  the  mediaeval  belfry- 
 tower  ;  the  whole  of  the  interior  modernized  by  Yanvitelli, 
 
 *  A  small  church  stood  previously  on  the  site,  and  in  its  portico  hung 
 a  Madonna  picture,  which  shed  blood  when  struck  by  a  stone  hurled  by 
 some  profane  hand  !  The  explicit  belief  in  such  miracles  at  the  time  is 
 attested  by  the  solemn  act  of  the  Pope,  Sixtus  IV.,  and  the  principal 
 clergy,  who  went  in  procession  to  revere  that  wounded  Madonna  ;  and 
 it  was  then  that  the  Pope  made  a  vow  to  raise  the  larger  temple,  in  which 
 the  same  picture  now  hangs  over  the  high  altar. 
 
SACEED  ART  IN  ITALY.  595 
 
 1750  ;   S.  Marco,  rebuilt,   all   except  the  tribune  of  the 
 9tli   century  and  the   mediaeval   campanile,  by   Paul  II., 
 1468  ;  S.  Lorenzo  in  Damaso,  rebuilt,  1495,  by  Cardinal 
 Eiario,  and  incorporated  with  his  magnificent  palace,  now 
 the  Cancellaria,  but  much  altered,  the  interior  almost  com- 
 pletely renewed,  by  works  of  the  present  century  ;  S.  Maria 
 di  Monserrato,  built,  together  with  an  ample  hospice  for 
 the  Spaniards,  from  designs  by  Antonio   Saugallo,  except 
 the  faQade  designed  by  Francesco  di  Volterra,  1495  ;  the 
 other  church  of  that  nationality,  S.  Giacomo,  having  become 
 ruinous   not   many   years   after   it   was   founded,   (1450), 
 though  still  remaining,  as  we  see  it,  in  abandonment  and 
 decay.    This  originally  Grothic  Franciscan  church,  Aracoeli, 
 is  said  to  have  been  in  two-thirds  rebuilt,  1484,  by  a  Car- 
 dinal Caraffa,  a  benefactor  of  that  Order,  and  the  additions 
 are  still  distinguished  from  older  parts  by  a  style  transi- 
 tionary  between  the  earlier  and  later,  by  what  may  be  called 
 a  reminiscence  of  the  Grothic  feeling.    Observation  leads  me 
 to  conclude  that  far  less  than  the  proportion  supposed  is 
 really  due  to  that  Cardinal  benefactor,  and  tbat  in  the  greater 
 part  of  the  Aracoeli  church  we  still  see  the  thirteenth-centurv 
 architecture,  raised  soon  after  it  had  been  bestowed  on  the 
 Franciscans,  1251.    The  two  campanili,  with  stunted  spires, 
 on   tbe   northern    side   of  the   Lateran,   were   raised   by 
 Sixtus  lY.   In  the  interior  of  that  basilica  the  great  chancel - 
 arch  reminds  us  of  Alexander  YI.,  to  w^hom  also  is  due  an 
 interesting  memorial,  the  gilding  of  the  gorgeous  paneled 
 ceiling  of  S.  Maria  Maggiore  "w-ith  the  first  gold  brought  to 
 Eome  from  America — an  offering  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella 
 to  that  Pope.     Among  examples  of  restoration  in  this  cen- 
 tury we  may  notice  the  SS.  Quattro  Incoronati,  with  its 
 fortress-like  convent  built  as  a  Papal  palace  in  the  XII. 
 century  ;*  and  S.  Stefano  Rotondo,  unfortunately  so  much 
 •  Restored,  with  much  alteration,  as  apparent,  by  a  Spanish  Cardinal 
 
 2q2 
 
596  MEDIEVAL   CHRTSTIANITy   AND 
 
 altered  tlirougli  the  works  ordered  by  Nicholas  V.  that  the 
 outer  of  two  circular  aisles  surrounding  the  central  pile  has 
 been  cut  off,  and  is  now  only  traceable  in  ruins  left  in  the 
 quiet  garden  amidst  which  this  interesting  old  church  stands 
 isolated  on  the  Coelian  hill.*  The  Trinita  di  Monte  on  the 
 Pincian  hill  still  reminds  of  the  terror-striking  ingress  of 
 French  invaders  in  1495,  when  it  was  founded  by  Charles 
 VIII.  with  a  convent  for  the  Friars  Minim  of  S.  Erancesco 
 di  Paola,  at  the  request  of  that  spiritual  counsellor,  but  the 
 buildings  now  before  us  are  of  the  restoration  ordered 
 by  Louis  XVIII.,  1816,  and  designed  by  a  French  archi- 
 tect, Mazois.  The  imposing  staircase  in  front,  ascending 
 to  the  Pincian  from  the  piazza  below,  is  also  a  French 
 work.  S.  Sisto  on  the  Appian  Way  was  restored,  or  re- 
 built, 1475.  Other  restorations  of  about  this  time  are 
 S.  Balbino  and  S.  Cosimata ;  and  the  small  church,  ranking 
 as  a  cathedral  at  Ostia,  is  a  good  example  of  Baccio 
 Pontelli's  style. 
 
 The  Popes  of  the  XV.  century  had  great  projects  for 
 restoring  or  embellishing  their  capital.  Martin  V.  under- 
 took to  rebuild,  or  at  least  restore,  all  the  parish  churches. 
 Eugenius  IV.  did  much  in  the  way  of  church-building  and 
 repairing,  but  not  always  with  good  taste.  The  Lateran  of 
 the  XIV.  century  was  now  disguised,  all  its  old  columns 
 being  immured  in  heavy  square  piers  by  his  architect. 
 After  his  nine  years'  exile  from  Eome,  that  Pope  ordered 
 the  principal  streets  to  be  widened,  and  those  traversing 
 the  Campus  Martins  to  be  provided  with  pavement,  a  yet 
 
 under  Martin  V.  The  first  lines  of  a  Latin  epigraph,  above  the  entrance 
 to  an  outer  court,  picturesquely  indicate  the  state  of  weed-overgrown 
 ruin  in  which  this  church  had  been  long  left  : — 
 
 Hsec  quaecumque  vides  veteri  prostrata  mina 
 Obruta  yerbenis,  hederis,  dumisque  jacebant. 
 
 *  Abandoned  to  decay  during  the  Avignon  pontificates. 
 
SACKED    AET    IX   ITALY.  597 
 
 unknown  luxury.  It  was  then  that  the  noble  portico  of 
 the  Pantheon  was  disencumbered  of  the  paltry  booths  for 
 traders,  which  had  long  filled  its  inter-columnations  and 
 partly  hidden  its  granite  shafts.  Nicholas  V.,  whose 
 modest  monogram,  N.PP.Y.  frequently  meets  the  eye  as 
 we  pursue  our  walks  along  the  outer  sides  of  the  dusky  old 
 walls  and  towers  which  still  encircle  Eome — those  Honorian 
 fortifications  so  often  repaired  by  Popes — had  projects 
 truly  grandiose.  He  desired  to  create  a  new  S.  Peter's  and 
 a  new  Vatican :  the  great  cathedral  to  be  built  in  the 
 form  of  a  Latin  cross  crowned  by  a  stupendous  dome,  with 
 contiguous  residence  for  its  capitular  clergy  ;  the  palace  to 
 be  fortified  by  towers,  and  to  suffice  not  only  for  pontific 
 residence,  but  also  for  the  whole  college  of  Cardinals  and 
 other  ecclesiastical  dignitaries ;  to  contain  a  suitable  place 
 of  assemblage  for  the  Conclave,  a  hall  of  state  for  imperial 
 coronations,  and  even  a  theatre  (for  public  disputes  and 
 recitations  ?),  besides  vast  parks  and  gardens.  "When 
 Nicholas  Y.  quitted  this  life  but  little  of  liis  great  under- 
 takings had  advanced  beyond  the  first  stage.  The  build- 
 ings for  the  new  S.  Peter's,  by  the  Ploreutine  architect 
 Boh.sellini,  rose  to  the  height  of  a  few  feet  only  behind  the 
 tribune  of  the  ancient  basilica ;  and  of  the  new  palace 
 nothing  was  completed  except  one  wing,  first  inhabited  by 
 Alexander  VI.,  and  comprising  two  chapels,  dedicated  to 
 S.  Laurence  and  the  Holy  Sacrament.  Significant  was 
 another  work,  destructive  not  creative,  ordered  by  the 
 learned  Pope  Nicholas  for  the  demolishing  of  the  Constan- 
 tinian  basilica— a  procedure  which  might  be  said  to  sym- 
 bolize the  severance  of  the  comparatively  modern  from  the 
 more  ancient  Papacy ;  but  it  was  long  before  the  old 
 S.  Peter's  actually  disappeared.  Under  Innocent  VIII. 
 was  built  by  Antonio  Pollajuolo  the  celebrated  Belvedere 
 Villa,  subsequently  united  by  long  corridors  to  the  Vatican 
 
598  MEDTiEVAL    CnRISTIANITT   AND 
 
 palace.  Another  lofty  pile  of  buildings,  still  known  as  the 
 *'  Torre  Borgia,"  was  added  to  that  residence  by  Alexander 
 YI.  The  Sistine  Chapel,  called  after  its  founder  Sixtus  IV., 
 was  finished  in  1473,  and  the  most  celebrated  painters  were 
 invited  to  iiome  expressly  for  adorning  its  walls  ;  the  style 
 of  that  building,  so  little  ecclesiastical  in  the  interior,  being 
 admirable  of  its  kind,  and  as  viewed  from  without, 
 imposing.  Part  of  the  outer  cincture  of  walls  and  towers 
 raised  by  Nicholas  Y.  are  still  distinguishable  among  the 
 heavy,  incongruous  piles  of  building  which  form  the 
 Yatican  of  the  present  day.  As  to  the  merits  of  Sixtus  lY. 
 in  the  monumental  walk,  we  should  remember  his  bull  (or 
 rather  edict),  1477,  threatening  not  only  excommunication 
 but  a  heavy  fine  for  the  frequent  offence  of  despoiling 
 churches,  even  basilicas,  in  this  sacred  city  of  marbles,  por- 
 phyry, and  other  incrustations  for  private  uses.  A  similar 
 edict  was  called  for,  and  passed  by  Urban  YIII.  in  1640, 
 against  the  Vandalism  of  removing  monuments  or  epitaphs 
 from  churches. 
 
 The  church-architecture  of  the  XY.  century,  though 
 distinguished  by  a  certain  grace  and  symmetry,  wants  the 
 characteristics  of  a  truly  religious  style.  In  the  attri- 
 bute of  grandeur  it  is  surpassed  by  the  palatial  style  of 
 this  period.  Not  only  the  civilization  but  the  religious  life 
 of  ages  is  attested  by  the  architecture  they  have  left ;  and 
 at  Eome  the  palace  confirms  the  evidence  on  the  historic 
 page,  recording  the  luxury  and  pride  of  the  higher  Clergy 
 whilst  the  spiritual  beauty  of  the  Church  was  overclouded 
 and  disfigured.  An  evil  sign  of  the  times  is  it  that  the 
 house  of  the  lordly  priest  should  surpass  in  splendour  that 
 of  G  od  upon  earth  !  And  here,  in  the  Eome  of  this  time, 
 wc  find  such  to  be  the  case  ;  we  might  pass  almost  un- 
 noticed such  churches  as  S.  Lorenzo  in  Damaso  and  the 
 renewed  8.  Marco^  incorporated  in  and  concealed  as  they 
 
SACRED  AET  IN  ITALY.  599 
 
 are  by  the  contiguous  palaces  of  the  Cardinals  who  restored 
 them.  In  other  instances,  however,  we  are  reminded  of 
 cliarity  and  munificence  well  employed  by  dignitaries  who 
 raised  stately  piles  for  others'  rather  than  their  own  benefit ; 
 and  there  were  members  of  the  Sacred  College,  in  this  cen- 
 tury, who  shone  by  virtues  as  well  as  by  learning.  Some 
 of  these  palaces  exemplify  the  transitions  between  the 
 Italian  Gothic  and  the  early  renaissance,  as  the  following, 
 which  we  may  visit  in  their  chronologic  order. 
 
 Palazzo  Capranica,  1460,  founded  by  the  estimable  Car- 
 dinal Domenico  Capranica,  and  left  by  him,  according  to 
 his  testament,  as  a  college  liberally  endowed  for  a  certain 
 number  of  students,  to  whom  he  left  also  his  library  of 
 about  2000  volumes.*  Palazzo  di  S.  Marco  (now  di 
 Venezia),  founded  by  Cardinal  Barbo  (Paul  II.)  1455,  and 
 finished  about  1468. f  Palazzo  del  Governo  Vecchio,  built 
 by  a  munificent  Cardinal,  Nardini,  1475,  as  a  college  for 
 the  gratuitous  education  and  maintenance  of  twenty-six 
 poor  students  ;  called  by  its  present  name  after  becoming 
 the  official  residence  of  the  Grovernor  of  Eome — now  let  to 
 families.  J     Palazzo  Cancelleria,  rsiised  fov  himself  by  Car- 
 
 *  There  is  a  fine  recumbent  effigy  of  this  Cardinal  (ob.  1458)  in  the 
 Rosary  Chapel  at  S.  Maria  sopra  Minerva.  The  building  actually  used 
 as  a  college  was  added  to  the  older  part  of  the  Capranica  palace  by 
 another  Cardinal,  Angelo,  the  brother  of  Domenico.  Two  styles  are 
 still  distinguishable  in  the  diifercnt  parts,  though  this  palace,  now  in 
 part  a  theatre,  has  much  deteriorated. 
 
 t  Vasari  gives  the  architecture  to  Giuliano  da  Majano;  other 
 writers  mention  two  other  architects  as  engaged  on  this  palace ;  and  it 
 is  not  improbable  that  all  three  may  have  been  successively  employed 
 here  before  the  buildings  were  finished.  Besides  the  great  court  with 
 porticoes  there  is  a  smaller  court,  also  with  a  good  quadrangular  portico 
 on  the  south-eastern  side. 
 
 +  It  is  traditionary  that  Beatrice  Cenci  was  brought  to  trial  in  this 
 palace,  and  fur  some  time  confined  in  the  lofty  tower  which  overlooks 
 the  now  much  disfigured  and  neglected  court. 
 
600  MEDIEVAL   CHEISTIANITT  AND 
 
 dinal  Eaffaello  Eiario,  1495,  the  architecture  of  Bramante, 
 distinguished  by  majesty  and  grace,  especially  the  great 
 court  surrounded  by  two*  orders  of  colonnades.  Another 
 palace  designed  by  Bramante  for  a  Cardinal,  is  that  now 
 called  Falazzo  Qiraud  (or  Torlonia),  near  S.  Peter's,  which 
 became  the  residence  of  the  English  Ambassadors,  and  was 
 presented  by  our  King  Henry  YIII.  to  Campeggi,  who 
 figures  as  "  Cardinal  Campeius  "  in  Shakespeare's  tragedy. f 
 The  palace  now  called  "  Sforza  Cesarini,"  built  for  himself  by 
 the  Cardinal  Borgia  who  became  Pope,  and  by  him  presented 
 (part  of  the  price  for  a  vote  in  Conclave,  as  is  said)  to  Car- 
 dinal Ascanio  Sforza,  has  been  modernized ;  but  still  displays 
 in  its  spacious  court  with  arcades  the  style  of  the  original 
 architecture.  The  turbulent  Alexander  VI.  is  brought  to 
 mind  also  by  the  enormous  rotunda  in  brickwork  rising 
 
 *  finished,  at  least,  in  the  year  1495  ;  the  travertines  taken  from 
 the  Colosseum  ;  the  columns  of  the  inner  portico  said  to  be  from  the 
 now  buried  ruins  of  the  hecaton-stylon  of  Pompey,  adjoining  which  was 
 the  Curia.  The  Cardinal  who  built  this  majestic  palace  was  that 
 grand-nephew  of  Sixtus  IV.,  who  witnessed  the  murderous  outbreak  of 
 the  Pazzi  conspiracy,  and  remained  pale,  from  the  terror  of  the  moment, 
 for  the  rest  of  his  life.  Accused  of  complicity  in  the  conspiracy  of 
 Cardinal  Petrucci  against  the  life  of  Leo  X.,  he  was  degraded  from  all 
 his  dignities  and  benefices,  deprived  even  of  cardinalitial  rank,  and  of 
 this  grand  palace,  now  confiscated  for  the  Camera  Apostolica.  On 
 the  intercession  of  the  other  Cardinals,  Leo  accepted  a  fine  of  100,000 
 scudi  as  commutation  of  his  punishment,  allowed  Riario  to  retain  his  place 
 in  the  Sacred  College,  and  inhabit  till  death,  though  no  longer  as  master, 
 the  palace  thenceforth  officially  held  by  the  Chancery  of  the  Roman 
 Church.  The  disgraced  Riario  fell  into  profound  melancholy,  and  died 
 at  Naples,  1520  ;  his  plain  and  almost  forgotten  monument  is  seen 
 near  the  high  altar  of  the  ISS.  Apostoli. 
 
 f  Cardinal  Campeggi,  the  "  Campeius  "  of  Shakespeare's  Henry  the 
 Eicilith,  was  twice  sent  by  Clement  VI [.  as  Legate  to  the  King  ;  first 
 with  the  object  of  promoting  a  league  between  England,  France,  and 
 Spain  against  the  Turks  ;  next,  in  1 528,  for  the  celebrated  divorce-case, 
 which  he  could  not  bring  to  conclusion. 
 
SACRED  AET  IN  ITALY.  601 
 
 above  what  remains  of  the  antique  travertine  structure 
 of  Hadrian's  mausoleum  ;  for  the  actual  Castle  of  S.  Angelo 
 is  in  the  greater  part  the  work  of  that  Pope,  rebuilt,  1495, 
 after  the  fortress  of  Boniface  IX.  had  been  ruined  by  a 
 thunderbolt  which  struck  the  powder-magazine.  The  corri- 
 dor communicating  between  the  Castle  and  the  Vatican 
 reminds  us  both  of  the  stormy  period  of  the  Papal  schism, 
 and  that  of  Borgian  domination  :  originally  built,  accord- 
 ing to  some  writers,  by  Alexander  V.  (who  never  saw  Eome 
 in  his  capacity  as  Pope),  or,  as  others  state,  by  John  XXIII., 
 it  was  either  finished  or  restored  by  Alexander  VI.,  and  in 
 our  own  time  by  Pius  IX.,  after  the  communication  had 
 been  cut  off  by  republican  authority  in  18i9. 
 
 With  few  exceptions,  the  sculptures,  as  well  as  the  architec- 
 ture of  this  period  at  Eome,  are  by  Tuscan  masters.  Striking 
 indeed  is  the  progress  apparent  in  the  sculptor's  art  when  we 
 contrast  the  earlier  with  the  later  produce  of  the  same  cen- 
 tury, when  we  compare  the  coarse  and  clumsy  portrait  statue 
 of  Boniface  IX.  at  the  S.  Paul's  basilica*  with  the  statues 
 and  monuments  by  the  Contucci  called  Sansovino.  Among 
 statues  not  monumental  or  connected  with  groups,  one 
 of  superior  claims  is  by  the  artist  of  Koman  birth 
 known  as  Paolo  Komano  :  S.  Paul  with  a  book  and  an  em- 
 blematic sword,  the  head  finely  intellectual  (date  supposed, 
 1417),  now  placed  at  the  entrance  to  the  S.  Angelo  bridge 
 from  the  Tiber's  left  bank,  whither  it  was  removed  from  the 
 Sistine  chapel  by  Clement  VII.,  to  occupy,  with  its  com- 
 panion statue  of  S.  Peter  by  Lorenzetto,  the  site  of  two 
 oratories  destroyed  during  the  siege  in   1527.t     Among 
 
 •  Formerly  in  the  cloisters,  now  in  a  hall  entered  from  the  Sacristv  : 
 a  seated  ligure,  crowned  with  the  triple  diadem,  which  is  said  to  be,  iu 
 this  instance,  for  the  first  time  represented  by  art. 
 
 f  A  momunetit,  of  severe  and  simple  style,  to  Cardinal  Stcfaneschi 
 degli  xVniiibuldi;  at  S.  Cecilia,  bears  the  signature  of  this  artist, ''  Magister 
 
602  MEDIEVAL   CHRISTIANITY   AND 
 
 other  sculptures  of  this  class  entitled  to  notice  are  the  S. 
 John  Baptist,  and  S.  Sebastian,  the  latter  rather  classical 
 than  Christian  in  sentiment,  in  a  lateral  chapel  of  >S'.  Maria 
 sopra  Minerva,  both  by  Mino  da  Fiesole,  whose  best  works 
 date  between  1461—1481.  One  of  the  noblest  statues  of 
 Saints  hitherto  erected  in  Kome,  is  that  of  the  Apostle 
 8.  James,  in  pilgrim  costume,  by  Andrea  Contucci  (or 
 Sansovino),  who  lived  from  1460  to  1529,  executed  for  the 
 Spanish  church  of  S.  Giacomo,  and  now  at  S.  Maria  in 
 Monserrato.  A  group  by  this  artist  of  S.  Anna  and  the  Virgin 
 Mary  with  the  Divine  Infant  in  her  arms,  in  a  chapel  of 
 >S'.  Agostino,  is  distinguished  by  tender  grace  and 
 delicacy ;  the  relation  between  the  aged  and  youthful " 
 mother  felicitously  expressed.  A  bronze  statue  of  S.  John 
 the  Precursor,  in  the  Lateran  Baptistery,  is  from  an  original 
 in  wood  by  Donatello— the  only  statue  by  him  in  Eome — 
 now  in  the  sacristy  of  that  basilica.  SS.  Peter  and  Paul, 
 statues  by  Mino  del  Eegno  (a  little-known  artist)  were 
 placed  by  Pius  II.  before  S.  Peter's  church,  and  are  now  to 
 be  seen  in  a  corridor  leading  to  the  sacristy,  removed 
 by  Pius  IX.,  to  be  succeeded  by  other  statues  of  those 
 Apostles,  works  by  living  sculptors.  These  earlier  statues 
 are  of  no  high  order ;  but  the  S.  Paul  is  noticeable  as  the 
 supposed  portrait  of  Thomas,  Despot  of  the  Morea,  brother 
 to  the  last  Constantino. 
 
 Authentic  Papal  effigies  on  coins  were  not  known  till  the 
 time  of  Martin  V.,  who  engaged  the  ablest  Italian  medal- 
 lurgist  living,  Vittore  Pisanello  of  Verona,  to  execute  the 
 coins  of  his  pontificate.  Prom  Nicholas  V.  to  Sixtus  IV. 
 the  Papal  money  bore  impressions  executed  by  Guazzalotti 
 of  Prato.     Paul  II.,  first  among  Popes,  introduced  the 
 
 Paulus,"  with  the  date  1417.    I  know  no  other  evidence  as  to  the  period 
 during  which  he  was  at  work. 
 
SACEED   ART   IN   ITALY.  G03 
 
 practice  of  inserting  medals  in  tlio  foundation-stones  of 
 public  buildings  and  palaces.  When  the  eye  passes  along 
 the  array  of  colossal  pontific  heads  in  mosaic  above  the 
 colonnades  of  the  S.  Paul's  basilica,  we  know  that  from  the 
 Apostle  who  bore  the  keys  of  heaven  to  the  infamous  John 
 XXIII.,  deposed  at  Constance,  little  value'can  be  set  on  com- 
 positions which,  with  few  exceptions,  arc  purely  imaginary. 
 
 Much  historic,  though  no  high  artistic  value  must  be 
 ascribed  to  the  bronze  sculptures  of  the  portal  ordered  by 
 Eugenius  TV.  for  the  old  S.  Peter's,  and  still  serving  for 
 the  same  purpose  at  the  great  entrance  to  the  modern 
 basilica.  These  are  by  the  Florentine  sculptors,  Filarete, 
 and  Simone,  said  to  be  a  brother  of  Donatello.*  The  relievi 
 on  the  two  valves  may  be  divided  into  historic,  devotional, 
 legendary,  and  mythological.  On  the  principal  panels  are 
 the  largest  figures,  Christ  blessing  (of  type  like  that 
 hitherto  given  in  art  to  the  Eternal  Father),  and  the  Blessed 
 Virgin,  both  seated  on  thrones  ;  below  these,  S.  Peter  giving 
 the  keys  to  the  kneeling  Pope  Eugenius,  and  S.  Paul  wdth 
 a  vase  of  flowers  beside  him — allusive  to  his  scriptural 
 epithet,  Vas  Electionis.  On  much  smaller  scale  are  repre- 
 sented the  martyrdoms  of  the  two  Apostles  ;  that  of  S.  Peter 
 taking  place  between  two  pyramids,t  with  the  Castle  of 
 
 *  A  relationship  stated,  without  proof,  by  Vasari  alone.  Mr.  Perkins 
 ("  Tuscan  Sculptors  ")  shows  that  the  artist  who  assisted  Filareto  in 
 casting  these  doors  was  Simone  Ghini,  a  Florentine  goldsmith.  A  statue 
 of  S.  John  the  Baptist,  at  S.  Clemente,  is  the  best  extant  work  by  this 
 Simone. 
 
 f  Probably  intended  for  two  mausolea  whose  ruins  have  since  disap- 
 peared; one  near  S.  Peter's  erroneously  called  the  tomb  of  Scipio 
 Africanus,  demolished  by  Alexander  VI.  to  widen  the  street  he  opened 
 between  the  basilica  and  the  bridge ;  the  other  near  the  Porta  del 
 Popolo,  and  believed  to  be  the  tomb  of  Sulla, — destroyed  about  1662  to 
 give  place  to  one  of  the  two  churches  between  the  piazza  and  the  opening 
 of  the  Corso. 
 
