0t mmmmi, »;: :: 6-2-0^ tihxary of Che trheolo^ical ^tminavy PRINCETON • NEW JERSEY Presented by Fres. Patton BX 8931 .K4 1888 i Kerr, Robert P. 1850-1923. | The people's history of Presbyterianism in all ages THE PEOPLE'S History of Presbyterianism IN ALL AGES I EOBEET P. KEEK, D. D., AUTHOE OF "PkESBYTEEIANISM FOE THE PEOPLE. RICHMOND, VA.: Peesbyterian Committee of Publication. 188 8. COPYKIGHT BY J AS. K. Hazen, D. D. 188 8. Printed bt Whittet & Shepperson, Richmond, Va. Bound by Jenkins & Walthall, KiC'HMOND VA. TO THE LATE JOHN POOLE KERR, t'F/io 7oas born and reared in Scotland, in the town of Sanquhar, Dum- friesshire — a place celebrated for its association with the two famous "■Sanquhar Declarations'''' of the Covenajiters, fj'om zvhich noble race he came. His life, the greater part of which was spent in the United States, was one of devotion to righteous- ness and of communion with God. Its influence still remains in the hearts of all zvho knew him, as an inspiration to duty and the love of truth. This Book, a history of the principles to which he gave his labors and prayers, is tenderly Dedicated to his Memory By a Devoted Son, THE AUTHOR. PREFACE. BOOKS are written to be read, not to lie on dusty shelves. But this is a busy age, and most per- sons will not take time to read extensive treatises. The people call for short sermons, short prayers, and short books. Nor is this demand without reason ; for Hfe itself is short, and there is much to do. The present volume has been prepared Avith the design of placing ^vithin the reach of every one a brief history of Presbyterianism, at small cost to the reader, both of money and time. On this account it has been necessary to omit a gi-eat deal of interesting and in- structive matter. It is better that the many should know the principles and outline of a history, with its ' most important events and characters, than that the few should know everything connected with it. The f feu^, however, have their histories of Presbyterianism, thorough and voluminous, covering every age and ' country in which our church has had an existence; 5 b PREFACE. and those who have time for extended research will find no lack of material. So far as is known, this is the first comprehensive history of Presb3rterianism, in all ages and countries, in one work. It is a general survey, of the operations and influence of a principle and an institution which have accomplished more for the welfare of mankind than all other agencies, except the Gospel, for which it has been a fitting vehicle. May the people read it, and the blessing of God rest' upon it ! K. P. K. C N T E N T S. CHAPTER I. The Origin of Presbyterianism, . . . CHAPTER IL The Presbyterian Principle in Other Churches, Page. 19 CHAPTER III. Presbyterianism in the Early Days of the Christian Era 24 CHAPTER IV. The Dark Ages. — Twilight with Two Stars, 29 CHAPTER V. The Waldenses, 32 CHAPTER VI. ^xiE Northwestern Star. — The Culdees, 46 CHAPTER VII. The Night of Popery and the Morning Twilight. Augustine and Huss, 55 8 CONTENTS. Page. CHAPTER yilL The Ascending Day of the Reformation, . .64 CHAPTER IX. The Reformation in Eastern Switzerland — Zwingli, 69 CHAPTER X. The Spiritual Republic Established. — John Calvin V AND Geneva, . . . . . . . 76 CHAPTER XL The Mighty Conflict in France, .... 87 CHAPTER XII. The Extension of Liberty and Truth to Holland, . 95 CHAPTER XIIL Glimpses East of the Alps and the Rhine, . . 100 CHAPTER XIV. ^ Scotland. — The Returning Day, . . . .104 CHAPTER XV. ^/ John Knox, the Reformer, ..... .<^ CHAPTER XVL A Long Conflict, . . . . . . .126 CONTENTS. 9 » ' Pace. CHAPTER XVIL My Kingdom is not of this AVorld."^ — The Final Establishment of this Principle in Scotland, . 139 CHAPTER XVIIL Presbyterianism in England, ..... 150 CHAPTER XIX. Presbyterianism in Wales, . . . . .155 CHAPTER XX. Presbyterianism in the Ends of the Earth, . . 162 CHAPTER XXI. Old Principles in a New World, . . . .170 CHAPTER XXII. Presbyterianism in America before the Revolution, 180 CHAPTER XXIII. From the First General Assembly in the United States to the Old and NE^v School Division OF 1837, 188 fj CHAPTER XXIV. yTHE Great Disruption in Church and Nation, . 196 CHAPTER XXV. American Presbyterianism after the AVar of Seces- sion, 215 10 CONTENTS. CHAPTER XXVI. The Presbyterian Church and its Sisters in the United States, ....... 227 CHAPTER XXVII. Untsersal Presbyterianism, ..... 285 CHAPTER XXVIII. The Spirit of Presbyterianism, .... 242 Notes and Statistics of the Reformed Churches THROuanouT the World holding the Presbyte- rian System, ....... 247 THE PEOPLE'S HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIANISM IN ALL AGES. CHAPTEK I. The Origin of Presbyterianism. THE principle of Presbyterianism begins with the earhest organization of the chiirch of God, and runs through its entire history, nntil the end is reached in the Apocalypse, where John saw four-and-twenty elders sitting round about the throne, with crowns on their heads, in heaven. This is only saying of our church what is claimed for its own by every denomina- tion, that it is nearest to the church of the Bible. Episcopahans, BaiDtists, Methodists, CongregationaHsts, and all others, claim this for themselves; nor could they claim less. Every denomination thinks it sees it- ',self in the Scriptures ; and it would have no right to ^xist if it did not. In point of fact, every denomination Idoes see itself in the Scriptures, for if it be Christian, it lis a part of "the Holy Catholic Church," which has ex- isted in all ages, and shall endure forever. Each Chris- tian denomination contains enough of the essential elements of the church to make it a constituent part of that body of which Christ is the head. 9 10 THE people's HISTOP.Y The (livision of the ehiirch into denomhiations is probably not a disadvantage. We are a check upon one another, and friendly competition stimulates zeal. There need not be union, but there should be unity. We should love one another, show reciprocal respect, and by the exchange of pulpits, by intercommunion, by co-operation in worship and work, recognize each other's full membership in the kingdom of Christ. That this is not done by all is the shame of Christi- anity, and is perhaps the greatest obstacle to the out- pouring of the Holy Ghost, by which the final conver- sion of the world is to be accomplished. Great pro- gress has undoubtedly been made during the last quarter of a century in the direction of some such unity. The best illustration of the unity and variety of the church's parts is found in man himself. "We have many members in one body, and all members have not the same office : so we, being many, are one body in Christ, and every one members one of another." " If the whole body were an eye, where were the hearing? If the whole were hearing, where were the smelling?" Therefore the Episcopalians should not say to the Presb}i;erians, we have no need of you ; nor the Bap- tists to the Methodists, we have no need of you. " Now ye are the body of Christ, and members in pai-ticular." There is less of the spirit of disunity than in former years. The "members" of Christ's body are yearning for one another. When this desire shall be accom- plished, the church ^^ill stand crowned with strength and beauty before the world, and then may come a mighty pentecostal baptism of the Holy Ghost and fire, followed bv the conversion of vast multitudes. Might OF rRESBYTERIANISM. 11 it not bring in the complete conquest of tlie Avorlcl to Christ? Let iis remember his last great sacerdotal prayer before the atonement : " That they all may be one : as thou, Father, art in me, and I in thee, that they also may be one in us, that the world may helieve that thou hast sent iner This would not be accomplished by the abandonment of our several denominational organizations, but by a loving umty that shall make us one in Christ. A great deal of the talk about universal union, or consolidation, on the part of some denominations, simply means that all should come over and join them. We should pray to be delivered from such uncharitable charity. The Presbyterian Church does not profess to be the whole of the church, nor, on the other hand, does it propose to apologize for its existence ; but it does claim to be the largest Protestant body on earth, and that in its organization the great principles of the Scripture plan of a church are more completely elaborated than in any other, at the same time acknowledging the full church- ship of all evangelical denominations ; for no particular kind of government is necessary to the existence of a f church, but only the proclamation of the gospel of 1 Christ. Presbyterianism is not a form, but a principle. The forms, however, which result fi'om the application of this principle, whilst varying mth varied circumstances, /yet bear a strong resemblance to each other. There are three principles of church government : (1), Epis- copal, a government by bishops, including the Protes- tant Episcopal, Methodist Episcopal, and Catholic churches; (2), Congregational, a government by con- 12 THE people's HISTOEY gregations, inclnding tlie Congregational or Indepen- dent, and Baptist cliurclies ; and (3), The Presbyterian, a government by Presbyteries, including all Presby- terian and Reformed chnrclies tlirougliout the world. The Lutherans are not wholly Presbj'terian, but contain elements of Episcopacy and Congregationalism as well as Presb^-tery, though more of the latter. In civil government there are two great systems, the monarch- ical, or oligarchical, and the republican ; these corres- pond substantially with Episcopal and Presbyterian. There is and can be no such thing as a congi-egational or purely democratic government in the state, if it be composed of a large number of citizens. It is a govern- ment by the people ^^itliout any rulers, or through mere proxies. Let us have a clear conception as to what a republi- can government really is. It is a system in which the people elect their rulers, wdio are not mere proxies, but real representatives, empowered to govern, and who are amenable, not to the people directly, but to the wiU of the sovereign people, as it is expressed in the constitu- \ tion which they ordained, either directly or by their representatives. But Presbyterian, or ecclesiastical repubhcanism, differs from that in the civil government ; in the latter all power comes from the people, the sovereign people, Avho ordain the constitution, and elect their representatives to rule under it ; but in the church there are no sovereign people to ordain a constitution. I The constitution of the church comes from Christ, in whom the sovereignty inheres. The people have the privilege of electing their officers; these officers, how- ever, when elected, are not responsible to the electors, OF PEESBYTERIANISM. 13 but to tlie constitution wliicli Christ has ordained. The constitution of the church is the Word of God, of which all church laws and Confessions of Faith are but inter- pretations. They are to be obeyed by those who voluntarily accept them as hiteriwetatioyis or ivorking constitutions, but liable to change as history advances. The Bible is the revelation of the divine sovereignty and to this infallible standard must all matters, legisla- tive, judicial and administrative, be brought for final settlement. This is the unchangeable constitution of the Christian Republic, and never to be amended. Its Divine Author said: "Heaven and earth shall pass away, but my words shall not pass away." Just here it should be plainly declared that the Pres- byterian Church holds that any body of people, to- gether with their children, organized for work and wor- ship and professing the true religion, is a part of the visible church of God, whatever form of government they maintain, though for their highest efficiency they should adopt the Presbyterian principle. The reason ifor this is that, for the maintenance of the doctrines of /the gospel we have a divine command, but for Presby- terian church government only the Scripture examjyle. To preach the gospel is the church's charter ; the kind \of rules by which she does it is of great importance, as jthis book is designed to show, but not absolutely neces- sary to its existence as a church. The preaching of the /gospel is Vjhat to do ; church government is liow to do it. It may be done with greater or less efficiency under any kind of government. This is the liberal spirit of the Presbyterian Church. Regarded from the divine standpoint, the church is a 1 14 THE TEOPLE'k history kingdom, having Christ for its head ; but, as a visible body, in its human administration it is a republic. In the light of all that has gone before, let us venture upon a definition of our principle of government : Presbyterianism is that system in which the church • I 15 REGARDED AS A SPIRITUAL ^COMMONWEALTH, WHOSE ONLY HEAD IS Christ ; and which he governs through repre- llSENTATIYE ELDERS, CALLED BY HIS SPIRIT AND ELECTED BY llHIS PEOPLE, AND ALL OF EQUAL AUTHORITY, WHICH IS EXER- CISED BY THEM ONLY WHEN OP.GANIZED INTO AN ASSEMBLY OR COURT. These representatives are called elders, or presbyters,' and are of two classes: ruling elders, who only rule, and teaching elders, or preachers, who both rule and teach. The assemblies of the church are usually com- posed of equal numbers of ruling and teaching elders, except in case of the lowest, called the Session or Con-^' sistory, where all except the presiding ofiicer, or mod- erator, are ruling elders. The teaching elders must be set apart for this additional function by an assembly or coui*t. These assemblies are arranged' in the scale of a regu- ' lar gradation, from the Session or Consistory, through the Presl3ytery or Chassis, and Synod or Particular,. Synod, to the General Assembly or General Synod, as! they are named in English or non-English speakings countries. They are all Presbyteries, because com-'f posed of presbyters, but there has been a distribution of duties, each one having its own province strictly de- fined. It is the duty of each higher court to review the proceedings of the next lower, and cases may be car- ried for trial from the lowest to the highest. H OF PRESBYTERIANISM. 15 This great principle of cliurch <^^<:)yernment, wliicli is usually associated with its tAviii sister, Calviuistic doc- trine, has come down from the earliest times an prac- tised in that church the history of which constitutes the larger portion of the Scriptures. The change of the Sabbath from the seventh day of the week to the first, is nowhere coinmanded, but it w^as the J!;>y«c'^vV'Tanny, have fi'antically ovei*thrown their rulers and put them to death, in some cases visiting vengeance upon the innocent because of the crimes of their ancestors. The gi'eat French Revolution was this kind of an out- l)urst, when an outraged people arose in their might, under a burning sense of injustice, putting to death) thousands of unoffending persons, pei*petrating AVTongs OF PRESBYTERIANISM. 21 while endeavoring to redress wrongs, and coniniitting crime while attempting to punish crime. A similar drama was enacted in those events which culminated in the dethronement and decapitation of (Uiarles I. of England. There was afterwards a reaction, which lasted for a time ; l)ut the spell had been broken, the people had become possessed of the idea that they were their own masters, and with the accession of William of Orange, in 1688, the great principle of popular sov- ereignty was imbedded in the British constitution. Since then the republican principle has been dominant over the monarchical in that government. Moreover, it has made advances and encroachments continually from that time. Now, Great Britain is a monarchy in form, but a republic in the dominant principle of its govern- ment. In France, under that splendid despot, the " Re- publican Emperor," Napoleon I., was exhibited a gov- ernment republican in form, but extremely monarchical in principle. These examples show that the forms and the princi- ples of government are entirely distinct, and that oppos- ing principles may co-exist in the same body, one hav- ing the preponderance. The great j;/'?7iCzj[?/., Dean of Westminster A])bey, intimate fiiend of Queen Victoria, and travelling companion of the Prince of Wales, in a public* address, uttered the following remarkable words: "The most lAarned of all the bishops of England, whose accession V) the great see of Durham has recently been welcomed ivitli rare unanimity by the whole Church of England, lias, with his characteristic moderation and erudition, 28 THE people's history of PEESBYTERIANISM. 1 proved beyond dispute, in bis celel)rated essay attacbed to bis edition of St. Paul's Epistle to tbe Pbilippians, tbat tbe early constitution of tbe apostolic cburcbes of tbe first century was not that of a single hishop, hut oj ytery was not a later grovth ovt of Episapacy, hut that Episcopacy vxts a later g7\nr'l ontof Preslrytery ; tbat tbe office wbicb tbe apostles instituted was a kind of rule, not hy Inshopts, hut of preshyters ; and tbat even doivn to the third ceidury presbyters as well as bisbops possessed tbe power of nominating and consecrating bisbops; and besides, there were ^ from thecoinmence- raent of the middle ages dovni to the Reformation, large exceptions from the ^^W/ic/j^Zc' of Ejnscopal government lohich can he called hy no other name than Preshyterianr Tbis statement, coming from Bisliop Ligbtfoot, of Durbam, "tbe most learned of all tbe bisbops of tbe Cliurcb of England," endorsed by Dean Stanley, wlio, for bis elegant diction, bis liberal views and scbolarly attainments, was for many years tbe favorite preacber of tbe Britisb court and aristocracy, is of course un- prejudiced and is an important concession to tbe ant i- tpiitv of Presbvterianism. CHAPTEE IV. The Dakk Ages; Twilight with Two.Staes. A S time passed on, tlie desire for pre-eminence, ever jLJl. present in the minds of men, the sin by which 'ell the angels and our first parents, began to assert itself n the republic of the church. That which cast down ;he angels from heaven, which ruined paradise, which lestroyed the nation of Israel — the lust for power — was preparing to carry a large part of the church of Christ nto idolatry, corruption, and apostasy. The pastors )f large congregations, not by a sudden assumption, 3ut gradually, and perhaps almost unconsciously, came o exercise authority over those in smaller parishes. 3eing resorted to for advice and assistance by country )astors, many of these city ministers believed that they lad the right to appoint and finally to consecrate men o the ministry. This was the germ of Episcopacy, but )f course it required ages for the innovation to pervade Luy large portion of the world, and to secure its recog- lition as a part of the constitution of the church. At ast, however, it became the general rule. The tendency )f which Episcopacy was the outgrowth continued to l^n^elop until it culminated in the establishment of two eat ecclesiastical empires, corresponding to and hav- their two head-bishops in the tAvo principal cities the world, Rome and Constantinople. Thus arose lie Greek and Eoman Catholic Churches. The church 29 30 THE people's histoby power, which before had existed in sokition throughout the whole body of behevers, at last nearly all crystalized around these two centres, and Episcopacy found its com- plete deyelopment in the Patriarch of Constantinople and the Pope of Rome. These two pastorates, by gradual encroachments extending through a period of seyeral centuries, had gained authority oyer almost the whole christian world. The change of goyernment was ineyitably accompanied by a change of doctrine, and, as the principle of goyernment by the people, through their representatiyes, passed aw^ay, nearly all the truth that clusters around the doctrine of diyine soyereignty vanished with it, and a system of salvation by works came in its place. Divine sovereignty and re- ligious liberty generally stand or fall together, and one cannot long exist without the other. Then came the dark ages, when the world was fet- tered in the chains of ecclesiastical tjTanny, and lulled to slumber b}^ the beautiful forms and ceremonies super- added upon the simplicity of apostolic ordinances. But, as in the Old Testament dispensation during the days of Elijah, God still reserved to himself a remnant who were faithful and refused to recognize idolatry, so in the dark ages there were a noble few avIio were faith- ful to his word. To the general rule of obedience to the two anti-christs who had usurped the crown-rights of Jesus as prophet, priest, and king over his people, "there were," in the words of Bishop Lightfoot ailid Dean Stanley, " large exceptions." In the general dark- ness there were two stars which refused to be extijji- guished, but continued to shine as pledges of God s OF PRESBYTEKIANISM. 31 power and of a coming clay ; those two stars were the Waldenses and the Culdees, the one glistening among the rocky pinnacles of the Alps, and the other al)()v<' the islands of the Northwestern sea.^ ' Considerable material for the preceding chapters has been drawn from the author's work entitled '' Presbyterian mil for the People.'" For a fuller treatment of this subject, see ''■ Preshyterianism the truly Primi- tive and Apostolical Constitution of the Church smssed and enjoyed the sameT That the history of the Waldenses, as any kind of an organized body, can be traced further back than the twelfth century, is not admitted l)y modern writers of church history ; and it is asserted that they did not ex- ist before the days of Peter Waldo of Lyons, from whose labors, it is alleged by some, they sprang. This re- markable man, a rich merchant, Avho lived three hun- dred years before the Reformation, sold all his posses- sions and devoted his property and life to the proclama- tion of the gospel. He and his followers were banished, and scattered all over southeastern France, as well as contiguous poi*tions of Italy and Switzerland, sowing the good seed wherever they went. This was in the latter part of the twelfth century ; so that, even gi'anting that the Waldenses originated with Peter AValdo, they still can claim to be the oldest of all the Re-formed churches on the continent of Eiirope, and, with the Bohemians and Moravians, the only mediaeval dissenter^ who have maintained their organic existence through all persecutions and changes down to the present tinle. OF PllESBYTERIANISM. 35 But it seems quite certain that the doctrines of the Scri2)tures, after the Presbyterian form, were held with more or less dehniteness, in fundamental divergence from the Church of Eonie, by communities in north- western Italy long before the preaching of Waldo.' With how much brightness the star of truth glimmered in the dim past in this most interesting country it may not be possible to show, but it is more than probable that it has never been wholly extinguished from the apostolic era to this day. The ancient custom was for every minister to spend at least tAvo years in missionary labors. They went two and two, a Tiegidor and a Coadjuteiir, all over Italy, and, indeed, as far north as Germany. At one period their missionaries could travel from Florence to Cologne, stopping every night with their friends on the way. They practiced medicine and other useful arts for a support that they might preach the gospel, and were aided by humble colporteurs, or travelling pedlars, who distributed copies of the word of God. At one time they had six thousand adherents in Venice, and as many in Genoa. The following verses, by the poet Whittier, aptly show tke life and work of these colporteurs : THE VAUDOIS MISSIONAllY. " O, lady fair, these silks of miue Are beautiful and rare — The richest web of Indian loom Which beauty's self might wear. And these pearls are piire and mild to behold, And \\\\1\ radiant light they vie ; I have brought them with me a weary way : Will my gentle lady buy ?" 36 THE peoplf/s histoky And the lady smiled on the woiii old iiiaii, Through the dark and clustering curls Which veiled her brow as she bent to view His silk and glittering jjearls ; And she placed their price in the old mans ha) id, And lightly turned away ; But she paused at the wanderer's earnest call — " My gentle lady, stay I" " O lady fair, I have yet a gem Which a purer lustre flings Than the diamond flash of the jewelled crown On the lofty brow of kings ; A wonderful pearl of exceeding price, Whose virtue shall not decay; Whose light shall be as a spell to thee, And a blessing on thy way!" The lady glanced at the mirroring steel, Where her youthful form was seen. Where her eyes shone clear and her dark locks waved Their clasping pearls between ; ' ' Bring forth thy pearl of exceeding worth. Thou traveller gray and old, And name the price of thy precious gem, And my pages shall count thy gold!" The cloud went off from the pilgrim's brow, As a small and meagre book, Unchased with gold or diamond gem, From his folding robe he took : ' ' Here, lady fair, is the pearl of price — May it prove as such to thee ! Nay, keep thy gold — I ask it not — For the Word of Ood is free."' The hoary traveller went his way. But the gift he left behind Hath had its pure and perfect work On that high-born maiden's mind ; And she hath turned from her pride of sin To the lowliness of triith. And given her human heart to God In its beautiful hour of vouth. OF PRESBYTERIANISM. ^7 And she liatli left the old gray walls Where an evil faith hath power, The courtly knights of her father's train, And the maidens of her bower ; And she hath gone to the Vaudois vale, By lordly feet nntrod, Where the poor and needy of earth are rich In the perfect love of God ! The first determined effort of the secular power to destroy the Waldenses dates from 1209, three hundred and fifty years before the first General Assembly met in Edinburgh, Scotland. The Emperor Otho confen-ed upon the Archbishop of Turin authority to annihilate them by force of arms ; but they were protected by the hand of God, and the attempt was a failure. And so has been every similar attempt to destroy this poor httle Alpine people. Empires have risen and fallen ; dynasties have come and gone ; the whole face of the world has changed again and again; but this heroic band has not been conquered, nor has their star ceased to shine above the snoAvy pinnacles of the Alps. Passing over a period of two centuries, for in a work like this the different persecutions, which seldom ceased altogether, cannot all even be mentioned, we come to the year 1476, seven years before the birth of Martin Luther. Yolande, widow of Amadeus IX., a good Duke of Savoy, and regent of his dominions, a cruel woman, undertook in that year to bring all the AValdenses into the bosom of the Church of Rome. Misfortimes in her own gov- ernment, which resulted in her being made a prisoner by the Duke of Biu'gundy, postponed the execution of her scheme for ten years, when Charles, Yolande's son, directed inquiry to i)e made as to why his mother's com- 38 THE people's history maud to recant had been disobeyed. When the Wal- denses stoutly refused to give up their faith, demanding instead that the Church of Rome should return to the purit}^ of the gospel, Pope Innocent VIII. fulminated against them a bull of extermination, calling upon all temporal powers to com])ine for their utter destruction from the face of the earth. This infamous \m\\, issued by an alleged Aicar of the meek and lowly Jesus, invited all Catholics to take up arms against these innocent peo- ple, " absolving from aU ecclesiastical pains and penal- ties, general and particular, those who should take up the cross; releasing them from any oaths they might have taken ; legitimizing their title to any property they might have illegally acquired ; and promising remission of sins to such as should kill any heretic. It annulled all contracts made in favor of the "Waldenses ; ordered their domestics to abandon them, forbade all persons to give them any aid whatever, and empowered all per- sons to take possession of their property." Eighteen thousand regular troops were contributed by the sovereign of Piedmont and the king of France, and in their train came a host of vagabonds, fanatics, pillagers, thieves, assassins, to prey upon the poor Wal- denses. It did seem as if the hour of their doom had struck. But no ; there is a God in heaven who hears the cry of the lowly and the oppressed. A terrible con- flict ensued, in which the people of the valleys were victorious over the marauders, and put them to rout. One standard bearer alone remained, concealed for some days, in a ravine ; but at length, starving and freezing, he surrendered himself to the AValdensians, who gave him food and shelter, and sent him back to his friends. OF PRE^iBYTERIANISM. 39 On the western or French slopes of the mountains, as far back as 1238, the faithful were persecuted by Rome, and in the following century there were two hundred and thirty burned at one time, in front of the cathedral of Eml:>run. After that a war between England and France caused tlieni to have rest for a time, but in 1488, the same papal legate, Cataneo, who led the expedition just de- scribed, which resulted so disastrously, on the east side of the mountains, came over to the west to the Yal Louise, to exterminate the heretics there. Unfortunately he was more successful this time. The people l)etook them- selves en masse to a cave, cavrving all their little ones and the greater part of their movable sid)stance A^tli them. The cruel papists followed them, and filUng the mouth of the cavern with wood, set lire to it, and smoth- ered three thousand persons, the entire population of the valley. Four hundred infants were found in their cra- dles or wrapped in the cold embraces of their mothers, all dead together, the work of these fiendish men, who claimed to he the ministers of the Prince of Peace. Cataneo then turned to some neighboring valleys for a similar work, ])ut whereas hundreds were slaughtered, a remnant survived, and though their Bibles were ordered to be destroyed, a few remained ; and lest these should be taken also, and the word of God be lost to them entirely, they divided u]^ the Scriptures into por- tions, to be memorized h\ the young, each person learn- ing a part, that in every neighl^orhood there might be those who coidd at any time recite or reproduce the whole l:>ook. It is an interesting fact that the version of ilol)^^; Olivetan, mentioned before, was the first French translation of the entire Bible given to the world. 40 THE people's history Clement VIII., in tlie year l)ef()re liis death, (offered plenary indulgence t<:) every Waldensian in French ter- ritory who would recant and enter the Church of Eome. But not one responded. A horrible persecution fol- lowed in 1545. Twenty-two villages in Provence were huriit down, four thousand persons were killed, and the congregations well-nigh destroyed. About four thousand took refuge in flight, l)ut afterwards re- turned, to drag out a miserable existence in poverty and want. During this persecution, the most inhuman tortures were inflicted upon the Waldensians; little children Avere torn from their mother's breasts, to perish in their presence ; old men and the wounded and dying were thrown to swine to be devoured ; women who had fled for refuge to churches were brutally ravished, and flung headlong out of the windows of the towers, or over precipices ; and every refinement of cruelty prac- ticed which the ingenuity of man could devise. In 1530, the Waldenses living on the French side of the Alps sent George Morel and Pierre Masson to the Swiss and German Reformers, to lay before them a statement as to the condition of their church, and ask explanation of certain doctrines. On their return, Masson was seized and beheaded at Dijon, but Morel made his way home. He laid before his people a statement of what he had seen and heard, and such a profound impression was made that it was determined to call a Synod to consider the doctrinal statements brought fi'om the North. Farel, who was the prede- cessor, and afterwards the coadjutor of Calvin in Geneva, was present. The doctrinal system which the Synod adopted showed the influence of the Swiss Re- :e- I i OF PKESBYTEIJIANISM. 41 formers, and the liaiid of Farel is clearly seen in some of its declarations. In 1560 a decree was issued that none but Eoman \ Catholic preachers should be heard in the valleys ; but ; when the attempt was made to carry out this order, the I Waldenses made successful resistance, and in 1561 I gained the privilege of freedom to worship in a limited I space. The agreement on the part of the government was not kept, and they Avere soon again plunged into ' afflictions. In Calabria men, women and children were butchered indiscriminately, and many that were spared were carried on board the Spanish galleys, or sold as slaves. Only in the valleys of the Alps did the true religion survive the two hundred years of fiery trial, and that through unspeakable sufi'ering. In 1630 the plague was brought among them by foreign soldiers, and in one year more than ten thousand persons died. Only two pastors were left, and it was necessary to im- port ministers from France. After a time, however, a new corps of native pastors Avere educated and in- stalled. The year 1655 is a memorable one in the annals of he Waldenses. Keligious bigotry and crueltry over- eaped all bounds, and massacres, too horrible to be de- licribed, took place among them. In some villages 3very house and every chamber was the scene of lust ind murder. Hell seemed to have emptied its demons nto the brutal horde avIio ravaged the homes of the people of God. It became the scandal of Christendom, ihe civilized world Avas incensed, and humanity out- aged could bear no more. Oliver CroniAvell, Lord ^rotector of England, at the solicitation of his illustri- 42 THE teople's histoky ous secretiUT, John Milton, interfered with <^reat energy, : and commanded their persecutors to "let those men ' alone," or they would feel the weight of England's power. They knew that this came from one whom it would be dangerous to trifle with, and j)rudently de- sisted from the mad carniyal of blood. Cromwell sent a gift of £30,000 for the rehef of the suffering, and offered them a home in Ireland. Differ- ent would haye been the subsequent history of tlu' Emerald Isle had this offer been accepted by thest" brave and thrifty people. The Waldenses still hold Cromwell and Milton in honor on account of this gener- ous kindness, and on the walls of their theological col- lege at Torre-Pellice is now a large engraving, repre- senting "The Uncrowned King" and his secretary, the poet of ]\tradwe Lost. The struggles of these peo])le during those terrible times, under the leadership of Ca])- tain Gianavel, a name that belongs to fame, constitute one of the most pathetic passages in the history of earth's heroes. A temporary lull folloAved, extending up to 1085. "When thi^ eve of the reader of history touches that date it beholds behind it the fearful words, " Revocation of the edict of Nantes." This famous edict, granting a cei-tain amount of religious libei*ty to French subjects, had been signed by Henry IV., at' Nantes, in A})ril, 1598. Now, nearly a hundred years - afterwards, Louis XIY-., a man of surpassing intellect t and power, sought to atone for his wicked life by root- ing out the Huguenots from his dominions. He had hardly begun this cruel war upon his own people when he wrote to young Victor Amadeus II., Duke of Savoy, to use against the Waldenses the same measures adopted i OF PliESBYTERIANISM. 43 for the destruction of the Huguenots. On the 31st of January, 1()(S(), the duke issued a proclamation, com- manding all Waldenses to join the Eoman Church, or leave the country in fifteen days. They refused to do either, and a Prencli army was sent against them, when, after a heroic struggle, thej Avere forced to surrender. Thousands now were sent into exile. About twenty-six hundred settled in Geneva, and colonies w^ere estal)- lished in various parts of Germany. But the love of country was too strong for them to be easily domesti- cated in foreign lands, and home sickness compelled many of the emigrants to return. In the summer of 1689 about nine hundred Waldenses, headed by their pastor, Henry Arnaud, forced their way back from Switzerland, through enormous sufferings and dangers, to their native valleys. When Napoleon Bonaparte became master of Italy, brighter days dawned. This great warrior took special interest in the Waldenses, and gave them the constitu- tion of the Keformed Church of France. With the downfall of Napoleon came a return of persecution, but, on the intervention of England nnd Prussia, they were estal)lislied by an edict, in 1(S16, in the enjoyment of their libei-ties. In 1848 the Waldenses Avere placed upon the same footing with all the other people of the country, and the great conflict of ages Avas ended. They then l)egan again, and have continued up to the present day, the Avork of extending the knoAvledge of tlu^ 8cri])- tures throughout Italy. The blessing of God n^sts upon their labors, and they have been greatly prospered. In almost every town of importance tliey liavt^ estab- lisjied churches. Outside of their valleys they' have 44 THE PEOl'LF/S HlSTOllY forty-one congregations, thirty -four missionary stations, and one hundred and fifty isohited places yisited 1)\ their missionaries. They seem to have a gi*eat work to (h:) in the redemption of heautiful Italy from the thral- dom of popery. This historic clmrch, called now, more commonly, " Yaudois," is a member of the great "Alliance of the Reformed Churches holding the Presbyterian System," and is represented in the triennial councils of this body, which includes all Presbyterians throughout the world. The Yaudois Church possesses the following public institutions: (1,) A school of theology at Florence; three years' course of study; average number of stu- dents, twelve to fifteen. (2,) A college for theological studies ; eight years' study ; sixty to eighty pupils ; at Torre-Pellice. (3,) A chapel of ease for the college, or Latin school ; three years' course ; fifteen to twent} pupils; at Pomaret. (4,) A normal school to train schoolmasters; four years' course; pupils, thirty; at Torre-Pellice. (5, ) A superior school for young girls ; five years' study; average, seventy pupils; at Torre- Pellice. (6,) A hospital for the sick at Torre-Pellice. (7,) Another hospital at Pomaret. (8,) An orphanage iov fifty young girls near Torre-Pellice. Excei)t the Holy Land, there is no poi-tion of the earth more interesting, in connection with the history of the church of God, than the Waldensian valleys of northwestern Italy, the home of the "Israel of the Alps." "The Free Church of Italy" is tanother Presb}i;eri£ body in the land of the olive and vine. It has congre OF P1(E8I}YTERIANISM. 45 gations in iieaiiv all the iinportaiit cities of tlie country, and is doing a great work. A movement lias been on foot for a long time, not yet successful, for a union of the Waldenses or Yaudois and the Free Church of Italy dn one areat Italian church. o CHAPTEK YI. The X()l^^H^YEsTERX Ktaii.--The Culdees. FF the Avest coast of Scotland, in tlie midst of ;i proverbially stormy sea, lies a small island, tliii;erianism of the Culdee Church. Ebrard declares that it was " evangelical, not only l^e- cause it was free and independent of Rome, and when 52 . THE people's history the papal cliiircli came into contact with it, always and obstinately repudiated its authority under appeal to the single and supreme authority of the Holy Scriptures, hut ahoye all, because of its inner life it Avas penetrated throughout by the main principles of the eyangelical church." For fiye hundred years the grand old Culdee Church struggled against the gigantic power of Rome, and popery was at last established in Scotland, not by the consent of the people, but by King Dayid I., in A. D. 1150, and the final otherthrow of the ancient order did not take place until more than a hundred years after- wards, when the Culdees of St. Andrews were sup- pressed, A. D. 1297. But after that many of these faithful men continued to labor through the country as indiyiduals, and in remote places they kept aliye the pure religion of their fathers. Dr. Smith, in his " Life of C^olumba," says : " The reign of terrcn- in these lands was yery short, and the darkness of its night was inter- mixed with many stars." In the next century, in the year 1324 A. D., Pope John XXII., in his bull for anointing King Robert Bruce, complained that there were still many heretics in Scotland. Other Romish writers alleged the existence of the old heresy in parts of the country. In 1422 James Risby, and in 1481 Paul Craw, were put to death for holding these doc- trines. In the glens of Scotland, as in the yalleys of Piedmont, small bands could still hv found looking to Jesus Christ as the only mediator between God and man. Hetherington, in his "History of the Church of Scotland," declares that "popery had not been able wholly to exterminate the purer faith and simpler sys- OF PRESBYTEKIANISM. 53 teiii of the ancient Cnldees, especially in Ayrsliiie, and perhaps also in Fife — the districts adjacent to Ht. An- drews and lona, the earliest al)odes and the latest re- treats of primitive Christianity in Scotland," and that " the doctrines of the Culdees continued to survive h^ng after the suppression of their forms of church government. McLauchlan, the latest historian of the Culdee Church, after an exhaustive investigation of the whole matter, makes the following concluding statement : " It requires l)ut little acquaintance with Scottish history to observe that the principles of the old Culdee Church never were eradicated ; that during the reign of the Roman Church in the kingdom they continued to exist, exhibiting them- selves occasionally in such outbreaks as the letter of King Eobert Bruce and his nobles to Pope John, on the uprising of the Lollards of Kyle, and finally culmi- nating in the events of the Scottish Eeformation. Those principles had regard, above all things, to the indepen- dence of the ancient Scottish kingdom and church. They exist still, fresh and vigorous as ever, in the Scot- tish mind ; nor is it easy to say for how much of what now distinguishes Scotland ecclesiastically, she is in- debted to the ancient Culdee Church. One thing is plain, that notwithstanding the claims of the Church of Rome and its hierarchical organizations to antiquity in Scotland, she can only claim four hundred of the eigh- teen hundred years that have elapsed since the plant- ing of Christianity in the kingdom, viz., the period be- tween A. D. 1150, when David established her, and A. D. 1550, when his establishment was overthrown by the resuscitation of the old Scottish principles at the Reformation." 