*Ti PL145"! 1874 T ESSAYS LANGUAGES, LITERATURE, AND RELIGION OF NEPAL AND TIBET: TOGETHER WITH FURTHER PAPERS ON THE GEOGRAPHY, ETHNOLOGY, AND COMMERCE OF THOSE COUNTRIES. B. H.^ODGSON, Esq. HONORARY MEMBER OF THE GERMAN ORIENTAL SOCIETY; CORRESPONDING MEMBER OF THE FRENCH INSTITUTE \ CHEVALIER OF THE LEGION OF HONOUR ; MEMBER OF THE ASIATIC SOCIETIES OF CALCUTTA, LONDON, AND PARIS J OF THE ETHNOLOGICAL AND ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETIES OF LONDON ; AND LATE BRITISH MINISTER AT THE COURT OF NEpXl. Reprinted, with Corrections and Additions, from "Illustrations of the Literature and Religion of the Buddhists," Seramfiore, 1841 ; and " Selections from the Records of the Government of Bengal, No. XXVII." Calcutta, 1857. LONDON: TRUBNER & CO., 57 & 59 LUDGATE HILL. 1874. [All rights reserved.] NOTICE. When Professor J. Summers was about to start the Phoenix, a monthly maga- zine for China, Japan, and Eastern Asia, the first number of which appeared, in July 1870, he solicited and obtained permission of Mr B. H. Hodgson to reprint in it those contributions of his to the " Journal of the Bengal Asiatic Society," which bear on the ethnology, languages, and religion of Tibet and Nepal. The plan Professor Summers had in view is sketched out in the following editorial note with which the series of reprints is prefaced : — " The present and following papers (to be given in successive numbers of the Phoenix) are from the pen of Mr Brian H. Hodgson, and originally appeared in the Bengal Asiatic Society's Journal, between the years 1828 and 1838. Upon the subject of ethnology, Mr Hodgson's views have since that time been improved and extended, and we purpose, when we have completed the present series of papers, chiefly devoted to Buddhism, to reproduce in the Phoenix those improved and extended views of Tibetan and Nepaulese races and languages, from No. 27 of ' Selections from the Records of the Government of Bengal,' wherein they were published in the year 1857. But those ' Selections ' form a work even more inaccessible to men of letters in Europe than the 'Journal of the Bengal Society; ' and we believe, therefore, that we shall be doing a ser- vice to the learned of Europe by making Mr Hodgson's researches into northern Bud- dhism and ethnology more generally and easily accessible." — Phoenix, vol. i. p. 43. Mr Hodgson's "improved and extended views," so far as Buddhism is con- cerned, were found embodied in numerous marginal notes in his own copy of the " Illustrations of the Literature and Religion of the Buddhists " (Serampore, 1841). In the same way many manuscript additions were made by him in his own copy of the " Selections." All these corrections and additions have been introduced into the text of the present reprint, though they represent, as is only just to Mr Hodgson to state, various phases of his views, ranging over a period of nearly thirty years. Professor Summers further proposed to Mr Hodgson to issue these reprints in a collected form as a separate publication, to which proposition the latter gave his ready consent. At p. 96 of vol. ii. of the Phoenix the reprints from the " Selections " com- mence, and proceed pari passu with those from the " Illustrations " to p. 26. of VI NOTICE. vol. iii., where the last article of the latter (on the Pravrajya Vrata) terminates. In consequence of this arrangement, the Editor of the present work found it neces- sary to begin a fresh pagination with the Second Part. References to this part have, therefore, in. the index been marked by a II. prefixed to the Arabic figure, showing the page. Eight pages of the papers on the Commerce of Nepal were remaining to be set up when Professor Summers' acceptance of an appointment in Japan put a stop to the publication of the Phoenix, and to the completion of the separate re-issue in accordance with his original design. Under these circumstances, it was thought best to place the materials, as left by Mr Summers on his departure, in the hands of Messrs Trubner & Co., with a view to their eventual publication. Only the above-mentioned article has subsequently been completed. On comparison with the two former collective publications, the present one will be found to have excluded three short articles contained in the " Illustra- tions " (IX. Remarks on an Inscription in the Rancha and Tibetan characters ; X. Account of a Visit to the Ruins of Simroun ; XII. Extract of Proceedings of the Royal Asiatic Society), which were considered as of a sufficiently ephemeral nature to be omitted, and articles IV., V., and XL 1. 2. of the " Selections " (Route from Kathmandu to Darjeeling ; Route of Nepalese Mission to Pekin ; Some ac- count of the systems of Law and Police as recognised in the State of Nepal ; and on the Law and Legal Practice of Nepal, as regards familiar intercourse between a Hindu and an Outcast). These last-mentioned would in due course have appeared in the Phoenix, and have been incorporated in the separate reprint, but for the sudden discontinuance of that magazine. This is more especially to be regretted in the case of the papers on Nepalese Law, which still remain the only trustworthy source of information on that subject. The same may, in fact, be said of most other papers by Mr Hodgson, especially those on the Tribes and Lan- guages of the Northern Non-Aryans adjacent to India, which are scattered over periodicals now scarce and little accessible, and would be well worth preserving in a collected form, inasmuch as on all these questions, both those treated of in the present volume and those bearing on the ethnology and glossology of the Himalayan tribes, he has almost exclusively remained master of a field of re- search in which he had been the first to break ground. The foregoing statement will explain the somewhat ungainly form of the present publication, without, however, it is hoped, detracting from its substantial usefulness, as placing within the reach of scholars matter which few of them have means or opportunity to consult in the " Journal of the Bengal Asiatic Society," or in the " Selections from the Records of the Government of Bengal." Should the present volume be favourably received, the remaining papers of Mr Hodgson will probably be given in another volume or two. CONTENTS. PART I. ON THE LANGUAGES, LITERATURE, AND RELIGION OF NEPAX AND TIBET. Page I. Notices of the Languages, Literature, and Religion of Nepal and Tibet. ["Asiatic Researches," vol. xvi. (1828), p. 409. Reprinted in " Illustrations of the Literature and Religion of the Buddhists ; " Serampore, 1841, p. 1] . . . . . . 1 II. Sketch of Buddhism, derived from the Bauddha Scriptures of Nepal [" Transactions of the Royal Asiatic Society," vol. ii. (1828), p. 222, and Appendix v., p. lxxvii. Reprinted in " Illustrations,'' p. 49] . 35 III. Quotations from Original Sanskrit Authorities in proof and illustration of the preceding article ["Journal of the Bengal Asiatic Society," vol. v. (183(5), p. 29, p. 71. Reprinted in "Illustrations," p. 94] . 65 IV. European Speculations on Buddhism ["Journal of the Bengal Asiatic Society," vol. iii. (1834), p. 382. Reprinted in "Illustrations," p. 136] ........ 96 V. Remarks on M. Remusat's Review of Buddhism ["Journal of the Bengal Asiatic Society," vol. iii. (1834), p. 425 and p. 499. Reprinted in "Illustrations," p. 144 and p. 152] . . . . .102 VI. Note on the Inscription from Sdrntfth ["Journal of the Bengal Asiatic Society," vol. iv. (1835), p. 211. Reprinted in "Illustrations," p. 158] ........ Ill VII. Notice of Adi Buddha and of the Seven Mortal Buddhas [" Journal of the Bengal Asiatic Society," vol. iii. (1834), p. 215. Reprinted in "Illustrations," p. 164] ...... 115 VIII. Note on the Primary Language of the Buddhist Writings ["Journal of the Bengal Asiatic Society," vol. vi. (1837), p. 682. Reprinted in "Illustrations," p. 180] ...... 120 Vlll CONTENTS. Page IX. A Disputation respecting Caste by a Buddhist [" Transactions of the Royal Asiatic Society," vol. iii. (1829), p. 160. Repriuted in "Illustra- tions," p. 192] ....... 126 X. On the Extreme Resemblance that prevails between many of the Symbols of Buddhism and Saivism [" Oriental Quarterly Magazine," vol. vii. (1827), p. 218, and vol. viii. (1828), p. 252. Reprinted in " Illustra- tions," p. 203] ....... 133 XI. The Pravrajya" Vrata or Initiatory Rites of the Buddhists, according to the Piija Khanda [" Illustrations," p. 212] . . .139 PART II. I. On the Physical Geography of the Himalaya ["Journal of the Bengal Asiatic Society," vol. xviii. (1849), p. 761. Reprinted in "Selec- tions from the Records of the Government of Bengal," No. xxvii. Calcutta, 1857, p. 48] . . . . . 1 II. On the Aborigines of the Himalaya ["Journal of the Bengal Asiatic Society," vol. xvi. (1848), p. 1235, and vol. xvii.,p. 73. Reprinted in "Selections," p. 126] ...... 29 III. Origin and Classification of the Military Tribes of Nepal ["Journal of the Bengal Asiatic Society," vol. ii. (1833), p. 217. Repriuted in "Selections," p. 141] ... . . . 37 IV. On the Chepang and Kusunda Tribes of Nepal ["Journal of the Bengal Asiatic Society," vol. xvii., ii. (1857), p. 650. Reprinted in " Selections," p. 150] ...... 45 V. Cursory Notice of Nayakot and of the Remarkable Tribes inhabiting it [•'Journal of the Bengal Asiatic Society," vol. ix., p. 1114. Re- printed in " Selections," p. 160] ..... 55 VI. On the Tribes of Northern Tibet and of Sifan ["Journal of the Bengal Asiatic Society," vol. xxii. (1853), p. 121. Reprinted in "Selec- tions," p. 173] ....... 65 VII. On the Colonization of the Himalaya by Europeans ["Selections," p. 1] 83 VIII. On the Commerce of Nepal [" Selections," p. 11] . . . . 91 Index. 12 2 LIST OF ADDITIONS AND CORRECTIONS. PART I. Page 3, line 14, at languages, add foot note, " see on to pp. 29-36." ,, 8, note " *," misplaced, belongs to the word " Buddha," four lines lower. ,, 15, for "Najra" read " Vajra." ,, 19, note. For " see No. 15" read " see on to the Pravrajya Vrata," p. 139, et ccet. ,, 21, for " list of Bhotiya books " read " list (that of Bhotiya books.") ,, 20, for " emigration" read " immigration." ,, 22-32, heading of all, for " religion of Bhot" read " religion of Nepal." ,, 33, heading, erase " List of Buddhist works." ,, 34, for the same heading read " List of Jathagatas. " ,, 23, note, for" ought " read " sought. " ,, 24, line 19, for " and" read " an." ,, 25, 8 lines from bottom, for " meditation " read " mediation." ,, 26, 6 lines from bottom, for " articular" read "particular - ." ,, 30, line 14, for " Dharma" read " Dhyani." ,, 39, 1 line from bottom, for " were sent" read " sent by me to Royal Asiatic Society." „ 49, line 12 from bottom, at the word "them," insert the footnote " || " : " This is probably an error. Sakya taught orally; but his immediate disciples (Kasyapa, Ananda, and Upali) reduced his doctrines to writing." ,, 52, line 10 from top, for "bhikshari" read " Khikshari." ,, 60, line 14 from top, for " are " read "is." ,, 60, line 18, after " reduced" read " them." ,, 89, line 9 from top, for "mortals" read " morals." ,, 93, erase the whole of the Dwiamnaya and Triamnaya, and substitute as follows : — Dwiamnaya. Upaya. Prajna. Pi-ajna. Upaya, The first is theistic ; the second, atheistic. Triamndya. Buddha. Dharma. Buddha. Dharma. Buddha. Sangha. Sangha. Sangha. Dharma. The first and third of this series are theistic (diverse) ; the second is atheistic, Buddha=Upaya, Dharma=Prajna. ,, 98, in note, 4 lines from bottom, for "pp. 137-9 of vol. i." read "for full list of Sanskrit works, see pp. .36-39 aforegone." ,, 101, note " *." Add to note, "The identity in question has since been upheld by Cunningham, Wilson (of Bombay), Chapman (of Madras), and Colonel Yule." X LIST OF ADDITIONS AND CORRECTIONS. Pa^e 102, at word "published" in last line, add footnote "+," "These drawings have since been presented to the French Institute. " 110, in note, line 10 from bottom, for " above " read " about." 126, at title, add as footnote "J," "From Royal Asiatic Society's Transactions, vol. ii., dated July 11, 1829." ,, 133, at title, add footnote " +," " From ' Oriental Quarterly Magazine,' No. III. A.D. 1827." ,, 139, at title, add footnote "§," "From volume on Buddhism, printed at Serampore A.D. 1841." ,, 140, line 5 from bottom, for " Pravra" read " Pravrajya." ,, 141, note, for " Gardhar " read " Gandhar." ,, 142, add to the note, "See enumeration of all the principal objects of Buddhist worship above given," pp. 93-96. PART II. Page 12, line 9, for " reach " read " reaches." ,, 13, lines 19 and 23, complete the brackets after 4000 and after el cat. ,, 14, line 1, for " Lescha " read "Lepcha;" line 5, for " Kaya " read " Vayu ; " line 16, for " Leschu " read " Lepcha; " line 19, after " craftsmen," add, " of which the names are as follows : — In the mountains. In the valley." ,, 14, line 5 from bottom in note, for " Tharuh " read " Tharii," and bracket the words, " not own name," and also the word "Sallyan." Add to note, " Many of the Awalias will be found spoken of in the paper on Nayakot, herein given." ,, 15, at the words " Nepal, J.A.S.B., May 1833," add in note "+," given herein, at p. 39. ,, 17, line 13, for "viverrula" read " viverricula." Last line, for " Galophasis " read " Gallophasis. " ,, 19, line 11, for "to" read "too." ,, 21, let the words at bottom of diagram run all through. ,, 25, line 14, for "plateau" read "plateaux." ,, 29, line 6 from bottom, at word " omitted," add footnote, "In the ' Bengal Asiatic Journal ' for June 1848, may be seen a sample of the Khas tongue." ,, 29, line 3 from bottom, at words " broken tribes," add footnote, " See a paper thereon expressly, in the sequel of this work. " ,, 30, line 8 from top, add footnote " §," "For the tribes East of Bhutan, round Assam, and thence down the Indo-Chinese frontier, see papers in the sequel." „ 31, in note, for " 4500 " read " 4000." „ 32, line 9, after " Dravidian," add, " Mundarian or H6-Sontal." ,, 32, line 11, at word " dialects," add, " See them, as hereto annexed." ,, 33, line 3, at word " weavers," add footnote, " See list of them aforegone, at p. 14." „ 34, for " 4500-4700" read " 4000." ,, 39, line 17, for " caste " read " cast." ,, 40, line 4 from top, for " some " read " about 100." ,, 46, line 1, for " already " read " always." ,, 46, line 5 from top, at word "Kusunda," add footnote as follows, "+'':—" Since accomplished, and the result given hereinafter in the paper on the broken tribes." ,, 4i"., line S from bottom, at word "Ilaiyu," erase note"§," and substitute " llaiyu, Eayu, vel Vayu." For more on this tribe, sec Treatise hereinafter given on the Vaj u and Bahing. LIST OF ADDITIONS AND CORRECTIONS. xi Page 53, the headings, for "Tibetan" read "Chepang;" and for " Shopa" read "English." ,, 57, line 4 from bottom, at word " Denwar," add in footnote "+," "See paper on broken tribes, before referred to." ,, 60, line 14 from bottom, for "dialect" read " dialects ;" and add footnote : "See paper on broken tribes, complete vocabulary of these tongues, and compare 13, 14 supra, Part II." ,, 61, line 14 from top, for " overhang " read " overhanging." ,, 05, line 7 from top, at word "tongues" add footnote "+," "See the former instance here alluded to, in the paper on the Caucasian affinities of the Tibetans as given in the sequel." „ 65, line 7 from bottom, for ' ' Trochu " read ' ' Thochu, " and last line, for " Khor " read "Hor." ,, 60, line 15 from top, at word "Kuenlun" add footnote, "Is not the Karakorum the western prolongation of the Nyenchhen, and distinct from the Kuenlun, though curving up to it on nearing the Pamer?" ,, 67, line 12 from bottom, at word "Pekin," add as footnote, "See this itinerary here- inafter given." ,, 69, line 1, at word "Indochinese," add footnote, "The paper on the Indo-Chinese borderers herein. " ,, 69, line 20, at word " Caucasus " add footnote, "See paper on these affinities in the sequel." ,, 72, in note, for " tribunal " read " tribe. " ,, 76, add to second note, "They are given as corrected in the sequel." ,, 85, line 9 from bottom, erase the repeated "no end." Line 7, for "drawback" read "drawbacks." ,, 87, for " weed" read " weeds." In note, for " 4500 " read " 4000." ,, 88, three lines from bottom, for " an" read " any." ,, 89, before "timber" insert "tea," and add the following footnote "t:"— "The growth of tea in the lower region, and its sale in Tibet as well as in the plains, are now affording great and increasing means of profitable employment to settlers." „ 89, note "||." For "1832" read "1831," and add at the end of this note: "The trade papers in question are given in the sequel ; and observe that the tea trade with Tibet is now adding greatly to our means of successful competition with Russia." ,, 90, note, last line but one, for " whp " read " why." ,, 92, 4 lines from bottom, at the word " rupees," add in footnote: "See note 't,' in next page. ' ,, 97, line 22 from top, for "or Takyeul" read "and Takyeul;" and for "line of transit " read " lines of transit." ,, 98, line 13, after " Kothees," add "or houses of business firms." ,, 100, line 14 from bottom, for " th " read " the." ,, 113, line 3 from top, at the word " assertion," add note as follows:— "To judge from the statements lately made (1S72) by a member of the British Embassy in Nepal, it would seem that the present condition of Nepal's commerce witli us, as well as that of ours with her, calls loudly for the attention of our Government."— Note of 1873. PART I. ON THE LANGUAGES,* LITERATURE, AND RELIGION OF NEPAUL AND TIBET. Within the mountainous parts of the limits of the modern kingdom of Nepaul, there are thirteen distinct and strongly-marked dialects spoken. These are the Khas or Parbattia, the Magar, the Gurung, the Sunwar, the Kachari, the Haiyu, the Chepang, the Kasunda, the Murmi, the Newari, the Kiranti, the Limbuan, and the Lapachan. With the exception of the first (which will be presently reverted to) these several tongues are all of Trans-Himalayan stock, and are closely affiliated. They are all extremely rude, owing to the people who speak them having crossed the snows before learning had dawned upon Tibet, and to the physical features of their new home (huge mountain barriers on every hand) having tended to break up and enfeeble the common speech they brought with them. At present the several tribes or clans to which these dialects are appropriated, can hardly speak intelligibly to each other, and not one of the dialects, save the Newari or language of Nepaul Proper (and the Lapcha, which with the Limbu belongs now to Sikim), can boast a single book, or even a system of letters, original or borrowed. The Newari has, indeed, three systems of letters, of which more will be said in the sequel ; and it has also a small stock of books in the shape of translations and comments from and upon the sacred and exotic literature of the Newars. But the Newari tongue has no dictionary or grammar ; nor is its cultivation ever thought of by those, numerous as they are, who devote their lives to the sacred literature of Buddhism. It may be remarked, by the way, that the general and enduring effects of this addiction to an exotic medium, in preference to the vernacular, have been, to cut off the bridge leading from speculation to practice, to divorce learning from utility, and to throw a veil of craftful mystery over the originally popular and generous practical Institutes of the religion this people profess. Before proceeding to a brief comparison of Newari and of the language of Tibet, •with a view to indicate the Northern stock of the former tongue, it will be better to notice the Khas or Parbattia Bhasha, since the subject may be dismissed in a few words, and will not need revertence to. The only language of Southern origin spoken in these Hills is the Khas or Par- battia — an Indian Prakrit, brought into them by colonies from below (twelfth to * For these languages, see on to the Paper at p. 29 of Part II., " On the Aborigines of the Himalaya," with its annexed " Comparative Vocabulary."' A 2 THE LANGUAGES OF NEPAUL. fifteenth century of Christ) and now so generally diffused, that, in the provinces West of the Kali river, it has nearly eradicated the vernacular tongues, and, though less prevalent in the provinces East of that river, it has, even in them, as far as the Trisul Ganga, divided the empire of speech almost equally with the local mother tongues. The Parbattia language is terse, simple, sufficiently copious in words, and very char- acteristic of the unlettered hut energetic race of soldiers and statesmen who made it what it is. At present it is almost wholly in its structure, and in eight-tenths of its vocables, substantially Hindee. Yet several of its radical words still indicate an ancient barbarous stock. And I have no doubt that the people who more especially speak it (the Khas) were originally what Menu calls them, viz., barbarous moun- taineers of a race essentially the same with the several other races of Nepaulese Highlanders. Few persons except Brahmans and professional scribes or Khardars are regularly taught the Parbattia language ; but most gentlemen speak, and many read and write it with ease and correctness ; the court where all so often assemble, being the nucleus of unity and refinement. This language, however, has no litera- ture properly so called, and very few and trivial books. It is always written in the Devanagari characters, and, as a language of business, is extremely concise and clear. The Gorkhalis speak the Parbattia Bhasha, and to their ascendency is its preva- lence, in later times, to be mainly ascribed. Considering that Nepaul Proper, or the country of the Newars, has long been the metropolis of Gorkhali power, it is rather remarkable that the fashionable and facile Parbattia has not made any material impression on the Newari language. The causes of this (not wholly referable to modern times) are probably, that the fertility and facility of communication characterising the level country of the Newars, soon gave consistency and body to their speech, whilst their religion (Buddhism) made them look with jealousy, as well on the more ancient Hindoo immigrants, as on the more modern Hindoo conquerors. In the mountainous districts, strictly so called, the case was different ; and, besides, from whatever reason, the tide of immigration into these regions from the South set chiefly on the provinces west of the Trisul Ganga. There too, to this day, Brahmanical Hinduism principally flourishes, its great supporters being the Khas, and, next to them, the Magars and Gurungs. Those southern immi- grants were refugees from Moslem bigotry ; and were so numerous as to be 'able to give the impress of their own speech and religion to the rude and scattered high- landers. The prior establishment of Buddhism in Nepaul Proper prevented these Brahmanical southerns from penetrating there, where, however, ages before, some southerns had found a refuge. These latter were Buddhists, fleeing from Brahmanical bigotry. They came to Nepaul Proper about two centuries after Christ. Buddhism had previously been established therein, and these immigrants were too few to make a sensible impression on the speech or physiognomy of the prior settlers, already a dense and cultivated population. It is difficult to chronologize these events. But apparently the Sakavans came into Nepaul when Kapila was destroyed by the King of Kosala. THE LANGUAGES OF NEPAUL. 3 For the rest, the population of the kingdom of Nepaul is principally Bauddha ; preferring for the most part the Tibetan model of that faith : the Newars are the chief exception, and the vast majority of them are Buddhists, but not Lamaitcs. Between the Buddhism of Tibet and that of Nepaul Proper, (or of the Newars) the differences are, 1st. That the former still adheres to, whilst the latter has rejected, the old monastic institutes of Buddhism ; 2nd. that the former is still, as of old, wholly unperplexed with caste ; the latter, a good deal hampered by it ; and that, lastly, the Tibetan Buddhism has no concealments, whilst the Nepaulese is sadly vexed with a pr oneness to withhold many higher matters of the law from all but chosen vessels. CONNEXION OF THE LANGUAGE OF NEPAUL PROPER WITH THAT OF TIBET. I proceed now to indicate that affinity of the language of the Newars to the language of the Tibetans which I have already adverted to. I had extended this vocabulary (in an amplified form) to the whole of the languages above-mentioned : but the results were, for several reasons, liable to question in detail, so that I prefer holding them back for the present, though there can be no doubt of the general facts, that these dialects are of northern origin, and are closely connected. The language of Nepaul Proper or the Newari, has, as already intimated, much in common with that of Bhot or Tibet. It is however, a poorer dialect than that of Lassa and Digarchi ; and it has, consequently, been obliged to borrow more extensive aid from Sanskrit, whilst the early adoption of Sanskrit as the sole language of literature has facilitated this infusion. The following is a comparison of a few terms : — English. Neioari. Bhotiya. The World. *(S) Sansar. Jambu Ling. God. (S) Bhagawan. Lha. Man. (S) Manno, or Mijan. Khiyoga. "Woman. Misa. f Pemi, Kemi. Quadruped. (S) Pasu, Pepanchu. Tendu. Bird. Jhongo. Djia and Chabi, Byu pron. Chu. Insect. (S) Kicha. Bii. A Worm. Dalambi. Dalabii. Fire. Mih. Mha and Mill. Air. (S) Phoy. Lha-phu and Lhawa. Earth. Cha. Sha. Water. P. Lo. C. Luk. B. Gna. CM. The Sun. (S) Suraj. Nima. The Moon. (S) Chandrama. Dawa. The Stars. (S) Nagii. Kerma. A Mountain. (S) Parba. Raj hi and Lumba. A River. Khussi. Changbo Father Boba and Opju Ava and Aba Mother Ma Amma *The (S) indicates a Sanskrit origin. fJIl-sa woman, mi-jan man, from the Tibetan root ini 'man.' THE LANGUAGES OF XEPAUL. English. Neivari. Bhotiya, Grandfather Adjhu Adjhu Grandmother Adjhama Adzhi A Child Mocha Narmi ? Piza. Bu A Boy Kay Mocha and Bhaju Phu A Girl Miah Mochu and Mejii Pamii Uncle Kakka Aghu Annt Mamma Ibi, Asa Summer (S) Taptdla Chapaha Winter Chilla Gun? Khyabu Grain (S) Ann Soh ? Du Rice Jaki, Wa Bra Wheat Cho Tho Barley- Tacho Marriage (S) Biah Pama Birth. Macha-Bullo. Kesin. Death. Sito. Lhesin. A House. Chen. Khim. A Stone. Lohu. Ghara ? To. Do. A Brick. Appa. Arpa. Temple. (S) Dewa. Lha-Kang. An Image. Kata Malli, Patima. Toto, Thu. A Bridge. Ta and Taphu. Samba. A Tree. Sima. Ston-bba or Tongba, A Leaf. Sihau and Hau. Loma or Lapti. A Flower. Swang. Meto, or Mendo. A Fruit. Si. Brebu. A Horse. Sallo. Tapu or Tata. A Bull. Doho. Sandhf. A Cow. Masa and Sa. Pago. A Buffalo. Mia. Mye. A Dog. Khicha. Khigo or Khibo. A Cat. Bhow. Gure. A Jackal. Dhong. Kipchang. A Sister. Kikin. Chamu ? Nuinu. A Brother. Ivinja. Chou? Gmi. Own Family. Thajho and Tha Mannu. Pin. Kinsfolk. Phuki. Phebin. Strangefolk. Kato & Miah-Ping. Chomi. The Head. Chong. Wu or Go. The Hair. Song. Tar or Ta. The Face. Qua. Tongba. The Eye. Mikha. Mhi. The Nose. Gnia. Gmi. The Mouth. Mhutu. Kha. THE LANGUAGES OF NEPAUL. English. Newari. Bhox The Chin. Mano. Noma. The Ear. Nhiapo, Nhamjo. ' The Forehead. Kopa. Praia. The Body. Mho. Zhiibii. The Arm. Laha, Lappa/ Lakpa, La-g-pa, The Leg. Tuti. Kangba. Right. Jou. Yeha. Left. Khou. Yenni. A Mouth. La. La-wa. A Year. Dat'chi, Lochik. Day. Gni or Nhi. Nain, Nyi-n-nio, Night. Cha. Chan. With regard to the Newari words, I can venture to say they may be relied on, though they differ somewhat from Kirkpatrick's, whose vocabulary, made in a hurry, exhibits some errors, especially that of giving Sanskrit words instead of the vernacular. It is remarkable that the Newars, (those that pretend to education, and those who are wholly illiterate), are apt to give a stranger, a Sanskrit, instead of their own Newari, name for auy object to which their attention is called for tire purpose of naming it. This habit owes its origin to the wish to be intelli- gible, which the Newars know they cannot be in speaking their own tongue. The real poverty of the Newari is, also, no doubt, another cause, and its want of words expressive of general ideas: thus, Creation, God, have no Newari names, and the Sanskrit ones have therefore been borrowed of necessity : the like is true of the word Mankind, for which, as well as for the two former words, I have not been able, after great pains, to obtain any vernaculars. When a Newar would express the idea of God, without resorting to Sanskrit, he is driven to periphrasis, and says Adjhi Deo, which word is compounded of Adjhu, a Grandfather, and Deo; and thus, by reverence for ancestors, he comes to reverence his maker, whom be calls, literally, the father of his father, or the first father. I am quite aware the fore- gone and following meagre examples of Newari will not go far to establish the affinity of this language. The subject must be reserved for the future ; but, in the mean time, I may observe that the northern stock, and intimate affinity of Newari and of the other dialects before enumerated, (excepting the Ivhas or Parbattia), are written as palpably upon the face of these languages as upon the physiognomy and form of the races who speak them. As for the Bhotiya words, I camiot wholly vouch for them, few as they are, having obtained them from a Lama, who was but little acquainted with Newari or Parbattia. The majority are, I believe, sufficiently accordant with the Lhassa model, but some may be dialectically corrupted. Still, however, they will equally serve, (as far as they go), to illustrate my assertion that the root and stock of Newari are Trans-himalayan and northern ; for there are many dialects on both * Lappa, (almost identical with the Bhotiya Lakpa) means the true arm, or upper half of the limb. Laha means the whole. 6 THE LANGUAGES CF NEPAUL. sides of the snows, and some of the inferior Tibetan dialects may, very probably, come nearer to Newari than the best, or that of Lhassa. The twelfth word in the Newari column, Water, is given according to the sub- dialects of the Valley. Water is Lo at Patau, Luk at Katmandu, and Gna at Bhatgong ; these places being the capitals of as many kingdoms before the Gorkha conquest, though situated in very close vicinity to each other. With respect to the numerals of the decimal scale, the resemblance is strik- ingly close. Numerals. Bhotiya. 1. Chi. Newari. Chi. 2. Gni. Na Shi. 3. Sum. Swong. 4. Zhi. Pih. 5. Gnah. Gniah. G. Tukh. Khu. 7. Tun. Nha or Nhasso. 8. Ghiah. Chiah. 9. Gun. Gun. 10. Chu (Thampa, an expletive merely.) 11. Chii-chi. Sanho. Saran-chi. 12. Chu-gni. Saran Nassi. 13. Chu (P.) siim, (the letter (P) written but scarcely audibly uttered.) 14. Chu (P.) Zhi. Saran Pih. 15, Cheanga. Saran Gniah. 16. Churu. Saran Khu. 17. Chuptin. Saran Nha. 18. Chopkia. Saran Chiah. 19. Churko. Saran Gun. 20. Ne - shu (thampa.) 21- „ Saran Sanho. Ni Chi. 22. „ » Ni Nassi. 23. „ >> Ni Swong. 24. „ n Ni Pih. 25. „ V Ni Gniah. 26. „ ?J Ni Khu. 27. „ JJ Ni Nhi. 28. „ 5) Ni Chiah. 29. „ » Ni Gun. 30. Sum chu i (thampa.) Ni Shao. 31. „ jj Swi Chi. 32. „ ?) Swi Nassi. 33. „ 34. „ 5J Swi Swong. Swi Pih. THE LANGUAGES OF NEPATJL. Ehotiya, 35. Sum elm (thampa.) 36. „ „ 37 38. „ „ 40. Zhe-chu (thampa.) 41- » 42. » 43. „ 50. Gna-chu (thampa.) 60. Tukh-chu (thampa.) 70. Tun „ 80. Gheali „ 90. Gu (P.) 100. Gheah „ 1,000. Tong-tha-che. 10,000. Thea. 100,000. Bum. Newari. Swi Gniah. Swi Khu. Swi Nha. Swi Chiah. Swi Gun. Swi Sanho. Pi Chi. Pi Nassi. Pi Swong. Gniayu or Pi-Sanho, or merely by pausing on the last letter of Gniah or :5 and thus also 60, 70, &c. are formed out of 6, 7, &c. Qui. Nhaiyu. Chaiye. Guye. Sach6. Do-che. Zhi-dot. Lak-chi. Nor is the variation, after passing the ten, of any importance, the principle of both being still the same ; that is, repetition and compounding of the ordinals ; thus, ten and one, ten and two, are the forms of expression in both, and so, twice, &c. The Bhotiya word thampa, postfixed to the decimally increasing series, is a mere expletive, and often omitted in speech. The Newari names of the figures from one to ten, as given by Kirkpatrick, are not correct, and hence the difference between the Newari and Bhotiya names has been made to appear greater than it is : in fact, it seems to me, that even the little difference that remains in the present specimens may be resolved into mere modes of utterance. Although the following offer no verbal resemblances, the principle on which they are formed presents several analogies. Bhotiya and Newari names of the twelve months. February. March. April. May. June. July. August. September. October. November. December. January. February. Newari, Chongchola or Chilla. Bachola or Ne'la. Tuchola „ Swoln. Dil'la Pela. Gung'la „ Gniala. Yung'la „ Khola. Koula „ Nhula. Kozla „ Chitla. Thingla „ Gungla. Pue"la „ Sola. Sel'la „ Zliin'cbala. Chil'la „ Zhin'unla. Bhotiya. Dagava (or Lawa) Tangbu. (Lawa) Gnipa. ,, ,, Sumba. ,, ,, Zhiba. ,, ,, Gnappa. ,, ,, Tuakpu. ,, „ Tumba. ,, ,, Gnappa. ,, ,, Guabba. ,, ,, Chuba. ,, ,, Chu-chikpa. ,, ,, Chu-gnipa. 8 THE LANGUAGES OF NEPAUL. Sunday, (S) Adhwina, Monday, (S) Sworn wa, Tuesday, (S) Ongwa, Wednesday, (S) Budhwa, Thursday, (S) Bussowa, Friday, (S) Sukrawa, Saturday, (S) Sonehowa, The second set of Newari names is formed merely by compounding the word La, a month, with the names of the cardinals, one, two, etc. As for the first set of names, there too we have the final La ; and the prefixes are mere characteristic epithets of the seasons ; thus, February is called Chilla ; but Chilla means also the cold month, or winter. The Bhotiyas, like the Newars, have no simple names for the months, but call them periphrastically the first, etc., month. Dawa and Lawa both mean a month ; but in speech this word is never prefixed, save in speaking of the first Bhotiya month or February, for from February their year begins. What Tangbu means, I know not, unless it be the same with Thampa, the word that always closes the series of numbers, 10, 20, 30, etc. The names of all the others are easily explained, they being compounds of the numbers 2, 3, etc., with the syllable pa or ba — evi- dently the La of the Newars — postfixed. Newari names of the seven Bhotiya names of the days of the week. seven days. or Chanhu, Nima. „ Nenhu, Dawa. „ Swonhu, Mimer. „ Penhu, Lhakpa. „ Gnianhu, Phoorboo. „ Khonhu, Pasang. „ Nhainhu, Pemba. The first of the Newari series are wholly corrupt Sanskrit, and the second formed by compounding the word Nhi or Gni, a day, with the cardinals : the Newars have no simple words of their own, expressive of the seven days. A variety of characters is met with in the Nepaulese and Bhotiya books, some of which are now obsolete. A manuscript, of which a copy is forwarded, contains a collection of these alphabets, each bearing a separate designation. Of the Newari, three kinds of letters are most familiarly known, and four of the Bhotiya. WRITTEN CHARACTERS OF NEPAUL PROPER. The three Newari alphabets (so to speak) are denominated Bhanjin Mola, Ranja, and Newari. Whether these three sorts of letters were formerly used by the Siva Margi Newars, I cannot say ; but old Bauddha * works exhibit them all, especially the two former. Newari alone is now used by both sects of Newars for profane purposes ; and for sacred, both often employ the Devanagari, oftener the Newari. If the Siva Margi Newars ever used (which I doubt) Bhanjin Mola, or Ranja, at least they do so no longer ; and the Newars of the Buddha faith having long ceased ordinarily to employ those letters in making copies of their Scriptures, few can now write them, and the learned only (who are accustomed to refer to their old works) can read them with facility. In regard to the origin of these letters, we may at once refer the Newari to Nagari ; but the other two present at first sight more difficulties. Dr Carey was, some time back, of opinion that they are mere fanciful specimens of caligraphy * For Buddha read Bauddha, et sic passim, where the word is used adjectively. THE LANGUAGES OF NEPAUL. 9 This notion is refuted by the fact of their extensive practical application, of which Dr. Carey was not aware when he gave that opinion. By comparing one of them (the Ranja) with the fourth alphabet of the Bhotiyas, it will be seen, that the general forms of the letters have a striking resemblance. And as this Lanja or Ranja is deemed exotic by the Bhotiyas, I have no doubt it will prove the same with the Newari letters so called : for the words Lanja, Lantza, and Ranja are one and the same. Of the Bhanjin Mola, it may be observed that it has a very ornate appearance, and, if the ornamental parts were stripped from the letters, they (as well as the Ranja) might be traced to a Devanagari origin, from the forms of which alphabet the Bauddhas might possibly alter them, in order to use them as a cover to the mysteries of their faith. The Bauddha literature is, originally, Indian. Now, though probability may warrant our supposing that those who origi- nated it, together with its religion, might alter existing alphabetical forms for the purpose above hinted at, it will not warrant our conjecturing, that they would undergo the toil of inventing entirely new characters. All these systems of letters follow the Devanagari arrangement, nor shoidd I hesitate to assign them all a Devanagari origin. Indeed it is well known to the learned, that there were anciently in the plains of India many sorts of written characters, since become extinct : and I have no doubt that the letters adverted to were part of these. WRITTEN CHARACTERS OF TIBET. Of the Bhotiya characters, four kinds are distinguishable ; but only two of them are known by name to the Newars : they are called (in Tibet as well as here ) Uchhen and Umen. The first are capitals : the second, small letters : the third, running hand ; and the fourth, as already observed, equivalent to the Nepaulese Ranja. There is also a character in use in and near Tibet which is ascribed to the Sokpa, who, with the Ilor or Horpa, constitute the nomad population of Tibet, of Turki, and Mongol etymon respectively. LITERATURE OF BHOT OR TIBET. The term Bhot is the Sanskrit, Tibet the Persian name, Bod the native one, but probably only a corruption of the first term, and, if so, the Tibetans had not any general name for themselves (Bod-pa) or their country when their Indian teachers first came among them in the 7th centuary, a.d. The great bulk of the literature of Bhot (as of Nepaul) relates to the Bauddha religion. In Bhot the principal works are only to be found at the larger monasteries : but numerous Bhotiya books of inferior pretensions, are to be obtained at Katmandu from the poor traffickers p.nd monks who annually visit Nepaul on account of religion and trade. The character of the great part of these latter, or the Bhotiya books procured in Nepaul, is that of popular tracts, suited to the capacity and wants of the humbler classes of society, among whom it is a subject of surprise, that literature of any kind shoidd be so common in such a region as Bhot, and, more remarkably so, that it shoidd be so widely diffused as to reach persons covered with filth, and desti- B IO THE LANGUAGES OF NEPAUL. tute of every one of those thousand luxuries which (at least in our ideas) precede the gTeat luxury of books. Printing is, no doubt, the main cause of this great diffusion of books. Yet the very circumstance of printing being in such general use, is no less striking than this supposed effect of it ; nor can I accoimt for the one or other effect, unless by presuming that the hordes of religionists, with which that country [Tibet] swarms, have been driven by the tedium vitce, to these admirable uses of their time. The invention of printing, the Bhotiyas got from China ; but the universal use they make of it is a merit of their own. The poorest individual who visits this valley from the north is seldom without his Pothi [book], and from every part of his dress dangle charms [ Jantras,] made up in slight cases, the interior of which exhibits the neatest workmanship in print. Some allowance, however, should also be made for the very familiar power and habit of writing, possessed by the people at large : another feature in the moral picture of Bhot, hardly less striking than the prevalence of printing or the diffusion of books, and which I should not venture to point out, had I not had sufficient opportunities of satisfying myself of its truth among the annual sojourners in Nepaul who come here in hundreds to pay their devotions at the temple of the self-existent Supreme Buddha [Swayambhu Adi Buddha]. In the collections forwarded to the Society will be found a vast number of manuscripts — great and small — fragments, and entire little treatises — all which were obtained [as well as the small printed tracts] from the humblest individuals. Their number and variety will, perhaps, be allowed to furnish sufficient evidence of what I have said regarding the appliances of education in Tibet, if due reference be had, when the estimate is made to the scanty and entirely casual source whence the books were obtained in such plenty. The many different kinds of writing which the MSS. exhibit will, perhaps, be admitted yet further to corroborate the general power of writing possessed by almost all classes of the people. Or, at all events, these various kinds and infinite degrees of penmanship, present a curious and ample specimen of Bhotiya proficiency in writing, let this proficiency belong to what class or classes it may. Something of this familiar possession of the elements of education, which I have just noticed as characterising Bhot, may be found also in India; but more, I fear, in the theory of its institutions than in the practice of its present society, because of the successive floods of open violence which have, for ages, ravaged that, till lately, devoted land. The repose of Bhot, on the other hand, has allowed its pacific institutions full room to produce their natural effect; and hence we see a great part of the people of Bhot able to write and read. In whatever I have said regarding the Press, the general power and habit of writing, or the diffusion of books, in Bhot, I desire to be understood by my European readers with many grains of allowance. These words are names importing the most different things in the world in the favoured part of Europe, and in Asia. The intelligent resident in Ilindoostan will have no difficulty in apprehending the exact force which I desire should be attached to such comprehensive phrases, THE LITERATURE OF NEPAUL. I I especially if he wiil recollect for a moment that the press, writing and hooks, though most mighty engines, are hut engines ; and that the' example of China proves to us indisputably, they may continue in daily use for ages in a vast society, without once falling into the hands of the strong man of Milton ; and consequently, without waking one of those many sublime energies, the full developement of which in Europe has shed such a glorious lustre around the path of manin this world. The printing of Bhot is performed in the stereotype manner by wooden planks ; which are often beautifully graved : nor are the limited powers of such an instrument felt as an inconvenience by a people, the entire body of whose literature is of an unchanging character. The Bhotiya or Tibetan writing, again, often exhibits specimens of ready and graceful penmanship. But then it is never employed on any thing more useful than a note of business, or more informing than the dreams of blind mythology ; and thus, too, the general diffusion of books (that most potent of spurs to improve- ment in our ideas) becomes, in Bhot, from the general worthlessness of the books diffused, at least but a comparatively innocent and agreeable means of filling up the tedious hours of the twilight of civilization. SANSKRIT DAUDDHA LITERATURE OF NEPAUL. With respect to the authorities of the Buddhist religion or their sacred scriptures, the universal tradition of the followers of this creed (supported by sundry notices in their existing works) asserts, that the original body of their scriptures amounted, when complete, to eighty-four thousand volumes — probably siitras or aphorisms, and not volumes in our sense. The most authoritative of the books of the Buddhists now extant in Nepaul in the sacred language of India, as subsequently to be enumerated, are known, collectively, and individually, by the names of Sutra and Dharma. In a work called the Puja Khand there is the following passage : — " All that the Buddhas have said, as contained in the Maha Yana Sutra, and the rest of the Sutras, is Dharma Ratna," or precious science. Hence the Scriptures are also frequently called " Buddha Vachana," the words of Buddha. Sakya Sinha first gave definite form and systematic force to these words, if indeed he did not wholly originate them; and, in this important respect Sakya is to Buddhism what Vyasa is to Brahmanism. The old books of these religionists universally assert this ; the modern Bauddhas admit it in the face of that host of ascetics whom the easiness of latter supersti- tion has exalted to the rank of an inspired teacher. The sacred chronology of the sect is content with assigning Sakya to the Kali Yuga, and profane chronology is a science which the Buddhists seem never to have cultivated. But the best opinion seems to be that Sakya died about four and a half centuries before our era. In the subsequent enumeration of the chief Sanskrit authorities of the Buddhists it will be seen that Sakya is the "Speaker" in all the great works. This word answers to " hearer," and refers to the form of the works, which is, for the most part, that T2 THE LITERATURE OF NEPAUL. of a report of a series of lectures or lessons delivered verbally by Sakya to his favourite disciples, but sometimes diverging into dialogue between them. That Sakya Sinha was substantially the originator of this creed, such as it has come down to our times, is thus I think demonstrable from the uniform tenour of the language of the great scriptural authorities of the sect, wherein, either before or after the enunciation of every cardinal text, stand the words, 'thus said Sakya Sinha,' or, ' so commanded Sakya Sinha.' Sakya Sinha therefore must be con- cluded to be the founder of this creed, which took its existing written form from the hands of his earliest disciples, or Kasyapa, Ananda, and Upali. Adverting now to the technical arrangement, or classification of these works, I may observe that they are primarily divided into Esoteric and Exoteric, and that these classes are ordinarily termed Tantras and Puranas by the Buddhists as well as by the Brahmanists, though the former would likewise seem to convey this distinction by the words Upadesa and Vyakarana. Vyakarana is also employed in the sense of narration as opposed to speculation. Gatka, Jataka, Avadana, etc., seem to be subdivisions. The word Sutra as explained, " Mula Grantha," " Buddha Vachana," (chief book, words of Buddha,) has been held to be equivalent to the Sruti of the Brahmans, as has their Sinriti to the Bauddha Vyakarana. But, apt as Buddhism is to forget the distinction of divine and human nature, this analogy must be allowed to be somewhat defective ; and, in fact, the Sutra of the Buddhists often comprehends not only their own proper " Buddha Vachana," but also " Bodhisatwa and Bhikshu Vackana," (words of Bodhisatwa and of Bhikshu); which latter the Brahmans would denominate " Bishi Vachana," and of course, assign to the Smriti, or com- ments by holy men upon the eternal truth of the Sruti. The Newars assert, that of the original body of their sacred literature but a small portion now exists. A legend, familiar to this people, assigns the destruction to Sankara Acharya ; and ' the incomparable Sankara ' of Sir W. Jones, is execrated by the Nepaulese Bauddhas as a blood-stained bigot.* Of the existing Bauddha writings of Nepaul (originally of Indian growth and still foimd unchanged in the Sanskrit language) by far the most important, of the speculative kind, are the five Khandas or parts of the Prajna Paramita or Raksha Bhagavati, each of which contains 2->,000 distiches. Of the riarrative kind, the chief are eight of the nine works called the ' Nava Dharma ; ' the ninth being the Ashta Sahasrika Prajna Paramita. It is a valuable summary of the great work first mentioned, to which, therefore, rather than to the narrative class, the Ashta Sahasrika bears essential affinity. In the sequel will be foimd a list of all the Sanskrit Bauddha works known to me by name.f * Sankara is placed in the ninth century of Christ (1,000 years ago), and Sakya, the founder of Buddhism, (for we have nothing authentic before him) certainly was not horn sooner than about the middle of the sixtli century, B.C. The interval of fifteen enturiea may vaguely indicate the period during which Buddhism most flourished in India. The decline of this creed in the plains we must date from Sankara's era, but not its fall, for it is now certain that the expulsion was not complete till the four- teenth or fifteenth century of our era. From the ninth century onwards is comprised the worst period of the persecution. t See the next paper for this list. THE LITERATURE OF NEPAUL. 1 3 The five Rakshas or Paramitas * are enumerated in order in the immediately sub- sequent detail. They are of highly speculative character, belonging rather to phil- osophy than religion. The cast of thought is sceptical in the extreme : endless doubts are started, and few solutions of them attempted. Sakya appears surrounded by his disciples, by whom the arguments on each topic are chiefly maintained, Sakya acting generally as moderator, but sometimes as sole speaker. The topics discussed are the great first principles of Buddhism;! the tenets of the four schools of Bauddha Philosophy are mentioned, but those of the Swabkavika alone largely discussed. The object of the whole work seems rather to be proof of the pro- position, that doubt is the end as well as beginning of wisdom, than the establish- ment of any particular dogmas of philosophy or religion : and from the evidence of this great work it would appear that the old Bauddha philosophers were rather sceptics than atheists. The nine Dharmas are as follows : 1. Ashta Sahasrika. 2. Ganda Vyiiha. 3. Dasa Bhiimeswara. 4. Samadhi Raja. 5. Lankavatara. 6. Sad Dharma Pundarika. 7. Tathagata Guhyaka. 8. Lalita Vistara. 9. Suvarna Prabhasa. Divine worship is constantly offered to these nine works, as the ' Nava Dharma,' by the Bauddhas of Nepaul. The aggregation of the nine is now subservient to ritual fancies, but it was originally dictated by a just respect for the pre-eminent authority and importance of these works, which embrace, in the first, an abstract of the philosophy of Buddhism ; in the seventh, a treatise on the esoteric doctrines ; and in the seven remaining ones, a full illustration of every point of the ordinary doctrine and discipline, taught in the easy and effective way of example and anec- dote, interspersed with occasional instances of dogmatic instruction. With the exception of the first, these works are therefore of a narrative kind ; but inter- woven with much occasional speculative matter. One of them (the Lalita Vistara ) is the original authority for all those versions of the history of Sakya Sinha, which have crept, through various channels, into the notice of Europeans. I esteem myself fortunate in having been first to discover and procure copies of these important works. To meditate and digest them is not for me ; but I venture to hint that by so doing only can a knowledge of genuine Buddhism be acquired. Buddhism is not simple, but a vast and complicate structure erected, during ages of leisure, by a literary people. It has its various schools divided by various Doctors; nor is the Buddhism of one age less different from that of another, than the Brahmanism of the Vedas, of the Puranas, and of the Bhagavat. Buddhism prevailed in India sixteen to seventeen centuries, and, as its genius was free, so it had even before its founder's death many sects. And soon after his death, schisms multiplied infinitely despite the three great convocations called to stay them. These councils took place respectively, B.C. 4(5.5, B.C. 365, B.C. 231. Let it not be supposed, because these works I have cited were procured in Nepaul, that they are therefore of a local character or mountain origin. *On the Prajna Paraniita. see Wassiljew's " Der Buddhismus" p. 157, f See the suquel at "Religion of Nepaul and Bhot." 14 THE LITERATURE OF NEPAUL. Such a notion is, in every -view, utterly absurd; for the works hear intrinsic evidence of the contrary in almost every page ; and their language (Sanskrit,) always wholly exotic in Nepaul, most assuredly was never cultivated there with a zeal or ability such as the composition of these works must have demanded. These works were composed by the Sages of Magadha,* Kosala,t and Rajagriha,}: whence they were transferred to Nepaul by Bauddha Missionaries soon after they had assumed their existing shape. The Sambhu Purana is the only local work of importance in the large collection which I have made. Perhaps it may be surmised, that if (as is stated) the fire of Sankara's wrath consumed all but some fragments of the sacred writings of the Buddhists, the ample works now produced must be spurious. But, in the first place, the legend is but a legend ; and in the next, exaggeration may reasonably be suspected, both as to number of books then extant and destroyed The Bauddhas never had eighty-four thousand principal scriptures; || nor could Sankara destroy more than a few of those which they really possessed when he came (if he ever came) to Nepaul. The proof of the latter statement is — that Bud- dhism was, long after Sankara's time, the prevalent and national faith of the Xepaulese Princes and subjects; and that it is so still in regard to the people, notwithstanding the Gorkhali conquest. Sankara (or some other famous Brah- manical controversist) may have converted one of the Princes of the Valley ; but the others remained Buddhists ; and, no doubt, took care of the faith and property of their subjects. All old Bauddha works are written in one of the three sorts of letters now peculiar to Nepaul Proper, usually in Ranja and Bhanjin Mola, and on Palmira leaves. Copies of the Raksha Bhagavati or Prajna Paramita are very scarce. I am of opinion, after five years of enquiry, that there were but four copies if it in the Valley, prior to my obtaining one copy and a half : one copy more I pot transcribed from an old one.§ No one had, for some time, been able fully to understand its contents ; no new copy had been made for ages ; and those few persons, who possessed one or more khands or sections of it, as heir-looms, were content to offer to sealed volumes the silent homage of their puja (worship). Time and growing ignorance have been the chief enemies of Sanskrit Bauddha literature in Nepaul. The Bauddha Scripture's are with reference chiefly to their form and style, frequently stated to be of twelve kinds,** known by the following twelve names; 1 . Sutras ; 2. Geya ; 3. Vyakarana ; 4. Gatha ; 5. Udana ; 6. Nidana ; 7. Ityukta : * The modern Bihar. + Berar. t Rajgir. We should doubtless read aphorism or text (Sutra or bana), not book, with refer- in e to the 84,000 in question. The universality of the notion proves that this definit( number has truth, in some sense, attached to it. The primitive meaning of Sutra [aphorism, or thread of discourse,] implies that Sakya taught verbally ; and if this be so, Sutra only took its present sense of principal scrip- ture after his death. These sayings of Sakya may still be found all over the sacred works of the sect in their original aphoristic form. The destruction of Bauddha books adverted to in the text, has, I fancy, reference to the plains of India. There it was completi I aally ; but in the mean while the most valuable works had been saved in Nepaul. § These I sent to the Library of the College of Fort William ad. 1825. ** Twelve kinds of Scriptures, see AVassiljew, p. 118. THE LITERATURE OF XEPAUL. 1 5 8. Jataka; 9. Vaipulya; 10. Aclbhuta Dliarma ; 11. Avadana; 12. Upadesa. Sutras are the principal scriptures, (Mula Grantlia) as the Raksha Bhagavati or Prajna Paramita; they are equivalent to the Vedas of the Brahmanists. The aphorisms of Sakya are the basis of them, hence the name. Get/as are works of praise, thanksgiving and pious fervour, in modulated language. The Gita Govinda of the Brahmanists is equivalent to the Buddhist Gita Pustaka, which belongs to the Geya. Vydharana are narrative works, such as those containing histories of the several births of Sakya prior to his attaining Nirvana ; and sundry actions of others who by their lives and opinions have illustrated this religion, with various forms of prayer and of praise. Yyakarana, in the sense of narration, is opposed generally to works of philosophy or speculation, such as the Prajna Paramita. It also characterises works of an exoteric kind, as opposed to the Upadesa or Tantras. Gdthds are narrative works, in verse and prose, containing moral and religious tales, (Aneka Dharmakatha) relative to the Buddhas, or elucidative of the discipline and doctrine of the sect. The Lalita Vistara is a Vyakarana of the sort called Gatka. Uddna treat of the nature and attributes of the Buddhas, in the form of a dialogue between a Buddhist adept and novice. Niddna are treatises, in which the causes of events are shewn ; as for example, how did Sakya become a Buddha ? the reason or cause ; he fulfilled the Dan, and other Paramitas.* Ityukta, whatever is spoken with reference to, and in conclusion : the explanation of some prior discourse, is Ityukta. Jataka treat of the subject of transmigration or metempsychosis, the illustrations being drawn from the 550 births of Sakya. Vaipulya treat of several sorts of Dharnia and Artha, that is, of the several means of acquiring the goods of this world (Artha) and of the world to come (Dharnia). Adbhuta Dhanna, on preternatural events. Avadana, of the fruits of actions or moral law of Mundane existence. Upadesa treat of the esoteric doctrines, and are equivalent to Tantra, the rites and ceremonies being almost identical with those of the Hindoo Tantras, but the chief objects of worship, different, though very many of the inferior ones are the same. According to the Upadesa, the Buddhas are styled Yoganibara and Digain- bara. Tantrika works are very numerous. They are in general disgraced by obscenity and by all sorts of magic and doenionology. But they are frequently redeemed by unsually explicit assertions of a supreme Godhead. Najra Satwa Buddha is the magnus Apollo of the Tantrikas. The following is an enumeration of some of the most important individual speci- mens of the preceding classes. * Paramita here means virtue, the moral merit by which our escape (passage") from mortality is obtained. Dana, or charity, is the first of the ten cardinal virtues of the Bauddhas ; "and other" refers to the remaining nine. Appendix A. of paper III. Yiram beyond and itd gone. 1 6 THE LITERATURE OF NEPAUL. First khand, or section, of the Raksha Bhagavati or Prajna Paramita. It is a Maha Yana Siitra Sastra. It begins with a relation (by himself) of how Sakya became Bhagavan (deified) ; and how he exhorted his disciples to study and meditate his principles ; and how he explained the doctrine of Avidya, that is, as long as Avidya* lasts, the world lasts, when Avidya ceases, (Nirodha) the world ceases; aliter, Pravritti ends, and Nirvritti* begins. Such are the general contents of the former part of this khand ; and the latter part of it is occupied with explana- tions of Siinyata and Maha Siinyata.* Sakya is the speaker, the hearers are Subhuti, and other Bhikshukas : the style is prose (Gadya). Second and third khands of the Raksha Bhagavati. Contents the same as above. The fourth khand of the Raksha Bhagavati relates how any one becomes Sarva- karmajna, or skilled in the knowledge of all things on earth and in heaven ; in a word, omniscient; besides which, the subjects of the former khands are treated of, in continuation, in this. The fifth khand of the Raksha Bhagavati. It is a sort of abstract of the other four which form one work. Besides Avidya, Siinyata, and all the other great topics of the prior khands, this khand contains the names of the Buddhas, and Bodhisatwas. These five khands or divisions ai*e each called Pancha, Vinsati, Sahasrika, Prajna Paramita ; the three first words indicating the extent of each division, and the two last, the nature of the subject or transcendental wisdom. Sata Sahasrika is a col- lective name of the four first khands, to which the fifth is not necessarily adjunct ; and indeed it is one of several abstracts of the Sata Sahasrika, as already stated. Arya Bhagavati and Raksha Bhagavati, or holy Goddess and Goddess of Deliver- ance, are used, indifferently with Prajna Paramita, as titles of each or all of these five khands. The five khands are all in prose, and comprise the philosophy of Buddhism. Ashtasdhasrika Prajna Paramita, a Maha Yana Siitra. Another and smaller epitome of the transcendental topics discoursed of at large in the Sata Sahasrika. It is prose. Sakya is the speaker; and Subhuti and other Bhikshukas,t the hearers. ASHTA SAHASEIKA VYAKIIYA. This is a comment on the last work by Hara Bhadra, in verse and prose. Ganda Vyuha, a Vyakarana Sastra, contains forms of supplication and of thanks- giving, also how to obtain Bodhijnana, or the wisdom of Buddhism. Prose : speaker, Sakya ; hearer, Sudhana Kumara. The Ganda Yyuha is a treatise on transcendentalism by Arya Sanga the teacher of the Yogacharya. Dasa Bhumeswara, a Vyakarana, containing an account of the ten Bhumis.f Prose: speaker, Sakya; hearer, Ananda Bhikshuka. * See the explanation of these terms in the sequel. The}' form the basis of the philosophy of Buddhism. f Bhikshu, name of a Buddhist mendicant. See on to section on Religion. + Ten heavens, or ten stages of perfectibility: sometimes thirteen are enumerated and the thirteen grades of the .spire of the Chaitya are typical of them. See Laidlay's Fahian, p. 91, and J.R.A.S. xi. 1, 21. THE LITERATURE OF NEPAL' L. I 7 Samddhi Raja, a Vyakarana ; an account of the actions by which the wisdom of Buddhism is acquired, and of the duties of Bodhisatwas. Prose : speaker, Sakya ; hearers, Havana and others. Sad Dharma Pundarika, a Vyakarana, an account of the Maha and other Dipa Danas, or of the lights to he maintained in honour of the Buddhas, and Bodhisatwas ; with narrations of the lives of several former Buddhas by Sakya, as well as prophetic indications of the future eminence of some of his disciples. Speakers and hearers, Sakya, Maitreya, Manjusri, etc. Lalita Vistara. This is a Vyakarana of the sort called Gatha. It contains a history of the several births of Sakya, and how, in his last birth, he acquired perfect wisdom, and became Buddha. Verse and prose : speaker, Sakya ; hearers, Maitreya and others. Guhya Samagha, otherwise called Tathagata Guhyaka ; an Upadesa or Tantra ; contains numerous mantras, with explanations of the manner of performing- esoteric rites. Frose and verse: speaker, Bhagavan (i.e. Sakya) ; hearers, Vajra Pani* Bodhisatwa and others. Suvarna Prabhdsa, a Vyakarana Sastra; discourses by Sakya for the benefit of Lakshmf, Saraswatf and others ; also an account of the Bhagavata Dhatu, or mansions of the deities. Prose and verse : speaker, Sakya ; hearers, Litsavi t Kumara, the above named Goddesses and others. Swayambhu Purdna, the greater ; a Vyakarana of the sort called Gatha : an account of the manifestation of Swayambhu or Adi Buddha \ in Nepaul, and the early history of Nepaul. Verse: speaker, Sakya; hearer, Ananda Bhikshuka. Sirai/ambhu Parana, the less, a Gatha, summary of the above ; an account of Swayambhu Ohaitya, (or temple). Verse and prose : speaker and hearer, as above. Karanda Vyuha, an account of Lokeswara Padma Pani. Prose : speaker and hearer, as above. Guna Karanda Vytiha, a Gatha; an amplification of the above in verse. Speaker and hearer, as above. Mahdvastu, an Avadana Sastra; an account of the fruits of actions, like the Karma Vipaka of the Brahmans. Prose : speaker and hearer, as before. Asoha Avadana; an account of the Triad, or Buddha, Dharma, Sangha; also of the Chaityas, with the fruits of worshipping them. Verse : speaker, Upagupta Bhikshuka; hearer, Asoka Raja.§ Bhadra Kaipika, an Avadana Sastra ; a detailed account of the Buddhas of this Kalpa.** Verse and prose; speaker, Sakya; hearers, Upagupta Bhikshuka, with a host of immortals and mortals. Jdtaka Maid; an account of the meritorius actions of Sakya in his 5Go births, * Vajra Fani is thereon of Vajra Satwa Buddha, already alluded to as the magnus Apollo of the Tantrikas. See Fahian, p. 13-3. + Litsavis are the so called Scyths. Litsabyis in Tibetan. For Sakas, see J.R.A.S. xii. 2, 460. {Swayambhu means self-existent. Adi, first, ami Buddha, -wise. § This is the celebrated friend of Antiochus and builder of the Lata. ** It is styled the Golden because four Buddhas belong to it, viz., Karkut, Kanaka, Kasyapa, ami Sakya. c 1 8 THE LITERATURE OF NEPAUL. prior to his 'becoming a Tathdgata. Verse and prose : speaker, Sakya ; hearer, Ananda Bhikshu. Manichura, an Avadana ; an account of Manichur Raja, also of the first birth of Sakya, and of the fruits of his actions. Prose : speaker and hearer as above. Dwdvinsati Avadana, an Avadana Sastra ; an account of the fruits of building, worshipping and circumambulating* Chaityas. Verse and prose : speaker, Sakya ; hearer, Maitreya. Nandi Mukha Swaghosha, an Avadana; an account of the great fast called Vasundhara, and of the fruit of observing it. Prose : speaker, Sakya ; hearer, Ananda. Bodhi-charyd, an Avadana Sastra, of the sort called Kavya ; contains a highly laudatory account of the virtue of charity and of the Bodhi-Charya, or Buddhist duties. Verse : speaker, Maitreya ; hearer, Sudhana Kumara. Karuna Pundarika, an Avadana ; an account of Arinemi Raja ; of Samudra Renu, Purohita ; of Ratna Garbha, Tathagata; and of Avalokiteswara, (i. e., Padma Pani Bodhisatwa) interspersed with sundry philosophical topics which are discussed by Sakya in a broken manner. Sakya, then, in anticipation of his demise, gives directions as to the mode in which his system is to be taught. Prose : speaker, Sakya ; hearers, Maitreya, &c. Chandomrita Mala, a treatise of prosody ; the measures illustrated by verses laudatory of Sakya Sinha. Verse and prose : the author Amrita Bhikshu. Lokesxoara Satdka, a hundred verses in praise of Padma Pani. Verse : author, Vajra Datta Bhikshu. Saraka Dhdrd, with a comment ; a Kavya in praise of Arya Tara, Buddha Sakti. Verse : author, Sarvajna Mitrapada Bhikshu. Apardmita Dhdrani, an Upadesajf contains many Dharams addressed to the Buddhas, who are immortal (Aparamitayusha Tathagata). Prose : speaker, Sakya; hearer, Ananda Bhikshu. Dhdrani Sangraha, a collection of Dharanis, as Maha, Vairochana's D. Maha Manjusri's D. and those of many other Buddhas and Bodhisatwas. Verse : speaker, Sakya; hearer, Vajra Pani. 1'ancha Rakshd, an Upadesa Dharani ; an account of the five Buddha Saktis, called Pratisara, &c.$ Prose: speaker, Sakya ; hearer, Ananda. § Pratyangird Dhdrani, an Upadesa Dharani ; an account of Pratyangira Bud- dha Sakti. Prose: speaker, Sakya; hearer, Ananda Bhikshu. * This circumambulation is one of the commonest and most pious actions of Buddhist devotion. Mental prayers are repeated all the while, and a small cylinder fixed upon the upper end of a short star] or Handle, is held in the right hand and kept in perpetual revolution. This cylinder is culled Mani ; some Laves of the sacred books are usually enclosed in it. Its use is more common to Tibetans than to Nepaulese. Both people use beads to count their repetitions of holy words. f Dilantins, though derived from the Upadesa, arc exoteric. They are short signifi- cant tonus of prayer, similar to the Panchanga of the Brahmans. Whoever constantly repeats or wears [made up in little lockets] a dharini, possesses a charmed life. + See classified enumeration of the principal objects of Buddhist worship. But Pratisara is not therein named. These are Tantrika goddesses. § The Pancha Etaksha is now used in Courts of .lust ice to swear Buddhists upon. THE LITERATURE OF NEPAUL. 19 Tdrd Satndma, an Upadesa Dharani, contains an account of Arya Tara, of her hundred names, her Yija mantras, &c. Verse: speaker, Padma Pani; hearer, Vajra Pani. Sugatdvaddna, an Avadana Sastra, contains an account of the feast kept in honour of Sanghas or Bodhisatwas. Verse: speaker, Vasundhara Bodhisatwa ; hearer, Puslipaketu Ilajakumara. Sukhavati Loka, account of the so called heaven of Amitabha Buddha.** Verse : speaker, Sakya ; hearers, Ananda aud others. Saptavara Dharani, an Upadesa of the sort termed Dharani; an account ot the seven Devis (Buddha Saktis) called Vasundhara, Vajra Vidarini, Ganapati Hridaya, Ushnisha Vijaya, Parna Savari, Marfchi, Graha Matrika, together with their Vija mantras. Prose : speaker, Sakya ; hearers, Ananda and others. Kriyd Sangraha, an Upadesa; an account of the Tantrika ritual. Prose: speaker, Sakya ; hearers, Vajra Pani, &c, resemhles the Mahodalhi of the Brahmans. Sumaghdvaddna, an Avadana Sastra ; on account of the heaven (Bhuvana) of the Bhikshukas ; near the close is a story of the merchant Sumagha and his wife, whence the name of the work. Prose : speaker, Sakya ; hearer, Ananda. Chaitya Pungava, an Avadana on the worship of the Chaityas. Prose : speaker, Sakya ; hearer, Suchetana Bhikshuka. Kathindvaddna, an Avadana Sastra ; containing an account of the merit and reward of giving the Pindapatra,* Khikshari, Chivara and Nivasa to Bhikshukas. Prose: speaker, Sakya; hearer, Kasyapa Bhikshu. Piiidapafrdvaddna, an account of the begging platter of 1lie Bhikshus, and of the merit of bestowing it to them. Prose : speaker and hearer, as above. Dhwajdgra Keyuri, an Upadesa, or Tantrika Dharani ; au account of Dhwa- jagra Keyuri, Buddha Sakti. Prose : speaker, Sakya ; hearer, Indra Deva (the god J. Graha Matrika, a Tantrika Dharani; account of Graha Matrika, Buddha Sakti. Speaker, Sakya ; heaver, Ananda Bhikshu. Ndgapu/d, a manual of worship to the Nagas for rain. It is extracted from the Sadhana Mala. It is of the same character as the Vrata Paddhati of the Brahmans.f Mahdkdla Tantra, an Upadesa ; account of the worship to be paid to Maha- kala. Prose : Vajra Satwa Bhagavan (i. e. Buddha) ; speaker and hearer his Sakti, named Vajra Sattwatmakf. Abhidhdnottaroitara, an Upadesa ; account of the esoteric rites. Prose : speaker, Vajra Satwa Bhagavan ; hearer, Vajra Pani. The rites prescribed by this book ** Dasabhuvana affords no place for Adi Buddha, or the five Dhyanis. * The begging platter, staff, and s1cii.It habiliments of the Bauddha mendicant are called by the names in the text. The Chivara is the upper, the Nivasa the lower garb ; see on to No. 15 for dress and discipline of all the four orders. They require also for dress a pair of wooden sandals, an umbrella, and a gandhas or ewer for holding water. t The high honour paid to the Nagas and Indra in Nepaul carries us beyond the Pauranic era to that older time represented in India by theVedic gods and ritual. 20 LITERATURE OF -TIBET. resemble in character the Tantrika ritual of Braknianisni, and differ from it only in being- addressed to different objects. Vinaya Si'ttra, Treatise on Discipline. Author, Chandra Kirti Acharya. It is equivalent to the Vyasa Sutra of the Brahmans. KaljHihtdraddna, an Avadana, a highly ornate account of the first birth of Sakya, and of the fruits of his actions in that birth. Verse: author, Kshemendra Bhikshu. Gitd Pustaka, a Geya ; a collection of songs on Tantrika topics, by various hands. Stotra Sangrdha, the praises of Buddha, Dharnia, and Sangha. In verse of various measures and by various authors. Divydvaddna, an Avadana Sastra, containing various legends of the first birth of Sakya. Verse and prose : speaker, Sakya, hearers, Ananda Bhikshu and others. £ BHOT LITERATURE IN THE LANGUAGE OF TIBET. The following list of a more miscellaneous description. || BHOTIYA "WORKS. Suinachik ; by Thula Lama, written at Khanam in Bhot, on Jurisprudence. ChamaDam; by Aguchu Lama, at Tija Nowaj subject similar to the Sagun Pothi of the Hindus. Chariig ; by Thiya Lama, at Gejaketha, on the Jnana Pothi of the Hindus, or divine wisdom. Churiige Chapah ; by Yepah Begreh Maha Lama, at Pargreh ah chu, on cure of all diseases. Tuchurakh ; by Suka Lama, at Jab-la Denuk ; read by mendicant monks to prosper their petition for alms. Maui Pothi ; by Ohufil Lama ; at Gumewan ; on the use and virtue of the mani or praying cylinder. CM Dam ; by Gevighup Lama, at Yeparkas, on medicine. Napache Pothi; by Aberak Lama, at Jatu Lam, on physical science, or the winds, rain, weather. Kichak ; by Kihiah Lama, at Botehi, on witchcraft, demonology, &c. Tui takh lu ; by Ttakachandah Lama, at Kubakh, on science of war. Dutakh-a-si; by Bajachik Lama, at Gnama, read by survivors on the death of a relation, that they may not be haunted by his ghost. Serua-takh ; by Takachik Lama, at Yipurki. To be read by travellers during their wanderings, for the sake of a safe return. Sata-tu-mah : by Yisahsekar Lama, at Sebhala, read previous to sitting on a panchaet for a prosperous issue thereof. Kerikh ; by Amadatakh Lama, at Asi ; to be read for increase of temporal goods. + Since the above was composed, I have added greatly to my stock of Sanskrit works. For their names, see the list appended to next paper — Note of .1837. || This list represents merely the odds and ends first got a t. Soon after I procured the catalogue of the Kahgyur and ascertained that the great Tibetan Cyclopaedia consisteil (if translations from those Sanskrit originals whereof a part only had been rved in Xepaul. I learnt this, and sent the catalogue to Calcutta before Dc Koros* appearance three. THE LITERATURE OF TIBET. 2 1 Numbeh ; by Titakli Lama ; at Bere-ga-hakh ; to be read at times of gathering flowers for -worship. Dekmujak ; by Miuitake-tan Lama, at Miinka ; to be read previous to laying the foundation of a house. Thaka-pah ; by Gagamatakh Lama, at Ma-chaclekoh ; to be read whilst feeding the sacred fishes at the temple ; a very holy act. Kusa ; by Nemachala Lama, at Yeparenesah ; to be read at the time of bathing. Lahassa-ki-pothi ; by Uma Lama, at Lassa; to be read before eating, while dinner is serving up, to keep off wicked spirits. Ckandapu; by Grahah Lama, at Jubu-nasah ; to be read previous to making purchases. Sachah ; by Urjanh Lama, at Jadiin ; to be repeated whilst exonerating them- selves, that no evil spirit may come up. Bachah ; by Jahadegh Lama, at Maharah ; to be read by lone travellers, in forests and bye-ways, for protection. Kajaw ; by Olachavah Lama, at Karah ; to be read by a dead man's relatives to free his soul from purgatory. Yidaram ; by Machal Lama, at Saduri ; to facilitate interviews, and make them happy in their issues. Ditakk ; by Chopallah Lama, at Urasikh ; to interpret the ominous croaking of crows, and other inauspicious birds. Karachakk ; by Khuchak Lama, at Pheragiah. Chala ; by Gidu Lama, at Bidakh ; to be read at the time of drinking, that no ill may come of the draught. Kegii ; by Tupathwo Lama, at Kabajeh ; for increase of years, and a long life. Ohabeh ; by Akabeh Lama, at Ari Kalaguh ; to be read for removing the incle- mencies of the season. Kaghatukh ; by Sugnah Lama, at Bole Kachar ; to be read by horsemen, at seasons of journeys that they may come to no harm. Liichii ; by Xowlah Lama, at Chagiira Kahah ; to be read for increase of eloquence and knowledge of languages. Ghikatenah : by Sujanah Lama, at Seakuhah ; to be read by archers for success of their craft. Baudh Pothi ; or history of the founding of the Temple of Kasachit in Nepaul, with other matters appertaining to Buddhism in Nepaul.* Siri Pothi ; by Bistakow Lama ; at Jauiatakh ; a general form of prayer for rich and poor, sick and healthy, man and woman. The latter of these lists of Bhotiya books is a mere thing of shreds and patches, and, in fact, I have no means of enumerating the standard works of Tibetan literature. But I have no doubt that Tibet is indebted for its literature to Bauddha Missionaries, and Refugees from Hindustan. These individuals carried with them, * The temples of Kasachit and of Swayambmi Natlia though .situated in the Valley of Nepaul, are almost exclusively in the keeping of the Tibetans, and Lamas are the permanent ministering functionaries. 11 THE RELIGION OF BHOT. and subsequently procured from India, many of the sacred and profane works of their sect, and, as was their wont, they immediately began to instruct the people of Bhot in their own, that is, in the Sanskrit, letters and language. They had, no doubt, some success in this measure in the first period of their emigration into Bhot ; but, in the end, the difficulties of Sanskrit, and the succession of Native teachers to the chairs of the original Indian emigrants, led to the preference of he Bhotiya language, and, consequently, to a translation of all the Sanskrit works they had, and could obtain from India, into the vernacular tongue of the country. This resort to translation took place very early ; a circumstance which, aided by the lapse of time, and the further decline of the original literary ardour, inspired by the Indian Refugees, produced, at no distant period from the decease of the first Indian teachers, the oblivion of Sanskrit, and the entire supercession of original Sanskrit versions by translations into Tibetan. The Bhotiyas,* however, although they thus soon lost the Sanskrit language, retained the Devanagari letters. The result of the whole is, that the body of Bhotiya literature now is, and long has been, a mass of translations from Sanskrit ; its language, native ; its letters,(like its ideas) Indian. To support this view of the case, I have to observe, that even the Nepaulese, much nearer as they are to India, and much more cultivated in some respects as they are, have resorted extensively to vernacular comments, and even translations of their books, which also are Sanskrit ; and that, although the Newars have a good language of their own, they have no letters, but such as are clearly of Devanagari origin, and declared by themselves to be so ; that all the Bhotiyas, with whom I have conversed, assure me that they got all their know- ledge from India ; that their books are translations ; that the originals, here and there, still exist in Bhot, but that now no one can read them ; lastly, that most of the great Bhotiya classics proclaim, by their very names, the fact.f These remarks are applied, of course, to the classics of Bhot, for, in regard to works of less esteem there, I believe such to be not translations, but originals ; chiefly legends of the Lamas, and in the vernacular tongue, (the best dialect of which is that spoken about Lassa and Digarchi,) but still, like the translated classics, written in letters essentially Indian. THE P.ELIGIOX OF NEPAUL AND OP BHOT. An accurate and complete view of the Bauddha system of belief would involve the severe study of a number of the voluminous Sanskrit works above specified, * Bhol is the Sanscrit, and Tibet the Persian, name of the country. The native name is Bod, a mere corruption of the Sanskrit appellation, proving that the Tibetans had ao1 reached a general designation fur their country when the Indian teachers came among them. t Note of 1837. It is needless now to say, how fully these views have been confirmed by the researches of De Kbrbs. It is but justice to myself to add that the real nature of the Kahgyur and Stangyur was expressly stated and proved by me to the Secretary of tin' Asiatic Society some time before Mr. De Kbrbs' ample revelations were made. Corn- copies of both collections have been presented by me to the Hon. East India Company, and others procured for the Asiatic Society, Calcutta; upon the latter Mr. I >!