604  MEDIEVAL   CHRISTIANITY   AND 
 
 S.  Angelo  in  the  foreground,  restored  according  to  the  fan- 
 tastic notions  of  that  time  as  to  what  Hadrian's  mausoleum 
 had  once  been ;  the  martyrdom  of  S.  Paul,  with  introduc- 
 tion in  the  background  of  a  scene  illustrating  the  legend  of 
 the  pious  matron,  who  received  from  him,  after  his  death,  the 
 handkerchief  she  had  lent  the  Apostle  for  bandaging  his  eyes 
 at  the  last  moment.*  The  other  subjects  represented  in  re- 
 lievi  on  smaller  scale,  are  :  the  coronation  of  the  Emperor 
 Sigismund  by  Eugenius  IV.  at  S.  Peter's  (1433)  ;  the  Pope 
 and  the  Emperor,  after  that  ceremony,  proceeding  together 
 on  horseback  amidst  attendants  to  the  S.  Angelo  bridge, 
 where  they  part  according  to  the  etiquette  of  such  occasions ; 
 the  G-reek  Emperor  John  Pal^ologus,  with  the  Patriarch  and 
 other  dignitaries,  embarking  at  Constantinople  for  Venice, 
 on  their  way  to  attend  the  Council  at  Elorence  ;  their  dis- 
 embarkation and  festal  reception  at  Venice  ;  the  arrival  at 
 Eome  of  monks  deputed  by  the  Ethiopic  and  Armenian 
 Churches,  and  the  homage  paid  by  those  envoys  to  Euge- 
 nius IV.  in  recognition  of  the  Papal  supremacy.  The 
 framework  of  these  doors  is  sculptured  with  tiny  and  very 
 fantastic  reliefs,  amidst  foliate  07maf o,-r-thG  subjects  in 
 some  instances  strangely  chosen, — besides  heads  of  Eoman 
 Emperors  and  Heathen  Philosophers,  we  see  Eomulus  and 
 Eemus  suckled  by  the  wolf,  Diana  and  Actseon,  Ganymede 
 
 *  Baronius  supposes  this  matron  to  have  been  Plautilla,  the  mother  of 
 S.  Flavia  Domitilla,  and  who  is  said  to  have  been  baptized  by  S.  Peter, 
 surviving  the  two  Apostles  but  a  short  time. 
 
 •f  Explained  by  the  Latin  lines  here  inscribed  under  the  figure  of 
 S.  Paul  : 
 
 Ut  Graeci,  Armcni,  Aethiopes  hie  aspice,  ut  ipsa 
 Ilomanum  amplexa  est  gens  Jacobina  fideni. 
 Under  the  figure  of  S.  Peter  is  the  compliment  to  Eugenius  IV.  : 
 Sunt  haec  Eugcnii  monimcuta  illustria  (^uaiti : 
 Excels!  haec  aniuii  sunt  nioninicntu  sui. 
 
SACRED    ATIT    IN    ITALY.  G05 
 
 and  tlie  Eagle,  tlie  Eapc  of  Proserpine,  and  some  of  tlie 
 Labours  of  Hercules  ! 
 
 Monumental  sculpture  now  undergoes  a  remarkable 
 change  in  prevailing  character  and  general  conception. 
 The  graceful  acute  arched  canopies,  the  angels  drawing 
 aside  curtains,  as  if  to  display  the  dead  whose  form  lies  on 
 a  sarcophagus  like  a  funeral  couch,  now  disappear ;  in  place 
 of  those  accessorial  details  we  see  classical  a^dicula?,  with 
 pilasters,  friezes,  cornices,  sculptured  tympana,  and  a 
 profusion  of  ornato  reliefs,  trophies,  garlands,  weapons, 
 masks,  musical  instruments,  sometimes  reminding  rather 
 of  the  joyous  rites  of  antique  Polytheism  than  of  either  the 
 trials  or  hopes  of  the  Christian.  The  eflSgy  of  the  deceased 
 is  still,  as  in  earlier  monuments,  recumbent  on  the  sarco- 
 phagus, in  repose  neither  like  actual  death  nor  sleep,  but 
 an  ideal  state  between  the  two,  more  solemn  than  the  one, 
 without  the  awfulness  of  the  other.  Looking  at  these  often 
 finely  characterized  and  affecting  images  laid  before  us  on 
 the  sculptured  couch,  we  may  be  induced  to  cite  the  ap- 
 propriate line : 
 
 "  After  life's  fitful  fever  he  sleeps  well ! " 
 
 In  the  accessorial  sculptures  also,  usually  conspicuous  in 
 these  compositions,  new  tendencies  are  apparent.  Sacred 
 groups,  the  Virgin  and  Child,  sometimes  the  Crucifixion, 
 and  frequently  the  Eternal  Father,  who  gives  blessing,  are 
 introduced ;  but  the  subjects  generally  preferred,  or  at 
 least  more  prominent,  are  Saints  and  Doctors  of  the  Church, 
 the  Founders  of  E-eligious  Orders,  personified  Virtues  and 
 Sciences — the  latter  less  frequently  seen  than  the  stately 
 matron  forms  representing  Faith,  Hope,  Charity,  Justice, 
 Fortitude. 
 
 Many  are  the  monuments  in  Eome  which  may  be  cited 
 as  types  of  this  school,  and  best  displaying  its  conceptions 
 
606  MEDIAEVAL   CHRISTTANITT    AND 
 
 or  sentiment.  Among  churclies  particularly  ricli  in  sucli 
 works  of  fifteenth-century  art,  I  may  mention  S.  Maria  del 
 Popolo  (pre-eminent  in  this  respect),  the  Minerva,  Ara- 
 coeli,  S.  Cl'emente,  S,  Cecilia,  the  crypt  of  S.  Peter's,  and 
 at  the  Priorate  of  the  Knights  of  Malta,  the  chapel  of  their 
 establishment,  in  a  delicious  garden  commanding  most 
 impressive  views,  on  the  height  of  the  Aventine  above  the 
 Tiber.  In  the  court  of  the  Spanish  hospice,  at  S.  Maria  in 
 Monserrato,  are  several  interesting  monuments,  removed 
 from  the  ruinous  S.  Griacomo,  of  prelates  of  that  nationality. 
 The  subterranean  church  {grotte)  of  S.  Peter's  is  richest  of 
 all  in  sculptures  of  this  period  from  the  tombs  of  Popes,  or 
 from  the  altars  and  cihoria  presented  by  Popes  to  the 
 ancient  basilica,  and  inexcusably  ill-treated,  being  broken 
 up  and  dispersed  without  order,  as  we  now  see  them  by 
 torch-light  in  this  dark  retreat.  "Without  attempting  de- 
 scription, that  would  resolve  itself  into  a  mere  catalogue,  or 
 enumeration  of  all  noteworthy  works,  I  may  mention,  as 
 distinguished  by  beauty  and  solemnity,  the  monument  to 
 Eocca,  Archbishop  of  Salerno  (ob.  1482),  in  the  sacristy  of 
 S.  Maria  del  Popolo ;  that  of  Cardinal  Albret,  or  Alibret, 
 (latinized  as  De  Lebretto),  of  the  blood  royal  of  Prance, 
 ob.  1465 ;  and  that  of  Cardinal  Savelli  (1498),  both  in 
 the  church  of  Araceoli ;  that  of  Cardinal  Pietro  E-iario 
 (the  luxurious  nephew  of  Sixtus  TV., —  ob.  1474),  near  the 
 high  altar  of  the  SS.  Apostoli;  that  of  Cardinal  Porti- 
 guerra  (1473),  at  S.  Cecilia;  those  of  two  Prelates,  De 
 Coco  and  Sperandio  (1495),  at  the  Minerva;  those  of  the 
 Cardinals  Antonio  Yenier  (1479)  and  Eovarello  (1476), 
 at  S.  Clemente.* 
 
 *  The  masterpieces  of  Andrea  Contucci,  those  nobly  conceived  and 
 exquisitely  wrought  monuments  to  the  Cardinals  Ascanio  Sforza  and 
 Basso  della  Kovere,  in  the  choir  of  Maria  del  Popolo,  both  ordered  by 
 Julius  II.,  are  of  date  just  beyond  the  limits  to  which  my  subjer  t  is  con- 
 
SACRED  AET  IN  ITALY.  GOT 
 
 Among  the  monuments  of  Popes  (far  more  interesting 
 than  those  of  later  date)  erected  in  this  century,  may  be 
 signalized  the  following :  that  of  Martin  Y.,  recently  re- 
 moved from  the  nave  to  the  "  confession,"  or  crypt-chapol, 
 below  the  high  altar  of  the  Lateran,  with  bronze  effigy  in 
 low  relief,  the  countenance  bearing  a  stamp  of  wisdom  and 
 gravity,  laid  in  a  low  sarcophagus,  by  Pilarete  and  Simone, 
 assisted,  it  is  said,  by  Donatello  ;  that  of  Eugenius  IV., 
 (one  of  the  few  works  extant  by  its  artist,  Isaia  of  Pisa), 
 with  recumbent  effigy  and  statuettes  of  the  Pour  Doctors,* 
 a  monument  long  treated  with  neglect  strangely  contrast- 
 ing with,  the  fusti  and  vicissitudes,  the  notoriety,  triumphs, 
 and  trials  of  a  pontificate  which  fills  so  prominent  a  place 
 in  history.  Prom  the  old  S.  Peter's  it  was  removed  to 
 S.  Salvatore  in  Lauro,  the  church  of  the  Eegular  Canons, 
 whose  Order  the  Pope  entered  in  his  youth,  and  was  there 
 placed  first  in  the  cloisters,  next  in  an  oratory,  where  it 
 still  remains,  and  which,  long  unused  for  worship,  has  been 
 degraded  into  a  soldiers'  dormitory,  where  coarse  beds  and 
 bedding  in  part  conceal  the  sculptured  ornaments  on  this 
 memorial  of  the  Pope,  before  whom  the  Emperor  of  the 
 East  knelt  to  acknowledge  his  supremacy  over  the  united 
 G-reek  and  Latin  Churches.f    In  the  crypt  of  S.  Peter's 
 
 fined,  1505  and  1507;  so  also  is  another,  with  a  finely  treated  recumbent 
 effigy,  to  Gomiel,  Bishop  of  Burgos  (ob.  1514),  in  the  sacristy  of  the 
 same  church. 
 
 *  The  best  works  of  this  sculptor  are  said  to  have  been  those  in  the 
 chapel  of  S.  Monica  at  St.  Agostino,  to  which  the  body  of  the  former 
 saint  was  brought  from  Ostia,  1483.  Isaia's  sculptures,  here  placed, 
 were,  with  cruel  injustice  to  his  memory,  broken  to  pieces  and  sold  as 
 waste  marble  when  the  chapel  was  modernized  with  the  rest  of  that 
 Augustinian  church ! 
 
 t  S.  Salvatore  in  Lauro  was  founded  by  Cardinal  Latino  Orsini, 
 about  1450.  A  piece  of  Vandalism  has  been  perpetrated  here  within 
 my  recollection.    The  otherwise  plain  facade  had  a  fine  porch,  with 
 
608  :MET>r.EVAL  Christianity  and 
 
 a  finely  wrought  and  expressive  bronze  effigy  is  laid  on  the 
 tomb  of  Innocent  YII.,  erected  by  Nicholas  V.,  the  artist 
 unknown ;  and  a  well  individualized  statue  by  Mino  da 
 Eiesole  of  the  pomp-loving  Paul  II.  lies  on  his  sarco- 
 phagus. 
 
 The  monument,  with  a  poorly  executed  statue,  shown  by 
 custodi  as  that  of  Alexander  VI.,  is  in  reality  that  of 
 Callixtus  III.,  but  is  empty,  both  that  Pope's  remains  and 
 those  of  his  nephew,  Alexander,  having  been  transferred 
 to  the  Spanish  church,  with  intent  on  the  part  of  certain 
 Spanish  cardinals  to  raise  a  joint  monument  to  both.  No 
 such  memorial  having  been  executed,  the  bones  of  the  two 
 Borgia  Popes  are  not  even  interred,  but  lie  in  a  wooden 
 coffin  in  a  chamber  near  the  sacristy  of  S.  Maria  di  Mon- 
 serrato.  The  monuments  of  Pius  II.  and  his  nephew, 
 Pius  III.,  have  both  been  brought  from  the  old  S.  Peter's 
 to  the  Theatine  church,  S.  Andrea  della  Valle,  on  the  site 
 of  a  palace  of  the  Piccolomini  family.  In  one  edition  of 
 Vasari  they  are  ascribed  to  two  sculptors,  Pietro  Paolo  and 
 Niccolo  della  Guardia,  pupils  of  the  above-named  Paolo 
 Eomano  ;  but  the  traditionary  dates  can  scarcely  be  recon- 
 ciled with  such  conclusion.  The  last-named  sculptor  is 
 said  to  have  been  engaged  in  1417.  Pius  II.  died  in  1464 ; 
 Pius  III.  in  1503  ;  and  in  fact  the  Le  Monier  edition  of 
 Vasari  names  two  other  artists,  Pasquino,  a  pupil  of  Eila- 
 rete,  and  Bernardo  Criffagni,  as  authors  of  these  Papal 
 monuments.  We  might  desire  to  see  a  memorial  to  the 
 gifted  and  heroic-minded  Pius  II.  superior  in  character  to 
 that  before  us,  the  relievi  on  which  are  confused  and  some- 
 what feeble.  In  the  large  and  splendid  chapel  of  the  Holy 
 Sacrament  at  S.  Peter's,  stands  majestic  and  isolated,  like  a 
 
 clustering  pilasters  and  guardian  lions  of  early  date,  all  swept  away  for 
 a  renovation,  ordered  under  Pius  IX.,  which  has  given  to  this  front  the 
 aspect  of  a  modern  post-office  or  club  house. 
 
SACRED    ART    IN   ITALY.  609 
 
 sculptured  funeral  couch,  the  tomb  on  which  is  laid  the  beau- 
 tifully wrought  bronze  statue  of  Sixtus  IV.,  with  bas-reliefs 
 of  the  personified  Virtues  and  Sciences  around  the  base- 
 ment and  on  the  platform  around  that  recumbent  cfiigy.* 
 The  Sciences  here  represented  are :  Ehetoric,  Dialectics, 
 Grammar,  Perspective,  Greometry,  Philosophy,  Theology, 
 Arithmetic,  Greograj^hy,  with  the  Virtues,  more  easily  recog- 
 nized by  their  attributes,  and  one  of  the  fine  arts.  Music. 
 These  allegoric  female  figures  display  the  exaggeration  of  the 
 manner  and  taste  of  the  renaissance — premature  indeed, 
 the  dates  of  Pollajuolo's  life  being  considered-  The  atti- 
 tudes of  the  Sciences,  seated  or  reclining,  are  affected  and 
 stagey.  Some  novelties  of  symbolism  are  observable.  The 
 Oharitas  has  a  cornucopia  and  a  flaming  heart,  besides  her 
 usual  children,  one  at  the  breast.  Dialectica  reclines 
 against  the  front  of  a  throne  supported  by  Sphinxes,  and 
 holds  in  one  hand  a  knotted  skein,  signifying  the  difficulty 
 of  the  questions  she  has  to  solve.  Ghammatica  reads  from 
 a  book  held  before  her  by  a  floating  Grenius.  The  seven 
 Virtues  are  designed  with  more  purity,  and  in  seated 
 postures  more  dignified.  I  have  seen  simple  folk  on  their 
 knees  before  this  monument,  mistaking  it  for  that  of  a 
 saint !  and  its  imposing  effect  accounts  for  the  error- 
 Theology,  almost  nude,  with  a  quiver  full  of  arrows  slung 
 to  her  shoulder,  might  be  taken  for  Diana  at  the  bath,  but 
 for  a  not  felicitously  conceived  introduction  of  Christian 
 mysticism — a  triple  head,  apparently  belonging  to  one 
 body,  to  symbolize  the  Holy  Trinity !     By  the  same  sculp- 
 
 *  Ordered  by  the  Cardinal  -wlio  succeeded  to  the  Papal  tlirone  as  Julius 
 11.,  and  whose  remains  here  repose  together  with  those  of  his  uncle 
 Sixtus.  The  Pope  who  ordered  for  himself  a  mausoleum  which  would 
 have  towered  supreme,  the  principal  object  to  attract  all  eyes,  in  the 
 centre  of  the  great  church  founded  by  him,  has  no  monument  of  anir 
 description,  neither  "  storied  urn  nor  animated  bust,"  within  its  walls  I 
 
 2  u 
 
610  MEDIEVAL   CHEISTIANITT  AND 
 
 tor  is  the  much  more  quiet  monument,  in  the  south  aisle 
 of  the  Basilica,  to  Innocent  VIII.,  with  the  peculiarity  of 
 two  portrait  statues,  one  seated  on  a  throne,  the  other  laid 
 on  a  sarcophagus.  The  former  represents  Pope  Innocent 
 with  one  hand  blessing  and  with  the  other  holding  the 
 sacred  lance  sent  to  him  by  the  Sultan  Bajazet,  and  so 
 often  exposed  at  S.  Peter's  among  the^three  "  Major  Relics.*' 
 Pive  relievi  figures  of  Virtues,  in  arched  recesses,  are  grace- 
 ful ;  and  this  monument  is  altogether  in  purer  taste  than 
 that  of  Sixtus. 
 
 Once  more  to  return  to  the  subterranean  S.  Peter's. 
 Originality,  efiective  grouping,  and  well-marked  character 
 distinguish  many  of  the  sculptures  from  the  tombs  of 
 Popes,  or  for  the  altars  erected  by  them,  now  so  in- 
 judiciously stowed  away  in  this  dark  crypt,  without  any 
 regard  to  the  integrity  of  the  original  compositions.  Some 
 of  the  statues  and  relievi  figures  of  the  Apostles  are  intel- 
 lectual and  expressive,  as  the  SS.  John  and  Matthew,  and 
 the  two  SS.  James  from  the  monument  of  Callixtus  III. ; 
 the  SS.  John  and  Bartholomew  from  that  of  Nicholas  V. 
 Most  beautiful  is  that  of  Hope,  from  the  tomb  of  Paul  II., 
 by  Mino  da  Piesole,with  intensely  expectant  gaze  and  joyous 
 faith  expressed  in  her  upturned  countenance.  A  relief  of 
 the  Virgin  and  Child,  with  that  Pope  kneeling  before  them, 
 and  SS.  Peter  and  Paul,  among  the  sculptures  by  the  Piesole 
 artist,  are  examples  of  his  power  and  feeling ;  and  his  most 
 complicated  work  in  relief,  the  Last  Judgment,  from  the 
 same  tomb,  exemplifies  the  new  conception  of  that  awful 
 subject  in  progressive  Art:  the  Christ  is  in  benediction  . 
 and  of  mild  aspect ;  the  Virgin  is  not  introduced,  but 
 Apostles  and  Martyrs  are  grouped  round  the  Judge,  and 
 immediately  below  stands  S.  Michael,  a  prominent  and 
 majestic  form ;  among  the  Dead  who  rise  to  life,  the 
 righteous  are  distinguished  by  their  draped  figures,  the 
 
SACRED  ART  IN  ITALY.  Oil 
 
 others  being  almost  uude ;  there  is  nothing  grotesque  or 
 bestial  in  the  fiends.  The  relievi  from  a  ciborium  (altar- 
 canopy)  presented  by  Sixtus  IV.  are  among  the  most 
 elaborate,  and  betray  the  tendency  to  seek  the  efi*ects  of 
 painting  in  sculpture ;  they  represent  the  lives  and  martyr- 
 dom of  SS.  Peter  and  Paul ;  the  scene  where  the  two 
 Apostles  are  brought  before  Xero,  with  numerous  figures 
 divided  by  the  columns  of  a  classic  portico,  especially 
 marked  by  the  characteristics  of  the  renaissance.  A  relief 
 i  of  the  Supreme  Being,  within  an  elliptic  nimbus  amidst 
 Angels  (Mino  da  Fiesole),  is  an  example  of  the  ideal  of  the 
 Father,  now  more  widely  severing  itself  from  that  of  the 
 Divine  Son,  in  Art.  Among  other  monuments  with  recum- 
 bent efligies,  besides  the  Papal,  those  of  two  Cardinals  della 
 Porta  (1434  and  1493),  and  of  Cardinal  Bernardo  Herulus 
 Eruli),  bishop  of  Narni  (1478),  may  rank  with  the  finest 
 of  their  style  and  period. 
 
 Beauty  and  refined  feeling  distinguish  another  class  of 
 culptures  which  the  Art  of  this  period  produced  with  singu- 
 ar  success,  and  many  specimens  of  which  are  seen  in  Etonian 
 ehurches :  the  shrine,  or  tabernacle,  and  altar-piece  with  sta- 
 kuettes  and  reliefs  ;  the  architectural  design  usually  classic, 
 with  graceful  ornato  introduced  among  accessories.  Some  of 
 ;he  best  examples  are  in  that  church  so  rich  in  fifteenth  cen- 
 tury Art,  S.  Maria  del  Fopolo — one  an  altar-piece,  the 
 general  design  graceful,  '^Ndth  statuettes  of  S.  Catharine  of 
 Sgypt,  S.  Antony  of  Padua,  and  S.  Vincent,  above  which 
 ire  reliefs  of  the  Annunciation,  and  the  Deity  blessing ; 
 tnother  in  a  corridor  leading  to  the  sacristy,  with  figures  of 
 he  Virgin,  S.  Augustine,  and  S.  Catherine,  this  being  a 
 onation  made  to  the  Augustinians  of  the  convent,  1497. 
 n  that  sacristy  we  see  one  of  the  largest  and  finest  examples 
 f  the  sculptured  shrine,  presented  by  Alexander  VI.  when 
 Cardinal,  and  destined  for  the  Madonna-picture,  ascribed 
 
 2  11  2 
 
612  MEDIEVAL   CHEISTIANITT   AND 
 
 to  S.  Luke,  which  still  hangs  over  the  high  altar  of  the 
 church,  but  in  another,  more  modern,  and  far  less  beau- 
 tiful setting.  This,  Cardinal  Borgia's  donation,  now 
 contains  another  Madonna-picture,*  and  is  adorned  with 
 admirable  statuettes  of  SS.  Peter  and  Paul,  SS.  Jerome  and 
 Augustine,  the  half-figure  of  the  Deity  on  the  tympanum, 
 and  lowly  adoring  angels  below  ;  the  ornato  details,  taste- 
 ful. A  small  church  in  Trastevere,  S.  Cosimato,  formerly  a 
 Benedictine  abbey,  but  rebuilt  by  Sixtus  lY .,  1475,  for  the 
 Clarisse  nuns,  who  have  been  located  in  the  adjoining  con- 
 vent ever  since  1250,  contains  the  very  master-piece  of 
 this  class  in  sacred  art,  the  most  exquisite  example  in 
 Eome  of  the  sculptured  tabernacle,  and  admirable  alike  for 
 design  and  for  delicacy  of  finish :  on  the  central  panel  the 
 Virgin  and  Child  attended  by  Angels,  with  the  Apostle 
 Bartholomew  and  another  Saint  (probably  S.  Lawrence), 
 who  presents  a  kneeling  Cardinal,  the  donor,  no  doubt,  of 
 this  work  ;  also,  in  recesses  against  lateral  pilasters,  statu- 
 ettes of  Eaith,  Hope,  Charity  and  Justice,  in  all  which 
 figures  a  serene  grace  is  blent  with  genuine  dignity.  This 
 tabernacle  was  originally  in  the  Cibo  Chapel  at  S.  Maria 
 del  Popolo ;  and  from  the  epigraph  on  a  lintel,  Sanctae 
 Martyri  ChrisH  Severae,  we  may  conclude  that  it  was  placed 
 over  an  altar  dedicated  to  that  saint. 
 
 Among  works  of  this  class  are  the  shrines  for  the  holy 
 oils,  in  some  instances  with  sculptures,  of  the  period  here 
 in  question,  uniting  a  mystic  conception  with  remarkable 
 delicacy  of  treatment — as  one  at  S.  Maria  in  Trastevere, 
 with  small  highly-finished  reliefs  by  Mino  da  Fiesole; 
 another  in  the  chapel  of  the  Genoese  hospice,  a  building 
 with  cloisters  of  graceful  architecture,  founded  by  a  Grenoese 
 
 ♦  Of  the  Giottesque  school  ;  found  in  a  long  deserted  chapel  of  the 
 ancient,  below  the  modern,  convent,  when  the  former  was  demolished,  early 
 in  the  present  century,  for  the  sake  of  enlarging  the  piazza  del  Popolo. 
 