54 THE rE(3PLE's HISTOllY OF l'EE8BYTEKIANISM. When the Reforiiiation of the sixteenth century l)e- canie estabhshed in Scotland, it was not, as dn England, under the patronage of kings and the government, but was from the people, in many of whose minds the em- l)ers of religious lil)erty still glowed, and they forced Presbyterianism upon their rulers, as their rulers had formerly forced popery upon them. The Reformation in England Avas largely controlled l)y the throne, but in Scotland it was from the people to the throne ; so in the one case it kept the form of Episcopac}^, or royalty, while in the other its principle was self-goyernment, or Pres- ley terianism. The object of this chapter is to show that the early Christianity of Scotland was essentially Presbyterian, and that it Avas brought, not from Rome, Imt from Asia Minor; that it sul)sisted doAyn to the middle of the twelfth century ; that eyen then it was not wholly de- stroyed ; and that, after four hundred years of popish rule, it burst forth again in full power, and has con- tinued to flourish to the present day. So Aye see there A\ ere at least tAvo stars, the Waldeiises and the Culdees, shining in the gloomy night of the dark ages. God has never left himself Avithout a Avitness from the days of Adam, nor ever Avill, till time shall be no more. CHAPTEE VII. The Night of Popery and the Morning Twilight. Augustine and Hu88. THE great revolutions of history have not come ahoiit in most cases hy sudden and startling clianges, l)ut ] )y gradnal processes. This has been particularly charac- teristic of revolutions which have gone backward : those slow readjustments whereby the liberties of the people have been silently absorbed by an aml)itious power. The despotism of popery did not spring up in a night. It w as im2:)ossible that the great republic of the chris- tian church of the early centuries should be, by one stroke, divested of its inherent libei-ty. The pastor of the congregation at Rome began to claim authority over his brethren very far back in ancient history, but not until the eighth century w^ere his pretensions re- cognized and admitted by the church at large. Nor w^as it then without earnest and determined opposition. It w^as not to be expected that such assumptions as those put forth by the rising ecclesiastical monarchy Avould l)e willingly conceded. They were met by oppo- sition, determined and persistent, the destruction of wdiich is a history of persecution and blood. As the old Roman empire fell to pieces from decay, a new^ empire arose out of its ruins, and that was an ecclesiastical one. Instead of a Caesar, dictating to the nations, we have an alleged follower of him who said, 55 56 THE people's histopy "My kiiiodoni is not of this world," claiming autliorit^- over kings, not only assuming tlie right to control the consciences of God's people, hut also to say what ciyil nilers they should seiwe, thus appropriating to himself all power, secular and sacred. In the sphere of re- ligion, the Pope took the place of Christ, who rules his church in the exercise of three great offices, those of a prophet, a priest, and a king, thus realizing completely the idea of an anti-christ or usurper. Do they not claim that the mass is a perpetual sacrifice offered for the sins of men l)y priests who deriye their authority from the Pope ? Do they not likewise claim the right of autho- ritatiye intercessi(^n, and of conferring the forgiyeness of sins? As the prophet of the church, does he not set himself up as the great teacher, claiming infalliliihtj \ And as a king, does he not exercise an authority abso- lute and final oyer all his subjects, claiming power for this world and also for the next? Though this power had been boldly claimed for centuries, it was not for- mally consented to in its full extent by the church, as an organized body, until 1546, the year of Luther's death, at the Council of Trent; nor was it fully and clearly stated in all its hideousness until the pronuTlga- tion of the decree of Papal Infallibility in 1870, by the Vatican Council at Eome. This was not the culmina- tion of the power of popery ; it had culminated long ago, and begun to decay as one of the great forces of i Christendom. It has neyer recoyered from the stagger- ing blow dealt by the Reformation in the sixteenth cen- tury, and it never will. The council at Trent, in 1546, and that of 1870, in Rome, were but conyulsiye effoi to brace up, by boldly stating its pretensions, a y; OF PRESBYTERIANISM. 57 body which was beginning to feel the chill of old age and decay. But the despotism of Rome has not at any time been consented to by every part of the church. The vast body of the Greek Church, crystallized about the Patriarchate of Constantinople by a similar process of development, which resulted in the establishment of a rival ecclesiastical empire in the east, nearly, if not quite as anti-christian in its assumptions as that of the papacy. God, however, who lives and reigns on earth, reserved to himself faithful bands of followers, probably much larger than is generally known, in secluded spots, who contended for the truth at the risk, and often at the cost, of their lives. We are not to understand that up to the Reformation period there were no christians. There were thousands of them in Scotland, in the Alps, as well as perhaps in other divinely favored places, and multitudes, even in the Church of Rome itself, avIio, in the midst of superstition and tyranny, still held the es- sential truths of the gospel, and refused to receive the authority of a pope in place of that of Christ. Altogether the greatest man in religious history, from Paul to Calvin, was Aurelius Augustine, commonly called St. Augustine, who flourished during the latter part of the fourth and the earlier part of the fifth centuries. " Paul begat Augustine, and Augustine begat Calvin," said a celel)rated infidel writer, and it is true. Augus- tine elaborated the great doctrines of salvation by free grace, set forth by all writers of the inspired word, notably by the apostle to the Gentiles, and advocated powerfidly that theology Avhich was afterwards syste- matiealh' stated by John Calvin, who was practically 5 58 THE people's history his pupil, though separated from him by a thousand years. This theology has heeu variously termed Pauline, Augustine, Calvinistie, or Presbyterian. Au- gustine was born and lived in noi*thern Afiica. In his youth he was sensual and wicked, but became converted under the instrumentality of the teaching, example and prayers of his mother, Monica, whose almost romantic devotion to her son has gone into history as the symliol of maternal affection. Amply was her love rewarded, for his name stands among the highest in the wc^rhVs catalogue of theologians. His opponent was a Scotcli or Irish monk, Pelagius, the author of a system of doc- trine called Pelagianism, which has come down to (^ur own times, denying the vicarious headship of Adam and original sin, and giving undue value to works, in the scheme of salvation. Augustine's life work may be said to have been mainly drawn out by his controversy with Pelagius; and in it he laid down the principles which, ten centuries afterward, produced that great re- ligious revolution called the Reformation, of which he may well be called the ancestor. And that Eeforma- tion is the most remarkable occurrence in all the annals of Christianity since the time of its great author. But Pelagianism, so ably refuted by Augustine, liad too strong an ally in the depraved nature of man to be easily overthrown, and it spread like wildfire over a great part of the church, sowing the seeds of much of the corruption which followed. As the simplicity of Presbyterian government disappeared before the rise of the hierarchy, the great twin principle (^f doctrin<'. salvation by grace, passed away with it. It was always held in some portions of the church, and was never, in OF niESBYTERIANISM. 59 those dcivH, (leiioiiiiced, l)ut tlie opposite doctrine, salva- tion l)y works, was (piietly put into its place. Pela- gianisni easily led to penance, works of supererogation, and will- worship. X later writer said, "It is necessary to change our dress and food; we must put on sack- cloth and ashes ; we must renounce all comfoi-t and adorning of the body, and fall down before the priests." The same tendency came at length to voluntary flagella- tions, and nobles and peasants walked together through city and country by thousands, with no other covering than a cloth al)out their loins, in the cold of winter and the heat of summer, lashing themselves with whips and scourges, for the salvation of their souls. Pilgrimages to Konie fi"om all parts of the world became the fashion, and as many as 200,000 pilgrims visited the city in one month. All who came were expected to bring costly presents to the Pontiff, and the treasuries of the church thus began the absorption of the wealth of nations, which became such a prodigious evil in subsequent times. Those who came bringing gifts were rew^arded for their devotion by plenary indulgence ; so that all who wished to commit some great sin, or whose con- sciences lashed them under a sense of guilt, had the strongest possible reason for making a contribution to the church. Thus popery, with its despotic assumption of authority over the soul, and its substitution of human for divine works, went on developing its inherent wick- edness. But even then the greed of the papal power was not satisfied, and provision was made for the sale of indul- gences in nearly all the cities and villages of Christen- dom, and it was this very wickedness, this hideous 60 THE PEOI'LE's histouy traffic ill iiiiiiiortal souls wliicli, in the sixteenth century, occasioned that mighty convulsion which destroyed popery in half of Europe. Such a system of carnality could but lead to the deepest moral corruption. The clergy led the people in the grossest sins. Every kind of debauchery was practiced by the religious teachers of the people ; virtue was by no means common among them, and a German bishop declared that in one year eleven thousand priests presented themselves to him, to pay the tax assessed by the church upon their illegiti- mate offspring. It would be indecent to describe the drunkenness, the gambling, the seductions, the mur- ders, and other infamies which disgraced the priests of the period immediately preceding the Eeformation. We say no more, but drop the veil upon the horrid scenes ; so much for the fruits of Pelagianism. Enough of this dreadful darkness. Let us look for rays of light. In former chapters we have seen how the Waldenses and Culdees still con- tended for the faith once delivered to the saints. There are others to be mentioned; they are the heroes of Bohemia and Moravia. It was in the ninth century that Christianity was introduced into that country, and not from Rome, but from the east. The clergy werc^ allowed to marry; the cup as well as tlit* bread was given to the laity in the sacrament of the Holy Supper, and pul)lic worship was held in the language of the people. The Church of Rome long strove to bring Bohemia under its sway, and though it did succeed in the fourteenth century, the people were never wholly subdued. The history of the Church of Bohemia is one of the most heroic, as well as the most melancholy, OF PRESBYTERIANISM. 61 chapters in the story of human existence. Persecuted and crushed, it was only for one hundred years they gave outward submission to the popes, and in the fifteenth century the unconquered spirit of Hberty and love of truth again asserted itself. Nor has that mart^^T church ever been wholly destroyed. It has survived through incredible trials to the end of the nineteentb century, with brighter prospects for growth and useful- ness. It is now one of the factors in the great Alliance of Presl:)yterian or Reformed Churches throughout the world. The Reformed Church of Bohemia has associated with it the luminous name of John Huss. Wicklift'e, of England, has been called the ''Morning Star of the Re- formation," and Huss, "its John the Baptist." There is reason to suppose that the Bohemian was much in- fluenced by the Avritings of Wicklifl*e. Huss was rector of the University of Prague, at that time one of the most influential seats of learning in Europe. He was an able and fearless preacher, an accomplished scholar and devoted lover of his country. His struggles in com- ing to the truth remind us of those of Augustine ; but he was fully possessed of it, and it became the supreme rule of his conduct. Even the Jesuit writer, Balbinus, is constrained to say of "this pale, thin man, in mean attire," that " his pure morahty, his earnest life, his care- lined countenance, his sympathetic kindness, breathed with more wondrous power than all the eloquence that fell from his lips." He preached against the corruptions of the clergy and laity, and boldly asserted that Christ, and not the pope, was the head of the church. Such preaching as this was all a man's life Avas worth in those 62 THE people's HTSTOTtY lialc3'on days of peppery. Joliii Huss was condeniiied for heresy by the famous Council of (Vmstaiiee in 1415, iind/ required to recant or die. He chose the latter alt'^rnative, and when the council formally committed him to the devil, he, standing reverently with uplifted 1 lands, commended himself to the mercy of Christ. After he had heen tied to the stake, and the fagots piled ahout him, he was given a final opportunity to save his life hy the surrender of his faith. His answer was : " God is my witness that I have never taught or preached that which false witnesses have testified against me. He knows that the great ol)jec^t of my preaching and writing Avas to convert men from sin. In the truth of that gospel which hitherto I have written, taught, and preached, I now joyfully die." Tlie fires were then lighted arcmnd him, and his voice, repeating; the prayer " Kyrie Eleison," was soreaclier t(^ the cpieeii and rector of the university, the intensest indignation was aroused. The denial to the people, by the council, of the cup in the sacrament was bitterly condemned, and the cup b(H'ame the symbol of their faith. To this day OF rRESBYTERIANI8M. 63 it is seen on their tombstones, engraved on tlieir pulpits, and emblazoned on tlie insignia of tlieir eliurcli. But a great part of tlie nation adopted the faith of H'out and all that was left to the anti-christ of Eome wasip- , destroy them with tire antl sword, and in the year 14^), / four thousand of God's saints were put to death. *i But lorighter days were eoniing. The passing trav- eller, in the old cathedral of 8t. Peter, Calvin's ehiu-ch, in Geneva, now reads the name of the l)ishop who pre- sided at that memoral^le council of (\)nstance, Jean de Brognier, on a black marl)le slal) in the floor, where be- low rest his bones, and over which have trod the feet of multitudes who have thronged that stately edifice to hear the gospel of John Huss and the Keformation preached all these three hundred years. CHAPTER YIII. / / The Ascending Day of the Reformation. / irNDULGENTIA Plenapja Quotidiana Peiipetua JL Pro Viyis et Defunctis." Perjyetaal huUdgences, (Jd'ily for tJte Jirhig and tJie dead. This inscription, in Latin, may be seen to-day inscribed over the doors of^ many of the principal churches in the city of Rome.! Stand at the entrance of the hoary Pantheon, a temple built for heathen Avorship before the l)irtli of Christ| which has witnessed two idolatries, promising now t( outlive the second, as it did the first, and read, in] bold characters, these suggestiye words, for thereby hangs a tale — that of the great Reformation (^f the six- teenth centmy. The sale of indulgences, and the un- blushing wickedness it entailed, liberated the mighty forces which had been preparing in the providence of God to convulse Christendom. It was the ignition of the mine, the explosion of which still reverberates to the ends of the earth. This dates from the erection of St. Peter's Cathedral in Rome. It is a striking fact that the building of this most magnificent of all churches occasioned the Refor- mation. It was to raise the stupendous sum of money necessary to build St. Peter's that venders of indul- gences were sent, licensed by the Pope, throughout Europe. Millions were poured fi'oni this source into the holy treasury at Rome ; l)ut the change was at hand, (lod had prepared a crisis, and now prepared a man. Martin Luther, the sledge-hammer of the Reformation, 64 THE PEOPLE S HI8T011Y OF PltESBYTERIANISM. ()5 ;in xlngustinian monk, whose birthplace was Eislebeii, ( rermany, was the man. This unique personaHty was to become the leading figure of his time. A devout and an independent thinker, Luther searched the Scrip- tures. ''The just shall hve by faith" (Romans i. 17), V became the text of his life, and his work, the elaboration of that truth. Beholding the corruptions of the times, i he deplored them, but ardently loved the church in which they were tolerated, hoping to see it purified, and it was only with the greatest reluctance that lie separated himself from Rome, when he gave up all hope of its recovery from vice. He was sent as an envoy from his order, the Augustinians, to the Papal See, and when, after a long journey, he approached the historic city, the queen of the world and the mistress of the church, and looked upon its glittering palaces and domes, he prostrated himself upon the ground, exclaim- ing, "Holy Rome, I salute thee!" -But what a disap- pointment Avas in store for this good man when he found that the city and church of his love were wallowing in sin and lust! His mind soon changed, and he wrote, "If there be a hell, Rome is built over it;" for the eternal city shoAved itself more Hke an infernal city than the holy city of his dreams. One day the hollowness and sham of the Avliole Pelagian system of salvation by works came over the mind of the Augustinian monk with irresistible poAver. It was Avliile he AAas climbing on his knees, according to custom, the holy stairs over which our Lord is declared, hj an unscrupulous priest- lood, to have passed as he descended from Pilate's judgment hall. There could be no fitter place for the spell to be l^roken than on this stairway. Here the Olj THE PEOrLE's HISTORY light from lieaveii burst clearly upon Lutlier's soul, and it was in the words, " The just shall live 1)y faith!" He arose, retraced his steps sadly to Germany, prepared for the work God had for him to do. Luther retiu'ued to Germany searching the Scriptures, ever getting more light and imparting it to his students in the University (^f AVittenberg, of which he was a jjro- fessor, and t<^ the people of his pastoral charge. Tet- zel, the vendor of indulgences, now appears.on the scene. Luther exposed the traffic without mercy. To show tlie folly of this wretched business, it is said that a hardy German l)ought from Tetzel.an indulgence alloAving him to chastise a man against whom he had a grudge. He proceeded, on a convenient occasion, to exercise his ])urchased privilege upon the object of his dislike, by giving him a sound beating in the public highway; and Tetzel himself Avas the man ! AVlien the aggrieved in- dulgence seller appealed to the civil magistrate he re- fused to interfere, and go behind the writ signed by Tetzel's own hand. This sale of indulgences occa- si(^ned the preparation by Luther of the celebrated ninety-five theses, or doctrinal statements, denouncing the iniquity, which he nailed on the door of the Castle Church in Wittenberg in the year 1517, the date usually considered as marking the beginning of the Reforma- tion. The following are extracts from this famous docui ment : " Disputation to Explain the Virtue of Indulgences.' " In charity and in the endeavor to bring the tnith t( light, a disputation on the following pro])ositions will l)e held at AVittenberg, presided over by the Reverend Father Martin Luther. OF PRESRYTERIANISM. 67 "The old man is the vanity of vanities; lie is the universal vanitv, and he makes other creatnres vain, whatever goodness may he in them. " The old man is called 'the flesh,' not merely ])eoause he is led by the desires of the Hesh, Imt also, because, though he should even be chaste, virtuous and just, h<' is not l)orn again of God, by the Spirit. "A man who is a stranger to God cannot keep the commandments of God, nor prepare himself, Avhollv or in part, to receive grace, but remains necessarily un- der sin. "The will of man, without divine grace, is not free, but enslaved, and willing to l)e so. "Jesus Christ, our strength, our righteousness, He who searches the heai*ts and reins, is the only discerner and judge of our deserts. "Since all things are possil)le through Christ to him that l)eHeveth, it is superstiticnis to seek ior other help, either in man's will or in the saints. " Those who are unable to attend personally, may dis- cuss the cpiestion with us by letter. In the name of tlu^ Lord Jesus Christ. Amen." The promulgation of these "theses" set all Euro]ie to thinking, and brought the church with its abuses before the liar of the learning (^f the schools, the com- mon sense of the people, and the Scriptures, which Luther, from the Wartburg Castle, where a friend had confined him to save his Hfe, was going to give Ger- many in the German language. Events now cro\^ded upon each other. The old controversy of the fifth cen- tury between Pelagius and Augustine, as to salvation by works or l)y faith, had burst into a new fiame, and 68 THE people's history of ppesbyterianism. was penetrating all the nations, but this time with a different result. God had defended the glimmering spark of truth, and now was about to make it a light for the world. We caniK^t pursue the tempting theme of the progress of the Reformation in Germany, descrilnng the heroism and faith of the men who gathered about Luther and his coadjutor, Melancthon. These things belong to the his- tory of Lutheranism, and cannot fairly be included under the title of this book, which is a history of Pres- byterianism. For though nearly akin, or identical in essentials, the Lutherans differ from the "Presb^-te- rian," or " Reformed Church," in many important points of theology, church government and the sacraments. Let us turn to Smtzerland, the land of azure lakes and snow-mantled mountains, the home of liberty, and the mother of modern Presbyterianism. I \ f '^)}^^^' 7. W I K O L I. CHAPTER IX. The Eef(^rmati()n in Eastern Switzerland. — Zwinglt. THE Reforniatiou did not originate in German}-, nor was it carried thence to the other nations, though the reformers of that country deserve unbounded praise for their services rendered to the cause of truth. It is impossible to decide where it l)egan ; it can hardly be said to hiive heg^in anywhere. It appeared simultan- eously o er a large part of western Europe, like the coming of spring. While Luther and his colleagues were operating in Germany, Ulrich Zwingli was doing a great 'vvcdi in Switzerland. The fviagnificent man was born in 1484, at Wildhaus, a smaiJ village of the Alps. His parents Avere honest, well-to-do people, who brought him up carefully. His coiu'se of primary education was taken at Basle and Bern, after which he pursued his studies at the Uni- versity of Vienna. Returning to Basle, he taught school and studied theology, and when his preparation was complete, he was ordained priest, and labored at Glarus. For ten years he worked earnestly there among his parishioners, in his studies using for text books, among others, Plutarch, Plato, the Bible, and the writings ef Augustine, Wickliffe, and Huss. He soon became noted for his learning and zeal, all of which, together Avith his engaging manners, made him very popular. His reputation even extended to Rome, and the pope 6 69 70 THE people's history gave him a yearly pension for the continuation of his studies. His outspoken opposition to the then preva- lent custom in Switzerland of men enlisting as mercen- aries in the armies of the surrounding nations, embit- tered many who were favorable to that j)olicy, and they made it so unpleasant for him that he was glad to w- move, in 1516, to Einsiedeln, where he accepted the of- hee of preacher. This town was a place to which thou- sands of pilgrims resorted, not only from Switzerland, hut from the whole of southern Germany. " Ifi<' r.s7 plena rernimo oriininrii i^eccatorurii^'' fidl forgrveneHS of all s-h)^- c.(tn he had here, was written over its gates. This the honest soul of Zwingli could not tolerate, and he began preaching to the pilgrims salvation by faith in Christ alone. He appealed to the cardinal, the papal legate, and the l)isliop, to suppress the sale of indul- gences. He drove the indulgence-seller out of the can- ton by his l)old denunciations. To keep down the ris- ing storm the wdly officials of Rome had him made a titular chaplain to the pope. But they mistook Zwingli. He was not a man to be Ixmght. The same year lu' accepted a call, as preacher, to the cathpe. His intellectual energy- was prodigious, and his labors immense. He preached every day in each alternate week, taught th(M)logy tlireM' days in the week, attended weekly meetings of his con- sistory (session), read the Scriptures once a week in tlic congregation, and carried on a heavy (MUTt^spondencc^ with Reformers in many countries, to help them in their (SO THE people's HISTOPY struggles for tlie trutli. At the same time lie prepared a revision of tli(^ Waldeiisiau Freiicli Bible, aiicl wrote commentaries on the Scriptures. "I have not time," he writes to a friend, "to look out of my house at the blessed sun, and if things continue thus I shall forget what sort of appearance it has. When I have settled my usual Imsiness I have so many letters to write, so many questions to answer, that many a night is spent without any offering of sleep being Ijrought to nature." Geneva soon became "the Protestant Rome ; " for, under the influence of Calvin's piety and genius, not only did the city become purified, reorganized, and thrilled with new life, but the influence was felt wherever the Iiefor- niation had been carried. Letters went out in all di- rections, containing advice to the Reformed churches, and hundreds of men came to Geneva to sit under the teachings of this wonderful man. There was little at- tempt at the exercise of (tutliority over other communi- ties ; from "the Protestant Rome" the influence that went forth was that of the great truths of the Scriptures, elaborated by a giant intellect under the baptism of "the Holy Ghost and fire." Among others, Calvin had for a pupil John Knox, who had taken refuge from per- secution in Geneva, and who afterwards became the organizer of the Presl)yterian Church of Scotland. "The Lutheran Reformation," says Dyer in his ///-s- fory of Modern Europe, "traveled but little out of Ger- many and the neighboring Scandinavian kingdcuns ; while (^dvinism obtained a European character, and was accepted in all the countries that adopted a reforma- tion from without, as France, the Netherlands, Scot- land, even England ; for the early English Reformation OF PRESBYTERIANISM 81 under Edward YI. was Calviuistic, and Calvin was in- contestable' the father of our Puritans and dissenters. Thus, under his rule, Geneva may be said to have be- come the capital of European Reform." Francis de Sales, an intense Roman Catholic, urging upon the Duke of Savoy the importance of suppressing the Reformation in Geneva, said: "All the heretics re- spect Geneva as the asylum of their religion There is not a city in Europe which offers more facili- ties for the encouragement of heresy, for it is the gate of France, of Italy and German}^, so that one finds there people of all nations^ — ^Italians, French, Germans, Poles, Spaniards, English, and of countries still more remote. Besides, every one knows the great number of ministers bred there. Last year it furnished twenty to France. Even England obtains ministers from Geneva. What shall I say of its magnificent printing establish- ments, by means of which the city floods the world with its wicked books, and even goes the length of distribut- ing them at the public expense? . . . All the enter- prises undertaken against the Holy See and the Cath- olic princes have their beginnings at Geneva. No city in Europe receives more apostates of all grades, secular and regular. From thence I conclude that Geneva be- ing destroyed would naturally lead to the dissipation of heresy." ^ Bancroft also writes: "More truly benevolent to tlie human race than Solon, more self-denying than Lycur- gus, the genius of Calvin infused enduring elements into the institutions of Geneva, and made it for the modern world the impregnable foi-tress of popular liberty." ' Vie de Ste. Francois de Sales, par son neotu, p. 120. 7 82 THE people's HIS'J'OliV Kcinke said, " Jolm Cjilviii ^vas virtually the fouiicler of America." Enfiis Clioate writes: "In the reign of Mary |of England] a thousand learned artisans Hed from the stake at home to the hajipier states of continental Pro- testantism. Of these, great numbers — I know not how many — came to Geneva. ... I ascribe to that five years in Geneva an influence which has changed the history of the world. I seem to myself to trace to it, as an influence on the English character, a new theology, new politics, another tone of character, the opening of another era of time and liberty. I seem to myself to trace to it the great civil war in England, the republican constitution framed in the cabin of the Mayflower, the divinity [theology] of Jonathan Edwards, the battle of Bunker Hill, the independence of America." During Calvin's ascendency in Geneva, a heretic, named Servetus, a man who denied the divinity of our Lord, and held other errors, was burned by order of the council. A great deal more has been made of this mel- ancholy occurrence by the enemies of Calvin, to injiuc his reputation, than the facts of the case warrant. Un- der the prosecution by Calvin he was convicted of this heresy, and the great Eeformer did not interfere to pre- vent his execution, though he earnestly entreated that his death might be by the sword, rather than by what he called " ihe atrocity'' of burning at the stake. There is this also to be said in extenuation : Calvin was a man of his time, had lieen brought up to regard the punish- ment of fundamental heresy by death as right and proper, and this particular case was approved by nearly the unanimous consent of the Protestants of that day. OF ITtESBYTERIANISM. 83 Even such a gentle spirit as Melanctlion affirmed the justice of the sentence ; and a prominent EngHsh divine wrote, in the next century, that the process against Ser- vetus was "just and honoral)le." In the words of an eminent British authority, by no means partial to the Reformer, "the general voice of Christendom, Roman Catholic and Protestant, was in favor of it, " and Cole- ridge declared that "the death of Servetus was not Calvin's guilt especially, but the common opprobrium of all European Christendom." It is, perhaps, hardly necessary to add that while this one sad case does throw a shadow on the Reformation of that day, there were thousands and tens of thousands who died for their opinions at the hands of Rome. Though Switzerland was a republic, and therefore a favorable held for Presbyterianism, Calvin could not work his principles of doctrine and government into the institutions of the people of Geneva without a long and bitter struggle. The great theological system called Pauline, or Augustinian, w^as heareafter to be named Calvinism. C^dvin established it as the theology of the Reformed and Presl)yterian churches throughout the world. No such logical and powerful statement of doc- trine had been made since the days of the apostles, and the promulgation of it resounded throughout Christen- dom. Its tAvo capital points were Divine Sovereignty and Human Depravity. These are the poles of the iCalvinistic theology, and the line that connects them is ^the axis around which the whole system revolves. Calvinism has been called hard, and it was hard, but it was true. Not everything in philosophy or theology can be sweetness and light. There must be granite in 84 THE teoi'Le's history the Avoi'ld as well as flowers ; so there is need for solid substance in the beliefs which make the fianiework of human character, as well as for the gentle graces of sympathy and love. It is such doctrines as compose Calvinism that make reformers. It show^s man the majesty of a Sovereign God, ruling all things, and in the presence of this sublime vision he loses the fear of mor- tals. Confronted with the infinite and the eternal he calmly ignores councils, kings, and popes. To this the world owes most of its martyrs. But Calvin did not make Calvinism, he only stated it. Calvinism is eternal truth itself. Its doctrines are the laws of nature, the laws of mind, the universal order, ordained by the Infinite, Avliich man cannot change, which operate in heaven and earth, l)y the unfolding of an eternal decree, not blind, but animated with the in- teUigence of the living. God. What was the effect of this theology upon those who accepted it? "There is no system," said Henry "Ward Beecher, a judge by no means prejudicial in its favor, " which equals Calvinism in intensifying, to the last de- gree, ideas of moral excellence and purity of character. There never was a system, since the world stood, which put upon man such motives to holiness, or which builds batteries which sweep the whole ground of sin with such horrible artillery." " They tell us," he continues, "that Calvinism phes men with hammer and chisel. It does ; and the result is monumental marble. Other systems leave men soft and dirty; Calvinism makes them of white marble, to endure forever." Calvin also worked out, more fuUy than had ever been done before, the principles of Presbyterian church gOA- OF PEESBYTERIANISM. 85 ernmeiit, constructing a splendid ecclesiastical republic, which became a model for the world. Its influence was felt in Holland, France, and Great Britain, and has since become a potent factor in the development of the civil and religious republics of the western hemis- phere. Perhaps no community was ever more thor- oughly permeated by the soul of one man ; and even now, after three hundred years, the simplicity and se- verity of the morals and manners of its inhabitants show Geneva to be still the city of John Calvin. His courage, perseverance, and genius were triumph- antly successful, and he had the satisfaction before he died of seeing his system of doctrine and polity firmly established, not only at Geneva, but in other parts of Switzerland, as well as in France and Scotland. His influence in his adopted city extended to every depart- ment. All questions of law, police, commerce, and manufacturing, were referred to the great theologian. He established several enterprises which brought wealth to the city; and the university founded by him has flourished down to the present time, an ornament to Geneva and a means of good to many nations. The labors which Calvin performed could not fail to tell upon his body. Through sickness, weakness, and pain he fought his way for twenty-eight years ; nor was it until undermined by several acute diseases, his mortal tenement crumbling to pieces, that the heroic soul de- serted the ruin and took its everlasting flight. After he became too feeble to preach, he was often carried to the church which is still associated with his name, the church in which he had so long and powerfully pro- claimed the glorious gospel. He refused to receive a 80 THE PEOrLE's HISTORY OF PTiESBYTERIAXISM. salary after lie became iiiial)le to perform liis public duties, though he continued to labor in private. When uri^ed to i^ive his Ijody rest, he exclaimed, "Would you that the Lc^rd should find me idle when he comes?" A short time before his decease he gathered the coun- cillors of Geneva around his bed and delivered to them a pai*ting charge. On the evening of the 27tli of May, 1564, in the fifty- fifth year of his age, he quietly passed away, leaning upon the liosom of a faithful friend, Theodore Beza, who had long been his companion in labors. This friend afterwards wrote : "I have lieen a witness of him for six- teen years, and I think I am fully entitled to say, that in this man there was exhil)ited to all an example of the life and death of the christian, such as it will not he easy to depreciate, and such as it will be difficult to emulate." The thoughtful visitor pauses now, in a little ceme- tery at the outskirts of Geneva, beside the only monu- ment erected to his memory in the city where he lived, a piece of marble over his grave, with nothing inscribed upon it but two letters, "I. C," and reflects that he needed no shaft of l)ronze or granite to make the Avorld remember its greatest uninspired theologian. In the grand old cathedral of St. Peter, the churcli of John Calvin in Geneva, may now be seen, on a marble tablet near the door, an inscription in French, of which the following is a translation: "In August, 1885, the Genevese Protestants cele- l)rated the three hundred and fiftieth anniversary of the Reformation, wishing thus to afiirni publicly their devo- ti(ui to the reformed religion, and their profound grati- tude to their valiant ancestors. May God protect always the church of Geneva!" CHAPTER XI. The Mighty Conflict in Franct.. PRESBYTEEIANISM, or christian repnl)licaiiisin, made a eoinparatiyely easy conquest in republican Switzerland. People accustomed to think for them- selves and to self-government would be most ready to embrace in religion principles similar to those by which they regulated their civil affairs. They Avould also be more indepench^nt and courageous in accepting neAv views; nor would they be trammelled l)v despotic rulers in folh^wing the dictates of their consciences, under the illuminating power of God's word. There- fore, one need not l)e surprised to hnd the Reforma- tion fully estal)lislied in Geneva, while in France it was still struggling? for existence, though it was from France principal!}^ the influences flrst came which started the moral revolution in the city by the Lake of Leman. In France the Reformation had not only to contend with the Roman Catholic hierarchy, but a system of despotism in the civil government of the country. It began in blood and persecution, and this has been its history, in the main, down to comparatively recent times. It has never been suppressed, and at one period it was the grandest Protestant church in Europe, and of magnilicent proportions. The great work may be said to have formally begun at TNIaux and Paris in 1521, though there had been a considerable, l)ut unor- ganized manifestation of renewed spiritual life among 87 88 THE people's history the people before that date. In 1520, Margaret, sister of Francis I., was a zealons Protestant. It was charac- teristic of the French Reformation that many persons of high rank and position espoused its interests. The pubhcation of the New Testament by Le Fevre d'Etaples, in 1522, and afterwards of Calvin's "Institutes of Chris- tian Theology," contri])uted greatly to the progress (^f the moyement. Olivetan's translation of the whole Bible supplied a great demand, and increased the de- mand it supplied. The study of the Scriptures is the main-spring of all true reformation. Christian psalmody was a potent factor among the French in those stirring times. The praising of God by the people in sacred song was almost unknown in the R(Mnan Church. This, like eyervthing else, was taken from them and performed by the priests or their assistants. It had been artistically execiited, and, no doubt, feelings deeply religious, as well as aesthetic , were stirred l)y it; but it was yet to be shown what was in the power of psalmody to do with the people, when they were afforded the opportunity t(^ join in holy hymns of praise to (rod. This was one feature of that mighty moyement which was by the people and for the people. How the Reformation was helped on by the hymns of Luther and others in Germany, and now in France, by a popular poet, Clement Marot, turning the Psalms of David into verse and putting them into the mouths of the })eople, clothed in mel- odious music! It was attended with great success. Before, the only singing by the people had l^een in sin or superstition, l)ut now this splendid art was redeemed and consecrated to the highest pui-poses. It came in- OF TRESBYTERIANISM. 89 to use in families, in cliiirclies, and, even in the public high way or the field of battle, the songs of Zion were heard resounding. The same thing has since l)een r>trikinglY ol)served in Scotland, and also in the great Wesleyan revival in England. One indication of tlit^ ])resence of spiritual life is the earnestness Avith whicli the people sing. This psahiT-singing, scripture-reading Reformation made rapid progress, so rapid as to excite the alarm of the priesthood, and bring on persecution, the favorite instrument of the dominant church to -subdue heresy. The gospel was being preached in fields, houses, ships, caves, vaults, and wherever their ministers could find a place to speak, or the people a place to listen. The congregations were large and increasing ; the popish churches were being deserted, and something needed to be done to stop the tide Avhicli was setting aAvay from Rome. In 1559, the first General Hvnod (Assembly) was held in Paris, just one year before the first General Asseni- l)ly in Scotland was convened in Edinburgh. The first moderator was Francis Morel. The Protestants had already passed through fiery trials. Before the time of the church's formal organization in this General Synod, over one hundred had given up their lives for the truth ; and on one occasion the king himself took part in a ])ublic burning of Protestants in the streets of Paris. But the work of reformation was not stayed by opposition ; it rather contributed to its intensity, and a cardinal wrote the Pope that France was half "Huguenot," as the Protestants were called. In Paris alone they numbered forty thousand adherents. 1)0 THE TEOrLE's HISTOEY It is a remarkable fact that there was no siiigh^ name among the Reformers of France which stood above all the rest, like Calvin's in Geneva, Zwingli's in Zurich, Luther's in Germany, or Knox's in Scotland. There wert^ many noble and eminent men, but there was no towering genius. A characteristic feature of the Refor- mation in this nation was the frequent appeal to arms on the part of its advocates. It is a sei'ious epiestion whether this was not a reason for the terrible calamities which came upon them, or whether their history he not an illustration of the truth that " all they which take the sword shall perish by the sword ;" but their provoca- tion was extreme. It was hard for the Protestants to refrain from passing from the defensive to the otiensive with those who Avere hunting them to the death. The Prince of Conde and Admiral Coligny, two laymen, were among the most prominent leaders of the Protes- tants. Both chivalrous and heroic men, they strove, by arms, to Ining about the great reform. Of course they were unsuccessful. The kingdom of Christ has never been established by military ])()wer. Condc was miseral)ly assassinated after a battle, and CV^ligny met a similar fate in the memorable massacre of St. Bartholo- mew, on the 24th of August, 1572. At one time, at a signal from the bell of Notre Dame Cathedral, seventy- tive thousand Protestants, men, women and children, were butcliered in cold blood in their homes and in the streets of Paris and other cities. The person most re- sponsilile for this colossal infamy was an Italian woman, Catherine de Medici, queen regent, and mother of the ])oy king, Charles IX. She deliberately decoyed the Protestants to Paris for this purpose, and turned loose OF I'ltESBYTErJANlSM. 