■ &bros worked. THE RELIGION OF BHOT. 23 and would demanl more time than could be bestowed upon the task by any person, not otherwise wholly unemployed. A few observations must, therefore, suffice in this place on the religious notions of the Bauddhas of this part of India, and in making them I shall keep chiefly in view the facilitation of the study of a new subject on the part of those who may find time and courage to explore the great and new mine of Sanskrit literature which it has been my fortune to discover in NepauL Speculative Buddhism embraces four very distinct systems of opinion respecting the origin of the world, the nature of a first cause, and the nature and destiny of the soul. These systems are deuominated,t from the diognostic tenet of each, Swabhavika, Aiswarika, Yatnika, and Karmika ; and each of these, again, admits of several sub-divisions, comprising divers reconciling theories of the later Bauddha teachers, who, living in quieter times than those of the first Doctors, and instructed by the taunts of their adversaries, and by adversity, have attempted to explain away what was most objectionable, as Ave 11 as contradictory, in the original system. The Swabhavikas deny the existence of immateriality ; they assert that matter is the sole substance, and they give it two modes, called l'ravritti, and Nirvritti, or action and rest, concretion and abstraction. Matter itself, they say, is eternal, (however iufinitesimaliy attenuated in Nirvritti) ; and so are the powers of matter which powers possess not only activity, but intelligence. The proper state of existence of these powers is that of rest, and of abstraction from everything palpable and visible, (Nirvritti), in which state they are so attenuated on the one hand, and so invested with infinite attributes of power and skill on the other, that they want only consciousness and moral perfections to become gods. When these powers pass from their proper and enduring state of rest into their casual and transitory state of activity, then all the beautiful forms of nature or of the world come into existence, not by a divine creation, nor by chance, but spontaneously ; and all these beautiful forms ot nature cease to exist, when the same powers repass again from this state of Pravritti, or activity, into the state of Nirvritti, or repose. The revolution of the states of Pravrrttif and Nirvritti J| is eternal, and with them revolve the existence and destruction of nature or of palpable forms. The Swabhavikas are so far from ascribing the order and beauty of the world to blind chance, that they are peculiarly fond of quoting the beauty of visible form as a proof of the intelligence of the formative powers ; and they infer their eternity from the eternal succession of new forms. But they insist that these powers f My Bauddha pandit assigned these titles to theExfract made from his Sastras, and always used them in his discussions with me. Hence I erroneously presumed them to be derived from the Sastras, and preferable to Madyamika, &c, which he did not use, and which, though the scriptural denominations, were postponed to those here used on his authority as being less diagnostic. In making the extracts we ought to reach the leading doctrines, and therein I think we succeded. t Pra, an intrusive prefix : and Vritti, action, avocation, from vrii to turn, move, exist. See on these terms Burnouf, introduction, p.p. 441, 515. || Nir, a primitive prefix, and Vritti as before. 24 THE RELIGION OF BHOT. are inherent in matter, and not impressed on it by the finger of God, that is, of an absolutely immaterial being. Inanimate forms are held to belong exclusively to Pravritti, and therefore to be perishable ; but animate forms, among which man is not distinguished sufficiently, are deemed capable of becoming by their own efforts associated to the eternal state of Nirvritti ; their bliss in which state con- sists of repose or release from an otherwise endlessly recurring migration through the visible forms of Pravritti. Men are endowed with consciousness, as well, I believe of the eternal bliss* of the rest of Nirvritti, as of the ceaseless pain of the activity of Pravritti. But those men who have won the eternity of Nirvritti, are not regarded as rulers of the universe, which rules itself ; nor as mediators or judges of mankind still' left in Pravritti ; for the notions of mediation and judg- ment are not admitted by the Swabhavikas who hold every man to be the arbiter of his own fate — good and evil in Pravritti being, by the constitution of nature indissolubly linked to weal and woe ; and the acquistion of Nirvritti being, by the same inherent law, the inevitable consequence of such an enlargement of his faculties, by habitual abstraction, as will enable a man to know what Nirvritti is. To know this, is to become omniscient, a Buddha ; to be divinely worshipped as such, while yet lingering in Pravritti ; and to become, beyond the grave, or in Nirvritti, all at least that man can become, and all respecting which some of the Swabhavikas have expressed much doubt, while others of them have insisted that it is eternal repose, and not eternal annihilation § (Sunyata) ; though, adds this more dogmatical school, were it even Sunyata, it would still be good ; man being otherwise doomed to an eternal migration through all the forms of nature ; the more desirable of which are little to be wished ; and the less so, at any price to be shunned. From the foregoing sketch it will be seen, that the most diognostic tenets of the Swabhavikas are, the denial of immateriality, and the assertion that man is capable of enlarging his faculties to infinity. The end of this enlargement of human faculties is association to the eternal rest of Nirvritti, respecting the value of which there is some dispute ; and the means of it are, Tapas and Dhyana ; by the former of which terms, the Swabhavikas understand, not penance, or self- inflicted bodily pain, but a perfect rejection of all outward (Pravrittika) things ; and, by the latter, pure mental abstraction. In regard to physics, the Swabha- vikas do not reject design or skill, but a designer, that is, a single, immaterial, self-conscious being, who gave existence and order to matter by volition. They admit what we call the laws of matter, but insist that those laws are primary * The doctrine is, that they are ; some doctors, however, say no ; the question turns on the prior acceptation of Sunyata, for which see on. § This interpretation of the Swabhavika Sunyata is not the general one, though the opponents of Buddhism have attempted to make it so ; for the prevalent sense of the wind among the Buddhas, see on. Plotinus contended that the most perfect worship of the Deity consisted in a certain mysterious Belf-annihilation or total extinction of all our faculties. See M. Laurien's account of Newton's discoveries p. 387. This explains the SaTflgata doctrine of Dhyana, and partially that of Sunyata also. THE RELIGION OF BHOT. 25 causes, not secondary ; are inherent eternally in matter, not impressed on it by an immaterial creator. They consider creation a spontaneity, resulting from powers ■which matter has had from all eternity, and will have to all eternity. So with respect to man, they admit intellectual and moral powers, but deny that imma- terial essence or being, to which we ascribe those powers. Animate and inanimate causation, they alike attribute to the proper -\ igour of nature, or Swabhava. I believe the Swabhavika to be the oldest school of Buddhist philosophy; but that school has, from the earliest times, been divided into two parties, one called the Swabhavikas simply, whose tenets I have endeavoured to state above, the other termed the Prajnika Swabhavikas, from Prajna,|| the supreme wisdom ; viz. of nature. The Prajnikas* agree with the Swabhavikas, in considering matter as the sole entity, in investing it with intelligence as well as activity, and in giving it two modes, or that of action and that of rest. But the Prajnikas incline to unitize the powers of matter in the state of Xirvritti; to make that unit, deity; and to consider man's summum bonum, not as a vague and doubtful association to the state of Xirvritti ; but as a specific and certain absorption into Prajna, the sum of all the powers, active and intellectual, of the universe. The Aiswarikas admit of immaterial essence, and of a supreme, infinite, and self-existent Deity (Adi Buddha) whom some of them consider as the sole deity and cause of all things, while others associate with him a coequal and eternal material principle ; believing that all things proceeded from the joint operation of these two principles. The Aiswarikas accept the two modes of the Swabhavikas and Prajnikas, or Pravritti and Xirvritti. But, though the Aiswarikas admit immaterial essence, and a God, they deny his providence and dominion; and though they believe Moksha to be an absorption into his essence, and vaguely appeal to him as the giver of the good things of Pravritti, they deem the connection of virtue and felicity in Pravritti to be independent of him, and the bliss of Xirvritti to be capable of being won only by their own efforts of Tapas and Dhyana, efforts which they too are con- fident will enlarge their faculties to infinity, will make them worthy of being worshipped as Buddhas on earth, and will raise them in heaven to an equal and selfearned participation of the attributes and bliss of the Supreme Adi Buddha; for such is their idea of Moksha, or absorption into him, or, I should rather say, of union with him. All the Bauddhas agree in referring the use and value of medita- tion, (earthly and heavenly,) of the rights and duties of morality, and of the ceremo ies of religion, solely to Pravritti, a state which they are all alike taught to coutemu ; and to seek, by their own efforts of abstraction, that infinite extension of their faculties, the accomplishment of which realizes, in their own persons, a godhead as complete as any of them, and the only one which some of them will acknow- ledge. The Karmikasand Yatnikas derive their names, respectively, from Karma, by which I understand 'conscious moral agency," and Yatna, which I interpret || Prajna, from pra, an intensitive prefix, and Jnyana, wisdom, or perhaps, the simple jnn. * See the sequal for a good summary glance at the philosophy of the Prajnikas. 2 6 THE RELIGION OF BHOT. 'conscious intellectual agency.' I believe these schools to be more recent than the others, and attribute their origin to an attempt to rectify that extravagant quietism, which, in the other schools, stripped the powers above, (whether con- sidered as of material or immaterial natures,) of all personality, providence and dominion ; and man, of all his active energies and duties. Assuming as just, the more general principles of their predecessors, they seem to have directed their chief attention to the phsenomena of human nature, to have been struck with its free will, and the distinction between its cogitative and sensitive powers, and to have sought to prove, notwithstanding the necessary moral law of their first teachers, that the felicity of man must be secured, either by the proper culture of his moral sense,* which was the sentiment of the Karmikas, or, by the just conduct of his understanding, a conclusion which the Yatnikas preferred : and this, I believe to be the ground of distinction between these two schools as compared with one another. As compared with their predecessors, they held a closer affinity with the Aiswarikas than with the other schools, iuclined to admit the existence of immaterial entities, and endeavoured to correct the absolute imper- sonality and quiescence of the Causa Causarum, (whether material or immaterial,) by feigning Karma or Yatna, conscious moral, or conscious intellectual, agency, to have been with causation from the beginning. The Karniika texts often hold such a language as this, "Sakya Sinha, who, according to some (the Swabhavikas), sprang from Swabhava, and, according to others, (the Aiswarikas,) from Adi Buddha, performed such and such Karmas, and reaped such and such fruits from them." In regard to the destiny of the soul, I can find no essential difference of opinion between the Bauddha and the Brahmanical sages. By all, metempsychosis and absorption are accepted. But absorbed into what ? into Brahma, say the Brahmans, into Sunyata, or Swabhava, or Prajna, or Adi Buddha, say the various sects of the Buddhists. And I should add, that by their doubtful Sunyata, I do not, in general, understand, annihilation, nothingness, but rather that extreme and almost infinite attenuation which they ascribe to their material powers or forces in the state of Nirvritti, or of abstraction from all particular palpable forms, such as compose the sensible world of Pravritti. By tracing the connextion of Sun- yata with Akasa, and through it, with the palpable elements, in the evolution and revolution of Pravritti,t it maybe plainly seen, that Sunyata is the uM and the modus of primal entity in the last and highest state of abstraction from all articular modifications such as our senses and understanding are cognizant of. How far, and in what exact sense, the followers of these diverse and opposite systems of speculation adopted the innumerable deities of the existent Buddhist Pantheon, it must rest with future research accurately to determine. For my part, I have no stomach for the marshalling of such an immense, and for the most * Notwithstanding these sentiments, which are princpially referable to the state of Pravritti, the Karmikas and Yatnikas still held preferentially to the Tapas and Dhyana, the severe meditative asceticism of the older schools. fSee tin; Dasakara or ten forms, where the evolution and revolution of each element constitutes a phrase of divine energy. THE RELIGION Or BHOT. 2 J part useless, host.* But some of the principal objects of worship, with their rela- tion and connexion, may he noticed. The leading, and most fundamental associa- tion of these objects is, that of the triad, or three persons named Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha. In the transcendental and philosophic sense, Buddha means ' mind,' Dharma, 'matter,' and Sangha, the concretion of the two former in the sensible or phenomenal world. In a practical and religious sense, Buddha means the mortal author of this religion (Sakya), Dharma, his law, and Sangha, the congregation of the faithful. The triad is liable to a theistic or atheistic interpretation in the higher or phil- osophic sense, according as Buddha is preferred or postponed to Dharma. The next, and a very marked distinction of persons, is established in this creed between those avowed mortals who win the rank and powers of a Buddha by their own efforts, and the Buddhas of a celestial nature and origin. The most notorious of the former of these are sevenf who are all character- ised as " Manushi " or human ; of the latter are five or six who are contradistin- guished as " Anupapadaka," without parents, and also as " Dhyani," or divine. This second appellation of the Celestial Buddhas is derived from the Sanskrit name for that abstracted musing which has found more or less favour with almost all the Asiatic religionists, but which is peculiarly and pre-eminently character- istic of Buddhism. The Dhyani Buddhas, with Adi Buddha, their chief, are usually and justly referred to the Theistic school. The epithet Dhyani, however, as applied to a class of Buddhas, is obviously capable of an atheistic interpretation. It is nevertheless certain, that, in whatever sense other schools may admit this term, or the class of divinities which it charac- terises, the Aiswarikas (beyond the bounds of Nepaul too)f ascribe this creative Dhyana to a self-eonstent, infinite^ and omniscient "Adi Buddha," one of whose attri- butes is the possession of five sorts of wisdom. Hence he is called " Panchajnana Atmika;" and it was by virtue of these five sorts of wisdom, that he, by five successive acts of Dhyana, created, from the beginning and for the duration of the present system of worlds, the " Pancha Buddha Dhyani." The names and graduation of these Jnanas, Dhyanas, and Buddhas are thus : — Jndnas. Buddhas. 1. Suvisuddha Dharma Dhatu. 1. Vairochana. 2. Adarsana. 2. Akshobhya. 3. Prativekshana. 3. Ratnasambhava. 4. Santa. 4. Amitabha.f 5. Krityanushthana. 5. Amoghasiddha. * See further on for a goodly array. f Called Vipasyi, Sikhi, Viswabhu, Kakutsanda, Kanakamuni, Kasyapa, and Sakya Sinha. Two others are frequently associated with these to form a series of nine mortal Buddhas, the extra two being Dipankara and Ratnagarbha. But they are much less notorious than the seven, and even of them I find nothing distinct recorded, with the single exception of Sakya, whom I am therefore inclined to regard as the founder of this creed, such at least as it has come down to us in the existing books and existing practical religion of the Buddhists. J For example, in the Katna Kuta Amitabha and Akshobhya are spoken of, and in the Sarva dharma Mahasanti as well as in the Swayambhu purana and Guna 28 THE RELIGION OF BHOT. Dhydnas :— The Dhyana of creation is called by one generic name Loka- Sansarjana; and by five repetitions of this, tbe five Buddhas were created. It might be expected, that the supreme Buddha, having created these five celestials, would have devolved on them the active cares of the creation and government of the world. Not so, however ; the genius of genuine Buddhism is eminentlv quiescent, and hence these most exalted seons are relieved from the degradation of acdon. Each of them receives, together with his existence, the virtues of that Jnana and Dhyana, to the exertion of which, by Adi Buddha, he owed his existence ; and by a similar exertion of both, he again produces a Dhyani Bodhisatwa. The Dhyani Bodhisatwas are, one by one, in succession, the tertiary and active authors of creation. These creations are but perishable ; and, since the beginning of time, three of them have passed away. The present world is, there- fore, the work of the fourth Bodhisatwa, who is now Lord of the ascendan", and his worshippers in Nepaul are wout to invest him with all the powers of a supreme and sole God, the "Praesens Divus" being, as usual, everything.! When the existing system of worlds shall have run its course, the offices of creator and gov- ernor of the next will be assumed by the fifth Bodhisatwa. The names and lineage of these Dhyani Bodhisatwas are as follows : — 1. Vairochana. 1. Samantabhadra. 2. Akshobhya. 2. Vajra Pani. 3. Ratnasambhava. 3. Ratna Pani. 4. Amitabha. 4. Padma Pani. 5. Amoghasiddha. 5. Viswa Pani. The Dhyani Buddhas and Bodhisatwas are considered to stand in the relation of fathers and sons to each other; and as there are Dhyani Bodhisatwas, so are there Manushi Bodhisatwas,§ who again bear to their respective Manushi Buddhas the connexion of pupil to teacher, of graduate to adept, of the aspirant after the wisdom of Buddhism to him who possesses that wisdom. I should add, that it is competent for a mortal man to become a Buddha,** whilst he yet lingers in the fle.-h, albeit, the entire fuliilment of the rewards, if not of the prerogatives, of that transcendent character is assigned to a more unearthly state, viz., the state of Nir- Kavanda V yiiha, allPuranic or exoteric works, of which the first is not even obtainable iu Nepaul, noi is bhere any evidence tint any <>t' the other works were composed there. See Csoma de Kerbs in Bengal Asiatic Society's Journal. + Original of the Chinese O-mi-to, a word as utterly without meaning as their Bonze, of which latter the Sanskrit Bandya is the real ami significant form. Amitabha is the immeasurably splendid. Bandya is a person entitled to reverence, and the collective or general appellation of all professed or ascetical followers of Buddha. See Crawford's Archi})clago for a line representation of Akshobhya, the second Dhyani Buddha. All the five are represented in the Cave at Bag. + Hence the celebrity and popularity of his mantra or invocation (Om mani padme hum), while those of the two other members of that triad to which Padmapani is thus associated as the Sangha, are hardly ever heard of. There is a fine image of Padma Pani at Karnagarh on the Ganges, the old capital nf Champa, now Bhagalpur. § The nine mortal Bodhisatwas are variously and vaguely set down; see further on. Ananda, Manju Ghosha, and Avalokiteswara, are the only ones of whom anything is known. ** Hence the Divine Lamas of Bhot ; though the original idea has been perverted somewhat. They are rather Arhantas. THE RELIGION OF BHOT. 29 vritti. In the above remarks I have inserted only the quinary series of Dhyani Buddhas and Bodhisatwas. But there is, also, a series of six, the Buddha Vajra Satwa, and the Bodhisatwa Vajra Pani, being added to the series of five, to perfect the larger series. Further, as the five material elements, 1 the five senses, 2 and the five respective (outward) seats of sense, 3 are referred to the series of five Buddhas, so intellect, 4 with apprehension 5 and the objects of such apprehension* or the whole phenomena of the universe, 8 * are referred to Vajra Satwa Buddhaf. And it should not escape remark, that the above associations give somewhat of the dignity of useful knowledge to what must otherwise have been mere voces et prater en nihil. Nor is there any want of sufficing original authority for the series of six Celes- tial Buddhas,! au y more than for the series of five, though the latter may be, and perhaps is, the older. Wherefore I will take leave in this place to caution the reader against exclusive and confined opinions, founded upon any one enumeration he may find ; as for instance, that of the Pancha Buddha Dhyani. Any particular enumeration may have a definite object. But that does not imply that any other and larger enumeration, also with an express object, is inconsistent with the other series. It must at the same time be admitted that the ritualists appear to have multiplied these Deities upon very frail and shadowy grounds ; and in this way I find the series of six Celestial Buddhas (which as identified with the elements, senses, and mind, I consider valid) augmented to nine by the addition of Vajrakaya, Vajvadharma, and Vajrakarma. The next material distinction of persons or divinities in this religion is into Exoteric or Pauranika Buddhas and Esoteric or Tantrika. The first are those ordinarily so called and alone heretofore known to us. The second are more specially styled Yogambara and Digambara : they form the link of connexion between Jainism and Buddhism ; and their statues or images are distinguished either by nudity or by a multiplicity of members : they are wholly unknown to Europeans. I have already adverted to the general charac- ter of the Tantrika ritual. It is a strange and unintelligible adjunct of Buddhism, though vouched by numerous scriptural authorities. The images of the 5 Dhyani Buddhas, which were sent to the Asiatic Society of Bengal, occupy (and exclusively so of all lower Buddhas) the base of every Maha chaitya,§ or highest order of temples in Nepaul; and those images are invariably distinguished by the respective differences exhibited in the specimens transmitted, viz., the position of the hands ; the nature of the supporters and the particular (1) Five Bhutas. (2) Five Indriyas. (3) Five Ayatanas. (4) Manas. (5) Dharana. (61 Dharma. * The senses are assumed to be. inert without Manas ; not even sensation, far less percep- tion, or mental realization of sensation, can exist without Manas. t Vajra Satwa, or the sixth Dhyani with his appendages, belongs to the Vamacharyas, whose doctrine as to things in general, or the origin, nature, and connexion of material and immaterial phenomena, can hardly he reconciled with the views of the older Dak- shinaoharyas on these topics. + E grege the Sarva Dharma Mahasanti, said hy Mr. Csoma to be the bible of the ' oldest Buddhist sect in Tibet. ' For authorities for Adi Buddha and the six Celestial Buddhas, see Quotations in Proof, 1837. § Temple and monastery are the respective equivalents of Chaitya and of Yiham. 30 THE RELIGION OF BHOT. cognizance of each, which is placed between the supporters. Vairochana is seldom figured : the other four celestial Buddhas occupy shallow niches at the base of the hemisphere of the Chaitya, one opposite each cardinal point : Akshobhya to the east, Ratna Sambhava to the south, Amitabha to the west, and Aniogha Siddha to the north. Vajra Satwa is seldom represented in statuary form, and never placed in the Chaityas. But pictorial representations of him are frequent in the illuminated Sastras, and I have met with his image or sculptured figure in Yiharas. The Chaitya would appear to be the only exclusively Buddhist form of temple. It consists of a solid hemisphere, commonly surmounted by a graduated cone or tetragonal pyramid, the grades of which (the cone or pyramid) are thirteen, and are typical of the thirteen Bodhisatwa heavens of Buddhist cosmography. The cone or pyramid terminates in apalus very like a lingam, and which is usually sur- mounted by an umbrella. This part of the structure represents Akanishtha Bhuvana, or the highest heaven, or that of Adi Buddha. The five spokes of the umbrella represent the abodes of the five Dharrna Buddhas. Between the hemisphere and the cone or pyramid is a short square neck for the latter, upon each of the four sides of which a pair of eyes is graved which typify omniscience. The hemisphere is called the garbha; the neck, gala; and the cone or pyramid, chiira- mani. The Nepaulese are sufficiently familiar with Chaityas in the sense of tomb temples, or mausolea, or covers of relics (Dagopa) : but all their principal edifices of this nature are dedicated to the self-existent, first, supreme Buddha, and to his five celestial aeons. Chaityas are frequently combined with small hollow temples, of which they form the superstructure : besides which many sacred edifices of Hindoo form are used by the Buddhists for enshrining their mortal Buddhas, as well as any of the numberless gods and goddesses of their ample Pantheon. The followers of Buddha are divided into regular and secular — a division exactly equivalent to the Grihastha Asrama and Vairagf or Sannyasi Asraina of the Hindoos — but not equivalent to Laics and Clerics. The regulars are all monastic, as solitaries or as coenobites, living in deserts or in monasteries (Yiharas). Their collective name is Bandya (person entitled to reverence) ; and they are divided into four orders, called Bhikshu or 'mendicants,' Sravaka or readers, Chailaka or 'the scantly robed,' and Arhata or Arhanta or 'Adepts.' They are all monks, and constitute the congregation of the faithful, or only real Buddhists ; the seculars having always been regarded as little better than heretics, until political ambition began to qualify the high-toned enthusiasm of the primitive saints ; and until very many having come in who could not all live in idleness, these were allowed to follow the various business of the world, their instruction being provided for by the monks, some of whom thus became invested with a partially clerical character which they exercised under the names of Acharya and Vajra Acharya or 'teacher and powerful teacher.' The monasteries or conventual dwellings of the regular Buddhists are called Yihara in Sanskrit, Bahi and Bahal in Newari. They are usually large open quadrangles of a regular form, but sometimes irregular, and built round a Chaitya, or a Kiitagar temple, (the latter sacred to Mauushi, the former to Dhyani Buddhas). Every great church was formerly conventual, and THE RELIGION OF BHOT. 31 the four orders had each their separate Viharas, of which there are still fifteen in the city of Patan alone, though the Nepaulese have long since abandoned the monastic institutes of their creed, and hence these monasteries are now secular- ized, hut still exclusively appropriated to the Bandya or tonsured Buddhists. The head of a Vihara is called Nayaka, hut his power appears to have been much more limited than that of the Abbots and Priors of European monachism, and since this decay of the monastic institutes in Nepaul it has become at all events strikingly so. Still, however, it is the Nayakas alone who confer the rank and character of Bandya, and every Bandya is ostensibly attached to some convent or other, even though he do not dwell in any, as many now do not. Any person may become a Bandya by submitting to tonsure and taking the usual vows of celibacy, poverty, and humility, and all these monks are alike distinguished by a peculiar dress and equipment, which as well as the ceremony of induction will be found described in the sequel. The following list of Buddhas completes all I have at present to offer on the sub- ject. Two lists were prepared for me some time ago by an old Bauddha of Nepaul, with whom I have long cultivated an acquaintance ; but they were then laid aside for future examination and explanation when opportunity should serve. I have accordingly had them compared, under my own eyes, with the scriptures whence they were extracted, and the comparison has suggested the following brief elucidatory remarks. In the first place, the lesser list has proved to be superfluous, all its names being contained in the larger one. In the next place, the whole number of Buddhas in the greater catalogue has been found to amount to 131, and not to 145, as stated elsewhere ; the same name being repeated, in some instances, two and three times, by reason of this catalogue consisting of literal extracts from several inde- pendent works. And I have thought it better to leave it in statu quo, than to omit sundry names of one series because they occur in another. Such omission might have interfered with some established contiguity of time, place, or circumstances, in regard to the Buddhas, with which we are not acquainted ; and with respect to the repetitions, they may be seen in the list, at a glance, by the references attached to them. There is one deviation from the catalogues as found in the works whence they are drawn, and it is this. After the names of the six great Manushi Buddhas (No. -50 to 50) the name of Sakya Sinha, the seventh and last, is given in my list, though not found at that place in the Lalita Vistara : possibly because Sakya had not, when that work was compiled/attained Nirvana and become a Tathagata in the proper sense. His name, though occurring before, is, notwithstan- ding, reinserted in my catalogue in that place, in order to make up the complement of the now famous ' Sapta Buddha Manushi,' or seven mortal Buddhas. Before each distinct series of names, the work from which it is derived, is uniformly noted. In the works cited, many more names, besides those given in the catalogue, are to be found, and from the whole of the books which have been procured and transmitted to Calcutta, hundreds of new names might be drawn. 32 THE RELIGION OF BOHT. In the Samadhi Raja,* Sarvartha Siddha (Sakya before he became a Buddha,) is asked by Maitreya and Vajra Pani, how he acquired Samadhi Jnana. Iu reply, he begins by naming- 120 Tathagatas, who instructed him therein in his former births; and at the conclusion of his enumeration of Buddhas, Sarvartha Siddha observes, ' he has given so many names exempli gratia, but that his instructors were really no less in number than eighty crores ! There is a verse in the Aparimita Dharani (to be found in many other, and higher authorities) purporting that " the Buddhas who have been, are, and svill be, are more numerous than the grains of sand on the banks of the Ganges." Some of these Buddhas sprang, divinely not generatively, from other Buddhas ; some from Akasa, and some from the Lotos. These are evident nonentities, in regard to chronology and history. Yet it is often most difficult to distinguish them from their more substantial compeers, the origin of the latter having been frequently traced up to heaven by the vanity of superstition, while its grovelling genius no less frequently drew down the lineage of the former to earth. Again, among the Buddhas confessedly of mortal mould, there are three wide degrees, that of the Pratyeka Buddha, that of the Sravaka Buddha, and that of the Mahayanika Buddha. But the two former are regarded, even by their worshippers, as little more than mere men of superior sanctity ; and as infinitely inferior to the Maha- yanika Buddhas, such as Sakya and his six great predecessors. We have, however, multitudes even of this highest degree ; and, besides, the title belongs not only to the supreme Manushi Tathagatas, but also to all the Dhyams indiscriminately. Upon the whole, then, it seems peculiarly desirable, in the present state of our information, to keep a steady eye upon the authoritative assertion of the old scriptures, that Sakya is the seventh, and last, of the Buddhas. Why seven have been selected for such especial honour it seems impossible to explain on historical grounds. Four of them belong to the present cycle of ages thence called the golden (tra or Bhadra Kalpa : the three first to the precedent Kalpa. A Kalpa is an indefinite period, and I think it may be safely asserted that all of the so-called mortal Buddhas save the last are mythological shadows. At all events it has frequently occurred to me to doubt the historical existence of Sakya's six prede- cessors ; for I have not failed to remark that while the Buddhist writings make ample mention of Sakya's births (505), sayings, and doings, and while they ascribe to him the effectual authorship of all the scriptural authorities of the sect, these writings are nearly silent with respect to the origin and actions of the six Bud- dhas who went before him ; nor are any doctrines or dogmas referred to them in the authorities in question. To go farther into this matter would lead me beyond the bounds I have prescribed to myself on the present occasion. What I have said will suffice to shew why the catalogue of Buddhas has been so long withheld, and perhaps would justify the withholding of it still. In the forthcoming scriptures the form perpetually occurs ' so said Sakya,' and this is the reason why the works are ascribed to him, though they took their written shape from his favourite disciples Kasyapa, Ananda, and Upali. *I have this list before me extracted from the Samadhi Raja ; but I do not think it worth while 1 to add it to the lists already given. LIST OF BUDDHIST WORKS. 33 LIST OP TATHAGATAS, COMPILED FROM THE LAEITA VISTARA, KRIYA 8ANGKAHA AND RAKSHA BHAGAVATI. LALITA VISTARA, 1ST SECTION. 1 Padmottara. 29 Satyadharmavipulakirttl 2 Dharauaketu. £0 Tishya. 3 Dipankara. 31 Pusbya. 4 Gunaketu. 32 Lokasundara. 5 Mabakara. 33 Yi-ti'rnabheda. 6 Risliideva. 24 Ratnalrirtti. 7 Siifcejas. 35 Ugratejas. 8 Saiyakelu. 3(> Brab mat ej as. 9 Vajrasanhata. 37 Sugbosha. 10 Sanalhilbu. 38 Supusbpa. 11 Ileniavama. 39 Sumanojuaghosba. 12 Atyuchchagaml. 40 Sucheshtanipa. 13 Pravarasagara. 41 Prahasitanetra. 14 Pushpaketu. 42 Gunarasi. 15 Varariipa. 43 Meghaswara. 16 Sulochana. 44 Sundaravarna. 17 Risbigupta. 45 Ayustejas. 18 Jinavaktra. 40 Salilagajagami. 19 Unnata. 47 Lokabhilashita. 20 Pushpita. 48 Jitasatru. 21 Urnatejas. 49 Sanipujita. 22 Pushkala. £0 Vipasyi'.* 23 Sunxsmf. 51 Sikhi.* 24 Mangala. 52 Yiswabhii.* 25 Sudarsana. 53 Krakutsanda." 28 Mahasinhatejas. 54 Kanakamuni.* 27 Sthitabud :Lidatta. 55 Kasyapa.* 28 VasantagandM. 50 Sakyamuni.* LALITA VISTARA, 13TH SECTION. 67 — 1 Amoghadarsi. 00 — 10 radmayoni. 68 — 2 Yairochana. 67 — 11 Sarvabhibhii. (See No. 69 — 3 Dundubhfswara. 68—12 Sagara. 60 — 4 Lharmeswara. 09—13 Padmagarbha. 61 — 5 Samantadarsi. 70 — 14 Salendraraja. 62 — 6 Mabarcbiskandbi. 71—15 Pushpita. (See No. 20.) 63 — 7 Dharmadhwaja. 72 — 16 Yasodatta. 64 — 8 Jn 'uaketu. 73 — 17 Jnanameru. 65 — 9 Ratnasikhi. 74—18 Satyadarsi. ' The seven famous mortal Buddhas. 34 LIST OF BUDDHIST WORKS. 75—19 Nagadatta. 85—29 Sinhaketu. 76—20 Atyuckchagaini. (See No. 12) 86—30 Gunagradhari. 77 — 21 Mahavyuha. 78—22 Rasmiraj. 79—23 Sakyamuni. (See No. 56.) 80—24 Indraketu. 81 — 25 Suryanana. 82—26 Sumati. 83—27 Nagabhiblni. 84—28 Bhaiskajyaraj. 87—31 Kasyapa. (See No. 55.) 88—32 Arcliihketu. 89—33 Akskobhyaraj. 90—34 Tagarasikba. 91 — 35 Sarvagandhi. 92_36 Mahapradipa. 93—37 Padmottara (See No. 1.) 94—38 Dharmaketu. (See No. 2.) LALITA VISTAEA, 20TH SECTION. 95 — 1 Vimalaprabhasa. 93— 2 Ratnarchih. 97 — 3 Pusbpavalivanarajikusumitabbijna. 98 — 4 Obandrasuryajibuiikaraprabba. 99 — 5 Gunarjaprabhasa. 100— 6 Ratnayashti. 101 — 7 Meghakutabhigarjitaswara. 102 — 8 Ratnacbbatrabbyudgatavabbasa. 103 — 9 Samantadarsi. 104—10 Ganendra. KRIYA SANGEAHA. 105— 1 Vairocbana.*t (See No. 58.) 108 — 2 Mabosbuisba. 107 — 3 Sitatapatrosbuisba. 108— 4 Tejorasi. 109 — 5 Yijayosbmsba. 110 — 6 Vikiranoslmfsba. 111 — 7 Udgatosbuisba. 112 — 8 Mabodgatosbuisba. 113_9 Vijayosbnisba. (See No. 163.) 114—10 Aksbobbya. (See No. 85.) 115 — 11 Vajrasatwa.f 116— 12 Vajrai-aja. 117—13 Vajraraga. 118—14 Vajrasadbu. 133—29 Yajrasandbi, 119 — 15 Ratnasambhava. 120 — 16 Vajraratna. 121 — 17 Vajrasurya. 122—18 Vajraketu. 123—19 Yajrabasa. 124—20 Amitabba.t 125 — 21 Vajradbarma. 120—22 Yajratiksbna. 127—23 Vajraketu. 128—24 Vajrabbasba. 129-25 Aniogbasiddha.t 103 — 23 Vajrakarma. 131 — 27 Vajraraksba. 132—28 Vajrayaksba. * Tbis name, although a repetition, is numbered ; because the personage here in- dicated by the name Vdirochana, is really Vairochana Jratdra, Manjusri. The six celestial Buddhxs of Nepaul will he recognised in this list; but commenting were end- less. The six are those marked thus +, Vairochana being assumed to be V. proper, and not Manjusri. SKETCH OF BUDDHISM. 35 RAKSHA BHAGAVATI. 134 — 1 Ratnakara. 139 — G Suryainandalaprabbasottama. 135—2 Asokasrf. 140— 7 Ekachkatra. 130—3 Ratnarckik. (See No. 90.) 141— 8 Sarnadkikastyuttarasrf. 137 — 4 Jayendra. 142 — 9 Padmasn. 138—5 Padmottarasrf. (See No. 1.) 143—10 Nandasri. II. Sketch of Buddhism. From Bauddka writings of Nepaul. Soon after my arrival in Nepaul (1821), I began to devise means of procuring some accurate information relative to Buddhism : for, though the regular investiga- tion of such a subject was foreign to my pursuits, my respect for science in general led me cheerfully to avail myself of the opportunity afforded, by my residence in a Bauddha country, for collecting and transmitting to Calcutta the materials for such investigation. There were, however, serious obstacles in my way, arising out of the jealousy of the people in regard to any profanation of their sacred things by an European, and yet more, resulting from the Chinese notions of policy adopted by this Government. I nevertheless persevered; and time, patience, and dexterous applications to the superior intelligence of the chief minis- ter, at length rewarded my toils. My first object was to ascertain the existence or otherwise of Bauddha scriptures in Nepaul; and to this end I privately instituted inquiries in various directions, in the course of which the reputation for knowledge of an old Bauddka residing in tke city of Patan, drew one of my people to his abode. This old man assured me that Nepaul contained many large works relating to Buddhism ; and of some of these he gave me a list. When we became better acquainted, he volunteered to procure me copies of them. His list gradually enlarged as his confidence increa- sed ; and at length, chiefly through his kindness, and his influence with his brethren in the Bauddha faith, I was enabled to procure and transmit to Cal- cutta a large collection of important Bauddha scriptures.* Meanwhile, as the Pdtna Bauddha seemed very intelligent, and my curiosity was excited, I proposed to him (about 1823) a set of questions, which I desired he woulel answer from his boohs. He did so ; and these questions anel answers form the text of this paper. Having in his answers quoted sundry slokas in proof of his statements ; and many of the scriptures whence these were taken being now in my possession, I was tempted to try the truth of his quotations. Of that, my research gave me in general satisfactory proof. But the possession of the books led to questions respecting - their relative age anel authority ; anel, trieel by this test, the Bauddha's quotations were not always so satisfactory. Thus one step * Nearly all were eventually procured, chiefly, and in tke first place solely, I'm' Cal- cutta. Tkey were deposited lirst with the Librarian of the College of Foi t William, then with the Asiatic Society, but were I'm- years utterly neglected, and still are so I fancy; so also the copies sent to London anel Oxford. Those sent to France met with a far different reception ; see Burnouf. 36 LIST OF BUDDHIST WORKS. led to anoth3r, until I comaivei the ilia of drawing' up, with the aid of my old friend und his booln, a sketch of tlu terminology and general disposition of the external parts of Bilihism, in the bjlisf that sum a sketch, though but imper- fectly executed, would be of some assistance to such of my countrymen as, with the books only before them, might be disposed to enter into a full and acuu\*te investigation of this almost unknown subject. When, however, I conceived that design, I little suspected where it would lead me; I began ere long to feel my want of languages, and (to confess the truth) of patience, and almost looked back with a sigh to tbe tolerably full and tolerably a ccurate account of Bud Ihism whic h I hael obtained so long ago, and with little comparative labour, from my old frien d's answers to my queiies. I also saw cer- tain notices of Buldhism coming from time to tim e before the world, ushered by the talents and industry of Klaproth anel Remusat; and, so far as I had opportunity to learn what these notices contained, it seemed that the answers to my ques- tions furnished much ample r and more accurate views of the subject than these distinguished men could extract from their limited sources of information. I add here a very considerable list of the Baiiddlta scriptures in general, extracted forme from those still existing in Nepaul, without further observation on it than that its accuracy may be relied on, and that it s contents are so far from being local to Nepaul, that the largest portion of the books neither are, nor ever were pro- curable in this valley. The Bauddhast were used, in old time, to insert at the end of any particular work, lists of the names of many of their sacred wr itings; and to this usage of theirs am I indebted for the large catalogue which I have obtained. LIST OP SANSKRIT BAUDDHA WORKS. 1. PURANAS OR EXOTERIC WORKS. 1 Satasahasrika Prajna Paramita. 2 Pancha Vinsati Sahasrika Prajna Paramita. 3 Ashtadasa Sahasrika Prajna Paramita. 4 Ashta Sahasrika Prajna Paramita. 5 Sapta Sati Prajna Paramita. 6 Prajna Paramita Vyakhya. 7 Ganda Vyuha.* Bhadrachari. 8 Dasa Bhumeswara. 9 Samadhi Raja.f 10 Lankavatara. II Saddharma Pundarika Bhadrachari. 12 Lalita Vistara. 13 Tathagata Guhyaka, or Guhya Samadhi (Tantra). 14 Suvarna Prabhasa. * Ascribed to Arya Sanga, and teaches the Yogacharya branch of the Mahayana. tThis book and the Buddhavatamsaka and the Ratnakiita are works aserib«d to Nagarjuna, a transcendentalist after whom the western barrier mountain of the Val - ley of Nepaul is named. LIST OF BUDDHIST WORKS. 37 1*5 Mahavastuavadana. 1(3 Divyavad.ina. 17 Satakavadana. 1 8 Bkadrakalpavadana. 19 Asokavadana. 20 Vicliitra Karnikiivadana. 21 Dwavinsatyavadana. 22 Rataamalavadana, or Ratnavadana 23 Avadana Kalpalata. 24 Sugatavadana. 25 Dkarnia Koska. 26 Dkarma Sangraka. 27 Vinaya Sutra4 28 Makayana Sutra. 29 Makayana Siitralankara. 30 Gosringa Vyakkyana. 31 Salackakravadana. 32 Jatakavadana. 33 Jataka Mala ' 34 Maka Jataka Mala. 35 Swayambkii Purana Kalpa. 36 Swayambkii Purana Mahata. 37 Swayambkii Purana Madkyama. 38 Swayambkii Purana 39 Karanda Vyiika. 40 Gunakaranda Vyiika. 41 Sukkavati Vyiika. 42 Karuna Pundarika. 43 Lalita Vistara, or Tatkagata Janmavadana. 44 Laukika Lankavatara. 45 C baity a Makatmya. 46 Kalpadrumavadana Samaj ataka. Kinnarij ataka Dipankaravastu. Birkiisavadana. Sardvilak irnavadana. Opakkadh avadana. Barikavad Rasktra Palavadana. , Birkiisavadana. Kinnarijataka. Bodki Ckaryavatara. Sapta Kurnarik ivadana. Durgati Parirshodkana. Akortitri vrata. Kartika Makatmya. Ckaitya Pungava. Suchandravakina. Viswantaraj ataka. Manickiiravadana. Kavikumaravadana. X Only trace of Vinaya eo nomine, though this be one grand division of the book* of the Ceylonese and Tibetans. But Burnouf I think observes that the Vinaya i la.. of books in those places is represented by the Avadana, its equivalent in Nepaul. 38 LIST OF BUDDHIST WORKS. Uposhadhavadana. 47 Dharma Kosha Vyakhya. 48 Avadana Sarasaniniuchaya Suinagadhavadana. Sahakopadesavadana. Kapisavadana. Kathinavadana. Pindapatravadana. 49 Vratavadana Mala Nandimukka. Sugkoskavadana. Dhimatyavadana. Sringabheri, &c. 50 Anumana kkanda. 51 Adikarrna pradipa. 52 Sadkana yuga Tippani. 53 Manju Sri Parajika.* 54 Vajra Satwa Parajika. 55 Lokeswara Parajika. 56 Okhando Mrityulata. 57 Suvarnavarnavadana. 58 Tara, Satanama. 59 Buddha Siksha Samuchchaya. 60 Pancha Rakska. 61 Buddhokta Sansaramaya. 62 Lakska Chaitya Vratanusansa. 63 Pratimoksha Sutra. 64 Vajra Siichi. 65 Buddha Charita Kavya. 66 Gautama Kavya. 67 Punya Pratisaha Kavya. 68 Lokeswara Sataka Kavya. 69 Sragdkara Kavya. 70 Vidagdkaruukhamandana Kavya. 2. TANTRAS OR ESOTERIC WORKS.f 71 Pramodya Makayuga Tantra. 108 Vajravfra Tantra. 72 Paramartka Seva Tantra. 109 Vajra Satwa Tantra. 73 Pindi Krama Tantra. 110 Marichi Tantra. 74 Samputodbhava Tantra. Ill Tara, Tantra. 75 Hevajra Tantra. 112 Vajradhatu Tantra. 76 Buddha Kapala Tantra. 113 Virnalaprabha Tantra. 77 Samvara Tantra, or Sanivarodya. 114 Manikarnika Tantra. *Nos. 53, 54, and 55 are Vinaya as to matter. Gogerly says 52 related to the law fo expulsion from the congregation. fSee Asiatic Researches, vol. v., p. 62 and note. LIST OF BUDDHIST 78 Varahi Tanira, or Varahi Kalpa. 79 Yogambara Tantra. 80 Dakini Jala Tantra. 81 Sukla Yamari Tantra. 82 Krishna Yamari Tantra. 83 Pita Yamari Tantra. 84 Rakta Yamari Tantra. 85 Syama Yamari Tantra. 86 Kriya Sangraha Tantra. 87 Kriya Kan la Tantra. 83 Kriya Sagara Tantra. 89 Kriya Kalpa Druma Tantra. 90 Kriyarnava Tantra. 91 Abhidanottara Tanira. 92 Kriya Samuchchaya Tantra. 93 Sadhana Mala Tantra. 94 Sadhana Samuchchaya Tantra. 95 Sadhana Sangraha Tantra. 90 Sadhana Ratna Tantra. 97 Sadhana Pariksha Tantra. 9S Sadhana Kalpalata Tantra. 99 Tatwa Jnana Siddhi Tantra. 100 Jnana Siddhi Tantra. 101 Guhya Siddhi Tantra. 102 Udyana Tantra. 103 Nagarjuna Tantra. 104 Yogapitha Tantra. 105 Pithavatara Tantra. WORKS. 39 115 Trilokvavijaya Tantra. 110 Sampiita Tantra. 117 Marma Kalika Tantra. 118 Kuru Kula Tantra. 119 Bhiita Damara. 120 Kala Chakra Tantra. 121 Yogini Tantra. 122 Yogini Sanchara Tanira. 123 Yogini Jala Tantra. 124 Yogambarapitha Tantra. 125 Uddamara Tantra. 12 I Vasundhara Sadhana Tantra. 127 Nairatma Tantra. 128 Dakarnava Tantra. 129 Kriya Sara Tantra. 130 Yamantaka Tanira. 131 Manju Sri Kalpa Tantra. 132 Tantra Samuchchaya Tantra. 133 Kriya Vatansa Tantra. 134 Tantra Sloka Sangraha. 135 Hayagriva Tantra. 136 Sankirna Tantra. 137 Namasangiti Vyakhya, Tantra. 138 Amrita Karnika nama Sangiti Tika. 139 Gddhotpada nama Sangiti Tika. 140 Maya jala Tantra. 141 Jnanodaya Tantra. 142 Vasanta Tilaka Tantra. 103 Kalavira Tantra, or Ohanda Roshana. 143 Nispanna Yogambara Tantra. Pancha Buddha Dharani — Pratyangira Dharani, Saptavara Dharani, ^Yit]l hundreds more, the work being a collection of them all. N. B. — Names on the right are portions of the work written opposite them on the left ; priorly they had been treated as separate works. The whole of the above are classed under the two important heads of Exoteric and Esoteric, the subdivisions not being noted. This list has been corrected since the paper to which it was originally attached was written. In a clever paper in the first and second numbers of the Calcutta Quarterly Oriental Magazine, (Review of the Bombay Literary Transactions), it is said that one of the distinctions between Jainisin and Buddhism is, that the Jaina statues are all naked, and the Bauddha statues all clothed. The pictures were sent to prove that this notion was false. The Bauddha images are called Digam- 107 Maha Kala Tantra. 144 Dharani Sanjrraha. 40 THE BUDDHIST TRIAD. bora* a name heretofore fancied to be peculiar to Jainism ; this is another error, and were this the place for dissertation, I could bring forward many other pre- sumptions in favour of the notion that the Jainas are sectarian Bauddhas,\ who dissented from their Bauddha brethren merely in carrying - to a gross excess, and in promulgating publicly, certain dangerous dogmas, which the more prudent Buddhists chose to keep veiled from all but the initiated. The Nepaul Buddhists are very jealous of any intrusion into their esoteric dogmas and symbols; so much so, that though I have been for seven years enquiring after these things, my old Vajra Achdnja friend only recently gave me a peep at the esoteric dogmas ; and my CJiitrakdra, (Bauddha though he be,) has only within these last twelve months brought me some esoteric pictures : nor probably should I have got at these secret things at all, if I had not been able to examine the Bauddha books, in some small degree, myself; and if a B/iotii/a had not put into my hands a picture containing one of these naked saints. With these decisive means of questioning in my power, I at last got my Bauddha assistants to draw up the veil of the sanctuary, to bring me copies of the naked saLits, and to tell me a little of the naked doctrines. Every part of each image is significant ; the differences between the five are marked, first, by the different position of the hands (which is called the mudrd) ; secondly, by the variety of the supporters, called vdhanas; thirdly, by the vaiiely of the cognizances or chinas placed between the supporters ; and fourthly (where painting and colours are used), by difierence of colour. Vai- rochana's appropriate colour is white ; Akshobhyds, blue ; Ratna-Sambhava , s 1 yellow, or golden ; Amitdblia's, red ; and Amot/ha-Siddha's, green.J There are a few matters connected with the following sketch of Buddhism which it may be advisable to state here ; and in the first rank stands the authority upon which I have assigned the meaning of intellectual essence to the word Bud- dha, and that of material essence to the word Dharma. The Bauddhas define the words thus : ' Bodhandtmaka iti Buddha ; Dhdran-dtmaka iti Dharma.' About the former of these definitions there can be no difficulty; there may con- cerning the latter. To the word Dhdrana, or holding, containing, sustaining (from the root dlirl), I have assigned a material sense ; first, because it is opposed to bodhdna; secondly, because the goddess Dharma, the prdvrlttika personification of this principle, is often styled, in the most authentic books, Prakrit estcari 4 the material goddess,' or ' goddess of matter ;' and thirdly, because this goddess is, (under the names Dharma, Pra.txa, Abya Tatja, etc.) in very many passages of old Bauddha works, described as the ma f erial cause of all things; conform- ably, indeed, with that bias towards materialism, which our heretofore scanty knowledge of Buddhism has led us to assign to the Saitjata faith. *See J.R.A.S. ii. 1, 140. f See Digambar and Yogambar. % For the positions of these Buddhas in Chaitya temples see further on j Akshobhya is enshrined on the east side, Ratna Sambhava on the south, Amitabha on the west, and Anio/ha Siddha on the north. Vairochana is seldom found, but if he be, his station is immediately to the right of Akshobhya, Amogha Siddha has always a canopy of snakes. For Nagapiija in Nepanl see further on. BUDDHIST COSMOGONY. 4 1 Sangha, the third member of the Triad, belongs not to the exalted state of ninrWi, in which no sect of Bauddhas admits more than two principles of all things, or mind and matter, Buddha and Dharma. Sangha is defined Samuddyi dtmaka iti Sangha, ' the multitudinous essence ;' because multitude is held to be as strong a characteristic of pravrUH, or ' the palpable world,' as unity is of the world of nirvrltti, or 'abstraction.' In note 31, I have distinctly rejected the fifth order of Bandgas* or Vajra Aehdrga*, in opposition to my old Bauddha friend's statement in the text of the Sketch. There can be no doubt that my friend is mistaken : for in many high authorities, the four original and true orders of Bandgas are called by the collec- tive name of the Chatur Varna, and are therein described without mention of the Vajra Achdrgas. It may serve to explain my friend's statement to tell you that he is himself a Vajra Achdrga; and that as the genuine monachism of Buddhism has long since passed away in Nepaul, sundry local books have been composed here by Vajra Achdrgas, in which they have made their own modern order coequal with the four ancient orders ; and my old friend would hold these modern Nepaul books sufficient warrant for the rank ascribed to Ms own class. I have lately spoken to him on this subject, and he has confessed that there is no old authority for his fifth order of Bandgas. In my note I have endeavoured carefully to separate Buddhism as it is (in Nepaul) and Buddhism as it ought to be, quoad this point of classification. If you look into Kirkpatrick's and Buchanan's works on Nepaul, you will see how they have been puzzled with the difference of things as they are from what they ought to be, in those casual and erroneous hints which they have afforded on the subject of Buddhism. In note 15, I have stated that the Kdrmikas and Ydtnikas entertained tolerably just views on the grand subject of free-will and necessity; and I believe I am therein essentially correct : for how otherwise are we to understand their confes- sion of faith, ' the actions of a man's prior births are his destiny?' Exclude the metempsychosis, which is the vehicle of the sense of this passage, and we have our old adage, ' Conduct is fate :' a law of freedom surely. Still, were I cross-examined, I might be forced to confess, that the ideas which the Kdrmikas and Ydtnikas entertain of free-will, seem to resemble rather the qualifications of our Collins and Edwards, than the full and absolute freedom of Clarke and the best European philosophers. The Kdrmikas and Ydtnikas seem to have been impressed with the fact of man's free-will, but to have been perplexed in reconciling such a notion with the general spirit and tendency of the old Sirdbhdvika philosophy. But in the result, the Kdrmikas and Ydtnikas seem to have adhered to free-will, though perhaps in the qualified sense above mentioned. Question I. How and when was the world created ? *Bandya is the original and correct form of the Chinese Bonze and Mongolian Bandida, as Arhata or Arhanta is of the Indo-Chinese Rahatun. 42 BUDDHIST COSMOGONY. Answer. According to the Sambhu Purdna, in the beginning all was void (sunya). The first light that was manifest was the word Aum ; and from this Aum the alphabet was produced — called Mahd Varna, the letters of which are the seeds of the universe. (See note 1.) In the Guna Kdranda Vyuha it is written, when nothing - else was, Sambhu was ; that is the self-existent (Swayamblm) ; and as he was before all, he is also called A'di-Buddha. He wished from one to become many, which desire is denominated Prapia. Buddha and Prajna united became Prajna Upaya, as Siva Sakti, or Brahma Mava. (See note 2.) In the instant of conceiving this desire, five forms or beings were produced, called the five Buddhas (see note 3), whose names are as follows : Vairochaxa, Akshobhya, Ratna-Sambhava, Amitabha, Amogha-Siddha. Each of these Buddhas, again, produced from himself, by means of Dhydna, another being called his Bodhi-Satioa, or son. Vairochana produced Samanta-Bhabra; Akshobhya, Vajra-Pani; Batna-Sambhava, Ratna-Pani; Amitabha, Padma-Pani; and Amogha-Siddha, Viswa-Pani. Of these five Bodhi-Sahcas, four are engrossed with the worship of Sambhu (SwayambhiiJ, and nothing more is known of them than their names; the fifth, Padma-Pani, was engaged by Sambhu's command, in creation (see note 4) ; and having by the efficacy of Sambhu's Dhydna, assumed the virtues of the three Gunas, he created Brahma, Vishnu, and Mahesa, and delegated to them res- pectively, creation, preservation, and destruction. Accordingly, by Padrua-Pani's commands, Brahma set about creating all things ; and the Chatur-yoni (or ovipa- rous, viviparous, etc.,*) came into existence by Brahma. The creation of Brahma, Vishnu, and Mahesa by Padma-Pani, is confirmed by the sloka (see note 5), the meaning of which is, Kamali (Padma-Pani,) produced Brahma for crea- ting, Vishnu for preserving, and Mahesa for destroying. And the creation of Brahma is six-sorted, viz., Deva, Daitya, Mdnusha, etc. ; and, for the Devas, Brahma made heaven ; and for the Daityas, Pdtdla ; and the four remaining lands he placed between these two regions and upon the earth. With respect to the mansions (Bhuvanas) of the universe, it is related, that the highest is called Agnishtha Bhuvand ; and this is the abode of Adi-Buddha. And below it, according to some accounts, there are ten ; and according to others, thirteen Bhuvanas (see note G) ; named, Pramdditd, Tl'mald, Prabhdkari, Ar< hish- mati, Sudurjayd, Abhimukhi, Durangamd, AcJiald, Sddhumati, Dharma-megha (x), Samanta-prabhd, Nirdpamd, Jnydnavati (xiii).f These thirteen Bhuvanas are the work of Adi-Buddha: they are the B6dhi- Sat ica Bhuvanas ; and whoever is a faithful follower of Buddha will be translated to one of these mansions after death. * By et ctetera always understand more Brdhmanorum. t Aknishtha or Agnishtha is not named in the Dasa Bhuvana, and neither therein nor here is any mention made of the abodes of the five Dhyani Buddhas ; and not Aehala but Samanta Bhadra is the tenth Bhuvana. Nirupama, Aehala, and Jnyanavati are the three extra Bhuvanas. BUDDHIST COSMOGONY. 43 Below the thirteen BddJd-Satica Bhuvanas are eighteen Bhuvanas, called col- lectively Rupyavachara, These are subject to Brahma, and are named individ- ually : Brahnia-kayika, Brahma-piirohita, Brahina-prashadya, Maha Brahmana, Paritabha, Apramanabha, Abhaswara, Parita-subhd, Subhakiskna, Anabhraka, Puuya-prasava, Yrikat-phiila, Arangi-satwa, Avriha, Apaya, Sudrisha, Sudarsana, and Sumiikha. Pious worshippers of Brahma shall go to one of these eighteen Bhuvanas after death. And below the eighteen mansions of Brahma, are six others subject to Vishnu, called collectively Kdmdvachard, and separately as follows : Chatiir-Mahd-rdja- Kdyikd, Trayastrinsd, Tushita, Yamd, Nirmdnavati, Paranirmitd-Vasavarti. And whosoever worships Vishnu with pure heart shall go to one of these. And below the six Bhuvanas of Vishnu are the three Bhuvanas of Maha- deva, called generally Arupyavachard, and particularly as follows : Abhdgd- Ritya-yatndpagd, Vgnyd-yatndpagd, Akinchanya-yatndpagd, and these are the heavens designed for pious Siva-Mdrgis. Below the mansions enumerated, are Indra Bhuvana, Yama Bhuvana, Surya Bhuvana, and Chandra Bhuvana ; together with the mansions of the fixed stars, of the planets, and various others which occupy the places down to the Agni Bhuvana, also called Agni-kunda. And below Agni- kunda is Vayu-kunda; and below T ^ayu-kunda is Prithvi, or the earth ; and on the earth are seven Divipas, Jambu Dwipa, etc. ; and seven Sdgai'as or seas, and eight Par vat as or mountains (see note 7), Sumcru Parvata, etc. And below Prithvi is Jala-kunda, or the world of waters ; and the earth is on the waters as a boat. And helow the Jdla-kunda are seven Pdtdlas, as Dharani, etc. : six of them are the abodes of the Daityas; and the seventh is Naraka, consisting of eight separate abodes : and these eight compose the hell of sinners ; and from the eighteen Bhu- vanas of Brahma down to the eight chambers of Naraka, all is the work of Manjusrf. Manjusri is by the Bauddhas esteemed the great architect, who con- structs the mansions of the world by Adi-Buddha's command, as Padma-Pani, by his command, creates all animate things. Thus Manjusri (see note 8) is the Visva-karma of the Bauddhas ; and is also the author of the sixty-four Vidyds. Question II. "What was the origin of mankind ? Answer. It is written in the narrative portion of our Tantras, that originally the earth was uninhabited. In those times the inhabitants of Abhdsumrd Bhuvana (which is one of the Bhuvanas of Brahma) used frequently to visit the earth, and thence speedily to return to Abhdsward. It happened at length, that, when a few of these beings, who, though half males and half females, had never yet, from the purity of their minds, conceived the sexual desire, or even noticed their distinction of sex, came, as usual, to the earth, Adi-Buddha suddenly created in them so violent a longing to eat, that they ate some of the earth, which had the taste of almonds, and by eating it they lost their power of flying back to their Bhuvana, and so 44 BUDDHIST COSMOGONY. they remained on the earth. They were now constrained to eat the fruits of the earth for sustenance ; and from eating these fruits they conceived the sexual desire, and began to associate together : and from that time, and in that manner, the origin of mankind commenced from the union of the sexes. (See note '.». )* When the beings above-mentioned came last from Abhdsward, Maha Sainvata was their leader, and he was the first king of the whole earth. In another Tantra it is written that Adi-Buddha is the immediate creator of all things in heaven and earth. With respect to time, we conceive the Satya-yuya to be the beginning of time, and the Kali-yuga the end of it : and the duration of the four yugas, the par- culars of which are found in the Brahmanical scriptures, have no place in our's in which it is merely written that there are four yugas ; and that in the first, m< n lived 80,000 years; in the second, 10,000; in the third 1,000: and the fourth is divided into four periods; in the first of which, men will live 100 years; in the second, fifty years ; in the third, twenty-five years ; and in the fourth, when the close of the Kali-yuga is approaching, seven years only ; and their stature will be only the height of the thumb ; and then all things will be destroyed, and Adi- Buddha alone remain : and this period of four gagas is a Pralaya. Adi-Buddha will then again create the four yugas, and all things else to live in their dura- tion, which when completed, all things will be again destroyed, and thus there will be seventy-one pralayas, or completions of the four yugas, when Malta Pra- laya will arrive. How many revolutions of the four yugas {i.e. how many pra- layas) have now passed, and how many remain to revolve, is nowhere written. Question III. What is matter, and what spirit ? Answer. Body (see note 10), which is called Sarira and Delia, was produced from the five elements ; and soul, which is called prdna and jiva, is a particle of the essence of Adi-Buddha. Body, as created out of the elements, perisheth : soul, as a par- ticle of the divine spirit, perisheth not ; body is subject to changes — to be fat and lean, etc. ; soul is unchangeable. Body is different in all animals ; soul is alike in all, whether in man or any other creature. But men have, besides prdna, the faculty of speech, which other animals have not ; according to the sloka, of which the meaning is this: " Delia is derived from the five Bltutas, and Jiva from the Angas of Swayambhu" (See note 11.) Question IV. Is matter an independent existence, or derived from God ? Answer. Body, according to some, depends upon the inhaling and exhaling of the Prdna- Vdyu; and this inhalation and exhalation of the breath is by virtue of the soul (prdna), which virtue, according to some, is derived from God, and according to * See Tumour's and Csoma de Korijs versions of this legend, in the Journal of the Asiatk tioritty of Bengal. BUDDHIST PHILOSOPHY. 45 others (see note 12), is inherent in itself: there is much diversity of opinion on this subject. Some of the Buddha-mdrgis contend that deha (the body) is Swd- bhdvdka; i.e., from the copulation of males and females, new bodies proceed: and they ask who makes the eyes, the flesh, the limbs, etc. of the fcetus in the mother's womb ? Swdbhdva ! And the thorns of the desert, who points them P Swdbh&va ! And the timidity of the deer kind, and the fury of the ravenous beasts, whence are they? from Swdbhdva! And this is a specimen of their reasoning - and proofs, according to a sloka of the Buddha-Chaiita-Kavya. (See note 13.) Some again say, that deha and ean- sdra are Aiswarika (see note 14), i. e., produced by Iswara, or Adi-Buddha, according to another sloka. Some again call the world and the human body Kdrmika, i. e., that Karma is the cause of this existence of deha and sansdra ; and they liken the first deha to a field (kshetra), and works, to a seed. And they relate, that the first body which man received was created solely by Adi-Buddha ; and at that time works affected it not : but when man put off his first body, the next body which he re- ceived was subject to Karma, or the works of the first body (see note 15) ; and so was the next, and all future ones, until he attained to Mukti and Mulcsh a ; and therefore they say, that whoever would be free from transmigration must pay his devotions to Buddha, and consecrate all his worldly goods to Buddha, nor ever aftt r suffer such things to excite his desires. And, in the Buddha-Charita-Kavva it is written, that with respect to these points, Sakya expressed the following opinion : " Some persons say that Sansdra is Sivdbhdvaka, some that it is Kdrmika, and some that it is Aiswarika and Atmaka; for myself, I can tell you nothing of these matters. Do you address your meditation to Buddha; and when you have attained Bodhijndna, you will know the truth yourselves." Question V. What are the attributes of God ? Answer. His distinctive attributes are many; one of which is, that he is Panchqjndndtmaka (see note 16), or, in his essence are five sorts of fndna, possessed by him alone and which are as follows: first, Suvisuddha-Dharma-Dhdiuja ; second, Adarsanaja : third, Pratyavekshanaja ; fourth, Sdmtaja; fifth, Armshthdnqja. The first created beings, Vairochana, etc., were in number five, owing to these five Jndnas; and in each of these five Buddhas is one of the jndnas. Another of Adi-Buddha's attributes is the faculty of individualizing, and multiplying himself, and again individualizing himself at pleasure : another is, possessing the qualities of passion and clemency. Question VI. Is the pleasure of God derived from action or repose ? Answee. There are two modes of considering this subject : first, according to nirvritti; and secondly, according to pracritti. 46 BUDDHIST PHILOSOPHY. Nirvritti (see note 17) is this : to know the world to be a mere semblance, unreal, and an illusion ; and to know God to be one : and Pravritti is the opposite of this sublime science, andis the practice and notions of ordinary men. Therefore, according to nirvritti, Adi-Buddha is the author and creator of all things, without whom nothing can be done ; whose care sustains the world and its inhabitants ; and the moment he averts his face from them they became annihilated, and nothing remains but himself. But some persons, who profess nirvritti, contend that the world with all it containeth is distinct from Adi-Buddha : yet the wise know this to be an error. (See note 18.) Adi-Buddha, though he comprehends all living things, is yet one. He is the soul, and they are but the lirnbs and outward members, of this monad Such i> nirvritti, which, being deeply studied, is found to be unity; but pravritti, which is multiplicity, may be distinguished in all things. And in this latter view of pravritti, Adi-Buddha may be considered a king, who gives orders; and the five Buddhas, and other divinities of heaven, his ministers, who execute his orders; and we, poor mortals, his subjects, servants, and slaves. In this way the business of the world is distributed among the deities, each having his proper functions; and Adi-Buddha has no concern with it. Thus the five Buddhas give mukti (see note 19) and moksha to good men : Brahma by the orders of Paduta-Paui, performs the part of creator ; Vishnu, by the same orders, cherishes all beings ; and Maha Deva, by the same orders, destroys ; Yama takes cogni- zance of sins, and punishes sinners ; Indra and Varuna give rain ; and the sun and moon fructify the earth with their rays ; and so of the rest. Question VII. Who is Buddha ? Is he God, or the creator, or a propbet or saint ; born of heaven, or of a woman ? Answeh. Buddha means, in Sanskrit, 'the wise ;' also, 'that which is known by wisdom ;' and it is one of the names which we give to God, whom we also call Adi-Bud- dha, because he was before all, and is not created, but is the creator : and the Pancha Dhydni Buddhas were created by him, and are in the heavens. Sakya, and the rest of the seven human Buddhas are earth-born or human. These latter, by the worship of Buddha, arrived at the highest eminence, and attained Nirvana Pada (i.e. were absorbed into Adi-Buddha). (See note 20.) We therefore call tbem all Buddhas. Question VIII. What is the reason for Buddha being represented with curled locks ? Answer. Adi-Buddha was never seen. He is merely light. (See note 21.) But in the pictures of Vairochana, and the other Buddhas, we have the curled hair ; and since in limbs and organs we discriminate thirty-two points of beauty (TakshanasJ, such as expansion of forehead, blackness of the eyes, roundness of the head, eleva- BUDDHIST PHILOSOPHY. 47 tion of the nose, archedness of the eyebrows ; so also the having curled locks is one of the points of beauty, and there is no other reason for Buddha's being represented with curled locks. (See note 22.) Question IX. What are the names of the great Buddha? Does the Neicdri language admit the word Buddha, or any substitute for it? and what is the Bhotiya name for Buddha ? Answer. The names of Adi-Buddha are innumerable : Sarvajna, Sugata, Buddha, Dharma- Raja, Tathagata, Bhagavan, Samanta-Bhadra, Marajita, Lokajita, Jina, Anadini- dhana, Adi-Buddha, Xirandhaka, Jnanaikachakshu, Amala, Jnana-Miirti, Vackes- wara, Maha-Vadi, Vadirata, Vadipuugava, Vadisinha, and Parajata. Vairochana, and the other five Buddhas, have also many names. Some of Vairochana's are as follows : Maha-Dipti, Jnana-Jyotish, Jagat-Pravritti, Mahatejas, &c. ; and so of the other four. Padma-Pani also has many names, as Padina-Pani, Kaniali, Padma-Hasta, Padma-Kara, Kamala-Hasta, Kamalakara, Kamala-Pani, Arya- valokiteswara, Aryavalokeswara, Avalokiteswara, and Loka-Xatka* (See note 23.) Many of the above names are intercommunicable between the several persona to whom they are here appropriated. Buddha is a Sanskrit word, not Neicdri : the BhoUya names I do not know ; but I have heard they call Sakya Sinha. Sungi Thuba: Sungi meaning the deity, and Thiibaf his Alaya or Vihdrn. Question X. In the opinion of the Banras, did God ever make a descent on earth? if so, how often ; and what is the Sanskrit and Newdri name of each Acatdra f An saver. According to the scriptures of the Bvddhamdrgis, neither Adi-Buddha nor any of the Pancha Dhydni Buddhas (see note 24), ever made a descent; that is to say they were never conceived in mortal womb ; nor had they father or mother : but certain persons of mortal mould have by degrees attained to such excellence of nature and such Bodhifndna, as to have been gifted with divine wisdom, and to have taught the Bodhi-charya and Buddhamdrga ; and these were seven, named Vipasyi, Sikhi, Viswabhii, Krakutchanda, Kanaka muni, Kasyapa, Sakya Sinha. In the Satya-yuga were three : Vipasyi, who wasborn in Vindumati Niagara, in the house of Vinduman Raja; Sikhi, in TJrna Desa; and Viswabhii, in Anupama Desa, in the house of a Kshatriya : in the Trctdyuga, two persons became Budd- has ; one Krakutchandaj in Kskemavati Kagara, in the house of a Brahman; the other Kanaka Muni, in Subhavati Nagara, in the house of a Brahman : and in the Dwdpara-yuga, one person named Kasyapa, in Vdrdnasi Nagara, in the house * We do not find Matsyendra among these synonymes though he be now usually iden- tified with Padma Pani. For Avalokiteswara see Fahian, p.p. 115-117. t Sanskiitice Stlnipa, a tomb, temple. But Csoma de Koros gives Sange Thubba as his name only. [The name is Sangs- T Gyas Thub-pa, from Sang-jay T'ub-pa, and means: 'the Holy One, the Conqueror.' J.S. ] •sr=> I- 48 BUDDHIST PHILOSOPHY. of a Brahman: and in the Kali-yuga* Sakya, then called Sarvartha Siddha (see note 25), in the house of Suddhodana Raja, a Sdkyavansi, in the city of Kapilavastu, which is near Gangasagara,f became Buddhas. Besides these seven, there are many illustrious persons ; but none equal to these. The particular history of these seven, and of other Buddhas, is written in the Lalita Yistara. (See note 25.) Question XI. How many Avatdras of Buddhas have there been, according to the Lamas ? Answer. They agree with us in the worship of the seven Buddhas, the difference in our notions being extremely small; but the Lamas go further than this and contend that they themselves are Avatdras. I have heard from my father, that, in his time, there were five Lamas esteemed divine : the names of three of them I have forgotten, but the remaining two are called Shamurpa and Karmapa. Question XII. Do the Lamas worship the Avatdras recognized by the Newdrs ? Answer. The Lamas are orthodox Buddhamdrgis, and even carry their orthodoxy to a greater extent than we do. Insomuch, that it is said, that Sankara Acharya,} Siva-Mdrgi, having destroyed the worship of Buddha and the scriptures con- taining its doctrine in Hindustan, came to Xepaul, where also he effected much mischief; and then proceeded to Bhot. There he had a conference with the grand Lama. The Lama, who never bathes, and after natural evacuations does not use topical ablution, disgusted him to that degree, that he commenced reviling the Lama. The Lama replied, "I keep my inside pure, although my out- side be impure ; while you carefully purify yourself without, but are filthy within : " and at the same time he drew out his whole entrails, and shewed them to San- kara ; and then replaced them again. He then demanded an answer of Sankara. Sankara, by virtue of his yoga, ascended into the heavens ; the Lama perceiving the shadow of Saukara's body on the ground, fixed a knife in the place of the shadow ; Sankara directly fell upon the knife, which pierced his throat and killed him instantly. Such is the legend or tale that prevails, and thus we account for the fact that the Buddhamdrgi practice of Bhot is purer, and its scriptures more numerous, than ours. Question XIII. What is the name of your sacred writings,§ and who is their author ? * This allotment into four yugas is apochryphal. The three first Buddhas belong to the penultimate Kalpa, and the four last to the present, or Bhadra Kalpa. t Near or in Oude, or Rohilkhand, according to other works. Kapila was on the Bhagirathi, near Kailas, say the Tibetan authorities. ♦He flourished in the ninth century, or about 1,000 years back. This we learn from the Brahmans, and the date is important as it agrees with the era of that persecution which led the Southerners to seek protection in Nepanl and Tibet. § See pp. 36-39 for a corrected list of the Sanskrit literature of Buddhism. BUDDHIST PHILOSOPHY. 49 Answer. We have nine Purdnas, called " the nine Dharmas." (See note 2G.) A Parana is a narrative or historical work, containing a description of the rites and ceremonies of Buddhism, and the lives of our chief Tathagatas. The first Dharma is called Prajna Parantita, and contains 8,000 slokas. This is a Nydya Sdstra, or work of a philosophic character, capahle of being understood only by men of science; the second is named Ganda Vyiika,* of 12,000 slokas, which contains the history of Sudhana Kumara, who made sixty-four persons his gurus, from whom he acquired Bodkijndna ; the third, is the Samadhi Raj a, of 3,000 slokas, in which the nature and value of japa and tapas are explained; the fourth is the Lankavatara, of 3,000 slokas, in which is written how Havana, lord of Lanka, having gone to Malayagiri mountain, and there heard the history of the Buddha, from Sakya Sinha, obtained Bodliijnuna. The fifth, which is called Tathagata Guhya, is not to be found in Nepaul;** the sixth, is the Saddharma Pundarika which contains an account of the method of building a chaitya or Buddha- mandala, and the mode and fruits of worshipping it. (Chaitya is the exclusive name of a temple dedicated to Adi-Buddha or to the Pancha Dhyani Buddha ; and what- ever temple is erected to Sakya, or other Manushi Buddhas, is called Kutdydr) : || the seventh, is the Lalita Vistara, of 7,000 slokas, which contains the histoiy of the several incarnations of Sakya Sinha Bhagavan,and an account of his perfections in virtue and knowledge, with some notices of other Buddhas. The eighth, is the Suvarna Prabha, containing, in 1,000 slokas, an account of Saraswati, Lakshmi and Prithivi; how they lauded Sakya Sinha Bhagavan ; and how he, in return, gave each of them what she desired. The ninth, is the Dasa Bhiimeswara, of 2,000 slokas, containing an account of the ten Bhuvanas of Buddha. All these Purdnas we received from Sakya Sinha, and esteem them our primitive scriptures because before the time of Sakya our religion was not reduced to writing, but retained in memory ; the disadvantages of which latter method being evident to Sakya, he secured our institutes by writing them. Besides these Puranas, we received Tantras and Dhdranis from Sakya Sinha. Tantra is the name of those books in which Mantras and Yantras are written, explanatory of both of which we have very many works. Three of them are famous : first, Maya Jala, of 16,000 slokas ; second, Kala Chakra, of 0,000 ; third, Sambhii Udaya, of 1,000. The Dharanis were extracted from the Tantras, and are similar in nature to the Guhya, or mysterious rites, of the Siva-Margis. A Dharani is never less than eight slokas or more than 500; in the beginning and middle of which are written the " Vija Mantra," and at the end, the " Phiil Stotra," or the Mahatmya, i.e., what desire may be accomplished or what business achieved by the perusal of that Dharani ; such, for example, as obtaining children — advantage over an enemy — rain — or merely the approbation of Buddha. There are probably a thousand Dharanis. *See note at page 137- ** This is a very holy Tantra. It was kept from me long, but at last I got it. || Kutagar is the name of the class of temples inferior to Chaityas, as now employed in Nepaul. Besides the Chaityas, the Nepaulese have temples, dedicated equally to the Diiminores of the Bavddhas, and to many of the (adopted) deities of the Brahmans. 50 BUDDHIST PHILOSOPHY. Question XIV. What is the cause of good and evil ? Answer. When Padina-Pani, having heconie Tri-guna-Atmaka, that is, having assumed the form of Satyaguna, Rajo-guna, and Tamo-guna, created Brahma, Vishnu, and Mahesa; then from Satya-guna, arose spontaneously (Swabhavaka), punya or virtue, and from Tamo-guna, papa or evil, and from Rajo-guna, the mean of the two, which is neither all good nor all evil : for these three gun as are of such a quality that good acts, mixed acts, and bad acts, necessarily flow from them. Each of these Tcarmas or classes of actions is divided into ten species, so that papa is of ten kinds, first (see note 27) murder ; second, robbery ; third, adultery, which are called kdyaka or bodily, i. e., derived from Kdija ; fourth, lying ; fifth, secret slander ; sixth, reviling ; seventh, reporting such words between two persons as excite them to quarrels ; and these four papas are called vachaka, i. e., derived from speech ; eighth, coveting another's goods ; ninth, malice ; and tenth, disbelief of the scriptures and immorality ; and these three are called manasa, i. e., derived from mdnas ' the mind.' The ten actions opposite to these are good actions ; and the ten actions, composed, half and half, of these two sorts, are mixed actions. Question XV. What is the motive of your good acts — the love of God — the fear of God — or the desiring of prospering in the world ? Answer. The primary motive for doing well, and worshipping Buddha, according to the scriptures, is the hope of obtaining Mukti and MoJcsha, becoming Nirvana, and being freed from transmigrations : these exalted blessings cannot be had without the love of God ; therefore they, who make themselves accepted of God, are the true saints, and are rarely found; and between them and Buddha there is no difference, because they will eventually become Buddhas, and will obtain Nirvana Pada, i. e., mukti (absorption,) and their jyotish (flame, essence), will be absorbed into the jyotish of Buddha ; and to this degree Sakya and the others of the "Sapta- Buddha" (see note 28) have arrived, and we call them Buddhas, because, whoever has reached this state is, in our creed, a Buddha. Those persons who do good from the fear of hell, and avoid evil from the desire of prospering in the world, are likewise rarely found, and their degree is much above that of the class of sinners. Their sufferings in Naraka will be therefore lessened ; but they will be constrained to suffer several transmigrations, and endure pain and pleasure in this world, till they obtain Mukti and Moksha. Question XVI. Will you answer, in the world to come, to Adi-Buddha for your acts in this world, or to whom will you answer ? and what rewards for good, and pains for evil, will you reap in the next world ? Answer. How can the wicked arrive at Buddha ? (see note 29.) Their wicked deeds will hurry them away to Naraka ; and the good-will, by virtue of their good acts, be BUDDHIST PHILOSOPHY. 