SACRED  ART  IN  ITALY.  613 
 
 citizen,  whose  monument,  with  an  effigy  (ob.  14-81)  stands 
 in  the  same  chapel ;  another  at  the  Lateran  with  reliefs  of 
 the  Ecce  Homo,  and  S.  John  the  Apostle  before  whom  is  a 
 kneeling  Pope,  perhaps  a  portrait,  and  intended  for  Leo  I. 
 — time  of  Sixtus  IV.  At  S.  G-regorio  we  see  an  elaborately 
 finished  tabernacle  for  the  Holy  Sacrament,  presented  by 
 an  abbot  of  the  monastery,  1469,  with  reliefs  and  statuettes, 
 displaying  Tuscan  influence,  somewhat  spoilt  by  profuse 
 gilding.  The  Abbot  kneels  before  the  Virgin  and  Child, 
 round  whom  stand  lovely  girl-like  Angels  ;  S.  Gregory  and 
 another  Saint  stand  in  lateral  niches  ;  above  is  the  Annun- 
 ciation, and  a  glory  of  Angels  round  the  door  of  the  recess 
 for  the  Host ;  above  this,  on  a  frieze,  is  a  quaint  relief  of 
 the  vision  seen  by  S.  Gregory  during  the  plague,  as  he  passes 
 in  procession  before  the  S.  Angelo  Castle — here  restored  with 
 little  archaeologic  probability.  The  altar  of  the  chapel  of  S. 
 G-regory,  in  the  same  church,  has  a  sculptured  front, 
 with  subjects  mystically  illustrating  the  efficacy  of  the 
 Sacrifice  of  the  Mass  offered  up  by  that  great  Saint* — also 
 of  this  century,  though  the  archaic  style  might  lead  us  to 
 suppose  a  date  much  earlier.  Other  examples  of  the  sculp- 
 tured altar-pieces  are :  the  Crucifixion,  a  relief  attributed 
 to  Mino  da  Mesole  (but  not  w^orthy  of  him)  at  S.  Balbina 
 on  the  Aventine,  but  originally  at  S.  Peter's  over  an  altar 
 erected  by  Cardinal  Bembo,  afterwards  Paul  11. ;  another 
 superior  treatment  of  the  same  subject,  also  rilievo,  and 
 with  the  figures  of  several  saints,  of  SS.  Peter  and  Paul 
 beside  the  Cross,  a  work  bearing  the  date  1463  and 
 the  name  of  the  donor,  De  Eoa,  placed  in  a  vestibule 
 entered  from  the  court  of  the  Spanish  hospice  above-named. 
 Another  tabernacle,  with  small  relievi  of  superior  style,  is 
 
 •  He  delivers  souls  from  Purgatory  ;   and  at  one  of  the  three  jMassea 
 here  represented,  the  Saviour  appears  above  the  altar. 
 
614  MEDIEVAL   CllEISTIANITX   AND 
 
 tliat  by  Antonio  Pollajuolo  which  contains  the  reputed 
 chains  of  S.  Peter,  in  the  sacristy  of  S.  Pietro  in  Vincoli. 
 In  that  church,  rebuilt  by  Julius  II.,  we  see  a  bas-relief 
 remarkable  for  conception  of  subject,  as  well  as  for  the 
 celebrity  of  the  donor  whom  it  records:  S.  Peter,  with 
 book  and  keys,  seated  on  a  throne,  whilst  an  Angel  kneels 
 before  him,  either  receiving  or  consigning  the  much  revered 
 chains,  and  on  the  other  side  kneels  a  Cardinal,  Nicholas 
 Cusa,  one  of  the  most  learned,  and  with  regard  to  the 
 opinions  he  maintained,  one  of  the  boldest  theologians  of 
 his  time,  who  took  a  prominent  part  at  the  Basle  Council, 
 and  was  among  the  firm  advocates  of  the  theory  that 
 Greneral  Councils  are  superior  to  Popes.  Pinally  aban- 
 doning that  party  of  opposition,  and  becoming  reconciled 
 to  Eugenius  lY.,  he  was  made  Cardinal,  1448,  by  Nicho- 
 las v.,  and  employed  in  different  legations.  His  works  fill 
 three  large  tomes  ;  and  in  one,  "De  Concordia  Catholica,"  he 
 rejects  the  legend  of  the  donation  of  Constantine,  ascribing 
 to  the  Emperor  authority  much  higher  than  that  of  the 
 Pope.*  The  sculpture  before  us  was  the  adornment  of  a 
 shrine  for  the  precious  c liains,  ordered  by  this  Cardinal,  and 
 beneath  which  he  desired  that  his  bones  should  lie,  as  we 
 learn  from  the  epitaph,  with  date,  1465  : 
 
 Hie  jacet  ante  tuas  Nieholaus,  Petre,  Cathenas; 
 
 Hoc  opus  erexit,  cetera  marmor  habet. 
 Some  later  sculptures  of  this  century,  relievi  from  an  altar 
 tabernacle  erected  by  the  French  Cardinal  Estouteville  at 
 S.  Maria  Maggiore,  are  now  placed  along  the  walls  of  the 
 tribune  behind  the  modern  high  altar ;  the  subjects  here 
 
 *  "  Imperator  Christianorum  in  sua  prsesidentia  Christi  Vicarius,qui 
 Eex  Regum  et  Dominus  dominantium  existit." — Such  the  theory  sus- 
 tained by  this  Cardinal,  in  the  brief  notice  of  whose  life,  by  Bisticci,  we 
 find  him  described  as  "  grandissimo  filosofo  e  teologo,  e  grande  plato- 
 nista."     He  was  of  German  birth,  by  his  first  preferment  Archdeacon  of 
 
SACRED  ART  IN  ITALY.  615 
 
 represented :  the  Nativity,  the  Adoration  of  the  Magi,  the 
 Assumption,  and  the  legend  of  the  founding  of  this  basilica 
 by  Pope  Liberius,  a.d.  352,  on  the  site  indicated  by  a 
 preternatural  fall  of  snow  on  the  Esquiline  hill,  4th  August 
 that  year. 
 
 In  the  last  year  of  this  century  was  placed  in  one  of  the 
 chapels  near  S.  Peter's,  namely,  S.  Petronilla— destroyed 
 to  make  room  for  the  modern  basilica — a  work  by  a  young 
 sculptor,  who  now  appears  a  star  among  the  brightest  yet 
 risen  on  the  horizon  of  Christian  art,  and  whose  name  leads 
 thought  into  a  sphere  removed  by  wide  moral  distance  from 
 that  within  which  our  studies  have  hitherto  been  confined. 
 A  French  Cardinal,  Jean  de  la  Grolaye,  bounteously 
 bestowed  on  that  chapel  in  1499  a  gift  consisting  of  a  group 
 of  the  Mother  with  the  Dead  Christ,  executed  in  his  twenty- 
 fifth  year  by  Michael  Angelo  Buonarotti,  who  had  arrived 
 in  Eome,  engaged  by  Cardinal  E;aff'aello  E/iario  at  the  Can- 
 celleria  palace,  in  1496.  I  need  not  describe  that  sculp- 
 ture of  the  "  Pieta,"  announcing  so  totally  new  an  ideal, 
 and  so  original  in  its  treatment  of  the  sublimely  pathetic 
 subject.  Where  we  now  see  it,  in  the  first  chapel  off"  the 
 right  aisle  in  the  new  basilica,  it  was  not  placed  till  1749. 
 The  commission  for  it  was  given  by  another  French  Cardi- 
 nal, Villiers,  ambassador  of  that  kingdom  at  the  Court  of 
 Alexander  YI.  The  sorrowing  Mother  might  be  said  to 
 personify  the  Church  in  grief  for  the  insults  to  her  Son 
 and  His  divine  authority  which  were  offered  and  tolerated 
 under  that  inauspicious  pontificate.  No  Eoman  painter  is 
 conspicuous  in  this  century,  but  the  illustrious  in  that  Art 
 from  other  Italian  regions  were  much  engaged  by  several 
 Popes.  Martin  Y.,  Nicholas  Y.,  and  Sixtus  lY.  proved 
 liberal  patrons  to  the  painters,  most  of  them  Tuscans, 
 whom  they  commissioned  to  adorn  churches,  or  the  chapels 
 of  the  Yatican.     Sixtus  lY.  gave  by  brief  its  first  coustitu- 
 
616  MEDIiEVAL   CHRISTIANITY   A:ND 
 
 tion  to  the  "  University  of  Artists,"  which  developed  into 
 the  Academy  of  S.  Luke,  but  had  existed  long  before  this 
 time,  and  used  to  meet  in  a  hall  adjoining  a  church  dedi- 
 cated to  that  Apostle  on  the  Esquiline,  their  affairs  being 
 managed  by  Consuls,  and  the  Senators  of  Eome  being  ex 
 officio  their  protectors.  The  now  well-known  Academy  did 
 not,  however,  attain  its  present  form  till  1577,  and  its  pri- 
 vileges were  finally  confirmed  by  Sixtus  Y.  about  1588. 
 Martin  Y.  engaged  the  first  masters  of  the  time,  Masaccio, 
 Gentile  da  Fabriano,  Yittore  Pisano,  to  paint  on  the  walls 
 of  the  Lateran,  where,  unfortunately,  all  their  works  have 
 perished ;  and  we  have  alike  to  regret  the  loss  of  those  of 
 Mantegna  in  the  Yatican  palace,  ordered  by  Innocent 
 YIII. 
 
 Among  pictures  which  serve  as  landmarks  to  the  history 
 of  thought,  or  signs  of  the  influence  exercised  over  the 
 Christian  world  by  revered  and  saintly  individuals—  and 
 such  works  alone  can  here  be  particularized — I  may  men- 
 tion the  most  noteworthy  still  seen  in  E.oman  churches, 
 
 ByTommaso  di  S.  Griovanni,  called  Masaccio,*  the  fres- 
 coes on  the  walls  of  the  Grothic  chapel  of  S.  Catherine  at  S. 
 Clemente,  representing  the  legend  of  that  saint  of  Alexan- 
 dria, and  other  subjects  not  easily  explainable.  The  prin- 
 cipal episodes  in  the  story  of  that  Yirgin  Martyr,  as  to 
 whom  so  little  resting  on  any  historic  basis  is  known,  are 
 here    treated   with    much    dramatic   effect    and   pathos.f 
 
 *  Born  1402,  at  S.  Giovanni,  a  town  in  the  Val  d'Arno,  being  the  son 
 of  a  notary,  whose  family  name  was  Scheggia.  The  date  of  his  death 
 not  quite  certain  ;  but  the  Annotators  of  Vasari  (Le  Monier  edition) 
 place  that  event  in  1428  ;  and  that  Masaccio  died  at  Rome,  and  prema- 
 turely, is  not  doubted. 
 
 f  Her  legend  was  not  known  before  the  Sth  century,  and  there  is  no 
 l)roof  that  it  was  received  in  Western  Europe  before  the  11th  century, 
 when  the  Latin  Church  first  appointed  a  day— 25th  November,  for  her 
 
SACRED  ABT  15  ITALY.  617 
 
 Though  some  critics  have  questioned  the  genuineness  of 
 these  frescoes  as  works  by  the  great  Tuscan  artist,  they 
 certainly  correspond  to  the  high  qualities  manifested  in 
 his  other  compositions.  The  scenes  represented  are  :  the 
 Saint  refuting  the  Pagan  philosophers  by  her  arguments  in 
 favour  of  Christian  doctrine,  before  the  Emperor ;  in 
 the  background  of  this  picture,  the  martyrdom  in  the 
 flames  of  those  same  philosophers,  who,  converted  by  her, 
 thus  suffer,  while  consoled  in  their  sufferings  by  the  elo- 
 quent young  maiden ;  the  Saint  arguing  against  idolatry, 
 while  she  points  out  to  derision  before  a  multitude  the 
 statue  of  a  god  in  its  temple  ;  the  conversion  by  the  Saint 
 of  the  Emperor's  daughter,  who  visits  her  in  prison ;  the 
 decapitation  of  that  princess,  a  martyr  for  her  newly  em- 
 braced faith ;  the  saint  condemned  to  die  between  wheels 
 set  with  hooks  to  tear  the  flesh,  but  rescued  by  an  angel ; 
 her  martyrdom  by  the  axe ;  and  finally,  the  transport  of  her 
 body,  borne  by  angels,  to  the  summit  of  Mount  Sinai. 
 The  four  scenes  painted  on  the  opposite  wall  cannot,  I 
 believe,  be  referred  to  either  the  legend  of  S.  Catherine  or 
 
 commemoration.  She  is  said  to  have  been  the  daughter  of  Costis,  a  son 
 of  Constantius  Chlorus,  by  his  first  wife,  Sabinella,  a  virtuous  though 
 heathen  princess,  daughter  and  heiress  of  the  King  of  Egypt,  and  to 
 have  suffered  martyrdom,  after  refuting  the  arguments  of  fifty  Pagan 
 philosophers  and  rhetoricians,  in  presence  of  the  Emperor  Maxentius 
 (or  Maximinus),  a.d.  307.  Perhaps  the  earliest  known  intrcduction  of 
 her  story,  namely,  her  martyrdom,  in  art,  is  that  seen  among  the  very 
 curious  wall  paintings  in  the  ancient  S.  Clemente,  discoverta  uoiow  the 
 more  modern  church,  through  the  intelligent  exertions  of  the  estimable 
 Father  Mullooly,  Prior  of  the  Irish  Dominicans  here  established.  One 
 of  the  first  Mystery  Plays  ever  performed  in  England  was  founded  on 
 the  story  of  this  Saint,  being  written  by  Geoflfrey,  a  learned  Norman, 
 who  was  invited  from  the  Paris  University,  about  1119,  to  superintend 
 the  Abbey  schools  at  Dunstable,  and  whose  drama  on  this  subject  was 
 acted  by  his  pupils.  Dryden's  *' Tyrannic  Love"  is  founded  on  the 
 same  legend.'' — v.  Mrs.  Jameson,  •'  Sacred  and  Legendary  Art." 
 
618  MEDIEVAL   CHRTSTIANITT  AND 
 
 the  life  of  Pope  S.  Clement.  On  the  wall  above  the  altar 
 is  the  Crucifixion,  a  large  picture  with  numerous  grouping, 
 the  Mother  fainting  amidst  the  attendant  women,  Eoman 
 soldiers,  the  two  thieves  on  their  crosses,  and  the  now 
 generally  admitted  episodes  of  the  Angel  and  Demon 
 receiving  the  soul  of  the  converted  and  that  of  the  im- 
 penitent malefactor;  also  spectators  of  different  classes, 
 knights  and  citizens,  not  concerned  in  the  historic  action, 
 only  united  by  the  common  sentiment  of  adoration  and 
 faith ;  this  picture  being  an  example  (not  the  earliest)  of 
 the  withdrawal  of  its  awful  subject  from  the  historic,  and 
 its  transfer  to  the  mystic  and  the  devotional  sphere.  Here 
 also  landscape,  a  distant  sea  coast,  mountainous,  wild  and 
 lonely,  is  treated  with  a  degree  of  carefulness  and  know- 
 ledge hitherto  rarely  seen.  On  the  vaults  are  the  Evangel- 
 ists and  four  Doctors  ;  on  the  outer  wall,  beside  the  arched 
 entrance,  the  giant  S.  Christofer  carrying  the  Infant  Christ 
 — that  favourite  of  northern  legends  comparatively  little 
 known  in  Italy,  and  whose  romantic  story  the  Church  has 
 wisely  consented  to  dismiss  to  the  realms  of  pious  fiction. 
 The  Annunciation,  above  the  arch,  is  another  beautiful 
 picture  by  the  same  hand ;  Mary,  who  kneels  (her  suitable 
 position),  while  the  Angel  stands  before  her,  distinguished 
 by  a  gentle  and  subdued  loveliness. 
 
 The  great  master  of  religious  art  in  this  century,  Fra 
 Giovanni  Angelico  (1387-1455)  came  to  Eome  about  1445, 
 invited  by  Eugenius  TV.,  and  painted  in  the  chapels  of  the 
 Vatican  under  his  patron  and  friend,  Nicholas  V.  He 
 died  at  the  Minerva  convent,  where  we  see  his  monument, 
 with  an  indiiferently  executed  effigy  in  relief  and  a  metrical 
 epitaph  ascribed  to  that  Pope.*     The  last  of  Angelico's 
 
 *  Non  mihi  sit  laudi  qnocl  eram  velut  alter  Apelles, 
 Sed  quod  lucra  tuis  omnia,  Christe,  dabam, 
 Altera  nam  terris  opera  extant,  altera  coelo  ; 
 Urbs  mihi  Johannem  fi.ot>  tulit  Etruriae. 
 
SACRED  AET  IN  ITALY.  GIO 
 
 more  important  works  was  the  series  of  frescoes  round  tlic 
 walls  of  the  S.  Lorenzo  chapel  at  the  Vatican,  representing 
 in  six  scenes  the  life  of  S.  Stephen,  and  in  five  that  of  S. 
 LawTence;  on  painted  pilasters  the  four  Latin  Doctors 
 and  four  other  saints  admitted  to  rank  with  those  holy 
 fathers,  Athanasius,  Chrysostom,  Bonaventura,  and  Thomas ; 
 on  the  vault,  the  Evangelists.  It  would  be  superfluous  to 
 point  out  the  merits  of  these  paintings,  but  I  may  observe 
 the  solemnity  of  effect  in  the  two  ordination  scenes — 
 S.  Stephen  ordained  priest  by  S.  Peter,  and  S.  Lawrence 
 by  Pope  Sixtus  II.,  here  a  portrait  of  I^icholas  V. ;  also  the 
 artist's  power,  and  his  mastery  of  perspective  in  the  two 
 pictures  of  the  distribution  of  the  alms  of  the  Church,  at 
 Jerusalem  and  Eome,  by  the  two  martyr  deacons ;  and 
 alike  in  that  of  S.  Lawrence  before  the  Prefect  Decius. 
 Another  chapel,  that  of  the  Holy  Sacrament,  added  to  the 
 Vatican  buildings  by  Nicholas  V.,  was  also  surrounded  with 
 frescoes  by  Pra  Giovanni;  but  was  remorselessly  destroyed 
 together  with  those  precious  contents,  about  1549,  for  the 
 comparatively  trivial  object  of  securing  space  for  the  Sala 
 Begia  built  from  Sangallo's  designs  under  Paul  III.  No- 
 thing could  more  strikingly  prove  than  does  this  pro- 
 ceeding the  want  of  appreciation  for  the  highest  order  of 
 religious  Art  (at  least  that  anterior  to  the  Sixteenth  Cen- 
 tury) at  the  Papal  Court.  Another  circumstance,  almost 
 alike  discreditable,  is  the  actual  oblivion  into  which  the 
 chapel  of  S.  Lorenzo,  both  as  to  its  existence  and  the  means 
 of  entering  it,  had  fallen  before  the  latter  years  of  the 
 Fifteenth  Century.  Teja  (see  his  Description  of  the 
 Vatican)  owns  that  he  had  long  supposed  it  to  have  been 
 destroyed ;  and  Bottari  says  that  he  had  at  last  succeeded 
 in  effecting  entrance  through  a  window  ;  the  German  Art- 
 critic,  Hirt,  had  the  credit  of  accomplishing  a  second 
 discovery  which    led   him  into   this    pictured   oratory   in 
 
620  MEDIEVAL   CHEISTIANITT   AND 
 
 his  explorings  through  the  terra  incognita  of  the  Vatican 
 {v.  Goethe  "  Winckelmann  und  sein  Jahrhundert"  ;  Eu- 
 mohr,  "Italien.  Forschungen,"  b.  II.  13).  In  the  time  of 
 Pius  YII.  the  frescoes  of  Fra  Giovanni  were  retouched  by 
 Camuccini— probably  not  the  first  restoration  they  have 
 suffered  from.  One,  a  Deposition  from  the  Cross,  on  the 
 side  above  the  altar,  has  totally  disappeared. 
 
 By  Filippino  Lippi  (1460-1505),  frescoes,  executed  1489, 
 in  the  chapel  founded  by  Cardinal  CarafFa  at  the  Minerva 
 church,  and  in  which  reposed  the  body  of  the  Saint  to  whom 
 it  is  dedicated,  Thomas  Aquinas,  till  those  relics  were 
 removed,  1511,  to  Naples.  Here  we  see  the  third  example 
 (two  others  I  have  already  noticed)  of  a  sort  of  apotheosis  in 
 Art,  for  honouring  the  memory  of  that  great  theologian.  St. 
 Thomas  is  seated,  together  with  four  allegoric  female  figures, 
 on  a  lofty  estrade,  setting  his  feet  on  a  prostrate  old  man 
 (Arius  or  Sabelius),  near  whom  is  a  scroll  displaying  the 
 words,  Sapientia  vincit  malitiam ;  an  open  book,  held  by  the 
 Saint,  having  the  words  on  its  pages,  Sapientiam  Sapientium 
 perdam.  In  the  foreground  are  two  groups  of  persons  dif- 
 ferent as  to  class  and  costume,  and  between  them,  thrown 
 to  earth,  lie  several  books,  on  two  of  which  we  read  the 
 condemnatory  epigraphs  :  Si  Mlius  natus  est,  erat  quando 
 non  erat  Mlius — Error  Arii  ;  Fater  a  Filio  non  est  alius 
 nee  a  Spiritu  Sancto — Error  Salelii.  Above  this  picture  is 
 another  on  smaller  scale,  admirably  composed :  S.  Thomas 
 kneeling  before  the  Crucifix,  which  bows  its  head  and 
 speaks  approval  of  his  writings,  the  volumes  here  laid 
 before  that  holy  symbol.  Angels  attend  the  Saint  in  his 
 extatic  prayer ;  to  the  right,  in  a  portico  like  that  of  a 
 church,  we  see  another  .Dominican  friar,  and  in  front  of  this 
 portico,  are  three  persons,  two  of  them  women  in  nun-like 
 dress,  driving  away  a  rash  intruder  in  Turkish  costume, 
 probably  meant  for  the  false  Prophet.     Over  the  altar  is 
 
SACEED   AET   m   ITALY.  G21 
 
 the  Annunciation,  with  S.  Tliomaa  presenting;  the  Cardinal 
 CaraiFa  to  the  Virgin ;  this,  and  the  Assumption  with  the 
 Apostles,  on  the  same  wall-surface,  being  also  by  Filippino 
 Lip  pi.* 
 
 By  Bernardino  Betti,  called  Pinturicchio  (1454-1513), 
 are  the  frescoes  on  the  apsidal  vault  of  S.  Croce  in  Geru- 
 salemme,  representing  the  legend  of  the  True  Cross  from 
 its  discovery  by  S.  Helena  to  its  restitution  at  Jerusalem  by 
 the  Emperor  Heraclius  after  his  victory  over  the  Persians  ; 
 above  this  dramatic  and  interesting  series,  the  Saviour 
 seated  in  an  elliptic  nimbus,  with  one  hand  blessing,  while 
 the  other  holds  the  Gospel  open  at  the  words,  U^o  sum  Via^ 
 Veritas,  et  Vita — a  nobly  benignant  figure,  announcing  a 
 progressive  and  elevated  conception  of  the  Divine  person- 
 ality in  Art.  Some  critics  question  whether  these  paintings 
 can  be  given  to  Pinturicchio  ;  and  some  suppose  that  if  he 
 really  executed  them,  he  was  probably  assisted  by  Luca 
 Siguorelli-t  An  event  which  caused  much  sensation,  and 
 was  hailed  with  joy  by  authorities  in  Eome,  is  connected 
 with  the  history  of  these  remarkable  frescoes. 
 
 In  1492  some  repairs,  ordered  by  the  Cardinal  Titular, 
 were  progressing  within  this  church,  when  a  niche  was  dis- 
 covered near  the  summit  of  the  apsidal  vault,  and  on  the 
 outside  of  this  recess,  the  inscription,  "  Titulus  Crucis." 
 In  the  inside  was  found,  on  removal  of  the  brick  front,  a 
 leaden  coffer  fastened  with  three  seals,  and  in  which  was 
 deposited  that  famous  relic  believed  to  be  the  largest  extant 
 
 *  An  early  and  ominous  instance  of  conventionality,  of  disregard  for 
 the  ideal  proprieties  of  a  subject,  is  before  us  in  this  Annunciation  by 
 Lippi :  the  Virgin  turns  away  from  the  Angel  and  from  the  Divine 
 Dove,  who  descends  along  a  ray  of  light,  exclusively  giving  her  atten- 
 tion, with  the  mannered  grace  of  a  high-born  lady,  to  the  kneeling 
 Cardinal ! 
 
 f  Messrs.  Crowe  and  Cavalcaselle  speak  of  them  as  a  work  which 
 "  seems  a  medley  of  Bonfigli,  Signorclli  and  Pinturicchio,  such  as  might 
 be  expected  from  one  of  the  numerous  inferior  Umbrians,"  &c. 
 