91 upon tliem lier brutal iniiiions. The Seine Avas crim- soned, and the streets of Paris flowed in blood. To commemorate the event, the Pope ordered medals to be struck, having on one side the Pope's head, with this inscription, ^^ (.Tregorius XIII. ^ Pont. Mw., An. /.",• on the other a destroying angel, holding a cross in one hand, while, with the other, he slew the Protestants with a sword. On this side were inscribed the words, '' Ilugonotorvm strages'' (slaughter of the Huguenots), " 1572." Special services of thanksgiving were also held in the churches of Pome. Jonathan Edwards, in his "History of Pedemption," says, " It is reckoned that about this time, within thirty years, there were martyred in this kingdom (France), for the Protestant religion, 39 princes, 148 counts, 234 barons, 147,518 gentlemen, and 760,000 of the common people." Need one look further for the cause of the great calamities Avhicli have come upon France, when thus she deprived herself of her best people, those who represented the faith, courage, and conscience of the nation? How^ sadly has she needed this conservative element in the terrible scenes through which she lias passed since then! This was the same year in which John Knox died in Edinburgh. As the great Scottish Reformer, wIk^ him- self had tasted persecution in France, drew lu^ar his end the news of the massacre was brought to him. He was greatly moved, and uttered the following remark- able words: "Sentence is pronounced in Scotland against that murderer, the king of France, and God's vengeance shall never depart frc^m his house; but his name shall remain an execration to posterity ; and none 9'2 THE people's history that sliall come of bis loins shall enjoy that kingdom in peace and quietness, unless repentance prevent God's judgment." John Knox was not an inspired prophet, but he knew that God reigned, and that wickedness conld not long go unpunished. Nearly all of those enuaf^ed in the Parisian massacre fell at Rochelle in the course of two brief ^^ears afterwards. And the young king, Charles IX., the instrument of those who planned the horrid deed, died in three years, at the age of twenty- four, oi a strange disease which may be said to have literally Avrapt him in blood. The leaders of the Protestants now were the young Prince of Conde, son of him Avho was murdered, and King Henry of Navarre. The latter finally abjured the Reformed faith, and was placed on the throne of France, as Henry TV., but he did his old friends many kind- nesses, the greatest of which was the promulgation in 1598, of the famous edict of Nantes, so called from the city in which he signed it, by request of a General Synod held at Sedan. This edict of toleration guar- anteed the Protestants a certain restricted liberty, and security of life and proj^erty. At this time also a large sum ^\as given from the royal treasury to the seven hundi-ed and sixty-three Eeformed congregations and their theological seminaries at Montauban and Saunnir. H THE people's HISTOIJY to the king, lie was callecl upon for advice in tlie re- vision of the Book of Common Prayer. Through his influence largely the notion of the corporeal presence of Christ in the sacrament was excluded. An eminent churchman afterwards complained that "a runnagate Scot did take away the adoration or worshipping of Christ in the sacrament, by whose procurement that heresy was put into the communion book; so much prevailed that one man's authority at that time." In the following year he was employed in revising the "Articles of Religion," before they were adopted by parliament. They consisted at that time of forty -two, but in 156'2 they were reduced to their present number, from which they derived the title of " The Thirty-nine Articles." The salary of Knox as chaplain to King Edward YI. was forty pounds per annum ; but he labored incessantly, preaching nearly every day, and striving in many other ways to establish the truth in the hearts of the people. While ministering at Berwick, he had be- come engaged to Marjory Bowes, a young lady whom he afterwards married. Such a radical reformer as Knox could l)ut meet \\ ith oppc^sition from those favorable to the papacy, and he was arraigned by them before the council. He vin- dicated his preaching, and gained favor at court by his defence, and Arclil)ishop C^ranmer was directed to oHer liim an important charge in London. He declined, on tlie ground that he did not feel free to accept it while the condition of the English diurch remained what it was. Edward YI. afterwards, with the concurrence of liis privy council, (^tl'cn'ed him a bishopric; but he re- jected it, giving as his reason that the ofHce was desti- OF PRE8P,YTERIANISM. 117 tnte of divine aiitliority in the Scriptures. Neverthe- less, he eontimKHl his firdnous and sneeessful labors. There was in England at that time a strong sentiment in favor of Knox's views of doctrine and church govcn'n- nient, which were shared ])y the devoted young king, and candid historians declare that, but for his untimelv death, and the accession of Mary, the Church of Eng- land would in all probability have been reconstructed on the Presb}i:erian principle, as was the case in Scotland. When Mary ascended the throne all was changed, and Knox, after five years in England, fled, along with thc^usands of others, to Switzerland, to escape the fate of Hooper, Latimer, Eidley and Cranmer, who were burned at the stake during the five years of this bloody reign, 1553-1558. Our Eeformer now entered into a warm friendship with Calvin, which continued up t(^ the death of the latter, in 1564. In Geneva the exiled Scotchman addressed himself with ardor to stud^'ing more thoroughly the theology and polity of the Re- formed church, and likewise to the acquisition of the Hebrew language, though he was now nearly fifty years of age. Calvin was then in the zenith of his power, and Geneva swarmed with Protestant exiles from nearly all parts of Europe, who had come for protection, but who had really been sent hither by Providence to school, that when they returned to their homes they might l)e l)etter prepared for the work God had for them to do. He was called to the charge of a congregation of British exiles at Frankfort, Germany, but did not find it com- fortable to remain there, by reason of the ritualistic tendencies of some Eomanizing Anglicans, and he re- turned to Geneva. 118 THE people's histop.y 111 1555 Knox made a visit to Scotland, and while there succeeded in inducing the Protestants to give up altogether their attendance upon the Romish services, and to separate themselves formally from the apostate church. At the urgent request of the Earls Marischal and Glencairn, he adddessed a letter to the queen- regent in Ijehalf of the Reformation. In this epistle he wrote, among other vigorous sentences, "I come in the name of the Lord Jesus Christ, affirming that the religion which ye maintain is damnable idolatrie ; the which I offer myself to })rove by the most evident tes- timonies of Godde's Scriptures. And in this quarrelle, I present myself against all the papistes within the realme, desiring none other arniore l)ut Godde's holy word, and the liberty of my tonge." While occupied with these labors, he was called to the pastorate of the English congregation in Geneva, and accepted. He had hardly left Scotland when, learning that he was well out of the way, the valiant clergy condemned his soul to damnation and his l)ody to the flames, causing liiin to be l)uriit in effigy at the town cross in Edinburgh. The two years spent with his family in Geneva, in the bosom of his beloved ilock, were the most peaceful of his otherwise stormy life. But the time of rest was soon over. A call was In^ought to him l)y two Scottish gentlemen, endorsed hy the Earl of Glencairn, Lords Lorn, Erskine and James Stuart, to return and take charge of the Reformation in his native land. Cah-in and others advised that "he could not refuse the call without showing himself rebellious to God and unmerciful to his country." But a change in the face of public affairs in Scotland caused those who OF PRESBYTEKIANISM. IIU called Knox to address liim another letter, wldeli he received on his jonriiej, beseeching him to postpone his return to that country ; and he sadly retraced his steps to Geneva. The rest of his time on the continent was largely spent in writing letters of instruction and encouragement to his friends in Scotland, confirming them ill the faith, and contributing not a little to pre- pare the people for the work he was afterwards to do among them. In 1559 he left Geneva for the last time, to spend the remainder of his life, thirteen eventful years, in Scotland. Through much trial and persecu- tion the Reformation had been leavening the nation, and in some places there had been open ruptures with Rome. A considerable number of nolilemeii had also adopted the Protestant faith, and were doing all in their power to defend it. When it was known that Knox had returned to Scotland, though he Avas under sentence of death, there was general consternation among the papists. Nor was it without good reason, for the re- turn of their great leader infused courage into the friends of the Reformation. "As for the fear of danger that may come to me," said Knox, "let no man be solicitous ; for my life is in the custody of him whose glory I seek. I desire the hand and weapon of no man to defend me." He preached a powerful sermon in St. Andrews, which resulted in the stripping of the churches of images, the destruction of the monasteries, and the establishment of the Reformed reKgion in that town. In Perth the same thing had been done, and throughout the kingdom there was a general uprising of the people. At Perth what was called "The Second Covenant" was drawn up and signed, by a number of noble lords in the name 120 THE people's history of the whole congregation, pledging themselves to niutnal support and defence in the cause of truth. These "lords of the congregation" resolved now to abolish the idolatrous rites of popery. They took pos- session of Perth, St. Andrews and Stirling, and marched to Edinburgh, the cpieen-regent retiring with her forces before them. Word was sent officially to her by the lords, that they had no intention of throwing off their allegiance, but were only contending for the puriiica- tion of religion. John Knox was chosen by the people of Edinburgh to be their minister, and he immediately entered upon his labors among them. Hostilities were kept up until the next year, when the cpieen-regent died. After this event, which removed a great obstacle to the establishment of the Eeformed faith in Scotland, parliament was called to settle the religious aftairs of the kingdom. The papacy was abolished, and Presby- terianism adopted in its stead. The first General As- send)ly of the Church of Scotland met the same 3'ear, 1560, on tlu^ '20th day of December, and consisted of forty mend)ers, of which nund)er only six were min- isters. At this Assembly what was called " The First Book of Discipline," drawn up by Knox and live other ministers, was adopted. It applied the Presbyterian ])rinciple to the government of the congregation. As ministers were scarce, superintendents or travelling preachers were ap- pointed, each to have charge of the work in a certain district. A few extracts from this "First Buik" may not prove uninteresting. " It appertaineth to the pepill, and to every'several congregation, to elect their minister. Altogether this is t(^ l)e avoided, that any man be vio- OF PRESBYTERIANISM. 121 leiitly intriisecl or thrust upon any congregation." He was to be strictly " examinated," as to his "lyiff and maneris," and " doctryne and knawledge." In the elec- tion of officers care was to be taken "that every man may gyif his vote freelie." The election ef elders and deacons was annual, and the kirk (church) session met every week. In 1581 the office of elder was made for life. A splendid educational system was prepared b}^ Knox. There were to be parish schools, where grammar and Latin were to be taught; colleges in every impoi4;ant town; and universities in Glasgow, St. Andrews, and Aberdeen. This scheme was not fully carried out at that time. Knox believed in compulsory education, Avhich should be free to the poor. "No fader, of what estait and condition that ever he be, may use his children at his (iwn fantasie, especially in their youthheade, Init all must be compelled to bring up their children in learnyng and virtue." In August, 1561, not huig after the second General Assembly, Mary, the young and beautiful cpieen, arrived from France, to begin her unfortunate reign. She came fully possessed with two great ideas : one, to establish her claim to the English as well as the Scottish crown, and the other, to bring l)ack Scotland into the bosom of the Church of Eome. In the first she had to contend with her mighty cousin, Elizabeth, and in the other with the still mightier John Knox. In both she was unsuc- cessful. She attempted to control the Eeformer by her personal charms and infiuence, as she had the Scottish lords, but she f(^und him utterly unimpressil^le, either by flatter}^ or threats, and seems at last to have con- 122 THE people's history ceived for liim tlie bitterest hatred, mingled, it must lie said, with respect. Knox, after some experience of her ways, dechired "If there be not in her a proud mind, a crafty wit, and an indurate heart against God and liis truth, my judgment faileth me." He had a hard struggle to secure the independence of the Assemblies of the church against Queen Mary and her able secretary, Maitland. "Take from us the liberties of Assemblies, and take from us the gopsel," said he. But he so far succeeded tliat the queen was obliged to content herself with a compromise, that a representatiye of the crown should haye a place in the meetings. The gro^^'th of the church was now yery rapid, in spite of all difficulties, and seyen years after its organization, instead of numbering foi*ty laymen and six ministers, the General Assembly contained two hun- dred and fifty -two ministers. It would be difficult to conceiye of a more unsuitable queen for the hardy, and perhaps at that time turbulent Scotch, than was Mary. Her ^^rinciples totally opposed to theirs, she never understood them, but fancied her- self persecuted because they contended manfully for the truth and christian libei*ty. Her life was a failure ; that of Knox a maryellous success. He has been called liard and severe, find he was; but who cpiarrels with the oak for its toughness or the granite for its strength? He was hard, and God made him thus, but so were the times ; and the hard work he did has come doAvn to us as one of the grandest legacies of the past to the present and the future. Mary accused Knox of treason, because of a circular letter of his calling the lords together to witness the trial of some Protestants on a cei-tain occa- OF PRESBYTERIANISM. 123 sion ; but when lie confronted her in the midst of her conneil, he put them all to confusion, and threw the qneen into tears of angry disappointment hy his mas- terly and successful defence of his conduct. They felt themselves overwhelmed hy the irresistible power of the man. He also projected by his genius a new life into the people. As he preached the gospel in thunder tones from old St. Giles Cathedral to the multitudes assem- l)led there, he imparted that knowledge of the truth, that courage, that power of eternal life, which produced the character and piu'pose which were going to reform Scotland more thoroughly than any other country, and make it a model and an inspiration to the Protestant world. But the mightiest sun must set, and his day was drawing to a close. James Melville, who was a student at St. Andrews, writes a description of him in that city the year before he died. "Of all the benefits I had that year was the coming of that most notable prophet and apostle of our nation, Mr. John Knox. . . Mr. Knc^x would sometimes come in and repose him in our college yard, and call us scholars unto him and bless us, and exhort us to know God and his work in our country, and stand by the good cause. . . . He was very weak. I saw him every day go Avith a staff in one hand and and good godly Richard Ballantine assisting him from the abbey to the parish church, and, by the said Rich- ard and another servant, lifted up to the pulpit, where he behooved to lean at his first entry ; but e're he had done with his sermon, he was so active and vigorous that he was like to ding that pulpit into blads, and fly 124 THE people's history out of it." After lie became too weak from disease to i^o to St. Giles Cathedral, he would address the con- gregation standing in the street, from the Avindow of his house in the Canongate. He had a tender and faith- ful nurse in his young wife, Marjory having long ag(^ died, and he having married Margaret Stewai-t. The nohilitj and w orth of Scotland Avaited about his house to hear tidings of hope that his life might l)e spared. "Go read," said he to his Avife in his last hour, "where I cast my first anchor." She knew to what he referred, and read the seventeenth chapter of John's gospel. After giving expression to some striking Avords of triumph over sin and Satan and death, he gently ex- pired. " In this manner," AATote the faithful Ballantine, " de- parted this man of God, the light of Scotland and the church Avitliin the same, the mirror of godliness, and pattern and example t(^ all true ministers in puritA' of Hfe, soundness of doctrine, and boldness in reproving Avickednt^ss ; one that cared not for the favor of men, liow givat so(^ver they Avere. What dexterity' in teach- ing, l)oldness in reproA^ing, and hatred of Avickedness Avere in him, inA' ignorant dullness is not able t(^ declare, Avliicli, if I sliould labor to set out, it Avere as one Avho would light a candle to enable men to see tlie sun." His death occurred on Monday, the 24tli of Novem- ber, 1572. Standing by the grave into Avhich the body of John Knox had just b(>en lowered, in the presence of a great multitude who had come to his burial, the Eegent said, "Here lietli one avIio never feared the face of man." The old churchyard of St. Giles church has l)een OF PRESBYTERIANIHM. 125 turned into h Imsy street, and nothing marks the spot where, under clang of hoof and wheel, rest the ashes of Scotland's greatest man, but a small plate of l)rass in the pavement, bearing the simple inscription : "I. K., 1572." CHAPTEE XYI. A Long Conflict. THE Cluirch of Scotland, bereft of its great leader, was, for a time, like a ship witlioiit a nidder. He liad hardly passed away when reactionary tendencies in the direction of Episcopacy' began to show them- selves. But God had been preparing Andrew Melville, by a thorough training in continental schools, for the emergency. This devoted and scholarly man assailed Episcopacy with great poAver, as not only inexpedient, bnt utterly opposed to the church government of the Scriptures. The aristocracy, as was natural, generally favored it, from an instinctive self-interest, feeling that it was more in sympathy with their privileges. The monarchical principle and the republican could never atfiliate. Under the influence of Melville in 1580, the General Assembly declared "the pretended office of a bishop to be unlawful, having neither foundation nor warrant in the AVord of God." The next year, 1581, a complete law book for the church, called " The Second Book of Discipline," was prepared under Melville's in- spiration, which in 1592 became the basis of the act of parliament establishing Presbyterianism ;is the religion of the realm. This did not l)ring settled peace, by any means ; for Mary's son, James VI. of Scotland and I. of England, uniting the sovereign power of both king- 126 THE TEOrLE S HISTOIIY OF injESBYTElJIANISM. 127 doms ill liiiiiself, Avas never a Presbyterian. It is diffi- eult for a king to he repnl)liean in liis religion, espe- cially Avlien the cliureli and the state are nnited. James, from political and other motives, endeavored constantly to make inroads upon Piesl)ytei'ianism in Scotland, and bring the church in that country into uniformity with that of England. A number of mediaeval festivals were imposed upon the Scotch, and their estates were re- stored to the bishops. His son, Charles L, was even more zealous, but less wise, than his father, and pressed his reactionary measures so far as to lu'iiig about a revo- lution which deprived him of his throne and his life. One of the most eminent authorities of the present day says: "There is no doubt that the introduction, at the suggestion of Archbishop Laud, of the Book of Canons and the Book of Common Prayer, was the immediate occasion of the Enghsli RebeUion." {Schaf-Herzog Encyclo2)(P(li((.) The Dean of Edinburgh, acting under orders fi'om King Charles, attempted to introduce the liturgy in St. Giles's, in the presence of the privy council and magis- trates and a large assembh^ of the people, on Sunday, July 23, 1637. But it was unsuccessful. According to the old story, Jenny Geddes, an herb-woman, hearing the archbishop call on the dean to read the " collect for the day," misunderstood the word, l)ut not the act, and cried out, "The deil gi'e ye the cohc! Villaine, dost thou say mass at my lug?" (ear). With that she hurled the stool whereon she had been sitting at the head of the Dean. This was the signal ioY an uprising of the congregation, and the peoj^le shouted through the streets, "A pope, a pope! Antichrist! The sword 128 THE people'r history of the Lord and of Gideon !" This outburst of popnhir indignatic^n was not confined t(^ Edinburgh, hut there was such violent opposition manifested tliroupjhout th* kiniL;(h)Ui that the project was ahan(h)ned l)y the chn'«;y. Not so with Charles, who raised an army to force E])is- c(^pacy upon Scotland, and hej^an a f(^(^lish conflict which ended in his own destruction and the establishment of n new government in England, with Cromwell at its head. Stanley says, " The stool" (now in the Museum of Edin- burgh), "which Avas on that occasion flung at the head of the Dean of Edinburgh, extinguished the English Liturgy entirely in Scotland, for the seventeenth cen- tury, to a great extent even to the nineteenth, and gave to the civil war in England an impulse which c^nlv end(Ml in the overthrow of the church and the monarchy." Among the prominent actors in the events of those times were "The CVivenanters." John Craig, a chap- lain <^f James TL, had written, in 1580, a document called " The King's Confession," because signed by his royal master, but which was known afterwards as "The National Covenant," and was subscribed by persons of all ranks. It was a pledge of faithfidness to the Re- formed religion in Scotland. It l)ecanie a very impor- tant factor in the events of subsequent years. During the struggle which followed, Alexander Henderson, after Knox the Scottish ecclesiastic most honored for his tah^nts, statesmanship and patriotism, prepared a "bond," and AVarristoii, a "legal warrant," adapting the "National Covenant" to the exigencies of that crisis. It pledged the subscribers "to adhere to and defend the true religion, and forbear the practice of all inno- vations already introduced into the worship of God, OF PRESBYTERIANISM. 129 and to labor by all means lawful to recover the purity and liberty of the gospel as it was professed and es- tablished before the aforesaid innovations." Hender- son delivered a powerful sermon in Greyfriars church, Edinburgh, on February 28, 1638, after Avhich it was signed in the churchyard, tombstones serving for writing- tables, by thousands of persons, some of whom, it is said, drew blood from their arms to use instead of ink. It cost many of them the blood of their hearts eventu- all}^ Copies of the covenant were distributed through- out Scotland, and signed by great numbers of the best people in the land. On that memorable day, in old Greyfriars churchyard, Henderson said the people of- fered themselves like dewdrops in the morning for the service of lieaven, as they swore allegiance to the King of kings. The covenanters at last triumphed, and in 1639 the "Barrier Act" was passed by parlia- ment, providing that no change should thereafter be made in the laws of the church without the sanction of the Assemblies of the church. The following is a recent testimony to the worth of the coA^enanters, from the pen of the Rev. Charles Spurgeon, one of the broadest, greatest men of the nineteenth century : " In my bedroom I have hung up the picture of an old covenanter. He sits in a wild glen with his Bible open l)efore him on a huge stone. He leans on his great l^roadsword, and his horse stands quietly at his side. Evidently he smelleth the battle afar off, and is preparing for it hj drinking in some mighty promise. As you look into the old man's face you can almost hear him saying to himself, ' For the crown of Christ 130 THE people's history and the covenant I would gladly lay down my life this day.' They did lay down their lives, too, right ghn'i- onsly, and Scotland owes to her covenanting fathers far more than she knows. It was a grand day that in which they spread the solemn league and the covenant upon the tombstones of the old kirkyard in Ediiihurgh, and all sorts of men came forward to set their names to it. Glorious was that roll of worthies. There were the lords of the covenant and the common men of the cov- enant; and some pricked a vein and dipped the pen into their blood, that they might Avrite their names with the very fluid of their hearts. All over England also there were men who entered into a like solemn league and covenant, and met together to worship God accord- ing to their light, and not according to human order- books. They were resolved upon this one thing, that Rome should not come back to place and power while they could lift a hand against her ; neither should any other power in tlirone or parliament prevent the free exercise of their consciences for Christ's cause and cov- enant." Not many years after this the war between Charles I. and his parliament began, bringing into eminence Oliver Cromwell, whom it required centuries for his country- men to discover, under the influence of Macaulay and Thomas Carlyle, to be the greatest of all Englishmen, the foremost man of his age, and one who deserves to be honored through all time. AVliile he ruled England his country was respected by all the powers of Europe. The next year after Charles I. fled from Whitehall, Lon- don, to return no more until his execution, while C^rom- well was rising among his compatriots as their leader, a OF PllESBYTEKIANISM. 131 great gathering of ministers and elders from hoth king- doms was called to meet in AVestminster Al)l3ey. It has become historic nnder the name of " The Westminster Assembly." It sat from 1643 to 1649, and prepared the noblest confession of faith ever given to the world. The English divines had already met, and now requested the assistance of commissioners from the Church of Scotland. Another celebrated declaration, also called a " Covenant," or " The Solemn League and Covenant," Avas drawn np by Alexander Henderson, in conference with English commissioners to Edinburgh. It was adopted by the General Assembly in that city on the 17th day of August, 1643, with emotions of the deepest solemnity, sent up to London, and there accepted and subscribed by the English Parliament and the West- minster Assembly. " The Solemn League and Covenant bound the united kingdoms to endeavor the preservation of the reformed religion in the Church of Scotland, in doctrine, worship, discipline, and government, and the reformation of reli- gion in the kingdoms of England and Ireland, accord- ing to the Word of God and the example of the best- reformed churches, — the extirpation of popery and prelacy, — the defence of the king's person, authority, and honor, — and the preservation and defence of the true religion and lil^erties of the kingdom in peace and unity." The object of this League was to secure uniformity in the religious worship of the two countries, and the Westminster Assembly was charged with preparing a doc- trinal basis for the accomplishment of this end, a Book of Discipline and a Directory for Worship. Among 132 THE people's history the cominissiouers, ministers and elders, from Scotland Avere three remarkable divines, Alexander Henderson, Samuel Rutherford, and George Gillespie. The last named was the youngest member of the Assembly, and it is said that when they were about to attempt an answer to the question, "What is God?" they called on him to pray, and that the introduction to his prayer Avas taken as the definition, w^hich is now well known as a part of the Shorter Catechism. The Assembly was called l)y parliament, and consisted of Episcopalians, Independents, and Presbyterians. The Episcopal di- vines declined to act ; so the work was left to the two latter. The Independents Avere a small minority, yet they gave a deal of trouble in the progress of the meet- ing. Before the arrival of the Scottish commissioners, parliament and the Westminster Assembly had resolved upon the abolition of prelacy in the Church of England, though Avhat form of church gOA^ernment should be adopted in its place Avas an open question. The Eng- lish Presbyterians, not having been so Avell trained in Presbyterian polity, relied mainly upon the Scottish divines for the explanation and defence of that system of church government. They Avere singularly Avell (jualitied for their Avork. The first struggle in the Assembly Avas Avitli the Eras- tians, Avlio believed that the church should be under the authority of the state. The Preslnterians opposed it, and ofi'ered a statement for adoption, to the efi'ect that the church is an independent institution under Christ, its Head and King. They carried their point in the Assembly, but parliament refused to enact the proposi- tion. The Independents contended against the Presby- OF PEESBYTERIANISM. 133 terians, but failing to maintain their own views in tlie Assembly, they labored with the members of parliament and officers in the army, at the same time causing vexa- tious delays by useless discussion. But the Assembly was overwhelmingly Presbyterian, and that great system eventually carried the day. The opening sermon was by Dr. Twisse, from John xiv. 18, "I will not leave you comfortless; I will come to you." The Assembly continued its work until 1649, a period of nearly six years. When they submitted tlie Confession of Faith to parKament, it was returned to them with the order that they add, at the bottom of the pages, the texts from Scripture to prove all the doctrines set forth in the book. They were familiar with the various Eeformed Confessions which had been adopted by other Protestant churches of Europe, and this knowledge was of great help to them in their work. The results of this Westminster Assembly's labors have been of inestimable value in moulding the thought and character of milHons of people, Imt uniformity of faith and worship was not secured in Great Britain. The Confession of Faith, Catechisms, Discipline, and Directory for Worship, were adopted only by Scotland at that time, though they have since become the doctrinal basis of nearly all Enghsh- speaking Presbyterian churches throughout the world. ^ The constitution of the Church of Scotland was now well elaborated, both as to doctrine and government ; but just before it, in the future, aw^aited another terri- ble ordeal of persecution. The execution of Charles I., at Whiteh all, was sharply condemned in Scotland, be- ^ For a full account of this famous body, see Hetherington's " His- tory of the Westminster Assembly of Divines." 134 THE people's history cause the Scotch, while contending for Hl)erty to wor- ship God, were truly loyal to the goyernment. This threw them into antagonism with Cromwell. "Prince Charlie " took refuge among them. They proclaimed him king, with the title of Charles II., and he subscribed the " KSolemn League and Coyenant,"thus becoming a " Coy- enanter." This act proyed afterwards to haye been one of hypocrisy ; and when he was restored t(^ the goyern- ment of the two kingdoms, in 1660, a bitter persecu- tion began, which lasted twenty-eight years, or until the Reyolution, by which William and Mary acceded to the throne. In 1661 Episcopacy was re-established in Scotland. The Coyenants were denounced, and all who adhered to them declared to be traitors. The Marquis of Argyle Ayas beheaded and James Guthrie hanged the same year, and those scenes began to be enacted throughout Scotland which haye eyer since been regarded as affording at once exhibitions of th(^ most cruel tyranny and bigotry, and of the nol)lest heroism in deyotion to religious conyictions. Tliose were the days of "the Coyenanters," the annals of Ayhose wrongs should bring a glow of righteous indig- nation to eyery true heart which reads them. Diocesan coiu-ts were set up, and no minister was allowed to ex- ercise his office except by their consent. The Earl of Lauderdale was sent to the west country to enforce this system ; but fcnir hundred ministers resigned their charges rather than submit to what was in direct yiola- tion of their c(msciences and their coyenant. They were then forbidden to hold seryices, under penalty of death. Tliose who attended such seryices were pun- ished by lines and imprisonment. Bodies of troops OF PRESBYTERIANISM. 135 scoured the counhy, under such men as Sir James Turner and Graham of Claverliouse, hated names in Scottish history, to break up conventicles or out-door assembHes for worship, and to kill the saints of God. The Duke of York, afterwards James II., made himself especially odious to the people, both before and after his coronation, in 1686. The acts of government in those terrible times Avere such as would disgrace any people, however depraved, and could hardly be sur- passed in barbarity by the deeds of untaught savages. During those twenty-eight years eighteen thousand persons were put to death. The sod of Scotland was crimsoned with the blood of its noblest and best. An- other Marquis of Argyle, son of the former, was be- headed in Edinburgh, before St. Giles Cathedral. Men and Avomen throughout the kingdom were shot, put to the sword, and tied to stakes fastened in the edge of the sea, that a slow tide might torture them before death relieved their sufferings. One of the persecutors. Bishop Sharp, was killed in tlie moors near St. Andrews by a few men wTought to madness by his cruelties. A rising of the people took place in Galloway in 1666, Imt it re- sulted in defeat near Edinl)urgli. In another conflict the Covenanters defeated Claverliouse ; but at the fa- mous battle of Bothwell Bridge, in 1679, they were vanquished, and the blue banner, inscribed with " Christ OUR King and Covenant," was laid in the dust. At Sanquhar, a lieautiful hamlet among the hills of Dumfriesshire, was published, in 1680, a declaration disowning Charles IL as king, in consequence of his cruel conduct, and his violation of his oath as well as the laws of the country. One of the prominent authors 136 THE people's history of this " Sanquhar declaration," was Eichard Cameron, who gave his name to the party call " Cameronians," or Eeformed Presbyterians. At Airdmoss they met the royal troops, and were defeated, Cameron himself being killed. Another "declaration" was made in the same town hye years afterwards. On a granite shaft in Sanquhar may be seen at this day the following impres- siye and profoundly suggestiye inscription : ' ' In commemokation of The two famous Sanquhar Declarations, irhich were puUishedon this spot, where stood the ancient cross of the Burgh. The one by the Eev, Richard Cameeon, on June 22, 1680 ; The other by the Eev. James Eenwick, on the 25tli of jNIay, 1(!85, The Killing Time. If 5'ou would know the nature of their crime, Then read the story of their time. " In old Greyfriars' churchyard, Edinl)urgh. conye- niently near the Grassmarket, where many martyrs perished, is another remarkable inscription similar to this. The fortunate trayeller Avhose feet press the sacred soil of this place where the coyenant was signed, undei' the inspiration of the innnortal Henderson, en- (juires for the "Martyrs' Monument." He is led to an obscure corner, where, in ancient times, was the hole int(^ which the bodies of executed criminals were thrown, and is confronted l)y a modest stone rising from among the iyies which embrace the spot. C'old is indeed the man who can stand there and read, without a quickened soul, these quaint and pregnant sentences : ' ' Halt, passenger, take heed ! What do you see ? This tomb doth show for what some men did die. OF PRESBYTERIANISM. 137 Here lies interred the dust of those who stood 'Gainst perjury, resisting unto blood, Adhering to the covenants and laws. Establishing the same, which was the cause Their lives were sacrificed unto the lust Of prelatists abjured. Though here their dast Lies mixed with murderers and other crew. Whom justice justly did to death pursue; But as for them, no cause was to be found. Constant and steadfast, zealous witnessing For the prerogatives of Christ their king ; Which truths were sealed by famous Guthrie's head, And all along to Mr. Eenmck's blood ; They did endure the wrath of enemies. Reproaches, torments, deaths, and injuries ; But yet they're those who from such troubles came. And now triumph in glory with the Lamb." "From May 27th, 1661, that the most noble Marqais of Argyle was beheaded, to the 17th of February, 1688, that Mr. James Ren-^'ick suf- fered, were, one way or other, murdered or destroyed, for the same cause, about eighteen thousand ; of whom were execute at Edinburgh, about an hundred, of noblemen, gentlemen, ministers, and others; no- ble martyrs for Jesus Chkist. The most of them lie here." "For a particular account of the cause and manner of their suffer- ings see the Cloud of Witnesses, Criukshank's, and Defoe's Histories. " "Rev. vi. 9, 10, 11. Rev. vii. 14." Had the Covenanters been wholly crushed, reHgious liberty would have well-nigh perished in Great Britain ; but they conquered, though they died. The time of deliverance was coming; the edict had gone forth in Heaven. In the year 1688 James II. was driven from his throne, and William, Prince of Orange, and Mary acceded to the royal prerogative. Presbyterianisin was then again established by law in Scotland, though it was declared that there should be no persecution for religious opinion, but that there should be toleration for 138 THE PEOrLE's HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIANISM. all. So ended the persecutions in Scotland. God having purified his people in the fire, developing the finest system of doctrine and church government ever wrought out from the days of the apostles up to that time, now led them into the green pastures of peace. CHAPTER XVII. "My Kingdom is not of this World." — The Final Establishment of this Principle in Scotland. A THOUGHTFUL review of all that lias gone be- fore will suggest to the reader that the funda- mental cause of nearly all persecutions in the ages of history has been the entanglement of the aftairs of church and state. These are two distinct institutions, and, in most Avays, independent of one another. The state can only deal with the church by way of protect- ing its rights of propei-ty or of person, as it would any merely human organization. It has no authority to say what the church shall teach, nor what any man shall believe. It can only punish men for the commission of crime. Nor can the church intrude into the domain of the state. It may humbly petition the state in cases extraordinary, but its dealings with civil government are usually through the individual, by preaching "the gospel to every creature," and endeavoring to make men good citizens, by making them good Christians. The utmost punishment any church court may right- fully inflict is excommunication. To take a man's pro- perty, his liberty, or his life, for his opinions or his con- duct, however bad, is not within the scope of its charter, given by her Great Head, the Lord Jesus Christ. 139 140 THE people's histoky The lust for power first corrupted tlie church and huilt up the papacy. This same hist demanded control of the civil governments, and, in many cases, succeeded in using it for the punishment of heretics. Having re- ceived the church into this copartnership, the state often turned upon the church and f(^rced it to act contrary to the will of its divine Lord. The church cannot have two kings and l)e at peace, and highly significant was the inscription on the Covenanters' banner, " Christ our King and Covenant." The Church of the Reformation did not grasp this great principle at once. It held that the state must indeed leave the church free, hut should at the same time support it. Along this line the struggles of ages were carried on, until it began to dawn upon the con- sci(nisness of the church that in the world there are two distinct governments— the civil, with its temporal laws and i)enalties, and the church, Avith its spiritual laws and penalties. The great questions of theology, or the being of God, were settled, in human science, in the (^arly centuries after the apostles ; next came those of Anthropology, or the nature of man, which were tlie subject of the Augustinian and Pelagian controversy, it being finally acknowledged that human nature is essen- tially sinf\il; then followed the great controversy of the Reformation period, in which Soteriology, how men are saved, was elaborated, in the historic doctrine of justi- fication by faith. Ecclesiology, or tlu^ nature of the church, was the problem then laid doAvn for men to master. It has caused a mighty strife, but the sky is clearing again, and the church is l)ecoming mani- fest as a spiritual commonwealth. May it not stand OF PRESBYTERIANISM. 141 before the world at last, disentangled from all un- holy alliances, the Bride of Christ, "comely as Jeru- salem?" When William III. became king of England, in 1088, there Ayas a radical reyolution, because tlie peiyplen rep- resentatives 2ylaced Jihn o?i the throne, he being elected to the office by parliament. The "divine right of kings" died cruelly indeed, but died when parhament put Charles I. to death. And the logic of that event was, if we can destroy a king, we can make one. In other words, the representatives of the people ruled, and William was in sympathy with that great principle, so the government was established on a new basis, that of the consent of the people, and not the alleged "divine right" of a king. From that day to this the British sovereigns have held their power under the final consent of the governed. As long as they have such noble monarchs as her Koyal Majesty Victoria, whom they justly love and obey, all goes well, and they are happy ; but the days have passed when they would abide such tyrannies as those of the Stuarts and man}' who went before. This is the drift of history in civil governments ; and in ecclesiastical the tide is strongly towards the entire separation of church and state. The sequel to the history of Presbyterianism in Scotland will show this. On the accession of William and Mary to the throne, and the restoration of Presbyterianism in Scotland, the people of that countr}^ at once, as a general thing, re- turned to their old faith. There is one thing, however, which should not fail to be noted : there was no revenge taken upon their persecutors by those who had endured 142 THE people's history so many and so great cruelties. Let this be mentioned to tlieir everlasting honor. " Patronage" was the next great question that stirred the Church of Scotland. The custom of wealthy or nohle laymen haying the power of nominating pastors originated in the early ages, probably in cases where beneyolent persons built or endowed churches, this seeming to give them a soi*t of claim to tlieir manage- ment. It prevailed oyer a large part of the church of Eur(^pe in early times. AVlien the Reformation was in- troduced into Scotland this custom generally remained, in some cases the result being that the patron of a Protestant church was a Roman Catholic. It is easy to see that this could but produce serious complica- tions, because it was destructive to the spiritual inde- pendence of the church. The j^atronage sometimes be- longed to a person, and descended from father to son, and sometimes to a tract of land. In the latter case, whoever held the property possessed the right of pa- tronage. It was abolished in Scotland in 1(349, but re- established in 1660. After the Revolution it was again al)olished, in 1690, a pecuniary compensation being yot(Hl to the patrons. Under Queen Anne, in 1712, it was suddenly restored, and the patrons did not pay l)ack the compensation they had received in 1()90. The opposition to patronage had continued t(^ grow, and now became intensilied. In 1707 the complete union of the two countries was consummated, and the Scot- tish parliament adjourned to meet no more. But one of the declarations upon which this union was based was an act establishing the C^liurch of Scotland in the enjoyment of its riglits and privileges. It was stipu- OF PRESBYTERIANISM. 