5 1 transported to the Bhuvanas of Buddha, and will not be there interrogated at all ; and those who have sometimes done good and sometimes evil, are destined to a series of births and deaths on earth, and the account of their actions is kept by Yama Raja. Question XVII. Do you believe in the metempsychosis ? Answer. Y"es. For it is written in the Jataka Mala, and also in the Lalita Vistara, that Sakya, after having transmigrated through 501 bodies, obtained Nirvana Pada or Mukti in the last body : but so long as we cannot acquire Mukti, so long we must pass through births and deaths on earth. Some acquire Moksha after the first birth, some after the seventy-seventh, and some after innumerable births. It is no where written that Moksha is to be obtained after a prescribed number of births ; but every man must atone for the sins of each birth by a proportionate number of future births ; and when the sins of the body are entirely purified and absolved, he will obtain absorption into Adi-Buddka. Question XVIII. What and from whence are the Newars, from Hindust'han or Bhot ? (see note 80,) and what is the word Newar, the name of a country or a people ? Answer. The natives of the valley of Nepaul are Newars. In Sanskrit the country is called Naipala,* and the inhabitants Naipali ; and the words Newar and Newari are vulgarisms arising from the mutation of p to v, and l to R. Thus too the word Bandya, the name of the Buddhamargi sect (because its followers make bandana, i. e., salutation and reverence to the proficients in Bodhijnana), is metam- orphosed by ignorance into Banra, a word which has no meaning. Question XIX. Do the Newars follow the doctrine of caste or not ? Answer. As inhabitants of one country they are one — but in regard to caste, they are diverse. Question XX. How many castes are there amongst the Banras ? Answer. Banra, according to the true reading, is Bandya, as explained above. According to our Puranas, whoever has adopted the tenets of Buddha, and has cut off the lock from the crown of his head, of whatever tribe or nation he be, becomes thereby a Bandya (see note 31). The Bhotiyas, for example, are Bandyas because they follow the tenets of Buddha, and have no lock on their heads. The Bandyas are divided into two classes ; those who follow the Vahya-charya, and those who * From Ne, 'the sender to Paradise,' who is Swayambhu Adi-Buddha, and pala, ' cherished. ' The Brahmans derive the word Nepaul from Ne or Neyuni, the proper name of a Patriarch or Muni. 52 BUDDHIST PHILOSOPHY. adopt the Abhyantara-charya — words equivalent to the Grihastha asrama and I Vairagi asrama of the Brahmanas. The first class is denominated Bhikshu ; the | second, Vajra Acharya,* The Bhikshu cannot marry; but the Vajra Acharya is a family man. The latter is sometimes called, in the vernacular tongue of the Newars, Giibhal, which is not a Sanskrit word. Besides this distinction into monastic and secular orders, the Bandyasjt re again div ided, according to the scrip- tures, into five classes: first, Arhat; second, Bhikshu; third, Sravaka; fourth, Chailaka; fifth, Vajra Acharya. The Arhat is he who is perfect himself, and can give perfection to others ; who eats what is offered to him, hut never asks for anything. The Bhikshu, is he who assumes a staff and beggar's dish (bhikshari and pinda patra), sustains himself by alms, and devotes his attention solely to the contemplation (dhyana) of Adi-Buddha, without ever intermeddling with worldly affairs. The Sravaka is he who devotes himself to hearing the Bauddha scrip- tures read or reading them to others ; these are his sole occupations, and he is sustained by the small presents of his audiences. The Chailaka is he who contents himself with such a portion of clothes (chilaka) as barely suffices to cover his nakedness, rejecting everything more as superfluous. The Bhikshu and the Chai- laka very nearly resemble each other, and both (and the Arhat also) are bound to i practice celibacy. The Vajra Acharya is he who has a wife and children, and j devotes himself to the active ministry of Buddhism. Such is the account of the five classes found in the scriptures ; but there are no traces of them in NepauLf No one follows the rules of that class to which he nominally belongs. Among the Bhotiyas there are many Bhikshus, who never marry ; and the Bhotiya Lamas are properly Arhats. But all the Nepaulese Buddhamargis are married men, who pursue the business of the world, and seldom think of the injunctions of their religion. The Tantras and Dharanis, which ought to be read for their own salva- tion, they read only for the increase of their stipend and from a greedy desire of money. This division into five classes is according to the scriptures; but there is a popular division according to Vihars, and these Vihars being very numerous, the separate congregations of the Bandyas, have been thus greatly multiplied.^: In Patau alone there are fifteen Vihars. A temple to Adi-Buddha, or to the five Dhyani-Buddhas, called a Chaitya, is utterly distinct from the Vihar, and of the form of a heap of rice or Dhanyarasya-akar. But the temples of Sakya and the other of the " Sapta Buddha Manuski," as well as those of other chief saints and leaders of Buddhism are called Vihars. The names of tbe fifteen Vihars of Patan are as follows: Tankal- Vihar, Tii-Yilnir, Uak- Vihar, Bhu- * See farther on. fin Nepaul at present the Bandyas are divided pepularly into Vajra Acharya, Sakya Vansi, Bhikshu or Biklm, and Chiva-bare. The last derive their name from living in a Vihar which has a Chaitya, vulgo Chiva, in its midst. Others say that Chiva in Chi vakabare is a corruption of Chailaka Bandya Potius, Bandyas wearing the Chivara, a part of the monastic dress, a sense which would make the term signify Bandyas adhering to their vows. J Some years ago there were 5,000 Bandyas in the Valley of Nepaul out of a popu- lation of some 250,000. BUDDHIST PHILOSOPHY. 53 Vihar, Haran-Varna-Maha- Vihar, f Rudra-Yarna-Muha-Yikar,]; Bkiksku- Vihar, Sakya- Vihar, Guhya- Vihar, Shi- Vihar, Dhom- Vihar, UnYihar, etc. (see note 32). In short, if any Bandya die, and his son erect a temple in his name, such structure may be called such an one's (after his name) Vihar. With this dis- tinction, however, that a temple to an eminent saint is denominated Maha Vihar — one to an ordinary mortal, simply Vihar. § NOTES. (1) Here a Sloka of tke Sambhii Purana is quoted in the original paper; and it was my first intention to have repeated it on the margin of the translation; but, upon reflection, I believe it will be better to observe, that the Sambhii Purana is a work peculiar to Nepaul. Many other Bauddha scriptures, however, which are not local, and are of high authority, symbolize tke forming and changing powers of nature by the letters of the alphabet ; and ascribe the pre-eminence among these letters to a, it, and Ji — making tke mystic syllable 6m, which is not less reverenced by Bauddhas than by Brahmanas. A, tke Bauddhas say, is the Vija Mantra of the person Buddha; U, the Vij a Mantra of the person Dharma; and M, that of the person Sangha — and these tkree persons form tke Buddhist Triad. The Bauddhas, however, differ in their mode of classing tke tkree persons. According to tke Aiswarikas, tke male, Buddha, the symbol of generative power, is the first member ; tke female, Dharma, the type of productive power, is the second ; and Sangha, their son, is the third, and represents actual creative power, or an active creator and ruler, deriving his origin from tke union of tke essences of Buddha and Dharma. Sangha, according to all tke sckools, though a member, is an inferior member, of the triad. || (2) Another sloka is here quoted; but it will not justify the language of the text, in which there is some confusion of the opposite doctrines of the Aiswarikas and Swabkavikas. In tke triad of tke latter, tke female, Dkarma (also called Prajna), tke type of productive power, is tke first member ; Upaya, or Buddha, the 'symbol of generative power, the second ; and Sangha the third; their son as before, and the active author of creation; or rather the type of that spontaneous creation, which results necessarily from the union of the two principles of nature before mentioned. Buddha and Prajna imited become Upaya Prajna; or vice versa, according to the school, and vercr as in tke text. (For some further remarks upon tkese chief objects of Bauddha worship, see Notes 12 and 29.) I take tkis early opportunity to remark tkat candid criticism will compare, and not contrast, tke statements made in Notes 10, 12, 17, 20, and 29, especially witk reference to tke Swabkavika doctrine. (See Note 10.) t Vulgo Kon. % Vulgo Uku. Throughout classical and vulgar names are mixed. %BaM and Bdhd or Bahal arc the vulgar names for great and common Vihars, or Vihars with a I'liaitva, and those witk a Kutagar only, erected in the midst of them. Temples to Manushi Buddhas and other Deities are called Kutagar commonly, though Kutagar temples sometimes enshrine Dhyani Buddhas. A Vihar may be built round either. || See Wilson's Essays and Lectures, ii. 23 ff. 54 BUDDHIST PHILOSOPHY. (3) The deduction of the five Dhyani Buddhae, and the five Dhyani Bodhisat- twas, from Adi-Buddha, according to the Aiswarika Bauddhas, will be stated farther on. It is a celestial or divine creation, and is here improperly mixed with the generative creations, theistic and atheistic, of various doctors. (4) See Note 23. (5) The sloka quoted is from the Pivja Kanda, which is a mere manual of worship, of recent origin, and probably local to Nepaul. It professes, however, to be a faithful compilation from the Guna-Karanda Vyiiha, and Karanda Yyiiha. The latter of these is a work of respectable authority, and contains the following partial justification of the language of the Puja Kanda. (Sakya, speaking to his disciple Sarvanivarana Vishkambhi, says,) " In the very distant times of Vipasyi Buddha I was born as the son of Suganda Mukha, a merchant : in that birth I heard from Vipasyi the following account of the qualities of Aryavalokiteswara (PadmaPani). The sun proceeded from one of his eyes: and from the other, the moon; from his forehead Mahadeva ; from between his shoulders, Brahma; from his chest, Vishnu ; from his teeth, Sarasvati ; from his mouth, Vayu ; from his feet, Prithvi ; from his navel, Varuna." So many deities issued from Aryavalo- kiteswara's body. This passage is expanded in the Guna-Karanda Vyiiha, wherein it is added, that when Aryavalokiteswara had created Brahma, Vishnu, and Mahesa, they stood before him, and he said to the first, " be thou the lord of Satyaguna and create:" and to the second, "be thou the lord of Rajoguna and preserve;" and to the third, "be thou the lord of Tamoguna and destroy." The Guna-Karanda Vyiiha, is however a mere amplification of the Karanda Vyiiha, and of much less authority. In a passage of the Saraka Dkara — which is not one of the sacred writings of Nepaul, but a work of high authority, written by Sarvajna Mitrapada, a Bauddha ascetic of Cashmeer — the Hindu deities are made to issue from the body of the supreme Prajna just as, according to the Karanda Vyiiha, they proceed from that of Padma Pani. (6) The authority for these ten mansions is the Dasa Bhiimeswara, one of the nine great works spoken of in the answer to the thirteenth question ; and which treats professedly of the subject. The thirteen mansions are, however, mentioned in sundry works of high authority ; and the thirteen grades of the superior part of the Chaitya (or proper Bauddha temple) are typical of the thirteen celestial mansions alluded to in the text. The most essential part of the Chaitya is the solid hemisphere ; but the vast majority of Chaityas in Nepaid have the hemi- sphere surmounted by a pyramid or cone, called Chudamani, and invariably divided into thirteen grades. (7) All this, as well as what follows, is a mere transcript from the Brah- manical writings. There is, nevertheless, authority for it in the Bauddha scrip- tures. The Bauddhas seem to have adopted without hesitation the cosmography and chronology of the Brahmans, and also a large part of their pantheon. They freely confess to have done so at this day. The favourite Brahmanical deities accepted by the Buddhists are, of males : Maha Kala, Indra, Ganesa, Hanuman, BUDDHIST PHILOSOPHY. 55 and the triad. Of females : Lakshmi and Sarasvati. The Hindu triad are con- sidered by the Buddhists as the mere servants of the Buddhas and Bodhisattwas, and only entitled to such reverence as may seem fit to he paid to faithful servants of so high masters. Of the origin of these deities, according to the Bauddha hooks, I have already given one account, and referred to another. The notions of the three gunas and of the creation, etc., by the Brahmanic triad as the delegates of the Bodhisattwas, I look upon as modern inventions. According to genuine Buddhism, the Bodhisattwas are, each in his turn, the active agents of the crea- tion and government of the world. (8) An important historical person, and the apparent introducer of Buddhism into Nepaul. (See note 30). (9) This is a most curious legend. I have not yet seen the Tantra whence it pro- fesses to be extracted, and suspect that the legend was stolen from our Bible, by some inhabitant of Nepaul, who had gathered a confused idea of the Mosaic history of the origin and fall of mankind from the Jesuit missionaries, formerly resident in this valley ; or perhaps the legend in question was derived from some of those various corrupt versions of the biblical story which have been current among the Jews and Moslems of Asia for many centuries. (10) This limited reply is the fault of my friend and not of his books. Matter is called Prakriti by the Buddhists, as well as by the Brahmans.* The Swab- havika school of Bauddha philosophy (apparently the oldest school) seems to have considered matter as the sole entity, to have ascribed to it all the attributes of deity, and to have assigned to it two modalities ; one termed nirvritti, and the other pravritti. (See note 12.) To speak more precisely, the above is rather the doctrine of the Prajnika Swabhavikas than of the simple Swabhavikas : for the former unitize the active and intelligent powers of nature, the latter do not unitize them ; and prefer to all other symbols of those dispersed powers of nature the letters of the alphabet generally, and without much regard to the pre-eminence of a, xj, and m. Indeed, it is probable that the mystic syllable Atjm is altogether a comparatively recent importation into Buddhism. The Lotos is a very favourite type of creative power with all the Bauddhas ; and accordingly repre- sentations of it occur in a thousand places, and in as many forms, in the Bauddha sculptures and architecture. (11) The sloka quoted is from a modern little manual of Puja. I have not seen any adequate original authority; but the Aiswarika Buddhists, who maintain an eternal, infinite, intellectual Adi-Buddha, in all probability made the human soul an emanation from him ; and considered Moksha a remanation to him. (12) The Swabhavikas, the name assumed by one of the four schools of Bauddha philosophy, and apparently the oldest, are divided into two sects ; one called Swab- havikas simply, the other Prajnika Swabhavikas. The former maintain that an eternal revolution of entity and non-entity is the system of nature, or of matter, *Dharmma, or that which sustains, is the Bauchlha equivalent for the Brahmanical Matra, or that which measures all qualities in space, the English 'matter.' 5 6 BUDDHIST PHILOSOPHY. which alone exists. The Prajnikas deify matter as the sole substance, and give it two modes, the abstract and concrete : in the former, they unitize the active and intelligent powers held to be inherent in matter, and make this unit deity. Such is the abstract or proper mode, which is unity, immutability, rest, bliss. The second is the contingent or concrete mode, or that of actual, visible, nature. To this mode belong action, multiplicity, change, pain. It begins by the energies of matter passing from their proper and eternal state of rest into their contingent and transitory state of action ; and ends when those energies resume their proper modality. The proper mode is called nirvritti; the contiugent mode pravritti. The powers of matter cannot be described in their proper state of abstraction and unity. In the latter state, all the order and beauty of nature are images of their quality ; they are also symbolized by the Yoni, and personified as a female divinity called Adi-Prajna and Adi-Dharina. Man's summum bonum is to pass from the transmigrations incident to the state of pravritti into the eternal rest or bliss of nirvritti. The triadic doctrine of all the schools is referable solely to pravritti, In the state of nirvritti, with some of the Aiswarikas, Buddha represents intel- lectual essence and the then sole entity ; with others of the Aiswarikas, Dharma, or material essence exists biunchj with Buddha in nirvritti, the two being in that state one. With the Prajnikas, Prajna, in the state of nirvritti, is the summum et soktm' numen, Diva Natura — the sum of all the intellectual and physical forces of matter, considered as the sole entity, and held to exist in the state of nirvritti abstracted from palpable material substance, eternally, unchangeably, and essen- tially one. "When this essential principle of matter passes into the state of pravritti, Buddha, the type of active power, first proceeds from it and then associates with it, and from that association results the actual visible world. The principle is feigned to be a female, first the mother, and then the wife, of the male, Buddha. [For a glimpse at the esoteric sense of these a3nigmas, see note 29.] [13] The work cited is of secondary authority; but the mode of reasoning exhibited in the text is to be found in all Bauddha works which treat of the Swab- havika doctrine. [14] This is the name of the Theistic school of the Bauddha philosophers. The Sambkii Purana and Guna-Karanda Vyiiha contain the least obscure enun- ciation of Theism — and these books belong to Nepaul. Other Bauddha scriptures, however, which are not local, contain abundant expressions capable of a Theistic interpretation. Even those Bauddha philosophers who have insisted that matter is the sole entity, have ever magnified the wisdom and power of nature : and doing so, they have reduced the difference of theism and atheism almost to a nominal one : so, at least, they frequently affirm. The great defect of all the schools is the want of Providence and of dominion in their causa causarum, though the comparatively recent Karmikas and Yatnikas appear to have attempted to remedy this defect. [See the following note.] [15] Of two of the four schools of Bauddha philosophy, namely, the Swab- havika and Aiswarika, I have already said a few words : the two remaining schools are denominated the Karmika and Yatnika — from the words Karma, meanino- BUDDHIST PHILOSOPHY. 57 moral action ; and Yatna, signifying intellectual force, skilful effort. The proper topics of these two schools seem to me to he confined to the phenomena of human nature — its free-will, its sense of right and wrong, and its mental power. To the wisdom of Swabhava, or Prajna, or Adi-Buddha, the Bauddhas, hoth Swabhavikas and Aiswarikas, had assigned that eternal necessary connexion of virtue and felicity in which they alike believed. It remained for the Karmikas and Yatnikas to discuss how each individual free-willed man might most surely hope to realize that connexion in regard to himself; whether by the just conduct of his under- standing, or by the proper cultivation of his moral sense ? And the Yatnikas seem to have decided in favour of the former mode ; the Karmikas, in favour of the latter. Having settled these points, it was easy for the Yatnikas and Karmikas to exalt their systems by linking them to the throne of the causa causarum — to which they would be the more readily impelled, in order to remove from their faith the obloquy so justly attaching to the ancient Prajnika, and even to the Aiswarika school, because of the want of Providence and of Dominion in their first cause. That the Karmikas and Yatnikas originally limited themselves to the phenomena of human nature, I think probable, from the circumstance that, out of some forty slokas which I have had collected to illustrate the doctrines of these schools, scarcely one goes beyond the point of whether man's felicity is secured by virtue or by intellect ? And that when these schools go further (as I have the evidence of two quotations from their books that they sometimes do), the trespassing on ground foreign to their systems seems obvious ; thus in the Divya Avaddna, Sakya says, "from the union of Upaya and Prajna, arose manas — the lord of the senses; and from manas or 'mind' proceeded good and evil; and this union of Upaya and Prajna is then declared to be a Karma. And in the same work, in regard to the Yatnika doctrine, it is said, " Iswara (». e., Adi-Buddha) produced Yatna from Prajna, and the cause of pravritti and nirvritti* is Yatna; and all the difficulties that occur in the affairs of this world or of the next are rendered easy by Yatna." Impersonality and quiescence were the objections pro- bably made to the first cause of the Prajnikas and Aiswarikas; and it was to remove these objections that the more recent Karmikas and Yatnikas feigned con- scious moral agency (Karma), and conscious intellectual agency (Yatna) to have been with the causa causarum (whether material or immaterial) from the begin- ning. Of all the schools, the Karmikas and Yatnikas alone seem to have been duly sensible of man's free-will, and God's moral attributes. The Karmika con- fession of faith is, a Purva janma kritam karma tad daivyam itikat.hyate" which may be very well translated by our noble adage, " conduct is fate." Such sentiments of human nature naturally inclined them to the belief of immaterial existences, and accordingly they will be found to attach themselves in theology chiefly to the Aiswarika school. (16) This is the divine creation alluded to in the third note. The eternal, infi- nite and intellectual Adi-Buddha possesses, as proper to his own essence, five sorts *Soe note 17 for the sense of thpse cardinal terms, H 58 BUDDHIST PHILOSOPHT. of wisdom. From these he, by five separate acts of Dhyana, created the five Dhyani Buddhas, to whom he gave the virtue of that jndna whence each derived his origin. These five Dhyani Buddhas again created, each of them, a Dhyani Bodhisatwa by the joint efficacy of the jndna received from Adi-Buddha, and of an act of his own Dhyana. The five Dhyani Buddhas are, like Adi-Buddha, quiescent — and the active work of creation and rule is devolved on the Bodhisatwas. This creation by Dhyana is eminently characteristic of Buddhism — but whose Dhyana possesses creative power ? that of an eternal Adi-Buddha, say the Aiswarikas of the Sdmbhu Parana — that of any Buddha, even a Mdnushi or mortal Buddha, say the Swabhavikas. The Bauddhas have no other notion of creation (than that by Dhyana,) which is not generative. (17) These terms are common to all the schools of Bauddha philosophy ; with the Aiswarikas, nirvritti is the state in which mind exists independent of matter ; pravritti, the state in which it exists while mixed with matter. With the simple Swabhavikas the former term seems to import non-entity ; the latter, entity. With the Prajnika Swabhavikas, the former term signifies the state in which the active and intellectual power of matter exists abstractedly from visible nature. The Moksha of the first is absorption into Adi-Buddha ; of the second, absorption into Siinyata; of the third, identification with Prajna. In a word, nirvritti means abstraction, and pravritti, concretion— from nirvana is formed nirvritti, but pravritti has no pravdna. (18) If so, I am afraid few Bauddhas can be called wise. The doctrine of the text in this place is that of the Aiswarikas, set off to the best advantage : the doctrine incidentally objected to is that of the Swabhavikas and Prajnikas. Sir W. Jones assures us that the Hindus " consider creation (I should here prefer the word change) rather as an energy than as a work." This remark is yet more true in regard to the old Bauddha philosophers : and the mooted point with them is, what energy creates ? an energy mtrinsic in some archetypal state of matter, or extrinsic? The old Bauddha philosophers seem to have insisted that there is no sufficient evidence of immaterial entity. But, what is truly remarkable, some of them, at least, have united with that dogma a belief in moral and intellectual operations ; nor is there one tenet so diagnostic of Buddhism as that which insists that man is capable of extending his moral and intellectual faculties to infinity. True it is, as Mr. Colebrooke has remarked, that the Hindu philosophy recognizes this do°-ma — coldly recognizes it, and that is all : whereas, the Bauddhas have pursued it into its most extravagant consequences, and made it the corner-stone of their faith and practice. (See note 20.) (19)1 have not yet found that these Dhyani Buddhas of the Theistic school do anything. They seem to be mere personifications, according to a Theistic theory, of the active and intellectual powers of nature — and hence are called Pancha Bhiita, Pancha Indriya, and Pancha Ayatana-Akara. It may seem contrary to this notion of the quiescence of the five Dhyani Bud- dhas, that, according at least to some Nepaul works, each of them has a Sakti. BUDDHIST PHILOSOPHY. 59 Vairockana's is Vajra-Dkateswari; Akskobkya's, Lochana; Ratna Sambhava's, Mainukki; Aniitabka's, Pandara; Ainogka Siddka's, Tara. But I apprekend tkat tkese Buddka-Saktis are peculiar to Nepaul ; and tkougk I kave found tkeir names, I kave not found tkat tkey do any thing. Tkere is indeed a secret and filtky* system of Buddkas and Buddka-Saktis, in wkick tke ladies act a conspicuous part ; and according to wkick, Adi-Bud- dka is styled Yog'unbara; and Adi-Dkarma, Jnaneswarf. But tins system kas only keen recently revealed to me, and I cannot say more of it at present. (20) According- to tke Aiswarikas : tke Swabkavikas say, into Akasa and Siin- yata ; tke Prajnikas, into Adi-Prajna. Tke Swabkavika doctrine of Siinyata is tke darkest corner of tkeir metapkysical labyrinth. It cannot mean strictly notking- ness, since tkere are eigkteen degrees of Siinyata, wkereof tke first is Akasa : and Akasa is so far from being deemed notkingness tkat it is again and again said to be tke only real substance. Language sinks under tke expression of tke Bauddka abstractions ; but by tbeir Siinyata. I understand sometimes tke place, and sometimes tke form, in wkick tke infinitely attenuated elements of all tkings exist in tkeir state of separation from tke palpable system of nature. N. B. Tke images of all tke seven great Manuski Buddkas, referred to in tke answer to tke seventk question, are exactly similar to tkat of Sakya Sinka, tke seventk of tkem. Tkis image very nearly resembles tkat of Akskobkya, tke second Dkyani Buddka. Tke differences are found only in tke supporters, and in tke cognizances! (chinas.) Wken coloured tkere is a more remarkable diagnosis, Akskobkya being blue, and Sakya and tke otker six ALinuskis, yellow. (21) Tke Sambhu Parana says, manifested in Nepaul in tke form of flame (Jyoti- rupa.) According to tke same work, Adi-Dkarma's (or Prajna's) manifestation in Nepaul is in tke form of water (Jala suri'tpa). (22) Tkis is tke true solution of a circumstance wkick kas caused muck idle speculation : tkougk tke notion is, no doubt, an odd one for a sect wkick insists on tonsure ! (23) Tkese are Padina Pani's names in kis ckaracter of active creator and gov- ernor of tke present world. Tkree Dkyani Bodkisattwas preceded kim in tkat ckaracter, and one (tke fiftk) remains to follow kim. (2-4) I kave already stated tkat tkese deities, conformably witk tke quiescent genius of Buddkism, do notking ; tkey are merely tke medium tkrougk wkick creative power is communicated to tke Bodkisattwas from Adi-Buddka. It is tke Bodkisattwas alone wko exercise tkat power, one at a time, and eack in kis turn. It is a ludicrous instance of Bauddka contempt for action, tka,t some recent writers kave made a fourtk delegation of active power to tke tkree gods of tke Hindu Triad. (25) Until ke attained bodhijndna; and even tken, wkile yet lingering in tke flesk, ke got tke name of Sakya Sinka. Tkis name kas caused some speculation, * Tantrika S3*stem. + Mudnis, tke name of tke several (all) positions of tke kands : Chinas, tkat of the cognizances placed between the supporters or vakana. 60 BUDDHIST PHILOSOPHY. on the asserted ground of its not being Indian. The Bauddha scriptures differ as to the city in which Sakya was born ; but all the places named are Indian. They also say that the Sakavansa was an Indian race or family ; as was the Gautamavansa, iu which also Sakya was once born. (25 bis) This must be received with some allowance. The Lcdita Vistara gives ample details of Sakya's numberless births and acts, but is nearly silent as to the origin or actions of his six great predecessors : and the like is true of many other Bauddha scriptures. (26) These works are regularly worshipped in Nepaul as the " Nava Dhartna." They are chiefly of a narrative kind. The most important work of the speculative kind now extant in Nepaul is the Itakshd Bhdgavati, consisting of no less than 125,000 slokas. This is a work of philosophy rather than of religion, and its spirit is sceptical to the very verge of pyrrhouism. The Bauddhas of Nepaul hold it in the highest esteem, and I have sent three copies of it to Calcutta. Its substance though not its form or reduction to writing, are attributed (as are those of all the other Bauddha scriptures) to Sakya Sinha. "Whatever the Buddhas have said, (sugatai-desita) is an object of worship with the Bauddhas. Sakya having systeniatised these words of the Buddhas, and his earliest disciples having reduced to writing, the books are now worshipped under the names of Sutra and Dharma. The aggregation of nine Dharmas is for ritual purposes ; but why the nine specified works have been selected to be thus peculiarly honoured I cannot say. They are probably the oldest and most authentic scriptures existing in Nepaul, though this conjecture is certainly opposed to the reverence expressed for the Itakshd Bhdgavati, by the Buddhists. That work, (as already stated) is of vast extent, containing no less than 125,000* slokas, divided into five equal parts or khands, which are known by the names of the five Pdramitds and the five Hakshds. (27) The three first sins should be rendered, all destruction of life, all taking without right, and all sexual commerce whatever. The ten are the cardinal sins of Buddhism, and will bear a very favourable comparison with the five cardinal sins of Brahmanism. (28) The Buddhas mentioned in the Bauddha scriptures are innumerable. Many of them, however, are evident non-entities in regard to history. Even the Buddhas of mortal mould are vastly numerous, and of various degrees of power and rank. These degrees are three, entitled, Pratyeka } Srdvaka, and Mahd Ydnika. Sakya Sinha is often said to be the seventh and last Manushi Buddha who has yet reached the supreme grade of the Maha Yanika. In the Lalita Vistara, there is a formal enumeration of the perfections in knowledge and virtue requisite for attaining to each of these three grades — a monstrously impracticable and im- pious array of human perfectibility ! The three grades are known by the collec- tive name of " Tri Ydna." (29) Genuine Buddhism never seems to contemplate any measures of acceptance *See list of books at pp. 36-39. The jPrajnd Pdramitdia found in five different degrees of development ; of these the second, though distinct from, is often blended ■with the first. BUDDHIST PHILOSOPHY. 6 1 with the deity ; hut, overleaping the harrier hetween finite and infinite mind, urges its followers to aspire by their own efforts to that divine perfectibility of which it teaches that man is capable, and by attaining which man becomes God — and thus is explained both the quiescence of the imaginary celestial, and the plen- ary omnipotence of the real Manushi Buddhas — thus too we must account for the fact, that genuine Buddhism has no priesthood ; the saint despises the priest; the saint scorns the aid of mediators, whether on earth or in heaven : " conquer (exclaims the adept or Buddha to the novice or Bodhi-Sattwa) — conquer the impor- tunities of the body, urge your mind to the meditation of abstraction, and you shall, in time, discover the great secret (Sunyatd) of nature : know this, and you become, on the instant, whatever priests have feigned of Godhead — you become identified with Prajna, the sum of all the power and all the wisdom which sus- tain and govern the world, and which, as they are manifested out of matter, must belong solely to matter ; not indeed in the gross and palpable state of pravritti, but in the archetypal and pure state of nirvritti. Put off, therefore, the vile, prdvrittika necessities of the body, and the no less vile affections of the mind (Tapas); urge your thoughts into pure abstraction (DJujdna), and then, as assuredly you can, so assuredly you shall, attain to the wisdom of a Buddha (Bodhi/ndna), and become associated with the eternal unity and rest of nirvritti." Such, I believe, is the esoteric doctrine of the Prajnikas — that of the Swabhavikas is nearly allied to it, but more timid and sceptical ; they too magnify the wisdom and power of nature so abundantly diffused throughout pravritti, but they seem not to unitize that wisdom and power in the state of nirvritti, and incline to conceive of nir- vritti, as of a state of things concerning which nothing can be predicated j but which, even though it be nothingness (Sunyatd), is at least a blissful rest to man, otherwise doomed to an eternity of transmigrations through all forms of visible nature: and while the Swabhavikas thus underrated the nirvritti of the Praj- nikas, it is probable that they compensated themselves by magnifying, more than the Prajnikas did, that prdvrittiJca omnipotence of which the wise man (Bud- dha) is capable, even vpon earth. It has been already stated that the second person of the Prajnika Triad is denominated Buddha and Upaya ; of which terms the esoteric sense is this : Every man possesses in his understanding, when pro- perly cultivated according to the rides of Buddhism, the means or expedient (Updyajoi discovering the supreme wisdom of nature (Prajna), and of realizing by this discovery, in his own person, a plenary omnipotence or divinity ! which begins even while he yet lingers in the flesh (in pravrittij ; but which is not fully accomplished till he passes, by the body's decay, into the eternal state of nirvritti. And as the wisdom of man is, in its origin, but an effluence of the Supreme wisdom {Prajna) of nature, so is it perfected by a refluence to its source, but without loss of individuality : whence Prajna is feigned in the exoteric system to be both the mother and the wife of all the Buddhas, u janani sarva Buddhd- ndm" and " Jina-sundari ;" for the efflux is typified by a birth, and the reflux by a marriage. 62 BUDDHIST PHILOSOPHY. The Buddha is the adept in the wisdom of Buddhism (Bodhijndna) whose first duty, so long as he remains on earth, is to communicate his wisdom to those who are willing to receive it. These willing learners are the " Bodhisattwas," so called from their hearts heing inclined to the wisdom of Buddhism, and " Sang- has," from their companionship with one-another, and with their Buddha or teacher, in the Vihdras or coenobitical establishments. And such is the esoteric interpretation of the third (and inferior) member of the Prajnika Triad. The Bodbisattwa or Sangha continues to be such until he has surmounted the very last grade of that vast and laborious ascent by which he is instructed that he can " scale the heavens," and pluck immortal wisdom from its resplendent source : which achievement performed, he becomes a Buddha, that is, an Omniscient Being, and a Tathdyata* — a title implying the accomplishment of that gradual increase in wisdom by which man becomes immortal or ceases to be subject to transmigration. These doctrines are very obscurely indicated in the Bauddha scriptures, whose words have another, more obvious, and very different sense ; nor, but for the ambition of the commentators to exhibit their learning, would it be easy to gather the esoteric sense of the words of most of the original scriptures. I never was more surprised than when my old friend recently (after a six years' acquaintance) brought to me, and explained, a valuable comment upon a passage in the Prajnd Pdramitd. Let me add in this place, that I desire all searchers after the doctrine of Bodkijnyana to look into the Bauddha scriptures, and judge for themselves ; and to remember, meanwhile, that I am not a Sanskrit scholar, and am indebted for all I have gathered from the books of the Buddhists to the mediation of my old Bauddha friend, and of my Pandit. (30) Their physiognomy, their language, their architecture, civil and religious, their notions in regard to women, and several less important traits in their manners and customs, seem to decide that the origin of the greater part of the Newars must be assigned to the north ; and in the Sdmbhu Purdna, a Baud- dha teacher named Manju Ghosha, and Manju Natha and Manjusri, is stated to have led a colony into Nepaul from China ;f to have cleared Nepaul of the waters which then covered it; to have made the country habitable; to have built a temple to Jyoti-rup-Adi-Buddha ; and established Dharmakara (whom he brought with him) as first Raja of Nepaul. But I nevertheless suppose (upon the authority of tradition) that Nepaul received some colonists from India ; and that some of the earliest propagators of Buddhism in Nepaul came to the valley direct from India. Be that as it may, the Indian origin of Nepaulese Buddhism (whether it reached the valley direct, or via Bhot or China) seems to be unques- tionable from the fact that all the great Saugata scriptures of Nepaul are written in the Sanskrit language. From the gradual decay of literature and of a knowledge of Sanskrit among the Newars has resulted the practice, now very common, of translating ritual works into the vernacular tongue ; and also the usage of * Tathd, 'thus, absolutely, verily;' and gata, 'got, obtained ;' the thing got being cessation from versatile existence, alias, nirvana ■ pada. tSee Fahien, pp. 112-115 for Manjusri; The place named is Pancha Sirsha Parvata, which the comment says is in China. The words are both Sanskrit. BUDDHIST PHILOSOPHY. 63 adding to the original Sanskrit of such works comments in the vulgar language. The great scriptures however have never heen subjected to the former process ; seldom to the latter ; for owing to Sanskrit having always been considered by. the Buddhists of Nepaul the language of literature, they have neglected to cultivate their vernacular tongue ; nor does there exist to this day a dictionary or gram- mar of the Newari language. (31) Of course therefore the Bauddhas of Nepaul have not properly any diversity of caste; that is, any indelible distinction of ranks derived from birth, and necessarily carried to the grave. Genuine Buddhism proclaims the equality of all followers of Buddha — seems to deny to them the privilege of pursuing worldly avocations, and abhors the distinction of clergy and laity. All proper Bauddhas are B.mdyas ; and all Bandyas are equal as brethrui in the faith. They are pro- perly all ascetics or monks — some solitary, mostly coenobitical. Their convents are called Vihdras, The rule of these Viharas is a rule of freedom ; and the door of every Vihara is always open$ both to the entrance of new comers, and to the departure of such of their old inmates as are tired of their vows.§ Each Vihara has a titular superior called N;iyaka,|| whose authority over his brethren depends only on their voluntary deference to his superior learning or piety. Women are held equally worthy of admission with men, and each sex has its Viharas. The old Bauddha scriptures enumerate four sorts of Bandyas, named : Arhan, Bhikshu, Sravaka, and Chailaka, who are correctly described in the text ; and from that description it will be seen that there is no essential distinction between them, the Arhan being only segregated from the rest by his superior proficiency in Bodkijnana. Of these the proper institutes of Buddhism, there remains hardly a trace in Nepaul. The very names of the Arhan and Chailaka have passed awa} r — the names, and the names only, of the other two exist ; and out of the gradual, and now total, disuse of monastic institutes, an exclusive minister of the altar, denominated Vajra Achdrya, has derived his name, office, and existence in Nepaul, not only without sanction from the Bauddha scriptures, but in direct opposition to their spirit and tendency. Nepaul is still covered with Viharas ; but these ample and comfortable abodes have long resounded with the hum of industry and the pleasant voices of women and children. The superior ministry of religion is now solely in the hands of the Bandyas, entitled, Vajra- Achdrya in Sanskrit; Giibhdl in. Newari: the inferior ministry, such Bhikshus as still follow religion as a lucrative and learned pro- fession, are competent to discharge. And these professions of the Vajra-Acharya and of the Bhikshu, have become by usage hereditary, as have all other avoca- tions and pursuits, whether civil or religious, in Nepaul. And as in the modern corrupt Buddhism of Nepaul there are exclusive ministers of religion or priests, so are there many Bauddhas who retain the lock on the crown of the head, and are §"Oncea priest for ever a priest" is a maxim which Buddhism utterly eschews. || Ndyaka, the superior of a convent, is Khanpo inTibet, Therom Ceylon Bandya is Bonze, in Japan, Bandida in Altaia ; and Arltat is Bahatun in Indo-China. I demur to the frequent use of the word piiest as the equivalent of any of these teims. 64 BUDDHIST PHILOSOPHY. not Bandyas. These improper Bauddhas are called Udds, Japu, Kami, etc., according to their various avocations and crafts ; the Udas are traders ; the Japu, agriculturists; the Kami, craftsmen. They comprise the untousured class : they never dwell in the Viharas ; look up to the Bandyas with a reverential respect derived from the misapplication of certain ancient tenets ; and follow those trades and avocations which are comparatively disreputable (among which is foreign commerce) ; while the Bandyas, who have abandoned the profession of religion, practise those crafts which are most esteemed. Agriculture is equally open to both ; but is, in fact, chiefly followed by the untonsured class, who have thus become, in course of time, more numerous than the Bandyas, notwithstanding the early abandonment by the Bandyas of those monastic vows which their faith enjoins, the resort of the greater part of them to the active business of the world, and their usurpation of all the liberal, and many of the mechanical, arts of their country. The Vajra-Acharya and Bhikshu are the religious guides and priests of both Bandyas and non-Bandyas.* All Bandyas, whatever be the profession or trade they hereditarily exercise, are still equal ; they intermarry, and communi- cate in all the social offices of life — and the like is true of all of the other classes — but between the one class and the other, growing superstition has erected an insuperable barrier. To the above remarks it may be well to add, that Bud- dhists, of some one or other of the above denominations, comprise the vast majority of the Newar race, and that the minority, are mostly Saivas and Saktas ; but in a sense peculiar to themselves, and with which my subject does not entitle me here to meddle. (33) The names are almost all barbarous ; that is, not derived from Sanskrit, but from Newari. I have not thought it worth while to enumerate any more of these examples. The Vihara is built round a large quadrangle, or open square, two stories high ; the architecture is Chinese. Chaitya properly means a temple of Buddha, and Vihara, an abode of ccenobitical followers of Buddha. t In the open square in the midst of every Vihara, is placed a Chaitya or a Kutagar — but those words always bear the senses here attached to them ; and Vihara can never be construed temple — it is a convent, or monastery, or religious house, but never templum Dei vel Bitddhje. At the base of the hemisphere of every Nepaul Chaitya are placed the images of the Dhyani Buddhas. The Chaitya has often been blended with sundry structures, more or less appropriate to Buddhism. To conclude : with respect to the notes — that portion of this sketch, which is my own — no one can be more sensible than I am that the first half contains a sad jumble of cloudy metaphysics. How far the sin of this indistinctness is mine, and how far that of my original authorities, I cannot pretend to decide ; but am ready to take a large share of it to myself. In regard to this, the most *Bandya has no correlative term, like Laicus of Clerus ; one of many arguments in favour of the nonadmittance of that distinction by Buddhism, as elsewhere attempted to be shown : seeFahian pp. 12, 172, 175, and 289, for sundry notices of so-called Clerus ct Laicus. Those passages seem to prove that the distinction is foreign to genuine Buddhism. t Fergusson, tree and serpent worship, p. 79. BUDDHIST PHILOSOPHY. 65 speculative part of Buddhism, it is sufficient happiness for me to have discovered and placed within the reach of my countrymen the materials for more accurate in- vestigation, by those who have leisure, patience, and a knowledge of languages for the undertaking; and who, with competent talents, will be kind enough to afford the world the benefit of so irksome an exercise of them. But I trust that the latter half of the notes, which embraces topics more practical and more within the range of the favourite pursuits of my leisure, will not be found wanting in distinctness; and I can venture confidently to warrant the accuracy of the information contained in it. QUOTATIONS FROM ORIGINAL SANSKRIT AUTHORITIES. Several distinguished orientalists having, whilst they applauded the novelty and importance of the information conveyed by my Sketch of Buddhism,! called upon me for proofs, I have been induced to prepare for publication the following translation of significant passages from the ancient books of the Saugatas, which still are extant in Nepaul in the original Sanskrit. These extracts were made for me (whilst I was collecting the works* in ques- tion) some years ago by Amrita Nanda Bandya, the most learned Buddhist then, or now, living in that country ; they formed the materials from which chiefly I drew my sketch ; and they would have been long since communicated to the public, had the translator felt sufficiently confident of his powers, or sufficiently assured that enlightened Europeans could be brought to tolerate the ' ingens indigestaque moles ' of these ' original authorities ; ' which however, in the present instance, are original in a higher and better sense than those of Csoma de Koros or of Upham. Without stopping to question whether the sages who formed the Bauddha system of philosophy and religion used Sanskrit or high Prakrit or both, or seeking to determine the consequent pretension of Upham's authorities to be considered original,t it may be safely said, that those of Csoma de Koros can support no claims of the kind. % Transactions of the Royal Asiatic Society, London ; — necnon, Transactions of Ben- gal Society, vol. xvi. * The collection comprises, besides sixty volumes in Sanskrit, procured in Nepaul the very names of which had previously been unknown, some 250 volumes in the lan- guage of Tibet, which were obtained from Lassa and Digarchi. But for the existence of tlie latter at Calcutta, Csoma de Koros's attainments in Tibetan lore had been compara- tively useless. The former or Sanskrit books of Nepaul are the authorities relied on in this paper. One complete set has been presented to the Indian Home Government, another procured for the Asiatic Society, and most of the Sanskrit series for the Libra- ries of Paris and of Oxford. Since the first collection was made in Nepaul, very main- new works in the Sanskrit language have been discovered and are yet daily under dis- covery. The probability now is, that the entire Kahgyur and Stangyur may be recovered in the original language. The whole series has been obtained in that of Tibet, 327 large volumes. f Upham's authorities, however, even if allowed to be original, appear to consist entindy of childish legends. I allude to the three published volumes. The received hypothesis, viz., that the philosophers of Ayodhyd and Magadha, (the acknowledged founders of Buddhism) postponed the use of Sanskrit to that of Prakrit, in the orisi- nal exposition of their subtle system appears to me as absurd as it does probable that their successors, as Missionaries, resorted to Prakrit versions of the original Sanskrit authorities, in propagating the system in the remotest parts of the continent and in I 66 BUDDHIST PHILOSOPHY. The native works which the latter gentleman relies on are avowedly Tibetan translations of my Sanskrit originals, and whoever will duly reflect upon the dark and profound abstractions, and the infinitesimally-multiplied and microscop- ically-distinguished personifications of Buddhism, may well doubt whether the language of Tibet does or can adequately sustain the weight that has been laid upon it. Sanskrit, like its cognate Greek, may be characterised as a speech " capable of giving a soul to the objects of sense, and a body to the abstractions of meta- physics." But, as the Tibetan language can have no pretensions to a like power, those who are aware that the Saugatas taxed the whole powers of the Sanskrit to embody in words their system, will cautiously reserve, I apprehend, for the Bauddha books still extant in the classical language of India, the title of original authorities. From such works, which, though now found only in Nepaul, were composed in the plains of India before the dispersion of the sect, I have drawn the accompanying extracts ; and though the merits of the " doing into Eng- lish " may be small indeed, they will yet. I hope, be borne up by the paramount and (as I suspect) unique authority and originality of my "original authorities,'' a phrase which, by the way, has been somewhat invidiously, as well as laxly, used and applied in certain quarters. It is still, I observe, questioned amongst us, whether Brahmanism or Bud- dhism be the more ancient creed, as well as whether the latter be of Indian or extra Indian growth. The Buddhists themselves have no doubts upon either point. They unhesitatingly concede the palm of superior antiquity to their rivals and persecutors, the Brahmans; nor do they in any part of the world hesitate in pointing to India as the cradle of their faith. Formerly we might be pardoned for building fine-spun theories of the exotic origin of Buddhism upon the supposed African locks of Buddha's images : but surely it is now somewhat too late,* in the face of the abundant direct evidence which we possess against the exotic theory, to go in quest of presumptions to the time-out-of-mind illiterate Scythians,t in order to give to them the glory of Ceylon. On this ground, I presume the Prakrit works of Ceylon and Ava to be trans- lations, not originals : — a presumption so reasonable that nothing but the production from Ceylon or Ava of original Prakrit works, comparable in importance witli the Sanskrit books discovered in Nepaul, will suffice to shake it in my mind. Sir W. Jones had a copy of the Lalita Vistara whence he quotes a description of Dharma as Diva Natura. Sir W. Jones I believe to be the author of the assertion, that the, Buddhists committed their system to high Prakrit or Pali : and so long at leasl as there were no Sanskrit works of the sect forthcoming, the presumption was not wholly unreaspn- able. It is, however, so now. And Sir W. Jones was not unaware that Magadha or Bihar was the original head-quarters of Buddhism, nor that the best Sanskrit lexicon extant was the work of a BauddKa ■■ ; nor that the Brahmans themselves acknowledged the pre-eminent literary merits of their heterodox adversaries. But for his Brahman- ical bias therefore, Sir William might have come at the truth, that the Bauddha phil- osophers employed the classical language. * Recent discoveries make it more and more certain, that the cave temples of the Western Coast and its vicinity, are exclusively Bauddha. Every part of India is illus- trated by splendid remains of Buddhism. tThe Uighursof Push Balighad letters derived from the Nestorian Christians. Thence Sramanism and Christian monachism may have met on the common ground of mona- chism. Sramanism is nothing more than Tantrika Buddhism. BUDDHIST PHILOSOPHY. 6; originating a system built upon the most subtle philosophy, and all the copious original records of which are inshrined in Sanskrit,} a language which, wherice- soever primevally derived, had been, when Buddhism appeared, for ages proper to the Indian continent. The Buddhists make no serious pretensions to a very high antiquity : never hint at an extra Indian origin. Sakya Sihha is, avowedly, a Kshatriya ; and, if his six predecessors had really any historical existence, the books which affirm it, affirm too, that all the six were of Brahmanical or Kshatriya lineage. § Saugata books treating on the subject of caste never call in question the antique fact of a fourfold division of the Hindu people, but only give a more liberal interpretation to it than the current Brah- manical one of their day.|| The Chinese, the Mongols, the Tibetans, the Indo- Chinese, the Japanese, Ceylonese, and other Indian Islanders, all point to India as the father-land of their creed. The records of Buddhism in Nepaul and in Tibet. in both of which countries the people and their mother-tongues are of the Mongol stock, are still either Sanskrit or avowed translations from it by Indian pandit*. Nor is there a single record or monument of this faith in existence which bears intrinsic or extrinsic evidence of an extra Indian origin.** The speculations of a writer of Sir "W. Jones's day (Mr. Joinville). tending to prove, argumentatively, from the characters of Buddhism and Brahmanism, the superior antiquity of the former, have been lateky revived (see Asiatic Journal, No. CLX.) with applause. But besides that fine drawn presumptions are idle in the face of such a mass of direct evidence as we now possess, the reasonings of Joinville appear to me altogether based on errors of fact. Buddhism (to hazard a character in few words), is monastic asceticism in morals, philosophical scepti- cism in religion ; and whilst ecclesiastical history all over the world affords abun- dant instances of such a state of things resulting from gross abuse of the reli- X The difference between high Prakrit and Sanskrit could not affect this question, though it were conceded that the founders of Buddhism used only the former and not the latter — a concession however, which should not be lightly made, and to which J wholly demur. In fact, it now appears that they used both languages, but Sanskrit only in the philosophical or speculative series of their Sastras, § The Brahmanical or Kshatriya family from which each of these Buddhas sprung is expressly and carefully stated by the Bauddha writers, a fart which I hold to be deci- sive of this dispute, since if we would carry the etymon of Buddhism beyond the last of these seven Buddhas, we cannot surely think of carrying it beyond the.iirst of them. || Seethe Bauddha disputation on caste, Royal Asiatic Society's Transactions. ** See Crawfurd's remarks on the purely Indian character of all the great sculptural ami architectural monuments of Buddhism in Java. Also Barrow's remarks to the same effect in his travels in China. The Chinese Pu-sa is VisvarApyd Prajnd or the polyform type of "Diva Natura. " See Oriental Quarterly Magazine, No. xvi. pp. 218— 222, for proofs of the fact that numberless Bauddha remains have been mistaken for Brahmanical by our antiquaries, and even by the natives. In the same work I have proved this in reference to Crawfurd's Archipelago, Oriental Quarterly, No. xvi. pp. 232, 235. Yet, no sooner had I shown, from original authorities, how thoroughly Indian Buddhism is, than it was immediately exclaimed, "Oh! this is Ne.paulese corruption ! these are merely popular grafts from Brahmanism." The very same character belongs to the oldest monuments of Buddhism, extant in India and beyond it ; and 1 hav« traced that character to the highest scriptural authorities. 6& BUDDHIST PHILOSOPHY. gious sanction, that ample chronicle gives us no one instance of it as a primitive system of belief. Here is a legitimate inference from sound premises. But that Buddhism was, in truth, a reform or heresy, and not an original system, can he proved by the most abundant direct evidence both of Mends and of enemies. The oldest Saugata works incessantly allude to the existing superstition as the Mdracharya or way of the evil one,tt contradistinguishing their reformation there- of as the Bodhieharya or way of the wise ; and the Brahmanical impugners of those works (who, upon so plain a fact, could not lie), invariably speak of Buddhism as a notorious heresy. An inconsiderable section of the Saugatas alone, ever held the bald doctrine of mortal souls : and the Swabluivika denial of a creation of matter by the fiat of an absolutely immaterial being, springs not out of the obesity of barbarian dulness, but out of the over-refinement of philosophical ratiocination. Joinville's idea of the speculative tenets of Buddhism is utterly erroneous. Many of them are bad indeed : but they are of philosophy " all compact," profoundly and pain- fully subtle, sceptical too, rather than atheistically dogmatic. At the risk of being somewhat miscellaneous in this preface, I must allude to another point. The lamented Abel Remusat sent me, just before he died, a copy of his essay on the Saugata doctrine of the Triad ; and Mr. Upham, I find, has de- duced from Remusat's interpretation of that doctrine, the inference (which he supports by reference to sundry expressions in the sacred books of Ceylon), that I am in error in denying that Buddhism, in its first, and most characteristic form, admits the distinction of Clems et Laicus. It is difficult expressly to define that distinction ; but it may be seen in all its breadth in Brahmanism and in Popery ; whilst in Islamism, and in the most enthusiastic of the Christian sects, which sprang out of the Reformation, it is wholly lost. According to my view, Apostolic Christianity recognised it not;* the congregation of the faithful, the Church, was a society of peers, of brethren in the faith, all essentially equal, in gifts, as in place and character. On earth, there were no indispensable mediators, no exclusive professional ones ; and such alone I understand to be priests.f Again, genuine monachism all over the world, I hold to be, in its own nature, essen- tially opposed to the distinction of clergyman and layman, though we all know that monastic institutions no sooner are rendered matters of public law and of exten- sive popular prevalence, than, ex vi necessitatis, the distinction in question ia superinduced upon them, by the major part of the monks laicising, and the rest becoming clergy.% There are limits to the number of those whom the public can ftNamuchi by name, chief of the Kakodemons. * I would not be understood to lay stress on his opinion, which is merely adduced to illustrate my argument. •f For example, the Anglican church holds that there is no virtue in any sacerdotal function not performed by the successors of the apostles,' who are the only clergy. % History informs us that, soon after monachism supervened upon our holy and eminently social religion, there were in Egypt as many monks almost as peasants. Some of these monks necessarily laicised, and the rest bcame clergy. The community of the Gosains and several others, of strictly ascetical origin, now in India, exhibit the same necessary change after the sects had become numerously followed. BUDDHIST PHILOSOPHY. 69 support in idleness ; and whoso would eat the bread of the public must perform eome duty to the public. Yet who can doubt that the true monk, whether coeno- bite or solitary, is he who abandons the world to save his oiun soul ; as the true clergyman is he who mixes with the world to save the souls of others? § The latter in respect to the people or laics has a distinctive function, and, it may be, also an exclusive one : the former has no function at all. Amongst entirely monastic sects, then, the exclusive character of priest is objectless and absurd ; and who that has glanced an eye over ecclesiastical history knows not that in proportion as sects are enthusiastic, they reject and hate, (though nothing tainted with mon- achism) the exclusive pretensions of the clergy ! Whoever has been able to go along with me in the above reflections can need only to be told that primitive Buddhism was entirely monastic, and of an unboundedly enthusiastical genius, || to be satisfied that it did not recognise the distinction in question. But if, being suspicious of the validity of argumentative inferences, he demand of me simple facts, here they are. In the Sata Sdhasrika, Prajnd Pdramitd, or Raksha JBhdr/avati, and also in the nine Dharmds (the oldest and highest written authorities), it is affirmed more or less directly, or is clearly deducible from the context, in a thou- sand passages (for the subject is not expressly treated), that the only true followers of Buddha are monks ; the majority being coenobites, the rest, solitaries. The fullest enumeration of these followers (Bhikshu, Srdoaka or Sramana* C/tailaka, and Arhata or Arhana or Arhanta) proves them to have been all monks, tonsured, subject to the usual vows, (nature teaching to all mankind that wealth, women and power, are the grand tempters,) resident in monasteries ( Vihdra) or in deserts, and essentially peers, though of course acknowledging the claims of superior wisdom and piety. The true church, the congregation of the faithful, (called from this very circumstance Sane/ha,) is constantly said to consist of such only ; and I am greatly mistaken indeed if the church in this sense be synonymous with the clergy ;§§ or, if the primitive church of Buddha recognized an absolutely distinct body such as we (*. e., Catholics, Lutherans, and Kirkmen) ordinarily mean when we speak of the latter. The first mention of an exclusive, profes- sional, active, minister of religion, or priest, in the Bauddha books, is in those of a comparatively recent date, and not of scriptural authority. Therein the Vajra Achdrya (for so he is called) first appears arrayed with the ordinary attributes of § See Guizot's Civilization of Europe, ii. 61-63, & i. 86. || Its distinguishing doctrine is that finite mind can be enlarged to infinite ; all the schools uphold this towering tenet, postponing all others to it. As for the scepticism of the Swabhavikas relative to those transcendent marvels, creation and providence, it is sufficient to prove its remoteness from "fiat Atheism," simply to point to the coexistence of the cardinal tenet first named. •Sramana includes the whole, and is equally ascetic; Sramani feminine, equal to monk and nun. Sakya is often called the great Sramana. §§ Bunsen's controversy with Gladstone, and his work on the constitution of the church (published in IS 47) set this matter clearly in the light in which I viewed it; Bunsen insists on the congregational church as the only true one, says the clergy church is preg- nant with priestcraft and essentially untenable, contends that the future church must be of the former kind, and adds that the reformation virtually extinguished the clergy church. So Sakya argued and instituted in opposition to the cleric exorbitances of the B rahmans. il JO BUDDHIST PHILOSOPHY. a priest. Bat his character is anomalous, as is that of everything about him ; and the learned Bauddhas of Nepaul at the present day universally admit the falling off from the true faith. We have in these hooks, Bhikshus, Srdvakas, Chailakas, and Sdkya Vansikas,* bound by their primitive rules for ten days (in memory of the olden time) and then released from them ; tonsured, yet married ; osten- sibly monks, but really citizens of the world. From any of the above the Vqjra Achdrya is drawn indiscriminately ; he keeps the keys of the no longer open treasury; and he is surrounded by un ton- sured followers, who now present themselves for the first time. I pretend not to trace with historical nicety all the changes which marked the progress of Bud- dhism as a public institute and creed of millions up to the period of the dispersion : but I am well aware, that the primitive doctrines were not, because they could not be, rigidly adhered to, when what I hold to have been at first the closet spec- ulation of some philosophers, had become the dominant creed of large kingdoms. That the latter character was, however, assumed by Buddhism in the plains of India for centuries! before the dispersion, seems certain ; and, as many persons may urge that the thing in question is the dominant public institute, not the closet speculation, and that whatever discipline prevailed before the dispersion must be held for primitive and orthodox, I can only observe that the ancient books of the Saugatas, whilst they glance at such changes as I have adverted to, do so in th« language of censure ; and that, upon the whole, I still strongly incline to the opin- ion that genuine or primitive Buddhism (so I cautiously phrased it originally) rejected the distinction of Clcrus et Laicus ; that the use of the word priest by Upham, is generally inaccurate ; and that the Sangha of the Buddhist triad ought to have been invariably rendered by Remusat into 'congregation of th» faithful' or 'church,' aud never into 'clergy' or 'priesthood.' Remusat indeed seems to consider (Observations, 23-29, and 32,) these phrases as synonymous; and yet the question which their discrimination involves is one which, in respect to our own religion, has been fiercely agitated for hundreds of years; and still, by th« very shades of that discrimination, chiefly marks the subsisting distinction between the various Churches of Christ ! *An inscription at Karli identifies the splendid Sdlivdhana with the head of the Saka tribe, which is that of Sdkya Sinha. The Sakya-Vansikas, or people of the rac« of Sakya, appeared in Nepaul as refugees from Brahman bigotry, some time after Bud- dhism had been planted in these hills. Sakya is universally allowed to have been the son of king Sudhodana, sovereign of Magadha, or Bihar (Kosala says Wilson, who calls it a dependancy of Bihar). He is said to have been born in the "Sthanaof Kapila Muni," at Ganga Sagara, according to some ; in Oude, as others say. His birth place was not necessarily within his father's kingdom. He may have been born when his father was on a pilgrimage to the shrine of the saint Kapila. Sakya died, according to my authorities, in Assam, and left one son named Rahula Bhadra. (Set Csoma de Koros in No. 20 of Journal of Bengal Asiatic Society for origin of Sakya-Van- sika. Their primitive sect was Tatta, their next Kapila in Oude, whence they migrated into Nepaul.) The Sakas were Kshatriyas of the solar line, according to Bauddha authorities : nor is it any proof of the contrary that they appear not in the Brah- manical genealogies. See note in the sequel. f Kven if we begin with Asoka we can hardly assign less than six to eight centuries for Buddhist predominance, nor less than about double that duration for more or less of prevalence in the plains of India. (See note at page 76.) BUDDHIST PHILOSOPHY. 7 1 Following 1 the authority he has relied on, Mr. Upham was at liberty, there- fore, to adopt a sense which -would consist with my interpretation of phrases such as he alluded to, and which, of course, I found copiously scattered over the works I consulted. I always rendered them advisedly into English, so as to exclude the idea of a priesthood, because I had previously satisfied myself, by separate inquiry and reflec- tion that (hat cardinal tenet was repugnant to the genius of the creed, and repu- diated by its primitive teachers. This important point may have been wrongly determined by me ; but assuredly the determination of it upon such grounds as Mr. Upham's is perfectly futile. Such words as Arhanta and Bandya, (which, by the way, are the correct forms of the Barm3S3 Rahabun and the Japanese Bonze,) no more necessarily mean priest, clergy, than do the Latin Jideles and milites as applied to Christianity, as little can such a sense be ascribed to the word Bhikshu, which means 'mendicant friar;' and as for the woid Sanylia, it is indis- putable that it does not mean literally priest,** and that it does mean literally 1 congregation.' If, as liemusat and Upham* appear to insist is the case, every monastic follower of Buddha be a priest, then Bandya or Bonzef must be rendered into English by the word ' clergyman.' But there will still remain as much difference between Bandya and Sangha as, in Christian estimation, between an ordinary parson of the present day, and one of the inspired primitive professors. Of old, the spirit descended upon all alike ; and Sangha was this hallowed and gifted congrega- tion. But the glory has passed away, and the term been long sanctified and set apart. So has, in part, and for similar reasons, the word Arhata. But Bandya, as a geneiic title, and Bhikshu, Sravaka, and Chailaka,| as specilic ones, are still ** Observations, p. 63. * Bhikshu now appears to be the word rendered priest by us in Ceylon. But it is unquestionably mendicant, holy beggar, as Thero is Ndyaka or Superior and Updsika Servitor, of a Convent. See Fabian, 12, 172, 234. t The possible meaning of this word has employed in vain the sagacity of sundry critics. In its proper form of Bandya ( Vandya), it is pure Sanskrit, signifying' a person ent tletl to reverence, and is derived fiom Vandaua. Equally curio-is and instructive is it to find in the Sanskrit records of Buddhism the solution of so many enigmas collected by travellers from all parts of Asia; e gnge, Elphinstone's mound is a genuine Chaitya, and its proper name is Manik&laya, or th« place of the precious relic. The mound is a tomb temple. The "tumuli eorum Christ i altaria" of the poet, is more true of Buddhism than even of the most per- verted model of Christianity ; the cause being probably the same, originally, in refer- ence to both creeds, viz., persecution and martyrdom, with consequent divine honour* to the sufferers. The Bauddhas, however, have in this matter gone a step further in the descending --cale of representative adoration than the Catholics ; for they worship the mere image of that structure which is devoted to the enshrining of the relics of their saints ; they worship the architectural model or form of the Chaitya. The Chaitya of Sambhuna h in Nvpaul is affirmed to cover Jyoti rupya Swavambfiu. or the self-existent, in the form of flame : nor was there ever anything exclusive of theism in the connection of tomb and temple : for Chaityas were always dedicated to the Celestial Buddhas, not only in Ntpaul, but in the plains of India, as the Chaityas of Sanchi, of Gyd, and of Bag, demonstrate. The Dhydni Buddhas appea: in the oldest monuments of the continent and islands. + Buddhist monachism agrees surprisingly with Christian, whether owing to Nest<>- rian infusion among the Uighurs or otherwise. Thus there are several orders of monk* in both; in the former mendicant saints, naked or scantly clothed saints, and learned 72 BUDDHIST PHILOSOPHY. every-day names of every-day people, priests, if it must be so, but as I conceive, ascetics or monks merely. In the thick night of ignorance and superstition which still envelopes Tibet, the people fancy they yet behold Arhatas in the persons of their divine Lamas. No such imagination however possesses the heads of the followers of Buddha in Nepaul, Ceylon, or Indo -China ; though in the last mentioned country the name Arhata is popularly applied to the modern order of the clergy, an order growing there, as in Nepaul, (if my opinions be sound) out of that deviation from the primitive genius and type of the system which resulted necessarily from its popular diffusion as the rule of life and practice of whole nations. In conclusion I would observe, that, in my apprehension, Remusat's interpreta- tion of the various senses of the Triadic doctrine is neither very complete, nor very accurate. In a religious point of view, by the first member is understood the founder of the creed, and all who, following his steps, have reached the full rank of a Mahayanika Buddha ; by the second, the law or scriptures of the sect ; and by the third, the congregation of the faithful, or primitive church, or body of original disciples, or any and every assemblage of true, i. e., of monastical observers of the law, past or present. In a philosophical light, the precedence of Buddha or of Dharma indicates the theistic or atheistic school. With the former, Buddha is intellectual essence,§ the efficient cause of all, and underived. Dharma is material essence, || the plastic cause, and underived, a co-equal biunity with Buddha ; or else the plastic cause, as before, but dependent and derived from Buddha. Sangha is derived from, and compounded of Buddha and Dharma, is their collective energy in the state of action; the immediate operative cause of creation, its type or its agent.* With the latter or atheistic schools, Dharma is Diva natura, matter as the sole entity, invested with intrinsic activity and intelligence, the efficient and material cause of all. Buddha is derivative from Dharma, is the active and intelligent force of nature, first put off from it and then operating upon it. Sangha is the result of that operation ; is embryotic creation, the type and sum of all specific forms, which are spontaneously evolved from the union of Buddha with Dharma. *f The saints like the Franciscans, Dominicans, etc., and all of both creeds are usually social, though hermits also be found. § Budhandtmaka iti Buddha, 'the intellectual essence is Buddha.' \\ Dharanitmaka iti Dhirma, ' the holding, sustaining or containing substance is Dharma.' Again, Prakriteswari Hi Prajna, 'the material goddess isPrajna,' one of the names of Dharma. The word Prajna is compounded of the intensive prefix pra, and jnana wisdom, or jna, to know. It imports the supreme wisdom of nature. Dharma is the universal substratum, is that which supports all form and quality in space. The Bauddha Dharma is the exact equivalent of the Brahmanical Mutra. Matra is that which measures space ; Dharma that which supports form and quality in space; both are very just and philosophical ideas relative to what we call matter and substance. The substans or supporter of all phamomena, whatever its nature, is Dharma. * Sanmdaydtmika iti Sangha, 'the multitudinous essence is Sangha:' multitude is the diaguosis of the versatile universe, as unity is of that of abstraction. *t Prajnaopayatmakam Jagatah, from Prajna and Upaya, the world. Upaya is the energy of Prajna. BUDDHIST PHILOSOPHY. 73 above are the principal distinc tions ; others there are which I cannot venture here to dwell on. With regard to Remusat's remark, " on voit que les trots noma sont places sur le meme niveau, comme les trois representations des memes etres dans les planches de M. Hodgson avec cette difference que sur celles-ci, Sangha est a droite, et Dharma a gauche" I may just add, that the placing of Sangha to the right is a merely ritual technicality, conformable to the pujd of the Dakshindchdras* and that all the philo- sophers and religionists are agreed in postponing Sangha to Dharma. I possess very many drawings exhibiting the arrangement mentioned by Remu- sat ; but all subservient to mere ritual purposes and consequently worthy of no serious attention. The Matantara, or variorum text of the Pujdris of the present day, displays an infinite variety of formula, t illustrated by corresponding sculp- tural and pictorial devices, embodied in those works, aud transferred from them to the walls and interior of temples existing all over the valley of Nepaul. THE SWABHAVIKA} DOCTRINE. 1. All things are governed or perfected by Swabhava;:): I too am governed by Swabhava. (Ashta Sdhasrika.) 2. It is proper for the worshipper at the time of worship to reflect thus : I am Nirl;pta,§ and the object of my worship isNhiipta; lam that God (Iswara) to whom I address myself. Thus meditating, the worshipper shoidd make pujd to all the celestials : for example, to Vajra Satwa Buddha, let him pay his adora- tions, first, by recollecting that all things with their V'y'a Mantras come from Swabhava in this order : — from the vija || of the letter Y, air ; from that of the letter R, fire ; from that of the letter V, or B, water ; and from that of the letter L, earth ; and from that of the letter S, Mount Surneru. On the summit of Sumeru is a lotus of precious stones, and above the lotus, a moon crescent, upon which sits, supremely exalted, Vajra Satwa. And as all (other) things proceed from Swabhava, so also does Vajra Satwa, thence called the self-existent.** (Pujd Kdnda.) 3. All things and beings (in the versatile universe) which are alike perishable, false as a dream, treacherous as a mirage, proceed, according to some, from Swabhava (nature), and according to others, from God (Iswara); and hence it is said, that Swabhava and Iswara are essentially one, differing only in name.*f (Ashta Sdhasrika.) * The theistic sects so call themselves, styling their opposites, the Swabhavikas and Prajnikas, Vamacharas. The Pawranikas, too, often designate the Tarrfrikas by the Litter name, which is equivalent to left-handed. t See the classified enumeration of the principal objects of Bauddha worship appen- ded to this paper. %Swa, own, and bhava, nature. Idiosyncrasis. § Intact and intangible, independent. (| Root, radix, seed. ** This may teach us caution in the interpretation of terms. I understand the doTna to announce, that infinite intelligence is as much a part of the system of nature as finite. The mystic allusion to the alphabet imports nothing more than its being the indispensable instrument and means of knowledge or wisdom, which the Buddhists believe man lias the capacity of perfecting up to the standard of infinity. *J See note on No. 3, on the Yatnika system. J 74 BUDDHIST PHILOSOPHY. 4. At the general dissolution of all things, the four elements shall be absorbe d in Sunydkdra-Akdsa (sheer space) in this order : — earth in water, water in fire, fire in air, and air in Akasa, and Akasa in Sunyata, and Sunyata in Tathata,* and Tathata in Buddha, (which is Maha Sunyataf) and Buddha in Bhdvana, and Bha- vana in Swabhava. And when existence is again evolved, each shall in the in- verse order, progress from the other. From that Swabhava, which communicates its property of infinity to Akasa, proceeded into being, in Akasa, the letter A, and the rest of the letters; and from the letters Adi-BuddhaJ and the other Buddhas; and from the Buddhas the Bodhi-Satwas, and from them the five elements, with their Vija Mantras.§ Such is the Swabhavika Sansara ; which Sansara (universe) constantly revolves between Pravritti and Nirvritti, like a potter's wheel. (Divya Avaddna). 5. Maha Sunyata is, according to some Swabhava, and according to others, Iswara it is bike the ethereal expanse, and self-sustained. In that Maha-Siin- yata, the letter A, with the Vfja Mantra of Upaya,|| and the chief of all the Vija Mantras of the letters, became manifest. (Rakshd Bhagavatl.J** 6. Some say creation is from God: if so, what is the use of Yatna or of Karma ? *f That which made all things, will preserve and destroy them ; that which governs Nirvritti governs Pravritti also. (Buddha Charitra Kdvga.J 7. The Sandal tree freely communicates its fragrance to him who tears off its bark. Who is not delighted with its odour ? It is from Swabhava. (Kalpalatd.) 8. The elephant's cub, if he find not leafless and thorny creepers in the green wood, becomes thin. The crow avoids the ripe mango.*J The cause is still Swabhava. (Kalpalatd?) 9. Who sharpened the thorn ? Who gave their varied forms, colours, and habits to the deer kind, and to the birds ? Swabhava ! It is not according to the will (ichchhd) of any ; and if there be no desire or intention, there can be no intender or designer.!* (Buddha Charitra.) * Tathata, says the comment, is Satya Jnyana; and Bhavana is Bham or Satta, i. e., sheer entity. f See note on quotation 1 of section on Adi-Buddha. J Here again I might repeat the caution and remark at quotation 2. I have elsewhere observed that Swabhavika texts, differently interpreted, form the basis of the Aiswarika doctrine, as well as that the Buddhas of the Swabhavikas, win.) derive their capa- city of identifying themselves with the first cattse from nature, which is that cause, are as largely gifted as the Buddhas of the Aiswarikas, deriving the same capacity from Adi-Buddha, who is that eaicse. See remarks on Renmsat in the Journal of the Bengal Asiatic Society, Nos. 32, 33, ami 34. § A. Cunningham has found this literal symbolic representation of the elements, and also that of the triad at Bhilsa. See his Bhilsa Topes, p. 355 f. || Updya, the expedient, the energy of nature in a state of activity. See the note on No. 6 of the section Adi-SangJ&i. **Th.eBakshaBhdgavati is the same work as the Prajnd Paramita. *t See the note on quotation 9 of this head. Yatna and Burma may here be ren- dered by intellect and morality. *Z These are assumed facts in Natural History ; but not correct. +* Here is plainly announced that denial of self-co or personality in the causa which constitutes the great detect of the Swabhavika philosophy: and if this denial amount to atheism, the Swabhavikas are, for the most part, atheists : BUDDHIST PHILOSOPHY. 