622  MEDIiEVAL   CHRISTIANITY  AND 
 
 portion  of  the  true  Cross,  or  rather  of  a  part  of  the  title 
 placed  above  the  head  of  the  Sufferer,  and  containing 
 certain  letters  of  the  words,  in  Syro-Chaldaic,  Grreek,  and 
 Latin,  Jesus  Nazaeenus  Eex.  Great  interest  was  excited 
 by  the  announcement  of  this  discovery.  The  Pope,  Inno- 
 cent VIII.,  and  all  the  Cardinals  came  in  procession  to 
 inspect  and  revere  the  relic,  which  was  transferred  to  a 
 chamber  communicating  with  a  balcony  above  the  high 
 altar,  where  this  and  other  sacred  objects  are  solemnly 
 exhibited,  three  times  a  year,  by  the  mitred  Abbot  of  the 
 Cistercians.  A  Spanish  Cardinal,  Carvajal,  ordered,  about 
 1492,  the  paintings  illustrating  the  story  of  the  true  Cross, 
 which  cover  the  vault  before  us,  and  are  generally  ascribed 
 to  Pinturicchio  ;  the  figure  of  that  Cardinal  being  intro- 
 duced, kneeling  before  the  Cross  erect  in  the  centre  fore- 
 ground, with  S.  Helena  on  one  side. 
 
 Other  undoubted  works  of  Pinturicchio  are  seen  in 
 several  Boman  churches  built  or  restored  in  the  latter 
 years  of  this  century,  as  S.  Maria  del  Popolo,  S.  Onofrio, 
 S.  Maria  in  Trastevere,  S.  Cosimato,  Aracoeli.  At  the  first- 
 named  church,  two  Holy  Pamilies  with  Saints,  an  Assump- 
 tion, and  (in  lunettes)  scenes  from  the  life  of  Mary  and 
 from  that  of  S.  Jerome  (date  1485)  ;  on  the  vault  of  the 
 choir,  more  important  and  admirable  pictures,  commissioned 
 for  S.  Maria  del  Popolo  by  the  Cardinal  della  Eovere 
 (Julius  II.)  :  in  the  centre,  the  Coronation  of  the  Virgin, 
 with  the  sole  figures  of  the  Saviour  and  the  Madonna  seated 
 opposite  to  each  other  (the  motive,  in  this  composition, 
 earlier  introduced  and  longer  retained  than  any  other  for 
 the  same  eminently  popular  subject),  while  the  Divine  Son, 
 serenely  glorious,  places  a  crown  on  the  earthly  Mother's 
 head ;  ranged  round  this  group,  on  a  decorated  ground, 
 the  Evangelists  with  their  emblems,  the  four  Doctors,  nobly 
 venerable  figures  each  seated  within  a  classically  designed 
 aedicula,  and  four  Sybils  in  graceful  recumbent  attitudes. 
 
SACRED  ART  IN  ITALY.  G23 
 
 At  Aracoeli  the  same  artist  executed  some  very  interesting 
 pictures  in  a  cliapel  founded  by  the  Bufalini  family,  and  (it 
 is  said)  especially  to  commemorate  the  extinction  of  a 
 deadly  feud.  Pinturicchio's  frescoes  illustrate  the  life  of  S. 
 Bernadino,  to  whom  that  chapel  is  dedicated  :  over  the  altar, 
 Christ  in  glory  amidst  Angels,  SS.  Bernardino,  Anthony 
 of  Padua,  and  Louis  of  Anjou,  Bishop  of  Toulouse,  two 
 Angels  holding  a  crown  over  the  head  of  the  first-named, 
 who  stands  between  the  other  Saints,  holding  a  book  open 
 at  the  text,  I'ater,  manifestavi  nomen  tuum  hominihus*  On 
 one  side,  the  reception  of  the  Saint  into  the' Franciscan 
 Order  at  Siena,  the  Saint  discoursing  to  some  devout 
 hearers,  and  S.  Francis  receiving  the  Stigmata  ;  on  the 
 opposite  wall,  the  funeral  of  S.  Bernardino,  with  renais- 
 sance architecture  in  the  background,  and  in  a  group  under 
 a  portico,  portraits  of  two  members  of  the  Eufalini  family ; 
 an  infant  in  a  cradle  before  the  bier  on  which  lies  the 
 corpse,  said  to  be  intended  for  the  same  Saint,  his  childhood 
 in  juxtaposition  with  his  old  age  in  death.  At  S.  Onofrio, 
 the  church  with  convent  and  gardens  pleasantly  situated 
 on  the  Janiculan  hill,  are  some  frescoes  in  the  tribune,  the 
 Yirgin  and  Child,  the  Coronation  of  Mary,  the  Deity  bless- 
 ing, and  other  subjects,  ascribed  partly  to  Pinturicchio, 
 partly  to  Baldassare  Peruzzi.  The  monument  of  the  pious 
 hermit,  Beato  Niccolo,  of  the  diocese  of  Sulmona  (ob.  1441), 
 at  whose  request  this  church  and  convent  were  built 
 1437 — '46),  with  a  characteristic  relievo  eiBgy,  placed  near 
 the  chief  door,  deserves  notice  among  the  sculptures  of 
 the  period. f 
 
 •  Words  of  an  antiphon  in  the  Vespers  for  the  Vigil  of  the  Ascension, 
 which  were  being  sung  at  the  moment  this  Saint  expired  at  Aquihi, 
 1444.  How  early  he  became  popular  both  in  devout  regards  and  among 
 subjects  of  Art,  these  paintings  testify. 
 
 t  The  Beato  Niccolo  was  one  of  a  band  of  hermits  who  inhabited 
 
624  MEDIEVAL   CHEISTIANITY   AND 
 
 The  frescoes  on  the  walls  of  the  Sistine  Chapel  by  artists 
 the  most  illustrious  of  their  time,  who  were  liberally  en- 
 gaged for  this  task  by  Sixtus  lY. — I  do  not  here  consider 
 the  marvels  of  Buonarotti's  genius,  within  the  same  walls — 
 form  a  series  most  important  as  displaying  the  spirit  and 
 tendencies  of  Art  towards  the  close  of  the  XV.  century. 
 A  manifest  change  had  passed  over  the  world  of  its  ideal 
 creations  since  the  earlier  years  of  this  epoch,  and  even 
 within  the  shorter  period  elapsed  since  the  death  of  Era 
 Angelico.  In  one  aspect  we  see  progress  in  power  and 
 knowledge ;  in  another,  decline  from  the  standard  of  devo- 
 tional ideality.  Art  is  now  seen  emancipating  herself  from 
 ascetic  conventionalism.  The  painter,  instead  of  giving  a 
 simple  and  solemn  presentment  of  a  sacred  theme,  crowds 
 his  canvas  with  accessorial  figures  in  the  costume  of  his 
 own  time,  mere  spectators,  unconcerned  in  the  main  action 
 ■ — a  method  first  introduced,  with  admirable  success  indeed 
 by  Masaccio.  Details  of  ornament  become  profuse  ;  land- 
 scape, more  ably  treated,  now  aff'ording  proof  of  intelli- 
 gent observation  of  nature.  Above  all,  architecture,  in- 
 variably copied  either  from  the  models  of  classic  Rome,  or 
 from  those  of  the  renaissance  founded  on  such  models, 
 takes  a  conspicuous  place  on  the  canvas  or  in  the  wall- 
 painting,  sometimes  dividing  attention  with  the  figures  to 
 which  it  serves  as  background. 
 
 At  first  sight  the  interior  of  the  Sistine  chapel  is  disap- 
 pointing. Neither  is  the  style  of  this  building  religious, 
 nor  are  the  paintings,  in  the  eiFect  immediately  perceived, 
 so  impressive  as  may  have  been  anticipated.  Many  are 
 faded,  and  the  figures  are,  with  few  exceptions,  too  small 
 for  the  height  at  which  they  are  placed,  whilst  farther 
 
 some  scattered  cells  on  the  Janiculan  before  the  convent,  which  was  the 
 last  retreat  of  Tasso,had  arisen,  founded  by  EugeniusIV.,  and  a  Cardinal 
 protector  of  the  Jeronymites,  on  this  spot. 
 
SACRED  ART  IX  ITALY.  G25 
 
 losing  by  comparison  witli  the  colossal  creations  of  Michael 
 Angelo. 
 
 By  Cosimo  Eosselli  (1416-84)  arc — the  Passage  of  the 
 Eed  Sea,  and  Pharaoh  amidst  his  Counsellors  ;  Moses  receiv- 
 ing the  tablets  of  the  Law  on  Mount  Sinai ;  and  breaking 
 those  tablets  in  his  wrath  at  the  idolatry  of  the  Israelites ; 
 the  punishment  of  that  idolatry ;  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount, 
 and  the  healing  of  the  leper ;  the  landscape  in  the  last 
 picture  by  the  artist's  pupil,  Piero  da  Cosimo  (1441-1521). 
 By  Eosselli  also  is  the  Last  Supper,  -^dth  four  spectators 
 quite  unconcerned  in  the  sacred  action,  and  in  the  back- 
 ground, seen  through  an  arcade,  the  Saviour  on  the  Mount 
 of  Olives,  His  capture  by  the  Jews,  and  the  Crucifixion, — 
 an  unworthily  subordinate  introduction  of  such  subjects. 
 
 By  Sandro  Botticelli  (1437-1515) :  Moses  slaying  the 
 Egyptian,  and  assisting  the  daughters  of  Jethro  to  water 
 their  flocks ;  the  emigration  of  Moses  with  several  fol- 
 lowers (from  Midian)  into  Egypt ;  the  appearance  of  the 
 Deity  in  the  burning  tree;  the  punishment  of  Korah, 
 Dathan,  and  Abiram,  with  architecture  in  the  background, 
 a  classic  ruin,  and  (strange  example  of  the  tendency  above 
 noticed)  a  Eoman  triumphal  arch,  evidently  suggested  by 
 that  of  Septimius  Severus.  By  the  same  artist,  the  Temp- 
 tation of  Christ,  the  three  acts  of  which  are  represented  in 
 the  same  picture;  in  the  foreground  the  high  priest  re- 
 ceiving a  patera,  or  goblet,  from  a  white-robed  worshipper, 
 which  accessorial  and  fanciful  group  may  attract  attention 
 more  than  the  principal  subjects;  and  it  is  remarkable 
 that  the  mediaeval  idea  of  the  demon  is  here  totally  aban- 
 doned, a  stern  and  sombre,  not  hideous  or  brute  type,  being 
 imagined  in  the  personality  of  Satan. 
 
 By  Domenico  Grhii-landajo  (1447-93) :  the  calling  of 
 SS.  Peter  and  Andrew  while  they  are  engaged  in  fishing, 
 and  the  calling  of  SS.  Jolm  and  James,  who  are  in  a  boat 
 
 2  s 
 
626  MEDIEVAL  CHEISTIANITT  AND 
 
 on  the  lake,  while  the  Divine  Master  addresses  them  from 
 the  shore,  both  these  subjects  being  in  the  background, 
 and  the  foreground  filled  with  a  finely  treated  group,  the 
 two  first-named  of  those  Apostles  kneeling  before  Christ, 
 with  many  sjDectators  on  both  sides.  The  E-esurrection, 
 by  the  same  artist,  was  injured  by  the  falling  of  a  beam, 
 and  has  been  so  badly  repainted,  that  in  its  present  state 
 this  fresco  in  no  way  reminds  us  of  Ghirlandajo. 
 
 By  Luca  Signer elli  (1439-1521)  :  subjects  from  the  life 
 of  Moses  and  the  Exodus,  a  grandly  conceived  series,  the 
 several  ej)isodes  so  united  as  to  form  only  two  large  compo- 
 sitions ;  one  representing  the  earlier  life  of  the  Lawgiver, 
 the  other  his  last  days  while  accompanying  his  people  on 
 their  progress  through  the  wilderness.  In  the  first,  (nearest 
 the  altar),  we  see  the  journey  of  Moses  and  his  wife,  with 
 many  others,  from  Midian  into  Egypt ;  Moses  met  by  an 
 Angel,  who  threatens  him  with  a  drawn  sword  ;*  the  cir- 
 cumcision of  his  son  by  Zipporah,  and  in  the  background 
 a  group  of  shepherds,  most  graceful  and  animated,  dancing 
 to  music  on  a  mountain  side,  perhaps  intended  for  the 
 rustic  festivities  at  the  marriage  of  Moses.f  In  the  other 
 picture,  the  Exodus  subjects,  we  see  Moses  consigning  his 
 stafi"  to  Joshua,  Moses  seated  on  a  mound,  the  book  of  the 
 law  in  his  hand,  delivering  his  inspired  song  to  the  Israel- 
 ites, a  numerous  group,  around  him  ;  in  the  background  an 
 angel  shows  to  Moses  the  promised  land  from  a  mountain- 
 height  ;  and  lastly  we  see  the  death  of  the  Lawgiver,  or 
 rather  the  mourning  of  the  Israelites  over  his  body — a 
 subject  not  treated  with  strict  regard  to  the  account  of 
 
 *  See  the  mysterious  text  (Exodus  iv.  24) :  "  And  it  came  to  pass  by 
 the  way,  in  the  inn,  that  the  Lord  met  him  (Moses),  and  sought  to  kill 
 him." 
 
 f  Messrs.  Crowe  and  Cavalcaselle  ascribe  the  whole  of  this  composi- 
 tion to  Pietro  Perugino. 
 
 I 
 
SACEED    AET    IN   ITALY.  G27 
 
 tlie  mysterious  circumstances  attending  his  funeral. — 
 Deuteronomy  xxxiv.  G. 
 
 By  Pietro  Yauuucei  (Perugino,  1446-1524)  :  the  Bap- 
 tism of  Christ,  with  a  vision  of  the  Eternal  Father  as  well 
 as  the  celestial  Dove ;  in  the  background,  the  Sermon  on 
 the  Mount  and  the  preaching  of  S.  John  the  Baptist.  By 
 the  same  artist — a  masterpiece  and  example  of  his  highest 
 powers — the  Delivery  of  the  Keys  to  S.  Peter  in  presence 
 of  all  the  Apostles,  in  the  background  architecture,  renais- 
 sance and  classical,  with  several  groups  variously  engaged, 
 and  quite  unconcerned  with  the  main  action  which  fills 
 the  foreground,  where  it  is  contemplated  by  certain  other 
 persons,  besides  the  twelve  Apostles,  with  reverential 
 interest.  The  principal  group  is  a  composition  to  rank 
 among  the  triumphs  of  sacred  art ;  and  accordant  with  the 
 solemnity  of  the  subject  is  a  serene  dignity  which  pervades 
 and  elevates  the  whole  scene.  The  architecture  may  be 
 intended  to  symbolize  the  triumphs  of  the  Church,  or  at 
 least  of  the  Papacy ;  in  the  centre  rises  a  temple  with  a 
 cupola  reminding  us  of  Brunelleschi's  happiest  perform- 
 ances in  this  class ;  lateral  to  this  are  two  classic  arches, 
 richly  sculptured,  and  inscribed  with  epigraphs  in  honour 
 of  Sixtus  lY. :  Immensum  Salomon  Templum,  tu  lioc^ 
 Quarte,  sacrasti — Sixte  opihus  dispar  religione  prior. 
 
 Among  the  most  important  and  successful  works  by 
 Pinturicchio  are  the  frescoes  adorning  the  "  Appartamento 
 Borgia,"  a  suite  of  halls  in  the  Vatican  either  built  or 
 finished  by  Alexander  VI.,  in  which  that  Pontifi"  resided, 
 and  in  one  of  which  he  died.  These  paintings  (1492-'94) 
 are  most  interesting  as  testimony  to  the  spirit  and  ten- 
 dencies of  art  at  the  time,  and  exemplifying  the  now 
 intimate  union  of  the  legendary  with  the  evangelico- 
 historical,  of  renaissance  taste  and  decoration  with  sacred 
 or  mystic  subjects.    In  the  first  chamber,  called  that  "  of 
 
 2  s  2 
 
028  MEDIiEVAL    CHRISTIANITY    AND 
 
 the  Sibyls,"  are  lialf-lengths,  in  lunettes  under  tlie  vaults, 
 of  twelve  Prophets,  and  as  many  Sibyls,  all  holding  scrolls, 
 on  which  are  inscribed  texts  of  prophecy  and  verses  at- 
 tributed to  Sibylline  inspiration ;  the  CunicTan  Sibyl  having 
 for  her  motto  the  lines  from  the  "  Pollio  "  of  Virgil — 
 "  Jam  redit  et  Virgo,  redeunt  Saturnia  regna, 
 Jam  nova  progenies  coelo  demittitur  alto."* 
 
 On  the  vault  are  seven  medallion  pictures  representing  the 
 planets,  personified  according  to  mythologic  ideas,  and  ad- 
 vancing in  their  chariots  through  the  sky,  the  pursuits  and 
 conditions  of  life  they  severally  preside  over  being  intro- 
 duced below.  Thus  under  Luna  are  people  fishing  in  the 
 sea  (her  influence  over  tides);  under  Jove,  the  chace,  deemed 
 the  especial  amusement  of  royalty ;  under  Apollo,  with 
 singular  blending  of  the  Christian  and  Pagan,  a  Pope  seated 
 among  his  Cardinals  and  prelatic  courtiers. 
 
 In  the  next,  "  Chamber  of  the  Credo,"  are  twelve 
 Prophets  in  like  manner  paired  with  the  Apostles,  and 
 holding  scrolls,  those  of  the  former  displaying  texts  from 
 their  prophecies  ;  and  those  of  the  latter,  clauses  from  the 
 Apostles*  Creed,  according  to  the  tradition  admitted  by 
 Baronius  and  Durandus,  which  assigns  to  each  of  the  Twelve 
 a  clause  in  that  symbol  of  belief.  Thus  S.  Peter  begins  the 
 orthodox  profession  with  the  clause :  "  Credo  in  unum  Deum, 
 Patrem  omnipotentem,  Creatorem  coeli  et  terrse."  In  the 
 third,  "  Chamber  of  the  Liberal  Arts,"  are  seven  large 
 pictures,  Rhetoric,  Geometry,  Arithmetic,  Music,  Astro- 
 nomy, G-rammar,  and  Dialectics,  personified  as  beautiful  and 
 
 *  It  is  about  this  period,  towards  the  end  of  the  XV.  century,  that 
 the  Sibyls  first  become  conspicuous  in  art.  Many  representations  of 
 them  are  seen  in  Rome,  but  all  dating  from  the  XV.  to  the  XVII., 
 none  in  earUer  centuries.  Cardinal  d'Estouteville  ordered,  1480,  a  paint- 
 in"-  for  the  Augustinian  church  at  Cori,  the  Coronation  of  the  Virgin, 
 with  a  group  of  six  Sibyls,  each  having  her  oracular  Latin  distich. 
 
SACRED   ART   IN   ITALY.  G29 
 
 majestic  women  seated  on  splendid  thrones  with  appro- 
 priate emblems,  and  groups  of  individuals  who  excelled  in 
 the  practice,  or  promoted  the  culture,  of  those  Arts  and 
 Sciences  severally.  Thus  is  Geometry  attended  by  the 
 mathematicians,  Khetoric  by  the  orators  of  antiquity  ;  the 
 latter  having  for  attributes  a  sword  and  a  golden  globe? 
 signifying  the  power  of  eloquence  to  penetrate,  pierce  and 
 disarm,  and  also  to  keep  the  world  suspended  by  the  charm 
 of  her  utterances.  The  archivolt  of  an  arch,  which  divides 
 the  room  into  two  sections,  is  dedicated  to  the  subject  of 
 Justice,  treated  in  five  small  pictures  ;  that  of  A^irtue  per- 
 sonified in  the  centre  ;  laterally,  the  parting  of  Jacob  and 
 Lab  an,  the  flight  of  Lot  from  the  burning  city ;  a  judge 
 seated  on  a  tribunal,  with  merchants  before  him  who  are 
 pledging  each  other  to  keep  faith  in  their  transactions  ; 
 the  widow  appealing  to  Trajan  for  justice,  her  only  son 
 having  been  accidentally  killed  by  the  Emperor's  son, 
 (v.  "  Legcnda  Aurea ;"  Dante,  "  Purgatorio,"  X. ;  Joan. 
 Diacou.,  "  Vita  S.  Greg.")* 
 
 In  the  next,  "  Chamber  of  the  Saints,"  the  Legends  of 
 the  Alexandrian  S.  Catherine,  of  S.  Paul  the  Hermit,  of  the 
 Virgin  Martyrs  Barbara  and  Juliana,  the  martyrdom  of 
 S.  Sebastian,  and  the  Visitation  (sole  subject  from  Scrip- 
 ture in  this  series),  are  treated  with  singular  wealth  of 
 imagination  and  variety  in  composition.  The  story  of  S. 
 Catherine,   occupying  the  largest  space,  is  presented  with 
 
 *  It  was  in  this  chamber  that  Alexander  VI.  died,  13th  August,  1503. 
 The  account  of  his  last  illness  by  Burckhard,  in  every  respect  trust- 
 worthy, shows  that  he  succumbed  to  an  attack  of  tertian  fever.  The 
 belief,  common  at  the  time,  that  he  died  of  poison,  prepared  not  by  him- 
 self but  by  his  son,  for  certain  wealthy  Cardinals,  is  attested  by  Guicciar- 
 dini,  Ouofrio  Panvinio,  and  others  ;  see  also  Gregorovius,  who  supplies 
 all  the  evidence  on  this  subject.  It  is  certain  that  the  Pope  received  the 
 Sacraments,  and  made  confession  before  Communion;  on  his  deathbed. 
 
630  MEDIEVAL   CHRISTIANITY   AND 
 
 complicated  details ;  the  fair  Saint  standing  before  the  Em- 
 peror on  his  throne,  philosophers  and  knights  in  15th  century 
 costume  grouped  around ;  in  the  distance  a  triumphal  arch, 
 like  that  of  Constantino,  with  the  epigraph,  Pads  Cultori. 
 S.  Barbara  escaping  from  her  tower,  and  pursued  by  her 
 tyrant  father  with  a  drawn  sword,  is  among  the  rarer  sub- 
 jects in  Art,  and  here  presented  with  much  dramatic  effect,* 
 Admirable  is  the  pictured  meeting  of  S.  Anthony  the  abbot 
 and  S.  Paul  the  hermit  in  the  desert,  where  they  divide  the 
 loaf  brought  by  a  raven,  devout  disciples  attending,  and 
 three  fair  women  approaching  near  enough  for  the  discern- 
 ment of  their  true  character  as  demon  tempters,  with  bat- 
 wings,  talons,  &c.  In  the  background  to  the  martyrdom  of 
 S.  Sebastian,  who  is  shot  with  arrows  by  the  imperial 
 '  guard  (but  not  thus  put  to  death),  is  introduced  the  Colos- 
 seum, and  in  ruins  as  now  before  us  If  In  the  picture  of 
 S.  Juliana,  who  is  married  by  force  to  a  Pagan  governor, 
 delivered  up  to  executioners  and  beheaded,;]:  a  gracefully 
 designed  fountain  is  conspicuous  in  the  midst,  with  do- 
 mestic animals  around  its  basement — an  example  of  the 
 increasing  disposition  to  give  importance  to  accessories  and 
 decorative  detail.  Over  a  door  is  a  much  obscured  picture 
 of  the  Madonna  teaching  the  Infant  Christ  to  read ;  cherub- 
 heads  in  a  circle  around  ;  the  Virgin  erroneously  said  to  be 
 
 *  Place  of  martyrdom  unknown  ;  nor  is  it  agreed  whether  this  Saint 
 (if  she  ever  existed)  lived  in  the  third  or  fourth  century.  She  is  said  to 
 have  been  beheaded  by  her  o^^^l  father,  Dioscurns  ;  has  become  the 
 Patroness  of  Artillery  ;  and  her  festival,  4th  December,  has  been  cele- 
 brated by  the  Greeks  since  the  8th,  by  the  Latin  Church  since  the  9th  cen- 
 tury.    Her  attribute  is  the  tower,  from  which  she  escapes  miraculously. 
 
 f  Of  this  picture  Messrs.  Crowe  and  Cavalcaselle  observe  that  it  is 
 "  much  restored,  more  so  indeed  than  any  part  of  these  paintings,  which 
 have  all  undergone  more  or  less  retouching." 
 
 J  She  suflfered  at  Nicomedia  in  the  IV.  century,  during  the  last  per- 
 seculJon, 
 
SACEED   ABT   IN   ITALY.  631 
 
 a  portrait  of  Yanozza,  the  mother  of  Cesare  Borgia,  but  In 
 reality  meant  for  Giulia  Farnese,  a  lady  whose  name  is  not 
 honourably  associated  with  that  of  Alexander  YI.,  and 
 whose  brother  received  from  him  the  Cardinal's  hat,  living 
 to  succeed  to  him  as  Pope  Paul  III.  On  the  vault  is  repre- 
 sented, in  several  medallion  pictures  and  gilt  stuccoes,  the 
 whole  mythologic  history  of  Isis  and  Osiris,  a  far-strained 
 compliment  to  the  Borgia  house,  allusive  to  their  device,  an 
 ox,  or  rather  cow,  vaclie  passante.  It  was  in  this  chamber 
 that  the  body  of  Alexander  lay  in  state,  simply  vested  in 
 white,  on  a  couch  hung  with  crimson  silk. 
 