143 lated that the Confession of Faith and Presbyterian church government should " continue without any alteration to the people of this land in all succeeding generations ; " also " that this act of security, vnth the ESTABLISHMENT THEREIN CONTAINED, shall he held a lid ob- served in all time coining as a fundamental and essen- tial CONDITION OF ANY TREATY OF UNION to he Concluded hetwlM the two kingdoms, without any alteration THEREOF, OR DEROGATION THERETO, IN ANY SORT FOREVER." From this time forward there was, at various times, more or less trouble growing out of the imperfectly de- veloped spiritual independence of the church. The fundamental principles of its existence led it to feel re- sponsible only to Christ as its Head, but its entangle- ment with the civil power caused much friction. The patronage act was gradually accepted, and, in 1731, the right was given "to heritors and elders" by the General Assembly "to elect and call" pastors to churches. This was made law without consulting the Presbyteries, and it caused the first great secession from the Church of Scotland. Great crises bring great men. The great man of this occasion was Ebenezer Erskine. He de- nounced the action of the Assembly in sermons preached at Perth and Stirling, and was rebuked for it by the Synod. On his appealing to the General Assembly the rebuke was approved. He and three others were tem- porarily deposed; so, on the 6th of December, 1733, they organized the "Associate Presbytery." In 1737 they largely increased in numbers, and published their " Declaration and Testimony." They were finally de- posed on May 15, 1740, and became the "Secession Church." Their ground of objection was not patronage 144 THE people's history alone, but also to cei-tain doctrinal tendencies of a seri- ous nature in the church at that time. By 1747 the Secession Church had increased to foi*ty-live congrega- tions. But at that date an unhappy controversy oc- curred about the lawfulness of taking the oath adminis- tered to burgesses in the larger cities, which was by some understood as binding those who took it to sup- port the Established Church, but by others as meaning only the Protestant religion. Thus arose the two sects of "Burghers" and the General Associate Synod, other- vdse called the " Anti-burghers." In the course of time, however, they were reunited, and formed the "United Secession Church." Another historical thread must noAv be taken up, be- cause the body to which it relates was in the course of affairs to be united with the one just mentioned, and they together were to form one of the three great Pres- byterian denominations of Scotland. The "Belief Church" also sprang out of opposition to "patronage." In 1752 Thomas Gillespie, minister of Carnock, was de- posed for refusing to take part in the installati(^n of a minister whom it Avas determined to thrust upon the parish of Inverkeithing against the wishes of the pe(^- ple. Gillespie meekly submitted, but, repairing to Dum- fermline, gathered a congregation not connected Avitli any denomination. He Avas afterwards joined by other ministers, and the "Belief Church" was organized; so named because furnishing relief to congregations op- pressed by "patronage." This body and the "United Secession Church " prospered, and, being in sj-mpathy on the great question which gave them both existence, a union was effected in 1847, with great enthusiasm. OF PEESBYTERIANISM. 145 Tlie united body was called the " United Presbyterian Clinrcli of Scotland," and is now one of the powerful sisterhood of Presbyterian churches in that country. The great principle of the "U. P. Church," as it is familiarly termed, as distinguishing it from other Presbyterian bodies in Scotland is the entire inde- pendence of the church of God of all state control or support. It has been a mighty agency for develop- ing and establishing this great truth in the conscious- ness of the church at large. As this history progresses it will be seen that this principle has steadily advanced up to the present time, not only in Great Britain and on the continent of Eiu'ope, but also in other parts of the world. The Free Church, another of the great Presb}i;erian bodies of Scotland, came into existence in May, 1843, under circumstances of the greatest interest and solem- nity. At that time four hundred and seventy ministers withdrew from the Established Church, and became a separate organization. This secession grew out of the same fruitful source of controversy from which nearly all similar movements in Scotland before had arisen — the union of church and state, and the refusal to allow the people of a congregation to select their own minister. What were called " forced settlements," or settlements of pastors by the " patrons " against the wishes of a church, were not imcommon, but had become odious, and threatened the doctrinal piirity of some congregations. In 1884, under the guidance of Thomas Chalmers, the man of the crisis, the General Assembly passed a " veto act," which provided that, if a majorit}' of the male heads of families, being communicants, objected to the 146 THE people's histoky person nominated by the " lay patron," the Presbytery should decline to install him. Lord KinnduU, patron of the church at Anchterarder, who had presented Mr. Eobert Yonng to that parish, only to be rejected almost unanimously by the people, felt aggrieved by this act of the Assembly, and went to the civil couiis to insist upon his " patrimonial rights." The civil courts decided in favor of Lord KinnouU, and that the Presb^iiery had no poAver to refuse to induct Mr. Young into the parish. There Avas a deal of troublesome litigation over the matter, but though appeals were made to the govern- ment no relief was gained. The courts and the parlia- ment refused to accede to the demands of the General Assembly for the spiritual independence of the Church of Scotland. There was nothing left but to separate themselves fi'om the state. So, in 1843, Dr. AYelsli, moderator of the Assembly, laid upon the table, in pre- sence of the queen's commissioner, a "protest," setting forth the wrongs of the church, and declaring the inten- tion of its signers to secede and organize the "Free Church of Scotland." It was in St. Andrew's Church, Edinburgh, that this "disruption" occurred. As soon as the "protest" was read, the moderator arose and left the church, followed by a large number of nieml)ers, in- cluding such men as Chalmers, Guthrie, Cunningham, Duff, Candlish, and McCheyne, and proceeded to con- stitute, in another place, a Free Asseml)ly. The moral grandeur of this scene is apparent in the fact that these > men gave up all their worldl}^ support — every church- building, manse, glebe, and stipend (salary) — that tliey might maintain the spiritual independence of the churcli and her allegiance to her Divine Head, going out witli OF PRESBYTERIANISM. 147 nothing but tlieir faith and the promises of God. Such a movement for such a cause, and hj such men, couhl not fail to make an impression, and Scotland was shaken to its centre ; indeed, its influence was felt all over the civilized Avorld. All the foreign missionaries of the Church of Scotland joined the movement, and a small proportion of the landed gentry ; Init from the middle classes of the people there came a mighty response, which has continued to the present day, so that the number of congregations of the Free Church, which at first was four hundred and seventy, now exceeds a thousand, and they have become one of the great agents in the Church of Christ for the estal^lishment of the spiritual kingdom in Scotland and throughout the earth. Thus Presbyterianism in Scotland became divided into three branches, all holding the Westminster Con- fession, but differing on the relations of the church to the state. " The Church of Scotland " is the established, state church ; the other two are the United Presbyte- rian and the "Free Church of Scotland." Nearly all the population is included in these three churches, and though the controversies between the two latter and the former have been sometimes sharp, or even bitter, they have undoubtedly acted as a stimulus to each other's zeal and oi-thodoxy. The old animosities which ar(^se out of the controversies in which the United Presbyte- rian and Free Churches were born are gradually pass- ing away, and being replaced b}' a spirit of generous rivalry in building up the kingdom of Christ and of re- ciprocal respect. The question may be asked. Why did not the United Presbyterian and the Free Churches unite in one organi- 148 THE people's history zation, as tliey were both opposed to state control, and held alike to the Westminster Confession ? The answer is that, although they l^oth held that the church should l)e free from the authority of the state, yet they differed as to the matter of support, the Free Church men claim- ing that it is the duty of the state to support the church while not controlling it, and the United Presbyterians that the state should haye nothing to do with the church, either in exercising authority or proyiding sup- port. It is illogical to expect any ciyil goyernment or person to support an institution oyer which it has no control, and though the Free Church started out ^\dtli a different yiew, it has gradually come to hold, by a large majority, the more logical and scriptural principle of entire separation between church and state. The world was not made in a day, and gTeat principles are not always carried to their logical results at once by large Ijodies of people. The Free Church, under the leader- ship of Thomas Clialmers and others, laid down the principle, and staked their all upon it, that the kingdom of God is free from the control of ciyil goyernments in tlie management of its own spiritual affairs ; and though they also held what seems to us inconsistent with this, yiz., that the state should support the church, yet the silent logic of time was g(nng to bring them into har- mony with their essential principle, and cause them to reject all that was contrary to it. God leads his church onward and upward in her education under the Holy Spirit's direction. "He shall glorify me," said our Lord, " for he shall take of mine and shall show it unto you. It is an interesting fact that the Old Kirk, or Estab- OF PRESBYTEEIANISM. 149 lished Chiircli of KScotland, now i)ractices just wluit Chalmers ciiicl his coacljators contended for — the right of the people to reject ministers offered as their pastors, while it is still connected with and supported by the state. But the Free Church has gone further, and now demands, almost annually, that the " Church of Scot- land" be disestablished. The Free and United Pres- byterian Churches now stand on substantially the same ground. Some years ago a union of the two was nearly consummated, and though it failed for the time, it seems probable that it may at length be effected. Thus the great princi]3le of the spiritual independence of the Church of Christ has been developed and estab- lished in Scotland, and its influence has been very great in securing the same in other parts of the world. Whether the Church of Scotland, the " Old Kirk," Avill follow the same logic to its end, and at last become free from all state connection, is a question which the future will decide. There can be no denying that the drift of opinion is in favor of the separation of church and state in nearly all parts of Protestant Christendom. CHAPTEK XVIII. Peesbyteeianism in England. IT lias already been shown that in several countries the Christianity of the early times was never en- tirely subverted or destroyed. This may be most strongly stated of Bohemia, the Alpine fastnesses of Europe, and the western islands of Scotland. When the Eeformation came in the sixteenth century, the em- l)ers of the unextinguished fires of apostoHc religion in those regions burst into flame. It is a very signiflcant fact that in these cases the Reformation took the form of Presbyterianism. The religion of the AValdensian, the Bohemian, and the Scotch Protestants was strongly of the Presbyterian type. Is it going too far to claim that in this may be discovered a connection between Presbyterianism and the church of apostolic times ? It is not an unwarrantable assumption, and, in connec- tion with the New Testament history itself, is strongly corroborative proof of the divine endorsement of our system. AVe are now turning to England, a country with a difl'erent history. Though the Culdees operated in England for ;i time, they did not maintain a permanent ])osition there, but were driven back to Scotland and the western isles Avhence they came. There was ]3er- luips not a trace of them, and very little of theu' work, 150 THE people's history OF PRESBYTERIANISM. 151 left behind after a brief period of Koman Catholic su- premacy. England has never been a very favoral)le tield for Presbyterianism, though the greatest elal)ora- tion of Presbyterianism as a doctrine and a government was made in Westminster Al)be^^', London, and though many noble men of that faith have adorned its religious history. Wickliffe, the " Morning Star of the Pieforma- tion," Avho lived and labored two hundred years l)efore Luther, Calvin, and Knox, finished his course in 1384. He made the first complete translation of the Scriptures into the popular tongue of the British, and thus not only gave the people the Word of God, but by this and other writings performed a marvellous work in unifying and purifying the English language. Wickliflfe's Bible sowed the seeds of truth which bore such gracious har- vests in England, Scotland, and other countries in sub- sequent times. His laliors for the propagation of the gospel, and his courage in prosecuting them, brought down upon him the wrath of the Koman hierarchy, and he was bitterly, persecuted; but God mercifully de- fended him from his enemies, and he was not put to death, but died at last from paralysis. Thirty-one years after his decease, tlie Council of Constance, the same which burnt John Huss, condemned Wickhfie's writings to be burned, and his body to be taken up and removed from the "consecrated ground" of an English churchyard where it was reposing. This order ^\}^s not carried out until thirteen Aears afterwards, when, by command of Pope Martin V., the senseless and futile sentence Avas executed, aud his bones were Imrncd, tlic ashes being thrown into the Swift, a brancli of tlie Avon. The reason Wickliffe is mentioned in tliis connection 152 THE people's history is because, tliougli not a fully developed Presbyterian, lie held some of the fundamental principles of our church, and would probably have carried them out in a h)<>ical and complete system if circumstances had per- mitted. If he had not been withheld by the strono- hand of civil and ecclesiastical tyranny, and surrounded h\ the crystallized superstitions of a nation not ready for religious revolution, he would prolial^ly have made England what Knox made Scotland two hundred years afterwards. The followers of Wicklitte were called " Lollards," a name introduced from Germany. They contended against the flagrant errors of the church, and, in consequence, were cruelly oppressed. Their influence never died out altogether in England, nor in the southwest of Scotland, whither they also penetrated, but when opportunity came with the Reformation the old spirit showed itself, taking on at that time a more detinite and systematic cliaracter. A strong Presbyterian tendency was manifested among certain of the English Reformers of the sixteenth cen- tury. Men like Cranmer, Hooper, Latimer, and John Knox, would have reconstructed the church after the model of Geneva, or rather the doctrines and govern- ment of the New Testament, but for the change of senti- ment in the court caused by the death of Edward VI., and the accession to power first of Mary, and then of Elizabeth. Mary was a bitter Papist, but her reign was mercifulh^ short, only five years. Elizabeth, though a Protestant, was nothing of a Presbyterian, and main- tained with indomitalile will the prelatical system, and the supremacy of the sovereign over the church. Puritan- ism, afterwards so famous and bene^cent in history. OF PRESBYTERIANISM. 153 was the form wliicli the opposition to this policy as- sumed. Puritanism was intensely Calvinistic, and also leaned towards Presbyterian government. After it he- came evident that the Church of England could n(^t be nnKlified, Presbyterian ism in an organized form was established. The first Presbytery met at Wandsworth, November 20, 1572, the same year in which died in Scotland John Knox, who had been foremost among those who prepared the Avay for this movement during the reign of " good King Edward." Thomas Cartwright and Walter Travers were the two leading men of that infant church. Presliyterianism greAv outside the na- tional church, and Puritanism within it, l)ut by the time of Charles I. and Laud, Puritanism had itself become chiefly Presbyterian, and when the "Long Parliament" abolished Prelacy, Presliyterianism was established in England, as the religion of the nation, on June 29th, 1647, during the sessions of the famous Westminster Assembly. A splendid name shines among the divines of English Presbyterians of those early days, that of Richard Baxter, author of "The Saint's Everlasting- Rest," and the "Call to the LTn con verted," as well as other useful works. "When he died Non-conformist England mourned her chief, and Episcopal England one of her saints." For twenty years Presbyterianism was the national church, though never so fully developed and estab- lished as in Scotland. But after the restoration of the monarchy it was overturned, and in 1002 two thousand ministers were driven from their churches. Until 1688, o,r during the memorable twenty-eight years of struggle in Scotland, Presb}i;erianism was under the ban. It 13 154 THE people's history of presbyterianism. did not, however, exhibit that sturdy power of endur- ance so strikingly manifested in the noi-thern kingdom. It remained passive, and at the end of this period had become practically independent in its administration. After the dissipation of the Presbyterian principle of government in the church, another worse thing hap- pened, and one not disconnected logically from the first. It was the decay of sound doctrine. There is a far more intimate connection between government and doctrine than at first appears, and history shows that the strongest instrumental agency for the preservation of the gospel is the maintenance of a scriptural church government. During the eighteenth century, which was a time of general infidelity in Europe and America, a spirit of indifference and rationalism came over the church, and at length it became largely permeated with Unitarianism. During the latter part of the nineteenth century, there has been a revival of English Presbyterianism of the old Calvinistic type. Among some congregations the his- toric faith had been adhered to, which was cultivated and extended by ministers imported from Scotland. Those who had belonged to the United Presbyterian Church of Scotland, and also those who, after the ''Dis- ruption" in Scotland in 1843, formed one independent Synod, united in 1876 in a body of no mean dimensions, taking the name of the "Presbyterian Church of Eng- land." From that time there has been a strong growth throughout the kingdom, and now the church is recog- nized as a power in the religious life of the nation. CHAPTEK XIX. Presbyterianism in Wales. IT will surprise many who have not made a study of such matters to learn that there is a great and in- fluential body of Presbyterians in Wales. They call themselves "the Welsh Calvinistic Methodist Church." A branch in the United States is named "the Welsh Presbyterian Church." The name Methodist does not indicate that they are not Presbyterian. The Welsh Calvinistic Methodist Church is a member of the "Al- liance of Reformed churches throughout the world holding the Presbyterian system." The history of the origin and progress of this church is most remarkable. There had been considerable pre- paratory work done from 1716 by certain evangehcal preachers of the Established Church, one of whom was Rev. Griffith Jones, called the "morning star of the Methodist Revival." The Welsh Methodist Revival, properly so called, began in 1735-'36 in the eiforts of Howell Harris, Daniel Rowlands and Howell Davies, Davies being a pupil and convert of Griffith Jones. Their work was within the Established Church, though they were sorely persecuted by that body. The first clmrch organization of the Welsh Calvinistic Meth- odists was effected in 1736. AVithin three years thirty congregations were estabhshed in South Wales. Their 155 156 THE people's histoky first General Association was held at Watford, Glamor- gansliire, January 5, 1742, two years and a half prior to the first conference of English Methodists, or Wes- ley ans (Arminian), convened by Wesley in London. The Welsh Cahinistic Methodists partook of the same great revival spirit as that which animated the Metho- dists of England under the Wesleys, but differed from them in doctrine and polity, the Welsh being Calvinis- tic and Presbyterian, and the English being Arminian and Episcopal. The difierences in doctrinal belief be- tween the Wesleys and Whitfield are well knoAvn, and George Whitfield, one of the most wonderful preachers of his own or any other age, was the moderator of the first General Association of the Welsh Calvinists. This church has done a wonderful Avork in the Principality of Wales, and is altogether the strongest agency, in that interesting country, for the propagation of the gospel. In 1813 the "Home Mission Society" was organized, to operate principally in parts of England bordering on Wales. In 1823 a Confession of Faith was adopted. A theological seminary was founded in 1839 at Bala, and in 1812 another at Trevecca. Until 1810 the For- eign Missionary Avork was carried on through the Lon- don Foreign Missionary Society, but since that time the church has maintained missions of its own in vari- ous parts of the foreign field. The denomination at- tained its complete devel()})nient in 18(51, when it or- ganized a General Assembly at Swansea. It is com- posed of two Synods and twent}-five Presbyteries. No liturgy is used, but the services are in the simplest form, and usually in the AVelsh language. Stevens, in his "History of Methodism," gives a OF PRESBYTERIANISM. 157 graphic description of the work of tlie Welsh Calvinis- tic Methodists, showing their "extraordinary reHgious progress, b}' which the thirty dissenting churches of 1715 have increased (in 1857) to 2,300, by which a chapel (chnrch) now dots nearly every three square miles of the country, and over a million people, nearly the whole Welsh population (seven-eighths), are found attending public worship some part of every Sabbath." Irish Presbyterianism. In the earlier pages of this history an account was given of the Culdees, or ancient Presbyterians, whose base of operations was the little island of lona, off the west coast of Scotland, and how they sent missionaries to many portions of the continent of Europe, as well as Great Britain. The founder of the community of lona, Avliich did so much for Scotland, was Columba, an Irishman, and one of the earliest preachers of religion in Ireland was St. Patrick, a Scotchman. It is thus seen that from the beginning there was an intimate connection between the religion of Caledonia and that of Hibernia. The church of St. Patrick accomplished great good for the moral and intellectual condition of the Irish, and its influence was long felt in the countrv. The Irish church of the seventh and eighth centuries was distinguished for its seats of learning and its mission- ary zeal; and the literature of Ireland was at that period two hundred years in advance of that of most nations of northern Europe. It has been characteristic of Ireland for many generations that the extremes of human life have been strikingly exhilnted among its people. Among the Irish have nsually been found 158 THE people's history many of the highest and many of the lowest, the most learned and the most ignorant, the richest and the poorest. Among some classes, and in certain portions of the Island, are now as prosperous communities as may be found on earth, communities composed of cul- tivated, thrifty christian people, enjoying the blessings of industry and virtue, while in others may be seen degradation, superstition and want. The Protestant communities of Ireland are of the former kind. The province of Ulster in the north, including such cities as Londonderry and Belfast, is largely Protestant and Presbyterian. Of the Presbyterians in Ireland, the greater number reside in Ulster, though there are strong congregations of that faith in other quarters. The first Presbyterian minister who appeared in Ire- land after the Eeformation began in Europe was Walter Tr avers, in 1594. He was the first regular provost of Trinity College, Dublin, an institution which now stands among the foremost seats of learning in the world. OA\ing to the troubled condition of the country, he did not remain long in this position. During the reign of James I. in Great Britain, a few Scottish ministers were driven by persecution to take refuge in Ulster. One of these was Edward Brice, who had a charge near Carrickfergus, in County Antrim. About the same time a number of Scotchmen obtained bishopricks in Ulster, but being of Presbyterian training they did not exact conformity to the Episcopal ritual from the Scot- tish ministers who had settled around th(^m. When the t^Tannical Wentworth was placed at the head of the government in Ireland all this was changed, and strict conformity required of every one. All the Pres- b^i^erian ministers were exiled in a short time. OF PRESBYTERIANISM. 159 In 1642 a Scottish army was sent to Ireland to sub- due a rebellion which had been organized against the government. They brought chaplains with them, who not only preached to the soldiers, but also gathered into congregations the scattered Presbyterians already on the ground. Many of these people had come, along mth others from Great Britain, about thirty years be- fore to establish what was called '' The Plantation " in Ul- ster, a sort of colony. The immigration now increased rapidly, and at the restoration of the monarchy, in 1660, there were one hundred Presbyterian congregations in Ulster, representing a population of 100,000. During the period which followed the accession of Charles II. in England, to the Kevolution, under William III., those ever-memorable twenty-eight years, when the Cove- nanters endured so much in Scotland, the Ulster Pres- byterians were also cruelly treated. They were forbid- den to exercise their religion in any ]3ul)lic manner, a fine of one hundred pounds being inflicted upon any dissenting minister who dared to celebrate the Lord's Supper. They were obliged to meet for worship in the greatest secrecy, and were often interrupted by the of- ficers of the law, and their ministers cast into prison. Peace returned with the change of government in Eng- land, in 1688. King James 11. , after his ignominious flight from London, established himself in Ireland. At this period occurred the famous siege of Londonderry, a Protestant town in the extreme north. The arrest of the army of James 11. at this point, was of the utmost importance to the three kingdoms. The siege lasted one hundred and five days, and all supplies having been cut oft' by the 160 THE people's history besieging army, the determined garrison were reduced to tlie necessity of eating rats, and gnawing slioe-leatlier. The siege was raised at hist by the arrival of tliree Eng- Hsh ships with snppHes, after which the army of James retired. Bnt his cause was doomed. WilHam III. landed at Carrickfergus, stepping from his vessel upon a large stone which is still shown to visitors at the land- ing place in front of the castle, and soon afterwards gained a signal victory at the famous battle of the Boyne. This was in 1690 ; the next year, by another ^dctory at Aughrim, the defeat of James was rendered complete, and a treaty of peace was concluded. During the eighteenth century the Presbyterian Church of Ireland experienced something of the same decadence of doctrinal purity and spirituahty Avhich characterized the religious life of England and the con- tinent during that period. There was a general de- partiu'e from the old paths of conservative orthodoxy. In 1727 the Presl)yterian Church was weakened in numbers by the secession of those who were so tinctured with Unitarianism as to be unable to subscribe to the Westminster standards. The seceders organized them- selves into what was called "The Presbytery of An- trim." They received small suppc^rt from the mass of the people, but those who remained in the Synod of Ulster showed no great zeal for the truths which they professed. Meanwhile, however, the Scotch who set- tled in Ireland were doing a great deal to maintain sound doctrine in the pro^dnce of Ulster. Sixty years after they established their first congregation they num- bered ninety ministers. In 1750 their first Presbytery was constituted. OF PEESBYTEKIANISM. 161 In 1761 Matthew Lyiid, tlie first Irish covenanting minister, was ordained. The Covenanters, or Re- formed Presbyterians, made steady progress from that date, and in 1792 organized their first Presbytery. The Synod of Ulster, under the leadership of Henry Cooke, freed itself at last from the blight of Unitarian- ism, and, in 1829, the Unitarians were separated from the body. From that event began the revival of spirit- ual life, which caused a rapid increase in the numbers and power of the church, and has not ceased to this day. In 1835 the Synod of Ulster adopted an overture requiring all its ministers to subscribe to the Westmin- ster Confession of Faith. This act removed the ground of difference between itself and the Secession Synod, and they were united, in 1840, in a body called " The General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church in Ire- land." It had then 133 congregations, but has in- creased rapidly, so that now it has under its care fully half a million adherents. This fact is all the more sig- nificant in view of the constant drain of population from which it has suffered by emigration to the British colonies and the United States. In 1869 an act of parliament was passed, disestab- tablishing and disendowing the Episcopal Church of Ireland, Avhich leaves the people free to work out their religious convictions without interference by the state. It is not probable that in the whole Presbyterian sister- hood throughout the world there is a purer, more evan- gelical, or more vigorous body than the Presbyterian Church of Ireland. American Presbyteriauism is in- debted to it for many of its best members and noblest ministers of the Word. CHAPTEE XX. PKESBYTElilANISM IN THE EnDS OF THE EaRTH. THE extension of Presbjterianism throughout the world lias been largely accomplished through the instrumentality of the magnificent colonial system of Great Britain. The British Empire extends to all cli- mates, and many races of men, speaking dift'erent lan- guages, live under its sway. In most cases this rule has been beneficial, resulting in the establishment of stable governments where before was a condition little better than anarchy or despotism, and by bringing the various peoples into commercial connection with civili- zation. Another benefit has been in the settlement of sturdy colonies of English, Scotch, Irish and Welsh, in nearly all of the dependencies. No more enterprising or courageous nation has ever existed, and they have established in many countries colonies which have be- come centres of civilizing infiuence. The laws, customs, language and religion of an Anglo- Saxon civilization, have thus been carried to many lands, bringing blessings with them. There should be no jealousy between Great Britain and the United States. The latter, first established as a colony of England, and which, in the providence of God, became a separate nation, started out with the laws and cus- toms of the mother country, modified to suit the new 162 THE PEOPLE S HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIANISM. 103 circumstances. Though there were many things firmly imbedded in the institutions of the Enghsh which were wisely left east of the Atlantic, yet the marvellous de- velopment of national life in America has been but the outgrowth, in a new world, of certain principles and tendencies which had been ripening in England for hundreds of years. For obvious reasons the progress of principles is more rapid in new countries. Though Great Britain is an empire, and the United States a re- public, there is a wonderful harmony in the national tendencies of the two peoples. Indeed there is a grow- ing feeling of friendship between England and America, as there should be, and it is coming to be understood that the English-speaking race is one, with a great mis- sion to accomplish in the world. The various religious denominations of Great Britain, Avitli their fully developed systems of doctrine and government, have been planted in the colonies. Epis- copalians, Methodists, Baptists and Presbyterians, are found in nearly all countries. Cranmer, Wesley, Bun- yan and Knox, with what they strove to establish, have become the heritage of the world ; and their spiritual descendants are laboring shoulder to shoulder, if not always heart to heart, for the extension of the kingdom of Christ. It is not a matter of surprise that so enter- prising and brave a people as the Scotch should have representatives in all the colonies, and indeed wherever civilized man has found a home. They have carried their industry, good sense and honesty with them. The name of a Scotchman has no mean significance ; for it has generally been associated with courage, honesty and thrift. In that wit and wisdom so necessary to 164 THE people's history success in life, the " canny Scot" is not easily surpassed. But wherever he goes, he takes with him the customs of liis country, which he ever calls "home," and en- deavors to have a little Scotland of his own. He cai- ries his Confession of Faith, Catechism, Bible and Psjdm-l)ook, and from his dwelling or his kirk, on the l)anks of the Ganges, the St. La^NTence, or in the islands of the southern Pacihc, his simple praise ascends to heaven in words and music liorn in the land of the l)lue bells and heather. This is the reason why Presbyterianism in all Eng- lish-speaking countries is of the British type, rather than the Continental, and why the Westminster stand- ards are held without important alterations, except in the matter of the relations of the church to the state, in nearly all their churches. Australia came into the hands of the British about the time the colonies, which afterwards became the American Uuioii, Avere separating themselves from the motlier country-. This magniticent possession, a conti- nent nearly as large as the whole of Europe, is furnished with marvellous natural resources. The settlements are mainly along the seal^^ard, and it was not until 1860, when a reward of ten thousand pounds was offered by the government to any onc^ who would traverse this vast island, that much was known of the int(n-i(^r. Tliere are handsome and beautiful cities in tlie sev- eral provinces, among which are Sydney, Melbourne, and Adelaide, and the general aspect of the country gives the impression of prosperity and thrift. Australia is divided into provinces, and the Presby- terian Church of the country into several independent OF PRESBYTEPJANISM. 1G5 bodies, thongli inoyements are in progress Avliicli Avill probably result in their unification. In the province of Victoria there is a Presbyterian population of 130,000. Their first minister was Mr. Clow, in 1830, a retired army-chaplain ; and he was followed, after two years, by Mr. Forbes, who was sent out by the Church of Scot- land. There is now a General Assembly, mth subor- dinate courts, carrying on a successful home and for- eign work. In New KSouth Wales, Eastern Australia, Queensland, South Australia, Tasmania, and New Zea- land, there are active and useful Presbyterian bodies. When the Presliyterianism of all Australasia shall have been united, the result will be a great and influential church. In South Africa there are large bodies of Presbyte- rians divided among Cape Colony, Orange Free State, Natal, and the South African Eepublic. The prevail- ing organization is the Dutch Keformed, which was es- tablished with the colony, in 1652. Many Huguenots, flying from France after the revocation of the edict of Nantes, made their homes with the Dutch, and strength- ened their hands in the work of the gospel. They were also joined by large numbers of English and Scotch Presbyterians. In Ceylon, the West Indies, and South America, there are also colonial churches. It would be impos- sible, within the limits of such a volume as this, to give even a brief sketch of every branch of the Presbyterian famil}^, nor would it be interesting to the general reader to trace the origin and history of many small, though promising organizations. Canada has the largest of all the colonial churches. 14 106 THE TEOrLE's HISTORY This country constitutes one of the l)rightest jewels in the British crown. Its great size may be more easily apprehended by an opening sentence in a description of Canada, written by a recent visitor from Europe : "Travel a thousand miles up a great river; more than another thousand over inland seas and lakes ; a thou- sand miles across rolling prairies ; and yet another thou- sand miles through woods and over three great ranges of moimtains, and you have travelled from ocean to ocean through Canada." The Dominion of Canada is divided into nine provinces, each having its separate local legislature, and all, except Newfoundland, con- federated under one general government, having its seat in the city of Ottawa. The population is estimated at 4,000,000. Of these 1,800,000 are Roman CathoUcs. There are about 680,000 Presbyterians. Presbyterianism dates its origin in Canada from 1765, when George Henry, a military chaplain, began regular ministrations in Quebec. The first Presbyterian con- gregation in Montreal was established by Mr. Bethune. This congregation worshipped in a Roman Catholic church until 1792, when its members erected a building of their own. In recognition of the kindness of the Recollet Fathers, who had lent them the church, " The Society of Presbyterians," as they Avere called, pre- sented the good Fathers with "two hogsheads of Span- ish wine and a box of candles," which were "thankfully accepted." In 1787 Mr. Bethune removed to Glen- gary, in Upper Canada, now in the province of Ontario. This place was settled by Scottish Highlanders, and has been a stronghold of Presbyterianism ever since. In 1803 the Presb}i^ery of Montreal was constituted by OF PRESBYTERIANISM. 167 two ministers and one elder. For many years there was little growth of Presbyterianism in Canada. At length, however, a tide of British immigration set in, bringing large numbers of Presbyterians. The advance was now rapid, and in 1831 "the Synod of the Presby- terian Church of Canada, in connection with the Church of Scotland," was constituted. There were on its roll the names of twenty -five ministers. About the same time a number of ministers, chiefly of the Associate Church of Scotland, organized themselves as "The United Synod of Upper Canada." In 1840 this Synod joined the Synod in connection with the Church of Scotland, by which its numbers increased to eighty-two ministers. Another body called " The United Presbyterian Church in Canada," descended from the church of the same name in the mother country, was organized, and grew rapidly, doing an excellent work. When the "Dis- ruption" of 1843 occurred in Scotland, it had its echo in Canada, and the next year tw^enty-five ministers withdrew from the Synod in connection wdtli the Church of Scotland, and set up a separate body, taking the name of "The Presbyterian Church of Canada." These three clmrches labored on together for seventeen years, when, in 1861, their number w^as happily reduced to two, by a union of the United Presbyterians and those last mentioned, who represented the Free Church of Scotland. The united body w\as named " The Canada Presbyterian Church," and had two hundred and twenty- six ministers at the outset. It prospered greatly, and in 1870 a General Assembly was constituted. In the eastern or "maritime" provinces two inde- pendent bodies had been developing. In New Bruns- 168 THE people's history wick, Prince Edward's Islund, and Newfoundland, Pres- byterianisni made early settlements. The first Pres- In-tery in British Noi-th America was formed in 1780, with three ministers, Messrs. Smith, Cock, and Graham. In 1791 Dr. James McGregor and two other ministers organized "the Associate Presbytery of Nova Scotia." After twenty-three years these two bodies united, form- ing a Synod, and took the name of "The Presb;Ni^erian Clnirch of Nova Scotia." "The Synod of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Prince Edward's Island," in con- nection with the Church of Scotland, was constituted in 1833. The Presbytery of NeAv Brunswick, however, declined the union, and assumed the name of "The Synod of New Brunswick." In 1868 they were united. The Synods of the United Presbyterian and Free Churches in the province had already come together in 1860. Thus the way was prepared for a comprehensive union of the Presbyterian Churches of all the provinces, east and west. On the 15th day of June, 1875, this consummation was realized, when the "Presbyterian Church in Canada, in connection with the Church of Scotland," the "Canada Presl)yterian Church," the " Church of the Maritime Provinces in connection with the Church of Scotland," and the "Presbyterian Church of the Lower Provinces," were all fused into one great body called "The Presbyterian Church in Canada," representing nearly three-quarters of a million of souls. This chiTrch is remarkably well equipped with edu- cational facilities, having, among other institutions, col- leges in Kingston, Toronto, Montreal, Quebec, Hali- fax, and Winnipeg. The "Presbyterian Church in Canada " is bound to play a most important part in the OF PRESBYTEEIANISM. 