75 10. The conch, which is worthy of all praise, bright as the nioon, rated first among excellent things, and which is benevolent to all sentient beings, though it be itself insensate, yield? its melodious music, purely by reason of Swabhava. (Kalpulatd.) 11. That hands and feet, and belly and back, and head, in fine, organs of whatever kind, are found in the womb, the wise have attributed to Swabhava; and the union of the soul or life (Atma) with body, is also Swabhava. (Buddha Charitra Kdvya.) 12. From Swabhava (nature) all things proceeded; by Swabhava all things are preserved. All their differences of structure and of habits are from Swabhava . and from Swabhava comes their destruction. All things are regulated (suddha) by Swabhava. Swabhava is known as the Supreme. (Pujd Kdnda, from the Rakshd Bhagavati, where the substance is found in sundry passages.) 13. Akdsa is Swabhavika, because it is established, governed perfected (suddha), by its own force or nature. All things are absorbed in it: it is uncreated or eternal; it is revealed by its own force ; it is the essence (Atma**) of creation, preservation, and destruction ; it is the essence of the five elements ; it is infinite ; it is intellectual essence (Bodhandtmika) , The five colours are proper to it; and the live Buddhas ; and the letters. It is Sunyata; self-supported; omnipresent: to its essence belong both Pravritti and Nirvritti. This Akasa, which is omni- present, and essentially intellectual,* because infinite things are absorbed into it, is declared to be infinite. From the infinite nature of this Akasa were produced all moving things, each in its own time, in due procession from another, and with its proper difference of form and habits. From the secretf nature of Akasa pro- their denial also of a moral ruler of the universe being a necessary sequel to it. Excepting, however, a small and mean sect of them, they all affirm eternal necessary, entity ; nor do any of them reject the soul's existence beyond the grave, or the doctrine of atonement. Still Newton's is, upon the whole, the right judgment, 'Deus sine.provi- dentia et dominio nihil est nisi .' The Swabhavika attempts to deify nature are but a sad confusion of cause and effect. But, in a serious religious point of view, I fail to perceive any superiority possessed by the immaterial pantheism of the Brah- manists over the material pantheism of the Buddhists. Metempsychosis and absorption are common to both. Both admit eternal necessary, entity or a substans for phe- nomena ; both admit intellect; both deny two classes of phenomena as well as two substantes for them ; both affirm the hoinogeneousness and unreality of all phenomena, and lastly, both leave the personality and active dominion of the causa causarum in obscurity. ** One comment on the comment says, Atma here means sthan or alaya, i. e., the ubi of creation, etc. * Akdsa is here understood as synonymous with Stinyatd, that is, as the elemental state of all things, the universal ubi and modus of primal entity, in a state of abstrac- tion from all specific forms: and it is worthy of note, that amidst these primal prin- ciples, intelligence has admission. It is therefore affirmed to be a necessary ens, or eternal portion of the system of nature, though separated from self-consciousness or personality. In the same manner, Prajnd, the sum of all things, Diva natura, is declared to be eternal, and essentially intelligent, though a material principle. ■j- Secret nature of Akasa, that is, Akasa or Ether has no sensible cognizable proper- ties such as belong to the ordinary elements. The gradual evolution of all things in Pravritti and their revolution into Nirvritti being perpetual, seem to prove that the Buddhist Sunyata is not nothingness, but rather the utterly inscrutable character of the ultimate semina rerum. y6 BUDDHIST PHILOSOPHY. ■ceeded likewise, together with the Tija Mantra of each one, air with its own mobility ; and from air, fire with its own heat ; and from fire, water with its intrinsical coldness ; and from water, earth with its own proper solidity or heaviness ; and from earth, Mount Sumeru with its own substance of gold, or with its own sustaining power (Dhdtwdtmika) ; and from Sumeru, all the various kinds of trees and vegetables ; and from them, all the variety colours, shapes, flavours, and fragrances, in leaves, flowers, and fruits. Each derived its essential property (as of fire to burn) from itself; and the order of its procession into existence from the one precedent, by virtue of Swabhava,} operating in time. The several manners of going peculiar to the six classes of animate beings (four-legged, two-legged, etc.) and their several modes of birth, (oviparous, etc.§) all proceeded from Swabhava. From the Swabhava of each mansion or habitat (Bhuvana) resulted the differences existing between the several abodes of all the six orders of animate beings. The existence of the foetus in the womb proceeds from the Swabhava of the union of male and female ; and its gradual growth and assumption of flesh, bones, skin, and organs, is caused by the joint energy of the Swabhava of the foetus, and that of time, or the Swabhava of the foetus, operating in time. The procession of all things from birth, through gradual increase, to maturity, and thence, through gradual decay, to death, results spontaneously from the nature of each being ; as do the differences appropriated to the faculties of the senses and of the mind, and to those external things and internal, which are perceived by them. Speech and sustenance from dressed food in mankind, and the want of speech and the eating of grass in quadrupeds, together with the birth of birds from eggs, of insects from sweat, and of the Gods (Devatds) without parentage of any sort : all these marvels proceed from Swabhava. (Comment on the Piijd Kdnda, quotation 12.) THE AISWARIKA* SYSTEM. 1. The sell- existent God is the sum of perfections, infinite, external, without mem- bers or passions; one with all things (in Pravritti), and separate from all things (in Nirvritti), infiniformed and formless, the essence of Pravritti and of Nirvrittif. (Swayambh it Pur ana . ) X By virtue of Swabhava and of time says another comment ; thus time stands out like spare, as a something superior to all phenomena, and both are quasi deified by Buddhists and by Brahmanists. § By etcsetera, understand always more Brahmanorum. That Buddhism forms an in- tegral part of the Indian philosophy is sufficiently proved by the multitude of terms and classifications common to it, and to Brahinanism. The theogony and cosmogony of the latter are expressly those of the former, with sundry additions only, which serve to prove the posteriority of date, and schismatical secession, of the Buddhists. M. Cousin, in his course of philosophv, notices the absence of a sceptical school amongst the Indian philosophers. Buddhism, when fully explained, will supply the desideratum ; and I would here notice the precipitation with which we are now constantly drawing general conclusions relative to the scope of Indian speculation, from a knowledge of the Brahmanical writings only— writings equalled or surpassed in number and value by those of the Buddhists, Jains, and other dissenters from the existing orthodox temof Vyasa and Sankara Acharya, *From Iswara, 'God.' t Pravritti, the versatile universe; Nirvritti, its opposite, this world and the next. Pravritti is compounded of Pra, an intensitive, and vritti, action, occupation, from the root va, to blow as the wind; Nirvritti, of Mr, a privative, and vritti, as before. BUDDHIST PHILOSOPHY. J? 2. He whose image is Siinyata, who is like a cypher'' or point, infinite, unsus- tained (in Nirvritti), and sustained (in Pravritti), whose essence is Nirvritti, of whom all things are forms (in Pravritti), and who is yet formless (in Nirvritti), who is the Iswara, the first intellectual essence, the Adi-Buddha, was revealed by his own will. This self existent is he whom all know as the only true Being; and, though the state of Nirvritti be his proper and enduring state, yet, for the sake of Pravritti, (creation), having become Pancha-jnauatmika, he produced the five Buddhas thus : — from Suvisuddhadharma-dhatuja-jnana, Vairochana, the su- premely wise, from whom proceed the element of AkiUa, the organ of sight, and colours ; and from Adarsana-jnana, Akshobhya, from whom proceed the element of air, the organ of hearing, and all sounds; and from Pratyavekshana-jnana, Ratna Sambhava, from whom proceed the element of fire, the organ of smell, and all odours; and from Santa-jnana, Amitabha, from whom proceed the element of water, the organ of taste, and all savours ; and from Krityanushtha-jnana, Amogha Siddha, from whom proceed the element of earth, the organ of touch, and all the sensible properties of outward things dependent thereon. All these five Buddhas are Pravritti-karmanas, or the authors of creation. They possess the five jndnas, the five colours, the five mt&drds, and the five vehicles.* The five ele- ments, five organs of sense, and five respective objectst of sense, are forms of them.J And these five Buddhas each produced a Bodhi-Satwa, (for the detail, see Asiatic Society's Transactions, vol. xvi.) The five Bodhi-Satwas are Srishti- karmanas, or the immediate agents of creation ; and each, in his turn, having become Sarvaguna, (invested with all qualities, or invested with the three gunas,) produced all things by his fiat. (Comment on quot. 1.) 3. All things existent (in the versatile universe) proceed from some cause (hetu): that cause is the Tatkagata§ (Adi-Buddha) ; and that which is the cause of 1 1 This is the symbol of the Triad and of the Saktis. * See Appendix A. fit' Manas, as the sum of the faculties of sense, be excluded, we may lender the passage as here ; else we must say elements, organs, and objects. t The five Dhydni Buddhas are said to be Pancha Bhuta, Pancha Indriya and Paneha Ayatana dkdra. Hence my conjecture that they are mere personifications, according to a theistic theory, of the phenomena of the sensible world. The sixth Dhydni Buddha is, in like manner, the icon and source of the sixth sense, ami its object, or Manas and Dharma, i. c, the percipient principle, soul of the senses, or internal sense, and moral phenomena. Manas is the Bhutu, Dhdrana the Indriya, and Dharma the Ayatana, or mind, mental apprehension and the appropriate objects of such apprehension, or all things. Mind is the seat of consciousness and perception; whatever its essence, and is the elfective cause of all sensation and perception. § This important word is compounded of Tafhd, thus, and gata. gone or got, and is explained in three ways. First, thus got or obtained, via., the rank of* a Tathdgata, ohtained by observance of the rules prescribed for the acquisition of perfect wisdom of which acquisition, total cessation of births is the efficient consequence. Second, thus gone, viz., the mundane existence of the Tathdgata, gone so as never to return, mortal births having been closed, and Nirvritti obtained, by perfection of knowledge. Third, gone in the same manner as it or they (birth or births) came ; the sceptical and necessitarian conclusion of those who held that both metempsychosis and absorption are beyond our intellect (as objects of knowledge), and independent of our eilbrts (as objects of desire and aversion — as contingencies to which we are liable) ; and that that which causes births, causes likewise (proprio vigore) the ultimate cessation of them. K 78 BUDDHIST PHILOSOPHY. (versatile) existence is the cause of the cessation or extinction of all (such) existence : so said Sakya Sinha. (Bhadra Kalpdvaddna.)* 4. Body is compounded of the five elements : soul, which animates it, is an emana- tion from the self-existent. (SwayamMu-Furdna.) 5. Those who have suffered many torments in this life, and have been burned in hell, shall, if they piously serve the Tri Ratna (or Triad), escape from the evils of both. (Avaddna Kalpalatd.) 6. Subandhu (a Raja of Benares) was childless. He devoted himself to the worship of Iswara (Adi-Buddba ;) and by the grace of Iswara a sugar-cane was pro- duced from his semen, from which a son was born to him. The race remains to this day, and is called Ikshava Aku. (Avaddna Kalpalatd?) 7. When all was void, perfect void, [Siinya, Maha Sunya] the triliteral syllable Awn became manifest, the first created, the ineffably splendid, surrounded by all the radical letters (Vija Akshara,) as by a necklace. In that Aum, he who is present in all things, formless and passionless, and who possesses the Tri Ratna, was produced by his own will. To him I make adoration. (Swayambhii-Purdna.) THE KARMIKAf SYSTEM. 1 . From the union of Upaya and Prajna,^ arose Manas, the lord of the senses, and from Manas proceeded the ten virtues and the ten vices ; so said Sakya Sinha. [Divya Avaddna']. The epithet Tathdgata, therefore, can only be applied to Adi-Buddha, the self-existent, who is never incarnated, in a figurative, or at least a re.stiicted, sense ; — cessation of human births being the essence of what it implies. I have seen the question and answer, 'what is the Tathdgata? It does not come again,' proposed and solved by the Rakshd Bhdga/oaM, in the very spirit and almost in the words of the Vedas. One of a thou- sand proofs that have occurred to me how thoroughly Indian Buddhism is. Ta- thdgata, 'thus gone, or gone as he came,' as applied to Adi-Buddha, alludes to his voluntary secession from the versatile world into that of abstraction, of which no mortal can predicate more than that his departure and his advent are alike simple results of his volition. Some authors substitute this interpretation, exclusively appli- cable to Adi-Buddha, for the third sceptical and general interpretation above given. The synonym Sugata, or 'well gone, (or well got, that is, happily got so as never to be lost — or virtually got, that is, by rigid observance of the laws or rules prescribed, ) for ever emit of versatile existence,' yet further illustrates the ordinary meaning of the word Tathdgata, as well as the ultimate scope and genius of the Buddhist religion, of which the end is, freedom from metempsychosis ; and the means, perfect and absolute enlightenment of the understanding, and consequent discovery of the grand secret of nature. What that grand secret, that ultimate truth, that single reality, is. whether all is God, or God is all, seems to be the sole proposition of the oriental philosophic religionists, who have all alike sought to discover it by taking the high priori road. That God is all, appears to be the prevalent and dogmatic determination of the Brah- manists ; that all is God, the preferential but sceptical solution of the Buddhists ; and, in a large view, I believe it would be difficult to indicate any further essential difference between their theoretic systems, both, as I conceive, the unquestionable growth of the Indian soil, and both founded upon transcendental speculations, con- ducted in the very same style aud manner. See Guizot's Civilization, ii. 386. India Ions; long preceded Europe in the paths of transcendental philosophy. * Since ascertained that this passage was misquoted for me, and that it is in fact equivalent to the Sarnath inscription, which should be rendered thus, "Of all things cause-produced the causes hath the Tathagata explained. The great Sramana hath like- wise explained the causes of the extinction of all things." For these causes of exist- ence and non-existence see the next section. fFrom Karma, morality, the moral law of the universe. \ See the note on quotation 6 of the section Adi Saaigha. Also the note on quo- tation 1 of the Ydtnika system. BUDDHIST PHILOSOPHY. 79 2. The being of all things is derived from belief, reliance, \j)ratyaya,~] in this order : from false knowledge, delusive impression ; from delusive impression, general notions ; from them, particulars ; from them, the six seats [or outward objects] of the senses; from them, contact; from indefinite sensation and per- ception; from it, thirst or desire; from it, einbryotic [physical] existence; from it, birth or actual physical existence; from it, all the distinctions of genus and species among animate things ; from them decay and death, after the manner and period peculiar to each. Such is the procession of all things into existence from Avidya, or delusion : and in the inverse order to that of their procession, thev retro- grade into non-existence. And the egress and regress are both Karmas,* where- fore this system is called Karmika. (Sakya to his disciples in the JRakshd Bhdgavati.) 3. The existence of the versatile world is derived sheerly from fancy or imagi- nation, or belief in its reality; and this false notion is the first Karma of Manas, or first act of the sentient principle, as yet unindividualized (?) and unembodied. This belief of the unembodied sentient principle in the reality of a mirage is atten- ded with a longing after it, and a conviction of its worth and reality ; which longing is called Sanskdra and constitutes the secondf Karma of Manas. When Sans- kara becomes excessive, incipient individual consciousness arises [third Karma] : thence proceeds an organised and definite, but archetypal body, the seat of that consciousness, [fourth Karma] : from the last results the existence of [the six sen- sible and cognizable properties of] naturalj objects, moral and physical, [fifth *The Dasa Karma are, 1 Sanskdra, 2 Vijndna, 3 Ndmanipa, 4 Shaddyatana, 5 Vedand, 6 Trishnd, 7 Upddand, 8 Bhava, 9 Jdti, 10 Jardmarana. f The first, not second ; ten in all. J So I render, after much inquiry, the Shaddyatana, or six seats of the senses exter- nal and internal ; and which are in detail as follows : Rupa, Sabda, Ganda, Rasa, Sparsa, Dharma. There is an obvious difficulty as to Sparsa, and some also as to Dha * - ma. The whole category of theAyatanas expresses outward things: and after much in- vestigation, I gather, that under Rupa is comprised not only colour, but form too, so far as its discrimination (or, in Kdrmika terms, its existence) depends on sight; and that all other wispecified properties of body are referred to Sparsa, which therefore includes not only temperature, roughness, and smoothness, and hardness, and its oppo- site, but also gravity, and even extended figure, though not extension in the abstract. Here we have not merely the secondary or sensible properties of matter, but also the primary ones ; and, as the existence of the Ayatanas or outward objects perceived, is said to be derived from the Indriyas, (or from Manas, which is their collective energy, ) in other words, to be derived from the sheer exercise of the percipient powers the Kar- mika system amounts to idealism. Nor is there any difficulty thence arising in re- ference to the Kdrmika doctrine, which clearly affirms that theory by its derivation of all things from Pratyaya (belief), or from Avidyd (ignorance). But the Indriyas and Ayatanas, with their necessary connexion, (and, possibly, also, the making Avidyd the source of all things,) belong likewise to one section at least of the Swdbhdvika school ; and, in regard to it, it will require a nice hand to exhibit this Berkleyan notion existing co-ordinately with the leading tenet of the Sirdbhdrikas. In the way of explanation I may observe, first, that the denial of material entity involved in the Indriya and Ayatana theory (as in that of Avidyd) respects solely the versatile world of Pravritti, or of specific forms merely, and does not touch the Kirvrittika state of formative power and of primal substance, to which latter, in that condition, the quali- ties of gravity, and even of extended figure, in any sense cognizable by human facul- ties, are denied, at the same time, that the real and even eternal existence of a substance, in that state, is affirmed. Second, though Dharma, the sixth Ayatana, be rendered by virtue, the appropriated 80 BUDDHIST PHILOSOPHY. Karina.] When the archetypally embodied sentient principle conies to exercise itself on these properties of things, then definite perception or knowledge is produced, as that this is white, the other, black ; this is right, the other wrong, [sixth Kar- ma.] Thence arises desire or worldly affection in the archetj-pal body, [seventh Karma,] which leads to corporeal conception, [eighth,] and that to physical birth, [ninth.] From birth result the varieties of genus and species distinguishing ani- mated nature, tenth Karma,] and thence come decay and death in the time and manner peculiar to each, [eleventh and final Karma]. Such is the evolution of all things in Pravritti ; opposed to which is Nirvritti ; and the recurrence of Xirvritti is the sheer consequence of the abandonment of all absurd ideas respec- ting the reality and stability of Pravritti, or, which is the same thing, the abandonment of Avidya; for, when Avidya is relinguished or overcome, Sanskara and all the rest of the Karmas or acts of the sentient principle, vanish with it ; and also, of course, all mundane things and existences, which are thence only derived. Now, therefore, we see that Pravritti or the versatile world is the conse- quence of affection for a shadow, in the belief that it is a substance ; and Nir- vritti is the consequence of an abandonment of all such affection and belief. And "Pravritti and Nirvritti, which divide the universe, are Karmas; wherefore the system is called Karmika. [Comment on quotation 2.] 4. Since the world is produced by the Karma of Manas, or sheer act of the per- cipient principle, it is therefore called Karmika. The manner of procession of all things into existence is thus : from the union of Upaya* and of Prajna, Manas proceeded; and from Manas, Avidya ; and from Avidya, Sanskara; and from Sans- kara, Vijnana; and from Vijnana, Namanipa ; and from Narnariipa, the Shad Ayatana ; t and from them, Yedana ; and from it, Trishna ; and from it, Upadana ; object of the internal sense, it must be remembered, that most of the SwdbhaviTcas, whilst they deny a moral ruler of the universe, affirm the existence of morality as a part of the system of nature. Others again (the minority) of the Swabhavikas reject the sixth Indriya, and sixth Ayatana, and, with them, the sixth Dhydni Buddha, or Vajra Satwa, who, by the way, is the Magnus Apollo of the Tdntrikas, a sect the mystic and obscene character of whose ritual is redeemed by its unusually explicit enunciation and acknowledgment of a "God above all." The published explanations of the procession of all things from Avidya appear to me irreconcilably to conflict with the ideal basis of the theory. *See Fahian, 159 and 291. See also Gogerly, p. 15, his enumeration is precisely ours, though his explanation differs, and is I think unintelligible, as is also Colebrooke's. See Ceylon Journal, No. 1. t That is ; colour, odour, savour, sound, the properties dependent on touch, (which acre baldness, and its opposite, temperature, roughness and smoothness, and also, I believe gravity and extended figure,) and lastly, right and wrong. They are called the seats of the six senses, the five ordinary, and one internal. In this quotation I have pur- posely retained the original terms. Their import may be gathered from the imme- diately preceding quotations and note, which the curious may compare with Mr. Cole- brooke's explication. See his paper on the Bauddha philosophy, apud Trans. Roy.. As. Society, quarto vol. The following are the details of the three catagories, viz : — Bhutas. Indriyas. Ayatanas. Earth Skin Tangible properties. "Water Palate Savours. Fire Nose Odours. Air Ear Sounds. Akasa - Eye Colours, forms. BUDDHIST PHILOSOPHY. o I and from it, Bhava; and from it Jati ; and from it, Jaramarana. And from Jati- rupya Manas, [t. e., the sentient principle in organized animate beings] emanated the ten virtues and ten vices. And as men's words and deeds partake of the char- acter of the one or the other, is their lot disposed ; felicity being inseparably bound to virtue, and misery to vice, by the very nature of Karma. Such is the procession of all things into existence from Manas through Avidya : and when Avidya ceases, all the rest cease with it. Now, since Avidya is a false knowledge, and is also the medium of all mundane existence, when it ceases, the world vanishes ; and Manas, relieved from its illusion, is absorbed into Upaya Prajna.f Pravritti is the state of things under the influence of Avidya ; and the cessation of Avidya is Nirvritti ; Pravritti and Nirvritti are both Karmas. [Another comment on Quot. 2.] 5. The actions of a man's former births constitute his destiny 4 [Punya ParodaJ] G. He who has received from nature such wisdom as to read his own heart, and those of all others, even he cannot erase the characters which Vidhdtri% has written on his forehead. [Avaddna KalpalatdJ] 7. As the faithful servant walks behind his master when he walks, and stands behind him when he stands, so every animate being is bound in the ohains of Karma. (Avaddna Kalpalatd.) 8. Karma accompanies everyone, everywhere, every instant, through the forest, and across the ocean, and over the highest mountains, into the heaven of Indra, and into Tdtdla (hell); and no power can stay it. (Avaddna Kalpalatd.) 9. Kanala, son of king Asoka, because in one birth he plucked out the golden eyes from a Chaitya* had his own eyes plucked out in the next ; and because he in that birth bestowed a pair of golden eyes on a Chaitya, received himself in the succeeding birth eyes of unequalled splendour. (Avaddna Kalpalatd.) 10. Sakya Sinha's son, named Rahula Bhadra, remained six years in the womb of his mother Yasodhara. The pain and anxiety of mother and son were caused by the Karmas of their former births. (Avaddna Kalpalatd.) 11. Although I had acquired (Sakya speaks of himself) a perfect body, still, even in this body, defect again appeared; because I had yet to expiate a small residue of the sins of former births. (Lalita Vistara.) Bh-utas. Indriyas. Ayata Manas Perception or conscious sensation. The sum of all phenomena which art homogeneous and result from Manas h and include thought, considered as one of the phsenomena of DivaNatura, or thought, that is, human perception regarded as the sole measure of all things, thesole reality. fThe Vdmdchdras gay, into Prajn i Up iya: see note on quotation ti of the section Adi Sangha. ZDaivya, identified with Adi Buddha by the theistic, and with Fate, by the athe- istic doctors. The precise equivalent of the maxim itself is our ' conduct is fate.' i. Brahma, but here understood to be Karma. Chaitya is the name of the tomb temples or relic-consecrated churches ©f the Bud- dhists. The essential part of the structure is the basal hemisphere: above this a square neck or Gala always supports the acutely conical or pyramidal superstructure: and on all four sides of that neck two eye, arc placed, which are typical of omniscience. Whereverthe hemisphere is found, it is indisputable evidence of Buddhism, e. andit — a wise man in his generation, and accustomed for the last four years to the examination of Bauddha literature — by this little treatise, it would seem that there is no method of assailing Brahmanism comparable to that of "judging it out of its own mouth :" and the resolution of the Committee of the Serampore College to make a thorough knowledge of Hindu learning the basis of the education of their destined young apostles of Christianity in India, would thence appear to be most wise and politic. But to return to my little treatise. We all know that the Brahmans scorn to consider the Siidras as of the same nature with themselves, in tbis respect resembling the bigoted Christians of the dark ages, who deemed in like manner of the Jews. The manner in which our author treats this part of his subject is, in my judgment, admirable, and altogether worthy of an European mind. Indeed it bears the closest resemblance to the style of argu- ment used by Shakespeare in covertly assailing the analogous European prejudice already adverted to. I need not point more particularly to the glorious passage in the Merchant of Venice : u Hath not a Jew eyes, hands, organs, dimensions, senses, passions ; fed with the same food, hurt by the same diseases ? " etc. The Bauddha treatise commences in the sober manner of a title page to a book ; but immediately after the author has announced himself with due pomp, he rushes H in medias res," and to the end of his work maintains the animated style of viva voce disputation. Who Ashu Ghosha, the author, was, when he flourished, and where, I cannot ascertain. All that is known of him in Nepaul is, that he was a Mahd pandit, or great sage, and wrote, besides the little treatise now translated, two larger Bauddha works of high repute, the names of which are mentioned in a uote.* I, Ashu Ghosha, first invoking Manju Ghosha, the Guru of the world, with all my soul and all my strength, proceed to compose the book called Vajra Suchi,f in * The Buddha Charitra Kdvya, and the Nandi-Mukhasughoslia A vaddn-a, and other works. t Burnouf has said that the very term Vajra proves this to be a very recent work. j 2 8 BUDDHIST PHILOSOPHY. accordance with the Shastras (Hindu or Brahmanical Sdstras). Allow then that your Vedas and Smritis, and works involving both Dharma and Artha, are good and valid, and that discourses at variance with them are invalid, still what you say, that the Brahman is the highest of the four castes, cannot he proved from those hooks. Tell me, first of all, what is Brahmanhood ? Is it life, or parentage, or body, or wisdom, or the ritual (dchdrd), or acts, i.e., morality {karma) or the Vedas?- If you say it is life (jiva), such an assertion cannot be reconciled with the Vedas ; for it is written in the Vedas that u the sun and the moon, Indra, and other deities, were at first quadrupeds ; and some other deities were first animals and afterwards became gods ; even the vilest of the vile (Swdpaka) have become gods." From these words it is clear that Brahmanhood is not life (jiva), a position which is further proved from these words of the Mahdbhdrata : " Seven hunters and ten deer, of the hill of Kalinjal, a goose of the lake Manasarovara, and a chakwa of Sara- dwipa, all these were born as Brahmans, in the Ktiruksketra (near Dehli), and became very learned in the Vedas." It is also said by Manu, in his Dharma Sdstra, " Whatever Brahman learned in the four Vedas, with their anga and iipanga, shall take chanty from a Sudra, shall for twelve births be an ass, and for sixty births a hog, and seventy births a dog." From these words it is clear that Brahmanhood is not life ; for if it were, how could such things be ? If, again, you say that Brahmanhood depends on parentage or birth (jdti); that is, that to be a Brahman one must be born of Brahman parents, — this notion is at variance with the known passage of the Smriti, that Achala Muni was born of an elephant, and Kesa Pingala of an owl, and Agastya Muni from the Agasti flower, and Kausika Muni from the Kusa grass; and Kapila from a monkey, and Gotama Rishi from creeper that entwined a saul-tree, and Drona Acharya from an earthern pot, and Taittiri Kishi from a partridge, and Parasu Rama from dust, and Sringa Rishi from a deer, and Vyasa Muni from a fisherwoman, and Kausika Muni from a female Sudra, and Viswamitra from a Chdnddlini, and Vasishtha Muni from a strumpet. Not one of them had a Brahman mother, and yet all were notoriously called Brahmans ; whence I infer, that the title is a distinction of popular origin, and cannot be traced to parentage from Written authorities. Should you again say, that whoever is born of a Brahman father or mother is a Brahman, then the child of a slave even may become a Brahman ; a consequence to which I have no objection, but which will not consort with your notions, I fancy. Do you say, that he who is sprung of Brahman parents is a Brahman ? Still I object that, since you must mean pure and true Brahmans, in such case the But Weber in his new printed edition of it (original and translation) lias shewn that the Vujra Suchi is at least a thousand years old, for in a work of Sankara acharya not only is the term Vajra used, but strange to say, the first paragraph of his work is identi- cal with one in the work before us, though of course differently intended as to scope and purpose, Sankara only proposing to exalt his ideal of Brahmanhood by contrasting it with the ordinary and actual types. But this shews what I have elsewhere re- marked, viz. , that Saintism by its very genius and character (above ordinances) tends to obliterate the distinctive marks of Brahmanism and Buddhism. BUDDUIST PHILOSOPHY. 129 breed of Brahraans must be at an end ; since the fathers of the present race of Brahmans are not, any of them, free from the suspicion of having wives, who notoriously commit adultery with Sudras. Now, if the real father he a Siidra, the son cannot be a Brahman, notwithstanding the Brahmanhood of his mother. From all which I infer, that Brahmanhood is not truly derivable from birth ; and I draw fresh proofs of this from the Mdnava Dharma, which affirms that the Brahman who eats flesh loses instantly his rank; and also, that by selling wax, qx salt, or milk, he becomes a Sddra in three days ; and further, that even such a Brah- man as can fly like a bird, directly ceases to be a Brahman by meddling with the fleshpots. From all this is it not clear that Brahmanhood is not the same with birth ? since, if that were the case, it could not be lost by any acts however degrading. Knew you ever of a flying horse that by alighting on earth was turned into a pig ? — ! Tis impossible. Say you that body (Sarira) is the Brahman? this too is false; for, if body be the Brahman, then fire, when the Brahman's corpse is consumed by it, will be the murderer of a Brahmin ; and such also will be every one of the Brahman's rela- tives who consigned his body to the flames. Nor less will this other absurdity follow, that every one born of a Brahman, though his mother were a Kshatriya or Vaisya, would be a Brahman — being bone of the bone, and flesh of the flesh of his father : a monstrosity, you will allow, that was never heard of. Again, are not performing sacrifice, and causing others to perform it, reading and causing to read, receiving and giving charity, and other holy acts, sprung from the body of the Brahman? Is then the virtue of all these destroyed by the destruction of the body of a Brahman ? Surely not, according to your own principles ; and, if not, then Brah- manhood cannot consist in body. Say you that wisdom* constitutes the Brahman ? This too is incorrect. Why ? Because, if it were true, many Sudras must have become Brahmans from the great wisdom they acquired. I myself know many Sudras who are masters of the four Vedas, and of philology, and of the M'undnsd, and Sdnk/iya, and J T aises/a'Jca and Jyotishilca philosophies ; yet not one of them is or ever was called a Brahman- It is clearly proved, then, that Brahmanhood consists not in wisdom or learning. Then do ycu affirm that the Achdra is Brahmanhood ? This too is false; for if it were true, man)' Sudras would become Brahmans ; since many Xats and JBhats, and Kaicartas, and Bhands, and others, are everywhere to be seen performing the severest and most laborious acts of piety. Yet not one of these, who are all so pre- eminent in their Achdra, is ever called a Brahman : from which it is clear that Achdra does not constitute the Brahman. Say you that Karma makes the Brahman ? I answer, no ; for the argument qsed above applies here -with even greater force, altogether annihilating the notion that acts constitute the Brahman. Do you declare that by reading the Vedas a * Perhaps it should rather be translated learning. The word in the original is jndna. 8 13O BUDDHIST PHILOSOPHY. man becomes a Brahman ? Tln3 is palpably false ; for it is notorious that the Rdkshasa Ravan was deeply versed in all the four Vedas: and that, indeed, all the Pdkshasas studied the Vedas in Ravan 's time : yet you do not say that one of them thereby became a Brahman. It is therefore proved that no one becomes a Brahman by reading the Vedas. What then is this creature called a Brahman ? If neither reading the Vedas, nor Sanskdra, nor parentage, nor race (Kula), nor acts (Karma), confers Brahman- hood, what does or can? To my mind Brahmanhood is merely an immaculate quality, like the snowy whiteness of the Kund flower. That which removes sin is Brahmanhood. It consists of Vrata, and Tapas, and Ntyama, and Upavdsa, and Dana, and Dama, and S/iama, anil Sanyama. It is written in the Vtdas that the gods hold that man to be a Brahman who is free from intemperance and egotism ; and from Sanga, and Parigraha, and Rdya, and Dwssha. Moreover, it is wiilten in all the Sdslras that the signs of a Brahman are these, truth, penance, the com- mand of the organs of sense, and mercy ; as those of a Chanddla are the vices opposed to those virtues. Another mark of the Brahman is a scrupulous absti- nence from sexual commerce, whether he be born a god, or a man, or a beast. Yet further, Sukra Acharya has said, that the gods take no heed of caste, but deem him to be the Brahman who is a good man, although he belong to the vilest class. From all which I infer, that birth, and life, and body, and ■wisdom, and observance of religious rites (dchdra), and acts (karma) are all of no avail towards becoming a Brahman. Then again, that opinion of your sect, that Pravrajyd is prohibited to the Siidra ; and that lor him service and obedience paid to Brahmans are instead of pravrajyd, — because, forsooth, in speaking of the four castes, the Sudra is mentioned last, and is therefore the vilest, — is absurd; for if were correct, Indra would be made out to be the lowest and meanest of beings, Indra being mentioned in the Pdni Sutra after the dog, thus — " Shva, Hiva, Mayhava." In truth, the order in which they are mentioned or written, cannot affect the relative rank and dignity of the beings spoken of. What ! is Parvati greater than Mahesa ? or are the teeth superior in dignity to the lips, because we find the latter postponed to the former, for the mere sake of euphony, in some grammar sentence ? Are the teeth older than the lips ; or does your creed teach you to postpone Siva to his spouse? No; nor any more is it true that the Sudra is vile, and the Brahman high and mighty, because we are used to repeat the Chatur Varna in a particular order. And if this proposition be untenable, your deduction from it, viz., that the vile Sudra must be co.tent to regard his service and obedience to Brahmans as his onlv pravrajyd, falls likewise to the ground. Know further, that it is written in the Dharma Sdstra of Manu, that the Brah- man who has drank the milk of a Sudrdni, or has been even breathed upon by a Sudrdni, or has been born of such a female, is not restored to his rank by prd- yaschitta. In the same work it is further asserted, that if any Brahman eat and drink from the hands of a Sudrdni, he becomes in life a Sudra, and after death a BUDDHIST PHILOSOPHY. l$[ dog. Manu further says, that a Brahman who associates with female Sudras, or keeps a Siidra concubine, shall be rejected by gods and ancestors, and after death shall go to hell. From, all these assertions of the Mdnava Dharma, it is clear that Brahmanhood is nothing indefeasibly attached to any race or breed, but is merely a quality of good men. Further, it is written in the Sdstra of Manu, that many Sudras became Brahmans by force of their piety ; for example, Kathina Muni, who was born of the sacrificial flame produced by the friction of wood, became a Brahman by dint of Tapas; and Vasishtha Muni, born of the courtezan Urvasi ; and Vyasa Muni, born of a female of the fisherman's caste ; and Rishyasringa Muni, born of a doe ; and Visvamitra, born of a Chdnddlni; and Narada Muni, born of a female spirit-seller ; all these became Brahmans by virtue of their Tapas. Is it not clear then that Brahmanhood depends not on birth ? It is also notorious that he who has conquered himself is a Yati; that he who performs penance is a Tapasyi ; and that he who observes the Brahma charya is a Brahman. It is clear then that he whose life is pure, and his temper cheerful, is the true Brahman ; and that lineage (Kula) has nothing to do with the matter. There are these slukaa in the Mdnava Dharma, '• Goodness of disposition and purity are the best of all things ; lineage is not alone deserving of respect. If the race be royal and virtue ba wanting to it, it is contemptible and useless." Kathina Muni and Vyasa Muni, and other sages, though born of Sudras, are famous among men as Brahmans ; and many persons born in the lowest ranks have attained heaven by the practice of uniform good conduct (sila). To say therefore that the Brahman is of one particular race is idle and false. Your doctrine, that the Brahman was produced from the mouth, the Kshatriya from the arms, the Vaisya from the thighs, and the Sudra from the feet, cannot be supported. Brahmans are not of one particular race. Many persons have lived who belonged to the Kaicarta Kid, and the Rajaka Kid, and the Chanddla Kill, and yet, while they existed in this world, performed the Chiidd Koran, and Munja-bandhan, and Dant-kdshtha, and other acts appropriated to Brahmans, and after their deaths became, and still are, famous under the name of Brahmans, All that I have said about Brahmans you must know is equally applicable to Kshatriyas; and that the doctrine of the four castes is altogether false. All men are of one caste. Wonderful! You affirm that all men proceeded from one, i.e., Brahma; how then can there be a fourfold insuperable diversity among them ? If I have four sons by one wife, the four sons, having one father and mother, must be all essentially alike. Know too that distinctions of race among beings are broadly marked by dif- ferences of conformation and organization : thus, the foot of the elephant is very- different from that of the horse; that of the tiger unlike that of the deer; and so of the rest : and by that single diagnosis we learn those animals belong to very dif- ferent races. But I never heard that the foot of a Kshatriya was different from that of a Brahman, or that of a Siidra. All men are formed alike, and are clearly of one race. Further, the generative organs, the colour, the figure, the ordure, the urine, the odour, and utterance, of the ox, the buffalo, the horse, the elephant, 132 BUDDHIST PHILOSOPHY. the as9, the monkey, the goat, the sheep, etc., furnish clear diagnostics whereby to separate these various races of animals: but in all those respects the Brahman re- sembles the Kshatriya, and ia therefore of the same race or species with him. I have instanced among quadrupeds the diversities which separate diverse genera. I now proceed to give some more instances from among birds. Thus, the goose, the dove, the parrot, the peacock, etc., are known to be different by their diversities of figure, and colour, and plumage, and beak : but the Brahman, Kshatriya, Vaisya, and Sudra are alike without and within. How then can we say they are essentially distinct ? Again, among trees the Jlata, and Bakula, and Palds, and Asoka, and Tamdl, and Naykesar, and Shirish, and Champa, and others, are clearly contradis'inguished by their stems, and leaves, and flowers, and fruits, and bark?, and timber, and seeds, and juices, and odours; but Brahmans, and Ksha- triyas, and the rest, are alike in flesh, and skin, and blood, and bones, and figure, and excrements, and mode of birth. It is surely then clear that they are of one species or race. Again, tell me, is a Brahman's sense of pleasure and pain different from that of a Kshatriya ? Does not the one sustain life in the same way, and find death from the same causes as the other ? Do they differ in intellectual faculties, in their actions, or the objects of tho^e actions ; in the manner of their birth, or in their sub- jection to fear and hope ? Not a whit. It is therefore clear that they are essen- tially the same. In the Udumbara and Panasa trees the fruit is produced from the branches, the stem, the joints, and the roots. Is one fruit therefore different from another, so that we may call that produced from the top of the stem the Brahman fruit, and that from the roots the Siidra fruit? Surely not. Nor can men be of four distinct races, because they sprang from four different parts of one bodv. You say that the Brahman was produced from the mouth ; whence was the Brahmani produced? From the mouth likewise? Grant it — and then you must marry the brother to the sister ! a pretty business indeed ! if such incest is to have place in this world of ours, all distinctions of right and wrong must be ob- literated. This consequence, flowing inevitably from your doctrine that the Brahman proceeded from the mouth, proves the falsity of that doctrine. The distinctions between Brahmans, Kshatriyas, Vaisyas, and Sudras, are founded merely on the oK servance of divers rites, and the practice of different professions ; as it clearly proved by the conversation of Vaishampayana, ' Whom do you call a Brahman ; and what are the signs of Brahmanhood ? ' Yaishani answered, ' The first sign of a Brahman is, that he possesses long-suffering and the rest of the virtues, and never is guilty of violence and wrong doing ; that he never eats flesh ; and never hurts a sentient thing. The second sign is, that he never takes that which belongs to another without the owner's consent, even though he find it in the road. The third sign, that he masters all worldly affections and desires, and is absolutely indifferent to earthly considerations. The fourth, that whether he is born a man, or a god, or a beast, he never yields to sexual desires. The fifth, that he possesses the following five pure qualities, truth, mercy, command of tho senses, universal bene- BUDDHIST PHILOSOPHY. 1 33 volence, and penance.* Whoever possesses these five signs of Brahmanhood I acknowledge to be a Brahman ; and, if he possess them not, he is a Siidra. Brahmanhood depends not on race (KtdaJ, or birth (Jdti), nor on the perfor- mance of certain ceremonies. If a Chdnddl is virtuous, and possesses the signs above noted, he is a Brahman. Oh ! Yudhisthira, formerly in this world of oure there was but one caste. The division into four castes originated with diversity of rites and of avocations. All men were born of women in like manner. All are subject to the same physical necessities, and have the same organs and senses. But he whose conduct is uniformly good is a Brahman ; and if it be otherwise he is a Siidra ; aye, lower than a Siidra. The Siidra who, on the other hand, possesses these virtues is a Brahman.' ' Oh, Yudhisthira ! If a Siidra be superior to the allurements of the five senses, to give him charity is a virtue that will be rewarded in heaven. Heed not his caste ; but only mark his qualities. Whoever in this life ever does well, and is ever ready to benefit others, spending his days and nights in good acts, such an one is a Brahman; and whoever, relinquishing worldly ways, employs himself solely in the acquisition of Moksha, such an one also is a Brahman ; and whoever refrains from destruction of life, and from worldly affections, and evil acts and is free from passion and backbiting, such an one also is a Brahman ; and whoso possesses Kshe- ma, and Dayd, and Dama, and Dan, and Safya, and Sauchana, and Smriti, and Ghrind, and Vidyd, and J'lj'ndn, etc., is a Brahman. Oh, Yudhisthira ! if a person perform the Brahmacharya for one night, the merit of it is greater than that of a thousand sacrifices (yajna). And whoso has read all the Vedas, and performed all the Th-thas, and observed all the commands and prohibitions of the Sdstra, such an one is a Brahman ! and whoso has never injured a sentient thing by act, word, or thought, such a person shall instantly be absorbed (at his death) in Brahma.' Such were the words of Vaishampayana. Oh, my friend, my design in the above discourse is, that all ignorant Brahmans and others should acquire wisdom by studying it, and take to the right way. Let them, if they approve it, heed it ; and if they approve it not, let them neglect its admonitions. OH THE EXTREME RESEMBLANCE THAT PREVAILS BETWEEN MANY OF THE SYMBOLS OF BUDDHISM AND SATVTSM. It is the purpose of the following paper to furnish to those who have means and inclination to follow them out, a few hints relative to the extreme resemblance that prevails between many of the symbols of Buddhism and Saivism. Having resided myself some few years in a Bauddha country, I have had ample opportuni- ties of noting this resemblance, and a perusal of the works of Crawfurd, of Raffles, »nd of the Bombay Literary Society, has satisfied me that this curious similitude * The word in the original is Tapas, which we are accustomed to translate ' ' pe- ■ance," and I have followed the usage, though "ascetism" would be a better word. -The proud Tapasyl, whom the very gods regard with dread, never dreams of contrition »»d repentance. si 1 34 BUDDHIST PHILOSOPHY. is not peculiar to the country wherein I abide. I observe that my countrymen, to whom any degree of identity between faiths in general so opposite to each other as Saivism and Buddhism, never seems to have occurred, have in their examina- tions of the monuments of India and its Islands, proceeded upon the assump- tion of an absolute incommunity between the types of the two religions as well as between the things typified. This assumption has puzzled them not a little so often as the evidence of their eyes has forced upon them the observation of images in the closest juxta-position which their previous ideas nevertheless obliged them to sunder as far apart as Brahmanism and Buddhism ! When in the country in which I reside, I observed images the most apparently Saiva placed in the precincts of Saugata temples, I was at first inclined to consider the circumstance as an incongruity arising out of an ignorant confusion of the two creeds by the people of this country : but upon multiplying my obser- vations such a resolution gave me no satisfaction ; these images often occupied the very penetralia of Saugata temples ; and in the sequel I obtained sufficient access to the conversation, and buoks of the Bauddhas to convince me that the cause of the difficulty lay deeper than I had supposed.* The best informed of the Bauddhas contemptuously rejected the notion of the images in question being Saiva, and in the books of their own faith they pointed out the Bauddha legends justifying and explaining their use of such, to me, doubtful symbols. Be- sides, my access to the European works of which I have already spoken exhibited to me the very same apparent anomaly existing in regions the most remote from one another, and from that wherein I dwell. Indeed, whencesoever Bauddha monuments, sculptural or architectural, had been drawn by European curiosity the same dubious symbols were exhibited ; nor could my curiosity be at all appeased by the assumption which I found employed to explain them. I shewed these monu- ments to a well informed old Bauddha, and asked him what he thought of them, particularly of the famous Tri-Murti image of the Cave temple of the West. He recognised it as a genuine Bauddha image ! As he did many many others declared by our writers to be Saiva! Of these matters you may perchance hear hereafter, suffice it at present to say that I continued to interrogate my friend as to whether he had ever visited the plains of India, and had there found any remains of his faith. Yes, was the prompt reply, I made a pilgrimage to Gayah, in my youth : I then asked him if he remembered what he had seen, and could tell me. He replied that he had, at the time, put a few remarks on paper which he had preserved, and would give me a copy of, if I desired it. I bade him do so, and was presented with a paper of which the enclosed is a translation. Let me add that never having veiled Gayah, I cannot say anything relative to the accuracy of my friend's details, and that in regard to the topographical ones, there are probably a few slight mistakes. I am aware that an accurate explanation * Causes are not at present my game : but consider the easy temper of superstition : the common origin of Bud ilrism and Brahmanism in India; the common tendency of both Saivaism and Buddhism to asceticism, etc. Even Christianity adopted many of the rites and emblems of classic paganism. BUDDUIST PHILOSOPHY. 1 35 from the Bauddha books of the drawings that accompany my paper, would he of more value than that paper. But, Sir, non omnia possumus omnes, and I hope that a Bauddha comment on Brahmanical ignorance will he found to possess some value, as a curiosity ; and some utility, for the hints it furnishes rela- tive to the topic adverted to in this letter. P.S. — Captain Dangerfield's five images in the cave at Bag, and which the Brahmans told him were the five Pandits, are doubtless the " Fancha Buddha Dhyani;" as is the Captain's "Charan," said to be that of Vishnu, the Charan of Sakya Sinha; or that of Manju Ghosha. If it be the latter, it has an eye engraved in the centre of each foot; if the former, it has the ashtmangal and tahasra chakra. Buddh Gayah, according to a Nepaulese Bauddha who visited it. In Buddh Gayah there is a temple* of Maha Buddha in the interior of which is enshrined the image of Sakya Sinha : before the image is a Chaitya of stone, close to which are the images of three Lokeswaras, viz., Haiti hala Lokeswara, Ilari hari hari vahana Lokeswara, and Amogha pasa Lokeswara.f This temple of Maha Buddha, the Brahmans call the temple of Jagat Natha, and the image of Sakya Sinha they denominate Maha Muni; J of the three Lok Natha, one they call Ma- ha Deva, one Parvati, and the third their son. On the south side of the tem- ple of Maha Buddha is a small stone temple in which are the images of the seven Buddhas :§ and near to them on tbe left three other images, of Hala hala Lokes- wara, Maitreya Bodhisatwa, and Dipankara Buddha. The Brahmans call six of the seven Buddhas, the Pandiis and their bride, but know not what to make of the seventh Buddha, or of the remaining three images. * The word in the original is Kiitagar, and I understand that the temple of Maha Buddha in the city of Patan, in this valley, is built after the model of the. Gayah temple. If so, the latter is of the same general form with the Orissan Jagannath. The Patau temple is divided in the interior into five stories. Sakya Sinha, the genius loci, is enshrined in the centre of the first story ; Amitabha, the fourth Dhyani Buddha, occupies the second story ; a small stone Chaitya, the third ; the Dharma Dhatu mandal, the fourth ; and the Vajra Dhatu mandal, the fifth and highest story, and the whole structure is crowned, on the outside, by a Chura Mani Chaitya. t Hala hala Lokeswara, a form of Padma P;'uii, the fourth Dhyani Bodhisatwa, and active creator and governor of the present system of nature. Three Dhyani Bodhi- satwas preceded him in that office, and one remains to follow him. + This name is equivocal: the Brahmans mean 1 suppose, to designate by it the chief of their own Munis. The Bauddhas recognise it as just, since the Tri-Kund Sesh, and many of their scriptures give this name to Sakya Sinha. §The Bauddha scriptures say that one form is common to all the seven great Man- ushi Buddhas. The figure I have given of Sakya has the Bhumisparsa Mudra, or right hand touching the earth. The Gayah image of him is said to have the Dhyan Mudra for the position of the hands. That is, the two hands open and laid one on- the other and both resting on the doubled thighs, the figure, sitting tailor-wise. There is nothing improper in giving that Mudra to Sakya or other Manushi Buddhas, but usually it is appropriated to Amitabha ; and almost all the images of Sakya that I have seen are characterised by the Bhumi-sparsa Mudra, Sakya's image is generally supported by lions, sometimes however by elephants, Sakya's appropriate colour is yel- low or golden, which colour, like the other characteristics, belongs also to the remaining six Nyi Swong Pali 1 ChokS PCBha" Chhon Phi " Neku Mya Myi Nemyi Gwaji. g-wi- Koh Hyd Plava Ddngi Mi*\ ft ros Mii RbaW, H. Nawir Sdthd Myau Minnirva Nhet Wg Dini' N« nisin Nagyu Chhyd Nab.5 Na kyep Sa. Nhe Jhi Na-ka Tangna Tih Bkale. Tlithi Mik Bai Mho Gwi Dishd Sir Mihil Rhi Cliham Na' Pii Phalim Laple. Hau Lau Lhi Jala Bhla Tyawongcho. Mar o. 1 Mijang Mhi Bharmi Mik Baner, P. ) Tw6 mila. Tuyu 1 Lau-gni Gyi hut 1 nula ( Phase Rogmachi B14 Ohivi. Chi-vi ITsi Biingi Rjiehe Mdeye, S. Berrnd Kbad Nithi Kuchdng Nopha Kha pi Mi Pii Phd Khwel Chiirsye Chang Table. Gwl Piyi Pd Guro Ghora Khi Wd ak'li Saphd Rip llimgo Moro Li to si Gun Mhiitd Pari Chikang Bandi, P. Lam khutia, P. * Tshmi, Chin, Ch<\ St:n, S!», A"i"i, A'ap, the radical words of the six first columns. In the ninth we have C7ui,.void of suffix. The others have the suthxes or formative particles. b Plio and mo, as post-fixes, for mas. et fcem. ■ Shd the cow j Ling, the bull. One = Bos, both sexes. A Hik bang, hen ; Hik leu, cock ; Hxk Un, chick. * Tngn, mas. Tayu, fcem. r Clntkniphcma = arm flat ; so also Hid-lgphe of Limbu, and Langdaphe for foot is leg flat. There are no pro- per words for hand or foot. The words for arm and leg are used with the sign of flat things (phe) suffixed. So also in Limbu Hu^titphc, foot ; and Langtaphc, hand. * Ba and Ma, used prcfixually. are the sex signs, and unchangeable The occasional tive signs, as in Pd-ld-ha = hand, from the root hi, with pa, the mark of flat things, and h6 the sign of long things, create many differences more apparent than real, sine the n.i' or loglect of these additions is to a great extent optioual, e.g. , pah ' f ,. ,t lias the pa sign only ; Hid 'hands and feet' has neither. b Klui equals fowl in Takpa and Uraon, JEW in Chinese. 1 Mi-jang, vir. ; Mi-sd, niulier ; Mamo, lik.i ilaro, mankind ; and so Yapmi in Limbu, whilst l"e»t hi cha, Menchima, are man and woman in that tongue. J Pa, Ma, merely sexual adjuncts, mas. et foul., identical with the Pho mo and Pa ma elsewhere occurring. k Compare On.hya, the Dhhnali word, 1 U is the pronominal definitive, as in Upa, Uma, Ukhura, Wtofora, etc., of the sequel. •.*H, Hindi.— P, Paruatya.— S, Sanskrit. Tibetan, written. Tibetan, tpoker Plantain River Road Salt .Skin Sky Snake. Star Sun T„.,r Tooth Troo Village Water Lam Tahi Pngspa Nam khah iBnii i Karma rDo Seven Eight Nino Ten Twenty Thirty Forty Fifty Bundled in To (InalS Changp»5 Chhd Pig-pa Nam fjonshing YOlteho Chhri Dova Na Khyod , Kho Na chag Khyod chag Khocbag Nahi. Nayi Klivodkyi El '7:- Ehah: VJadbtmA K liynd cliaggi Khochaggi fOblg yNyia ../S„„, IZhi Una linik. r/Ru-k (Dun />H lyud rfGii oClni. Thdmbd Nvi shii Sumchu oZhibchii Una hchii' drOva thdmbd Kyi.Oi. Hi. Yi. La.Tu^Dii.Ka.Sii Naa. Las. By, inrtr. I Kyis. Ois. S. Shingdong Thdnjr Chhu Thomd GnyS Khd Khu Khenio Khonjo Gndyi Khd yi Kl^yi Gndnjo yi Khenjo yi KhoDjo yi Chik Nvi Zhvi Qua Thii Dun Qvd Ouh Chiih Nyi ehii Sum chii Hip chii Gimp chii Hyung Chhd Kop-pa Nam Dnil Karma Dob Nimo Jik Gni Khyo Khworing Gniti Khyo ti Kbwoti Nirdtf Kliyeriti Khworiti Chik Nvi Sum Zhyi Gnd Tiik Oyd Ouh Chiih Nyi shii Slim elm BhtUdni or LhOpa. Ohhu kyong Chha Pdko. Kompo Nam Sob Shing Kyong Chhii Kyu Gni Chhii Kh6 Qnd chi Khi cha Khong Ohhdgi Kheugi Gnu chdgi Khou cbdgi Khong gi Wo-hong OsSk Khdsdvi Nam Keh'va Hobo Lepcha, Kardiing La seh Ongkyong Chua. Laum Lam Vom Yiim Athiin. Kdnibd Horik. Saho Ta liang Beu Sah6r Sachak Sathdng Ar;hd Kling Go Hau Heu Kayii. Ki Hiyii Hdyti Kaseusu Hadosa Heusa Kayii pongsa Hayii pongsa IToyii pongsa Kit" Nyet Pha IP Pha gndn Tarok' Ka kyok' Kakeii Ka kyot Kati Gnak si Hong-kii Yiim U'hdk bd Nam cho Pachdm Sdngyen Lung td Kfwd Qyd.GyathdmbMlyd Hip chii Onap chii Khd Ingd Khdnd Khiind Anigd Khdnih' Khiinchi Ingd in Kheno in Khiine in Anigen in Klienih' in Khiinchi ir Thit. Thi-t 1 Nyetsh Li ah Gndsh Tiiksh Nush Yet sh' Phdng sh Hi in).'. Thibong. Gip 1 Ni bong ( Slim hong, 3 tens c Li gip_, 4 tens c Khe pheddngeiim KhanvetsakdtiGna gip, 5 tens c Khd gnd Khd pha gndn Thi bong gip, one c Gi. Yd Sa Le. In [10+10 1 LNi Sdn Pi" Nvi eho. Khechik Khakdt Khe phddani Khakdtsa kati Kha nydt ReyS = /Tibet Phdngyd Kip Prd = brlib, Kiih Chiwai Nhi ehii Gnd Khii Nhe Cbyd Giin Sdnho Sang sdnho. Nief Bokal cha shii Ni sdnho. Siiyd Bokal nhi Su sdnho. Pi-yd Bokal ni shii chii Pi sdnho. Gnidye Eala Khwdng Kydn Chdchd Dhi Tundi. Miin Bhiigiiri PfrS. Tdrgya Dhini Chdn Sak" Sindd Ndsa Kyii Taya Gnd Kdn Thi" Gni mo Kdn mo Thi" mo Gni IS Kdnld Thild Gni molo Kerne molo Thnmdla Kri. *Ri Ni Mocha Khold Ohd Chdla Sarang Bui Bhiiga Lhiing Ndm khdn Di Ndmi Gnd Ndng Hos Kan kiirik Ndng kiirlll Hos kiirik Gnou Ndwo Ho chii Kan kiirikiim Nang kiiiikum A kiirikiini Kdt" Kiisyul Stiniiigi Soru Phunglu Hari Gov ki Gaiv ki Hurdv ki Ilun-d kr. Mt'rok.i Nis. Limbu, £ Pv«. »Rd Kuh Chuh Kuti tartt Bokal gnd Gun sdnho. Sat chi caret Ld Yd Yd. Ld. B6 Bu-li' Ld d. Ba-gnd Ond Riik Chan Yoh Glib Wdjd Klidk ndshi Khdk lnshisasika Swaikd Kwd. Kyd {ElmcLLlloi vowol "A.Vi/ft Chu = 5 tens, and so of 20, 30, 40, which also give the radicals of the decimal scale, and show how scrvili'S lire always drupt ill eolnjiouuds. See and compare all. 1 I'omi.iire ^1-^-11, lluniii-se To, with the neuter sign f.-u ~ Ne.wari ept, G vet K, final of Tibetan ; Serpa and So also is initial ka of Leneha 7 to 10. In Newdri the numeral adjuncts : The varied position and optional variable. Hie ft heec, hma ; hoc, /fit, sufftxed as in the other iiualitivi use of these luMendu . rente iimeh Isise semblance of diversity. Pfta pre-lixed here, like sh post-fixed in the Linibii columns, is not radical. Pha is equal to the silent b of mitten Tibetan. B*KB&, in the Magar column, are equivalent to the Lepcha Pha, that is, pre-fixed " '1 the Gurung columns. The mutation throughout is very instructive: 1 Limbu gip = Kiranti hip, got from 40, jnst as Gyarungp^ for four got from plisi 40. Bong equals Oip. B Corruption merely of Suryi. b Sma mas. et foem. ; f?u neuter. Jihma, myself ; Jigu, my goods. Hma and gii are affixed to every quali* tive whatever. See note ' voce long. 1 Anuswar merely, and for instr. and abb alike : also yaken, whieh likewise expresses, with, or sulh of Urdu ; the Latin c I Chinese ^ll tau, equals first, a verb to s , second a prep, to (going to.) Comparative Vocabulary of the languages of Hor Sokyeul and Sifdn, by B. H. Hodgson, Esq. Crow |lr.y Dog phyli ripat gwaA ("bull zyah) ■ Hog 1 1 . , [. Bono Homo Iron Loaf Man Monkey MmIIht Mountain Mouth Mo rliito Night Oil Skill Sl.v SSipa. salki khord-khwd w? li me tliii-k.il khoro-gwd sakorsu 1.1. [iliun! Eyo Father jiikd tsall hompa I kachu BTODfl ( of head lipa/i si-m( sa-lo khdrd nh6khw« khikhd V. OUTO-ll llidbochd Illltil I'cliild kwil kbdld chiehlik kkdil spvaA ,l/'i, Mi 'maA aaliil ehingyii snrnii clu.braA griA choA rapl niuhto brigi ghada liar tholfr-gwd kbu-krU) yd-bour pa-syiiug tlniniar n« Kluin nidehi ikbi, vkhi tavli khd-khwd caret wnssii, um'i 1',, tkdug-grd thold r pvd-pyd tabrii, small chitun ki-tan eyAng bing-ckhen yen-chin tai-inyejk tam-inyek dbii-dd ak-kkfi ti-mi kkwA ckii-ngyo* chva a ta-mi cliukii kiis-sd thou pbwA tar-nf s>yu, sy.-w tbau ' la-yak gra reVrS chulaA nisumdS kale' nyfi-le* kataA ckhej split y«5-cha khouch vtilii'iiiLr ma Mm. syan khelo > euj. ii, limr nf iiiuuth <>r moustache. PA-spu, hair of body ; lint loi tin- iin.iliyv of the rforpa plural in 'ui,' I should say these were gi-nitives an genitives and possessives, and that t Sdkpaond ku of '■ s of pMMSBlVH turned by adding tha snffix 'young* to the personals has been alleged to me, but it (a m rawly ued, 1 doubt it* genuiiieneaa. Here it is Gnayong Tel Guong, Nayong I posyoug, Yoyong, Nyoyong, Yaposyong, the plurals ■ .1. [a I MTVi || A disjuti : Ttat T,..,th Mine Thiao Hia, hers, ita Our's Nino Ten Twenty Thirty Forty Fifty Hundred Of To Bv, in8tru. Witt, cum Without, sir In, on Now k6td hri-thou rd-thou kwa, kwd kwiin-tfi-cka chiiklar child, pi. kweuiko, kwa- nik-lar taho, thak-lar kak chi kwek chi tkakchi,kwanak- clii kwiiuikiik tbakiik ward khatard staid khrard 'giiro luduXJ pninaso kahyaso ghviso mi, bi, a'bii j. thSt t nunit ( chhinil tln'mil caret ndgo hdyiir kdrbfi tirba thabfl chorka tdld ndma arbi hdrd k.ichh^n tdcbd shnchd chov6 twang-cha i shiii yangsii thamd shi* wo-khyii, tuk- ticki [hyii gnli, gna-yo gufi-pos, watii nyo i yapoe[pre8x|| ' gui\, conjunct ( 1:1, the .-.nil- i td 6 lephe wfiA phwiA ehOng dODg eapuA yii liii chhi dyAA kh>' zgwM (rn6, ny5 A gnani.guAnggi or rigya ps, be gua-rA ii-iiggi i-rA •ji-riggi pe-rA (elonga- giieku in'mdur thfdtSr thAti giiom^ti nitneti thAnieti i-ku, i liang-ku, ai ? Bf-ku, si' wti-ku.wu leuku, leu chhi-ku,chhi 1 pa-ku, pA c iab'-sa[chyu t ku-UL'a'* ka-di ImnjMjno" ,,u6 kiingiim pary^ k, to, g^ tti stiUo. hatiis enzyu cho,kuzga,cbak8i hAto, thiizga, tano [thaksi. tikh li khAngchben nidma, meyii In [m& chhA y& la khun na kbdn chin th.5 lb] puz-diii tis-duf [tra this-diii, kwuo- T jyAa gnAArfgya rhiijo BgA 'hyA i.W giP da iiuiiMi, ffha khA, wu achfl mnchii nA, no, chA hnbdeu tahdeu peku mi mi lui prrAkii Adlll-f n-.nduri thidiui thyertha Ui6 lAm<3 Irk 11 syAng thou iirky^ udu oiitbu chha a tirmi-targi-. llfing nogor dAng wo cho wo tho gft, gAhA tiiibi slcwibf zibi mibl tin iliilii n Arh A hi eA cliA bi gnA zAhi ( tha, ni Id phAe inAju lilni, cnoA mil6 thilfl nlnkhfl yAhA kbopd, dait thtingol pujkw*" khadu [nait " In compoMtion these nnmes of the nunu-rala are liable to variation, as tirnii-tari;!-, one man ; tinnf-tage, two men ; but three men is tirmi-kaaam, unchanged. ft Ka, prefix, varj-ing to ku, and taking a nasal or other euphonic avpendage, ku-ng, ks-sh, i« servile. It li the Common and almost inseparaUe adjunct of nouns, vert>\ gii*tan Speak kwor, ki Come hai (in, depart dakan Stand up toron Sit down ajon Move, walk dakan Run kuht eang-di.yaiiL'kalarlarlt pyang-di [-di zhirdo 5 liou-ti (good) kwipau Byou-ti(8mall)kwicbem sphwa leu disduk khang-ti taskom' Ti-ti. wii-ti toiuos thye", khyfi ta-zo khwa ta-uiot (il» ma h..p- caret [chili ire" yabii?+t Bbiihrin qufipotbo ka-piin. papii»|| yeyen, da-chii nanijongsi wtitbi giirgyuu tarven kho khd >iakal)ni yA-giiz) uap-shdA, tayin changii chuginda pingbo shAsha tlionypo dridra sugnng lira lira nig tlniiig dridra cliiingbo. pru yd thtfnbo kah kah hirhi wiiA w&h tiip-zlii drazo gyiik pa dnehuA kaiLirhrtiig kari „ na brfda id gnajeu lang(get up)dougwAA t.i-.-lu thdinft syo dangwA thathadyii thadyu kbanj^h Take Strike Kill Bring I.ll'l lip I'ut du\ dag-h(cuivis.)§ i kwdgah (mihi; jadjh ( da-gatcb ( dzi-la ( ' ta-chi Hear kokshust Understand akhchan Tell, relate kiirr rabwo i la-le la-chhd i tashin ga tamgyo ps td-khyii (cuivifl) w » tu-khong unihi) w gwrmkbe. tdahthit y:i. Vj h'mga dangn zbi sam tenchd ta-yiu. uap-e tachimoyu Wfl-khi, ta- dati-tlifi na-sya trulhd khabd n( thai-ilyu e verbs the analogous prefix ta vel da is usually added. But ka is aho used with rerba, e.g. t Jong = it is, is, in Bodo (Du of Newari and Tibetan du-g) is ku-m-dong in Gyiiniug. || Ka prefix becomes pa, according to that alliterative principle which prevails so greatly, though invgularly. g§ Be, Ya, have a special sense. Give to me: take from me. Bin, Ling, a general tense. One solicit* ; the tier commands. With, cum. latin I Snth in Hindi 1 find Urdu Without, Chi Da. Chdro So. Tyol I.a. Ka Now Then WhunP T..-ilav To- Hero There Whero P Above Below Jll [WITH Without, ou Within Far Near l.iltlo Much How much P Why P Yea Or This That Which, ivl. Which, corr Which? WhatP Who? Auy thing Any body Eat! I) rink! Sleep Wake Dengtsi'>.lla.l-I>:ng Detail Qang tat. Nam. During Sang. Tbolv Hndma Ilena La Thindi Thi dwi Kha dwi Thiriug Sing Hacko Kh/icho Taring Thoraug Dang Kaui Bar, du Phyi, rohua N6. Nt6 Ring Nydng Mang. Tunio. Tsatn. T-.'iniv HadiStaug Tong. Ch6. Yogi Tying Wfj. Syd. Magi Wag Par Dharing Nabah Khachd DIM Phate- Kind t<5 Ten kha. Ting Wdh P.ini Phi Bhar Chi Tharing Thani Niguva Ma gda Kbit ebwe Khindi Thendi Dinda KhachO.Khinda Kaudo. Kdnda Kite bt5 Liili Alim. Aba Pil. Woba Ni Saba. Sabi Atfing Atiin. Tal. ApldngTknng I Achtim I Md | Cheul.Sadain Abik. Ackdk Menne ( Mo. khep mo. ) kiithung tho Alo Khem pha 1*5 A'pbi fe Ain Tandik Mebma Kdtuii Ning Ning Rinrbo Thi ring Thak ninibo ThA ni Chayak chik Nvdng bo A'li Mang bu Kajd Kijeu Kindd KatC PhindiS O'M DindS 0'de\ Do Sii. Kha. Chizhig Sii/liiu'. Kbachig Kha in I'd Men Mil Yang Mo Di Phi-di Thiuda? The Kkangi Khang tO ad Thing NyiS King In Men Ma Dang. Ang Diraug I'lii dinniL' Swin? Thi dang Swin Kbing Sii Khai nang Sui nang S.".. S,i Thiing Nyol Gwet Sarong Maram Athol Ag yap Satet Salom Olom Salom Shii mat Tup. In M<5 tup. Men Mi D« Yang. Mo Di. Didi Phe. Pbedi Kadi ? U'di Kadi Kang cbi. Kan Ka Ktindochi Shdri. Tham Kaye". Ka imclii Tola Sah Z6. Tha Thdng Thong NyS D4 Lhdng Si G& Then Ware Sare Shii To Kulnm Bahar Kiisi gang. Hong MSnkio Neng dang Miaa A'khen Aphi dong ba Khem pha ib tug ba Kon pha dong ba A*pha | 'l'lv? ang 1 n'h.'- joknia I | Thd yambdkle | O'k Men. Ni Ang Bi Kon Khen A'tiP Khen Thbul ' ! I'bin. BS. Bak Bin Ndng. B4. Bak Bo. Bi tonny Tong | T " 1 "' I from em ''''""■ } """- Hon Len. Yd Ling Len. Nang Lyo Strike V/Iiiin. rll.-g Dung Diing Diing Bak Kill KhigSod. /.liiitn s,i Syet Seh Sot Bring iKbydrg, -h v b B« -v«, five-come Oyap BSsyu.give-come B.i di, give-cune Talr. .away AKIiiir. AKhvcr Biik wing, give-go Khiir hyup, lift liak song, five-go Bu non, give-go Uftup,ral*Dl ADege.81on. l Kh ,., r Kh(ir TM CMn Bear, carry ( *N v"b ( Qui Nynn. r/Son Nyon Nyon Nyon Nyen Undonrnsd Some. Go, Som Syea Som tang. Noh Ohing 'I'll], ril.il.- (.Shod. /ilMihud l.-ip. Ohwe Lap Lap Hun Good Baiang-po leppo Lomu Uml Aryum.Ryiimbo° llinl Nong-po Dukpo Ma lomu Mb 1' in A/yen. Zyenabo Cold iIimii:].., I Xhyangmo Khyii mo Ahyiim. flyiimbo Hot Tnha-jiM. Hi.; -|i,,- I 'in' P". Tenmo Teu mo Arhiiiii. Ithumho Haw Zieinbo /..iil.t Mil cho bo Azeu. Zeubo l.'i,,. Siniiibi. (li.i.ib.. Chobo Chochopo Amyen. Myenbo Bwoot Gniinii.i Gnormo GnS mo Akbam. Kiiambo s..iir caret cant Tek po Krop Bitter Khiiko Klial.ti Klinkn Akrini. Krimbo ll.nl Dsolmo. *Ttigpo Jobd Ldmo. Simbu Le md Aryiim. Hyumbo Wy jiffi-? """^"' jiuS Mfl » "•**»»• Straight Dnnpo TMngbo TAngo ThAng bo NAng Orooknd iGdrbo. Tuflpo Kfikpo K6k [6k TyokW ifuliuf Mark, Nngpn Niikjipi tfakjK) N&kpo An.'ik. N'ukbn wiiitu rfKurpo .Karpo Karpa Kfi p6 A'diim. Dumbo Red tfukpo U&po Mdvyo MA bo A'heur. Heurbo < «r.'.-ti /..li.ngl.hi. .llmngii Ntimmo Nhyam bo Phfing phiing ■Long EUngpo Bimbo [Umbo Itfm bii Arhen. Khenbo Bhort Tliuiunw. Tbdn riling Thimuo Thiiin bu A'tAn. Tiinbo T(i „ ...... Thombo Thenbo Th«hubo. Tho Ath6.Th.ibo Short ( ll " ui MAbo MArao Mh&mteiii Mh<.>ur Anniu. MAubo •Small Ohhtfug. i'lim I'lnin rliung Tippi5 Chung bo Achiin. Chimbo ( !i. ni i )hho*npo«Bombo llombo Oirbii BoDibo Mini- Timbo' It. mud ■Lmnpo ltiri Gfrmo Gonto yeupo R^r r(5rbo Squaro Grub zlii Tbdxi TdpcbJ Duzbi yeupo Ton kyongphali I' 1 " 1 , ( ,,i,v Libub !K 1 ;! op Ai".p'i|' ; Lovol f | oab them Asap. SApbo I Fnt G TbiStbombo Qyamo GvA m6 \-viim. Syiimbo TbJn Srobbo. Rldpo Utto Nenma Brfiko Aebim. Chimbo \N ' li\:il, \.-.\u' Tilting clih«5 IV 1 Mm i K.i.i Kliiilu'uu KhAkum Kb.i kom O'ngnd Hunger i. Tok To kiing To ki Tidok. Kridoi I ■ . ' . . .■ inB of the rerbftl radical, it ia hot, win in .■ is imiM-i .illv ili- in . ■! tin- mlji'i tiviil Imin i>f u.'i.U l>y humus l-I |>iv- .m-l ]i"-.t-h\i-., nuit>- liihiIu- n throughout 01 v.ry iirirly KK Tht prft>ftZM an- oflt'll omittutl, as Ke-goba, Qoba, good, in l.iintu. ■ ;,f. Mil, cM, «AiW*, through the columns. The roat of thsoiflerencca b< long- 1 Mi.J nosUutd. ■ i;.ptii tin- 1>' i.'iuf. .it,. 1 -,miiiu..ii, Tin' latttt ibowt plainly tha Tflwtao >iffiinitii - of the Li pcha tongoe. 'M)i'iilili- i.t '■! ir-Hmmfad, with the ponti?e form eophoni ■ i Bunwaj H4M' Khiivn Krajh Khwo Kmd Rap Gnak SwaM Man chebda ]\u ilvii Siimii kha cb.in Tiiya pur M.i chiik Palo ma pa Pare Che"wa caret Nava edict coier Biik Ph«re BanS LK 0U —, Kliou.Jyan \\ li Khd I!d ni Pyil Bage Khara Nvii. Svciro Hon Yiid \a ni I.nu P6gi5 = wake Y'i5wa liinta Kiib " Hiidh Bok Yung nu Y'unga Tyii The tii Ti.lli Nil mi Bak Boge Biya Brou Xvi. Hii Say Wha ni G,ik I-iikt.!. L6k-te Y'ar BwS Dhid Yani Plok Pirang n6* Pi-re Pat Dg Pin Byli. Ti Pin Ldiii Cli Ld Eatu. Khntu Thob K,i. Na Kind U6 My.' HipM. Hip-t4 M6u Hob Da Tan Dims Tup Sere Siit Svii Tli.'id. Si ! d Gnan Sat l'hep-piS Pa Angt Bou Ilalri Pog Riiko Pit TeriS Khatu Por Y'enki Bhod A'rh6 Lat PokhiS. Po-ko Khuyu Piiyo Lhon Bu N6d Bii Pok Kh.'ps^. Khep-se YiSnu Gnan Ny6 Slid Thdd Thande6 Nyen Siuf iiite. Sing-to I'li.libe.Che-ke Sin til Go Mlnidid Phevo caret Khang metii Syat Kon Hid K!niii;riii Den Noh ba. Kenohba Nuhva Jaba Bhing 1 Ma bbilii Saba Gyopch6 atagyepche Kinuo Plieni bn. Kephemba Uva. Euva Ajnba A'saba Marin noeo Kesemba. Sfimba KCng yaugj Simba Chi no Kego ba. Goba KuMi'la. Lehla Kiiyangt U'cbiva Lena Kliwii Kio ba Khan cho Chlnga A'miva Mil.il Cl.rlilllll Mi .. Kiisongva Dauva Min ba Nhin gii Miva Mincho Keb'mba h Lemko K«ko ba Gniiba Jiii Dll SO Meiilini nnna* 1 Siivo Pbakii Soba T'hiip cho Ke khik pa h Noli'va. Kenoh'va Kbakka. Khako KStnba Kli.iivii K'.iiiibiL Khd cho KliangniibvaS Bint kluiba Ij.inlii She cheja Rimso Phem bi Kephemba KMng liva Brota khi- mmB}a A'saba MS secho Mil I..:.: .-.. Tondo U'dung twong tong Thiicbo Tapyong BCliii Kyiill Dhing cho Shejo K.'.lc tii U'dunpii twong tong Kokteng G ■ 1. . B&ngo Kiimakli Makachakwa M I . ii-.i Iliikii Mldngyfi Ohik chi dan 8 , Kiipliora KiiliijUa U'mpi yang wa Tira Tiiyii Tiirkva Wiilkya Hi.cho Bwi 3y« Lala ' Hala liiwa Bala Hvoun Gyii cho Lehla Chak la Pingai \Va won I 'il.i;. Phiphi daijclii. Qtai M,5nta Reng ba Tahfi. ti-ha Khimba T&ngba Diing ta Tiimba Chiha. chi-lul Iluiba Tun iliii Til pah Kemba Kon ta Nohba Tadhi. ta-dhi C uhba Ghi&Dg lb.' I. ai so Tilngba Sim ta Meba C'bifdhi=clii-ki- f ,. AM . ,ll,i. ila.... Cbeunbo Chfga, chi-gu Cht'imba Tern cho Ho cho Chiik pa U'chuli yangt .liijii Mai oho The biil.ii Yomba U'tok yang Giiii .jiing 1 .r,_.lL, ll -LHl The llli KrSn cho K..I «..lu Kiigak ma An bo l.'ll to Gi.fii. fn-f a rim] d.uif Hallo Kul ln.l Kuyoli ttive lish Pbeb daba I L6a kona | Kuni pliba V t!Zni£ng Kona P U Ch.m khd nva II. 1 'l.lit p I' Ml K i phella Phemdawa , ant 1'uli PhleTid caret caret MehM Tok pSngJ rii.'.i.u I.b.'.ng I li.il.n Dh&ho 1 i Y.~li.i Y'.ni. Yomyang Giinsi J hen ba llii.li., Gy, o Ni.inii Il.tanir Blap chi Tvnnu BUS Mhiincho Hali Wiiit' ma Kwi phlii PhoTdang Has. II. Hi Bona r.... - i ..I Set lab ma Sail Pitya Phi .' TmI.Iv .:, i" ba ndjeet ves arc like Burmese : rya 'it is good,' an.l hung, ditto ; a-ryu-yn and «L,n,.j 'goi is block : - k," in botb tongues. *e final is the common imp. sigu = the a, o, u, of other tniifu.^. Tin- jur. . Mint; r..ns..ii,inr ,l..n ■ I ; s the dental 1, i/, or it is the labiaW., f >. ,, ... -unm M I . ie the eimplu radical mere. lv. or a liquid (/, r) Limbii and Kiiaim oolnmnaj and in. .si i.i.iitily. Tim Lo: BiQt, Biya— root, Be, Bi : Sere, Stru— root 6*6 lastly, the sibilant I.. nns the coningational sign. If we turn to the larelully the ro.it. tb.i ivM-inblaii... "I lli.wnnji I Aug penultimate is partitiv... 'I ii. s II|l S 1 -"I '.-'■■-.^-ja ^ g .%i j : - £ r- s s._ s ; a p= • . 4-> ■ - ? ~~ IllllllrSpCI's tv « si 11 ■3" i ^^ '= s fii i% Ail fti^PI SsS'-UJ s 3 J •? .s I Z -g - is I a si •-'£ g jf«* a S Si family dZ*2si I"? 1.9'" §'s' S 'f'a a a* «'ai| c = -l's ; § * §•" g .1 j lid ,"cSl :a^ s :-,.,- • =: r il^ i S . 'l^-alf' .''' 5 ^ S .L i ~ -r 3 '-jS s, 'C ^ — 1 1'- 1 ■§■ s j I * 'M Is a 1 S 3 = = S-i- • PART II. ON THE PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF THE HIMALAYA.* A clear outline, illustrated by a sketch map of the principal natural divisions of the Himalaya §, is, and long has been, a great desideratum; for physical geo- graphy, which derives so many aids from the other physical sciences, is expected in return to render back to them, without unnecessary delay, a distinct demarca- tion of its own provinces, since by that alone researchers in so many departments are enabled to refer the respective phsenomena they are conversant with to their appropriate local habitations, in a manner that shall be readily intelligible causally significant, and wholly independent of the shifting and unmeaning arron- dissements of politics. It is true, that our knowledge of the large portion of these mountains, lying beyond the limits of British dominion, is far from complete. But is our know- ledge any thing like complete of our own hill-possessions ? and, if we are to wait until Nepal, Sikim, and Bhutan become thoroughly accessible to science, must we not indefinitely postpone a work, the most material part of which may (I think) be performed with such information as we now possess ? The details of geography, ordinarily so called, are wearisomely insignificant ; but the grand features of physical geography have a pregnant value, as being alike suggestive of new knowledge, and facilitative of the orderly distribution and ready retention of old. I purpose to adhere to those grand features, and to exhibit them in that causal connexion which gives them their high interest with men of cultivated minds. I had been for several years a traveller in the Himalaya, before I could get rid of that tyranny of the senses, which so strongly impresses almost all beholders of this stupendous scenery with the conviction that the mighty maze is quite without a plan. My first step towards freedom from this overpowering obtru- *ExtracteJ from the Selections from the Records of the Government of Bengal, No, xxvii, Calcutta 1857. (Reprinted from the Jour. As. Soc. Bengal for 1849.) § Hima 'snow,' Alaya ' place of. ' The compound is Himalaya, not Himalaya as usually pronounced. The synonymes Himaehala and Himodaya (whence the Classic JEmoolus) mean, respectively, 'snowy mountain' and 'place of appearance of snow (udaya). ' 2 GEOGEAPHY OF THE HIMALAYA. siveness of impressions of sense was obtained by steady attention to the fact, that the vast volume of the Himalayan waters flows more or less at right angles to the general direction of the Himalaya, but so that the numberless streams of the mountains are directed into a few grand rivers of the plains, either at or near the confines of the two regions. My next step was due to the singular significance of the topographic nomenclature of the Nepalese, whose " Sapt Gandaki " and " Sapt Kausika "J rivetted my attention upon the peculiar aqueous system of the Himalayas, urging me thenceforward to discover, if possible, what cause operated this marked convergence of innumerable transverse parallel streams, so as to bring them into a limited series of distinct main rivers. My third and last step was achieved when I discovered that the transcendant elevation and forward position, at right angles to the line of ghats, of the great snowy peaks, presented that causal agency I was in search of; the remotest radiating points of the feeders of each great river being coincident with the successive loftiest masses* belonging to the entire extent of the Himalaya. It was in Nepal that this solu- tion of these problems occurred to me, and so uniformly did the numerous routes I possessed represent the points of extreme divergence of the great rivers by their feeders as syntopical with the highest peaks, that I should probably long ago have satisfied myself upon the subject, if my then correspondent, Captain Herbert, had not so decidedly insisted on the very opposite doctrine — to wit, that the great peaks intersect instead of bounding the principal alpine river basins. Captain Herbert's extensive personal conversancy with the Western Himalaya, added to his high professional attainments, made me for a long time diffident of my own views. But the progress of events, and increasing knowledge of other parts of the chain, seeming to confirm the accuracy of those views, it occurred to me more carefully to investigate whether the facts and the reason of the case were not, upon the whole, demonstrative of the inaccuracy of that able and lamented officer's dogma. Doubtless the Western Hirualaya§ presents appearances calculated to sustain Captain Herbert's opinion, whilst such persons only as are unaccustomed to deal with the classifications of science, will expect them to correspond point by point with those natural phenomena, which it is at least one chief merit of such arrangements, merely to enable us readily to grasp and retain. But that the entire body of facts now within our ken is upon the whole opposed to Captain H.'s doctrine,t and that that doctrine suits ill with the recognized axioms of Geology and Geography, is, I think, certain ; and I shall with diffidence now pro- ceed to attempt the proof of it. JSee Journal Asiat. Soc. of Bengal, No. 198, for December 1848, p. 646 &c. *This expression is used advisedly, f°r every pre-eminent elevation of the Hima- laya is not so much a peak as a cluster of peaks springing from a huge sustaining and connected base. But observe, some of the peaks are not advanced before the ghat- line, but thrown back behind it, as Chumalari and Devadhunga or Nyanam. These do not influence the aqueous system of the Indian slope of Himalaya ; see on, to remark on Chumalari. This is a new inference from new facts in part. § The Western Himalaya, as it approaches the Belur, is in many respects anomalous, owing, as I conceive, to the crossing of that meridional chain. The true and normal Himalaya is parallelic or runs west and east. t Journal No. 126, extra pp. 20 and 22. GEOGRAPHY OF THE HIMALAYA. 