 In  the  fifth,  *'  Chamber  of  the  Life  of  Our  Lord,"  the  sub- 
 jects are  :  the  Annunciation,  Nativity  (or  rather  Adoration 
 of  the  Divine  Infant),  the  Adoration  of  the  Magi,  the  Eesur- 
 rection,  the  Ascension,  the  Pentecost,  (Descent  of  the  Holy 
 Spirit),  and  Assumption  of  the  Yirgin — all  treated  with  a 
 rich  redundance  of  detail  and  numerous  grouping.  In  the 
 picture  of  the  Eesurrection  is  Introduced  Alexander  YI., 
 kneeling,  pontifically  vested,  with  the  tiara  on  the  ground, 
 the  face  in  profile ;  in  that  of  the  Assumption,  is  another 
 interesting  portrait,  Cesare  Borgia  in  his  capacity  and  cos- 
 tume as  Cardinal,  kneeling  beside  the  vacant  tomb,  on  the 
 other  side  of  which  kneels  S.  Thomas  ;  the  head  of  Cesare 
 that  of  a  man  about  thirty,  serious  and  sensible  looking ;  a 
 glance  sufficiug  to  convince  that  the  portrait  by  Eaff'ael  in 
 the  Borghese  collection,  commonly  called  "  Csesar  Borgia," 
 is  not  the  likeness  of  this  notorious  personage.  On  the 
 pendentives  of  the  vault  are  seven  Prophets  with  scrolls, 
 the  texts  on  which  refer  to  the  subjects  of  the  larger  pic- 
 tures. Solomon  is  made  to  predict  the  Assumption  of  the 
 Yirgin  in  the  words  :  Quasi  Cedrus  exaltata  sum  in  Libano. 
 (Eccl.  xxiv.  17.) 
 
 In  the  sixth,  the  largest  room  of  this  suite,  all  the  works 
 of  Pinturicchio  were  destroyed  by  Leo  X.  (who  ought  to 
 
632  MEDIEVAL   CHRISTIANITT   AND 
 
 have  known  and  done  better),  and  in  their  place  were 
 painted  sundry  uninteresting  decorative  designs,  mythologic 
 and  others,  by  Giovanni  da  Udine  and  Pierino  del  Vaga. 
 
 In  one  of  the  Vatican  Stanze  containing  EafFael's  frescoes 
 (the  Incendio  del  Borgo,  &c.  being  in  this) ,  four  circular 
 paintings  on  the  vault,  by  Perugino,  were  saved  from  destruc- 
 tion by  his  more  illustrious  pupil,  who  refused  to  paint  over 
 them,  as  requested  by  his  employers.  He  did  well  to  preserve 
 them,  for  these  compositions  are  among  the  most  devotional 
 and  refined  in  religious  feeling  of  all  that  Umbrian  master's 
 works.    They  represent,  on  scale  less  than  life :  Christ  seen 
 in  a  gilt  nimbus  with  the  personified  Justice  and   Mercy, 
 majestic  and  graceful  forms,  standing  before  Him,  angels 
 and  cherub-heads  floating   around ;   the  Transfiguration, 
 Christ  standing  between  Moses  and  Elias,  with  angels  at- 
 tending, two  of  those  mysterious  beings  placed  between 
 the  Saviour  and  the  visionary  Lawgiver  and  Prophet ;  the 
 Eternal  Father  enthroned  among  clouds  and  blessing,  with 
 a  glory  of  angels  around ;  the  Ploly  Trinity,  an  original 
 treatment  of  that  subject,  the  Eather  seen  in  the  heavens 
 with  a  globe  in  one  hand,  the  other  raised  to  bless,  the  Son 
 standing  on  clouds  below,  the  Apostles  kneeling  around 
 Him,  and  also  on  clouds  instead  of  resting  on  earth,  the 
 Dove  hovering  beneath  the  feet  of  the  Christ,  who  blesses 
 as  does  the  Eatlier.     The  distinction  of  age  and  aspect  is 
 strongly  marked,  and  the  relationship  between  the  Eather 
 and  the  Son  is  conceived  from  a  human  point  of  view,  less 
 spiritual,  one  might  say  less  orthodox  than  the  conception 
 of  earlier  Art,  which  presents  the  Divine  Son  as  sole  em- 
 bodied and  visible  manifestation  of  the  Infinite.     Both  are 
 of  nobly  benignant  aspect,  however  otherwise  contrasted,  in 
 these  pictures ;  and  the  grave,  beautiful  sweetness  in  the 
 countenance    of   the   Son   corresponds    to    the    idea    of 
 Him  who,  intensely  human,  is  touched  with  the  feeling 
 
SACRED   ART   IN   ITALY.  633 
 
 of  our  infirmities,  and  is  the  sole  Mediator  of  whom 
 sinful  creatures  can  have  need,  or  whose  advocacy  can 
 be  relied  on  before  the  Holy  of  Holies.  Genius  Kcems 
 here  implicitly  to  reject  the  notion  of  any  human  inter- 
 cessors being  requisite,  or  empowered  to  aid,  between  the 
 erring  creature  and  the  all-powerful  Son  of  IM  an  ! 
 
 Melozzo  dcgli  Ambrosi,  called  from  his  birthplace  "  da 
 Forli  *'  (1438-'92),  was  prominent  among  the  artists  invited 
 to  Eome  by  Sixtus  IV.  When  Cardinal  Pietro  Eiario 
 enlarged  the  SS.  Apostoli  church,  this  master  was  engaged 
 to  adorn  the  tribune  with  a  great  picture,  the  largest  he 
 is  kno"\\Ti  to  have  ever  undertaken.  Its  subject  was  the 
 Ascension ;  but  its  merits  did  not  save  that  portion  of  the 
 building  from  being  taken  down,  and  Melozzo's  fresco 
 consequently  in  the  greater  part  destroyed,  when  the 
 church  underwent  some  tasteless  modernization  in  1711. 
 Portions  of  the  picture  were,  however,  preserved.  The 
 colossal  figure  of  Christ  soaring  heavenward  amidst  angelic 
 choirs,  is  now  set  into  a  wall  above  the  first  landing-place  of 
 the  great  stairs  in  the  Quirinal  palace.  An  inscription  below, 
 said  to  be  by  Pope  Clement  XI.,  ascribes  to  Melozzo  cither 
 the  inventing  or  the  perfecting  of  the  method  of  painting 
 on  vaults,  for  the  di  sotto  in  sic  effect.  The  Saviour  ascends 
 with  outspread  arms,  the  gaze  directed  downwards,  the  hair 
 long  and  dark,  the  drapery  floating  in  broad  folds  ;  behind 
 Him  are  a  multitude  of  cherubim,  in  semicircular  orders, 
 rising  one  above  another ;  the  ideal  of  His  form  utterly 
 unlike  that  familiarly  seen  in  earlier  art,  partaking  more 
 of  the  intellectual  and  powerful  than  of  the  benign  or 
 gracious — a  character  indeed  so  strongly  marked  as  almost 
 to  approach  coarseness.  The  innocent  joy  and  childlike 
 loveliness  of  the  little  angels  are  aftecting  in  moral  contrast 
 with  the  awe  and  mystery  of  the  great  transaction  they 
 are  gazing  on.  Fourteen  otiicr  fragments  of  the  same  picture 
 
634  MEDIEVAL   CHEISTIANITT   AND 
 
 are  in  the  stanza  capitolare  of  S.  Peter's  :  eight  half-length 
 figures  of  angels  playing  on  instruments,  in  extatic  and 
 rather  overstrained,  hut  very  expressive  attitudes,  the 
 types  of  countenance  all  feminine' ;  two  groups  of  lovely 
 child-angels ;  and  (finest  of  all)  four  heads  of  Apostles, 
 gazing  intensely  upwards,  decision  of  character  and  earnest 
 feeling  predominant  in  their  countenances.  Progress  in 
 technical  skill  and  knowledge  is  apparent ;  but  the  angels 
 in  this  composition  betray  decline  from  the  more  spiritual 
 idea  of  such  individualities,  and  are  mere  creatures  of  earth 
 compared  with  those  imagined  by  Era  Giovanni  and  Benozzo 
 Gozzoli. 
 
 Another  happy  specimen  of  Melozzo's  powers,  and  also 
 of  the  new  direction  and  truthfulness  now  apparent  in 
 portrait  painting,  is  a  fresco  transferred  to  canvass,  and 
 moved  from  its  original  place  (a  vestibule  of  the  ancient 
 library)  to  the  pinacotheca  of  the  Vatican,  representing 
 Sixtus  lY.  seated  in  that  library,  built  by  his  order  for  the 
 increasing  collection  on  its  shelves  ;  the  Pope  being  here 
 attended  by  his  nephews,  Cardinal  Eiario  and  the  Cardinal 
 who  became  Julius  II.,  also  by  two  secular  persons  conjec- 
 tured to  be  his  other  nephews.  Count  Girolamo  and  Gio- 
 vanni della  Bovere,  with  the  historian  Platina  kneeling 
 before  his  Holiness  on  occasion  of  his  appointment  as 
 Vatican  librarian.* 
 
 *  Platina  points  to  the  verses  inscribed  below  the  picture,  and  which 
 form  a  compendious  account  of  the  public  works  carried  out  by  Sixtus  : 
 
 Templa,  domum  expositis,  fora,  moenia,  pontes, 
 Virgineam  Triviae  quod  repararis  aquam, 
 Prisca  licet  nautis  statuas  dare  commoda  portas, 
 Et  Vaticanum  cingere,  Sixte,  jugum  : 
 Plus  tamen  Urbs  debit,  nam  qute  squalore  latebat, 
 Cernitur  in  celebri  Bibliothecse  loco. 
 
 As  %)cndant  to  ihii  may  be  quoted  a  Latin  epigraph  in  honour  of  the 
 
SACEED  ART  IN  ITALY.  635 
 
 In  the  older  portions  of  the  convent  of  Oblate  Nuns, 
 Tor  de'  Specchi,  near  the  Capitol,  founded  by  S.  Francesca 
 Eomana,  are  some  curious  wall-paintings,  with  the  date 
 1485  over  one  part,  illustrating  the  spiritual  experiences, 
 visions,  temptations,  extasies,  and  miracles  of  that  saintly- 
 matron.  In  one  is  depicted  a  vision  of  the  whole  infernal 
 realm,  displayed  to  her  in  ghastly  distinctness,  while  she 
 is  guided  by  her  Guardian  Angel.  Interesting  as  records 
 of  the  devotional  and  mystic  ideas  of  the  time,  these  paint- 
 ings have  not  the  least  value  as  art  works,  but  serve  to 
 recall  the  realities  (whatever  the  dreams  or  illusions)  of  a 
 noble  life,  which  cannot  be  omitted  from  the  religious 
 history  of  Home  at  this  period.  Prancesca,  of  a  family 
 named  Bussi,  born  in  1384,  had  advantages  of  social  posi- 
 tion and  fortune  which  were  augmented  through  her  union 
 •udth  Lorenzo  Ponziani,  a  young  man  of  the  higher  class,  to 
 whom  her  parents  gave  her  in  marriage  against  her  will, 
 as  it  appears,  for  the  religious,  that  is  the  cloistral  state, 
 had  been  her  preference  from  childhood.  Trials  came  ii^  on 
 her  in  her  capacity  as  wife  and  mother,  in  both  which 
 characters  her  conduct  was  most  exemplary.  During  the 
 shocks  of  violence  and  social  disorder  caused  by  the  con- 
 quest and  occupation  of  Eome  by  King  Ladislaus,  her 
 husband  was  exiled,  her  eldest  son  imprisoned,  and  all  the 
 fortunes  of  the  Ponziani  were  dispersed.  Prancesca  lived  to 
 see  the  return  of  peace,  and  to  be  reunited  to  her  family, 
 now  possessed  again  of  all  they  had  lost.  Prom  that  time 
 Prancesca  and  her  husband  lived  together  as  brother  and 
 sister.  Several  Eoman  ladies  desired  to  follow  her  ex- 
 same  Pope,  placed  by  the  Curators  of  Rome,  and  still  seen,  on  a  house  in 
 the  Vioolo  de'  Balestrari,  dated  1483,  and  the  last  two  verses  running 
 thus: 
 
 Digna  salutifero  debentur  premia  Xysto  : 
 
 O  quantum  est  summo  dcbita  Roma  Duci. 
 
G36  MEDIiEYAL   CHRISTIANITY   AND 
 
 ample  in  a  life  of  piety  aud  cliarities ;  and  she  became  the 
 foimder  of  a  religious  sisterhood,  united  under  a  rule  from 
 the  year  1433,  and  in  1439  approved  by  the  Pope,  They 
 placed  themselves  under  the  direction  of  the  Olivetan 
 monks,  and  were  called  "  Oblates,"  from  their  act  of  self- 
 offering  ;  but  they  bound  themselves  by  no  vows,  were  not 
 strictly  cloistered,  being  severed  from  the  pleasures  and 
 cares  of  this  world  without  artificial  restraint.  Erancesca, 
 become  a  widow,  desired  to  enter  this  community,  and 
 presented  herself  prostrate  on  the  ground,  bare-footed, 
 and  with  a  cord  round  her  neck,  craving  to  be  received 
 among  them.  She  refused  at  first  the  ofilce  of  Superior, 
 but  was  finally  induced  to  accept  it  by  the  urgencies  of 
 those  who  wished  to  obey  one  they  so  much  loved  and 
 revered.  Not  the  less  did  she  continue,  though  in  the  post 
 of  authority,  to  dedicate  herself  to  the  lowliest  duties,  and 
 exercise  her  charities  both  without  and  within  her  convent- 
 walls — for  her  rule  did  not  impede  the  liberty  of  doing  good. 
 She  died  1440,  aged  56,  of  a  malady  caught  from  her  son 
 whilst  nursing  him.  The  Roman  people  had  experienced 
 her  goodness  and  known  well  her  virtues ;  consequently  she 
 received,  immediately  after  her  death,  such  honours  as  are 
 usually  paid  to  canonized  saints,  though  it  was  not  till  1608 
 that  she  was  actually  enrolled  among  that  company  by 
 act  of  Pope  Paul  V.  Her  body  was  now  transferred  to  a 
 splendid  tomb  at  S.  Ilaria  Nmva,  the  Olivetan  church, 
 which  thenceforth  received  a  new  dedication  as  S.  Francesca 
 Bomana.  The  benignly  majestic  figure  of  this  virtuous 
 saint  becomes  familiar  in  the  art  of  later  ages,  and  is 
 usually  accompanied  by  another,  an  Angel,  allusive  to  the 
 deeply  significant  legend  that  such  a  heavenly  guide, 
 beautiful  and  glorious  in  aspect,  was  for  many  years 
 visibly  present  to  her,  and  that  another  Angel,  still  more 
 radiant  than  the  first,  was  sent  to  be  her  perpetual  com- 
 
SACRED  ART  IN  ITALY.  G37 
 
 paniou  during  the  last  years  of  her  life.*  It  eeema  to  mc 
 that  the  moral  characteristics  of  that  holy  life  anuouiiec 
 a  more  enlightened  and  cheerful  apprehension  of  the  reli- 
 gious calling  than  appears  in  earlier  hagiography.  There  is 
 little  in  Francesca's  career  at  all  analogous  to  the  startling 
 and  almost  horror-striking  austerities  of  saints  in  former 
 times.  All  is  brightly  serene,  lit  with  the  glow  of  virtue 
 rendered  heroic  through  self-sacrifice,  in  the  example  of 
 this  admirable  woman. 
 
 Quitting  the  city  for  one  of  the  beautiful  regions  com- 
 prised within  the  Agro  Eomano,  we  find  a  singularly  rich 
 specimen  of  the  Italian  Gothic,  with  sculptured  decoration, 
 at  Vicovaro,  between  Tivoli  and  Subiaco.  In  the  princi- 
 pal street  of  that  impoverished  little  town  stands  the 
 octagonal  church  of  S.  GiacomOy  founded  about  the  middle 
 of  this  century  by  the  Orsini,  Counts  of  Tagliacozzo,  and 
 lords  of  this  place  ;  the  sculptures  on  its  exterior,  by 
 Simone,  a  Florentine  pupil  of  Brunelleschi,  and  mentioned 
 by  Yasari  with  the  information  that  he  died  at  Yicovaro, 
 while  engaged  on  his  labours  here.  Seven  sides  of  the 
 octagon  are  plain.  That  on  which  opens  the  sole  doorway  is 
 profusely  adorned  with  sculpture,  statuettes  and  relievi 
 on  small  scale,  some  much  injured  by  time.  On  the  tym- 
 panum is  a  relief  of  the  A'irgin  and  Child,  with  Wo  graceful 
 angels,  who  present  the  kneeling  figures  of  the  two  Orsini 
 brothers,  founders  of  this  church.  The  Divine  Dove  and 
 adoring  Angels  are  seen  within  an  arch  over  this.  At  each 
 side  of  the  portal  are  six  statuettes  of  saints,  male  and 
 female,  under  Gothic  canopies  ;  other  saintly  figures  stand 
 in  niches  on  flanking  pilasters.     On  the  summits  of  half- 
 
 *  An  impressive  picture  of  her  A\nth  the  angel,  by  Romanelli,  is  in  a 
 hall  of  the  Conservators'  palace  on  the  Capitol,  there  placed  by  Urban 
 Vni.  in  1638 — "  aeternaj  memoriae  Franciscaj  Bussise  de  Pontianis, 
 eximijE  pietate  ac  Romana  nobilitatc  matronoe." 
 
638  MEDIEVAL   CHRISTIANITY   AND 
 
 columns,  and  at  the  apex  of  a  triangular  pediment,  are 
 other  statuettes,  so  much  mutilated  that  neither  their 
 subjects  nor  artistic  merit  can  he  well  discerned  ;  that  on 
 the  pediment  probably  intended  for  the  Saviour  blessing. 
 An  inscription  over  the  door  gives  the  title  of  the  Orsini 
 brothers,  "  Taliacociastae  Comites,"  and  mentions  the 
 Bishop  of  Trani,  who  consecrated  this  church,  but  supplies 
 no  date.  An  inscribed  tablet  in  the  interior  gives  further 
 particulars,  and  records  the  indulgences  conceded  by  Pius 
 II. — that  learned  Pope  who  himself  penned  a  brief  notice 
 of  this  interesting  little  church  in  his  "  Commentaria,"  Ivi.* 
 
 *  He  speaks  of  it  as  "  nobile  sacellum  ex  marmore  candidissimo," 
 adorned  "  statuis  egregiis,"  but  left  unfinished  owing  to  the  death  of 
 Francesco  degli  Orsini. 
 
SACRED  ART  IN  ITALY.  C39 
 
 CHEONOLOaT    OF    MONUMENTS. 
 
 (1400  TO  1500). 
 
 Borne. — S.  Peter's — bronze  doors  by  Pilaretc,  1445  ; 
 bronze  monuments  by  Pollajuolo  to  Sixtus  lY.  (1493), 
 and  Innocent  YIII. ;  group  of  La  Picta  (the  Mother  with 
 the  Dead  Christ)  by  Buonarotti,  1499  ;  in  a  corridor  of 
 sacristy,  statues  of  SS.  Peter  and  Paul  by  Mino  del 
 Eegno ;  in  Chapter-house  (stanza  capitolare)  twelve  frag- 
 ments of  Melozzo  da  Porli's  picture  of  the  Ascension 
 from  the  SS.  Apostoli  church  ;  in  grotte  (crypt)  monu- 
 ments of  Innocent  YII.,  Paul  II.,  and  Callixtus  III.,  of 
 two  Cardinals  della  Porta  (1434,  1493),  and  sculptures 
 (several  by  Mino  da  Piesole)  from  various  Papal  monu- 
 ments, and  from  the  ciborium  presented  by  Sixtus  IV. ; 
 Lateran  Basilica,  monument  with  bronze  effigy  of  Martin 
 V.  by  Pilarete,  of  a  Portuguese  Cardinal,  1447  ;  sculptured 
 tabernacle  for  holy  oils,  time  of  Sixtus  IV.,  wooden  statue 
 of  S.  John  the  Baptist  by  Donatello,  and  relievi  of  the 
 two  SS.  John,  &c.,  in  sacristy ;  silver  processional  cross, 
 1451 ;  S.  Paul's  Basilica,  statue  of  Boniface  IX.  in  hall  off 
 sacristy ;  S.  Maria  Maggiore — four  relievi  from  canopy  of 
 ancient  high  altar,  now  in  the  tribune,  other  relief- sculp- 
 tures from  the  same  altar  set  into  the  altar  of  a  chapel  left 
 of  entrance  to  the  chapel  of  the  Holy  Sacrament,  added  to 
 basilica  by  Sixtus  V. ;  panelled  ceiling  of  nave  ;  S.  Marco, 
 rebuilt  in  greater  part,  1468 — relievo  of  S.  Mark  over  en- 
 trance, 1470,  in  sacristy  two  bas-reliefs  by  Mino  da  Piesole  ; 
 S.  Maria  Aracoeli,  rebuilt  in  part  1464-85 — relievi  of  SS. 
 Matthew  and  John  over  lateral  doors  of  fagade,  monuments 
 
640  MEDT.T^YAL    CTIEISTTANITY    AKD 
 
 of  Cardinals  De  Lebretto  (Albret),  1465,  aud  Giovanni 
 Savclli  (in  choir),  1498,  of  Catherine  Queen  of  Bosnia,  1461, 
 and  others  ;  in  chapel  of  S.  Bernardino,  frescoes  illustrating 
 the  life  of  that  Saint  by  Pinturicchio ;  S,  Maria  di  Mon- 
 serrato,  built  1495 — statue  of  S.  James  the  Apostle  by  Con- 
 tucci  (Sansovino),  in  portico  of  court  monuments  of  Spanish 
 Prelates,  dated  1467, 1479, 1486, 1498  ;  in  vestibule  leading 
 to  this  court,  relievo  of  Crucifixion  and  Saints,  1463,  in 
 sacristy  sculptured  tabernacle  for  holy  oils  ;*  S.  Maria 
 della  Pace,  founded  by  Sixtus  IV. ;  S.  Maria  del  Popolo, 
 rebuilt  1477,  architect  Baccio  Pontelli — in  first  chapel  (1.) 
 monument  of  Cardinal  della  Eovere  (time  of  Sixtus  lY.), 
 in  second  chapel,  of  S.  Augustine,  monument  to  Duke  Della 
 E-overe  (di  Sora)  1485,  and  frescoes  by  Pinturicchio ;  in 
 fourth  chapel,  of  S.  Catherine  (founded  1479),  sculptured 
 altar-piece,  monument  of  Albertoni,  a  Eoman  nobleman, 
 1485 ;  in  chapel  of  S.  Jerome,  frescoes  by  Pinturicchio, 
 about  1485  ;  in  chapel  of  S.  Lawrence  (first  r.)  two  sculp- 
 tured tabernacles  with  statuettes,  on  vault  of  choir  Pin- 
 turicchio's  Coronation  of  the  B.  Virgin,  etc.;  in  corridor  of 
 sacristy  monument  of  a  Knight  of  Jerusalem,  1488,  and 
 sculptured  altar-piece,  1497 ;  in  sacristy  monument  of  Arch- 
 bishop of  Salerno,  1482,  and  tabernacle  for  Madonna- 
 picture,  with  statuettes,  presented  by  Alexander  VI. ; 
 S.  Maria  sopra  Minerva,  apse  added  to  church  by  Cardinal 
 Antonio  Gaetani  {ol.  1417),  monuments  of  Cardinals  Do- 
 menico  Capranica  (1458),  Collescipoli  (1446),  and  Orsini, 
 of  the  Prelates  De  Coco  and  Speranzio  (1495),  of  Pra 
 Angelico  (1455),  and  of  two  members  of  the  Eustici  family 
 (1482-1488),  last  in  vestibule  leading  to  lateral  entrance; 
 that  of  the  Plorentine  merchant,  Tornabuoni,  by  Mino  da 
 
 •  These  monuments,  etc.  were  removed  from  S.  Giacomo,  the  other 
 Spanish  church,  in  the  Piazza  Navona,  founded  1150,  and  now  ruinous. 
 