169 future history of tliat highly promising country, in which it is by far the most influential Protestant de- nomination. It carries on a vast Home Mission work, employing two hundred and eighty missionaries. It also has an extensive mission among the million and a quarter French-speaking people of the Dominion, em- ploying some eighty-five missionaries, teachers, and colporteurs. It also carries on extensive Foreign Mis- sion operations among the Northwest Indians ; in For- mosa, China; Central India, Trinidad, and the New Hebrides. The contributions of this church for mis- sions in 1887 were 1283,000, and for all church pur- poses $1,533,000. CHAPTER XXI. Old PEiNCirLEK in a New Woeld. THE principles of government under which the peo- ple of the United States of America now live were not born on July 4, 1776, when the colonies declared their independence of Great Britain. Though they had never before had so fair a field for development, their existence may be traced far back in history. An institution is the embodiment of a principle, and the principles Avliich animate our institutions, iioav the ad- miration of the civilized world, have existed from the days of Moses. This history- has lieen concerned with the progress of the principle of repul)lican government in the church, and to a limited extent in the state. It has l)een the inspiration of the noblest struggles in all the past, and the belief in its final triumph has been the star of hope to most lovers of mankind. A\ e have seen h(nv it was fought for by the Waldenses, Culdees, Bo- hemians, Hungarians, Swiss, French, Dutch, English, German, Irish and Scotch ; we have sympathized with the heroes of all these countries in their sufferings ; and in their successes our hearts have been thrilled with joy. The principle of civil and religious liberty, hav- ing contended with tyranny for thc^usands of years, and having even in the midst of its bitterest conflicts given the richest blessings to the race, was at length 170 THE people's history OF PEESBYTERIANISM. 171 to have a better Held opened for its exercise ; the im- prisoned spirit was to be set free in a new world. He who guides all history, having made this the dearest possession of the human mind, except its hope of heaven, and having hallowed it by many a trial and by the blood of some of the noblest of earth, opened in the fulness of time the Western Hemisphere, and gave it to liberty as its peculiar possession. Delivered from Eygpt, led across a wide waste, liberty found a prom- ised land west of the Atlantic, where three thousand miles of sea separated from the religious and civil des- potisms Avhich had made the history of a thousand years a sickening tale of cruelty and woe. Nine years after the birth of Luther, North America was discovered, but it was not peopled then. It waited two hundred years for its important settlements. Eu- rope Avas not ripe, the time had not come. A fcAV ad- venturers explored its shores, bringing home wonderful stories of an almost limitless land ; but not until a vast body of liberty-loving Protestants had been trained in Europe, did that mighty exodus begin which has con- tinued to the present, and which has grown to such vast proportions. But God sent some of his best peoj^le first, to lay foundations for the future, and to prepare for the millions that were to follow. They were the Huguenots, the Dutch, the Puritans, the Scotch, and the Scotch-Irish. Was ever a nation founded by such noble people? Educated in human and divine learn- ing, purified in the furnace of aftliction, made to love libei*ty and truth better than life, riches, and home, they were drwen away from Europe to occupy North Amer- ica. They would not have come willingly ; such people 172 THE people's history love their conntiy, the graves of then* ancestors, and woukl prefer the pursuit of industry and virtue in a quiet life. The}^ needed to he torn up hj the roots, and forced by cruel edicts, and by the sword, to under- take the mighty task of building up civilization in a Avilderness. The oppressive measures which were adopted in Great Britain, drove from their homes great numbers of the Presbyterians of England, Ireland, and Scotland. The revocation of the edict of Nantes in France, in 1685, brought death to thousands, and sent multitudes into exile. A large proportion of the immigrants to America dur- ing the latter part of the seventeenth, and the early part of the eighteenth centuries, were Calvinistic in doctrine and Presbyterian in polity. They came from Scotland, England, Ireland, Holland, Germany, and France, and they brought their principles with them. Perhaps it might better be said tliat their principles brought t/te//}. The prevailing religious tone of the colonies was Calvinistic. The influence of the Presbyterians, in connection with other dissenters, in the establishment of the indepen- dence of the colonies, can hardly be overestimated. Merle D'Aubigne says, " Calvin was the founder of the greatest of republics. The Pilgrims who left their coun- try in the reign of James I., and, landing on the barren soil of New England, founded populous and mighty colonies, were his sons, his direct and legitimate sons ; and that American nation which we have seen growing so rapidly, boasts as its father the humble reformer on the shores of Lake Leman." The English, Scotch, and Irish Presbvterians avIio came to America, were not OF PRESBYTERIANISM. ' 173 tbnist out of their own country by the Roman Catho- lics, but by the Church of Enghind ; or, in the words of Bancroft, by "the imphicable ditferences between Protestant dissenters and the estal)Kshed Anglican Church. ... A young French refugee (John CVdvin), skilled in theology and civil law, in the duties of mag- istrates, and in the dialectics of religious controversy, entering the republic of Geneva, and conforming its ec- clesiastical discipline to the princi^^les of republican simplicity, established a party of which Englishmen be- came members, and New England the asylum." Cas- telar, the eloquent Spanish statesman, declares that " The Anglo-Saxon democracy is the product of a se- vere theology learned by the few Christian fugitives in the gloomy cities of Holland and of Switzerland, where the morose shade of Calvin still wanders. . . . And it remains serenely in its grandeur, forming the most dig- nified, most moral, most enlightened, and richest por- tion of the human race." So also Bancroft, in another place, says : " He that will not honor the memory and respect the influence of Calviii, knoAvs but little of the origin of American independence. . . . The light of his genius shattered the mask of darkness which supersti- tion had held for centuries before the brow of religion." One of the most imj^ortant elements in the tide of immigration that came to America was the Scotch- Irish, or people from Ireland (principally the northern part), whose ancestors w^ere Scotch. It need hardly be stated that they were Presbyterians, and that of a high order. The Scottish blood lost nothing by its contact with the Irish, some of Avhicli it absorbed, and the result was a type of character in which firmness and 174 THE people's history wit were l)leiKled. Great numbers of Scotcli-Irisli set- tled ill New York cind Pennsylvania, being particularly nu- merous in the latter. From Pennsylvania they gradually spread down into the Shenandoah Yalley of Virginia, and further on into Tennessee, North Carolina and South Carolina. They have been characterized everywhere l)y thrift, honesty, and patriotism, and their descendants have had a great influence in the social, educational, religious, political and military aftairs of the nation. They have scattered all over the Union, and are re- cognized as an element of stability and conservatism in all places where they have made their homes. It must not be understood that the Presbyterians and others who came to America to escape persecution were permitted to exercise their principles without a struggle. Tliey^ were called "Dissenters" in the colonies as well as at home, and were oppressively treated by the Church of England in America. Wherever that church could exert its power the "Dissenters" felt it. In Vir- ginia and New York all the people, irrespective of their religious convictions, had to pay taxes to support the Established Church. In 1707 Francis Makemie, the apostle of American Presbyterianism, was imprisoned in New York by Lord Cornbury, for being " a strolHng preacher," and disseminating "pernicious doctrines." Though political oppression was the visible cause of the rupture with the mother country, the element of religious feeling entered largely into the influences which made it possible, and Jones' "History of New York " states that the occasion of some of the first out- breaks against royal authority was the refusal of the dissenters to pay the church taxes levied upon them." OF PRESBYTERIANISM. 175 A natural consequence of this state of things was that tlie dissenters should identify in their minds the Estab- lished Church with the government of England, and that the church itself should support the government by which it was supported. Thus it came about that the Episcopal clergy sympathized with the crown in the great struggle for independence, while the dissenting churches, not being sustained by the state, were in favor of the Revolution, which promised to place all de- nominations on an equal footing. Of course there were numerous exceptions to this general rule among the clergy, and particularly the laity of the Episcopal Church, as was the case with George Washington, who was a member of that communion. But the leaders of the Revolution were generally Congregationalists, Bap- tists, Dutch Reformed, or Presbyterians. " The Pres- byterians were," Bancroft declares, "the supporters of religious freedom in America. ... It was from Witlier- spoon, of New Jersey, that Madison imbibed the lesson of perfect freedom in matters of conscience." The same writer says: "In Virginia the Presbytery of Han- over took the lead for liberty, and demanded the abo- lition of the Anglican church and the civil equality of every denomination." Rev. Samuel Davies, of Han- over county, was the champion of religious liberty for the Old Dominion, and he, with the Presbytery of Han- over, contended for spiritual independence. Opposed to them were the Anglican clergy, who defended their own, the Established Church. The immortal Patrick Henry, whose mother was a member of Mr. Davies' church, and who himself attended the ministry of that eloquent preacher in his youth, strove Avith his charac- 170 THE PEOrLE's HISTOEY teristic vehemence to have all denonmiations recognized and supported bv the government. The PreslMerj in a vigorous protest addressed to the Legislature said : "Therefore it is eontrarv to our principles and interest, and as we think subversive of religi(^us lil)ertv, we do again most earnestly entreat that our Legislature would never extend any assessment for religious purposes to us or to the congregations under our care." After the War of Independence an attempt was made to secure to the Episcopal Chiu'ch all the property, glehe-lands, etc., it had received from the government before the Revolution. The scheme seemed about to succeed in the Legislature of Virginia, when the old Presl)vtery of Hanover came again to the front in de- fence of religious liberty. 80 strong Avas their resist- ance that the wdiole subject was dropped, and this was the end of an Established Church in Virginia. The other States which had Established Churches soon fol- lowed this example, and religion was free at last in the New World. May it continue free forever ! The first Declaration of Independence was made in North Carolina, a year before the more famous one in Philadelphia, by the Scotch-Irish Presbyterians of Mecklenburg county, and consequently called the " Mecklenburg Declaration." On May 31, 1775, at the city of Charlotte, in a meeting called to consider the in- justice of the British government in its treatment of the colonies, they adopted a declaration of which the fol- lowing is an extract : "We do hereby dissolve the political bands which have connected us with the mother-country, and hereby absolve ourselves fi-om all allegiance to the British OF PKESBYTEBIANISM. 177 Crown." .... "We hereby declare ourselves a free and independent people ; are, and of riglit ought to be, a sovereign and self-governing association, under control of no power other than that of our God and the general government of Congress ; to the maintenance of which we solemnly pledge to each other our mutual co-opera- tion and our Hves, our fortunes, and our most sacred honor." The men who solemnly adopted these declaration?, were the children of the Covenanters, and were destined, in the impending struggle, to prove themselves worthy of their noble ancestors. They were twenty-seven in number, one-third of whom were Presb}i:erian elders, one was a Presbyterian minister, and all of them were con- nected in some way with the Presbyterian Church. The chairman of the meeting, William Alexander, and Dr. Ephraim Brevard, one of the clerks, were PresbjH^erian elders. The latter presented the declaration, which is said to have been drawn up l)y his brother, Adam Bre- vard, wh(:> was a lawyer, and who is reported to have declared that his principal guide in preparing that famous document was the Westminster Confession .of Faith, which, as then pubhshed, contained the Scottish Covenants. A copy of the Mecklenburg Declaration was sent to Congress, then in session at Philadelphia, and it was also published in North Carolina newspapers. The next year there was a general uprising of the other colonies, and, following the example of their brethren in the South, they renounced their allegiance to the king, and threw down the gauntlet of war. The Declaration of Independence, made in Philadel- phia the year following, was drawn up by Thomas Jef- 15 178 THE people's history ferson, and a comparison of the two documents shows that, in some matters, he borrowed from the Declara- tion of the Mecklenburg patriots of the preceding year. But at the time when the sturdy Scotch-Irish Presby- terians of North Carolina were defying the British gov- vernment, and throwing off its authority, many of the leading men in other colonies were still clinging to a hope for the maintenance of the royal authority under a redress of grieyances. In August, 1775, Thomas Jef- ferson said : " I would rather be in dependence on Great Britain, properly limited, than on au}^ nation on earth, or tlian on no nation.'" Washington said, in May, 1776: "When I took command of this army (June, 1775,) / ahhorred the idea of independence'' These braye men soon gravitated to the point before reached by the Mecklenburgers, and demanded independence, but the children of the Coyenanters were in advance, and there is not a doubt but that, as Bancroft writes, "the first voice publicly raised in America to dissolve all connection with Great Britain came, not from the Puritans of New England, nor from the Dutch of New York, nor the planters of Virginia, but from the Scotch- Irish Presbyterians." Among those most prominently associated with the cause of liberty in the struggles of the Revolution was Dr. John Witherspoon, of New Jersey, the president of Princeton College. He was a Scotchman, a Presbyte- rian minister, and descendant of John Knox. He was a leading member of the provincial congress of New Jersey, and afterwards for six years of the Continental Congress. His name is among the signers of the De- claration of Independence. By his wisdom, courage, piety, and patriotism he exercised a marked influence OF PRESBYTERIANISM. 179 in shaping the conrse of events, and has left a name crowned with honor. When General Washington was elected to the presi- dency, the General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church addressed to him a letter, expressing their gratification thereat, and hopes of his usefulness in this office, closing with these words : " We pray Almighty God to have you always in his holy keeping. M^y he prolong your valuable life, an ornament and a blessing to your country, and at last bestow on you the glorious reward of a faithful servant ! " To this Washington replied in a letter of great modesty and coui*tesy, concluding with the following paragraph : ''I desire you to accept my acknowledg- ments for your laudable endeavors to render men sober, honest, and good citizens, and the obedient subjects of a lawful government, as well as for your prayers to Almighty God for his blessings on our common country, and the instrument which he has been pleased to make use of in the administration of its government." "George Washington." The nation set out on its mission, holding the two precious treasures of civil and religious repubhcanism, and the churches began their work of teaching men to love God and one another. The United States, a free country, with free churches, has accomplished marvel- lous things up to the present ; this all the world knows, and what it may yet do, if its citizens are faithful to the truth and to the lessons of the past, only God can tell. Let us now go back, and trace the origin and pro- gress of the Presbyterian Church of the United States, which has borne an important part in the history of the country. CHAPTEE XXII. Peesbytekianism in America before the Eevolution. rr^HE first bodies of immigrants of the Presbyterian JL order, to those regions now inchided in the terri- tory of the American Union, Avere Hugnenots, sent over by Admiral CoHgny, in 1562 and 1565. The former established themselyes in the Carolinas, but the enter- prise Avas soon abandoned. The colonists of 1565 set- tled in St. Augustine, Florida, Avliere they hoped to haye liberty to worship God according to their con- sciences. But Roman Catholic cruelty followed them, and they Avere massacred hy the Spaniards, hardly enough being left to tell the tale. It was fitting that a country, con- secrated by a baptism of such blood as this, should afterwards become an asylum for the oppressed of aU nations. The second attempt to esfal)lisli a colony of the Re- formed or Presbyterian faith was more successful. This was a Huguenot movement also. The colony was sent from the Netherlands, consisting of thirty famihes, chiefly "AValloons," as the French Hugiienots Avho had taken refuge among the Dutch were called. They founded, in 16'23,tlie city of New Amsterdam, now New York, Avliere French Avas spoken, and the Huguenot faith professed from the outset. Other settlements of i8o THE PEOrLE's HiSTOnt OP PiiESBYTERIANISM. 181 Huguenots were afterwards made in Massachusetts, Maryland, Virginia and South CaroHna. Their num- bers, though considerable, were never very great, but their influence has been marked in the subsequent his- tory of America. From this noble race have come many of the foremost men of church and state in the republic. The first congregation in this country of the Presby- terian or Keformed system of doctrine and polity was organized in New Amsterdam, in 1628, by Jonas Michaelius, of more than fifty communicants, consist- ing of Walloons (Huguenots) and Dutch, and was a Dutch Keformed church. This was the origin in America of the Eeformed Dutch church, which has grown to be one of the influential denominations of the land. It has now dropped the word " Dutch " from its name, being sim- ply called the "Keformed Church in America." In proportion to its numbers, it is the wealthiest religious body in the United States, and is second to no other member of the great Presbyterian or Keformed Confed- eration in soundness of doctrine and in evangehca.l tone. In the Keformed Clmrch in America, as in Europe, a church session is called a "consistory," a Presbytery a "classis," a S}Tiod a "particular Synod," and the General Assembly the " General Sjoiod." An attempt has been made to effect a union between the Keformed Church and the Presbyterian Church, but it was not successful, and this honorable body still main- tains its independent existence and work. The Puritans of England and America were divided into two parties, the Presbyterians, and the Indepen- dents or CongregationaHsts. In New England, those 182 THE people's history called "Puritans" were generally Presbyterians, but the "Pilgrims" were Congregationalists, though even the Pilgrims recognized the office of elder for a long time. It came to be restricted to one elder for each congrega- tion, and, at last, was allowed to die out altogether. But the "Puritans" of New England never maintained a strong Prebji^erianism of the Scottish type. The re- sult of the contact of the two classes in New England was a compromise of Presb^^terianism and Indepen- dency, which became more and more Congregational as the colony progressed. The first Puritans from England came to Virginia. At Bermuda Hundred Bev. Alexander Whitaker minis- tered to a church as early as 1614. The Puritan ele- ment increased considerably up to 1642, when the Gov- ernor, Sir William Berkeley, appointed by the crown, began a course of persecution of all dissenters from the Church of England, which broke up the Puritan con- gregations. Many of them took refuge on the shores of Maryland, near the site of the present cit}^ of Annap- olis. But they were not welcomed in Maryland, and attempts were made by the officials of Lord Baltimore to prevent their effecting a permanent settlement. They, however, maintained their hold. Whether churches were formally organized or not, cannot he determined, but they were served by Presbyterian ministers, among whom were Francis Doughty (1658), and Matthew Hill (1667). AVhen WiUiam Traill, moderator of the Pres- b}^ery of Laggan, Ireland, fled to America for refuge fiom persecution, he also came to Maryland in 1682. There were settlements of Presl)yterians in Long Island, at a very early date. At Hempstead, Bichard OF PRESBYTEEIANISM. 183 Denton ministered to a congregation from 1644 to 1659. A clinrcli was established at Jamaica, Long Island, about tlie middle of the seventeenth centnry. At Sonthold a congregation. was organized in 1640, which is now under the care of the General Assembly, though it did not become connected with organized Presbyte- rianism until the early part of the eighteenth century. In New Jersey, Presbyterian churches were founded at Newark (1667), Elizabeth (1668), Woodbridge and Fairfield (1680). The first Presbyterian church, bearing the Presby- terian name, in New York city, was formed in 1717, and was partly supported, for a time, by contributions sent from Scotland. In Maryland churches were organized at Snow Hill and Kehoboth in 1684 by Francis Makemie. He was sent out from the north of Ireland to gather together the scattered Presbyterians in America. Makemie was eminently qualified for his work, a truly remarkable man, who may be called the founder of organized Pres- byterianism in America. He was born of Scottish an- cestry, near Rathmelton, County Donegal, Ireland. The exact date of his birth is unknown. He was or- dained by the Presbytery of Laggan as a missionary to America. His mission to the Western World was in consequence of a request for a minister sent over to Ireland by Colonel Stephens, of Maryland. Makemie married a lady belonging to a wealthy Virginia family. Evidence has been adduced to show that before the or- ganization at Snow Hill, by Makemie, there was a Presbyterian church in Virginia on the Elizabeth river, near the present site of the city of Norfolk, a congrega- 184 'THE people's HlfiTORY tion of wliicli the present First Presbyterian Clinrcli of Norfolk nia}^ be considered the descendant. The his- torical testimony for this is found in Spragiie's Annals, Vol. iii, p. 6, in a letter by Makemie himself. He writes in 1684: "In my yisit to EUzabeth riyer, in May, I found a poor, desolate people, mourning the loss of their dissenting minister from Ireland, whom the Lord had been pleased to remoye by death the summer be- fore." Francis Makemie was indefatigable in his labors, going from place to place preaching and organizing churches. His great want was pastors for the congre- gations. He corresponded with the mother country, and even visited Great Britain, as well as New England, to secure assistants. His imprisonment in New York for nearly two months for being a "Dissenter" has already been mentioned ; and though he was acquitted ])y the jury which tried him, he had to pay over three hundred dollars costs. The clergy of the Episcopal church in Virginia also objected to his work, and he was summoned to appear at Williamsburg, the capital, to give an account of himself before the Governor. This he did with such ability and success as to gain for liimself a license to preach at liberty throughout the colony. The first Presbytery, called the "Presbytery of Phil- adelphia," was organized in Philadelphia in 1706 by seven ministers, Davis, Wilson, Andrews, Taylor, Mac- nisli, Hampton, and Francis Makemie, who was made moderator. The first Presbyterian ordination was that of Mr. Boyd, in 1706, by this Presbytery. In 1716 they had become strong enough to divide into three OF niESBYTElUANISM. 185 Presbyteries, Pliiladelpliia, New Castle, and Long- Island, and proceeded to constitute the Synod of Phil- adelphia with seventeen ministers. From this time the growth of Presbyterianism was steady, though not rapid. In 1729 the Westminster standards were for- mally adopted by the Synod, and subscription thereto made a condition of membership for ministers in the church. This was not accomplished, hoAvever, without serious consequences. Some members of the Synod objected to this rule as being too strict, and contended for more liberty of opinion. These being in the minor- ity, failed to have their views adopted, and so the Synod divided into two independent bodies, called the ''New Side Synod of New York," and the "Old Side Synod of Philadelphia." This occurred in 1741, and was the first schism in the American Presbyterian church. But the matter of subscription to the West- minster standards was not the onl}^ ground of differ- ence between the "Old Side" and the "Ncav." Eev. William Tennent had established in 1727 in Bucks county, Pennsylvania, an educational institution called " The Log College." The building was of the rudest character, and the university-trained men considered the scholarship of the graduates of the Log C^ollege in- sufficient, though some of its «A/;/iy// afterwards became very eminent in the church. This became a source of irritation at the time, the " Old Side" objecting to the influence of Tennent's college. Another cause of trou- ble was the mighty revival which swept the country from Georgia to New Hampshire. George Whittield, Jonathan EdAvards and Gilbert Tennent preached the Gospel with marvelous power, and thousands were 186 THE PEOrLE's HISTORY converted to Christ. The "NeAV Side" sympathized with this movement, but the "Old Side" looked upon it with distrust. Both "Sides" felt the need of better educational facilities, and the "New Side" took measures for the development of the Log College into an institution of high grade, which resulted in the estabhshment of the " College of New Jersey," or what is popularly called " Princeton College," now a magnificent seat of learning. This division of the church lasted seventeen years, and was healed in 1758, when the bodies came together under the name of " The Synod of New York and Phil- adelphia." The tendency to division has ever charactei'ized Presb}i}erianism, and, while its results have not been always happy, it shows that Presb3i;erians love what they conceive to be the truth far more than mere ex- ternal unity and form. No other body has done so much for the propagation of sound doctrine among men as the Presbyterian or Eeformed Church. Its members have seldom been known to surrender or compromise their convictions for the sake of expe- diency, even to save their property and their Hves. There is another line of Presbyterian history begin- ning before the War of Independence and reachini; down to the present day, which must be mentioned here. In 1753 the Kevs. Alexander Gellatly and An- drew Ai-nott were sent over to America by the Asso- ciate Synod of Scotland and organized in Pennsylva- nia the "Associate Presbytery of America." In 1771 Eevs, Matthew Lynd and Alexander Dobbin, coming from Ireland, constituted the " Reformed Presbyterian OF PRESBYTERIANISM. 187 Cliurcli of America." Both of these enterprises grew, and being in sympathy with one another, a union be- tween them Avas consummated in 1782, and the neAv body was styled "The Synod of the Associate Ee- formed Church." Some of the Associate ministers did not go with their church in this union, but maintained a separate existence until 1858. At that time the union was consummated, and the result was the forma- tion of "The United Presbyterian Church of North America." Among the principles of this eminently conservative church have been opposition to the use of uninspired hymns in public worship, to slavery, and to secret societies. It refuses communion to those who do not agree to its distinctive tenets. At present the United Presbyterian church, which extends into twenty-one States, with Presbyteries in Canada, Egypt, and India, has 91,086 communicants. Some other smaller bodies in America are briefly de- scribed in Chapter XXIX. CHAPTEK XXIII. From the First General Assembly in the United States to the Old and New School Division of 1837. DURING the great War of IiKlependenee tlie Pres- byterians almost universally fonglit on the Amer- ican side. They were perhaps the strongest element ar- rayed against the crown, and prominent loyalist officials, in their letters to the home government, charged them with being the ringleaders of the reljellion. Presby- terian church buildings and manses were seized by the British sc^ldiers and used as hospitals or as stables for their horses, or Avere destroyed l)y tire. Not only did the members of the Presbyterian churches, in the exercise (^f their personal rights as citizens, with commendable patriotism and courage contend for independence, but the courts of the church, also, in souk^ instances, entered into the field and adopted resolutions calling upon the people to support tlit^ caus(^ of liberty. AYlum the war ended and the Republic started upon its career, it became necessary to change the constitu- tion of the church in some paHiculars, to adapt it to the condition of things under the new government. Provision was made for this change by the Synod on the 29th of May, 1788, and measures were at once i88 people's history of presbyterianism. 189 adopted for the division of the body into four Synods and the erection of a General Asseml)ly the year f()l- lowing. The fonr Synods were the Synod of New York and New Jersey, the Synod of PhiLxdelphia, tlie Synod of Virginia, and the Synod of the CaroKnas. Before the old Synod dissolved it was ordered that a General Assembly convene in Philadelphia, May 21st, 1789, and that Rev. John Witherspoon, D. D., open the meeting with a sermon and preside until a modera- tor could be chosen. This arrangement was carried out, and Dr. Witherspoon became the first presiding officer of the first General Assembly of the Presb}i^erian church in the United States of America. After the As- sembly had been constituted by Dr. Witherspoon, the Rev. John Rogers, D. D., of New York, was elected mod- erator, and Rev. George Duffield, of Carl^de, Pennsyl- vania, stated clerk. The first Congress of the United States, under the present constitution, was in session at the same time in New York. The Presbyterian church had now become an influential body. There were re- ported at this first Assembly 177 ministers, 431 clmrches, about 18,000 communicants, and $852 con- tributed for missions. Among its first acts were the estal)lisliment of a missionary fund ; arranging for the publication of a revised and authorized edition of the "Confession of Faith;" and the adoption of a solemn pastoral letter to the churches under its care. The ecclesiastic republic then being completely organ- ized for its labors, and the civil republic having estab- lished itself among the nations, greetings were ex- changed between the two. A letter addressed to Pres- ident Washington by the General Assembly and his i6 190 THE people's history courteoi"is response thereto, were briefly described in a former chapter. The chairman of the committee ap- pointed to present this communication to the President was Dr. Witherspoon, the Hfe-long friend of Washing- ton. Soon after the war an intimacy sprang up l:)etween the Presbyterians and the CongregationaUsts. At first this was sufficiently expressed by the exchange of fi^a- ternal commissioners at the annual meetings of the General Assembly and the Congregational Associations. But as this intimacy grew the way was preparing for a closer relationship, and in 1801 both parties adopted a " Plan of Union." This well-intentioned scheme provided that any Congregational church might have a Presb}i:erian pastor, who should retain his seat in his Presbytery, and that the church might be represented in that court, not by an elder, but a committee-man, or delegate chosen by the congregation. This comprom- ise of a fundamental princi23le could not fail to have a serious effect upon the polity of the whole church, and in consequence American Presbyterianism became somewhat loose in its administration. The CuMBEPtLAND Presbyterian Church. It has already been shown that the first schism in the American Presbyterian church gi^ew partly out of the great revival of the eighteenth century. Another rupture was about to occur from a similar cause. The Cumberland Presbyterian church is the result of a division made in 1810. In 1797, under the labors of a Presbyterian minister, Kev. James McGready, a re- markable revival began in southwestern Kentucky. OF PRESBYTEEIANISM. 191 This revival attained such proportions, and the in- crease in the number of churches was so large, that the demand for ordained ministers could not be met. Under the pressure of this need, the Cumberland Pres- bytery of Kentucky proceeded to ordain to the minis- try men who did not possess the educational qualifica- tions required by the constitution of the church. Many of these new ministers Avere also unable, by reason of peculiar doctrinal views, to subscril)e to the Confession of Faith. The dissension which followed in the Synod of Kentucky, in consequence of this action, culminated in 1806 in the dissolution of the Cumberland Presby- ter} , and in the annexation of the members considered sound to the Presbytery of Transylvania. This led to the formation of a council by those who dissented from the action of the Synod, and this council had charge of their operations until 1810, when they reorganized, on the 4th of February, the Presbytery of Cumberland, at the house of Mr. McAdow, in Dickson County, Tennes- see. It was constituted as an independent Presbytery. This body grew steadily, multiplying into other Pres- byteries, and now it has all the courts of a complete church imder a General Assembly, representing a total of 138,564 communicants. Their form of government is Presbyterian, but though they have adopted the AVestminster standards, it was not Avithout material alteration by way of sul)stituting a form of Arminian- ism for some of the strong Calvinistic statements. The Larger Catechism was omitted altogether ; also some of the sections of the chapter on " God's Eternal Decree." The congregations of the Cumberland Presbyterian church are mostly in the Mississippi VaUey and the 192 THE people's history Southwest. Their name is derived from the Presby- tery of Cumberhmd, situated iu the country contiguous to the Cumberland river. The Old and New School Division. Another controversy now appears in the American Presbyterian Church, and one which resulted in a divi- sion on a much larger scale than any that had gone before. It grew partly out of the workings of the (i/"Plan of Union" with the Congregationalists, and partly out of the great revival of religious zeal through- out the country at that period. Missionary and bene- volent societies were organized in gi-eat numbers, and appealed to the membership of the churches for sup- port. This produced a little friction Avith the regular denominational organs for carrying on aggressive oper- ations. A conflict between the two systems could not be avoided. Many persons objected to supporting the voluntary societies from fear of their disseminating the X New England or New Haven theology, which was not strictly Calvinistic, so the question of doctrine l)e- came prominently concerned in the controversy. Un- der the "Plan of Union" entered into with the Con- gregationalists in 1801, delegates from that church were allowed to deliberate and vote in the General Assend)ly. This began to show itself to l)e highly inexpedient in view of the subjects which were coming before the ' church. For this* reason, therefore, the General As- sembly withdrew from "the agi-eement" with the Con- gregationalists. This, however, did not settle the trouble ; for there was a difference among the Pres- byterians themselves. An "Old School" party and a OF PRESBYTERIANISM. 198 "New School" had developed, the "New School" sym- pathizing mth the New Haven theology. Albert Barnes of Philadelphia and Lyman Beecher of Cincinnati, prom- inent leaders of the New School element, were sub- jected to trials in their respective Presbyteries for their doctrinal views, but Avere vindicated by the General Assembly. The movement for the abolition of African slavery now came to the front, and intensified the an- tagonisms in the church, the Old School party being more conservative in its vieAvs of that and other ques- tions. Their leaders set forth charges against the New School party in a document of great ability, dra^vai up by Dr. Eobert J. Breckenridge , and called the "Act and Testimony." This was answered by the other side in a strong rejoinder, called the "Auburn Declaration." In the year 1837, when the General Assembly met, the Old School party foimd itself, for only tlie second time in seven years, in the majority. They believed that the time had come for decisive measures, which they proceeded to carry out in the^abrogation of the Plan of Union as unconstitutional and void.^' They took the ground that the congregations organized under the Plan were not entitled to meml)ership in the Pres- byterian church, and the Assembl}' disowned tlie Synod of the Western Keserve in Ohio, and the Synods of Geneva, Genessee and Utica in New York, in which most of the "mixed churches" were situated. The New School members resisted these measures, but uusuc- cessfully. The next year when the Assembly convened it was found tliat the Presbyteries of the four exscinded S^^nods had disregarded the act of the last Assembly and sent up their full number of commissioners. But 194 ^HE pjeople's history tliey were refused seats in the body, wliereupon tliey and many others effected an organization of their ovm, and elected Dr. Samnel Fisher moderator. This com- pleted the disniption, though the subject was kept be- fore the pul)lic for a long time by a lawsuit for the property, which was at first decided in favor of the New School, then, on appeal, in favor of the Old School. The matter was settled l)y the suit being withdra-v^Ti, each party keeping the property which it held at the time. Before this division occurred the Presbyterian Church of the United States had groAvn to be a power- ful organization, conducting many useful agencies for good both at home and abroad. The number of com- municants in 1837 was 220,557. In 1839 the Presby- teries reported to their respective Assemblies — Old and New School, 232,583 communicants, of which number 120,583 belonged to the former and 100,000 to the latter body, representing altogether about one millicni adherents, distributed throughout the length and breadth of the land. This division, which separated the church into nearly equal parts, the Old School being somewhat in the majority, caused a great deal of controversy and bit- ter feeling throughout the country. Those who led the fray on either side were men of great intellectual and dialectic power, as well as strong convictions, and the contest enlisted the interest of all thoughtful people. Both churches gi-ew and accomplished much good for the nation, though the Old School increased more rap- idly in numbers than the New. But as time passed on, OF PRESBYTERIANISM. 195 the two bodies of Presbyterians, laboring side by side, be- came more friendly, and tlie old animosities began to pass away. Meanwhile another and graver controvers}' was arising, not only in the churches, but in the na- tion — ^one which was destined to array the Northern and Southern States against one another on the field of war, costing the lives of a million of men, the ex- penditure of incalculable treasure, and causing the dis- ruption of nearly all the churches of Christ in the country. CHAPTEE XXIY. The Great Disruption in Church and Nation. THE most thrilling events in the history of Amer- ica are those connected with the great War of Secession. The controversy ont of which this terrible conflict came as its final resnlt was as old as the nation itself. The question was as to the relative powers of the national government, and those of the governments of the individual States. Southern men contended generally that each State had all power in itself, except what was expressly given the national government in the Federal constitution. Most Northern statesmen inclined to give greater autliority to the national gov- ernment than the Southerners were willing to concede. Such a question could not remain long a matter of theoretical disciission. It was bound to become practi- cal. Any important matter of administration, in which the interests of a State, or a number of States, were brought into conflict with the sc^ntiment of the nation, would biing it into the sphere of practical politics, and the question, with regard to that particular issue, would have to l)e settled. The question of "States' rights" took a practical shape, and assumed national importance in the anti- slavery agitati(^n. The issue was whether the several States, or the Federal government, had jurisdiction 196 THE PEOrLE's HISTOKY OF PRESBYTERIANISM. 197 over the institution of slavery, and whether slavery could be extended into Territories not yet organized as States. On this the Union was ruptured, and the Southern States seceded. Then followed the terrible war of secession. Slavery Avas finally abolished by the general government, and the attempt to set up a sep- arate nation, called the "Confederate States of Amer- ica," was a failure. Thus the great question Avas solved in favor of the Federal government, and against the rights of a State in the matter of slavery, and also its right to secede ; and the results of the war Avere made permanent in the form of amendments to the Federal constitution. The temporary disruption of the nation Avould nec- 7 essarily produce the same result in the churches, AA'hich were not confined to one section of the country. It Avould be impossible to hold any general intercourse, or for the highest ecclesiastical courts to meet, AA'hile the land was di Added in tAvain by a line of battle, along Avhich contending armies fought Avith a courage and de- termination never surpassed in the annals of Avar. But this Avas not all that divided the churches, or they Avould immediately have come together again at the close of the conflict. Great questions had arisen in their Assemblies groAving out of the national controversies, and they could not be settled by the appeal to arms. If nothing but a theory of civil government had been involved, or a matter of mere administration, the churches Avould liaA^e gone on their Avay in peace. But the question of slavery Avas involved in the struggle, and many good men in all churches differed as to AAdiether it Avas right or Avrong, expedient or inexpe- 198 THE people's history client; whetlier, if it were"" wrong, it came under the jurisdiction of the several States or the nation ; and finally, as to 'whether a church court had the right to take cognizance of the matter at all, or of secession, both of them falling into the sphere of politics. This last question divided the Presbyterian churches, Old and New School. The first disruption occurred in the New School church long before the secession of the Southern States. In 1856, and again in 1857, the New School General Assembly adopted resolutions in sympathy with the anti-slavery agitation. In consequence of this action several Southern Presbyteries withdrew and formed the "United Synod of the Presbyterian Church," afterwards called the " United Synod of the South." In the Spring of 1861 the war began, and the coun- try was thrown into a state of alarm and confusion. In various coiu'ts of the Old and New School churches, and especiall}^ in both General AssembHes, a sharp controversy had been waged with growing intensity for a long time on the burning questions that convulsed the nation. Without going fully into the history of this memorable debate, it may be sufficient to give the principal acts of the General Assemblies in the year 1861. These Avill show the drift of opinion and the state of feeling in the churches at that time. In the New School General Assembly the following paper, the repoi-t of a " Special Committee, on the State of the Country," was adopted : " Whereas, A portion of the people of the United States of America have risen up against the rightful OF PRESBYTERIANISM. 