3 A tyro in geology, I shall not dwell further on the" theoretical side of the question than may be requisite to facilitate and complete the apprehension of my readers ; but the facts, quoad Nepal at least, I trust, that my sketch map, rude as it is, and the following obseiwations, may render sufficiently indisputable ; it being always remembered that I deal with generals, not particulars, aiming to estab- lish the general accuracy of my main proposition, viz., that the great peaks, bound instead of intersecting the alpine river basins, and that, in truth, the peaks by so bounding create the basins, whereas their intersection would destroy them. The whole Himalaya extends from 78 deg. to 94 deg. of longitude, comprising the following peaks and basins: — peak of Jamnoutri (a), peak of Nanda-devi (A), peak of Dhoula-giri (B), peak of Gosain-than (C), peak of KangchanJ (D), peak of Chumalhari (E), peak of the Gemini§ (e) — which peaks include and constitute the following alpine river basins, viz., that of the Ganges, that of the Karnali, that of the Gandak, that of the Cosi, that of the Tishta, that of the Monas, and that of the Subhansri (pars). The subjoined table exhibits the elevation and the position of these dominant peaks, with the authority for both. a Jamnoutri . . . . 25,669 30° 55 78° 12 A Nanda-devi . . 25,598 30° 22 79° 50 15 Dhoula-giri . . 27,600 29° 10 83° C Gosain-than , , . 24,700 28° 20 86° I) Kang-chan . . 28,176 27° 42 88° 10 E Chumalhari , . 23,929 27° 52 89° 18 e Gemini J 21,600 1 • ) 21,476 ( 27° 50 92° 50 The Himalaya proper is traced along the line of the ghats or passes into Tibet ; and the principal passes of Nepal and Sikini into Tibet, or Taklakkar, Mustang, Keriing, Kiiti, Hatia, Walking, Lachen. Along the last low range of hills are the Maris or Dhvins within the range, and the position of the Bhaver and Tarai* without it. Sallyan-mari, Gongtali-mari, Chitwan-mari, Makwani-mari, and Bijaj^pur-niari are so many Nepalese samples of those singular quasi valleys, termed Dhuns to the westward. § In the plateau of Tibet I have indicated the limits of the northern and southern divisions, and in the latter those of the three great Trans-Himalayan provinces, X Kang 'snow' ; chan 'abounding in,' 'having,' like the English suffix full in fearful, etc., Chumalhari, holy mountain of Chuma. § I have so named the two proximate peaks of nearly equal height, which are inserted without name in Pemberton's large map, in long. 92 deg. 50 min, lat. 27 deg. 50 min. || Cf. J. A.S. Nos. 126 and 197 ; Asiatic Researches, vol. xii ; also Pemberton's Report and Map. * Tarai, tarei, or tareiani, equal to 'lowlands,' 'swampy tract at the base of the hills,' seems to be a genuinely Turanian word, and were the map of India carefully examined, many more such pre-Arian terms would probably be discovered, to prove the universal spread over the Continent of that earlier race, which is now chiefly confined to the Dec- can. Tar in Tamil, Tal in Catiarese, means 'to be low,' and the affixes ei of Tar-ei, and M of Tareia-ni, are, the former, Tamilian, and the latter, very general, in or ni being the genitival and inflexional sign of several Southern and Northern tongues of the Turanian group of languages. The 'Thai' of Cutch is a term precisely equivalent to our Tarei, and is the merely aspirate form of Canarese Tal above cited. (Another etymology was proposed by Lassen's Ind. Alt., i. 69.) § See J! A.S. No. 126, p. 33, et seq., and p. 134. 4 GEOGRAPHY OF THE HIMALAYA. or Gnari, extending (from the Belur) easterly to the Gangri boundary range of Lake Mapharn ; Utsang, thence stretching to the Gakbo River beyond Lhasa ; and Kharn, which reaches from the Gakbo River to the Yiinling, or limitary range of China and Tibet. || Thus reverting to the regions south of the line of ghats leading into Tibet, we have, clearly defined, the several natural provinces or divisions of the Himalaya, with their casual distribution, as follows, commencing from the westward — 1st, the alpine basin of the Ganges, extended from the peak of Jamnoutri to the peak of Nanda-devi (Juwar or Juwahir), or, in other words, from east long. 78° 12' to 79° 50' ; 2nd, the alpine basin of the Karnali, reaching from the peak of Nanda-devi to that of Dhoula-giri, or from 79° 50' to 83° ; 3rd, the alpine basin of the Gandak, stretching from the peak of Dhoula-giri to that of Gosain-than, or from 83° to 86° ; 4th, the alpine basin of the Cosi, ex- tending from the peak of Gosain-than to that of Kangchan, or from 80° to 88° 10' ; 5th, the alpine basin of the Tishta, reaching from the peak of Kangchan to that of Chumalhari. or from 88° 10' to 89° 18' ; 6th, the alpine basin of the M6- nas, stretching from the peak of Chumalhari to that of Gemini, or from 89° 18' to 92 J 50' ; and, lastly, the alpine basin of the Subhansri, of which the western limit is the Gemini, but the eastern peak is unascertained. It should be sought somewhere about 94° 50', between which point and the extreme eastern limits of the Himalaya must be the basin of the Dihong. That the above distribution of the Himalaya into natural districts is, upon the whole, as consistent with the facts as it is eminently commodious and highly suggestive, I have no hesitation of asserting. Lest, however, I should extend my present essay to undue limits, or trench upon the province of Colonel Waugh and the other able professional men who are now engaged upon the western hills, I shall say nothing further of the alpine valley of the Ganges and those west of it, nor upon those lying east of Sikim.* If my main assumption be valid, it will be easily worked out by abler hands and better furnished ones than mine : wherefore the following more detailed expositions will be chiefly confined to the three great central basins of the Karnali, the Gandak, and the Cosi. In the first of these basins we have (succes- sively from west to east) the Sarju, the Gori, the Kali, the Sweti-ganga, the Karnali proper, the Bheri, and the Jhingrak or Rapti.f And it is certain that, whereas || See Routes from Kathmandu to Peking in sequel and paper on Horsok and Sifan. Sifan is the eastern boundary of Kham, which commences, on the line of route from Nepal at Sangwa, the 51st stage, and extends to Tachindo, the 104th and political boundary of Tibet and China. The Yiinliiig chain seems to run along the western verge, of Sifan. * In the sequel I shall give the river basins of the Western Himalaya upon the authority of Dr. Thomson, in order to complete the enumeration of Himalayan dis- tricts, but simply as results, and without discussion. Dr. T. 's river distribution proceeds on the same principle as mine, which was published three years prior to his. I think he has needlessly increased the number of basins and thereby almost marred the effect of the causal connection of them with the geological structure of the mountains. + This identification is probably erroneous, though adopted by Buchanan. The Jhingrak with a higher source is turned into the Karnali by the Dhoula-giri ridge ; the proximate Raputi is not so influenced, owing to its lower source, and hence has an independent course through the plains to the Ganges, like the Gumti, etc., as enumerated in the sequel. GEOGRAPHY OF THE HIMALAYA. 5 these streams drain the whole alpine valley of the Karnali, so their most west- erly source and course is confined on the west hy the Nanda-devi peak, as their most easterly is limited on the east hy that of Dhoula-giri. These rivers do not wholly unite within the hills, though their tendency to union is so decided, that they are known by one name, even in the plains, where their collective appellation is Sarju or Kali or Ghdgra. In the hills the whole of them are universally de- nominated by the collective name of Karnali (corrupted by Tlennell and his fol- lowers into Kenar). Karnali is the proper nanie of this noble river, the Karnali branch being by far the largest, the central, and most remote of origin. It rises in Tibet, not far from one of the sources of the Sutlej, and has a considerable Trans- Himalayan course to the westward of the Taklakhar pass, where it quits Tibet. No natural district can be more distinct than the alpine basin of the Karnali, as above defined. It includes the political divisions of Kali-Kumaun, belonging to Britain, and of the Baisi, or twenty-two Bajes of Nepal, with Yiimila or Jiimla, Ddti, and Sallyan. In the second basin, or that of the Gandak, we have, succes- sively from the west, as before, the Barigar, the Narayani, the Sweti-gandaki, the Marsyangdi, the Daramdi, the Gandi, and the Trisul. These are the " Sapt Gan- daki '' or seven Gandaks of the Nepalese, and they unite on the plainward verge of the mountains at Tirbeni above Saran. They drain the whole hills between Dhoula-giri and Gosain-than, the Berigar, and one head of the Narayani, rising from the former barrier, and the Trisul, with every drop of water supplied by its affluents from the latter. Nor does a single streamlet of the Trisul arise east of the peak of Gosain-than, nor one driblet of the Berigar deduce itself from the westward of Dhoula-giri. We have thus in the alpine basin of the Gandak another admirably defined natural division comprised within two great proximate Hima- layan peaks. This division is named, vernacularly, the Sapt Gandaki. It in- cludes the old Choubisi or twenty-four Bajes, and belongs to the modern kingdom of Nepal. Our third sample of a Himalayan natural province, conterminous with the utmost spread of the feeders of a large river, and bounded on either hand by a prime snowy peak, is the basin of the Cosi, which, like the Gandak ,has seven principal feeders These are as follows : — the Milamchi, the Bhotia Cosi, the Tamba Cosi, the Likhu, the Dud Cosi, the Arun, and the Tamor.* Of these, the Milamchi, rising from Gosain-than, is the most westerly, and the Tamor, rising from Kan- gchan, is the most easterly feeder.f And those two great peaks, with the pre- eminent ridges they send forth southwards, include every drop of water that reaches the great Cosi of the plains through its seven alpine branches. All these branches, as in the case of the Gandak, unite at (Varaha Kshetra above Nathpiir) within the hills, so that the unity of this alpine basin also is as clear, as are its limitary peaks and its extent. * Tamor, Hindi equivalent to Tamvar, Sanskrit. So Dhoula-giri for Dhawala-giri, and Jamnoutri for Jamnavatari. I have throughout adopted the vernacular forms of words as being more familiar and quite as correct. t See J. A. S. No. 189. Route from Kathmandii to Daijeeling. b GEOGRAPHY OF THE HIMALAYA. The alpine basin of the Cosi is denominated by the Nepalese the Sapt Kausika, or country of the seven Cosis. It comprises the old Rajes'of the Kinintis,* Limbiis, and Kala Makwanis, and is included, like the two prior basins, in the modern kingdom of Nepal. The country drained by the above three rivers (Karnali, Gandak, and Cosi) includes the whole of Nepal and the proximate part of Kiiinaun, or, in other words, 800 miles of the central and most characteristic portion of the Himalaya. Wherefore it is legitimately presumable that, whatever is true of its natural divisions, is true of those of the residue, quoad ruling principle and geological causation. Now if the above facts relative to these three rivers be justly represented (and that they are so, in the main, I confidently assert), we are led irresistibly to inquire why the numerous large feeders of the rivers, instead of urging their impetuous way from the snows to the plains by independent courses, are brought together upon or near the verge of the plains ? how unity is effected among them, despite the interminable maze of ridges they traverse, and despite the straight- downward impulse given them at their sources ? — I answer, it is because of the superior elevation of the lateral barriers of these river basins, between which there are synclinal slopes of such decided preponderance, that they over-rule the effect of all other inequalities of surface, how vast soever the latter may some- times be. These lateral barriers of the river basins are crowned by the pre-eminent Himalayan peaks, that the peaks themselves have a forward position in respect to the ghat-line or great longitudinal watershed between Tibet and India, and that from these stupendous peaks, ridges are sent forth southwards proportionably im- mense. Thus from the peak of Kangchan is sent forth the ridge of Singilela, which towers as loftily over all the other sub-Himalayan ridges of Eastern Nepal and Western Sikim, as does Kangchan itself over all the other Himalayan peaks. This Singilelan prolongation (so to speak) of Kangchan entirely separates the waters. of the Cosi and of the Tishta. A similar ridge, that of Dayabkang,f stretching south from the great peak of Gosain-than, as entirely divorces the waters of the Cosi and of the Gandak. Another like ridge rising from Dhoula-giri as effectually sunders the waters of the Gandak and of the Karnali. Another start- ing from Nanda-devi in like manner wholly separates the proximate feeders of the Karnali and of the Ganges ; whilst yet another originating with Jamnoutri wholly separates the Ganges from the Jumna. Equally effective with the divergent power of each of these supremely peaked ridges, which run parallel to each other and at right angles to the ghat-line of the snowy range, upon two river-basins, as just noticed, is of course the convergent * The classical Cirrhatce, and a' once dominant and powerful race, though they have long since succumbed to the political supremacy of other races — first the Makwanis and then the Gorkluilis. t Hence the name Dhailn'mg, erroneously applied by Colonel Crawfurd to the peak Dayahhang, 'the destroyer of pity,' from the severity of the ascent. GEOGRAPHY OF THE HIMALAYA. 7 power of two ridges upon the single contained river-basin. The synclinal lines from the inner laces of the two adjacent ridges draw the waters together; and, because these ridged peaks are the loftiest masses of the entire mountains, the effect of all their other masses, even that of the spine of Himachal or the ghat-line of the snows, is over-ruled or modified, so that in the most rugged region on earth a very limited series of distinct main rivers appears in the plains from innumerable independent alpine feeders, in the manner which all behold, but few indeed think of referring to its cause.* It is inconsistent with all we know of the action of those hypogene forces which raise mountains, to suppose that the points of greatest intensity in the pristine action of such forces, as marked by the loftiest peaks, should not be surrounded by a proportionate circumjacent intumescence of the general mass ; and, if there be such an intumescence of the general surface around each pre-eminent Himalayan peak, it will follow, as clearly in logical sequence as in plain fact it is apparent, that these grand peak-crowned ridges will determine the essential character of the aqueous distribution of the very extended mountainous chain (1,800 miles) along which they occur at certain palpable and tolerably regular intervals. Now, that the infinite volume of the Himalayan waters is, in fact, pretty regularly dis- tributed into a small number of large rivers, we all see ; and, whereas the fact is thoroughly explicable upon my assumption, that the great peaks bound, instead of intersecting, the river-basins, it is wholly inexplicable upon Captain Herbert's assumption that the said peaks intersect the basins. The above are normal samples of Himalayan water-distribution, and it is very observable that, whereas all those principal streams which exhibit the uniti- zing principle so decidedly, take their origine in the alpine region, at or near the snows, so the inferior streams, which rise from the middle region only, show no such tendency to union, but pursue their solitary routes to the Ganges ; as for example, the Mahanada, the Konki, the Bagmatti, the Guniti, the Raputi, the ( Willa, and the Ramganga. Here is both positive and negative evidence in favour of the doctrine I advocate, as furnishing the key to the aqueous system and natural divisions of the Himalaya; for the upper rivers do, and the lower rivers do not, stand exposed to the influence of the great peaks. The petty streams of the lower region, or that next the plains, which water the Dhiins or Maris, traverse those valleys lengthwise; and as the valleys themselves run usually parallel to the ghat-line of the snows, such is also the direction of these petty streams. In the central, as in the western,* hills, they usually disem- bogue into the rivers of the first class. * Since this was written a new peak of transcendant height has been determined, which yet does not influence the river basins of the Indian slope. The reason is that this peak is thrown back behind tbe ghat-line like Chumalhari, as to which see on. Such facts need not affect the justice of what is written above, but must be regarded as exceptional, at least for the present. * J. A.S. No. 126, p. xxxiii. 8 GEOGRAPHY OF THE HIMALAYA. I have observed that the three great river basins of the Karnali, Gandak, and Cosi extend throughout Nepal, and truly so ; for a river basin includes the widest space drained by its feeders. But it results necessarily from the manner in which the deltic basins of the Himalayan rivers are formed, that there should be intervals between the plainward apices of these deltic basins. Of these intervals the most conspicuous in Nepal is that which intervenes between the Cosi and Gandak. This tract, watered by the Bagmatti, deserves separate mention on many accounts, and it may be conveniently styled the valley region, since it con- tains not only the great valley of Nepal proper, but also the subordinate vales of Chitlong, Banepa, and Panouti. It has been already remarked, that the classifications of physical geography, as of the other sciences, do not constitute a perfect " open sesame " to the mysteries of nature, but only a material help to their study. This observation I will illustrate by a few comments on the basin of the Tishta, lest the somewhat anomalous instance of that basin should be captiously quoted to impugn the doctrine I con- tend for; but contend for, not as exhibiting in every instance an absolute confor- mity with natural arrangements, but as doing all that can be reasonably expected in that way, and as furnishing, upon the whole, a generally truthful, causally significant, and practically useful, indication of those arrangements. I have stated above, that the basin of the Tishta extends from the peak of Kangchan to that of Chumalhari. Between these two peaks there occurs what miners call " a fault " in the ghat-line of the snows, which line, after proceeding N. Easterly from the Lachen pass to Powhanry,J dips suddenly to the south for nearly forty miles, and then returns to Chumalhari. A triangular space called Chunibi is thus detached from the Himalaya and attached to Tibet ; and the basin of the Tishta is thus narrowed on the east by this salient angle of the snows, which cuts off the Chiimbi district from the Tishtan basin, instead of allowing that basin to stretch easterly to the base of Chumalhari. Chiimbi is drained by the Machii of Campbell, which is doubtfully referred to the Torsha of the plains, but which may possibly be identical with the Hachu of Turner and Griffiths, § and consequently with the Gaddada of the plains. But besides that these points are still unsettled, one of the transnivean feeders of the Tishta rounds Pow- X Vide Waugh's outline of the snowy range of Sikim, J. A. S. loc. cit. § Embassy to Tibet and J. A. S. Nos. 87 and 88, with sketch maps annexed. Also Pemberton's large map of the Eastern frontier. Rennell is not easily recon- cilable with them. I had identified the lakes of Cholanni, which give rise to the Tish- ta, with Turner's lakes. But I now learn from Hooker, that the latter lie a good deal east of the former, and I am satisfied that Campbell's Machii is distinct from Turner's Hachu. We need, and shall thus find, space in the hills, correspondent to that in the plains watered by Rennell's Torsha and Saradingoh and Gaddada and Suncosi. The Machii, (Maha tchieu of Turner) rises from the west flank of Chumalhari The Hachu of Turner is a feeder joining his Tehin chii from the west ; the Chaan chu of Turner is the Sunc6si (the Eastern Suncosi, for there are two there, besides that of Ne- pal, ) of Rangpur, his Tehin chu is the Gaddada, and his Maha chu the Torsha. The Aran has its rise in the broken country of Tibet lying north-east and west of the sources of the Tishta and south of the Kambala, or great range forming the southern boundary of the valley of the Yaru ; this broken country Dr. Hooker estimates at from sixteen to eighteen thousand feet above the sea. It is a good deal terraced near Hirndchal. GEOGRAPHY OF THE HIMALAYA. 9 haniy and rises from a lake (Cholarnii) approximating to Chunialhari ; so that, one way or another, the Tishta may be said, without much violence, to spread its basin from Kangchan to Chumalhari. Chiimbi and all the adjacent parts of the plateau of Tibet constitute a region as singular as is the access to it from Sikim by the Lachen pass. That pass sur- mounted, you at once find yourself, without descent, upon an open undulated swardy tract, through which the eastern transnivean feeders of the Tishta and of the Arvin sluggishly and tortuously creep, as though loath to pass the Ilinia laya, towards which indeed it is not easy to perceive how they are impelled ; the plateau of Tibet generally sloping on their right to Digarchi, and seeming to invite the streams that way. This is however of course a water-shed, though by no means a palpable one ; and we know by the signal instances of the vast rivers of South America and those of North-eastern Europe, how inconspicuous some- times are the most important water-sheds of the globe. The sources and courses of the feeders of the Tishta will shortly be fully illustrated by Dr. Hooker, my enterprizing and accomplished guest, to whom I am indebted for the above informa- tion relative to the Lachen pass and its vicinity, and whose promised map of Sikim, which state is the political equivalent for the basin of the Tishta, will leave nothing to be desired further on that head.* But the Himalaya must necessarily be contemplated in its breadth as well as its length ; and we have therefore still to consider what regional divisions belong to these mountains in relation to their breadth, or the distance between the ghat- line of the snows and the plains of India. The Himalayan mountains extend from the great bend of the Indus to the great bend of the Brahmaputra, or from Gilgit to Brahmakiind, between which their length is 1,800 miles. Their mean breadth is (reckoning from the ghats and purposely omitting the questions of axis and count erslope) about ninety miles; the maximum, about 110, and the minimum, seventy miles. The mean breadth of ninety miles may be most conveniently divided into three equal portions, each of which will therefore have thirty miles of extent. These transverse climatic divi- sions must be, of course, more or less arbitrary, and a microscopic vision would be disposed to increase them considerably beyond three, with reference to geo- logical, to botanical, or to zoological, phenomena. But upon comparing Cap- tain Herbert's distribution of geological phenomena with my own of zoological, and Dr. Hooker's of botanical, I am satisfied that three are enough. These regions I have alreadyf denominated the lower, the middle, and the upper. They extend from the external margin of the Tarai to the ghat-line of the snows. The lower region may be conveniently divided into — I. the sand-stone range with its contained Dhuns or Maris — II. the Bhaver or Saul forest — III. the Tarai. The other two regions require no sub-divisions. The following appear to be those demarcations by height which most fitly indicate the three regions : — *The reader will observe that this paper was written in 1846. i J. A. S. for December 1847 and June 1848. to GEOGRAPHY OF THE HIMALATA. Name. Elevational limits. Lower region Level of the plains to 4,003 f -et above the sea. Central region . . . . 4,000 to 10,000 feet above the sea. Upper region 10,000 to 16,000f feet above the sea: highest peak measured is 23,002 feet. It is needless to remind those who are conversant with physical geography, that in passing in a tropical country, by a long and gradual ascen f , from near the sea level to several (4-6) miles above it, one iumt necessarily meet with regions equivalent, quoad organic phsenomena, to the three great zones of the earth, or the tropical, the temperate, and the arctic; and, in fact, our three regions above indicated Correspond in the main with those zones, and might be named after them, but that it is desirable to avoid terms involving theory, when those designating mere facts will suffice. But to resume. It is thus made apparent that the Himalaya, or, to be more precise, the Indian slope of the Himalaya, admits of a double series of natural and convenient divisions, those of length being coincident with the basins of the main livers, and those of breadth with a triple division on the scale of elevations, from that of the plains to that of the perpetual snow, which latter tallies pretty nearly with the mean height of the passes into Tibet, or sixteen to seven- teen thousand feet. But, as the plains are customaiily divided into the upper, central, and lower provinces, so the Himalaya, in reference to its length, may be Conveniently divided, when larger divisions than those of the river basins need to be spoken of, into the western, embracing the basins of the Jhilum, Chinab, Bias, Ravi, Satluj, Jamna, Ganges, Ghagra, within the British territories ; the cen- tral, including the basins of the Karnali, the Gandak, and the Cosi, within those of Nepal; and the eastern, embracing the basins of the Tishta, Monas, Subhansri, and Dihong, which include Sikim, (now half British), Bhutan, and the territories of the disunited lawless tribes lying east of Bhutan. And it is very observable that, in respect of climate, the above suggested analogous divisions of the plains and mountains correspond, for the more you go westward in plains or mountains, the greater becomes the dryness of the air and the extremes of heat and cold. But the grand determiner of climate, as dependent on heat, in all parts of the Himalaya, is elevation, which acts so powerfully and uniformly, that for every thou- sand feet of height gained, you have a diminution of temperature equal to 3 3 or 3|° of Fahrenheit: consequently the transverse regions, notwithstanding their proximity, show, upon the whole, a much more palpable variety of climate than is incident to the lengthwise divisions of the chain, how remote soever they may be. But in reference to moisture, the next element of climate, the case is somewhat altered, for every movement towards the west (N.W.) along the lengthwise development of the Himalaya, carries you further and further out of % This is aliout the average height of the ghats and of the perpetual snow. It is also nearly the limit of possible investigation, and of the existence of organic phseno- mena. -But the upward limit need not lie rigorously assigned — 4,000 is the limit of snow-fall to the south, well tested in thirty years — 4,000 is also that point which best indicates the distinction of healthful and malarious sites. GEOGRAPHY OP THE HIMALAYA. II the line of the rainy monsoon, which is the grand source of supply of moisture. The third determining and very active cause of climate operates throughout the chain, determining chiefly the specific differences. It consists in the number, height, and direction of the ridges interposed between any given position and the direction of the S. W. or rainy monsoon ; for, each of these ridges, crossing more or less directly the course of the vapour from the ocean, has a most marked effect in diminishing the quantity of rain and moisture behind such covering ridge, so that, inasmuch as by receding from the plains towards the snows, you interpose more and more of these ridges, you find not only temperature falling with eleva- tion gained (as a general rule,) but also greater dryness of air, less moisture, more sunshine, (and so far more heat) ; and, as a general consequence, a gradual diminu- tion of that excessive natural vegetation, arboreal and other, which is the uni- versal characteristic of these mountains; yet still with greater power in the cli- mate of these remoter districts of ripening grains and fruits of artificial growth, owing to the diminished rain and increased sunshine of summer, and in spite of the general decrease of the temperature of the air. That combination of tropical heat and moisture to which we owe the generally " gorgeous garniture " of moun- tains so stupendous has, at low elevations, the bad effect of generating a malaria fatal to all but the peculiar tribes, whom ages untold have been inured to it, and whose power of dwelling with impunity in such an atmosphere is a physiological fact of very great interest. The tribes adverted to are called Awalias, from dival, the name of malaria. The whole of what I have denominated the "lower-region," as well as all the deep beds of the larger rivers of the "central region," lying much below what I have given as the elevational demarcation of the two regions, or four thousand feet, are subject to the dioal. After what has been stated, it will be seen at once, that tables of temperature, rain-fall, and moisture, could, if given, only hold true of the exact spots where they were registered. The latitude in a small degree, but in a far greater, the longitude, or posi- tion with reference to the course of the rainy monsoon — the number of inter- posed ridges crossing that course — and the elevation, are the circumstances deter- mining the heat and moisture, that is, the climate, of any given spot of the Eastern, Central, or Western Himalaya. There are amazing differences of climate in very proximate places of equal elevation, caused by their relative position to covering ridges, and also, as has been proved experimentally, by the effects of clearance of the forest and undergrowth, and letting in the sun upon the soil. The general course of the seasons is the tropical, with cold and dry weather, from October to March, and wet and hot weather from April to September, correspondent to the duration of the N.E. and S.W. monsoons. The springs and autumns, how- ever, are more clearly marked than the latitude would promise, and from the middle of March to the middle of May, and again, from the middle of September to the middle of December, the weather is delightful. From the middle of December 12 GEOGRAPHY OF THE HIMALAYA. to the end of February is the least agreeable portion of the year, being cloudy and rainy or snowy, with cold enough to make the wet tell disagreeably, which it does not do in the genial season of the rains. The general character of the climate is derived from its combined and great equability and temperateness. For months the thermometer hardly ranges 5° day and night, and that about " tempe- rate" of Fahrenheit, or the perfection of temperature ; and altogether, the climate is one of the safest (I here speak of the central and normal region) and most enjoyable in the world. The wind is generally moderate, except in March, when the " Phagwa " of the N.W. plains reach us, but shorn of its fervour. The quantity of electricity is, on the whole, small, and storms are nearly confined to the setting in and close of the rainy season. Epidemics are very rare ; endemics almost unknown ; so that it would be difficult to cite a Himalayan, disease, unless such must be called dyspepsia. Goitre is more or less prevalent, but not often accom- panied by cretanism. The general character of the surface in all parts of the Himalaya is a perpetual succession of vast ridges, highly sloped, and having very narrow interposed glens. Valleys properly so called are most rare. There are, in fact, only two throughout the great extent from Gilgit to Brahmakimd, or those of Cashmere and Nepal, the latter only sixteen miles in either diameter. Lakes also are small and very infrequent. Three or four in Kiimaiin, and two or three in Western Nepal (Pokra), in both cases juxta-posed, constitute the whole nearly. But it seems certain that lakes were more frequent in some prior geological era, and that the present valleys of Cashmere and Nepal once existed in a lacastrine state. The Himalayan ridges are remarkable for the absence of chasm and rupture, and their interminable uniform lines, with the similarity of tone in the verdure of the ceaseless forests, (owing to the rarity of deciduous trees), detract somewhat from those impressions of grandeur and beauty, which mountains so stupendous and so magnificently clothed are calculated to convey. The transverse or climatic division of the Himalaya, though of course most noticeable and important in reference to organic phsenomena, is also worth attention, in regard to inorganic ones. I shall however say little of the geology or of the botany of the Himalaya, abler pens than mine having now treated the subject. A little more space may be given to the ethnology and zoology, both as matters I myself am more conversant with, and which still have a deal of novelty in reference to geo- graphical distributions particularly. Every part of the chain abounds in minerals, particularly iron and copper ; lead, zinc, sulphur, plumbago, in less degree. Mineral springs, both hot and cold, sapid and insipid, are generally diffused, and I am aware of other instances of lambent flame issuing in the fashion of the well-known Jwalamukhi of the Punjab, which superstition has consecrated. There is no lime-formation, and the mineral is very rare as a deposit : salt is unknown, though it abounds across the snows. So also the precious metals. Minerals and mineral springs are most frequent in the central region, so likewise the iron and copper veins: organic fossil remains and the small traces of coal, almost or quite peculiar to the lower region, GEOGRAPHY OF THE HIMALAYA. 13 arid far more abundant to the N.W. than to the S.E. In geology the upper region may be called the locale of granites and gneisses ; the middle region that of gneisses and schists; the lower region that of the sandstone formation and of diluvial debris. It may be added that granite is much more extensively developed in the upper region than had been supposed, and that igneous rocks are by no means so entirely wanting: indeed, igneous action is displayed to a stupendous extent in the hypogene rocks, both stratified and unstratified, of the upper and central regions. There are no volcanos, active or extinct. Slight earthquakes are very frequent : severe ones, rare ; very severe ones, unknown. In botany the upper region is that of Junipers, Cypresses, Cedars, Larches, Yews, Poplars, Boxes, Dwarf Rhododendrons, Hollies, Willows, Walnuts, Birches, and, in general, of the superior Conifers, particularly to the S.E., for to the N.W. they descend into the middle region, even the stately Cedar, which however is unknown east of Kiimaun. In the second or central region* Birches, Hollies, and Willows recur. It is the region of Oaks, Chesnuts, Horse Chesnuts, Magnolias, Laurels, Alders, Tree Rhododendrons, Cherry and Pear Trees (large and wild), Oleas (forest trees), Maples or Sycamores, Thorns, Ashes, Elms, Horn-beams, Elders, Taper and Wax Trees, Tea Allies, (Eurya and Thea also,t as an importation which has succeeded to perfection, but chiefly below 4,000, Tree Ferns, some few and peculiar Palms (Chamoerops, etc.), and the inferior sorts of Pines. The third or lower region is that of Sauls (Shorea) Sissus (Dalbergia), Acacias and Mimosas, Tunds (Cedrela), Cotton Trees (Bombax), Tree Figs (Elasticus, Indi- cus, Religiosos, etc.), Buteas, Dillenias, Duabangas, Erythrinas, Premnas, some common Palms (Phoenix), etc., but rare and poor, with recurring Tree Ferns, but more rarely than above perhaps, though the Tree and common Ferns, like the great and small bamboos, may be said to be borderers, denoting by their point of contact the transition from the lower to the central region. Pinus longifolia recurs in the lower region, descending to the plains nearly in Nepal, but most of the other Conebearers in Nepal, and still more, east of it, eschew even the central region, abundant as they are therein in the Western Himalaya. So likewise the Tree Rhododendrons in the Eastern Himalaya are apt to retire to the northern region, though in the Central Himalaya they abound in the central region. In zoology, again, to begin with man, the northern region is the exclusive habitat of the Bhotiaa (Cis-Himalavan, called Palusen, Rongbo, Serpa, Siena, Kathbhotia, etc.,) who with their allies the Thakoras and Palrias extend along the whole line of the ghats, and who, with the name, have retained unchanged the lingual and physical characteristics, and even the manners, customs, and dress, of their transnivean brethren. To tbe central region are similarly confined, but each in their own province from east to west, the Mishmis and Mirris, the Bors and Abors, the Kapachors, the Akas, the Daphlas, (east of Bhutan), the * X.B. — Central in length is called, central only, or central Himalaya; central of breadth, central region. + Both tea and coffee plantations are now well advanced in the Eastern Himalaya, with the surest prospect of success. In the Western Himalaya that success is now a fact accomplished. 14 GEOGRAPHY OF THE HIMALAYA. Lhopas (in Bhutan), the Lepshas or Deunjongmaro (in Sikim), the Limbusor Yak- tkumbas, the Yakhas, the Khorahos or Kirantis, the Miirmia or Taniars, the Pahi or Padhi, the Newars, the Sunwars, the Chepangs, the Kusundas, the Vaj*us or Kayus, the Giirungs, the Migars. the Khas or Khasias (in Nepal), the Kohlis, the Doms, the R.ijhis, the Haris, the Garhwalis, the Kanets, the Dogras,* the Kak- kas, the Bambas, the Gakars, the Dardus, the Dunghars (west from Nepal). To the lower region again, and to similarly malarious sites of the middle region, are exclusively confined, the Kocches, the Bodos, the Dhimals, (Sikim and east of it), the Kichaks, the Pallas, the Tharus, the Denwars, the Kiimhas, the Bhramus, the Dahis or Daris, the Kuswars, the Thamis, the Botias (not Bhotia) (in Nepal), the Boksas (in Kiimaun), the Khatirs, the Awaus, the Janjohs, the Chibs, and the Bahoas (west of Kiimaun to the Indus). The Himalayan population is intensely tribe-ish, and is susceptible of a three- fold division of pregnant significance, and quite analagous to what holds true of the aboriginal Indian and Indo-Chinese populations, viz., first, into the dominant or unbroken tribes, such as the Khas, Magar, Gurung, Newar, Murmi, Lepsha, Bodpa, etc. ; second, into the broken tribes, such as nearly all those termed Awalias,t as well as the Chepang, Kusunda, and Ilayu ; third, into the tribes of helot crafts- men : — Of the mountains of Nepal. Of the valley of Nepal. Chun ha, carpenters. P6, executioners and workers in bamboo. Sarki, curriers. Kulu, curriers. Kami, blacksmiths. Nay, butchers. Sunar, gold and silver smiths. Chamakhala, scavengers. Gain, musicians. Bong, Jugi, musicians. Bhanr, ditto, but prostitute Kou, blacksmiths. their women. Dhusi, metallurgists. Damai, tailors. Awa, architects. Agri, miners. Bali, agriculturists. Kumhal or I tters Nou, barbers. Kiuari, j ^ ' Kuma, poLters. Sangat, washermen. Tatti, makers of shrouds. Gatha, gardineis. Sawo, bleeders & suppliers of leeches. Chliipi, dyers. Sikami, carpenters. Dakami, house builders. Lohongkami, stone cutters. * The late Captain Cunningham (in epist. ) refers the Dardurs (Darada) and the Don- ghers to the upper region, as also the Kauets, who extend northward, beyond the Hima- laya, wheie they even form "the mass" on either side the Satluj. They are of mixed origin, like the Khas of Nepal, the Dogras of Punjab, and the Gadhi of Chamba. t A list of Awalias ; — 1 Kocch, 2 Bodo, 3 Dhimal, 4 Garo, 5 Dolkhali, 6 Batar or Bor, 7 Kudi, 8 Hajong, 9 Dhanuk, lOMaraha, 11 Ain't, 12 Kebrat, 13Kichak, 14Palla, 15 Tharuh (not own name in Sallyan), 16 Boksa (Kumaon), 17 Dahi or Darhi (allied to Bhramu), 18 Thami, 19 Pahi or Pahri (allied to Newar and Murmi), 20 Kumha (not own name), 21 Botia (allied to Kuswar), 22 Kuswar, 23 Denwar (allied to two last), 24 Bhramu (allied to Dahi), 25 Vayu (not Awalias but broken tribe), 26 Chepang, and 27 Kusunda (ditto). GEOGRAPHY OF THE HIMALAYA. 15 The position and affinities of the List are still (o me an enigma, as they were when I adverted to them in my work on the Koceh, Bodo, and Dhimal. As black- smiths,* carpenters, curriers, etc., their services are, and ever have been, invalua- ble; yet they are degraded to the extent of being outcasts. Their manners have little, and their tongues nothing, and their physical attributes not much, to d note their race and lineage. Of the other two masses of the population, the unbroken tribes are clearly the more recent immigrants from the north, and in general they are distinguished by languages of the simpler Turanian type, whereas the languages of the other or broken tribes are of the complex or pionornenalized type, tending, like their physical attributes, towards a -simulation with the Dravirian or the Ho, Sontal or Munda, sub-families of the tons of Tur. These broken tribes are de- monstrated by their relative position to be of far older date in the Himalaya as in Indo-China, and perhaps also in India, than the unbroken; and altogether, the phsenoinena of ethnology in the Himalaya warrant the conclusions, that the Hima- layas were peopled by successive swarms from the great Turanian hive, and that its tribes are still traceably akin alike to the Altaic branch of the north and to the Dravirian and Munda of the south.} The Khas, Kanets and Dogras, and several others of the Western Himalaya, are clearly of mixed breed; aboriginal Tartars by the mother's side, but Aiians (Brahman and Kshetriya) by the father's, as I have shown in my memoir on the military tribes of Nepal. (J.A.S.B. May 1833.) In reference to those European speculations touching the peopling of the Indian continent which have been lately raised, chiefly on the basis of my voca- bularies, I may remark generally, that very remotely sundered peiiods of immi- gration, from the north by no means involve totally different routes of immigration, and still less races so trenchantly demarked from all the priorly recognized ones as have been lately assumed and denominated Gangetic, Lohitic, Taic, &c. Every day multiplies the proofs of affinity between the Himalayans and the recognized sub-families of Altaia, Indo-China, and Draviria ; whilst, abating the single fact of the Brahoi tribe having lingual affinities with the Turanians, I see no safe ground for assuming that the sons of Tur entered India generally or exclusively by the well-known route of the immigrant Arians, or by any yet more southerly route. The hundred gates of the Himalaya and of its off-shoots have stood open in all ages ; beyond them, in all ages, have dwelt the diversely tongued and fea- tured tribes of the vastest, and most erratic, and most anciently widespread, but still single branch of the human race ; and, as I find similar diversities of tongue and feature, characterising that branch alike in the Cis and Trans-Himalayan countries, so I believe that the former have been peopled from the latti r by successive incursions along the whole Himalayan ghat line, of races and tribes which there is yet no sufficient ground for contra-distinguishing from all the here- * Of all the unbroken tribes, the Magar alone have their own miners and smiths. See and compare what is told of the old mines and miners of the, Altai. See also a note in my work on the Kocch Bodoand Diurnal. J See paper on Nilgirians, J.A.S.B., and also two essays on the Vayu and Balling tribes, iu the same Journal ^1857). 1 6 GEOGRAPHY OF THE HIMALAYA. tofore recognized ones of the north.* African immigration at any time, and by any route, appears to me a sheer assumption. But it may well be, that some of the sons of Tur entered by the Arian route, and that these were among the earliest immigrants, whose more westerly abode and point of entrance into India is still indicated by the higher structured tongues of their presumed descendants. But we must not forget that there are complex tongues at the eastern as well as at the western extremity of the Altaic region (in its wide sense) ; that many of these tongues are most imperfectly known ; that Sifan and Central Himalaya and Indo-China are now known to be tenanted by races speaking tongues of the com- plex type, some even more complex than the Dravirian, and more allied to the Gond, Ho and Sontaltype ;§ and, above all, that the essential character (including differences and resemblances) of the above adverted to several sub-types of lan- guage, embracing the true affiliation of the races using them, is yet to be deter- mined. So that we can only now safely say that the general relationship of all the sons of Tur in and beyond India is as certain as their more special and close affinities are uncertain.! But to proceed with our zoological enumerations. To the upper region exclu- sively belong, among the ruminants, the bisons (poephagus) and musks, the wild goats (ibex, hemitragus) and wild sheep (pseudois, caprovis) ; among the rodents, the marmots and pikas (lagomys) ; among plantigrades, the bears proper (ursus). In the middle region, true bovines (bos) take the place of the bisons of the upper legion ; bovine and caprine antelopes (budorcas, capricornis, nemorhedus) replace its musks and wild goats and sheep ; common rats and mice, and hares and porcupines and hedgehogs its marmots and pikas ; and sun bears (helarctos) its true bears; whilst the deer family, unknown to the upper region, is here repre- sented onlyj by the anomalous stilt-horns (stylocerus). In the lower region the ox-family is represented by bibos and bubalus (splendid wild types) ; the deer family, here abundant, by rusas, rucervi, axises, and stilt-horns to boot ; the * I allude more particularly to the writings of Prof. Max Midler and Dr. Logan No one can more freely than myself admit the scholastic attainments and skill in the science of grammar of the former, or the immense and skilful industry of the latter. But I demur to their inductions, nor can I see the advantage of multiplying nominal, that is to say, undefined or crudely defined ethnological groups. We must have first a just definition of the family, and thereafter, by and bye, definitions of the several sub-families already recognized, when the definition of the rest may follow. § See the essays on the Yayu and Balling now published in the Jour. As. Soc. Bengal, [a.d. 1857]. "tin my papers on the Nilgirians and in those on the Vayu and Bailing, above alluded to, I have classed the Himalayans under the two great divisions, of such as use prono- menalized and complex and such as use non-pronomenalized and simple tongues. In the memoirs on the Vayu and Bailing, I have analysed their languages as exemplars of the complex type of speech in Himalaya. The double pronomenalization of those two tongues, indicates their close affinity to the Ho-Sontal group of languages of the plains. 1 1 am fully aware that Rusas (samber) are found in the western hills, but a careful consideration of the facts in that part of the Himalaya, with due advertence to the known habits of the group, satisfies me that these Deer have been driven into the west- ern hills by the clearance of the Tarai and Bhaver. For some remarks on this subject, see J.A.S. of Bengal No. 211, for January 1850, page 37. GEOGRAPHY OF THE HIMALAYA. I 7 antelopes by tetracerus, or the four-horned kind ; the rodents by the bambu rats (rizomys) and spiny hares (caprolagus) ; and the bear family by the honey- bears (melursus) ; add to all which that to this region are exclusively confined all the large pachydernies, such as the elephant and rhinoceros ; and the monkeys also (semnopithecus et inacacus), though not so exclusively in their case. The carnivora, again, are represented in the upper region by ounces, by foxes of a large sort (montanus), by the weasels proper, and by the ailuri or catlories ; in the middle region, by the wild dogs (cyon), the marten-weasels, leopards, thick-tailed leopards (macroceloides), wild cats (murmensis, pardochrous, ogilbii), chances or Lybian lynxes (Lybicus), zibets, screwtails (paradoxurus), and priono- dons; and in the lower region by tigers, leopards, hyenas, wolves, jackals,* insectivorous foxes (kokri), bear-badgers (ursitaxus), sand-bears (arctonyx), urvas, mangooses, helictes or Oriental gluttons, small civets (viverrula), hirsute screw- tails, and sharp-faced cats (celidogaster). Zibets and chauses recur in this region frequently, and one small species of mangoose (auropunctata) is found in special spots of the central region. The otters in the upper region are re- presented by the small golden and brown species (aurobrunnea) ; in the central, by monticola and indigitata ; in the lower, by the large Chinese species (Sinensis). Among the squirrels, the great thick-tailed and large purple species (macruroides et purpureus) belong solely to the lower region ; the small lokries (locria et locro- ides) to the central; and the Siberian, to the upper; whilst flying squirrels, a nu- merous group, (magnificus, senex, chrysothrix, alboniger), are confined to the central region, so far as appears. In the bat group, the frugivorous species, or pteropines, all are limited to the lower region, whilst the horse shoes (rhinolophince) specially affect the central region; and the bats proper (vespertilionina?) seem to be the chief representatives of the family in the northern region. From the class of birds, we may select, as characteristic of the three regions, the following : — The true pheasants [phasianus], the tetrougalli, the sanguine pheasants [itha- "inisl, the horned and crested pheasants [ceriornis, lophophorus] of the upper region, are replaced by fowl-pheasants [galophasis]f in the mid-region, and by * Jackals have made their way (like crows and sparrows) to the most populous spots of the central region, but they are not proper to the region, nor Indian foxes, though some of the latter turned out by me in 1827 in the great valley of Nepal have multi- plied and settled their race there. Ab his disce alia. Tigers, for example, are some- times found in the central and even northern region. But ample experience justifies my asserting that they are wandering and casual intruders there, whereas leopards are as decidedly fixed and permanent dwellers. As a sportsman during twenty years, 1 have, whilst shooting pheasants and cocks, fallen in with innumerable leopards, whose fixed abode in numberless locales was pressed on my attention involuntarily. But I never fell in with a single tiger, and I know them to be wanderers and intruders. t The influence of longitude on geographic distribution might be singularly illustrated, did space permit, from numerous Himalayan groups, Galline and other : thus, for ex- ample, a black-breasted Ceriornis is never seen east of tbe Kali, nor a red-breasted one west of it. So of the black and white-crested Gallophasis ; whilst a black-backed one is never seen west of the Arvin, nor a white-back east of it. With reference to the more dominant influence of latitude, or what is the same thing, elevation, I may add that the Rasores of the three transverse regions exhibit an exquisite sample of grada- tion from a Boreal or Alpine to a tropical type ; Phasianus, Gallophasis and Gallus cc 1 8 GEOGRAPHY OF THE HIMALAYA. fowls proper (gallus) in the lower. In like manner, among the partridges (perdi- cinse), the grouse and snow-partridges (lerva and sacfa) belong exclusively to the upper region ;§ the chakors (caccabis) and the tree partridges (arborieola) to the central ; and the francolines (francolinus) to the lower, though the black species of this last form are also found in the mid-region. In the pigeon group the blanched pigeons (leuconota) belong solely to the upper region ; the vinous pigeons (Hodgsoni) to the central ; and the green, the golden, and the banded (treron, chalcophaps, macropygia) almost as entirely to the lower ; the trerons alone partially entering the central tract from the lower. The splendid Edolian shrikes (chibia, chaptia, edolius) belong exclusively to the lower region. They are replaced in the central tract by plain dicrurines, and in the upper by plainer lauians. The cotton-birds (campephaga) of the south are replaced by gaudy ampelines (cochoa) and leiothricinians (leiothrix, pteruthius, cutia) in the middle region ; but both groups seem excluded from the north. Among the fly-catchers the gaudy or remarkable species and forms belong wholly or chiefly to the lower region, as tchitrea, rhipidura, cryptolopha, myiagra, hemichelidon, chelidorhynx ; whilst those which approach the warblers (niltava, siphia, digenea) belong to the mid-region ; and the plainer and more European types are alone found in the northern. Among the fissirostres, goat-suckers and swallows are pretty generally dis- tributed ; but rollers, bee-eaters, eurylaimi, trogons, and all such gaudy types belong to the south, with only occasional alpine representatives, as bucia is of merops. The tenuirostral birds belong distinctly to the lower region, yet they have representatives or summer visitants in all three, even among the sun-birds. Upon the whole, however, it may be safely said that the sun-birds (nectarinia) belong to the south ; the honey-suckers (tneliphagidse) to the centre and south ; and the creepers, honey-guides, nut-hatches, and wrensj to the north and centre. The sylvians or warblers are too ubiquitarian, or too migratory for our present purpose even Boreal types being common in the lower region in the cold weather. Horn- bills, barbets, parroquets (paheornis, psittacula) belong to the lower region, though they have a few representatives in the central ; none in the upper. Wood- peckers abound in the lower and central regions, but are rare in the upper. True cuckoos (cuculus) are as common and numerous (species and individuals) in the central region as walking cuckoos (phsenicophaus, centropus, &c.) are in the southern, where also the golden (chrysococcyx) and dicrurine cuckoos (pseu- dornis) have their sole abode ; whilst what few of the group belong to the upper region are all allied to the European type. Of the conirostral group, the ravens, pies, choughs, nut-crackers, and conostomes of the upper region are replaced in the central region by tree pies (cissa, dendrocitta), jays, rocket-birds (psilorhinus), being thoroughly normal forms of their respective regions, and Gallophasis being as intermediate in structure and habit as in locale. §Sacfa and Crosoptilon are more properly Tibetan. J I have in this paper followed, without entirely approving Mr. Gray Junior's classi- fication of my collections in the printed catalogue. The geographic distribution is now attempted for the first time. But I will recur to the subject in a separate paper devoted to it. GEOGRAPHY OF THE HIMALAYA. 1 9 pie-thrushes (garrulax), timalias, and hoopoe thrushes (pomatorhinus) ; and in the lower region by the common Indian crows (culminatus et splendens), grackles, pastors,* stares, vagabond-pies and dirt-birds (malococercus). Thrushes proper, with rock-thrushes, ousels, myophones, zootheres, tesias, and hypsipetes are aa abundant in the central and upper region as bulbuls, orioles, pittas are in the cen- tral and lower. In the finch family the haw-finches, bull-finches, gold-finches and cross-bills (loxia) are as strictly confined to the upper region as are the corvine-cono- stomes, nut-crackers, choughs and ravens. The former are replaced in the central regicra by the buntings, wood-finches (montifringilla) and siskins; and in the lower region, by the weavers and munias. The raptorial-birds are in general to cosmo- politan to subserve the purposes of geographic distribution. Still it may be re- marked that the archibuteos and true eagles belong, quoad breeding at least, to the upper region ; the crested eagles (circseetus,) the neopuses and hawk eagles (spizsetus) to the central ; and the pernes (halicetus et panclion) and haliasturs to the lower. Among the vultures the distinction is more marked ; for the eagle vultures (gypaetus) belong exclusively to the upper region ; the large European vultures (f ulcus et cinereus) to the central; and the neophrons and the small Indian vultures (Bengalensis et tenuirostris) to the lower. The Himalaya abounds in falconidce, all the occidental types and species being found there, and many more peculiar and oriental ones ; and it deserves special remark that whereas the former (imperial;*, c/in/seetos, lanarius, peregrinus. pahunbarius, nisus, etc.) affect the upper and central regions, the oriental types (hypotrwrchis, hahastar, ierax, hyptiopus velhaza, elanus, poliornisj are quite confined to the lower region. Those perfect cosmopolitans, the waders and swimmers, migrate regularly in April and October, between the plains of India and Tibet, and, in general, may be said to be wanting in the mountains, though most abundant in the Tarai. The great herons (nubilis et cinereus ;) the great storks (nigra et purpurea,) and great cranes (the cyrus, culung, and damoiselle) of the Tarai # are never seen in the mountains, where the egrets alone and the little green and the maroon-backed represent the first group. But the soft-billed smaller waders (scolopaciclce) are sufficiently common in the mountains, in which the woodcock^ abounds, breeding in the upper region and frequenting the central, and rarely the lower region, from October till April. Geese, ducks, and teals swarm in the Tarai, where every occidental type, so to speak, for they are ubiquitous, may be seen from October till April; and* many oriental non-migratory types; whereas in the mountains the mergansers (orientalis) and the corvorants {Sinensis et pygmmts) only are found, and that°very scantily ; with a few rails, ibisbills, porphyries, hiaticulas, gallinules, * When Darjeeling was established, there was not a crow or pastor or sparrow to be seen Now there are a few crows and sparrows, but no pastors. Enormously abun- dant as all are in the lower region, this sufficiently proves they are not native to the cen- tral tract, though common in the great valley of Nepal. Sparrows first seen m 1855. Crows soon made their appearance. , t H Schlagintweit procured a woodcock with its nest and young m June at an elevation of about 12,000 to 13,000 feet. They are frequently got, and snipes also, in the scrub rhododendron thickets near the snows. 20 GEOGRAPHY OF THE HIMALAYA. and sandpipers, out of the vast host of the waders. J In the way of general remark I may observe that the zoology of the Himalaya is much richer in the multitude of its divers forms (genera and species) than in individuals of the same form, and that it is remarkably allied to the zoology of the Malayan islands, as may be seen at once by a reference to the excellent work of Horsfield. As you pass northwards, towards and across the snows, the forms and species tend much to approximation with those of our European home ; but the species are not often absolutely identical. But I must hasten from these zoological details to make some remarks on the sub-divisions of the lower region, a subject which, though in many ways interesting and important, is so little understood, that the celebrated Mrs. Somerville, in her excellent treatise of Physical Geography, has represented the Tarai as being within, not only the Bhaver, but the Sandstone range. § All observant persons who have proceeded from any part of the plains of India into the Himalaya are sensible of having passed through an intermediate region distinguished by many peculiarities ; and, if their route have lain to the north- west, they can hardly have failed to notice successively the -verdant Tarai, so unlike the arid plains of Upper India ; the vast primaeval Saul forest, so every way unique ; and the Dhiins or valleys, separated from the last tract by a low range of hills. The natives of the plains have in all ages recognized these several distinct parts of the lower Himalayan region, which they have ever been, and are still wont to frequent periodically, as strangers and foreigners, in order to graze innumerable herds of cows and buffaloes in the Tarai, or to procure the indispensa- ble timber and elephants peculiar to the Bhaver, or to obtain the much-prized drugs and dyes, horns and hides, (deer and rhinoceros,) rals and dhiinas (resin of Saul and of Cheer), and timber of the Dhiins. Nor is there a single tribe of Highlanders between the Cdsi and the Sutlej which does not discriminate between the Tarai or Tari, the Jhari or Bhaver, and the Dhiins or Maris. Captain Herbert has admirably described* the geological peculiarities and external aspect of each of these well-known tracts. His details are, indeed, confined to the space between the Kali and the Sutlej ; but the general characteristics of these tracts he affirms to be equally applicable to all the country between the Mechi and the Sutlej ; and Captain Parish, whilst confirming Herbert's statements, makes them so likewise as far westward as the Beas.f What Captain Herbert states as holding good from his own personal researches in regard to the Western Himalaya (Sutlej to Kali), I can confirm from mine in regard to the Nepalese portion (Kali to Mechi), but with this reservation that no more in the Western than in the Ne- £ For an ample enumeration of the mammals and birds of the Himalaya, (150 sp. of the former, and 650 of the latter,) see separate catalogue printed by order of the Trus- tees of the British Museum in 1845. The distribution is not there given. For addi- tions to the catalogue since 1845 see A and M of Natural History and Zoology Journal of London, and Bengal Asiatic Society's Journal, and second catalogue of British Museum, published in 1863. § Physical Geography, vol. i. , p. 66. * J. A. S.B., number 126, extra pp. 33 and 133, ct scq. t J. A. S.B., numbers 190 and 202, for April 1848-49. GEOGRAPHY OF THE HIMALAYA. 21 palese Himalaya does the Sandstone range, with its contained Dhuns, prevail throughout or continuously, but only interruptedly or with intervals ; and thus the Sallyan-niari, the Gongtali-mari, the Chitwan-mari, the Makwanpur-niari, and the Bijaypur-rnari of Nepal (which are mostly separate), represent with per- fect general accuracy the Deyra, Kyarda, Pinjor, Patali, and other Dhuns to the westward. The accompanying sectional outline will give a more distinct idea than any words could do of the relations of the several parts of the lower Ilinia- Disposition of parts in the lower region of the Himalaya. The Tarai. Sandstone j Mountains of range &, Dhun. central region. the plains. layan region to the plains on the one hand, and to the mountains on the other, according to Captain Herbert's views. The continuous basal line represents the level of the plains ; the dip on the left, the Tarai; the ascending slope in the centre, the Saul forest; the dip on the right, the Dhuns or Maris. It is thus seen that the Tarai sinks below the level of the plains ; that the forest forms a gradual even ascent above that level ; that the Dhiins continue the ascent to the base of the true mountains, but troughwise, or with a concave dip ; and, lastly, that the Dhuns are contained between the low Sandstone range and the base of the true moun- tains. The Tarai is an open waste, incumbered rather than clothed with grasses. It is notorious for- a direful malaria, generated, it is said, by its excessive moisture and swamps — attributes derived, first, from its low site ; second, from its clayey bottom ; third, from innumerable rills percolating through the gravel and sand of the Bhaver, and finding issue on the upper verge of the Tarai (where the gravelly or sandy debris from the mountains thins out), without power to form onward channels for their waters into the plains. The forest is equally malarious with the Tarai, though it be as dry as the Tarai is wet. The dryness of the forest is caused by the very porous nature of that vast mass of diluvian detritus on which it rests, and which is overlaid only by a thin but rich stratum of vegetable mould, everywhere sustaining a splendid crop of the invaluable timber tree (shorea robu- staj, whence this tract derives its name. The Sand-dove range is of very incon- siderable height, though rich in fossils. It does not rise more than three to six hundred feet above its immediate base, and is in some places half buried (so to speak) in the vast mass of debris through which it penetrates.* The Dhuns are as * The low range which separates the Dhun and Bhaver, on the high-road to Kathmandu, consists almost wholly of diluvium* rounded pebbles loosely set inocheroua 11 GEOGRAPHY OF THE HIMALAYA. malarious and as dry as the Shaver. They are from five to ten (often less, in one instance more) miles wide, and twenty to forty long, sloping from either side towards their centre, and traversed lengthwise by a small stream which discharges itself commonly into one of the great Alpine rivers — thus the Raputi of Chitwan-mari falls into the Gandak, and that of Bijaypiir-mari into the Cosi. The direction of the Maris or Dhuns is parallel to the ghat line of the snows, and their sub- stratum is a very deep bed of debris, similar to that of the Bhaver, but deeper, and similarly covered by a rich but superficial coating of vegetable mould which, if not cultivated, naturally produces a forest of Saul equal to that outside the Sandstone range, and then in like manner harbouring elephants, rhinoceroses, wild bulls (bibos), wild buffaloes, rusas, and other large deer (rucerw), with creeping things (pythons) as gigantic as the quadrupeds. The height of the Sandstone range Captain Herbert estimates at 3,000 feet above the sea, or 2,000 above the plains adjacent ; and that of the Dhuns (at least the great one), at 2,500 above the sea, and 1,500 above the plains. These measurements indicate sufficiently the heights of the lower region, and it is observable that no elevation short of 3,000 to 4,000 feet above the sea suffices to rid the atmosphere of the lower Himalaya from malaria. Thus, the Tarai, the Bhaver and the Dhuns are alike and universally cursed bv that poisonous~atmosphere. And this (by the way) is one among several reasons* why I have assigned 4,000 feet of elevation as the southern limit of the healthful and temperate mid-region ; that above it being the arctic or boreal, and that below it, the tropical region, though it must never be forgotten that much of the tropical characters, especially in the course of the seasons, pervades the whole breadth (and length likewise) of the Himalaya, whatever be the decrement of heat, and also that, from the uncommon depth of the glens in which the great rivers run, and which, in the central and even upper region often reduces the height of those glens above the sea below the limit just assigned for salubrity, such glens are in both these regions not unfrequently as malarious as is the whole lower region.f clay, such as forms the great substratum of the Dhun and Bhaver. The sandstone formation only shews itself where the rain torrents have worn deep gullies, and it there appears as white weeping sand, imperfectly indurated into rock. Crude coal, shale, loam, are found in this quarter, but no organic fossils, such as abound to the westward. a By "diluvium" I merely mean what Lyell expresses by "old alluvium." I advert not to the deluge, but simply imply aqueous action other than recent, ordinary aud extant. * That 4,000 feet of elevation form a good demarcation of the tropical and temperate regions of the Himalaya, is well denoted by the fact, that this is the point where snow ceases to fall, as I have ascertained in the Central and Eastern Himalaya by the obser- vations of thirty years. What I mean is, that snow just reaches that limit and never falls beyond it or below it. It may be otherwise in the Western Himalaya, where snow is more abundant at equal elevations. The small or hill species of bamboo, which prevail from 4,000 to 10,000 of elevation, mark with wonderful precision the limits of the central healthful and normal region of the Himalaya. These most useful species (there are several) would doubtless flourish in Europe. t Thus the valleys of the Great Rangit and of the Tishta, near and above their junction, are not more than 1,000 feet above the sea, at a distance nearly interme- diate between the plains and the snows, and in the midst of the central region; and GEOGRAPHY OF THE HIMALAYA. 23 But the above characteristics of the sub-divisions of the lower Himalayan region, how noticeable soever to the west of the Mechi, are by no means so to the east of that river, where a skilled eye alone can painfully detect the traces§ of the sandstone formation (without which there can be, of course, no Dhuns,) and where the Tarai, considered as a trough running parallel to the mountains, form no marked feature of the country, if indeed in that sense it can be said to exist at all. And as, even to the westward, the Sandstone range, with its contained Dhuns, is by no means constant, it may be desirable to attempt to characterise the lower region considered as a whole, without reference to local peculiarities or too rigidly defined sub-divisions. Now I conceive that the lower region owes its distinctive character, as a whole, to the vast mass of diluvial detritus, which was shot from the mountains upon the plains, like gravel from a cart, at some great geological epoch, and which has been, since its deposit, variously and often abraded both in degree and direction, by oceanic, and, in a far less degree, by ordinary floods. Where there was, at the epoch in question, no sandstone range to intercept the downward .spread of the debris, this debris would necessarily be carried further south, and be of less thickness ; where there was such a barrier, it would be carried less far southward and be accumulated in greater thickness, especially within the barrier ; and, in like manner, where no sandstone range existed, but only spurs, sent forth, like bent arms, upon the plains from the mountains, the embayed detritus would still be deeply piled and lofty within such spurs,* and thinly and unequally spread without them, by reason of the action of the spurs on the currents. Again, where, as from Gowhatty to Saddia, there was not room upon the plains for the free spread and deposit of the descending Himalayan detritus, owing to large rapid rivers and to other chains, both parallel and proximate to the Himalaya, the pha?nomena created elsewhere by the more or less unrestricted spread of the Himalayan detritus over the plains would necessarily be faintly, if at all, traceable. Lastly, if at the time of the descent of the debris, there existed a great dip in the Gangetic plains those valleys are consequently as malarious as the Tarai. So also the valleys of the Sunkosi at Damja and of theTrisul below Nayakot, and many others well known to me. § In my recent expedition in the Tarai east of the Mechi, with Dr. Hooker, that accomplished traveller first detected traces of the sandstone formation, with imperfect coal, shale, etc., in a gully below the Pankabari Bungalow, as well as at Lohagarh. The sandstone rock barely peeped out at the bottom of the gully lying in close proximity with the mountains, so that nothing could be more inconspicuous than it was as a feature in the physiognomy of the country. * There is a signal example of this on the road to Darjeeling vid Pankabari, where the debris, embayed by a curving spur, is accumulated to several hundred feet, and where, moreover, there is outside the spur a conspicuous succession of terraces, all due to oceanic forest, and clearly shewing that the subsidence of the sea b was by intervals, and not at once. Constant observation has caused the people of the Tarai to distin- guish three principal tiers of terraces, from the prevalent growth of trees upon each. The highest is the Saul level, the middle the Khair level, and the. lowest the Sissu level ; Shorea, Acacia and Dalbergia being abundantly developed on the three levels as above enumerated. b I do not imply by this phrase any reference to the theory that the sea has sunk and not the land risen. 1 think the latter much the preferable hypothe is, but desire merely to infer a change in the relative level of the two, and to link my fains upon the string of an intelligible system. 24 GEOGRAPHY OF THE HIMALAYA. from north-west to south-east, the lithologic character, as well as the distribution, of the debris, would be materially affected thereby; for the subsiding oceanic cur- rent would have a set from the former to the latter quarter, and would continue to lash the gravel into sand, and here to deposit both in a series of terraces, there perhaps utterly to displace both, in the latter quarter long after the former had emerged from the waves. Now, that the Himalaya really was, at one time, in great part submerged ; that the vast mass of detritus from the Himalaya at pre- sent spread over the plains in its vicinity was so spread by the ocean when the founts of the deep were broken up ; that this huge bed of detritus, every where forthcoming, is now found in unequal proportion and distribution and state of comminution ; as for example, deeper piled within than without the Sandstone range and the embaying spurs, and also, more gravelly and abundant to the north- west, more sandy and scant to the south-east ; * and, lastly, that the Gangetic plain really now has a great oblique dipt from the Sutlej at Buper to the Brahma- putra at Gwalpara, whereby all the Himalayan feeders of the Ganges are in the plains so much bent over to the eastward — these are presumptions relative to the past, as legitimate as the extant facts suggesting them are incontrovertible ; and we have but to observe how, at the grand epoch adverted to, the action of gene- ral causes was necessarily modified by the peculiar features of the scene, as above indicated, in order to come at a just conception of the aspect and character of the lower Himalayan region, all along the line of the mountains. Thus the longitudi- nal trough parallel to the mountains, and exclusively denominated the Tarai by Captain Herbert, may to the north-west have been caused by the set of the sub- siding oceanic current from north-west to south-east; but however caused, it exists as a palpable definite creature, only beneath the Thakorain and Kumaun, is faintly traceable beneath Nepal, and is wholly lost beneath Siliiin and Bhutan. But the great bed of debris is everywhere present, and with no other distinctions than those pointed out, whether it be divided into Bhaver and Dhiin, by the Sand- stone range, as is usually the case west of the Me"ehi, or be not so divided owing to the absence of that range, as is always the fact east of the Mechi. Again, every * Captain Herbert has given statements of its depth to the westward, where there is a Sandstone range. To the eastward, where there is none, I fount] it on the right bank of the Tishta, under the mountains, 120 feet ; at fifteen miles lower down, 60 to 70 feet ; at fifteen miles still further off the mountains, 40 to 50 feet. There was here no interruption to the free spread of the detritus, and I followed one continuous slope and i eve l — the main high one. The country exhibited, near the rivers especially, two or three other and subordinate levels or terraces, some marking the effect at unusual floods of extant fluviatile action, but others unmistakeably that of pristine and oceanic forces. I measured heights from the river. I could not test the sub-surface depth of the bed. There was everywhere much more sand than gravel, and boulders were rare. + Saharunpiir is 1,000 feet above the sea; Miiradabad 600 ; Gorakpur 400 ; Dumdanga 312; Rangpur 200 ; Gwalpara 112. My authorities are As. Res. vol. xii., J.A.S. B. No. 126, Koyle's Him. Bot., Griffith's Journals, and J. Prinsep in epist. The oblique dip to the plains towards the east seems to be increasing, for all the Himalayan rivers descending into the plains, as they quit their old channels, do so towards the east only. I would propose, as an interesting subject of research, the formal investigation of this fact, grounding on Rennell's maps and noting the deviations which have occurred since he wrote. The Tishta which fell into the Ganges now falls into the Brahmaputra. GEOGRAPHY OF THE HIMALAYA. 1% tohere there is, at that point where this vast bed of gravel and sand thins out, a constantly moist tract, caused by the percolation of hill-waters through the said bed, and their issue beyond it ; and that constantly moist tract is the Tarai, whether it runs regularly parallel to the line of mountains and be distinctly troughed, as to the Westward is the case, or whether there be no such regularity, parallelism, or of troughing, as to the Eastward is the case. Why that vast mass of porous debris, which every where constitutes the appropriated domain of the Saul forest, and that imporous trough outside of it, which every where constitutes its drain, should as far Eastward as the Mechi, be both of them developed parallclly to each other and to the line of the moun- tains, whilst beyond the Mechi Eastward to Assam (exclusive) they should exhibit little or no such parallellism, but should rather show themselves plainwards, like an irregular series of high salient and low resalieiit angles resting on the moun- tains, or like small insulated plateau,* or high undulated plains,! surrounded in both the latter cases by low swampy land analogous to the Tarai, it would require a volume to illustrate in detail. I have given a few conspicuous instances in the foot-notes. For the rest, it must suffice to observe that such are the general ap- pearances of the Bhaver and Tarai to the Westward and to the Eastward ; and that the general causes of the differences have been pretty plainly indicated above, where the necessary effects of the sandstone range, of the mountain spurs, and of the Eastern dip of the plains upon those oceanic forces, to which all phaenoniena of the region owe their origin, have been suggested. Throughout Assam, from Gwalpdra to Saddia, Major Jenkins assures me there is neither Bhaver nor Tarai ; and if we look to the narrowness of that valley between the Himalaya and the mighty and impetuous Brahmaputra, and consider moreover the turmoil and violence of the oceanic current from the N.W., when its progress was staid by the locked-up valley of Assam, we shall be at no loss to conceive how all distinctive marks of Bhaver and Tarai should here cease to be traceable .% It will be observed that, in the foregone descriptions of our Himalayan rivers, f have not adverted (save casually in one instance, in order to correct an error * Parbat Jowar, on the confines of Assam and Eangpur, is one of the most remarkabel of these small plateau. It is considerably elevated, quite insulated, remote from the mountains, and covered with saul, which the low level around exhibits no trace of. Par- bat Jowar is a fragmentary relic of the high level, or Bhaver, to which the saul tree adheres with undeviating uniformity. + Conspicuous instances occur round Dinajpur and north-west and north-east of Sili- gori in ltangpur, where are found highly undulated clowns, here and there varied by flat-topped detached hillocks, keeping the level of the loftiest part of the undulated surface. Looking into the clear bed of the Tishta, it struck Dr. Hooker and myself at the, same moment, how perfectly the bed of the river represented in miniature the conforma- tion of these tracts, demonstrating to the eye their mode of origination under the sea. * The climate of that portion of the Eastern Himalaya, which is screened from the south-west monsoon by the mountains Sonth of Assam, is less humid than the rest, precisely as are the inner than the outer parts of the whole chain. The fact, that much less snow falls at equal heights in the humid Eastern than in the dry Western Hima- laya, depends on other causes. Darjeeling hasuot half as much snow as Simla. 