SACRED  AET  IN  ITALY.  G41 
 
 Fiesole ;  by  the  same  artist,  statues  of  SS.  Jolm  Baptist 
 and  Sebastian  in  lateral  cliapel ;  recumbent  effigy  of  S. 
 Catherine  of  Siena  under  high  altar,*  in  chapel  of  S. 
 Thomas  Aquinas,  frescoes  illustrating  the  theological  rank 
 of  that  Saint,  and  altar-piece  of  Annunciation  by  Pilippino 
 Lippi,  in  chapel  off  r.  aisle,  altar-piece  ascribed  to  Lipjio 
 Lippif ;  in  cloister,  two  monuments,  one  of  a  Spanish  Car- 
 dinal, 1478  ;  S.  Maria  del  Priorato  (of  the  Knights  of 
 Malta),  monument  of  the  Grand  Master  CarafFa  (1405), 
 attributed  to  Paolo  Eomano,  and  of  the  Knight  Seripando, 
 1465  ;  S.  Maria  in  Trastevere,  monument  of  Cardinal  degli 
 Annibaldi,  1417,  by  Paolo  Eomano,  tabernacle  for  holy  oils, 
 by  Mino  da  Piesole;  S.  Agostino  1479-'S4,  in  lateral 
 chapel  group  of  the  B.  Virgin  and  S.  Anna  by  Contucci ; 
 S.  Andrea  della  Yalle,  monument  of  Pius  11 J ;  SS.  Apos- 
 toli,  monument  (near  high  altar)  of  Cardinal  Pietro  Eiario, 
 1474 — one  of  the  finest  of  its  style  and  period;  S. 
 Balbina,  restored,  relievo  of  Crucifixion  attributed  to 
 Mino  da  Piesole,  ordered  by  Cardinal  Barbo  (Paul  II.) 
 for  the  ancient  S.  Peter's ;  S.  Cecilia,  monument  of 
 Cardinal    Fortiguerra,    1473 ;     in    a    side    chapel,    wall- 
 
 *  Placed  in  a  chapel  over  her  tomb  soon  after  the  canonization  of 
 that  saint  by  Pius  II.,  and  removed  to  the  high  altar  after  her  relics  had 
 been  transferred,  with  much  solemnity,  on  occasion  of  the  restoration 
 and  reconsecrating  of  this  church,  1855.     {v  supra,  p.  205-6.) 
 
 f  Ascribed  also  to  other  masters.  This  beautiful  picture  being  designed 
 to  commemorate  the  institution  by  Cardinal  Torquemada  of  the  annually 
 dispensed  charity  of  bestowing  dowries  on  young  girls  through  the  agency 
 of  a  pious  sodality,  the  recipients  of  that  donation  are  introduced, 
 kneeling  before  the  Madonna,  in  the  picture,  as  also  is  the  Cardinal  wlio 
 founded,  and  is  interred  beneath,  this  chapel — not  the  Torquemada  who 
 was  Grand  Inquisitor  in  Spain,  but  one  of  his  ancestors. 
 
 X  Subject  of  the  principal  relief  on  this  now  ill-placed  monument,  the 
 consignment  of  the  head  of  S.  Andrew  to  Pope  Pius  amidst  an  assem- 
 blage of  dignitaries. 
 
 2t 
 
642  MEDTiEVAL   CnUTSTlANITT   AXD 
 
 picture  of  the  Crucifixion,  with  life-size  figures,  attri- 
 buted to  Fra  Angelico,  above  an  altar  adorned  with  rich 
 intarsio,  probably  of  this  period ;  S.  Cesario,  relievi  of 
 angels  in  front  of  high  altar ;  S.  Clemente,  monuments  of 
 Cardinals  E,ovarello  (1476)  and  Venier  (1479),  statue  of 
 S.  John  Baptist  by  Simone  of  Florence,  frescoes  by 
 Masaccio  in  chapel  of  S.  Catherine ;  S.  Cosimato,  restored 
 by  Sixtus  IV.,  altar-piece,  or  shrine,  of  S.  Severa  (probably 
 of  date  in  this,  or  opening  of  next  century),  in  lateral 
 chapel ;  Madonna  and  Child  with  SS.  Prancis  and  Clare  by 
 Pinturicchio  (?)  ;  S.  Croce  in  Gerusalemme,  frescoes  on 
 apsidal  vault  attributed  to  Pinturicchio,  1492  ;  S.  Prancesco 
 a  Eipa,  monuments  (removed  to  sacristy)  of  Anguillara 
 family,  one  a  warrior  in  armour,  1482 ;  S.  Gregorio,  monu- 
 ment, in  outer  cloisters,  to  two  brothers ;  in  chapel  of  S. 
 (j-regory  altar  with  sculptured  front,  in  Salviati  chapel, 
 altar  tabernacle,  with  relievi  and  statuettes,  1467  ;  S.  Ono- 
 frio,  church  built  1437-'46,  on  outer  wall  monument  of  the 
 Beato  Niccolo  ( Jeronymite  Hermit),  ob.  1441 ;  on  absidal 
 vault,  frescoes  ascribed  to  Pinturicchio  and  Baldassare 
 Peruzzi ;  S.  Pietro  in  Yincoli,  monument  of  the  brothers 
 Antonio  and  Pietro  Pollajuolo,  wdth  busts  in  relief; 
 tabernacle  ordered  by  Cardinal  Cusa  for  the  chains  of  S. 
 Peter,  1465  ;  in  sacristy,  tabernacle  now  containing  those 
 relics,  with  bronze  relievi  by  Antonio  Pollajuolo  ;  S.  Pras- 
 sede,  monument  of  Cardinal  Alain,  1474 ;  S.  Sabina, 
 monument  of  Cardinal  da  Poggio,  1483 ;  S.  Salvatore 
 in  Lauro,  monument  of  Eugenius  IV.,  by  Isaia  di  Pisa,  in 
 oratory  entered  from  cloisters ;  S.  Vito,  wall-painting  of 
 time  of  Sixtus  IV.  (?)  ;*  S.  Agnese  (extramural  Basilica) 
 
 *  To  this  period  belongs  a  painting,  the  Saviour  with  Saints,  in  the 
 now  desecrated  S.  Maria  del  Sole,  alias  Temple  of  Vesta  (though  mis- 
 called as  euch),  first  dedicated  to  Christian  worship  by  the  Savelli,  and 
 iifterwards  by  the  Delia  Rovere  family. 
 
SACEED   ATIT   IN   ITALY.  G13 
 
 sculptured  altar-piece,  S.  Stephen  and  other  Saints,  1-190  ; 
 S.  Lorenzo  (extramural  Basilica)  Virgin  and  Cliild,  with 
 SS.  Stephen  and  Laurence,  in  choir,  by  Pinturicchio. 
 Churches  rebuilt  or  restored  (besides  the  above-named) : 
 S.  Lorenzo  in  Damaso  (1495),  SS.  Quattro  Incoronati,  S. 
 Sisto,  S.  Stefano  Eotondo,  S.  Teodoro. 
 
 In  Vatican  Palace  :  Sistine  Chapel,  1473,  wall-paintings 
 by  Botticelli,  Eosselli,  Ghirlandajo,  Signorelli,  Perugino ; 
 Chapel  of  S.Lorenzo,  frescoes  by  Fra  GriovanniAngelico;  Ap- 
 partamento  Borgia,  wall-paintings  by  Pinturicchio,  14'92-'95. 
 In  pinacotheca,  paintings  by  Melozzo  da  Porli  (portraits 
 of  Sixtus  IV.  and  of  his  nephews),  Pinturicchio,  Pietro 
 Perugino,  and  two  anconas  (altar-pieces  with  Gothic 
 frames)  one  dated  1466,  by  Niccolo  Alunno  of  Foligno. 
 Statue  of  S.  Paul  by  Paolo  Eomauo,  on  parapet  of  S. 
 Angel 0  bridge.  Quirinal  Palace :  on  wall  above  landing- 
 place  of  staircase,  fresco  of  Christ  ascending  with  Angels, 
 being  part  of  Melozzo  da  Porli's  great  picture  above-named. 
 
 Palaces  built  in  this  century  :  Capranica,  1460  ;  S.  Marco 
 di  Venezia  (1455-68)  ;*  Nardini  (now^  "  Governo  Vecchio") 
 1475 ;  Cancelleria,  1495  ;  Giraud  (or  Torlonia)  ;  Sforza 
 Cesarini.  Hospital  of  S.  Spirito,  rebuilt  1471 — to  which 
 period  belongs  part  of  existing  structure. 
 
 Mimature  Paintings  :  In  Vatican  Library,  Dante,  with 
 illuminations  and  miniatures  by  different  artists ;  Ponti- 
 fical, with  twenty-five  miniatures ;  Breviary  of  Matthias 
 Corvinus,  with  miniatures,  one  bearing  the  date  1492, 
 ascribed  to  Attavante  of  Florence. 
 
 Archives  of  S.  Peter's.—  Missal  of  Nicholas  V.,  miniatures 
 
 '■'  A  bust  of  Paul  II.  by  Vclluno  da  Padua,  on  the  upper  story  of 
 the  portico  in  the  chief  court  of  this  castellated  palace,  is  the  sole 
 example  of  such  portrait-sculpture  of  this  century  (besides  those  on 
 monuments)  to  be  seen  in  Kome.  Another  is  at  the  Albaiii  Villa,  ai.d 
 preserves  the  likeness  of  a  lady  named  Teodorina  Cibo. 
 
 2  T  2 
 
644j  MEDIEVAL   CHEISTIANITT   AND 
 
 few,  the  most  important  a  Crucifixion ;  Missal  of  Cardinal 
 Adimari  (Archbishop  of  Pisa,  ob.  1422)  splendid  illumina- 
 tions and  highly  finished  miniatures ;  principal  subjects  a 
 Crucifixion,  and  Christ  in  glory  amidst  adoring  angels,  also 
 the  Four  Emblems. 
 
 Barlerini  Library :  Dante,  with  miniatures,  the  MS. 
 completed  1419,  and  signed  by  the  copyist  Jacopo  Ser- 
 landio. 
 
 COMAEOA,   OE  EOMAN   PeOYINCE.* 
 
 Ostia. — Cathedral  of  S.  Aurea,  designed  by  Baccio 
 Pontelli ;  castle  rebuilt,  1483-6. 
 
 Vicovaro.— Church,  of  S.  Giacomo,  with  sculptures  and 
 Gothic  ornamentation  on  exterior. 
 
 Subiaco. — In  monastic  church  of  S.  Benedetto,  wall- 
 paintings  of  various  dates,  some  assignable  to  the  XV.  cen- 
 tury, as  a  figure  of  Pope  S.  Gregory  I.  blessing,  with 
 inscription  dated  1489,  by  Stammatico  or  Psammatico,  a 
 Greek;  and  the  Last  Judgment,  with  inscription  dated 
 1466 — very  archaic  and  rude.  In  upper  church,  a  Ma- 
 donna of  school  of  Pinturicchio ;  in  sacristy,  Piet^,  a  wall- 
 painting  of  this  period.  In  S.  Francesco,  wall-paintings 
 attributed  to  Pinturicchio — probably  by  some  inferior 
 imitator ;  also,  over  high  altar,  a  Madonna  with  the  Child 
 standing  on  her  knees  and  caressing  her — a  panel-picture 
 of  much  beauty  and  refined  feeling,  by  an  artist  known 
 as  Antonio  Eomano,  and  inscribed  Anno  Dni  1467,  Anto- 
 nius  de  Homce  me  pinxit  die  4  Octobris.f 
 
 *  A  territorial  limitation  no  longer  retained. 
 
 •j-  Only  shown  to  the  public  on  certain  festivals,  being  usually  covered 
 and  hidden  by  another  picture  representing  S.  Bernardino.  I  know  of 
 no  other  work  by  this  certainly  superior  artist. 
 
SACRED    ART    IN   ITALY.  6-45 
 
 APPENDIX  TO    CHEONOLOGY  OF 
 XIV.   CEXTUEY. 
 
 {v.  p.  401.) 
 
 Ilodena. — In  Cathedral,  ancona  by  Serafino  de'  Serafini, 
 subjects  the  Crucifixion,  the  Coronation  of  the  Virgin,  with 
 Saints,  1385  ;  colossal  wall-painting  of  the  Deity,  the 
 Eternal  Father  w4th  the  Son,  as  an  infant  blessing,  held 
 in  His  hand ;  relievi  (archaic)  of  the  Last  Supper  and 
 Scenes  of  the  Passion,*  etc. ;  altar-piece  by  Tommaso  da 
 Modena ;  other  wall-paintings,  the  Annunciation,  S.  Peter, 
 the  Virgin,  etc. 
 
 Cagli. — In  S.  Francesco,  frescoes,  subjects  from  legend  of 
 S.  Anthony,  date  about  1389. 
 
 Barletta. — East  end  and  apse  of  S.  Maria  Maggiore,  a 
 church  founded  in  the  XII.  century. 
 
 Bitetto. — Cathedral,  commenced  1355. 
 
 S.  Fietroin  Galatina  (Peninsula  of  Apulia). — S.  Caterina, 
 church  founded  1355,  by  Eaymond  de  Baux,  lord  of  town, 
 older  parts  (except  fa9ade)  in  French  Gothic,  aisles  added 
 among  later  buildings. 
 
 Falermo. — Atrium  (round-arched)  of  S.  Maria  della 
 Catena,  about  1392 ;  fagade  and  towers  of  Cathedral,  1300- 
 1359. 
 
 *  These  sculptures  (among  other  subjects,  the  washing  of  the  Apostles' 
 feet  and  the  Denial  of  Christ  ])y  S.  Peter),  arc  more  archaic  than 
 might  be  expected  at  the  date  to  which  I  understand  they  are  assigned. 
 
64,0 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 MedicEval  Paintings   at  Na'ples. 
 
 Some  wall-paintings  in  tlie  Convent  of  Donna  Eegina  at 
 Naples,  made  accessible  to  the  public  since  tlie  suppression  of 
 monasteries,  are  interesting  examples  of  mediaeval  art  in  South- 
 ern Italy,  and  are  referred  by  criticism  mostly  to  the  XIV.  and 
 XV.  centuries  ;  in  part  also,  namely  those  that  form  the  higher  of 
 two  orders  carried  along  the  walls  of  a  vestibule,  to  still  earlier 
 date,  within  the  XIII.  century.  They  cover  the  walls  both  of 
 that  chamber  and  of  a  large  oratory  used  by  the  nuns  ;  are  much 
 damaged,  faded  or  blackened  by  time,  except  where  a  few  figures 
 have  been  repainted.  The  subjects  can,  in  some  instances,  be 
 scarcely  distinguished,  and  the  prevailing  tint  is  a  dusky  reddish 
 brown,  far  from  pleasing.  In  the  vestibule  we  recognise,  besides 
 several  figures  of  saints,  standing  or  seated  within  painted 
 frames  like  architecture,  the  Presentation  in  the  Temple,  and 
 the  Transit  of  the  Virgin,  the  latter  subject  with  the  usual 
 traditionary  treatment — the  Saviour  standing  among  the  Apos- 
 tles by  the  bier,  and  holding  in  His  arms  the  liberated  soul  in 
 the  form  of  an  infant.  On  the  walls  of  the  oratory  is  repre- 
 sented, in  several  orders  of  groups  on  a  small  scale,  the  entire 
 Gospel  History,  the  Last  Judgment,  and,  on  a  larger  scale,  near 
 the  place  of  the  altar,  are  separate  figures  of  Apostles  and  Pro- 
 phets. The  Judgment  picture,  occupying  the  wall  opposite 
 to  the  altar,  is  the  most  damaged  and  unintelligible  ;  but  what 
 remains  suffices  to  show  a  conception  of  the  subject  not  accord- 
 ing to  the  Greek  but  the  Latin  ideal :  beside  the  Saviour  and 
 Judge  stand  Moses  and  Elias ;  the  twelve  i^postles  preside 
 over  the  groups  of  the  Blessed,  and  as  many  other  personages 
 
APPENDIX.  Gi7 
 
 (Prophets?)  over  the  terrific  scene  of  tlic  rosurrectiou  to  socoml 
 death.    We  notice  the  giant  S.  Christopher  with  tlie  Divine 
 Infant  on  his    shoulders,  and    S.   Anthony  the  Al)hot  among 
 Saints  in  the  vestibule.      No  particularly  original  or  striking 
 conceptions  are  manifest,  and  these  paintings  are  of  a  descrip- 
 tion less  interesting  to  the  lover  of  Art  than  to  the  antiquarian. 
 On  the  dark  panelled  ceiling  of  the  oratory  is  an  alto-relievo  in 
 gilt  woodwork  of  the  Coronation  of  the  Virgin.     This  chapel  is 
 now  converted  into  the  Court  of  Assizes ;  the  Judge's  seat  fills 
 the  place  of  the  altar,  and  on  one  side  the  painted  walls  arc  in 
 part  whitewashed  over — not,  I  believe,  through  any  recently 
 ordered  arrangement.     The  immense  monastery,  restored  after 
 the  ancient  buildings  had  suffered  from  earthquake,  by  Mary, 
 consort  of  Charles  II.,  1293 — the  pious  Queen  who  spent  the 
 last  years  of  her  life,  and  died,  in  this  retreat — is  now  under- 
 going strange  transformations,  which  threaten  to  sweep  away 
 its  half-ruinous  porticoes  and  arcades,  battlemented  walls,  and 
 Gothic  windows.     I  had  neither  seen  nor  heard  of  the  curious 
 paintings  in  its  formerly  impenetrable  interior,  till  informed  on 
 the  subject  through  the  valuable  work  lately  commenced,  and 
 now    appearing   in  periodical   fascicoli,    Studj  sul   Munumenti 
 d'ltalia  Meridionale  dal  lY.  al  XIII.  secolo,   by   Dcmctrio 
 Saluzano,     Inspector    of    the    Pinacotheca    at    the    National 
 Museum  of  Naples.     This  learned  author  arrives  at  the  con- 
 clusion that  Art  never  became  absolutely  extinct  in  Southern 
 Italy,  but  kept  the  tenor  of  its  way  through  ages  of  turmoil 
 and  imperfect  civilization,  still  an  independent  school,  wliic-li 
 neither  required  nor  received  lustre  from  the  kindling  of  a  new 
 light  by  Cimabue  or  Giotto.     What  other  long  buried  treasures 
 of  Art  may  we  not  expect  to  see  brought  before  the  public  eye, 
 in  the  cloistral  retreats  of  veiled  sisterhood  or  obscure  mendicant 
 community,  after  the  full  enforcement  of  new  laws  in  the  Italian 
 Kingdom  ? 
 
 The   Catacombs  of  Naj^lcs. 
 
 Since  my  notice  of  these  cemeteries  (supr.  p.  210)  was  written, 
 works  of  exploration  have  been  recommenced,  and  intelligently 
 
G48  APPENDIX. 
 
 directed  in  them,  with  results  that  promise  to  add  valuable  things 
 to  the  range  of  Christian  and  Greek  Antiquities  in  the  capital  of 
 the  ex-kingdom.  A  full  report  of  these  interesting  labours  and 
 the  fruit  hitherto  obtained  by  them,  is  given  in  De  Eossi's  "  Bul- 
 lettino"  of  Christian  Archaeology,  2nd  series,  anno  II.,  No.  I. 
 It  is  needless  to  observe  that  such  Art  as  is  found  in  the 
 hypogaea  in  question,  does  not  fall  within  the  limits  of  my 
 present  subject. 
 
 The  Popes  at  Avignon. 
 
 Homanin,  "  Storia  documcntata  di  Venezia,"  throws  doubt  on 
 the  whole  story  mentioned  above  (p.  128),  of  the  abject  humilia- 
 tion of  the  Venetian  Envoy,  Dandolo,  before  John  XXII.,  when 
 that  Eepublic  submitted  (1323)  to  the  wrathful  Pontiff,  craving 
 release  from  the  interdict  provoked  by  the  taking  of  Ferrara  in 
 1308,  and  fulminated  by  Clement  V. 
 
 An  instance  of  dignified  opposition  to  spiritual  despotism 
 occurs  in  the  narrative  of  another  embassy  to  Avignon,  sent 
 from  Florence  after  Gregory  XI.  had  cited  the  representatives 
 of  that  Eepublic  (1376)  to  answer  before  his  tribunal  for  the 
 offence  of  inciting  the  pontific  cities  to  revolt  against  his  go- 
 vernment, or  rather  that  of  his  unworthy  ministers,  in  the 
 Eoman  States.  The  Florentine  Orators  began  by  declaring 
 that :  *'  During  the  four  hundred  years  they  had  enjoyed  liberty, 
 this  blessing  had  become  so  naturalized  among  them  that  every 
 citizen  would  be  ready  to  sacrifice  life  for  its  preservation." 
 The  Pope  would  not  allow  them  to  speak  further ;  but  forth- 
 with launched  the  interdict  which,  among  other  clauses,  autho- 
 rized all  who  had  either  the  means  or  will  to  seize  the  persons 
 and  confiscate  the  property  of  Florentine  citizens.  On  this  one 
 of  the  Ambassadors,  Donato  Barbadori,  turned  to  a  crucifix  in 
 the  audience-hall,  and  appealed  to  the  Eedeemer  against  that 
 sentence,  citing  the  words  of  a  sacred  text :  "  My  Protector, 
 leave  mo  not !  even  though  iny  father  and  my  mother  should 
 abandon  me." 
 
APPENDIX.  C19 
 
 Church  Restorations. 
 
 Tlic  numerous  restorations  of  ancient  cliurclics,  now  in  pro- 
 gress in  Central  and  Nortliern  Italy,  are,  so  far  as  I  have  had 
 opportunity  of  observing,  directed  by  a  just  taste  and  intelli- 
 gent appreciation  of  the  original  architecture.  The  mediaeval 
 is  respected  and  preserved  ;  and  it  is  the  obvious  aim  of  these 
 undertakings  to  reintegrate  without  altering  the  sacred  build- 
 ings so  cared  for. 
 
 At  Venice  several  of  these  works,  now  advancing  to  com- 
 pleteness, were  commenced  by  Austrian,  others  by  Italian 
 authorities.  The  restoration  of  St.  Mark's  was  begun  many 
 years  before  the  change  of  government,  and  the  entire  northern 
 side  of  that  basilica  is  now  renovated,  the  ancient  material  and  all 
 the  sculptures  being  carefully  replaced,  by  an  architect  named 
 Biondelli,  who  finished  his  task  in  1862.  In  1865,  another 
 architect,  named  Dorigo,  began  the  works  still  in  progress  at 
 the  southern  side,  and  directed  according  to  the  same  principle 
 — a  reintegration  of  the  antique  with  the  use  of  the  old  material, 
 and  the  refitting  of  all  parts  after  such  repair  as  is  necessary. 
 Signor  Dorigo  proceeds  slowly  on  system,  employing  com- 
 paratively few  labourers,  and  scrupulously  superintending  all 
 they  do.  I  learn  with  regret  that  it  is  intended  to  restore  the 
 fa9ade  by  the  same  process — an  operation  which,  it  is  to  bo 
 feared,  will  divest  that  marvellous  structure,  to  some  degree,  of 
 the  time-worn  grandeur  and  rich,  venerable  Orientalism  which 
 so  impose  and  fascinate  in  its  aspect.  In  the  course  of  the 
 works  it  was  discovered  that,  conformably  with  local  traditions, 
 the  original  design  of  the  architecture  is  simple,  the  construc- 
 tion of  brick  little  overlaid  with  ornament,  and  the  splendid 
 incrustation  of  coloured  marbles  and  heterogeneous  sculjitures 
 but  a  mask  of  later  origin,  concealing  the  ancient  walls  of  this 
 ducal  basilica.  The  "  Storia  della  Repubblica  di  Yenezia,"  by 
 Francesco  Zanotto,  published  since  the  restorations  in  question 
 were  begun,  points  out  this  confirmation  of  the  conjectures  of 
 historians  and  critics  as  to  the  original  character  of  St.  Mark's 
 cathedral. 
 