199 authority of the government, have instituted what they call ' The Confederate States of America,' in the name and defence of which they have made war against the United States, have seized the property of the Federal government, have assailed and overpowered its troops engaged in the discharge of their duty, and are now in armed rebellion against it ; the General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church of the United States of America cannot forbear to express their amazement at the wickedness of such proceedings, and at the bold advo- cacy and defence thereof, not only in those States in which the ordinances of ' Secession' have been passed, but in several others ; and " Whereas, The General Assembly, in the language of the Synod of New York and Philadelphia on the occa- sion of the Eevolutionary War, 'being met at a time when public affairs wear so threatening an aspect, and when ( unless God in his sovereign providence speedily prevents it) all the horrors of civil war are to be ap- prehended, are of the opinion that they cannot dis- charge their duty to the numerous congregations under their care without addressing them at this important crisis ; and as a firm belief and habitual recognition of the living God ought at all times to possess the minds of real Christians, so in seasons of public calamity, when the Lord is known by the judgments which He executeth, it would be an ignorance or indifference highly criminal not to look up to Him with reverence, to implore His mercy by humble and fervent prayer, and, if possible, to prevent His vengeance by unfeigned repentance ;' therefore ^'Resolved, 1, That inasmuch as the Presbyterian 200 THE PEOrLE's HISTORY Church in her past history has frequently Hftecl up her voice against oppression, and has shown herself a champion of constitutional lihei-ty, as against both des- p<^tisni and anarchy throughout the civilized world, we should he recreant to our high trust were we to with- hold our earnest protest against all such unlawful and treasonable acts. ^' Itesolved, 2, That this Assembly and the churches which it represents, cherish an undiminished attach- ment to the great principles of civil and religious free- dom on which our national government is based, unchn' the influence of which our fathers prayed and fought and liled, which issued in the establishment of our independence, by the preservation of which we be- lieve that the common interests of evangelical religion and civil lil)ei'ty will be most effectually sustained. " Iiesolreil, 3, That inasmuch as we believe, accord- ing to our form of government, that ' God, the Supreme Lord and king of all the world, hath orcLained civil magistrates to be, under Him, over the people for his own glory and for the public good, and to this end hath armed them with the power of the sword for th(^ defence and encouragement of them that are good and for the punishment of evil-doers,' there is, in the judg- ment of this Assembly, no blood or treasure too precious to lie devoted to the defence and perpetuity of the gov- ernment in all its constitutional authority. " h*eM>Jred, 4, That all those who are endeavoring t(^ uphold the constitution and maintain the government of these United States in the exercise of its lawful pre- rogatives, are entitled to the sympathy and support of christian and law-abiding citizens. OF PRESBYTERIANISM. 201 ^^ Hesolved, 5, That it be recommended to all our pastors a,nd cliurclies to be instant and fervent in prayer for the President of the United States and all in authority under him, that wisdom and strength may be given them in tlie discharge of their arduous duties ; for the Congress of the United States ; for the lieu- tenant-general commanding the army-in -chief, and all our soldiers, that God may shield- them from dan- ger in the hour of peril, and by the outpouring of the Holy Spirit upon the army and naA\y, renew and sanc- tify them so that, whether living or dying, they may be the servants of the Most High. " Resolved, 6, That in the countenance which many ministers of the gospel and other professing christians are noAv giving to treason and rebellion against the gov- ernment, we have great occasion to mourn for the injury thus done to the kingdom of the Redeemer, and that, though we have nothing to add to our former significant and explicit testimonials on the subject of slavery, we yet recommend our people to pray more fervently than ever for the removal of this evil, and all others, both social and political, which lie at the fecundation of our present national difficulties. '' Besolved, 7, That a copy of these resolutions, signed by the officers of the General Assembly be forwarded to His Excellency Abraham Lincoln, President of the United States." "Immediately upon the adoption of this report the Assembly united in fervent prayer for the country and its rulers." In the Old School General Assembly, in session at Philadelphia about the same time. May, 1861, occurred 17 202 THE teople's history. a severe conflict, as will be seen from the following paper, offered by Rev. Gardiner Spring, D. D., of New York, by the substitute proposed for it by Rev. Charles Hodge, D. D., of Princeton, New Jersey, and by the protest recorded by Dr. Hodge and others. The open- ing sermon, by Rev. Dr. Yeomans, was from the text, "My kingdom is not of this world," (John xviii. 36.) Only sixteen commissioners were present from the South. On motion of Dr. Spring, the famous " Spring Reso- olutions " were adopted, as follows : " Gratefull}^ acknowledging the bounty and care of Almighty God toward this favored land, and also recog- nizing our obligations to submit to every ordinance of man for the Lord's sake, this General Assembly adopts the follo\nng resolutions : '''■Resolved, 1, That in view of the present agitated and unhappy condition of this country, the 4tli da}^ of July next be hereby set apart as a day of prayer throughout our bounds, and that on this day ministers and people are called on humbly to confess and be- wail our national sins ; to offer our thanks to the Father of lights for His abundant and undeserved goodness towards us as a nation ; to seek His guidance and blessing upon our rulers and their counsels, as well as the then assembled Congress of the United States; and to implore Him in the name of Jesus Christ, the great Head of the christian profession, to turn away his anger from us and speedily restore to us the blessings of a safe and honorable peace. Resolved, 2, That this General Assembly, in the spirit of that christian patriotism which the Scriptures OF PRESBYTERIANISM 203 enjoin, and which has always characterized this church, do hereby acknowledge and declare our obligation to promote and perpetuate, as far as in us lies, the integ- rity of these United States, and to strengthen, uphold and encourage the Federal government in the exercise of all its functions under our noble constitution, and to this constitution, in all its provisions, requirements and principles, we profess our unabated loyalty. And to avoid all misconception, the Assembly declares that by the term "Federal government," as here used, is not meant any particular administration, or the peculiar opinions of any political party, but that cen- tral administration which, being at any time appointed and inaugurated according to the terms perscribed in the constitution of the United States, is the visible rep- resentative of our national existence." For this resolution Dr. Charles Hodge offered the following substitute : " The unhappy contest in which the country is now involved has brought both the church and the State face to face with questions of patriotism and of morals, which are without a parallel in this or any other land. True to their hereditary principles, the ministers and elders present in the As- sembly have met the emergency by the most decisive proof in their respective social and civil relations of their firm devotion to the constitution and laws under which we live ; and they are ready, at all suitable times and at whatever personal sacrifice, to testify their loy- alty to that constitution under which ' this goodly vine has sent out her boughs unto the sea, and her branches unto the river.' " For the following reasons, the Assembly deem it 204 THE TEOrLE's HISTORY impossible to put forth, at the present time, a more ex- tended and emphatic deliverance upon the subject, to wit : "1. The General Assembly is neither a Northern nor a Southern body ; it comprehends the entire Pres- byterian Church, irrespective of geographical lines or pohtical opinions ; and had it met this year, as it does with marked uniformity one-half of the time, in some Southern city, no one would have presumed to ask of it a fuller declaration of its views upon this subject than it has embodied in this minute. " 2. Owing to providential hindrances, nearly one- third of our Presbyteries are not represented at our present meeting; they feel that not only Christian courtesy, but common justice, requires that we should refrain, except in the presence of some stringent neces- sity, from adopting measures to bind the consciences of our brethren, who are absent, most of them, we be- lieve, by no fault of their own. "3. Such has been the course of events, that all the other evangelical denominations have been rent asun- der. We alone retain, this day, the proportions of a national church. We are happily united among ourselves on all questions of doctrine and discipline. The dismemberment of our church, while fraught Avith disaster to all our spiritual interests, could not fail to envenom the political animosities of the coun- try, and to augment the sorrows which already op- press us. We are not willing to sever this last bond which holds the North and South together in the fel- lowship of the gospel. Should an all-wise Providence hereafter exact this sacrifice, we shall be resigned to OF PRESBYTEBIANISM. 205 it ; but for the present, both religion and patriotism require us to cherish a union which, by God's bless- ing, may be tlie means of re-uniting our land." The debate on these two papers was earnest, and at times highly excited ; but the substitute of Dr. Hodge was lost, and Dr. Spring's resolution adopted by a vote of one hundred and fifty-four to sixty-six. Dr. Hodge and forty-five others pres ented against this action a pro- test, from which an extract is appended. The protest declared, " That the paper adopted by the Assembly does decide the political question just stated, in our judgment, is undeniable. It not only asserts the loyalty of this body to the constitution and Union, but it promises, in the name of all the churches and ministers whom it represents, to do all that in them lies to strengthen, uphold and encourage the Fed- eral government. It is, however, a notorious fact that man}^ of our ministers and members conscientiously believe that the allegiance of the citizens of this coun- tr}^ is primarily due to the States to which they re- spectively belong, and that therefore, whenever any State renounces its connection with the United States, and its allegiance to the constitution, the citizens of that State are bound by the laws of God to continue loyal to their State and obedient to its laws. The paper adopted by the Assembly virtually declares, on the other hand, that the allegiance of the citizen is due to the United States, anything in the constitution or laws of the several States to the contrary notwithstand- ing The General Assembly, in thus decid- ing a political question, and in making that decision practically a condition of church membership, has, in 20G THE people's history onr judgment violated the constitution of tlie cliurcli, and usurped the prerogative of its divine Master." On December 4, 1861, the Southern Presbyteries, by their representatives, organized, in Augusta, Georgia, the "General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church in the Confederate States of America," con- sisting of ninety-three ministers and ruling elders. Rev. B. M. Palmer, D. D., presided as moderator, and preached an opening sermon on Ephesians i. 22-23. "And gave Him to be head over all things to the church, which is His body, the fulness of Him that fiUeth all in aU." The organization of the church was completed and the Wef?tminster Confession of Faith and other stand- ards of the old church adopted, merely substituting the term "Confederate States" for "United States" wherever it occurred. The new body being fully in sympathy mth the Confederate States, adopted a reso- lution as follows : " Resolved^ That this General Assembly will spend the next half-hour, which is appointed for devotional exercises, in prayer to Almighty God for His blessing upon these Confederate States, and especially upon the officers and soldiers of our armies avIio are exposed to the dangers and temptations of the battle field and the camp." (Minutes 1861, p. 11.) In accordance wdth this order " the Assembly met and spent the first half-hour in special prayer for the bless- ing of God upon the cause of the Confederate States, according to previous order." (Minutes, p. 12.) At the next meeting of the General Assembly, the foUomng was adopted : " The relation of our con- OF PRESBYTERIANISM. 207 gregations to the great struggle m ichich ice are engaged. All of tlie Presbyterial narratives, Avitliont exception, mention the fact that their congregations have evinced the most cordial sympathy with the people of the Con- federate States in their efforts to maintain their cher- ished rights and institutions against the despotic power which is attempting to crush them. Deeply convinced that this struggle is not alone for civil rights, and pro- perty, and home, but also for religion, for the church, for the gospel, and for existence itself, the churches in our connection have freely contributed to its prosecu- tion of their substance, their prayers, and, above all, of their members and the beloved youth of their congre- gations. They have parted, without a murmur, with those who constitute the hope of the church, and have bidden them go forth to the support of this great and sacred cause with their benedictions, and their suppli- cations for their protection and success. The Assembly desires to record, with its solemn approval, this fact of the unanimity of our people in supporting a contest to which religion, as well as patriotism, now summons the citizens of this country, and to implore for them the blessing of God in the course they are now pursuing." (Narrative of 1862, p. 21.) The " General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church in the Confederate States of America," at its first meet- ing in Augusta, Georgia, adopted an address to all christian churches throughout the world, which gives not only the history of the organization of that Assem- bly but also furnishes an insight into the dift'erences between the two great parties of that day. The follow- ing extracts contain the main points of the ''Address :" 208 THE people's history "Augusta, Ga., Decemher, 1861. " The General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church in the Confederate States of America to all the churches of Jesus Christ throughout the earth, greeting : Grace, mercy and peace be multiplied upon you. "Dearly Beloved Brethren: It is probably known to 3'ou that the Presb}i;eries and Synods in the Confed- erate States, which were formerly in connection with the General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church in the United States of America, have renounced the juris- diction of that body, and dissolved the ties which boimd them ecclesiastically \di\\ their brethren of the North. "We have separated from our brethren of the North as Abraham separated from Lot — because we are per- suaded that the interests of true religion A^ill be more effectually subserved by two independent churches, un- der the circumstances in which the two countries are placed, than by one united body. "1. In the first place, the course of the last Assem- bly, at Philadelphia, conclusively shows that, if we should remain together, the political questions which divide us as citizens will be obtruded on our Church courts, and discussed by christian ministers and elders, with all the acrimony, bitterness and rancour with which such questions are usually discussed by men of tlie world. "The only conceivable condition, therefore, upon which the Church of the North and the South could remain together as one body, with any prospect of sue- OP PEESBYTERIANISM. 209 cess, is the rigorous exclusion of the questions and pas- sions of the forum from its halls of debate. This is what always ought to be done. The provinces of church and state are perfectly distinct, and the one has no right to usurp the jurisdiction of the other. The state is a natural institute, founded in the constitution of man as moral and social, and designed to realize the idea of justice. It is the society of rights. The church is a supernatural institute, founded in the facts of redemp- tion, and is designed to realize the idea of grace. It is the society of the redeemed. The state aims at social order, the church at spiritual hohness. The state looks to the visible and outward, the church is concerned for the invisible and inward. The badge of the state's au- thorit}' is the sword, by which it becomes a terror to evil- doers, and a praise to them that do well. The badge of the church's authority is the keys, by which it opens and shuts the kingdom of heaven, according as men are believing or impenitent. The power of the church is exclusively spiritual, that of the state includes the ex- ercise of force. The constitution of the church is a divine revelation ; the constitution of the state must be determined by human reason and the course of provi- dential events. The church has no right to construct or modify a government for the state, and the state has no right to frame a creed or polity for the church. They are as planets moving in different orbits, and unless each is confined to its own track, the consequences may be as disastrous in the moral world as the collision of different spheres in the Avorld of matter. It is true that there is a point at which their respective jurisdictions seem to meet — in the idea of ctuty. But even duty is 210 THE people's HISTOIIY viewed by each in very different lights. The church enjoins it as obedience to God, and the state enforces it as the safeguard of order. But there can be no colh- sion, unless one or the other blunders as to the things that are materially right. When the state makes mcked laAvs, contradicting the eternal principles of rectitude, the church is at liberty to testify against them; and humbly to petition that they may be repealed. In hke manner, if the church becomes seditious and a disturber of the peace, the state has a right to abate the nuisance. In ordinary cases, however, there is not likely to be a collision. Among a christian people, there is little dif- ference of opinion as to the radical distinctions of right and \\Tong. The only serious danger is where moral duty is conditioned upon a political question. Under the pretext of inculcating duty, the church may usurp the power to determine the question Avhich conditions it, and that is precisely what she is debarred fi'om doing. The condition must be given. She must accept it from the state, and then her own course is clear. If Ca?sar is your master, then pay tribute to him ; but whether the 'if holds, whether Caesar is your master or not whether he ever had any just authority, whether he now retains it, or has forfeited it, these are points which the church has no commission to adjudicate. "If it is desirable that each nation should contain a separate and an independent church, the Presbyteries of these Confederate States need no apology for boAving to the decree of Providence, which, in -withdrawing their country from the government of the United States, has at the same time determined that they should OF PRESBYTERIANISM. 211 withdraw from the church of their fathers. It is not that they have ceased to love it — not that they have abjured its ancient principles, or forgotten its glorious history. " The antagonism of the Northern and Southern sen- timent on the subject of slavery lies at the root of all the difficulties which have resulted in the dismember- ment of the Federal Union, and involved us in the hor- rors of an unnatural war. The Presbyterian Church in the United States has been enabled by the divine grace to pursue, for the most part, an eminently conservative, because a thoroughly scriptural, policy in relation to this delicate question. It has planted itself upon the Word of God, and utterly refused to make slave-holding a sin, or non-slave-holding a term of communion. But though both sections are agreed as to this general prin- ciple, it is not to be disguised that the North exercises a deep and settled antipathy to slavery itself, while the South is equally zealous in its defence. Recent events can have no other effect than to confirm the antipathy on the one hand, and to strengthen the attachment on the other. "And here we may venture to lay before the chris- tian world our views as a church upon the subject of slavery. We beg a candid hearing. " In the first place, we would have it distinctly under- stood that, in our ecclesiastical capacity, we are neither the friends nor the foes of slavery ; that is to say, we have no commission either to propagate or abolish it. The policy of its existence or non-existence is a ques- 212 THE people's history tion wliicli exclusively belongs to the state. We have no right, as a church, to enjoin it as a duty, or to con- demn it as sin. Oiir business is with the duties that spring from the relation : the duties of the masters on the one hand, and of their slaves on the other. These duties we are to proclaim and to enforce with spiritual sanctions. The social, civil, political problems con- nected Avitli this great subject transcend our sphere, as God has not entrusted to his church the organization of society, the construction of governments, nor the allotment of individuals to their various stations. The church has as much right to preach to the monarchies of Europe and the despotisms of Asia the doctrines of republican equality as to preach to the governments of the South the extirpation of slaveiy. This position is impregnable, unless it can be shown that slavery is a sin. "Now we venture to asseii, that if men had drawn their conclusions upon this subject only from the Bible, it would no more have entered into any human head to denounce slavery as a sin than to denounce monarchy, aristocracy, or poverty. "We feel that the souls of our slaves are a solemn trust, and we shall strive to present them faultless and complete before the presence of God. "Indeed, as we contemplate their condition in the Southern States, and contrast it with . that of their fathers before them, and that of their brethren in the present day in their native land, we cannot but accept it as a gracious providence that they have been brought OF PRESBYTERIANISM. 213 in such numbers to our shores, and redeemed from the bondage of barbarism and sin. Slavery to them has certainly been overruled for the greatest good. It has been a link in the Avondrous chain of Providence, through which many sons and daughters have been made heirs of the heavenly inheritance. "The ends which we propose to accomplish as a church are the same as those which are proposed by every other church. To proclaim God's truth as a wit- ness to the nations ; to gather His elect from the four corners of the earth ; and through the Word, ministries and ordinances to train them for eternal life, is the great business of his people. The only thing that will be at all peculiar to us, is the manner in which we shall attempt to discharge our duty. In almost every department of labor, except the pastoral care of con- gregations, it has been usual for the church to resort to societies more or less closely connected with itself, and yet logically and really distinct. It is our purpose to rely upon the regular organs of our government, and executive agencies directly and immediately responsi- ble to them. We wish to make the church not merely a superintendent, but an agent. We wish to develop the idea that the congregation of believers, as visibly organized, is the very society or corporation which is divinely called to do the work of the Lord. "We shall, therefore, endeavor to do what has never yet been adequately done — bring out the energies of our Presbyterian system of government. From the Session to the Assembly we shall strive to enlist all our courts, as coiirts, in every department of christian i8 214 THE people's history of presbyterianism. effort. We are not ashamed to confess tliat we are in- tensely Presbyterian. We embrace all other denomi- nations in the arms of christian fellowship and love, but onr own scheme of government we humbly believe to be according to the pattern shown in the Monnt, and, by God's grace, we hope to put its efficiency to the test. "Brethren, we have done. We have told you who we are, and what we are. We greet you in the ties of christian brotherhood. We desire to cultivate peace and charity ^\itli all our fellow-christians throughout the world. "We invite to ecclesiastical communion all who maintain our principles of faith and order. And now we commend you to God and the word of His grace. We devoutly pray that the whole catholic church may be afresh baptized with the Holy Ghost, and that she may speedily be stirred up to give the Lord no rest until He establish and make Jerusalem a praise in the earth." Thus the great division was made in state and church. The civil war raged for four years, friends, and even brothers, being marshalled against each other on the field. Both churches, North and South, labored to comfort the afflicted, to call sinners to Christ, to bear the light of the gospel before the eyes of men. Both made mistakes ; the times were terrible. The pathos of their history can never be written. But they have gone ; the war is over ; and many years have passed away since then, leaving blessings behind them. The old battle-fields are planted in wheat and corn, and where once resounded the roar of cannon and the clash of arms, are now heard the voices of reapers gathering the golden harvests of peace. CHAPTEK XXV. Amekican Presbyterianism After the War of Se- cession. rriHE war ended in 1865, when General Robert E. JL Lee snrrrendered to General U. S. Grant at Appo- mattox Conrthonse, Virginia, and as the clouds cleared away, the work of reconstructing the Union began. The name of the " Presbyterian Church in the Confede- rate States of America" was then changed to the " Pres- byterian Church in the United States," the same as that of the Northern Church, except that the words '^of America'' were omitted. While the war was still going on, a union was con- summated between the " General Assembly of the Pres- b}i;erian Church in the Confederate States of America " and the " United Synod of the South." It will be re- called that this latter body had been formed by a num- ber of Southern members who seceded from the New School General Assembly, in 1857, on account of some deliverances on the subject of slavery to which they ob- jected. In 1863 this "United Synod," which repre- sented the New School element in the South, was re- ceived into the Southern Church. The basis of this union was a hearty agreement between the two bodies, expressed in a "Declaration," concerning: 1, The fall of man, original sin, imputation of guilt, origin of sin, 215 216 THE people's history etc. ; 2, Concerning regeneration ; 3, Concerning the atonement of Jesus Christ ; 4, Concerning the believer's justification ; 5, Concerning revivals ; 6, Concerning voluntary societies and the functions of the church. This body brought to their new allies 120 ministers, 190 churches, and 12,000 communicants. Another ac- cession was the Presbytery of Patapsco, in 1867, con- sisting of 6 ministers, 3 churches, and 576 communi- cants. In 1869 the Synod of Kentucky, being the one of two bodies covering the same ground and bearing the same name, in sympathy with the views of the Southern Presbyterians, was received into their General Assem- bly. In no part of the country had more stormy scenes been enacted in the trying times before, dur- ing, and just after the Avar than in Kentucky. The storm swept the church as well as the state. AYlien the " General Assembly of the Presb}i:erian Church in the United States" was formed, in 1861, at Au- gusta, Georgia, the Synod of Kentucky declined to join the movement, maintained its connection with the Old Church in the North, and, at the same time, adopted condemnatory resolutions touching the acts of the General Assembly of 1861, saying, the Synod "regrets that part of the action of the last Assembly touching the order for a day of general prayer, which w^as liable to be construed, and was construed, into a requisition on all the members and office-l)earers of the church living in the numerous States which had seceded from the United States, and were in a state of war with them, as bound by christian duty and by the authority of the church, to disregard the hostile governments OF PEESBTTERIANISM. 217 which had been established over them, and, in defiance of the actual authority of those governments, to pray for their overthrow." In 1862 the General Assembly which had been thus criticized condemned this action of the Synod of Ken- tucky. In 1864 the Synod again felt called upon to express its disapproval of a deliverance of the General Assem- bly on the subject of slavery, but declared that it ad- hered with unbroken purpose to the Presbyterian Church in the United States of America. In 1865 this debate between the Synod of Kentucky and the Gen- eral Assembly was continued, by the latter body con- demning the Synod for having taken exception to its action on slavery. The fires were growing warmer. A formal protest, called the "Declaration and Tes- mony," was published by those in several Synods who disapproved of the line of policy pursued by the Gen- eral Assembly in the matters referred to above. In 1865 the Synod, by a vote of 54 to 46, expressed its disapprobation of the "Declaration and Testimony," as being unwise, and having a tendency to divide the church still more.J Next spring, 1866, the Northern Assembly (Old School) adopted what was called the "Gurley ipso facto order," in which the signers of the "Declaration and Testimon}^" and the members of the Louisville Presbytery who voted to adopt that paper, were re- quired to appear before the next General Assembly to answer for their conduct, and in the meantime they were not to be allowed to sit in any church court higher than a session, and furthermore, it was declared that if any 218 Presbytery disregarded this order and enrolled as a member any one who had signed the " Declaration and Testimony," that Presbytery should ^^ ipso facto ^' be dissolved. This order led to a rupture of the Synods of Ken- tuck}^ and Missouri in 1866, and the establishment of two independent Synods. Of the Synod of Kentucky, consisting of 108 ministers, 32 adhered to the General Assembly. In 1867 the "Declaration and Testimony" Synod of Kentucky, claiming to have acted laAvfully, de- clared that the General Assembly had so far violated the constitution that it was no longer an}i;hing more than a revolutionary and schismatical body. This closed the controversy, and two years afterwards the Synod joined the " General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church ( Southern ) in the United States," bringing to that body 75 ministers, 137 churches and 13,540 com- municants. A similar history was enacted in the Synod of Mis- souri, many members of which were signers of the " Declaration and Testimony," resulting likewise in a division. The Synod containing the "Declaration and Testimony" men was called the "Old School Synod of Missouri." This organization maintained an indepen- dent existence, laboring side by side with the Synod of Missouri connected mth the Presb}i;erian Church North, until 1874, when it formally united with the Southern General Assembly. A few who dissented from this action joined the Northern Assembly. By this accession the Southern church gained 67 min- isters, 141 churches and 8,000 communicants. of presbyterianism. 219 Reunion of the Old and New School Churches. The union of the Old and New School General As- semblies in the north was accomplished in 1869. The movement wdiich resulted in this consummation began as far back as 1849, when the New School Assembly ap- pointed fraternal delegates to convey their cordial greet- ings to the Old School Assembly. This courtesy, how- ever, was not responded to by the Old School body, and no delegates were appointed on their part ; where- upon those sent from the New School church returned their commissions and were discharged. The animosi- ties of the past, which grew out of doctrinal differences, were, however, dying away, and the great questions of slavery and the union were arising in the minds of both Assemblies so as, at length, to obscure all other issues. A common interest in these great matters tended to draw both churches towards one another, and though the Old School Assembly declined a proposal for union from one of its Presbyteries in 1850, a feeling in that direction had evidently begun to manifest itself even then. In 1862 fraternal correspondence was estab- lished, by the adoption of an act to that effect in the Old School Assembly. In 1863 this was cordially re- sponded to by the New School Assembly, and delegates were exchanged the same year. The subject of reunion w'as formally broached in 1866, by the Old School Assembly calling for a con- ference of a joint committee to consider the matter. The sister Assembly cordially concurred in this pro- posal, and in 1867 the joint committee reported to both Assemblies a plan for the consolidation of the two great 220 THE people's history branches of the Presbyteriau Church in the North. But the time had not quite come for the reunion, and a dif- ference of opinion as to the basis upon which lit was to be effected caused the matter to be kept in obeyance for several years, though the negotiations Avere con- tinued. In 1869 both churches agreed to the union, and each General Assembly adopted unanimously the following declaration : " This Assembly having received and examined the statement of the votes of the several Presbyteries on the basis of the reiTuion of the two bodies now claiming the name and the right of the Presbyterian Church in the United States of America, which basis is in the words following, namely : ' The union shall be eft'ected on the doctrinal and ecclesiastical basis of our common standards; the Scriptures of the Old and New Testa- ments shall be acknowledged to be the inspired word of God and the only infallible rule of faith and practice ; the Confession of Faith shall continue to be sincerely received and adopted as containing the system of doc- trine taught in the Holy Scriptures; and the govern- ment and discipline of the Presbyterian Church in the United States shall be approved as containing the prin- ciples and i-ules of our polity;' does hereby find and declare that said basis of union has been approved by more than two-thirds of the Presbyteries connected with this branch of the church ; and whereas the other branch of the Presbyterian Church in the United States, now sitting in the Third (or ilie F'n\st) Presbyterian Church in the city of Pittslmrg, has reported to this Assembly that said basis has been approvcnl by more than two-thirds of the Presbyteries connected with that OF PRESBYTERIANISM. 221 branch of the church. Now, therefore, we do sol- emnly DECLARE THAT SAID BASIS OF REUNION IS OF BIND- ING FORCE." ^ The same year the two Assembhes met in Pittsburg, Pa., to hokl a joint convention and consummate the re- union. At ten o'clock, on Friday, November 12th, they met in processions, headed by their respective modera- tors, at a designated spot in the street, and blended into one. The moderators clasped hands, joined arms, and marched to the Third Presbyterian Church, followed by all the officers and members, greeting one another and locking arms in the same manner. As the procession entered the central aisle of the church, the grand hymn of AVesley, " Blow ye the trumpet, blow," etc., was sung, and the re-united body took their seats amidst the greatest enthusiasm. Addresses were delivered by the modera- tors and others, ministers and elders, intermingled with prayer and devout thanksgiving to God. Kesolutions were adopted, from which the following is an extract, expressing the feelings and purposes of those who participated in this great scene : " In the providence of God, the two branches of the Presbyterian Church in the United States of America, after a separation of more than thirty years, are again united. This event, in its magnitude, is unparalleled in the ecclesiastical history of this country, and almost of the Avorld. It evidences to all men the presence and unifying power of the Divine Spirit. A fact so remark- able and significant attracts interest and creates expec- tation among even worldly minds. It awakens the sym- pathies and the hopes of all who truly love Christ 1 Minutes, 1869, p. 1163, O. S. ; 1869, p. 500, N. S. 222 THE people's histoky among other denominations. It awakens hope, since it iUustrates the evident purpose of God to bring all his followers into closer union in spirit, combine them in action for the ovei-throw of error and the diffusion of his truth ; it awakens expectation, since they justly an- ticipate, on our part, from this union of resources, spirit, and action, a far more vigorous assault upon the forces of darkness and more decided efforts to spread the gospel among all classes in our own and other lands. "Let us then, the ministers, elders, and members of this church here assembled, as, in spirit, standing in the presence of and representing the entire body of be- lievers in our connection, and the beloved missionaries in foreign lands, who now await, with tender and prayer- ful interest, this consummation of oar union — let us, in humble dependence upon our dear Redeemer, with deep humility in view of our past inefficiency and pre- sent unworfchiness, and as an expression of our devout gratitude to him who has brought this once dissevered, now imited, church up to this Mount of Transjitjura- tio)i, signalize this most blessed and joyous «nion with an offering in some good degree commensurate with the abundant pecuniary gifts that he has bestowed on us. And, to this end, be it ''Resolved, That it is incumbent upon the Presbyterian Church in the United States of America, one in organi- zation, one in faith, and one in effort, to make a special OFFERING to the treasury of the Lord of five millions OF DOLLAllS." This transaction of national or world-wide impor- OF PRESBYTERIANISM. 223 tance produced a profound impression. Such an event had hardly occurred before in all histor3\ The spirit and the strength of the re-united church may be learned from the fact that, in 1872, the thank-offering it had been resolved to raise was reported to have been ex- ceeded, and the amount reached the magnificent sum total of $7,833,983.85! This gives some idea of the constant growth of the denomination since the day it was organized by Ma- kemie and his six co-laborers at Philadelphia, in 1705. The first meeting of the General Assembly after the re- union reported 446,561 communicants. Through all the divisions and controversies, and the terrible civil war, the church had been growing steadily, doing all along a grand work for the country and for Christ, in the achievements of peace, which historians do not record, and Avhich are not all included in tabulated statistics. The Southern Church had been also growing and doing a noble work in its field. During the Aveary years of national strife it had gone forward preaching the gospel, often amidst the smoke of battle, sharing the impoverishment of a country engaged in a life and death struggle, which ended at last in disaster and total financial ruin. On small salaries and no salaries, its ministers had labored on, waiting for a brighter day. Now, in 1888, the two churches stand side by side, strong in the truth of God, strong in faith and love and hope, looking forward to the future with trust and consecration. Fraternal correspondence was established between the Northern and Southern General Assemblies in 224 THE people's history 1882. The subject had been for a number of years before both l)odies. But the Southern Assembly had declmed to establish " fraternal relations " with its sister church, because of certain deliverances of the Northern Assembly growing out of the anti-slavery agitation and secession. After a number of years of fruitless negotiations, the object in question was rather unexpectedly accomplished in 1882, by the adoption by the two assemblies of what has passed into history as the " concurrent resulution." It origi- nated in the Southern Assembly at Atlanta, where it was adopted with but three dissenting votes. It was then telegraphed to the Northern Assembly, at Spring- field, Illinois, for their "prayerful consideration, and "tiKf- tatis 7/ii/tanJis, for their reciprocal concurrence, as af- fording a basis for the exchange of delegates forthwith." The resolution stated : " That while receding from no principle, we do hereby declare our regret for, and withdrawal of all expressions of our Assembly which may be regarded as reflecting upon, or offensive to, the Presbyterian Church in the United States of America." This resolution was adopted by the North- ern Assembly, without the last two words, " of Amer- ica," so as to make it refer to the other Assembly, as had been requested. But when the action was tel- egraphed back to the Southern Assembly, it was ac- companied by a dispatch from the Northern moder- ator to the effect " that in the action now being taken we disclaim any reference to the actions of preceding Assemblies concerning loyalty and rebellion, but we refer only to those concerning schism, heresy and blas- phemy." OF PRESBYTERIANISM. 