26 GEOGRAPHY OF THE HIMALAYA. as to the true name of the Kali) to their partial Trans-Himalayan sources. And I confess it seems to me, that perspicuity is by no means served by undue insistency on that feature of our rivers. Captain Herbert was thus led to travel beyond his proper limits with a result by no means favourable; for, it appears to me, that he has confounded rather than cleared our conceptions of Central Asia as the Bam-i- dunya (dome of the world) by attempting- to detach therefrom that most character- istic part of it, the plateau of Tibet, because certain Indian rivers have (in part) Tibetan sources ! My theory of water-sheds does not incline me to venture so far into regions too little known, to allow of the satisfactory settlement of the question, and the less so, inasmuch as the rivers I have to speak of would not afford so plausible an excuse for so doing - , as if I had to treat of the Indus, Sut- lej,* and Brahmaputra alias Sanpu. f The Arun and the Karnali, though they draw much water from Tibet, draw far more from the "pente meridionale" of the Himalaya, or the ghat line and all South of it ; and this is yet more true of the Ganges, the Monas and Tishta, though they also have partial Trans-Himalayan sources. To those sources of the several Himalayan (so I must call them) rivers above treated of, I will now summarily advert : — The Monas. — It is by much the largest river of Bhutan, which state is almost wholly drained by it. It has (it is said) two Tibetan sources, one from Lake Yamdotso vel Palte vel Yarbroyuni, which is a real lake, and not an island sur- rounded by a ring of water as commonly alleged — the other, from considerably to the West of Palte. These feeders I take to be identical with Klaproth's Mon-tchu and Nai-tchii vel Labnak-tchu, strangely though he has dislocated them. The Tishta is also a fine river, draining the whole of Sikim, save the tracts verging on the plains. The Tishta has one Tibetan source, also, from a lake, viz., that of Cholamu. To speak more precisely, there are several lakelets so named, and they lie close under the Ni W. shoulder of Powhanry, some thirty miles AV. and forty S. of Turner's lakes. The Arun is the largest of all the Himalayan rivers, with abundant Cis- Himalayan and three Trans-Himalayan feeders. One, the Western, rises from * Recte SaMj vel Satrudra. + Dr. Gutzlaff, once read a paper before the Geographical Society of London, and reverted to Klaproth's notion, that the Sanpu is not the Brahmaputra. But Mr. Gutz- laff overlooked J. Prinsep's important, and 1 think decisive argument on the other side, viz., that the Brahmaputra discharges three times more water than the Ganges, which it could not do if it arose on the north-east confines of Assam, notwithstanding the large quantity of water contributed by the Monas. Y.'.rii or Yeru (Eru) is the proper name of the river we call Sanpu, which latter appellation is a corruption of the word Tsang- po, a referring either to the principal province (Tsang) watered by the Yarn, or to the junction therewith, at Digarchi, of another river called the Tsang, which flows into the Yam from the Nyenchhen chain or Northern boundary of Southern Tibet. Eru vel Aru is the proper spelling. But words beginning with the vowels a and e, take initial y in speech. 1 take this occasion to observe, in reference to the Vanido lake above mentioned, that it is not, as commonly described and delineatedin our maps, of a round shape, but greatly elongated and veiy narrow. It is stated to me on good autlio rity to be eighteen days' journey long (say 180 miles), and so narrow in parts as to be budged. It is deeply frozen in winter, so as to be safely crossed on the ice, whereas the Eru river is not so, owing to the great force of its current — a circumstance proving the rapid declivity of the. country watered by this great river. a [Tsang po means simply 'river,' and should not be called Sanpu but Tsang po.— J.S.] GEOGRAPHY OF THE HIMALAYA. 27 the " pente septentrionale" of the ETimalay a,in the district of Tingri or Pekku; another, the Northern, from a place called Durre; and a third, the Eastern, from the undu- lated terraced and broken tract lying N. and a little W. of Cholainu and S. of Kam- bala, or the great range which bounds the valley of the Yard* on the S. from W. of Digarchi to E. of Lhasa. The Kamdli is much larger than the Alpine Ganges, and nearly equal to the Ariin, perhaps quite so. It drains by its feeders the whole Himalaya between the Nanda-devi and Dhoula-giri peaks, and has itself one considerable Tibetan source deduced either from the north face of Ilimachal near Momonangli, or from the east face of that crescented sweep, whereby Gangri nears Ilimachal, and whence the Karnali flows eastward to the Taklakkar pass. The Ganges also has of late been discovered to have one Tibetan feeder, viz., the Jahnavi, which after traversing a good deal of broken country in Gnari, between the Sutlej and the Himalaya, passes that chain at the Nilang Ghat to join the Bhagarathi.J I will conclude this paper with the following amended comparative table of Andean and Himalayan peaks, Baron Humboldt having apprised me that Pent- land's measurements, as formerly given by me, have been proved to be quite erroneous, and Colonel Waugh having recently fixed Kangchan and Chumalhari with unrivalled precision and accuracy : — Chief peaks of Andes. Feet. Chief peaks of Himalaya. Feet. Aconcagua 23,000 Jamnoutri 25,669 Ckimbarazo 21,424 Nanda-devi 25,598 Sorato 21,286 Dhoula-giri ....27,600 Illimani 21,149 Gosain-than 24,700 Devadhiinga 29,002 Descabasado 21,100 Kangchan 28,176 Desya-cassada 19,570§ Chumalhari 23,929 jy.2?. Devadhiinga vel Bhairavthan vel Nyanam, half way between Gosain-than and Kangchan, is 29,002, ft. determined in 1856. Kang-chan, 'abounding in snow.' Chumalhari, 'holy mountain of Chuma.' These are Tibetan words; the other names are Sanskritic, but set down in the Prakritic mode, e.g., Jamnavatari equal to Jamnoutri, etc. Postscript.— That sensible and agreeable writer, Major Madden, in a letter (May 1840) to Dr. Hooker, notices " the disgraceful state of our maps of the * The valley of the Yard is about sixty linear miles from the Sikim Himalaya (Li- chen and Donkia passes); but the intermediate country, called Damsen, is so rugged, that it is ten stages for loaded yaks from the one terminus to the other. Damsen is stated to be one of the most rugged and barren tracts in the whole of Utsang or Cen- tral Tibet, a bowling wilderness. — Hooker. JMoorcroft's Travels, J. A, S.B. No. 126, and I.J. S. Nos. 17-18. _ § Humboldt, in his Aspects of Nature, has given some further corrections of those heights There are three peaks superior to Chimbarazo, but inferior to Aconoagua. 2 8 GEOGRAPHY OF THE HIMALAYA. Himalaya, which insert ridges where none exist, and omit them where they do exist ; and moreover, in regard "to all names, show an utter ignorance of the meaning of Indian words." It is the express object of the above essay to contri- bute towards the removal of the weightier of those blemishes of our maps, without neglecting the lesser, by exhibiting, in their true and causal connexion, the great elevations and the river basins of the Himalaya. Major Madden supposes that the term Hyvindes, which he applies to Tibet, points to that region as the pristine abode of the Huns. But this is a mistake. Hyun-des is a term unknown to the language of Tibet. It is the equivalent in the Khas or Parbatia lan- guage* for the Sanskrit Himyades, or land of snow. Its co-relative term in the Parbatia tongue is Khas-des, or land of the Khas. The Khas race were till lately (181G) dominant from the Satliij to the Tishta: they are so still from the Kali to the Mechi. Hence the general prevalence of geographic terms derived from their language. By Hyun-des the Parbatias mean all the tracts covered ordinarily with snow on both sides of the crest or spine of Hemachal, or the ghat line ; and by Khas-des, all the unsnowed regions south of the former, as far as the Sandstone range. The Brahmans and those who use Sanskrit call the Hyun-des, Blnitant or appendage of Bhot, and hence our maps exhibit a Bhutant in what Traill deno- minates (A. R. vol. 1G) the Bhote perganahs of Kiimaun. But Bhutant is not restricted by the Brahmans to such perganahs in Kiimaun merely, far less to any one spot within them. It includes all the districts similarly situated along the entire line of the Himalaya. We might create confusion however by recurring to his extended meaning of the word, since it has long been restricted by us to the Deb Rajah's territory, or Bhutan (recte Blnitant). Moorcroft's Giannak in Western Tibet is the ne pins ultra of abuse of words. Far to the east, some Bhotia must have told him, lie the Gyannak or Chinese, and thereupon he in- continently gives this term as a name of place. The Tibetans call their neighbours by the generic name Gya, to which they add distinctive affixes, as Gya-nak, black Gyas, alias Chinese; Gya-ver, yellow Gyas, alias Russians; and Gya-gar, white~f Gyas, alias Hindus. With reference to the Huns, if I were in search of them in Tibet, I should look for them among the Hor of that country, as I would for the Scythians among the Sog vel Sok. Sogdiana or Sogland was, I conceive, the original Zakeia, the first known historic seat of the Indian Sakas and Tibetan Sog vel Sok. Horsok, as one term, means Xomade, in Tibetan such being still the condition of those two tribes in Tibet. * For a sample of this tongue, which has a primitive base, but overlaid by Pracrit, see J. A. S. B. No. 191, June 1848. % Observe that these epithets do not refer to the colour of men, but only to that of their dress ; the Chinese are fond of black clothes and the Indians universally almost wear white ones. The like is probably equally true of similar designations of Turanian tribes in various other parts of the vast Tartaric area {e.g. Red Karens), though Ethnic theories have been spun out of the other interpretation of thes^ dis- tinctive terms. ABORIGINES OF THE HIMALAYA. 29 2. ON THE ABORIGINES OF THE HIMALAYA. The following paper was written in 1847. It was then presented to the Asiatic Society of Bengal, as a summary view of the affinities of these tribes as deduced from a tolerably copious comparison of their languages or dialects. Accordingly, I submitted a comparative vocabulary of twelve of the dialects found in the Central* sub-Himalayas, inclusive; for comparison's sake, of the written as well as spoken language of Tibet, it being of much importance to give this lan- guage in both forms; first, because it is employed in the former state with many unuttered letters, and second, because all the dialects or tongues with which it is to be compared exist only (with two exceptions§) in the latter or unwritten and primitive state. With regard to the English vocables selected, I have adopted those of Mr. Brown, in order to facilitate comparisons with the Indo-Chinese tongues, as exemplified by him ; but, to his nouns substantive, I have added some pronouns, numerals, verbs, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and adjectives, under the impression that nothing short of such a sample of each of the parts of speech could at all suffice for the attainment of the end in view. Geographically or topically, I have confined myself to the East of the river Kali or Ghagra, as well because the dialects pre- vailing to the Westward of that river are for the most part extremely mixed, and indeed almost merged in the ordinary tongues of the plains of Hindusthan, as also because I have no immediate access to the people of the West. The case is very different in the Eastern sub-Himalayas, where I was domiciled, and where, as will be seen, the Indian Prakrits have hardly been able to make a single cog-ni- zable impression upon any of the numerous vernaculars of the people, with the sole exception of the Khas or Parbattia Bhasha, which, as being a mongrel tongue I have omitted. I have likewise, for the present, omitted some interesting tongues of a genuinely aboriginal character, which are spoken East of the Kali, either by certain forest tribes existing in scanty numbers, nearly in a state of nature, such as the Chepang and Kiisunda, or by certain other peculiar and broken tribes, such as the Hayu, the Kiiswar, the Botia, the Denwar, Durre" or Dahri, Bhramu, Tkaru, and Boksa, who cultivate those low valleys from which malaria drives the ordinary *I formerly spoke of the Himalaya, as divided lengthwise (north-west to south- east) into Western and Eastern. I now regard it as divided into Western (Indus to Kali), Central (Kali to Tishta), and Eastern (Tishta to Brahmakund) portions. The present paper treats of the Central Himalaya. Breadthwise the chain is regarded as divi- ded into the Northern, Middle, and Southern regions, the word region being always added to contra-distiuguish'the latter demarcation. Himalaya properly speaking is the perpetually snowed part of the chain. I used to contra-distinguish the lower part or southern slope by the term sub-Himalayas. But objections having been raised, I now acquiesce in the term Himalaya as applied to the whole. § The exceptions are the Ncwari and Lepsha, which form the topic of my second essay. 30 ABORIGINES OF THE HIMALAYA. population, or, lastly, by several races of kelotic craftsmen* whose habitat is general" That ordinary population, exclusive of the now dominant Khas or Parhattias Pro- per,! above alluded to, consists, between the Kali and the Dhansri, in Nepal, Sikim, and Bhutan of ; 1st. Ois-Himalayan Bhotias vel Tibetans, called Piongbo, Siena or Kath Bhotia, Palu Sen,J Serpa or Sharpa etc.; 2nd. Sunwar ; 3rd. Giirung, 4th. Magar ; 5th. Miirmi ; 6th. Newai ; 7th. Kiranti ; 8th. Limbu vel Yak thumba ; 9th. Lepcha or Deiinjong-maro ; 10th. Bhiitanese or Lhopa vel Dukpa.|| I have enumerated the races as they occur, in tolerably regular series, from west to east, in given and definite locations of old standing : but the first named are found pretty generally diffused throughout the whole extent, west and east, of my limits, though confined therein to the juxto-nivean tracts or Cachar region ; whilst the participation of the Gurungs and Magars, or military tribes, in the recent political successes of the now dominant Khas, has spread them also, as peaceful settlers, in no scanty numbers, easterly and westerly, from the Kali to the Mechi. The rest of the tribes have a more restricted fatherland or janam bhumi, and indeed the locale of the Magars and Gurungs, not a century back, or before the conquests of the House of Gorkha, was similarly circumscribed ; for the proper habitat of these two tribes is to the west of the great valley, which tract again, (the valley), and its whole vicinity, is the region of the Murmis and Ne- wars ; whilst the districts east of the great valley, as far as Sikim, are the abode of the Kirantis and Limbiis, as Sikim is that of the Lepshas, and Deva Dharma or Bhutan that of the Lhopas or Diikpas, usually styled Bhiitanese by us. These constitute, together with the Siinwars, who again are mostly found west of the great valley and north of the Magars and Gurungs, near and among the cis-nivean Bhotias, § the principal alpine tribes of the sub-Himalayas between that western point (the Kali) where the aboriginal tongues are merged in the Prakrits and that eastern limit (the Dhansri) where they begin to pass into so-called monosyllabic- tongued races of presumed Indo-Chinese origin4 a The sub-Himalayan races I have just enumerated inhabit all the central and temperate parts of these mountains, the juxta-nivean or northernmost tracts being left to the Rongbo vel Serpa vel Palu * See p. 14, part ii. of this volume, supra, and note. + Parbattia means ' Highlander,' but this general sense of the word is restricted by invariable, usage to the Khas. £ The Newars of Nepal Proper call the cis-nivean Bhotias, Palu Sen, and the trans- nivean, Tha Sen. The Chinese call the Mongolian Tartars, Tha Tha. || Lhopa is a territorial designation, Dukpa a religious, that is, the country is called Lho, and the sect of Lamaism prevailing in it, Dvik. Klaproth's Lokabadja, and Bit- ter's Lokba, are both equivalent to Bhotan vel Lho. The postfix ba means ' of, or be- longing to, ' so that Lokba, recte Lhopa, is ' a Bhiitanese man or native of Lho. ' § Bhotia is the Sanskrit, and Tibetan the Persian, name, for the people who call themselves Bodpa, or Bod, a corruption possibly of the Sanskrit word Bhot. + a More recent researches induce me to demur entirely to a trenchantly demarked mono- syllabic class of tongues, and to adopt the opinion that India (Dravirian) and the countries around it on the north aud north-east were peopled by successive incur- sions of affiliated tribes of Northmen, among whom I see no sufficient reason to segre- gate from the rest, as is commonly done, the Bod pas of Tibet, the Eastern Himalayans, nor even the proximate Indo-Chinese or people of Western Indo-China. ABORIGINES OF THE HIMALAYA. 3 1 Sen, and the southernmost parts, as well as the low valleys of the interior and cen- tral region, being abandoned to the Kiiswars, D6nwars, Burro's, and other malaria- defying tribes, which, for the present, I do not purpose to notice. The people under review therefore may be said to occupy a highly healthful cliinate^but one of exact temperatures as various as the several elevations (four to ten thousand feet) of the ever- varied surface; and which, though nowhere troubled with exces- sive heat,§ is so by excessive moisture, and by the rank vegetation that moisture generates, with the aid of a deep fat soil, save in the Cachar or juxta-nivean re- gion, where the lower temperature and poorer scantier soil serve somewhat to break the prodigious transition from the thrice luxuriant sub-Himalayas to the thrice arid plains of Tibet. That the sub-Himalayan races are all closely affiliated, and are all of northern origin, are facts long ago indicated by me,* and which seem to result with suffi- cient evidence from the comparative vocabularies now furnished. But to it lingual evidence in a more ample form will however in due time be added, as well as the evidence deducible from the physical attributes, and from the creeds , customs and legends of these races. It must suffice at present to observe that the legends of the dominant races indicate a transit of the Himalaya from thirty-five to forty-five generations back — say 1,000 to 1,300 years, and that I prefer the remoter period because the transit was certainly made before the Tibetans had adopted from India the religion and literature of Buddhism, in the seventh and eighth centuries of our era. This fact is as clearly impressed upon tho crude dialects and cruder religious tenetsj of the sub-Himalayans as their northern origin is upon their peculiar forms and features, provided these points be investigated with the re- quisite care ; for superficial attention is apt to rest solely upon the Lamaism re- cently as imperfectly imported among them, and upon the merely exceptional traits of their mixed and varying physiognomy. That physiognomy exhibits, no doubt, generally and normally, the Scythic or Mongolian type (Blumenbach) of human kind, but the type is often much softened and modified, and even frequently passes into a near approach to the full Caucasian dignity of head and face, in the same perplexing manner that has been noticed in regard to the other branches of the Allophylian tree,§ though among the Cis- or Trans-Himalayans there is never seen any greater advance towards the Teutonic blond complexion than such as consists in occasional ruddy moustaches and grey eyes among the men, and a good § In the great valley of Nepal, which has a very central position aud a mean ele- vation of 4,500 ft., the maximum of Fahr. iu the shade is 80°. * Illustrations of the Languages &c. of Nepal and Tibet, and Res. A.S.B, Vol. XVI. 1827. t Of these religious tenets, the full description given in my work on the Koech.Bodo, and Dhimal, may be accepted as generally applicable. The Bonpa faith of Tibet (the old creed of that country) and the Shamanism of Siberia are both more or less cultiva- ted types of the primitive creed, subsequently largely adopted into Br&hmanism and Buddhism. The exorcist of the Murmi or Tamar tribe is still called Bonpa, aud every tribe's chief priestly agent is an exorcist, variously named. §See Prichard, Vol. IV. pp. 323, 344, 356, and Humboldt's Asie Centralc 2.62 and 133. Who could suppose the following description refercd to a Scythic race ? — l Gcvs albo colore est atque pulchritudine ct forma insignc." 32 ABORIGINES OF THE HIMALAYA. deal of occasional bloom upon the cheeks of the children and women. A pure white skin is unknown, and the tint is not much less decided than in the high caste Hindus ; but all are of this pale brown or isabelline hue in Tibet and the sub-Hima- layas, whilst the many in the plains of India are much darker. The broken or depressed tribes above alluded to passed the Himalaya at various periods, but all long antecedent to the immigration of the dominant tribes, and prior to the least whisper of tradition ; and the lingual and physical traits of these broken tribes, as might be expected, constitute several links of connexion between the Altaic tribes on the north and the Dravirian on the south. The general description of the Himalayans, both of earlier and later immigration is as follows : — head and face very broad, usually widest between the cheek-bones, sometimes as wide between the angles of the jaws ; forehead broad, but often narrowing upwards ; chin defec- tive ; mouth large and salient, but the teeth vertical and the lips not tumid ; gums, especially the upper, thickened remarkably ; eyes wide apart, flush with the cheek, and more or less obliquely set in the head ; nose pyramidal, sufficiently long and elevated, save at the base, where it is depressed so as often to let the eyes run to- gether, coarsely formed and thick, especially towards the end, and furnished with large round nostrils ; hair of head copious and straight ; of the face and body deficient ; stature rather low, but muscular and strong. Character phlegmatic, and slow in intellect and feeling, but good-humoured, cheerful and tractable, though somewhat impatient of continuous toil. Polyandry yet exists partially, but is fal- ling out of use. Female chastity is little heeded before marriage, and drunken- ness and dirtiness are much more frequent than in the plains. Crime is much rarer, however, and truth more regarded, and the character on the whole amiable. The customs and manners have nothing very remarkable, and the creed may be best described by negatives. Indifferency is the only, but heretofore effective ob- stacle to indoctrination by Brahmanical, Buddhist, or Christian teachers, so that the Scottish phrase " we cannot be fashed " seems best to describe the prevalent feeling of the Himalayans on this, as on many other matters. The whole popu- lation is intensely tribual, some races still bound together by a common appellation, as the Kirantis for example, being nevertheless divided into several septs, dis- tinguised from each other by strongly marked dialects, non-intermarriage, and dif- ferences of customs, whilst the tribes which bear distinct names are still more pal- pably separated in those respects. But the barrier of caste, in the true sense, is unknown, and on the other hand there exists not in any tribe, race or nation, any notion of a common human progenitor, or eponymous deity.* The general status of all the tribes and races is that of nomadic cultivators. " Arva in annos mutant et snperest ager " is as true now of the Himalayans as it was of our an- cestors when they burst the barriers of the Roman Empire. A few tribes, such as the NtSwar, have long become stationary cultivators ; and the Giirungs are still, for the most part, pastoral. There are no craftsmen, generally speaking, * The instance of the Gorkhalis, who undoubtedly derive their appellation from the demi-God Gorakh (Goraksha) Nath, isonly a seeming exception, recent and borrowed. ABORIGINES OP THE HIMALAYA. 35 proper to these tribes, stranger and helot races, located among them for ages un- told, being their smiths, carpenters, curriers, potters, &c, and the women of each tribe being its domestic weavers. The Newiirs alone have a literature, and that wholly exotic ; and they alone have made any attempts at the fine arts, in which they have followed chiefly Chinese, but also Indian, models. Before concluding this notice of the Alpine Indian aborigines, it may be as well to define summarily the limits and physical characters of their original and adopted abodes, or Tibet and the Sub-Himalayas. Tibet is a truncated triangular plateau, stretching obliquely from south-east to north-west, between 28° and 36° of north latitude and 72° and 102° of east longitude. It is cold and dry in the extreme, owing to its enormous elevation, averaging 12,000 feet above the sea, to the still vaster height of those snowy barriers which surround it on every side, and which on the south reach 29,000 feet, to an uncommon absence of rain and cloud, to the extreme rarification of its atmosphere, to its saline and sandy soil, and as a consequence of all these and a reciprocating cause too, to the excessive scanti- ness of its vegetation. It is bounded on the south by the Hernachal, on the north by the Kuenlun, on the west by the Belur, and on the east by the Yiinling — all for the most part perpetually snowclad, and of which the very passes on the south average 16,000 to 17,000 feet of elevation. Tibet is, for the most part, a plain and a single plain, but one extremely cut up by ravines, varied much by low bare hills, and partially divided in its length by several parallel ranges ap- proaching the elevation of its barriers, and between the third and fourth of which ranges stand its capitals of Lhasa and Digarchi.* These capitals are both in the central province of the Utsang, all west of which, to the Belur, com- poses the province of Nan, and all east of it, to Sifan, the province of Khani, pro- vinces extending respectively to Bukharia and to China. Tibet, however arid, is nowhere a desert, § and however secluded, is on every side accessible ; and hence it has formed in all ages the great overland route of trade, and may even be called the grand ethnic, as well as commercial, highway of mankind ; its central posi- tion between China, India, and Great Bukharia having really rendered it such for ages, before and since the historic sera, despite its snowy girdle and its bleak aridity. Llence we learn the supreme importance of Tibet in every ethnological regard. Its maximum length is about 1,800 miles, and maximum breadth about 480 miles 5 the long sides of the triangle are towards India and Little Bukharia ; the short one, towards China; the truncated apex towards Great Bukharia, where the Beliir, within the limits of Tibet, has an extent of only one degree, or from 35° to 36° N. lat. ; whereas the base towards China, along the line of the Yun- ling, reaches through 8° or from 28° to 36° N. lat. Just beyond the latter point, in the north-east corner of Kharu, is Siling or Tangut, the converging point of all the overland routes, and which I should prefer to include ethnologically within * De Koros from native written authority apud J. A. S. B. § Iu the next plateau of High Asia, or that of Little Bukharia, the vast desert of Co- bi or Gobi, which occupies the whole eastern half of that plateau, has ever formed, and still does, a most formidable obstruction to transit aud traffic. keI 34 ABORIGINES OF THE HIMALAYA. Tibet, but for the high authority of Klaproth, who insists that we have here a dis- tinct* language and race, though certainly no such separating line in physical geo- graphy, || Siling or Tangut being open to the plateau of Tibet as well as to those of Little Bukharia and Songaria though demarked from China both on the north and east by the K'i-lian and Peling respectively. South of the whole of Tibet, as above defined, lie the Sub-Himalayas, stretching from Gilgit to Brahmakund, with an average breadth of ninety miles, divided cli- matically into three pretty equal transversal regions, or the northern, the central, and the southern, the first of which commences at the ghat line of Hemackal, and the last ends at the plains of Hindostan; the third lying between them, with the great valley of Nepal in its centre. That valley is of a lozenge shape, about sixteen miles in extreme length and breadth, cultivated highly throughout, and from 4,200 to 4,700 feet above the sea. The only other valley in the whole eastern half of the Sub- Himalayas is that of Jurnla, which is smaller and higher, yielding barley (Hordeum celeste,) as the great valley, rice. To the west is the large but single vale of Cashmere and the Duns, both too well known to re- quire further remark. The sub-Himalayas form a confused congeries of enor- mous mountains, the ranges of which cross each other in every direction, but still have a tendency to diverge like ribs from the spine of the snows, or a south-east and north-west diagonal, between 28° and 35°. These mountains are exceedingly precipitous and have only narrow glens dividing their ridges, which are remarkable for continuity or the absence of chasm and rupture and, also for the deep bed of earth everywhere covering the rock and sustaining a matchless luxuriance of tree and herb vegetation, which is elicited in such profusion by in- numerable springs, rills, and rivers, and by the prevalence throughout all three re- gions of the tropical rains in all their steadiness and intensity. There are three or four small lakes in Kumaun situated near each other, and three or four more in Pokra similarly juxtaposed. But in general the absence of lakes (as of level dry tracts) is a remarkable feature of the Sub-Himalayas at present, for anciently the great valleys of Cashmere and Nepal, with several others of inferior size, were in a lacustrine state. The great rivers descend from the snows in nume- rous feeders, which approach gradually and unite near the verge of the plains, thus forming a succession of deltic basins, divided by the great snowy peaks as water-sheds, thus : — Basins. Peaks. 1. Alpine Gangetic basin.* Nanda-de"vi. Dhavalagiri. Gosain-than. Kangchanjunga. Chumalhari. The Gemini, two unnamed peaks. * Siling or Tangut is in Sok-yul or the country of the Mongol tribe. || It must be admitted, however, that the Pay am Khar of Klaproth seems to divide Kham from Tangut. Klaproth cites Chinese geographers. *See the article on "Geography of the Himalaya.'' 2. >> Karnalic basin. 3. » Gandacean basin. 4. » Cosian basin. 5. » Tishtan basin. 6. » basin of the Monas. ABORIGINES OF THE HIMALAYA. 35 In the two first of these five regions, all of which are plainly indicated by the distribution of the waters, the people are mongrel and mixed, save in the north- west parts, where the Palu Sen or cis-nivean Bhotias, the Garhwalis, and the in- habitants of Kanaver and Hangrang are of Tibetan stock. The third, or Gan- dacean basin (Sapt Gandaki in native topography, from the seven chief feeders,) is the seat of the Sunwars, Gurungs, and the Magars. The fourth, or Cosian ba- sin, (Sapt Cousika in native topography, after the seven chief feeders,) is the abode of the Kirantis and Limbiis. The fifth or Tishtan basin, again, is the father- land of the Deunjongmaro, and the sixth that of the Pru or Lhopa, that is,§ Lepshas and Bhutanese, respectively. And, lastly, the high and level space — (a system of valleys around the great one, which is nearly 5,000 ft. above the sea) — between the basins of the Gandak and Cdsi is the seat of the Newars and Murmis. But observe that the terms level space and system of valleys, applied to this last tract, are merely relative, though as such significant, nor meant to be contra- dictory of what has been above remarked, more generally, as to the whole Sub- Himalayas. And here I should add that the best representation of the Himalayas and Sub-Himalayas is by a comparison with the skeleton of the human frame,** in which the former are analogous to the spine and the latter to the ribs. The Sub-Himalayas therefore are transverse rather than parallel ridges, as above stated, or, at all events, their main ridges diverge more or less rectangularly from the ghat line, so as to unitise the several great streams, but still with an irregularity which close observance of the aqueous system can alone reveal. The ruggedness of the surface, by preventing all inter-communication of a free kind, has multi- plied dialects : the rank pasture, by its ill effect on herds and flocks, has turned the people's attention more exclusively than in Tibet to agriculture, though even in Tibet the people are mostly non-nomadic,* heat and moisture, such as Ti- bet is utterly void of, have relaxed the tone of the muscles and deepened the hue of the skin, making the people grain-eaters and growers rather than carnivorous tenders of flocks. Thus the Cis-Himalayans are smaller, less muscular, and less fair than the Trans-Himalayans ; but the differences are by no means so marked as might have been expected ; and though there are noticeable shades of distinc- tion in this respect between the several tribes of the Cis-Himalayans according to their special affinities, as well as between most of them and the North-men, according to their earlier or later immigration, yet if they all be (as surely they §Pru is the Lepsha name of the Bhutanese, whom the Hindu Shastras designate Plava, and themselves, Lhopa. * a Professor Miiller (apud Bunsen's Philosophy of Language), grounding on my Essay on the Physical Geography of the Himalaya, has likened the whole to the hu- man hand with the fingers pointing towards India. The ghat line with its great peaks is assimilated to the knuckles, the dips between being the passes ; and the three transverse Sub-Himalayan regions, extending from the ghats to the plains, are likened to the three joints of the fingers. * Within the limits of Tibet are found abundance of nomades of Mongol and Turkish race, called respectively Sokpo and Hor by the Tibetans, who themselves seem much mixed with the latter race, which has long exercised a paramount influence in North Tibet : witness the facts that all its hill ranges are taghs, and all its lakes ntirs, both Turki words. 36 ABORIGINES OF THE HIMALAYA. are) of the same Turanian origin, it must be allowed that very striking differences of climate and of habits, operating through very many generations, can produce no obliterative effects upon the essential and distinctive signs of race. But this is, in part, speculation, and I will terminate it by remarking that, for the reasons above given, my investigations have been limited to that portion of the Sub- Himalayas which lies between the Kali and the Dhansri, or say 8O5 to 92^° of East longitude and 26£° to 30£° of North latitude. ON THE MILITARY TRIBES OF NEPAL. 3^ 3. ORIGIN AND CLASSIFICATION OF THE MILITARY TRIBES OF NEPAL. (Read before the Bengal Asiatic Society, 9th January, 1833 J The great aboriginal stock of the inhabitants of these mountains, east of the river Kali, or in Nepal, is Turanian. The fact is inscribed, in characters so plain, upon their faces, forms, and languages, that we may well dispense with the super- fluous and vain attempt to trace it historically in the meagre chronicles of barbarians. But from the twelfth century downwards, the tide of Mussulman conquest and bigotry continued to sweep multitudes of the Brahmans of the plains from Hindustan into the proximate hills, which now compose the western territories of the kingdom of Nepal. There the Brahmans soon located themselves. They found the natives illiterate, and without faith, but fierce and proud. Their object was to make them converts to Hinduism, and so to confirm the fleeting influence derived from their learning and politeness. They saw that the barbarians had vacant minds, ready to receive their doctrines, but spirits not apt to stoop to degradation, and they acted accordingly. To the earliest and most distinguished of their converts they communicated, in defiance of the creed they taught, the lofty rank and honors of the Kshairiya order. But the Brahmans had sensual passions to gratify, as well as ambition. They found the native females — even the most distinguished — nothing loath, but still of a temper, like that of the males, prompt to repel indignities. These females would indeed welcome the polished Brahmans to their embraces, but their offspring must not be stigma- tised as the infamous progeny of a Brahman and a Mlechha — must, on the con- trary, be raised to eminence in the new order of things proposed to be introduced by their fathers. To this progeny also, then, the Brahmans, in still greater defi- ance of their creed, communicated the rank of the second order of Hinduism; and from these two roots, mainly, sprung the now numerous, predominant, and exten- sively ramified, tribe of the Khas — originally the name of a small clan of creedless barbarians, now the proud title of the Kshatriya, or military order of the kingdom of Nepal. The offspring of original Khas females and of Brahmans, with the honors and rank of the second order of Hinduism, got the patronymic titles of the first order ; and hence the key to the anomalous nomenclature of so many stirpes of the military tribes of Nepal is to be sought in the nomenclature of the sacred order. It may be added, as remarkably illustrative of the lofty spirit of the Parbattias, that, in spite of the yearly increasing sway of Hinduism in Nepal, and of the various attempts of the Brahmans in high office to procure the abolition of a custom so radically opposed to the creed both parties now profess, the Khas still insist that the fruit of commerce (marriage is out of the FF 38 ON THE MILITARY TRIBES OF NEPAL. question) between their females and males of the sacred order shall be ranked as Kshatriyas, wear the thread, and assume the patronymic title. The original Khas, thus favoured by it, became soon and entirely devoted to the Brahmanical system.* The progress of Islam below daily poured fresh refu- gees among them. They availed themselves of the superior knowledge of the strangers to subdue the neighbouring tribes of aborigines, were successful beyond their hopes, and, in such a career continued for ages, gradually merged the greater part of their own habits, ideas, and language (but not physiognomy) in those of the Hindus. The Khas language became a corrupt dialect of Hindi, retaining not many palpable traces (except to curious eyes) of primitive barbarism. An authentic anecdote told me at Katkmandii confirms the origin above as- signed to the modern Khas tribe of Nepal. In the reign of Ram Sah of Gorkha, an ancestor of the present dynasty of Nepal, an ambassador was sent from the Durbar of Gorkha to that of Mewar, to exhibit the Gorkhali Rajah's pedigree and to claim recognition of alleged kindred. The head of the renowned Sesodians, somewhat staggered with the pedigree, seemed inclined to admit the relationship, when it was suggested to him to question the ambassador about his own caste as a sort of test for the orthodoxy or otherwise of the notions of caste entertained in the far distant, and, as had always at Cbitor or Udaypur been supposed, bar- barous Himalaya. The ambassador, a Khas, who had announced himself as belonging to the martial tribe, or Kshatriya, thus pressed, was now obliged to admit that he was nevertheless a Pande, which being the indubitable cognomen of a tribe of the sacred order of Hinduism, his mission was courteously dismissed without further enquiry. The Ehthdriahs are the descendants more or less pure of Rajputs and other Kshatriyas of the plains, who sought refuge in these mountains from the Mos- lem, or merely military service as adventurers. With fewer aims of policy, and readier means in their bright swords of requiting the protection afforded them, than had tbe Brahmans, they had less motive to mix their proud blood with that of the vile aborigines than the Brahmans felt the impulse of, and they did mix it less. Hence, to this hour, they claim a vague superiority over the Khas, not- withstanding that the pressure of the great tide of events around them has, long since, confounded the two races in all essentials. Those among the Kshatriyas of the plains, who were more lax, and allied themselves with the Khas females in concubinage, were permitted to give to their children, so begotten, the patronymic title only, not the rank. But their children, again, if they married for two gene- rations into the Khas, became pure Khas, or real Kshatriyas in point of privilege * That is, they agreed to put away their old gods, and to take the new ; to have Brahmans for Gurus ; and not to kill the cow : for the rest they made, and still make, sufficiently light of the ceremonial law in whatever respects food and sexual gratification. Their active habits and vigorous character could not brook the restraints of the ritual law, and they had the example of licentious Brahmans to warrant their neglect of it. The few prejudices of the Khas are useful, rather than otherwise, inasmuch as they fa- vour sobriety and cleanliness. ON THE MILITARY TRIBES OF NEPAL. 39 and rank, though no longer so in name ! They were Khas, not Kshatngas, and yet they bore the proud cognoniina of the martial order of the Hindus, and were, in the land of their nativity, entitled to every prerogative which Kshdtriya birth confers in Hindustan ! Such is the third and less fruitful root of the Khas race. The EMhdriahs speak the Khas language, and they speak no other. The Thakuris differ from the Ekthdriahs only by the accidental circumstance of their lineage being royal. At some former period, and in some little state or other, their progenitors were princes. The Sdhi or Sdh are the present royal family. The remaining military tribes of the Parbattias are the Magar and Gu rung, who now supply the greater number of the soldiers of this state. From lending themselves less early and heartily to Brahmanical influence than the Khas, they have retained, in vivid freshness, their original languages, physi- ognomy, and, in a less degree, habits. To their own untaught ears their languages differ entirely the one from the other, and no doubt they differ materially, though both belonging to the unprono- minalized type of the Turanian tongues. Their physiognomies, too, have pecu- liarities proper to each, but with the general caste and character fully developed in both. The Gurungs are less generally and more recently redeemed from Lamd- ism and primitive impurity than the Magars. But though both the Gurungs and Magars still maintain their own vernacular tongues, Tartar faces, and careless manners, yet, what with military service for several generations under the predominant Khas, and what with the commerce of Khas males with their females,* they have acquired the Khas language, though not to the oblivion of their own, and the Khas habits and sentiments, but with sundry reservations in favor with pristine liberty. As they have, however, with such grace as they could muster, submitted themselves to the ceremonial law of purity and to Brahman supremacy, they have been adopted as Hindus. But partly owing to the licenses above glanced at, and partly by reason of the necessity of distinctions of caste to Hinduism, they have been denied the thread, and constituted a doubtful order below it, and yet not Vaisya nor Sudra, but a something superior to both the latter — what I fancy it might puzzle the Shastris to explain on Hindu principles. The Brahmans of Nepal are much less generally addicted to arms than those of the plains; and they do not therefore properly belong to our present subject. The enumeration of the Brahmans is nevertheless necessary, as serving to elu- cidate the lineage and connexions of the military tribes, and especially of the Khas. The martial classes of Nepal are, then, the Khas, Magar, and Giirung, each com- * Here, as in the cases of the Brahman and Khas, and Kshatriya and Klias, there can be no marriage. The offspring of a Khas with a Magarni or Gurungni is a titular Khas and real Magar or Gurung. The descendants fall into the rank of their mothers and retain only the patronymic. 40 ON THE MILITARY TRIBES OP NEPAL. prising a very numerous race, variously ramified and sub-divided in the manner exhibited in the following tabular statement. The original seat of the Khas is ordinarily said to be Gdrkhd* because it was thence immediately that they issued, some years ago, under the guidance of Prithvi Narayan, to acquire the fame and dominion achieved by him and his suces- sors of the Gdrkhdli dynasty. But the Khas were long previoiisly to the age of Prithvi Narayan extensively spread over the whole of the Chaubisya, and they are now found in every part of the existing kingdom of Nepal, as well as in Kurnaun, which was part of Nepal until 1816. The Khas are rather more devoted to the house of Gdrkhd, as well as more liable to Brahmanical prej udices than the Magars or Gurungs ; and, on both accounts, are perhaps somewhat less desirable as soldiers for our service than the latter tribes. I say somewhat, because it is a mere question of degree ; the Khas having, certainly, no religious prejudices, nor probably any national partiali- ties, which would prevent their making excellent and faithful servants in arms ; and they possess pre-eminently that masculine energy of character and love of enterprize which distinguish so advantageously all the military races of Nepal. The original seat of the Magars is the Bar a Mangrdnth, or Satahung, Pdyung, Bhirkot, Dhor, Garahung, Bising, G hiring } Gdlmi, Argha, Khdehi, Miisikdt, and Isma ; in other words, most of the central and lower parts of the mountains, between the Bheri and Marsydndi\\ Rivers. The attachment of the Magars to the house of Gdrkhd is but recent, and of no extraordinary or intimate nature. Still less so is that of the Gurungs, whose native seats occupy a line of country parallel to that of the Magars, to the north of it, and extending to the snows in that direction. Modern events have spread the Magars and Gurungs over most part of the present kingdom of Nepal. The Gurungs and Magars are, in the main, Hindus, only because it is the fashion ; and the Hinduism of the Khas, in all practi- cal and soldierly respects, is free of disqualifying punctillios. These highland soldiers, who despatch their meal in half an hour, and satisfy the ceremonial law by merely washing their hands and face, and taking off their turbans before cooking, laugh at the pharisaical rigour of our Sipdhis, who must bathe from head to foot and m&ke pujd, ere they begin to dress their dinner, must eat nearly naked in the coldest weather, and cannot be in marching trim again in less than three hours. In war, the former readily carry several days' provisions on their backs : the latter would deem such an act intolerably degrading. The former see in foreign service nothing but the prospect of glory and spoil : the latter can discover in it nothing but pollution and peril from unclean men and terrible wizards, goblins, and evil spirits. In masses, the former have all that indomitable confidence, each in all, which grows out of national integrity and success : the latter can have no * G6rkha, the town, lies about sixty miles W.N.W. of Xathmandu. Gorkha, the name, is derived from that of the eponymous deity of the royal family, viz. Gorak- shanath or Gorkhanath, who likewise has given his name to our district of Gorakpur. || The Marichangdi of our maps. ON THE MILITARY TRIBES OF NEPAL. 4 1 idea of this sentiment, which yet maintains the union and resolution of multi- tudes' in peril, better than all other human bonds whatever; and, once tho- roughly acquired, is by no means inseparable from service under the national standard. ^ ^ nn „ . . I calculate that there are at this time in Jfetf no less than 30,000 Dakhreahs, of soldiers off the roll by rotation, belonging to the above three tribes. I am not sure that there exists any insuperable obstacle to our obtaining, in one form or other, the services of a large body of these men; and such are their energy o character, love of enterprize, freedom from the shackles of caste, unadulterated military habits and perfect subj ectibility to a discipline such as ours, that 1 am well assured their services, if obtained, would soon come to be most highly prized.* .„ ,, In my humble opinion they are by far the best soldiers m Asia; and if they were made participators of our renown in arms, I conceive that their gallant spirit, emphatic contempt of Madhesias (people of the plains,) and unadulterated mili- tary habits, might be relied on for fidelity ; and that oar good and regular pay and noble pension establishment would serve perfectly to counterpoise the influence of nationality, so far as that could injuriously affect us. The following table exhibits a classified view of the Brahnanical and military tribes, with their various sub-divisions. Tabular View of the Tribes. BRAHMANS. Avjal. Dohal. Dhakal. Pondyal. Lamsal. Adkikari. K banal. Ritual. Doeja. Regmi. Devakotya. Ptukai. Bhattrai. Parbatya Vash. Sywal. Nirola. Parbatya Misr. Rijal, Achiirya. Davari. Dhungyal, Bhatt. Koikyal Loiyal. Sapan kotya. Nepalya. Dotiyal. Maharashtra. Baral. Kandyal. Koirala. Pokaryal. Katyal. Pakonyal. Riipakheti. Dangal. Sattyal. Khativara. Singyal. Bikral. Ukniyal. Bhattwal. Gajniyal. Ohavala Gai- Vasta Gai. Banjara. Dagi. Soti. Osti. Utkulli. Kandariah. Ghart mel. ■it ,„ i-Vio miiiP mid flip availability to us of the G6rk- ^aSffittSSSM «£&.« as ? W^»T.r^%lSSOTiudteSSlof Brahman ami Kshatri Sipi- merceries was, among other arguments, earnestly dwelt n,.on. (1857.) ff! 42 ON THE MILITARY TRIBES OF NEPAL. GhartyaL Timil Sina. Paneru. Dulal. Nivapanya. Kaphalya. Loityal. Parajuli. Tenirakoti. Gaithoula. Sigdhyal. Bajgai. Upkaltopi. Gairaha Pipli. Baral. Satola. Parijai Kavala. Ghiruirya. Gotamya. Ghurcholi. Homya Gai. Simkhara. Ghorasaini. Kelathoni. Champa Gai. Phiinwal. Risyal. GilaL Gura Gai. Chanika saini. Ohalisya. Lahoni. Suberi. Pura saini. Dhongana. Muthbari. Pandit. Dhurari. Bharari. Teva panya. Bhiirtyal. Bagalya. Bagyal. Takuryal. Palaini. Gudar. Khulal. 1st Sab-division of the Khds, called Thdpa. Gagliya. Powar. Kkapotari. Siiyal. Ghimirya. Parajuli. Maharaji. Khulal. Deoja. Lamichanya. Sunyal. 2nd Sub-division of the Khds, called Bishnydt. Khaputari. SripalL Puwar. 3rd Sub-division, called Bhanddri. Raghubansi. Lama. Sijapati. Sutar. 4th Sub-division, called Kdrki. Lama. Mundala. Khulal. Powar. 5th Sub-division, called Khdnka. Maharaji. Party al. Lakanggi. Lamichanya, Kalikotya, Khaputari. Palpali. Khulal. Gth Sub-division, or Adhikari. Tharni. Tharirai. Pokrial. Dhami. Khadhsena. 1th Sub-division, or Bisht, Kalikotya. Puwar. 8th Sub-division, or Kunwdr. Bagalya. Khulal. Khanka. 9th Sub-division, or Baniah. Sijapati. Musiah. Thakuri. Dahal. Arjal. Pande. Dhakal. Sakhtyal. ON THE MILITARY TRICES OP NEPAL. 10^ Sub-division^ or Ddni. Sijapati. Powar. 11th Sub-division, or Gharti* Kalikotya. Sijapati. 12^ Sub-division, or Khattri. Khuldl. Lainichanya. Tewari. Panth. Poryal. Phanyal. Bural. Arjal. Sapkotya. 43 Bhongyal. Loyal. Lamsal. Khukriyal. Dangal. Sikkmiyal. Bhiryal. Pouryal. Bikral. Kanhal. Batyal. Ganjal. Suveri. Adhikari. Silwal. True Khds Sijal. Parsai. Am Gai. Baj Gai. Dahal. Deakota. Garhtola. Seora. Balya. Gilal. Ckonial. Res'ini not yet classified. Satoitya. Khatiwata. Chalatani. Kilatkoni. Satya Gai. Alphaltopi. Osti. Bhatt Ojka. Tewari. Porseni. Iloinya Gai. Tunirakot. Rupakheti. Chouvala Gai. Bhatt Rai. Naopanya. Mini Bkiis. Soti. Parij ai Kawala, Bainankotya. Kadariah. Kala Khattri. Dkungana. Pungyal. ekthaeya, or insulated Tribes ranking with Khds. Biirathoki. Chohan. Bohara. Kutal. Raya. Boghati. Chiloti. Dikshit. Ravat. Khatit. Dangi. Pandit. Katwal. Bavan. Raimanjhi. Parsai. Khati. Mahat. Bhukhandi. Chokhal Maghati. Barwal, Bhusal. Chohara. Durrah. thaktjri, or Royal Lineages, ranking with Khds. Sahi. Singh. Chand. Jiva. Malla. Maun. Hamal. Rakhsya. Sena. Chohan. Ruchal. MAGAKS. I. — Sub-division of the Magars, called Rdnd, Bhusal. Gyangmi. Byangnasi. Kyapchaki. Pulanii. Phyuyali. Durra Land. Yahayo. Lainichanya. Maski. Sara. Pusal. Charnii. Arghounle. Thada. Dutt. Aslami. Gacha. Gandharma, * Manumitted slaves are called Pargharti, if of Khas lineage. They form a separata and rather numerous class, and so also do the Khawas or manumitted slaves of royalty. 44 ON THE MILITARY TRIBES OP NEPAL. II. — Sub-division of Maffars, called Thdpa. Granja. Chumi. Keli. Bareya. Namjali. Liingeli. Jhangdi. Maski. Darrlami. Sunari. Yangdi, Phyuyali. Marsyangdi. Ckitouriah. Jhari. Arghouuli. Gelum?, Sinjali. Sara. Rijai. III. — Sub-division of Maffars, called Alaya. Yangnii. Sarangi. PCmg. Lamjal. Surya Vana. Gonda. Sripali. Suyal. Khali. Dukkchaki. Sijapati. Pautlii. Tbokcbaki. Ming. Gharti. JRakhal. Sithung. Maski. Lamichanya. Palami. Lahakpa. Argliounle. Kbaptari. Phyuyali. Kyapcbaki. Duma. Khulal. Cberrni. Pacbain. GURUNGS. Gurung, Laruichanya Kbaptari. Tange. Ghalle. Siddh. Gbundane. Ghonya. Byapri. Karaniati. Dharen. Paindi. Vumjan. Gosti. Jimel. Mengi. Laina. Bagalva. Lopate. Dab Lama. Chandii. Thathung. Lotbang. Kurangi. Gothi. Charki. Bulling. Khulal. Gonduk. Khati. Sbakya Lama. Surya Vansi Lama Gohori. Guaburi. Golangya. Madan. Baraki. Pengi. Khangva. Palami. Gharti Dhakaren 4. ON THE CHEPANG AND KUSUNDA TRIBES OF NEPAL. (See Journal Asiatic Society Bengal, 1857. ) Amid the dense forests of the central region of Nepal, to the westward of the great valley, dwell, in scanty numbers, and nearly in a state of nature, two broken tribes, having no apparent affinity with the civilized races of that country, and seeming like the fragments of an earlier population. " They toil not, neither do they spin :" they pay no taxes, acknowledge no alle- giance, but, living entirely upon wild fruits and the produce of the chase, are wont to say that the Rajah is Lord of the cultivated country, as they are of the unredeemed waste. They have bows and arrows, of which the iron arrow-heads are procured from their neighbours, but almost no other implement of civilization, and it is in the very skilful snaring of the beasts of the field and the fowls of the air that all their little intelligence is manifested. Boughs torn from trees and laid dexterously together constitute their only houses, the sites of which they are perpetually shifting according to the exigencies or fancies of the hour. In short, they are altogether as near to what is usually called the state of nature as anything in human shape can well be, especially the Kusundas, tor the Chepangs are a few degrees above their confreres, and are begin- ning to hold some slight intercourse with civilized beings and to adopt the most simple of their arts and habits. It is due, however, to these rude foresters to say, that, though they stand wholly aloof from society, they are not actively offensive against it, and that neither the Government nor individuals tax them with any aggressions against the wealth they despise, or the comforts and conveniences they have no conception of the value of. They are, in fact, not noxious but helpless, not vicious but aimless, both morally and intellectually, so that no one could, without distress, behold their careless un- conscious inaptitude. It is interesting to have opportunity to observe a tribe so circumstanced and characterized as the Chepangs, and I am decidedly of opinion that their wretched condition, physical and moral, is the result, not of inherent defect, but of that savage ferocity of stronger races which broke to pieces and outlawed both the Chepang and the Kusiinda tribes during the ferocious ethnic struggles of days long gone by, when tribe met tribe in internecine strife, con- tending for the possession of that soil they knew not how to fructify ! Nor is there any lack of reasonable presumptions in favour of this idea, in reference to the Chepangs at least; for the still traceable affiliation of this people (as we shall soon see), not less than the extant state of their language, demonstrates their once having known a condition far superior to their present one, or to any that has been theirs for ages. 46 THE CHEPANG AND KUSUNDA TRIBES. That the primitive man was a savage has already appeared to me an unfounded assumption ; whereas that broken tribes deteriorate lamentably, we have several well-founded instances in Africa.* Quitting, however, these speculations, I proceed with my narrative. During a long residence in Nepal, I never could gain the least access to the Kusiindas, though aided by all the authority of the Durbar ; but, so aided, I once, in the course of an ostensible shooting excursion, persuaded some Chepangs to let me see and converse with them for three or four days through the medium of some Gurungs of their acquaintance. On that occasion I obtained the accompanying ample specimen of their language; and, whilst they were doling forth the words to my interpreters, I was enabled to study and to sketch the characteristic traits of their forms and faces. Compared with the mountaineers among whom they are found, the Chepangs are a slight but not actually deformed race, though their large bellies and thin legs indicate strongly the precarious amount and innutritious quality of their food. In height they are scarcely below the standard of the tribes around them|| — who however are notori- ously short of stature — but in colour they are decidedly darker. They have elon- gated (fore and aft) heads, protuberant large mouths, low narrow foreheads, large cheek-bones, flat faces, and small eyes. But the protuberance of the mouth does not amount to prognathous deformity,} nor has the small suspicious eye much, if anything, of the Mongolian obliqueness of direction or set in the head. Having frequently questioned the Durbar, whilst resident at Kathmandu, as to the relations and origin of the Chepangs and Kusiindas, I was invariably answered, that no one could give the least account of them, but that they were generally supposed to be autochthones, or primitive inhabitants of the country. For a long time such also was my own opinion, based chiefly upon their physical characteristics as above noted, and upon the absence of all traceable lingual or other affinity with the tribes around them ; so that I took the Chepangs, the Kusiindas, and also the Hai- y US § — a third tribe, remarkably resembling the two former in position and appear- ance — to be fragments of an original hill population prior to the present domi- nant races of inhabitants of these mountains, and to be of Tamulian extraction, from their great resemblance of form and colour to the aborigines of the plains, particularly the Kols or Uraons, the Mundas, and the Males. It did not for several years occur to me to look for lingual affinities beyond the proximate tribes, nor was I, save by dint of observation, made fully aware that the Turanian type of mankind belongs not only to the races of known Northern pedigree, such as the *Prich. Phys. Hist. Vol. II. passim. Scott's exquisite novels throw much light on this subject. || Magar, Murmi, Khas, Gurung, Newar. % It tends that way, however : and the tendency is yet more strongly marked in some of the broken Turanian tribes of Central India; so that the general effect upon the North- men of their descent into the least healthy and malarious jungles and swamps of the tropics, would seem to be to cause the Turanian type of human kind to assimilate with the African type, hut with a long interval: degradation and hardship may in these broken tribes facilitate the effects of hail climate. S Ilaivu, Havu vel Vayu. See full treatise on this people in Jour. As. Soc. Bengal. Also vocabularies ot the Chepung and Kusiinda tongues. THE CHEPANG AND KUSUNDA TKIBES. 47 mass of the sub-Himalayan population, but equally so to all the aborigines of tbe plains, at least to all those of Central India. Having-, of late, however, be- come domiciled much to the eastward of Kathmandii, and having had more leisure for systematic and extended researches, those attributes of the general subject, which had previously perplexed me, were no longer hindrances to me in the in- vestigation of any particular race or people. I now saw in the Turanian features of the Ohepangs a mark equally reconcileable with Tamulian or Tibetan affinities ; in their dark colour and slender frame, characteristics at first sight, indeed, rather Tamulian than Tibetan, but such as might, even in a Tibetan race, be accounted for by the extreme privations to which the Ohepangs had for ages been subject ; and in their physical attributes taken together, I perceived that I had to deal with a test of affinity too nice and dubious to afford a solution of the question of origin.* I therefore turned to the other or lingual test ; and, pursuing this branch of the enquiry, I found that, with the Southern aborigines, there was not a vestige of connection, whilst to my surprise I confess, I discovered in the lusty§ Lhopas of Bhutan the unquestionable origin and stock of the far removed, and physically very differently characterized, Ohepangs ! This lingual demonstration of identity of origin, I have, for the reader's convenience, selected and set apart as an appendix to the vocabulary of tbe Chepang language ; and I apprehend that all persons conversant with ethnological enquiries will see in the not mere resem- blance, but identity, of thirty words of prime use and necessity extracted from so limited a field of comparison as was available for me to glean from, a sufficient prcof of the asserted connextion and derivation of the Ohepangs, notwithstand- ing all objections deducible from distance, dissolution of intercourse, and phy- sical non-conformity. But observe, the last item of difference is, as already inti- mated, not essential, but contingent, for both Lhopas and Ohepangs are of the same, essentially Turanian stamp, whilst the deteriorations of vigour and of colour in the Ohepangs, though striking, are no more than natural, nay inevitable, consequences of the miserable condition of dispersion and outlawry to which the Ohepangs have been subject for ages anterior to all record or tradition. And, again, with regard to local disseveration, it should be well noted, in the first place, that * See addendum on Bhutan. § 1 am now satisfied that the source of my perplexity lay in the common Turanian origin of all the tribes adverted to, which differ physically or lingually only in degree — physically, according to their earlier or later immigration and more or less health- ful and temperate new abodes ; lingually, also, according to their more special affinity with the less or with the more simple-tongued tribes or sub-families of the North. The oldest tribes of Himalaya, as sufficiently proved by their relative condition and location, are the broken tribes driven to the inclement summits or malarious glens of the Himalaya ; and these in general have languages of the pronomenalized or complex sub-type, so that Miiller is wholly wrong in assuming that Himalaya has no lingual traits of Draviria* — wrong also, 1 think, in the importance assigned to these contiadistinc- tive marksof race. In proof see Poole on Egyptian language Jour. Royal As. Society, Vol. xx., part 34, p.p 313, el seq : the two dialects of the one tongue have a different arrangement of the pronom. adjunct of nouns and verbs. It must be, after this, almost needless to add that the relationship of the Chepangs to the Lhopas is general, not special. 8 Neither Tamil nor Telugu nor Kannadi possesses in like perfection this diagnostic pronomenalization of noun and of verb (viz., prefixed to noun, and suffixed to verb.) 48 THE CI1EPANG AXD KUSUNDA TRIBES. by how much the Chepangs are, and have long been, removed from Bhutan, by so much exactly do conformities of language demonstrate identity of origin, because those conformities cannot be explained by that necessary contact with neighbours to which the Chepang language, owes, of course, such Hindi, Parbattia, and Ne- war terms as the vocabulary exhibits ; and, in the second place, we must recol- lect, that though it be true that 300 miles of very inaccessible country divide the seat of the Chepangs from Bhutan, and moreover, that no intercourse therewith has been held by the Chepangs for time out of mind, still in those days when tribes and nations were, so to speak, in their transitional state, it is well known that the tides of mankind flowed and ebbed with a force and intensity comparable to nothing in recent times, and capable of explaining far more extraordinary phae- nomena than the disruption of the Chepangs, and their being hurried away, like one of the erratic boulders of geologists, far from the seat of the bulk of their race and people. Indeed, the geological agents of dislocation in the days of pris- tine physical commotion may throw some light, in the way of analogy, upon the ethnological ones during the formative eras of society ; and though we have no re- cord or tradition of a Lhopa conquest or incursion extending westward, so far as, or even towards, the great valley of Nepal, we may reasonably presume that some special clan or sept of the Bhiitanese was ejected by an ethnic cataclysm from the bosom of that nation and driven westward under the ban of its own com- munity alike, and of those with which it came in contact in its miserable migra- tion, — for misfortune wins not fellowship. The lapse of a few generations will probably see the total extinction of the Che- pangs and Kusiindas, and therefore I apprehend that the traces now saved from oblivion of these singularly circumstanced and characterized tribes, now for the first time named to Europeans, will be deemed very precious by all real stu- dents of ethnology. Their origin, condition and character are, in truth, ethnic facts of high value, as proving how tribes may be dislocated and deteriorated during the great transitional eras of society. ADDENDUM ON BHUTAN. Lho is the native name for Bhutan, and Lhopa and Dukpa (written Briikpa) are native names for an inhabitant of Bhutan — whereof the former is the territorial, the latter, the religious, designation. In other words, a Lhopa is one belonging to the country of Bhutan, and a Dukpa (recti Briikpa), a follower of that form of Lamaism which prevails in Bhutan, and which has become equally distinctive with the local designation for an inhabitant of the country, since the people of Bhot or Tibet were converted to the new or Gehikpa form of that faith. Bhutan is a Sanskrit word, and is correctly Bhiitant, or ' the end of Bhot ' (in- clusively), the Brahmans, like the natives, deeming the cisnivean region an inte- gral part of Tibet, which it is ethnographically, though by no means geographi- cally. Had Klaproth and Bitter been aware that Lho is Bhutan, and Lhopa THE CIIEPANG AND KUSUNDA TRIBES. 49 an inhabitant of Bhutan, we should not have had their maps disfigured by a variety of imaginary regions placed east of Bhutan and termed Lokabadja, etc., a sheer variorum series of lingual error, resting on the single local name Lho and its derivatives of a personal kind, as correctly and incorrectly gathered by them. Originally, some Bengali rendered Lho by the — to him — familiar word Lok (regio); and then, being unaware that the Tibetan affix bd velpd means 'belong- ing to,' 'inhabitant of,' he subjoined to the bd his own equivalent of jd (born of), and thus was deduced Klaproth's furthest error (I omit others short of this one) of Lokabadja. To trace an error to its source is the best way to prevent its repetition, an aphorism I add, lest any person should suppose me wanting in respect for the eminent persons whose mistakes I have pointed out. Klaproth was possibly misled by Hastings' letters to and from Teshiilungba. * But he and Bitter are fairly chargeable with constant creation of new regions out of mere synonyma ! I could give a dozen of instances from their splendid maps. VOCABULARY OF THE LANGUAGE OF THE CHEPASTG. English. Chcpdiig. English. Clicpang. The world A bridge Ta God jNyaniDing Husband Palam Man Pursi Wife Malam Woman Miru Father Pa Quadruped Sva Mother Ma Bird M6-wa Brother Hou Bisect Pling Sister Hou dhiang Fish Gna T Grand-father To Fire MiT Grand-mother Aie Aii- Mard Uncle Pang Earth SaT Aunt Mum Clay, plastic Sa lena Child Cho Water Ti Boy Cho Light, (lux) Angha Girl Cho riang The sun Nyain T Kinsfolk Laikwo The moon Lame T Strangefolk Saing The stars Ear T Day Nyi Gni T A mountain Bias T Night Ya A plain Dani Dawn Wago A river Ghoro Noon Syawa A ferry Titachaparna ? (ford) Evening Nyam ram a * See Turner's Embassy and native account of Bhutan, in the Transactions of the A.S.B. The affix Ihung means 'valley, ' and Lhasa also, being 'in a valley,' it is often called Lhasa-lhungpa or lhuniba, that is, Lhasa of the Valley. X Nyam is the Sun, which is no doubt worshipped, and hence the identity of terms. Nyi in Chinese. GG 5° THE CHEPAN< English. Chepdng. To-day Ten Yesterday- Yon To-morrow Syang A week A fortnight Bakha yatla. A month Yatla A year* Yatang Summer Lhapa A quail Umba-wa A kite or hawk Md-waf A fly Yang Winter Namj ung The rains Nyaniwa Grain Yam Rice, unhusked Yang Rice, husked Chui Wheat Kan BarleyJ Plantain Maise Pear Pa-sai Tobacco Mingo Pepper Marich II Red pepper Raksai Garlick Bin Oil Sate A tree Sing-tak T A leaf L6T A flower R6 A fruit Chai Wood Sying T Fuel Jharo sying Grass Straw Won Bran Rock A horse Serang An ox Shya A bull You shya A cow Mo shya A buffalo Misha T A dog KuiT A cat AND KUSUNDA TRIBES. * The separate twelve months and seven + Wa is the generic of birds of the fowl X No other grain named, but wheat and r English. Chepdng. A monkey Yukh A jackal Karj a A tiger Ja A leopard Mayo j a A bear Yom A goat Micha A sheep .... A hare A hog, pig PiakT An elephant Kisi N A deer Kasya A rat Yd A mouse Mayo yu A manis Chang j ung A fowl (gallus} i Wa Its egg Wa-kun A pigeon Bak-wa A crow Kawa A sparrow Yiirkunwa A lark Bajii wa A partridge Tithara H Cord, thin Rhim Thread Mayo rhim (ma- yo=small) Needle Gyap A bee Tumba The human body Mha The head Tolong The hair Min The face Khen The forehead Jyed The eye MikT The nose Gn6 Ny6 The mouth Mothong The chin Kam-tyd The ear N6T The arm Krut The hand Kiitpa, The leg Bom The foot The belly Tukh days have no names. kind. ice. THE CHEPANG English. Chipdng. Bone Rhus T Blood Wi Blood-vessel So A house KyimT A door Khar ok A stone Bang A brick A temple Ding thani An idol Simta A boat Dinner Amjia A dish L6 A plate Mila Flesh Mai Bread Lang Vegetables Kyang Honey Turn Wax MainP Milk Gmiti Gheu Gheu H Cloth Nai Clothes, apparel Nai Bed clothes Lou Upper vest Doura Lower vest Siimba Shoe Panai P Stocking Docha P Wool, raw Min Cotton, ditto Kapas H Hemp, ditto Kyou Bow Liii Arrow Lah T Axe Warhe Spade, hoe Taik Plough You sing Loom Knife Phia ghiil Brush, broom Phek Basket Tokorong Rope, thick Ra Beer Han Spirits Rakski P A still Kuti pong AND KUSUNDA TRIBES 5 English. CMpdng. The senses Touching- Dinang Smelling Gnamang Seeing Yorsang Hearing Saisung Pen Re syang Ink Hildang Sovereign Rajah H Subject Parja H Citizen Berang mo Countryman, rustic 6 moy Soldier Gal moy Villager Desing moy Priest Jhakri Physician Chime Druggist Osa yilong Master Sing chopo Servant Mayo (small) Slave Grang Cultivator Kcimin chara Cowherd Gothala H Carpenter Bing kami N Blacksmith Kami N Weaver Naik yousa Spinner Rhim rhousa Tailor Rnpsa Basket- master Grang kioni Currier Piin riipo Tanner Piin lai Cotton-dresser Rhim rhowan Iron Phalam P Copper Tamba H Lead Sisa II Gold Liang Silver Riipa H Rain Nyong wa, Frost Chepii Snow Rapang Ice Chepii Fog Khasii Lightning Marang Thunder Maranh miira 52 English. A storm A road A path Chepdng. Marhii LiamT Mayo liana THE CHEPANG AND KUSUNDA TRIBES. English. Four Five Six Seven Eight Nine Ten Half The whole A spring (water) Tishakwo Trade Capital Interest Coin Robbery Theft Murder Cultivated field City or town Village Horn Ivory Stupid Honest Dishonest Great Small Heavy Light, (levis) Tasting Hunger Thirst Disease Medicine Fever Dysentery Small-pox Fear Hope Love Hate Grief, sorrow Joy One Two Three Yinlang Has Cho Tanka H Latilang Ditto Jensatang Kiityalang Blu Berang Desi RongT Laik Waiva chul Waha pina Wada pilo Bronto Maito, mayo Lito Some, any Many None Near Far Blind Lame Dumb Deaf Clean Dirty Strong Weak Good Bad Ugly Handsome Young Old Clever To stand up To sleep To wake To give To take To lend To borrow To buy Black White Green Blue * Sa I think is the infinitive sign, and ting, the participial should appear uniformly here. Query Youngsang* Rung Kiop RogH OsaN Aimang Boarlang Broni Rai Aphro Mharlang Ghrim nang Manbkaning Yang nang Ya-zho** Nhi-zho T Sinn-zho T : [Zho is evidently the sho ' number, and Sa the sign of neuter verbs, of the Chinese. J.S.] Chcp&ng. Phoi-zho Piima-zho Krvik-zho Chana-zho Prap-zho Taku-zho Gyib-zho Bakh Yagur Jho Domanalo Loko Dyangto Mikchangna Domtonga Nosa chiil Nosa mal Bhangto Galto Jokto Joklo Pito Pilo Pilo Dyangto Dyting mai Burha H Chimo Chingsa Ydmsa Tyoksa Biiisa T Lisa T Biiisa Lisa Yingsa Galto Pkamto Phelto Galto ' or other THE CHEPANG AND English. Tibetan. Red Ditto Yellow- Yerpo Sweet Nimto Sour Nimlo Straight Dhimto Crooked Dongto Hot Dhato Cold Yestho Dark Light, luminous Takto Great Bronto Greater Mhak talto Greatest Mhak talto Small Maito Smaller Cholam Smallest Cholam To stand Chimsa To fall Chonsa To walk Whasa To run Kisa To climb Jyaksaf To question Hotsa To answer Dyengnuksa To request Bajkinang?* To refuse Bainanglo ? n % nt Kaichinsa „ kiss Chopchisa „ laugh Nhisa v cry Rhiasa „ eat Jhisa ,, drink Tiimsa „ talk Khosa „ be silent Ashimanga KUSUNDA TRIBES. Lh&pa. To shit „ piss „ ascend „ descend „ cut „ break „join, unite „ jump „ sit down „ write „ read » sing | „ dance „ lie down „ get up „ tell a falsehood „ see „ sell „ exchange n live „ die „ reap „ sow „ thresh „ winnow „ hear „ taste „ smell „ touch „ count „ measure „ remember ' n foi 'g' et 53 Chepdng. Yt5sa Chiisa Jyaksa* Piisa Stalchisa Tk4sa Chosa Jyesa Musa Resa Brosa Mansa Syaksa Eontimusa Hekaksa Chesa, yorsa Yinlangalsa Gy^sa Rasa Warsa Rhapsa Krapsa SaisaJ Lyemsa Namsa Dimsa Thengsa Kriisa Mhardangsa Mhoiyangsa N.B. — TpoBtfixed indicates a Tibetan etymon for the word, H Hindi origin, P Par- rbattia or Khas, and N Newar ditto. It was not in my power to do more than collect Tocables. I could not ascertain the structure: but comparing all the words, I conceive the anomalies of the verbs may be set right by assuming sd to be the infinitival sign, and dug, varied to chang, yang, and rang, the participial one. — B. H. H. * These should be Chesa and Saisa I apprehend ; and so of the rest, t If, as I suppose, Sa be the infinitival sign, there must be error, and the rather that all the verbs should have one form. A'ng, I think, is the participial sign. 54 THE CHEPANG AND KUSUNDA TRIBES. List of Chepdng Words derived from the Tibetan Language, and specially the Bhutanese Dialect of it. English, Tibetan. Llwpa. Chepdng. Eye Mig Mik Sun Nyima Nyim Nyam Sky Nainkkah Nam Nam Ear No Navo Mountain Hi Kong Rias Star Karma Kam Kar Tree Shing Shing Sing-tak Wood Shing Shing Sing Leaf L6-ma L6 Salt Thsa Chha Chhe Road Lain Lam Liani House Khyini Khim Kyini Moon sLava (pron. Da-va) .... Larue" Borie Ruspa Rhus Fire Me Mi Mi Arrow Dah Dah Lah Dog Khyi Khi Km Buffalo Maiii S Meshi Misha Day .... Nyim Nyi Earth .... sa Sa Fish Nya Gna Gna Hog Phag Phag Piak Horn Ra Rong Rong Two Nyis Nyi Nhi-zho§ Three Sum Sum Num-zho Give Buh Bin Bui Take Lan Ling Li § Zho is an enumerative servile affix, like thampa in the decimal series of Tib etan. 5. A CURSORY NOTICE OP NAYAKOTE AND OF THE REMARKABLE TRIBES INHABITING IT. Nayakote, or the Hither Nayakote, as it is often called, to distinguish it from Nayakote of theChoubisi, is the name of a petty town and district lying W. N. W., seventeen miles from Kathmandii, by the high road to Gorkha. The town (so to speak) is situated at the northern extremity of the district, upon a spur descending south-westerly from Mount Dhaibung, or Jibjibia, at about a mile dis- tant from the River Trisool on the west, and the same from the River Tadi, or Surajmatti, on the south and east. The town consists of from sixty to a hundred pakka three-storied houses, in the Chinese style of Kathmandii, chiefly owned by the court and chiefs; of a durbar, called the upper, to distinguish it from the lower one on the banks of the Tc4di ; and of a temple to Bhairavi, all in the like style of architecture. The town forms only a single street, lying in an indentation on the crest of the ridge, and is consequently not visible from below on any side, though the durbar and temple, from being placed higher, are so partially. Nayakote, up to the late war with the English, was the winter residence of the present dynasty of Nepal ; but as the situation of the town is bleak and uncomfortable at that season, the court and chiefs then usually resided in mansions still standing at the base of the hill towards the Tadi, but now a good deal dilapidated, like the town residences, owing to the court having been stationary at Kathmandii since 1813. The district, like the edifices of the great, bears marks of neglect, which are the more palpable, by reason of a considerable portion of it being devoted to gardens and orchards, the property in a great measure of the owners of those edifices. The elevation of the town above the level of the Trisool must be from 800 to 1,000 feet, and the effect of this elevation in concealing it is aided on the side towards the Tadi by a fine forest of saul-trees occupying the whole decli- vity. On other aspects, the said-trees, inherent to the whole site, are reduced to scrubby brushwood, by perpetual injudicious cutting and defoliation, the leaves being used as plates to eat from, and being perpetually carried to Kathmandii for sale there. This ridge has a soil of a deep red clay and its general form is rounded, but broken by deep ruts and ravines in most directions. Towards the Trisool west, and towards the Tadi south and east, the declivity of the ridge of Nayakote is precipitous; but towards the junction of the two streams, in a south westerlv direction, the hill falls off more gently, and about 1| mile below the town spreads into an undulating plain, which occupies almost the whole space between the rivers to their junction and the ridge on which the town stands. This tract may be represented as a nearly equilateral triangle, two of the sides of which are 56 NAYAKOTE AND ITS TRIBES. formed by the rivers, and the third by the ridge. This triangle is a plain, ex- clusive of the declining spur of the ridge, and is an elevated plain, exclusive of that north-easterly angle lying on either side the Tadi, towards and to its junction with the Sindhu at the base of Bhalu Danra. This north-east corner is on the level of the rivers ; the other parts are variously from one to four hundred feet above that level ; and together they constitute the chief part and body, as it were, of the valley of Nayakote, the rest or legs (so to speak with some aptness) of the district being the glens of the Tadi and of the Sindhu as far upwards, res- pectively, as the confluence of the Likhu and the base of Burmandi. The moun- tain ridges enclosing the district of Nayakote, as above defined, are, beginning with the Nayakote ridge itself, and circling east back again to \t — Maha Mandal Nerja (north of Tadi,) Kabilas (dividing the Tadi and the Likhu), Bhalu (dividing the Likhu and the Sindhu), Dang-mai or Burmandi Madanpore, and Ghoor (enclosing the glen of the Sindhu on the south), Belkote (carrying on the same southern barrier down the Tadi to Devi Ghat), Jhiltoong (below the Ghat but still on the south of the river), Thirkiab (opposite to Jhiltoong on the north of, and across, the river), and Gowri and Samari-bhanjang (running northerly up the Trisool to the Sanga, or bridge at Khinchat), where we complete the circuit by linking the last to the Nayakote ridge, the two in that spot pressing close on either bank of a river. With regard to size, if we speak of this tract as a whole, it will not be easy to be at once precise and distinct ; but we may observe in regard to the body of the district, inclusive of the north-east corner on the low level, that fxoin Devi Ghat direct up the Trisool to the Sanga at Khinchat the length is four miles, by the road five miles ; from Devi Ghat to the town of Nayakote from four to five miles, through the middle of the elevated portion of the district; from Devi Ghat up the Tadi to its junction with the Sindhu, four miles and the same from the latter point to Khinchat across the base of the triangle, from the Tadi to [the Trisool ; again, and inclusively of the legs of the dis- trict, from Devi Ghat to Burmandi, up the glens of the Tadi and the Sindu, is six miles ; and from the same point up the Tadi to its junction with the Likhu, eight miles. The maximum breadth of the entire district is at the base of the tri- angle just adverted to, and here the distance by the road from Bhalu Danra to Khinchat is four miles. The mean maximum of breadth, however, is not above three miles ; that of the plateau alone, between the principal river, two miles. But, in speaking of breadths especially, we should distinguish between those parts which have been called the legs and the body of the district, the legs being the subsidiary vales of the Sindhu and of the Tadi. The former of these, then, from the base of Burmandi to the apex of the Bhalu ridge, where this glen merges in the larger one of the Tadi, is only from two hundred to four hundred yards wide ; whilst the width of the vale of the Tadi in that portion of it which extends lengthwise from the apex of the Bhalu ridge to that of Kabilas at Choughora, is from half to three-quarters of a mile ; and, if we distinguish (as well we may) the low tract lying on both banks of the Tadi, between the western extremity of the two last-named divisions, and the point where the Tadi gets NAYAKOTE AND ITS TRIBES. 