 Kestorations  at  the  church  next  in  grandeur  and  in  historic 
 
650  APPENDIX. 
 
 importance  at  Venice,  SS.  Giovanni  e  Faolo,  were  begun  fifteen 
 years  ago,  and  are  jci  far  from  completion.  The  exterior  has 
 been  isolated,  so  that  every  part  of  its  elevation,  and  the  pen- 
 tagonal apse  with  its  stories  of  lancet  windows,  are  brought 
 fully  into  view,  unobstructed  by  modern  buildings.  ISTo  injury 
 inflicted  by  time  has  been  fatal  to  any  leading  features  of  this 
 church,  founded  in  1240 ;  and  it  has  only  been  necessary  to 
 strengthen  the  lofty  columns,  especially  the  two  which  serve  to 
 support  the  cupola.  The  painted  glass  has  been  removed,  and 
 is  (I  understand)  to  be,  if  possible,  restored,  or  else  replaced  by 
 other  glass -paintings  prepared  at  the  factory  for  the  service  of 
 the  Duomo  at  Milan.  The  chapel  of  the  Eosary,  destroyed  by 
 fire  in  August,  1867,  and  in  which  perished  on  that  occasion  a 
 masterpiece  of  Titian  and  one  of  the  most  admirable  Madonna 
 pictures  of  Giovanni  Bellini,  is  rebuilt  and  re-roofed.  Two 
 other  Venetian  churches,  interesting  examples  of  the  later 
 Gothic  and  the  earlier  Eenaissance,  are  undergoing  repairs. 
 S.  Maria  delV  Orto,  with  a  fine  fagade  (1474)  and  sculptures 
 attributed  to  Bartolomeo  Buono  (or  Bon),  had  been  used  as  a 
 barrack  for  five  years  before  1862,  when  it  was  determined  to 
 repair  and  reconsecrate  this  church.  I  cannot  approve  of  the 
 extent  to  which  colour  and  gilding  are  introduced  in  the  new 
 embellishments  ;  and  though  on  the  flat  wooden  ceiling  such 
 decoration  is  suitable,  its  profuseness  around  archivolts  and  on 
 the  capitals  of  marble  columns  seems  discordant  with  the 
 gravity  of  style  and  massiveness  of  forms  in  this  interior.  I 
 can  more  unreservedly  commend  the  repairs  at  S.  Maria  dei 
 Miracoli,  the  most  exquisite  Venetian  example  of  the  Eenais- 
 sance style,  rich  in  sculptured  ornato  and  inlaid  work  of  coloured 
 marbles — a  masterpiece  of  the  architect  Pietro  Lombardo,  who 
 built  this  small  but  conspicuous  church,  1481-9.  The  method 
 adopted  for  the  restoration  is  like  that  at  St.  Mark's  :  the  removal 
 and  retouching  of  the  marble  pieces,  for  replacement  after  the 
 sculptor  or  stonecutter  has  done  his  task,  but  no  alteration  of 
 design  or  admission  of  novelty.  The  exterior  of  the  whole 
 building  is  already  thus  renewed.  In  the  interior  I  found  all 
 the  marble  incrustations,  friezes,  &c.  lying  heaped  up  on  the 
 
APPEXDIX.  G51 
 
 pavement,  the  elioir  alone,  raised  above  the  nave,  and  provided 
 with  amboues  projecting  from  its  phitform,  being  finislied. 
 
 The  cathedral  of  S.  Donato,  on  the  Miirano  island,  which, 
 according  to  Ughelli  {Italia  Sacra),  was  founded  950  and  con- 
 secrated in  957,  has  been  undergoing  restorations  since  18G7, 
 though  such  works  have  been  at  intervals  suspended.  The 
 pentagonal  apse,  with  two  storeys  of  arcades,  and  much  curious 
 inlaid  work;  is  completely  renewed  with  the  old  material ;  so 
 also  the  keel-formed  wooden  ceiling,  which  is  to  be  painted. 
 It  has  not  been  necessary  to  touch  the  columns  of  Greek  marble 
 or  their  Corinthian  capitals,  but  the  present  altars,  in  bad  modern 
 style,  will  be  restored  to  an  olden  type,  and  the  high  altar  pro- 
 vided ^-ith  a  canopy  like  that  at  St.  Mark's.  The  grand  and 
 sombre,  long-neglected,  but  most  impressive  Duomo,  on  the 
 island  of  Torcello,  is  to  become  also  a  scene  of  restoring  labours. 
 
 Visiting  that  almost  deserted  island  in  the  September  of  last 
 year,  I  was  sorry  to  observe  signs  of  unchecked  decay  in  that 
 venerable  monument  of  Christian  architecture,  the  cathedral 
 founded  in  the  tenth  century,  and  in  the  greater  part  rebuilt, 
 A.D.  1008,  by  the  bishop  of  this  See,  Orso  Orseoli,  son  of  the 
 Doge  Pietro.  The  highly  valuable  mosaic  which  covers  the 
 western  wall  above  the  chief  doorway,  and  is  (I  believe)  the 
 earhest  example,  being  coeval  with  the  original  church,  of 
 the  Last  Judgment  represented  in  such  form  of  art,  was  in  part 
 concealed  "by  scafTolding  for  the  requisite  repairs  at  the  time  of 
 my  visit.  In  this  composition  the  figure  of  the  Eternal  Father 
 is  introduced  as  well  as  the  Saviour  and  Judge, — the  Two 
 Persons  being  similar  in  type,  though  the  Father  (on  larger 
 scale)  has  more  of  the  severe  and  sombre  in  aspect  than  the 
 Son.  The  gate  of  Paradise  is  guarded  by  a  Seraph  on  the 
 outer  side,  by  S.  Peter  with  his  keys  and  S.  John  the  Baptist 
 within.  Angels  are  precipitating  the  souls  of  the  reprobate 
 into  hell-flames,  the  benignant  ministers  thus  discharging  the 
 task  assigned  in  later  art  to  Demons.  Below  is  seen  the  purga- 
 torial state,  with  souls,  in  form  of  nude  human  figures,  plunged 
 in  its  cleansing  fires.  Central,  on  the  lowest  plain,  is  the  apo- 
 calyptic throne,  with  a  cross  and  jewelled  book  laid  upon  it. 
 
652  APPENDIX. 
 
 Archangels  guarding  it,  and,  on  one  side,  S.  Michael  with  his 
 scales  for  weighing  good  and  evil  deeds,  on  the  other,  a  group 
 of  black  scaly-winged  Devils. 
 
 The  adjacent  church  of  S.  Fosca,  founded  in  the  X.  and 
 restored  in  the  XII.  century,  is  better  kept  than  the  Duomo, 
 though  used  for  worship  but  one  day  in  the  year,  while  a  daily 
 Mass  is  celebrated  at  the  latter.  The  fine  pentagonal  portico 
 of  S.  Fosca  is  the  part  most  damaged. 
 
 At  Verona  I  found  works  recently  commenced  at  the  histori- 
 cal basilica  of  S.  Zenone,  which  promise  well,  and  have  already 
 swept  away  several  tasteless  adjuncts  and  alterations  for  which 
 the  capitular  clergy  were  responsible.  Entering  this  majestic 
 church,  we  now  see  at  once  to  the  extremity  of  the  spacious 
 crypt,  divided  into  aisles  by  forty-eight  columns  of  red  marble, 
 like  that  at  S.  Miniato  near  Florence.  The  removal  of  white- 
 wash has  brought  to  light  many  media3val  frescoes  on  the  walls ; 
 and  among  these  the  most  remarkable  is  a  painting,  near  the 
 tribune,  attributed  to  Altichieri,  and,  I  should  say,  worthy  of 
 that  master  ;  the  subject,  a  Crucifixion,  with  five  Saints,  one  of 
 whom  presents  a  kneeling  donator,  also  angels  hovering  around 
 the  cross.  In  the  cathedral  of  Verona  has  lately  been  rescued 
 from  whitewash  an  important  composition  in  fresco,  on  the  wall 
 of  an  aisle  :  several  saints,  dignified  and  characteristic  figures, 
 standing  each  apart  within  a  framework  of  painted  architecture, 
 an  inscription  being  preserved  with  the  artist's  name,  Giovanni 
 Falconetto,  and  the  date  1503.  Vasari  supposes  that  this 
 Veronese  artist  died  in  1534,  aged  76  ;  Lanzi,  that  he  was  pro- 
 bably living  in  1553. 
 
 I  cannot  but  look  with  some  apprehension  on  repairs,  how- 
 ever judicious  or  desirable,  in  a  church  so  rich  in  memories, 
 and  of  architecture  so  worthily  corresponding  to  the  sanctities 
 of  the  past,  as  S.  Amhrogio  at  Milan.  The  restorations  still 
 progressing  here,  were  begun  about  fifteen  years  ago.  The  high 
 altar,  under  which  were  lately  discovered  three  skeletons,  those 
 of  St.  Ambrose,  St.  G-ervasius,  and  St.  Protasius,  is  under- 
 going restoration  ;  and  its  highly  curious  canopy,  with  archaic 
 reliefs  on  the  four  sides,  has  been  restored  and  rcgilt  where 
 
APPENDIX.  G53 
 
 originally  so  ornamented.  Tliis  canopy,  resting  on  porphyry 
 columns,  is  among  tlic  objects  by  which  the  church  was  enriched 
 when  almost  rebuilt  by  Archbishop  Galdinus,  1109.  A  crypt 
 has  been  found  under  the  mosaic-adorned  chapel  of  St.  Sat3'rus, 
 which  is  supposed  to  be  another  and  more  ancient  church,  the 
 basilica  of  Fausta,  incorporated  with  the  Ambrosian ;  and  here 
 are  to  be  laid  the  reHcs  of  St.  Satyrus  and  St.  Victor,  hitherto 
 kept  in  a  sculptured  marble  urn  over  the  altar.  Some  remnants 
 of  frescoes  adorning  the  walls  and  pillars  of  the  nave  have  been 
 brought  to  light  by  the  removal  of  stucco.  On  the  whole,  I 
 must  speak  favourably  of  all  that  has  yet  been  done  at  S. 
 Ambrogio.  The  grave  dignity,  the  olden  charm  of  this  cele- 
 brated church,  and  its  severely  simple  architecture,  do  not 
 appear,  hitherto,  injured. 
 
 At  Pavia  I  was  glad  to  hear  of  the  project  for  finishing  the  ca- 
 thedral according  to  the  designs  of  Cristoforo  Eocchi,  who  com- 
 menced this  building  1488  :  the  completion  to  be  accomplished 
 at  the  cost  of  the  citizens,  who  have  opened  a  subscription. 
 One  benefactor  left  50,000  francs  by  will.  Some  incipient  works, 
 too  little  advanced  for  any  estimate  of  style,  are  to  be  seen 
 against  the  lateral  walls.  The  magnificent  Certosa  of  Pavia 
 fortunately  requires  no  repair,  nor  any  touch  from  modern 
 labour  for  its  elaborate  and  splendid  details.  Its  marble  and 
 mosaic  encrusted  chapels,  gorgeous  choir,  and  vast  Eenaissauce 
 cloisters  may  now  be  visited  in  every  part  by  both  sexes* 
 Cloistral  restraints  are  removed,  though  eight  Carthusian  monks 
 (three  only  in  priest's  orders)  still  remain  here  as  guardians  and 
 mmisters  of  this  famous  sanctuary.  At  Piacenza  I  saw  with 
 pleasure  the  restoration,  and  I  believe  strictly  to  its  original 
 type,  of  S.  Antonlno,  the  former  cathedral,  founded  in  the 
 tenth,  and  partly  (as,  no  doubt,  in  the  acute  arches  of  its  inte- 
 rior) a  building  of  the  twelfth  century.  Some  grotesque  reliefs 
 round  the  portal  are,  I  believe,  the  oldest  details.  Of  the  frescoes 
 on  pilasters  (mentioned  by  Messrs.  Crowe  and  Cavalcasclle) 
 I  could  find  only  one,  the  single  figure  of  St.  Anthony  the 
 Hermit. 
 
 Comparing  the  works  for  church-restoration  carried  out  in 
 
654 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 recent  years  by  ecclesiastical  government  at  Rome  and  by  con- 
 stitutional government  in  other  Italian  cities,  one  is  struck  by 
 singularity  of  contrast.  In  tbe  pontifical  metropolis  sacred 
 antiquity  has  been  overlaid  and  disguised  under  modern  splen- 
 dours, with  questionable  taste  ;  under  the  constitutional  regime  it 
 has  been  scrupulously  revered  and  preserved,  so  far  as  possible, 
 in  the  processes  of  renovation  !  The  Italian  Government  is 
 accused,  and  not  without  cause,  of  systematic  antagonism 
 against  the  claims  and  privileges  of  the  hierarchic  body,  and 
 against  all  ecclesiastical  institutions.  The  spirit  and  intention 
 with  which  such  sacred  monuments  as  I  have  above  alluded  to 
 are  now  cared  for,  with  lavish  expense,  announce  the  strength 
 and  reality  of  an  opposite  feeling,  the  Catholic  and  traditional, 
 in  the  Italian  mind;  and  perhaps  may  be  construed  as  a  guaran- 
 tee for  the  maintenance  of  the  old  religion,  however  modified  or 
 newly  influenced,  in  this  classic  land — the  centre  of  so  many 
 supremacies.     {Communicated  to  tlie  "  Academy") 
 
 The  Ducal  Falace,  Venice. 
 
 Further  study  with  reference  to  this  historical  Palace  has  led 
 me  to  modify  the  opinion  expressed  above  (pp.  346-7),  and  to  con- 
 clude that,  though  the  terms  used  by  some  writers  seem  to  imply 
 the  fact  of  a  total  re -edification  begun  in  the  second  year  of  Fran- 
 cesco Foscari  (1424),  some  parts  at  least  of  an  architecture  older 
 than  the  XV.  century  are  still  seen  in  the  imposing  pile  before 
 us.  Two  of  the  acute-arched  windows  with  tracery,  on  the  front 
 towards  the  "  Eiva,"  are  at  lower  level  than  others  in  the  same 
 storey ;  and  the  more  antique  character  is  apparent  in  the  small 
 acute-arched  windows  of  the  highest  storey  overlooking  the 
 inner  court.  The  new  buildings,  we  are  told,  were  finished  up 
 to  the  imposts  of  the  arches  opposite  the  "  Scala  dei  Giganti"  in 
 1457,  the  last  year  of  the  Doge  Foscari.  In  1499  the  directing 
 architect,  Hizzo,  was  succeeded  by  Pietro  Lombardo. 
 
 No  statement  by  trustworthy  writers  obliges  us  to  conclude 
 that  the  time-honoured  residence  of  the  earlier  Doges  was 
 demolished  without  sparing  a  single  detail.  The  opinions  of 
 critics  are  divided,  as  I  have  observed,  respecting  the  period 
 
APPENDIX.  (555 
 
 of  tlic  very  remarkable  sculptures  ou  tlic  capitals  of  tlic  lower 
 arcades ;  and  perhaps  it  may  be  inferred  that,  if  executed  in 
 the  XV.  century,  the  intention  and  ideas  manifest  in  those 
 works  pertain  to  the  preceding. 
 
 The  Jubilee  Year  and  Confraternities  in  Rome. 
 
 The  more  frequent  recurrence  of  the  Jubilee — determined  by 
 bull  of  Paul  II.,  afterwards  by  Sixtus  IV.,  for  every  twenty- 
 fifth  instead  of  every  fiftieth,  or  (according  to  the  original  de- 
 cree) every  first  year  in  each  century— supplied  fresh  stimulus 
 throughout  the  range  of  ecclesiastical  undertakings.  During 
 the  years  which  immediately  preceded  the  great  twelve  months' 
 festival  there  was  a  continual  movement  towards  the  restoring, 
 embellishing,  or  founding  of  churches.  In  this  way,  probably, 
 much  was  lost  that  deserved  to  be  retained ;  but  no  doubt  much 
 was  accomplished  with  energy.  So  also  did  the  founding  of 
 national  hospices,  attached  to  churches,  for  French,  Spanish, 
 Portuguese,  Slavonians,  Genoese,  Bretons,  contribute  to  the 
 motives  for  exertion  and  to  interests  of  art  in  Eome  during  this 
 century.  And  the  continual  growth  of  pious  confraternities, 
 each  dedicated  to  some  special  office  of  devotion  or  charity, 
 each  provided  with  its  proper  oratory,  was  at  the  same  time  an 
 operative  cause  for  securing  similar  effects.  Kow  arose,  with 
 the  form  of  pious  sodalities,  the  guilds  of  traders  and  artizans  ; 
 that  of  gardeners  and  fishermen,  who  built  the  richly  ornate 
 church  of  S.  Maria  delV  Orto  (1489)  in  Trastevere ;  that  of 
 innkeepers,  ferrymen,  and  boatmen  of  the  Tiber,  who  built 
 S.  Rocco,  with  a  hospital,  (1499,)  modernized  in  1657 ;  that  of 
 druggists,  who  founded  a  hospital  (1430)  beside  S.  Lorenzo  in 
 Miranda,  rebuilt  in  1602,  amidst  the  ruins  of  the  temple  of 
 Antoninus  and  Faustina  ;  that  of  bakers,  who  formed  themselves 
 into  a  guUd  in  1500,  and  commenced  in  1507  their  church, 
 S.  Maria  di  Loreto,  finished  1560,  from  the  designs  of  Antonio 
 Sangallo.  The  sculptors  and  stonecutters  chose  for  their  wor- 
 ship the  ancient  chapel  of  S.  Sylvester,  contiguous  to  the  SS. 
 Qnaitro  Incoronati.  The  painters,  though  earlier  constituted 
 as  a  privileged  association,  did  not  obtain  a  diurcli  for  their 
 
656  APPENDIX. 
 
 aggregate  worsliip— /S'/S.  Luca  e  Martina,  on  tlie  Forum — till 
 1588. 
 
 If  the  fifteenth  century  has  its  darker  aspect  in  the  annals  of 
 Eome  and  of  the  Papacy ;  if  (especially  within  its  later  years) 
 some  individuals,  raised  to  the  chair  of  S.  Peter,  proved  little 
 worthy  of  that  high  post ;  and  if  ecclesiastical  policy,  under  such 
 auspices,  manifested  increasing  tendencies  to  worldliness, — 
 granting  that  all  those  evils  existed,  we  perceive,  nevertheless,  a 
 brighter  side  of  the  picture,  radiant  and  attractive  in  the  lustre 
 thrown  on  the  records  of  these  times  from  the  progress  of  intel- 
 lect and  inspirations  of  piety. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 PACK 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Academics  of  Art 
 
 252 
 
 ,616 
 
 Archives  of  IMonte  Verginc         245 
 
 Literary 
 
 534 
 
 Arczzo 
 
 299,  410 
 
 Acoiajuoli,  Niccolo 
 
 272 
 
 Armenian  Church 
 
 484,  493 
 
 Alirler.  Architect 
 
 365 
 
 Arnoldo  Alberto 
 
 269 
 
 A  illy,  Pierre  de 
 
 430 
 
 Assisi,  history  of    99, 
 
 106, 
 
 311,411 
 
 Albornoz,  Cardinal 
 
 Churches:  Cathedral 
 
 316 
 
 23,  33,  42 
 
 ,314 
 
 391 
 
 Basilica  of  S.  Fn 
 
 mcis 
 
 311,325 
 
 Alexander  V. 
 
 434 
 
 437 
 
 S.  Cliiara 
 
 314 
 
 Alexander  VI.       562,  608 
 
 629 
 
 631 
 
 S.  Damiano 
 
 316 
 
 Alfonso  I.  King:  of  Naples 
 
 499 
 
 512 
 
 S.  Maria  ]\faggiore 
 
 317 
 
 Alfonso  11.      ditto 
 
 569, 
 
 577 
 
 S.  Pietro 
 
 316 
 
 Altichieri  da  Zevio 
 
 353, 
 
 356* 
 
 Astrology 
 
 160 
 
 Alvernia,  Convent 
 
 486 
 
 Augustine,  S. 
 
 362,  370 
 
 Amadeus  VIII.  of  Savoy 
 
 475 
 
 Avanzi,  Jacopo 
 
 353 
 
 356,  393 
 
 Ambrogio,  Traversari,  Beato 
 
 492 
 
 Avignon,  Papal  Court 
 
 at 
 
 Aml)rosian  Liturgy 
 
 119 
 
 18,; 
 
 23,  39,  48 
 
 America,  Discovery  of 
 
 588 
 
 Ancona 
 
 521 
 
 Baboccio,  Antonio 
 
 221 
 
 Andrea  Corsini,  Saint 
 
 271 
 
 Bartolini,  Jurisconsult 
 
 144 
 
 Andrea  di  Fircnze 
 
 285 
 
 291 
 
 Bartoli  Taddco 
 
 282,  296 
 
 Angelico,  Fra  Giovanni 
 
 618 
 
 fA2 
 
 Bartolo,  Jurisconsult 
 
 157,  159 
 
 Angelus,  or  Ave  Maria 
 
 504, 
 
 591 
 
 Battle  of  Anghiari 
 
 272 
 
 Anjou  Dynasty 
 
 214 
 
 of  Fornovo 
 
 579 
 
 Annates'                           19,94 
 
 450 
 
 of  Montecatini 
 
 250 
 
 Annunciation,  Order  of 
 
 590 
 
 of  Parabiagio 
 
 119 
 
 Anthony,  S. 
 
 352 
 
 Belgrade,  Siege  of 
 
 510 
 
 Antipopes ;  Benedict  XIII. 
 
 108,  447. 
 
 Bellini,  Jacopo 
 
 337 
 
 Clement  VIL 
 
 68 
 
 107 
 
 Benedict  XII.            7, 
 
 146 
 
 159,  389 
 
 Clement  VIII. 
 
 508 
 
 Bcneveuto 
 
 83 
 
 Felix  V. 
 
 474 
 
 500 
 
 Bergamo,  Churches 
 
 381 
 
 Antonio  Veneziano 
 
 256 
 
 285 
 
 Berna  di  Siena 
 
 194, 
 
 282,  300 
 
 Archbishops  of  Capua 
 
 115 
 
 Bernardino  da  Siena, 
 
 S. 
 
 463,  623 
 
 of  Floi'cnce 
 
 133 
 
 Bernardo  di  Venezia 
 
 368 
 
 — —  of  Milan 
 
 126 
 
 Bertrando,  Beato 
 
 186 
 
 of  Naples 
 
 115 
 
 Bessarion,  Cardinal 
 
 481,  518 
 
 of  Kiga 
 
 103 
 
 Bevignate,  S. 
 
 310 
 
 Architecture  in  Rome 
 
 593 
 
 Biella 
 
 408 
 
 Boccaccio 
 Bohemia,  Kings  of 
 
 156, 
 
 184,  214 
 
 533 
 
 *  For  the  subjects  marked  with 
 
 Bologna,  historv  of 
 
 an  asterisk,  see  Appendix. 
 
 '7,34,51,59,101 
 
 122,125,385 
 2   T7 
 
658 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Bologna,  Churches:  S.  Petronio 
 
 395,  408,  422,  438 
 
 SS.  Agostino  e  Giacomo 
 
 (or  S,  Giacomo  Maggiore)       393 
 
 S.  Francesco  398 
 
 Churches:  S.  Maria  de'  Servi 
 
 397,408 
 
 Mezzarata  Chapel  394 
 
 Certosa,  extramural  398 
 
 Bolsena  59 
 
 Bonafuti  396 
 
 Boniface  IX.  90,  108 
 
 Borgia,  Alfonso  (v.  Callixtus  III.) 
 
 508,  608 
 
 Cesare  565,  581,  585,  631 
 
 Giovanni  565,  585 
 
 Lucrezia  566,  582 
 
 Rodriguez  (v.  Alexander  VI.) 
 
 Botticelli,  Sandro  625 
 
 Bracciano  573 
 
 Braccio  da  Montone  458 
 
 Bramante  600 
 
 Brigida,  S.  48,117,181 
 
 Bruni  Leonardo  426,  428,  439 
 
 Buonarotti,  Michelangiolo  6 1 5 
 
 Buono  (or  Bono)  Bartolommeo  347 
 Burkhard,  Diarist        576,  583,  585 
 
 CalendarioFilippo  345 
 
 Callixtus  III.  508 
 
 Campagna  of  Rome  17,  46,  552 
 
 Campeggi,  Cardinal  600 
 
 Campello,  Giovanni  di  382 
 
 Campione,  Bernardo  da        370, 378 
 
 Matteo  da  385 
 
 Cangrande  (v.  Delia  Scala) 
 Canonizations  183,641 
 
 Capitoline  Palace  105, 207,  424,  427 
 Capranica,  Domcnico,  Cardinal  599 
 Cardinals  22, 432 
 
 Carnival  530 
 
 Carrara  da,  family  350 
 
 Castle  of  S.  Angelo 
 
 72.  105,  553,  575,  581,  601 
 
 of  S.Elmo  225 
 
 of  Anjou  Kings  at  Naples  216 
 
 Catacombs  of  Naples  219* 
 
 Catherine,  S.  of  Siena 
 
 20,  53,  175,  205,  641 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Catherine,  Queen  of  Bosnia        543 
 Cavallini,  Pietro  201,213 
 
 (/ccchi,  Giovanni  284 
 
 Cecco  d'  Ascoli  160 
 
 Celibacy  _  471,  590 
 
 Cennino  Cennini  256 
 
 Censorship  of  Books  590 
 
 Cesena  57 
 
 Charles  III.  of  Naples  75, 1 13 
 
 Charles  IV.  Emperor  36 
 
 Charles  VIII.  of  France 
 
 557,  568,  574,  577 
 Charles    the  Illustrious,    Duke  of 
 
 Calabria  229 
 
 Chaucer  93 
 
 Chieti  408 
 
 Chinea,  (or  palfrey)  tribute  of     111 
 Ciccione  Andrea  216,  225 
 
 Ciompi,  Revolt  of  at  Florence      251 
 Clone,  Andrea  di  253,  266,  402 
 
 Leonardo  di  256 
 
 Circus  Maximus  209 
 
 Citta  di  Castello  325,  412 
 
 Clara,  S.  ^  315 
 
 Clergy,  Laws  against  21 
 
 Cola,  Gennaro  di  222,  240 
 
 Colombini  Giovanni,  Beato  184 
 
 Colonna  family 
 
 104,  420,  427,  436,  460,  549. 
 Colosseum  16,  147 
 
 Columbus  ^  588 
 
 Communion  in  one  kind  447 
 
 Como,  Cathedral  384 
 
 Conclave  62,  452,  554,  562 
 
 Consalvo,  of  Cordova  580 
 
 Constantine  XII.   Greek   Emperor 
 473,  506 
 Constantinople,  Siege  and  capture 
 
 of  505 
 
 Contucci,  Andrea  602,  606 
 
 Corneto  41,  48,  55 
 
 Coronation  of  Frederick  of  Sicily  1 38 
 Coronations  of  Emperors         37,44 
 
 of  Popes  66,  68,  91,  563 
 
 of  Doges  of  Venice  333 
 
 Cortona  298,  410 
 
 Cos mati  family  195 
 
 Cossa  Baldassare  (v.  John  XXIII.) 
 Council  of  Basle  408,470 
 
INDEX. 
 