225 The reception of this message made an unpleasant impression on the Southern Assembly, and came very near putting an end to the negotiations ; but an answer was sent back stating that "If the action of your As- sembly, telegraphed by your moderator to our moder- ator, does not modify the concurrent resolution adopted by your Assembly and ours, we are prepared to send delegates forthwith." The Northern Assembly responded : " The action referred to does not modify, but explains, the concurrent resolution, and the expla- nation is on the face of the action. There is nothing behind it or between the lines. Shall we appoint del- egates this day to visit the respective Assemblies next year?" In answer to this the Southern Assembly notified the Northern of its "entire satisfaction with the full and explicit terms in which it had expressed its ' reciprocal concurrence,' " and immediately appointed delegates to attend the General Assembly of the North, the following year, in Saratoga. The Northern Assem- bly likewise appointed delegates to visit the General Assembly of the South at its next meeting, in Lexing- ton, Kentucky. Both these delegates performed their duties satisfactorily, and a pleasant impression was made throughout the land by the exhibition of kindly feeling. Fraternal correspondence was continued for several years, by delegates, but of late it has been by the exchange of letters of greetings and good will. The Assemblies of both churches concurred in 1887 in the appointment of a joint committee of conference, consisting of equal numbers from each body, to inquire and report to the respective meetings in 1888, as to 19 220 THE people's history of presbytemanism. what are the obstacles in the way of the re-union of the Noi-thern and Southern Presbyterian Churches. The Presbyterian churches, North and South, have been foremost in promoting education and in providing a thoroughly educated ministry for their congregations. They have theological seminaries at Princeton (New Jersey), established in 1812 ; Auburn (NeAv York), 1819 ; Union (Hampden-Sidney, Virginia), 1824; Western (Allegheny, Pennsylvania), 1827 ; Lane (Cincinnati), 1829; McCormick (Chicago), 1830; Columbia (South Carolina), 1831 ; Danville (Kentucky), 1853 ; German (Dubuque, Iowa), 1856; Biddle (colored, North Caro- lina), 1868; German (Bloomfield, New Jersey), 1869; San Francisco, 1871 ; and Lincoln (colored, Pennsyl- vania), 1871 ■; Tuskaloosa (colored, Alabama), 1877. There are also theological seminaries of recent origin at Clarkesville, Tenn., and Austin, Texas, making sixteen in all, many of which are the peers of any similar insti- tutions in the world. No other church in the nation is better equipped Avith facilities for theological education. CHAPTEK XXVI. The Presbyterian Church and its Sisters in the United States. SINCE the year 1789, when the first General Assembly met in Philadelphia, the population of the country has increased until it is now fifteen times as great as then, but the membership of the Presbyterian churches has increased until it is more than fifty times as large as it was a hundred years ago. The growth of this church is more rapid than that of the nation. During these one hundred years just closing, it has added to its membership about 1,500,000 persons on profession of faith, of whom 633,000 have come in since 1870. The prospects of Presbyterianism are very bright in America, and throughout the world. Its ministers are recognized as inferior to those of no other church, in scholarship, pulpit ability and doctrinal soundness. It is remarkable that in the new world orthodoxy should have some of its strongest defenders. In all the trials of the last hundred years in American history the old doctrines have remained substantially unchanged ; the Westminster Confessions have been sacredly preserved. Because a few restless men here and there are foohsh enough to speak against the very things which, by the conflict of past ages, have given them the libeiiy to speak, it is a mistake to suppose that our time-honored institutions are being given up. 227 228 THE PEOPLE S HISTORY TABLE Showing the Growth of the Presbyterian Church in the United States since 1789, when the First General Assembly Met in Philadelphia : Years 1789 1800 1810 1820 1830 1837 1839 1819 1859 1869 1870 1880 1887 (Old School,.. "(New School, (Old School,. (New School, (Old School,. "(New School, j Old School,. (New School, (North, (South, (North, "(South, (North, (South, Totals, 1887, Churches 431 449 772 1299 2158 2865 1673 1260 2512 1555 3487 1542 2740 1721 4526 1469 5489 1928 6436 2236 8672 Ministers 6770 Communi- cants. 18,000 20,000 28,901 72,096 173,327 220,557 126,583 106,000 200,830 139,047 279,630 137,990 258,963 172,560 446,561 82,014 578,671 120,028 697,835 150,398 848,233 Benevolent Contribu- tions. f 852 (?) 2,500 5,439 12,861 184,192 281,989 134,439 Not given. 369,371 Not given. 764,668 266,574 1,346,179 753,953 2,023,956 129,006 2,262,871 145,777 3,196,458 230,753 f3, 427, 211 The following are the principal Presbyterian bocli'3S in the United States : Churches. Ministers. Communicants. Presbyterian, Northern _ _ . 6, 437 5, 654 696, 827 Presbytei-ian, Southern 2,236 1,116 150,398 Presbyterian, Cumberland 2,540 1,563 145,146 Presbyterian, Cumberland (colored).... 500 200 13,000 Presbyterian, United 644 730 91,086 Presbyterian, Reformed (Synod) 124 112 10, 85f I Welsh Calvinistic... 175 84 9,563 Associated Reformed Synod, South, 72 79 7,015 Reformed (General Synod), 48 37 6,800 Reformed (German), 1,481 802 183,980 Reformed (Dutch), _.. 547 547 85,543 Synod of Christian Reformed Church,.. 50 6,800 Totals, 14,854 10,924 1,407,014 OF PRESBYTEBIANISM. 229 Tlie family of christian clmrches in the United States is large, as will appear by a perusal of the fol- lowing comparative statistical tables of the principal ones. These are not in every case perfect, as some de- nominations do not exercise mnch care in the matter of their statistical reports. The figures as to the Presbyterian and Reformed Clmrches, however, are strictly accurate and official. Principal Denominations of the United States. COMMtTNICANTS. Methodists (inclmling 884,000 colored Metliodists) 4,367,589 Baptists (including 985, 814 colored Baptists) 2, 917, 315 Presbyterians (all kinds), -_ 1,407,014 Lutherans, white and colored, 930, 830 Disciples of Christ, " " 582,800 Congregationalists, " " 43G,379 Episcopalians, " " 418,531 These statistics are taken from the "Year Books" of the churches. The estimates of adherents, or population belonging to each of these denominations in the United States, obtained in the usual manner, by multiplying the num- bers of communicants by four, are as follows : Adherents. Methodists (all kinds ; including 3,536,000 colored people). .17,470,350 Baptist (including 3,943,256 colored Baptists) 11,669,260 Presbyterians --- 5,628,056 Lutherans 3,723,320 Disciples of Christ 2,331,200 Congregationalists -- 1,745,516 Episcopalians 1,674,124 It will be profitable to notice and compare the growth of the evangelical churches Avith that of the nation. 230 THE PEOrLE's HISTORY Population of the United States. 1800, 5,308,483 1810,. _. 7,239,881 1820, 9,633,822 1830, 12,8G6,020 1840, 17,009,453 1850, 23,191,876 1860, ___ 31,443,321 1870, 38,558,37 1880, .__ ...50,155,78o According to the census of 1880 there were — Native-born whites 36,843,291 Native-born colored 6,632,549 Foreign-born _ •„.! 6,679,943 Total 50,155,783 Of the foreign-born there were natives of Great Britain and Ireland 2,772,169 German Empire 1,966,774 British America. 717,084 Norway.. _ 194,337 Sweden 181,729 France __. 106,971 China 104,541 While the population of the United States mnltiplied fifteen times, as has been stated already, the commn- nion roll of the Presb}i;erian churches multiplied fifty times. Let us now see what was the growth of Eoman Catholicism compared with that of the population of the country. These statistics are from Dr. Dorchester's *' Problem of Keligious Progress." Population of the Evan- Roman Catholic gelical Churches. Population. In 1800 1,277.052 100,000 In 1850 12,354.958 1,614,000 In 1870 23, 556, 886 4, 600, 000 In 1880 35,230,870 6,367,330 OF PRESBYTERIANISM. 231 These figures show that during eighty years the in- crease was : Evangelical Population. R. C. Population* From 1800 to 1880. ... 33, 953, 818 6, 2G7, 330 " 1850 to 1880.. __ 22,875,912 4,753,330 " 1870tol880.__. 11,873,984 1,767,330 The last ten years were, relatively, the best for evan- gelical progress. The evangelical population, Dr. Dorchester says, was: In 1800, 24.06 per cent, of the whole population. In 1850, 53.22 In 1870, 60.57 In 1880, 70.003 " These statistics, showing the growth of the Presbyte- rian element, the whole evangelical, and the Roman Catli- oUc, in proportion to the increase of population in the country, have been given to counteract the impression in the minds of many that the Roman Catholic Church is gradually taking possession of the nation. It has grown unquestionably, but so have the Protestant churches, and much more rapidly. The Roman Catho- lics have grown mainly by immigration from Europe ; they make far fewer converts from us than we from them. Almost any city pastor can tell of numbers of Catholics or children of Catholics whom he has received into his congregation, but very few could give the names of members who have been lost to them by joining the Roman Catholic Church. There is undoubtedly a ten- dency among Roman Catholics, in the third and fourth generations after coming to the United States, to de- sert the church of their fathers and become Protestants. 232 THE people's history Our free institutions, newspapers, and public schools are unfavorable to superstition and ecclesiastical ty- ranny. They have built many magnificent churches and charitable institutions, which do a noble work among the unfortunate, while they propagate their faith ; they have, in many cases, unfairly gained a share of public funds to support their schools and other church enter- prises, through the dishonesty of self-seeking politi- cians ; and these things will continue A\dtli more or less frequency; Init who that knoAvs the American people can believe that it will ever be possible for the seven millions of Roman Catholics in this land to overcome the remaining fifty millions, and subvert the govern- ment, or destroy our civil and rehgious liberties ? The hierarchy of Rome, unless they have radically changed, — and their motto is, " Semper idem ^'' always the sams — would do it if they could ; but they cannot. Protestants will have to contend Avitli them in the forum and at the ballot box, but probably never with the sword, in this free country. If it should come to that, however, and we should have to fight over again the battles of the past, the Protestants of America would arise en onasse, forgetting all differences and rivalries, and join hands in such a demonstration as would utterly destroy every menace to their liberties. AVe do not wish to oppress the Roman Catholics; nor do we propose that they shall oppress us. They may have perfect libeiiy so long as thev: obey the laws. But the days have passed when such persecutions as blotted the history of the fifteenth, sixteenth, and seventeenth centuries with blood can occur again. The hands on the clock of time have moved a long way since then, and no earthly OF PRESBYTERIANISM. 233 power can set tliem back, especially in free America, and wherever English is spoken, or the tramp of Anglo- Saxon feet is heard. The Roman Catholic church is losing ground in Europe. The Pope is deprived of his temporal power, and though statesmen do sometimes court his influ- ence in elections, the spectacle is no longer witnessed of kings and queens holding their thrones at his will. He calls himself the " Prisoner of the Vatican." Since the year 1500, just before the Reformation, when Europe had a population of 100,000,000, of whom 80,- 000,000 were members of the Roman Church, to the present day, the adherents of that church have grown to be (according to Professor Schem) 149,000,000. During that period it has gained 69,000,000 ; but for the same time Protestantism, starting with a few thou- sand of Waldenses, Hussites, and Lollards, with im- mense opposing influences, has gained 71,000,000 in the same countries. Truly Protestantism is not in danger. One of the greatest instrumentalities for the advance- ment of Protestantism, with its civil and religious freedom, is the Anglo-Saxon race and language. This wonderful race, with its indomitable energy, courage and instinct for liberty, is spreading over a large por- tion of the globe. It never loses its identity, but carries its institutions wherever it goes, and establishes them. It is becoming in the modern world what the Romans were in the ancient, and the English language is rap- idly becoming what the Latin once was — the language of the civilized world. In 1801 English was spoken by one-eighth of the whole number of civiHzed men ; "• vA.^ j^-^rq, c^uJ ^ ^~0 -^J^M 234 THE people's history of presbyterianism. now it is tlie language of one-fourth. At the begin- ning of the present century the population of the United States was about 5,000,000. Now (1888) it is at least 60,000,000. There has been a similar growth of the population of Great Britain and its colonies, while the increase in population on the continent of Europe, in Eoman Catholic countries, has been com- paratively small. It is a striking fact, too, that the traveller through Europe sees very few new Roman Catholic churches. There are thousands of old ones, many of them decaying, some that have stood unfinish- ed for scores or hundreds of years, and are crumbling with age. But Protestantism is building hundreds of new churches, not only in America and in heathen coun- tries, but all over Roman Catholic Europe, and in the "Eternal City," in sight of the Vatican itself. A greater enemy than Rome threatens evangelical Christendom. It is the spirit of worldhness, the grad- ual dissipation of the Holy Sabbath, and the introduc- tion of loose views of doctrine into the churches. Our fight is not so much for religious liberty as for the perpetuity of the fourth commandment and the inspi- ration of the Scriptures. In this conflict may we members of the great Protestant sisterhood stand shoulder to shoulder, heart to heart, and may God give us the promised baptism of the Holy Ghost from Heaven, without Avhicli our doctrines and organizations are all in vain, like vast machinery without power. It is not claiming too much to say that the Sabbath and the inspiration of the Scriptures have no stronger defender than the Presbyterian Churches in America and throughout the world. CHAPTER XXVII. Universal Presbyterianism. THE "Alliance of the Reformed Cliiirclies tlirongli- out the World holding the Presbyterian System " was formed in London July 21, 1875, by a number of ministers and elders representing the Presl^yterian and Reformed Churches of America, the United Kingdom _ of Great Britain and Ireland, the British colonies, and the continent of Europe. An organization was effected, and a constitution adopted, as follows : Constitution of the Alliance. "Whereas churches holding the Reformed faith, and organized on Presbyterian principles, are found, though under a variety of names, in different parts of the world ; whereas many of these were long wont to maintain close relations, but are at present united by no visible bond, whether of fellowship or of work ; and whereas, in the providence of God, the time seems to have come when they may all more fully manifest their essential oneness, have closer communion with each other, and promote great causes by joint action; it is agreed to form a Presbyterian Alhance, to meet in general council from time to time, in order to confer upon matters of com- mon interest, and to further the ends for which the church has been constituted by her Divine Lord and 235 236 THE people's history only King. In forming this Alliance the Presbyterian churches do not mean to change their fraternal relations with other churches, but ^^dll be ready, as heretofore, to join with them in christian fellowship, and in ad- vancing the cause of the Redeemer, on the general principle maintained and taught in the Reformed Con- fessions, that the Church of God on earth, though com- posed of many members, is one body in the communion of the Holy Ghost, of which body Christ is the Supreme Head, and the Scriptures alone are the infallible law. "Articles. "I. Designation. — This Alliance shall be known as 'The Alliance of the Reformed Churches throughout the World holding the Presbyterian system.' "II. Membership. — Any church organized on Pres- byterian principles, which holds the supreme authority of the Scriptures of the Old and New Testaments in matters of faith and morals, and whose creed is in har- mony with the consensus of the Reformed Confessions, shall be eligible for admission into the Alliance. "III. The Council: "1. Ttf< Meetings. — The Alliance shall meet in general council ordinarily once in three years. "2. lU Conxtitneiicy. — The council shall consist of delegates, being ministers and elders, appointed by the churches forming the Alliance, the number from each church being regulated by a plan sanctioned by the council, regard being had generally to the number of congi'egations in the several churches. The delegates, as far as practicable, to consist of an equal number of ministers and elders. The council may, on the recom- OF PRESBYTERIANISM. 237 mendation of a committee on business, invite Presbyte- rian brethren, not delegates, to offer suggestions, to de- liver addresses, and to read papers. "3. Its Powers. — The council shall have power to decide upon the application of churches desiring to join the Alliance ; it shall have power to entertain and con- sider topics which may be brought before it by any church represented in the council, or by any member of the council, on their being transmitted in the manner hereinafter provided ; but it shall not interfere with the existing creed or constitution of any church in the Al- liance, or with its internal order or external relations. *' 4. Its Ohjeds. — The council shall consider questions of general interest to the Presbyterian community; it shall seek the welfare of churches, especially such as are weak and persecuted ; it shall gather and dissemi- nate information concerning the kingdom of Christ throughout the world ; it shall commend the Presb^i^e- rian system as scriptural, and as combining simplicity, efficiency, and adaptation to all times and conditions ; it shall also entertain all subjects directly connected with the work of evangelization, such as the relation of the christian church to the evangelization of the world, the distribution of mission work, the combination of church energies, especially in reference to great cities and destitute districts, the training of ministers, the use of the press, colportage, the religious instruction of the young, the sanctification of the Sabbath, systematic beneficence, the suppression of intemperance, and other prevailing vices, and the best methods of opposing in- fidelity and Komanism. "5. Its Methods. — The council shall seek to guide 20 238 THE people's history and stimulate public sentiment by papers read, by ad- dresses delivered and published, by the circulation of information respecting the allied churches and their missions, by the exposition of scriptural principles, and by defences of the truth ; by communicating the minutes of its proceedings to the supreme courts of the churches forming the Alliance, and by such other action as is in accordance with its constitution and objects. "6. Coimmttee on Business. — The council, at each general meeting, shall appoint a Committee on Business, through which all communications and notices of sub- jects proposed to be discussed shall pass. The com- mittee appointed at one general meeting shall act pro- visionally, so far as is necessary, in preparing for the following meeting. "lY. Change of Constitution. — No change shall be made in this constitution, except on a motion made at one general meeting of council, not objected to by a majority of the churches, and carried by a two-thirds vote at the next general meeting." The first general council met in Edinburgh, Scotland, July 3, 1877. The subsequent meetings have been held at Philadelphia, in 1880; at Belfast, in 1884; and another is to take place in London July, 1888. This alliance has already done great good, in mass- ing the forces of our common Presbyterianism, creating a universal esprit du corps, and in enlisting the strong for the assistance of the weak. It is an encourage- ment to the Waldensian, Bohemian and French pastors, whose churches have been so cruelly oppressed and straitened, to come to the meetings of this confed- eration of brethren of like faith, and feel the strength OF PRESBYTERIANISM. 239 of a vast organization. They return to tlieir homes with a new inspiration and hope. This is worth more to them than the gifts of money that have been made to some of them through the medium of the AUiance, to aid them in their work. But are not the members of the younger and stronger benefitted by contact with these children of time-honored churches ? It is a priv- ilege to grasp the hand of a Huguenot, a Bohemian, a Swiss, or a Waldensian pastor. It is like touch- ing a line that leads back to the days when, through persecution and blood, their heroic predecessors made possible the blessings which we now enjoy. We are prone to forget the past and to ignore the lessons of history ; but it cannot be so when we sit in the same assembly with men from the venerable churches of Holland, France, Italy, Germany, Switzerland, Eng- land, Scotland, Bohemia and Hungary. Principally through the agency of this AUiance we have been able to gather reliable reports and statistics of the Presbyterian family, whose members are dis- tributed among many nations. COMPABATIVE STATISTICS OF THE PRINCIPAL PrOTESTANT DENOMINA- TIONS IN THE Whole World. Communicants. Adherents. Presbyterians 8,894,546 35,578,184 Lutherans (general statistics unattainable). Methodists 5,849,371 23,397,484 Episcopalians (estimated) 21,000,000 Baptists 3,313,026 13,252,104 Congregationalists 896,742 3,586,968 The number of adherents is obtained by multiplying the number of communicants by four, though many de- 240 THE people's history nominations multiply by five. The former, the more moderate estimate, is nearer the truth. It is impossible to gather accurate statistics of the Episcopal Church elsewhere than in America. The above estimate is from a high authority of the Church of England. Neither can the members of the Lutheran church throughout the world be determined ^vith certainty. The Lutheran churches of Europe sustain such involved relations to the various state governments and to the other denominations, and their statistics are so incom- plete, that it is out of the question to attempt to form anything more than a guess as to their real strength. They are beheved to be next in numbers after the Presbyterians, to whom they are more nearly aUied than to any others. To show that these are fair and moderate estimates, the testimony of the Eev. James McCosh, D. D., LL. D., late President of Princeton College, given sixteen years ago, is added in corroboration of oui' statistics. In a paper read at the John Knox "Tercentenary" celebration, in Philadelphia, on " Presbyterianism in the World," Dr. McCosh said : ''It is reckoned that if you sum up these churches (just referred to by him, in foreign lands), and then add to them those in America, they amount to twenty thou- sand congregations, and a population of thirty-four mil- Hons. If you add the Lutherans, who, in many parts of Germany, are one mth the Reformed, and who are nearer to Presbyterianism than they are either to Epis- copacy or Independency, we have a population of fifty- five out of one hundred and seven milKons of Protes- OF PRESBYTERIANISM. 241 tants, or an actual majority of the Protestants of the world." Since these words were written, Presbyterianism has passed through the best decade and a half of its whole history. The numbers of communicants in the Baptist and Methodists churches are taken from the " Year Books " of the two denominations. The Methodist statistics included the Welsh Calvinistic Methodists, who really belong to the Presbyterian Church, and are members of the "Alliance of Presbyterian and Reformed Churches." So 133,797, the number of communicants in that body, had to be deducted from their statement. In the Metho- dist Year Book for 1888, the number of adherents is obtained by multiplying the number of communicants by five. That rule would bring the Presb}i;erian adhe- rents up to 44,472,730. In the above table the rule of multiplying by four is applied to all denominations mentioned in it, and, of course, is fair ; for if they were multiplied by five they would all be raised in the same ratio. These statistics show that the Presbyterian is by far the largest Protestant Church on the globe. CHAPTEE XXYIII. The Spirit of Presbytepjanism. WE have followed the history of Presb}i;erianism through a course of many centuries; have looked upon its origin, development, sufferings, defeats and victories ; and have taken a survey of its present condition and prospects. The attentive reader cannot fail to have seen that the spirit of Presbyterianism, as exemplified in its fruits, is that of the broadest catho- licity as well as love of the truth. Truth, and man, for God, is its motto. The tendency of its operations has been to liberate men from super- stition, to give them a thirst for knowledge and for liberty. It is the mother of repul)licanism in church and state. America, and Great Britain with its world - encircling colonial system, would not have been what they are to-day but for Presb3terianism in Ital}', Switzerland, France, Holland and Scotland. Know- ledge and liberty dwell together, and they have come largely from the influence in past ages, of that heaven- born principle of which this book is a history. The world owes to Presbyterianism a debt it does not feel, and one it can never repay. Comparativeh' few of the millions of men who enjoy the inestimable blessings of civil and rehgious Hberty care to inquire 242 THE people's history OF PRESBYTERIANISM. 243 whence tliey came, or stop to think how different might have been their lot but for the sacrifices of those who Kved long ago, and whose names are oft forgotten. But those who do study causes and effects in the affairs of men, and who follow trains of events back to their origin, will come to render honor where it is due. The philosophy of truth is written in the annals of man- kind ; its principles are outlined forever in the profile of history ; and there always will be seers who will interpret to men the lessons of the past. Therefore there is no danger that the great doctrines and polity that cluster around the Presbyterian name will ever be forgotten. We behold in the Presbyterian Church a glorious ben- efactor of mankind in all ages ; but it is not enfeebled. It is stronger than ever. We believe that the future has for it as great a work as the past has had, and we sons of a noble church are proud of our mother. Does the Presbyterian church despise its sisters, or claim to be the only Church of Christ ? No ; if it did it would be a contradiction of its very genius and spirit. It acknowledges all God's people as brothers, and aU evangelical churches as equals, inviting their ministers into its pulpits, receiving them into our ministry with- out reordination, and welcoming their members to a communion table which it claims not as its own, but the sacred meeting place of all christians for fellowship with one another, and with their common Lord. This book will have been written in vain if its perusal should foster a spirit of narrow sectarianism. But if it serve the purpose for which it is designed, it will tend to make Presbyterians who read it love their o^ti church more, and at the same time look upon the 244 THE piople's history world and all the church of God with a broader chris- tian sympathy. "And now abideth faith, hope, charity, these three; but the greatest of these is Charity." PRESBYTERIAN CHRONOLOGY. A. D. 387. Augustine, pastor of Hippo, baptized. 1415. John Huss burnt at Constance. 1536. Calvin published his Institutes. 1628. First Reformed Church established in New Amsterdam (New Y^'ork). 1560. First General Assembly met at Edinburgh. 1564. Death of John Calvin. 1572. John Knox died. 1638. National Covenant signed in Grey friars Churchyard, Edin- burgh. 1643. Westminster Assembly convened at the Abbey. 1648. Confession of Faith and Catechisms sanctioned by Parlia- ment. 1679. Battle of Both well Bridge. Covenanters defeated. 1682. Francis Makemie came to America, and settled in Mary- land. 1685. Revocation of the Edict of Nantes. 1688. Restoration of Episcopal Church of England and Ireland. 1705. Fii-st Presbytery organized at Philadelphia. 1706. First recorded ordination to the ministry in United States, at Freehold, New Jersey ; John Boyd the candidate. 1717. The Synod of Philadelphia organized. 1727. Log College, the mother of Princeton, founded. 1734. Great awakening under Jonathan Edwards. 1739. Movement headed by 'NVhitetield. 1745. SjTiod divided. OF PRESBYTERIANISM. 245 1758. Synods of New York and Philadelphia reunited. 1775. Mecklenburg resolutions adopted. 1776. John Witherspoon in Congress. 1788. General A'ssembly organized. 1837. The Church divided into two parts, called Old School and New School. 1861. Separation of the Church into Northern and Southern Di- visions. 1869. Reunion of Old and New Schools, at Pittsburgh, Novem- ber 10th. 1875. Organization of Alliance of Reformed Churches through- out the world holding the Presbyterian System. NOTES AND STATISTICS OF r H E 11 E F R M £ I) C 11 II II C H E S THROUGHOUT THE WORLD Holding the Presbyterian System. NOTES. General Sitrvey of the Presbyterian Churches Throughout THE World. (Amended f7'0'm the report of the third Oeneral Council.*) Reformed Church in Austria. — In the Austrian empire a group of Reformed congregations, locally associated, forms a Senioratus or Presbytery. The moderator of the Seniora- tus is called *' senior," and is elected for six years by the church sessions of the bounds, but the election must be rati- fied by the provincial government. The senior has associated with him a con-senior, or vice-senior, and also a seniorate- curator, or presiding elder. All the seniorates of the pro- vince form the super iiitendential-convenius, or Provincial S;)aiod. The moderator of this body is called the superin- tendent, and is elected for life by the church sessions of the whole province, but the election must be confirmed by the emperor himself. There is a superintendent-curator also a vice-superintendent, who are appointed for six years by the Provincial Synod. This body meets triennially, and is com- posed of the superintendent, the vice-superintendent, and the superintendential-cm-ator, the seniors of the province, wdth their curators, and a few delegates, ministers, and elders in equal numbers, from the Seniorates. The general Synod represents the whole Re foo-med Church, for the government regards the churches in the jDrovinces of Austria, Bohemia, and Moravia, not as distinct and inde- pendent churches, but as branch organizations in each pro- vince of the one Reformed Church. This General Synod * Great praise is clue Eev. G. D. Matthews, D. D. , of Quebec, Canada, secretary of the Alliance, for his unremitting and disinterested dili- gence in gathering information and statistics from all the churches composing the Alliance. — R. P. K. 249 250 THE PEOrLE's HISTORY meets every sixth jenv, and is composed of 23 persons — 12 ministers and 11 elders — as follows : the superintendent of the Austrian church (German), with his curator: the Re- formed theological i3rofessor in Vienna ; two deputies elected b}' the Provincial Synod of Austria ; the superintendent and four seniors of the Bohemian Church, mth their respective curators; the superintendent and two seniors of the Mora- vian Church, with their curators, with the senior of Galicia and his curator. Before taking Ms seat, each member must solemnly declare: ''I promise in the presence of God, in my capacity as a member of this Synod, to seel: the inner and outward v^elfare of the JEvungelical Church Helvetic Confession, according to my best judgment and conscience, and to aim at the church's growing into Him who is the Head, Christ:' This General Synod is somewhat anomalous in its charac- ter. The lay-members, the curators, are elected by the Pro- vincial S;v'nods, but the ecclesiastical members (superinten- dents and seniors) are there in virtue of their office. Should any of these be absent, their places are occu^^ied by their re- spective deputies. The General Synod, while largely an advisory body, pos- sesses, however, certain powers. If the government, repre- sented by the cultus-ministerium, has a veto on its actions, the Synod can decline to comply with the wishes of the gov- ernment. Thus in 1877, the General Synod desired to divide itself into a German General Synod meeting in Vienna, and a Bohemian and Moraviaii General Synod, with an Ober- kirchenrath for itself, meeting in Prague. The cultus-min- isterium vetoed the proposal, which then fell to the gi'ound. At the same meeting the Oberkichenrath, representing the cultus-ministerium, proposed a new Book of Discipline. This the Synod dechned to discuss, and so, it in turn fell to the ground. The General Synod can consider all matters brought before it by the provincial Synods, by congregations or by chm^ch members. Many of these questions concern polity, as the church is working her way to a thoroughly Presbyterian system of government. Each General Sjniod elects a S^iiodal committee, to repre- sent the church during the ensuing six years, or until the next General S^iiod. Above this General Synod, or its Synodal committee, is the OF PKES13YTEKIANISM. 251 " Oherhlrcheiirath" the medium through which the cultus- 7ninisterium deals with the church. The full title of this body is, " The Imperial Royal Evangelical Upper Ecclesi- astical Council of the Augustine and Helvetic Confessions in Vienna" and, naturally, it possesses very great influence in church matters. All its members are, however, appointed by the Emperor, and as the church has no voice in their ap- pointment, she is now earnestly seeking its abohtion. As this council has to deal with all Protestants, it is divided into two sections, one having charge of matters affecting the Lutheran Church, and the other of matters affecting the Keformed Church. The president of the council is a layman, and is chairman of both sections. The hmits and natui'e of the relations of the Oberkirchenrath to the church have not yet been fully defined, but it may be said, in general, that the Oberkirchenrath represents the church to the state, and the state to the church. The state declares its claim in rela- tion to the church to be simply '^jiis circa sacra" but there is no security against the authorities trespassing ^' intra sacra" Sometimes these have done so, though as magis- trates of the state, they have acted illegally in so doing-. For instance, a vacant parish elects a pastor. The senior, the supeiintendent, and the Oberkirchenrath bring the elec- tion before the provincial government. All of these ecclesi- astical authoritities approve of the choice, but the veto of the provincial government renders the election null and void, and resort must be had to a new election. The Oberkirchenrath may, therefore, formally appoint pastors to the parishes, but it is the government of Austria that does so actually. The state does not consciously interfere in matters of faith, but sometimes the church regards as a matter of faith that which the state regards as only a matter of outward constitution and administration. Over the Oberkirchenrath is the '' cultus-ministeomim," or that department of the general government of the empire which takes the oversight of all matters affecting the recog- nized churches, concerning itself m the public worship and education. — Ministeriimi fur Cultns und JJnterricht. The phrase "recognized churches" may need explanation. In accordance with the political system of the Eiu'opean continent, all societies or associations within a particular king- dom are subject to the supervision of the government, and 252 THE PEOrLE's HISTORY illegal unless explicitly autliorized. Heuce religious socie- ties require the sanction of the state before they can exist legally or carry out their sj)ecial objects. The Austrian gov- ernment, wliich is wilhng to "recognize" all suitable parties entitled to it, recognizes as churches Avith the right of public worship, the Roman Catholic, the Greek Catholic, the Arme- nian, the Greek Oriental, the Lutheran, the Reformed, the Moravian, the Jewish, and, since the occupation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and in the army especially, the Mohamme- dan faiths. All other denominations are treated, in terms of the Association law ( Vereinsgeset), as Societies, and are al- lowed to hold only private services. These services may be attended by the pohce, and can be held legally, except in the case of family worship, only when intimation has been prcAdously given to the authorities. None but adults and z?iyi^6(/ persons are allowed to attend such meetings, and the invitations must be given to these individually and by special cards, not by general placards or public notices. Private services can at any time be stopped if no notice has been given previously to the magistrate, or if any other requu'ements of the Association law have been disregarded. Under the existing laws, the amount of rehgious hberty enjoyed in Austria is not inconsiderable, but its advent is so recent that all the magistrates have not yet realized its pre- sence. The law, indeed, is often better than its practice, so that much depends on the amount of knowledge possessed by an injured party as to the proper mode of obtaining re- dress. Hitherto the highest courts in the state have generally sustained the appeals taken against decisions that were not in accordance with the really liberal Association laws. The Reformed Church in the i^rovince of Austria is a Ger- man church, having its congregations in the cities of Vienna, Laybach, Bregenz, and Trieste. The Bohemian Church has four Senior ates — CasJav, Prague, Podebrad, and Chrudim. It has under its care a college for training teachers, with three professors and forty students. There are also in connection with it forty-two con- gregational day-schools, with forty-nine teachers and nearly fom- thousand pupils. The Moravian Church has two Senitorates — Eastern and OF PRESBYTERIANISM. 253 Western. The Lord's Supper is generally observed four times a year. Tlie Hungarian Church has five superintendencies of Provincial Synods — Trans-Danubian (Komorn) (^is Danubian (Buda Pest) Trans-Theissian (Debreczen), Cis-Theissian (Miskolcz), and the Transylvanian (Klausenburg) — with min- isters and elders, members in equal d umbers. These super- intendencies are independent of each other, and liave existed since the Eeformation. The church session is called the nonsistoriuni, whose moderator is the minister, assisted by the curator — cne of the elders having charge of the tempon.l affairs of the con- gregation. Congregations are grouped together according to the limits of the Seniorates or church counties. Of the pastors of the congregation in each counhy a specific num- ber are elected — known as assessors — to foj'm the Seniorate or Presbytery, which has always its two presidents — the senior and cm-ator. The senior is always, and the curator sometimes, chosen for life. Every pastor has a right to attend the Seniorate meeting, and to speak, but the assessors alone vote. A group of Seniorates form a superinteudenm/, whose Assembly, or General Convent, resembles a Provincial Synod, Its members, how^ever, consist only of delegates from the Seniorates, along with the superintendent or mod- erator and the general curator. Both these latter are elected to their office by the vote of all the congregations in the superintendency, and hold office for hfe. Sometimes the superintendent is styled " Episcopus," but he is so in the Presbyterian sense of being primus inter ^^ares. He is also the medium of communication between the government and the church. The Hungarian Church has in connection with its con- gregations 1,G02 elementary day schools, but in which re- ligious instruction is regularly given ; 2,451 teachers with 182,993 pupils. In 1882 the Hungarian Church adopted a constitution by which the General Asssmbly consists of delegates, 94 being elected by church sessions, and 12 being repre- sentatives of the colleges. All her various office-bearers are now chosen b}^ the ])eople, except the superintendent of Transylvania, who, in virtue of old laws, is appointed by the 254 THE people's history Emperor. The Austrian Emperor must still, however, sanc- tion church legislation before it is valid. The Missionary Christian Church o;f Belgium has three conseils sectioiinaries, or Presbyteries, meeting in one annual Synod, which is composed of a minister and elder from each congregation, and the members of the executive committee. Each pastor or evangelist in charge of a station is also a member of the Synod, but mthout a vote. No member can take his seat until he has accepted the Belgic Confession of Faith. The Synod appoints annually an ex- ecutive committee, with a general secretaiy, to whom is entrusted the oversight of the work of the church. The Belgian " Union of Evangelical Christians " con- sists of a number of congregations, Walloons, Germans, and French, all receiving, in part, suj)port from the state. The Walloon Churches. — There are in Holland a num- ber of Walloon congregations, founded by Protestants driven from the Walloon provinces of Belgium in the time of Charles V.' These congregations were assisted for a time by the Huguenots that lied from France on the revocation of the edict of Nantes. The greater part of these, however, ultimately became merged in the Holland population, and have aided in building up the Dutch Ee- formed Church so that only about seventeen Walloon congregations exist at the present. The Reformed Church of France has twenty-one Provin- cial Synods, consisting of the ministers and elders of each five Consistories or Presbyteries. According to the decree of 1st December, 1871, re-estab- lishing the S}Tiods of the Reformed Church, each Consistory (Presbytery) was to be represented by one minister and one elder in the S^aiod of its group. By this delegated Synod delegates were to be chosen who should form the National Synod, in the proportion of one delegate for each six pastors ; these delegates to be ministers and elders in equal numbers. This National Synod met in 1872 (the last previous Synod had met in 1G60, under the presidency of the illustrious Daille, adjourning to meet within three years), when the doctiinal differences existing in the church at once led to the formation of two well-defined parties, the Liberals and the Evangelicals. As the Liberal party does not recognize either the au- OF PKESBYTERIANIRM. 