57 compressed into a mere gully on the upper confines of Belkote (forming the north-east corner just spoken of inclusively,) we have a third tract, which is some 1,200 yards in medium breadth. The length, again, of the first of the sub- divisions of Nayakote is two miles; of the second, four miles; of the third, one mile. All these three are tracts of the same character, that is, they are hot, swampy rice beds on the level of the streams that water thein, except in the instance of the glen of the T;idi, which, upon the right bank of the river, possesses a widish strip of land considerably raised above the stream, and running under the Maha Mandal and Nayakote ridges (where the court and chiefs have houses) to where the latter spreads into the chief elevated plain of the district above spoken of. That plain cannot be watered from the Trisool or Tadi by reason of its elevation ; and as the Nayakote ridge, whence it is derived, yields no efficient springs of water, the plain is condemned to exclusive dependance on rain. Every such plain or plateau is, in the language of Nepal, a Tar; whereas the lower and perpetually waterable tracts, above contra-distinguished, are, in the same lan- guage, called Biasi. The first of the three is the Sindhu Biasi, from the name of its streamlet, the Sindhu ; the next the Tadi Biasi, from its river ; and the third, either Tadi Biasi also, or Sanguni Biasi, from the conflueuce of the Sindhu and Tadi within it. The Tar, or chief tract, is numerously sub-appellated, as Pullo Tar, next Devi Ghat; then Manjki Tar; then Bur Tar, next the Nayakote hill ; with various others parallel to these and nearer the Trisool, towards which the plateau in general has a tendency to sink step-wise, though never nearer the deep narrow bed of that river than several feet, twenty or more. These Tars are rather more wholesome and habitable than the Biasis, and capable of more various culture, though chiefly of trees, since trees alone can flourish deprived of water, except from rain ; and thus is, in part, explained the great pre- dominance of mangoe and other groves over fields of agriculture in the Tar or Tars of Nayakote, which, however lovely at all seasons, boast no winter or spring crops, despite of the high temperature of the place ; the Tars are too dry, and the Biasis too wet for spring crops, though they be common in the much colder valley of Nepal Proper. The difference of temperature between the valleys of Nayakote and of Nepal Proper is occasioned by the difference of elevation above the sea. This difference amounts to 2,250* feet; and the same cause affords us also the only apparent, but far from satisfactory, explanation of the fact, that whilst Nayakote is pestilently malarious from March to November, Nepal Pro- per is free from this scourge, all other circumstances being the same in each val- ley. The lowlands of Nayakote, consequently, are but very thinly peopled, the only permanent dwellers therein being several singular and affined races of men, called Dahi or Dari, Kumha, Kuswar, Botia, Bhrainu, and Denwar, of whom more hereafter, and some few Parbattias and Newars. The NeVars build and dwell solely on the Tars. The Parbattias will not adventure even so far, but usually have their houses on the hills around, and never suffer themselves to * See Dr. Campbell's excellent paper, cqnid J. H. and A. S. hhI 58 NAYAKOTE AND ITS TRIBES. sleep in any part of the lowlands for a single night between April and November. In the Biasis, then, are houses of Denwars and their compeers only : in the Tars, those of the above people, and of some few Parbattias and Newars also, but in neither do the clusters of cottages hardly ever reach the size of a village and the dwellings stand for the most part single and scanty. The whole^district is said to contain 700 houses, but I doubt it, even allowing 100 or 150 houses to the town ; and half the number in either case would probably be nearer the mark. The soil of Nayakote contains a juster proportion of clay to silex and calx than the soil of the greater valley of Nepal Proper, which is derived principally from the debris of granitic formations ; and hence we obtain an explanation of the reputed eminent fertility of the former, and, more surely, of its celebrated potteries. The heights around Nayakote are of inferior size, consisting on the northern side especially, mostly of iron clay, of very deep red tint ; and the superficial soil of the Tars is for the most part the same, the substratum being, however, usually gravel, whence the dryness of their soil is increased. The soil of the Biasis also is clayey, but untinted luteous white, and where un- mixed with silex or other ingredients, even more tenacious than the red clay. The pottery clays are exclusively of the former sort. Mica, so common in the great valley of Nepal, is here never witnessed. The high temperature of Nayakote admits of most of the trees, forest and fruit, as well as of the superior Cerealia, of North Behar and the Tarai, being cultivated with success, though they cannot be raised in the great valley. Nayakote has, besides, distinguished products of its own, which are not found, or not found so good, in the plains of Behar — these are the orange and the pine-apple. The forest trees peculiar to the dis- trict, not found in the great valley, and identifying this of Nayakote with the Tarai and plains, are the Saul (Shorea robusta), Burr and Pipal (Ficus Indica et Religiosa), Semal or Cottontree, Pras, Neem, and Mohwa. The Pinus longifo- lia, and other mountain-growths, are frequently found mixed with these on the declivities around. The chief of the fruit-trees is the Mangoe of various sorts, many exotic and superior, though the celebrated Bombay mangoe is apt to lose its flavour by swel- ling into undue and dropsical dimensions; the tamarind, the abir, the jack- fruit or bel, the kathur, the badhur, the pukri, the guava, the custard-apple or sharifa, and, in a word, all the ordinary fruit-trees of India, none of which, it should be added, flourish in the larger valley. To the above we must subjoin the following exotics grown in the gardens of Khinchat, belonging to the Government — naril or cocoanut, supari or betel, vine, pear, apple, apricot (native), and plums of many kinds. All but the two first of these, however, flourish as well, or better, in the greater valley, being European products. The smaller horticultural products of Nayakote are pine-apples (excellent), plantains of many kinds and good, jamans of four sorts, melons, but no grapes nor peaches. Pines, platains and jamans are denied to the greater valley, where however the orange — that boast of Nayakote — flourishes. The better kinds of the Nayakote oranges are equal to any in the world, so that our horticulturists in NAYAKOTE AND ITS TRIBES. 59 India should endeavour to procure and propagate them. The agricultural products of Nayakote resemble in general those of the greater valley of Nepal Proper; and as the latter have been fully described in print,* I shall on the present occasion spe- cify only the peculiarities of Nayakote produce, resulting from its more tropical climate. It has already been observed, that whereas there are two crops per annum in the greater valley, there is only one in the lesser, because of the excess of moisture and want of drainage in the Biasis, and of the total absence of means of artificial irrigation in the Tars. The Biasis yield only rice, which is not planted nor reaped at the early periods prevalent in the greater valley, but at the later ones usual in the plains of Behar ; and the like is true of the sugar-cane which is grown on the skirts of the Biasis. In the great valley every blade of rice has disappeared by the beginning of November, and half the crop by the middle of October ; the untransplanted sorts of Ghaiya even sooner. In Nayakote the rice-harvest lasts till the beginning of December, nay to the middle of that month, and there are then no means of desiccating the fields rapidly enough for a spring crop. The rices grown in the Biasis are different from those grown in the greater valley, with the exception of Malsi and Touli, and even of these two sorts there is but little. Munsera is the staple crop of Nayakote, and of its several kinds, as Doodia, Gouria, &c. It is of a bright golden hue, straw and grain, and longer in the stalk than our rices, to the best of which it is equal in quality. Among the seventeen to twenty sorts of rice grown at Nayakote, are the Mal-bhog, Krishen-bhog, and other fine descriptions, for which Pillibheet is so famous. None of these last can be raised in the greater valley. The follow- ing are the names of the Nayakote rices : — Malsi, Krishen-bhog, Isegoon, Touli, Bairini, Anandi, Doodraj, Charinagari, Roodra, Mansera, Jarasari, Katonja, Gouria, Mal-bhog, Tharia, Kala Gouria, Jhagri, &c., &c. The Ook, or sugar-cane of Nayakote, is incomparably superior to that of the greater valley, and indeed to that of most parts of India. There are five prin- cipal sorts, fonr of which are yellowish, and the fifth, dark red. I purpose to send specimens of these to Calcutta for examination, Ook is grown on the skirts of the Biasis, as well as on the declivities of the hills near them. On the Tars, or plateaux or upper levels, are grown, besides the ordinary rain's produce of similar sites in the greater valley, the superior sorts of Dall, such as Arher, and cotton of inferior quality, neither of which can be raised at all in the greater valley. Of the whole surface of the Tars of Nayakote, a half probably is devoted to gardens and orchard ; a quarter to fields of dry produce ; an eighth to rice or wet produce ; and the remaining eighth may be barren. * See Dr. Campbell's excellent paper, apud. J. H. and A. S. 60 NAYAKOTE AND ITS TRIBES. The genera of mammals and birds observed during a hurried visit, under disadvantageous circumstances, were Nemorhedus (Ghoral), Stylocerus (Ratwa), Martes (Flavigula), Sciuropterus (Magnificus), Sciurus (Locria), all common to the greater valley; Corvus, Pastor, Coracias, Alauda, Anthus, Motacilla, Budytes, Pyrgita, Phoenicura, Saxicola, Phcenicornis, Dicrurus, Muscicapa, Tichodroma (Muraria), Picus, Palceornis, Clorhynchus,* Totanus Tringa, EgTetta, Ana?, Quer- quedula, Carbo, Mergus, Turtur, Euplocomus, Gallus, (Jungle-cock, Bankiva,) Choetopus, Perdix, Coturnix, Hemipodius. Of these, Gallus, Coracias, and Palce- ornis, unknown to the greater valley, proclaim the qtiasi-Indmn climate of Na- yakote ; as Carbo and Mergus, also unknown there, do its larger rivers. For the rest, the species, as well as genera, are those common to both districts. The wall- creeper of Europe, supposed to be confined thereto, is frequent in both. The commerce and manufactures of Nayakote are too inconsiderable to claim specific notice ; but in the cold season, in this, as in all other smaller valleys of Nepal, booths are erected on the riverside by traders and craftsmen from the great valley, who reside there for the four coldest and salubrious months (Decem- ber to March inclusive), exchanging grain for rock salt with the Bhotias, both Cis and Trans-Himalayan, dyeing the home-spun cloths of the neighbouring hill tribes with the madder supplied by them and the indigo of Tirhoot, and tinker- ing and pedlaring, and huckstering, for the assembly collected at this petty sort of fair. It has been already observed, that the inhabitants of Nayakote consist of several peculiar races, besides the ordinary Parbattia tribes and the Newar. Both the latter have been described elsewhere, I shall therefore confine myself in this place to a short notice of the former, or Denwar, Dari, Kuswar, Botia, Bhramu, and Kumha. These tribes are exceedingly ignorant, and moreover are disposed to use the little wit they have in cunning evasion of all enquiry into their origin and history, affecting to be hill-men, employing the Parbattia language, and pre- tending to have forgotten their father-land and speech. In their (compara- tively with reference to the Tartaric type) dark-hued skins, slender forms, oval faces, elevated features, and peculiar dialect, barbarous jjatois as the last now is — may perhaps be traced the apparent signs of a Southern origin. These men certainly do not all, if any, belong to the ordinary or dominant Tartaric stock of the mountaineers of Nepal, but either to the ordinary stock of the Indian popula- tion (Indo-Germanic) or to some of those fragmentous branches of it, which still here and there represent a preceding Turanian race or races, as the lids, Mundas, Urauns, Gonds, Bhils across the Ganges, and the Tharus and Boksas of the Nepalese Tarai. Between the last-mentioned and the Denwars in particular, a dis- tinct affinity may be traced : but to verify and illustrate this affinity through Tharu helps, is as little feasible, as to do it through Denwar ones ; and I shall only therefore venture to say at present, that whether the Tharus of the Tarai, and the Denwars and their compeer cultivators of Nayakote, and of other simi- * lbidorhynchus. Gould. NAYAKOTE AND ITS TRIBES. 6 1 lar low and malarious tracts within the hills (for in many others they are found), belong to the aboriginal or to the ordinary stock of Indian population, they are closely connected among themselves, separate from the dominant Tartar breeds of the mountains, and possibly emigants from the plains countless genera- tions back.* The K us war, Botia, Kumha (not own name), Bhramu, Denwar, and Dari or Dahi inhabit with impunity the lowest and hottest valleys of Nepal, just as the Tharus, etc. do the Tarai, and also, the Miindas and Uraons of Chota Nagpore, but as recent servants and settlers merely, in the case of the last two, who are chiefly mentioned here, because of their participating with the races now before us, in that singular immunity from malarious affection, which is not known to be the attribute of any other people whatever. Wherever malaria rages from March to November, beyond the Said forest and within the hills, there the Den wars, Daris, Bhramiis, Kiimhas, and Man) his § dwell, and dwell exclusively, sometimes collected in small villages, more usually in scattered cottages, comfortably built of unhewn stone, or wattles laid over with plaister, and furnished with a pent and overhung roof of grass or rice straw, which is verandahed towards the east. They follow the avocations of agricul- turists, potters, fishermen, and ferrymen, and at all these crafts, and more es- pecially at the second, they are very expert ; the Kiimhas of Nayakote in par- ticular being renowned for their workmanship even in the vicinity of the very able craftsmen in that kind, whom the great valley produces. These races of men affect a distinctness among themselves, which is apt to make a stranger smile, though it may possibly indicate different periods of immioTation and of settlement within the hills, or immigrations from different places. In general, the five tribes or races will not intermarry among themselves, nor with any of the races around them; and they allege that their languages (dialects) were, and customs are, distinct. But they all now commonly use the Khas lang- uage, and call themselves Hindus, though they neither believe in the sacred * I have, since this was written (sixteen years back), obtained samples of the languages of most of the above named tribes, which I am thus enabled to class with the broken Turanian tribes of the Himalaya, inclusive of its Tarai. These tribes, by their com] dex languages and altered physical type, form most interesting links between the Himalayan normal or unbroken tribes, as well as their confreres beyond the snows, and the broken and unbroken tribes of the Turanian stock in Central and Southern India, viz. the Dravirians or Tamulians and the Miindas, Hos, and Sontals. I cannot sub- scribe to Midler's or Logan's doctrine of a separate Gangetic sub-family of Turanians, nor to that of a separate Lohitic sub-family. Very remotely divided times of Tura- nian immigration may be conceded, but not totally sundered routes, and still less such broad distinctions of race among the immigrants as seem to be contended for. The hundred gates of Himalaya were ever open to admit immigrants, and the population beyond the snows has been in all time one and the same, or Turanian with subor- dinate distinctions equally found beyond and within the Himalaya. It may be that the Ugric stock of the immigrants found their way into India by rounding the N.W. extremity of the Himalaya. But there are closely allied Turkic tribes in Central Hima- laya, which certainly entered by the Himalayan Ghats, e.g. the Kuswar and Botia. (not Bhdtia). § This is a Khas term and includes with the tribes of which the proper and separate names are Kuswar and Botia ^not Bhotia or Tibetan). 62 NAYAKOTE AND ITS TE1BES. scriptures of the Hindus, nor accept the sacerdotal offices of the Brahnians. With a general remembrance of manners and customs, they have some trivial diversities of usage, as follows. Mdnjhis* — Their priests are the old men of the tribe ; in making burnt and other offerings to their deities, they use no sacred or other words or prayers. On account of births, they are impure for four days: they cut the navel on the day of birth, and four days afterwards make a feast. On account of deatbs, the impurity lasts forteen days, but under stress of business, one day's observance will suffice at the moment, so that the other nine are observed afterwards. Denwdrs. — They allege that they came from the Western hills ; their priests are their daughters' husbands and sisters' sons.§ Impurity at births lasts for ten clays, and the same at deaths : they will not eat pulse dressed by Brahmans, but rice, if it have ghee in it, they will. They sometimes enter into trade and service. DaJii vel Dari, Kumhd, Bhrdmu, have a general resemblance of manners and customs with the last; but they will not eat rice dressed by Brahmans, whether it have ghee in it or not, but will eat other things of Brahman's dres- sing. None of the five races has any written language or characters ; but the investigation of their common connection, and of their affinity with other abori- ginal races inhabiting other more or less secluded localities thronghout the plains of India,t might still be managed, through their speech, their physical attributes, their manners and customs, if the Argus jealousy of the Nepal Government could by any means be charmed into a more discriminating use of Chinese maxims of foreign policy. RIVERS FALLING- WITHIN THE ABOVE LIMITS. 1. The Sindhu\\ rises from Sindubhanjung, an off-set from Mount Manichur, or the most eastern part of Sivapoor, the northern barrier of the greater valley. The Sindhu has a course of about fifteen miles almost due west behind, or to * Divided in Kuswar and Botia, which are the proper tribe names. Manjhi refers only to tbeir profession as fishermen, and is a name imposed by the Khas. § These purely arbitrary customs may serve hereafter as helps in tracing the affinity of these and other semi-barbarous races throughout the mountains and hills of the Indian Continent, the disjecta membra of its original population. The Dadhi or Dahi, Kumha (not own name), Kuswar, Botia (not Bhotia), Denwar, Boksa, Tharu, have tongues which are now almost merged in Hindi, though still retain ingsome structural traits of Turanian origin, .g., the Kuswar with its conjunct pro- noun suffixed to uonn and verb in the Turkic 3, way. The Bhramu (who are allied to the Dadhi) like the Hayu, the Chepang, and the Kusunda of the hills, have tongues of purely Turanian character still. a Kuswar supra : — Bdba-im 'my father.' Thatha-im-ik-an 'I strike.' Baba-ir ' thy father.' Thatha-ir-ik-an 'thou strike.' Baba-ik ' his father. ' ThatM — ik-an 'he strike.' Ik, the transitive verb sign. It is the conjunct form of the third pronoun. t See a paper on the Nilgirians, in a recent number of the Asiatic Society's Journal. || Sindhu, a petty feeder only of Upper Likhu, rises at a village of Sindhu, soon mer- ged in Likhu. The Sindhuria is separate and rises from eastern end of Bhalu Danra, where it links on to Burmandi. Tbwrakhola, from Kahulia, joins at base of Bur- mandi, and botrf flow about four miles to the Tadi. The stream spoken of as No. 1 is therefore the Sindhuria as now defined. The Likhu and Sindhu are one in all the limits noted, or rather the Sindhu is nothing. NAYAKOTE AND ITS TRIBES. 63 the north of, Sivapoor and Burniandi, through a narrow fertile glen, which is somewhat interrupted by the projection of the base of Burniandi, where the main road from Kathmandii runs. Above this point the glen often bears the name of Tansen ; the river is a mere streamlet, drawing half its water moreover from the west aspect of Burniandi, below the Resident's Powah or bungalow. It falls into the Tadi at Narain, or Ghur Ghat, being divided from the Likhu by Bhalu Danra, or the Bear's Ridge. 2. The Likhu, a somewhat larger stream than the Sindhu, parallel to it on the north, and separated from it by Bhalu Danra. The Likhu rises from above the Kabilas ridge, which divides it from the Tadi on the north. The course of the Likhu, though in general parallel to that of the Sindhu, yet radiates towards the north, as the Tadi does still more. The Likhu is about double the size of Sindhu, and has a course of perhaps twenty miles; it falls into the Tadi at Chou- ghora, four miles above the lower Durbar of Nayakote. Its glen is cultivated throughout, and has an average width of 300 yards in its lower part. It is not a third the size of the Tadi. 3. The Tadi, classically styled Suryavati, from its taking its rise at Suryakiind, or the Sun's Fount which, in the most easterly of the twenty-two little lakes of Gosain-than, is thrown off towards the east, as is the Trisool from the same point towards the west, by the loftiest of the snowy peaks in the region of Nepal Pro- per, and which is consequently the point of divergency of the nearest seven Gan- daks on the one hand, and of the seven Cosis on the other. The Tadi, however, though at first put off in an easterly direction, is drawn round westerly to mingle with the seven Gandaks, instead of joining the proximate Milamchi and Indhani, or first feeders of the Sun Cosi, by a large ridge running south from Gosain-than nearly to Sivapoor, and putting off laterally towards the west the inferior ridges of Kabilas and Nerja, which separate the rivers Likhu and Tadi in all their lower and parallel courses. The Tadi proceeding at first easterly is gradually bent to the west by the great ridge just mentioned. The whole course of the river to Devi Ghat, where it merges iu the Trisool, may be thirty miles, ten east and south, and the rest W. S. W. In its lower course, before reaching Nayakote, it is bounded on the left bank by the narrow ridge of Kabilas, and on the right by that of Nerja. It receives the Likhu at Choughora, four miles' above, or east of, the lower Durbar of Nayakote, and the Sindhu, at Narain Ghat, opposite to that Durbar. In the rest of its course of about four miles W.S.W. to Devi Ghat, it confines the great Tar or plateau of Nayakote on the south, just as the Trisool does no the north. At Narain Ghat^the Tadi in December is thirty to forty yards wide and two feet deep. It is but little wider or deeper at Devi Ghat, and consequently is not a tenth of the size of the Trisool, which at the Sunga of Khinchat is thirty- six yards broad and twenty-two and a half feet deep. The glen of the Tadi is cultivated throughout nearly, and in its uppermost parts is said not to be malarious. 4. The Trisool, or most easterly of the seven Gandaks of Nepal, rises from the principal uf the twenty-two Kunds, or lakelets (pools) of Gosainthan. These 64 NAYAKOTE AND ITS TRIBES. lakelets occupy a fiat summit of considerable extent, that cannot be less than 10,000 feet high, and lies immediately below the unrivalled peak variously called Nilkant, Gosain-than, and Dkawalagiri.* The lake, more especially called Go- sain-than, is probably a mile in circuit, and close behind it, from the perennial snow, issues by three principal clefts (hence the name Trisoolt), tha River Trisool, or Trisool Gandaki. Its course is at first due west almost for perhaps fifteen miles, but then turns S.S.W., running in that direction for twenty miles, and more, to Devi Ghat. It is a deep blue, arrowy, beautiful stream, conducting not only the pilgrim to Gosain-than, but the trader and traveller to Tibet; the road to Kerung in Tibet striking off from the river where it bends (as yon as- cend) to the east, and the town itself of Kerung being visible from Gosain-than in clear weather, at the distance of perhaps thirty miles. The Trisool, four miles above Nayakote, receives the Betravati at Dhaibung, from the N.E. It is a petty stream, not having a course above fifteen miles from one of the re- silient angles or bosoms of Mount Dhaibung or Jibjibia, the continuation of which ridge towards the west, and across the Trisool, is called Sdlima Bhdrsia. This Latter ridge conducts another feeder into the Trisool from the N.W. called the Salankhu, of about the same size with the Betravati. Considerably south of the Salima ridge is the ridge called Samribhanjang, whence flows a third and still smaller feeder of the Trisool, named the Samri Khola, which disembogues it- self into the Trisool from the north-west, half a mile to a mile below the Sunga or suspension bridge of Khinchat. The valley of the Trisool is nar- row, and without any Biasi or plain on the level of its waters, which flow in a deep bed. The heights, however, on one or both sides, supply numerous rills for occasional cultivation, which is maintained as far up as ten miles above Dhaibung (Dayabhang), a considerable village, where the ordinary Parbattia popu- lation begins to yield to the race called Kachar-Bhotias, or Cis-Himalayan Bho- tias. At Devi Ghat the River Trisool is passed by a ferry most jealousy guarded; nor is the river thence to Devi Ghat permitted to be used for any sort of trans- port, nor even for the floating of timber, though the rapids (there are no cataracts) may help the prohibition. A few miles below Devi Ghat, the streamlets poured into the Trisool by the glen of Dhiinibyasi, afford much better access to the great valley of Nepal, by the route of Trisool, than that which follows that river to Nayakote and thence leads over Burmandi. These latter routes issue into the great valley at Thankoto and at Ichangu Narain. * Nilkant and Gosain-than may be called proper names of this great snow mass. Dhoulagiri is rather a descriptive epithet, equivalent to Mont Blanc and Lebanon, and its application to this peak is up advisable, because it has now become the settled name of the next great peak to the west of Gosain-than. + The legend of the place states that Maha Deva went to the snow to cool his throat, which had been burnt by swallowing the kalkut poison, which appearing at the churn- ing of the ocean, threatened to consume the world. Maha Deva is called "blue throat,'* from the injury he sustained. He produced the river by striking his Trisool into the snows. 5. ON THE TRIBES OP NORTHERN TIBET. (HORYEUL AND SOKYEUL) AND OF SIFAN. I now submit my promised Sifan and Horsok vocabularies, with such geo- graphic illustrations as may tend to render them more easily and fully appre- ciable. I intended to have retained these vocabularies till I had completed my ending investigation of the grammar of the Gyaning and Horpa tongues. But the high interest attaching to the discovery of another surprising instance of the wide-spreading relations of these tongues, made in the course of that investi- gation, and which discovery is sufficiently verifiable even by the vocabularies, though by no means limited to their evidence, together with the bearings of these vocabularies upon my two last communications, induces me not to postpone the sending of them. I can follow them up, by and bye, by the proposed grammati- cal elucidations. In the meanwhile there is abundant matter for the present communication in such a statement as I now propose giving of the present dis- covery, in some general remarks on the characteristics of the vast group of tongues to which the vocabularies, now and priorly submitted, belong, and in some des- criptions of the physical attributes of the almost unknown races more immediately now in question. Nor do I apprehend that the want of the grammatical details adverted to will materially impair the interest of the present communication, since I have anticipated so much on that head in the way of practical exposi- tion by samples as to make the special discovery I announce perfectly appre- ciable without those details, which, moreover, speaking generally of this vast group of tongues, I have shown reasons for deeming less important than they are wont to be held both pkilologically and ethnologically. This series of vocabularies is entirely my own work in a region equally interest- ing and untrodden. It consists of seven languages, viz., the Trochu, the Sokpa, the Gyami, the Gyaning, the Horpa, the Takpa, and the Manyak ; and so novel is a deal of the matter, that it will be necessary to explain at once what these terms mean, and to shew where the races of men are to be found speaking these tongues. Horsok is a compound Tibetan word, by which the people of Tibet designate the noinades who occupy the whole northern part of their country, or that lying beyond the Nyenckhen-thangla* range of mountains, and between it * This important feature of the geography of Tibet is indicated by the Nian-tsin- tangla of Hitter's Hoch Asien and by the Tank of Hue. I have, following native authority, used in a wide sense a name which those writers use in a contracted *ense; and reasonably, because the extension, continuity, and haight of the chain are indu- bitable. Nevertheless, Bitter and Guyon have no warrant for cutting off from Tibet the country beyond it up to the Kuenlun, nor are Katche and Khor, the names they give to the country beyond, admissible or recognized geographic terms. Khor, equal Kor, is purely ethnic, aiid Katche is a corruption of Khachhen or Mahomedan, liter- ally Big-mouth. Ill 66 TRIBES OF NORTHERN TIBET. and the Kwanleun or Kuenlun chain. Horsok designates the two distinct races of the Ilor or Horpa and the Sok or Sokpa, neither of whom, so far as I have means to learn, is led by the possession of a native name at once familiar and general, to eschew the Tibetan appellations as foreign; though it will soon be seen that they are really so, if our identifications fail not. The Horpa occupy the western half of the region above defined, or Northern Tibet ; and also a deal of Little Bukharia and of Songaria, where they are denominated Kao-tse by the Chinese, and Ighiirs (as would seem) by themselves. The Sokpa occupy the eastern half of Northern Tibet as above defined, and also the wide adjacent country usually called Kkokkoniir and TaDgiit by Europeans bur by the Tibetans, Sokyeul or Sok-land. In Southern Tibet, or Tibet south of the Nyenchhen-thangla chain, there are numerous scattered Horpas and Sokpas, as there are many scattered Bodpas in Northern Tibet ; but, in general, that great mountain chain, the worthy rival of the Himalaya and the Kuenlun, may be said to divide the nomadic Horpas and Sokpas from the non-nomadic Bodpas or Tibetans proper. Though the major part be Buddhists, yet are there some followers of Islam among the Horpas and Sokpas of Tibet ; more beyond the Tibetan limits. They are all styled Khachhen by the Tibetans, of which word I think the Chinese Kao-tse is a mere corruption, despite Cunningham's ingenious interpretation of Kao-tse. The Islamites are also called Godkar, of which term again Klaproth's Thogar seems to be metamorphosis. Between the Horpa and Sokpa, in the central part of Northern Tibet, are the Drokpa* vel Brogpa whose vocables I have as yet failed to obtain; and also, numerous "Kazzfik" or mounted robber bands, styled by the Tibetans Chakpa vel Jagpa, who recruit their formidable association from any of the neighbouring races, but especially from the Bodpa (Tibetans proper), the Horpa, the Sokpa, and the Drokpa. The language of the Chakpa is the ordinary Tibetan, and therefore, and because also of their very mixed lineage, they are of little ethnic importance, though always cited by the Tibetans, with fear and trembling, as a separate element of their population. The predatory habits of the Chakpa often carry them beyond their own limits, and they and the erratic Drokpa are often seen in Nari, where Gerrard and Cunningham speak of them under the designations of Dzakpa and of Dokpa. I doubt the ethnic independence of both, and believe them to be mixed associations, composed of people of the above specified races, from among which the Horpa or Turks contribute an element even to the Himalayan population of Kanawer, as is proved by the infinitives in " mak " of the Taburskad tongue. From Khokhonur to Yunnan, the conterminous frontier of China and Tibet, is successively and continuously occupied (going from north to south) by the Sokpa above spoken of; by the Amdoans, who for the most part now speak Tibetan ; by * Quite distinct from the Diikpa vel Brukpa of Bhutan. The ' vel ' indicates the dis- tinction of the written from the spoken word. TRIBES OF NORTHERN TIBET. 6j the Thochii ; by the Gyariing ; and by the Manyak, whose vocabularies are all subjoined ; whilst returning back westward, along the " pente septentrionale" of the Himalaya, we have, after passing through the Kham districts of Chyarung and Kwonibo, the region of the Takpas, or Takyeul, styledf Dakpo by Bitter, who, however, places it east of Kwombo, whereas it lies west of that district, written Combo by him. The Brahmaputra or Yard quits Tibet in the district of Kwombo, as he states. Takyeul, the Towang Raj of the English, is a dependency of Lhasa. Its civil administrator is the Ckonajiing-peun ; its ecclesiastic head, the Tamba Lama, whence our Towang. The people of Sokyeul, of Amdo, of Thochii, of Gyariing, and of Manyak, who are under chiefs of their own, styled Gyabo or King, Siniee Wang, bear among the Chinese the common designation of Sifan or Western aliens ; and the Tibetans frequently denominate the whole of them Gyariingbo, from the superior importance of the special tribe of Gyariing, which reckons eighteen chiefs or banners, of power sufficient, in days of yore, often to have successfully resisted or assailed the Celes- tial Empire, though for some time past quietly submitting to a mere nominal depen- dency on China. The word Gya, in the language of Tibet, is equivalent to that of Fan (alienus,* barbaros) in the language of China; and, as rung means, in the former tongue, proper or special, Gyariing signifies alien par excellence, a name of peculiar usefulness in designating the whole of these Eastern borderers, in order to discriminate them from the affined and approximate, but yet distinct, Bodpa of Kham. Others affirm that Gyariing means wild, rude, primitive Gyaa, making rung the same as tiing in Myamma ; and that the typical Gyas (Gyaini) are the Chinese, though the latter be usually designated specially black Gyas (Gya-nak). The Gyariings themselves have no general name for their country or people, a very common case. When I submit the interesting itinerary I possess of a journey from Kathmandii to Pekin, I shall more particularly notice the topo- graphy of Sifan. At present it will be sufficient to add that this country, which extends from the Blue Sea to Yunnan, with a very unequal width, varying from several days' march to only two or three, forms a rugged mountainous decli- vity from the lofty plateau of Kham to the low plain of Szchuen, and which is assimilated by those who well know both, to the Indian declivity of the Hima- laya, the mountains being for the most part free from snow, and the climate much more temperate than that of Tibet. Within this mountainous belt or barrier of Sifan are the Takpa, who are consequently Tibetans : witJiout it are the Gyaini, who are consequently Chinese, as will be seen by their respective vocabu- laries — vocabularies, not the less valuable for being dialects merely (if no more) of languages well known, because the dialectic differences of the Chinese and the 1 1 should add that Ritter's Gakpo and Gangpo, and Dakpo, are not three separate places, but merely various utterances of the single word Takpa, and no more admissible therefore than his Katehc and Khor before explained. This great geographer is rather too prone to give a "local habitation" to the airy nothings of the polyglottic re- gion, as 1 have formerly had occasion to point out, though no one can more admire than 1 do his immense learning ana the talent that guides and animates it. 68 TRIBES OF NORTHERN TIBET. Tibetan tongues are little understood, § at the same time that they are very im- portant for enabling us to test the alleged distinctness of the great groups of people nearest allied to these divisions. For my part I apprehend that the true characteristics of the Chinese and Tibetan languages have been a good deal obscured by bookmen,* native and European ; and, though it be somewhat premature to venture an opinion before I have com- pleted my pending investigation of the Gyariing and Horpa tongues, I still must say that T suspect few competent judges will rise from the attentive study of this and my two prior series of vocabularies, with out feeling a conviction that the Indo-Chinese, the Chinese, the Tibetans, and the Altaians, have been too broadly contra-distinguished, and that they form in fact but one great ethnic family, which moreover includes what are usually called the Tamulian or Dravidian and the Kol and Munda elements! of Indian population, as well as nearly every element of the population of Oceania. J * Hence Gya, philing, or Frankish stranger. European foreigner is the name for Europeans in Tibet. Philing = Frank, Indice Feringi, not as interpreted by M. Hue. § Leyden reckoned ten Chinese tongues (As. Res., X. 266). Others hold that there is but one. Again, Remusat (Rccherchcs sur les langues Tartares) insisted that there must be several tongues in Tibet, whereas Csoma de Koros (Journal No. 4) considers that there is but one. This comes in part of the want of a standard of ethnic unity, whether lingual or physical, and in part of the mixture of distinct races by regarding them under a large geographic and political unity, thus the Horsok belong undoubtedly to Tibet, but do not belong to the Bodpa race. I have given, I believe, all the lan- guages of Tibet, that is, the languages of all the races now and long settled in Tibet. My Gyami vocables exhibit a vast difference from the Kong one of Leyden, tit supra. ,But I do not rely on mine, nor have I means to test it. * A deal of Csoma's abundant grammatical apparatus of the Tibetan tongue is posi- tively repudiated by the people of Tibet, whilst the learned and sage Remusat teaches us to question the over-strained aud unintelligible assertions about the monosyllabisna of the Chinese tongue, as if there were no dissyllables, no adjuncts to the roots ! and as if the roots of Sanskrit, Hebrew, and Arabic were not monosyllables. For some valu- able remarks on mouosyllabisin, see Eecherches sur les langues Tartares, i. 351-4, and compare wdiat occurs in the sequel as to the monosyllabic polysyllabism (different as- pects of the case) of Gya > ring and Tagala. Thus in Gyarung the root xo becomes Masazangti by mere cumulation of particles, ma, sa, za, ang, and ti. + For some proofs of the reality of this element, see a paper on the Nilgirians in a recent number of the A static Society. Adverting to recent denials, it may be worth while to give here a Himalayan sample of Dravirianism from the Kiranti language : — Wa popo, my i Wd gu, my i J'popo, thy [ uncle. I'gu, thy ( hand. A' popo, his ' A'gu, his ' Pog-u, I i Teub-tl, I i Pog-i, thou | beget. Teub-i, thou > strike. Pog-d, he ' Teub-d, he ' Of that complex pronomenalization of the verb, for which the Ho and Sontal tongues are so remarkable, I shall shortly have to produce some still more perfect samples from the Central Himalaya. In the paper referred to, I have demonstrated the lorthcoming- ness also of the Turkic, viz., Kuswar tongue which has conjunct contracted prououn suffixed to noun and to verb, and Mantehuric elements in the languages of Himalaya. X The elder oceanic element, or Alforian, = our Tamulian aud the analogous dispersed and .subdued tribes of the Himalaya, Indo-China, and China: the younger oceanic element, or Malayo-polynesian, =-the now dominant tribes of Indo-China, China, Tibet, and Himalaya. I must content myself, at present, with pointing to the special illustra- tion of the latter part of this reunion of the continental and insular races in the sequel, though every proof of the wide common domain of the continentals is also an illustra- tion, inferential, yet clear, of both parts of it. TRIBES OF NORTHERN TIBET. 69 My former vocabularies showed how intimately the Indo-Chinese tongues are allied with the Himalayan and Tibetan by identity of roots, of servile particles, and even of entire words, as the integral results of the combination of the two former, provided only that the comparison be drawn from a field large enough to exhibit the necessary range of admitted mutation, both in the primary and secondary parts of words, in use for ages among widely sundered, and often also extremely segregated, races. How large that range of admitted mutation is, I have illustrated by examples in the note appended to the present series of vocabu- laries, and I recommend those who would properly appreciate the great apparent deviations from a type of language, which is, as I suppose, one and the same, to take good heed of what is there instanced. In the meanwhile, without fatiguing the reader with more analyses at present, I proceed to remark that the analogies and affinities indicated by the last series of vocabularies between the Himalayan and Tibetan tongues on one hand, and the Indo-Chinese on the other, are carried on and confirmed by some of the present series, whilst others extend the links to the Altaic group of languages; the Gyariing, Takpa, and Manyak carrying the chain of connexion onwards from the south-east, and the Tkoehii, Horpa, and Sokpa, transmitting it over the Kwanleun to the north and west; the Gyariing by its grammatical structure exhibiting also marvellous correspondencies with remoter regions; with Caucasus, as has been separately shown already, and with Oceania, as will appear in the sequel of this communication. How far precisely the other languages now submitted may participate these express and peculiar features of grammatical affinity, I am not yet prepared to say. But the whole of them cer- tainly exhibit a great general resemblance in the broader traits of syntactic,* and yet a greater in those of etymological, construction. In a word, they are evidently members of that single and vast family of languages, the singleness and the vastness of which I conceive to be justly inferrible even from its vocables — 1st, because of the similarity of the roots; 2nd. because of the similarity of ser- viles ; 3/y7. because of the similar principles governing the uses and the mutations of both, and the consequent composition and the character of the integral words, which exhibit an essential identity in numberless terms of prime necessity, after due allowance for synonymous changes in their roots and for euphonic and differ- ential changes in their serviles within known limits and upon a demonstrably single plan. I infer that the differences characterizing this vast family of languages, how- ever striking at first sight, are subordinate, because when the languages are ex- amined upon a broad enough scale, these differences are seen to pass away by in- sensible gradations. Such as they are, they arise from — 1st, a greater or lesser use of the pre-fixed, in-fixed, and post-fixed particles, amounting to nearly con- * I may instance the universal substitution of continuative gerunds and participles in lieu of conjunctions and of conjunctive (relative) pronouns, because this feature has been supposed to he specially characteristic of the Altaic group. It is no more so than the vocalic harmony of Turki, or than the inverted style and tonic system of the Indo- Chinese tongues. These appear to me to be blending differences of degree only, not ab- solute differences of kind, and to have been used to sever unduly the several groups. jj JO TRIBES OF NORTHERN TIBET. stant employment of some or all of them in some tongues, and to nearly total disuse of some or all of them in others ; [The disuse or non-use is often only apparent, for the surplus " silent " letters are really pre-fixes, with a blended, in- stead of a separate utterance. That this is so may be proved to demonstration by identity of function (differential) in the two ; and yet the blended or separate utterance makes all the difference between monosyllabism and its opposite, besides causing other differences that are apt to conceal the essential identity of words.] 2nd, from a preference by one tongue of the pre-fixes, of the in-fixes by another, and of the suffixes by a third ; 3rd, from that transposed position and function of the primary and secondary part of words (root and particle), which is a law of these languages eminently obscurative of identities in its partial operation ; [com- pare 'overleap' and 'leap over ;' what holds good chiefly as to our verbs, holds good equally as to the verbs and nouns of these tongues, wherein indeed the two classes of words are but faintly distinguishable, or not at all so. Abundant fresh evidence of the law may be found by comparing Leyden's Indo-Chinese with my Tibeto-Himalayan vocabularies : compare mimma and sa-mi, Burmese, with mi-ad, Newari, root mi; and ma-nek, Burmese, with nyi-md, Tibetan, root nyi, 'Day, sun, and morning,' when compared, speak for themselves.] 4th, from the substitution of a reiterated root, for a root and particle in the com- position of words, when the various meanings of the root might otherwise transcend the differencing power of the particles, or, at all events, not satisfy the demand for an unusually broad distinction ; [in Gyaning, the root pye 'bird,' is so near to the root pe 'father,' that they have been segregated by the appli- cation to one of the usual prefix, to the other of the iterative principle, or root repeated, whence ta-pe 'a father,' and pye pye 'a bird,' for san et pe pe. I might add, as a fifth cause of difference between these tongues, the different de- grees in which each employs the tonic or accentual variant, which principle has been most erroneously supposed to be exclusively Chinese and Indo-Chinese, whereas it prevails far and wide, only more or less developed ; most where the servile particles and so-called silent letters are least in use; least, where they are most in use ; so that the differential and equivalent function of all three pecu- liarities, that is, of "empty words" (see Chinese Grammar), of "silent letters," and of tones, is placed in a clear light, such as Reinusat vainly strove to throw upon one of the three, viewing it separately.*] 5th, from the disjunct or con- junct (elided vowel) method of using the pre-fixed serviles, whence results at once all the difference of soft polysyllabism or harsh monosyllabism. The resulting disparities of the vocables are certainly often very marked, as in the Wa-tii and U-i instance of Gyaning and Circassian, (so singularly confirmed by the Malay and Tagala itu ' that ') \_I-tii, Wa-tu, and U-i are easily ex- plained, and show how congruous all these tongues are at bottom. Few of them * See Eecherchcs sur lee langucs Tartares, p. 355-7, vol. i. Csoma de Koros strangely enough says nothing about tones or servile particles, and hence his remarks on the silent letters want point and significance. The language of Nepal Proper is remarkable for its numerous tones and its scanty serviles, whether literal or syllabic. TRIBES OF NORTHERN TIBET. 7 I have any proper third pronoun, they use as equivalents the demonstratives, which are i and «, or u or w, or wa=u, Ta, with or without the nasal ending, ta, tan, tang, is a synonym (Ti, di Tibetan, Thi Burmese, etc.) constantly added to the near or far demonstrative, and repeating its vowel thus, i-thi Burmese, wa-thi Hayu, i-ta and u-ta Khas, wa-tu Circassian, whose u-i is a mere combination of the two demonstratives, either of which is equal to the third personal. The ta is prefixed or suffixed, in the sense of Latin ejus to nouns, and thus we have ta-yii Lepcha and Tamil for a woman, ta-gri Lepcha and tandri Tamil, a man, and tctngkos Uraon, a son, etc., as samples of its prefixed use. Miiller is, I think, wrong in citing the crude pa and ma as normal samples to be opposed to the Arian pa-ter and ma-ter. Few Turanian tongues use the crude forms, and many use the identical root and servile.] The case is similar with those given at the end of the present series of vocabularies, so that it is no great wonder that the Mongolidan or Turanian tongues have been referred to many groups so trenchantly separated as virtually to fall under different families. And, if I incline so strongly to unitise the family, it is only because, as far as my investigations have gone, I have been able to discern nothing absolute and invariable in the distinctions — which though no doubt distinctions proper to the vocables only, and not effecting structural diagnostics (in the usual narrow sense, for composition of words is structure), are yet unusually, and as I conceive decisively important, owing to the extremely inartificial character which belongs to the grammar of these tongues, with some apparently borrowed exceptions, such as tbat of the Turkish verbs. Not that the grammatical or the physical evidence of this assumed family identity conflicts with that of the vocables — much the contrary, as we shall soon see — but that the latter has unusual relative value. [I may mention here an interesting sample of this identity, derived from the substantive verb. It is da in Myamma, a-da in Malay, da in Horpa, gdnh in Tibetan, dan in Uraon, etc. So also it is menu in Sontal and mn-a in Tibetan ; and again, it is dug in Tibetan, dong in Bodo and Garo, du in Newari, dong and kam dong in Gyariing.] And, would we speak plainlv, we should say that grammar relates equally to the construction of words and to the construction of sentences, and that the former sort of putting together, or syntax, is always equally, and often more, important than the latter. Certainly, it is more so in the Mongolidan tongues, which are as much distinguished by their immensity of nicely discriminated terms, most of them necessarilg com- pounds — and compounds of no unskilful contrivance — as by the scantiness and sim- plicity of the contrivances by which those terms are held together in sentences. r See vocab. voce 'give' and 'take.' A Tartar cannot endure that confusion of the precative, optative, and imperative, which our imperative mood exhibits. But he remedies the defect not by the multiplication of grammatical forms but by the use of distinct words or distinct modifications of the same word, thus Daw 1 commands ' and Davong 'solicits,' et sic do ceeteris. Compare the disjunctive toe, so common in these tongues. Davo means ' give him,' Davong ' give to me, by the annexed pronouns, and just so in Limbu Fire and Pirang, and in Vayu Hato, and Hasing, Lepcha, and Newari, which eschew suffixed pronouns, have 72 TRIBES OF NORTHERN TIBET. Bo and Bi, Byn and Ti, for the respective senses, the former modifying the one root, the other using two distinct roots. Observe the identity of bi/u, bo, bi and pi (of pi-re, pi-rang.*)'} Nay, if we look carefully to what has been so well done in one's own day for the elucidation of our own language, we shall discern that the new lights have been principally etymological, borrowed from, as thrown upon, the construction and composition of words, not of sentences. Perhaps it will be urged that, after all, the structural analogy I have established between the Gyariing and Circassian tongues belongs rather to the etymological than to the syntactic department of languages. Let it be granted, and I would then ask whether the analogy be therefore less important ? And is it not singu- lar and a proof wherein resides the essential genius and character of these ton- gues, and where therefore we are to seek for their true and closest relations, that my scanty knowledge of the Himalayan and Tibetan group of them should enable me unhesitatingly to analyse the words of the Caucasian group, of which I know nothing, and to pronounce, for instance, Di-di to be a re-duplicate root, and Dini to be a root and servile prefix, with perfect confidence, and, as I doubt not, with equal accuracy ? That will, at all events, be known by and bye, and should the result be such as I look for, the consequent affinity of the Caucasian and Mongolian tongues will take an unquestionable shape and stand on the unassail- able basis of words similarly constructed in all their parts and similarly em- ployed throughout. I must, however, whilst thus insisting on the pre-eminent importance of Mongo- lidan vocables, freely admit that those of all my present series are by no means entitled to equal confidence,* my access to the individuals who furnished the Sok- pa and Gyaini words in particular having been deficient for such analytic dissection as I hold by, and the competence of my informants, moreover, not beyond ques- tion. I am likewise much in want of adequate original information respecting the Altaic group, and of the books that might supply it. Nevertheless, I think, I may safely affirm upon the strength of my vocabularies, that the Sokpo of the Tibetans are, as has been already assumed in this paper, no other than the Oelet and Kalmak of Remusat and Klaproth,t whilst their confreres, the Horpa, are almost as evidently Turkish, the Turkish affinity of the latter being inferred, not only from the vocables, but from the complex structure of Horpa verbs and from the quasi- * Unfair use has been made of this admission. The vocabularies, such as they are, are exceedingly valuable, though perhaps without analysis incapable of supporting such a towering superstructure of theory as has been raised on them by their impugners. I I might now add, having just laid my hand on M. Hue's book, the synonym of Turgot to those of Kalmak and Oelet, but that Turgot, like Durbet, designates only a tribe of this race, and a tribe whose tribunal denomination, as well as its migration to the Volga and back to the Hi, had been already stated by Remusat. M. Hue's amusing work, in fact, adds nothing to our stores of accurate ethnological knowledge, his mere assertion, for instance, that the Hiongnu were Huns throwing no fresh light upon a long debated point, and the nullity of the absolute identity of names in refer- ence to the Sog, teaching us yet more to doubt vaguer identifications of this sort. Let me add that M. Hue's account of the habits, manners and characters of the several peoples is capital, and most evidently, accurately, as vividly, delineated. TRIBES OP NORTHERN TJBET. 73 Avian physiognomy of the samples I have seen of the Horpa race.f And thus, quoad Sokpo, is dissipated the dream of twenty years, during all which time I have been in vain endeavouring to get access to the Sokpo, assured from the identity of names (Sok pronounced Sog), that in the much talked-of people of Eastern Tibet, I should discover that famous race which gave their appellations to the Sogdiana and Sogdorum regio (or the Indus) of the classics, and whose iden- tity with the Sacte of Indian and Grecian story, whose genuine Arianism and res- plendent renown I never permitted myself to doubt. Reverting to what I have better assurance of, I shall next note a fact as extraordinary almost as that which formed the subject of my last communication to the Society, to wit, that some of Humboldt's characteristics of the Malayo-Polynesian tongues hold good as to the Gyariing language even more strangely than Rosen's of the Circassian ; so that we may have possibly, in the unsophisticated tongue of this primitive race of moun- taineers, situated centrally between the Chinese, the Indo-Chinese, the Tibetans, and the Altaians, and protected from absorption, assimilation or conquest by their fastnesses, the main and middle link of that vast chain which unites the insular and continental nations of the East and the most dispersed scions of the im- mensely diffused family of the Mongolidoe* ! ! Those who are acquainted with the famous Kavi Sprache (known to me alas ! only at second hand) will know what I mean, when I solicit their attention to the accompanying Gyariing vocabu- lary, as bearing on the face of it evidence, that in the Gyariing tongue almost all the words in their ordinary! state are dissyllables, whilst I can assert positively from my own knowledge of the language, that the two syllables may be resolved into a monosyllabic root and its affix, or into a repeated monosyllabic root. Now these features (which by the way are very noticeable even in the small samples accessible to me of the Circassian tongue) Humboldt has denoted as special characteristics of the Malayo-Polynesian languages ; and they are certainly most conspicuous attributes of the Gyariing tongue. Thus, in the first column of the Gyariing vocables, there are thirty-five words, whereof not less than thirty- one are dissyllables and only four monosyllables, and the dissyllables are all re- + Miiller doubts, but the Tibetans cannot mistake, and with them Hor = Turk and Sok = Mongol. 1 have failed to get fresh access to these people, which I the more regret, inasmuch as the name Hor, even to the guttural h and to the omissible r. tallies exactly with the appellation given by themselves to the so-called Lerka tribe of Singbkum; See Tickell's narrative and vocabulary. I have elsewhere pointed out the Turkic affinity of one Himalayan tribe (Kuswar) and the Mantchuric of another (Vayu or Hayu). See paper on the Nilgirians. (J.A.S.B.) Tibet has been absurdly isolated by philologers and geographers. The northern half of it actually belongs rather to the Altaic than to the Bodpa tribes, and hence is called by the latter Horyeul and Sokyeul. I am indebted to the Mundas for the knowledge that Ho is pronounced Klio and Khor, just as it is to the North. * It may reconcile some of my readers to this startling announcement to hear that there are historical or traditional grounds for supposing this very region to be the common nest and original seat of the Chinese and Tibetan races. See Klaproth's Tail. Histor. and Mimoires relatifs a VAsie, and Kemusat's Recherches sur les In injurs Tartares. fl say ordinary state, because, when all the apparatus of composition attaches, they become polysyllabic. See the sequel, and mark the consequence as to the monosyl- labic test. j.jl 74 TRIBES OF NORTHERN TIBET. solvable into a monosyllabic root and its customary pre-flx (Ta, mutable into Ka,) save those (Pyepye, Nyenye) that are formed by re-duplication of the radical. That Pye 'bird,' and Nye ( cow,' are roots, any one may prove for himself by turning to their Tibetan and Chinese equivalents ; and that in the Gyarung tongue the root is in these instances repeated to constitute the current term or integral word is self-apparent. That, again, in Gyarung, Ta is the common and almost indespensible prefix, and is mutable into Ka, both liable to euphonic changes of the vowel, to suit that of the radical, the vocabulary also demonstrates, testably to any extent by its predecessors of the allied tongues. And if it be. urged, as in truth it may be, that the above constitution of the vocables belongs in essence to all the continental tongues, as Humboldt's sagacity divined it did to all the insular ones, the more frequent use of the prefix and consequent dissyllabism being all that is exclusively Gyarung, I have still to produce another Gyarung trait, which it shares with what has been deemed the most primitive Malayo-Polynesian type; and I shall do so by the following quotation from* Leyden : — " Few languages present a greater appearance of originality than the Ta-gala. Though a multitude of its terms agree precisely with those of the languages just enumerated (the Western Pobynesian), yet the simple terms are so metamorphosed by a variety of the most simple contrivances, that it becomes impossible (difficult — B.II.H.) for a person who understands all the original words in a sentence to recognize them individually, or to comprehend the meaning of the whole. The artifices which it employs are chiefly the pre-fixing or post-fixing (or in-fixing — B.H.H.) to the simple vocables (roots) of certain particles (serviles) which are again combined with others; and the complete or partial repetition of terms in this re-duplication may be again combined with other particles." The above, as well as what follows (pp. 211-12) upon Ta-gala verbs, is in general remarkably coincident with Gyaning, the differences being such only as, when compared with other allied tongues, to show that the characteristics, however pre-eminently, are by no means exclusively, Gyaning among the continental tongues, any more than they are exclusively Ta-gala among the insular ones. [Here are some samples as significant as Leyden's illustrations of the Ta-gala verbs. From the root C/iiny, 'to go,' we have almost indifferently Yaching, Kaching, Docking, Naching, in a present sense, and Yataching, Kat aching, Dat aching, Tataching, Nataching, in a past sense, with some speciality of sense as to the na and ta pre-fix that need here be particu- larized. Next we have Yatachinti, Katachinti, Datachinti, Tatachinti, Natachinti, meaning, 'one who goes or went, or the goer,' if one's self; and, if any other, then the series becomes Yatachisi, Katachisi, etc. The negatives are Matachinti vel Matachm, according to the person, the particle of negation displacing the first of the pre-fixes indifferently. So from Many, 'to sleep,' Carmdng, Mar- many, Tatarmdny, Matarmdngti, Tatarmeti, MatarmSsi, ' I sleep, I sleep not, I slept, I who slept not, thou who sleepest, he who slept not,' or 'the sleepless,' * Researches, B.A.S., vol. x., p, 209. TRIBES OF NORTHERN TIBET. 75 (other than one's self). From Zo, 'eat,' Tasazo 'feed,' Tasazangti, 'I who feed/ TasazSsi, ' he who feeds,' Masazdngti, ' I who feed not.' Of these I give the analysis of the last as a sample, Ma, negative pre-fix — Sa, causative in-flx. Zdng, 'I eat,' from the root Zd with suffixed pronoun. Ti mutable with Si, the partici- pial attributive suffix. These are the simplest verbal forms and the most usual, whence the prevalent dissyllabic character of the verbs, as of the nouns, as seen in the vocabulary, consisting of a root and one pre-fix. But the vocabulary, whilst it demonstrates this, indicates also the more complex forms, put rather too prominently forward by Leyden in his Ta-gala samples. Thus, in our Gyaning vocabulary, the words, cry, laugh, be silent, run, or four out of twenty-four verbs, instead of a single prefix, have a double and even a treble supply in the simple imperative form there used ; as Da-ka-kru from the root Kid ; Kmui-rc from the root Me; Na-ka-chdm from the root Chum; Da-na-ra-ggdk from the root Gi/dL: Hence compounding as before, we have from the last cited simple term, Danarasagyuk, 'cause to run'; Mada narasagyuk, 'do not cause to run'; Danarasagyungit 'I who cause to run'; Manarasagydti or Madanara-sdgyuti, 'he who does not cause to run.' I believe also that the reiterative form Matarmdng is quite as usual as the substitutive form Marmdng, and Matsazangti for Matamzdiigti, as Masazdngti, time and tense notwithstanding. Repetition and other changes above illustrated in the prefixes belong much less to the roots, infixes and suffixes, whether in verbs or nouns, and when the root is repeated, the suffix is commonly dropt, as has been explained as to substantive. But there are instances in the verbs of root repeated and yet pre-fix retained, though the vocabulary affords none such as its Kalarlar, 'round,' which is a root repeated yet retaining its pre-fix; whilst the adjectives of the vocabulary, uulike the substantives, also afford several instances of the doubly and trebly reiterated pre-fix, as Kamgnar, 'sweet,' Ka-ma-gnar from the root gndr, and Kavandro, 'cold,' Ka-va-na-dro from the root dro. The elided forms, however, and particularly Kamgnarj show that leaning towards dissyllabism, which has been dwelt on, perhaps, too strongly, though it assuredly be a most marked feature of this tongue, and one too which Leyden's mistake as to his own sample verb shows to be preeminently proper to Ta-gala; for " tolog, to sleep," is not the radical form of the word, as he assumes, but a compound of the root and its cus- tomary pre-fix, fa, with the vowel harmonised to that of the root. The pre- fixes are the great variants, and besides being so much repeated, they can be transposed and interchanged almost at pleasure, owing to their synonymous character, and these variations of the pre-fixes, with the elisions consequent on much reiteration of them, constitute the greatest part of that enigma which Levden emphasizes ; though it be in the actual u-e of the speech much less ex- cessive (I still speak of Gyaning) than his sample would lead any one to suppose. In the above samples of Gyaning I have given the verbs alone, without the added pronouns of Leydens' Ta-galan instances — such additional complication being rather suited to create wonderment than to promote sound knowledge.] Humboldt considers that the Ta-gala (a specimen by the way of ?6 TRIBES OF NORTHERN TIBET. the inseparable pre-fix) preserves the primitive type of the whole group ; and that that type is revealed in the Gyariing I am inclined to assert, without however forgetting that my investigation is far from complete, and without insisting so much upon the primitiveness of this type as upon its much more interesting feature of a connecting bond between the so-called monosyllabic aptotic and the so-called polysyllabic* non-aptotic classes — classes which appear to me to have no very deep or solid foundation, much as they have been insisted on to the obscuration of the higher branches of philology and ethnology, rather than to their illustration (as I venture to think), and but for which obscuration our Leydens and our Joneses, our Bopps and our Humboldts, could never have been found at such extreme apparent diversity of opinion. I may add, with re- ference to the disputed primitiveness of Ta-gala, owing to its use of the "artifices" above cited, that throughout the Himalaya and Tibet it is precisely the rudest or most primitive tongues that are distinguished by useless intricacies, such as the interminable pronouns, and all the perplexity caused by conjugation by means of them, with their duals and plurals, and inclusive and exclusive forms of the first person of both. In this way, Kirauti,* for instance, has thirty-three personal forms for each tense ; and, as many tense-forms as there are thus constituted, so many are there of the gerunds and of the participles — a Manchuric trait of great interest. The more advanced tribes, whether of the continent or of the islands, have, generally speaking, long since cast away all or most of these " artifices." I have thus, in the present and two former communications, shown what a strange conformity in the essential components of their speech still unites the long and widely sundered races inhabiting now the Himalaya, Tibet, Indo-China, Sifan, Altaia, Caucasus and Oceanica; and, as a no less strange conformity of physical conformation, unites (with one alleged exception) these races, it cannot much longer be doubted that they all belong to one ethnic family, whose physi- cal attributes it shall next be my business to help the illustration of by describing the heretofore unknown people, whose languages have been submitted to inspec- tion and examination. Before, however, I turn to the physical characteristics, I must add that all the languages, whose vocables are herewith submitted to the Society, are, and always have been, devoid of letters and of literature ; what * Compare the monosyllabic roots and dissyllabic simple vocables of Gyariing with the sesquipedalians just given. The comparison is pregnant with hints, especially as there are in the cognate tongues all grades of approximation. Thus, Kona re, 'laugh,' in Gyariing, with its double pre-fix, is Yere in Linibu with one, and Re in J\lagar without any ; and thus Talidng, 'air,' in Lepcha, with its pre-fix and suffix, is Tali in Gyariing, with pre-fix only, and Li or Le in Burmese, without either. Innumerable instances like this make me conclude that the Gyariing differs only in degree, not in kii d, notwithstanding that its verb, like that of the Ta-gala, certainly presents an extraordinary and seemingly unique spectacle in some aspects, but not in all ; for, in the sentence tize-kaze papun, 'he called them to feast,' though the root za, 'to eat,' be repeated, and each time with a differently vowelled servile attached ; yet the combina- tion is not grotesque, nor the root smothered. * See a memoir on this tongue and another on the Hayu vcl Vayu tongue in the forthcoming Kos. of the Bengal Asiatic Society's Journal. (Printed in 1857 very incorrectly. Corrected copies sent to Pott, Lassen, Schieiher, etc. ) TRIBES OF NORTHERN TIBET. J J writing there is among these races being confined to the Tibet-trained monks, whose religious ministry they all accept, and who (the monks) use the Tibetan system of writing applied solely to the Tibetan language, and never to that of their flocks, the several races now in question, or any of them. I cannot learn that in Tibet the Sokpo or the Horpa ever employ any system of writing of their own, though I need not add (assuming their identification to be just) that the Mongols and the Eastern Turks have each their own system quite distinct from the Tibetan. Having always considered the physical evidence* of race quite as important as the lingual, and the one as the true complement of the other, I have not failed to use the opportunity of access to the people whose vocables are now submitted in order to note their physical traits. The following are ths chief results of that investigation: — Amdoan. Horpa. Gyarung. Manyak. I. II. III. IV. Height without shoes 5.8.| 6.7.| 5.3.0 5.4.0 Length of head, from crown to chin (with calipers) 0.8.^ 0.8.| 0.9.0 0.9.± Girth of head 1.10.0 1.9.J l.lO.f l.lO.f Length of head, fore and aft, or forehead to occiput 0.7.f 0.7.| 0.8.0 0.8.0 Width of head, between parietes 0.6.| 0.6.0 0.6.§ 0.6.| Crown of head to hip 2.4. £ 2.4.0 2.3. £ 2.3.0 Hip to heel 3.3.| 3.3.£ 2.11.J 3.1.0 Width between the shoulders . . 1.4.0 1.1.0 1.1. J 1.4.0 Girth of chest 3.1.0 2.9.0 2.11.J 2.11.| Length of arm and hand 2.6.| 2.6.0 2.4.J 2.4.0 Ditto of arm 1.0.0 1.0.0 0.11.4 0J1.J Ditto of fore-arm 0.11.0 0.10.0 0.9.^ 0.9.3 Ditto of hand 0.8.0 0.7.| 0.7.| 0.7.£ Ditto of thigh 1.8.0 1.7.0 1.6.£ 1.7.0 Ditto of leg to ankle 1.4J 1.5.0 1.3.0 1.5.0 Ditto of foot 0.11.0 0.10.0 0.9.4 0.9.£ Width of hand 0.4. f 0.4.| 0.4.0 0.4.0 Ditto of foot 0.4.f 0.4.J 0.4.| 0.4.0 Girth of thigh 1.9.0 1.4.} 1.6.| 1.7.4 Ditto of calf 1.3.4 LLf L2.0 1.1.J Ditto of fore-arm 0.11.0 0.9.| 0.10.0 0.9.| No. 1. — A native of Amdo, aged thirty-five years, a finely formed and very strong man, capable of carrying three maunds or 250 pounds over these mountains, which he has done several times, in order to turn a penny during his so- * Some attempts have reeently been made (see last vol. of Brit. Assoc, and Journal of Roy. As. Soc. ) to disparage the value of this evidence. But no one well acquainted with the Tartars in various remote locations could for a moment think of so doing. I refer with confidence to Dr. Buchanan's remarks on the subject in vol. V. As. Res. KK 78 TRIBES OF NORTHERN TIBET. journ here, though the lax state of his muscles shows that he is usually an idler, and not now in training for such work, nor much used to it. A Gelling or monk of the mendicant class, and of course a shaveling, so that his head has been examined with unusual advantage. Five feet eight and a half inches tall, and more than proportionably broad or bulky, with large bones and ample muscle, not however showing any bold development, the surface on the contrary being smooth and even, like the body of an idler; nor fat at all, but well fleshed. Colour of the skin, a very pale clear brown, of isabelline hue, like dry earth, or dirty linen, or unbleached paper ; not yellow, nor ruddy at all. No trace of red on the cheeks, which are moderately full. Colour of eyes, dark brown ; of hair, generally, black, but that of moustache, auburn. No hair on chest, nor on legs or arms. Moustache spare. No beard nor whisker. Hair of head, so far as traceable, abundant, strong and straight. Cranium not compressed nor de- pressed; not raised pyramidally, yet brachycephalic rather than dolichocephalic, and the occiput truncated or flush with the thick neck, but not flattened. Vertical view of the head, ovoid not oval, widest between the ears, and thence narrowing equally to the forehead and to the occiput. Facial angle good. Profile inconspicuous. Contour of the face (front view) rather ovoid than angular or lozenge-shaped, the cheek-bones having no conspicuous lateral saliency nor the forehead and chin any noticeable attenuation. Forehead sufficiently high and broad, and not appearing otherwise from any unusual projection of the orbitar periphery or of the zygomata. Eyes sufficiently large and not noticeably ob- lique, but remote from each other, and flush with the cheek and the upper lid, drooping and constricted to the inner canthus, which is large and tumid. Nose, good, straight ; the bridge well raised between the eyes and the terminal part, nor spread nor thickened, though the nostrils be shorter and rounder than in Euro- peans, and the saliency of the whole organ less than in them. Ears large and standing out from the head, but occupying the usual relative position. Mouth good, but large, with fine vertical teeth, not showing the least symptom of prog- nathism in the jaws. Very full lips, but not gaping, nor at all Negro-like in their tumidity. Chin not retiring, nor yet roundly salient, but level with the gums, or in the same plane with the teeth, and square and strong, as well as the jaws, which afford ample room in front for an uncrowded set of beautiful teeth. Body well-proportioned, but somewhat long (as well as massive and square) in the trunk and in the arms, relatively to the legs. Hands and feet well made and large, but rather as to breadth than length. Head well set on the short thick neck, and shoulders high. Chest, splendid, wide and deep, and general form good. Expression Mongolian, (but not at all markedly so as to features,) and calm and placidly good-natured. Ears bored, but not distended ; and tattooing or other disfigurement of the skin quite unknown to all these races, as I may say once for all. No. II. — A Horpa of Tango, west of Gyfiriing, towards Amdo, named Isaba. Age thirty -eight years. A man of good height (five feet seven and a half inches) TRIBES OF NORTHERN TIBET. 79 and figure, but far less powerful than the Amdoan, and somewhat darker in colour. Spare of flesh, hut not actually meagre. Colour, a pale brown, without yellow or red, like all the Himalayana and Tibetans, and the eye, of a dark clear brown, as usual with them. No trace of ruddiness on cheek. Hair of the head, moustache and whisker, pure black. Hair of head, long, straight, strong, abundant. Moustache small and feeble. Whisker rather ampler. No beard, nor a trace of hair on the chest, back or limbs. Head longer (fore and aft) than wide, but scarcely dolichocephalic, though not truncated occipitallv, nor compressed, nor depressed, nor pyramidised. Vertical view, oval, the wider end being the posteal or occipital, and being wider there than between the ears Facial angle, good. Contour of the face long and oval, without any trace of the lozence breadth and angularity. Forehead^ narrow and rather low, but not re- tiring. Cheek bones not salient laterally nor the frontal sinuses or orbits pro- minent. Ears large and loose. Eyes of good size, remote, but not noticeably oblique, though the inner angle be tumid with the usual constriction thereto of the upper lid, which somewhat narrows the parting of the lids. Nose straight, not very salient, yet well raised between the eyes, and not dilated towards the tip, and the nares elliptic and long, but the bridge nevertheless broad and ob- tusely rounded. Mouth .good, but large and prominent from the fulness of the lips,* which, however, are not gaping nor are the teeth at all prognathously inclined, well made and vertically set, but not sound. Chin not pointed, nor heavy, nor retiring, nor jaws unduly large and angular; whence, with the non- saliency of the zygomata, the face takes a good and Arian contour. Figure good, almost elegant, but the arms rather long, and the legs rather short in comparison of the European form. Hands and feet well made and well proportioned. Hair plaited into a tail, a la Chinoise. Ears bored, but not dilated, and furnished with small ear-rings. Expression pleasing, and cast of features but faintly Mongolian. No. III. — A Gyaning of Tazar, north of Tachindo, by name Maching, and by age thirty-three years. Height five feet three inches, or much shorter than either of the above. A well-made smallish man. Bony and muscular develop- ment moderate, especially the former. In moderate flesh, but thigh and calf very fine ; arms much less so. Arms longish. Legs shortish. Colour of skin, a pale earthy brown or isabelline hue, without the least mixture of yellow or of red ; like Chinese, but deeper toned. No ruddiness on the spare cheeks. Eye dark hazel. Colour of hair in all parts uniformly black ; long, straight, abundant, strong, on head ; spare on upper lip ; none on chin, nor on body, nor on limbs. Cranium large, nor compressed, nor depressed, nor pj^ramidally raised towards the crown, though there be a semblance of that sort from the width of the zygomata (but this feature belongs to the face). Occiput not truncated posteally. Fronto- occipital axis the longer and vertical view oval with the wide end backwards, *It is not so much the fullness of the lips as a certain thickening - of the gums, particularly those of the upper incisive or trout teeth common to Cis- and Trans- Himalayans. 80 TRIBES OF NORTHERN TIBET. the occiput being conspicuously wider than the frontal region, or than the parietal, and the maximum occipital breadth lessening regularly forwards to the forehead. Facial angle good, with a vertical, but inconspicuous profile. Contour of the face (front view) lozenge-shaped, widest between the cheek-bones, which project much laterally, and are flattened to the front, causing great breadth of face just below the eyes, whence there is a regular narrowing upwards and downwards. Forehead sufficiently high and not retiring, but narrowed appa- rently upwards, owing to the salient zygomata and molars. Frontal sinus not salient. Eye smallish and not well opened nor hollowed out from the cheek, and upper lid drooping and drawn to the inner, inclined and tumid canthus. Eyes wide apart and oblique. Nose long, straight, thick, with a broad base be- tween the eyes, where, however, th# bridge is not flat, but raised into a wide low arch. Width great there, and spreading into an expanded fleshy termina- tion, with broad alse and large round nostrils. Mouth large and salient, yet good. Lips moderate and closed, and teeth vertically set, and very fine in shape and colour. Chin pretty good, not retiring, nor yet projecting, flush with the teeth and somewhat squared, as also the large jaws. Ears long and loose. Figure good, with head well set on ; neck sufficiently loug ; chest deep and wide, and well made hands and feet. Hair worn plaited into a pig tail. Ears bored, but declaredly contrary to the custom of his country, and not distended. A very Chinese face and figure, and belonging to one who has, in his character, a deal of the shrewdness tending to knavery that marks the Chinaman. No. IV. — The Manyaker is forty years old, and bears the euphonious name of I'drophiincho. He is a native of Rakho, six days south of Tachindo, and by pro- fession a Gelung or mendicant friar; and a cross made ugly fellow he is, as one could wish to see, with round shoulders and short neck, but stout and good-tempered exceedingly; and moreover, accomplished in reading, writing, drawing and carving, like most of the regular troops of Lamaism to which corps he belongs, though to the heterodox branch of it, or Bonpa sect, called by him Beunpo or Peunpo, and which he has enabled me to say is no other than Tantrika Buddhism, or what is commonly called Shamanism.