 659 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Council  of  Constance  442 
 
 of  Fo  rra  r  tx  47  9 
 
 of  Florence  408 
 
 ofPavia  461 
 
 of  Pisa  433 
 
 of  Home  440 
 
 of  Udine  432 
 
 Cremona  442 
 
 Cresci,PictroB.  319 
 
 Crucifixion  represented  in  Art 
 
 313,384,394,413,618* 
 Crusade  against  Alexandria        130 
 
 against  Joanna  I.  of  Naples  75 
 
 against  Louis  of  Anjou    78,  80 
 
 against  Smyrna  129 
 
 against  Spoleto  and  Orvieto  88 
 
 against  the  Turks  129,515,  520 
 
 against  Venice  128 
 
 Cuaa,  jS'icholas,  Cardinal      430,  614 
 
 Daddi,  Bernardo  262 
 
 Dante  121,253,286,377 
 
 Demolition  of  Buildings,  &c. 
 
 400,  598 
 Demonology  and  Demons  in  Art 
 
 285,  300,  379 
 Divorces  101,  567 
 
 Donatello  602 
 
 Drama  147,569,582 
 
 Election  of  Bishops  135 
 
 Emblems  in  Art  302,  373,  609 
 
 Emmanuel  of  Portugal  589 
 
 Esti,  Marquises  of  Ferrara     91 ,  530 
 Eugcnius  IV. 
 
 418,  465,  495,  596,  603,  607 
 Ethiopian  Church  493 
 
 Excommunication  170,478* 
 
 Ferdinand  (Ferrante)  I.  of  Naples 
 
 543 
 Ferdinand  II.  of  Naples  567,  580 
 Ferdinand  the  Catholic  of  Spain 
 
 580,  590 
 Fermo  411 
 
 Festivals,  popular  173 
 
 of  Venice  1 75,  334,  473 
 
 Fidene  55:5 
 
 FiThrete  603,  607 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Fiore,  Colantonio  del  223 
 
 Florence,  history  of 
 
 52,  67,  132,  249,251,  571 
 
 Churches:  Cathedral 
 
 253,  267,270,402 
 
 Badia  485 
 
 Carmine  269,271 
 
 S.  Q-oce  255, 263,  267,  325,402 
 
 S.  Marco  485 
 
 S.  Maria  Novella  256,  266,412 
 
 S.  Miniato  269,  402 
 
 Or  San  Michele  258,  402 
 
 Baptistery  270 
 
 Chapel  of  Bigallo  402 
 
 dcgli  Spagnuoli  412 
 
 Certosa  (extramural)  272,402 
 
 Loggia  di  Orcagna 
 
 ^  253,  270,  402 
 Foligno  317,411 
 
 Churches:  Cathedral  319 
 
 8  Anna  321 
 
 Bctlemme  321 
 
 S.  Maria  infra  Portas  318,320 
 
 Fondi  _  68 
 
 Francesca  Romana,  S.  635 
 
 Francesco  di  Paola,  S.  577,  590 
 
 Francesco  di  VoltciTa  285 
 
 Fraticelli  142 
 
 Frederick  I.  (or  II.)  of  Sicily      136 
 
 n.  (or  IIL)  of  Sicily  137 
 
 III.  of  Naples  "  580 
 
 Fredi  Bartolo  282 
 
 Frezzi  Federigo  151 
 
 Gaddi,  Agnolo      255,  262,  277,409 
 
 Taildeo  255,312 
 
 Gaetani  Family  104,  582 
 
 Gerson,  Jean  Charlicr  430 
 
 Ghirlandajo  Domenico  625 
 
 Giacomo  della  Marca,  S.  511 
 
 Genoa  83 
 
 Gentile  da  Fabriano  337 
 
 Gerini,  Lorenzo  298 
 
 Niccolo  269,  297 
 
 Giottino,  Stefano  254,  312,  31 1 
 
 Giotto 
 
 187,  191,  214,  217,  236,  292 
 Giovanni  da  Cajicstrano,  S.  510 
 Giovanni  da  Milauo      255,  276,  404 
 
660 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Golden  Kose  45,  92,  581 
 
 Gonfalone,  Sociality  oT  147 
 
 Gospels,  Apocryphal  400 
 
 Greek  C/hurch,  attempted  Eeiinion 
 with  Latin  480,  483,  505 
 
 Gregory  XL  50,56,146 
 
 Gregory  XIL  429 
 
 Guariento  326 
 
 Guesclin,  Bertrand  de  39 
 
 Hawkwood  46,  52,  58 
 
 Henry  VII,  Emperor  250 
 
 Heraldry  at  Florence  252 
 
 Heresies  141,  145 
 
 punishment  of  529,  590 
 
 Hohenstaufen  Dynasty  214 
 
 Holy  Week  165 
 
 Huniades,  Voivod  of  Transilvania 
 
 510 
 Hus,  John  447,  450 
 
 Images  (as  ex-votos)  572 
 
 Imprnneta  (near  Florence)    275, 403 
 Indulgences  2,  36,  92,  448,  590 
 
 Innocent  IV.,  monument  of        226 
 Innocent  VI.  22 
 
 Innocent  VII.  423,  428 
 
 Innocent  VIIL      _  554,  610 
 
 Inquisition  in  Spain  552 
 
 Installation  of  Popes  169,  563 
 
 Interdicts 
 
 52,  59,67,  81,  133,  252,  541*  ^ 
 Isaia  of  Pisa  607 
 
 Isidore,  S.  339 
 
 Januarius,  S.  243 
 
 Jerome  of  Prague  448 
 
 Jesuati  Order  49,  185 
 
 Joan  of  Valois,  S.  590 
 
 Joanna  I.  of  Naples 
 
 4.5,61,69,  77,  111,  113,  231,238 
 
 II.  of  Naples  458 
 
 John  Ncpomuck,  S.  421 
 
 John  XXIL  159,  389 
 
 John  XXIIL  438,  456 
 
 John  Palreologus,  Greek  Em- 
 peror 44,  473,  479,  483 
 Jubilee  Year  (Anno  Santo) 
 
 1,  90,  365,  500,  543* 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Ladislaus,  of  Naples 
 
 101,  115,  423,  427,431,441 
 Lamberti,  Niccolo  Aretino  270,  301 
 Landini,  Jacopo  (II  Casentino) 
 
 255,  259 
 
 Last  Judgment,  represented  in        t 
 
 Art  287,  289,  610,  646,  651* 
 
 Legends  :  of  S.  Andrea  Corsini  271 
 
 of  S.  Catherine  of  Alexandria 
 
 616 
 of  S.  Christopher  618 
 
 of  SS.  Ephesus  and  Poti- 
 
 tus  293 
 
 of     SS.     Gamaliel     and 
 
 Lucian  204 
 
 of  S.  George  356 
 
 of  S.  James  the  Apostle      354 
 
 of  S.  Mary  Magdalene         268 
 
 of  S.  Matthew  410 
 
 of  S.  Mark  336 
 
 of  the  Patron  Saints  of 
 
 Venice  334 
 
 of  SS.  Peter  and  Paul  320.  604 
 
 of  the  Beato  Kanieri  of  Pisa 
 
 290 
 
 of  the  Girdle  of  the  Vir- 
 gin Mary  277,  409 
 
 of  the  True  Cross        267,  621 
 
 of  Monte  Vergine  242 
 
 of  the  Demons  at  Vallom- 
 
 brosa  161 
 
 of  the  Demon  at  Naples     212 
 
 Leto  Pomponio  534 
 
 Libraries,  Monastic  317 
 
 Lippo  Dalmasio  392 
 
 Lippi  Filippino  620 
 
 Literature  of  XIV.  century  147, 150 
 
 revival  of  in  XV.  century 
 
 498,  513 
 Lorenzetti,  Pietro  285,408 
 
 Louis  XL  of  France  517,  526 
 
 XII.  of  France  567,  580 
 
 ■ of  Anjou  1.  titular  King 
 
 of  Naples  77,  101 
 
 II.  ditto  101,114 
 
 King  of  Hungaiy  112 
 
 ' Prince  of  Taranto      238,  244 
 
 Louis  of  Anjou,  Bishop  of  Tou- 
 louse, S.  311 
 
INDEX. 
 
 GGl 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Lncca 
 
 85 
 
 Lucera 
 
 113 
 
 jNIalatesta,  Sigismontlo 
 
 519 
 
 jNIanfrctli,  Fra  Andrea 
 
 397 
 
 Astorre  di 
 
 52, 
 
 581 
 
 Mantua 
 
 406 
 
 Manuel  Palseologus,  Greek  Em- 
 
 peror 
 
 457 
 
 Margaritone di  Arcz/o 
 
 306 
 
 ;Marino,  Siege  of 
 
 550 
 
 Martin  V. 
 
 452, 
 
 596 
 
 Mary,  the  Blessed  Virgin 
 
 re- 
 
 presented  in  Art      243, 
 
 287, 
 
 301, 
 
 59-i,  615,  618. 
 
 621 
 
 622 
 
 Immaculate  Conception  of 
 
 552 
 
 Ideas  respecting 
 
 157 
 
 557 
 
 ]\Inry,  Duchess  of  Durazzo 
 
 230 
 
 Masaccio,  Tommaso 
 
 616 
 
 Mascgne,  Pielro  and  Jacobello 
 
 341 
 
 399 
 
 IVIasuccio  the  First        2 1 5, 
 
 224, 
 
 240 
 
 the  Second    224,  228, 
 
 235 
 
 237 
 
 INIatthias     Corvinus,     King    of 
 
 Hungary 
 
 533 
 
 Mausoleum  of  Augustus 
 
 301 
 
 Mazzorbo,  Venetian  Island 
 
 351 
 
 Medals  of  Popes 
 
 602 
 
 Medici  Family               539, 
 
 541, 
 
 571 
 
 Melozzo  da  Forli 
 
 633 
 
 ^lentana  557 
 
 Merliano,  Giovanni  di  Nola  216 
 
 Michelotti,  Biordo  di  78 
 
 Milan,  history  of    117,  125,  126, 363 
 
 Cathedral  365,  404 
 
 S.  Ambrogio  652 
 
 Miniatures  643 
 
 Mino  da  Fiesole    602,610,611.612 
 
 del  Regno 
 
 602 
 
 Mirandola 
 
 407 
 
 Moccio  da  Siena 
 
 410 
 
 Modcna,  Cathedral 
 
 645 
 
 IMohammcd  II. 
 
 505,  545 
 
 Monica,  S. 
 
 374,  607 
 
 Monte  Cassino 
 
 49, 
 
 158,  558 
 
 Montefalco 
 
 324,411 
 
 Monte  Vergine 
 
 241,412 
 
 Monuments  of  Popes 
 
 189,  2:^6, 
 
 607 
 
 608,  610 
 
 PACK 
 
 Monza  Basilica  385 
 
 Mosaics       190,  200,  218,  339,  340* 
 Museum,  Brera  405 
 
 National,  of  Naples     219,  220 
 
 of  Propaganda  College        588 
 
 Mussato  Albertino  148 
 
 Mystery  Plays  549,617 
 
 Naples,  state  of  in  XIV.  cen- 
 tury 1 1 6 
 
 Churches:  Cathedral 
 
 211,  215.  226,403 
 Baptistery  of  Cathedral      2 1 8 
 
 S.  Chiara 
 
 215,  217,  223,  227,  403 
 
 S.  Giovanni  a  Carbonara    215 
 
 L'Incoronata        215,238,403 
 
 S.  Lorenzo  220, 235 
 
 S.  ]\[aria  Donna  Regina   237* 
 
 S.  Martino  219 
 
 S.  Pietro  ad  Aram  21 1 
 
 S.  Restituta  211 
 
 Neapolitan  Kingdom,  history  of 
 
 77,  88,  110, 1L5,  210,  558,  577,  580 
 Niccolo  da  Furcapaleua,  B.  623 
 
 Nicholas  V.  497,  597,  619 
 
 Nocera  80,  106 
 
 Oblate  Nuns  636 
 
 Orcagna  (v.  Cione) 
 Orvieto  25,98,411 
 
 Ostia  55,  572,  584,  596 
 
 Otranto,  siege  and  capture  of     544 
 
 Padua,  Churches:  Basilica  of  S. 
 
 Anthony  352,  406 
 
 Eremitani  362 
 
 S.  Giorgio  356,  406 
 
 Baptistery  301 
 
 Pace  da  Faenza  314,392 
 Palaces,  IMunicipal,  of  Florence  254 
 
 of  PeiTigia  311 
 
 ofPiacenza  407 
 
 ofPistoja  281 
 
 of  Siena  408 
 
 Palestrina  26 
 
 Pantheon  597 
 
 Paolo  Romano  593,  601 
 Papacy,  Court  of  (v.  Avignon) 
 
 463,  552.  582 
 
662 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Papac}',  Temporal  Power  of 
 
 6,  146,  536,  582 
 
 Spiritual  Power  of       481,  59 1 
 
 Passavanti,  Jacopo  1 54 
 
 Paul  11.  527,  608 
 
 Pavia  122,126,367,405 
 
 Pavia  Churches:  Cathedral         369 
 
 Certosa  368* 
 
 S.  Maria  de'  Servi  399 
 
 Pazzi  Conspiracy  539 
 
 Penance  121,162,376 
 
 378,  404 
 
 308 
 307 
 309 
 310 
 307 
 308 
 
 308 
 
 Perino  de'  Grassi 
 
 Perugia,  Churches  :  S.  Agata 
 
 S.  Angelo 
 
 —  S.  Bevignate 
 
 —  S.  Costanzo 
 
 S.  Piorenzo 
 
 S.  Matteo 
 
 Chapels  of  S.  Agostino 
 
 and  S.  Crispino 
 
 Pinacotheca  306.  309 
 
 Perugino,  Pietro  Vannucci  627,  632 
 Peruzzi,  Baldassare  623 
 
 Peter  II  of  Sicily  136 
 
 Petrarch  4,18,22,160 
 
 his  Sonnets  21,389 
 
 his  Canzoni  and  Letters 
 
 15,  40,  145,  208 
 Petronius,  S. 
 Petronio,  Pietro  B. 
 Piacenza 
 Piccolomini,  iEneas  Sylvius  (v. 
 
 Pius  II.) 
 Pietrasanta 
 Pilgrimages  4,  139,  158,  543 
 
 Pinturicchio,  Bernardino  Betti 
 
 621,  623,  627 
 Pisa,  Churches:  S.  Caterina        294 
 
 Certosa  408 
 
 . S.  Francesco  295 
 
 Campo  Santo  254,284,408 
 
 386 
 
 184 
 407 
 
 410 
 
 Pisanello,  Vittore 
 
 602 
 
 Pius  II. 
 
 514, 
 
 638 
 
 Plague  of  1348 
 
 252 
 
 Platina 
 
 530, 
 
 634 
 
 Pollajuolo,  Antonio 
 
 597, 
 
 609 
 
 Porcaro,  Stefano 
 
 497, 
 
 503 
 
 Posterla  Family 
 
 120 
 
 Prato,  Churches 
 
 276 
 
 409 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Pragmatic  Sanction  of  Galilean 
 Church  526 
 
 Prefects  of  Rome  488,  512 
 
 Printing  Press,  introduced  into 
 Italy  531 
 
 Puccio,  Capanna  392 
 
 Pietro  di  285 
 
 Quadriregio,  Epic  Poem  151 
 
 Relics 
 
 196,  243,  349,  489,  518,  560,  621 
 Eene  d'Anjou,  titular  king  of  Naples 
 556,  568 
 Resurrection  of  Christ  represented 
 in  Art  298,  414,  631 
 
 Ricci,  Bishop  of  Pistoja  279 
 
 Richard  II.  of  England  92 
 
 Rienzo,  Cola  di  4,  24,  26, 151 
 
 Ritual  and  Ceremonies 
 
 119,  133,  163,  512,  518,  529,  552 
 Rivoli  399, 407 
 
 Rocca  di  Papa  550 
 
 Rome,  state  of  in  XIV.  century 
 
 8,14,17,46 
 
 in  XV.  century 
 
 487,  492,  522,  544,  561,  589 
 —r—  Churches:  S.  Peter's 
 
 189,  401,  606,  608,  610 
 
 —  S.  John,  Lateran  Basilica 
 
 44,  187,  401,  489,  595,  607 
 
 S.  Agostino    594,  602,  607 
 
 S.  Andrea  della  Valle   608 
 
 SS.  Apostoli  606 
 
 S.  Balbina  596,  613 
 
 S.  Cecilia        199,  401,  606 
 
 S.  Clemente     44,  606,  616 
 
 S.  Cosimato  612 
 
 S.  Crisogono  200,  402 
 
 S.  Croce  in  Gerusalemme 
 
 621 
 
 S.  Lorenzo  (extramural)  1 7 
 
 Chapel  of  619 
 
 S.  Marco  595 
 
 S.  IVfaria  in  Aracoeli 
 
 199,  203,  206,  543,  606,  623 
 
 S.Maria  della  Consolazione 
 
 529 
 
 S.  Maria  Maggiore  196, 614 
 
 S.  Maria  della  Pace      594 
 
INDEX. 
 
 ()G3 
 
 PACiE 
 
 Konie,    Churches:    S.  Maria   sopra 
 Minerva  205,  606,  618,  620 
 
 S.  Maria  di  jNIonserrato 
 
 595,  606,  608 
 ■ S.  JNIaria  del  Pojiolo 
 
 594,  60G,  611,  622 
 
 S.  ]\Iaria  del  Priorato    606 
 
 —  S.  Maria  in  Trastevere 
 
 17,197,202,  612 
 
 S.  Onofrio  623 
 
 S.  Paul's,  Ostian  Basilica 
 
 196,  201,  601,  603 
 
 S.  Pietro  in  Vincoli       614 
 
 SS.  Quattro  Incoronati  695 
 
 S.  Sabina  and  S.  Saba     1 7 
 
 S.  Salvatore  in  Lauro   607 
 
 Sistine  Chapel        598,  624 
 
 S.  Sisto  206,  596 
 
 S.  Stefano  Rotondo       595 
 
 SS.  Trinita  di  Monte     596 
 
 Bridges  71,  425 
 
 Obelisks  210 
 
 Palaces  105, 207, 424, 598,  600 
 
 Walls  577 
 
 Sieges  of  436,  441,  469 
 
 Kosselli,Cosimo  625 
 
 Sacraments,  The  Seven,  represented 
 in  Art  238,  384 
 
 Salerno  412 
 
 Salutati,  Coluccio  146 
 
 Sangallo,  Antonio  595 
 
 San  Gemiguano  281,  409 
 
 Sanseverino  412 
 
 Savonarola  579,  587 
 
 Scala  della,  Lords  of  Verona 
 
 162,375 
 Scanderbeg,  Prince  of  Albania  532 
 Sculpture  of  XIV.  Century 
 
 189,  194,  197,213 
 
 of  XV.  Century    593,  601,  605 
 
 Semitecolo  338, 406 
 
 Senator's  of  Rome 
 
 5,  14,  19,  46,  103,  108 
 Sforza,  Ascanio,  Cardinal    559,  606 
 
 Gian  Galeazzo,  Duke         570 
 
 Ludovico,  "11  Moro"  568,570 
 
 Shrine  of  S.  Augustine  369 
 of  S.  James                  280, 409 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Shrine  of  S.  John  the  Baptist     281 
 
 of  S.  Isidore 
 
 of  S.  Severa 
 
 Sibyls 
 Sicily 
 Siena 
 
 Cathedi-al 
 
 Fonte  Gaja 
 
 Municipal  Palace 
 
 340 
 612 
 
 628 
 
 61,  135,  137 
 
 38,  303 
 
 305,  408 
 
 401) 
 
 303 
 
 Sigismund,  Emperor     441,  445,  467 
 Signorelli,  Luca  621,  626 
 
 Simone  of  Naples  222,  232, 236,  240 
 
 de'  Crocifissi  392 
 
 Ghini  of  Florence        603,  607 
 
 Sixtus  IV.  536,  609,  624 
 
 Solario,  Antonio  di  220,  223 
 
 Sorcery  and  witchcraft,  prosecution 
 of  159,561,590 
 
 Spello  324 
 
 Spinelli,  Spinello  269,  293,  299,  303 
 Spoleto  97,324,412 
 
 Stamina,  Gherardo  256 
 
 Stefani,  Tommaso  degli      221,  241 
 
 Pietro  degli  241 
 
 Stefano  di  Firenze  252 
 
 Stefanone,  Maestro  222 
 
 Subiaco  468,  531,  644 
 
 Suvareto  41  o 
 
 Sword  and  Cap,  consecrated  85,  517 
 
 324 
 
 222 
 
 103,463 
 
 Terni 
 
 Tesauro,  Filippo 
 Teutonic  Knights 
 Thomas  Aquinas,  S. 
 
 289,295,412,620 
 Theatre  of  Pompcy  209 
 
 Tino  da  Camaino  237 
 
 Tivoli  38 
 
 Todi  106 
 
 Torcello  Cathedral  349* 
 
 Torture  80,  122 
 
 Trevi  323 
 
 Treviso  407 
 
 Trinity,  the  Godhead,  represented 
 in  Art  274,308,321.609* 
 
 Urailiati  Friars 
 Universities 
 
 250 
 150,  158,387 
 
664 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Urban  V.                           39 
 
 ,  41 
 
 123 
 
 Urban  VI. 
 
 66; 
 
 228 
 
 Valentine,  S. 
 
 379 
 
 Valdesi  (or  Vaudois) 
 
 143 
 
 Vatican  Palace 
 
 44 
 
 597 
 
 Arcbives 
 
 551 
 
 Borgia  Apartment 
 
 627 
 
 Cbapel  of  S.  Lorenzo 
 
 619 
 
 Cbristian  Museum 
 
 204 
 
 Library 
 
 498, 
 
 551 
 
 Venice,  history  of         127,  130,  327 
 
 Public  Charities  of  336 
 
 Churches:  S.Mark's  Cathedral 
 
 328,  331,  339,  345,  403* 
 
 — ^ Frari  332,  343,  348 
 
 SS.  Giovanni  e  Paolo 
 
 331  542* 
 
 S.  Maria  dell'  Orto     '  349* 
 
 S.  Maria  della  Salute     339 
 
 Ducal  Palace  331,  346* 
 
 Islands  (v.  Mazzorbo  and 
 
 Torcello*) 
 Verona,  history  of  373 
 
 . Church  of  S.  Zenone  652 
 
 Monuments  of  Scaligeri 
 
 376,  405 
 Vicovaro  569, 637 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Villani,  Matteo  1,2 
 
 Vincenzi,  Antonio  395 
 
 Visconti,  Giovanni,  Archl)ishop  and 
 
 Lord  of  Milan  34,  121,  127 
 
 Gian  Galeazzo  I.  100 
 
 Ottone,  Matteo,  and  Azzone  118 
 
 Luchino  120 
 
 Galeazzo  IL  122 
 
 Bernabo  122,405 
 
 Gian  Galeazzo,  Duke  of  Milan 
 
 124,  363,  367 
 Visions:  of  S.Ambrose  in  battle  119 
 
 of  S.  Peter  to  Urban  VI.     89 
 
 of  Ferdinand  of  Naples 
 
 586 
 
 Vitale  of  Bologna 
 Vite,  Antonio 
 
 392 
 278 
 
 Vitelleschi,  Cardinal 
 
 487 
 
 489 
 
 Viterbo                26,  41, 
 
 43,  98 
 
 106 
 
 Walter  de  Brienne 
 
 250 
 
 Wenceslaus,  Emperor 
 White  Penitents 
 
 125 
 
 448 
 139 
 
 Wycliffe 
 
 145 
 
 447 
 
 Zabarella,  Cardinal 
 
 Zagarolo 
 
 Zizim,  Turkish  Prince 
 
 559 
 
 430 
 488 
 576 
 
 TUE   END. 
 
 G.  NORMA.N  AND  SON,  PKINTEBS,  MAIDEN  LANE,   COVENT  QAlWm. 
 
DATE  DUE 
 
 ^.mmam 
 
 ■ 
 
 GAYLORD 
 
 PRINTED  IN  U.S    A. 
 
BW1402.H48V.2 
 
 A  history  of  mediaeval  Christianity  and 
 
 Princeton  Theological  Seminary-Speer  Library 
 
 1    1012  00066  6133