255 thority or the necessity for the existence of a General Synod {Synod Officielle), such a meeting cannot at i^resent be held. The Evangelical section has, therefore, organized a system of S]/7iodes Officieuses, through which the work and oversight of their congregations are carried on. These Synods have no legal authority, while connection with them or submission to theii" enactments is entirely voluntary. In the meantime they are rendering invaluable services to the church, and in- creasing rapidly in influence and number of members. There are in France 520 civil parishes, of which it is com- puted that 380 imite in these Synodes Officieuses, while there are some 120 other congregations, all of which also adhere. The larger number of these latter congregations are aided by the Societe Centrole d Evangelization.. Of the 690 min- isters in actual service, about 500 adhere to the Synodes Officieuses. Union of the Free Evangelical Congregations of France. — The S;)^iod meets every second year, and deliberates on the several interests of the churches. It receives a report from every church ; administers by committees the christian operations of which it has charge ; it has a central fund for the general expenses of the church and the aid of the poorer congregations ; it regulates the theological studies of aspir- ants to the ministry; holds fellowship with other churches in France and out of it; apj)oints delegates to visit the churches yearly, and adjudicates on difficult questions which the churches concerned have voluntarily submitted to it, and appoints a synodal commission for executive purposes dur- ing the interval of its meetings. The students are sent to the Oratoire of Geneva, or to the Faculte Libre of Lausanne. Theu' number varies from ten to twelve, and they are supported while studying b}- the Commission des Etudes. Free Evangelical Church of Germany consists of a single Presbytery. This is composed of one minister and one elder fi'om each congregation and one elder for the Diaspora. It meets twice each year, possessing two congregations in Si- lesia and one in Bohemia. This church is a secession from the state chm'ch of Prussia that took place in 1860. The Bohemian congregation consists chiefly of converted Roman- ists. Reformed Synodical Union of the East Rhine consists of 256 THE people's histoky one Presbytery, called a Synod. This Bavarian Reformed Synod uses the Heidelberg Cathechism as its doctrinal sym- bol, while the French churches at Erlangen, Wilhemsdorf, and Schwabach use in addition the Rochelle Confession and the French Disciphne. The names of the parishes are the French Reformed church of Erlangen, with annex of German Reformed church of Erlangen ; Reformed Church of Nuremberg, with annex of Schwabach ; Reformed churches of Baireuth, Gronenbach and Herbishofen in Suabia, and of Marien- heim on the Danube. Synod 0/ the United Hanoverian Church consists of 120 congregations. The Waldensiaji Church consists, strictly speaking, of the seventeen parishes in the valleys, all the other congre- gations in Italy being the result of evangelistic work and standing on a different footing. The Synod meets annually in September, and is composed of all the ministers on the roll, two lay deputies from each of the seventeen parishes and the lay members of the different church committees. There are no Presbyteries, properly so called, but in their place are five District Conferences, held annually in the mission field, with two Free Conferences in the valleys. The government of the church is Presbyterian, there being- Sessions, Conferences, Synod or Synodal Commission or Table, with the peculiarity that only the male comnuuii- cants over twenty-five years of age are reckoned as members of the church. Attention has lately been called to the llcformed (Jhurch of the Orisons (Rhetica Confessio, 1558), and more es- pecially to that portion of it which consists of Italian con- gregations. These are six in number, with nearly 8,000 members, and while tracing back their history only to the lieformation, yet as the Reformed doctrine came to them not from the S\viss or the German movement, but from the Italian, their sympathies are strongly with the Waldensian Church. For an interesting sketch of these congregations, see (Jiitholic Preshyttrian, December, 1888. The Free Christian Church in Italy is the fruit of a variety of agencies and labors. It has no Presbyteries, but holds an annual General Assembly, composed of from one to three delegates from each congregation. OF niESBYTErJANISM. 257 Tlie Christian llefornied Ghnrrh of the Netherlands lias ten annual Assemblies or Provincial Synods, with one triennial General Synod, composed of seventy-four persons — two ministers and two elders from each Assembty and four deputies. The average number of elders is four in each congrega- tion. The Consistory or Session takes charge also of the temporal affairs of the congregation, one of their number called the Kerk raad acts as trustee and takes charge of the church buildings. The Old Reformed Church of Bentheiin and East- Friesland consists of one Presbytery, composed of the min- ister and elder from each congregation (two elders if< there be no pastor). Five of the congregations are in Bentheim and foiu' in East-Friesland. This chiuTh is a secession from the national church, and is in friendly relations with the Christian Reformed Church, to w^hose mission agencies it contributes. The Spanish Christia7i Church has two Presbyteries — Madiid and Seville — with a General Assembly consisting of a moderator, president, vice-president, two vocals and a general permanent secretary. The Reformed Churches of Sioitzerland. — The whole population of Switzerland in 1880 was 2,846,102, of which number there were 1,160,782 Eoman Catholics, also 10,838 adherents of minor sects, and 7,873 Jews. The adherents of the Reformed Church numbered 1,667,109, a majority of the whole population. By far the greater part of the Re- formed belong to chm'ches established by the government, though there are free churches in Geneva, Vaud and Neu- chatel. The details of church life are regulated by the local authorities of each canton, or state, in the Republic, subject to a federal constitution adopted in 1874, to which all the cantons are requii-ed to conform. Perfect liberty of conscience is guaranteed to all, and no one is called upon to pay taxes to support a church to which he does not belong. All religions are allowed free exercise, within the limits of public order and morality. The Jesuits are forbidden to enter the cantons, on the ground that they are inimical to the peace of the Republic. The w^orship of the Reformed churches is characterized by extreme plainness and simpli- 258 THE people's histohy city. The people are, as a rule, intelligent, thrifty and moral. llie Preshyterian Church of Emjland has one Synod, meeting annually in April, and composed of all ministers in charge, pastors emeriti, foreigD missionaries of the church, the theological professors, the general secretai'y, with a rep- resentative elder from each congregation. The report of the Statistical Committee of the Enghsli Presb}"terian Synod states that the church consisted in 1886 of 286 congregations and 61, 781 communicants, giving an average of 216 each. In 1876 there were 258 congregations and 50,739 was the number of commimicants, or an average of 196 each. Most of the congregations had large and com- modious buildings, and many also had schools and manses, freeholds and leaseholds, and they were insured for the col- lective amount of £940,000. There were debts upon them amounting in all to £102,939, as against £108,310 in 1885. The number of communicants admitted for the first time in 1886 was 3,600, compared with 4,171 in the previous year : whilst the number lapsed, dead, and from other reasons re- moved from the roll was 3,5()9, against 3,724 in 1885. The church had, in 1886, 2,116 district visitors, 4,855 members of Dorcas societies, 7,210 Sabbath-school teachers, having charge of 75,794 scholars, 7,518 scholars in day-schools, 4,625 members of yoimg men's societies, and 7,583 mem- bers of the Bible classes. The total receipts of the church were £206,533. The General Assembly of the Preshyterian Church in Ireland meets annually in June, and is composed of all min- isters having charges, and assistant ministers of congrega- tions. Assembly's professors being ministers, ordained mis- sicmaries, and chaplains in the service of the church, and one elder from each congregation. Tfie General Synod of the Reformed Preshyterian Church in Ireland has four Presbyteries, Northern, Southern, East- ern, and Western, with one General Synod comj^osed of all ministers on the roll with or without charge, and one elder from each congregation. It has one congregation in Liver- pool and one in Geelong, Australia, and is in friendly corres- pondence with the Synod of the Eeformed Presbyterian Church in the United States of America. The Eastern Synod of the lief ormed Preshyterian Church OF PRESBYTERIANIBM. 259 in Ireland is in friendly correspondence with the General Synod of the Reformed Presbyterian Church in North America. Synod of the Secession Church in Ireland meets in July, and co-operates in Foreign Mission work with the Original Secession Church in Scotland. Tlie General Asserahly of the Church of Scotland {Es- tablished) meets m May.* There are 1,290 parish churches, with 153 others. The number of communicants is 515,786. There are 84 Presbyteries and 16 Synods. The Presbyterian principle of government by representa- tive assemblies is elaborated in a pyramidal system of ecclesi- tical courts, which have been models for nearly all Presbyte- rian churches in the English-speaking world. The impor- tance attached to these courts may be understood from a stoiy about the Eev. Doctor Calamy, of London, and an old Scottish lady who was on a visit to the metropohs. She was urging upon Dr. Calamy the request, born of maternal soH- citude, that he would look after the spiritual welfare of her son, who had made his home in a place so benighted as Lon- don. "Why," said Calamy, "what is your fear? We in England have the same Scrii^tures as you have, we beheve in the same Saviour, and we insist as much as you do upon all holy living." The old lady replied: "All that may be very true; but you have no Kirk sessions, Presbyteries, Synods, and General Assembhes." The General Assembly of the Church of Scotland, because of its relation to the state, has not only a moderator to pre- side over its dehberations, but a representative of the throne, called the Lord High Commissioner, who attends in his offi- cial capacity, accompanied by the pomp and circumstance of royalty. In addition to the commissioners sent to the Gene- ral Assembly by the Presbyteries, there are also representa- tives present from the universities and from the royal burghs, or ancient municipalities. The General Assembly of the Free Church of Srothmd meets in May. It has 73 Presbyteries, 16 Synods, and 315,000 communicants. The Assembly consists of 730 members, half being ministers and half ruhiig-elders, and all appointed by the Presbyteries. Each Presbytery returns one- third of its mmisters, and an equal number of ruling-elders. The Free Church has the same creed, government, and worship, as the 200 THE people's history Established and United Presbj'terian. Its ministers, elders, deacons, and probationers, subscribe the Confession of Faith, and they signify their approval of the general principles con- tained in the Claim of Eight of 1842, and Protest of Commis- sioners to the General Assembly in 1843. The temporal aftairs of each congregation are managed by a body called " The Deacxnis' Court." This coiu-t is composed of the min- ister, the ruling elders, and a body of deacons, chosen, like the elders, by the members of the congregation. The spir- itual interests of each congregation are attended to by the kirk-session, consisting only of the minister and elders. The Synod of the United Presbyterian Church of Scot- land. — The United Presbj^terian Church has as its surbordi- nate standards, the Confession of Faith and Catechisms, with the same form of government and worship as the Estab- lished Church. Ministers, elders, and probationers give their adherence to the Westminster Confession and the Larger and Shorter Catechisms, with a reservation as to what "teaches, or is supposed to teach, compulsory or perse- cuting and intolerant principles in religion." The church has ruling-elders, sessions, and presbyteries, but instead of a General Assembly, its supreme court is a Synod, composed of the ministers having charges, and one elder from eocli ses- sion. The temporal affau's of each congregation are attended to by a body of managers chosen b}^ the members. The Synod of the Reformed Presbyterian Church of Scotland is composed of all ordained ministers and one elder from each congregation. It has 31 Presbyteries, and 170,297 communicants. TJie Synod of the United Original Secession Church of Scotland has four Presbyteries in Scotland, and two in Ire- land, with a Synod composed of all ministers having charges and one elder from each congregation. The C(dvinistic 3Ie(hodist or Presbyterian ChurcJi of Wi;eries), and two Quarterly Associations (Synods), one for North Wales, consisting of 14 Presbyteries, and the other for South Wales, w itli ten Presbyteries ; each has power to decide an appeal on all questions within its own limits. The General Assembly meets annually, and is composed of representatives (two ministers and two elders) from each Presbytery, ex officio presidents, members of committees and OF PRESBYTERIANISM. 201 the officers of the two Quarterly Associations. As the church is not yet fully organized according to strict Presbyterian principles, and to some extent itinerancy continues to exist, it is impossible to say how many of the ministers reported as " in service " are in permanent charge of congregations. The majority of the Sal^bath-school attendance consists of adults, so that nearly all the classes are Bible classes. The General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church in the United States of America (Northern) meets annually, in May. Of its S;vTiods some are general and others delegated bodies, and each, as a rule, conterminous with a particular state. The eldership is a life office, with term-service. The General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church in the ZTnited States (Southern) meets annually, in May, and is com- posed of one minister and one elder from each Presbytery having fewer than twenty-live ministerial members, and dou- ble that number if more than twenty-four. There is no tenn- service for any of its officers. T/i,e Reformed Church in America (formerly Dutch Re- formed) has one General Synod, meeting annually in June, and is composed of three ministers and three elders from each classis, nominated by the classis but elected by the par- ticular Synod. Tlie Christian Reformed Church in the United States of America is a secession (in 1857) from the Reformed Church in America, and is in friendly relations with the Christian Reformed Church of Holland. General Sy7iod of the Reformed Church in the United States (formerly German Reformed) meets triennially in May, while its Provmcial (District) Synods, of the United States, of the Northwest, of the East and Central German, and of Ohio, Pittsbui'gh, and the Potomac (English speak- ing), meet annually. The eldership is a hfe office, but its incumbents serve for only two years. At the close of that term, they may be chosen again for service, but without ordination, by the congregation. When not in service, the Consistory may call them into its meetings for counsel. The General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church of North. America meets annually, in May, and consists of commissioners from Presbyteries in the ratio of one min- ister and one elder for each seven ministerial members of 262 THE people's history the Presbytery. This church has one Presbytery iu Canada. The Synod of the Associate ChurcJi is in friendly corres- pondence with the Original Secession Church of Scotland. The Synod of the Associate Reformed Church of the South meets annually, in October, and is composed of all ordained ministers, and one elder from each ministerial charge. It is in fi-iendly relations with the United Presbyterian Church of North America. The General Synod of the Reformed Presbyterian Church in NortJt America meets annually, in May, and is composed of delegates from the Presbyteries. The Synod of the Reformed Presbyterian Ch-rch in the United States of North America meets annually, in May, and consists of all ordained ministers connected with the church, and one elder from each organized congregation. The General Assembly of the ^Velsh Calvinistic Metho- dist, or Presbyterian Church, JJ. S., meets annually, in August, and consists of two ministers and two elders fi'om each S;yTit)d, the ex-moderator, the treasurer and the secre- tary of the board of missions, and those appointed to read ]mpers on prescribed subjects. This church stands in very intimate relations ^yith the Welsh Calvinistic Methodist Church of Great Britain. The General Assembly of the Cumberland Presbyterian Church meets annually, in May, and consists of one minister and one elder from each Presbytery, and of two ministers and two elders if the Presbytery contains more than eighteen ministers. The Synod of the Dutch Reformed Church in South Africa origmated in Cape Colony, where it is still by statute recognized as the established church, though since 1875 receiving no financial su23port from the state. For leyal purposes, therefore, onl^^ the congregations in the col- ony fonn the Dutch Reformed Church, though, for all eccle- siastical purposes, the congregations in the other provinces of Natal, the Orange Free State, and the Transvaal are as- sociated with them in forming one church, with a Synodical CV)mmission, consisting of the moderator, the assessors, the actuaries, the scribe, and sixteen other members. The churches in the colonies of Cape Colony and Natal meet annualty in a provincial Sjiiod, while the four Presby- OF rKESBYTEKIANISM. 263 tcries (Northern, Southern, Eastern and Western lUiu/shes- turen,) of the Republic of Orange Free State also meet an- nualty in a Synod composed of all the ministers and one elder from each congregation. The statistics include all those of the Synods or branches of the church in Cape Colony, Natal, the Orange Free State and the Transvaal. The Christian Reformed Church of South Africa is in ecclesiastical sympathy with the parent chiu'ch in the Nether- lands. The SynoiJ of the JJutcJi Reformed Church, Orange Free State, has four Classes or Presbyteries (North, South, East, and West), and one Synod, composed of all ordained minis- ters and one elder from each congregation. The Synod of the Preshyterian Church, of Eastern Au- stralia meets annually, in October, and is composed of all pastors and one elder from each congregation, together with the theological professors. Tlie General Assembly of the Preshyterian Church in New South Wales meets annually, in March, and consists of all ministers in charge, Avith one elder from each congrega- tion and the theological professors. 7%e Genercd Assembly of the Presbyterian Church of Queensland meets annually, and consists of all ministers in charge, with one elder from each congregation. The Presbyterian Church of South Australia. The General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church of Victoria meets annually in November, and consists of all ministers in charge, pastors emeriti, and one elder froni each congregation. Presbytery of West Australia. Presbytery of Tasmania. Presbytery of the Free Church of Tasmania. An important movement has for some time been in pro- gress for the pm-pose of uniting all the sections of Presbyte- rianism in the Austrahan colonies into a federal, if not or- ganic, imion. The Genercd Assembly of the Presbyterian Church in New Zealand meets annually in Februars^ and consists of all ministers in charge, with one elder fi'om each congTega- tion. The Synod of the Presbyterian Church in Otago and 264 THE people's history Southland meets annually, in January, and consists of all ministers in charge, pastors emeriti, the theological profes- sors, and one elder as representing each congregation, but who need not be a member of its session. The General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church in Canada meets annuallj^, in June, and consists of one-fom*tli of the ministerial members on the roll of the Presbytery and an equal number of elders. /Sy7iod of the Presbyteriaii Church of Canada in con- nexion with the Church of Scotland, and the Synod of the Church of Scotland in Nova Scotia, etc., etc., consists of congregations and ministers that did not concur in that union movement which resulted, in 1876, in the formation of the present Presb}iierian Church in Canada. In Prince Edward Island there are, it is said, 8,000 people known locally as " Macdonaldites," adhering to the Church of Scotland. There is also one congregation in Cape Breton. The Synod of Jamaica is the first Presbyterian Church on mission ground that has become self-governing. The mission was commenced in 1824, and now, though still re- cei^dng the larger part of its financial support and ministerial supply from the United Presbyterian Chm'ch of Scotland, is independent of its control. It possesses a theological hall for the education of its own ministers, and has already sent several of these to the Old Calabar Mission in West Africa. Greece. — Dr. Kalopothakes, missionary for many years in Greece fi'om the Presbyterian Church in the United States (Southern), has organized the fruits of his labors into "The EvangeHcal Church" — Elh^n/.f, EmrcYzh/.r^ ' Iv/./.h^fjia. This body has been formed into a local Synod — To-i/.r^ l^w^odo^^ — Presbyterian in constitution, and consists of three Greek or- dained evangelists, under the supervisi(jn of the American Presbyterian missionaries. There is one congregation at Athens, and there are three stations not yet organized as pastoral charges. There are in actual sei*vice five ministers, along with the two missionaries. The congregation at xithens has two elders and two deacons. There is one licentiate. There is one Sabbath-school at Athens, with sev- eral teachers. 7'he Free Evangelical Churcli of Geneva is the result of the gTadual growth of rehgious hfe and belief, more conserva- tive and bibhcal, than formerly existed in Geneva. It con- OF PRESBYTERIANISM. 265 sists at present of a single Presbytery, with three congrega- tions, organized in accordance with our pohty. Partial Koll or the Refoemed Churches in Germany. Old Reformed Church in East Friesland and Bentheim. United Reformed Church in the Province of Hanover, — 113 congregations, with more than 50,000 adherents. Confederation of the Reformed Churches in Lower Saxony, independent of the state, — 7 congregations, with 2,000 commmiicants. The Reformed Church of Bremen, — 4 large congregations in the city of Bremen, with several others in the districts of Viqeseck and Bremer-haven, under the control of the chief magistrate along with the chief ministers of the city, has 50,000 adherents. The Reformed (Church of the Princedom of lAppe- Detmold has 50 congregations, with 54 ministers and 200,- 000 adherents, under the control of the Prince's Consistoiy at Detmold. Tlie Reformed Church of Lower Hesse has more than 200 congregations, under the control of the Boyal Con- sistory at Cassel. These congregations have elders, hut there are no Synods. IVte Reformed Clmrch in Westphalia has 70 congrega- tions in 7 groups, with 150,000 adherents, has elders and Synods, under the control of the Royal Consistory at Munster. The Reformed Synod of Wesel has four congregations, of Dutch and French origin. The Reformed Church in the Rhine Provinces has 150 congregations, with 500,000 adherents, under the control of the Royal Consistory of Coblenz. These congregations, as well as those of Westphalia and in Prussia, have formed a union with the Lutherans, but mthout giving up their Re- formed Catechism, discipline or order. The Emperor and the Imperial family are themselves members of the Re- formed Church and adhere to its creed. The union in Prussia has not been absorbative, as it has been in other territories. The Reformed Church Confederation in the Province of Saxo7iy has 10 congregations, 12 ministers, with elders and 266 THE people's history Synods, under the control of the Eoyal Consistory at Madgeburg. The Reformed Church in Pomerania has 7 congregations, with 7 ministers, under the control of the Eoyal Consistory at Stettin. The Reformed Churches in the Procince of Silesia has congregations, with 11 ministers, imder the control of the Iioyal Consistor}' at Breslau. TJie Free Reformed Clmrclies of Silesia. The Reformed Church of the Province of Prussia has 11 congregations, 11 ministers, and possesses elders and S-\Tiods, under the control of the Royal Consistory of Konigsburg and the superintendent of Tilsit. The Reformed Church in the Province of Prandenhnrg has more than 20 congregations, amongst them that of the Cathedral of Berlin, in which the Emperor and his family worship, under the control of the Royal Consistory at Bran- denbm-g. The Church of the French Colony in the Province of Brandenburg has 12 congregations, 4 at Berlin, with elders and Synods, imder the control of the Royal Church Direc- tor}^ at Berlin. TJie Reformed Churches of the Province of Posen ; 5 congregations; 6 ministers, under the control of the Seniorate at Posen. These churches are the remains of the Unitas Fratrum Polonice et Bohemia . The Reformed Churches of Fast Bavaria are partly of French origin. There are 7 congregations and 7 ministers, with elders and Synods, imder the control of the Royal Protestant Consistoiy at Munich. 7V"0 French Congregations, under the Landgraviate of Hesse-Homburg, at Frederickshof and East Homburg. Single congregations, without any relation to other Re- formed churches, are: The Reformed Churches at Altona, at Hamburg (a German and French one), at Accam in the territory of the Grand Duke of Oldenburg, at Frankfort on the Main (a German and a French one), at Leipsic, at Dres- den (two ministers to each of the two latter), at Hanau (a Dutch and a French one), at Elberfeld (a Dutch congrega- tion), at Blitzow, in the Grand Duchy of Mechlenburg, at Stuttgart, and at Osnabruck, the two latter being very poor, that of Osnabruck not havinof even a minister. OF PRESBYTERIANISM. 207 The Reformed Churches of Heidelberg and within its neighborhood. The Reformed Churches in the Bavarian Palatinate, con- sisting offoiu'-fifths of the Protestant churches of this terri- tory. The Reformed Churches in the Nassau territory. The Reformed Churches in the Grand Duchy of ITesse- Darmstadt. The Reformed Churches in the Duchy of Anhalt. The Reformed Churches in the Grand' Duchy of' Ham Weimer. 71ie Reformed Church in the Kingdom of Poland. — Ten congregations, with G,000 adherents, a session in each con- gregation meeting in an annual Synod. PRESBYTERIAN AND REFORMED CHURCHES ON THE EUROPEAN CONTINENT. In the statistical retiTins of tlie Cbnrches on the Continent given in the following Tables, it will be noticed that in cases where the nnm- bers of communicants and adherents are both given, the number of adherents is about one-third larger than the number of communicants ; therefore, in the few cases where only the adherents are given, it is thought fair to arrive at the numbers of communicants by subtracting one-third. In view of this it may be said that it is not fair to multiply the whole number of communicants throughout the world by four to get at the number of adherents ; but we beheve it is fair as to the gen- eral result, because in English-speaking countries the proportion be- tween communicants is at least that of one to four, and though the pro- portion on the continent of Europe is that of two to three in the reports to the Alliance, these reports are so incomplete, many churches not being reported at all, we are quite sure that to multiply the number of communicants reported by four will not produce as large a result as would be attained by such thorough statistical returns as we have from the churches in English-speaking countries. As the work of the Alli- ance progresses these defects will no doubt be remedied. 26B THE PEOPLE S HISTORY STATISTICAL EETUKNS FROM RRESBYTERIAN AND REFORMED CHURCHES THROUGH- OUT THE WORLD. Amended from the Report of the Third General Council, 1884, icith ad- ditions to some oftlie returns of the Americam GJmrches, bringing them down to the year 1888. EUROPEAN CONTINENT. [ The ' ' General Synod of the Reformed Church in Aus- tria," consists of the lirst four independent chnrches: Reformed Church in the Pro- vince of Austria, - Reformed Church in the Pro vince of Bohemia, Reformed (.hurch in the Pro- vince of Moravia, Reformed and Evangehcal S I Church of the Helvetic ^^ [ Confession, Hnngarj-, Union of Evangelical Churches, ]5elgium, Missionary Christian Church, Bel gium, .' The Walloon Cliurcli in Belgium and the Netherlands Reformed ('hurch of France, Union of the Free Evangelical churches of France, Reformed Churches of Switzer- land, -- Reformed Churches of Germany, * Waldensian Evangelical Church, _ Free Christian Church in Italj^.. Reformed Church of the Nether- lauds, Christian Reformed (Jhurcli of the Netherlands, Spanisli ('hristian Church, . . . 57 Totals for Enro])ean Continent, 2(55 lOf 21 44 4 47 24 1,980 21 G40 4 53 24 1,980 14 750 10 10 50 42 32 1,349 379 12 4,004 70 10 1,000 29G 5,242 • We are confident that these figures are far below the truth as to the strength of the Reformed Church in Germany. OF PKESBYTEKIANISM. 269 GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. Presbyterian Churcli of England, Church of Scotland in England, . Presbyterian Church in Ireland, . Eef ormed Presbyterian Church of Ireland, Eastern Eeformed Presbyterian Church of Ireland, Secession Church of Ireland, Church of Scotland, Free Church of Scotland, United Presbyterian Church of Scotland, Eeformed Presbyterian Church of Scotland, United Original Secession Church of Scotland, Calvinistic Methodist Church in Wales, Totals for G. Brit, and Ireland. UNITED STATES. Presbyterian Church in the United States of America, (Northern, ) Presbyterian Church in the United States, (Southern, ) Eeformed Church in America, Christian Eeformed Church in America, Eeformed Church in the United States, United Presbyterian Church of North America, Associate Church of North Amer. Associate Eeformed Church of the South, Eeformed Presbyterian Church in North America, Eeformed Presbyterian Church in the United States of N. Amer., Calvinistic Methodist or Welch Pres. Church in the U, S. , Eeformed Presbyterian Presby- tery of Philadelphia, 277 201 69 33 5 54 60 270 20 554 36 11 1,442 1,023 557 9 39 819 44 4,797 6,437 2,236 547 50 1,481 644 72 48 124 175 264 61,781 626 101,340 26 4,734 9 1,480 1,091 600 7 32 616 1,750 515,786 315,000 176,299 1.120 5,500 122,107 4,751 1,305.417 5,654 696,827 1,116 547; 802 730 150,398 85,543 6,800 183,980 91,086 79 37 112 84 7,015 6,800 10,856 9,563 270 THE PEOPLE S HISTOKY United States, continued. It 110 as 1 Congre- gations. Ministers on roll. Commu- nicants. Cuiaberlaiid ricsbytciiiiu Church iu Aiiiericii, _ _. 27 2,540 500 1,563 200 145, 146 Colored Cumberlaud Presbyterian. 13,000 Total for United States, BRITISH COLONIES AND DEPENDENCIES. Dutch Reformed Church in South Africa, . ._ 579 11 97 2 14,854 140 10,924 1,407,014 Christian Eeformed Church iu South Africa, . . Dutch Reformed Church of the Oramje Free State, I*i'esfri/tc)'i/ of Ccvlon, . . _ . _ 1 4 11 4 1 12 4 1 7 5 30 3 2 1 9 11 89 33 19 164 6 12 12 152 645 Presbyterian Church of Eastern Australia, N. S. W., Presln'teriau Church of New South Wales, .. 273 4,810 Pres. Church of Queensland, _ . Presljytery of South Australia, . . _ Presbyterian Church of Victoria, Presbvteriau Church of Jamaica, 1,515 17,000 8,405 Prcsfiytery of West Australia, Presbvteriau Church of Tasmania, ---- PrcHhyUry of the Free Church of Tasmania, Presby. Church of New Zealand, Presbyterian Church of Otago and Southland, 1 4 1 1 84 54 799 24 14 77 53 693 15 12 15,000 8,667 Presbyterian Church in Canada, . Presbyterian Church of Canada in connection with the Church of Scotland 119,608 Church of Scotland iu Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and the adjoin- ing provinces, Totals for British Colonies and Dependencies. 104 10 1,438 1,148 175,929 Native converts in Mission Church is 65,566 (jrrand Totals for the world, . . . 1225 201 25,693 22,065 8,894,546 OF PRESBYTERIANISM. 271 1 GO m P o U. p. Ch., Scotland. Pres. Ch., North, U. S. Pres. Ch., North, U. S. -1- ' U. p. Ch., Scotland Free Ch., Scotland. Free Ch . Scotland. Ch. of Scotland. Total. 2528 687 174 148 1 UO tJH t- 1 t- ;d i:*! 1 rH UO CO 1 T-K G<1 1 1 03 03 -goo mo 5 1 ! as o 1 1 i (M LO 1 tH t-I 1 T-l 1 ^ 00 T— 1 CM O . r)H Ci < -^ T-H 1 T— 1 1 Sab'th School Atten- dance. 1634 620 655 230 1 •s^jUnmiuoo Tt< rH ^ CM T— 1 C5 05 (N CO lO O 1 CO Tt^ CO 1 tH cm 1 1-6 3d 1—1 ,-H Ol 1 ^tl^,\ t- j 30 to LO TO T-H CO CO ■ oi 1 •sa^Bnneaii: CO I 1 cq 1 1 ; 1 ; i i 5.2 o3 Ol C « ^^ S <^ :2 Qj »4-i ^ -»^ — f" >.i^ 2 3 -9 ST (1) - *j fH a , CO ^ iS S g a; ^ O ^ fR *^ 3 ■ (jD ?^ O ^ -^^ ^ So;' a So2 ^-^ O O . ce S > =4H ^ "^ Ci l|c|i fH CO r1 '^ i-^ 2 o g -e HHPmO ^ _ ^ ^-. ... U 272 THE PEOPLE 8 HISTORY S 32 1 0) Kef. Pres. Ch., U. S. Pres. Ch. North, U. S. Pres. Ch. North, U. S. OF rRESBYTEKIANISM. 273 1111 o ^ <^ a .2 ^ I|g2 <» s g d 2P^ ^ - • C.2 b S "" o P^,° ^ £-^•- rH y > J3 cS

-.^ 0) O fH d j3 S o o CO a §^o5 2 S 2 rd - V. o 2o 'd ° .22 ^- 33 .1 -^'^ . S 3 S'i a g .2 o -^ -" GO . o p o « h3 CO P - o -^ p O 2 Qr^ " =3 ^H cS ^ -^ 'la 23 274 THE PEOPLE S HISTORY 1 m .w. A 02 m ■ m >1 r-: 1— ^ P ^u. P 1 11 'SI 1 & 1 Scotia North, ef. Ch. Eef. C 2 Ph . r r .C3^ P rfi r^ cd ^r^ A AAA'^^ cc ^C ^ Q ^wO . - - o S CO Pk ■^ i i ^ (^^^53 P^HP Pk ^^^ PM p^es . 1 'V* .^ V Y iC oc ' ?■ S ' "3 1 3^" cc ^ I— ^ -* ;:+ ■S Ci -H CO o H '§£ . X 1^ ,_! 1 X . ' 1 ox cc 03 03 "3 1 t- I— 1 ; CO I 1 .^1 -CM 5 ' ,' >> 1 '' c; '00 ~t X ! ^ 1 1 08 >. O ' CO 1 1 ^Q M '-' .5 8 5 \ ] 1 1 ' 1 ;. ^,a^ C 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 OS y-*^ 03 tccQ<: ■o 1 1 ' 1111 ~~7^ ^ '^ rTj < — ■ !M c '-': '- 1 ^ ^ r~ ii: -f iH Ci •C S^ CO ' •s:»,unnn caoo I- ^ C^t r-l C -+ ' m a." o i o- "cc cr> • C ' w X C-l w c • SI- "" c. C) 1 o\ 1 ^- T— ,_ CD >T. CT. OO ~cc^ Pi T '^ (M >J r- 1 tc 1 . 1 (>1 , I- . 1 •8d»Bi:jU aoji 1 iM i ; i ! .^ ™? . , ST «c . r- tS O ' ! ^ 1—1 ; ^ 1 : -ri C-l ~i^ CV1 ■* 00 iM X ^ 00 «: (M Is 1 cc ; 1 " 1 ; • 1 1 1 S 1 1 3 I „.- tb J s a ^ 3 1 5 1 ii "5 -r\ ■J:? 13 CS •S a, J Si s 1 Q ;j P<; Ph ::o x S ' CO V, — ■- — — ■ ''X2 ' "S o ■ag 'S "i" o P g PL, o pi o +^ o' s Pk ^ n O «M i„~. 1 ^'- ^ 0,Q C; 5 1^ ^s 1 ^. o fl r:3:c O S "" « r- p:3 J < rS M |2i tri <1 Oj H ^ O 1 o '^^ ~ ^ •- (/i 800 1000 : 1 :5 § 1 1 1 CO CO 1 1 ! 1 'I ! 1 i! IN i 1000 GOO 175 -* 1 r-l c^ M i i i i ! i : ! " - ^.§ r o,d CO ^ CZ3 - r3 ^ m -H rf !B il H -- ^ -. d 1^ '-' 9 &c o ^ o ^ (p ^ o soc; 1 .a ^ I ^;§"^§|^ 1^ ® O r^ d Ci ^ _2 jd 2 d o « =^ ^ ^. ^."^ 2 ^ «? 5 -lli -^ "^ '^ OS i^ ^^ d u £0 d CO gS^S|.2o d a ^ CL .s Em r^ --^ F! -►^ fL to O a:, -^ - d ?c d -^^ ci d ;c-^ ?a ^ drd ? '-^. Cd CO ri ggE^^f^Sd.sz c ^ rd d i:3 ^ S ^< d S 0) 03 I ?> d & rx o ^ rd M ^'^ ^•• CO CO J-" o d £:: 0) o r^ .d - a ^ p 'S rd .^«M '. ai >• (U CO -*;^ CO .a ^ '7, . s s ^ o a s 6 5 o-O-^j . .t^ _ cS CO jcfagi cu o ■^ d rr- ^" :o= ^ a.^^-^?^ 5 S3 ■> ^J 13 rz; a3 r= tJ 53 ulj ryj -- . ^ 3_. a^ a .- _, - ^ d 'S 1 2 ^' I s d '^^ " S -5 ^*^-dO _ >. d d o) ci d d ^ 9. a ^ s d . W d P. 276 THE PEOPLE S HISTORY 32 02 05 3Q m^ P maiz/i pP P £^^'^ PPP- 1 - = rd^'^rd 'i rH" ^ o rl r- fH O "S t, ^ C a -p ^ a: 13 II 4^ P Q O 5 O OQ rd r^ ;i^ -d'r^ fl^ r. .c C 1 l^ CO c: CO 00 1 5 i~ 1 1^ CO 1 ^1 o 1 t^ • C > 1 C t^ c -+ o . >. .- , CO ^ O) r-l • e8 >. © CC 1 1 I— 1 r-l M -HI O c9 23Q m 1 1 [ ; \ -* 1 1 1 1 t^ 1 1 1 1 CO 1 ' 1 1 o3 c; -tJ g3 a3a5c u": CO CO I- 1 •s^iUntni noo r-l ir: T-l S S S § a g -S 2 S I. f-H O g H ^ ^ ^ I s< 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 CO >C -f r^ -t- oc •eitdrici 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ^ U-: t- ic -^ -M CC t> o CO >.o ».-: eo I.qoS ^«a I 1 I I I 1 !' 1 I -£ (m" cf O lOOOCOOOO c i^ O iM CO CO 00 •sjU'Bom C^l lOiOiOOOiO-^CO CJ CC ^ CO CC "* 00 b- -ntniuuD <:o I c^-- CO ' y. 1 1 1 CO t^ 1-1 C-1 1 »C rH CO ^ • 1 1 III o >o >c ir. tr. zd -^ 3-1 -+• -+ -f -* -t- i f N C»COl--Q000GOCO0000CO CO CO CC GC CO QO C T-( rH r-l ^ 1-1 1— 1 . m" I I 1 I ',• I I 1 I •.rH 1 1 1 1 1 1 I 1 1 s ;>;;;!:: : ^ :.2 ! : : : ; :^^ H 's :§:;;;;; i ^ >. ;^ ; ; ; 1 ; ;!=^ , p^ .2 : ^ :;;;•;; 'T g i i s i ! i 1 ii i : i !§ ii § 1 1 r2 1 1 ' . 1 c3 1 • 1 1 1 La- • 1 1 France.— Evangelical Missionary Italy. — Waldensian Church, Netherlands. — Netherlands Missi Java Committee, Ermelo jNIissionary Society, Netherlands ^lissionary Union, _ Utrecht Missionary Society, Dutch Reformed Missionary Uni Christian Reformed Church,... Switzerland. — Free Church, Cant I 1 M M H shed Church of Scotland, . _ terian Church of Ireland, ._ Stic Methodist Church of \ burch of Scotland, . _ ■'l^urch of Scotland, terian Church of England, . stabli resby alvini ree C: . P. ( resby HPhOPhPP-i 278 THE PEOPLE S HISTORY j c o c mosABd rr> W T-l CO O , 1 o Ol >c CO '^ o 1 1 cc O (M CC O IC 1 1 5^1 w "* ' ' ?i CO -^ ^ o c 1 c in -+ »r. O CO o CO QO O Ci rH t— 1 c^ « »o ?o (N CO Ci o ci t- CO o CO (M H- t^ (X) O (M t^ cT cT irT • r-^ r-( OO O 1-1 >C 00 -+ 00 00 CO 00 T-l 00 !M C T-l 1— 1 T-< Ol 1 1 T-l ^ ■^ '^ 00 T-l iC CO o 3^1 CO r- ^ CD -5 o o H W Q Q W & W « 2 S S & ^ W M M M P ^ S^ M INDEX, Address of General Assembly, of Confederate States, of America, to churclies tlironghout the world, 208. Africa, South, Reformed Churches of, 2(12, 263. Alliance of Presbyterifln and Re- formed Churches, 23"). Alva, Duke of, 07. American Presbyterianism after the war, 2lf"i. Antrim, Presbytery of, 160. Appomattox C. H., Virginia, 21.5. Argyle, Marquis of, 134. Arminius, 98. Associate Presbytery, 143. Associate Reformed Church, U. S. A., 187. Auburn Declaration, 11)3. Augusta. Georgia, 206. Augustine, Saint, ">7. Austria Reformed Church of, 241>. Australia, 164, 263. Barnes, Dr. Albert, 10 ". "Barrier Act," 120. Baxter, Richard, 153. Beaton, Cardinal, 108. Beecher, Dr. Lyman, 103. Belgium, Missionary Christian Church, 2a4. Belgium, Union of Evangelical Churches, 254. Belfast, 158. Berkeley, Sir William, 182. Bermuda Hundred, 1 82. Bohemia, (50. Bohemian Reformed Church, 252. Bowes, IVIarjory, 116. Bovd, 184. Breckenridge, Dr. Robert J., 193. Burghers, 144. Calabria, 41. Calvin, John, 76. Calvinistic Methodists, 155. Cameron, Richard, 136. Cameronians, 136. Canada, 165, 264. Carrickfergus, 158, 160. ' Catherine de Medici, 00. Catechism, Heidelberg, 98, 100. Catholicism, Roman, in Europe, 232. Catholicism, Roman, in U. S. A. , 231. Ceylon, 165. Chalmers, 145. Charles IX., 00. I Christian Reformed Church, U. S. ! A., 26 L. Chronology, Presbyterian, 244. Civil War,' in IT. S. A., 108. Clemens Romanus, 27. Clement YIIL, 40. Coligny, 00, 180, Columba, 48. Confession of Faith, Westminister, 133. Confederate States, General As- sembly of, 206. Conference committees, 225. Condc, 00. Cooke, Dr. Henry, 161. Covenanters, 128. Covenant, National, 128. Covenant, Solemn League and, j 131. Craig, John, 128. I Cranmer, 114, 116. 282 INDEX. Craw, Paul, 106. Cromwell, 41. Culdees, 46, 105. Cumberland Presbyterian Chiirch, 100, 262. Dark Ages, 29. ' ' Declaration and Testimony, "217. Dedication, 8. Denominations, 10, 231 >, Denton, Rev. Richard, 183. Disruption in church and nation, 11)6. Dort, Synod of, !>8. Doughty, Rev. Francis. 182. Duffield, Rev. George, 189. Early days of the Christian era, 24. Edward VI., 116. Edwards, Jonathan, 18"). Egypt, 1.^. Elizabeth River, 183. England, Presbyterianism in, 1.50, 2r,8. i Erasmus, 9"). Erastiaus, 132. Erskine, Ebenezer, 143. Farel, 76. Fisher, Rev. Samuel, 11)4. First Book of Discipline, 120. Five Million Dollar Fund, 222. Foreign Mission Statistics, 277, etc, France, 87. France, Reformed Church of, 2.')4 France, Union of Free Evangelical Churches, 2.'>.'>. Francis I., 33. "Fraternal Relations," 223. Free Church of Italy, 41. Free Church of Scotland, 14.5. Geddes, Jennie, 127. General Assembly (tirst), IJ. S A., 188. General Assembly, U. S. A. , (North- ern), 261. General Assembly, U. S , (South- ern), 261. Geneva, 76. Geneva, Free Evangelical Church of, 2(54. General survey, 249. General Synod, Paris, 89. Germany, Free Evangelical Church, 2.5.5. German}^ Old Reformed Church cf Bentheim, etc., 2;57. Germany, Reformed Sy nodical Union of East Rhine, 2.55. Germany, Synod of United Han- overian Church, 256. Germany, partial roll of Reformed • Churches, 265. Gillespie, George, 132. Greyfriars Church, 129. Greece, 264. Gurley, ijjso facto, 217. Hamilton, Patrick, 106. Hanover Presbytery, 176. Hempstead, 182. Henry IV., 92. Henry VIII., 114. Henderson, Alexander, 128. Hill, Matthew, 182. Hippolytus, 27. Hodge,' Charles, 202. Holland, 1)5. Huguenots, 89, 180. Himgary, 102, 253. Huss, John, (>1. Innocent III., 38. Institutes, Calvin's, 78, 88. Irish Presbyterianism, 157, 258, 259. Italy, Free Christian ('hnrch, 256, Italy, Reformed Church of the Grisons, 256. Jamaica, 264. Jamaica, Long Island, 183 Josephus, 17. Kentucky Synod, 216. King's Confession, 128. Knox, John, 110, 112. Laggan, Presbytery of, 183. Le Fevre, 76. INDEX. 283 Lightfoot, Bishop, 28. Log College, 18:>. Lollards, 100, 1;")2. Londonderry, l')*). Long Islan(f Presbytery, IS."). Louis XIV, ;»3. Lutlier, Martin, G4. Maitland, 122. Makemie, Francis, 174, 18;>. Marot, Clement, 88. Mary de Medici, ;>2. Mary, Queen of Scots, 121. Masson, Pierre, »0. McAdow, 191. McCosli, James, 240. McGready, James, 1J)0. Mecklenburg Declaration, 17(5. Melville, Andrew, 12(;. Michaelius, 18L Mission cliurcbes, 271. Missouri Synod, 218. Moravian Reformed Church, 252. Morel, Francis, 8".». Morel, George, 40. Netherlands, Christian Reformed Church, 2r)7. New Amsterdam, 180. Newcastle Presbytery, 185. "New Side," 185. New York City, 183. Noetus, 27. Norfolk, 184. NotQS, 249. Old and New School Division, 192. "Old School Synod of Missouri," 218. "Old Side," 185. Olivetan, 34. Origin of Presbyterianism, 9. Palmer, B. M., 200. Patrick, Saint, 157. "Patronage," 142. Pelagianism, 58. Philip II., 96. Piedmont, 32, Pilgrims, 182. Philadelphia Presbytery, 184. Philadelphia Synod, 185. Pittsburg, 220. "Plan of Union," 190, 192. Population of U. S. A., 230. Poland, 101. Presbyterian Church and its sis- ters in U. S , 227. Presbyterian Church in North America, 201. Presbyterianism, Definition, 14. Presbyterian principle in other churches, 19. Princeton College, 18(;. Principal denominations in U. S. A., 229. Puritans, 181. Reformed Church in America (Dutch), 2iil. Reformed Church in U. S. (Ger- man), 201. Reformed Presbyterian Church of America, 180. Rehoboth, 183. Rehef Church, 144. Remonstrants, 98. Reunion of Old and New School churches, 219. Resby, 105. Rogers, Dr. John, 189. Rotterdam, 95. Rough, John, 113. Rutherford, Samuel, 132. Saint Bartholomew's Day, 90. Sanquhar, 135. Scotland, 104. Scotland, Chiirch of, 259. Scotland, Free Church, 259, Scotland, Original Secession Church, 200. Scotland, Reformed Presbyterian Church, 2H0. Scotland, U. P. Church, 200. Servetus, 82. Secession Church, 143. Shall), Bishop, 135. Slavery, 197. Spanish Christian Church, 257. Spirit of Presbyterianism, 242. 284 INDEX. SuowHill, 183. Spring, Dr. Gardiner, 202. "Spring llesolntions, " 202. Spnrgeon, 12!). Soutii Africa, IGa, Stanley, Dean, 27. "States Rights," lOG. Stark, Helen, 109. Statistical returns, 20S, 200, 270. Stewart, Margaret, 124. Switzerland, lleformed Churches of, 2r.7. Synod of the Associate Reformed Church of the South, 2«;2. Tennent, Dr., 185. Tetzel, GO. Theological Seminaries, 220. Thirty-nine Articles, 110. Torre Pellice, 83. Trent, Council of, oO. Tyndale, 100. Twisse, Dr., 133. Ulster, ir,9. United Presbyterian Church of North America, 187. United Presbyterian Church of Scotland, 145, United Svnod of the South. 198, 215. Universal Presbyteriauism, 235. Vaudois Missionary, 35. Virginia Synod, 189. Waldenses, 32, 250. Waldo, Peter, 34. Wales, Presbyterianism in, 155, 200. Walloon Churches, Holland, 254. Washington, George, 179. Welsh Calvinistic Church, U. S. A., 202. Western Reserve Synod, 193. Westminster Assemblv, 131. Whitaker. Alex., 182.' Whitefield, George, 150, 1H5. Wicklifle, 151. William and Mary, 134. William "the Silent," 90. Wishart, George, 109. Witherspoon, John, 175, 178, 189. Yeomans, Dr., 202. Yolande, 37. Zurich, 70. Zwingli, 09. Theologici)! Seminary-Speer Library 1 1012 01084 9398 Date Due FE FEB f -A^^-i^^^^^;^ ^ M'i"^"!i ' b ■H««»**^^^ r»*wiiiMHi,^iir ii^i^^ .^^rrr^^^r-