* This very inter- esting and important discovery I therefore make no apology for inserting here, * In saying that Shamanism is nothing but Tantrika Buddhism, I speak most ad- visedly, and fully aware of the opinions I oppose. That the Bonpa also are Buddhists, there ean be no doubt, and my friend I'dro's statements and drawings show that his sect follow the Gyiit or Tantras, which, though canonical, are in bad odour, and have been so since the Gelukpa reform. A Bonpa and a Moslem are alike odious to the orthodox in Tibet, though the Bonpas have many Vihars of high name and date all over the country. Since this was written, I have found some interesting traces of the existence of the Bonpa sect in the Himalaya, where the Murmi tribe for instance still call their exorcist Bonpa. The probable general solution is, that both the Brah- manists and the Buddhists, of all the various divisions of those creeds, adopted largely into their systems the prior superstitions of the country, whence in Java, in Nepal, in Ava, as in India, Buddhist and Brahmanical remains exhibit so much of a common character, sometimes wearing the aspect of Vaishnaism, more commonly than of Saivaism. Compare my remarks on the subject {apud volume on the Buddhism of Nepal) with Leyden's Fabian and Yule on the Remains of Pagan (apud A. S. J. B.) Yule describes exactly the Padmapani, Manjusri, ete., of Nepal, and I have myself found them at Karnagurh on the Ganges. TKTBES OF NORTHERN TIBET. 8 1 though it be somewhat out of place ; and as I am digressing, I may as well add that to confound the Lamas with the Gelungs as Hue and Gabet invariably do, is a worse error than it would be to confound the Brahmans with the Pandits in India. To return to my friend Idro, whose shaven head has afforded me a second excellent opportunity for closely examining the cranial characters of these races, I proceed to note that he is a man of moderate height (five feet four inches), but strongly made, with large bones and plenty of muscle, but no fat. Colour, a pale whitey pure brown. No trace of red in the spare cheeks, winter though it be. Eye, dark rich brown, and hair throughout unmixed and pure black. Like the others, he has none of the Esau characteristic, but on the contrary is, as usual, scant of hair, having not a trace of it on the body or limbs, and not much on the face. No beard. No whisker. A very wretched lean moustache, and a spare straight eyebrow. Cranium brachycephalic and large. Vertical view of the head ovoid not oval, widest between the ears, as in the Amdoan. Thence regularly and equally narrowed to the frontal and occipital extremities. No compression, nor depression of the cranium, but on the contrary a distinct pyramidal ascension from a broad base, the point of crinal radiation being somewhat conically raised from the interaureal and widest part of the scull. Occiput truncate and flattened, that is, not projecting beyond the neck, nor rounded posteally, like most heads. Facial angle pretty good, but rather deficient in vertically of profile. Contour of the face lozenge shape owing to the large laterally salient cheek bones, though the forehead be not very noticeably narrowed (except with reference to its bulg- ing base), nor the chin pointed. Forehead sufficiently good, high but some what compressed and retiring, and appearing more so by reason of the heavy frontal sinuses and zygomata, which project beyond the temples towards the sides and front. Ears big and salient. Eyes remote and oblique, with the inner angle down and tumid, and the upper lid drooping and drawn to the inner canthus. Nose rather short, straight, not level with the eyes, nor yet much raised to separate them, nor elsewhere. Not clubbed at the end, but the alse spreading, and the nares large and round. Mouth large and forward, with very thick lips, but no prognathism, the teeth being vertical and the lips not gaping so as to expose them. Teeth well formed and well set in an obtusely convex large arch, those of the upper jaw, however, overhanging those of the lower. Chin rather retiring, or flat and square. The partial retirement of the chin and large frontal sinuses are what mar the vertically of the profile, which moreover shows little of nasal and much of oral projection. Figure bad, with thick goitrous neck, high forward shoulders, and somewhat bowed legs. Hands and feet well made. Muscular development of arms poor, of legs good. A thoroughly Mongolian face, but the ugliness in part redeemed by the good-natured, placid, yet somewhat dull, expression. Note. — The orthography of the comparative vocabulary is in general" that sanctioned by the Asiatic Society of Bengal, but there are a few deviations necessitated by the peculiar articulation of these races, whose gallic j and u are of incessant recurrence. I have represented the former sound by zy and the latter KKl 82 TRIBES OP NORTHERN TJBET. by eu. Both sounds are found in the French word feu. The system of tones or accents, so important for discriminating the many otherwise-identical roota in these tongues, there is no practicable method of doing justice to. But I have marked the chief one, or abrupt final, y an underscored h, thus h. In Thochu and in Horpa, the h, kh, and gh, have often, nay generally, a harsh Arabic utterance. I use the short vague English a and e, as in cat, get, for their common equivalents in these tongues, but u has always the oo sound, whether short or long. It so occurs in English though rarely, as in put, pudding. The continental (European) and Eastern system of the vowels is that pursued, and the long sound of each is noted by accent superscribed. But there is a great evil attendant on this Jonesian use of accent as marking quantity ; for the Tartar accent denotes the radical syllable or syllables, irrespective altogether of the long or short sound of vowels. I cannot, however, at present, remedy this evil, though hereafter I shall use the accent to denote roots putting it over the end of the radical syllable, whether ending in vowel or consonant. Quoad vowels, mine is the common vocalic system, the English being wholly beside the mark. Y is always a consonant. It blends with many others to give them a sliding sound as in the zy, above instanced. It gives S the sound of Sh, as in the Syan (Shan) tribe's name. It must never be made a vowel, a Vanglaise, for that makes mono- syllables dissyllabic, and totally changes the proper sounds of words. The same as to w, which we English are however more familiar with. From 6, I make the diphthong ai; from a that of au; from 6 that of on, sounded as in aye aye, hawfinch, hoio; which, with the gallic eu (beurre), are invariably diphthongs, each with a single blended sound. If two vowels come together and require separate utterance, the latter is superscribed with two dots, as dai. I have marked off the pre- fixes (tir-mi, 'man,' see Gyarung column) to facilitate access to the root and comparison on a large scale, such as that lately employed to illustrate ethnic affinities. This and the like marking off of the suffixes will be a great aid to those who wish to make such comparisons without knowledge of these languages. But the procedure is hardly correct, since the root and its prefix in particular are apt to be blended [in utterance by transfer of the accent (mi, \tir-mi), and since the sense also of the roots is occasionally as dependant (though in a difierent way) on that of their prefixes, as it is in regard to the prepositions of the Arian tongues (tir-mi, 'man': ti-mi, 'fire'). Nevertheless these important particles are liable to a large range of mutations, synonymous as well as differential, merely euphonic, as well as essential, whilst some of the tongues use them very amply, and others very rarely. Add to these features the infixes and the suffixes, with the occasional change of place and function between all these, and you have before you the causes of the differences of these languages, which are often so operative as to merge their essential affinity and make it indiscernible, except by those who, knowing the roots, can pursue them and the servile portions of the vocables through their various metamorphoses and transpositions.* * Compare in Tibeto-Himalayan and Indo-Chinese series, as follows : — Day. — Nyi'-ma, Ma-ni, Nye'-n-ti, Nhi-ti-ma, Sak-ni'. Root Nyi. Eye. — J -mile, Mi-do, Mi-kha, Ta-i-myek, Mye-t-si. Root Mig. Dog. — Khi-cha, Ko-chu, C'h6i-ma, Khive, Ta-kwi, Ka-zeu. Root Kliyi. Ripe. — Kas-sman, Mhai-ti, Mhin, Min-bo. Root sMin. " Sour. — Kuch-chur, Kyur-bo, Da-chu'. Root sKyur. Hear. — Kliep-che, Nap-aye, Ta-che-n. Root She. These are extreme cases, perhaps, of mutation ; but they are therefore all the better adapted to illustrate my meaning ; and links enough will be found in the yoeabu- laries to bind them surely together. 6. ON THE COLONIZATION OP THE HIMALAYA BY EUROPEANS.* As the interesting subject of the fitness of the Himalaya for European coloni- zation is beginning to excite the attention of individuals and of the Government, it may be worth while to state distinctly may own conviction on the subject, together with the chief grounds of that conviction, because I have resided some thirty years in the Central and Eastern parts of the range, and have also served awhile in the Western, and all that time my attention has been directed to studies calculated to make my observation and experience more effective. I say, then, unhesitatingly, that the Himalaya generally is very well calculated for the settlement of Europeans, and I feel more and more convinced that the encouragement of colonization therein is one of the highest and most important duties of the Government. In the long, and throughout the globe quite unparalleled, gradation of heights, from the plains to the snows, every variety of climate is found with correspondent capabilities for the successful culture of various products suited to the wants of Europeans, for their own consumption or for profitable sale ; and in this extra- ordinary gradation of heights, the high and the low are juxtaposed in a manner alike favourable to the labours of the healthful and to the relief of the ailing. A healthy cultivator of our race could have his dwelling at four to six thousand feet, and his farms, both there aud at various higher and lower elevations, yet still close to his abode ; so that quasi-tropical and quasi-European products might be raised by him with the greatest facility ; and in defect of health and strength, the colonist, like the visitor, would enjoy the vast advantage of entirely changing his climate without cost or fatigue of journey, besides having the additional resource of easy access to medicinal waters of universal diffusion and of proved efficacy in many kinds of ailments. The greatest variety of climate has of course relation to the transverse section of the Himalaya, or that from plains to snows ; but the longitudinal section, or the S. E. and N. W. one, likewise presents as much and the same variety of climate as is proper to the plains in Bengal, Benares, and the north-western provinces; and it is quite a mistake to allege of the South-East Himalayas, or of Bengal, that their climate differs only for the worse from the drier climate of the hills or plains further west and north. * Written in 1856. 84 COLONIZATION OF THE HIMALAYA. Undoubtedly, the South-East Himalaya has much less sun and much more moisture* than the North-West Himalaya. But those Europeans, who have experienced the effects of the climate of both, frequently prefer that of the former, and it is quite certain that, in the past twenty years, the South-East Himalaya has suffered much less from epidemics, and has also enjoyed a complete exemption from those severe dysenteries and fevers which have afflicted the denizens of the North-West Himalaya. It is as certain that the obscured sun of the South-East Himalaya is the cause of the difference,§ and that, though our clouds and mists may hurt our popular reputation with strangers, they are welcome to ourselves from their experienced and admitted beneficialness. Cloudy and misty as is our climate for five to six months, rheumatism and pulmonary affections are unknown. That the Himalaya, generally speaking is a region eminently healthful, can be doubted by no competent judge, and is demonstrable at once, and readily, by pointing to the finely developed muscles,pure skins, cheerful countenances, and universally well-formed strong-boned bodies of the native inhabitants, whose health and strength, and capacity of enduring toil and carrying heavy burdens, are as notorious, as are their exemption from bodily malformations and from most of the direst diseases to which flesh is heir, as well in the tropics as in the high latitudes of Europe — results owing to the preeminent equability and temperateness of the climate ,t added to the simple active habits of the people. The fearful epidemics of the plains seldom penetrate the Himalayas, which, moreover, seem to have a positive exemption from endemic diseases, or those proper to any given country. For forty years cholera has ravaged the plains continually almost. But in all that period Nepal has been visited only twice and Darjeeling scarcely at all. In the same forty years at Kathniandu, only two. deaths (Mr. Stuart and Lieutenant Young) have occurred among Europeans, and both those were occasioned by diseases wholly apart from local influences ; and in the escort of the Resident, the salubrity in my time was so great, that promotion came hardly to be # calculated on at all, and a Sepahee would be a Sepahee still, after fifteen to twenty years' service. J The Civil medical statistics of Nepal, as of Darjeeling, have always told the same story ; and if the Military statistics of the latter place have been, till lately, * The fall of rain is no accurate test of mean moisture, but the following facts have their value : — Mean annual fall of rain at Darjeeling 130 inches ; at Kathmandu, in the Valley of Nepal, 60 ; at Simla 70 ; at Cherrapmiji 500. It must always be remem- bered, that the amount, of rain and moisture at any given spot in the Himalaya depends greatly on the number of covering ridges intervening between such spot and the course of the great column of vapour borne by the monsoon from the ocean. The fact, that the fall of rain in the Concan is five-fold what it is in the Deccan, owing to the intervention of the Ghat range, will make this more intelligible. § Very imperfect sanitary arrangements to the north-west, where large multitudes are assembled yearly such as are unknown to the Sanitaria of the south-east, must be added in explanation of the dysenteries and fevers noted. t In my sitting-room, which is freely ventilated, the thermometer ranges only from 60 to 65, day and night, between the end of June and the end of September. In December, January, and February, the range is about the same, or but slightly greater. J The Escort or Honorary Guard formerly consisted of 200 men ; it now consists of 100. COLONIZATION OF THE HIMALAYA. 85 le3S favourable, the reasons of this had nothing- to do with the hill climate, bnt resulted wholly from the senseless selection of cases sent up; the absurd neglect of seasons in sending up and taking- down of the invalids ; and lastly, the shameful abandonment of all care and supervision of the men on the way up and down. The appearance of the European children at Darjeeling might alone suffice to prove the suitableness of the climate of the Himalaya at six to eight thousand feet for European colonization, confirmed, as such evidence is, by that of the aspect and health of such adult Europeans as came here with uninjured constitutions, and have led an active life since their arrival. Finer specimens of manly vigour the world could not show ;% and though none of the individuals I allude to have lately toiled all day in the open air at agricultural labours, yet I am credibly in- formed that some of them did for several years after their arrival here, and with perfect impunity; their agricultural pursuits having been abandoned for reasons quite apart from either injured health or inability to support them- selves and families comfortably by such labours. That Europeans would sustain injury from exposure during agricultural labours at any period§ of the year, seems therefore refuted by fact ; and when it is remembered that such persons would be working here, as at home, amid an in- digenous arboreal vegetation of oaks, hollies, chesnuts, sycamores, elms, horn-beams, birches, alders, elders, willows, and, more westerly, pines and firs, such* a fact de- rives from such an analogy double strength ; and the attempted inference from both is further justified by the healthful growth in the Himalaya of such of our own cereals and vegetables and fruits as we have thus far tried to introduce, with the sole exception of delicate and soft pulped fruits, not of an early or spring matur- ing kind, such as peaches, grapes, and the like. These rot, instead of ripening in the central region of the Himalaya, owing to the tropical rains and rarity of sun-shine at the ripening season. But such soft fruits as become mature before the rains set in, as strawberries, come to perfection, as do all hard fruits, such as apples. There is, in fact, no end no end of the mineral and vegetable wealth of the Himalaya, and if the absence of flat ground, with the severity of the tropical monsoon or rainy season, present considerable drawback to agricultural success, on the other hand the endless inequalities of surface offer a variety of temperature and of exposure, together with signal modification even of the element of moisture and rain, all highly conducive to the advantageous cultivation of numerous and diverse products proper to the soil or imported from elsewhere. Temperature changes regularly in the ratio of 3° diminution of heat for every thousand feet of height gained ; and every large ridge crossing ths course of the J We may now add that the children and, in a few instances, grandchildren born at Darjeeling of the Europeans in question, and the children generally of the gentlemen resident there, are as healthy and vigorous as any children in Europe. § Agriculture does not require much exposure at the hottest season, when the crops are growing. * The beech is the only European tree not found in the Himalaya. The rest are Tery common. 86 COLONIZATION OF THE HIMALAYA. monsoon modifies almost as remarkably the amount of rain in the several tracts covered by such ridges. The ratio of decrease of heat with elevation, which has just been stated, must however be remembered to be an average and to have reference to the shade, not to the sun, for it has been found that the direct rays of the sun are as powerful at Darjeeling as in the plains, owing probably to the clearness of our atmosphere ; and this is the reason why our clouds are so welcome and beneficial during the hottest months of the year. In other words, the constant cloudiness of that season is beneficial to the European. It is otherwise, however, as regards his crops, which being ripening at that period, would be benefited by a clearer sky; and thus it is that a certain degree of oppugnancy exists between the sites most congenial to the European and to his crops ; for, whilst a height of six to seven thousand, perhaps, might be most congenial to him, one of four to five thousand would certainly suit them better, not so much for the average higher temperature, as for the larger supply of sun-shine. But the oppug- nancy is only one of degree, and whilst four thousand is a very endurable climate for the European, there is no reason why he should not have his abode, as is the frequent custom of the country, at a somewhat higher level than that of his fields, should he find such an arrangement advantageous upon the whole. The fertility of the soil is demonstrated by the luxuriance t>f the arboreal and shrub vegetation, a luxuriance as great in degree as universal in prevalence. True this luxuriance has its evils* and, in its present unpruncd state, may be one great cause why the feeding of flocks and herds is scantily pursued by the people, and without much success, speaking generally ; for there are exceptions even now, and European energy would soon multiply these exceptions, besides grappling successfully with the presumed source of the evil, or too much and too rank vegetation, not to add, that, in the districts next the snows and Tibet, that hyper-luxuriance ceases, and herds and flocks abound, and the latter yield fleeces admirable for either fineness or length of fibre.f The soil consists of a deep bed of very rich vegetable mould from one to three feet deep, to preserve which from being carried away by the tropical rains after the removal of its natural cover of forest and under-growth, by terracing and other known expedients, must be the colonist's first care, for the underlying earth is almost always a hungry red clay but happily one whose tenacity and poverty are much qualified by better ingredients derived from the debris of the gneisses and schists that constitute the almost sole * The paucity of graminea? is, I believe, a feature of the Himalayan Botany, and every observant person must notice the absence of meadows and grazing land and hay fields throughout the hills. But this is to be accounted for and explained by the uncommon strength and abundance of the indigenous vegetation ; for, whenever a tract of land is kept clear, grass springs up ; and the European grasses that have been im- ported, including clovers and lucern, flourish exceedingly, the moist climate being very favourable to them. Such, however, are the richness and high flavour of the native vegetation, that large and small cattle, even when provided with the finest European pasture, are apt to desert it in order to graze at large amid the forests and copses. I here speak of the central region of the Himalaya, wherein leeches are the great enemies of the cattle, aud a peculiar disease of the hoofs to which they are subject. fThe samples I sent to Europe of the wool of the sheep and goats of the Northern region of the Himalaya and of Tibet were valued at seven to nine pence per pound. COLONIZATION OF THE HIMALAYA. 87 rocks. The argillaceous constituents of the soil are perhaps in good proportion ; the siliceous, perhaps, rather too abundant ; the calcareous, deficient. Heretofore, the superficial mould has been the sole stay of the agriculturist and floriculturist. How far that would continue to be the case under abler culture, I know not. Bui, so loug as it did continue, the caution above given would demand the most vigilant and incessant attention. The common European cereals, or wheat, barley, rye, aud oats, are little heeded in the Himalaya, where I never saw crops equal those grown in various parts of the plains. But this, though no doubt attributable in some measure to a deal of the Himalayan population being located at heights above those where, in the present forest encumbered state of the country, a sufficiency of summer sun for such crops can be safely calculated upon, is likewise attributable in part to the preference for rices, maizes, sorghums, panicums or millets, buck-wheat, and amaranth, on the part of the people, whose cultivation of wheat is most careless, without manure, even in double-cropped and old lands, and the plant is allowed to be over-run, whilst growing, by wild hemp or artemesia, or other social weed of most frequent occurrence in the Himalaya. Observe, too, that the system of double cropping now occasions the sacrifice of the despised wheat crop which is a spring one to the cherished autumal crop which is a rice one; and that were the former allowed due consideration and treated with reference to its furnishing a main article of food, instead of being regarded merely with reference to the still, as is now very generally the case among the native population, we might reasonably expect to see fine crops of wheat as high at least as five thousand feet and more, especially so when the clearance of the land, conducted judiciously, was enabled to produce its due and experienced effects in augmenting the sun-shine and diminishing the rain and mist in such properly cleared tracts. Heretofore, skill aud energy have done absolutely nothing, in these or other respects, for Himalayan agriculture, and yet there is no country on earth where more advantage might be derived from skill and energy applied to the culture of agricultural products. As already said, the infinite variety of elevation and of exposure (both as to heat and moisture), together with the indefinite richness of the soil, as proved by the indigenous tree and shrub and other vegetation, are premises one can hardly fail to rest soundly upon in prognosticating the high success of European culture of the Himalavan slopes, notwithstanding the drawbacks I have enumerated. There need hardly be any end to the variety of the products, and good success must attend the cultivation of many of them, after a little experience shall have taught the specialities of the soil and climate, so that the subject should be incessantly agitated till the Government and the public are made fully aware of its merits. How much iteration is needed, inay be illustrated by the simple mention of the fact, that the fitness of the Himalayas for tea-growing was fully ascertained twenty-five years ago in the valley of Nepal, a normal characteristic region, as well in regard to position* as to elevation. Tea seed3 and plants were procured from * It is equi-distant from snows and plains, and has a mean elevation of 4,500 feet. 88 COLONIZATION OF THE HIMALAYA. China through the medium of the Cashmere merchants then located at Kathniandii. They were sown and planted in the Residency garden, where they nourished greatly, flowering and seeding as usual, and moreover, grafts ad libitum were multiplied by means of the nearly allied Eurya (Camellia) kisi, which, in the valley of Nepal, as elsewhere, throughout the Himalaya, is an indigenous and most abundant species. These favourable results were duly announced at the time to Dr. Abel, Physician to the Governor General, an accomplished person, with special qualifications, for their just appreciation. And yet, in spite of all this, twenty years were suffered to elapse before any effective notice of so im- portant an experiment could be obtained. I trust, therefore, that the general subject of the high capabilities of the climate and soil of the Himalayas, and their eminent fitness for European colonization having once been taken up, will never be dropped till colonization is a "fait accompli" 1 and that the accomplishment of this greatest, surest, soundest, and simplest of all political measures for the stabilitation of the British power in India, may adorn the annals of the present Viceroy's administration. But observe, I do not mean wholesale and instantaneous colonization, for any such I regard as simply impossible ; nor, were it possible, would I advocate it. The distance and unpopularity of India, however, would preclude all rational anticipation of any such colonization, whatever might be the wish to effect it. What I mean is, looking to these very obstacles and drawbacks, seeming and real, that some systematic means should be used to reduce their apparent and real dimensions, to make familiarly and generally known the cheapest methods and actual cost of reaching India ; to afford discriminating aid in some cases towards reaching it and settling in it ; and to shew that, in regard to the Himalaya, the vulgar dread of Indian diseases is wholly baseless — to show also, that its infinite variety of juxtaposed elevations, with correspondent differences of climate, both as to heat and moisture, and the unbounded richness of its soil at all elevations, offer peculiar and almost unique advantages (not a fiftieth part of the surface being now occupied) to the colonist, as well on the score of health as on that of opportunity, to cultivate a wonderful variety of products ranging from the tropical nearly to the European. A word as to the native population, in relation to the measure under contempla- tion. In the first place, the vast extent of unoccupied land would free the Government from the necessity of providing against wrongful displacement; and, in the second place, the erect spirit and freedom from disqualifying prejudices, proper to the Himalayan population, would at once make their protection from European oppression easy, and would render them readily subservient under the direction of European energy and skill to the more effectual drawing forth of the natural resources of the region. Located himself at an elevation he might find most conducive to his health, the colonist might, on the very verge of the lower region (see Essay on Physical Geography •f Himdlaya, in another part of this work), effectually command the great COLONIZATION OP THE HIMALAYA. 89 resources for traffic in timber, drugs, dyes, hides,* horns, ghee, and textile materials, not excluding silk, which that region affords; whilst, if he chose to locate him- self further from the plains and devote himself to agriculture and sheep-breeding, he might make his election among endless sites in the central and higher regions (see paper above referred to) of the Himalaya, of a place where these or those sorts of cereal flourished best, and where cattle and sheep could be reared, under circumstances of surface, vegetation, and temperature as various as the imagination can depict, but all more or less propitious ;■ the steep slopes and abundant vegetation, rank but nutritious, of the central region, giving place, in the higher region, to a drier air, a more level surface, and a scanter and highly aromatic vegetr ion, peculiarly suited to sheep and goats, whose fleeces in that region would well pay the cost of transport to the most distant markets. Not that I would in general hold out to the colonist the prospect of growing rich by the utmost use of the above indicated resources for the accumulation of wealth — to which might, and certainly in due course would, be added those of the Trans-Himalayan commerce || — but would rather fix his attention, primarily, at least upon the certain prospect of comfort, of a full belly, a warm back, and a decent domicile, or, in other words, of food, clothes, and shelter for himself, his wife, and children, unfailing with the most ordinary prudence and toil, and such, as to quality and quantity, as would be a perfect god-send to the starving peasantry of Ireland and of the Scotch Highlands. These are the settlers I would, but with- out discouraging the others, primarily encourage by free grants for the first five years, and by a very light rent upon long and fixed leases thereafter, looking tu compensation in the general prestige:): of their known forthcomingness on the spot, and assured that, with the actual backing upon occasions of political stress and difficulty of some fifty to one hundred thousand loyal hearts and stalwart bodies of Saxon mould, our empire in India might safely defy the world in arms against it. * Countless herds of cattle are driven for pasturage annually, during the hot months, from the open plains into the Tarai and Bhaver, and of the thousands that die there, the hides and horns are left to rot, for want of systematic purchase, and this whilst the demand is so urgent, that cattle-killing has become a trade in order to meet it. || In 1832 I furnished to Government a statement of the amount of this commerce, as conducted through Nepal proper, the exports and imports then reached thirty lakhs, and this under circumstances as little encouraging to commercial enterprise as can well be imagined, for monopolies were the order of the day, and those, in power were often the holders of such monopolies, as I believe is still the case in Nepal and also in Cashmere. In the paper adverted to, I also pointed out, by comparative statements, how successfully Britain could compete with Russia in regard to this commerce. J We are, it should- never be forgotten, 'ra/ri nantes in gurgite vasto,' occupying a position quite analogous to that of the Romans, when one of their ablest statesmen exclaimed 'quantum nobis periculum si servinostri numeraire nos eepiscent.' We cannot, for financial reasons of an enduring kind, create an adequate guard against the perils of such a position, nor materially alter it for the better quoad physical security, save by having such a body of our countrymen as above contemplated within call. To ward off Russian power and influence, we are just now entering on a war (in Persia^ as immediately and immensely costly, as full of perplexities and difficulties even in any of its better issues. Were one-tenth, nay, one-fiftieth, of the money which that war, if it last, will cost, bestowed on the encouragement of European settlements in the Himalaya, we might thus provide a far more durable, safe and cheap barrier against Russian aggression, and should soon reduce her land-borne commerce with Eastern Asia to nil. (a.d. 1856.) 7. ON THE COMMERCE OF NEPAL. [The following papers, which are of special interest just now, were addressed to the Political Secretary at Calcutta in 1831, and were published in a volume of " Selections from the Records of the Government of Bengal, No. XXVII," in 1857. —Ed.] No. I. — A precise practical account of the commercial route to Kathmandii, and thence to the marts on the Bhote or Tibetan frontier, with the manner and expense of conveying goods, the amount and nature of the duties levied thereon by the Nepal Government, and the places where they are levied. No. II. — Lists of imports and exports, with remarks. It is scarcely necessary for me to remark, that a connexion with this country was originally sought by us purely for commercial purposes, which purposes the government, up to the beginning of this centurj 7 , directly and strenuously exerted itself, by arms and by diplomacy, to promote. Now, though I would by no means advise a recurrence to that mode of fostering the commerce in question, but, on the contrary, entirely adhere to the opinions expressed by me in my public despatch of the 8th of March, 1830, yet I think it is possible we may fall into the opposite error of entire forgetfulness and neglect of the matter. I conceive, therefore, that a few remarks tending to reveal the actual and possible extent and value of the trade in question will, at the present moment, be well timed |and useful, in which hope I shall now proceed to make some such remarks, and to point out, in the course of them, the specific object for which each of the two accompanying documents was framed. Why that great commerce, which naturally ought to, and formerly did,* subsist between the vast Ois- and Trans-Himalayan regions, should seek the channel of Nepal rather than that of Bhutan on the one hand, or of Kumaon on the other, I have already explained at large, in my despatch above alluded to, and to which I beg to refer you, should the subject seem worthy of any present consultation or consideration. But I shall probably be met at the threshold of the discussion with the reasonable questions — what has been the effect of sixteen years' * I recommend a reference to the old records (inaccessible to me) of the commercial Residency of Fatna and of its out-post Bettia. In 1842, an official reference was made to me, too immediately before my departure from Nepal to be answered, the object of which was to ascertain whp the imports from Tibet through Nepal, and particularly that of gold, had fallen off so much 92 THE COMMERCE OF NEPAL. peace and alliance with Nepal ? — what is now the positive amount of this commerce ? — what its extent as compared with any like preceding period. If the mustard-seed be indeed, to attain its promised dimensions, there ought to be now some distinct symptoms of its great power of increase. To meet in some sort, and prospectively, these reasonble enquiries, I have drawn up the paper No. II. I have myself searched in vain tnrough my record for any — the vaguest — data, by which I might judge of the amount of this commerce at the times of Kirkpatrick'sJ and Knox's missions to Kathmandu, or, at the period of Mr. Gardner's arrival here (1816), and the vexation I have experienced at finding none sucb, has led me thus to place on record the best attainable data for the present time. Fifteen years hence these data will furnish a scale of comparison by which to measure the justness of the views now entertained respecting the power of increase inherent in the trade of Nepal. It will readily be anticipated this government neither makes nor keeps any express record of the annual amount of exports and imports, and that it is no easy thing for one in my situation to get possession of the indirect, yet facile, measure of this amount furnished by the sum-total of the duties annually realized upon it. So far as attainable, I have used this measure. I have also, sought and obtained other measures. I have secretly and carefully applied to some of the oldest and most respectable merchants of Kathmandu, and the other chief towns of the Valley, for conjectural estimates of the total annual amount of imports and exports, and of the number and capital of the chief commercial firms of the Valley. These estimates are given in Number II. In the absence of statistical documents, these are the only accessible data, and when it is considered that I have been many years at this place, it may reasonably be pre- sumed, that I have the means of so applying to the merchants in question as to procure from them sincere statements to the best of their knowledge. It appears then that at this present time there are, in the great towns of the Valley of Nepal, fifty-two native and thirty-four Indian merchants engaged in foreign commerce, both with the South and the North, and that the trading capital of the former is considered to be not less than 50,18,000, nor that of the latter less than 23,05,000.* A third of such of these merchants as are natives of the plains have come up subsequently to the establishment of the Residency in 1816, since which period, as is thought by the oldest merchants of Kathmandu, the trade has been tripled. Turning again to No. II., Part I., we have, for the annual prime cost value of the imports in Sicca rupees 16,11,000, and Part II. of No. II. affords, for the annual value, at Kathmandu, of the exports, 12,77,800 of Nepalese rupees, equivalent to Kuldars 10,64,833-5-4, thus making the total of imports and exports 26,75,833-5-4 of Kuldar rupees. But, from particular circumstances, the imports of 1830-31 were above what can be considered an average specimen, and should be reduced by one {1792 and 1801, respectively. * Before I left Nepal, I had some reason to suppose these estimates to be too high by a third. THE COMMERCE OP NEPAL. 93 lakh, in the articles of precious stones, English fowling pieces, horses, velvets, and kirukkabs, owing to the extraordinary purchases of the Durbar in that year. After this deduction, there will remain a total of annual imports and exports, ac- cording to the lists of No. II., of something short of twenty-six lakhs, which sum agrees sufficiently well with the twenty-five lakhs yielded by the subsequent calcu- lation upon the amounts of duties and of exemptions from duty. I am aware that, after the deduction from the imports adverted to, there will still remain an excess of imports over exports, amounting to four and a half lakhs of rupees,! which may seem to want explanation, if considered as a permanent relation. But I think it will be felt, on reflection, that to attempt to reduce these estimates to rigorous precision, or to raise on them a nice speculation would be to forget that they are necessarily mere approximations. In other respects, I hope and believe both parts of No. II. likely to be very useful ; but in regard to the precise accuracy of its sum-totals of annual transactions, I have no wish to deceive myself or others. In respect to the annual amount of duties realized by this government upon this trade, I cannot ascertain it upon the northern branch of the trade, but upon the southern branch, or imports and exports from and to India, (which is farmed and more easily discoverable,) it reached last year (1830) the sum of one lakh and sixty-thousand three hundred and sixty-four Nepalese rupees. Now, if we take (as there are good grounds for doing) the duty, upon an average, of 6 per cent, ad valorem, the above amount of duty will give a total annual value of imports and exports, with the plains of India alone, of 26,72,733^ Nepalese Paisa rupees, equi- valent to Siceas 17,81,821-10-8. But to this sum must be added the whole amount of imports and exports passing duty free, and which cannot be rated at less than seven lakhs of Kuldars per annum. There are exemptions, from principle, of a general nature, such as those affecting the export of gold, pice, and Nepalese rupees ; and which articles alone amounted for 1830-31, to fully five lakhs of Siceas, as per list of Part II. No. II. There are also exemptions from favoritism, which, by the usage of the Nepal government, are largely extended to its more respectable functionaries, civil and military — all of whom, if they have a penny to turn, or expense to meet abroad, at once dabble in trade, and procure for themselves freedom of export and import for the nonce. The goods so exported and imported must be rated at a lakh per annum, nor can the Durbar's own purchases or imports be set down at less. We must add, therefore, seven lakhs of exempted goods to the nearly eighteen lakhs pointed out by the duties, and we shall have, in this way, little short of twenty-five lakhs of Kuldars for the total amount value of the exports and imports, to and from the plains, as indicated by the amount of duties and of exemptions. Such, according to data,of some worth at least, is the present extent t The deficiency of exports is made up, and more by the agricultural produce of the lowlands, especially grain, six lakhs of which are annually sent to Patna, etc., where it is paid for in money wholly. The means of export afforded to Nepal by her Tarai agriculture escaped me in drawing up the tables of commerce. — B.H.H., 1834. The total of exports and imports must, therefore, be set down at upwards of thirty lakhs.— B.H.H., 1857. MM 94 THE COMMERCE OF NEPAL. of the trade of Nepal. If we would reasonably conjecture to what a height that trade might easily grow, we may do so by turning to the statistical documents touching the amount and nature of the Russian commerce with China via Kiachta ; and then, comparing the facilities and difficulties of such a commerce with those which present themselves to a commerce with the same country via Kathmandii and Lhasa. From St. Petersburg to Peking, by any feasible commercial route, cannot be less than 5,500 miles;* and though there is water carriage for a great part of the way, yet such is the savage sterility of the country, and such the rigor of the climate, that the water passage takes three years, and the land route one entire year, to accomplish it. The Russian government levies high duties on this trade, not less than 20 to 25 per cent., save on Russian products, which are scant, compared with the foreign. There are some monopolies, and many prohibitions, especially those mischievous ones affecting the export of either coin or precious metals. I have mentioned the interval separating St. Petersburg and Peking. It is further necessary to advert to the yet more distant seats, both of production and of consump- tion, in reference to the more valuable articles constituting the Russian trade. The Russians export to China peltry, woollen and cotton cloths, glass-ware, hard- ware, hides, and prepared leather. Of these, not more than half of the first is produced in Siberia, the other half is obtained from North America, either vid England, or by way of Kamtschatka and the Aleutian Isles. Of the cotton and woollen cloths, the coarse only are Russian made, the fine come chiefly from England ; and the like is true of the glass-ware and hard-ware. The hides are, mainly, of home production. Russia imports from China musk, borax, rhubarb, tea, raw and wrought silk, ditto ditto cotton, porcelain, japan ware, water colours, etc. But the best musk, borax, and rhubarb by far are those of Tibet, and especially of Sifan, the north-eastern province of Tibet ; and no tea is better or more abundant than that of Szchuen, which province is only eighty-seven days' journey from Kathmandii ; whilst, of course, the musk, borax and rhubarb regions (as above indicated) are yet nearer to us, yet more inaccessible to the Russians, than Szchuen. What more I have to say on these products will fall more naturally under my remarks on the line of communication with these countries through Nepal ; and to that topic I now address myself. From Calcutta to Peking is 2,880 miles. Of this, the interval between Calcutta and Kathmandii fills 540 miles, two-thirds of the way being navigable commodiously by means of the Ganges and Gandak. The mountains of Nepal and of Tibet are steep and high ; but they are, excepting the glaciers of the Himalaya, throughout chequered with cultivation and popula- tion, as well as possessed of a temperate climate. It is only necessary to observe the due season for passing the Himalaya, and there is no physical obstacle to apprehend ; so that the journey from Kathmandii to Peking may be surely accom- plished in five months, allowing for fifteen days of halts. But wherefore speak of Peking ? At the eighty-seventh stage only, from Kathmandii, the merchant enters * Mr. Brun gives 4,196 miles for what I take to be the direct, or nearly direct, way. Coxe. in one place, gives 5,363, in another place 4,701 miles. Bell's Itinerary yields 6,342. These are obviously the distances by various routes, or, by a more or less straight course, 1 take nearly the mean of them. THE COMMERCE OF NEPAL. 95 that rich and actively commercial province of China Proper, called Szchuen,* whence by means of the Yang-tsz-kiang, and of the Hwangho, he may transport his wares, as readily as cheaply, throughout the whole central and northern parts of China, if he can be supposed to have any adequate motive for going beyond the capital of Szchuen, where he may sell his European and Indian products, and purchase tea or silk or other products of China. The mountains of Sifan and of Tibet, which yield the finest borax, musk and rhubarb in the world, lie in his way both to and fro ; and, in a word, without deviating from his immediate course, or proceeding above ninety days' journey from Kathmandu, he may procure where they grow, or are wrought, all those valuable articles of commerce which Russia must seek indirectly and at a much greater cost. But England and China, and not Calcutta and China, it may be argued, must be the sites of the production and consumption of the truly valuable articles of this commerce, of which the Nepalese and Indians would have little more than the carrying trade ; and England is afar ofl ! It is so, indeed ; but, with reference to the cheapness and facility of ship freight, of how little importance to commerce is the distance of England from Cal- cutta — not to mention that, as I have oberved in reference to the Russian com- merce, we must not suppose the Russian has no further to seek than St. Petersburg, but remember that England and Canada supply him with half he needs. From Canada Russia seeks through England our peltry, to convey it to the Chinese across the endless savage wastes of Siberia. What should hinder our Indian subjects and the Nepalese from procuring these same furs at Calcutta and conveying them through Nepal and Tibet to these same Chinese. At less than ninety stages from Kathmandu, they would arrive at the banks of the Hwangho in Sifan, or those of the Yang-tsz-kiang in Szchuen j and then the merchants might be said to have reached their goal. What, again, should hinder the same merchants from under-selling the Russian, in the articles of English woollens, hard-ware and glass-ware, by conveying them to Sztchuen from Calcutta, by the same route ? Nothing, it may safely be said, but want of sufficient information upon the general course and prospect of commerce throughout the world ; and that information we might easily communicate the practical substance of to them* There are no political bars or hindrances to be removed for the Nepalese have used the Chinese commerce via Tibet for ages, and our Indian subjects might deal in concert with Nepalese by joint firms at Kathmandu. Nay, by the same means, or now, or shortly, Europeans might essay this line of com- mercial adventure. But of them it is not my present purpose to speakf. Let * The route from Lhasa to the central and western provinces of China is far more easy than that from Lhasa to Pekin. + Lord Elgin is now proceeding to China, in order to determine the footing upon which the civilized world, and especially England, shall hereafter have commer- cial intercourse with the Celestial Empire. It may be worth while to remind His Excellency of the vast extent of conterminous frontier and trading necessity in this quarter, between Gilgit and Brahmakund. We might stipulate for a Commercial Agent or Consul to be located at Lhasa, or for a trading frontier post, like Kiachta ; and, at all events, it would add to the weight and prestige of our Ambassador, to show himself familiar $6 THE COMMERCE OF NEPAL. the native merchants of Calcutta and of Nepal, separately or in concert, take up this commerce, and whilst we, though not the immediate movers, shall yet reap the great advantage of it, as consisting in an exchange of European articles for others chiefly wanted in Europe, we shall have a better chance of its growing to a vigorous maturity than if Europeans were to conduct it through its infancy. I have only further to add, in the way of continued contrast between the Russian commerce and that here sketched, that whilst the former is loaded with duties to the extent of 25 per cent., the latter would, in Nepal, be subject only to 8 per cent.* duty; in Tibet, to no duty at all; and in our provinces only, I fancy, to a very moderate one, which might perhaps be advan- tageously abolished. Having thus, in the best manner I was able, without numerous books to refer to, none of which are to be had here, given a rapid view of the grounds upon which I conceive a very flourishing commerce might be driven in European and Indian articles, between the great Cis- and Trans-Himalayan plains, by means (at least in tha first instance) of our Indian subjects and those of Nepal, I need only add, that the document No. I. is de- signed to arouse and direct the attention of the native merchants of Calcutta ; that I have given it a popular form with an eye to its publication for general informa- tion in the Gleanings in Science ; that No. 2. might be similarly published with advantage, and lastly, that nothing further is necessary, in order to give thi3 publication all the effect which could be wished, than simply to enjoin the Editor of that work to refer any native making enquiries on the subject to the Resident at Kathmandu, who, without openly aiding or interfering, might smooth the merchant's- way to Kathmandn, and assist him with counsel and information. To prove that I have laid no undue stress on this matter, I only desire that a reference be had to the circumstances and extent of the Russian commerce at Kiachta, as lately (i.e., in 1829) laid before Parliament ; and even if this parallel between the two trades be objected to in its present extent, (and I have run it the whole length of China on one side, partly from a persuasion of the soundness of the notion, partly to provoke enquiry,) let us limit our own views to Tibet and maintain the parallel so modified. It may instruct, as well as stimulate us. Tibet, in the large sense, is an immense country, tolerably well peopled, possessed of a temperate climate, rich in natural productions, and inhabited by no rude uomades, but by a settled, peaceful, lettered, and commercially disposed race, to whom our broad cloths are the one thing needful ; since, whilst all ranks and ages, and both sexes, wear woollen cloths, the native manufactures are most wretched, and China has none of a superior sort and moderate price wherewith to supply with his whole case, or with the landward, as well as the sea-board relations of Britainand China. — Note of 1857. * That is, the 6 per cent, before spoken of and 2 per cent, more levied between Kath- mandu and the Bhote Frontier ; but the latter duty can hardly be rated so high ; at all events, 8 percent, will amply cover all Custom House charges within the Nepalese do- minions. In our territories, the duties appear to reach 7 per cent. See general re- marks to Part 1. THE COMMERCE OF NEPAL. 97 the Tibetans. With her musk, her rhubarb, her borax, her splendid wools, her mineral and animal wealth, her universal need of good woollens, and her incapacity to provide herself, or to obtain supplies from any of her neighours, Tibet may well be believed capable of maintaining a large and valuable exchange of commodities with Great Britain, through the medium of our Indian subjects and the people of Nepal, to which latter the aditus, closed to all others by China, is freely open Nor is it now needful to use another argument, in proof of the extension of which this commerce is capable, than simply to point to the recorded extent of the existing Russian commerce with China across Siberia. P.S., 1857. — A costly road has been constructed recently over the Western Him- alaya 5 but, adverting to proximity and accessibility to the various centres of sup- ply and demand, I apprehend that a brisk trade between the Cis- and Trans-Hi- malayan countries would inevitably seek the route of the central or eastern part of the chain. To Delhi, Benares, Patna, Dacca and Calcutta, on the one hand,to all the rich and populous parts of Tibet, extending from Digarchee to Sifan, on the o ther hand, either of the latter routes is far nearer and much more accessible. By the unanimous testimony of all natives and of written native authorities West- ern Tibet is very much the poorest, most rugged, and least populous part of that country. Utsang, Kham, Sifan, and the proximate parts of China furnish* all the materials, save shawl-wool, for a trade with us, as well as all the effective demand for our commodities. All this points to Kathmandu Darjeeling or Takyeul (above Gowhatti in Asam) as the most expedient line of transit of the Himalaya. J I. THE TEADE OF NEPAL. When we consider how much intelligent activity the native inhabitants of Calcutta have, of late years, been manifesting, we cannot help wondering that none of the mercantile class among them should have yet turned their attention to the commerce of Nepal. Do they not know that the Newars, or aborigines of the great Valley of Nepal, have, from the earliest times, maintained an extensive commercial intercourse between the plains of India on the one hand and those of Tibet on the By the terms of the Treaty of 1792, the duties leviable on both sides are limited to 24 per cent, ad valorem of the invoice. The actual charges to which the trader is put far exceed the customs duties eo nomine, since tolls are levied by every Jageerdar on the transit of goods through the lowlands. * See Cooper, Bengal As. Soc. Journal for May 1869. t Since this was written the successful growth and manufacture of tea in the British Himalaya are accomplished facts adding greatly to the means of establishing without doubt or difficulty a flourishing commerce with Tibet and the countries immediately north and east of it. In Kumaon, Sikim, Asam, are found great and thriving tea growing establishments. Nothing is more craved for or less procureable, in Tibet and up to the Russian frontier, than good tea ; and if we cannot open up the Takyeul route from Asam we can and have^hat through Sikim b} r the Chola pass. The recent treaty has given us a right of way and of road construction, and this pass is not liable to be closed by the snow nor is the access to Sikim from the south rendered dangerous by malaria. The southern half of Sikim is our own : the northern half belongs to our dependant ally to whom we restored it in 1816, and for whom we have preserved it ever since, from the grasp of Nepal. MMl 98 THE COMMERCE OP NEPAL. other; that Nepal is now subject to a wise and orderly Native Government; that owing to the firm peace and alliance between that Government and the Honorable Company's, the Indian merchant has full and free access to Nepal ; that the confidence inspired by the high character of the native administration, and by the presence of a British Resident at the Court, has led the native merchants'of Benares to establish several flourishing kothees at Kathmindu, that the Cashmerians of Patna have had kothees there for ages past ; that so entirely is the mind of the inhabitants of our territories now disabused of the old idle dread of a journey to Nepal, that lakhs of the natives of Oude, Behar, and North East Bengal, of all ranks and conditions, annually resort to Kathmandu, to keep the great vernal festival at Pasupati Kshetra. Are the shrewd native merchants of Calcutta incapable of imitating the example of their brethren of Benares, who have now no less than ten kothees at Kathmandu ; and will it not shame them to hear, that whilst not one of them has essayed a visit to Kathmandu, to make enquiry and observation on the spot, very many Nepalese have found their way to Calcutta, and realized, on their return, cent, per cent, on their speculations in European articles ? The native merchants of Calcutta have, whilst there, a hard struggle to maintain with their European rivals in trade, but at Kathmandu, they would have no such formidable rivalry to contend with, because Europeans not attached to the Residency, have no access to the country and without such access, they probably could not, and certainly have not, attempted to conduct any branch of the trade in question. But every native of the plains of India is free to enter Nepal at his pleasure, nor would he find any difficulty in procuring from the Government of the country permission to sojourn by himself or his agent at Kathmandu, for purposes of trade. With a view to arouse, as well as to direct, the attention of our native brethren of the City of Palaces, in regard to the trade of Nepal, we subjoin some of the principle details respecting the route, the manner and the cost of carriage^ and the nature and amount of the duties levied by the Nepal Government. It cannot be necessary to dwell upon that portion of the way which lies within the heart of our own provinces — suffice it to say that, by the Ganges and Gandak, there is commodious water carriage at all seasons, from Calcutta to Govindguuge or Kesriah, situated on the Gandak river, in the Zillah of Sarun, and no great way from the boundary of the Nepalese territories. Kesriah or Govindgunge, then, must be the merchant's place of debarkation for himself and his goods, and there he must provide himself with bullocks for the conveyance of his wares, as far as the base of the greater mountains of Nepal, where again, he will have to send back the bullocks and hire men to complete the transfer of his merchandise to Kathmandu; and here we may notice a precaution of some importance, which is, that the merchant's wares should be made up at Calcutta into secure packages adapted for carriage on a man's back of the full weight of two Calcutta bazar mauuds each; because, if the wares be so made up, a single mountaineer will carry that sur- prising weight over the huge mountains of Ne"pal, whereas two men not being able to unite their strength with effect in the conveyance of goods, packages heavier than two maunds are, of necessity, taken to pieces on the road at great hazard and THE COMMERCE OP NEPAL. 99 inconvenience, or the merchant must submit to have very light weights carried for him, in consideration of his awkwardness or inexperience in regard to the mode of adjusting loads. Besides the system of duties proceeds in some sort upon a presumption of such loads as those prescribed ; and lastly, two such loads form exactly a bullock freight; and upon bullocks it is necessary, or at least highly expe- dient to convey wares from Kesriah to the. foot of the mountains. Let every merchant, therefore, make np his goods into parcels of two full bazar maundseach, and let him have with him apparatus for fixing two of such parcels across a bul- lock's saddle. He will thus save much money and trouble. Kesriah and Govin- dgunge are both flourishing villages at which plenty of good bullocks can be had by the merchant, for the carriage of his wares, as well as a good tattoo for his own riding to the foot of the hills, whence he himself must either walk, or provide himself (as he easily can at Hitounda) with a dooly, for the journey through the mountains to Kathmandu, the hire of a bullock from Kesriah to Hitounda; at tbe foot of the mountains, is three Sicca rupees : besides which sum, there is an ex- pense of six annas per bullock to tokdars or watch-men on this route, viz., two an nas at Moorliah, two at Bichiako, and two at Hitounda. The total expenses, there- fore per bullock, from Kesriah to Hitounda, are Sicca rupees 3-6-0. The load of each bullock is four pukka maunds. The stages are nine, as follows : — Kesriah to Bhopatpoor, 5 cos ; to Lohia, 7 cos ; to Segoulee, 5 cos; to Amodahi, 5 cos; to Pursoni,6 cos; to Bisouliah or Simrabasa, 4 cos; to Bichiako, 5 cos; to Chooriah Ghauti, 3 cos ; and to Hitounda, 4 cos ; being 44 cos in all. Hitounda, as already frequently observed, is at the foot of the great mountains, which, for want of roads, no beast of burden can traverse laden. Men, therefore, are employed, but so athletic and careful and trustworthy are the hill porters, that this sort of carriage is far less expensive or inconvenient than might be imagined. The precau- tions in respect to packages before prescribed having been attended to by the trader he will find the four maunds of goods, which constituted the one bullock's load as far as Hitounda readily taken up by two hill-porters, who will convey them most carefully in six days to Kathmandii. It is an established rule, that four maunds, properly packed, make two bakkoos, or men's loads, which are conveyed to Kathmandu at the fixed rate of two rupees of the country per bakkoo or load. The stages and distances are as follows : — Hitounda to Bhainsa Dobkang, 3| cos; to Bhimphedy, 4 cos ; to Tambakhani, 3 cos ; to Chitlong, 3 cos ; to Thankot, 3 cos; to Kathmandii, 3 cos— Total, 19^ cos. At Hitouada, there is a Custom House Chokey, where packages are counted merely, not opened, nor is any duty levied there. At Chisapani Fort, which is half way between Bhimphedy and Tambakhani, is another Custom Chokey, and there the merchandise is weighed, and a Government duty is levied of one anna per dharni of three seers, being two Paisa rupees per bakkoo : also, a Zemindary duty at Chitlong of two annas per bakkoo or load of 32 dharni, in other words of 96 ordinary seers. At Thankot, the last stao-e but one, a further Zemindary duty is levied of four annas per bakkoo. IOO THE COMMERCE OF NEPAL. SUMMARY RECAPITULATION OF THE EXPENSES FOR CARRIAGE AND DUTY BETWEEN HITOUNDA AND KATHMANDU. Nepalesc Rs. Siccus. Hire of Porters 400 3 4 0£ Duties Paisa rupees 4120 3 12 8 30 9| Per bullock load . . 7 12 8 6 4 9! To which, if we add the 3-6-0 Sicca for bullock hire and watch-men, between Kesriah and Hitounda, we shall have a total of Sicca rupees 9-10-9f for the expense, for duty and carriage, of conveying four pukka bazar maunds and upwards, (64 dharni or 192 ordinary seers exactly,) from the Ghaut of the Gandak to Ka- thmandu, where finally the goods are subject to an ad valorem duty of rupees 8-8-0 of the 'country or 2-13-6 Sicca, and where the merchant may get cent, per cent, upon Calcutta prices for his European articles, if they have been well selected. The duties upon imports from the plains, leviable at Kathmandu, are farmed by the Government, instead of being collected directly. The farm is called Bhansar — the farmer, Bhansari. On the arrival of a merchant with goods from the plains, the Bhansari, or his deputy, waits upon the merchant and seals up his bales, if it be not convenient to him to have them at once examined. When the bales are opened and the goods inspected, an ad valorem duty (for the most part) of 2>\ per cent, is levied on them by the Bhansari, thus : — NepaZese Rs. Siccas. For Kinara or Kinara, per cent. 2 1 10 o For Nirikhi, per cent. . . ..180 1 36 3 8 2 13 6 The value of the goods, upon which depends the amount of duty, is settled by inspection of the merchant's invoice and by appraisement of a regular officer, thence called the Nirikhnian. If th merchant continue to dispute the apprais- er's valuation, and the consequent amount, of duty, and will not listen to reason, it is usual for the Government, in the last resort, to require the merchant to dispose of his wares to it at his own alleged valuation. Let no one therefore think to a- bate the duty by under-valuing his goods, for if he do, he may find himself taken at his word, when he least expected it. For the rest, if he be fair and reasonable and exhibit his invoice, he has nothing to fear from the Bhansari, who is not a man of eminent place or power, and if he were, would not be suffered, under the present able administration, to oppress the merchant. In respect to the duties levied on the way up, (at Chisapani and Thankot,) as already explained, they are called Sayer and Bakwaoon. If the merchant please, he may avoid paying them on the road, and settle for them at Kathmandu, in which case the Collector of Chisapani takes a memorandum of the weight of the goods and forwards it to THE COMMERCE OP NEPAL. 10 1 the Bhansari and to the Government Collector at Kathmandu, giving the mer- chant, at the same time, a note of hand to pass him on. We have stated that the duty on Imports from the plains is, in general, an ad valorem one of 3-8-0 of the country currency ; but as, there is a different rate in respect to some of the articles, and, as the enumeration of the chief Imports will serve as a sort of guide to the Calcutta trader, who may be disposed to adventure a speculation to Kathmandu. we shall give a list of these Imports with the duty assigned to each. Duty in Nepal Rupees & Sicca* European broad cloths and other woollens of all sorts per cent. 3 8 2 13 6 European chintzes and other cotton of all sorts . . „ 3 8 2 13 6 European silks of all sorts „ 3 8 2 13 6 European linens of all sorts „ 3 8 2 13 6 Amritsur and Cashmere shawls, good „ 3 8 2 13 6 Dacca muslins and Jamdanees, sahans, &c „ 3 8 2 13 6 Malda and Bhaugulpoor silk and mixed silk and cotton stuffs „ 3 8 2 13 6 Benares kimkhabs, toftas, mushroos. shamlas, do- pattahs, &c „ 3 8 2 13 6 Mirzapoor and Calpee kharwas and garhas . . „ 3 8 2 13 6 Mowsahans,andarsahs,&c. „ , „ 3 8 2 13 6 Behar, pagrees,kha8as,&c „ 3 8 2 13 6 Bareilly, Lucknow and Tanha chintzes . . . . „ 3 8 2 13 6 Enropean cutlery, as knives, scissors, &c. „ 3 8 2 13 6 European glass-ware chandeliers, wall-shades, &c. . . ,, 3 8 2 13 6 European mirrors, window glass, &c „ 3 8 2 13 6 Indian karanas, or groceries, drugs, dyes, and spicery of all sorts „ 5 4 10 Peltry of Europe and India, as Dacca, other skins, goat ditto, &c „ 5 4 10 Quicksilver, vermilion, red and white lead, brim- stone, jasta, ranga, camphor ,, 500410 Indigo pays in kind „ 10 8 2 Precious stones, as diamond emerald, pearl, coral „ 18 13 6 Indian laces, as Kalabuttu, Gotah, &c „ 5 4 10 Whoever has sold his wares at Kathmandu will next look to purchasing a "Return Cargo" with the proceeds of such sale. We therefore now proceed to notice the manner and amount of the Export duties levied by the Ne"pal Government upon goods exported to the plains. There is no difference between goods the produce of N6pal and such as are the produce of Bhote (Tibet) or China, all paying on exportation to India at the same rate. The Exports, like the Imports, are farmed, and it is therefore with the Bhansari that the merchant will have again to treat with. NN 102 THE COMMERCE OP NEPAL. The Export duty is an ad valorem one, and amounts, for the most part, to 4-11-1 per cent., which is levied thus : — Ostensibly. Really. As Bakkooana . . ..100 12 2 ..140 14 2 2 4 3 4 4 4 11 1 These sums are Nepalese currency. Their equivalents in Sicca rupees are 3-7-3 and 3-13-9. There are no further duties levied on the road, and the merchant, upon payment of the above ad valorem duty at Kathmandu, receives from the Bhansari a pass, or Dhoka Nikasi, which will carry him, free beyond the limits of Nepal. The merchant's goods, on his return, should be made up, as on his approach, into bakkoos or men's loads of thirty-two dharnis of three seers per dharni, and he should have bullocks waiting his arrival at Hitounda, by previous arrangement. The fol- lowing is a list of some of the principal exports, with their respective duties : — Duties in Articles. Nepal Rupees & Siccas. Chours per cent. 4 11 1 3 13 9 Tibetan, Himalayan and Chinese woollens, as Maleeda, Toos, Namda, Chourpat, Kahry, Bhot etc „ 4 111 3 13 9 Chinese damasked and brocaded satins & silks ,, 4 11 1 3 13 9 Sohaga or borax ,, 4 11 1 3 13 9 Nepalese, Bhotea and Chinese drugs — rhubarb, mihargiyah, zaharmohara, momira, jatamangsee, hurtal, &c per cent. 4 11 1 3 13 9 Bhotea and Nepalese paper „ 4 11 1 3 13 9 Musk pods, per seer of 32 Sa. Wt 140 103 Gold Duty free. Silver Prohibited. Rupees of the plains Ditto. Rupees of Nepal and copper pice of ditto Free- Bhote poneys or tanghans, each 7 5 11 Hard-ware,as iron phowrahs &c per cent. 4 11 1 3 13 9 Though we would not advise the native merchant of Calcutta to meddle, in the first instance, directly himself, with the trade of Bhote, whether in exports or imports, yet as that coimtry causes the great demand for European woollens in particular, and is, on many accounts, of more consideration in a commercial point of view than Nepal, we shall give some details relative to the trade with it, through Nepal, analogous to those we have already furnished respecting the trade with Nepal itself. THE COMMERCE OF NEPAL. 103 The duties upon the Bhote trade are levied by government through its own officers, not farmed, like the duties on the trade with the plains. Goods of the plains (whether the produce of Europe or India,) exported through Nepal to Bhote, are made up into packages or bakkoos, of sixteen dhdrnis, or forty-eight seers only, owing to the extreme difficulties of the road, which will not permit a man to cany more than that weight upon his back ; and there are no other means whatever of conveyance, until the Himalaya has been passed. Upon these bakkoos or loads the duty is levied, and amounls to Paisa rupees 1-0-1 per bakhoo, for all articles alike. The duty is levied at the Taksar or Mint, and the collector is familiarly called Taksari in consequence. The details of duty of the 1-0-1 are these : — Taksar 6 Nikasi 10 Bahidar 1 Paisa Rupees 10 1 = Siccas 10 10 Upon payment of this sum to the Taksari, that officer furnishes the merchant with a passport, which will pass his goods, free, to the frontier of Bhot or Tibet. The chief exports to Bhote are : — European broad cloths (crimson, green, orange, liver, and brown- coloured), cutlery, pearls, coral, diamonds, emeralds, indigo and opium. Goods imported into Nepal from Bhote (no duty levied there) payto the Taksar at Kathrnandu as follows : — Musk pods, per seer (in kind) . . 1£ tolahs. Gold, per tolah 1 anna. Silver is all necessarily sold to the Taksar and is received at the Sicca weight, paid for at the Nepalese or Mohari weight, difference three annas. Articles. Duty. Chours, white . . . . per dharni 4 annas. Ditto, black . . . . . . „ 3 „ Chinese and Bhotea velvets, woollens, satins, silk thread, and raw silk . . . . . . per cent. 4 rupees Peltry of Mongolia and Bhote, samoor, kakoon, chuah-khal, garbsooth, &c. . . . . . . „ 4 „ Borax . . . . . . . . „ 4 „ Chinese and Bhotea tea . . . . . . .. . . .. „ 4 „ Drugs • .. „ 4 „ From Kathmandii to Bhote frontier, or rather, to the frontier marts of Kooti and of Keroong, there are two roads, one of which is called the Keroong and the other the Kooti way, after the marts in question, which are respectable Botea towns. The following are the stages and expenses : — Kathmandii to Kooti, eight stages, sixteen dharnis, or forty-eight seers, a man's load. His hire, 2 rupees of Nepal — or Siccas 1-10-0 for the trip. The stages are Sankhoo, Z\ cos; to Sipa, 7 5 cos; to Choutra, 5 cos ; to Maggar- 104 THE COMMERCE OP NEPAL. gaon or Dharapani, 3 or 4 cos ; to Listi, 5 cos ; to Khasa, 4 cos ; to Che-sang, 5 cos ; to Kooti, 3| cos. From K&thmandii to Keroong, the eight stages are : — To Jaiphal-kepowah, 4 cos j to Nayakot, 5 cos ; to Taptap, 4 cos ; to Prehoo, 4 cos ; to Dhom-chap, 5 coe ; to Maidan Pootah, 3 cos ; to Risoo (frontier), 4 cos ; to Maima, 4 cos ; to Keroong, 4 cos. The load is the same as on the Kooti road and the hire of the carrier the same. The Himalaya once passed, you come to a tolerably plain country, along which beasts of burden can travel laden. The usual carriage is on ponies and mules, which carry two bakkoos of sixteen dhdrnis each, and can be hired for the trip, from Lhasa to the Nepal frontier, for twenty rupees of Bhote currency. They per- form the journey in about a month, allowing for three or four days' halts. P-S. — The Nepalese dhdrni is equal to three seers. The Nepalese rupee is worth thirteen annas. It is called, after an ancient dynasty, Mahendra Mally, or shortly and commonly Mohari. 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Abhidhanottarottara, 19. Acharya, 30. Adbhuta Dharma, 15. Adi Buddha, 27, 46 ff., 77, 83 ff. His 32 lakshanas, 90. His 80 vyanjanas, 91 f. His 5 varnas, 91. Adi Dharma, 116. Adi Prajna, 85 ff. Adi Sangha, 88. Aiswarika system, 23 ff., 55 ff., et passim. Akara, 92. Akasa, 74 ff., 104 f. Ananda, 12. Anupapadika Buddhas, 27. Aparamita Dharani, 18, 32. Arhat, 30, 52, 70 f. Artha, 92. Arya Bhagavati, 16. Ashta Sahasrika, 12 f. Prajna Paramita, 16. Vyakhyii, 16. Asoka Avadana, 17. Asva Ghosha, 127 ff. Atman, 75. Avadana, 15. Avatara, 47 f. Avidya, 16, 79 ff., 89, 105 ff. Bala, 92. Bandya, 30 ff., 51, 63 f., 71, 139. Bauddha literature, 9 ff. Bhadrakalpika, 17. Bhanjin Mola, 8 f. 14. Bhikshu, 30, 52, 63, 71. Bhot, 9, 22. Bhotiya language, 3 ff., 22, ii., 29 ff. Bhotiya characters, 9 ff. Bhotiya works, list of, 20 f. Bhiitam, ii., 29 ff. Bhuvanas, 42 f., 76, 91. Bodlncharya, 19, 68. Bodhijnftna, 16, 59, 61 f. Bodhtsattwa, 62, 74, 77. Botia, ii., 61 f. Brahmans, ii., 39. Buddha, 46 ff., 62, 72. Causes of good and evil, 50. Chailaka, 30, 52, 64. Chaitya, 29 ff., 49, 52, 54, 64, 71, 81, 136. Chaitya Pungava, 19. Chakpa, ii., 66. Chakshu, 93. Chepang language, 1, ii., 47 ff. tribe, ii. , 45 ff. Chhandomrita Mala, 18. Chivara, 19, 141. Circumambulation, 19. Creation of the World, 42 f. DakshinXchara, 73. Dana, 15. Dasa Bhumeswara, 13, 16, 49, 54. Dasa Siksha, 142. Deha, 44. Den war, ii., 62. Dharana, 40. Dharani, 18, 49. Dharani Sangraha, 18. Dharma, 40 f., 55, 60, 72, 109, 113. Dharmakara, 116 ff. Dharmapala, 118. Dhwajagra Keyuri, 19. Dhyana, 25 ff., 42, 58, 61. Dhyani Buddha, 27, 58, 64. Dhyani Bodhisattwa, 28 ff., 59. Digambara, 40. Divyavadana, 20. Drokpa, ii., 66. Dwiivinsati Avadana, IS. EkthA'riahs, ii., 38 f., 43. Export Trade of Nepal, ii., 114 ff. Five Buddhas, 77. Ganda VYtfHA, 13, 16, 4!». Gatha, 14 f. Geya, 14 f. Gita Pustaka, 20. God's attributes, 45. Gorkhii, ii., 40. Gorkhali, 2, ii , 52. Graha Matrika, 19. INDEX. 12 Guhya Sumagha, 17. Guna Karanda Vyuha, 17, 54. Gurung language, 1 f., ii., 29 ff. Gurung tribe, ii., 39 i., 44. Gyami, ii., 65 ff. Gyarung, ii., 65 ff. Haiyu language, 1. Haiyu tribe, ii., 46. Himalaya, name, ii. , 1 ; physical geography, ii., 1 ff. ; population, ii., 13 ff. ; zoology, ii., 16 ff. ; aborigines, ii., 29 ff. ; colonisa- tion, ii., 83 ff. Hor, Horpa, Horsok, ii., 65 ff. Import Trade of Nepal, ii., 105 ff. Ityukta, 14 f. Jataka, 15. Jataka Mala, 17. Jnana, 27 ff., 92. Kachari - , 1. Kalpalatavadana, 20. Kanaka Muni, 119. Kapila, 2. Karanda Vyuha, 17, 54. Karkotaka, 115. Karma, 25, 74, 78 ff. Karmika system, 23 ff., 41, 57, 78 ff. Karuna Pundarika, 18. Kasyapa, 12, 119. Katkinavadiina, 19. Kuya, 92. Khas language, 1 f., ii., 38 ff. Klias tribe, ii., 28 ff., 37 ff. Kiranti, 1 f. Krakucchanda, 117 ff. Kriya Sangraha, 9. Kshattriyas, ii. , 38 ff. Kusunda language, 1. Kusunda tribe, ii., 45 ff. Kuswiir, ii., 61 f. Kutagara, 49. Lalita Vistara, 13, 17, 49. Lanja, see Eanja. Lankavatara, 13, 49. Lapcha, Lepcha, 1, ii., 29 ff. Lhopa, ii., 29 ff., 47 f. Limbu, 1, ii., 29 ff. Litsavis, 17. Lokeswara Sataka, 19. Magar language, 1 f., ii., 29 ff. Magar tribe, ii., 39 f., 43 f. Mahakala Tantra, 19. Mahasunyata, 74. Mahavastu, 17. Mahayana Sutra, 11. Mahayanika Buddha, 32, 60, 72, 86. Manas, 78 ff . Manichura, 18. Manjhi, ii., 62. Manjughosha, 62. Manjunatha, 62. Manjusri, 62, 116 ff. Manushi Buddhas, 7. Manushi Bodhisattwas, 28 ff. Manyak, ii., 65 ff. Maracharya, 68. Matter, 44, 55. Metempsychosis, 51. Military tribes of Nepal, ii., 37 ff. Moksha, 25, 45 ff., 50, 55, 84. Murmi, 1, ii., 29 ff. Na*gas, 115 ff. Niigapuja, 19. Nagavasa, 115 ff. Nava Dharmas, 12 ff., 49, C9. Nayaka, 63, 71, 140 f. Nayakot, ii., 55 ff. Nepal languages, 1 ff. ; written characters, 8 ff. ; religion, 22 ff. ; name, 51, 117 ; legendary history, 115 ff.; commerce, ii., 91 ff. Newari, 1, 3 ff., 47, 63, ii., 29 ff. Newars, 1 ff., 51, 62. Nidana, 14 f . Nirlipta, 63. Nirodha, 16. Nirvana, 46, 82. Nirvritti, 16, 23 ff. 104 f. Nivasa, 19, 141. 41, 45 f., 55 ff., 74 ff., Objects of Bauudha worship, 93 ff. Origin of mankind, 43 f., 79 ff. Original language of Bauddha scriptures, 66 f. Pali, 120 ff. Pancha Abhisheka, 142 f. Pancha Raksha, 18. Paraimtii, 13, 15, 91. Parbattia, see Khas. Pauriinikas, 73. Pauranika Buddhas, 29. Pindapatra, 19. 124 INDEX. Pindapatra Avadana, 19. Prachanda Deva, 1 18 f . Prajna, 42, 53. 56, 61, 72, 75, 78 ff., 89, 104 f., 109, 116. Prajna Paramita, 12, 14, 16, 49, 60, 62. Prajnika Swabhavika system, 25, 55 ft., 62. Prakrit, 120 ff . Prakriti, 55. Prana, 44. Pratisara, 18. PratyangiriL Dharani, 19. Pratyeka Buddha, 32, 60, 87. Pravrajya Vrata, 139 ff. Pravritti, 16, 23 ff., 41, 45 f., 55 ff., 74 ff., 104 f. rravrittika, 24, 61. Primary language of Buddhist writings, 120 ff. Puja Khanda, 11, 54, 139. Puranas, 38f.,49. RakshjC Bhagayati, 12, 14, 16, 60. Ranja, 8 f., 14. Saddhakma Pundarika, 13, 17, 49. Sahi, ii., 39. Saivism, 133 ff. Sakavansa, 2. Saktis of Buddha, 58 f . Sakya Sinha, 11 ff., 70, 119 f. Sakyavausikas, 70. Samadhi Raja, 13, 17, 32, 49. Sambhu Purana, 14, 17, 27, 53, 57, 62, 115 ff. Sangha, 41, 69 ff. Sankara Achaiya, 12, 14, 48. Sansara, 45, 74. Sanskrit, 3, 5 ff., 66 f., 120 ff. Sanskrit Bauddha literature, 11 ff., 36 ff. Saptavara Dharani, 19. Saraka Dhara, 18, 54, Sarira, 44. Sarvartha Siddha, 32. Serpa, ii., 29 ff. Shadayatana, 80. Sifan, ii., 65 ff. Sikhi Buddha, 115. Sokpa, ii., 65 ff. Spirit, 44. Sravaka, 30, 52, 86. Sravaka Buddha, 32, 60. Stotra Sangraha, 20. Sugataja, 86. Sugatavadana, 19. Sukhavati Loka, 19. Sumaghavadana, 19. Sunwar, 1, ii., 29 ff. Sunyata, 16, 24 ff., 59 ff., 74 ff.,83, 93, 105. Sutra, 12, 14 f., 60, 87. Suvarna Prabhasa, 13, 17, 49. Swabhava, 25, 73. Swabhavika system, 13, 23 ff., 41, 55 ff., 61. 73 ff., 105. Swayambhu, 17, 111. Swayambhu Purana, see Sambhu Purana. Thakpa, ii., 65 ff. Tantras, 36 ff., 49. Tantrika Buddhas, 29 Tantrikas, 73. Tapas, 25 ff., 61. Tarai, ii., 3, 21. Tara Satnama, 19. Tathagata, 62, 77, 97, 101 ; lists, 33 ff. Tathagata Guhyaka, 13, 49. Thakuri, ii., 39, 43. Thochu, ii., 65 ff. Tibet (see also Bhot) literature, 9 ff. ; lan- guages, ii., 29 ff. Triad (Buddha, Dharma, Sangha), 27, 53, 103. Trigunatmaka, 50. Triyana, 60, 102, 145. Udana, 15. Upadesa, 15. Upali, 12. Upaya, 72, 78, 89, 104. Vaipulya, 15. Vajra Acharya, 41, 52, 63 f. , G\>. 99. ; Vajra Pani, 17. ! Vajra Sattwa, 73, 136. Vajra Suchi, 127 ff. Vamachara, 73. \ Vasita, 92. | Vihara, 29 ff., 52, 62 ff. Vija Mantra, 73, 76. Vinaya, 37. Vinaya Sutra, 20. Vipasyi Buddha, 115. Viswabhu Buddha, 115 f. Vyakarana, 12, 15 ff. Yatna, 25, 74, 82 f. Yatnika system, 23 ff., 41, 57. 82 i Yoni, 56. Yugas, 44, DATE DUE ^ ria ' ** GAYLORO PRINTED IN U S.A.